Request for the indication of Interim Measures of Protection submitted by the Government of Australia

Document Number

10725

Document Type

written_pleading

Case

58 - Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France)

Incidental Proceedings

Provisional measures

Date of the Document

Wed, 05/09/1973 - 12:00

Document File

10725.pdf

NUCLEAK TESTS CASES

AFFAIRES DES ESSAISNUCLÉAIRESREQUESTFORTHE INDICATIOOFINTERIM

MEASURESOFPROTECTION SUBMITTED
BYTHEGOVERNMENT OFAUSTRALIA REQUEST

9 May 1973.

Ctrso 111 Il.lric-Irtlris h't-(lr~<sr1trrc.s

1 Iiiivc the holiour Io rcfcr to tlic Application clateci today, 9 May 1973, by
wliicli Austriilia lias inxtitiitcd procceclings iigiiinst the French Kcpublic.
2. Iiiconfc)rriiitywitIi Article 33of the (;ciicral Act for the PiicilicScttlcnicnt of
Iiitcrriutiorial Disputes. 1928.Articlc.11 of tlicStatutc of the Court and Articlc 66
of tlic Kulcs of Court. 1 now Iiavc the lionour to subniit a requcst lfor the Iaying
dowri or indication by tlic Court of provisional niciisurcs of protection for

tlic prcscrviition of thc riglits of Austriilia pcncliiig the final decision of thchc
prc~cecciings.

3. The following arc thc riglits of Australi:i which are cntitlcd to protection:
Aii\;triili;i'sriglits iiridcr iritcriiiiiioniil Iiiwiind tlic C1i;irtcrof the United Nations
to hc siifcgiiiirdccl froiii fiirtlicr iitiiiosphcric niiclcar lvcapori tcsts and tlicir

coiisccliicnccs, iiicluciiiig :
(il -l'licriglit of Austriiliii iiiiciits people to hc frcc froni atniosplicric nuclc~ir

\vciil~oiitcsts by iiny coiiritry;
(ii) tlic iiivioliibility of Aiistr;iliii's tcrritoriiil sovcrcigrity;
(iii) its indcpciidcnt riglit tel dctcrminc \vliat iicts sliall take place ivitliin its
tcrritory. iiricl. in particuliir, wlictlicr Aiistralia and its people shall bc
csposcd to riidiatiori frorn artilicial sourccs;
(il.) tlic right of Australiu and lier pcoplc fully to cnjoy the frccdoni of tlic higli

scas ;
(v) tlic riglit of Austriiliii te) the pci-foi-mancc by thc 1-rcnch Kcpublic of its
iiiidcrtiiking coiitiiiiicd iri/\rticlc 33 (3) of tlic Gencral Act for the Pacilic
Scttlciiiciit of Iiitcrriatioiiiil 1)isputcs to iibstain t'rom ull riicasurcs likcly
to rc;ict pr~iiidici;iIly LI~OII IIICc~ceiitio~iot'iiny ultiniatc juclicial dccisiori
givcii iiitlicsc ~>roccccii~ig iiicl Io iiI)stiiin froni niiy sort of action \vliiit-
socwr \vilici1may iiggrii\.i\tc or ci;tcnci tiic prcscnt Uispuic Dciwccii ALI^-

triilia iiiid the 1-rciicli I<cpiiblic.

4. Tlic following arc aniorigst the principal corisidcrations \vtiich justify tlic
prcscn t rcclucst :

(.il As iiiay bc gatlicrcd frorii tlic Appliciition lierein, the French Goveriiriicrit
lias clccliiicdto givc iipcrmanciit uiidcrtiikiiig tliat no furthcr atniosplicric
riiiclcar tcsts will tiikc pliicc in the Piicilic Occan; and has riot dcnicci ail
iiitcritioii to ciirry out furtlier tcsts tliis year. Thcre is a virtiial ccrtiiiiity
tliiitfiirtlicr atmosplicric testing by tlic F-rciich Rcpublic iii the i'iicilic
Occiiri will Icacl to tlic iidditioiiiil dcposit of radio-active miitcrial upori

Aiistriiliaii tcrritory. The f:rcncli Govcriinicnt has refuscd to supply ariy
informatioii as to tlic proposcd sizc iind yiclds of nuclcar dcbices which it
irilcriclsto csplodc in the course of furtlicr tests. It may ucll bc thiit tlic
ncst dc\*iccsto hc csplodcd \vil1bc niore powerful than in tlic piist and

.
' Il, p. 337. 44 NUCLEAR TESTS

that the quaiitity of radio-active matcrial to be dcpositcd on Australian O. Tlic 1-reiich Rcpublic Iias in ciicli of tlic yciirs from 1966to 1972(witli thc
territory as a result will excecd tliat already iind yet to bc dcposited as a exception of 1909)ciirricd out atriiosplicric tcsts of nuclcar deviccs on, ovcr or
result of any previous cxplosion. ricar Mururoa Atoll in tlic Pacilic (Anncs 1). In coniicction with tlicsc tcsts thc
(ii) Any radio-active material dcpositcd on Australian tcrritory will bc po- 1-.reiicliGo\~criiriiciitIias crcatcci I'roliibitcd Zoiics for aircraft and Dangcrous
tentially dangerous to Australia and its pcoplc. Any iiijury causcd by sucti Zones for aircriift aiid stiipping. The stcps t~ikciiby tlic French Govcriinicnt to
deposit would clcarly be irrcparable. It gocs witliout saying thrit tlic
deposit could not bc removed by any action of thc Frcncli Govcrrinicnt, crcatc tlicsc Zuiics arc set out in priragrapti 45 of Australia's Appliciition in this
by any judgment or order of the Court, or by any paynicnt of daniagcs. case. Eacli of ~licsctcsts Icd to ttic dcposit anel dispcrsal of radio-active ii-iatcrial
on iind ovcr Australiari tcrritory. Iii acldition, radio-active inatcriiil rcsulting
(iii) The deposit of additional radio-active matcrial on Austrulian tcrritory ris froiii tlicsc tcsts still rciiiiiiiis in tlic atii-iosplicrc, and will in the future bc de-
a result of furthcr Frencli tcsts pending a dccision of the Court would, if positcd arid dispcrscci on or ovcr Aiistriilian tcrritory.
the Court were to uphold the contcritions of Australia, bc in brcncli of its 7. A sl~ortcicscripti~)~o ~f flic niiturc riiid cl'fcctsof nuclcnr c>cplosionsin thc
sovereign rights over its tcrritory. Such acts would frustrate and iiiipiiir ;iiiiiosplicrc is coiitiiiried in piir:igriiplis 22 to 39 of Australia's Applicatiori in
thc excrcise in cssential respects of Australia's right to dccidc wlictlicr tticsc procccdiiigs. It is clcar tliittif tlic Frcncli Rcp~iblic conducts fiirther
Australia and its pcople arc to be csposcd to aiiy niaii-iriadc ioiiizirig
radiation. iiirriosplicric riuclciir tcsts iii tlic I'iicific pciidiiig thc ultiniatc dccision of tlic
(iv) Any such dcposit would ariticipatc thc juclgnicnt of tlic ('ourt and ifsucti Court, Itic cotiscquciiccs will hc :
(i) tliiitfiirtlicr rridio-iictivc m;itci-iiilresultiiig froiii siicli tcsts will bc injcctcd
judgment were givcn in favour of Australia, would dcprivc Austriilia of into ttic tropospticrc iinii, clcpciiiliiig iipon tlic powcr of thc dcvicc. iiito
the full bcnefit hcrcof.
(v) If the finaljudgmcnt of the Court in tliese procccdings was riot pronc>uiiccd tlic str;itc~s~>Iicrc
for sevcral years, the Frcnch Republic's programine for tcstiiig could by (ii) tliiitas a direct i.csult of tliis iiijcctioii, sonic of the radio-active ni;itcriiil
then be finishcd and Australia would tlicrcby bc deprivcd coiiiplctcly of injcctcci will bc dcpositccl botli in the sliort tcrni and tlic long tcrni oii
the benefit of any Ordcr of the Court which adjudgcd tliat the Frcncli Australian tcrritory ;
Republic not conduct atniosphcric nuclcar tcsts at its Pacific Tcst Ccntrc. (iii) tlirit tlic niaterial so dcpositcet will bc inhcrciitly liarmful and potcntially
(vi) Once measurcs which may afkct the rcsourccs of the sca or thc conditions daiigcrous to tlic Aiistriiliiin pce)pIciiiid coiild hüvc dclctcriou~ soiiiiitic rinii
of tlie environmcnt havc bcen carried out, thcy cannot bc iindonc. What- gcnctic cl'fcctsori tlicni ;
(ii.)tliiitnot\vittistnndirig thiit Australia ol~jccts to and sccs no bcncfit to
ever dispute thcre may bc about the naturc and cstcnt of thc changes
effected by the Frcnch actions, natural coriditions can ncvcr bc rcstorcd. Australia in tlie coricluct of tests by thc Frcncli Rcpublic in tlic atniosplicrc,
and no eventual payment of damagcs will siiffice to rcctify mattcrs. Austriilia woiild bc uniiblc tu prcvciit its tcrritory and its pcople frorn bcing
(vii) Thc same is truc of the interference witli tlic rigtits of Aiistralia aiid of lier siil,icctcd to ttic ioiiiririg radilitioii conscqucnt iipon thc dcposit of this
people to freedoni of inovement over the high scrisand in tlic supcrjaccnt riliditional r~idio-active nintcriiil.
airspace. Although a restriction upon such frccdoni of mot,cnicnt oricc 8. Ttic spccilic coiisccliiciiccs foi Aiistraliii of ttic dcposit of radio-rictivc
iniposed can bc rcvokcd, tlic iiifriiigcniciit of rights c;iuscci tlicrcby ciiiiiiot
be undonc. iiiiitcriiil froiii fiirtlicr tcsts arc biit oiiaspect of atriiosplicric nuclciir tcstiiig
(viii) Further, theconduct of tlie tests and thc accornpanyinç disturbrincc of tlic \tliicli virt1i;illytlic \vliolc iiitcrii;itic,ii;ilcoriiiiiuiiity lias comc to fcar iirci^^-
dcniii. Siicti fcar ;inci coiiilcninntioii caniiot bc rcgiirdcd ris unfoundccl. Tlicy
elements and dcposit of'radio-active niritcrial is, in tlic words of Articlc tcstify to tlic Iiarni to pcoplcs, tlicir cnvir-onmcnt and biosplicrc inhcrcnt in siicti
33 (3) of the Gcneral Act, a measurc "likcly to rcact prcjudiciall!l iipon tcsts. Ali cssciitiiil clcriicnt upon wliicli tticy rcst is thc tcrriblc and irrcvcrsiblc
the execution of the judical ... dccision" and .is action "wliicli riiiiy contribution whicli sucli tcsts niakc to the pollution of niaii's cnviroiitncrit iri
aggravate or cxtcnd tlie dispute". a11States. of which Austriilia is oiic.
(ix) By undertaking in Fcbruary 1973 to refrain from fuytlicr tcstirig pcnclirig 9. Tt is approprilitc nt this point to rcciill the cvolution of this gciicral
the outcome of ncgotiations, the Frcncli licpublic lias rccogni~cd tliat
continued testing is incompatible with thc proccss of pcnccful scttlcmcnt :ipprclicrisioii urid to indiciitc tlic bascs upoii ~vliicli it rcsts.
of the dispute bctwccn Australia and tlic Frcnch Rcpublic. If tcsts wcrc IO. 1111955 tlic Gcncriil ~lsscrriblyof tlic Uiiitcd Nritions dccidcd to iricludc
or1the agcnciaof its tcntli session, riiitcin cntitlcci"El'fcctsof atoniic radiatioii";
suspended during negotiatioiis, (2jOrtiori thcy sliould bc siispcn~cd during iiricloii 3 Dcccnibcr 1955 it~ieloptccircsolutioii 913 (X) undcr whicli tlic Uiiitcci
proceedings bcfore the Court. Niitions Scicntific Coiiiiiiittcc on tlic t.:tlc'ctsof Ate>inicRaeli:itiori (hcreiiiaftcr
crillctl "IJNSCEAR") ~s'iiscstiil~lisliciito cc)llcctand study radiologiciil infor-
Consec~~rcnceo sfF~rrtltcrI;i.c~rclArtt~ro.splrcricT~~stitr,y niiitioii. Tliis rc.\e)liition(\vliicli iiiclucicstlic tcrms of refcrcncc of UNSCEAR)
of'Nirclc~nrM'cnpolt.~ itr11rcP.ncific is sct oiitiri.Aniics 2 Iicrciii.
11. I:'NS('LAI<ticld its ljrst session iiibliircli 1950and its niost rcccnt scssiuii
5. It is of considerable signifieancc that in this Rcqucst Australia is scckiiig
to assert the inviolability of its sovercign tcrritory agaiiist thc irrcvcrsiblc cori- in hl;ircli 1072. Tri ii11it Iiiis Iicld 22 scssioiis iind prcscntcd sis subst;inti\.c
sequences of conduct which lias not only becn tlie subjcct ofconccrn to Austrrilia reports 10 ttic Gcncriil Asscriihly, in 1958. 1962, 1964, 1966, 1969 and 1973.
and its people and of scicntists tlirouçhout ttic world, but rilso of uriivcrsal UNS('t.:AR's reports arc c~l~icctivc stiitcmcnts of scicntific facts. bascd on d;itii
apprehension, opposition and condcmnation. recci\.cd froni Statcs hlcnil~crs of the United Nations, and mcnibcrs of ttic
spccinlircd açciicics of tlie Uiiitcd Nat ioiis and of thc International Atoniic KEQUEST 47
46 NUCLEAR TESTS

Energy Agency. The above data have been supplemented by, and interpreted by UNSCEAR, in light of information available in the scientific literature or obtained from unpublished communications of individual scientists. In its discussions the Committee has had the benefitof the presence of representat ives of the International Labour Organisation, the Food and Agriculture tion of the United Nations, the World Health Organization, the World Me- teorological Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency as well as of the International Commission on Radiological Protection and the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. and the French Republic are, and since its inception have been, membcrs of UNSCEAR. 12. Each of the reports of UNSCEAR has dealt at length with environmerital contamination arising from the testing of nuclear devicesin the atmosphere and has discussed various effects of ionizing radiation on man, revising its earlier statements on these effects, and including possible new effccts, when new scientific data justified such a procedure. The various reports have consisted of a main text supported by detailed technical annexes. Annexes 3,4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 to this Request reproduce some of the relevant portions of the reports of the Committee.
13. At least two themes run through the UNSCEAR reports-one the testing of nuclear devices as an important source of environmental con- tamination; a second emphasizes the uncertainties regarding the long-tcrm somatic and genetic effects of low doses of ionizing radiation. 14. The first report of UNSCEAR was presented to the thirtcenth session of the General Assembly in 1958.The report identified nuclear explosions as one of the sources of environmental contamination. On 13 December 1958 the General Assembly by resolution 1347 (XIII) noted UNSCEAR's first rcport and requested it to continue its uscful work. 15. The second report of UNSCEAR wassubmitted to the Gcneral Asscmbly
"52. The Committee thcrcfore emphasizes the necd that al1 forms of unnecessary radiation exposure should be minimized or avoidcd cntirely, particularly when the exposure of large populations is entailcd; and that every procedure involving the peaceful uses of ionizing radiation should be subject to appropriate immediate and continuing scrutiny in ensure that the resulting exposure is kept to the minimum practicable and that this level is consistent with the necessity or the value of the procedure. As there are no effective measures to prevent the occurrence of harmful effects of global radioactive contamination from nuclear ex- plosions, the achievement of a finalcessation of nuclear tests would benefit present and future generations of mankind." 48 17. Ori6Novcrnbcr 1902,tlic Gciicral Asscmbly,by rcsolution 1763A(XVII ).
condcriiricd al1nuclcar wcripon tcsts. This rcsolution is sct forth in Anncs 9.
18. 011 20 Novcmbcr 1902,thc Gcneral Asscmbly, by rcsolution 1764(XVII)
notcd UNSCEAK's second report. Thc first and sccond reports of UNSCEAK
Organiza- wcrc prcparcei during tlic pcriod of intcrisivc atmosphcric testing of nuclcar
wcapons carricd out irithc Nortlicrri liciiiisphcrc. Hcncc tlic grcatcr part of tlic
radio-uctivc coiitariiination iiotcd during this pcriod was locatcd in ttiat hcnii-
sphcrc.
19. fiowcvcr, oii 5 August 1963tlic Governriicnts of thc United Kingdorn
Australia
of Great Dritain aiid Northcrii Irel;iiid, tlic Union of Sovict Socialist Rcpublics
iiiid tlic Uiiitcd Statcs of Arncrica. dcsiring, amongst other things, "to put ail
ciid to thc corit;iriiiiiatiw of iiiii~i'sciivirorirncnt by radio-activc substanccs".
concludcd tlic Trcaty U;iiiiiiiigNuclcar Wc;ipon Tcsts iii thc Atniosphcrc, iii
Outcr Spacc riridUndcr Watcr. Tlic tcxt of tlic Treaty appcrirs asAnncs 10.On
27 No\*ciiibcr 1963 tlic C;ciicr;il Ahscriiblyiiduptcd rcsolution 1910 (XVI 11)
ciititlcd "Urgerit iiccd for suspcrisiori of iiuclcar and thcrmonuclcar tcsts".
It riotcd wiih approval, alid clillcd upon al1 Statcs to bcconic parties to tlic
Trcaty "arid to abidc by its spirit and provisions". Thc rcsolution is sct out iri
Aiiiics Il liereto.
identifies 20. Iii 1964UNSCEAR subniittcci its tliird rcport to tlic Gcncral Asseriibly.
Cliiipter II of tliis rcport was ciititlcd "Kadioactivc Contamination of tlic
l~iiviruiiriicritby Niiclciir Tcsts". It is iiicluciirAnncx 5.
21. 011 3 Dccciiibcr 1905ilic Gcricriil Asscnibiy oncc agiiin urgcci "tli;iiiII
iiiiclcar \vciiporitcsts bc suspcriclccl".Tliis rcsolutiori 2032 (XX) is set fortliiri
Anncs 12. 011 18 Ilcccriibcr 1905 the Gcncral Asscmbly by rcsolution 2078
(XX) riotcciUNSCEAR's tliircircport.
22. The first scrics of 1-rciiclitcsts in tlic Pacific took place bctwccri 3 July
arid 5 Octobcr 1900(Austriiliari tinic).
23. 'PlicIoiirtli rcport of UNSC'EAR \vas subniittcd iri1960. UNSCEAK
/> iiflirri~ctliiitiiiiclcar tcsts wcrc tlicrii;iirsourcc of worlci-wiclcradio-iicti\.c
contaiiiiiiriticliiof tlic ciiviroiiiiiciit (IOtof Cliap. TI,sct forth in Arincs 6).
Tri p;ir;igriipli 31of Cli;iptcr Ii'I (rilso set fcjrth in Anncx 6) the Cornniittcc
rcportcd :
even in doses
"31. Alt!irxigh !!!crc arc i~isi!ficicn! ci:~!afor nxiking sritisfiictory
cstiriiatcs of risk,itis clcar tliat, with any incrcasc of radi;~tioiiIcvclsoii
carth, tlic ariiourit of gcnctic dariiiigc will incrcasc witli thc accuniulatcd
dosc. Whilc any irriidiation of tlic hunian population is gcnctically un-
dcsirablc bccausc of ils imp1ic;itionsfor futurc gcncrations, it sliuuld bc
pointcd out tliat tlic propcr usc ofradiation iriiiicdcciricaiid in inclustryis
iiiipoi.tant for tlic 1ic;iltliof tlic iiidivitiual aricifor thc wclfiircof the corn-
riiuriity."
Ori 17 I)ccciiibcr 1900tlic Ciciicr;ilAsscriihly by rcsc~lution2213 (XXI) riotcd
UNS('1:AK's foiirtli report.
24. Iiitliiiyciirtlic CiciicralAssciiihly \>yrcsolutic~n21 03 (XXI) of 5 Deccni-
ber 1900iiotcd "\vith grc;itcoiiccrri tliat nuclcar wcapon tests in thc ntriiosplicrc
iind uncicrground arc contiriuiiig". It thcn callcd upon "al1 nuclcar-wcalion
order to Statcs to suspciid niiclcur wcriporitcsts in al1cnvironnicrits". Tlic rcsolution is
level
sct forti in Anncx 13.
25. Tlic sccond scrics of Frcncli tests in thc Pricifictook place bct\i*ccn6 Junc
iiiid 3 July 1907(Australian tirnc).
20. Tlic Gcncriil Asscmbly re\.crtcd to thc mattcr at its ncst session in 1907,
wliciioii 19Dcccmbcr 1907 itadoptcd rcsolution 2343(XXII) which,in tlic parts
NUCLEAR TESTS REQUEST 49

here relevant, is almost identical with that adopted in 1966on the urgent need tests to abandon their plans to carry out such tes!, since they may
to suspend testing in al1environments. The resolution is set out in Annex 14
hereto. lead to further contamination of the environment."
27. The third series of French tests took place between 8 July and 9 Septem- Resolution 3 (1)is set forth in Annex 19.
ber 1968(Australian time). 38. In addition, the Conferenceadopted a Declaration of Principles of which
28. Ln1968the General Assembly byresolution 2455(XXIII) of 20December Principles 6, 7 and 21 provide as follows:
1968described its concern as "increasing" and again called for a suspension of
nuclear weapon tests inal1environments. The resolution isset forth inAnnex 15. "Priticiplc 6. The discharge of toxic substances or of other substances
29. In 1969, France did not conduct any tests in the Pacific. and the releaseof Iieat, in such quarititiesor concentrations asto exceed the
capacity of the environment to render them harmless, must be halted in
30. The fifthreport of UNSCEAR was submitted to the General Assembly order to ensure that serious or irreversible damage is not inflicted upon
in 1969 and was noted on 28 October 1969 by resolution 2496 (XXIV). ecosystems. The just struggle of the peoples of al1countries against pol-
UNSCEAR reported that debris from atmospheric nuclear tests continued to lution should be supported.
be the most important man-made contaminant of the environment. Relevant Pritzciplc 7. States shall take al1possible steps to prevent pollution of the
chapters of the report are set out in Annex 7. seas by substances ttiat are liablc to crcate hazards to human health, to
31. On 16December 1969theGeneral Assembly by resolution 2604B(XXIV) harm living rcsourccs and marine life, to damage amenities or to interfere
reiterated its concern at the continuance of nuclear weapon tests and once more with other lcgitimate uses of the sea."
called for the suspension of such tests in al1environments. The resolution is set "Pritrcipkc21. States have, in accordancc with the Charter of the
forth in Annex 16. United Nations and the priiiciples of international law, the sovereign right
32. In 1970 French tests were held in the Pacific between 16 May and 7 to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental
August (Australian time). At the twenty-fifth session of the General Assembly policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their juris-
the plea for the cessation of nuclear tests was repeated by resolution 2663 B diction or control do not cause damage to tlie environment of other States
(XXV) adopted on 7 December 1970.The resolution is set forth in Annex 17. or of arcas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction."
33. Ln 1971 French tests were held in the Pacific between 6 June and 15
August (Australian time). The full tcxt of ttie Declaration appears in Annex 20 hereto.
34. Yet again, on 16 December 1971 the General Assembly by resolution 39. The sixth Report of UNSCEAR was also submitted to the General
2828 (XXIV) renewed its call for a halt to al1nuclear weapon tests. This time, Assernbly in 1972. UNSCEAR rcported that, more than any othcr subject,
however, the tone of the preambular provisions of the resolution altered and radio-active contamination of the environment by nuclear test explosions had
demonstrated more strikingly the anxiety of members: ken a niatter of contiriued interest for UNSCEAR (para. 147, Part Two, of
Annex A of the Report). Relevant parts of the Report are set out in Annex 8.
I "Viewing with tlze utniost apprc/lension the harmful consequcnces of 40. On 17October 1972 the General Assembly by resolution 2905 (XXVIl)
nuclear weapon tests for the acceleration of the arms race and for the health notcd UNSCEAK's sixth Report. The concern of the Gcneral Assenibly in
of present and future generations of mankind, 1972ovcr nuclcar testing was more dctailed and more specificthan ever before.
A series of resolutions, 2934 A-C (XXVII), which are set forth in Anncx 21,
wcre adopted under the agenda item "Urgent need for suspension of nuclear
Notirzg with special coricerrzthat' the continuation of nuclear weapon and thcrmonuclear tests". Resolution 2934 A(1) is especiallyrelevant.
tests in the atmosphere is a source of growing pollution ..."
The Assembly then reiterated: "Solcnznlyatid niost ertzpliaticallyits condenina- The Asscmbly exprcsscd its-
tion of al1 nuclear weapon tests." The resolution is set forth in Annex 18. "scriorrsc-otzceriithnt testirig of nuclear wcripons in the atmosphere has
35. A further series of French tests was conducted in the Pacific between contiriucd in some parts of tlie worltl, iiicluding the Pacific area, in dis-
26 Juneand 28July 1972(Australian time). In contrast to its previous practices, regard of that [the Test Ban] Trcaty and of world opinion"
the French Republic did not make any announcements of its intention to con-
and notcd "tlie statements made by the Governments of various couritries in
duct these tests. and around the l'acific area, exprcssing strong opposition to thosc tests and
36. The consideration of nuclear testing by the General Assembly in 1972 urging that they be tialtcd". The Assembly then stressed anew the urgency of
took place against the background of the achievements of the United Nations bringing to a hiilt al1 atinosphcric testing of nuclear weapons in the Pacific
Conference on the Human Environment held at Stockholm from 5 to 16June or anywhcrc elsc in the world. Tliis resolution was adopted by 105 votes in
1972as well as the sixth report of UNSCEAR. fivour, 4 against, with 9 abstentions.
37. The Stockholm Conference adopted a resolution (resolution 3 (1))which 41. This summary oT the reports of UNSCEAR of the actions of the General
recited the belief of the Conference:"...that al1exposure of mankind to radia- Asscmbly and of the 1972Stockholm Conference serves three purposes:
tion should be kept to the minimum possible and should bejustified by benefits First, the Reports of UNSCEAR can be accepted as objective statements of
that would otherwise not be obtained." The Conference then resolved: the scientificfacts in the light of scientificknowledge at the time of each Report.
Second, the resolutions of the General Assembly and of the Stockholm
"(a) To condemn nuclear weapons tests,especiallythosecarried out in the Conference cvidcnce ttie fact of universal concern regarding, and condenination
atmosphere ; of, the coriduct and consequences of nuclear tests-especially atmospheric tests.
(6) TG call upon those States intending tû carry oü! nücleu; weapûnç 50 NUCLEAR TESTS

Third, the trend reflected in these resolutions is not one of diminishing anxicty radiation slioulcl bc rcgardcd as harrnful and that no exposure to ioriizing
but of growing fear and apprehension.
42. The main purpose of referring to the rcsolutions of the Gcncral Asscriibly riidiiition sliould bc permittcd without thc cxpectation of a compcnsating
is to demonstrate facrsT.he General Assembly had beforc it tlic most up to date bciicfit.
information available in the form of the reports of UNSCEAR; the Gcncral 47. ln 1928 thcrc was cstriblislicci ii non-govcrnmcnt;iI internationiil body of
Assembly considered those reports, and in the opinion of thc General Assenibly scicntists kriowii as the Iritcrriittional Coniriiission on Radiological Protcctiori
that scientific information warranted a dcmand for the cessation of atmosplicric ([CRI') l. Siiicc tlicn, ICKP Iiiisissucd rcconirncndations for radiologieal protcc-
tioii wliicli Iiavc bccn rccognizccl anci iidoptcd by most if not al1 States as ri
tests. biisis for stich protection.
43. Never does it appear to have been suggcstcd that the tcsting of nuclcar 48. ICKI' Publiciition 9 contriining ttic most rcccnt rccomnicndations of
devices in the atmosphere was other than an abnormal occurrencc and a cause
of unique and special concern to the internationalcommunity. The item rclatiiig ICRP statcd that its policy in prcpiiriiig its rccomnicndations was-
to the urgent need for the suspension of nuclear tests is of sucli transccndirig "to considcr the furieliiiiiciitalprinciples upon which appropriatc radiation
international importance that it has appcared without interruption or1 the
agenda of every General Assembly since 1962. Atmosplieric nuclcar tcsting is (ioiii~iiigrncliatioii) prutcctiun nicasurcs crin bc biised, wliilc lcaving to thc
v;iriuiis iiatiorial protcctit~ii bc)elicsthe rcsponsihility of forniulating the
comparable to no other State activity. It is not an "ordinary" activity of tlic spccilic advice, coclcs of practicc or rcgulatiotis that are bcst suitcd to thc
State the consequences of which, if they give risc to damagc, can bc disposcd of iiccds of tlicir individuiil countrics".
by a payment of pccuniary daniagcs. No State has ever scen nuclcar tcsting in
that light ;and the intcrnational comniuriity has rcjccted tliat iritcrprctatioii by 49. Ttic iipproiicli of [CRI' to radiation protcction is illustratcd in thc
calling for the cessation of atmosphcric tests. fc)lluwing paragraplis cstriictcd froiii tlic sariic publication:
44. In the light of thcsc overwhclrning considcrations the Govcrnniciit of (i) "(29) A basis of the Coiiiiiiission's rcconinicndations is thc cautious as-
Australia considers that itwould be quitc inappropriatc to rccoriiniencc at tliis
juncture scientific debatcon the precise dcgrcc of harni to human life wliich tlie s~iiiipiion tliat any cspvsurc to riidiiition niay carry somc risk for the
dcvclo~iiiciit of soiii;itic elli.cts. including Icukiicniia and othcr nialig-
conduct of any particular test is likely to cause. It is sufficient to point tu the niincies iiiicof Iicrcclitnrycllkcts. Tlic assiiniption is niade thrit. clownto tlic
factors of uncertainty which affect evcry aspect of the discussiori of thc con- lo\vcst Icvcls of dosc. tlic risk of inducing discrisc or disability increascs
sequences of atmospheric tcsting. It is impossible to predict with ccrtainty thc \vitIl tlic dose accuiiiuliited by the iridivid~ial.This assuniption iniplies thiit
nature or extent of the fall-out from any particular test. The yicld of tlie dcvicc tlicrc is rio wliolly 'sak' dosc of riiciirition. Thc Commission rccognizcs
rnay be considerably in excess of that cxpected. 1t rnay not csplodc at the that tliis is a coiiscrviitivc assiinipt ion. rind that somc cficts may rcqtiirc
predetermined height if dropped from an üircraft or dclivcred by rockct. The iiriiiiiiriiiini or tlircsliold dos.t lowcvcr, iri the absence of positive kno~v-
direction of the wind and tlie local and more rcmotc mctcorological piittcrns
Icclgc. tlic Commi.;si»n hclic\.cs thnt tlic policy of assuming a risk of in-
rnay change unexpectcdly. Unforcsccn rain may occur. Factors sucli iis tlic4c jiiry ;it lo\v closes is itie iiiost rca\oii;iblc hasis for radiation protcctioti."
rnay produce a radical departurc from thc predictccl fall-out pattcrri. Such iiii (ii) "(34) Aiiy csposiirc to r;idi;itiori is iissiimcd to cntail a risk of rlclctcric~us
event occurred during the tcsts conducted by the Frcnch Govcrnmcnt during cllicts. 1lowcvcr. iirilcsï niiiii \vislies to dispcrisc with activitics iii\.olvirig
1966when, after thc test of 12Septeniber, radio-activc dcbris was uiicspcctccily cspusiii.cs te) ioiiiling racliatioiis. lie miist rccoyiii/c that thcrc is ilcicgrcç
transported in the reverse ciircction, i.e., îroni caqt to wcst instcad of thc forccast 01.risk ;illeiniiist iiriiitiic riiciiiitioiiciosici a ievci ai wiii~ii ilie ii~süiiicd
west to east direction. (Such a phcnomcnon is usually describcd as "blow back".) risk is dccriicd to bc acccpt;iblc to tlic iiicli\.idualand to socicty in vic\clof
It was also reported in Le hfotrclc of 17August 1971 that,on thc niglit of 12 and tlic I>ciicftis dcrivcd froin siich iictii.ities."
13 June 1971 (local timc) therc was over tlic Turcia atoll an unforcsccii con-
liii) "(45) \Vlicn wliolc popul;itions or Iiirgc sections of populations arc cs-
junction of a contaniinated air Iayer and rain. a phcnomcrion dcscribcd as posed. it bccomcs iicccshary to coiisidcr not only the magriitudc of iii-
"rain out". AI1these clcmcnts can lead to a significant varialion intlicamount of divieluiil rislis but iilsu tlic iiiiinl~crs of pcrsons cxposcd. E\.cn wlicn
faIl-out from the test. iiielividual csposurcs ;ire sul'ticicntlylo\v so tliiitlic risk to thc iriciividuiil
45. Two further complicating factors niay bc mentioncd: first, the Iapsc of is acccptably sriiall. the siiiii of tlicsc risks. as reprcscntctl by tlic tot~il
time which occurs bctwecn a nuclcar test and both its somiitic iind gcrictic burdcn iirisiiig froiii tlic scirn'iticiind genctic doses in any populatioii uridcr
consequences; and, second, the dificulty of diagnosing with prccision or con- cciiisitlcriitiori. riiay jiistifi. tlic clfort rccliiircd to achicvc furthcr liriiitiitiori
fidence the origin of illnesses which rnay also bc attributablc partly or wliolly

to causes othcr than the dcposit of radio-active matcrial. It is, howcvcr, thcsc
very unccrtainties rcgürdingtheconsequcnces of nuclcar tcsts and thc irrcpariiblc ...... .
nature of any harni whicli niight be causcd thcrcby, which justify, at thc vcry 1Tlicciiricrit riilcsgovcrriingtlicsclcctionof tlic ICRP state: "Thc sclcctionof tlic
least, the interim prohibition of furthcr tcsts. iiiciiihcrss1i;illbciiinclcbytlic IC'KI'froiiinoiiiin:itionssubniittcdto it bytlic Nntion~il
46. World-wide scicntific study of the nature and cffcct of low lcvcls of Dclcgntio~i\ to tlic Intçrn;itional Congres.; of Radiology by thc ICRP itsclf. Tlic
ionizing radiation has not bcen confined to UNSCEAR. Tii Novcnibcr 1972 sclcctioiis\liaIl hcsiibjccttiiiipprovalhy tlie Intcrnritic>naEl sccutivcConiriiittcc (ll'C)
the National Academy of Scicnccs of the United States publishcd thc Kcport of tlic('oiigrcss.hlciiihcrsof tlicICKP sliallbcclioscrion tlicbasis of tlicir rcci)gni\cc!
iiciivityin11iclicltlsof iiiciliciilriitliol~gy.riitliationprntcctiori,pliysics.Iicalthphysics.
of an Advisory Committee on the Biological Elfccts of lonizirlg R;idiatiori biology.gcnciics,biocliciiiistryiind biophy5ics \vitIlregard to an appropriritc balancc
(known as the "BEIR Rcp~rt") which reafir.rl?ciU the princip!cs !hi!! r?r?y of cupcrtiscratlicr than Io nntioniility." 54 NUCLEAR TESTS KEQUEST 55

59. The French nuclear tests from 1966 to 1972 have rcsulted in increased animal population, its resources and erivironnierit, from the explosion of
radiation doses to the Australian population both externally from hll-out nuclcar devices in the atmosphcrc, under watcr, or on or near the surfrice
deposited on the groundand internally from tlie consumption of milk and otlicr of tlic eartli, with particular rcgiirclto the piist and prospective explosions
foodstuffs contaminated by iodine-13l, caesiuni- 137, stroiitiuni-90, clirboii-14 by Fraricc iiitlic I>acific."
and tritium. Using approachcs adopted by UNSCEAR iri its sccorid to sistli
reports, these doses may be expressed as dose cornmitnients to thc Australian A copy of the rcport has bccri supplicd to tlie Frcnch Governnicrit. Its principal

population. Again, it is not nccessary for the purposes of this request to set out coiiclusions as surninarireci tlicrciii arc as follows:
detailed figures and calculations relating to sucli dose conimitmcrits. it cannot
be disputed that as a rcsult of French tests there has becn incrcased radiation "1. We firid no rciisoii to qiicstiun thc cstiiniitcs of radio-active fall-out
doses to the Australian population and thcse dose comniitments, calculatcd iiscti in tlic rcports froni othcr authoritics; our own indcpcndcnt asscss-
from the measurements taken in the course of the nionitoring progriinimcs riicrit is givciiiitlic Appciiciix.
previously described, and in accordiince with tlic scientific principlcs eniploycd 2. At lowcic>scc s)fradiiitiori on aiiiinals or oii niait is not known whetlicr
by UNSCEAR, are of the following order: the clkcts arc propc'rtioiiiil tu dosc. Tlicrc niay be a ttireshold below
\vhicli lowcr Icvclsof radiiitiori have no clt'cct.Currcnt work on rcpair
dose commitment to wholc body and gonads-5-6 niillirad by liviiig cclls, of diiniiigc tlicy havc sult'crcciat high doscs of radiation,
dose commitment to bone marrow-11-12 millirad suggcsts tliat low dvscs riiay riot ciiusc caiiccr or genctic defccts at a
dose commitment to bone living cells-14-15 niillirad riitc proportional to dosc.
dose commitment to thyroids 3. it is ussuincd (as iiIIofticial rcports Iirive hitlicrto done) that the re-
infants under 2-1 10-125millirad
persons 2 and over-14-18 millirad. spoiiscs to dosc arc proportional ovcr the wholc range. Australia, as
tlic rcsult of the I'rcricli tcsts ~vliichhave alrcady taken place, could
60. These dose commitments may bc used together with cstiniatcs of risk Iiiivc I crise of tliyroid canccr pcr ycnr due to thc isotope iodine-131
(risk factors) for the induction of canccr and for diseascs of gcnetic origin to iind I io 4 oilicr ciiriccr cascs pcr yciir due to strontium-90, caesium-137
compute harm commitmcnts to thc Australian population cxprcsscd as the iind ciirboii-14. Duc to the siimc isotopcs, Australia could have orle
expected number of additional cascs of cancer and diseascs of gcnetic origiii. iiiutatioii in c\.cry 10 yciirs Icading to deatli or disability in tlie first
Adopting the assumption used by ICRP and sct out in paragrapli 49 (1) above gciicration, aiid iip to 50-100 dcatlis or disabilitics in al1 subscqucnt
that "down to the lowest lcvels of dose, the risk of inducing diseasc or disability gcricriitioiis.
4. Wc clriiwiiitcntiori to tlic iiiiprc,biil~lcc\,eiit in wliicli tlie esplosion of
increases with the dose accuniulatcd by the individual", the risk factors dcter- iiliigli-po\vcrcd bomb wiis cornbiiicd \vit11qiiite csceptionul nictcoro-
mined by UNSCEAK and by tlie BElR Cominittcc may be uscd to coniputc logiciil coiiclitioiis gi\.iiii liigli fall-0111ovcr Australia. Tliough this
the above-ment ioncd harm conimitments.
, 61. In its Note datcd 7 February 1973to Australia, the Frcnch Governmcnt \voiilcibc a siriguliir cpisocic. sonic incrcasc iiitlie above figiires would
referred to and sought support for its point of view in thc reports of Australia's bc cupcctcd. Tliyroicl ciiiiccr cascs duc to iodiiic-131 could be about
National Radiation Advisory Committce originally set up in May 1957(refcrred 10.Otlicr caiiccr ciiscs cl~icto tlic othcr isotopcs could increase to much
to herein as the "NRAC"). However, these have only a liniited, if any. beariiig higlicr figurcs tliiiiiitprescrit Icvclsof radiation. Mutations could leaci
on the situation. The NRAC has produced a rcport on cach scrics nf !es!: bu! to two dciitlis and disiit>iliticspcr ycar in the first gencration and to
it has not reported on the possible cuniulative conscquences of faII-out froni niorc tlian ii tliousiiiid dcatlis aiid ciisiibilitics in ali subscqucnt geri-
al1series of the tests. cri1tions.

62. In formulating ils views on each series of tests, tlic NRAC chose to adopt Tliougli tlic :i\.criigc Ic\.clsof radiatioii duc to the Frcnch esplosioris
an approach of determining thc relativc risk for each series rather thari tliat of iirc unlilicly to iiiiikiistiitistically clctcctablc increase in ttie cancer or
assessing the cumulative harm to the Australian population froni al1the nuclcar gciictic clt'ccts in Austriiliii, wc cmphiisizc that tlicre should bc rio
tcsts carried out in the Pacifie in tlie atmosphere by tlie French Republic. Tlic uiiwarriiiitcd csposurc to radiutiori. Furilicr. with the lorig-livcd
approach adopted by the NRAC involved in the main tlic coniparison of the isotopes produccd iis tlic rcsult of nuclcar csplosions in eithcr thc
expected effects from the tests with tliosc froni natural background radiatioii soiithcrri or iiortlicrii Iiciiiisplicrc. thc cfkcts on tlie Aiistralian popula-
and viewing the significance of the expccted efTcctsngainst the incidcncc of tioii, tliuugli sriiiill. woultl bc cuiiiiilativc."
death and disability in the Austriilian population. Bccüuse of the growing
concern in the Australian population about the possible efTectsof tlic continucd Tlic report of tlic Aciidciiiy iviis origiiiiilly sutmittcd to the 1)riiilc Ministcr
atmospheric nuclcar tcsting by the French Republic in tlic Pacifie. Australia
iiiida suiiiriiary of ttic coiiclusic~iisas they tlicii stood wcre publishcd prior to
is obliged to consider the cumulative effect of thcsc tests and to asscss tlie risks the tlisciissioiis in Paris on 18. 19aiid 20 April. Bctwcen 20 April and thc tabling
not in relative tcrms, but in absolute terms. of tlic rcl,ort, oii 1 Miiy, tlic Acadcniy riniendcd certain of its conclusions in
63. On Tuesday, 1 May 1973,there was tablcd in the Australian Parliamcnt order to correct whiit it~c>risitlcrediini;ithcmatic;il inconsistency appearing in
a report of the Australian Acadeniy of Science which had been requcsted by the the report. Tlic Frcncli Cic,vcrnnicnt lias becn riiiidcawarc of thesc amendmcnts.
Prime Ministcr relating to the following question: 04. Tlic ligiircs contaiiicd iiithe surnniary of conclusions of thc report as-
scssiiig tlic riuriibcr of ciisesof cancer anci of genctic cffects from French tcsts
"The actual or potential harm to Australia, including its human and iitlic I'aciliciirc consistcrit witli a propcr applicatiori to thc dosc commitmcnts 56 NUCLEAK TESTS

set out in paragraph 59ot'this request of the risk factors asscsscd by UNSCEAR 71. Iii tlic gast. tlic d;itcs (Austrüliaii timc) on wliicli the tests Iiavc coni-
and those adopted in the BEIR Report. riiciiccd wcrc as folloivs:
65. As the reports already mentioncd indicaie, acceptcd scicntific opinioii 3 July 1970 16May
is that exposure to radiation in the smallest dosages is potentially dangcrous to 1960
human life.The precisc limits of that danger arc iiot yet known. The iri~prccisiori 1967 6 Jiinc 1971 6 Junc
and uncertainty of the liniits of danger are matters of gravc conccrii to ttic 1908 8 July 1972 26 June

Australian Governmcnt and are a factor relevant to the excrcisc by ttic Court of Tlici-cnppc;irs to bc a rcnl likcliliood tliat tliis ycar's tests müy be advaiiccJ so
its powers to grant provisional nicasures. ils to t;~hcpliicc carliertIi;iiiitlic pst.
66. Whatever uncertainties might be said to apply to tticsc figiircs thcy arc 72. Ttiesc circunistaiiccs iiiipress tlic prcscnt rcqucst with spccisl urgcnçy.
genuine estimates of risk, which thc Australian Govcrniiiciit, fiiccd as itis witli
a clear violation of its territorial sovereignty and sccing no compcnsating bciic-
fit, must regard with serious concern. In vicw of the rcfusal of tlic f=rcncli
Rcpublic to desist frorn testing, Australia has no option but to iiivokc the j11i.i~- 73. Iii tlic liglit of tlic forcgoiiig considcr;itions. Australia submits that this is
diction of this Coui t if it wishes to protcct its rights and avoid the possibility :ipropcr aiid iiccess;iry ciisc Ior tlie Court to cxercisc ils power to Iay dowii or
of further serious and irreparable harm fronî radiation rcsulting froiii f~reiicli intlicatc prc)visioiial incasiircs of protection.
tests. 74. Tlie iiieiisurcs \r.liicli Australiii rcsliectfully requests arc siniplc and arc
67. The clear anxicty and concern of thc Australian pcoplc at tlic conciuct dircctly aiicicxclusi\~clyrclatccl to tlie riglits for wliich Australia secks protection
iiithcsc pri>ceet!iiigç.bbTlicpro~isioiiül iiicssurcs sliould bc th;it thc Freiicli
of atmospheric tests by the French Republic lias bccn showii iiiiiiaiiy ways. (ioi~ci-iiiiiciitslii>ultidehisi Si-oiiiaiiy furtlicr atniosplicriç nuclcar tests peiidiiig
During 1972, political reprcsentativcs, scicntists, tradc uiiioiis and cliurclics, tlic judgiiicnt of tlic Court in iliis case."
as well as ordinary members of the public, protested by cicriioiistrations, Icttcrs
to the press, public statcmcnts,dcputations, boycotts and otlicr nicrins. ln sonle
cases the protests unfortunately took tlic forni of violcncc against 1-rcnch
property in Australia. Al1 thcse actions are disturbing to Ausiraliit ;inci its Açcii t for tlic Govcrnnicnt of Australiu.
people. The fact that they are directed against the Frcncli Rcpublic, an old
ally with whom Australia has always enjoyed the niost frieridly rclatioiis, is
equally disturbing. Thc Government of Austrülia cannot, Iiowcver, ignorc
these protests.
68. The concern-and tlie rights-of Australia go furthcr than thc in~mcdiatc

protection of Australian territory and Australian livcs thcrein. Radio-actii,c
, products released over the ocean inevitably settle on the surfiicc of thc sca,
whatever precautions are tüken, and are absorbed into the water anri cvciitu;illp
into the lifechains which comprise the marine ccosystciiis. Spccics of sucli living
natural resources being contaminated with radio-active matcrial iiiiglit, dc-
pending on their migrritory habits, cîntmi!?a!c !h:: die? of otlicr spccics.
including man, in widely distributed zones.

The Extrcn~c Ut-gcncj~of tlrc Rcqrtc.st
69. As is statcd in the Application, Australia has sought to obtsin frotii tlic

French Republic a permanent undertaking to refrain frorn furtlicr atmosplicric
nuclear tests in the Pacific. However, the French Rcpublic hiis expressly rcfuscd
to give any such undertaking. Ttwas made clcar in a statcmcnt in the 1-rciicli
Parliament on 2 May 1973by tlie Frcnch Sccrctary of State for thc Armics tliat
the French Government, rcgardless of the protests made by Australia and otlicr
countries, does not envisage any cancellation or niodilication of ttic programme
of nuclear testing as originally planned.
70. Moreover, in the past some warning of the occurrence of the tcsts was
usually given by the circulation a few wecks in advance of information to

diplornatic missions indicat ing the existence of Dangerous Zones; he rlctails
are referred to in paragraph 45 of the Application. The French Govcrnmciit has
stated tliat no such similar warning is to be given in 1973.The Frcncli Ciovcrn-
ment has already made the preparations nccessary to activatc Dangerous Zorics
on the vcry shortest notice. Accordingly, urgent advice of tlie activation of tlic
Zones could be given at any moment. NUCLEARTESTS

ANNEXES TO THE REQUEST FOR THE INDICATION
OF INTERIM MEASURES 017 PROTECTION

UNII 1-1NKI.IC)NG Sr-NI-KAA LSSI;~IIBIK ~ES~LUTIO9 N13 (X) OF
3 DI~C-I~MI1 II955 oN "~FI:LCTS 01: ATOMIC ~AI>IATION"
Annex1
Tlrc G'<~tr<~ lcslrr)bly.
TABLE SETTING 0u.r NUCLEAR TESTSCARRIE DUT AT K~cogtiizitigtlic iiiigortüncc of, aiid !lie widcsprcad attention being givcn to.
THE PACIFIC TESTSCENTRE problciiis rclatiiig to tlic cfl'cctsof ioniring radiatiun upon man and his en-
virorinicn t.
The table set out below shows tfie tests involving a nucleiir explosion wrricd
out by the French Government ai its I'acificTcsts Ccntrc. EiicIiof the tcsts Iiiive B<b/ic,-i,tiiirtlie widcst distrihutioii sliould bc givcn to al1available scientific
diita oii tlic sliort-tcrrn aiid long-terni clkcts upoii mail and his cnviroiinicnt of
been conductccl in the atniosphcrc. lncluded ürnoiigst tlic dcviccs \vhicli Iiiivc ioni~iiig railiiitioii. iiiclucliiigi-iidiiitioiile\~clsniid r;iclio-iictivc"TaIl-out".
been exploded in the course of thcse tcsts Iiave bccn scvcriil Iiydrogcii boiiibs Noritlg tli;tstuelicsof tliis IV-oblciii;ire hciiig ci>iiductcd in various countrics.
(one of one mcgaton and two of two rncgatons). iinutiibcr of dc~iccs of Iiigli Il(~lit~ri~lit [lie pc~plcs of tlie \iorld shoulcl bc niorc lully infc>rnlcdon tliis
and medium power as wcll as some of low powcr. sul3jcct,

Year Date Ycur 1. 1~t~ihli.vlrc~siscicritilic cotiiiiiiitec cuiisisting of Argcntiria, Australiu,
(Australian time) B(1ti1 Ilclgiiiiii. Ilrii/il. C:iii;iiI;i.C'/cclio~lo\. gypt. 1-.rünçc.India, Japan. Mesici).
(Australian tiriic) Swcdcn, tlic United Kiiigdoiii of Grcat I3ritaiiiaiid Northcrii lrcland. the Unitcd
States of Aiiici.ic.;iand tlic Uniori of So\.iet Soci;ilist Kcpublics, and rcqucsts the
1966 3 July 1970 16 May
20 July 23 May C;ovcriirriciits of tlicsc couiilrics ~iiclito ~icsigniitconc scicntist, with alternatcs
12 Scptenibcr 31 May iiriclcr,~is~iltii~ss ;ipproprintc, to hc its rcprcscntiitive on tliis Conlmittcc;
25 Scptembcr 2. Kc,qfii~.~tf.lscot)lt)liitc~iJ
5 Octobcr 25 June
4 July ((1) To reccivcaiid iisscnihlc iti ii;il>liropriatc and uscful forni tlic following
28 July riiJiologiciil iiiforiiiiitie~iifuriiislicd hy States Mcinbers of thc United Nations
6 June 3 August or riicnibcrs of tlic spccializccl a~ciicics:
28 June 7 August (i) I<cports ~iioh\cr~d lcvcls of iotiiriiig radiation and radio-activity in the
3 July
1971 6 Junc ciiviroiiiiici;t
8 July (ii) Reports 011 scicritilic ohscrviitioiis and c~pcriniciits relevant to the cliccts
16 Ju!y 13Junc of ioniliiig racliatioiLIIXNI iiiiin aiicl Iiiseiiviroiimcrit alrca~lyundcr w'ayor
4 August 4 July I;itcr liridcrtiikcby n~itioiialsciciitilic boclics or by autlioritics of national
9 Augiist C;o\~crniiiciits;
25 August 15Augiist
9 Septcnibcr f1>)To rccoiiiiiiciicl iiiiiforni stnrid;irds witli rcspcct to proccdurcs for samplc
26 Junc collcctiuii aiid instriinieiitatioiiand riidilition counting proccdurcs to be uscd
(No nuclcar tests in ;iiiiilyscs of siiniplcs;
in the Pacific) July (c) 1.0 conipilc ariii iissciiiblciii;in intcgriitcd manncr the various reports.
28 July
rcfci-rcd to iii siihpiir;igiapli((1) (i) ÿbo\c. un observcd radiological lcvels;
((1) To r-cvicwaiici collate riatioiinl reports refcrrcd to in subparagrapli ((1)
(ii)iihovc, cval~iiitiiiçcacli report to clctcrniiiic ils usefulncss for the purposcs
of tlic Coniiiiittcc;
Itp) To iiiiihe yciirly progi-csreports iiiid10 ilcvclop by 1July 1958.or carlier
if tlic iissciiibled fiicis ~arriii~t. a suiiiiniiry of tlic rcports rcccivcd on radiation
Icvcls iiiitradiiitioii clkcts on niai1 iind Iiis criviroriri-ienttogcthcr witli tlic

cvnIu3ti~ili~proi.iclc(lfor iisuhp;iriigr;ipli(d) abovc and indications of rcsearcli
prc?icctswhicli iiiiglit rccluirc furtlicr study;
Ill To triinsiiiit froin timc to tinic. as it dccms appropriate, tlic ciocuriicnts
;ilid c~.;ilu;itioiisrckrrcito ;il~ovcto tlic Sccrctary-Gciicral for publiciition and
di~~ciiiiiiiiiioiito St;itcs Mcnibcrs of the Unitcd Natioris or niembers of thc
spcci;~li/ccl ;igcricics; 60 NUCLEAR TESTS
REQUEST
3. Requeststhe Secretary-General to provide flicCommittec with appropriate
Anncx 3
assistance in organizing and carrying on ifs work, and to providc a sccrctary
of the Committee; ESTRACT FKOM KEPOKT OF Tf1E UNITEDNATIONS SCIENTIFIC
4. Calls upon al1 concerned to co-operate in making availablc rcports arid COM~~ITI'E OEN TI1E E~:FEC- I1: ATOMIC RADIATION
(GA, OR, 13tli Scssion, Supplcmcnt No. 17(A/3838), 1958)
studies relating to the short-tcrm and long-tcrm clTectscf ioniring radiation
upon man and his environment and radiological diita collectcd [>ythcni; Chapter VI1
5. Rcqireststhe spccialized agcncies to conccrt with the Coniniittcc conccrriirig
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
any work thcy rnay be doing or conternplatirig witliin tlic splierc of tlic Corii- 1. In estimat.,g th. possible hazards of ioriizinp:radia- 1. LEVEL~ OF RADIATION
mittce's terms of reference to assure proper CO-ordination; tion, it is clcarly necessary to kiiow botli the l&els of
6. Rcqircsts the Secrctary-General to invite tlie Government of Jiipiin to such radiation received by man arid his envirorirnent 7. Table 1 summarizes our estimates of the avcrage
nominate a scientist, with alternaies and consultants as appropriate. to bc ils from various sources, and the present and future effects amounts of radiation likely to received bypopulations
likely to beproduced thereby. It is of particular impor- during specified periods, and gives the basis for a com-
represcntütivc on the Committee; tance to assess theeffcçts of ratlioactive fall-out frorn parison between the amounts received from natural anci
7. Deridcs to transniit to thc Committec the records of tlic procccdirigs of nuclear weaporis, since this source of general environ- artificial sources. The method of calculation is describçd
the Gencral Asscmbly ori thc prcsent item. mental contamination is of reccnt origin,has been of un- in chapter 111,the averaging priods of 30 and 70 years
certain signihcance, aiitl has let1to concern in the mindsbein~ used as relevant respectively to transmissible
of maiiy people. AI1sources of radiation niust, however, genetic changes anclto somatic injury during the lifetinic
be revicwed for a çoiiiplete evaluation of thc situation. of an individual. The estimates for medicalexaminations
and wcunational exmsures are based uwn the present
2. The Cornmittee, aware of the coniplexity of this situation'in certain 'countries with dev;loped ficilities.
task. knows that ourprescritiriforrnation about ratliationrather than on a forecasted world average. The values
leveis and effects is iriadrtlliatc fOran accurate evaiuationted for various hypothetical future circumstances are
of al1hazards,and that iihaiiyof the estinlates will neces-ot intended as predictions, but are calculations based on
sarily Le ayproximate or tentative. ranges are subject tol1the uncertainties outlined there.
3. The physical characterihtics of ionizing radiation,
and the arnounts ofhuman exposuresto it, are at present
more arcurately known than its biological consequences, Radiation from ndural sources
especially where small doses and dose rates are con- 8. The radiation received by man from natural
cerned. Iri the present chapter. thereforr. we review firssources variessomewhat from place to place according
the amounts of radiation received by nian, both in regard to the local radioactivity of the earth's surface; and that
to the exposure of individuals and ofholc populations, of only occasional populatedarcas exceeds the average
and in respect to presentand possible future levels. We by a factor of 10.tudics on populations living in these
then atternpt to estimate the biological effects of varyinareas are of extreme interest for the development of our
amounts of radiation of (lifferent types, and to evnluate kiiowledgeon the effects of small doses of radiation. The
the hazard resulting frorii certain sources of particular contritnition from cosmic rays differs at differcnt alti-
simiticance. tudes and neomaenetic latitudes. That from the normal
radioactiv~potas~urn and carbon content of the body is
4. The relevant physical data refer to the world's about the same in different people, but the radiation due
p)l)ulntioii as a wliolç. as wrll asto iiidividuals ancl to radium, thorium and their decay prmlucts variecon-
groups of peo1)lereceiving relativcly higher rxposures si(1erably. The radioactivity of the masonry us4 for
because of thcir occul)atiorior place of living. Tliese exsome types of dwelling may appreciably increase the
posures niay involve the whole body uniforrnly, or may radiation exposure of the occupants. The variations in
be greater for certain 9rgar.s Cr tissues, as when radio- levels of irradiation frorn natural sources areusscd
active material is selectively concentrated in them. in chapter II;the magnitude of these variations. as well
5.Tissues of the ernbryo, of the bone and bone mar- as of the avcrage levd, is informative in makin
row. and of the gonads are of particular importance. parisons with exposures due to artificial sour5;::
Irradiation ofhe ernbryo (and pf the foetus) may lead ful effects attributable to radiation from natural sources
to abnormalities of development or rnay prove fatal. Ir- are not known with any certainty, but it sums likely that
radiation of bone marrow and of bone may give rise to some genetic,and pssibly some somatic, injury iscaused
leukemia and to bone tumours, and these tissues are sub- in this way.
jected to higher doses than other tissues of the body by
radioactive materialssuch as strontium-90 and radium Exposure due to mtduol proctdure~
which becorne concentrated in bone. Irradiation of the 9. It is useful to estimate this exposure, appropriately
gonads is able to bring about changes in the hereditary
material; and thcse may be transmitted to subsequent pcrhaps some somatic, effects of these procedures willd
generations if the irradiation is received before or duridepcnd upon this avcrage value. In the countries with
the years of rcproductive activity. extensivemedical facilities where its magnitude has ken
estimated, the radiation given for medical purposes
6. As with any scientific assessment, the conclusions makes the largest artificial contribution to the irradiation
~f this report must be subject to revi'sionin the light oof the population. but no data arc avaibble for countria
advancing knowledge ;and the Committee hopcs that the with fewer such facilities. Tbe reportcd values of genet-
report itself, aftcr submission to the General Assembly, ically significant doses are of the same order as the dose
will assist this advance by stimulating,critical discussifrom natural sources. Amon medical procedures, the
amongst scicntists. In view of themplex nature of the contribution from diapostic >9-ny euminations grca!ly
subjcct. individual sentences or assessmentq rnay easily exceeds that from radiothetapy and radioisotope appliu-
be misunderstd unlcss related to the context of the tions, the latter rnaking onlya smd contribution; and
report as a whole. NUCLEAR TESTS
REQUEST

TABLE 1- ESTIMATE DODSE FROM DIFFERENT mDlOACTIVE SOURCES
(C~pul~ frm WU-widc awages) 14. since 1928, the Intemtional G-issi~ on ried several times around the world. This tro~~hcric
~~di~l~~ J i~Protection bas recmmended sernulmurn fdl-out consists of a mixture of ndi-ctive nitea.
Sanr ~ I U & n1n8kllr&SC P- =pita-am .iuraloir pmissible dorsw for those are ocoipation.Ily ex- mort of which are short-livcd isotopls. At the premt
Yuimum faany (-)DII# Yuilium fma-.Y 77(>-ru )(,.,)am ( pscd to radhiion, and bas proposed appropriate rneth- tirne.the troposphcric fd1-t is de~ositd intemittrnt1~
i
Naturd rairrn.. .................... 3 7 : ods of musurmnt. Their pmsat recommendations, activities is built up uid mainbincd. When a~propnate
Mui-~Mde wwi- (aocpt environmen- whichhave recentl ken mview4 inthe light of progress factors for shieldingand wdebng effes includdt
td contamination and muptional in radio~,o~ogic. Enow lnd whgid, propose reduc- the gomd and average mrrow dose from this dePoaite
-pure). ........................ 0.5-5 tiens in dose levcls, hot befiml but are at prescnt about o.5 mrsn
hnger beyond 7 widely accepted as a basil for the protection of an uternd source. is c31Cdatcdto
Oauplti-1 expu*. .............. Lesathan 0.06 0.1-0.2 . those uposed occupationaIiy to ionizing ndiation. per yur.
20. Transient incruses of the doses from tropo-
Environmental contamination &18makIf~CDU*UI &IC=~&Ifarantrus I Radiooctivt ~ttJ
(hy@thctiul un)*- 4 &rrakimmfiafid&*Y hi.i~#riosofduru9 spheric fall-out have been observed in limited ara
Weapon testace- at end of 195.. <alcimfia ruc lS. The discharge of radi<uctive in countries shortly after wcapontests. These transient increasesmay
0.010 0.16 O.% wih reactors bas net ]cdto appreciable radiation dve a few &ys t0 dose O' the O'

A~~umptiai A~~um~lhûJ A~nmptia al AJl..ip#iyi AJJ,m,rioa, AJnili,ri)i the wastes produccd naed to bc disdurged. The likelyf Iho21. The radioisotopesof tropos~heric fül-out rnay k
Weapon tata continue until equilib- taken up into the bodyby inhalationand ingestion.Since
rium i8reachedin abouta hundd l future extension in the use of such ructors, however, the radioisotopes of principl concern are short-livcd,
mm........................ o.Mo 0.12 1.3 2.8 and the possibility of accidentalreluses of fissionprod-
7.5 If ucts, dearly rcquire that this subject be kep under storlge of the contaminated food products reduas the
bii-k* *u-&t#r d il* uximrm~ I/a J review. It is important that work should k actively dose whih they contribute. The gonad dose over the
-#pl ka(, continucdon rnethodsof minimizingenvironmental con- wholepopulation£rominhaledand ingestedtroppheric
AJJUm)Iloi aiA~mm)lM bf AJJUm)i8-ai A IIUII)Iw tamination from these causes. material is negligibleas compared with the contribution
from this materid as an external source. The avenge
Wupon testa auc bone marrow dose from interna1 sources is about 02
1958.......................... 17 9 13 6 Radiationfrom fdl-out
1968.......................... 42 33 24 16 16. Fall-out from nuclcar weapon tests causes radia-
1978.......................... 64 56 34 26 tien expsurc in scvcral ways (chapter III). Ijposurc 22. InCrcases in ndi-nivity of the thymid ghd
1988.......................... 79 67 42 35 of thc wor1d ppulaiion rcsults <rom the slow fall-out have bcen found during priods of several wuks or a
Werpon tentacontinue............ 100 100 100 100 of fission prducts Whichhave ken distributcd in the few months followingW-pon tests. In hum= h~rOids
a dose frm iodine-131 of about 5 mrem pr ~ear ha
'For countrier having an extensive useof the radiation sourmil conditionisdircuwd in paravaph 69 stratosp~ere, Exposures resuh from any fa~i-out been estirnated for 1955-1956in the Unit4 States m-
l~~ and m~orting &ta to the Committee. III. from the radioactive "doudfl which passes through the
mly.lŒes for muin *hndealk highly denlopcd counuies co~~~,",~,"~~p t,~U~~&~a~;~u;~I"3';1a;E~~ troposphere without haring rudicd the higher strate- cluding areas immcdiatelyadjarnt to WUpai test Sites.
sphcrc, and frm the f whi& may aar in arcas Doses of this order are wilikel to ause detect*le
atratŒpheric fall-out rate and &bit. vorld-wide average of s~hcric injetioof fission products to the whde rquencxde to wcapon tests or within some thousand kilo- &mage or funnio-1 hge inde
r Rqio-1 values nuy differ by a faO/oabout H to 2 [rom weapOntests from the beginnin of 1954 to the dnd1958 vil( mctrcs of them. 23. Irradiation of bone may rcsult from incorporation
th. ntlniatd pla!ion nighted world-ride anra e values repated at constant rate. #hi8 mond amumption riIlgirr
becaur of the titudinal variation of-out ratan deapait an uilibrium value for the faII-out rate and dea proXi- 17. consider the in which fall-out of intenncdhte and short-lived fission products. Al-
in Im. d the mld the Uoppheric fall-out mal tend ti "@?Y a factor of 2 higher than thit ulculaby tL fu.t matcrial Causesirradiation todiflcrcnt parts of the body, though materiab nOt prolongcd irradia-
tcrtdm.o uppr iimitd thir range, espcially in the vicinity ofmPtion. to pmple ondiflclcnt diets or under diffcrent agricultural fion* the^may selectively
which The valuesfor the 30-ycar doseshakn cormctedfa uo conditions, and to of difierent ages; and thc areas of bonc in whidr active <rowth is tJ<ing place at
dicw~ habits and to th-aliviq~in areas of difieringrpheric fall-oinaccordancewith paraKraph 57 of radiation that would result the timc. and so cause more lnien~ radiation ldly
Uringa valueof 0.5 for the priod of in of injection of radie than if the same amounts of theu matehais were dis-
frm alterd or unaltered tributed throughout the who!e skeleton.
activematerials into the stratosphere.
t" Fr cent the diagnosticdosct0 thegnnads of the future trend of rnedicalexposurcs. I~is cxpcctcd 24. The Cornmittee has insufficient information on
is due l0 relativcl~ few tYVs of examination of the that improvcmcnts in eyuipmcnt and tcc~niques Foll-outodjocrnt to tests localvariations and temporary increases ef tropospheric
abdomen and pelvis. considerably reduce individual exposures, bot the ever- fall-out in populatcd areas at different disUnces from
l8 The urly fall-out of radi.ctivc matcriaIr nur to
10. Most of these values are prelirninary estimates, ex~anding use of x-rays may well inCrcasethe wor1d the of nuclcar crplosions, is infiuenccd by data which wouldpmit evaluationof the biol**l furthcv<-
and further investigations are needed, for which pro- p~~ulationdose. Precautions of the type describedby the various meteorolo~ul and testin conditions,my nificance ofthis sourceof environmental conuminatim.
cedures have been suggested by the International Corn- Infernational Commissions on Radiological Protection high radiation exPosure toindivi lithanltsese
missions on RadiologicalF'rotectionand on Kadiological and On Kadiological Units and Measurcments should ne amount of such radiation exposures varies very
L'nits and hleasurenients in a report prepared at the make possible such redùction of exposure to radiation greatly with theweapontcstcd, with the height of firing, Worldvndt jdl-out from the strdarphnr
request of this Comrnitteeand submitted to it in as 1s without detriment to the mediCa]value of these with the distance from the point of explosion, with the 25. Radioactive materials injectcd into the strato-
ment A/AC.82/G/R. 117. procedures. sphere, especiallyb high-yieldnuclear explosions,con-
direction of winds at various altitudes and with the stitute a rcservoir {rom which they faIl ont0 the whole
11. The signiscant dose to bone and borie marrow Occupationolexposurt ,-hancc occurrence of rainfall through radioactive ma-
from medical procedures has been less closely studied terial in the early hours after the test. Thercfore, at pre-of the earth's surface for many years. The rate of fall-
than the gcnetically significant dow, although lt may 13. At Presentt the exPosure to ionizing radiation re- =nt, these doits cmnot in general be calculated. Under out varies with latitude and is gruter in the northern
of importance if bone tumours or leukemia are induced ceived occu~atiOnall~forms only a srnailcontribution to very special conditions, high radiation exposure and hemisphere, where most of the tests are urrid out.
by radiation at lowdose levels.Although individualmar- the irradiation of the populationasa wholc,amount- deleterious effectshave been reported, as in the cases of Witbi any given small area, fall-out rate mayalso vary
row cxposures Varyvery widclç, the average is unlil<ely ing 'O 2 PCrcent of tht from natural sources in be Marshall Islindcrs md the crew of a Japanese fish- with La i etcorologid conditions. The fi~res Fven
countries in which occupational exposure is prot>ably ing vesscl. Not rnough information is availableas to the in table 1 arc cmputed fra world-wide averqe de.
to differ greatly from that receivedby the rnarrow from posits from stntospheric fall-out. The radiation due to
al1natural sources. largest. With an increasing use of nuclear reactors, of fineml circumst~~e~ in which such local deposition
12. The made by medical procedures to radioactive'rnaterials and probably of medical and in- my ocar, md the extcnt and duration of the exposurcs stratospheric fdl-out frorn weaponsexpldcd sofar wiii
dustrial ndiological praedurrs, thil is ,.learly a figure liable tobe involved. contribute a Syar gonad dose of 10mrem, and a 76
the exposure of ~opulations on])' lately which should beI.rpt under claK review. *lthoilgh this year pcr ccipitamean marrow doseof 160 mm uid 960
been cstirnated and bas increasd ve rapidly In some source does net appar likcly to substantial con- Fdl-out from thetroposphtrt mrem for two populationsderiving rnost ofthcir dietrry
countrics in recent Yars. that it is Lc~lt to evaluate tributin> (0 the total radiation exposure of p>pulations
such geneticand matic cffect~as are assaiated with an in the immcdiate futurc, thc occupational erposurc of 19. Radioactivematerials injccted into the atmosphcre frm and mspcctively'
incrosing em~lo~ment of radiolqical procedures in rom. individuals may represent a large fraction of thtir bela troppu= (at 14km) are brouqht down 26. hing to the relativel~~dml faIlsut fian the
medicine-No information is )'et availablc for prediction total radiatiorlPrpocure. to theurthss surface by rainfall and scdimentation.This stratosphere,most of the sub~quent radiation is due to
praess takes a fcw month, during which !hcy are clr- iwo radioactive ~SO~O~S of Slow deay. 0ther firiOfl 64 NUCLE :AR TESTS REQUEST 65

products already having largely undergone decay. These of dietary calcium and, strontium-90, and where low certain stages of its developrnent can cause abnormaiities grafting of blood-forrning tissue has so far been success-
two doactive isotopes are caesium-137 and strontium- calcium soils are frquent. These two estimates danon- in some organs. Sorne ernbryonic cells (ncuroblasts) of ful only in small rnammals irradiated with a lethal dose
90. The physicd properties and chernid bchaviour of strate the present range of known dietary contamina- certain species cultivated in vitro respond to doses as to the whole body, andno attempt to apply this treatrncnt
the two dtffer. tions. They will be used in an attunpt to estimate the small as 1 rad. If thcse results should be applicable to to irradiated man has yet ken reported.
hazard of radiation from fall-out in paragraph 57 below, man and since they relate to the development of the
27. Caesium-137 is responsible for most of the gonad when the nature andfrequcncy of the biologial effects brain, the opinion seernsjustified that even a very small 45. Prevention of the effects of radiation is rendered
radiation frm fall-out noted in table 1.When it is taken of radiation have been considered. dose to the hurnan foetus rnay involve sorne risk of more dificult, and complete protection against it impos-
intothe body, it becomes distributed more or less evuily injurious effects if receivcd during a critical period of sible, because changes which already occur during the
throu hout the tissues, causing uniform'irndiation of 33. It is evident that the radiation utposures from pregnancy. Radiostrontiurn rnust be expected to enter irradiation Ieadto later damage. The discove of chani-
the wfole body; and when prewnt in the surroundings, fall-out which are most likely to be of significance are : foetal bone when calcification starts in the second tri- cal protectors, although important thn>retiuXy, has not
its penetratine gamma radiations caux a similarly uni- (a) Those frorn short-lived fission products and mestcr of pregnancy. and so cause irradiation of the yet yielded methods which appreciably reduce radiation
form irradiation of tissues. radioactive material due to local or troposphcric fall-o;t adjacent developing nervous system and hypophysis with damage in man. At present, effective protection from
(b) Those of the gonads and other organs from exposurcs ranging up to that occurring in the bone. The external radiation sources can only be achieved by ade-
28. Strontium-90, on the other hand, is not a gamrna- caesium-137 due to stratospheric fall-out ; uptake of radiostrontium in foetal bone tissue is, how- quate shielding or by keeping at a safe distance from the
emitter and does not contribute significantly to the irradi- ever, at present very small, contributing less radiation source. Much work is in progress onthe effect of certain
ation of any part of the body from without. However, (c) Those of bone and adjacent tissue frorn stron- than 1per cent of that due to natural sources; but if the (chelating) agents in discharging from the body radio-
on king taken into the body, it becomes incorporated tium-90 which also comes largely frorn the stratosphere. present rate of test explosions is continued, it will rise isotopes incorporated there, and so diminishing aposure
in bone because of its chemical similarity to the normal The relative importance of these contributions varies ultirnately to sorne 10 per cent of that due to natural to interna] irradiation.
bone-forming element calcium. This similarity with from region to region. sources. 46. Morphologically recognizable damage rnay be in-
calcium and selectivc concentration in bone raises prob-
lems which do not occur with caesium-137. II. BIOLOGICA EFFECTS OF RADIATION 39. Children are regarded as being more sensitive to duced by total or partial, continuous or intermittent
34. The biological effects of ionizing radiation are radiation than adults. although there is little direct evi- irradiations rnuch in excess of the currentl accepted
29. The average concentration of strontium-90 in the dence on this subject, except for an indication that 4'muirnum permissiblc Ievels"of occupationarcxposure.
bones of children, in whom new bone is continuously exhibited in different ways according to whether isolated cancer of the thyroid may result frorn doses of a few Such damage includes leuccipenia,anernia and leukemia.
king formed, is higher than in adults whose bones were cells, tissues. organs or organisrns are examincd. In hundred rad which do not induce this change in adults. Other pathological conditions such as cataract, carcinoma
large1 fo.rmed before the environment, and conse- passing from unicellular to higher organisrns, the pri- of the thyroid, and bone sarcorna are known to have re-
quent& the food supply, became contaminated with rnary physicochemical consequences of radiation become 40. In hurnan adults it is difficult to detect the effect sulted from partial body irradiations, but with rather
strontium-90. The highest concentrations of strontiurn- increasingly influenced by secondary effects due to the of a single expsure to less than 25 to 50 rem, or of cori- high doses involving hundreds or even thousands of rem
90 in bone have in fact been observed in children from a reactions of the organism to the primary evcnts. Dctailed tinuing cxposure to levels t>elow100 tirnes the natural given to these organs.
few months to hve years old. The bone rnarrow ex- knowledge of these reactions is needed for a full under- levels. The firstsip of radiatioo damage to the blood- 47. The shortening of the life-span in srnall rodcnts
posures from fall-out iven in table 1 are due to the standin of the results and mode of action of radiation. forming tissues seems to be a drop in the nurnber of exposed to large doses has suggested the possibility that
strontium-90 content of bone and refer to the concen- The fobowing paragraphs deal first with the cellular lymphocytes and platelets and the appearance of abnor- certain degenerative processes rnay be aggravatcd by
trations estimated for children of these ages. The cor- effects of radiation; then with the sornatic effects on the rnalities such as bilobed lymphocytes. continued exposure to low radiation levels. Such a
responding orposures of bone cells frm fall-out are; on irradiated individual and with the genetic effects on his shortening has also ken inferred from an analysis of the
the average, about three times the values for bone mar- progeny. 41. Rapid but transitnt disturbances have been ob- published death rates of United States radiologists com-
row. Marrow cellsalrnost enclosed by bone would receive served in mamrnals after exposure to a single dose of
doses similar to those in compact bone. The maximum 35. The effects of ionizing radiations on livingmatter 25 to 200 rnrcm. Appropriate biochernical and physio- pared with those of certain othergroups of medicai men.
rnarrow dose could differ by a factor of about 5 from are extremely complicated, and their exact mechanisrns logical techniques have. howcver, only recently been However. studies in the United Kingdom have failed to
the average level. are still largely unknown. The initial disturbance is asso- applicd to the study of irradiated organisrns, and have demonstrate such an effect.
ciated with ionization (and excitation) of rnolecules not yet given a clear picture of what happens to organ- 48. Present uncertainty about the effects of low dose
30. THe radiostrontium concentration in bone is also which lead to alterations in their properties. Many func- isrns irradiated with small doses or dose rates. Too few levels rnakesit imperative that as much relevant infornia-
affected by dietary habit and by the ratio of the amounts tions of the cell are thus affccted by radiation, and, al- marnrnalian species have hithcrto been studied in this tion as possible be collected about groups of persons
of strontium-90 to calcium in the diet. At present this though some specific effects may he caused by one or a respect. and thrre is a clear need to widen this basis, chronically exposed at these levels and for whom ade-
ratio differs in various dietary constituents;it is higher few events in the cell, many are probably the cornbined from which inferenccs can be drawn concerning man. quate control groups exist, for instance, certain popula-
in brown rice than in white, somewhat higher in many result of numerous such events. tions in areas of high natural radiation and workers in
vegetables than in milk products. hiqher in rain-water 42. Processes of repair play an important role in the
than-in river water, and lower in sea fish than in fresh- 36. The minimum doses causing :ci<airi detecab!: finaloutcorne of radiation damage. .Thcy are one cause uranium mines.
water fish. biologicaleffects differ vcry much in diffcrent organisms, of the existence of a thrcshold dose (or dose rate) 49. Exposure of gonads to evcn the smallest doses of
but for most rnammals they are of about the same magni- characterized by the fact that this dose or Rreater ones ionizing radiations can give rise to mutant genes which
31. Agricultural conditions mayalso affect thecontent tude, so that theresults of experiments on such anirnals produce a particular biological cffect which docs not accumulate, are transmissible to the progeny and are
of strontium-90 in the diet, since the available calcium can, as a first approximation, be applied to man. The appcar whcn the dose is less than the threshold. In the considered to be,in general, harmful to the human race.
of the soi1will, within certain lirnits, influence the ratio sensitivity of diffcrent tissues to radiation varia con- latter case. physicochemical events have occurred, but As the persons who will be affected will belong to future
of strontium-90 to calcium in crops derived from the siderably, however. Our, knowledge of the biological rccovery roccsscs have prevented the final appearance generations, it is important to minimizeundue exposures
soi]. The distribution of soils which are highly deficient effects of low radiation levels is rneagre because of ex- of the biorogical darnage. Threshold doses arc found for of populations to such radiation and so to safeguard the
in calcium and their utilisation rquire further study. perirnental difficulties and the lengthy observations nec- sorne somatic effccts, such as erytherna of skin. Other well-being of those who are still unborn.
More work is also needed to understand the distribution essary to obtain results in this field. At present, opinions forms of radiation darnage to crlls, tissues or organisrns,
of strontium-90 in the soil, its chernical availability to as to the possible effets of low radiation levels must be howcver, appear to bc cumulative; for instance, muta- 50. The present assumption of the strictly cumulative
plants and uptake through their roots, its behaviour based on1 on extrapolations frorn experience with high tional damage, once established, is not repaired. effect of radiation in inducing mutations inman is based
under ploughing and the leaching of it from soi1by the doses andYdoserates. upon some theoretical considerations and a limited
action of water, since the figures in table 1 for future 43. I-)amaged cells or tissues rnay be elirninated and amount of cxperimcntal data obtained by cxposure of
strontium-90 levels in bone are calculated onthe assurnp- Effects of radidions onman rcplaced by regenentcd normal cells, this process king experirnental organisms to relatively high dose levels.
most active in cmbryos and young animals and in certain This assumption underlies al1prescnt assessments of the
tion that this material will not beleached from soil, and 37. Man rnay prove to be unusually nilnerable to tissues of the adult. The affected cells rnayalso re-estab- rnutational consquences of irradiation. Therefore, ex-
this assumption rnay lead to unduly high values. ionizing radiations, including continuous exposure at lish apparently normal biochernical functions. During tension of the expcrirnentai data to thewest practicable
32. Bone marrow exposures frorn fall-out are given in low levels, on account of his known sensitivity to radia- the proccss of regencration of tissues damaged by radia- dose levels is needed.
table 1 for two conditions: one based on observations in tion, his long life, and the long interval bctwen concep- tion, malignant tumours rnay bcinduced.
the United States of Arnerica and the United Kingdom, tion and the end of the period of reproduction. 51. The knowledge that man's actions can impair his
where milk is the main source both of dietary calcium 38. Embryonic cells are especially sensitivr to radia- 44. The power of'rcpair differs considerably in differ- genetic inheritance, and the cumulative effect ofionising
cnt organisms and typs of cells. and varies to a high radiation in causing such impairment, clearly emphasize
and of strontium-90, and where soil calcium contents are tion, and some evidence suggcsts that exposure of the degrcc with the physiological conditions. No chernical the rcsponsibilities of thepresentgeneration. partiuibrly
.-ommonly hi@; and the other based upon data from foetus to small doses of radiationay rcsult in lcukernia trutrncnt hu yet bccn discovered which will induce or in view of the social conscquences Lid on hurnan popu-
lapan where milk products are much less used and where during childhood. Irradiation of prrgnant rnarnmals has accelerate rccovery from radiation darnage in man. The lations by unfavourable genes.
rice and other vegetable products form the main source shown that doses exceeding 25 rem to the fort'ic during 66 NUCLEAR TESTS REQUEST

1
52. Besides incrcasing the incidence of easily discern- involve national and international decisions which lie (6) Both natural radiation and radiation from fall- possibility cannot bc excludcd that our prcsent esiimatcs
ible disorciers, many of them serious but each compara- outside the scope of its work.*t 1 out involvc the whole world popuhtion to a greater or esaggeratc the hazards of chronic exposure to low levcls
tively rare, incrcased mutation rnay affect certain lesser extcnt, whereas only a fraction of the population of radiation. Only further intensive research can estab-
universai and important "biometrical" characters such 55. Certain general conclusions emerge clearly from 1 reccive mcdical or occupational cxposure. However, the lish the truc position."
asintelligence or life-spn. In this way, it is possible that the foregoing part of this report: irradiation of any groups of people. before and during 57. Any present attempt to evaluate the effects of
cohtinued smail enetially significant exposures of a
popuiatim rnay aket, not only a correspondingly small (O) Even the smallest amounts of radiation are liable ! wholc populations in so far as the gonads are exposed.to sources of radiation to which the world population iz
number of individuals serioitsly, but also most of its to cause deleterious genetic, and perhaps also somatic, exposed can rduce only tentative estimates with widc
effects. ! (c) Recausc of the dclay with which the somatic margins of Mcefiainty. Estimates are given in chapte;
mmbers to a correspondingly small extent. While less effccts of radiation rnay appcar, and witli which its
easy to detect, this second kind of sffect on a population 'The USSR submitteda draft roposal for paragraph 54 gcnctic effccts rnay bc manifested, the full cxtcnt of the III for the radiation exposure of populations from such
could also k serious. Unfortunatcly, the great majority which,as amendcdby ~zechoslov&iawith the agreementof damage is not immcdiatcly apparent. It is, therefore, sources, and in chapteri V and VI for the likely somatic
of the genes affecting the "biometrical" characters are the USSR,rad as follows : important to consider the spced with which levels of and genetic effects of given exposures. On the basis of
not individuall deteaable and so can only be studied "ThescientificinformationrcceivcdbytheCornmitteeindi- these, the Committee has tried to evaluate the possible
collcdively anIwith difficuh In conscqucncc, far less catesthat the gencticeffcctsof radiationmust k considercd exposure could bealtered by human Action. effect of natural and of fall-out radiation in causing leu-
is known about them than a&ut genes rcsponsible for reactionsfor which thcre is no thrcshold. Thismcanr that It is clcar that mcdical and occupational cxposure, and kemia, tumours of bone and major genetic dcfccts (table
individually detectable changes and very little indeed tion willslead to an increaw in the incidenceof hcreditary the tcsting of nuclear weapons. can be inflitenced by II) since these are conditions which rnay possibly bc in-
about their response to irradiation, even in the best- dixases.Accordingtoonebodyof scicntificopinion,malignant human action. and that natural radiation and the fall-out duced by irradiation at low dose Icvels.The methods of
ncoplasmsand also Icukemiasare diwaw the incidenceof of radioactive material alrcady injccted into the stratos-
studied experimental organisms. Hence it is impossible, which mayincrear as thelevelof radiationrires.Thcwdata phcre. cannot. calculation, and the main sources of unccrtainty in thesc
at the present time, to estimate with any assurance'the togethcr with the fact that thcre is vcrylittle likelihoodthai estimates, are described in chapters III, V and VI, wherr
effet upon biometrical charactcrs of any given level of thehumanor anismcanadaptitselftoconditionsof increascd 56. Prescnt knowlcdgc concerning long-tcrm effccts factors of correction are also given forthe different csti-
iradiatton of human populations. Much further research environmentakradiation.indicaiethatanyincrcaw intheradia- and their corrclation with the amounts of radiation rc- mates corrcsponding to differcnces inthe assumptions or)
throughout this field is therefore needed. undesirablefor mankind.Effortsshould accordinglybcmade ccivcd docs not permit us to cvaluatc with any precision which the calculations are based. It will be cvidcnt that
toimprovcthe physicalbasisandthetechniqueof themcdical the possible consequcnce to man of cxposure to low radi- the estimates indicatc on1 the ordcr of magnitude of the
53. The Committee emphasizes the urgent neccssity UK of radiationby formulatinpmoreprccix indicationsfor ation Icvcls. hlany cffccts of irradiation arc (lelayed; frequency 'withwhich CAS rnay bc produccd, and that
for well-planned investigations which rnay lead to a the useof radiationand by eliminatingadverseide effects. oftcn they cannoi be distinguished from effccts of other our ignorance as to whether thrcsholds cxist for the
better understanding of the mechanism of mutation and It is also essentialto develop.on the basisof broallinterna- agents ;many will only dcvelop once a thrcshold dose has induction of leukemia or bone tumours by radiation
the eventual possibility of controlling this process. More tiorialCO-operatioanmongscientistsrescarchon theimprove- bccn cxccedcd ; some rnay be cumulative and others not ; cause the greatest uncertainty in the estimates.
information is needed on the effect of radiation in induc- mentof protectionand safcty techkiques inatomicindustry and individuals in large populations, or particular groups
ing mutations in man. Indced, even the dose reauired to data presentedin the reportmake. itplainthat effortsshould such as childrcn and foetuses ma have special sensi- Indicotion~for rtstarch
be madetoeliminatetheuncontrollcd~sourcoef radiation i.c. 58. This report presents evidence both of the in-
double the normal mutation rate in man is noi known to endexperimentalnuclear andthcrmonuclearexplosions: tivity. These factr render it very d;~icult to accumulatr creasing lcvels of radiation exposure, and of our unccr-
with any accuracy. There is also need for a much closer and enablethe Committeeto draw the conclusionthat therc rcliable information about the correlation between small tainties as to the nature and extent of the effects of
CO-operation between geneticists and demographers in shouldbcan immediatecesution of testexplosionsof nuclear doses and tlicir etfects cither in individuals or in large radiation on man, particularly when reccivedat low dosr
elucidating the nature of the complex process of human weapons." populritions.Evcn a slow risc in the cnvironmental radio- rates over long pcriods. It is most important, therefore,
sclection. Many important subjects of relevant genetical This proposalwas rejectedby the followingroll-cal1vote: activtty in the world, whrtticr from weapon tests or any
research have been reviewed by a study group of the In fozobur. CzcchoslovakiaUnion of Soviet SocialistRe- othcr sources.might evcntually causeappreciable damage that scientific research and the collection of informatiori
World Health Organization in their report "Effects of publics.unircd Arab ~epubli; to large populations bcfore it could bedefinitely identified on the effects of radiation should bc actively continued
Radiation upon Human Heredity", document A/AC.82/ Agoinrt .ArgentinaAustralia Brazil Canada, FranceJapan as duc to irradiation. Appearance and eliminatior)of ad- and developed so that the uncertainties in al1branches of
G/R.58. Mexico.Leden. ~niied Kin dim of &car Britainand'~orthl radiobiology are reduced or removcd.
crn Ireland,UnitedStatesof ~merica. vcrsc grnetic cffects would bc very slow; and, as the **The maximumpermissiblclevelsof exposureand maxi-
Abstaining: Belgium (Chairman). India. radioactive contamination accumulated, it might so act mum permissiblcbodybuidms of radioactive ISO~OPCSrccom-
III. GENECML CONCLUSIONS The abovctex1expressesthe disxnting vicwof Ctechoslo- as to inCrrase thc likclih& of somatic injury in indi- mendcd in 1954-1955by the InternationalCommissionon
vakia.the UnitedArab.Republicand the USSR to the wording vi<lualsduc to thc additional exposurc. such a situation KadiologicalProtection asapplyingin the caseoforcupaisonol
54. The exposure of mankind to ionizing radiation at of paragraph 54. which was approvedby a majority of the rcauirrs that mankind procecd with great caution in vicw exi,,s,lre mirinterpretedto apply in thc
present ariscs mainly from natural sources, from mcdical Committce. of 'a possible undcrc~imation. At the sanie time, the ex~sure of ruholr po,ulofionr.
and industrial procedures, and from environmental con- tIndia also submitteda draft proposal for paragraph 54
tamination due to nuclear explosions. The industrial, which,witharncndmentsacccptcdby India,rcad as follows: TABLE II. ESTIMATES OF CERTAIN POSSIRLE ANNUAL CONSEQUENCES OF RADIATION RECEIVED BY
research and medical applications expose only part of "The exposureof mankindto ioniring radiationat present WORLD POPUIATION FROM CERTAINSOURCES Sawu d rduria
arisesmainlyfromnatural sources. frommedicaland indus-
the population while natural sources and environmental to nuclear explosionsTr. he industrial,research andmediul
sources expose the whole population. The artificial applicationsexposeonlypart of the populationwhilcnatural
sources to which man is exposed during his work in sourcesand cnvironmental sources exposethe wholepopula- Cmnrunu Worainuddar~ Ne~irudpn puur Natsrd vaduieaa Tm11 1-e#udd.*-Œ
industry and in scientific research are of value in science tion. The artificialsources.towhichman is expowd during (ii Œiums) wsPi *,9i31rd!ZAmZ:Jti
and technology. Their use is controllable, and exposures hiswork in industryand in scientificresearchare of valuin
can be reduced by perfecting protection and safety tech- scienceand technology.Thcir use iscontrollable andex- Lrukrmui
niques. Al1 applications of X-rays and radioactive iso- posurescan be reducedby perfecting protection ;nd safety If thmsholdOmm.
topes used in medicine for diagnostic purposes and for iiscdinurncdicincfor diagnosticpurpow and for radiationopes
radiation therapy are for the benefit of mankind and can therapyarc forthe bcncfitof mankind andcan bccontrollcd. If thrcshddCOO rem... . . . . . .. 1so;000 Ob 0. -
be controlled. Radioactive contamination of the environ- Radioactive contaminatioonf theenvironment resultingfrom 250.000 Ob - O'
explosionsof nuclear weaponscon~titiites a growing incre- Major Grluirc ncfrrir* . . . 5,000 700.000to3.000.000 25.000to 1,000.000 I 500to 40,000
ment resulting from explosions of nuclear weapons con- ment toworld-wideradiationIcvcls.This involvesncwand
stitutes a growing increment to world-wide radiation largclyunknownhazardsto prewntand future populations; .Maximumrite duringpak riod. An estimatcdtotal of normallyacurrcd per year,and that 10pr crnt of thew wrrlion
levcls. This involves new and largely unknown hazards these hazards. by their vcry nature, arcbcyondthe control km than 25000 to 150000woul%ultimatclyocîur. induccdbynatural radiationthefdlowin hguresrould hf ulru
to present and future populations ;these hazards, by their of the exposedpersons.Thephysical and biologicd altacon- a factod 60.ividual Lne marrowdm exmds meanvalucby lated fromthe 'IO-yeaorstearytedoas i!a non-thresholdhyp
very nature, arc beyond the control of the exposed per- to allowanygcncralrisetinthelevclof world-widccontamina-le Unkss individua lone marrowdm exmds meanvalueby thcsiswemauumed:
sons. The Committee concludes that al1steps designed to tion bccauseof its harmfulcffcctsand thaany activitywhirh a factord 80 to 500. Fa tcits stoppin in 1958andwald population3.000million.
minimize irradiation of human populations will act to produccssucha rise shoiildbcavoidcd.Niiclcartestsare the 4Unlesiindividualbonemarrowdm exmds meanvalueby 70 to900 .r w.r lfr he maximum rate).
the benefit of human health. Such steps includethe avoid- mainsourceat prescntwhichproducesucha rise." a factorof5 to60. Ineqiiilibriumafterprdon continuationd testsand world
ance of unnccessary cxposure resulting from medical, This proposal\vasrcjcctcdby the followingroll-cal1vote: *Conditionr which are at least a xrious handicapto those ppulation 5.000million, ,.O&?to 25,000 pr ycar (as the con
industrial and other procedures for pcaccful uses on the In favour: Bratil. France. India. Japan, United Staics of affectcd,as listeintable XI d annex tl. tinuingrate).
America. Noms.-The. methods'100d00cstimatingincidencrsol leiikemia Ifa thrcsholdof 100rem wereu,umed. the incidenceswoul<i
one hand and the cessation of contamination of the cn- Against: Argentina. Australia Mexico Swcden.United and maja pnctic dcfcctsare dcxribd inannex ». paras. 127 be zerounlcrsindividiil tcocytedoui cxcdcd themean valu*
vironment b explosions of nuclear weapns on the Kingdomof GreatBritainand ~oithernlrciand. 10 130. by a factorof80 io .W in tlicastof tors stoppingin1958 an?
other. The C!ommittee ir aware that considmtions in- Ab~taining: Bclgium /Chairman), Canada.Czerhes!avakiJ The..auantitatiw evaiuationof an increav in inridencl of bya factord 5to 60 inequilibriumalterprdongedcontinuatia~~
volving effective control of al1these sources of radiation Unionof SovietSocialistRcpublics. United ArabRcpublic. primar;&ne tumeur aitribura'oieio radiaiiopiexliisgiezi ûf :~s:s. 68 NUCLEAR TESTS
l REQUEST
59. Our knowledge of radiation and of its hazards is
experimental nuclear explosions rquire further investi-
not however static; aithough still limitehu ibeen ex- gation. Inparticuhr, more evidence is rquired on the
panding npidly. Inrccait yurs, considerableand me- behaviour of fissionproducts in the stratosphere. Colla- EXTKAC FTKOM REPOR TF TtiI UNITED NATIONS SCIENTIFIC
times spectacular advances have been made in our tion of information is needed to determine the pattern
understanding of muiy of these matters. In the light of and urtent of global fail-out on knd and ocuns. Far CO~IXII.I.I OENETIIE EFFECT OF ATOMIC RADIATION
generd scimtific uperience, the Committee confidently more extensive information is needed as to the mechan- (GA, OR, 17th Session, Supplcinerit No. 16 (A/5216), 1962)
upccts that continuin research on an increasing sde ismswhereby fissionproducts, particularly strontium-90
wili furnish the knowfedge urgenlly needed to muter and uesium-137, ruch food-chainsand enter the human CHAPTER II
those risks which we know to be associated with the body, aswell as the concentration of those materials in
developmentand scopeof the uses of nuclear energy for human tissues, particukrly under the conditions wherc PHYSICAL AND BI0UH;ICAL ASPECTS OF THE INTERACIlON
the welfare of riiankind. this is likely begreatest. OF IONIZINCRADIATIONWITH MAmR

Inàucitions for rtstarch imtoraùiation 1rvci.t 1. Discussion of the effects of radiation on human are, in oneor in a sequenceof such disintegrations, con-
Inàicaiions for rt~tarch into biologicaltffccts populations requires an elementary 1;nowlcttgeof physics verted to stable nuclei. Intermediate nuclides arising in
60. The doses reccived by both individuals and whole 61. Information concerning the biological effects of and biology and of the relevanttermiiioliin. The pres- atcrsse.ries of disintegrations arc calledradio-active daugh-
populations from various sources are not yet adquately irradiation of man is derived from experimental biology, ent chapter is intended to meet this requircrncnt as well
known. Consequcntly, and from clinical observations and sta~isticdsurveys. as to give such a description of the processes induced 6. Nuclcar disintegrations of an unstable isotope do
(a) The range of tissue dose rates due to natural by radiation in cells as is necessary to makc tlie follow-not occur in al1atornsat the same tirne.Theyare random
radioactivity, particularly in heavily populatedarcas with (a) All advance in radiobiology depcnds upon prog- ing chapters understandable. eventsoccurring with a certain probability pcr unit time.
adquate demographic records, aswell as the variations ress in general cellular biology, and rquires intensive Tlie time rcquired for 50 per cent of the atoms of a
in content of natural radioactive substances in human study of die fields concerned. 2. Formal definitionsof pliysicalquarititics and units nuclide to disiiitcgrate is a measurc of the rate of dis-
beings need furîber examination; (6) Fundamental biolonicalknowledneis reouircd for are given in annex A and a detailed accourit of tlie integratiori and is called the half-lifc. It is constant and
(b) Fuller information is rquired as to the exposure our understandingand coitrol of the way in wLichiadi: interactions betwcen radiation and living rnatter at the characteristic of the nuclide, and it may range from
of various populationsto radiation during industrial pro-'tion influences cells and their hcreditary material, and 1 cellular and molecular level in annex B.
cedures and during medicai procedures, especiallyin so how it brings about carcin encsis. Further studies of I ovcr a thousand million years to a small fraction of a
far asthis involveschildren or foetuses and exposure of these phenomena are nced$ and form the only utis- second.
the bonemarrow or gonads. It wouldbe vaiuableif these factory basis for measures which could be adopted to . Ibhyrical aspects 7. Tlic octizlity of a radio-active saniplc is dcterriiined
further investigations could provide (i) a more repre- prevent or cure the harrnful effects of radiation. by the nurnber of distintcgratiuns occurring per unit
I time. The unit by which it is usually esprcsse(1 is the
sentative estimate for me countries already studied, (c) To identifyany occasionalharrnful effectsof low TYPES OF IONIZINC RADIATIOSS curie. One curie corresponds to 3.7 X 101°distintegra-
(ii) a fuiler study of the dosage associated with the doses and dose rates rquires systernatic and long-tcrrn 3. Radiation is one way in which encrgy is ernittcd tions per second.A millicurie,a microcurie and a micro-
varicd extent of medicai facilities in different countriesobservation and the recording of relevant facts, especi- and transferred. While the icrrn radiation refers to a ~iicroctirie (or picociirie) correspond ta X.7IO' ,.7
(iii)lurer estimates of the radiation given to different ally conceming the frequency of certain somatic dis- wide range of modes of emission, propagation and ab- X 10' and 0.037disintegrations per second,respectivdy.
tissues, includingbone, (iv) the contribution from radio-orders and the genetic structure of populations. It is a It is o~nvenicntto reinembcrthat one micrornicrocuricis
thenpy and (v) a continuing stud of future develop task to which this Committce ur ently draws the attcn- sorption of energy, this report on the eifccts of ionizinapproxiiriatc.Iytwo disintegrationsper minute. It shoiild
mats and of changes inthe medidradiation exposure ; tion of danographers and medicafstatisticians,espcially radiations will be conceriied specificallywith alpha rays,
(c) More extensive research is rcquired on the fate in regard to possible correlation of certain diseases with beta rays, gairiillarays, X-rays, neutrons, ariclal1thosealso be riotcdtliat radio-nuclides of very long half-lives
of industriai radioactiveeffluentsof various types and onhigh nahird or artificiai radiation urposure. forms of radiatioii occurring in cosrriicrays. show orilya slight i-adio-activityper unit mzss (e.g. one
the prevention of radiation uposures of populations. 4. Thcse radiations may be considerrd jointly as they curie of uranium-238 with ahalf-life of 4.X 10'years,
from thi~snirŒ ; al1give risc, citlwr dircctly or indirectly, to a conirnonas a lveighof thiee tons, whilstonecurie of radiurn-226
Training for rtstmch phenonienon, ioni7ation. when thev interact with rnat- with a half-life of 1.63X 10' years, has a weight of
(d) Many factors which determine the distribution 62. The advance of research in al1these fieldsdepends ter. loniration is the removal of eicctric charges from, orirgram ancl one curie of iodine-131 with a half-life
of Id, trqmepheric and stntospheric fdl-out frorn upon appropriate training of sciuititic workers. or their addition to, electrically neutrd atorns and niole- 8 days hasn weiglit of 8 rnicrograms).
culcs, which then bccome cither negatively or ~msitivcly 8. Alplia roxs are positivelycharged particles (helium
charged. In this process niolccules may split into sepa- niiclei) eniittefl with definite and characteristic kinetic
eiiergy by nuclei of sorne radio-nuclides during disin-
rate fragments of either charge. Electrically charged tcgration. Aii~iiarays produce dcnse ionizationin rnatter
atorns, moleculesor fragmeiits of moleculcs are cailed but their range, or penetration, is small, usuallylessthan
ions. 0.1 mm in water and in living tissues.
5. Despite the comn~anrçsult of their interacting with
matter, the radiations corisidercd in this report are sufi-9. Btta ralqsare electrons emitted by iiucleiof certain
cicntly diffcrent in tlieir oi-i~iriand physical proprrticsdio-active nric1ides.t They also produce ionization in
to warrant separate description. S- and ganirna rays are the rnattcr through which they pass.Tlie range of beta
electro-rnagiieticwaves likc light; ottier radiations con-ays, however. is niuch greater than that of alpha rays.
sist of strearns of iri(iiviclunlparticles. Alpha. beta andew radio-activc nuclides emit beta particles of range
Ranima rnvs arirl occasionallv other radiations are greater tlian 2 cin in water and in living tissues, and
none of range grratcr than 8 cm.
-n--ttcddu;irip nuclear tli~iiitc~ratiori.['iictaLlc riiiclei*
\tr>rnicnurlci arr rornjilr.r\:-.iriiircs frirniinntlic corc of~i~nraaxsareelectro-rnagnetic radiationemittcd
atnrnrThcy arcrn;iilciipnf ~~i>sii;\rlryhar~ct;iri<ellrc- by nuclei of sorne radio-active nuclides; thcy have dcfi-
trically neiiiral nciiirriiiswliicli arc both clernerilaryparticles ofs characteristic of the nuclidcby whichthcy
approxirnaielytlie sainernassas the hydrogen alurn.A ~uclidre ernitted. Gamma rays ionize matter indirectly
itheiiiirnbcrt,f nciitronsrontained in its nuclcus.Tlie positivelythe ejection of high spced clectrons from the
chargcd nucleus 13<rirrnlintlcdhv a niirnher ni negativclymaterial in which they are absorbed. These electrons
cliarged clectrons which rnove inorbits around it.The charpe be ejrcted at a considerable depth inmatter; each
of the cleciron is the same as tliat of a proton but of oppositconthen dissipates its energy within a short dis-
rign zo iliat the ni~rnkrof orhiting elcctrons in neutraltance (from less than a millirnetreto a few ccntimetres
is cquxIOthe niirnhcrof protons in the nucleus. These orbdepending on itsenerg.). No definiterange can be given
numbcr of protons defines the clicrnicalclcment to which the gamma ravs since they penetrate any thickncss of
atorn bclongs. For a given elcmcnt various niiclides with theer but wiih progressively decreasing intensity. The
marnechernicalpropcrties rnay bcricognized which differ only
in the numhcr of neiitronr and thcreforc in the mass of tas the electronr,but of opposite charge.lesof the marnemau
nuclcur.Thcse areallcd uotoprofthe clernent. NUCLEAR TESTS REQUEST

that the*@ dt-el4 intë nitmgm. Wll me- urperiment that would be necessrry to mul than T.bt
givs rise Uther to de (spcrms) or fernale (eggs) 41. Also rapid isthereacwai of the circuiating bbod- times-0ecur In .akey molecular structure ; this change daectability decreaxs with the dose,sina rt rtrgtb.rr
gametes and is called thegctniImc,al1other lines being cells, erythrocytes, leukocyta, and platelch, which arc doses the frequency or the degree of any effect becomer
dled somatic. Since the zygote originates from the continuously supplied by the blood-forming tissue. Un- may appreciably add to the effects of the radiation re- so small asto rquire unrnanageably large numbers of
union between gametes, it constitutes a material bridge like the active blood-forrning system which is localized leased by that nuclide in the form of beta particles. cells to becomeapparent. Fbdiation-induced lyrogenesir
between successive generations, whereas the somatic in specificorgans, red bone-marrow and lymph nodes, Although direct evidence re rding the effects of trans- (the release of bacterial vinixs fm bocteria which do
cells of an individual are destined to die when the in- another system associated with it,the reticulo-cndothelial mutation of urbon-14 is sti8imited. the lail etfects of not nonnally reluse them) is detectableat do- u low
dividual has completed its life-course. system, is present throughout most tissues. One of its disintegrations have been convincingly dunonstrated as0.3 rad.
35. The inherited characteristics of cells and or- main functions is to scavenge the tissues of cellular with other isotopes such as phosphoms-32.
pnisms are determined by grues. They are character- debris and of particulate foreign substances 49. Depending on the dose of radiation, processes 54. The dose of radiation necessary to produce a
ized by an inherent stability which ensures that at each leading to the synthesis of essential cellularconstituents given effectina given fractionof differcnt cellular p ~ -
du lication two identical genes are produced. The are retarded to varying degrees and may even be com- lations is inversely related to their rehtive seruitivity.
stagility is not absolute, however, and changesof a gene, EBects of ionizing radiation on eells pletely inhibited; this is particularly tme for the syn- When the effea investigated is cellulardeath, the nature
resulting in an alteration in some hereditary character- thesis of nucleic a~ids.'l~'-~~~he integrity of these of the cells (protozoa and bacteria are more resistant
istic, can occasionally occur. Such changes are called 42. Comprehension of the action of radiation on liv- synthetic mechanisms is essential for the maintenanceof than marnrnalian cells), the size of the nucleus (in a
cnc mutations; their frequency is increased by anum- ing cellsis still far from cornpletcand is lirnited by lack morphological structures and for ensuring growth and number of plant cellssensitivity is related to the volume
of knowledgeof the normal cellular structures and func- division of cells. Inhibition of mitosis is, in fact. one off the nucleus) and ploidy (haploid cells have a sensi-
&r of chcmical and physical agents. ionizing radiations tivity different fromdiploid cells) are amongthe variotu
being among the most studied mutagens. tions likely to be injured. Cellular radio-biology cannot the earliest effects of irradiation, but probably most cellular factors which affect sen~itivity.~~~~'''
36. Cellular division is accompanied by duplication be separated from cellular biology; any progress in cellular functions and structures are to a greater or
of the chromosomes and their separation into daughter either disciplinecan be expected to be accompanied by lcsser extent impairedby radiati~n.~l"-~" Gllular death 55. Sensitivity is also related to physiologicalcondi-
cells. Radiationdamage to the chromosomes themselves advances in the other. is an over-al1and ultimate result of irradiation; it can betions of the cells.Thus, bacteria grown in complex,
may also be observed. These are called chromosome 43. The achievementsof biochemistry and biophysics brought about by different mechanisms,and hasin some nutritionally rich media are often more sensitive than
mutations or chromosome aberrations and consist of in the past few years have meant a rcmarkahle progress cases been ascribd to nuclear darnage, in the form of cclls grown in simplemedia.
breaks of chromosomes and their consequences. Chro- in cellular biology and have enablcti us to ohtain a hct- chromosome breaks. 56. Various factors influencing the development of
mosome mutations rnay also result from unequai distri- ter picture of the cornplexchain of cvents initiated when 50. Chromosomebreaks sornetimesrepair through re- radiation effectsare kno~n.~*+~~G ~l1 sensitivity varia
bution of chromosomes during cell division. cellsare irradiated. A detailed discussion of thcsc cvents joining of the broken ends shortly after the breakage with the temperature and moisture content of the cells;
37. Somatic cells contain two sets of chromosomes, is given in annex B. Here only those will be mcntioncd event; however, a proportion fail to repair. Fragments it is also modified bya number of chunical factors that
one inherited through the sperm of the father, the other which are necessary to follow the argument of the next of chromosomes rnay be lost if cellular division takes rnay raise or decrease sensitivity. Among those which
through the egg of the mother. Since the zygote origi- chapters of the report. The main end-effccts of irradia- piace before healing; then the damage becomes perma- reduce sensitivity, lack of oxygen is the best known,
nates from the union of two gametes, the chromosomes, tion in cells will also be brieflv dcscrihed and an ac- nent."@'-'l' Certain rearrangements of chromosome most radiation effectsarising at higher doses or becom-
count will be given of thc factors which may alter the material through union of broken ends in new combina- ing less pronounced when cells are poorly oxygenated.
and therefore the genes, would doubleat each genera- response to radiation. tions rnaylikewisecausedeath at celldivision (para. 57). Certain chemical compounds, on the other hand, when
tion if, during their development, cells of the germ line applied before or durin irradiation, are able to some
did not undergo a process of reduction. Cells with two 44. Radiation-induccd injuries are largely non- 51. The particular effectiveness of irradiation of the
sets of genes thus give rise to gametes having only one specific; many other agents. both physical and chem- nucleus as compared to that of the cytoplasm might be extent to protect cdls !rom ndiation darmge. Thov
set through a squence of two divisions called meiosis. ical,are able to cause the same effects as those produced due to the fact that the nucleus contains the chromo- chemicals rnay act by reducing the arnount of oxygui
As a result of meiosis one chromosome from each pair, by radiation. somes, each of which usually occurs only once or twice availableto cellsor by competingwith ndicals produced
irrespective of its paternal or materna] origin, goes to 45. The first effectsof radiation on livingmatter are per nucleus. Cytoplasmic structures on the other hand by the irradiation. Their studyis important since it may
form a gamete. physical, in that they affect atoms and molecules irre- normally occur in great numbers sothat the elimination lead to mcthods of reducing radiation injury in man.
38. The gametes, which contain one set of chromo- of one or more of them rnaybe of less consequence.The 57. One of the major effects of radiation is the pro-
iomes,art! calledhopIoid cells,whereas gqm-cclls prior spective of their arrangement in living itru~tures.~'-* role of cytoplasmic damage should however not be dis- duction of geneticdamage.B1'eaa'This can be caused by
O meiosis (&gonia and spermatogonia) and somatic A result is the splitting of molecules into fragments counted, since such damage can leheld responsible for two different mutational mechanisms, chromosome mu-
.ells,contain two sets and are callediploid.The ploidy knowii as radicals and ions. Thcsc fragments are de- some cases of cellular death. It is, however, much more tation and gene mutation. The former is the const
jf a cell represents the number of haploid sets of chro- prived of the chcmical stability characteristic of the difficult to provc, as only exceptionally do radiation- quence of chromosoine breaks. When two or more
nommes contained in its nucleus. Polyploids, cells with originalmolecule. induced morphologicalchanges in the cytoplasm becorne breaks are prduced in the same or in different chromo-
~loidyhigher than two (triploids, tetraploids, etc.) are . 46. Radicals may interac: both Sctweeii tliemsclves apparent.Yet, the mere fact that rnetabolicprocesses are somes. the unions which rnay occur frequently involve
:nown in some organisms and tissues. Malignant tis- and with unaltered molecules, thus giving rise to new altcrations of the original sequenceof genes.Alteration
ues, as a rule, have some cells with chromosome num- chemical cornpoundsand upsetting the chemical balance always affected by radiation, and that most of these of the gene sequenceas wellas loss of parts of chromo-
ers different from those of normal cells. of ~ells.~'~-"Since water constitutcs about70 per cent processes take place inthe cytoplasm,suggeststhat cyto- somes or even of whole chromosomes often leads to
of the cell, radicals arising from the splitting of water plasm may have more critical importancethan suspected. cellular death. In somecases, however, thechromosornal
39. The distinction between germ cells and somatic moleculesare important in the initial chemicalchanges 52. Extensive quantitativc work has bcen done on the damagc is transmitted to daughter cells.
ells is important, since injuries produced in somatic induced by radiation. . dependence of the frquency of cellular death on
ells willbe confined to the individual, whereas those d~se.'l'~* When a cell population is exposedto radia- 58. The nature of gene mutations has ben greatly
ffccting genn-cells can be transmitted to the next gen- 47. All thc essential constitutcnts of ccllsand in par- tion, a fraction only of the cells becomesunable to re- clarified by studies on bacteria and viruses. Nucleic
rations, and may therefore give rise to hereditary ticular complex moleculeslikeprote in^^"-^' and nucleo- produce, the size of the fraction depending on dose. It acids, along which genes are arranged within chromo-
ffects.Since somaticcells give rise to cellular progenies prote in^,^^^-'^rnay be affected througli the action of is not predictable whether an individual ccll will fail to somes, consist of a sequuice of elunentary units in
'hichcan be affected by damage to their genetic mate- radicals. They may also be injured by radiation directly, reproduce, but the proportion of deaths reflects the various specificpermutations. Changes in the xquuice
al (somatic mutation) and perpetuate such damage however. without the intervention of radicals. The re- probability that individual cellsrnay be killed. At IOW of these units result in mutation.
ithin the individual, it is evidrnt that "genetic" effectspectiverole of the direct and indirect actiop of radiation
in be produced in both somatic and germ cells. In the in bringing about cellular lesions is not yet clear; it is doses proportionality between dose and fraction of cells 59. The mechanismof mutation is, however, far from
-esentreport the expression "genetic effects" will refer probable that in most effects both modes of action killed is frequatly seen, but sometimes more complex being understood. Studies in lower organisms have
'genic or chromosomalalterations irrespective of their ~perate.~ "-" situations arise. In any case, however, the proportion of shown that mutation isa complexprocus goingthrough
:curring in somaticor in germ cells.The term "heredi- affectcd cells increases with incrusing dosu. a first stage in which the darnage may, at lust to a
ry effects" will be limited to those gcnetic effectsthat 48. Radiation damage can also be causcd by decay of 53. The relationship between dose andeffect is being limited extent, be reparable and only after a certaine
.n be transmitted to the next generation. a radio-activenuclide incorporated into cellular constitu- studied at lower and lower doses for a number of radia- becomeirreversible.
ent~.~~~'-T ~h~e~localizationofsuch a nuclide in cellular tion effects.ince the frquency or the degree of any 60. Like al1 radio-biological effects,the induction of
40. Cells of different organs and tissues differ widely structures is therefore important.An example is carbon- effect is directly related to the dose, effects at very lowmutations is dose dependent and ir proportional to the
their morphology, metabolism, and proliferative ac- 14, a nuclide with a very long half-life, which decays, doses are very smalland rnaybedemonstrated onlywhen dose down to the lowest levels investigateso far. The
lity. Cells of the nervous system, whichdivide during on emission ofa beta particle, to the stable nitrogen-14. very large numkrs of cellsare irradiated. The possi- proportionality factor, however, has bm shown to nry
e embryonic life, practially ceasetodo so after birth, The beta emission may obviously give rise to radiation bility of detecting effects at the lowest doses hu therc- with the dose-rate in a number of speciu, as will k
ierus the cells lining the digestive tract are continu- effects. However, since carbon is a basic constituent of discussed in chapter IV.
y replaced. al1essential living structures, it has also been suggested fore practical limitations determined by the size of the NUCLEAR TESTS REQUEST
!
owing to the unmrnrpuhly krge numbers of anid diated radium di1 entera, patients trcated witb ndium effects are basically similar but differences are observed,
quid. dts for thenpeutic purposa, and patienta givm X-ny due to the differences in the transformations that gerrn 49. The effects of radiation on embryonic tissues are
trcatment ofbonu, prticukrly for bcnign or idamma- i cells undergo during maturation in different species. especially important because even a minor irreversible
31.An increrse in lcukamiia and other forms of tory lesions. Again,the latent pend for tumour induc- injury in an embryo rnay be amplified in the course of
d i t diseue has ktn reported in children irradi- tion are long and the dose, where loiown, is high, the 42. Gonadal doses causing sterility are similar for development and thus give rise to major anomalies.Sus-
atcd in wtrro,u a d t of pelvic X-ray examination Id doses being of the order of hundreds of rad or ! both sexes. Single localdosesaround 150rad may induce ceptibility of embryonic tissue to radiation high but
during the mother's pre The doseof radi- more. brief lowering of fertility, doses around 250rad induce probably not higherthan that of actively dividing adult
aion miy have bail - f"% h.ue resuits and those temporary stcrility for one or two years; at about 500 tissues. When mouse embryos are irradiated at a dose
of several othershidica are equivd. Results obtained 38. Assessrnent of the risk of carcinoguiesis, in- : rad permanent sterility is obtained in many individuals as low as25 rad, 40 per cent of the embryos are killed.
fm a differait typeof study have shown that the in- cluding leuluania, at low doses of radiation requim i and prolonged tcrnporary sterility in others. At 800 rad Irradiation of experimental animals may, ata later stage,
cidence of leukania in childm born of 40.000mothers a consideration of possible mechanisms of carcine l recovery of fertility is extremely unlikely. be followedby the developmentof malformations. Sirni-
irradiated during pregnancy was no eater than that gare si^.^^'^'^ In the presentstage of our knowledge, 43. The data on wliich these estimates were made are lar observations have been reportcd in man; the most
expcted among children in the popurtion in general. nothing can, however, be said about the mechanism of rather limited. Thcy are confirmcd by observations on frequent defectsinvolve the central ncrvous system,the
Although the question remains open, it is a possibility ndiation carcinogenesis without indulging in rpecuh- I individuals exposed to radiation from atoni bomh ex- cye and the skeleton.
that anbryonic and foetal tissue is more susceptibleth tion. Various hypotheses rnay beformulated to account ! plosions in Japan and from certain radiation accidents.
adult tissue to the induction of leukaexnia following for the induction of tumours by radiation. Sornatic (gene ! These observations show that whole-body irradiation in 50. The possibility of inducing somatic effects in
irradiation. or chromosome) mutation, the action of latent viruses, 1 the range between 400 and 600 rad does not have a foetuses at doses within the ranges of X-ray pelvic ex-
differentiation anomalies, are amon the possible mech- 1 permanent effect on fertility. aminations (several rad) is shown by the recent obser-
anisms thmugh which ndiation coufdgive rise to malig- vation of an increascd incidenceof anornalous distribu-
32. Data from irradiated animals and man indicate nancies. To show how different hypotheses might lead ~NGEVITYD~lI-14~, ira-ale tion of pigment in the iris of children which hadcen
that malignant tumours nu be induced by radiation in to different dose-effect relationships at low doses while irradiated in utero during such examinationc of the
mat tissues, pmrided the Jose ir suficiently high. giving similar responses at higher doses, two hypo- 44. Animals having survived substantial or nearly mothers. This harmless anomaly rnay perhaps be attrib-
thetical mechanisms of induction of tumours by radia- lethal doses of radiation have an average lifetime shorterted to a somatic mutation-tither genic or chromo-
33. Radiation-induced tumours often take long to de- tion will bediscussed. These have no particular ment in than controls, the life-shortcning dcpending on the kind somal-occurring early in the embryonic development.
velop, and need not k pmeded by observable mo ho- themselves but are described for their simplicity and and amount of tissue irradiated (for partial body ex-
logical changes in the cells at the site of origin o?the because they point out the possible fallacies involved in posure) as well as on the dose. Under continuous irradi-
cancer. Radiation can also induce malignant discase ap lying to low doses dose-effect relationships observed ation at dose-rates as hias 0.5 rad per day, no differ-
through indirect mechanism. Pituitary tumours, for at Righer doses. ence in life-span between irradiatcd and control animals 51. Since 1958, no new data have cmerged which
instance,an be observed in mice not as a result of irra- 39. If radiation induced tumours through sornatic 1 is, however, detectable with experiments of the size usedwould warrant substantial modification of the views
diation of the hypophysis but as a consequence of mutation, it would be reasonable to cxpcct proportion- so far. cxpressed in the last report. The new data have not
radiologid destruction of the thyroidP1'* The role of ality between doses and corresponding incidence of 45. Irradiatd animals develop some of the diseases disproved the assumed proportionality betweendose and
indirect mechanisnu has also been shown in the induc- tumours down to the lowest doses (no threshold). It is prevalent in thcir speciesearlier than non-irradiated onesffcct that was used for estimating risks at low doses,
tion of ovarian and thymic tumours in mice. further conceivablethat thenumber of tumours pcr unit and deteriorate sooner, showing physiologicaland histo- but they have in fact made it apparent that such a rela-
34. Most animalutperimcnts, usually performed with dose rnay be less than anticipated at low doses, if the 1 pathologicalchanges suggestiveof early seriescence.The tionship may not hold at doses lower than those which
rchtively homogenous populations, have shown that mutated cellsare too few to develop into a tumour. But radiation-induceti shortcning of life-span is contlitinncdavc ken investigated. It is alsonow more fully realized
there are dose levels where no increase in incidence of it is also conceivable that with such a mechanism low by sevcral factors. Some speciesare more likely to show that sornaticeffects are less likelyto occur at low dose-
certain neoplasms can be detected. As in the case of doses might give a higher incidenceof tumours per unit the effectsthan others; within a species, strains with rates than at the high dose-rates employed in many
leukaemia, this cannot beinterpreted as evidence for dose, since higher doses might kill the majority of mu- different genetic constitutions have thcir life-span de- experiments.
the existence of a thmhold. On the other hand, in the tated cells.lternatively, it could be assumed that irra- crcascd in various amounts.
induction of at least one type of tumour in rats, minimal diation first involves general tissue damage and that the 52. Short of obtaining adequate data on the fre-
effective dose-levels are extremely low, so that there tumour only arises in the secondary stage of tissue re- 46. It is not yet clear how much of the reduction in quency at lowdoses of such deleterious effects of radia-
may k practially no threshold for the induction of pair. Again, there is the possibility that the production longevity is duc to an increased incidence of radiation- tion as leukaemia and other malignancies-and this will
tumours. In some of these experiments, the dose-effect of tumour cells is due to somatic gene mutation, arising a induced diseases and how much is accounted for by involve extensive hurnan surveys and animal experi-
relationship seans to pennit extrapolation to zero. A indirectly as a result of the increased proliferation that premature aging. The dificulty arises botli from the lackmeiits-the use of any relationship to predict effects at
diiKcultywith short-lived laboratory animals is that at accompanies the repair process. There might thus bea of rigorobs definitions of scnescence and its progress, low doses will.in factimply assumptions on the mech-
low doses the average period required for manifestation critical levelof radiation below which the damage would and from the nccessity of observing animals for the anisiiis throu~h which specific radiation injuries are
of the tumour may orceed the life-span and hence no betoo limited to stimulate, during the repair stage, pro- duration of their lives. brought about.
effectrnay be sem. liferation of such an extent as to give an opportunity for 47. Information on life-shortening effects in man is 53. In the present state of our knowledge, any such
35. Most of the data on the induction of neoplasms the occurrence,of a mutation. still inadquate. Mortality rates of United States radiol-assuniption would be largely speculative. The only jus-
b radiation in man have involved extremely high doses. ogists are slightly higheran in the gencral male popu- tifications for applying to low doses relationships ob-
&us, skin uncers'have appeared with Iow incidence in lation, but the difference is not supportcd by the analysserved at higher doses, therefore assuming that there is
man after local irradiation in the range of 1,000rad pet of mortality of nritish radiologists. Thcsc (liffcrcnces no threshold for the induction ofmalignancies, arc the
year after prolongcd latent periods of fifteen years or 40. Exposure of the optic lens to radiation rnay be rnay k due to different radiological practices. The sur- expediency of the rocedure and the consistency of the
more. followedby lens opacities. Normally, doses gruter than vivors ofHiroshima and Nagasaki have so far shownno assumptions regar&ng mechanisms in both dose ranges.
500 rad of X-rays are required to produce clinically detectable shortenirig of the life-span, but it niay be tWe do not know, however, whether in so doing the risk
36. Since the first report, preliminary data on the signifiant cataract, but lensopacities have been reportec! not cnough time has elapsed since the exposure as com- is underratcd or overratcd.
Japanese sunivors of the atornbombhave becomeavail- after as lowas 200 rad of mixed prima and neutron pared to the nornial human lifetirne.
able,Dn1-s88indiuting an incidence of some forms of irradiation. In most cases, lensopacities developcdafter 54. Although more information is rquired before
unUr other thui leukaemia higher than in the non- a latent period which showed little rekion to dose and 48. Attcmpts to assess the risk of life-shortening by firmconclusions can be drawn, there is evidence indi-
exposed population. The increase is highest among those duration of treatment. Radiation-induced lens opacities low doses in man mect the same dificultics and necessi- cating that embryos are more susceptible to radiation
who were dosest to the explosions. Because the latent are slowly progressive for a long time, but they rnay tate the same considerations as those cntailed in the injuriesthan adults and that even low doses my induce
periods of induction of most tumours are long, data are remain stationary at any stage, orregress. For chronic asxssment of possible carcinogenic effects from low both developmental disorders and malignant changes in
not yet avrilable that would indicate whether this in- irradiation, neutrons seem to be much more utaracto- doses. The problem of extrapolation of animal life- embryos. Further studies on the effccts of radiation on
crew in the incidenu of malig~ncies will persist, rix genic than X- or gamma rays. shortening data to man is dificult because of the lack of foetuses exposed inntcroare therefore crucial.
further or decline. data on life-shortening for large animals with life-spans 55. Search should be intensified for carcinogenic
37. Data on the induction by radiation of bone TNDU~IO ONF S~RILITY~~~~ intermediate between man and rodcnts. Life-shorten-
tumours in man-chiefly osteogenic sarcoma, probably 41. The effects of irradiation on gonadal tissue are ing in man as a conxquence of short-term irradiation of the importance of radiation in urcinogenesis, radiation
origjnating from those bone-fonning cells that line bone now fairly well known both in experimental animals- the whole body at doses higher than 200rad would not hazard must be placed in the perspective of agentsthat
surfaces-have been obtained from occupationally im- mice,dogs and monkeys-and in man. In al1speciu: the be surprising, but the effects of long-term, low-level
irradiation on the human life-span cannotbe predicted. arc understood at lust aswell as radiation. 78 NUCLEAR TESTS KEQUEST

56. Labonous though it my le to make observations Doth cliniul. and vital and hedth statistiul s-udie-.o--
on the effms of low doses ~~~~larghe~man FJo~uktions~ sufficieritlylarge populations living in araof differeni
such observations will be invaluable in complcmenting
and confinning extensive aiiimal expcriments. Any radiation bckground, of the survivors of Hiroshima i
larrre-scale investination, however, esDeciall,, in man. and Nagasaki, of persons receiving radiation for medical :
reqÜires accurateplamin to enSure-that rthere is i purposcs and of occupaiionally exposed persons rquire
reasonable lihlihood of ottaining rnuningful results. continued support and prompt reporting. CHAPT ER IV

1. Cenes are the detcrminants of the inheritable char- X-chromosomes and one Y-chromosome are phenotypic
acteristics of organisms, and are charactenzed by an males. contrary to what is observed in the fruit fly
inhercnt stability which cnsurcs that at each duplication Drosophdo mrhmogastrr. Sur chromosomes also cany
two identical copies are prcduced. This stability is not genes determining other traits. although at least in man
no such gene is known bcyond question to becamed by
absolute, howevcr, and a suddcn and fortuitous change
of a gene, and therefore of the character which itdcter- the Y-chromosome. On the other hand, some thirty loci
mines, can occasionally occur. Such changes are called have hecn identified in the X-chromosome, where spe-
ornt mutationr and their frequency is increased by a cific mutations determine grossly harmful traits.
kumber of chcmical and physic;l agénts.Of thcsc. radia- 6. Characters controlled by on a ur-
tion is one of the best known. chromosome are said to be sex-linked. The fact that
2. It willbe rccallcd from chapter II, paragraph 37, females carry two X-chromosomes whereas males have
that cclls of the germ linc are diploid until thcy undergo only one accounts for the special mode of inheritance of
rcduction during meiosis and thus become haploid sex-linked characters. Well-known examples are haemo-
gametes. Depending on whether their diploid cells carry hil liand colour blindness.
idcntical or diffcrent genes at a given site (locus) on a
Kivenchromosome pair, individuals are called homory-
Niturd miitition frequenciee
gofcs or hrt~oxygotrs for that locus. respectively-in
other words, if A and A' are two different genes (i.e.. 7. Mutations are said to occur naturally or spontane-
alleles) which can occupy the same locus, thcn AA and ously when their production results from conditions
A'A' individuals are said to l>e homozygous. whereas
AA' individuals arc said to behetcrozygous. Heterozy- usually not under the direct control of The faa
gous individuals may show the traits determinctl by that mutations are rare cvents makes any estimation of
either gene. or an intcnnediate trait. The gene which their frçquency of occurrence difficult and unccrtain.
manifcsts itself more strongly in thc heterozygote is Untler ideal conditions dominant mutations would lrnd
callcd dominant. the other reressivc. themselvcs to reasonablv accuratc cstimations. sincc it
3. The distinction bctwcen domiriant and recessive would be siifficientto count the affectcd individuals borri
genes is essential for an understanding of the hereditary of unaffectcd parent^.^" In practice. however, diagnos-
effects of radiation. Mutations which give rise to domi- ticdificulties and those of ruling out morbid conditions
simulating a given hcrcditary trait may cast doubt on
nant gcncs (dominant mutations) are cxpressed in the the reliahility of the estimates. The situation is even
first generation offspring of the subject in whose gem more dificult with reccssive gene mutations when most
cells the mutation has occurred. Rrcessive mutations, on of the gciies arr hidden (carricd by but not manifest)
the other hand, can becomc apparent ir. the offspring inheterozygotcs. Indirect nicthods when used rcst on
only if the offspring receives the same mutation from assumptions which are oitcn not easy to ~erify.~" The
both parents, and this may take many generations to average frequency of occurrence of gcne mutations pcr
occur, unless the parents have one or more common locus pcr gençraiion-the mutation rate-may differ
ancestors, in which casc it is Iikely to happen sooner. from one strain to another and within each spccies the
4. Human dioloid cclls have fortv-six chromosomes. mutation raic at individual loci also varies.ok
Of thesc. twcniy-two pairs (autosomes) are alike in
both sexes. Another pair consists of the sex chromo- 8. Various methods are available and have been used
somes which are alikc in females but different in males. to estimate thc frequcncy of occurrence of mutations
This is because al1thc cggs possess the same set of chro- affccting specihc The similarity of their rc-
mosomes, one of which is known as the >;-chromosome. sults makcs it rcasonahle to assume that the average
mutatiori rate in main is about 1/100,000 per locus pcr
Spcrms on the contrary are divided into two classes gcneration. This frequency, howevcr. may not berep-
according to whether they possess an X-chromosome or, resentative of al1the mutations arising in man. but only
altcrnatively, a Y-chromosomc, shorter than the X. Male of those which Iiave twcn detected.
nametes are called X- or Y-sperms depending on the sex
;hromosome which they car+, the two categories king 9. Thr causes of natural mutations are largely un-
prduced in approximately qua1 numbers. Fertilization known. Various environmental factors, both cheniical
of an egg by an X-spem will result in a zygote with two and physical, including natural radiation. might be re-
X-chromosomes which will develop into a female or- sponsible for their occurrence, but very little is known
ganism. Zygotes resulting from the union of an egg with about their relativemportance. It has been shown. how-
a Y-sperm will dcvelop into males. ever, that riatural radiation cannot account for more
than a smali fraction of natural mutations in man.
5. In man anci mouse, and possibly in al1mammals,
the Y-chromosonie seems to have the principal role in
determining sex, since it has recently becn discovercd Radiation-intluced gene mulitions
that exceptional individuals carrying only one X-chro-
mosome are prcdominantly fcmale in their characteris- 10. \Vhm the Kermrçlls of an organism arc exposcd
tics whercas otlirr cxieptional indiviclualswt~ocarry two ro radi;itic?n,irititatioris:may arise which can k trans- KEQUEST 8 1
80 NUCLEAR TESTS

mitted to the offspring and their descendants. It is not 16. The mechanisms responsible for the dependence dominant gene m~tations.~"-~~Many of the chromo- Eflect of mutation in mimai populationr
possible, however, to saywhether a given mutation oc- of the mutation rate on the dose-rate have not been soma1 aberrations so far observed in man have been
curring in an irradiated individual has been induced accompanied by complete sterility, which prccludes
by radiation or has occurred spontaneously. The over- elucidatcd. It hasbeen suggested, howevcr, that at low transmission of the anomaly. However, individuals 28. When a ncw mutation is transmitted for a few
al1 frequency of rniitations is always increased by irra- dose-rates part of the damage caused by radiation to with 1)own's syndrome can hc fertile and some with gcncrations, according to the laws govcrning herçdity
the gcnetic material can undergo a process of repair.OW Turner's syndrome have had offspririg. Furthermore, and in the absence of othcr factors which will be dis-
diation, and their relative frcquency at different loci At higher dose-rates, the mechanisms lcading to repair such aberrations as translocations are trarismitted and cussed later, there will be present in the population a
rnay not be the same for those of spontaneous and in- could be impaired or inhibitcd, thus making the cxpo- can lead to the occurrcnce of abnormalities in the fraction A of inciividuals homozygous for the mutant
duccd rig gin.^'^ sure more effective in inducing mutations. gene, a fraction which is heterozygous for it and a
11. Changes in frquency depend on such considera- 17. The evidence for the existence of repair processcs progeny of apparently normal and fertile individ~als.~~' fraction C which does iiot carry the gene. Dcpcnding
tions as the stage of germ cells irradiatcd, the dose of has bccn considerably strcngthened by recent investiga- on tlic doiiiinnnce of the mutant gene, fractions A and
radiation absarbed by the germ cells and the rate of U,or only fraction A, will show the character for which
d-divery of the dose of radiation. However, for anv tion~.~~~-" These have shown that in lower organisms Frequency of cliromosonial nlerrationi the gcnc is responsible.
and in Drosophila a finite period of time elapses Lefort
srngle locus increases in frequencies are small, even radiation damage to the genetic matrrial becomes irre- 29. Li'heii the inutant gcne is incompatible with the
with the highest doses possible in experimental animals. versible. Treatment with various agents inter fer i n th 23. Since 19% technical atlvanccs havc becn made survival of the individual there are several possible out-
The study of radiation-induced mutations therefore the metabolism of thc irradiated cells during that period which permit a iiiurh niorc ;icc~iratc.study of hiiman comcs. If the gene is complctcly Iethnl. even in the
necessitates the use of large numkrs of animals ob- can prevent the fixation of at lrast part of the pre- chromosonies. I\Syrt. IIOHcvcr. rcla!ivcly f~ cstiniates hetcrnzvcotrs U, then the condition will not be trans-
served over many generations. In man not only is ex- mutational damage. of the over-al1 frcqiiciicy of anoirinlics arc avnilat)le. mittrd,~l.)ccauzea11who rrccivc it will die. If it is not
periment seldorn possible but the intervals hetween Since, howcvrr, 1)rnvn's antl Klinrirlter's >yii(lrunics complctcly letlinl in hrterozygotes. then ocçasionnlly it
generations are long. 18. It should be stressed, howrver, thnt nonc of the are cnch k~iuwii IO have 3 fi.ciliiency ~i atboiit I/'iOo will Le transiiiittcd throiigli oiic or more gencrations.
cxperiments carricd out so far lcaves any douht as to at birili, it ic i-onsiilri-cilas riot urii(~.ut.cb[ii8i;itc A good cxaniplc is retinoblastonia, a doniinaiit gerie-
la. Knowledge of the nature of the relationship be- the effcctivencss of radiation in producing hrrcditary that 1/100 oi nll litç-l)urii cliildri-iicari-y suinc chroriio-termincd tumniir of tlie eye, which is iisually fatal
twecn dose and mutation frquency is of crucial im- daiiiagc even at the Inwest tloscs antl tlosc-rntçs wliich soninl abçriatiui"" in chil(llit>ndSnriiîtinies tlic tiiiiiour rctro~rcsscs. how-
portance to understand the effect of radiation on have becn investi~atetl. At the tirrieof the 19.58rrport. cvcr, or niav t~r rrmovetl by surgical trcatinc.rit. thus
hereditary material. From experiments on mature germ fcw expcriments had bcen perforiiicd in tlir Iow ranges allo\viri~ ihé iiirlivitliial to crow iip and transmit the
cells of animals, especially spermatozoa of Drosophila of doses and dosc-rates. Sirice tlicn, gcrieticists havc Kriie. I>orn;nant niutations less sevcre in their cffrcts
mriumogaster, it appears that when they are exposed to consistently fouiid both in manimals and other ariirnals Radiation-intluced chromosornal aberrations inny hc traiisiiiittctl through iiigtiicrations. g. tliosc
radiation the mutation frequency is directly propor- that the frequcncy of mutations is affected byrailiation detcrniiiiing Jystropliin myotciiiicaor acholuric jaiintlicc.
tiond to, and depends alone on, the total dose absorbcd throughout the range of doses and dose-ratcs irivesti- 24. ?\berrations involvinc dclctions or diiplications
by the g~nads.~'' These results formed the basis of gated. of wliolc chroinosoiiics occur zpontaneouzly aiitl have 30. \\'hm tlie mu1;irit lethal gene is completely re-
the assumptions on which the conclusions of the first also Iwen obsc*rvcilas a cnrisctliiencc of irrntliritinii in ccssive. Iieteroz!.gotes c;in livc and repr~luce. uhrreas
comprehensive report rested. The proportionality fac- honinzygotcs only arc climiiiated. The gene will tlirre-
tor was urpressed in terms of doubling dose-namely Chromoeomal aberrations Drosupliila arid niice. ln thc ninusc, it has hccn ~hii\\.n fore not beeliniinated nt once but \vil1bemaintaiiiçd for
the dose of radiation that is rquired to double the that the frequency of clironiosnrne loss, and the meçha- a pcriod of tirnc in tlie population and its eventual climi-
natural mutation frquency in a specics. 19. Like gene mutations, chromosonial aberrations nisin tlirough whiçli it occiirs-iianic*l~ ctiri~iii~~~oiiic n;itioii \vil1bc completed niter a ver!. Iarce number of
may occur in cells either spontaneously or as a conse- brcakagc or unct~ualclisti.iL~utioioif cliii~iiii~~oiiied~ur-gcnc~r:itioii.nlc5s [liesanie mutation ij continually pro-
13. Recent studies, while confirming that the assump- quence of the action of the same agcnts whicti induce ing ilivision-are niai-kcdlydcpcndciit oii thc irrdiated duccd. cl]tli.it thc freqiicnc!. of the gene in the popula-
tions were correct with regard to spermatozoa, havc mutations. Whereas gene mutations mav t)e consitlered cell stag~.~~~~-'~' tion will rvacli an cqiiil:!~;-iialue (Icterniiried by the
shown that the dose-effect relationship is more complex as changes of the genes themselves, chrbmosonial aller- 2.;. \\'tien thc aiioiiialics coiicçrn sari,of cliromo- mutjtioii frequenct.. ;Zlaiiy srvcrc traits in man arc
for other cellular stages in the grrm-line. The new evi- caused 11'.cetics \viiicli fit the ahovc description. Gooll
dence 'comes mainly from observations on irradiated rations may consist of duplicatioris or drletioris of part somes orily. the prcrcqui.;ite for thîir wciirrCricc is one exnniples arc pheii!.lkctonuria nnd gnlactosaemia; hoth
rni~e,~'~but has also been confirmed in other animal of. or of whole, chroniosoriies, transfer or exchaii~e or moi.c hrriikç in oiie or iiicirc cliroiri(>;nnir<.It has
rnate~ial.~" (translocations) of segments of chroniosonies or even brrii sliowii ttiat tlic ireqiiciic\oi (Irtcctatilc single arc disnitlcrs ni nictnhnlism wliich detçiminc mental
inversions of the sequcncc of Kencsalong one or niorc hrr;iki; is pi-oportion;il to tlic tl.\stb~tli~ciiciiiuta- tlcficicii~.ics31JIc usi~allylctliirithe at)ove-niciitionctl
14. It appears from these observations that when chromosomes. Addition or loss of a whole chronio5onie tioiiz. thcir freiliiriic). is always iathcr Ia,waiitl herc thence.
immature gerrn cells (spermatogonia in males and ucually arises through unequal distrit>utic>roif the ilii-o- pos5it)ilitof restitiiiion thriiiigli rcjtiiiiiiig of ttic free31. Rccessive lcthal mutations sccni to IV Irss fre-
oikytes in females) are irradiated, the results are not mosomes during division. extrciiiitks of th(, t,roL.en ~tirorno~nmesiç \\el1 cstah- qucnt tlian niutations which onlv reducc the averaRe
inconsistent with the hypothesis of proportionality be- 20. Although chromosome aberrations have hrcn Iisheil. l:urtl~rrmori.. in order tliat ci~mplcs chruino- number of the progcny of homozygous intlividuals !)y
tween dose and mutation frequency observed with irra- kriown for n long time to occur spontancously t>otliin soninl alierrations iiiay bobtnined-tranclocatio~is, for rcducing their fertility or thc probability of mating, or
diated spermatozoa in Drosophila. The proportionality plant and in animal cells, very littlc attt-rition wns pnicl instance--two chroiiio.;ome breaks are rccluircd siniul- b!. niaking theni mnre vulnrrable to a given enviroii-
factor, however-and therefore the doubling dose- to thcm in the fiist rrport sincc no hereditarv (icfrctsiri tanciiuzly aritl the probat)ility tliat this occiirs is much mcnt. In sucli cases the climination of thc mutants pro-
varies both with the stage of the irradiated germ cells lower. In any case it Içatis us to expect a 1;icLof siinpie ceeds at aii even slo\ver pace. Various other situaticms
and with the rate of delivery of radiation. The same man had yet been traccd to chromosome at)crrations. proportionality bctwcen frquency and dose.Oaw
total dose induces fewer mutations when it is givcn at Progrrss in cytology and in the culture of human tissiie may also arise \vhcn inutant Ecnes are not coniplctrly
low dose-rate than at high dose-rate. cell~~~'-'~has since made it possible to establish the 26. Some chromosomc anomalics, unlike mutations, rccessive and heterozygotes show a certain degree of
nornial human karyotype (chromosome number and nre oftcii m~croscopicallyvi5ible, and rail br studied in disadvantagc as conipared to individuals who do not
15. The effects of irradiation on spermatogonia and form) and to detect abnormalities. the lahora~or~evcn on liuman mntcri;il. Ry irrndiating carïy the grne.
oocytes are particularly important under conditions of human and othcr cells growii in cell and tissue cultures, 32. Soine mutant genes cannot he appraised in ntso-
continuous exposure at low dose-rates such as those de- 21. In 1959, some of the most important discoveries the effects of ratliaiion on chroniosotncs as wcll as the
livercd b sources to which hurnan populations are were made in human cytogenetics, which showed that dose-effect relationship can be ~tudicd.~~"-~~'Dose- lute trrnis unlcss referred to a given environnient. In
exposai natural sources and fall-out from nuclcar Down's syndrome (mongolism), Turner's syndrome effect rclationships for the occurrrnce of chroniosomal man, a mutant gene is Lnown which in the honiozy-
explosions). The spermatogonia continue to multiply and Klinefelter's syndrome (both of which involve al- anomalics as derivcd from study of somatic cclls in vitro gote gives rise to a serioiis blood disease, sickle-cell
during the whole reproductive life, some of them giving terations of thescx characters) are due to chroniosome cannot at prcsent bc applicd to germinal tissues in vivo. anaemia.o*' hlost of the homozygotes die in the first
rise, through meiosis, to mature spcrms. Ocicytes, de- aberrations. In Down's syndrome. one supernurncrary dccade of their life and very few reach the thirddecade,
rived from &gonia in the course of embryonic life, autosomal chromosome is ob~erved.~" In Turner's 27. Studies on in titro production of chromosome whereas heterozygotes, although clinically recognizable,
syndrome, the individual is an abnormal female wlio anomalies are of great value in showing differences in livc a normal life and show no impairment of fertility.
remain in a particular stage of the meiotic process until carries only a single sex chromosome, the X-chromo- scnsitivity of differcnt animal spccies to radiation- With such a scvere climination of homozygotcs it would,
just before ovulation. Sperms and ova survive only for some;Ozzand in Klincfelter's syndrome the subject, an induced chroniosomal damage. Prcliminary rcsults on at first thought. stem necessary to assume that the trait
a few weeks if they do not take part in fertilization. It abnormal male, carries two X-chromosomes and one mammalian cells. including human cells. have keii ob- is maintained in hunian populations by an unprecedent-
is therefore apparent that, under continuous exposure, Y-chromosome.czz tained, but thcse do not yet make it possible to decide edly high frequency of mutation. It has, however, ken
the total dose accumulated in sperms and ova is rruch how human cells compare in this respect with cells from observed that the mutant gene is prcsent mainly in areas
lower than the total dose accumulated until the end of 22. The mode of inheritance of chromosomal aber- other species. wherc the incidence of malaria is very high and thrrr
the reproductive life by both spermatogonia and oocytes. rations in man is noi essentially different from that of NUCLEAR TESTS REQUEST 83

ir evidaice that heterozygous individuals are more re- lity when homozygous, they would achieve the same of homozygotes frorn the population, then the role of a lowering in the frequcncy of fcmales born of irndi-
ristant to maiaria than individuals which do not carry mutation in the maintenance of the hereditary damage ated fathers. Such an expectation, however,has not becn
the gene. The loss of homozygotes may thus be more cumulative lethdity as one single completelylethal gcne. would be much less important. borne out by investigations on the offspring of irradi-
than canpensated for by the increased survival, and 37. The use of such anindirect method rquires that atedmice,"la0and a detailed analysis of the human ob-
thenfore the more numerous progaiy, of heterozy otes accurate records of consanguinity and detailed data re- 43. The present consensus of opinion among geneti- servations has revealed inconsistenciesin the sex-ratio
u canpad to the normal popultion living in matna1 garding fertility, morbidity and mortality of both con- cists is that most of the recessive damage is supported changes that cannot at prexnt be ocplained.
am. sanguineous and non-consanguineous marriages should by mutation, but it should be stressed that such a view
be available. The difficultyof securing that kind of in- is still largely spcculati~e.~" 49. The addition to the recessive damage c~casioned
formation explains why the indirect method has not yet by radiation has not beenstudied becauserecessivr genes
Magnitudeofthe hendiliry dam& been extensively used. From the results obtained so far, tend to appear among the offspring of consanguineous
however, it appears that each individuai carries on the Effect of irridirtion on quindtidve chirmctem marriages. Since marriages between individuals more
average from 2 to 4 lethal qui~alents,~'~the estimates closelyrelatedthan first cousinsare not practised inmost
33. Any estimate of the magnitude of the hereditary Ixing based on mortality before thiny years, including societies, at Ieast three generations must elapse before
damage, as measured by the total number of harmful miscarriages and still births. The number of equiva- 44. hfany hereditary characters canonly be expressed any child isbornto parents who have a commonirradi-
gaies present in thegerm cells of a population over one lents responsible for major malformations and heredi- in terms of mcasurements and are (listributcd more or atédancestor.
guienticm. must necessarily rest on the observation of tary diseases is not known with any certainty and those less symmetrically around a mean.01s1-1aE 5xamples are
theactual occurrence of hereditary defects and diseases. responsiblr for sterility have not so far ken studied. height, weight, birth weight and intelligence as meas-
The possibility of estimating this arnount in quantitative ured by scores in intelligence tests. The effects of an
terms is hampered by our lack of precise knowledge 38. It should be pointed out that the visible damage, increase of mutation rates on this type of character were 50. The scantiness of data on the hereditary effects
about rnany harmful traits. It is admitted that genetic as estimated from its ohscrvahle expression, and the considered rather fully in the 1958 report and there is of radiation in man does not preclude the possibilityof
factors play an important role in the causation of these recessive damage, as rvnluated thiough the indirect no new information which would alter the conclusions. assessing a part of the expected hercditary damage. For
traits, but the urtent to which they do so is unknown. approach, do not lend themselves to straightforward 45. One of the quantitative characters-viability-is that purpose, the results of ucpcrimental studics on
The discoverv of chromosomal aberrations in man en- cornparis~ns.~~~O ~n the one hand thcir maynitude is known to be adversely affected by most mutations. so othcr species nced tobe applied to man.This rcquircs
ables us to Gve a more accurate picture oi the total assesscd through radically (lifferent methods, each that an increase of mutation rates can lxrxpcctcd to careful biological judgement and is justificd only for
hereditary damage than was possible in the last report, affccted by diffcrcnt sources of error; on the othcr give rise to a substantial reduction of viability even if observations obtained in species for which it is known
rince a whole new catcpry of diseases can now be hand they are expressed on different scalcs, the visible the mutations produced are not respoiisible for visible that the mechanisms of induction, transmission and
ascribed to known hereditary mechanisms. damage in ternis of actual hardship, the recessive one harmful traits. it has in fact been shown in mice that manifestation of the effects considercd are similar to
in terms of potentially hiirmful factors. the offspring of irradiated parents have a higher mor- those in man.
34. It is convenient, if crude and oversimplificd, to tality than control animals during the early part of life.
distinguish between visible damage and recessive 39. Furthermore, as most of the manifestations of This effect on the viability of the offspring could be 51. The possibility of inducing mutations in a11the
(hidden) damage. The former is estimated to affect the visible dainage are nccompaniedhy either a total or organisms that have ken investigated, from bacteria
about 6 per cent of a11live-born,infants.o1GJ7One per severe reduction of fertility, the largest part of this attributed to theover-al1effect of many mutations and to mice,makes it byond doubt that radiation can cause
cent are flicted by hown chromosmai aberrations, daiiiageis confined to the generation being invrstigatcd perhaps also to chromosomal changes,each with a small thesame types of damage in man. It is also reasonably
1 per cent by def- due to known dominant or sex- and only for minor detrimental characters can it becar- effect. It is difficult,however, to express this hereditarcertain that in man, as in other species. the overwhelm-
linked genes, 1.5pcr cent are destined to suffer later ried ior a certain number of generations. The rccessive dama e in terms that can be compared with other types ing majority of newly arising mutations have detri-
fmm serious mental or constitutionalhereditary diseases damage,on the contrary, is spread over an unpredictable ofrafiation-induced hereditary damage. It is hopd that mental consequencesand that, if bcneticial mutations
and the rest have malformations which, although due and always very large number of generations and the much more work will be done to invcstigatc its nature arise at all, the frequency of their occurrence is so Inw
to environmental factors, may also have some genetic frequency of its niaiiifestations largely depends on the and extent. as it might prove the most important damage as to be unlikely to offset the burden occasioned by the
component in their causation. A certain but unknown frequency of consanguincous niarriages. affectin the first generations of descendants of irradi- harmful ones.
fraction of miscarriages and stillbirths?" as well as ated inividuals.
of total or partial sterility in both sexes is also probably 52. In al1 organisms investigated, the frqucricy of
due to dominant mutants or to chromosomal aberra- induced hereditary changes has proved to t>e dose-
tions. hIuiniion and tiereditary damage Aroeoomcnt of handicary effcctr of dependent even at the lowest doxs investigated antl
ridiition on min there is no reason to bclievethat this is noIIman.'"
35. The recessive damage cannot be estimated di- 40. Cene and chromosoinal mutations obviously con- Animal speciesdiffer from each other, however, in thrir
rectly, although an indirect method is available which tribute to the hereditary damage, and it is important to sensitivity to the mutagenic action of radiati~n.~'~'As
ha a very broad scope as it can be applied to very know what fraction of these mutations occurred in ini- far as the induction of chromosome anomalies ic con-
diverse situationsand estimateeventhe recessivedamage mediately preccding generations. Dominant lethal traits 46. Since 1958very little new information has been ccrned, some observations of wide variations in scnsi-
accounting for foetal deaths and sterility.cae"l Its poten-are certainly duc to new mutations having arisen in tlie added to our knowledge regarding hereditary effects tivity even between closely related spccies of rodents
tialities have not yet been fully exploited owing mainly germ cells of the parents of the affected individuals, induced by radiation in exposed human population. and between~hese and one speciesof monkey limit the
to lack of adquate data. The method is based on the since these mutations cannot betransrnitted for more possibility of straightfonvard quantitative extrapola-
principle that spouses who are related are more likely than one generation,The same is tme for discases such 47. The lar est group now available is still repre- tion to man.
to be heterozygous for the same mutant gene than un- as Down's and Klinefelter's syndromes where the sented by the fescendants of those exposed to radiation 53. The effect of the dose-rate has so far been found
related spouses.A greater fraction of recessivehomozy- affectcd individuals are almost invariably in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The survey made in 1956 in the mouse, in Drosophilaand in silkw~rrn,~'*-~t'ese
gous offspring, and thus of defectsdue to homozygosity, revcaled no detectable effect on the frquency of prena-
is therefore expected arnong consanguineous marriages 41. The role of mutation in inaintaining the recessive ta1or neonatal deaths nor on the frequency of malfor- speciesking sufficientlydifferent to allow us to assume
than among the others and the size of that fraction is damage in human populations is difficultto cvaluate be- mati~ns.cl~~-~~ It~should be stressed again, however, that othermarnmals, and in particular man, may show
urpected tobe larger, the more closelyrelated the spouses cause completely recessive genesare detectablein homo- that thisdoes not mean that no visiblehereditary effects an analogous pattern of response. The quantitative pic-
am. zygous individuals only. Moreover, when recessiveness were produced by the irradiation. The number of ex- ture may, however, differ in different species to an un-
is not complete, the heterozygous conditionmay result poscd parents and the dosage receivedby them was such known extcnt if, as has been assumed, the dose-rate
36. The relationship between the degree of consan- in reduced fertility and this adds further complexities that we should not have ucpected a detectable increase effect is accounted for by theintervention of metaboli-
pinity and the frquency of traitsdueto recessivegenes to the problem of estimating mutation rates.o444oThe in the offspring of the exposed population. cally conditioned recoveryprocesses.'"
is, in fact, a very simple one.By comparing for instance same is true of those caxs in which the heterozygous 54. An increaxd exposure to radiation thereforeadds
the differential mortality at a certain age between un- condition for a lethal or quasi-lethal recessive genere- 48. A signifiant change in the ratio betwecn males to the hereditary damage affecting mankind. Of such
related and variously related individuals of the same sults, at least in some environments, in an increased and females (xx ratio) among children bornof irradi- additional damagc, a fraction will becomemanifest dur-
lation, it is possible to estimate the average num- fertility.c41-B1Data on the extent to which recessive ated parents in Hiroshima and Na saki has been re- ing, and will be confined to, the first few guientions
gC" of variously harmful recessive genesper individual heterozygotes are selected for or against are generally prted.Ola8 Other more limited angnot strictly com- following the exposure; another fraction, and pcrhaps
which, if present in homozygous conditions, would lacking. parable surveys on the offspring of parents exposed to the main one, will becomeapparent at a latcr stage in a
each, on the average, cause one death at the age which radiation for mediul rusons also show changes of the less conspicuous way but will be sustained by mankind
has bem investigted. These indirectly observed genes 42. If most recessive heterozygoteswere favoured in sex ratio. Shifts in tsurratio are upected on the basis
(lethal quivalents) need not be 100 r cent lethal. their present environment to such an extent as to over- of simple gcnetic thtory which predicb a lowering in for an unpredichbly large numbcr of genenti~ns.~'~'
Indd, if two such geneseach caused 5& cent letha- corne the continual las of genes due to the elimination the freguency of males born of irradiateci mothers and It shouldbe noted that someof the harrn to human popu- NUCLEARTESTS REQUEST

ttions both fmm sponPneas and induced mutations harmful genes which are estimated to affect about 1pr
may k spread ovcr more generations becaux socio- centof thox born ali~c.~"-~'Present knowledge of dos-
medical are may relax seleaion against individuals age effech on the induction of chromosome anodies f
with certain tmits. is too sunty to predict a doubling There are '
indications that monkey chromosomes and hencc Fr-
haps thox of other rimates are more radio-sensitive CHAPTER VI1
Conelurionr thm thm of mie. fhe bmmittee is of the o~inion !
that ionizing radiation would increase the revalcnce of- EVALUATIONSAND CONCLUSIONS
55. An increase in the amount of ionizing radiation developnental congcnital rnalformations8u.81 and of
to which bman popuiations are exposed is expected to serious constitutional dis or der^,^'^-^but no quantita- upon the radiation dose received by hunian tissues from
bring about a propoitional increase in the frequency of tiveestimtes can now be made. 1. In presenting its first comprehensive report to the each source. A simple comparison of doses does not,
mutation. This expectation is based onthe fact that ioniz- General Assembly in 1958 the Committee emphasized howevcr. indicate tlie likely frequencies of harmful
ing radiation is known to induce mutations in experi- 57. Accurate and rcliable estimates can only be ob- that the conclusions of that report, as with any scientific
mental animaJs at al1doses and dose-rates so far investi- tained through furthcr progrcss in both experirnental asscssment, must be subject to revision in the light of effects ifthese doses have been delivered at widely dif-
gated. Experimcntal observations.however, are available and human genetics. Some fields of investigation will re- advancing knowledge. Since then, considcrable progress ferent dose-rates. The following paragraphs discuss the
only at single doses not lower than 5 rado" and direct quire particular encouragement and support, as those has been niade in the fieldof study of the Comniittec, so sources of radiation to which man is exposed and the
information on the dose-mutation relationship in man that are most likely tu provide answcrs to the questions that much more infornintion is now available arid our doscs incurred.
is prcscntly lacking. arising from exposure to radiation. Studies of the role understanding of thc effccts of radiation is niuch iri-
of rcpair mcchanisrns in ratliation-iriductd mutational creascd. Althou~h this makcs it possible in many
.56.hIuch progress has ken made in the field of radia- processes. and of factors which may influence mutation instances togivea clearcr accouiit of iatliation exPosuie 7. The estiniatiori of the radiation esposure from
tion grnctics during the last four years. Recent investi- frquencies, may help us understand better how radia- and effects, the coniplexities of tlie subjcct that have natural sources has considerable importance, particu-
gations have ;itltled to the information used in assessing tion delivcred at diffrrciit rates induccs mutations with been revealcd by reccnt investigations have neccssitatcd larly becauscpart of the normaloccurrence of hcrcditary,
the genetic harards of ionizing radiations to human varying cffectivenrss. Kigorous in idro arid in ;,ira a qualification of somc previous statcments. and pcrhaps some n~alignarit,diseases may lx duc to
populations; they have olso focusc(l attention or1 the mcthods of coinparing susceptibilitics to radiation of 2. Earlier chnpters of the prescnt report outlinc the natural radiatioiis. Moreover, as man has always been
specific aras most in need of further research. It is various species \vil1providc a soundcr basis for apply- present status of our knowledge of radiation exposures expsed to such radiation. the dosc rcceived from riatu-
now known that the frcquency of radiation-induced ing to man exprimcntal rcsults 01)taincdin other species. and cffects and provide the basis for ari assessment of ral sources forms a useful hnsis of rçfcrerice with whirh
mutation is not dependent solely on the accumulated the significance of these exposurcs. The annexes contain
dose but is also dependent on rate of delivery. Further- 58. Careful, protracted study should be continuet1on detailed information on which this outline is based. The the doscs rcceivcd fromothcr sourccs may be comparetl.
more, factors such as sex and germ-cell stage are im- those groups of individuals that are or have bcrn ex- present chapter gives the conclusions arrived at in the 8. Natural sources of ratliation include cosmic rays
portant influencing factors. Nevertheless, under some posed to higher doses of radiation, such as irratliated and those radio-nuclides which occur natur;illy in the
defined conditions it is possible to calculate a doubling persons in 1-Iiroshiniaarid Nagasaki, populations living report. The Committee wishes, however, to emphasize environment. The radiation that man reccives from these
dose for gene mutations in human populations. Calcula- in areas whcre natural irradiation is high and individuals that the report should be regarded as a whole and that sources is described either as "cxternal" whcn it rcaches
tions in the 1958 report, bascd on many considerations, irradiated for mctlical reasons. Appropriate mcthods individual sentences or assessments may be misleading the body from the exterior, as from cosmic rays or by
including a lowcr Iimit estimatcd from the data from should be dcvised to extract from these studies al1 the if taken out of their appropriate contcxt. gamma ratliation from radio-nuclides in thecarth's crust
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, suggested that the representa- relevant inforinntion on radiation-induced damage to 3. The review and the evaluations made by the Com- or atmosphere, or "internal" when it is dcrived from
tive doubling dose for man miaht well lie betwecn 10 the hereditary material that they are likely to yicld. mittce are in no way final and will undoubtedly require naturally occurririg radio-nuclidcs which have become
and 100 rad; with 30 rad as the most probable value. 59. An understanding of the hereditary cffccts of continuing revision as scientific knowledge advances and incorporatcd into the humari body.
Hecent information from mouse experiments now sug- ionizing ratliation cannot be obtaincd without a thorough new data becomeavailable, the present lack of which still
gests that for acute irradiation, the probable combined limits our understanding of some problems. 9. Investigations carried out during reccnt years have
value fdr both sexes is somewhat lower than 30 rad but knowled~e of the factors which affcct the rnaintcnance 4. The Committee hopes that this report, by pointing enabled us to achieve greatcr precision in estimating the
not less than 15 For chronic irradiation the most of hereditary traits in the population-principal among out subjects which require more investigation and radiation dose to which thc world population is exposed
probable value is 100 rad or possibly hipher. No bcttrr them the pressures of mutation and selection and the sometimes a fresh approach, will stimulate research and from natural sources. In particular, the contribution to
genetic structure of the population. To ascertain the discussion that will result in an improved understanding this dose from the neutron component of cosmic rays,
figures are available for estimates of doubling dose for respective role of these factors, accurately planned and of the effects of ionizing radiation on man and his which had been disregarded in the first comprehensive
gene mutation in man. A permanent doubling of the continued large-scale investigation on human pnpula- remrt. can now be taiicn into account despite unccrtain-
mutation rate would ultimately double the prevalence tioris living in different enviroiimcntal, sociai and cul- environment. tiis inherent in its evaluation. The inclusion of this con-
of those serious defects determined by unconditionally tural conditions should be undertaken or pursued. 5. The main questions which the Committec has again tribution explains why the present estimates of doses
attempted to answer are : from natural sourccs are higher than those given in the
(4) What are the levels of radiation to which man is previous report. Accurate estimates of the doscs from
exposcd from various external and internal sources potassiurn-40 and carhon-14 have also become available.
(including those arising from radio-activc contamina- Combinirig tlieestimated average contribution from cos-
tion of the environment as a result ofnuclear tests) and mic rays, that from external radiation from radio-
how is this exposure distributed in time, in differcnt nuclides in the environment, and that from internal
geographical arcas and within different parts of his radiation from radio-nuclides within the human body,
body? It has been important to specify in particular what the average ycarly dosc from ail natural sources is now
doses and dose-rates of radiation from various sources estimated for various tissue and is about 125mrem to
are reccived by the gonads (testesand avaries), in view the goiiads, 120 mrcm to the blood-forming cclls and
of their genetic importance, and by those cells in which 130mrem to the cclls lining bone surfaces.
malignant change may be induced by radiation, such as
10. Wide geographical variation has been observed in
the blood-forming cclls of the bone marrow and those the dose from most natural sources of radiation, both
lining bone surfaces. internai and external. The exposure from cosmic rays
(b) ,What are the effects produced by radiation, both varies mainly with altitude. showing an approximtely
on theirradiated individuals and on their offspring, par- twofold increase for cach thousand metres rise in alti-
ticularly at those levels to which populations are cur- tude. The external radiation from radio-active nuclides
rently éxposed? occurring in the environment also shows geographical
variation, depending largcly on the composition of un-
derlying soi1 and rocks. While the average dose-rate
from these sources is about 50 mrem per year in most
6. The frquency with which harmful effects are inhabited regidns of the world, areas are known, u in
cauxd by each form of exposure depends essentially parts of the Kerala, and the adjoining, coast in India, REQUEST
86 NUCLEAR TESTS

where the extemal dose-rates may be over twenty times Apart from those from shoe-fitting machines,the doses 20. The half-residence timt of strontium-90 in the nificant variation in the levels of contamination and in
as high. The exposure from internal sources also varies delivered are unlikely to present any significant hazard stratosphere has proved to be critically dependent on a the quantity of strontium-90 received by man in food.
geographically owing to the variable intake of radium ! number of factors, including the time of year at which The estimates made suggest that, over large areas in
and of some other naturally occurring radio-nuclides. to individuals. The average exposure from any one of the explosion takes place, the latitude, and both the which the rates of deposition are similar, differences in
The contribution to internal radiation from carbon-14, them is likely to bevery small, although taken together height of the explosionabove the earth'ssurface andthe the composition of the diet seldom result in more than
they may makea smallbut significantcontribution to the altitude to which the fissionproducts are carriedinto the twofold, or in certain types of diet at most fourfold,
tritium and potassium-40 on the other hand is fairly total genetically significantradiation dosage of popula- atmosphere. Debris injected in polar latitudes appar to differences in strontium-90 intakes.
constant in different places. tions in some countries. World average values of the have a stratospheric half-residence time of between 6 26. Our prcdiction of possible future concentrations
total dose contribution to populations fromhese sources and 12 months, whereas this time may be as long as 2
are not available at the present time. {cars for injections in the quatorial belt. A shorter of strontium-90 in dietary constituents continues to be
15. It is important that the exposure of populations alf-residence time for injections is important beause based on the use of two factors, one dependin on the
11. It is now possible to place greater reliance upon the resultant fall-out will contain short-lived radio- rate of fall-out and theother on the accumulate!deposi-
the estimates of the dose received from medical pro- to radiation from such sources should be kept under tion. Better values for such factors are now established
cedures. Data from a number of countries with extensive continuing review, as regards both the exposure from nuclides which will somewhat increase to the exposuree- for various food materials from survey data and from
medical facilities and a total population of 200 million each source and the aggregate exposure from them all. ceived by man from fall-out by addin experimental rnethods,so that the dependenceof dietary
are now available. They indicate that for diagnostic The introduction of any new source involving substan- due to thelonger-lived radio-nuc~ides.~~a~-~~-~~ and huice of bone contamination on fall-out conditions
radiology the annual genetically significant doseranged tial exposure of individuals or of populations shouldbe 21. Much valuable information has become available canbe adequatelyestimated.
from 6 to60 mrem in the particular years studied. These recognized and evaluated at an early stage. An example on the transfer of radio-active materials from fall-out 27. The highest contamination of human bone with
countries may be considercd as representative of other in the future might be the exposure of individuals to through the food chain, and our understanding of this strontium-90 continues to beobserved in the northern
areas with comparable medical practice on which ade- cosmic radiation in passenger aircraft flying at high process is greatly improved. Estimates of the amount of temperate latitudes. The average human bone concentra-
quate data are not available in sufficient detail. How- altitudes. fall-out components, especially strontium-90, arc now tions invarious parts of the world appcar to be simply
ever, only a small fraction of the world's populationis available from many more areas and we alsohave more related to the observed or estimated amounts of stron-
covered and the estimates may not apply to larger areas ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION FROM information on the composition of the diet of many
of theworld. The upper limitof the rangedoesnotexceed NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS populations. tium-90 present in the total diet, in the manner to be
half of the dose received from natural sources,although expected from experimental studies. The concentration
16. The contamination of the environment and the îî. There is now much more detailed evidence con- of strontium-90 relative to calcium inncw bone is about
no simplecornparison is appropriate, owing to the much radiation exposure of human beings from any nuclear cerning the importance of direct contamination of the one-quarter of that in thediet consumed whilethe bone
higher dose-rates at which the doses from medical pro- explosion depends very much on the type and yield of leaves, inflorescencesand stem bases of plants in intro- was king formed. ,
cedures arc delivered. A few types of examination, the explosion, on its altitude and geographical location, ducing fall-out material into the food chain, in addition 28. Caesium-137, unlike strontium-90, contributes to
which comprise a small fraction of the total examina- on the construction of the device as well as on whether to that taken up bythe plant from the soil.In someplants both external and internal irradiation. Caesium-137dif-
tions carriedout in.eachcountry, contribute about three- radio-activeproducts are injected intothe upper or lower such as ccreals this effect is of particular importance fers from strontium-90 also in so far as it is not fixed
quarters of the genetically significant dose.One of the atmosphere, deposited locally on the earth's surface or during the season when the îlowers and cars are being in the human body but is retained there for a period of
most important results of these investigations is the into water, or retained underground. The processes by formed. The new information has greatly helped our time, whichisvery short compared with that in whichits
evidencethat this dose canbe very substantially reduced which radio-active material from nuclear explosions understanding of the transfer of strontium-90 from activity is significantly reduced by radio-active decay.
by the full use of appropriate techniquesand equipment. causes radiation to human tissues are described in detail diets of various types to human beings, in whom it is The rate of uptake of caesium-137, and therefore its
The genetically signifiant dose due to therapeutic irra- in chapter V and in annex F. dcposited in bone. contribution to internal contamination, depends princi-
diation ranges from 2 to 13 mrem and that from the pally on the rate of its deposition on vegetation since
medical use of radio-isotopes is less than 1 mrem per 17. Since the 1958 report of the Committee, our 23. Some data have become available on the rate at
year. understanding of the processes involvedin fall-out frorn which strontium-90 niay bc renioved in harvested crops, caesium contained in most soils is usually very poorly
the stratosphere and the lower atmosphere has been and also lcached or washed down through the soi1and so absorbed by plants, though there arc some excep-
12. Limited data have ken obtained for bone-marrow increased considerablyby information and continued in- away from the rooting zone of plants. These data indi- tion~."'~~'The contribution of caesium-137 toexternal
dosesland these are insufficientto furnish accurate esti- vestigation on these subjects and in consquence of the cate that the contribution to human irradiation of an irradiation, however, dependson its accumulation on the
mates of mean doses. They seem to confirm, however, three-year. period during which no signifiant strato- accumulated deposit of strontium-90 in soi1is likely to ground. There is some evidencethat the contribution of
the tentative estimates made by the Comrnittee in its spheric injections of nuclear debris took place. The be halved in a shorter period than the 28 years that was caesium-137toexternal irradiation over undisturbed soi1
first comprehensive report, in which a range from 50 to resultant information has tended to confirm our views assumed for purposes of estimation in the prcvious is reduced by about 50 per cent in ten years.""lS
100mrem was accepted for the yearly contribution tothe as to the way in which fission products are removed report. 29. Several years' data on mcan concentration of
bone-marrow dose, as averaged throughout the popu- from the stratosphereand the mechanisms involvedare caesium-137 directlydetermined iithe human body are
lation, from diagnostic procedures, including fluoros- discussed in detail in annex F. 24. It has been possibleto obtain inforniation or1the now available and apply to a large part of the world.
copy. No reliable estimates of the contribution from mount of strontium-90 taken daily in the diet in a num- Geographical variation stems to be rather small. The
therapeutic irradiationis possible at the present time. 18. However, it has become clear that owing to ber of different regions of the world, and on the ratio of
meteorological factors, the rate of fall-out tends to in- strontium-90 to calcium inthe diets of these regions.The concentration of this nuclide, which showed a gcneral
crease in the spring, and that the stratospheric half- ratio of strontium-90to calcium in the wholediet usually upward trend from 1956to 1959,decreased in 190 and
residence time (or period in whichhalf of any injection is higher than that in the milk, the difference beinglcss 1%1.
13. The available data obtained from five industrial- is removed from the stratosphere) is often considerably for diets containing a large component of milk and milk 30. The present report deals much more fully than
ized countries show that at the present time the number shorter than was estimated in 1958.Gographical as well products. When the ratio for the diet as a whole is com- was possible at the time of the previous report with the
of workers who are directly engaged in radiation work as meteorologicalfactors have resulted in higher deposi- pared with the ratio in milk from the same region, it is formation of carbon-14 in nuclear tests and its contribu-
tion of fall-out in the northern temperate latitudes than found that the over-al1 value for this type of diet is tion to human irradiation. As a result of these tests, the
does not exceedeight per ten thousand in the population. in the rest of the world. usually about one and a half. But the value is hi her if concentration of carbon-14 in the atmosphere and in
It has been obwrved that when vroper radiation Drotec- plant products are imgortant components of the fiet. biological material had risen at the end of 1960by 25
tion methods are used, the g;eat^ majority of these 19. In our previous report the amount of radio-active 25. Even for the many regions for which complete per cent above the concectration of the carbon-14
workers receive very low doses of radiation. From in- debris present in the stratosphere (the so-called strato- formed by natural processes, but the concentration of
formation collected in four countries, the genetically spheric reservoir) was estimatedby calculation from the dietary surveys are not available. therefore, it is possiblethis carbon-14 will decrease considerablyin forthcoming
significant doseto the general population resulting from observed fall-out rate and from a half-residence time to make some estimate of the likely dietary intake of decadesowing to the dilution of the nuclidein the oceans
occupational exposures is estimated to be less than 0.5 which was assumed to beas high as seven years. Ahigh strontium-90, provided that ,its concentration in milk
mrem per year. value was assumedas a preaution aeainst unde-e..im--- samples from these regions is known. However, if milk if tests are discontinued. Although the irradiation of
ingthe dose to which human tissue~would be subjectcd is a minor component of diet, information on the stron- future generations from this source will continue at a
OTHE RYPES OF RADIATION EXPOSURES from long-lived radio-nuclides.It is now known that the tium-90 content of other foods also is required. The decreasing rate for thousands of years because of the
amount of strontium-90 prcscnt in the stratosphere was , levels of contamination of several components of diet long half-life of this nuclide, the dose-rate to human
14. In some countries, individual members of the show wide gcqraphical variations connected with the reproductive and other tissues will be small in any one
population may be exposed to various other sources of over-cstimated in conscquence.Direct measurcments of differcnt cumulative deposition of strontium-90 in the
ndiation such as X-ray shoe-fitting machines, lumi- the stratospheric reservoir have now been made by soi1and the rate of fall-out. These differences and the
nous dials of clocks and watches, various devices in- means of high-flying aircraft and balloons and the con- characteristics of the dict in differcnt arcas combined
corponting radio-active materials. and television sets. tent of the reservoir in veryrccmt years has bccn esti- with the gcographical variations of fall-out lead to sig- 31. The opcration of atomic plants for the production
mated hy thisrnranz. NUCLEAR TESTS KEQUEST

Anncx 5
the dose commitmcnts may bedelivered over a very long
EXTRAC FROM REPOR T F THE UNITED NATIONS SCILNTII: ICOM~IIT.IEL ta times higher thanthe average; doses to the thyroid period of time. The dose cornrnitments due to al1 tests
were correspondingly higher (A138). before January 1963 are sumrnarized in table 1.
ON THE EFFECT OSF ATOMIC KAI>IA.I ION 12. The Cornmittee has again reviewed thc problem
(GA, OR, 19th Session, Supplement No. 14 (Al58 14). 1964) of the doses dile tocarl>on-14,a radio-nuclidc with a half- 14. In the present report dose commitmcnts are ex-
pressed in radsr For radiations resulting from nuclcar
life of about 5,700 years, which is forrned frorn atmos- explosions, rads. as used here, and rems, as dehnccl iri
CHAPTER II pheric nitrogen both naturally, by the continuous inter- the 1962 report,' are numerically equivalent. In this rc-
action of cosrnic rays, and artificially, by neutrons re-
RADIO-ACI'lVECONTAMINATION OF THE ENVIRONMENTBY NUCLEAR TESTS leased from nuclear explosions. The atrnospheric content port, doses from natural radiation also are expresscd iri
of artificial carbon-14 has been increascd about three- rads and therefore are numerically slightly smaller than
1. The nuclear explosions camed out between Sep- 7. Strontium-90 and caesium-137 are the most im- fold by testing in 1961-1962. By July 1963. the artificial in the 1962 report where they were expresscd in rems.
tmber 1961 and December 1%2 sharply increased the They are 99, % and 95 rnillirads per year to gonads. cells
radio-active contamination of the environment and con- portant fission products frorn niiclear explosions that carbon-14 concentration in ground lcvel air rose to 90 lining bone surfaces andbone rnarrow, respectively.
contaminate man's diet. The mechanisms which control per cent of the natural carbon-14 concentration in the
squently the doses of radiation that human populations the transfer of strontium-90 through food chains into northern hemisphere (A, table XV). With time. artificiai 15. Comparative risk estirnates can be made by rcfer-
will receive. However, the Committee notes that after man's diet were discussed cxtensively in the 1962report.' carbon-14 will tend to become uniform throughoiit the ence to doses from natural sources of radiation. Onr
the cessation of nuclear testexplosions in the atmosphere, Information which has been obtained since that time atmosphere and to be prci~ressivcly absorl>ed by the inhcrent difficulty in stich comparisons ariscs frorn the
inouter space and under water, and in view of the propi- does not necessitate the modification of the basis for octans. Thus, by the year 2000, the artificial carbon-14 arbitrarv period over which the natural radiation dosr
tious circumstances prevailing, funher contribution from assessment. During 1962 dietary contamination in the concentration in the atmosptiere will fall to sonie 3 per
these sources to the radio-active contamination of the must be'in~e~ratcd.In principle, several altcrnativcs arc
environment has ceased. Information on the amounts northern hernisphere was sornewhat grcater than in 1959, cent of the natural carbon-14 concentratiori (A71). r---ble :
which, up to that time, had been the ycar when highest 13. As in its 1962 report,' the Conirnittce has Ijased
of various radio-nuciides and on the rates at which they levelswere observed. In 1963,dietary levels inthe north- its evrluation of colsparative risks due to part nilrlrar (I) The commitment be compared with
deposit on the earth's surfaceand enter the food chain ern hemisphere were at least twice thosc in 1962 (AN). uplosions on doSc coninl~~ments to the gonadse to the natural radiation dose (Ielircred ovcr a pcrio(l o.
is necessary in order to compute the doses to human In the southern hemisphere, dictary contamination in- tells Ilning l>oiiesiirfaccs antl to the bone marrow-those time equal to that over which a substantial part o.
tissues. Since the cessation of atmospheric tests in De- creased in 1962 and 1963, though to a smaller extent, the dose commitment is dclivered. This com[!arisoi
cember 1962,the Committee has been able to collect suffi- and the levels remained considerably lowcr than those tissues whosc irradintiori niav give rise to hercditarv
cicnt information to enable it to up-date adequately the dcfects, borie turnoiirs antl Icukaernias, resprctively. The froni future nuclear tests might ovcrlap this periotl
estimates of the resultine radiation doses. in the northcrn hemisphere (A81 ). dose coirin~itriicnt1stlir total closethat will II?dcliverr<i.
- -- . 8. Recent evidence on the transfer of caesium-137 as an avrra~e for tlie worlJ popul;itiori. to tll? relevant TTIIF rat! is i~ieiinit of absorbcd dose, A/SZ16. chaptcr II
2. Almost al1 of the fission products from the 1961- tissues Juriiig the coniplete deïay of radio-açti\.e mate- parawrapii23.
1962 explosions have been introduced into the strato- through food chains has Icd to an improved hasis for rial introduced into the environmerit. I.)osîr iticluded in ' Ai5216 ~IlWcr Il, paragrapli26;the rem ha5 recmtl~bcc
evaluating radiation doses frnm raesiiim-137 within the -- (çivcn;rI I ;tlctiiiitihyithe Iiitrriiatioiial CurnrnisOion
sphere. The strontium-90 from these tests increased the hurnan body (A134, 135, 178-180). It is now apparent A/5216.chapier VI. K.îdiolt~gicalL!nitsaiid >4easurcments.
stratospheric inventory at the end of 1%2 by about 5 that doses from caesium-137 were somcwhat nver-esti-
rnegacuries over the level in mid-1%1 (A32-34).4 rnated in the 1962 report. Uetween 1961 and 1963, the
changes in levels of caesi~im-137in diet were broadly TABLE 1. DOSE couuiru~u~s FROY NCCLFAR EXPLOSIOSS~
3. The rate of transfer from the stratosphere to
ground level depends upon the altitude to which the similar to tliose in levcls of strontium-90 (A117). __._.-A.n<nt_.irImrud--
products rise in the atmosphere and the latitude at whicli 9. It has been found that, under certain Incal ccologi- Fi/imfrl
the explosions occur. For example, the mean residence cal conditions. the transfer of cacsium-137 to man is lV54IP60 011,S:l"L
time,of material in the stratosphere above 100 km ex- 1,11111.,',1 I(i<CIOOC ra.opaph
ceeds five years while in the lower stratosphere it is less enhanced, leading to the highest body contents yet meas- Irrrporil ,1f*ma1~1I ofailmtr A
ured. Thus, in arctic regions, the levels of caesiiim-137 7i~lur Souriolradial108 --
than one year (A1619). Assessmcnt of theexperimental in the flesh of rcindeer and caribou are high on account --
data has led the Committee to adopt an over-al1 mean of the accumulation of this nuclide in the vcgetation on C;ona<ls Extrrnal.short-liveb......... 1I 21 165
residence time for the composite stratospheric fission which thc animals grazc (A1 18). The body content of Cs1" ........... 16 29 165
products of two years (A20). While this time is shorter caesiiim-137 in sniall RrOUpSof local inhabitants who Internal, Cs"b..............
than that used in the :%2 report, the prediited depsi- :ive dliiiusl exclusiveiy on the meat oi reincieer and cari- Cl'.......................
tion of strontium-90 and caesium-137 is not appreciably
bou has on occasions exceeded the world average by a
altered by the change in the mean residence time. factor of more than 100 (A128). .
4. The fall-out rate of long-lived radio-activity in Cells lining bone Extcrnal, short-livb.........
1962 was three times that ior the period 1960-1961and 10. Short-lived radio-nuclides have becn rneasurcd in rurfrces Csi".....................
the environmcnt, in food and in the human body more Internal, Srm................
during the year 1%3 the fall-out exceeded that in any consistently since the end of 1961 than during earlicr Cs'" b.....................
previous year (A3638). The Comrnittee envisages that serics of tests. As a consequence, doses delivered by Cl'.......................
in 1964 the fall-out rate rnay be sorne two-thirds of that those nuclides are now more accurately known. Iodine- SP. ....................
during 1963 and will continue to decrease progressively 131has received particular attention (Al36-146) bccausc
in future years.
its absorption by infants frorn frcsh milk leads to thc ..... 21 163
5. Short-lived fission products have decayed to neg- irradiation of their thyroicl glands. Adults receive much Bone rnarrow Exiernal..................... 11 29 165
ligible levels during 1963 sothat no further dose will be lower doses owing to the larger site of their thyroid Cs1". 16 87 174
incurrcd from them after 1964 (A56-59). glands, and their lower consumption of fresh milk. Internai.Sr-................ 33 13 179
Cs1"b.................... 10 13. 187
6. Radio-active materials which have been drposited 11. In most arcas of the tcmpei.atc zone in the north- Ci'....................... 5. 176
onthe surface of the earth constitute sources of both ex- cm hernisphere, the average dose to the thyroid glands SF.. ..................... -0.07 -0.15
ternal and internal radiation to the population. Whereas of children who were broitght up on fresh milk was
about 0.1 rad in 1961 (A, table XXX) ;similar doses TOTAL 75 163
their contribution to the extcrnal dose depends on the were received in 1962. whereas in 1W the doses were
gamma radiation which they emit, the magnitude of the In the1962 rcport, thex rloscswere reportcdin rnrems.Ai cxplained in paragrap191of
interna1dose is determined mainly by the extent to which negligible (A182, 183). In the soiithern hemisphere, annu A. the dm in the prescnt report areal1givcn in mrads.
differcnt nuclides are transferred through food chains doses wtre considerably lower. In 1962, the conrentra- b The dose cornrnitmcnts(rom short-livcd nuclidesand from internal Cs"' have bccn calru-
to man. tion of iodine-131 in milk produced in some limited arus htd on a sliahtly diflerentbasis in this report (parag162, 178of annex A) ai comparedto
within a few hundred kilometrcs of testing grounds were the 1962 regrt. -
4Throu hout the prerentreport,referencesto the annexerare For it ems to heappropriate to include only the,dm which is accurnulatedup to
indiatcd ky a letter irnmcdiatelyfollowed by a number.Thru ' O MI Rrcords of theGnvral A~srmblv Srvmtrrrtth Srs- the var 20 at which tirne the doses frornthe other nuclides will have cssentially been de-
WZ-3) refera to paragraphs32 to34 of annex A. sim. fwp)krnt No. 16 (A/Y16), chapter V; pan,qraphi 6û-69. lining bon. ~urfacesand bone tnarrowire48, 80andr48nrnrads.rnpcctively. For ilf tnhpclto
the endoflY61. thedm cornrniiiiiefiûm Cl4art !!O,200and 180 rnrads.reapectively. 92 NUCLEAR TESTS L REQUEST

(2) As in the 1962 report,' a cornparison could also be
made with the natural radiation dose delivered dur- dose commitments in terms of the period of tirne
during which natural radiation would have to be
jng the period of testing, wiih the justification that doubled to give a dose incrcase equal to the dose
it 1s the cornmitment incurred du;ing this period cornmitrnent.
which is relevant, irrespective of the radiation
source. However, the latter comparison may also be 16. For al1 tests carried out before January 1963, CHAPTERIII
considered unsatisfactory bccause the period is not these periods amount to approxirnately 9 rnonths for the
easy to define. gonads, 32 rnonths for cells lining bone surfaces and 20
(3) A direct comparison between dose commitments rnonths for the bone marrow. These periods are not RADMnON CARCiNOCENESIS M MAN
(rnillirads) and annual dose rates frorn natural directly comparable with the periods given in the 1%2
report because they only take into account that part of
radiation (millirad/year) is hardly justified. the dose cornrnitment frorn carbon-14 which is delivered 1. Among the major problcms discussed in the 1958 dence of leukaernia arnongsurvivors will last. There is
(4) An alternative approach that was also used in the before the year A.D. 2000.In addition, the periods given and 1962reports was that of obtaining estimates of abso- some indication that the ucess has been slightly sub-
1962 reportIo and is followed here is to express the ! lute risk of induction of a nurnber of cffects bv irradia- sidina durina-the 1960's.
in the 1%2 report related to tests during the years 1954- tion at doses and dose rates such as those del~veredby
"AA/S216,chaptcr VVI, paragraph17. 1961and involved an assurnption of testing practice for natural sources and by fall-out frorn nuclear testing. In 5. This estirnate of absolute risk can only be applied
theyear 1961. the 1958 report, the estimates of absolute risks that were with caution to the population at large. The survivin~
prexnted in tems of expected frquencies of given population has been heavily selected by the lethal effcct
of the irradiation itsclf so that the survivors rnay not
cffects per unit dose were tentative and largely hy-p necessarily berepresentative of the irradiatcd popula-
thetical. and in rnany cases involved hardly justifiable tion with respect to sensitivity to radiation carcine
assumptions in applying the observed results of high genesis.
doses and dose rates to low doses and dose rates and to
differcnt conditions of expsure. For these reasons, in 6. The estirnate obtained from the A-bornb survivors
the 1962 report the Coniniittee confincd itself to estirnat- isconsistent with that determined, bctwetn 300and 1,500
ing comparative risks. Having again reviewed the avail- rads, frorn a completely different survey of subjects
able information relating radiation to cancer induction irradiated therapeutically for ankylosing spondylitis
in man, the Cornmittee sces iio possibility of chariging (B40-55). In this survey doses were fractionated and
this procedure at the present tirne. are known with greater accuracy, but the nurnber of
cases of leukaernia that were observed is very srnall. Be-
2. Data publishcd since 1962 have, however, led the sides. there is no way of knowing to what extent the
Cornmittee to 1)clievethat it is possible. for a few tissues diseasc itself for which the patients had bcrn treatcd,
only and rnainly in the high dose range. to rnake estimates or other rneans of therapy to which they had been ex-
of risk (B20)Ii (expressctl for exaniple as nuniber of posed, rnight have bcen responsible for the increased in-
cases per yrar per rad pcr million exposed individuals)
that are valid witliin tlie o1)'irrvcdraiige of doses and the cidence of leukaernia. An estimate obtained froni this
survey alone would therefore only apply to spondylitic
given conditions of irrat1i;itiori.1:iirthrniiore. ancl espc- patients.
cially whrn the dows >tudie(i lit*within tlie rangc ovçr 7. The 1962 report dealt briefly with data on induc-
which the frrqiieriry of the effcct iiicreases ral>idlywith tion of rnalipancies in children irradiated in utero The
rising dose, itiç iiiilikvlytli;ithe risk pcr unit tlose nt data were ai that tirne considered as controversial. More
very low doses will 1)~an! greatcr tlian that at liigti closes
and it is Iikcly to bc iiiucli Irss. Thiis. tlie ç>tiiii,itt-driskrecent reports have confirmed a higher incidence of
per iiiiit tlosr wiliiiniost cases rrpriwrit ari ulipcr limit rnalign.îiicies, includiiig leukaernias, in children irradi-
for effects at vcry low dosrs (It 18, 19). ated in utrro (diagnostic irradiation, sornetirnes rc-
pcated ) ( K62-73). Though precise dose estirnates arc
3. New possi1)ilitiesof arialysirig the increawd inci- not available, there is reason to believe that the doser;
dencc cf !rukacniiac a' a f!!tiï!i~nf !!riceamont thr Kiir- ;vc;c ;;f ;hc of a few rads. CJLlllldlCJUILJLiI
vivors of the explosions ai Hiroshimaand Nagasaki have on this assuniption suggest that the risk of leukaernia
beeri offerrd 11,.a stiidv of a sariil)lc of siir\.ivor\ \vlio per unit dose rnight be several tirnes higher in children
had been divi(jc(l in grouI~saccordirig to ttic.csstiriiatt*(l irradiatrd in utrro than in adults (B72). These surveys
doses tliat tliry ti;itlrcccivr(l. Tlie cstiriiatc \v.ts riintl(.ahave pro\sided tlie important suggestion that under crr-
cording to <lizt;inrcfrorii tliv Iiyl>occntrc 3iii1v\tt.rit of tairi coiiditii)iis low radiation doses, of the order of a
shielding frorii r;îtli;tt1tI\I.;-.\i.The arciir;it-\.of tht.
fcw ra(l\. can induce rnalipancy. As in the case of
dose estirnates i4 tlifficult to assess. as the? niiglit well ankylosiiip spondylitis. there is the possibility that tht.
be affectcd tiy soiiie systciiiatic crror,iri~~artiriilnrth~t saniple of irradiated children rnay not berepresentativc.
duc to oiir liriiitr(l kriii\rlctl~c.of tlic.rt-lative irii~iortartifthe whole population of children (i373).
of ncutronc aritl R;iriiriir;iy\ tlt,li\c.rctl tliiriric III(.ex- 8. The 1962report also discussed data frorn ttie IIiro-
plosioris.'I'heestirnater;of tlicciowsai-c.,tir~\vvvc.;lriicibt stiiitia tiinioiir registry on the relationship t>.i\veendi.;
certainiy riot in crror 1)). ;ifactor greatvr tliaii two or tance frorn the hypocentre and ovcr-al1 incidence of
three.
tiiitiolir.;. Further (lata frorn the Hiroshiina ancl alqo
4. Taking tiic tlt~sc~~stiiriateast face value. ttic avtarngv froni th? Nagasaki tumour registry have now becn re-
ycarly incidcriceof radiatiori-iri(lucet1leukaeriiia.as cirtc-r- viewcclby the Comrnittee. While these data still indicatc
rnined ovrr a period of ninr .cars, froiii 1().;0to IQ.;X, a diniiriishing incidence with distance from the hyp)-
shows apl>roxi.niate~~rol)ortionalitywith tlir clt~sc ,rithc centre, this relationship is now less clear-cut than that
range froni about 100 rads to 900 rads. The ratc of dri-ivrd from earlier reports and does not lend itself to
increase with dose isbetweeri 1anci 2 cases per year per quantitative analysis. Another recent study among Japx-
rad pr million exymsed individiials (Ij30). It is not nese survivors. based on a restricted but more preciselv
known for how long a period of tirnc the increased inci- defined population sarnple,though showing the increased

11Throu~hoiitthe prrscni report,rcfrrrnrci to the anrirxrs mortality frorn leukaernia, gave no clear cvidcnce that
areindicated bya lcttrrirnmc~iiatrlfyollr~wd ya niirnher.Thus radiation affected mortality frorn any other cause of
BZO rcfers toparagrapti20of anncx il. death between 5 and 14yearsafter the irradiation, though 94 NUCLEAR TESTS I KEQUEST
1

there was some indication of an increased incidence of longer latent periods and possibly lower likelihd of
other rnalignancies (U175-180). induction, make unreliable the quantitative assessments
based on the information now available. However, the
9. The Committee has reviewed recent surveys on the Committce coiisiders that for some turnours, besides EST KACT FKOM K~POK I.I:.I.IILUNI IKI) NA.I.IONSSCIENI'IF IOMMITI'EE
induction of thyroid carcinoma as a result of irradiation leukaemias and thyroid turnours, it might bepossible in ON .i.ti~i Li-i.i.c.1oi A.ro%ric KAI~IA IIN
of the thyroid region for therapeutic purposes during time to collect enough information to make additional (G',4, OR, 21s; Scssiori, Siipplcmcnt No. 13 (A/6314), 1966)
childhood (H105-119). The irradiation was often frac- estimates of risk practicable, and that investigations
tionated. As in al1 instances of therapeutic irradiation, aimed at rccording significant quantitative rclationships
itis not possible to distinyish between the effect of the Chapter II
irradiation and the effect of the conditions for which between doses and observed incidence of any spccific ENVIRONMENTALRADIATION
radiation was administered. The accuracy of the esti- malignancy in man should LKstrongly encouragcd and
mates of doses of radiation to the thyroid is not high, supported. RADIATION FROM THE E~~TII'S CRCST
but is sufficient to allow sonie conclusions to be di-awn 12. It is not to be expected, howevcr, tht such esti- Radiation from nalural rourcee
about the relationship betwecn dose and incidence of niates will bccome availal)le for al], or cven for niany, 1. ]nterest of the Coiiimittee in radiatioii froiii 7. Terrestrial radio-activity contributes both to riatll-
thyroid carcinoma. types of human tissue. The only datri suitable for detcr- naturai sources arihes froni the fact ttiat living Ixiiigs rd radution rencliiiig the hunian body frorii oiitsi,le,
mination of over-al1 risks of radiation-induced rndiK- have been exiwsed to itfor a verv long tinie at a rela- owing to the emission of penctrating gamma rndiatloii,
10. As in the case of leukacniia, the incidencc of nancy are those dcrivcd from whole tmtlyexposure with tively coristant rate. necause of ;bis coristnricy of the nn(l 10 that arising internally from radieactive lluc]ides
thyroid cancer shows approximate proportionality in a substantial doses. as in 1.liroshima and Nagasaki. The averaKc dose rate frorn natural radiation to \'hich \vhich decay within the organism with the cmission ,,[
range of doscs between 100and 300 rads, xid Icads to a continuation of tlie latter sturlirs is tliereforc of great "]l'ha, beta or gamma rays.
risk estimate of about one case per year per rad pcr mil- importance. 1t is still too soori after tlic rxposurt. of hunian pol~ulatiorishave ken exposed, these dose rates
lion exposed individuals, averaged over a period of ap these populations for al1 ~)ossil>lçmaligiiriricirs to have are used by tlie Comriiittee as a standard agaiiist wliich EXTERNAL IRRADIATIOS
proximatel sixteen years iollowing irradiation (11117). developetl, but prcsent datd siiggcst that Icukacniin niay r--r---t-ondoses from other sources are comparcd for
The peridof risk may. howrver, Lr sonic\vhat longr. wcll be the predorninniit tvpe of riialipancy prduced the purpose of risk estimation. It is of irnyc)rtaiice.
Higher incidence of thyroid tiimours hns also bcen re- ttirre[ore,ttlïtlle esiiliiates <iosr rates froni ii~turrl naturally-~~curring urternalviradiation and consider,oni
ported amoii adult survivors of atomic explosions and that the ovcr-al1 risk of al1maligriancies is unlikely radiation should te kept under review. that there is no reason to chanee its v-ew -- -x-r--.----
(B9û-100 fhe incidence is rclated to distance froni to excecd bv any large factor that givcn abovc for lçii- 2. satura1 radiation owes its origin in the 1962 report, narnely th;, subjeci to wide gm-
the hypocentre but information is not adcquate to provide kaeinia (11179,lm). of ),riniary cosrnic rays from outer Wace witti [lie graphical variations, the average externd dose rate Irclni
quantitative asscssments of risk. 13. It is important that no opportrinity shoiild he lost atmosl>here.and to the radio-active decay of natiirally- naturally-occurring radio-active nuclides to whicll thc
of exploring the pobsibilities for uii~lertakingsignificant occiir;ing radio-isotopes. world population is exposed is aboiit 50 millirads per
11. The Committee has reviewed evidence bearing on stiidiciiiexposcd Iiuman popiilntion groups and of pur- yar, allowing for the fraction of time spent indoors
risk estiniatcs for certain other nialignancies; namely, suing siich studirs whcn soiind c~)idemioi«~icaitrch- COSMIC RAYS and outdoors.
bone tumours in persons contaminated with radium niques can t)eapplied. On ttie othcr hanri, thc iisefulness 3. The interactions of primary cosmic rays with
(B130-145), liver turnours in persons who had received of siich data in estimating the cffccts of very low doses 9. In sonie areas, however. tlie soi1and the under-
thorium compounds for dia~nosticpurposes (B146-151 ), must depend on progress in our understanding of the the atmosphere give rise to secondary rays which con- lyihg rocks contain abnorinally higli amounts of radio-
skin cancer from external irradiation (B126-129), and fundamental mechanisms of carcinogenesis, thr mode tril~ute about orle-third of the extcrnal natural radia- active inaterial. In some Iiigh radiztion arcas where
lung tumours in miners exposed to radio-active dusts of action of radiation, and its interaction with other tion reachiric the hunian body. Higher contrihiitionb sizablc populations live, external dose rates up to twcnty
(B 152-174). Inadquacies of sarnpling and dosimetry, carcinogenic agents in the environment. froiii tmth prirnary and secondary cosrnic rays apply tinies Iiigher than average have been reportcd.
at very high altitudes; the resulting dose rates have
been studied in conncxion with the planning of super-
sonic transport and of space flights, but they will not
be considered in the prcsent report. 10. Radio-active material in soi1 may cithcr be ab-
4. Thc major advances in the study of msmic rays sorM by plants or leachcd into water, and somay criier
as coniributors to the natural radiation to which man the humai1 food chain and eventually be in~ested by
is expsed have ken made witli regard to their neutron iiian. Radon. a radio-active gas resuhing froni ttie
coriiponciit. Hcceiit data on cosniic-ray neutron flux radio-active disintegration of nuclides of the uranium
densities show that the dose-rate estimate of about two and thorium series, escapes from soils and rocks into the
miiiiraùs pr year to the wciild population made ir. the aiiiiosphere, and can thus Ùe inlialeci iogcther with irs
1962 report nds revision. The Committee now tw- radio-active daughters.
lievcs the dose rate due to neutrons at sea level to lie
11. The major natural sources of interna1 radiation
betwecri 0.3 arid 1.1 millirads pr year. This range are potassiutii4, which delivers relatively uniforrn
reflects thc uiicrrtainiies involved in nieasurements and dose rates to the whole body, and meinbers of the
the variation of iieutron flux drnsities with latitude. uraniuni aiid thorium series which prrdoniinantly
5. No change is calletl for in the estimate of the irradiate the bone and bone marrow. Carbon-14 and
dose ratez ~IIP to ttie other (so-callrd ionizing) com- rubidiuin-87 are among other riuclides which deliver
poncnts of cosiiiic rays-28 millirads per yrar-that rnuch snialler dose ratcs.
was acceptcd in the 1?62reprt. As was mentioned 111
that report. ilose rates approximately double every 12. The estiniatcs of dose rates to gonads and to bone
I.5oO-nietre iiicrease in altitude for the tirst few and bld-forniing cells from internally delmitcd radio-
kilonietrcs. nuclides, expressed in milliradsper year, are cssentially
the wme as in the 1962 report. In that report, howcver.
O. It niust b meiitioiied tliat neutron doses are dose rates were expressed in different units to take into
morr effcctivr tiiari (Io'iesof ionizirig radiation in bringaccount the higher eficiency of alpha particles in pro-
iri~;it>oibic,lo~icaletTects.To obtain estimates of ri5k ducing biologicaleffects when compared to gamma rays.
fror;i co,iriic-rny nciitrons. allowance miist be made for As in the case of cosniic-ray neutrons, it secms more
rel;itivç I~iological eflectiventss. Iiowcver, the appropriate to express dose rates in millirads per year,
necezsnrv wcrizhting factors applying to neutrons as sinïe allowing for the relative biologicd effectiveness
corlillarrdtr,tIirntlier rornponrnts are not known at of alpha particles would rquire iiifonnation that is
lo\v (Joserait..;althourh thcy are frequently assiirncd iiot available now and \vould therefore involve largely
tot~;ivca valiicof teii. Even with such a high weighting arbitrary assumptions.
f;irtnr, the rontrihiition froni neutrons woiild still tw
smnll campared to the total dose rate from natiiral 13. The Committce has re-evaluated tlic dnsc ratcs
sourccs. froni naturally-occurring radio-active matcrial to the REQUEST
NUCLE AR TESTS

lung tissues. Such material reaches the lungs rnainly 19. Results of measurements of radio-activity in the in pngraph 15, a simiiar food chah mdanism ex- give a dose incrcau quai to the total doses expcçte
through inhalation of the daughter products of radon. stratosphere, which constitutes the main reservoir of I gains that thex urne populationr are ah aposed to by the yar mM from the cunmt contamination of t1
These daughter products are inhaled in particulate form radio-activedebris still available for world-wide depo- i environment due to pst nuclcar weapon tests.
and therefore tend to be deposited on the walls of sition, and estimates of the total arnount of artificial I igher levels of interna1 natural radiation.
alveoli and bronchi and to remain there long enough radio-activityso far dcposited over the surface of the Conduriona 27. T,hese periods do not differ appreciably fra.
for significant doses tobe delivered. The dose rates to globe lead to estimates of current and expected con- 1 those eiven in the 1964 report. Prexnt . estimatcs
the cells lining these cavities seun to be of the order I 26. The Committee has re-evaluated the contribu- -pprox-mately threequnrters of a year for the ~om~i
of some hundreds of rnillirads per year, although no tamination of land areas which are the same as, or only tions to the uposure of human populations from natural two and a hall ycars for the cells lining bone surfac.
exact figure can, at present, be given. These are the slightly lower than, those made by the Committee in radiation (annex A) and *rom radio-active contami- and one year and a half for the bone marmw. Thr
highest tissue dose rates received from natural radia- its 1964 report. / nation of the environment by put nudear wopon tests values prewnt a certain dcgree of approximation sin.
tion. Any biological significancethat these dose rates 20. Increasing but conflicting evidence indicates that (anncx B). Estimata of comparative risks have also they are hsed on assumptims and mnrurements whii
higher amounts of radio-active debris faIl into the bem reviewed. Comparative risks are exprased, u in may not be entirely reprncntative of the whole wor
nlay have, however, it still unknown. oceans than were assumed in the pst. However, this 1 situation. They are more likdy to be over- rathn th;
does not influence greatly the prediction of future the 1961report, in terms of the periods of time during under-estimates.
DOSE-RAT ESTIMATES land deposition, since only relativeiy small amounts of which naturai radiation would have to bedoubled to
radio-active material still remain in the stratosphere.
14. Dose rates frorn natural radiation are sum-
marized in table 1. They have been computed for the The estimate of sea deposition relative to land deposi-
gonads, irradiation of which gives rise to genetic effects, tion is, in fact, rnainly of interest for predictions of 1 TABU 1. Dosr BAT= DL:E TO EXTEUNALAND INmNU lRXADU1ION FROU NAmAL S0CPCF.S
for cells lining theiniier surface of bone from which the fate of material located in the stratosphere. The IN "NOIXAL" AIUS
bone tumours mny nrise, and for blood-forming cells, somewhat higher radio-activity depsition over the
the irradiation of which may result in leukaemias. The oceans does not affect the estimates of doses due to in-
average dose rate in the whole body is taken as equal take of seafood,since the previous estimates were hsed
to that to the gonads. upon direct nieasuranents of radio-activity in food.

15. The figures in the table must be considered as 21. The Committee has reviewed the ctirrent infor- Ertrr~i irradiation
average dose rates received by the world population. mation on body contents of strontiurii-W arid cacsium- Cosmic rays
It has not been possibleto assess accurately the vari- 137 in the world population and on dietary levels of lonizing componcnt
ability of the dose rates received by different popula- these radio-active nuclides,and has concludcd that no Ficutroi1s
tion groups. Those limited populations, however, which change in the method of calculation of dose coniniit-
live in siiharctic regions and consume large amounts ments from strontium-Y0 appears warranted at thic Tarestriai radiation (including air)
of caribou and reindeer meat or of fresh-water fish may time. There are, of course, still wnsiderable uncertain-
receive somewhat higher doses to blood-forming cells ties in the numerical factors used in the calculation of
and to cells lining the internal surface of bone. Simi- dose comn~itments.
larly, populations livingin the high-radiation areas of
Brazil and India receive higher dose rates of external 22. New evidence indicates that the factors used to
calculate the loiig-term contamination of diets by stron-
radiation from the soil. tium-90 contained in the soil are probably too high and
hence the dose commitments from strontium-90 listed
Radiation from man-made sources in tableII rnay be over-estinlates. The numerical fac-
tors used in the calculation of the internal dose com-
16. Nuclear tests are the main source of present mitments from caesium-137 have ken sornewhat in-
w6rld-wide radio-active contamination of the environ- creased taking into account new information. As a
ment. Low activity wnstesreleascd from facilities using wnsequence, these dose conimitments are slightly
nuclear technologiesfor industrial, medical and researcli highcr than tliose given in tlie 1W report. Perceritago from alphapsrticlcr and
purposes contribute a negligible fraction of the doses neutrons
received by human populations from artificial sources, 23. With regard to external doses from artificial
though thcir significance rnayincrease i:: the futürc radio-activity de nîitd nn tn !he grn-cc!. the The dose rates undcrthis hcading were actually calculated for the Haversian ctnals
as a consequenceof the increased use of nudear enerm mittee has modiRd its niethods of calculnting the ex- of bon?. Dosa to cells lining bone surfacesmay k sornewhatiowcr thrn tnae quoini nem.
in human activity. Accidents at nuclear establishments ternal dose cornmitment froni garnma ernitters. There bTo(lls have been roundedoff to two signihunt figura.
have been only of localimportance. is no significant change in the niimerical values ob-
tained, but the new methods follow the actual processes
17. The unplanned re-entry into the atmosphere in more closely.
April 1964 of a spacecraft carrying a power source TABU II. Dosc COMMITUCNTS FROM NUCL~B EXPLOSIONS
containing plutonium-238 resulted in the dispersion of 24. Estimates of the average dose commitments
this radio-active rnaterial. This rnaterial is slowly already received and to be received by the world popu- Dorr romniimniInrad) ParIIrm#lu
descending towards the ground and has now been de- lation by the year 2000 frorn al1 tests carrird out to Sa~rrr of iodioiia fa )I9Jd-1965.tirr armrsB
tected in surface air at some sampling stations in the the end of 1%5 are sunirnarized in table Taaitir
southern hemisphere. It is expected that the aver- II. These 137
estimates tliffer little from those made in 1964. The Goruds Extcrnal. sliat-lived 2.3
age amounts of plutonium from this source that may fraction of the total dose comniitment which is at- CslS1 25 135
be inhaled in the coming years will remain utceed- tributable to external sources ranges froni abolit two- IntcrnalCS'S' 1s 145
ingly small, and will give rise to negligible radiation thirds for gonads to one-fifth for cells lining hne ci4b 13 147
utposures. surfaces. -
18. The atmospheric tests that were carried out in Tm~e 76
central Asia in 1964 and 1965, and those underground 25. Appreciable variations of dose are found in dif-
ferent parts of the world. A particular situation is that Gllr Iiiuiig boiic surfacesExterd, short-lived 23 137
tests from which leakage of radio-active material into prevailing in the arctic and subarctic regions of Alaska CslaT 25 135
the atmosphere has takm place, have not contributed (United States), Canada, the Scandinavian countries Intcrnal. Srm 156 143
significantly to world-wide mean doses. A further and the Soviet Union, where sizable populations con- Cs117 1s 145
atmospheric test took place in May 1966; although no sume large amounts of caribou and reindeer nicat. As cidb 20 147
detailed evaluation is yet possible, it appears that the these animais grare over land areas and feed on lichens
quantity of fission products released was very small that derive their nutrients mairily froni atmosplieric Sfl" 0.3 146
cornpared with the total quantity produced by al1 pre- dusts, their meatcontains high concentrations of radio- TOTAL* 240
viou tests. active nuclides, particularly caesium-137. As riientioned 1 UV NUCLE

severe syndromes. Their .total frequency in the popula-
tion cannot yet be estimated. One type of deletion ceives from natural sources aboiit one-tcnth of a rad mature male germ cells (C286). At higher doses, the foiiowing low doses, although the yield per unit do*
appears to occur with frequency of at least two per per year to the ~onads or about three rads in a repro- number of translocations induced is higher than would \vould be much less than that expected if the yield werc
10,000 live-born children (C45). ductive lifetime. beexpected if the frquency of induction was linearly directly proportional to the dose. It should be noted
17. lnduced mutations are similar in nature to those related to the dose increase. that a large part of this type of genetic damage is not
discussed in paragraph 3. Generally harmful, they are 23. The rate of induction of those deletions that expcctal to persist in a population for more than one
SUMMARY eliminated from the population at a rate deperiding upon have so far ken observed to occur spontaneously in generation.
11. Between 2 and 3 per cent of al1 live-born chil- their harnifulness, but we are unable at present to de- man can be estimated on the basis of in vitro experi- 28. Part of the total impairment in the first genera-
dren are affected by one of the disabilities mentioned termine to what extent the eliminatiori takes place ments on human somatic cells. The estimates, howcver, tion offspring of irradiated parents has been studicd
in paragraph 4 or by detectable chromosome anonialies. through practiwlly irnnoticed events rather than depend so much on the assumptions about the me- in mice, namely, certain skeletal defects. Froni exlxri-
In addition, about 4 per cent of al1 pregnancies ter- through events that involve individual or collective chanism that brings aboiit deletions that the figures rnents using high doses, it is known that malformation'
minate in mixarriage associated with a chromosome hardship. of the skeleton do occur fairly frequently in these off-
anomaly (C53). Genetic changes occurring natiirally 18. It would be desirable to know the risk of induc- obtained differ widely according to the particular spring. Whether proportional numkrs of such defect?
must also lx responsible for a number of other detri- tion of that part of the total induced darnage that is theory which is adopted (C33, 294). would result from low doses to parents is not known
mental consequences, but, in the present state of our expressed through tliose disabilities which are casily
knowledge, WC are unable to identify them as heing detected and are known to occur spontaneoiisly with a 1 Conclusions 3. The estimates arrived at in this report relatv
genetic in origin, and their frequency is therefore dif- measurahle frequency in human populations (paragraph to the genetic effects of acute exposures, nt Iiigh doses.
ficult to estimate. 4). To ohtain such an cstiniate it is iiecessary to niake t 24. The Comniittee has considercd genetic effects of of niale reproductive cells in the stage (sperm;itogoriin)
certain assumptions. Depending on the assumptions ' radiation. with particular regard to rccent data. and thnt is most important in huinan hazards. Lower niiiii
Rirk of induction of genetic changer by radiation made, the resultin~ estimntes differ by several orders has tried to derive from thcm information as to the krs of these mutations per unit dose will occiir \r-lierc.
of magnitiide (C264). Ol~servations in mice show that / importance of gcnetic cffects of irradiation of man. the radiation dose is low or is spread out ovrr a lori^
12. Gene niutations can be induced by ionizing radia- a number of serious skeletal abnornialities cîn be in- i 25. A new estimatc has beeri obtained for the spori- tinie. It is also known that the reproductive cells ol
tion. This has ken shown experimentally in so many duced in the offspring of aninials irradiated at high taneous frcqucncy of gcne mutations over the whole the two sexes differ in sensitivit; fewer riiiitatioi01,
aiiimal and plant species that there is no reason to [ of the hereditary material of man. An cstiniate has the average. will occur when the reprmliictive çells u!
doullt that they can I)e iiiduced in man. On the other doses. The yield of abnormalities is not known at low ; also been made of the rate of induction of gene muta- females (oocytes) are exposed to radiation.
hand, chromosonie changes Iiave been proved to arise doses, but the observations niay in the future give a i tions per unit of radiation dose. From tliese it would 30. The Committee is of the opinion that thrse r\ti
following irradiation in Iiuman somatic cells. The great cliie to a more precise estimation of risks of induction : appcar that a dose of one rad per generation would mates, because thcy are suhject to mnny iincertaintirs
majority of the radiation-induced genetic changes are of dominant traits in man. f , add something like one-seventieth to the total numher should not be applied in a simple and direct fashioi,
harmful, but the damage that they entai1 extends over 19. The particular importance of dominant rnuta- of mutations arising spontaneously in a generation. to radiation protection. Any practical application (1:
a wide range of severity. Some changes have scarcely tions lies in the fact that, once induccd. they 1)ecome 1 Taking into account the various iincertainties, the range these numerical estimates must be made with fiil:
noticeable consequences: others may be incompatible apparent in the offspring of the irradiated in<Iividuals, of thnt estimate would be very wide. but it is probably recognition of the qualifications set out in the ahovt
with reproduction or survival. and each of these mutations will persist for a nunit~er not in disagTeement with the limits set in the 1962 p~ragraphs and discussed in detail in annex C.
of generations depending on the detriment to which it report of between one-tenth and one one-hundrcdth. 31. Although there are insuficient data for makirip
13. Clear ehuman subjects is, however, meagre. Theing gives rise. It must be emphasized, however, that this Itis known tliat the great niajority of al1harmful muta- satisfactory estimates of risk, it is clear that, witii an'
of irradiated category of induced mutations represents only part of tions are cxpressed as small rediictions of viahility increase of radiation levels on earth. the amoiirit O!
only effect that has been reported is a change of the the total damage due to induced gene niiitations and genetic damage will increase with the accumiilated dose
sex-ratio in the offspring of irradiated individuals.ch that the elimination of perhaps a large fraction of the on health areterdetectahle with dificulty in man. How-ects While any irradiation of the human population ib
an effect. thougli probably genetic in origin, is dificult rest niay alsoinvolvc considerahlc hardship. genetically undesirahle becaiise of its implications foi
to interprct. and the 01)servations are of little lise in ever. it is known that the cumulative effect of these future generations. it should be pointed out that ttit
predicting other genetic conscquences of radiation RISK OF CHROMOSOME ANOMALIFS small changes causes the major part of the d'miage proper use of radiation in niedicine and in inrliistr!
damage. from induced niiitations. Furthcrniore. these changes
14. There is no alternative therefore to using results 20. Data on the induction of chromosome anomalies will be cxpressed over many generations. is important for the health of the individual and foi
dl~tainedwith experiiiwntal aninials in estimating rates in mice are scantier than on the induction of gme 26. The proprtion of one-seventietli ahove might the welfare of the cmiimunity.
of induction in man. The limitations of such a procedure mutations but can be supplemented by data obtairied also apply to hereditary diseases of man which are 32. The limited number of estimates made, tlit
are obvious when it is realized that animal species from the irradiation of human som~tic cells grown out- known to he important and which can be transmitted many uncertainties as to their accuracy and the reser
differ froni eacli otlier in their susceptibilitv to the in- side the organism, The limitations of this latter ma- directly from parent to offspring, but it should be em- vations which have to t~ attached to each of them nint
duction of gcnetic changes bv radiation and that there terial as a basis for estiniating rates of induction in phasized once niore that these diseases contribute only seem disappointing. The reasons wili be clear to reader.
is no rvidenct. iridicating whrril~r the gcne!ir materia! ofan arise from the fact that the anomalies indtired in a small proportion of the damage from gene mutations. of annex C where the complications of establishiii~
man is more or less sensitive to radiation than tliat of these cells may nnt be transmitted at cell division in There is evidence that compiexiy mherited characicr- meaningiui estimaies are iuiiy di~ü~jN. Althoügh n!:
other animal spccies. The only mammal which has been the same wav as if they had been induced in immature istics. such as stature and intelligence, niay be affccted solute measures of risk are still very iincertain and wil
studied in some detail with respect to radiation genetics germ cells within the body. by induced gene mutations and that the effects would probably remain so for some tirne, major advances havt
is the mouse. Results of mouse experiments must there- probably beadverse. been made in our knowledge of the relative risks undei
fore form the main Insis for the assessment of genetic 21. Loss of a sex-chromosome can be induced in the 27. One-quarter of al1 abortions are caused by, and various conditions of radiation exposure and for dif
risks in man. niousc at .a rate of one to four losses for 100,000im- 1 per cent of al1 live-born infants suffer froni. severc fercnt biological variables such as the reproductive-cc1
15. mature male germ cells per rad (C278). In man, loss effccts of chromosonial anomalies which arise spon- stage. These findings are of considerable prnctical valiir
with immature germ cells, which are also the cells that of a sex-chronioiome is known to be one of the most taneously. It is, in our presrnt statc of knowledge. only Thus, it is useful to know that the genetic hazard wil
frequent among the chromosome anomalies that are possible to give estimates of rates of induction by high be less per unit dose of radiation when the exposurt
accuniulate most of the genetic damage induced in associated with spontaneous miscarriages. Therc is no doses of radiation of chromosoma1 danixe of types is spread out in time, is delivered in small dosage, O:
germ cells. The estimates given in paragraphs 16-23 way to assess at present the rate of induction of extra which include not more than a small proportion of when a long interval occurs between irradiation of th
apply to acute single doses of x or gamma rays. For sex-chron~osomes or autosomes. Preliminary informa- female germ cell and conception. These factors niust l)t
each of them it will be indicated whether the numerical tion indicating an increased incidence of Down's syn- the anomalies that occur naturally. The number of these clearly borne in mind when making comparative risi
values refer to mature germ cells (gametes) or to im- drome in the offspring of irradiated individuals nceds that woiild arise after exposure to high doses can be estimates.
mature ones. to be confirmed. estimatcd, but it is not known how many would occur
22. Estimates of rates of induction of transloca-
tions in man can be obtained on the hasis of experi-
16. The over-al1risk of induction of gene niutations, ments both with mice and with human somatic cells
as hased on rates of induction in the mouse at acute grown in vitro. The rise of the frequency of tianslnca-
high doses, is estimated by the Committee to be two tions is not expected to be proportional to the do'?
mutations per 1,000male gametes per rad (C256). but to depertd on it in a complicated manner that dc.
As dixussed later, the rate of induction of mutations not permit a simple expression of risks. It may, how-
is much less when radiation is delivered at a lower dose ever, be said that the rate of induction after one rad is
rate. It may berecalled from chapter II that man re- of .the order of one translocation in every 200,00 0m- NUCLEAR TESTS REQUEST

Annex 7 significaiitly increased the global dose commitment. 13. The estimated dosecommitments arc summarizcd
Measurable iodine-131 levels in milk have been reported in table 1. The table includes estimates for the tun-
EXTRAC TROM REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE mainly froni the southern hemisphere following the perate zones of the northern and southern hemispheres.
A third colunin shows values applicable to the whole
ON THE EFFECTS OF ATOMICRADIATION tests carried out in that area. world population. Although the Committee lus used
(GA, OR, 24th Session, Supplemcnt No. 13(A/7613), 1969) 11. Since the last report, there has been a con- new and Iws indirect methods of estimating dose coni-
tinuing interest in the doses received by populations mitments, the present estimates differ little from those
Chapter II in the subarctic regions where, because of special given in the previous report.
ecologicnl conditions, there is an enhanced transfer of
caesium-137 from deposit to the body, mainly through 14. Comparative risks are. as in the 1W and 1W)
RADIO-ACTIVE CONTAMINATIOO NF THE ENVIRONMENTBY NUCLEAR TESTS consumption of reindeer or caribou meat. In these reports, expressed as the periods of tinie diiring which
regions, individual doses from interna1 caesium-137 are the natural background woiild have to be doubled in
1. Debris froiii atiiiosl)licric nuclear tests coiitiiiuestiiiiates al)l)licable to liiiiited populntioiis. iriicii ns of the order of one hundred times greater than the order to deliva an additioiul dose qiial to the
to be the iiiost iiiiprtantiiiaii-niade radio-active con- those iri iiidivi(liinl coiintries. except in a fcw cases average for the northern hemisphere. There are also
taiiiinant of the en~ironni~iit. A nunibcr of tests hnve of popiilatioiis with much higlier tlian averaKe ex- indications that, inhese regions, levels of strontium-90 fraction of the dose commitments that will be rmeived
becn carried out since tlie Coiniiiittee's 1x6 report; nosures. in food and tissues may be significantly greater, though by the year 2000.These periods derived from the dose
these have. however. added abut 2 pcr cent to tlie fi. In tlic prcxnt report. for thc I)iirlns of e3tiniat- comniitment estimates applicable to the whole world
nniounts of loiig-lived radio-active nucli<lesstill in tlieiiig (losc coiiiniitniciits, tlie Coiiiniittee lins iisetl iiiore not by as much as caesium-137 levels, than the average population are approximately 11, 26 and 18 months
cnvironniciit as a resiilt of tests carried oiiitlie early esteiisively thn Iiere,tofore actiially iiiea~iire~iI~vels for the northern heniisphere. for gonads, cells lining bone surfaces and bone rnarrow,
1%05, althoiigh tliey have rilmiit doiil~le(ltlie ciirrent 12. There are several other liniitd regions of the respectively.
low content of tlie stratosphere ancl Iinve thiis con- of loiig-lived radio-nuclides in hiiinan tissiies. This is world where levels of caesium-137 in food-stuffs and
tributed substantially to the delmsitioii observed silice particularly so in the case of strontiiiiii-W. whicli in hunians have ken found to exceed by many tinies 15. The Comniittee now has increased confidence
the middle of 1967. poses special problenis becnuse of its long rctentioii the average for the corresponding latitudinal band. that its estiniates are representative of the doses to
in soi1and hne and becaiise of its coiiil)lex iiictahli~ni This has been attributed to high precipitation and to which humans have ben committed. paflicularly for
2. Small amouiits of radio-active material Iiave leaked in human tissues. By making use of measiired Icvels in special soi1conditions resulting in increased availability those populations in the countries and areas from whicli
from a few uiiderground tests, and tlie crash of an tissiies, the Comniittee Iias been able to nvoid soiiic of caesium-137 to plants. measurements are available.
neroplane carrying niiclcar weapons resulted in a of the ;\ssiiniptioiis previoiisly necdc(1.Thou~Ii a large
localized contaiiiiiiatioii by pliitoniiiiii-239 off the conniiniber of other nssiiiiiptioiis arcstill necessnry nntl
of nortliern Greenland in Janunry 1965. l'liese events are comnion to al1 methods of calciilation. tlie nictliod TABLE1. DOSE COMMITMESTS FROM NUCLEAR TESTS CARRlED OUT BEFOU 1968
have coiitributed only miniitely to the global inventory. now iised will enable the Comiiiittee to ilse niorc
3. Since the 19M report. Ir\.els of long-lived niiclidcs efficiently the resiilts of fiitiire iiiensurenients to verify Dore ro.iriit(rind)
in food-stiiffs and Iiiiiiian tissiies Iiave coiitiiiiie(l tond. if iiecessnry, modify tliose assiiniptioiis in the
decline except in tlie secoiid Iinlf of 1968, wlieii a sliglittiire.
incrcase iii levels of caesiiiiii-137 diie to receiit tests
7. As far as the world-wide dose coniiiiitiiieiit is
was observcd iii food-stiiffiiisonie coiintries of tlie concerntd, the innjor sotirce of uncertairity coritiniie:, --
nortliern heniisphere. to be the lack of inforniatioii coiiccriiiiig tlie levels of Internai 'S'Cs 21 4 21.
4. Most of the aniount of long-lived niiclides injected any of the radio-active niiclides in tlie food and tissiies 1a@ 13 13 - 13
into the stratosphere by enrlier tests had beeii deposited of nenrly two-tliirds of tlie world population. Iri its - -
lry the niiddle of 1%7. However, siil)stantial fractioiis previous reports, the Conimittee assiiiiied tlint tlie Totale 110 33 80
of the,total doses to which the populatioii is coniniitted riiimericnl constants that describe tlie traiisfer of long-
reiiininro be received froni preseiit body biirdeiis and lived radio-niiclides were the sanie ns tliose le terni in cd Cellsliningbme aurfaces .Extenul Sh1ot-slibed
froni the deposit iii soi1 wliicli will contiiiue to he for areas frnni which nieasured data Iintl hecn con-
transferred to food-stuffs. Tliis is partictilarly true in sistently nvailable.
the case of stroiitiiini-90 wliicli rekains aviilable for
absorption by plant roots aiid is retained for long 8. In the present report, the Coiiiniittee has coiifined
itself to estimnting thr dnsr rnn?n~it!!!entc;!ecific~!!~
periocis iiitiie huiiian skeletoii. Present estiinateiii-' for tliose populations froni wliich sufficient iiicasure-
dicate tliat rouglily one-eighth of tlie total expecred nieiits Iiave been reported. For tlie rest of the worltl
populatioii dose diie to strontiuiii-90 had been delivered popiilntion. an upper liniit to the dose coiiiniitiiient
by tlie eiid of 1967. conipared with betweeii two-thirds has been estiriiated.
and tliree-quarters of tliat diie to the total nmount of
c;iesiuiii-137 available for (lepositioii in tlie body. On 9. Tlie Coniiiiittee fecls tlint tlie iiiicert;iiiity re~;irtl-
the other haiid, only a siiiall fraction of tlic expected ing the estiniate al)plyuig to a 1;irgcpart of tlic worI(I
population dose due to carhoii-14, tlie radio-active half- pol)tilation, thoiigli iinlikcly to Iinve caiiçed n bc*rious
life of which is niuch longer, has so kir been delivered, iinder-estimate of tlie global dose coiiimitiiient. iiiii-
and somewhat less tlian one-tentli of it will hnve been dcsirable. niid it recognizes thnt, becaiise of tlie very
delivered by the year 2000. By contrast. more thaii slow turnover of strontiuni-90 in adult boiie, it will bc
half of the contribution to the dose conimitment froin possible. hy snriipling Iitiiiiaii bone frorii those arcns of The dosecornmiirnentdsuc tointernallydepusiteWSKand 13;Csgivenforthenorth temperate
external sources has already been delivered. the world froni whicli no data have vet becti nvailable. zone are coiirideredto rcprewntupper lirnitsof the correspondingdox comrnitmenû the world
to estimate dose commitnients to the popiilntion of ~npulation.
5. As in its earlier reports, the Coiiiiiiittee Iias these areas. The Committee notes with nppreciation bAs inthe 1964and 1966reports,onlythe doits accuniulatup to yur2000 are given for14C;
evaluated comparative risks of biologicnl daniage to the that the World He;ilth Orgaiiizntion, in response to a rime, dosesfrom theothcrnuclidcswillhaveessentiallyken deliveredin full.Thetod do%
whole world population by nieans of "dose conirnit- reconini~ndation niade by the Coiiiniittee at its eigh- cornitrnentto ihegonadsand bnc rnarrow due to the14Cfrorntests upto the end of1967 is about
ments" derived from the suni of radiation doses received teenth session. is now uridertaking a liiiiited prograninie 180millirrdsand that io ccllliningbonesurfaisabout 230rnillirads.
and expected to be received by the world's popiilation of bone sanipling, the resiilts of whicli will be nvnilable cTobls have hc. I off to two significaiiftigures.
as a result of the nuclear explosions which havealready
taken lace. As ~reviouslv. dose commitments have in the near futiire.
1,eeii eitimated foi the gonadS. for cells lining bone 10. Short-lived radio-nuclides are a soiirce of radin-
siiiiaces and for the bone marrow, ns tlieje are the tion exposurc of tlie popiilntiori for a coiiipnrntivcty
tijsiies whose irradiation niay give rise to Iirretlitary >liort time followiii[:tlieir release into tlie c.iiviroiiiiicrit,
efftctj, ro bone tunioiirj and to leukirniiris, reqxctively.aiid exteriial dose3 froiii sliort-li\,etl riiiclitlcsIOIiie
Tlie Coniiiiittee lias not ninde speciiil dose ~(~iiiiiiitiitestc cnrried oiit iii 1966. 1967 3ii(1 I(KP ti;ive iiot KEQUEST
NUCLEAR TESTS

lliroshirria and Nagasnki explosions. Retliicctl average 17. Only isolated cases of malignant intracraniai
Iiead size and incrcased iiicirieiicc of niriit;il rct;irdatioii tumours of tlie nervous tissue have been rrported after
are clearly obscrved anioiig tliose exposed within 1.5 irradiation of adiilt siibjects. It seems, tliereforc. tliat
kilorrietres of tlie liy~~oceiitrebetween tlic second arid the indiiction of malignancies is iinlikelv to be a
the sixtli riiontti of iritrn-iiteririe lifc, niid tlie freqiiencv sul)staritial liazard of irradiation of tlie adult riervous
of iiieritnl rctar(lntior1 riiay also bc nl)ove iiuriiial at systeni in niaii.
grentrr dist:iriceh, wliere doses were of tlie ortler of a
Chapter III few rads. 1s. 1;iinctional aiid behavioural effects are observed
in experinicntal aninials after high doses (above 50
EFFECïS OF IONIZINGRADIATION ONTHE NERVOUS SYSTEM 12. Tlie vnliie of tliis lattcr observation is Iiriiitcd rad). 'Tliese effects include some electro-eiicephalo-
by the fact tlint tlic iiiiiiil)er of cases aiiioiig tlic off- gr;cpliic clinnges antl some distiirbances of certain con-
spriiig of woriieri irratlintrtl at low titises is cxtrenicly ditioiied reflexes. The accornplishment of tiiany tasks
1. The nervous system performs various fiinctions tion is insufficient to establish dose-effet relationships sniall aiid tlint tlie rolc of otlier factors canriot be iiivolving learriirig and perforniarice is little if at al1
in the organism. In the first place, it provides the for any of the malforniations affecting the nervous nffcctrd. Siicli changes ns Iiave been indiiced by radia-
means for relating the organism to the external en- systeiii.It is likelv that the induction oi gross nialfonna- entirely excliidrd. ii'licre tlie olil~ortiinity rxists. aiiv
vironment by means of perception through the sense additional iiivcstig;itii~iison pre-iint;illy irr;cdi;ited biib- tion disnpliear with tirne, but repeated irradiatioris with
organs and of control of the skeletal miiscles. The tions of the nervous systeni requires doses higher than jeçts arcs very tlï.iral,lr iiiiirtlrr tii ïzt;il~lidi iiirt1i:'rtlir s:inic dose tend to prodiicc grenter disturbances.
a threshold which, for niice and rats, is probably aroiiiid tlic tic~rrr of r:i~lio-ieiisitivitv of the foetiis. -1'lirre .ire I~otli ~io\itive and iiegative reports on tlie
nervous system is also the instrument bv which ini- 100 rads. 13. Siirvc-YSof eliiltlrrii \~lioae riiotlicrs wrre irrn- iiitliictioiiifsiiiiil;ir. but niiltler. fiinctioiial cliarigcs 1))'
mediate O; delayed behaviour is expressecl; and in iilan 7. Disorgariizrition of tlie cclliilar In~ers (if tlir brniii lo~v-tluscr;iclintiuii.
it is responsible for tlie most comldex intellectual cortex has been observed, Iiowever, aftcr an x-ray dose diatetl for nirtliçal rc.nsonstluring prcgrinncy Ii:ivcsliown
functions. of 20 rads adniinistered to rats on tlie sixteenth day an nss»rintrtl iricrrasr (4)Ibrr cciit ) of riinli~iinricirs, 1'). Tt is not clcar to wlint extent sucli fiinctiorinl
3. With regard to such functions iis digestioii, of pre-natal life aiitl are still aoparcrii wlieii tlie niiiiiials including rii:ili~manciesof tlic nervoiis tissiic..Tlir csccss elTccts :is Iiave 1)eeriolscrved after whole-Iiodv tloscs
respiration, blood circulation and excretion, tlie nervous reach maturity. Less pronounccd ch;inges also occur was notirr;i\ilc nfter tli>scsnssiiiiied 111\)r of tlir ortlcr of 50 rntls and al>oveare tlie priniary consccliieiicc of
system, often in conjunction with the endocrine glands, in rats after 10 rads given oii tlie first day after birth, of a fcw rads, Ijiit it carinot l)r ciitircly excliitlr~l t1i:it iI;irii;i~r to the nervoiis systern or whether thcy resiilt
it iii;iv !i;ivc l)eeri nssociatc(l \viih tlic cciii~litioiiiri tliroiii tliffcrent stiriiiili originating in. or frnni toxic
plays an esxntial regulatory role by adapting tliese but evidence of daniage disappcars progresbively as the mothér tlint ~)roiiipted tlir irradi:itiori ratliertli;iiwitli ~)rotliictsreleased by, otlier damnged tissues and systcnis
functions to the changiiig needs of the organisni ancl animal grows. Such changes have Gcen observed by the irrnilintioii itzclf. Siicli:IIIiiicrc:i.;e lias not I~rcri .~iicli:IS tlit-car(lio-\.;iwiilnr. ~n~tro-iritc.;tinalaritl eri-
thus. contributes to maintaining the constancy of the means of painstaking studies which need to be systeiiia- rcl)orteil ariioiig ziirvivors of In iilcrr~cx1)cisiirr tii tiir clocririe systrnis. Severtheless. ~vlietlierprimnrv or src-
interna1 cnvironment. This task is largely performed tically pursued at various doses and varioiis tiiiies of IIirosliiriia nii(l N;ipa.;nki I)oiiibiiigs. liiit tlie rxpectctl oritlary. tlirse effects on the nervous systern mny play
by the autononiic nervous system whose control centres irradiation and observation, and attcmpts slioiild 1)e riiinil)eof intliicetl c;isriii tlint poiiulnti»ii wns ver! n role at the doses at wliich tlie aciite radiation syn-
are located in the spinal cord and iii certain brain niade to correlate them witli the functional effects that IO\\.. tlroriie iiiay occur.
btructures. Iiave also been reported after pre-natal irradiation.
3. Reflex activity iisually involves an orderly pro- 14. .Ailiiicrr:ietl iiiciilcriçeof tiiiiioiirs ciitlic riervoiis 30. (-)liservntions are available on radiation workcrs
8. The functional impairiiient of animals irradiated tissiie lins nlho I)t.cri iil~~rrvîirin riiiiii1)crof surveys c\;linsctl in tlie pnst for n nurnber of years to averace
gression of events, naniely, an initiation of activity at pre-natally has been studied bv various methods, par- of children irr:itliatrd for riiedicnl rensoris IIIiiifaricv or Iv\.cls of rnilintiori ertirnated as being hi~her than
sensory receptors, a relay of inipulses to a neural centre ticularly in rodents. ~lectro-encephaloRr caapnhesc early cliiltlhoo(l. One of tlicse siirvvys hii~grsts thnt. cilrrrrit iiiasiniiiiri dosr levels for radiation protection.
and filial traiisiiiission to a inuscle or other effcctor. \Vliilc seem to reflect disturbances in the inhibitory fiinctiori at the tlosrs al15orl)rtj 1)v tlir relevarit tissiies. tlic in- Siit)jectivc coniplnints, siicli as headachcs nnd slecp
reflex activities are readily analysed, thc rienoiis of the cortex on lower centres. L'isiial. olfactory and tlistiirl~niicesncconipnnied by rnild and reversihle neiiro-
activity concerned with the highest integrative fiinctions distance discriininntion and otlier Irarninx procr-sses cideiice of thrse iiialiKiin;icirs is incrînsr(1 II? tlic sanie 1o:iç:il nrid cnrdio-vnsciilar ctiariges. have becn reported.
of the organism, sucli as coinplex behavioiir, arc iiiuch are also affected. Tliese cliangcs have been observed ortlrr of iiiagiiitii<le:is tlie iiici~iriiccof Iriik:crriins. 'Tlic
more difficult to assess. in ndiilt rats which Iiave receivrd tloies of tlir ortlcr sanie siirvey 1i;isal~o .;IIOH.I ;IIIincrcnse(l incicleiice of So cli;irigrs of conseqiience were ohserved nniong
srritiiis iiit~iiial clistiirliniicrs ;issociatrcl witl! l~revioiistvorkers rxpr~setl. rvrn for a niiniber of years. witliiri
4. The importance and diversity of tlicsc fiiiictioiis of 100 rads or niorc diirinc tlic sccoiirl nrid tliird wcek irratliatioii of tlir 1)rniri:iroiiritl tlir a~c of .r..yt'nrs. tlie ciirreritly ncce1)teddose liniits.
eniphasize the need for the studv of thc ctTects of of tlicir iiitrn-riteririe lifc. h,lost of flic 1)r;iiiiwnï r.;iiiiiatrtl tri Iiavc rrct-ivecl tlo\r\ 21. I<vrri nt vrry Io\\. doses. ioriiziny:rn(li;\tii\r>in.iv
ion~ziiig radiation on the nervous systeni. i2ltliough 9. Sonic stii(lit*\ of coiiditionctl rrflt-xrs. Iiowc*vcr, of :ilil~oxiii):itrl1.10 r;iils. IIowrvcr, ;iitliî rolr of n :id ns a noii-spvciîic stiriiiiliis. Evidencc of this is fountl
ultiniatelv it is the functional effects that nia! be niore Iiave bcen rel)ortcd to reflect clinri~es of Irnrniiig pro- niinilicr of v;rrinl,lrs tlint iii;iy tlicriisc-Ives Iiave cnn-
important, botli structural and functional effects need cesses at niiicli iawer doses. Siight clian~es in con- tril~iited to tIi,it exct.ss raI:t nt prc..;crit I)c n~~essctl, iiithe ~iusil)ility of iising ratliation as a conditionirig
to he studied. Investigations îf f~nctioos and struc!ure.s ditioned reflex performance have bccii ohserve(1 in the the resiiirî of fiiiiiiïr ;iii.iir\i3iif tlicïe rr:;i!:s stini!i!~ic!!!p ~!ii!i!vcf rndil!inn !c 2~;2ken. 2n .ni-?!.
have ben niostly carrier1 otit by differeiit rcsenrcliers, reqiiiretl 1)efore thr rrlntiorisliip betweeii rat1i;itioii and flic nvoitlarice ni n rntliation soiircc bv an nninial. antl
and re!ntively few attenipts at integrating tlie two adult after as little as 1 rat1 on the eighteenth d:iy of muital tlisordrrs rnri l)c cori~itlrretl as provrrl. Otlirr iiitlic f;ict tlint radiation cari serve as a visi~al or
approaclies have been made. Recause the response of pre-natal life. Tlie asscssnient of tlie relrvance of thesc siineys of I~rain-irrn(liatctl chiltlren flint nrr ciirrcritlv olf;ictorv stiriiiiliis. Cnder certain circurnstancrs. ionizing
the nervoiis systeiii is so differcrit (lepenriin: on and otlier behavioural changes for tlic problrni of rntli;itioii c:in tir perceived bv the human retina at
wliether irradiation takes place during ifs devrlnpment ri& estiiii;ition iii iiian rcsqiiircs Iwttcr kno\vlrilcr oii iii priyrrss shoiilti I)r \.ipiroiisiy piirsiied. clo.;ei n. Iow as n frw millirnds. There is no evidencc
the comparability of resiilts of .;tridirs on aiiirnals and 15. 'I'lir cviilrricr n\ nilnlilr in(liictbs tlie (:oinniittre t1i:ittliesr tlvses indiice nny injury to the sense organs
or afterwards, it is custoniary nnd convenient to con- on man. to tlraw nttpiitiori to tlic [iarticiiinr Iinzards tiint IiiaV involvetl.
sider the effects ditring these two periods in seqiience. resiilt froiii irrnilintioii of flic frrtiis ancl of cliiltlrcn.
10. Thnt severe damage to the nervous svhtcni cati 23. Tt seenis, in summary, ttiat the rnost significarit
Irradiation of the nervous system during lie indiiced in man also is showii by a ~~uiiiberof fnct crnrrging from a review of the effects of ionizing
observations of cliildren born of niothers irratliatcd for rnOinticiiion the nrrvous systeiii is the strikirig (le-
its development medical rensons during pregnancv. Doses are unkriown Irretlietion of the nrrvoiis synlem iri the etluit peiitlerice of the tvpe and intensity of effects on the
S. Observations on experimeiital ariiiiials iridicatc birt are belicvcd to have becn liiih. A nurnber of cascs
that pre-natal irradiation can produce severe develop- of rediiction of Iiead size, often acconipanicd by scvere 16. III tlic ;iiliilt, tlie r;i(lintiori tlosc rciliiirfii to nge at irradiation.-In the adiilt. ;xcrpt at extrcmelv
niental anomalies. Those of the ncrvous systeiii are iiirntal retardation, have been reported aniong these induce severe htriictiiral clianges in tlie rirrvous s)*steiii Iiigh dosrs. the effects that have been obsened, whether
chiltlren as n rcsult of irradiation from the second under conditioris of wliole-bodv irradiation is hi~iier striictiiral or fiinctional, nppear to be of sccontlary
prominent aniong them. When ttiey are serious enough. through the sixth month of intra-uterine life. EIowcver, iriiportance cornparcd to those that niay arise in other
further development of the foetus is prevented and thaii the tlosr needed to cause gross alterations of other tissiies and systems. Fiinctional reactions of the ner-
death eiisues. Anomalies of the nervoiis systeni are contrary to what animal experiments aoiild lcad one systems siicli as the jpstro-intestinal tract and of tlie voiis susteni may also appear at very low doscs (10
produced only if irradiation occurs in the period when to expect. major structural clianges of the nervoiis hamopoietic s~stern. Uiider conditions of short-terrn rad or less). However, they are of a physiological
the nervous system and its various parts are dif- system have seldom been observed, perhaps bccause irradiation, the. niedian lethal dose for nian lirs aroiind natiire. niid no damage of the nervoiis systrrn has been
ferentiating. Specific anomalies such as microcephaly. these woiild be incompatible with sufficiently long 400 rads, and death whcn it occurs is mninly diie to observed. Iri cliildren, on the other hand. the evidence
encephalocele and hydrocephalus occur in this period survival of the hiiman embryo for the damage to be the involvement of lmth of these. Sudden death pri-
only after irradiation at certain so-called critical times. detected at birth. marilv diic to the involveinent of the nrrvoiis system. siiggests that, at least with regard to the indiiction of
on tlic oihcr hnnd. occiirs after doses of the order of malignancies, the nervous tissue might hc about as
6. The frequency and severity of anomalies of any 11.. Similar observations have heen made among the several thousands of rads. susceptible as other tissues such as the thgroid and
givm type depend on the radiation dose, but informa- offsprinp: of women exposed during pregnanq to the NUCLEAH TESTS KEQUEST

blood-foriiiing tissucs. It is, however, in the pre-iiatal
life is atill extreiiielv teiiiioiis aiid does not ~)crriiit
priod that the vulnerability of tlie iiervous systeni is cxclusion of the possihility tliat increased incitlericr of
highest. There is clear evidence that. froni tlie second tlie samc effects may be a rcsiilt of exposure in tliis
to the sixth inonth of pre-natal life, doses froiii 50 lower range. Available data siigg.est that eveii low
rads onwards are associated witli increases iii meiital doses given to the frrttis Iatcr iii pregriancy niay in-
retardation and microcephaly. Evidence on the effects crease tlie incirlenccof trinioiirs of the nervous sy3tcni
of lower doses during this same period of pre-natal as well as of otlier irialig.iiancies.

RADIATION-INDU(=C EHDROMOSOME ABERRATIONSIN HUMAN CELLS

1. The cells of any given species have a character- man. These studies have been made possible through
istic number of chromosomes, and each chromosome the development of simple and reliable techniques for
has a characteristic structure and size. Chromosomal culturing human cells in vitro and through the applica-
changes visible by some form of light microscopy are tion and refinement of cytological techniques previously
called chromosome aberrations. Thcse ,can he separated utilized by plant cytogeneticists.
into aberrations involviiig changes III striic!iirc-the 6. As a result of the developments in human cyto-
chronwsome structural aberrations-and those irivolv- genetics, it has become possible to make observations
ing changes in the nuniber of chromosomes. Since on chromosome aberrations induced in human cclls
chromosomes contain genctic material, the various types both in vivo and in vitro. Studies have bcen carried
of chromosome aberrations may result in genetic effects. out on individuals exposed to radiation in the course of
2. In man, ns in al1 other animal and plant species, their work or for diapostic or therapcutic purposes,
chromosonie aberrations are to be foiind with low
frequencies in both soniatic and germ cells of in- as well as on individuals who had becn exposcd ac-
dividuals in populations that have not been exposed to cidcntallv or as a consequence of nuclear explosions.
radiation over and above natural background levels. In addition, a considerable amount of work has hccn
Such spontaneous aberrations are clianges tliat riiav. undertaken on the responses of human chromosomes
in some cases. he transriiitted to descendant cells. In in cells exposed to radiation in vitro. Thcse stiidics
Iiave shown tliat the human chromosome coniplement
other cases. the changes are so Rross that tliey result is sensitive to radiation and that it is possihle to detret
in the clenth of the cclls containiiig.them. Clearly there effccts following x-ray doses as low as 10 rads de-
are <lifferencesbetween the relative importance of sucli lirered to substantial proportions of the body in a
changes in somatic as opposed to germ cells. short pcriod of timc.
3. Chroniosomc aberrations in human Cern1 cells
are associated with and iiiay be resi)onsible for a con- In vitro studies
siderable proportion of spontaneous abortioiis and,
where tliey are conipatit)le witli viability. far variety 7. The blood leucocyte culture systerii offcrs ;I
of congenital abiic~rriinlitics.Iiidecd, as discussed in the means of experimenting on freslilv obtained huniari
1966 rcport, it lias bern estiniated that one child out cells which cnn be easily and painlessly collected iri
of evcry 200 livr-barn has n constitutional chroniosorne. lar~e nunibers without any adverse effect on the <lori(ir
anonialv responsible for a gross physical or niental and are amenable to short-term culture. iising rclatively
abnornii~lit~.Tlie iniportarice of chromosome aberra- siniple techniques. The obvious advantages offercd bv
tions iri somntic cclls is less clear, althouRh there is this system for studies on the in zitro rcsponsc of
evidence that one particular kind of chromosome hiiiiiaii cells to radiation exposiire tiave ken exj)loite~l
I anomaly may be causally related to the development by a nuniber of groups of workers, and a considerablc
of hunian chronic grniitilrii:vi!îükam:a. Qn !he ^!hm arnoiint of data on radiation-induced chromosome aber-
i hand, iii nornial liealthy individiials peripheral blood rations :n such ceiis has been obiaincù.
: lymphocytes iriav occasionally contain a chromosome
! 8. A variety of studies have bcen carried otit ori
1 aberration (less ilinri one in 2,000 for one spccific type the infli~enceof various factors, includin~ radiation
of aberration). In itself the presence of such aberrations quality, dose. dose rate and time of sampling, on the
appears to l)e of iio coriscquence to the well-bring of yield of radiation-induced chromosome aberrations in
the indiridual. hunian pcripheral blood cclls. In gcneral. it has bccn
4. Exl~osure to radiation niay restilt in an incrense foiintl thnt. for any ~iven set of factors. there exist;I
in tlir niimber. \iiit iiot in the variety, of chromosomal qiiantit7:ive relationship bctween the yield of aberra-
1 aberrations. Thcse at~errations are clearly of genetic tions and dose. as has been obscrved in al1 othrr
i importance aritl tlicy rrinv. in fact, cornprisc the niajormammnlian and non-mammalian cell systenis tliat havt.
i cornnonent of thr grnctic dama~c resultinr froni radia- been studied.
tioii'cxposure. TI~IIS n .considernble aniiiint of work 9. A1rhough studies in various laboratorics on tilt.
has been carried out on tlic mectianisins whereby such rrlationsliip between aberration yield and dose Iiavr
aberrations are induce(11)vradiation, on the behaviour shown tliat separatc experimeiits virld conqistent rcsultî.
of the aberrant chroniosoiiiesat cell division and on the significarit differences have been observed betwrrri
gerietic consqiicnct.c.of ttie aberrations.
iaboratories. EIowevcr, it is iiow clcar that tlie mairi
S. Until rclatively recently, most of this work had factors contributing to the quantitative differenrel
kn carried out on orpanisms that wcre partic<ilarly lietween tlicse results are (a) diffcrences in the qualitv
well suited for cytological study, because they ps- of the radiations employed; (b) the use of irradiatcd
sessed small numbers of rathcr lar~e chromosomes. ciiltures as opposed to the irradiationof hld cellsru
j Howevcr, in the last dccadc. and particularly ovcr the vitro prior to culture and (c) the use of different diira-
last four or hve years, a considerable amount of study tions of culture. When these factors are taken into
i has been devoted to the induction of abcrrations in account, close agreement betwecn different laboratorici
! 108 NUCLEAR TESTS

is evident. However, further standardisation of methods ngarding the relationship between chromosomeaberra- gnnulwytic leulumia. Knowlcdge of an incraud fre-
tion froni the nuclear ucplosioii twenty-two years pre- quency of chromosome aberrations in the peripheral
is highly desirable to ensure better comparability. viously. These estimates are in reasoiiable agreenient tions and these effects. Although life shortening and blood lymphocytes of an irradiated individualdocs not
10. This work has great importaiice because of the with indirect estimatesof exposures obtained by physical acute immunological deficiency may be induced by enable us to make any quantitative statenient regarding
possible use of dose-yield relationships established in methods. radiation, the part played by chromosome aberrations, the risk of developing neoplastic diseases, immunolo-
vitro in attempts to estimate radiation doses absorbed 15. It may be concluded that studies to date indicate other than by contributing to ceIl killing in the case
in uvo and as an indication of their likely biological that scoring of chromosome aberrations in tlie lynipho- of immunologicaldeficiency, is by no means clear. gical defects or other clinical conditions. For the time
importance. In theory, dose estiniates can be obtained cytcs of circulating blood is a potcntially important 20. Information on the yields and types of being, estimates of risk of somatic discases must,
with this technique through the study of chromosomc- some aberrationr in sonlatic cdls does net as yet pro- therefore, remain hrgcly based on empiricd relation-
aberration yields in the exposed individuals aiid extra- biological adjunct to physical dosimetru. .Sl)eci;ildif- -,ide us with a new approach to, or better estimates ships between doses and observed incidences in groups
ficultirs, however, arise in the irradiations restrictcd of, risl<s exccpt in the one spccific case of the Ph1 of irradiated people, as were the estimates carlier ob-
polation to cquivalent yields obtained in vitro under to parts of the body bccaux of the niixiric of lvnipho- chromosome change which correlates with chroiiic tained by the Committce.
defined conditions of exposure. .finumher of labora- cytcs froni in-adiatedantl iiiiirradiatctlIxirt, olutl!.
tories have had a good measure of success in estimating Thus. this method only reflects an average etTectuimn
radiation doses in accidentally exposed individuals by lymphocytes irradiated in differcnt parts of ttie botly.
the use of this "chromosonie-aberration dosinietry" Fiirtlier data are urgently required to improve the
approach. Howe\-er. there are a niiniber of important validitv and broaden the field of applicatioii of this
problms. particularly in relatioii to problem3 of non- inetliod.
homogeneous expsurcs of the body. At the prcscnt
time. it scems clear that the use of chromosomc abcr-
rations in biological dosiinetry may have coiisiderablc Posrible biologicil rignificince of ihr ahcrraiionr
ptential, but much work remains to1)edone.
16. The possible biologicalsignificaiice of chromo-
some aberrations present in germ cells has been the
In vivo itudies siihjcct of continucd review by the Cominittee. and
the-views expressed in the 1966 report are still Iargcly
11. Studies on peripheral blood lyiiiplicrytrs froiii valid. There are no direct observations yet on the
patients exposed to diagnostic x rays and from radia- genetic consequences of radiation-induced chromosome
tion workers receiving long-terni irradiation have. in aherrations in the germ cells of man, although infor-
somecases, clearly revealed significantincreases in aber- ination on the gtnetic consequencesof radiation-induced
ration yields after doses of tlie order of a few rads. chromosonie anomaliesin laboratory mammals is avail-
The ability to detect such effects at low doses is a nhlr and was reviewcd in detail in the 1% report.
consequence of the relatively high sensitivity of the Fiirther stiidy on human meiotic cells is clcarly neces-
human chromosome complement,of the Iiigh quality of saru. pnrticiilaily in order to provide better estimates
cytological preparations from lyniphocytes and of the of tlie sporitaneous frcquency of translocations iii man
very low frequency of spontaneous chroniosorneaberra- zintl;i txtter uiiderstanding of their geiietic conse-
tions insuch cells. (luences.

12. To relate aberratioii vield to radiation dose in 17. .4t the soniatic levcl,the interest of chromosome
vivo, data obtained over a range of exposures. pre- aiioiiialies results nininly froni their possible role in
ferably under standardized conditions, are desirable the causatioii of iiialignant changes. with ivhich thcy
but rarely obtainable. A nitniber of studies, however, nre frcqiiriitly associated. Siicli a role is. ho\ve\.cr, still
have ken carried oiit on individiials irradinted nt iinclear. Onlv in the case of chronic myeloid leukamia
varioiis dose levels antl uiider various conditions eithrr dors tlie cviilrtice strongly irnplicate a spccificchrorno-
as a resiilt of accident or for tlierapeiitic piirposes. The.;nirit=:il)erration (the Ph1 chromosome) as playing a
integral absorhcd dosehas been estimated froiii nberra- sigriificaiitrole in the initiation of the disrase if cells
tion yields in some of tlie stiirlieson individiials ncci- bvitlithis aberration are prcscnt in the bonc marrow.
dentally exposed. sonietimcswith good ngreenirnt'with .4lthotigh itispossil)lethat other specihc cliromosome
mcasiireinents obtained h!. plivsical nieaiis. abnornialities coiild l)c associated with oiher tvms of
neoplastic change. the evidence is teniious. whereas
13. Evaluation of the dose uiider tlicse coii~litioiis the presence of a wide varietv of chromosotnc nberra-
is fraught witli uncertainty since. althoiigh the cells tions iriiiiost tiimoiirs and their coniplete nhscncc in
(small lymphocytes) that are sanipled for stiidyinp: sonle othcis arpies against a siiiiple caiiul rclation-
aberration yields are widely distributed tliroiighoiit tlie ship. Chroiiiosomc aberrations mav wcll 1w phenomena
body. they tend to migrate so that only a small pro- tliat are secondary to. and could he independciit of,
portion is to be found in the periplieral hlood at any the neoplastic change, although it is clear that most
one tinie. Thus. in the case of short-term partial-body
exposure by radiation of a given qitalitv. the aberration agents and conditions that produce chromosomc aber-
yield observed in the cells sampled will depend upn a rationsalso cause tumours.
variety of factors, including the volume irradiated. the 18. The incidence of chromosome aberrations and
proportion of small lymphocytes in the exposed volume that of tumours both increase with increasing dose,
and, since thete is considerable mixing between lym- but the relationship between the two effects is com-
phocytes in different tissues. the time at which blood plex. Altlioiighthere is some correlation between radia-
is sampled after exposure. Similar difficulties arise in tion-induccd chromosomeaberrations and malignancies,
cases where limited areas of the body have becn ex- it is a matter of observation that, of the individuals
poxd to radiation for medical purposes, and blood exposed to low levelsof radiation and who have aber-
samples are taken at short defined intervals aftcr rations in many of their cclls, very few manifcst malig-

urposure. nant disease.
14. Because at lcast some of the cells sampled for 19. The considerable interest in the possibility that
aberration yiclds are long-lived, it has reccntly been radiation-induced chromosomc aberrations may con-
possible to obtain dose estimates from blood cells of tribute to life shortening and to immunological defi-
survivors of Hiroshima who had been exposed to radia- ciency has not so far rcsulted in any clear conclusions NUCLEAK TESTS

Annex8
14. lodine-131 is a radio-nuclide that poses special dose5 received from these sources. Technolopical ad-
EXTRACT FROM REPOI~ OTF THE UNITI~D NATIONS SCIEN~.II-IC C(.)~I~ r.I1:~ vanccs may make it possible to rcduce these expected
Y problcms hccausc it is conccntratcd in thc thyrciid and
on: T~IE EFI'ECT 0S1: ATOXIIC R,II)IA.I.ION irradiatcs thiit gl:ind more than any othcr tissuc. the doscs considerably.
(GA, OR, 27th Session, Supplcmciii No. 25 (A/87?5). 1972) 1 doses Fr unit intnkc (mnstly throuph milk) bcinc
highcst in infants. Ttic prissencc of iodinc-l? l in rnilk
1 has bcen rcp<irtr<l in a nilnihcr of coi~ritrics of thc
Clinpier 1 19. Kuclear cxplosivcs have a virtually unused
/ suuthcrn hcniiiphcre aftcr c:icli of the I9iO .ind IV71 potcntial for pcaccful applic;itioris. Thosc that have
series of tc\ts IIIttic souilicrri Iic~mi\phcrc. 'Ttic ;innual
SOIiRCES AKL)DOSES OF R:iI)J:iTION avcr;ige Jo\~~ 10 the itiyrciid\ of inliints \r.crc of the .\orne prc>\pccts of bcirig dcvclopcd in thc ncar future
A. ENVIROS~IFNTAL RADIATION^ ordcr of sevcrnl tcns of iiiillirlid~ :irid flic hi-hc\t ;irinunl iirc thc rccovcry of underground nntural rcsourccs (par-
iriillirad~ pcr !car froni cxtcrnal and iiitcrnril tcrrc\tridl ticii1:irly n;iiur;il gns ;ind oil) or the provision of under-
I . Nurrrr(i1rtrdilirion rodiiiiicm. rc\pcctivcly I>o~cr;iics highcr hy .in orclcr i doscs rcni;iiricd ni.irbcdly Io\r.cr ihiin tho\c reportcd III '~roiind stnrapc cnvities hy containcd explosions. and
(if rn;ipnitii(lc rire rcccir~,tl hy ~icipul;iiion\ (a fctr tiuri- the nortlicrri ticmispticrc bcforc 1003. ihc coiictriiction of rcccrvoirs. hnrhours. can;ils. etc.
3. Man h;is hccn continuciu\l! cxpc:scd to natiir;il drcd IIi()u\and ~>coplc)Ii\inc in ;irc:i\ ulicrï \ilil.h~tc 1
(b) ~'OKYT protliccric>n/rom riic<.lt,urfisiori t>y c~ploitinr thc carth-moving effcct of subsurfiice
r~diation sincc hiç appcaransc on c,:rih ;ind. iintil Ic,s hi~h c.ibnicnt of iir;iiiiuiii .iriJ thi~riiiiii 1 criitcring cxplo~inns. Hoth typa of explosion5 poten-
than ;i ccntury ayo. w;i\ cxpo\ed to natiir;il r.idi~ticin 15. 1nrgc-scalc prodiiction of clcctric po\r.cr hy rinl!v in\.olvc p~ipiilatinn cxpnsurc. associated rnostlv
only. tJvcn now. dc\pilc the witleninp iisc (II'riidi~lioii- 2 ,~IIJII.~VIJ ~/I -1rt1r111riitl(i1~(II/~(~II~II: uith the radio-;ictivity of the rcsourccs rccovcrcd in
produciiig dcvicc\. rlic widcspr~;id rii~lio-activc con- nuclcar li\\ion prc\iipy<)\cç ;i c\clc of cciniplcx opera-
tanlinrition froiii nuclcar wçapon [lsqls ;!nd [llc ilicrc;i\- (il) ~/~l~~~~/~/l (~lll(\r(f\tl<ifiid(/l'(ifl\t'ti[~cJr;\/\ tionc. nio5t of uhicli in\olvc so;iic (Ii\cti.ir~c*s (if r:iilio- ilrie c<i\c. :incl wiih tlic rclc:isc of radin-iiciivc miitcrial
i~cti\c iiiaicri;il to ttic eri\:rorirni.iit .iiid .ici)rr~~cporidirig 10 th', cri\.ircinrnsn! in the othcr. Thcir practical ;ipplica-
ing ;~pplic;itinnç iif nuclcar '.ncrpy alid radio-isoti)lr\. 1 1 ,,f niiclc,lr ir,iiilrI ~ , ~h~t.ri iir.,l.lj d ~ n t i r of ilc I I I I 11 I r 1tic fion\ \\III proti.iblv rcqiiirc intcrnation;il :igrccnicnts to
natural hourccï arc the niJin contributor\ IO the [lie l:l,t lL.w!L..lr\ a Illuch I,,,,\~.~ r;ltc.ll~;l,,,~Llrlli~ cxpo\urc< t1i.11 II~IVL r~,\t~ltcil 1.1r :iiitIIII:I\ r.:\~iIt ln cn\iirc tlic rrolccticin of tlic piiblic.
radiation csposure of rno\t of thc hiiiiiiiri pol)iil.iiiori
and iirc IrhcIy to rcrI1;iin 50 in ~hc fc)rc\cc~hlc firturc. carllc.r rerl,,Ll, 1 e;lrrlc.il oLlt l,ef,lri. l,,, 3 \,l;l tht fiitiiri-Irorii ~~l~cr,~ittiii.~illi~~li.ir~c\ttir,lii~lioiit the O ,ltlci:iilccl c\.:ililation of iirtilicinl radio-nctivity
rc.l,rc,cnt hl faIr ttlt. t.vi. tc.,l,~lne1,, worI~I t~.~\: tTi.~.ric<t:i\lilir:,l 1)' IIIC('~VIII~~IIIoLn*~th . e in ~ti~.n;itiir;il c.i< rcc(ivcr~~cfIroni thc fir~tc~pcrimcntal
O. Natur'il r;idiation is of two origins. cxtr;ircrrcs- glob:il r:lclic;-.icii\L.sc~nt;;niin;iticin I{ciwc\rr. the dcbris h;i\ih of ~l~il~li\li~ ii~~Iiiiiitiiiiior i>f iiiti!riii il:isriilirrctly ic~~~t,iiii~c(xl pli)-ic~iih.is indic;itcil thnt. if thc C;I\ hnrl
trial ;irid tcrrc\trial. Extr,itcrrc\trial racli;itiori ori~incitc\ lh.!t thi.\i- l..\l-li.~(lirilcc ti*tlirito ~tr.~t~~~~~lic~ !.I< suhm~~:~tl tki tIii-(~~~I~II!IIIIL~ ~'tiiIL. \\~~li ii~I~~rrii.i~ion l>i:i.i~iritro\liic~xliriio tlic di~trihiitinn nCtuiirk thnt ciip
in outcr spiicc iis priiiiary cosinic rays and rclichcs tlic bccn iil!iio\~ ~.i~iircI>(IL.~II\IILY $i~n IIICc.ir111'~ \IIIS~IL~ W;I\ .~:.iil.~Iil~ 11~1~11 b'lll! .I IL,\\ il: '1.: c.>iin~riï\ in
\O tliiit riio\l of thc r~\i(lii.i!. i~riili~~,i\~~ .ili~ .ILII\II\ p!ti... !::i11,ttir 7 niillion inh;ihitant< (if ilic I.oc t\n<elcc.
atnio\phcrc. with which ihc incominp cncrgy ;ind parii- \r.hi~ti 1~o\\~r~c..IcI~~I.~ I~L. III IIIW~.IIIIII~. I!:~.I~ 1'; no ( .ilit~~riii,fl :Sh ) ;irea. thcv uoiilil tiiivc r~.ccivcil a
clcs intcriict, giving ri\c IO wcondary cosniic r;iv\- frori~ c.irlicr tc.i\ 1, riiiu I>rc.,crii III \OII t.rilIl\ .111,1 rcsauin 10 li~~I~:\ ~~1!II!IL ~*III~LJ~.III~,I\l>~,\iirc.I\\OL~I,II~~ Jo\L. of I!I(. cir~l~.~of ii fcw 1i.n thi>tic;indihs of th;it
ihose IO whiçh living hcin~, on the c;irtli's curf;icc arc ;iniiii:~Iti\\iic\. Iri~rii nh~ct~ II I\ \IC;ILIII\r~.ni,~\~.,ltv uitli tli~ r>i*c\.: ~)ioil~i~tiiiiic!iic. ~1i1Ici\ iii.~rAcill~ iri rccci\i.d :iiiiiii;illy froni n3tiir;il soiirccs The cxplo<ive
exposed. The rate at which do\cç froni co\riiic r,Iy\ :I niiriihcr of pti)\ic;il ,iri~II~II~II~IL .IIc~.ti.ini~iii~ .\\ othcr c~~urii tL.\ '1 /IL. ',~:IIII~IIIL I*;L. II~~I rc.\ic\\e{l the ii\cd IIIil~iccxpcrimcrit h:id not bccn designcd for ras
;ire dclivcrcd is fairlv con\tant JI anv one point on the I:I !tic p;~\t. ~tlc ~'~~IIIIIIIIIL~h~i\\ rct~~.wi.(lthe ~~tiriirit~ii- ci~iit.iriiiiiirtiiitti.itiii.i! rc\iilt frorii fiiiurc .iccidcntiil
ticin iiiadc h' ilic r;i~lic~~iiiiiliilep ~r~<iJu~c(l h? iiiicl~..ir \iiniiil;ition. howcver. and it is to hç c~pectcd thnt the
earih's surface but varie5 with latitiidc 2nd. in :i grcatc.r rel~~:\~,\of ~ . I ~ I ~ I ~ty,I ~ ~ I \ ncw c~plo\i\c\ that art now hcinp dcvcloped uill m;ikc
cxtcnt. with altitude. Typical \aluc\ ;II 4r.3 lcvcl 1.1 tc\t\ to the iot.~l .i\cr,ig~~do~L~~ t1i.11 NIII iic<.riic. 11) In the fi111 procliisiii~iicycle---frorn niininc and itpo~sihlc IO lccp contaniinntion to cuch Inw Ic\cls
tcnipcrate latitudes are of the orcler of 70 niilliratl\ per ccrtiiiri tii\uc\ b) ttic ?L.I~ ~(MJ~J 16 ili;it di,tritiiition of cn\ for indiistrial and cven Jvmcetic
ycar. As thc altitu(1r' incre:i\cs. tfo\t. ritte\ approxi- millins of ci:< IO fiicl f;ihric.itiori ;inil cririiliriicnt, to
pntvci rrtvcl:iL [II III irc..ic[t>r\;irid firi:illIO rL\prt~cc\sing çoncumption rnay hcconie justifiable.
ni;itcly doublc evcry 1.500 riicircs up tu CItïw hilonictrci of spc..ii fiiïl- ftii. I,i\t t\vo opcr:iiion\ ;Irl. at prcwnt 21. Crntcrinc exploçions. bv thcir vcry nnlure,
ahovc carth. thc ni;ilri coritrihiitor\ IO [tic iot.11popi~I~iti~.~droiw rc- ;iiw;iyç invc>lve-;it least çomc ventine of radio-activity

1O. Spcciiil prijhlcni\ >iri\c \<ith .~ircr;ift Il! 111s ;II sultinp froni nii~.lc;irpnu,cr prodiictiiln, Iair~clybcciiuse into th? ;itrnospherc. Few h~vc bcen c,irried out ex-
higti ;iliitudcs. In tti.11 cri\c. riiitonly i\ thc ciikniic-r.i> of cicciip;~ti~iii;iclxptj\iirc 01 worki.rc in ttic\c. two parts pcrinicntnllv so far, but one has bccn uscd in the
r;~Ic ccin\i\t~.ntly hiplicr ih,in at 1ou.i.r .iliituJ.,. of thc cycle. Sovict I;niiin for the crcation nf a wnier reservoir.
hiit it rii;i! .il\().on r;irl* .iic.iii(iri\. \iidtli.ril\ ri\c .i\ ;i Ciirrcnt tcchnology may make it pcrrniçsiblc t» use
17. Tlic cxpo\iirc of ttic pci~~iil;itioi iq tiotti Ioc;il. to cr;itcring explosions for small projccts in iqolntcd nreas.
cciri\cclii~.ric~o-f the ctrii\siciri 111 Iii~Ii-i~ri~~r~~\xtriri.lc.. liniiicd ~~o(~iil.itr~~lriivsing iii itic prii.tiriiity of iiiiclear
fr(1111\oliir Ili~rcc .l.hc J~i\c r.itc\ ri~.i\. OII ,ic~~.!\ioii.hc insl;ill.?iiori\. ;iiid glohlii !tlo5t of the popul;itinn ex- For hipger ones. the snfcty of the ppulntionç living
<~.~!!i(:irntl~li~gh !O rn:t!iitr,1ht: :lirI.if1 rt\ L! l.~~ntIiiito posurc i\ ert~-rnal. frorii ~:.i\ciiiiçdi<;cli;~rgcsthroiigh thc riciir. the. \itc of the projcct. as wcll nç long-range con-
the Iowcr proi~~cii\c I.i!c.i\ 01 [tic. :lti!io\iiticr~. in ortlcr \II liiueii it)~$ciI;I.~II CI ;L.L\\L~I!\ .I;:~J;I.I\ ~I,SI$!ii ,.*$,,- ..1.1.....1.1..13.:e p~~verfu! !imi!inp facti~rc. and will
Io prcvcnt iin;icccl~t,ihlcc\liti\iirc\ of cru\\ .~i>~ip;~\\~ii- \11>1c 10 i.\.1111.112IllOlr ri~.lll.iiIII\ ~Ili. I.iti.\;Il Ut11\.tl st;ick\. ~IICI~.! I Ics\cr cciritr~hiit~oiiis niiidc hy dis- rc\trict thc use of thcsc proiccts unlcss thcy arc over-
t111\ ii11~11.l;1, I.I~.CII 1ro111 \<III\ ,111~1 1.~~Ii:iii~i.~i~~,l chiirgcq ~tirt\ii;li Iii~u~ilcllliicnts. (;loI>,il closcq to bc c.onie hy m;ijor tcchnolngical advanccs.
gcr\ 'I'hc crcw\ of \iipcr~oiii~ ir;in\porf\ .iirl~i~rnc*1t:r ~I(\~II IIIC ~LIIII,II~tlt~~t~ I~L.\L- lil~rL~ lr~llllI I I ~ I , ~ , rcccirc(l .iiirii.;illy l>y thc gcncrnl piihlic nc ;i rcsiilt
mort: ~!I.III500 hiiiii- 1h.r VL,;I: JI h~i-11~IIII~~IJ:~II~.,:! 111;ii 1h~.~*~IIII~I~!I~ il.~Ilc .~li\int.< ilf i111t.iti.\t1111,iii.\ of the cciniiriiicil ol~cr.iti~iriof thc cncrgy prol.liic.tic>n
IatitiiJc~ will probiibly rcccibc cxpti\ur~.\ ~.l:iicuh.it cyclc nt thc. 1070 priidiicticin rnic ;ire c<tini:itcJ to hc
highci. ih;in thosc rcccivc~tity itic c.rcw\ (lf L.iirrilii kiih- 1l.itl 1.11.!.~.kIS~~. lll~l lL.illlt!L~..!l!~l.!l ~f tlo~:~ c,~lll
soriic jets. Passcn~cr do\cs pcr hilonictri~ flin\i; ;lTL. iiiit~::~.~it\III,I~!,.ti1,111hilk~. L.I.:,I I'! III\.('~~~II~I~III'.~ onc hiiriilrcd tli~~ii~.indilic~ftlic ;ivcr.igc do\c rcec.irid 72. Radiation is uqcd in mcdicinc for dinpnnçtic
III II\ l,n\t I L ~ ~ I('t)iis.b*rkL.l\ .lL, l~~ l~~ ~~ ~II[;l*\~irii;~l ;innu:illv bv thc wcirltl popiildtion froni riariiral 5i)iircce purpnsec and for the trcatmcnt nf dicenses, particularly
IiLcly io hc 3bo111 the \;iri~cin -i!pcr\iuii< tr ,ii\pi~ir .i\ ~III\L,. 1,' ,111 II,\II,%\frtiiii 1.11 ,)III (t,~~i~~\it~ ,)tI Loc.:il cl\,~cs c.111hc ss\cr;il tinics higher thnn global c:inccr. Thc local dnces rcceived by individual patients
in convention;il jet airçr;ifi (,\vint! IO ttic shi)i~cr fii~ht yri~iin,i 1: I\:. 1101~ t~cc~rri~*\i.i>\l~ipu.ir,I\ ,\, .I r~,,i~lt oncs.
tirnc of itic supcr\cinic tr,iri\port\. in the cnursc of diagnostic invcstipations rnav Vary
.iIlht~~iyli!!IL,t~it;~liii\i.ri1iir!t,r !or< II\L.,Iiiii~.I~\l~ *ili IH E\ccordinp to cstirnatcr prcnidcd bv the Intcr- frnrn hcing about equal to the avcragc doscs rcceived
I I. Tcrrcctrial radi;ition ir crnltic,l froiii r;idi~-,icti\~, 1 '. l 1 c i 1 i l 1 1 I I . [Ili natioiinl Atoriiic Ilncrp Agenc~. thc world gt.ncr;iting ;innii;illy froni natural sources ( - 0.1 rad) to 50
nuclidcc prcscnt in v:ir>ing :iniourit\ in ;III \()il\ nnll rt.l;iii\c iiiipoil:iiic~<of ~ir~~i:iiiiiri-90;I\ :I i~oritritiiiii~r timcs as high. Radiation treatrnents. on the other hand,
rocks. thc ;itriinsphcrc and tlic hydrotphcrc. iind froiii :II\to1.11('(l\c t11bc r~>cci\~* t\ ili~ \:.;Ir 2(tOO i\ l i a \ \ cap;icity uill incrc;i\c fiiiirc ttian two huridrcdfold b~
the y:ir l(100. Witli currcnt trchncilogy ;irid nper;itional niav involve individual doses thousands of tinics higher
tho\c rii~lio-nucliilcc th.11. tr;inhfcrrc~l IO iiian throiieli 1Ii;in iri the pii\t. the riinin coiiiri1ii111:~nhi-in,! IIII.~ praçticï. if the niiclc;ir p>wcr prodiiction wcrc to etabi- than ttiose rcceived for diagnostic purposes anti are
food chainc or hv inhal;ition. arc dcpoiited in hi\ froiii tIio\c ni!clidc~. in ~i.irticiil:ir c.ii\iiiiri-137. ~ti:ii li7c ;il ttic cctim;itcd Icvel rcachcd hy the yc:ir 1000. iisiirillv dclivcrcd over several wecks to pan of the body
tiscucs. Terreetrial radio-activitv. th~,rcforc. I\.aJ\ tli gibc riw to cxtcrnal irr:idi:itioii. -i'h~\ rcit;ilpcr ctirlrtr anriuiil ginhiil r;idi;iticindosCsfrnni tlic piiwcr-production only. both for diagnosis and for therapy. irradiaticln is
both cxtcrnal and intcrnal cxpn\urc. I7xtcrri:il do\<* docc IO hc rcccivctl hetuccii 1()75 ;inil 2000 bv I!:~ niostly extcrnal. but an increasing number of radi*
wliolc worlci population froni icst\ c;irri~~Jcuit Iictu~.cri cycle rniptit t\c;is high nç twn th~iiis:inrlths ('if thn\e
rates Vary depcnding on the naturc of the groiind and reccivcd ;inriii;ill~froni natural coiirceï. Thc rnngnitude loeical procedures nnw involves the administration of
of building iriatcri;ils. whcrcar interniil doic r;itcc arc lQFq nntl ihc cnd of 1970 is cilui\.ilciit to iit>iiut tuo of the ;ivcrnpc iricrciise in the Incal doscs is more radio-active materials which result in intemal irradia-
relativcly constant. The large\[ part of the worlil popu- ycnrk of cxpo\iirc Io n.itiiral <,iiircLbstlo\vc\cr. \iricts diflicult IO prcJict for tlicsc dcpcnA un thc pcipul;ition tion.
lation rcccivcs dose ratcç of tlic order of 50 ;ind 20 nucl~.;ir wcapons icktc ti:ivc ni31"cc;iscd in 107 1. il density as wcll .iq ori the oiitpiit of thç in\tiillntion\. biit
- . - - - . ... cannnt hc cxcliidctl th;it*a furthcr tlticc cciniriiitnicrit 23. The mciin doses received by the popiilation
niust hc addcd. doscs.tci hc rcctivcd ariniiiilly as a rcsult of continiicd arc determincd by a combination of the doxs deliv-
4 For detailm. see anncx A pwcr production at the lcvcl cstiriiated for the ycar
2000 are unlikcly to cxccçd grclitly the annual global a For details. xe annex B. 112 NUCLEAR TESTS

ered by the individual procedures and the number of of their day-to-day work, (b) the clinical staff that pre-
cases in which thcsc procedures are applied. In the
scribe investigations involving radiation and (c) the
10 years since the Comrnittee last reported on this general public and the development of an awareness
topic the frequency of diagnostic radiological examina- of the need for radiation protection. The provision of
tions bas increased by a few per cent per year in a educational training programmesand the establishment
number of technologically advanced countries, as more of some administrative control may be rnuch more
facilities for medical carc became available and ncw important than dose sunfeys, particularly where ra Chapter II
developments in techniques and instrumentation have sources are limited.
been introduced. The aim of medical radiology is to
provide maximum benefit to the population served, CENETICEFFECTSOF RADIATIOIL'"
and therefore an increase in frequency of examinations C. OCCUPATION EXPLOSURE~
28. Individuals may be exposed to radiation in the 32. The genetic material consists of chroniosomes 35. Dominant gene mutations are exprcssed in the
is likely to be fully justified, particularly in the develop- course of their occupation. In industrially developed -microscopically visible structures within ccll nuclci- first-generation dcscendants of an irradiated population.
ing countries. Since it is probable that a large propor- Thcre is evidcnce suggesting tha: inman about 1,000
tion of the world population does not have easy access countries the number of persons liable to receive rndia- and genes-the functional units of which the chromo- gencs may contributc to this category. Thc estiniatcd
to modem x-ray facilities, the number of such facilities tion exposures in the course of thcir work is rcported somes art. composed and which cannot be distinpui\hed
must increase greatly if local health standards are to be bctwcen one and two per thousand of population. microscopically. Although thcsc structures are prescnt rate of induction of dominiint visible niutations in the
to improve substantially. Close adherence to the rcconimendations of such bmlics in al1 body çells. only those in the reproductive cells huinan male exposed to low doses of irradiatiun is
as the International Conimission nn Rallinlogical Pro- are transmittcd tn the fcrtilizcd nvuni (the 7vpotc) two pcr rad pcr niillion descendants.
24. Most survcys of medical exposure havc been tection, the International I.abour 0rganis;ition. the and Iiencc froni one generation of indiviiliials into ttic
concerned with doses to the reproductive cells. Because World Hcnlth Organiziition iiritl the Intcrnationd next. When the reprtdtictivc cells arc irratliiitcd. changes
such doscs, when rcccivcd after coniplction of a per- Atomic Encrgy Agcncy cnsurcs itiat iiiost workers rc- mny bc produced in ihc geiics or in the chriiriio\onics
son's reproductive life, will makc no contribution to ceivc vcry low cxposurcc. and tli;ii vcry fcw wiwkers of thcw celle ;incl \iihsciliirnily rr;irisriiiirctl 10 ttic 36. Spontancn~~l~cxcurring chrcinii>\oiiic aticrr.i-
genetic effects in subsequcnt gencrations, individual desccnilant\ of ihc irriiJiaicd iiidivittiiiil. Ilic~.cpcnciic
dose cstimatcs are weightcd by the child expectancy of excecd the reconiniended niaximiirii perniissible closes. iioii\ arc ,I fourcc of cc)n~iil~r;iblchumiin h;ird\hip.
the patient so as to obtain an cstimate of the "gcnc- The maxinium pcrniisçiblc annuiil close to the whole changes arc of clifl~.rcrirLincl\: ((1) gcnc rriiii,iitii;i\ \iiicc. ihcy J~C rcspori\~hIc for ;i large fr,ictioiitif ~ill
tically-significant dose". The estimates so obtained body is about 50 tinics ttiat rcccivcd froni natural Le., ;ilicratioris III ihc furictioii of iiidiviilii.il Iicnc\: sponiaiicoiis riiisc.irriagcs.c,>ngcnit.ilni:ilforniiiiic~n\.ind
sources. (h) chroiiicisoiric ;iherraii~ins rc\uliing friiiii brciik.ipc nicnt,il ariilj>h!\,c.ililcfccts. For in\tancc. rhc pos\c\\ion
Vary for different countries by a factor of almost 10 ;ind r~.orgiiiii/;iiitiic,f ihc clironii~siirii~~. .iiiiI ii ) (if iiriidtli~ioniil,III,II/~.)ir!)ino\i>(niir:it>ir2 l) lc.icl\
and range from less than one tenth to more than one 29. The mcan radiation dose rcceived annuiilly by changes in 11.criiiiiihcr of c~hri)iiio.onic\.Siinic 01 ihc\c IO I)owri'\ \)ntlroriic. \vliich i\ zsbt~iatcd with wvcrc
half of the annual dose from natural sources. Thera- workers in most types of work involving radiation ch;iiig~-\rc.\uliii,itT\(irinp\u:lcring ,ibni~rni;iliiic~u.hi.h iiient:il rctr:rcl.itiori.I'.\tr'nsivcd;it.i hnvc bccn ci~llcctcd
peutic irradiation being rnost frequently carried out exposure is reported to be lcss than six timcs th;it may r,ingc froiii riiildl!.tli~~riiiicnt;itlo ,cvcr~,!)dis.ihliiig rcccnily in thc niou\c on anothcr type of ahcrratioii.
on patients unlikcly to have any more childrcn, most received from natural sourccs, although some types or Ictlial disorclcr\. kno\sn :içtranslocation. This involvcs the cxcli.inpr of
of the genetically-significant dose is due to diagnostic of workers (including induqtrial radingraphers and
irradiation, and different types of examination con- medical radium workers) tend to rcccive doses scvcral 33. Sincc ;iilci~ii.ii~hurii;in d;ita iirc noi ,ivail.ihlc. p.1rt.ihctwccn two diflercnt chromn\onics. It 1.;krio\vri
times higher. The yearly contribution of occupational thc cstiiii,!tc\ of gcnctiç riAs en\iiing friini ra<li.iciori that in niari it ni;i) Icad to nialforiiiatiun\ \iiiiil,ir to
tribute to different cxtents to the mean dose. It is thusc ;i<cocicitcdwith ihc prcscncc of adtliiioii;il chro-
very important to note that some of the lowest doses exposure to the genctically-significantdose of thc whole exposurc of the hi!ni.in rcl~rodiiciive ccllk .Ir: h;i~~:I nicis)nic\. or ma? Ic;iJ 10 c;irl) prc-nci!~ldc.ith 7hc\c
havc been reported from countries with the highcst population has ken estimated in varioiis countriej on resuli5 oht;iirirtl uitti ciih~r\j)ccics. not:ihly niicc efTc.cts.irç .is\ciciatcd witti the prcwiicc !>f tr,in\loc.r:-
health standards, indicating that, with the use of to be less than one hundrcdth of the arinud dose ticin<in ;in unb;ilanccd fnrni, in \vtiich tlicre niJy hr
modern radiological techniques and cquipment (in receivcd from natural sourccs. Io\\ 01 onr' of ttic cxch~nged segment\ and gin i ~ f
particular strict control of field sizc). the best medical the clilicr In II\ biiliincc~iforni, a ir~ri\loc.ition ii\urilly
care nc~d not at prescnt involve genctically-significant 30. Radiation injuries are now ven: rare and. whcn
doscs higher than one fifth of the annual dose from they happcn, can usually be attrihuiej to carclessncts. 34 71ic t\vo rcprcduc~tive cell eiagcc mo\t 1111- ha\ no tlciririicri~alclTcetfor ihc pcr\ori ciirr'ing 11.but
natural sourccs. Most of the reportcd injurics occur in in1lustri.ilrndio- port;int for tlie ;i\\çssni~.nt of ~cnctic ri\).\ ;ire \lier- h;ilf tif Iii,tir hcr olicpring ;ire IiLcly to h.i\c thc:
praphcrs, in rcscarch workers usinp x-ray cry~iallo- ma1ogoni.i iii[lie rii;ilc :iritl inicyii~~iIIii.fcni:ilc Il triirisloc;~i~oin iinh~il;incc~fIciriii.
25. Orily thrcc surveyc of doscs to blood-forming graphic machines, and in mcllicril wiirkcrs iicing hiincl- high acutc iIo\cs of r,itli;iiion ttic r;itc of iiidiiiiion i!i In riialc riiici, the yicld of b;il;inccd tr.iri\li~cLi-
cells in the bone marrow have been carried out so far. held fluoroscopcs. Such injurics cari I)c iirevcntcd by 37.
Their results indicatc mean annual per coput doses adherence to rcconiniended practicc. [Jridcrjiround spcrni;itcigimi;il ccll\ I\ r\tini;itcil tci riinpc hctuccn tiiiriiii the gciicr;itic)naftcr cxposurc is riiore or Ic\s
[rom mcdica: pr~edüics rnnping ficm one :hi;c! :û ïEiners. Eût ûïllï iri üiûiiiü~i liiiîi~ibiiiiîi SùTiC c?i:iiï ](XI-5.000 rcccs,ivc niiitritioii\ pcr r;icl" Iwr million proportion.il IO close for iicutc x-irr~di.iricin ;itniode-
two timcs the annual dose from natural sources. types of mines as wcll, are cxi)osctl tn riidio-active inl lin ili;illn, i C , i i i :CCCit'C r.ilc(0 higii doses. ;tÙtiiii30 b~iii~ i;;i!~~~i ?CI !?!!!!!CI!?
26. Therc is suficicnt agreement between the materials in the air they brcathc. Cvnsidcriible efforts low tlosc\ of r.idi;iiion iiriclcr:icutc (\tiort-tc.riii ,it high otispring per rad. It is probiihly siiiiil.ir in fciiialc iiiiic.
dose r.iic) or c)iroriic (proir;ictcd ;il Iou iIo\c raie 1 hut iiiforiiiation is still nic.igrc. 1.h~cxpcstcd )iclci of
surveys carried out in the various countries to assess are being made to improve conditions in mines so as coiitlitions of exlio\urc. On the h;i\i\ of çxj>crirricntal unhal;tnccJ translc~ations (cliusinp carlr dcatti or
the magnitude of the average doses for particular exam- to reduce this form of radiation cxposurc, which, at studics. II 1s c\tiriiarc~ltt1.11 iiridcr thcsc conditions detcctahlc abnorni;iIity) will be 60 pcr millitin /ygt~tch
inations within an order of magnitude. However, sur- suficiently high levels. has bcen shown to bc associated the r.itc III 11iiitstii)niiiduc.tiiiii is about nnc third of
veys have additional value in indicating where changcs with an increascd incidcncc of lung cancer. pcr rd nficr cxposurc of niiiles 2nd 180 pcr niillion
in radiological practice or technical advanccs may the iihotc tigiirc ('orisct~iicritI\. for niale\, ;i r;i[c of Derrad aftcr cxpusurc of fcniale5.
achieve significant reductions of the population expo- indiicticiii otÏ.70-1.500 riiiit;itiiinç pcr niillion pcr raiil 38 In ;iitcniptinp to dcduce from rhese fi~ureçttic
sure, and can help in identifying those groups of seciiis ;i niorc rc,ilisiic ;ipproxini.itiiin. .A1high .icii;c
31. The gcneral public mriy be exposed to ionizing tIo\c\ of r,~~Ii;i~i~irtiic ri4 of riiutation iri fcni.iI~~\ prcihiihlcri<kfor man undçr usual exposurc coriditiont.
patients that, having received high doses of radiation, radiation from a wide varicty of niiscellancous soiireCs. ce>ric~itirig\tiiiriIy ,ifter raittl~iioIlcxpoxurc niIl be rihoiit a nunihcr of dilTcrcnt factorç hrive te) hc con\idcrcJ.
may need continuing surveillance to detect possible twicc ii\tiiqli 111 ni.11~~u~licrc.i\ ;II low do\:\ IIIC i'irst. thcrc is cvidcncc froni u.ork on chrc>nic)\orii;
increases in late radiation effects. But it is questionable The niost widcspread are consumer products coniaining ri5k will hc rctliicccl tii ;itIc;i\t cine third .inci wirh iil~crr;iti~>nisn hlood cclls tliat nian ni;iy hc twicc. iis
whether emphasis should continue to be placed on radio-acti.;c materials and clectronic tubes eriiittiiig r;idio-scn\itivc as the mousc in this rcsjxct. Si.conil.
the conduct of dose surveys alone or whether more x rays but not designed for that piirpose. Until a few chronic c\l~>\urc IO abolit oiic twcritictti (11 thrit chronic g.iriirn;i-irradiaiionis only one third ;is rtfc~ti\c
attention should not be given to the other means of yeiirs ago, appreciable doses could be rcccivcd froni expccictl ;ifter ;iciiic cxjlcisurc io high ~li~\cs.If the as ac~itc x-rrr.idiati~n in inducing translocation\ in
achieving the minimum practicable dose to the patient self-luminous wrist watches and from colour tclcvisivn huniLinciv.iry rc\pcirid\ IO irriidiatiiin a< docs ihat of ni;ilc niicc. whilc acutc x-irradiation ai ver): Iow Joscs
sets. Owing to international rccommcndatinns and the nioiisc. uhich is hy nu niean\ ccrt;iiri. it cari hc
cornmensurate with the needs of diagnostic radiology. national rcgulations, the exposure from these sourccs cxpectcJ tti.it. if coriccption cicciirt ;ifter .i\iitiiçicni (at uscd in rncdical diapnosis) may bc riiil! about
27. Three basic approaches can contribute vari- iiitcrvnl ftillouiiig irratliaticiii.the rcsiilting frcquency of one quartcr at effecti~e per rad as at hirhcr Jo\cs.
ously to this improvement, depending. in any particular has rapidly decreased. Although no recent study of the nut;itionï in [tic ilcïçeri~lants of irradiiitcd fcriialcs 'I'hcreforcthe probable yicld of balanccd tr~n~liic:iticin\
case, on the availability of funds and trained staff- annual gcnetically-si~nificantdose hac hcen piihlishcd, ~ii!~ti:ip~~roiich/Cr(>. irithe offspring of exposed males is about 7 per iriillion
educational programmes, surveys of the frequency of it is estimated to be less than 1 pcr cent of the annual Ic- rad with chronic namina-irradiarion and nbout
examination and of the doses received, and adminis- dose from natural sources. 15 pr niillion per rad with low-dose acute x-irradia-
I ,Brii,.i.ii,ci.:inncx F.
trative control measures. Educational programmes can aFor dctailir,sa anmx C. - ilmr~ rnnual rccrircJ ~rcim nrliirrl prrducts will be about twice thess.nced translucation
be aimed at (a) the radiation st& and the conduct 7For details, seeamx D. \OII.c\ NUCLEAR TESTS

causes similar effects after a shorter period of irra- 59. The cffects of pre-natal irradiation have becr
diation. the subject of much research. A numbcr of largi
surveys of children that were exposed to radiation foi
l 58. Miners exposed to high levelsof radon and its
radio-active daughters show a very high incidence of medicai reasons before birth, and that must havt
lung cancers. The frequency appears to rise in pro- reccived thercby doses of at most a few rads at higt
portion to the level and duration of exposure. The dose rate. indicatethat pre-natal irradiationis associatçc
with a significant incrcasc of the risk of malignancic~
rangc of exposures within whichthe increased incidence in the first 10 years of lifc. The cxtent to which ttic
RADIATION CARC1NOGENESISi2 has becn reported corresponds to doses of at lcast a increased risk of malignancies in the rnediciilly irrii
few hundred rads of alpha radiation. However. dosi- diated is due to radiation rather than to an associatioi
metry is difficult and the role of other carcinogenic with the cause that prompted the irradiation must stil
51. While experiments with animals suggest that womcn cxposed to between 60 and 400 rads. this is factors such as smoking habits has not yet been fully
malignant transformations may occur in most mam- probably an underestimate of the total yicld. For assessed. be considercd as open.
malian tissues if they are exposed to sufficicnt radia- thyroid cancers, an avcriige figurc of about 40 cases
tion doses, the number of people exposed to substantial pcr million pcr rad in the same range of doscs ovcr
doses is so small that the relationship between dose thc sanic peric~dof tiine is obtaincd from more reliable
and incidence of malignancies in man can only bc morbidity data. but thc e5tiniate hiis largc uncert;iintics
studied for tbe most radio-sensitive tissues. Byfar the due to thc sitiall nunibcr of cases observcd. As forlurig
largest and most informative groups of irradiatcd tuniours, therc is no information as 10 wtiethcr the
subjects continue to be the survivors of the atomic incrcascd anniial incidence oftuniourh in tlic 1rr;idiatcd
bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. To these must populations willsubside and when.
be addcd scveral groups of paticnts trcatcd bv radio-
therapy and foUowedup for severai decades, and a few 55. Many survcys of extcrnally irradiatcd people
confirni an incrcass in othcr types of cnnccr takcn
groups of workers exposed to radiation in the course tngctlicr. nlttiouglit is not possible ai !hi\ st;igc to
of their occupation-especially underground uraniuni idcntify thc \l)ccific type\ whosc frcquciicixcnhnriccd.
miners. Children exposed while in utero, in the course Aiiioiip.the survivors of the iiioniic horiihingai Iliro-
of radiological examinations of their pregnant mothers, shi1ii.ithcrcic a cIc;ir trend for mort.ilii): froni iii:ilig-
form a special category.
52. Leukania is thc best known of thc radiation- naricics other tlian Icukrrmiii and lung and hrciist
induced malignancies. All cvidence indicatcs that the canccrs to incrcaw witli incrcasing dose, biit qii.int~ta-
tivc estimatcs of thc rate of incrcasc arc hririipcred
incidence of certain types of leukæmia increascs with by our ipnorancc of the duses to thc tissues coiiccrricd.
dose as a result of post-natal irradiation at high dose Only a tentative cstirnnie of 40 crisc,sof cancers (otlier
rate in the 50-500 rad L~terval.~~ At higher doses the tliari Icuk<~rniasand hrciiçt and lung canccr) pcr rad
nse in frequency decreases. possibly bccausc an in- pcr million occurring during thc firbt 25 !cars nftcr
creasingly large fraction of cells that would othcrwisc cxposurc to 750 rads can bc adviinccd on ttic basis
becomc leukæmicare destroycd by radiation. Radiation- of criicie assunipiions about tissuc do\c\. ticrc ri1s0it
induced leukremiastcnd to occur most frequcntly within is not known how many aJditioniil C;I\CS niav devclop
a fcw years after exposure and, after 25 ycars. thc 31 tlnlcs latcr than 75 years.
frequency tends to return to the levels expectcd in
the absence of irradiation. Ry that time some 15-40 6. In considering thesc csiim.ii~~~tniult bc 'Icnrly
cases of Icukæmias pcr rad1*pcr million exposed havc borne in mind th;it thcy arc I)nçcd on cih\rr\.~tions
been observed. made after tloses of at le351tcnq of raid\ tl~li\.~rcdat
high do5e rates. Thcçc dosc r;itcc. and occ:sionally
53. Lung cancers appear to have becn induccd at thc~ tl(\scc, Lire trfthc ordcr of thosc ih.11can he
Hiroshima by doses estimated on the bnsis of crude rsccivcd in the course of cert:iin r;tdicilogic;ilpro-
assumptions to be equivalent to some 30 riids of ccdures cairicd uui oii iiic~iicaiiriclii~iiuiiliüiniüîh
external gamma radiation delivcred at high dose rate. higher than thosc nt which we arc irrn<liated by
and to have increased with dose up to a dose of about
100 rads. The higher incidence of this typc of canccr cnvironrncntal sciiirccs. both natiiral and rii;in-niadc.
among irradiated people has been revcalcd by othcr It is a matter of sl)cculation whcther dow\ of ttic
surveys aiso but it is not yet known whcther the »rdcr of thosc rcccived continuously froni niitural
increase, which starts some 15 years aftcr irradiation, sources niay havc sir1iil;ircffects. Anirnnl cnpcrinicnts
will be sustained for a long time or will eventually sugge5t thai thc yield of turnours pcr iiridnsc should
subside. Taken ai face value, however.ths data indicntc be lower at very low doscs, exccpt wticn tlic t;irgct
that from IO (at 250 rad) to 40 (at 30 rad) cases tistuc hiis a susccptibility to radilitiori induction of
malignnncies niuch Iiigher than has bccn obscrvcll in
of cancer per rad per million exposed devclop during man. Animal expcrimcnts also indicatc that radi:ition
the first 25 years after exposure to high-dose-rate given continuously or in several fractions is usually lczs
gamma radiation. carcinnpcnic than if administered in a single dose within
54. Information is available also on the induction a short period of time. The figures given in the preccd-
of thyroid and breast cancers. Because those affected ing pnragraphs are therefore likely to be overcstiniatcs
by these cancers have long survival times. only in the of the risk of doses and dose rates such as are reccivcd

very long run do mortaiity data reflect the incidence from cnvironmentai sources.
of these tumours. Thus, while breast cancer mortality 57. Studies of peopli ,,posed to intemal irradiation
at Hiroshima suggests a risk of 6-20 cases per million at substantial dosesare few. They conccrn workcrs and
per rad in the first 25 years after irradiation among patients contaminated with radium isotopes and miners

13F1rade-a10 times tbe annual dose received from natural exposed to radon gas. Radium-226 is deposited in
sources. bones. irradiates bone-fonning cells continuously at a
14nie estimate applies to doses betweea 60 and 400 rads of decreasing rate for decades aftcr being absorbcd into
gamma rays. the bodyand gives rise to bone tumours. Radium-224 NUCLEAR TESTS
Mr. kliicriiilliiii, I'riiiic Miiiistcr of the Uiiitccl Kiiigdoni of Grciit Britain aiicf
Noi.tlici.ii Srcliiiid,to Mi.. liliru~liclic\.

('o~rvi/rc~. tiiit iio cll'orts sliould bc sparccl to iicliic\.c pronipt ngrccmciit or1
tlic ccssiiti~ii of ilII riiiclciir tests iiiiillciiviroiiiiiciits.

l. ('O/l~/(~/ll//ilIl~lliclcrlr\r~cil~Joitlchth;
2. .4.sX.vtliiitsiicli tests slioiil~iCC:I~C iiiiiiicdiiitcl~iiiid iiot Iatcr tliiiii1Jiii1uiii.j
1903 ;
3. I/'I;~J( iie~ Go~.criiiiicrits 01' tlic Uiiivii of So\.ict Sociiilist Repliblics, tlie

Uiiitcd Kiiigdorii of <;rciit 1lrit;iiiiiiiiilNvrilicrii Ircliinciiiiid tlic UiiitcclStiitcs
of Aiiicricii to scttlc [lie rciiiiiiiiing tiilli.rcriccs bet\t.ccritlicrii in ordcr tu iicliic\c
TlreGctrcr-alAssc~t~il>~-, iigrcciiiciit oii tlic ccssiitio~iof ~iiiclciirtcstiilg [>y I J;i~iii;iry1(;)63.iind to issiic
Dcjc~ply cbot~co.tic~ w ith thc continuatioii of riiiclciir~vciipoiitcsts. iiistriictioiis 10 thcir rcprc\ciitiii i\vs o11the Siil>-C'oriiriitie te iiTrciity for tlie
Di~coriiiiiiiiiriccof Nuclciii-CVciipoiiTcsts to ricliic\.ctliis ciid;
firlly c-o~t.sc-ior liiit world opiriioii dciiiiiiicls tlie iiiiiiicdiiiic ccsiliitioii of ilII
nuclear tcsts, 4. /~ti~k)r~.\ l~c.sciglit-iiiitii)ii iiiciiii~rii~itiiii f IO April 1902 ris iit~iisisfor
Vic~\i!itr~ l:vitlrtlrc rrttrrost~r~)/)~~c~lr< ~ltr.diotii coritiiincd iiitlic rcl~ortof tlic 11~gOt1il~1 ;011
United Nations Sciciitific C'oiiiiiiitteeoii tlic L~fICcto sf Atoriiic I<iidiiitic~ii, 5. ('trll.\.I~/)OII[lie ~);irticsco~ic~r~~eitIr.ikiiig ils ;L b;isis tlic ;tbo\~c-iiicritii~iic~i
Co~isic/cr-it~ t~iat the contiriiiatioii 01' iiiiclciir wcapori tcsts is iiii iiiil>oi.liiiit iii~iiiOi.iiiilIiiiiiiitI li;iiiig i-cgiii'tl10 tlic iiihcll\\ioll\ 011 illis it~lll;il t1lC SC\'Cii-
factor in the accclcratiori of the iirms i.iicc iiiirltliiittlic coiicliisioii of iiiiiigi.cc- tcciitli hc\hioii 01.tlic C;ciic~.ii~l\\hciiil~Ij~ I, iic~o~iiitc il1 ;ispirit of ~iiiitii;i~iiiclcr-

ment prohibiting such tcsts woirld grciiily coiitribiitc to ~>ii~iiiiglic ~viiyto\r.;ir.tl\ stiiiidiiig iiiiiicoiic.c\siciii iii01-cici IO r.ciic.1r1igi.ccriiciiiiirgcntly, t~ciiriiig iiiiiiirici
gcneral and complete disariiiiiiiiciit, [lie \ itiiliiitcrc\th of iii;iihiiiil;
Rccullit~g its resolutiori 1648(XVS)of O Novcriibcr 1901,u.lici.cby tlic Stiitcb O. /{~~(~OIIIIII~*I/~ti~t il*.iigiiiiihtiillIlope, tlic piirtics coriccriiccicio riot rciicli
concerned were urged to refrain froni furtlicr nuclciir wcapoii test c~plohioris iigrcciiiciit oii tlic cessiitiiiii of ilIItcsts t~y 1 Jiiiiiiiii.y 1963. thcy shoiilci cntci-
iiiio iiii iiiiiiiccliiitciigrcciiiciit pi-oliil~itiiigiiiicl~iii.\tcapi)ii tchth iiitlic iiliiio-
pending the conclusiori of ncccssary iitcriiiitionally binding iigrccniciits ivi tli
regard to the cessatiori of tcsts, hplicrc. irioiitci.sliace iiriciiiil.lcr\\iitci.. iiccoiiipiiiiicd t~yriilintcrim ;irriiiigcmciit
Notittg witlrrt:qr-cJ ttat the States conccrned have not rcspondcd to tlic appciil sii\l~ciiciiiig ilII iiiidci._croiiiiti[chth. tiihiiig iis ri tusis, tlic ciglit-riation riicriio-
contained in the aforenientioncd and in otlicr rclcviiiit rcsoliitioiis iirid tliiii, i-iiiidiimiiiid tiihiiig irito con\icicr.iitioii othcr prupos;ils prcxritcd at tlic hc\.cri-
despite its efforts, the Conferciicc of the Lightccii-Niition ('oniiiiittcc or1 tcciitli hc\\ioii of tlic (iciici-il1;\~\ciiibl>., siicli iriteriiii agrccriicrit 10 iriclutlc

Disarnianient, rcferrcd to in Gcncrul Assenibly rcsolution 1727 (S\'I) of 20 ii~iccliiiitciishiiriiriccsI'orcll'ccti\.cdeteetion iind idcntificiiiiori of seihiiiicc\ciits
Dccember 1961, is not yct in a position to report rigrccrnciit oii this \.itiilly Iiy iiii iiiteriiiitii~ii;ilhciciitiliecoiii~iii\siori;
important issue, 7. K(,qrrc,.st.tslie C'onfci~ciiccof tlic I~ightcc~i-Niiiton C'oniriiittcc or1 1)isiir-
Recnlli~tg that, iri resolutiori 1049 (XVI) of 8 No\.çnihcr 190 1, thc <;ciicriil iiiiiiiiciitIO rccori\~ciiciiot Iii~ei. tliiiri12No\~ciii~~c1 r902.to rcsiriiic ricgotiiitioiih
Assenibly realiirmcd tliat ari :igrcciiiciit proliil~itiiig ilII iiiiclciii \r.ciilioii tchis oii ilic ccs.;;iiioii of iiiiclciir tc\iiiiy iii~ii011 gciicriil ;iiicIcoiiiplctc disiiriiiiiiiiciit.

would inhibit the sprcad of iiiiclc;ir \vc;ipoiih to otlicr coiiiiti.ics iiiid \t.oiiltl iiiitl to 1~1~oi.tto tlic Ciciici~iil:\~\ciiil~l>~ liy 1O I~ccciiit~cr1902 011 tlic rchtilts
coritributc to the rcduction of intcriiatioiial tcrisioiis, iicliic\cd \t.itlrcgii1.dto tlic cch\;iiiciiiof ~iiiclc;~ ~.C;~IJOII tchts.
~Votitigihai, ;iniûrig ilic Siiiics i-clii-c~ciiicci ii~ iiic Su1)-<'011iiiiiiic~ 011 il
Trcaty for the Discontinuancc of Nuclcar Wcapon Tcsts of tlic Eightccn-
Nation Committcc, basic agrccnicnt now prcvails as rcgiirds tlic qucstiori of

control of tcsts in the atniosphcre, in outcr space and iiiidcr waicr,
Nolittg firrtlrc~r liat the proceedings of the Eightecn-Nation C'omrnittcc
indicate a somewhat enlarged area of agrccnient on tlic yucstioii of etfccti~.c
control of underground tests,

Cotrsi(/cv-itrg that the niemorandum of 16 April 1962, subrnitteci to the
Eighteen-Nation Coniniittee by the dclcgations of Hrazil, 13urma. Ltliiopiri.
India, Mexico, Nigeria, Swcdcri and the Uriitcd Arab Rcpublic, rcprchciits a
sound, adequatc and fair basis for the condiict of negotiatioiis towards rc-

moving the outstanding dill'erciices on the question of cffcctivc control of
underground tests,
M'c.lcot~iittg the intention to firicla spccciysettlcriiciit of tlic rcni'iiriiiig ciill'cr-
ences on the question of the cessation of nuclear tcsts, dccliircd in the lcttcr
datcd 27 October 1962 from Mr. Khrusliclicv. Chairniiin of tlic C'ouricil of

Ministers of the Union of Soviet Socialist Rcpublics, to Mr. Kciiiicdy, I'rcsidcrit
of the United States of Amcrica, in tlic lcttcr dated 28 Octobcr 1902l'rc)iiihlr.
Kennedy to Mr. Khrushchev, and in the lctter datcd 28 Octobcr 1902 frorii Parties. Tlic amendnient shall critcr into force for al1Parties upon the deposit

of instruments of ratification by a niüjority of al1 the Parties, including the
instrurncnts of ratification of al1tlic Original Partics.
Anncs 10

1. This Treaty shaI1bc open to al1Statcs for signature. Any State which docs
not sigii iliis Treaty before its ciitry into force in accordancc with paragrapli
3 of tliis Article niay accedc tu itat any timc.
The Govcriiiiiciits of the Uiiitcd Statcs of Aiiicricu, the L'iiiicd Kingdoiii of' 2. This Trcaty sliall bc subjcct to ratification by signatory States. Instrunicnts
Great Britain and Nort herii Ircland, and tIicC~iiioioi f Soviet Sociiili\t l<cpiihlic.;. of ratificiitioii and instruriicnts of acccssion sliall be deposited with the Govcrn-
hercinaftcr rcfcrred to as tlic "original piirtics", inents of thc Origiriril l'artics-tlie Uiiitcd Statcs of Anierica, the United King-
Proclaiiniiig as thcir prii~cipiiliiini the spccdicst possible iicliic\ciiiciii of';III
agrecincnt oii gcricrul and con~plctc dis;iriiiiiiiiciit iiiidcr strict iiitci.ii;iiic)icil doni of Great ilritain aiid Nortlicrn lrcland, and the Union of Soviet Socialist
coiitrol in accordiiiicc with tlic oL>jcctivcsof'tlic Uiiiicd Niiiioii4 \i,liicli \\oiilcI I<cpublics--wliicli arc 1ici.ct)ydcbigniited thc Dcpositary Govcrnrricnts.
put an cnd to tIicarm~iniciitsrace aiicicliiiiiiiiiic the iilcciiti\.c 10 tlic ~,i.c)cliiotii 3. Tliis Trcaty sliiill critcr iiito force aftci' its ratification by al1the Origiriiil
aiid tcsting of a11kiiids of wciipoi~s.iiicliicliiigiiiiclciir ~i,ciil>oii\. I'artics ;incl tlic dcpusit of tlicir iiistrunients of ratification.
Secking to acliicvc tlic discon~iiiii;incc of' al1 test csplosioiis of'nii~.lc;ir- 4. 1-:orStatcs \vlic,sc iristruriieiits of ratiliciition or accession are dcpositcd
subscquciit tu tlic ciitry iiito Sc>rcc of this Trcaty, itsliall cnter into forcc on tlx
weapons for al1 tinic, dctcriiiiiicd to coiitiiiuc iicgotiiitioiis to tliis ciid, iiiid date 01' the dcposit of tlicir instruiiiciits of ratificiition or accession.
desiring to put iin cnd to the contaniinatioii of iiiaii's cii~~irc~iiiiici iiy riidio- 5. The Dcpositary Go~~crnriicritssliall proniptly inforni ail signatory and
active substances,
Have agrccd as follo\i.s : :icccdiiig Staics of the date of cacli signaturc, the date of deposit of cacli instru-
iiiciit ot*r;ititicatioii 01.ancl accession to this Treaty, tlie ciriteof its entry into
force, and the datc of rcccipt of any requcsts for confcrcnccs or other notices.
6. This Trciity slirill bc registcrcd by the Dcpositary Governrnents pursurint
1. Each of the partics to this trcaty ui1dcrt;ikcs to proliibit, to prc\.cril, ;iiicl to Articic 107 of tlic Ch~irtcr of tlic Uiiitcd Nations.
not to carry out any nuclcar weapon test explosion, or iiiiy othcr nuclciir cs-
plosion, at any place undcr its jurisdiction or control:

(CI) in the atniosphcre; bcyoiid its liniits, iricluding outcr sp;icc; or iinclcr~i.iitcr. Tliis Trcaty sli:ill bc of unlimiteci duration.
includiiig territorial waters or liigli scas; or Eiich I'ariy >liaIlin cscrcisiiig its iiational sovcrcignty Iiave thc riçht to ~vitli-
(6) in any othcr ciivironiiient ifsucli csplosioii c;i~iscsr;iilici;icti\.cdelvis to I>c driiw I.roiii tlic Trcaty if it dccidcs thlit estraordiriary events, rclated to tlic
presciit outside the tcrritori;iI liiiiits of flic Stiitc i111~1\c3r.Iio\cjiii~is~liclioii sulijcct-riiiittcr of tliis -1-rciity,Iiave jeopardizcd tlic suprcmc iiitercsts of its

or contrc~lSLI~IcIxplosio~iis c~i~d~ictcd. It is ~111~1crs~o iictiliisC~IIIIC~I~~II coiiIiIry. 1t sliiill givc iioticc of suc11~it1idr;i~aI to a11othcr Partics to the Trcaty
that tlic provisions 01'this ~~ibpiiragriipli;ire ~vitliout ~>i-cjuiIic c0 tlic con- t1ii.c~riioiitlisiiiadv;iiicc.
clusion of a trcaty resulting in the pcriiiancnt baiiniiig of' iiIIiiiiclc;ir test
expiosions, inciudiiig aii sucil cxpiosioiis untlcrground. tiic conciusic)ii ol'
which, as the Parties havc statcd iii tlic I'rcaniblc to this Trcaty, tlicy sccli
to achieve. Tliis trcaty, of wliich tlic Eiiglish and Russiari texts are equally autlicntic.
sIia11bc ùcpositccl in the arclii\:cs of tlie Depositary Govcrnments. Duly certificd
2. Eacli of thc Partics to this Trciity undcrtiikcs furthcrriiore to rcfriiin froiii copies of this Trcaty shnll bc trarismitted by tlie Depositary Governnients to the
causing, encoiiraging, or in any way piirticilxiting in, .the ciirryiiig oiil of ;iriy Cioi~crriiiiciitsof the signiitvry and iicccdiiiç States.
nuclcar wcapon test csplosioii, or any othcr nuclcar csplosioii, ;iriywlicrc \vhicli [ri witiicss \+>hcrcoftlic uridcrsigiicci,duly authorizcd, have signecitliis Trciity.
would talie place in any of the cnviroiiiiiciits dcscribc~l, or Iia\.e tlic c1lCc.t
rcfcrred to, in paragi-apli 1 of this Article.
Iloiic iiitriplicatc iit(liecity of hloscow tlic fiftldliy of August, one ttiousaiid
niiic Iiuiidrccl aiid sisty-tlircc.

1. Any Party niay propose aniciidmcnts to this Trcaty. Tlic test of ariy pro-

posed amcndnicnt shall be subinit tcd to tlie Ilcposi tary Govcrnnieiits wliicli
shall circulate it to al1 Partics of this Trcaty. Thercaftcr, if rcqiiestcd to do su
by one-third or more of the Parties, tlic Dcpositary Govcrnnicnts sliall con\.cnc
a conference, to which thcy shall invite al1the Parties, to considcr such aniciid-
ment.
2. Any amendment to this Treaty must bc approvcd by a majority of tllc
votes of al1 the Parties to this Trcaty, including the votcs of al1 the Original NUCLEAK TESI'S KEQUEST

Annex 12

UNITEDNATIONS GENERAA LSSEMBLR YESOLUTIO2 N032 (XX) OF
3 DI~CEMH1 E965 ON TtiE "URGENT NEED FOR SUSPENSION
01: NUCLI:AK AND TI~EKMONUCLETA EKSTS"

T/rcGc~rrc~rr~ isulc~t~i/~!i*, T/IOGcrr<*r.c Arslsc*r>rhly,
F111lyc~,clcrof its rcsponsibility with rcgarcl to tlicclucstioiiof niiclciir\s;ciipiiri llto~irr,sc.orisi<l~~th(l question of the cessation of nuclear and thermonuclcar
tcsting and of thc vicws of world piiblic opiiiion oii tliihniiittcr,
wcapoii tcsts and tlic relevant scctions of tlic reports of the Confcrcncc of the
Norirrg ,r.it/rtrpl)r.oi.che Trcaty biiiiiiiiig iiiicleiir \\'ciil>oritc\ts iiitlie ;it- Eightccri-Nation Conirnittcc on Disarriiariicri t.
mosphcrc, in ouicr spacc and iiiidcr wtcr, sigiictl oii 5 Aiisiiht 1003 1y tlic Kcc<rllirr,4s resolutions 1703(XVIl) of O Novcnibcr 1963and 1910(XVIII)
Union of Sovict Socialist Rcpublics. tlic Uniied Kiiigcioiiiof(ii-ciit I3i.itiiiiiicl of 27 Novcmbcr 1963on thc ccssation of al1test cxplosions of nuclear weaporis,
Northcrri lrcland rind thc Uriitcd States of Anici.ica, iinrl si10sec~i1~1it 1)'~it Notitrg glw~itrl,i1:i,thtat notwitlistlinding thcsc resolutions nuclcar weapori
grcat number of othcr countrics, tests havc taken placc,
Norirrgfi~~.i/r<,ilrit'/r.s<rti.vfithiit in thc prciiiiiblc oftliii7'rciityilic ~>iii'tics .Kcc-<rllirrglic uiidcrtaking givcii by thc original signatories to the Trcaty

statc tliat thcy are sccking to iichic\,c the cliscoi~iiiiiiaiicc of iillIC~Ic~~~losioii'i banning nuclcar wcapoii tcsts in the atinosplicrc, in outcr space and undcr
of nuclear wcapoiis for al1timc aiid iirc dctcrmiiicd to coiitiiiiic iicgoti;iiioii\ to watcr, sigiicd iit Moscow or1 5 Auçiist 1963, to continue ncgotiations for tlic
this end, discoiitiriuaricc of al1tcst cs~>losic~riosf nuclciir wcapons for ail tinie,
K~~c.o~i,~rr iirr,~i~>uiitiiigconccrn of world opinion for the fultilmcnt of this
1. Colls 11p011 al1 Stiitcs to bccumc pi~rtics IO tlic Trciity hiiririirig niic1c;ir undcrtakirig.
weapon tcsts in tlic citiiiosphcrc, iri outci. slxicc aiid iiiiclcr\\.iiici.iiiicto itbiilc Alirrtl/rrof thc crucial iniportaricc of a coniprchcnsive tcst ban to the issuc
by its spirit and provisioiis;
2. Kc(/l,cst.~tlic C'onli.rcriceof tlic Ligl~iccri-TViitior('OI~II~~IICC 011 1)is;ii.rii;i- of noil-prc>lifcratic>roif nuclciir Lvciipons,
nicnt to contiiiuc with LIsciisc of urgciicy iisiicgi)tiatic)iihto iicliic\c ilic eiI)jcc.ti\c\ h10tirrar4:r,t~ii rri.vfirctticjoirit ri~criiurandiini on a coriiprchcnsi~~ctcst bar1
set fc>rth iiithc prcamblc of the Trciit~.; treitty subniittcci by Briizil, Buriii;~.Ethiopiii. india, Mcxico, Nigcria, Swcdcn
anci tlic Uriitcd Ariib Rcpiiblic iind iinncxcd tu tlic report of the Confcrcnce of
3. K<#rjnc.vt. vlic Iiighteeii-Natioii Corniiiittcc to report to tlic (ici~criil the Eighiccn-Niitiori Comniii tce oii Disiirniiinicnt,
Assembly at the carlicst possiblc date iincl, iiiiiiiy c\.cnt.ricitIiitcr thiiiiit11ic ('ot~i~irr~~~~~ agtliinient in rcgiird to taking this furthcr step towards nuclear
ninctecnthsession; disariiianicrit woiild bc f'ricilitiitcd,irttr~r.rlia.by thc iniportant improvcmcnts
4. Rcqricst.~ the Sccrctary-Cicricral to ii~;ike:i\~iiiliihlcio tlic I:iglitccii-Niiticm
Coniriiittcc the dociiincnts iiiid rccords of tlic plciiiiry mcctiiig\ of tlic <iciicr;il riiaclcin dctcctiori and idcritiliciitioii tcchniqucs,
Asscnibly and tlic nicctiiigs of tlic t:irst Comniittce iit wliicli the iiciii i-clatiiig 1. Ur;yc~ sliat al1riuclciir wcapoii tcsts be suspendcd ;
to nuclc;ir tcsting was discusscd.
2. Ctrl1.r11l)orl1countrics to 1cspcct tlic spirit and provisions of the Trcaty
banning nuclcar wcrtpon tcsts in thc atriiosphcrc, in outer spacc and undcr
watcr ;
3. Rt.ljrl<>stse Confcrciicc of the Eightccn-Nation Committce on Disarma-
nicnt to contiiiuc witli u sciisc of urgcncy its work on a comprehcnsive test ban
trcaty and on arr;irigcriicnts to bar1cfTcctivelyal1 nuclcar wcapons tcsts in al1

cnvirc~iiriiciits.tiikirig into ;iccourit the iniprovcd possibilities for interniitional
co-ol>cratioii iiitlic ticlei of scisiiiic dctectiori, and to report to the Gencral
Asscmhly. NUCLEAK TESTS KEQULST

UNITEDNATIONS GENLKAA LSSE~IIILI'< I'I:sc)I-UIIO2 N1 63 (XXI) 01:
5 DECEMBEK 1Y60 ON 1.11~ "UKGI N 1.NI..I.D I OI<S~:SI> N SION
OF NUCI-EAK AND TI~L~<~~~NUC.~ T.LSA.I<"

TlroGenc~ralAsscnrbl~t, 711~ Gi~~rc~. .lr.lr.vc~ltrh!,~,
Huiyilrgco~rsi(lcrct lhe question of the ccssiitioii of nuclciir iiiid tlicrmoriuclciir Iltr,~ilr,l~ro~r.sil/~~ the~ tliicstioii of tlic iirgciit iiccd for suspension of'nuclc;ir
weüpon tests and the rcport of the Confcrciicc of tlieEightccii-Nat ioiiC~)riiriiittce iincltIicriiioiiiic1c;irtcstsiiiid tlic iiitcriiii rcport of the Confcrcncc of tlic Eightccri-
on Disarinamciit, Niitioii ('oiiiiiiittcc ori Disiiriiiiiineiit.
Hc~ctrlli~r its resolutions 1762 (XVIT) of O Nvvcinbcr 1902, 1910 (XVII) of K(~c~trllil ~t,rrcïc,lutions 1707 (XVrl) cif O Novcrilbcr 1962, 1910 (XVliT) of

27 November 1963and 3032 (XX) of 3 Dcccnibcr 1905, 27 No\ciiibcr 1903, 2037 (XX) 01'3 Dcccmbcr 1965 and 2163 (XXI) of 5
Re~culli~fri~rr~t1rc.rthe joint menioranduni or1 a conil>rclicrisi\~ctesi [~iiiiti.c;ity 1)ccciiilier I000.
subniitted by Hrazil, Burnia, Etliiopia, ïndiii, Mcsicv, Nigci-iii,S\i.cclciiiiiid tlic ,2'orit!y,t.illr.l3,yr.tlic fiict 111;it ;iSt;itc\ Iiitve 110t yct ;idIierccIto the Trciity
United Arab Kcpiiblic aiid anncscd to the report of tlic ('oiilCrciicc 01' tlic 1~;iriiiiiigiiiiclciir \\ciipoii tchts in tlic iit~iioslilici~c ii outer spiicc iiiicl iiriclcr
Eiglitccri-Nation Cummittcc un Dis;irniiiiiiciii, iirid iii particiiliir tlic coiicrctc \\.iitci.,~igiic~l111 klosco\\~ 011 5 Aiig~i\t 1903.

suggestionscontaincd thcrciii, ;\'orirr,k:c-irlirtrc~r.~~trs(tr,y~rc~~tiit~riiiiclciir \vc;ilioii tcsts iritlic atmo\plicr-c
Notilr~r~t~ith lrrrcltrt'o~rc*cv t.r filet tliat iiIIStiitcs liii\.ciiot yct itdlici.ccl IO tlic iirici~ii~lcrgro~iiiiilii.cci~~itiiii~iiig,
Treaty banning nuclciir wcapori tcsts iii tlic iitiiiosplicrc, iiiciiitci.sliiicc iiiicl Iirl,111,t~rttrolr(~,o~rt~[rie c\i\tiiig possil>iliticsof cst;il~li~liiiig, tIiroiigli iiitcr-
undcr watcr, signcd in Moscow on 5 Augiist 1903, iiiitioiiiil ~ci-t>l>~riitioii,ii c,\cliiirigc of scisiiiic ciat~i.so as to crcatc a bcttcr
Notirr~:rrl.so~r*itlgrrcltrtcolrcc~r~ triiit n~iclcai-wciipoii tcsts iiitlic iitiiioslilicrc scie11i1lic lxisis 1.0sriiitioiiiil c~~itIi~;itioiif scisriiicc~~crits,
l<c*c.o,:lrrizitli: inip~rtiiii~c of sci~iiiology iiitlie \criticiitioii of tlicobser\ ailcc
and underground are continuing,
Tuki~rgilrto U~(~OIIII/ thc possibilitics of cst;il>lisIiirig, tIiroiigli iiitcrii;itioriiil 01'ii trciity biiriiiiiig iinclcrgrciiiiidnuclcirr \\.ciipc)ntcbts,
co-opcration, ari cxchaiigc of scisinic clata so as t~) crciitc ii5cttcr scicritilic biisis l\>l~trli:i~ lii~ s~icli ii ti.ciity \\.ciiild alscr co~istitutc ;in clkctivc riica'>iircto
for national evaluation of seisrnic e\.cnts, I>rc\.critthe prolili.riition cifiiiiclciir it.ciipons,
Rccoglrizilrg the iniportancc of scisniology il1tlic vcrilicatioi~of the c)bsci.\iiiicc
1. (/i.,i,r<:il1States uliicli h:i\.c riot dorie so to adlicrc witliout fcirtlicr cicliiy
of a treaty bannirig iindcrground nuclcar wciipon tests, 10 tlic Trciit). Ixiiiniiig iiiiclciir \\.ciilion tests in thc iitniosplicrc, in outer sp~icc
, Kcolizi~r~ that sucli a treaty would iilsu coiistitutc iiiiclli.ctive nic;isurc to ;iiitiii~llcriviitcr;
preveiit prolifcration of nuclcar wcapons,
2. ( '(11Ir.//>ot;il1 II~ICI~;I~-\~~C;S II;it~c)sIIto ~iihpeii~lriiicleiir \vciipoii tests iii
1. Urg1p. sl1Stiitcs whicli Iiave no1 clone so to adlicrc to tlic -Prc;iiy hiiiiiiiiig iiIIcn\,iroiiiiiciils;
nuclear weüpori tcsts in the ritnios~,licrc.in outur S!~;IL'C;iii(lUII~IC w~;itc!-: 3. I:i-!)t.i,.v.\cr,l//o!)c,1li;iSt;itcs \\,ilconiriI,iiic to ;in ctl'cclivcintcrri;ilic>n;iI
2. Culls ~rpolr al1 nuclc:ir-wcapon St;ites to sucpci~dnuclciir n.ciil>oiitchtt* 111 csc'liiiiigc01' sci\iiiic diiti;
al1environnicnts; 3. l<c'clrrc~ .lt.vC'orili'rciic'cof tlie l'ightccii-Niition Comiiiittcc or1Disiiriiiii-
riiciit10 tiikc iip iis ;i riiiittci-01' Lii.gc1ic.ytlic cliiboriition of a trciity haiiiiiiig
3. E.v/)rcssclsflrc!ropcl that Stiitcs will contributc to ail cll'ccti\~ciiitcriiiitic)iiiil
exchangc of scisrnic data; iiii~lci.grciiiiitIiiiiclc;ii.nc;ilioiIL.\I\ ii11~1 1trcl>ciri t(i Itic (;;c11criiIA\\cilll~l>. 011
4. Rc*c/rrc.st tlic Coiifcrciicc of the Eigliiccri-Niitioii. C'oiiiiiiiitcc oii Di\- tlii\iii;tttcriit its t\\~ciity-lliii.~s!cs\ioii.
arrnament to cliiborate witlioiit aiiy furtlicr cicliiy iitrciity biiiiiiiiig uiiclci~groiirid
nuclear weapon tcsts. NUCLEAK TESTS

Annex 15

Usi i 1.1Ni\.[ioss C;L.N I<AL.;IssI.~~IIL.~ I.t.soi.i~ ON 2604 B (SXIV) 01-
10 Di:c.i:aii~i.i1c909os .i ii".UI<(;I.N I NL.L.I I.OI< Sust>i:~sic.)s
01..NL:C-I .I< AKI) I~III.I~~~~s~~~:L TLASIIs"

Tlic Gcneral Assc~~?rl>ly, 7'Iic(l;c>nc~~ .~.rY<J~,I/>,,.,
ilcii~itigc~o~i.sit/(~~ (lce,liicsticiii of tlic urgei~tiiccd for suspcnsiori of riuclciir
Havit~gco~rsi<I(~r ch</ qucstion of the urgcnt nccd for suspcnsioii of nuclciir ;iiilIilicriiioiiiiclciir tcsts iiiid the report of tlic C:c)iifcrci~co cf thc Coiiiniittcc oii
and tliermonuclcar tcsts and thc rcport of the Conferencc of tlic Eigliiccri- I>i\iiriiiiiiiict.
Nation Coiiiniiticc on Disariiiariiciit,
Rcculli~rg its rcsolutions 1762 (XVII) of O Novciiibcr 1907. 1010 (SVTII) of l~t~c~trlli~ii\,~~choluticiiis 1707 (XVTI) of O Noi.ciiibci- 1902, 1910 (.S\IIIT)
27 Novcmbcr 1963, 3033(XX) of 3 Deccrii[>cr100-5,2103(XS I) 01'5 I)cccii~I~cr 01-27No\ciiiI>cr 1003,2032 (SS) 01.3 Dccciiihcr 1905,210.3(XNT)of 5 I>ecciii-
hcr IOOO. 2.143(Sur) 01' I9 I)CCCIIII~CI. 1007 ;l~ll~2.155 (xxrlr) 01- 20 I)CCCIII~CI-
1966 and 2343 (XXTO 01' 19 Dcccmbcr 1907. 190s.
Rccrrllirr,/yirrtlrc*rthc joiiit niciiioi-iiiicliiiiioii;i coiiiprclicii\i\.c ic\t Ixiii ii.c;it>. ,\'O/i)/,<)fl~i~l l,s<~tl~esfilcl illiii;IIIStilte\ ll;l\~c1101 yct ~lclllcrcc e) tI1c.l-rcilt>~
submitted on 26 August 1908 by Brazil, I3urm;i. I!tliic)piii. Iiiili;~,hlc\ico.
Nigeria, Swcdcn and the United Arab Kcpuhlic iiiid ~iiiiicsccl IO ilic rcpoi.i 01'tlic Biiiiiiiiig Niic.lc;ii\t'eiil~oiil'c\i\ iiitlic t\iiiio\plicr-c, iri Outcr Spiicc iiiiiUiidcr
Confcrcnce of thc Eightccri-Nation Coniinittcc or1 I)isiiriii:iiiiciit, LVi~tci.\.igiiciI iii hlo\ci)\v 011 5 t\irgii\i 1903.
i\'011'11)t.if/III~I~(,~/.\~II,<(JYIII(Iiflirtrii~c1c;ir\i,ciipc)ritchts iri tlic :ilriio~pIicrc
Notirig w1it/rrogr.c> he füct that ail States Iiii\.cnot yct ;idliercd to tlic 7'r'c;ily iiiicLIII~IC~~I~i~i1 L.IIIiiItiiiiiiri~.
Barining Nuclcar Wcapon Tcsts in the Atniosplicrc, iiiOutcr Spircciiiid IJiiilcr 7irXitrgi~iloirc.c.orrtr iiiiise\criil coiicrctc siiggcstions hii\.c rcccritly bccii \et
Water, signed iri Moscow on 5 Augirst 1963,
Notirikr,vit11i~rc~.ou~i~ cor~1ccrti that nuclcar ucapon tcsts iiiilic :itiiicisl~licrc 1.01.iIiii tlic ~'oiil~rciicc 01' ilic C'oiiiiiiittcc 011 Di~iiriiiiiriiciitiis tci po\\iblc
and undcrground are continuing, pr'o\ ihiiiiihl'or;i ti.c;ity 0;i1111irii~iidcrgr~i~~iC ~iIuclciirM.C;II>CJIItests,

Tukirig irito ac-c'oirrr thc cxisting p.ossibilitics of cstiibli\liiiig. tliroiigli iiitcr- 1. i 'I.,<IiiII Stiitcs \iliicli 1iai.ciiot dciiic 5c.itu adlicrc withciut fiir-tlicrdcliiy
national CO-operation, a voluritary cschaiigc of scisriiic diitii sci iis to crciitc a to tlic -1'rcirtyI1;iriiiiiis Niiclciir-Lb'ciipoiiTest\ iritlic Atiiiosplicrc. iri Outcr
better scientific basis for rinational cvalliiition of seismic cvciit\, Sp;icc iiiitlUiidci \Viitci.:
Rccogrii;ilrg the importancc of scismology irithe vcriliciitioii of the ol>scr\.;iiicc 2. ('rrll.\rrl~otiil1 iiiclciii.-\\.ciiporiStiitc'itc) susl,ciid iiiiclelir \vciipon lests iii
, of a trcaty baiining undcrgrourid nuclcar wciipon tests, ;IIIcii\~ii~oriiiie~it\;

N~tirr,~ in tliis coiincetion thac cspcrts I'roriiviirioiis couiitrics. iiicliitliiig I.oiir 3. /\'(Y//,<,.\iIic ('or1li.i.cri~.of t lie ('oriiiiiillcc OII Ili~iir~iiii~~~~ IïiCOII~111 tic,
nuclear-wcapon Stritcs, liiivc rccciitly iiict iriiollici:illy io cscli;iiigc \ic\r,\ ii~iil il.;;i iii;ittci01' i~i.gcilc.>. l\ iIclil~ci~iiticiii\II ;I trc;iiy I?;iiiiiiiigiiiidcrgri~ii~iil
Iiuld discussions in rcgarci to tlic atlccluiicy of hcisiiiic iiicilioil\ I'oi.riioiiiti)i.iiig I~LIL.IC~ ;IrIc.iil~i~ite\t\, iiihiiig iiiio iiccoir~ittlic propo~iils iilrciitly iii~ii1c iiitlic
uridcrground csplosioiis, aiid the hopc cspi.csscd tliat siicli disciisilioiis ~i.oiiltl < 'oiili.i.ciicc;i\IO tlie coiiiciils oI'siicli iilr.c;it),,iis tr,cll;ttlie \,ic\r..rcsl?rc\\ctl;il
bc continucd, tlic ciirrcrit \cs\ioii 01 tIic (;c~ici.;iiAssciiii>iy.;inli fo siii?niit ii s~)cci;iirci~oi-i

1. Urgc~s al1 Statcs which tirivc not donc so to adlicrc \vitlioiri furtlicr clcliiy to tlic /\\\ciiil~ly oii tlic rc\iilts of its dclibcr;itiuris.
to thc Treaty Baiinirig Nuclcrir Wcapoii Tcsts in tlic Atiiiosplicrc, iii Oiitcr

Space and Undcr Watcr;
2. C(~llsrrpoli al! nuclcar-wcapoii States to suspend riiiclciirwciipori tcbts iii iiII
environn~erits;
3. E.vprcsscs tlic.liopc~ that States will contri biitc to ail cll'cctive iiitcr~n;itioiiiil

excliangc of seisrnic data;
4. Roqirc~sts thc Confcrencc of the Eightccri-Natioii C'oiiiriiiticcoii I>is;iriii;i-
ment to tüke up as a miitt~r of urgcncy thc cliiborntioii 01' a trciity biiiiriirig
undcrground nuclcar weapoii tcsts and to rcport to tlic C;ciicr;il Asscriil~lyoii
this matter at its twenty-fourth scssiori. NUCLEAK TESTS

UNITED NATIONS GENEKAL ASSI:MIILR Ytso~.u~i~io3 ~603 il(XXV) or. UNI I iiiNA-I IOKS Gi.si I<,\I./2ssi.~iii..i~I<i.soi.i'.lros 2828 (XXVI) 01:
7 DECEMIIER 1970 ON ?.III;"UHGL:NIN ' I.I..IOH S~ISI>L:SSI OII\; lO L>I.CI.~IIH1.9 I7 1 oh .IIII:"UI<LI x I ~I;I,I) 1.01~ SUSI~I:.~SI(.)X
NUC.LI:A I<ND THI.I<~IONU(.I.I:T .I:ISS" 01..N~1ci.1 AI< :\SI) T~II.I<~I~x~~c~L TiI..ss"I~

Tlic~Ge~rc)r-c Ailssc~r~rblj',
HavNrgco~rsielt~r.c t~it/question of the urgciit iiccd for suspciisioii of iiiiclciii 'I'lr(<;i~~ri~r..tr.lsl.sc~~r/h!,',
and thcrmonuclcrrr tcsts and the report of the Conlci'cncc of tlic ('oiiiiiiiiicc l 'ic',i.i~gi-iflr~lrc~rf~,ro.\[l)li~.t,l/onsio~t/ic Ii;irriifiil coiiscc~uciiccsof iiuclciir
on Disariiianicnt,
\\.ciipoii iehthfor tlic iiccc1ci~;itioi oir [lie ;iriii\ race;iiiclfor ilic lic;iltli of prcbciit
Rcccillir~g its rcsolutions 1702 (XVII) of O Novciiibcr 19(i'. 10 IO (XVII1) iiiiilI'iiiiiregciici.iitioiisof iiiiiiihiiiil.
of 27 Novcnibcr 1903,2032 (XX) of 3 Dccciiihcr 1005.2103 (XX 1 )of 5 I>cc.ciii- 1i1111i-~orr.\c~ior t1.t \roi.ltl ol>iiiioii Ii;is. o\.ci. ilic >.ciirs,dciiiiiiidcd tlie irii-
ber 1960,2343 (xxrr) of 19 IICC~IIILX~ I907, 235 (XXIII 01'20 ~>c~~ciiihc Ii9'0s ~iicdiiitc;ilid co~ii~>Ictcechh;itio~~ 01'iiII~iiiclc;ir\\c;ipoii tcsts iii al1cii~iroiiiiiciith,
and 2604 L3(XX 1V) of I O Dcccii~ber 1969, 11111 I i tic te 1 tic cicstii il 1 cc~rclicic tesi biiii 1i;isbccn
Noti~i~~ qr~it le:(rr.cthat riIlStiitcs Iiiivciiot yct ridhcrcd 10 tlie 'I'i.e;it!.Iliiiiiiiiig iiicliidctliii tlic iigciid;i01' tlic (iciici.;il /\s~ciiil~l~c~\.cry ycar sincc 1957,

Nuclcar Wcapon Tcsts in the Atniosplicrc, iiiOutcr Spiicc iiiid Uiitlcr \i'iitei,, l)l,/)lor.i~/tic 1';ict tliiit(lie <iciici.iil A~ciii\>Ij. 11;ih iioi yct siiccccclcel iiiits
siçncd in Moscow on 5 August 1903, iiiri01';ic.liiciiiiç;icoriil>r-clicii\i\cicht h;iii, debl~itcI S s~~cce~si\e rcsc~lutit~~iosn
Nolitlx n~ifliirit.~.ctrsi~c io~ic-c~r t.ait iiuclcar wciipnii tcsts iiitlie iitiii~~l~li~rc tI1chlll>jcct,
and underground arc continuing, i\'()ti//gii.i~i.c3,yr.iha t ;il1St;itcs 1iii1.cnot yct iidhcrcd to tlic Trciity t3aniiing
Tukirtg ilito nccoiart tliat sevcral concrctc suggcstic)nc hiive I>ccnhet 1;)i'tIiii
Niiclc;ir \Vciipoii l'cirts iiitlic t\tiiiosl>licrc, iii Ouicr Spriccriiid Uiidcr W~itcr,
the Confercnce of the Comniittcc or1Disarniaineiit as to poshiblc provi\ioiis iii ;i ~igiiccl iiihlohco\\, oii 5 t\iigii\t 1903.
treaty baiining uiidcrgrouiid nuclcar wcapon tests, l)c,/~lor.i~ l,~,fiici tIi;iitlic clctci.iiiiii;itic~ieispi-csscby tlic origiiiril piirtich 10
tliiii'I'i.c;it10 coiitiniic iicgoti;itioii\ to ;~cIiic\~e the ~iilscoiiiiiiuii~iccof ;il1tcht
1. Urge's al1Statcs that Iiavc riot yct doiic so to iitllicrc ~vithoiitfiii'tlicrc1cl;iy c\l>lo\ioii\ 01'iiiiclciir ~~~c;i~~o liii;IIItiiiic Iiiis iiotso pi.t)diiccd tlic clc~ircel
to the Treaty Banning Nuclear Wcupoii Tcsts iii tlic Atinosplici-c, iii Oiiici rchli1tS.
Spacc aiid Under Watcr;
, 2. C~l1l.is1l101 1l1nuclcar-wcripoii Statcs tu suspend iiuc1c;ir\vc;ipc>iitchth iii ;il1 jl'ofiri,y\\,if//.\/)(~(.i/ o~/~~l lt.r/ ilic ct~iiIii~i~;itioioif iiiicIc;~r\\.c;ipoii tchtsiii
cnvironmcnts; tlic ;i~iiio\l~Iici~cih ii soiircc of gri>\\iiig pi~lliitic~ii iiiicitliiit tlic niiiiiL?cr ii~iel
iii;igiiitiiiIc 01.i~iiefcrgrc~iiiilht\ li;i\,c iiici~cil~ceit ;in ii1;iriiiiiigr;itc siii~.c1903.
3. Kc~cii~c~ tls Coiifcrciicc of tlic Coi~iiiiiticc oii r>is:iriii;iriiciitto coiitiiiiic. /I(~I~II/ ~Y oI/.~I'~/~~~lic~hpcci;il i.cl>orisiiI>~iiittcil l>y [lie coiifc~~ciiccof tlic
as a niiittcr of urgcncy, its dclibcratioiis on a trciity baiiiiiiig iiiiclcrgroiiiiil i'oiiiiiiiitcc oii 1lisiiriii;iiiiciii iii rcillJonsc to Ciencriil Assciiibly rcsulutioii
nuclear weapon tcsts, taking into account the proposiils alrcady iiiiiclc iii(tic
Confercncc as well as flic vicws cspressed at thc currcnt scssioii oi t lie Ciciicriii 3003 11!S x V) of 7 I~cccilll~cr1970.
Assembly, and to subniit to thc Assenibly at its tivcnty-sisth scssioii ii sl>cciiil Kl~c~rrlli~ t,y rcso1utic)ii 1702 A (XVII) of 6 Novcmbcr 1902, \\,licrcby ;III
iiiic.lciir~~.ciipoiiie51s.~itlioii~ ~~cl~ti~ii.\iVcrccoiidc~iinc~l,
report on the results of its dclibcrations. ('o~ri.i~/c~ tliat, \i.liatcvcr riiiiy bc the dilkrciiccs oii tlic question of vcri1ic;i-

tioii, thcrc is iio \.;ilid rciisoii fiir dcl;iyiiig tlic coiiclusion of a coiiiprclieii\i\c
tcht b;iri of tlic n;itiirc coiitcriil~liitcd iri tlic ~~r~ciirribttoc thc Trciity Biinriiiiç
Niiclciir Wciipc,ii 1-csts iii ilic Atriio~plicrc, iiiOuter Spacc and Unclcr \Viitcr.

1. Kl~ifl,r.titl.soI~~tt/~e/(/t\/'ilt~/o.s/c,////)//riti<'(~~iidc~~iiiatioio if riIl11~cI~iir
\sciil>oiltcsts;
2. L1t;~~c t,cs (iovcriinicnts of iiiic1c:ir-wciipm States tc) briiig to a lialt ilII
riiiclciir\+.c;il>oiticstsiit the c;ir.liciltpc)xsihlccliitciiiid, iiiiiny crise,iiot Iiitcr tliiiii

5 Aiigiihi 1073;
3. K~v/r~c~.ts !cs Sccrctiiry-C;eiicr;il 10 triirisiititlic prcscn t rcsolutioii 10 the
~ii~cic;ir-~citl~onSiiitch iind IO iiiforiii thc Gciicrril Asscmbly iit its t\\,ciity-
scvciitli sehirioilof aiiy nicahiircs tlicy 1i;ivctiilicn tu iiiiplciiiciit it.

ïïrcl (;c'~rc~r/.le.isl.st~rtrl~!,*,
h'ofitrg tliiitoiic of tlic first 51cpsin the strcngtticning of international seciirity 130 NUCLEAR TESTS

is to dissipate world-wide fears that nuclear, thermonuclear and other wcapons 1. Stt~~.~.s t~tcJ~ctlic iir-gcncyof briiigiiig tu ii liiililIInuclear \+.ciipontcstiiig
of mass destruction may be used by miscalculation in what could appcar to bc iii iiIcii\.ii-oiiiiiciitsby iiII Stiitcs;
a desperate situation,
Cotrsidcrittg that for the last few years tlie United Natioiis lias bccii prc- 2. CJ~:co .v1 Stiitcs tliiitIiii\.cnut >,etclvricso to iidlicrc \vithout furtlicr ticlii!
10 tlic .I'rciity lkiiiiiiiig Niiclciir \!ciilion Tebis iii tlic Attiiosplicrc. iii OLIICI.
occupied with finding ways and means of diniinishing the pollutioii of theciirtli's Spiicc iiiiil[.!iiiIcrL!!iitcriiiicliiiciiri~\~liiltco rcfi-iiiri1.re)nitchtiiigiii tlic cii~iroii-
atmosphere, riiciits cot.ci.cd by tli;itTI.C;II~;
Notitrg that scientists have been unanimous in the conclusion that tlic f~ll- 3. ('(III.\111ot al1 Go\~criiiiiciits tli;it1iiii.cbecri concluctiiig iiiiclciir ~\ciii~c)ii
out from nuclear tests is injurious to hunian and aninial life and that suc11fiill- tc\t.;. ~~iirticiiliii~lliosc 11iii'tic\ 10 tlic I'i.c;ily 1I;iiiiiingNuclciir \.f'c;il~c)n l'chtb
out may poison the earth's atniosphcrc for iiiany dcciidcs to conic,
Tukitlg itrto clccoiirrt that underground riuclcar and thcrmonuclcar tcsts riiiiy iiiilic /liiiiosl~licrc. iiiOiitcr Sl~iicciiiiilUiidcr Wiitcr. iiiimccliiitclyto iiiidcrtiihc
iiiiiliitcriilor iicgotiiitcd IIIC;I\LI~~So1'1.cstr;iiii1i;it\+.c)iiIc\iispcnd iiuc.lciiii\.ciii3ciri
not only ci-eate serious hcalth hazards but may also cause as yct uridctcrminctl tcstii;g or liiiiior rc~liicctlic sile aiicliiiinil~crof iiuclciir \+.cii~~otieist\. 1)ciidiiig
injury to humans and animals of the rcgion where such tcsts arc coritiuctcd, tlic ciii.lyciiti.~.iiito I'c,i.ccol'ii cc~iiil~rclicii\i\cbail oiiiiI~iiiclc;ir\+'c;il'i'iticiltiii
Recogtrizitrg that therc already exist sufricicnt nuclcar, tlicriiionuclcar arid ilII ~ii\~i~c~iilii~iiby iiIIStiitcs;
other lethal weapons of mass destruction in the arsenals of ccrtaiii I'owcrs to
decimate the world's populiition and possibly rcnder the carth uninhabitable, 4. I.!t:g('(;o\~criiiiiciit\ te)tiihc ;IIIpo\biblc iiiciisiii~csto dc\.clul1I'iistlici~ ;riii
to ii\c iiior.ccll'ccti\cl~~c ,\i\tirig cii~~ii~~iliti1c.~o~(lie ~ci\iiic~Ic~giciiicl~ciitil~ciitioii
1. Appc.als to the nuclear Powers to desist from carrying out f'iirtlicrnuclciir 01' i~ii~lcsgroiiiic~l iiiclciirtc\ts, iri orilcr to l*iicilitiilctlic iiioiiite~i~iiigo,f LIcoiil-
and thermonuclear tests, whcther underground, undcr watcr or in thc carth's l~i-cIiciisi\~tc\t hiiii ;
5. /(c~clr~c~. \ie ('o~iI'C~.e~iocfeflic C'oiiiii~iltcc C)III>is;irriiiiiiic~itte)C~)II~~IILIC.
atmosphere ;
2. Urges the nuclcar Powers to reach an agreement witliout cicliiy on tlic ;isii iiiiittci01' Iiigli prior.it!,, ils dclibcriiiioii\on iitrciity biiiiniiig ~11iJcr~,soi11ic1
cessation of al1nuclear and thermonuclcar tcsts; iiiicIc;ii~\tciillt)il tc\t\. t;ihiiig iiito iiici)liiit (lie \ii~yc~ti~~iiisilrciictyriiiicliii(lie
3. Reassures the peoplcs of the world that tlic Uriitcd Nations willcontinue to ('oiili.i~ciiccils ivcll iis the \ icw c\pr.cs\cci :ittlic cili.rciit session of ilic (icnei.iil
raise its voice against nuclcar and thermonuclear tests of any kiiid and ciirncstly /l\\cill~lly:
requcsts the nuclear Powers not to dcploy such weapons of niiiss destruction. O. /<(*qr~(,.~ l)fs~~fi(~r~/ (ot~~c.~~iii~iesitliit liii\,c L~cciiciirryiiig oii t iiiiclciii-
te\(\ (ci tiihc iiiiiicti\.c iiiid cori~ii~uc.ti~p~icirtiiidc\.clopirig iiitlic C'oiili.reiicc 01'

tlic ('oiiiiilittcc c)ii I~is;ir~ii;i~ii~~o itr,iiiii~iysiicccbsor body, sl?eciIic 131.01105;11\
1-or il11~lllilcrgre~lill~llst bill1 trciity ;
7. l:'.i.l~i.(*.\.f(c.Isrol~cliiit tlicsc cll'orts \+.il1ciiiible a11States to sigri. in tlic
The Getreral Assetnbly, riciir I'iitiisc.a trcaty biinniiig uiidcrgroiind iiiiclcai-~vciipoiitcsts.
Rccogtrizittg the urgent nccd for the cessation of nuclcar and thcrriionuclciir
I weapon tests, including those carried out underground,
Recallitlg that this subject lias been includcd in the agenda of thc Gcncral
Assembly every year since 1957,

Recallittg it~particirlar its resolutions 914 (X) of 16 Decen~bcr 1955. 1702
(XVII) of 6 November 1962, 1910 (XVITl) of 27 Novembcr 1963, 2033 (XX) of
3 December 1965.2163 (XX1) of 5 Dccember 1966,2343 (XXI1) uf i9 Dci-ciiibci-
1967, 2455 (XXi'lI) of 20 December 1968, 2604 (XXIV) of 16 Dccernbcr 1969
and 2663 (XXV) of 7 December 1970,
Expressitrg seriolrs concert1 that the objectives of those resolutions have not

been flilfilled,
Notir~gwitlt regret that al1States have not yct adhered t'othe Trcaty Banning
Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphcrc, in Outer Spacc and Undcr Watcr,
signed in Moscow on 5 August 1963, and that some continue to test in the
atmosphere,

Takitlg into accorîtrt the determination expressed by the parties to that Trcaty
to continue negotiations to achievc the discontinuance of al1test explosions of
niiclear weapons for al1 time,
Notitig the appeal for progress on this issue, made by the Secrctary-Gcncral
in the introduction to his report on the work of the Organization,

Notitlg witlt special concert1 that nuclear weapon tests in the atniosphcrc and
underground are continuing,
Havitig cotrsit/crct/ the special report submittcd by the Confcrcnce of tlic
Committee on Disarmament in response to Gencral Assenibly rcsolution
2663 B (XXV), NUCLEAli TESTS

RESOLUTION 3 (1) AIIOP-I.~ I~Y TIIE UNI.I I:D NA.I.IONS CONI I.HI.K(.L ON
THE HUMAI S NVIKONMENT ST, OCKI~OLM 5, .ïO 16 JUKL 1972

Cotisi(/cri/rgthat tliere is radio-active con taniiiiation of tlic eiiviroiiiiiciit froiii 7111~ G//;[(*i/,\!(i/;~//.y (~oI~-~~~I. 011 //('c~///î//l(l/lf~/l\'~l'(~/l/~l~~/lf,
nuclear weapons tests,
TuXi/iSinto account the reports of the Unitcd Nations Sciciitilic <.oiiiniitiec /ltri.i~t:rrrrc'tai Stocklioliii tToni 5 tu Ib Junc 1972.
lltr~.i,!ycot/.\.it/t~/.iihrcl iicccl t'oriicviiiriioii outlocik iincifor coinnioii priiiciplc\
on tlie Effects of Atoriiic Radiation, 10 iiihl>ir.ciiiicl guide flic ~,cc)plcsof tlic world iii the pi-cscrviitioii iind cnli;iricc-
Boli~~vNit~ liat ;il1 exposurcs of mankiiid to riidiiitioii slioiilii bc kcpt to tlic
minimum possible aiid sliould be justiticd by beiiclirs ttiiit would otlicr\iihc iiot iiicnt 01'tlic liiiiiiiiicii\~iroiiiiieiit,

be obtained,
Cotisidt~ri/i~that the United Nations lias ciidorscd ivorld treiiiics sucli ns ilic
Partial Test Ban Treiity iiiid (tic Seabcd Dciiuclciiri~ü~ioii 1-rciiiy anii rcgioiiiil

treaties suçli as tlie Tlatclolco Treaty for the I>ciiiiclesririiti<>iiol. L.iiiiiiAiiici.ic;i.
and lias repcatcdly callecl for (lie ccsaitioii 01% iiiiclciir ivciil)oii\ tc\is, 1. hliiii i.; hotli ci.c;itiii.c iiiid iiioiililcr of liis cii\~iroiinicnt. \vliicli giws liiiii
Rcsolvc~s: l~Iiy\ic;il \ii\iciiii~iec iiiiil ;ilI'oi.il\Iiiiii [lie i)l~pi>rtiiiiity f'or iiitcllectiiiil, iiioi~;iI,
.,oc.i;iliiiiil ~liir~j~ii;igro\+ili. Iii ilic Ioiiç iiiiil iortiioii:, c\~olutii~iiof thc 1iiiiii;iii

(O) to condemn nuclear weapons tests. espcciülly tliosc ciirricd oiit iii tlic I.;ILY 011 tliihl~liiiictilhi;igc li;i\ l>cciii~ciiclic~\lvIicii. tlii~ciiiglitlic riipiil iiccclci~iitioii
atmospherc ; 01'\ciciiec iiiicl tccliiiolog~~, iii;iii Iiiis iiccliiircil the polvcr to tr~iiislirrii Ili\ cri-
(b) to cal1 upon tliose States inteiiding to ciirry out riiiclcar \\~c;i~>oii.t;ests IO \~ii~~iiiiiictiii coiiiitlcs~ \+ ;iji 011 iiii i~iil~i~cccilc~iicsicliilc, 13otliiispccts iiiiiii'i

abandon their plaiis io ciirry out siicli tests since tlicy iiiiiy IcnJ 10 fiirilicr cii\.iroiiiiiciit. tlic iiiitiiriil iiiicithe iiiiiii-iiiiicic.;ire c~scnti;iI to liis \~~clI-bciiig iiiicl
contamination of the environrilent. to 11ic L'IIJOJ iiiciit 01'[xisic Iiiiii1;iirislits --C\.CII tlic riglit te)lifc itsclf'.
2. Tlic ~>rotcctioii iiiiil iriil>i.o\cmciii ol' the Iiiiiiiaii ciivironinciit is ii iii;i.jcir

i~uc \\Iiicliiillcicts[lie \\cil-l~ciiig 01'pcciplcs iiiicicconoinic cicvclupiiiciit 1l.iriiiirli-
oiit tlic \\orlcl; it is tlic iir-gciit dc:,ii.c of tlic ~>eopIcof the \s~liolc\\.orld aiici tlic
1iiitJ~ol' iiIIgo\erllillclltS.

3. Ali111 hiis coiisfaii~ly IO siiiii 1113c\i>cricncc iiiitlgo 011 disco\~criiig.in\.ciitiiig,
cr.c;iliii_ciiiiil iid\.iiiiciiig. iii oiir- tiiiic. iiiiiii's ciipiihility to traiisfc~riii liis siir-
roiiriiliiig\, il'ii\ctl \\i\cl>.,ciiii hi-iiig ti) ;IIIpcc)l~les tlie l~~iiclits01'ilc\~cloy~riicrit

iii~cl llic oppo1.1~111itj I. ciiliii~icc (lie cliiiilitj~ of 111;. \k'rc)iigly or liccillc\\ly
iipplicd, tlic hiiiiic poi+,cr ci111 iii) iiiciilciiIiil>lc li;ii.iito I~iiiiiiiil~ciiigs iiiiil tlic
gi.~;;'ii;g c:.~;!L'!!';cO'!'!?IL!!?-!!?:!(1111;11.111
liliill;licii\~iro~i~ilcil[\.\'c hcc ;ii.iiiiiicj
iriiiiiiii~~iygioils 01' Ilie ciiri li: ilii~içero~~sIc\.eIs of j>~lliilio~i iii \+.iller,iiir. c;ii.tII
iiriiili\.iiig beirig\; iiiiijor iiiicliiildc~ii.;iblcciisti~i~hiiiicctso the cci~logiciil 1>;1Ii11ice

of tlic l>iii\l~lici.e;ilc\ti.iictioii iiiicliic1>lctii)iiof iri.c..pliiceiiblcrcsoiircch; iiiid gr-c)\s
dcliciciicic\ l~;iriiiI*iil 10 tlic pli~hiciil, iiic~itiil iiiid sociiil 1ic;iItli of iiiiiii.iii the
rii;iii-iii;itlc ciil ii.oiiiiiciit. l~;irticiiIiii~iiitlic li\.inç iiiid ~vorkinç cri~.iriiiiniciit.

4. Iii tlic tlc\.clopiiig coiiiiti.ich iiio\t of tlic cii\.iroiiiiicii tiiipro blciiis ;\SC ciiii\ccl
[>y ii~idci.-~lc~clol~iiiciit.hlillioiis coiitiriiie Io li\.c flir bcIo\v thc iiiiiiiiiiii~iIc\.c~\
rccliiircd I'oi. ;i dccciit liiiiiiiiicsistciicc, dcpri\cd of iiilcquatc food iiiiclclothiii~,

slicltcr iiiit~~liiiiiiitiii, hciilth iiiiilsiiiiiiiitioii. Tlicrcfi)rc, tlic dc\~elol~iiigcoiiritr-ic\
iiiiisi i1ii.cc.itllcir cll'(irt~IO clciclo~~riiciit.l>ciii.iiigin i-iiind Ilicir priorit ics iiiid tlie
iiccll 10 \;iI;'g~i;~ril iiiiiliiill>i.o\e IIic cii\~irc)iiniciii. I-.c)rthc siiriic I>iirpc>\C. tlie

iiiilii\ti~iiili/ciI coiiiiti.ic\ slioiilcl iiiiih~ ~11'0i.t~ tii rcdi~cc the gii~> [>C~\\CCII tli~111-
s~l\ch ;11ii1 tIic il~\.cltiliillg coiiiltri~?;. Ir1 tlic ii~ilii~triiili/cc coiii~lrics. cil\ iroii-

inciil;iI ~~roI>lciii~ ;IIY gciici~;iIl~~ i~cliitcilto i~icIiist~~iiili/;itio~ililci tccliiiologiciil
~ic\~clo~>i~lcilt.
5. -1lie iiiit~~i.ii_ci.o\\Ili01.po~~iiliitioricoiiliiii~~~ii.;ly ~>rcsciiIsprol~lciii\ 011 llic

~>r~\~i-\.;iiiii0 ii1'Ili~ cii\.ii-~iiiii~iii.iiiid iillccliiiit~l>ulicicsiiiid iiiciisiircs ~110iiIiI I~c
iicio~~icll,;is ;1pprOl>ri;i[c.io tlic~c ~>roblciiis.Of ;il1 tliiiigs iii tlic \\,orle'. 134 NUCLEAK TESTS REQUEST 135

people are the most prccious. It is thc pcoplc that propcl social progrcss, crciitc
safeguardcd for the bcnefit of present and future gcncrations through carcful
social wealth, dcvclop scicncc and tcchnology iirid. through thcir liiird n.c)rk, planning or riianagcincnt, as üppropriatc.
continuously transform tlic Iiuriian ciivirorinicrit. Alorig witli sociiil progrcss
and the advance of production, science and tcclinology, thc ciipability of miin to Pt.itrciplc 3
improve the environmcnt increases with crich passing day.
6. A point has been rcached in history whcii IVC iiiust sliapc oiir iictioiis Thc capacity of tlic erirtli to producc vititl rcncwablc rcsourccs niust Lwriiairi-
taincd ancl, wlicrever priicticable, rcstorcd or improvcd.
throughout the world with a more prudciit crirc for thcir ciiviroiiiiiciil;iI cc)ii-
scquences. Through ignoraricc or indiflèrenccwe ciin do riiiissi\,ciinclirrc~.crsil>lc Pt-itrciple 4
harni to the carthly cnvironiiicnt 011 whicli our lifc ririd wcll-bciiig dcpciid.
Convcrscly, through fullcr krio~vlcdgc iiiicl i\,iscr actioii, WC ciin iictiicic I'or Man lias a spccial responsibility to safcguard and wisely nianage the hcritiigc
oursclvcs aiiciour postcrity a bcttcr lilF iriiirieiiviroiiiiicnt iiicirc iiihcclling ~ritli of wildlifc and its habitats which are now gravely irnpcrillcd by a cunibiniitiori
of aclvcrscfactors. Naturc coriscrvation iiicludirig uildlifc must tlicrcforc rccci\'c
Iiumrin nccds arid Iiopcs. Thcrc iirc brc)iicivistiis l'or tlic ciilciiiicniciit ol'cii- importaricc iriplanriiiig for ceonornie dcvcluprncnt.
vironniental quality aiid the crciitioii ol' ;i gooci lifc. Wliiit is iicedccl is iiri cii-
thusiastic but calm state of niind aiid iiitciisc but ordcrly ~vorli.l'or tlic piirl~cihc l't-itlci/)l~~
of iittainiiig frcccioin iii tlic world of riililire. iiiiiiiiiiist iisc liiio\r~lctlgc [O I~irilcl.
in collaboriitioii \vit11iiiitiirc, iiL~cttcic.iivii.oiiiiicii[. -1.0 licl~ii~liiiitli~iipi.o\c[tic Tlic non-rcriewiiblc rcsourccs of tlic cartli niust bc cniploycd in sucli a wiiy
as to guiird agairist tlic diiiigcr of tlicir futlire csh:iustiori arid tu cnburc tliiit
Iiii~iiriiciivironiiiciit for 1ircscrit ;iiicIfiitiirc g~ii~riiti()ii~liiis I>ccoiiic iiii iiiil>crii- bcnelits frorii sucli criiployii~critiirc sliiircciby al1mrinkind.
tivc goal for rnaiikiiid -- iigoal to bc ~->iirsiictd ogctlier \vitII.iiiid iiiIi;ii.iiioiiI\iili.
the cstablishcd aiid funiiiiiiiciital goiils of pciicc iiiiciof worlcl-~viclcccoiioiiiic Pt-ittciplc 6
anci social dcvclopnicnt.
7. To acliieve this ciiviroii~iiciitiil g0;il \vil1 iiciiiiiiid tlic iicee~~~;i~ic of rc- The discharge of toxic substances or of otlicr substances and tlic rclciisc of
sponsibility by citizcns iind cornmunitics iiiiclby ciitcrpriscs iiiitiiiiiiitiitioiis;it hcat, in such clu;iritities or concentrritiuns as to cscced the capacity of the eri-
viroriment to rcnder tlicm lilirnilcss, miist bc hlilted in order to erisurc that scri-
evcry levcl, al1sliariiig cqiiitiibly iricoiiiiiii~iicl1.01-1sI.ncIividiiiils iiiilII\\.iiIh\ 01' ous or irrevcrsible da~tiiigeis iiut iiiflictcd upoii ccosystcnis. Tlic just btriigglc
lifc as wcll as orgnniratioiis iii niriiiy liclcls.bj. thcir values iiiid tlic siiiii ol'tlicir. of tlic pcoplcs of al1couritrics agairist pollutiuii should be supportcd.
actions, will sliapc thc world cnvironiiicnt cil'tlic fiitiii.c. 1-ociiland iiiitioii;il
govcrnments will bcar tlie grcatcst burdcii l'orIiirgc-sciilccii*.ironii1ciit;il 11olic.y Pt-itrciplc 7

and action \{fithinthcir jiirisciictioiis. Iiitcrriiitioriiil CO-cil.rcriiiicii1s1;il\o riccdetl States shall takc iiII possible stcps to prevcrit pollution of the scas by sub-
in order to rnise resourccs to siippoi-t tlic elc\.clopiiigci~iiiili.ics iiic;ii.r!iiig oiii stances tliiitare liablc tu crcatc Iiazards to hiinian liealth, to harni livirig rc-
thcir rcsponsibilitics iii tliis field. A grci\\iiig c.liihh 01' cii\.ii-oiiiiicnf;iI~~rol~lciii~. sources arid riiarine lili., IO diiriiiigçririicniticsor to iritcrfcre ~vithothcr lcgitirniitc
bccausc tlicy arc rcgiurial or glohi~l iii cstcrii or b~iiiiisc tliq iiil'~ittlic ic)iiiriiori iiscs of the sea.
intcrnatioiial rciilm, \vil1 i.ccl~iirccxtciisi\.c CO-ol>cr';itioriiiiiic)iig ii;itioiis iiiiil
iictioii by iiitcriiiitioiiiil oi'giiiii/aticiiis iii ilic icjiiitiioii iiitcrc\i. 'l'lic('oiil'ci-ciicc

ciills upon C;ovcrriiiicnts iiiitlpcoplcs to c\ci'i ic)iiiiiic)icI1'oi.is I-oIllic ~~i~csci.\ii- Lieonornie and suciiil dcvelopnicrit is csscntial for cnsuring a fiivour;iblc
tiori anci iriipro\.crncrit ol' thc huriiiin crit~iroririicnt. l'or ilic I?ciiclit 01' iilltlic !iving and working cnvir»nnlcnt for nian ririd for crcatirig conditiuris or1clirili
people and for thcir postcrity. tliat arc ncccssa1.yfor tlic iniprovciiicnt of thc quality of life.

Pt-itrc.iylc9~

Environnicntal dcficiencics gciicrated by the conditions of undcrdcvclopmcrit
and natural disastcrs pose griivc problcnis and can best be reniedicd by iic-
Srcirc..~tlrc c.ottit~rotcro~ii.ictiotrtlrrrt: cclcratcd dcvelopmciit tiirough the transfcr of substaritial quantitics of tiriiinciiil

P~*itl~i/)I 1. iirid tccliriological assistriricc as a supplcmcnt to thc dorncstic clfort of tlic
dcvclopirig countries aiid such tiriicly assistance as niay bc requircd.
Man lias the fiiiidarncn tii riglit to l'rcccloiii.ccliiiility;iiicliiilccliiiiiccc)iitlitioii\
of lifc, in iiiieiivirc>~i~iicio iifii ciiiiilitytliiit ~lci~ri~i is1il.cof iiigiiity iiii~l~rcll-
bcing and hc bciirs a soltiiiri rcsponsibility to protcct ililcliiiipro\'c tlic cil\ irciii- For tlic dcvcluping couritrics, stability of priccs and adequnte carnirigs for
iiicnt for prcscrit aiid futiirc gciicriitioiis. Iiithis rcsl~cci.policies i~i-c~iiiotiiio gr
perpctuatiiig tr/~rrt.llic~iri.ciiil scgrcgiitiori. ciiscriiiiiiiiitic,ii.colciiiiiil iiiiiiotlicr prirnnry cornniodities and riiw rnaterial are csscntial to cnvironnicntal iii~iiiiigc-
riicnt since ccononiic flictors as wc11as ccological processes niust bc tiikcri iiito
forms of opprcssioii arid forcign dc)riii~iiitioi~ stiind coniiciiiriecl iiiii1riiiiht IJC accoun t.
elirninated.

Priticiplc 2 Tlic cnvironmcntal policics of rill Stiitcs should cnhancc and not advcrscly
Thc natural rcsourccs of the carih incliiriing the riir, wiitcr. I~irid.Ilorii and
füuna and especially rcprcscntativc san~plcï of natiiral ccosy\tcriis rnusi bc altèct tlic present or fiiturc dcvclopnicrit potential of devclopinç countrics. ncir
sliould tlicy hampcr thc rittainrncnt of bettcr living conditions for aII, and ~ip- 136 NUCLEAR TESTS

bro~itlcii the biisis for an ciiliglitencci opiiiioii and rcsponsiblc conduct by in-
propriate steps should be takcn by States and intcrnational orgiinizations witli
a vicw to reaching agrccmcnt on meeting tlie possible national and iiitcrnational tlivicluiils, ciitcri,riscs itiid cuiniiiiinitics iii protccting iiiid imprvving thc cnvirori-
ecoiiomic conscqucnces rcsulting from the application of cnvironmcntal niciit in ils fiill liuiiiaii cliincnsiuii. It is iilso csscnti;il thiit riiiiss nicdiii of cuni-
iiiii~ii~iiti~~i~;ivoiclcoiitribiitiiig to tlic cIctci~ic~r;iti~o )ifi tlic ciivir~~riiiiciit.bui, 011
nieasures.
tlic coiltriiry. tiis~cii~iii;itciiiforii1;itioii or iin c~iiic;iiioiiiiI rliiturc, 011 tlic nccd
Pritrciple 12 to ~>rotcctaiid iiiil~ro\c tlic cii\irc)iiiiiciit iii order to cii;iblc riliiiito de~.cI~i~>
in ci.cry rcslxct.
Rcsourccs should bc madc rivailable to prcscrvc and iriiprovc tlic cnviroii-
ment, taking into account tlie circumstanccs aiid particuliir recliiircriiciits of
dcvcloping countries and any costs wl~ichniriyciiianatc froiii tl-iciriiicorpor;iiirig Pl.i//t*i/~l2<~

environmental safeguards into thcir devclopniciit pliiniiiiig iiiid tlic i~ccd l'or Sciciitilic rc\ciii~cIi ;iiicllc\cl~ipiiic~it iii~Iiccoiiic~tor cil\ iro~ii~iciiliilprc)l~lciiis,
makiiig availablc to rhcrii, iipori tlicir rccluc\t, iiclclitioriiiliriicrniitioiiiil te~.liriic;il 1>011i iiiitioii;il;iiiiliiiiiliiii;iiii~ii;iI11ii1\1I>c~~i~~iiiititcie nI;il1 coiiiitrics. cs~~cci;iIIy
and financial assistance for this purposc. 11ic(Ic\.cIopi~i~coiiiiirics. 111 tl!is co~iiicclioii, tlic I'i'cc Ilow of iip-to-clatc scicn-
tilic iiil'oi.iiiiiiioiiiiiicl~i.;iiiilki.01'e\~icrie~ice iiiiist lie siippurtcd iiiitf iibsistcd.

to kicilitiitc tlic sciliiiici11ol'cii\ iroiiiiicii tiil171-oblciiisc:ii\~ircinnient:il tcclinvlogics
In order to achicvc a niorc ratioiial ni~iiiagcnicnt of i.csourccs ;in4 tliiis io slioiiltl bc iii;idc ii\,;iil;il3lc IO dc\,clopiiis cciiiiiirics on tcrms wliicli \vc)uld
iniprovc the environment, States should adopt an iiitcgratcd and eo-ordiniitcd ciicoiii.;igc tlicir \i.ielc cli\\ciiiiii;it ioii \riihoiit coiisiitiitiiig ail ceonornie burdcn

approach to their developmcnt plarining so as io cnsurc tliai dcvclopiiiciit is oii tlic clc\cloj>iiig cc>iiiitrics.
conipatible witli thc nccd to protcct and iiiipro\.c tlic huiiiiiii cii\.iroiiiiicrit l'ur
the benefit of thcir population.

Si;iici Iiii\.c, in ;iccc~r.d~iric i.itli tlic Cliiirtcr (if the United Natioris arid the
priiicil>l~\01'iiitcr~i;i~ion;il /;i\\,.the \o\.crcigii i-ight IO euploit tlicir o\\,ii resoiirccs
Rational planning constitutcs an csscntial tool fur rcconciliiig iiny conllict
piii.\iiiiiit to tlicis ()\\.ilcii\~i~~~iiiiiiciit;liIoli~~ici iiici ilic rcspi~n~ibility to cii~iirc
bctwccn thc nccds of dcvclopnient ~itid the iiccd to protcct aiici inij>rc,i.cilic ili;itilcii\.iiic\ \\ itliiiiilicii-jiii~i\~lictioiios control 110 not c;ilisc ei;iiiiiigc to tlic
cnvironmcnt. CIIL ii.o~lriiciit01'0tIic1.Stiitci 01.iil';ii.c;i\l>e!.o11~ th1e liiiiil01'11iitioiiiiljiiris~iictiori.

/'l.i//~~i/J2l:~
Planning must bc applicd to Iiumaii scttlcmciits iind urbaiiiriitioii wiih ii vicw Si;iic\ \tiiill co-o~~ei~;iicto elc\clop I'iirtlici. ilic iiitcriiiiiit~iiiil l;i\v rcg;ir~Iiiig
to üvoiding adverse clkcts on the cnvirorinici~t iii~dobtiiiiiiiig iiliisiiiiiiiisociiil,
liabilit!. iiiitlcciiiiliciis;iiioii foi.t lie\ ictiiii\ 01'~>olilitioii iiiid citlier cii\~ircirimcnI;iI
cconomic and cnvironriientiil bcnclits for all. Iii tliis respect prt!iccts whicli i1i.c ii;iiil;iyc ciiii\cel 1)~ iiilic\ \i IIl\iii[lie .iiii~i~cIicIiiiioir coiiIroI of s~icliSIiitch to
dcsigncd for coloriialist and racist domiiiatiori iiiust bc iibiiricloiicd. iirc;i\ l~c!oiiil Iticii-Jiii.isdicii~~ii.

Demograpliic policies, wliicli are witliout prcjudicc to biisic 1iuiii:iiiriglits iiricl Il'itlioiit ~~i~cjiiili~ I~csiicli critcri;i LI\ iii;i~,[JC ;igscccl LIIJ~>IIIJ~ tlic iiitcsiiiitioriiil
whicli are dceiiiccl appi;ü()i-i;iii- jjÿ güi.ci-iiiiii-ni~ iiiiîi~ïiicil, sliiiiilif!;c iiiiiili~iliii
coiiiiiiiiiiii~~. or. 10 i;iiiti'~~.ti~ \\iii~.ii \\iii ii;i\c IO hc cictcriiiiiieci ri;iiioiiiiii). ii
those regions wlierc tlic riiic: of population growth or csccs\ivc ~~oliiiliitioii \+,il1lie c\\c~i~i,iI iii iillciisci tci coii\iilci~tlic \>\tciii\ of \.iiIiics pi~c\~;iiIiiig iii c;icli
conccntrations arc likely to hiivc ;icii.crscclTcctson tlic cn\.iroiiiiicii[ tir clc\.clop- coii~i~i~~ i.itl tlic c\icii~ 01'1I1c;i~~l~liciiI~ilio tf ~~i~iicI;ir~ \lsliieli ;ire \.;ilid for ilic
nient, or wl-ierclow pc)piilaiion elciisity miiy prc\.cnt impro\.ciiiciit ol'tlic hiiii-iiiii
iiio\i ;~d\ii~i~~e~ tI.oiii~ti.icIii~i\\liicli ili;i!,IV iii;ipi3ropsi;itc iiiiclof ii~i~~~iir.i~~iiitc~I
cnvironiiictit and iiiipcde dc\,eIoprncnt. \ociiil L.O\I l'ai.tl~c LIC clol~iiig coiilit ries.

Appropriate national institutions must bc ciitrustcd wiili tlic t;isk of pl;iii-
liitc~~~i;~ii~~iiii;ii;littci~\ coii~~ci~iii~it~ lic i31xi[cctioii iiiicl iiiipso\~ciiicii[ 01'the
ning, inanaging or controlliiig the ci~vironi~iciiliiIrcsourccs 01'St;itcs \\ilIl tlic cil\ 1i~o111iic1 \io1t11cIl~cIi;iii~llc~l iii ;Ico-o~~c~.;iti\c 1\13ii.i1~);.III coiiiiti.ic\, I>ig 01.
vicw to enhiincing eiivironn-iciiriil qiiality.
\111,111 O.II ,111 cc~ii;iI I'iioliiik:. ('~)-oI~cI.;I[~oI~ tli~.iiiish ~iii~I~iI;i~c~~ o;riI l~il;itcriiI
;II.I~;II~~:L~I~~CI~[0\1otlic~. ii~~~~~~o~~ IIC;i~i\ i\ c\\ciiti;iI Io clTc~~ti\cl~c~o~iii~ol.
1>i.ch\iii. i~ctliic~c ;11ic1 cliiiiiii;itc ;itI\ci.\c cil\ i~~c~iiiiic~itc ;illl;'cts rc'\iiliiilg 1'1.0111
Science and tcchiiology, iis piirt of thcir contribuiioii to ccoiioiiiic iiiiclsoci;il
dcvelopment, rnust bc applicd to tlic iclcrititiciitioi~, ~i\~oicl~iiic iiici cc~iiirol ol' ;icii\iiic\ c~)ii.liiit~tl iii iill\~~lici.c~ ii 5iicli ii\\;iy 11i;itcliiciiccciiiiit i\tii!-.cn01'tlic
\o\ci.cig~itj ;i~iil iiitci.c\i\ 01' ;IIIStiiics.
envirorlmcntal risks and thc solution of cnvironnicntal problcrns iind li~r tlic
common good of niankind.

Siiiici sliiill cii~iii.c 111;it iiiici.i~;itic,niil orgiiiii/.iitinis pliiy ri CO-ordiniitccl,

Education in cnvironnlcrital matters, for the youngcr gcncration iis ii*cllas clliciciit iiiid tl~.iiiiiiiic rolc for tllc protection uncl imprci\.cii~cnt of the cri-
.+U"..U)l givlng d~c considcra!ion to tl~e ~!!ld(:rprivilcgc(.I~is c~ucntiiil iiiordcr IO \,ii.oiiiiicii. 140 NUCLEAR TESTS

4. I.'r.gcss o\rcrii~iiciitsthrit li;i\.c ticcii ciirryirig oiil niiclciir \+.caporitcsls to
2. Calls uporr al1nuclear-weapon States to suspend nuclear wcapon tcsts in al1
environmen ts ; tiihc iiii ric1ii.c aiicl c~)iisti-iicti\~cp;irt iii ~ircsciitiiig riiid ~icveIor)i~igin the
3. Calls irporr the Conference of the Coniniittce on Disarniamcnt to givc ('ciiif'ci.ciiccof tlic ('ciiiiiiiiitcc oii 11i~iii.iiiiiiiiciit.or iii iiny otlicr iililirol~riiirc
urgent consideration to the question of a treaty barinirig al1 riuclcür wciipon licidy. spccitic piopiisiils I'cii. ciiiii~>i~eliciisiv tchi hiiii;
tests, taking into account the vicws alrcady cspresscd in the Confcrcncc, thc 5. /<<~lri<,.\t 1.I1c(.~IIIC'I.CI~ ofC tlic ('ciiiiiiiittcc oii Di\iirmrimciit to gi\.c tirhi
lii.ior.i(ytci i~h ttclibcr-iitioiisoii ii trciiiy b;iriiiiiig uiidcrgri)liiitl ~iuclciir\i.ciipiiii
opinions statcd at the current session of thc Gcncral Assenibly and, abovc aII,
the pressing need for the early conclusion of such a trcaty. tchti. iiiki~ig 1.~11 iiccoiiiit of \,ic\vs of experts riii~i tif tccliiiiciil cic~~cl~~?iiiciil~
bciiriiig ciri the \.eriliciitioii of siicli iitr-ciity.iiriciflirtlier rcqlicsts tlie Confcrcncc
to sllliiilitii hliccial rcpcirt to tlic <;ciicriil 14ssciiibly iitits twciity-cigtitli session
oii tlic rcsiilts cifits riclibcr;itii~iisoii tliib riirittcr;
T/IC GerreralAssertrbly, 6. L!IX(JS gci\.crniiic.riisIO t;ikc riIIapl)rvpriuic iiic;ir;~ir-efsurthcr tn dcvelop
Cortscioirs of the dangers to mankind presented by a continuation of flic
esihtiiig ciipabilitics Ior detcciioii riiid idciititicriiion of iindcrgroiind iiiiclc~ir
nuclear arms race, tchts tlii.oiig1i~cisiiicilogic;iliintl otticr tcc1inic;il iiiciiiis. aiid to incrciisc iiitcr-
Be/ievirrg tliat a cessation of al1 nuclcar and thcrnionuclciir wcapon tcsts, niitioiiiil co-tilicriitioii iii tlic cliilioi-iitioi01' rclc\~;irittccliniqiics riiite\.iiliirition
including those carried out underground, would contributc to a dccclcratiori 01' sei~iiiogi~iililiicL!;II;~ iii orclcr to f~~iiiliiiitc iiii iiiic~crgroiiti~iiii~clciir\~cii1~0ii
of the nucleür arms race, to the promotiori of furthcr arnis coritrol and dis- tcit biiii ;
armament measures, and to a rcductiori in world tension,
Believirtgfirrtlrc~r that a cessation of al1niiclcar wcapori tcsting would inliibit 7. (.trll.~riporrgo\ criiiiiciit\IO hcch ii\;I rii;iter.of'iii~gciicy ;i liritto rillriiiclciir
\\.e;ipoii ~ch~iilg,:iiid to c~iiic;i\~oiii O ;~cl~ic\~ iit tllc ciirlicht pos\ililc ~iiitc ii
the wider dissemination of nuclear wcaporis, coiii~~r~clicii\ci\tc\t Ii:iii,iiitI to ol>iiiiii iiiiicr.siiI;(cllicr-er1c.co hliclia biiri.
Noritig witlrregret that not al1Statcs have yct ndlicrcd to tlic Trcaty 1Irinning
Nuclear Weapon Tcsts in the Atmosphcrc, in Outcr Spiicc and Undcr Watcr,
signed in Moscow on 5 August 1963,
Notitrg wirliregret that despite the determination expresscd by prirties to thrit 7'lr<(';c'rr<-~.t:rl.lv.vt~trrl)~~.
Nt~!ljir.~r~irii.y.l/oi,jirrl)/~r.c,lrt,~r.\o toiiccriiirigthc Iiiii.iiifiicanscqiiciiccs of
Treaty to achieve the discontinuance of all test csplosioris of nuclear wcapoiis
for al1time, parties to theTreatycontinue to test nuclcar weapons undergrourid, nuclc;ir,\\crilioil tcsts foi.tlic riccclciiiticiriof'tlic iirms race iiiid for tlic hcaltli 01'
and no specific proposals for an underground test ban agrecriicnt are under prcsciit iiiitiI'ii~iircgcrici~iiiii~iio~f'iiiriiikiiict,
negotiation, /)(~pIo~.irr, :liiitrlic C;cricriil Ahsciiibly lias nui '.CI siicceccicci iriits aini oi'
ricliicviiiy ri cciiiilircliciihi\c icst hari, dcspitc 71 siicccssiv~ rcs~Iittic~ri~ 011 tlic
Recallitlg that tlie Gencral Assembly has repcatcdly cxprcsscd its conccrii
regarding the continuation of nuclear and thcrnionuclcar wcapon testirig, iri siil?icct.
particular in its resolutions 914 (X) of 16 Dccembcr 1955. 1762 (XVII) of' 6 I)i*l~Ior.iti,ir~r.tlrtt1i;it tlic dctcriiiiniitioii cspressctl Liythc origiiiiil p:irtics
November 1962, 1910(XVIII) of 27 Novcnibcr 1963,2032 (XX) of 3 Dccciiilicr to tlie Ti-ciity I3iiiiiiiiig Niiclcrtr \Vc;ilioii Tcsts iii tlic Aiiiicisplicrc. iii Oiitcr
1965, 2163 (XXI) of 5 Dcccrnber 1966, 2343 (XXIT)of 19 Dccciiibcr 1907. Sp;i~,c .1it1[ Jiidet.\'v';IIcIsigllCil iii >~O\L.OI 011 5 ;\iiyiist 1003,tu pilrsilc iicgotiii-
2455 (XXIII) of 20 Decembcr 1968, 2604 (XXIV) of 16 Dccciiibcr 1969. 3663 tiori\ 10 iicliic\c Ilic tli~ciiiitiiiii;iiicc of';il1 tcht c\iljlosioiis of iiiiclciii-\r.ciipoiis

(XXV) of 7Decembsr 1970 and 2828 (XXVI; of :5 Dc~ciribci 1771, for riIItiiiic Ii;isiicit\O I'iii~ii.iidiicctltlic dcsii.cd rcsults.
Havirrg corisi~lered the report subniittcd on 26 Scptenibcr 1972 by tlie Con- I<c~c~trlli~ it,ircs~ilu~ioiii1762 A (NVI-T) ut' 0 I\cc~\.ciiibcr i-9ii2 iinti ZÙZX
ference of the Committee on Disarmanicnt, and in particular thc scctions (SS\'I) 01'lO Ilccciiilicr 107 1. \\.lici.chy ilII niiclciir \\.ciipori tcsts. \vitlioi~tex-
thereof concerned with achieving a coniprehcnsive test ban, ccliliori. \\.crc c~i~i~le~n~ied,
Notirrg witlr sarisfactioti the completion of a first set of bilateral agrccnicnts
1 . I<(~itt,r.~~oftr~.s.(I,I,~O\i.itll tlit-ritrrlo.\t\.i,yoits coiielciiiii~itioiiif ;il1ni~clcar
on the limitation of strategic arms and cxpressing the hope that the progress wciilioil tcsts ;
so far achieved will lead to further agreed limitation on nuclcar arms and be 2. I<c~~,~/ir~ir t.r.s.ori/'icstiliiit,\\Iirtcwr riiiiytic tliedilTcic.nccsun tlieqiicstiori
conducive to the negotiation of a ban on undcrground nuclcar wcapon testing, of \c.l.ifjci1tic)n,t1ici.c ii;rio \.;ilici.c;i\oii !'ordclriyirig tlic ccincliision of ii cciiii-

1. Stresses agaitr the urgency of halting al1 nuclear wcapon tcsting in al1 ~ircIiciisi\,ctsht li;irof tlic niitiii.~co~i(~'liil~I;i~i i'(Itlic prcriiiihlc to the Trc~ity
environments by al1Statcs; t3ariiiirigNiiclciii Wcapoii TCSI:, iiitlic ~lliiiosplicrc. iiiOutcr Spiicc aiid Untlcr
2. Urges al1States tliat have not yct donc so to adhcre wittiout furtlicr dclay \tt;itcr;
3. I!/.~r('.,l/c-ct,l(,t.<[lie ~(i\.criimcnts of'riiiclciir-\s,cii~?oiS itiitçs t~) briiig 10
to theTreaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tcsts in the Atmosphcrc, in OutcrSpacc
and Under Water, and meanwhile to refrain from testing in environnicnts lialt iiII iiiiclciir \\.cirpon tests iit tlic crirlicst possiblu diitc, ;ilid in nriy ciiic [lot
covered by that Treaty ; Iiiter tliiiri 5 ~Iiigi1s11973. citlicr- thr-oiigli ;I pcr-ti~iinciitiigrecnicrit or tlirougli
3. Calls iipott al1governments conducting underground nuclcar wcapon tcsts, iiiiilritcriil or rigrcecinior-ritciriil;
particularly those partics to the Treaty Banning Nuclcar Wcapon Tests in tlic 4. I<o(,II(~.tslIi.cs Sccrci;ii~-Gciieral to trririsiiiit the prcscnt rcsnliition tn tlic
iiii~~Iciir-~\cii~~S ori;itcii~itlIO iiit'oriiitlic Ciciicr;ilAs~ciii~ily iitits t\\~cii~~~-ciglitIl
Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Watcr, inimcdi;itely to undcrtakc uni-
lateral or negotiated measures that would suspcrid or rcducc such tcsting, se\\ioii 01. r~iiy ilicii\iii~e~tlicy liii\c t;ikcii to iiii~>lciiiciit il.
pending the early entry into force of a ban on al1 nuclcar wcapori tcsts in al1
environments ; NUCLEAK TESI'S

Annex22

MAPS~.IOWIN GGEOGRAPHIC CA OLVERAG O F ~IONITOIIIN P RUGKAMXIE

'I'lio\c~~i~c~loiiiiriiig,aiid to \r.liicl\l~ccilicattcnt ion is giwn iii ttifiill-outiiioniioririg.

:iïc iridiciiic~*.

* (ci-iiiii144 iicod> iiiiiiri147 riiilicniiiiii100 tclliiriiiii17Oiii
ciii.o[>iiiiiI5.5 l~i~;iiccitiiii iii14.; sil\.cr III iclluïiiiiii170
ciioiiiii 1 O ~~i';i\ccitiiiiiiii1-14 * xirontiiirii SO iclli~riiii~132
* io~liiic13l ~~i~oiiic(Iiii~~147
* xtrontiiiiii00 tir] 119111
iolliiic137 [~~~oiiictliii~i1-19 tcclinctiiiiii09iii tin 125
* I;iiitli~iiiui1-10 * i.lio~liiiiIO!iii tclliiriiiii175111 * yttr11111100
iilOI> IJllcilii0') ~~IiO~I~~~illIO0 tclliii.iuii117iii ! ttriiiii01

* iiio[~iiiii05 * i~ii(liciiiiiIO3 tclliii.iuii177 * /ircoriiiiiii05 NUCLEAR TESTS
REQUEST

Annex 24 Annex25

SIXON 1 l~hl-90 AND CAFSIUM3-7 1 I'ALLOUT DEPOSITIC IN)NAUSTRAL FIROM
NUCL.EATR ES~S IN TIIE AT~~OSPI~E HYRE USSK AND USA UP TO 1962 AND BY

FRANC E\~D C~IINA FKOM 1966
Picucurie-days pcr litrc

Sfro~rririrrr-90 Crresium-137

~rrilli<~rrrp~circ.~ srs~iirir~ Xc.iJ/orricfr.t~ rrii/licrir.iep ser sqiiure kilo~~iefre
- ..... - .. .. ...-. - ..... -. .. -. ...- - . .
Ccrrtre -
Adclaide 1966 1967 1969 1969 1970 1971 1966 1967 IY68 1969 1970 1971

Brisbane - - -- - - - -

Hobart and Launccston Adclaidc 1.26 0.49 0.48 0.61 0.56 0.87 1.29 0.62 0.53 0.84 0.75 1.23
Malanda .........-.. .- ....... ... -- .- -. - - - - .- .- - - - - .-- - -

Melbourne Alicc Springs 0.03 0.10 0.43 0.27 0.70 0.37 I.I6 0.24, 0.41 0.43 0.31 0.40
.... - . - . . - - - -- . . . . - .
I'er th Ijcrry 1.30 0.72 0.53 1.00 1.36 1.36 2.17 1.29 0.63 2.10 1.44 2.32
Rockhati~pton ........
. . . - . - . . . - . . . - . -.
Sydncy Bii\batic
1.08 O.01 0.43 0.7Cl 0.70 1.34 1.47 1.12 0.55.........1 - .. -. . - - -- - .-. 1..-3 -

Darwin 0.91 0.31 0.41 0.46 0.36 0.36 1.29 0.48 0.55 0.85 0.52 0.64
. . . - . . . . . . . . . . . - . ......--- . ...

I.liid~pcri 0.73 0.38 0.47 0.68 0.05 0.88 0 .98 0.54 0.52 0.78 0.92 1.04
-- . . ....................... .- -- . -.

Ilobart 0.94 0.41 0.28 0.53 0.57 0.69 0.86 0.52 0.31 0.63 0.85 0.96
.-....- ...... -. . . - -..-. .- . ..- . - - ........ - ... - . - - . - .- - - .. -..--

b-lc.a.dows 0.41 0.67 0.71 0.79 1.39 1 ..42 0.76 0.75 0.77 0.87 1.69
- .. .- ... -1..2.6 - . - - --

Melbourne 1.06 0.38 0.37 0.85 0.96 0.77 1.22 0.44 0.39 0.95 1.05 0.76
...........-. -. ......-... - . -. - - - ...- - -.

Pcr11i 1.18 0.04 0.50 0.52 0.74 0.90 1.35 0.90 0.58 0.64 1.06 1.14
-- ..-..............-..-... - .. . .- -.
Port Ilcdliintl 0.48 0.22 O.12 0.06 0. 11 0.09 0.41 O.IY O.10 0.24 O.12 O.i2

. ..... - .... -- . - .- .- .-.. - - .- -
Saiiif1)rd 0.08 0.01 0.54 0.82 1.13 1.06 1.46 1.00 0.54 1.10 1.26 1.34
-..-.... .- .- - -.. -

Sydney 1.50 0.82 0.33 1.01 0.86 0.93 1.63 1.36 0.23 1.39 1 03 !.2!
.... - -- ...... .-..... - - ---.... .-- - .- . -.

Townsville 0.71 0.40 0.27 0.20 0.31 0.41 0.87 0.43 0.32 0.31 0.39 0.49
--- . . - .-.- - . --..- - .- --- - -- - .-. -- -. .- -. - - - --

Warrrigiil 1.03 .. .45 0.75 1.12 0.97 ....1.12 1.40 0.73 0.71 1.26 1 ..22 1.22
.-...... - ... -. - .-..- ... - .- - -.- - - - .- -- -. - - - -. - - -

Woknlup 0.85 0.52 0.44 0.40 0.56 0.87 1.25 0.90 0.49 0.66 0.89 1.13

I'opulrition --

wciglitcd iilcrin 1.18 0.58 0.48 0.96 0.93 1.12 1.52 0.95 0.50 1.24 1.12 1.38
for Austrrilia

- - - - - -- -

Coriiponcnt duc
to Frencli 0.24 0.06 0.19 0.67 0.70 0.90 0.30 0.10 0.20 0.87 0.84 1.10

nuclciir tc\ts NUCLEAR TESTS

Annex26

DEPICTIOOFSTRONTIUM -0DCAESIUM 3-71FALL-OUN. AUSKALIA

FALLOUT DEPOSIT

millicuries per square kilometre

O d

Document Long Title

Request for the indication of Interim Measures of Protection submitted by the Government of Australia