Memorial of the Government of the Republic of Finland

INTERNAïïONALOFJUSTICE

PASSAGETHROUGHTHEGREATBELT

MEMORIAL OFTHEGOVERNMENT
OFTHEREPUBLIOFFINLANDPARTI: ~ODUCI1ON .........................................3.................
................
PART IlTHE FAm ........................................................
.........................

Sedion 1 The CcographiealPerspective:FhPorltion...............................
SectioU The Mao"v .. oftbe Straib: A Cenerai Descr........................
SectioUl.The Great Belt(Storeklt)............................1.....................
SedionIV.A Commrimn ofthe NavigationalGeographyofthe Straits.13..
Sedion .RouteT:The Primary ~i~n'fieanceofthé&Belt............14..........

CHAPTE I:THE GREAB TFLTISAN ERN NATION SMAL -... 16

Section1.The International Smhwofthe Balticandofthe Strah ...1.
A.THEABOMON OF% SOUNDDUES 16
B.THE-ON OFAITEMPTS ATDOMINRIM MARISBAL~CI....................
SectioU Denmark'sTerritorial Se..............................22...........................
Sedion I.The DanishStraitsNavigationRegimeunder DaLawh ......22.....
SectionN.The Great Bdt isa SbWsed for Internatiwal Naviga.....5.
Section.Condusion ...........................................26................
.....................

Sdon L The Depthofthe Soundisonlya halfofthat ofthe Gre............
A.UNDERKEELCLEARANCE 28
B.OTHER 29
SectionUThe DrogdenisDanishInterna1Waters.............................................
SertioUl.The Ropavd FuedLinkoverthe Sound "........................................
SectioN .Condusion...........................................32...........
.....................

Cm TV:THE Of FINUIN ON THECOND~ONS
OF PASSA GWEGH THE GREAB TELX AN H~S~OIUC EXLCURS U.....33..

Section.Finland and the SoundD...............................33...........................
SectioU Finland'sDependena on Parsageinthe Danisl~Straits since1857

Cm V:A ~~CREIION OFTME DANIS PIANSm MODIF TYE
NAV~GA~O CONLXL~~ONISTMEGREAB TFLT 40

~ 42
SectioA THECONCEPTUALaDESIGN 42
B.CONSlRUCnON ........ 49

Sectiom. Conclusion 51CHAPTER Tm EmcrS OF THE FIXEL D~K ON FB PASSAG ..........5.....

2.TheSemisubmrrsib..l.......................................53......................
.........
3.TheJack-Up .......................................i.......56..............
..
B.THEMO- OFOWSHORE CRAFT 58
I.Un& (kirown propulsio...................................58........................
2.Twge ...................................................58.........
.........................
3.CaniagcbySemisubmersibH leavylijTramponShips ...........5........
C.OFFSHORE CRAFT INTRANSITTHROUGHERRIKJRIAL WAm
ANDINlFRNATIONALSTRAITS 59
D.TRANSIT BYOFFSHORECRAFTTHROUGHTHEDANISH smm .........3.......
1.Tk SowtdOprion ..........................................64...................
......
2.TheDismanrlingOption .....................................6........................
Seetionn: Effecton ParsagebyOtherType ofCd ......................67................
A VESSUS OFCONVEKnONM DESIGN 67
1 PassengeS rhips...........................................67.................
............
2.CargoShips ..............................................................
..................
3.Veryhrge Crude CamersIVLCCs) .....................................................
B.INDUS~UALAND SUIVICE VESSELS
c.!WIWE VESSEU .- 76

. TOWARDSPEnAL Sm ........................NTHEPOS~~WAR ER.: 79
B URGE PASSWGER AND(RWSE \ZSSELS 82
c.INDU~AL AND SERVICEVESSELS ..83

2.Themark:for ofshorecrafl .......................................................
3.Thedimanrlinf..ption.....................................95...............................
a Dismanfihgthederrick?..........................................................
c.Dismanuim gtinisla................................................................

SectionN .Other Eflect...............................................................
..................
A EFFECrS ONFXCEPilONALLYURGE TRANSPORTCRAh'ES .KONEOY .
ACASE STUDY 97
B DFECrS ONOFFSHOREACnVrrY INTHEBNTlC - 97

Seetim1.The GrcalBellBridge 1stheOolyObstruction Acmu
aTerritorialSenCodtuüng PartofanlnteroatiooaS l trai.......1.4.
SectionILFiai Liks Acmu Noo-ioteroatiooa l aterways..................4........
Sectionm .Fd Links AcrosslaternatiooalWaterways .....................s..........
A.CANAU - -...-......-...... 105
C.TW2TSUGARU SïRAlT,JAPAN 108
D BOSPHORUS .108
E SCHELDE 110SectionN .Condusion ...............................................................
................

Section1.Beforethe Court'sOrder of29 Jub 199..........................................
SectionU After29July 1991 ...........................................1...................
.........

SectionL Intmduction..............................................................
.............
SectionI.C-~~~~ ~~n~l~ ~~ ~.............................................................
........
SectionUï.The rehtionship betweenthe CopenhagenTreaty of 1857and
SectionN .The regimeof passagethrough theGreat Belt:............................................
The dianging Danishview.....................................0.....................
SectionV.The rolefocustomargLaw ...............................................................
SectionW. CustomaryLawand Artide 35(c)ofthe Lawof
the SeaConventionof1982 ...................................2.......................
SectionW .The regimeof passageand the Fih daim ................................
SectionVm . Passagefordl ship.............................................................
...
SectionïX. Thecontents ofthe variousru..................................................
SectionX.MODUSas "shipswithspedd charaderistio"? ...............................
SectionXI.The right of passageand the heightofa bridgeoverthe .........
SectionW .Conduding Remarks .................................................................

Cm II:THE Sm Em m PASSAG ............................6.......................

Sectionn.TypesuofShip.................................................6...........
....................
Seaion ïU.The Conceptofa Shipinlnternatioaal Law..................................
A.TREATY PRAC~CE .139
BCONCLUSIONSRIOM TREATY PRAcna 149
CTHE DmNmON OFSHLPSIN NATIONAL LAW ANDDOCIRIE 151
1.Elrmrmso~Dcf~nirion<inNarionalLaw.........................2...........
2.TheRcquiremedof 'Nm>igatio................................2..................
4.Meam ofPropulsion.......................................1.....................
...
5.Conclusio.............................................................
..................
D.STA~ PRAC~CE INDEAUNG wmi SHIPS .157
ECONCLUSIONS .159

Cm iik A-a BY FWD m THE BUILDI NFn<~
GREA T ELTBRUX~ INm WENILY PlANNE D ORM 160

Sedion L introductio................................................1.............
....................
SectionIL The LawRelatingto Acquisamce and Estoppel.................1............
SectionI.Applicationofthe Lawto the Faet.................................................

PARTIV:SUBMlSSlONS ...............................................1...............
...........
UST OF MAPSAND ANNEXES .......................................1......................
..MWiIORIAOFTHEGOVERNMENT
OFTHE REPUBLIOFFINLAND PART 1

INTRODUCTION 1.Thepmt Munorial issubmincdtotheCoun inpursuana oftheCorn's Ordaof
29 July 1991. in whicthe Coun fued thetimblimit of 30 December 1991 for the
submissionoftheMmorial of theRepublicofFuilandinIhk case.
2.Thiscas me- therighiof passageoshipandvessek includingoKshoremfl
aodothaspecial shipsIOpassthroughtheintanational suathoc nai Belt 'lhisright.

aijoyed byFuiland.iihrratmedby thDanishplan tobuilda high-levelbridgeovn the
suai1witha maximumclearanceof 65mems overthc median-waterIevel.Thcquestion
Lhatis posedIO the Coun is whetheDenmark a.thcmasial sovereign.is mtiilcd
unilatcrallytowidnrakebuildingworksinan intemationalsuait soastommct theright
of ~ass-geintheGreatBelitoshim witha maximumhei.hiof 65mem or la.
3.Tothatcxtcnt thecaseisasnitiallv aboutthe mlicationof ~mrralintemationallaw
rcgardingsnaiuIOthccircumsranŒsif theGrea~Ëelr Whatis%e scopeof therightof
mec inan intanational suait? A oarticularasact of ihiscase.howeveIOtheates
ppphical siaiarionof Fuiland in'relIOihe DaniShsWits. Finlandposwrsc as

mastlineonly inthBaltic.ThesWitsaretheon lanvalwatmvavbetwcmthcBalticand
theNorthS& inasnisc,thefrrcdomofnavigauo fn,Finland,isonlyaswide-ornmw
-as ther-ghrofm .ass-geintheDanishsuaim.
4.A bndge hcightof65 me- wilbe able10accommodatemosibut no1al1exisMg
ships.Therearerypesof specialshim andcarnageswhosepassagewibe obsmcied by
suih abridge.Th;& includecmain &Ira-largecnidecani&(~~ë~s)verylargccniisei.
drillshipself-ppelledwmisubmcniblednl ligs.andme vawls. inadditionpassage
bvheavvliftuansuonshioor undertowof cena& hms of mobileoffshordri lla id

&esvhl bepre~mtcdb;abrid&at~heightof65~~1cs.~uch~assa&~urasa~a~
ofmutinebeween FinlandandlocationsoursidetheBaltic.
5. The bridge is intendedIo sIay in place for al lcast 100-150years. Il is ihercfore
rcasonableIoIakein10amun1 foresŒablemnds inshi~designandsize.Therar e anv
kindsofshipsundcrwnsmction or designwhosedim~nsionsvastlyexcŒdtheheightof
65 mems.

6.IIhassomerimesbeuiarguedthatanalternativepassagewa-theSound(&esund -)
will remainouen cvcn after the mmpletiontheGreat Bell bridgeand thatpassaga
obsbuctcdiniiieGreatBeltcabewmpensatedthere.Thiscannotbéacepied thf;st
place.iiisuncenainwhcthntheexistenceofanaltemativcpia ssufcicnl alaw.
iojustifycunadmgextstmgpassagengh mrs hatisundoubiedlyanmÏcmationalsmit(~f.
Co* Channel case I. Reports1949p. 28).Inthe semnd place,asignificantphysical
Ncumsfana forthiscase isthatiheonlydecpdra~ght~assage-waybeGeen the~alucand
the North Sea exirin IhcGreat &IL While the Great Bell is uavcrred by the IMO
mmmcndcd "Routr T' whch hasa mmunumdcpthof 17mems. themsm allemauve
passage.way-theSound -hasadepthofonly7.7me- TheDamshbndgeplan willthus

makc IIohvsicallvimwsstblc forshi~sof moiha6n5 mems hieh and witha drd-eht
appmachi& 7.7me& tonavigatekwecn Fiand andworldcc&n.s.
7.ïhe lcgalissueswsedtotheCounarcrelativ.lys.mple.Thaisnodisputeaboutthe
lunsdicoonofthe CocouN.oISthnc anydisputeregardmIhccharacinof ;heGreatBell
asanmtemauonalsnait.FinlandandDenmar amccalrothainaviaaiionintheGreatBeli
ismveredby aregimeoffrŒpassage.~utth mymetheright~ffrce~as~geindiffermt
wavs.ThcCorn isrcquatcd togiveanaulhorifativeinterpntationregardingthemeaning
of passage"andwhat libe& thislcavatothecoask Suu: to&ga& inunilate4

projecüwiththeresuliofIimiIingexistingpassage.
8.Thereisnodisputebeween Fuilandand Denmar kboutthelatter'sriIOconnect
wo pansof iü landtcrritorysoastoimpmveiü intemalIrafficmnditions.Fuilandisno1disputinDmmarL's nght tobuildabridgeovertheGreatBell.ThedifferenŒof opinion
relatesto whatcmidaationDenmark shouldtakeintoacmunt whenundertakinsguch

mnstiaius an i0dispaisable&yard forthe "ndib-developkeni of hiemational
wde. AllStateshaveaninmi inarcgimethaimablesships topassthroughoutlctswhich

cank classifias"intemaiionalsoaits".the0th- handi,haslikewisbem alfd
thatcoasralStaiesbavea lcgitimaieinterestinensuringtharsoaitspassagpose no1
anunacceptablthre tahëir inmts. Theexistinglai istheoutcimeo?ana>nciliation
kween these tm>sctsof mnsiderations.
10.Theriphtof nassaneintheGreat Beltisderivedhm severalsources.Themial
rcgime of the ~anish skts is a mmbinationof 1857 Copenhagen Truafin the
RedenwtionoftheSowdDlvs andmd customarvinmational law. Bothumvidcfor
unhamkred passage.me rclevanïprovisionoth; former is Article I which in its
authoritativeFrenchtext,providesthat

"Aucunnavircquelmquenepound aesormais,kus quelqueprctextequeŒsoit,
&trassuieni. a.ass-s du Sund ou des Bela. h une détentionou mmve
quelconque:"
niis iscomplementedbythegeneralcustomarylawregardingpassagethrointema-

tionalsuaitsandprovidingfornon-suspmdablcinnocentpassage.AsthisCoiutobxrvcd
in 1949:
"Il is. in theooinionof theCoun mcrallv rccoaiizcd and in acmdance with
internationalcustomthatStatesin&eof &ce hà;e arighttoscndthciiwarships
throuehsuaitsusedforintemationalnavizationbenuecniwoparisoftseas@
with&t the prcviousauthorkationof a-mastal State,prothapa&e is
iiunmnt. Unlcssothmviseprcscribinaninternationalconvention,thm isno
rightforamasralStatetoprohibitsuchpassagethmughsunitsinthe ofpeaŒ".
UU Repons1949 p. 28.)

Ihe standardofnon-surandable. innoŒntoassaecwasadoofedi1958Convenrion
ontheTemroriolSm <in dheConfigwrrr&ne.!&ficd by hark and Finland The
relevaniprovisionisArticle16(4):
"nicrc shallk no suspensionof the innpassageof foreignshipsthrough
maiu whichar csedforinternatiol avieationbetwcn oneuan ofhizhseas

andanotherpanofthehighseas orthe&torial seaof a fo&ignStat-."
Ihe issueofswitpassas wasalsooneofthcŒnnalclemcntsinthereformofthelaw
of ihcseawdmalcr; byih Thyd UNM NationsConferenceon the Law of theSca.
Wugh the 1982ConvenrioonntheLowoftheSua isno!vetuiforce.andtheextcntofits
applicabiliinthe-nt bsputc irunclcar.thm isnodbubiha1thedeliknuons ofthe
C0nfnmc.ebavehad an efffindtvelopuiganemaguigcusiornarynghtofanevenmore

IIIntheFuini shw.itisnotstridy neassary tofom an opinionabouttherelative
prrccdenŒktwan thesevariousso& govemingpassagerighkintheGreatBelt Each
of UKm prohibitsunilatd actionof thekindmntemplafedbyDenmark
12 OntheDanishside.ihasbem a d thattheriphiof frcena&aec'intheGreatBelt
extendsonlyto"existingships"andthaïthwcforcilisnot enjoythyverioutypeof
la or speciasb. includinr!existinnoffscraf(drillshi. misubmersible or

jacLup ri&,)andskps thatmightcuna~vablyà cmmhed inthefunire. severai ryps of existing & u&mti&ably flassified as"ships': such as cedn
dm-lame oil lankus.me vessclsanddrüishioswhichmavhavean airdraueiitof 80
meues evm mm. But fnepassagewasmv&dcted ticedn ryps of& only,

or10shh onlvwithcenainLinds of careAs a manerofmacticeaswellastheow f.ne
passagc'habsém enjoyed by very la& speciamil, ihether moving by theuown
. .ion. towd or carri edheawlift~ns~on shi~s.
14.Thcmnqt ofa"ship" lacksapreciwdefmitioninintemationallaw.ina wthis
foUowsasamancrof coursefmm tbefacthi anysuchdefiition wouldk depndeni on
therypcof iahnology availableai the timeof&fullcion.Muchoftheargumentbeween
FuilandandDmmarkhasbeenatout whethcramin spcial mft. inpanicularsemisub
mmible drillries andiack-uorcan beclassifiedas"shim" orothkise miov arieht
ofpassage.in the~uu;ishm;ite&on thareindd c~assiiiedasus~ips.niithc Lw
ofmostmaritimeSratesthevareheldtobe"sh.m". albeitsometimeswssi-.v shioswith
ceirainspaial charactmstiÉs.

15.Lookineat theamlicable lawsolelvfmm ther>eisactiveof anabs~actdefmition.
however.woid be soiiwhat lm do& a pe~~ve on a mm of high practical
imponance.Thmfon.it istheFunishcontmtionhtwhatcvnIhcrcsultofthedefulltional
uërcise.therc isnobasis fordenyinthcnormaltulesofnavigationapplylotheSe&
inthesamewayasthey~p..y~omoreamventionalrypesof ships.IndfxdUK pda of
themostimm&t mastal Statesfuüvamfi this'lhm isno!onesinde caseinwhich
acoasral~&e hasdenicdthatascmis~bmersible~~ri~orjack-upinm~enjo~Ihcright
, of fmc(innocent.mit) passagehugh ilstemilorialwatersor an internationalsuait
16.Liewise, internationalpracficefuilydumthat therightfne passageis no1

subiectedtoaualificationsorlimitationsumn thetwes ofcarriaeeotherthanthosewhich
flowhum th;requirementof"innocena':niat&;vesse1 has&ceplionaldimensionsis
wt acriterionforilsa'non-innocen. oitheriehtof~assagereslricdexistineWws
andsizesof vessels.Ifitwere.developmmtin~h~~buildi~oddhavebem. and-wodd
k. seriouslyhampcredF.iniandaccepls.howcver.forthepurposesof caselhatthe
criterionof "foreseeability"is sufficien!to safeguardthe coastalStale'sintensls while
allowi-efor technicalandmnomic innovalion.
17. 1thas somcumcs been claimcd on the Danish si& that Denmark'sintmsts in
wnsmcung abridgesovasllyouwcigh Finiand'sinicrcsiinrnaintainingfrccpassagethai
i!wouldbeunrcasonablcto upholdFiland's nghts intheu fullextenLThisargumentis
untenable forwoW.WN.

- Fmt thebalancebeween theinterrslsofthecommuniwandthoseofthemaslal Statc
regardingpassage"ghls ininternationalsuailshasbeensct byinternationalnistomaiy
lawas wellasthe severaltrcatiesamlicable topanicularsituations.Thisnotn
callcdupontocsmblishanodhorb&nce buttoàwly thelaw.Anditshouldapplythe
law becausethelaw itseiancxmssion of thea-ro balance.
- Ssond. the Danishvicwmirasts the oppoaingintercsls.Finiandis no1arguinglhat
Denmarkshouldabandonitsprqect butrathcrlhatDenmarkshouldcarryilouiinsuch

a waythatthe rightof passaino!violaicd Thiswouldbcpossibleby mcansof an
openmg inthe EastBridge,forexample.Thequestionis no1whethcrDenmarkmay

upholdi-g exis.ingFinnishrighi.
18.inaddition.the im-ce of thesonomic andsccialconscqumcesof thebridge
plan toFiniandmut be smssed Fiand hasan importantshipbuildingindusby. The
mptitivniess andsurvivalofthisindusbyislargelybasedonilsorinimtionlowthcs 8

conshuctionosacialshimmanvofwhichhavelar-.~h.sical immsions.Amoneh
areoffshon& Wercthehd& w à builtinitspl& fm, muchofthe sec&ty of
shiobuildiandthoseconmi mndesdividualsthatdmendonitwobehanaiand
offshneinzW in~iand wouid à fuiishcd

19.TheCoim'sjudnmmtintheCorfuCha~~lcax conîaincdanauthdtativestamnmt
on theright ofinnocmtpassag'&onal suaitThe Cr& Bcltcax wilhave an
aually imuonantsianiftcanceinclarifvinpt.hwewhichthaIrial exlmdstolame
id s&ai vcssels,includingcus&t Goffshm exploratio, rp6ilationandnla&
. .
20.&le 59oftheCoun'sStanittprovides.ofmursc.dnt judgmmtshavenoùii
effencxceptberweenthepds andinrespectofeachpam'cuCraseNevmheleu. asa
factofledhisww andi&tic rrasont.he&ut's stat~mtseniov amivileeedauthoritv
inci&the&tm&f gmrrailn&ational law.1tsjudgmmi*&casc &Ilthusha&
immediatesigniocanccindetamùllthelawngading navigationlonditionsmjoyed

byJpeciashipsinintematioiwits wddwide. ltwialshaveabearingonthem g
outof~lanstoatablisli acmssotherintemationalsuaits.
21.'ThiMentonalhaskm organi2ed asfollows:Pan 1willlaydom thefactuai
backgroundofthecaseI.twillMbethe~hical.historica1.rshnicalandsonomic
-.
in'theGreat Bell,theshipsenjoying&t right andanexaminaionof theagummt &t
Fiand napiesad inthecurrcniDanishpujeci.ThesubmiioarrconcaincinPanN. PARTn
THEFACTS Sedion1.The Geographid Perspdive: Finland'sPosition

1.As EtikBriielnotes mhisfamouslecmontheDanishsuaits,theswits no1only
-te pans of Danishlenitory but also link togetheof lenitoryothmvisc
-ted hy thesca He wntinucsby outiiningwhatis probablythe mostsigifïcant
geogmphicalaspectotheprcsentcase:
Tour IcsEtatsdelaBaltique.nomentpouraux quin'ontacdsi lamer
qu'exclusivmim-oupresqueexclusivement wmme la Fiande, par les
démits(w parle canal& Kid) , -ci revêtenutneimpma waiment

ritalc, aupointdenie tantéconomeuepolitique."'
2 The th^ DanishSuairsat theonlyentranm theBaltichavealwaysfmed an
immt channelforintematid navieatibnwem theBaltiandtheNnth Sa For
s&e wunais, sudiasFinland.ths&ts fm theonlymaval watmvayknveen the"
wastsandworldoaansiCf.Mao1:ThcBalticSea).Forthowunnies.anvchsn-cinthe
wnditionsofpassagin'th~anis swits isama& ofg~atimpn&ce.-

3.DesniteitsncoeraDhicvisadvanfapwsitionattheeastemendoftheBaltSca
howevcr:FiinlaCali0 amhtimc wu6 withanimporrantshipbuildinginduynda
amarl<eddepmdmaonmaritimcwnsponrfor Abtsu90 poantofFih
expm and80perant ofFinnishimportarecmied byseaOutofthewnspoifsof 1990.
45ar caitiiassehuzh- theDdnishsuain.
4.Theconditionsof passageintheDanishswarethusamamrofgreatwnam for
theFinnisheconomyand societyin the followingparagraphs.those wnditares
surveyedfromtheperspestivcofnavigationalgeogmphy.

Sedion ü. TheCcogrsphyoftheStraits:A Ceneml
Oeseriptim

5. Theauana hum theNonh SeaIOtheBalticwnsins of sixsuaisheKanegar.
Sam%Bclr.the Sound. ittleBeGreatBdiandFchmarnBelr.Outofthcx. ifmt nvo
canalsok dcscribcaspanoftheNorthSa propa.Bothofthm -uniilLhc0th- fow
-wntainarclativelywidehiahseaschanmthemiddle.Fehmar&It form awaterway
knveen theislandof~ehm&nand thehan NorthCoast.11ino1adireciconnectioin
kwcm the North Seaandthe Baltiin addition.thel Canaflm an impaant
arrificialwatewaylinl<ingtheNorthSeawiththeBalticattheciel anyin(Map
2: TheDanirhmaits).

(19360,p.604.Les&mis daauspointdwc dcdroitinternati5.RecvcdesCours 6.Iismmmontotrcatas iheDanish(aBaltic)suai&themm limitcdgmupof ke
maiumnsis~~o-theSowidandthe~oBel~.LirtleBeltandGreatBelt'-the"BalticSea
Aocesses"?

SeaioI nli.lieGreat Belt (Storeklt)

7.TheGreatBel~ ~siniatedbetwe ilntdsofFmn-saneelandintwecstand
~jacland-~olld inthecas~l~~toiallmglhisaboutb0~ome&s.liis~dc1'~miledin1henonh
(asa&t Samw Belt)byaIinehm FynsHovcdioRosnaesandinthesouth(as &t
~ehi;iamBelt)by a l*e &m Gustav~aktoKappelChurch(Map3: The ~renr~ell).

8. 'IhewidthoftheGreatBeltvariesknveen 18.5and28.Itisdividedinthemiddle
bv S. ~-.islandin~~o~clmmls. the WesrChannelWsmnden) bcnvŒnNvh
(Sn) and SW~B. and thehi ~hanncl (mmdnij benveen sGge and ~alkko;
(Siaeland).'Ihenavieablemute intheWestChariabout33 kmwidc andintheEast
61 ;bout 1.GI wide.nie@th or tt~GIIS BCIvariesbctwm m and2s mm
butextnds to66mcm atLangeland
9.TidalvariationsinthedqnhoftheGreatBellainsigniiknrangingFm OtoO.4

mm. Moreim~tcauxsof water-levelvariationwud andaûnosvhaicumsure.
~asiunt wcsieilwindf- mtcrhm the~onh~eahughthc gai hmiiadom
inlothcSoundandtheGreaiBel~"~sultinginanovd tiseofthewalevel. Undacxlmne
mndinons. upIO20 m abovemcan sa ive1 have bemrcgistend ai sevaal locations.
Smngeastdy windshavetheopposilceffm (negativcs~ow)".'Alsothenowofrivrn and
s&mp~ginthe~altic&Uibuiesto whathasbemd~b6dasa"fomplcxpancm
ofvariationinthewatcrmlumn evcrywhnc inthcBallicapproachs".<Tne Great&Il is
rclatively wcll pmtected hwaves. The probability of variations in wave height
cxceeding1m isonlyaboutonepercent.

10.Windandchangesinthe waterlevelmaycausecumnu andcmnt changesinthe
differcntpansofthesuait 'Ihecumntspeedmay uceed 1.5melredsecond Crosswmnu
andsuddencurrentchangesmaymakenavigationmorediicult.especially innmwpans
of thesuait.
11.in normal conditions.navi~ationhunthe Great BcltdŒs na>sc oanicular
dificulues Ncvcnheless.weath&andclunaÜcmndi>ons maycauseproblek For ihis
rcasm.andbuse ofincrrasedvcswlsue and volumeofwffiiheDanishGovmuneot
atablishcd theintemationallymognizcd navigation-the RoulT- in1975.which

pasws hugh theGreat&II (cf funher Sstion Vbelow)

ErikBriiel.'LmdémidamW aupointdenu dedroitintematioY.lRecueildes Cours
(19361).p. 5GvnnarAiexanderuon.TheBalSrmis.(1982p.69.
aHarald&kr. "ShippingRoutIoandwithiUrBalticW. 30A&npoliri(1979)p.
zn.

'AnkcrNiroin."RaiteTAMaprDanishWaicnvay''.2PIANC -AlPCN-Bulleüh(1991).
sCzAnncx1.
'Ibid. SectioN. ACornparison otheNavigationai Gcography
d theStraits

12~~ ~undasŒndthesimiticancc of theGreatBeltiusefuIOlookbrieflvinthe
Eharacteristiciheal&ve watmays, andthemnsiduatick of lawand&graphy
which havemadetheGmt Beltthemostsi-iticmiof thcswiu forheawinmtional
wffic.

13.Theiirrle Beimclosed withinthebaselinesof theDanishlerritorialscaandisa
panof Danish ind watm. Ilissituaml ktween Als (lulland) and Ac10(Fyn)and
dclimiicdinthenonhbyaIincfmmAekl0 toBjbmsknudeandinthesouthhumPOIS-Puk
10Vejmes~.Thcpassagehasalengthof68milesandaminimwiidcpthof11.8mcms.
n>e wi& of theLittleBcltvaria ktwan 700me- and 275 km.'
14.InMay 1935,a bridgewaopmcd overtheLittleBel1ai Snaevcringen,conmcting

theJyllandpninsula with theislandofFyn.ThebrresuiclepassagIOshipswitha
ma&um heightof 33metres.
15.Navigationalauditions intheLittleBeltcan bediffÏult nienomhemstheion of
LittleBeltisb andnamw butinthe mual sectiondetachedshoals&cInavimtion
mcwhaL ~lso:'ll~e cumnt imng intheBclt.up IOihrrmcm pm seand 'Eddies'
areformcd"This. m. may causedificulties fornavigation.

16.TheSound (0rcsundbundlSund) istheeasiemmostotheihrr mwmcs from
the KanegaIOthe Baltic(cMap 4:rheSound)11issiruatedbetwan Sjaclandandthe
southwcstcoasiofSwednifSk~).IIisdelimiiedinthenonhbvaIinefmmGilbiereHovcd
(Sjealand)to Kullm (~wehen)&d in the souhm SICG Klint light ($ae%nIO
Falstcrbo(Sweden)Iüwidthvarieskween 4 and47 km.
17.TheSound idividedinitsnonhernpan inIoeasteandawesternchannelbythe

isla nfdVm. The83 km widewam chanraelbeween VenandSiealandithemon
mmmonly uwd iniü southmipan the Sound s dvidcd agammi; two channels the
Droadenon thDanishside.FiintrannanoniheSwcdishside.Droadmissiruaicdberween
theGlandsof AmagerandSaltholmandpassesby Kasmp (co&nhagen AipR).
18.TheSoundistheshortestroutekwem theeastemBaltiandtheNonhSea,butthe
hughiofthcvc~lsusingiteImiml bythedepthsof~upmcipalchannelisnthesouthem

r>a nhedemerchannclisDrogdenon theDa& si& lisdepth is7 7mems. whlehl
8fthe~wcdih nin~annan isonly7.1mem.
19.'11nDrogdenChannelisapproximatcly4 miles lonhasaminimum brcadoifh
290mems. in1900theDrogdenwasdrcdgcdhm 6 107mem andin192.3hm 7107.7
mees. which isiü cmr @th.

m~ O-~2~3March 1991a Treatv was siened ktween.Dmmark and Swedenon the
consmictionoa fued linkova th;Sound~.kcordin~ tothepresentplan. the linkwillk
mmoletedas ammbinedrailand madbribe wrcc~tfora&on ofDroedenaiKaSmi~
southan ~a~thoi. herethe ~iisto bplad ina submarinetunnel.-
21.Kiel COMI.The 99 km long KieCanalwas opmcduhdct rhnam of Kaiser-
Wielm-Kanal in 1895andissiniaicdhillywithinGmnan lerritohasbcendrcdgcd

'US DefenwMappingAgencySoilingDircclio~(Enrowcf)or lhcBoliieSeo(Pan).rn
hb.No.194.Sthcd.1989.
'GunnarAlcxmdcmsonT,hBal~iSlroi(1982).p65.
'cfA nncx2.

'Cf. Rairrr Lsg'KieCanal"Bunhard(a) 12EnryclopdinOfPir Inienalw~i Law.
(1987)pp.2032û.2.andbroadcncdseveraltimes.lu -nt mimimumdcpthis36feet(1l m).Thm arnine
brideesoverthcCanl hichhaveacl~ceof42m. Forshipswithdimensionscxcecding
th& of theCanalandiu bridgeshe Danishswiu areth; oniyacccsIOandh the
Baltic.

22.BytheT~tyofVdesofZsJune 1919,thcKielCanl asmtanationalizedli~
CanalwasIOmain op for theshipsofal1SutesinpeacewithGermanyonthebais of
fuleluality.in 1936Gnmanydeclaredthatitwano longerboundbythe therelevant
Airiclesof k VersaillesTrcatynoting,howevcr.that navonGennanwataways
wained k on conditionof rccipmci'lhi declarationhasnobem revokcdby
Grnnany.Today.foreignmerchantshipsintheCanareacmrdedthe sameIuiImmt as
shiosinGeman internwater..exm. thaishiusintransirmexemotfmmcustomsduties.
~khips and0th" publicnonsommercialshipsmus1obIainpriorpermissionthrough
diplornaticchannelsforpassagethroughtheCanal.

SectionV.RouteT: 'loePnmary Sifieaiice ofthe GreatBeit

23.'IheGreat&II istheoniydŒpwaterpasage kwem thBalticandtheNortSea.

l~has~~~alwayskenusedbylargeships.Bytheearly 1970's.hafficiniheGmtBclt
hadvastlyincreasedand theavcragesizeof shipg~'Own.ainm wasüM directcd
at thenŒdtoprcventcollisionsorgmundingsoflargevessels.andparlicularlytankm. in
thenarmwwatersofthe Bell.'
24. To avoid collisionsmundings witha wtenlial for causmp,envimnmmral
calamophc.iwasdccidedtoes~blishan~lcmsti~~ lurveyedandwcÜ-markcdmit
mutewithaguamntŒdminimumclearance.intemationalManwiieOrganizationWO)
~esolutioni339(Do wasadoptcdinNovember1975withtheti~e"~e~ommendario nn
mvigarionrhroughrhrenfrance10rhrBalricSeo"').TheRcsolutionmmmmded that
amutinnsvm k cstablishsothatshiosovcr40.000DWor havineadrauehtof 13

mems&~orcmightsafelynavigatekw&n theareaofSkagm(thcnonh;mtipof~ylland
mins su andGedserRevIFehmarnl.Piloraserviceswm recommendcd forshioswith
; draught.of13mcm or morc.Th; ~sol&on notcdthepossibilityof draughkking
rcducedbyasmuchas2mem duetounknownmovingobsm-ctions.
25 Subsequendy.ihDcanuhauthontiesesissbooklelonRouleT.Thiswastheoansii
muteberwmSkaacn andtheam North.EasrofGedwr.withamrnunumdmthofwatn
of17mems.~hcdirstionof~oute~is markdon ~ap3. ~oute~~assesthroightheEast
ChanneloftheGmt Bclt

26. Thoughthe officialdcpth of Route T is 17 meIres.the under-keelclcarana
rowmnded is2 mems. sothat thecffccodraughtforshipsusingtheRouteT is 15
meml. TherouteismarkcdbyIightbuoysandlighu.Th& arc 14lighthousesal the
muancc IoandintheinteriorotheGml Belr Danishpila assisiann is avaiiableand
rsommendedforlargevcssels&cause ofheav yffic.shiparexpatcd IOpanicipate
inaradiorcponingservice(SHIPWS).

'CI.dsoAmrrI.

'AMex3.
'FortheunderkŒcllmŒ. secAMCX4. 27.OneofthetrafficsepamlionschemesinRouleT-"Becwee nonBrandSpr0g0" -
is simatcditheEastan Channelorcciselvat thewint whichthemiecled bridgeis

inimdedlooms. AIthatpoin~the&~th~oi&~c $dinctedintoa~v~ational channcl
550mem wideand 19mernsdŒp.andnorth~(-inM- gIC intoachannel600mem wide
and 17aem dccp.
28.On 19 Novmbcr 1987a mw molution wasadoptcdbythe IMOon navigation
throughtheenmŒsto theBalticSca'.ThisResolutn&adopledontheinitiativeofthe
Govanmenuof Denmar andSweden.Itrepcauthewnlenuofthe1975Resolutionand
addsa pmvisionwnaming shii carfyinsa cargoof class7 radioanivematcriass
~pecificintheinternatioMariti m ngerousGoodsCode.'

29,'bemiletheestablishmtfRouleT.theGovcmmentof üenmarkh costinucdto
u<prcss&ccmabouithepsibilityofpollutionduetocollisionsor~undingsinthearea.
'Ihc usoft il hasbxn mmmended. and Denmarh kaiakenslcpsintanationallyIo
muoducc&npulsory pilotageforal1shrpsexcading 20.000~~~.carfyin~dangerous
caraoeinbulkwhenmversing- theenwnces IOtheBaltiSes.]
-
M. ThenavigationalrouieintoFiinladeepcstharbour- theharboursaPoriand
Kotkaandth eilharbouraiSkBldv-hasadraughtof153mem. AsexplaincdinAmex
4.thiwrrcspondsto theeffectivedraughtofRouleT.takingauountof themmmended
unddeel clcarana of 2 mems. in facLthedcpthof Finland'sdŒpwalerchanhass
bmspsifically measurrIOacmmmodaleal1shipsihatarebleioenteth ealticviothe
RouleT.ïïu channelsleadinIOothcrimponantmmmmtal harboursinFuilandapan
fromthox alreadymentioned&ohaveadraughtfarinexcesofthe7.7mem draughlof
theDrogden.

'C(.Rouein8ofShipr.Nmignrionthmughtk EnrramttkBoliirSen,Nou rk Grnem.
mrnü o/DtnmorkandSwtdcnIntaulionaMaritiOrganizario. uMomm'neeonSafetof
Nmgation.32rdStlsion.AgenIlm 3Da. NAV 3YJR. 24Janvary1986.

'Cf.Propralfor crnn<wndoiorwe ofpibm8r stwictsfor shiprovrr 20000 CRTcnrrying
dongcrovtw8ocs ibvlt tk BoltirSenArtrubmirrbyDrnmarL BalocMannehnmn.
meniRorcctioCommissio-nHelsiniommision.MaririmrCornmitt.7thMeetiHorn.
burg.Ccmy24-27Seprtmhr 1991Da. MU17/5/1.19August1991 31.'Ihewo pmhlcmsthathavegivmrise 10mostdimion amongjuristsregding Uie
~ ~ ~ -ternationa~ ~ ~san thedefinitionof an"intunationalswi1"and thecharacierof
theregimcapplicableuisuchaS ~ LAs regardstheformerquestionilwmu clcar lhathe

GrcarBellisan intemationaiswir-despilethefaclthai il isenclosedwiihinDenmark's
temtonal sea7.hispan of the memonal will givc a bnef histofical ovmiew ofthe
developmeniofthcinternationalsianisoftheDanishsmisandiürcmgnitionby Denmark.

Section1.nie InternationalStatusofthe Baltic andtheLaw ofthe Strdts

32.nie naviaarionairegimeoftheDanishswits isa huictionof thestanisoftheBaltic

Sea.Wm theËaltic acl& sca(mareciairrwn)thcrewouid be no-n w assume.a
priorithe existaice of a nght of fm passage in the swits. Convmely, wthne no
medomof nassn-e inthe sbaiu lcad-nettheBaltictheBalticwouidhv thatvat fact
kome a mare clowm.

33.Nowadavs. theBalticisaninternationsa whichencloseslame areaofhiahseas.
Thercis ahist&iotheopenness oftheBaltic-ahistorywhichwidcrlkcstheinl&tional
chmctcrofthe .assa--rezimeinthe Danishsuaits.Thishistorvcanbemapimlatcd under
twohcadings:
-The abolitionof the SoundDues:

-The reption of theideaofdominiummarisBalrici.

A.THE ABOLmON OFTHE SOVND DUES

34.'Iheearlyhitory oftheregimcofpassage intheDanishsuaits isdominatedby the
questionof the Sounddues.'

In1429. IhDanishKingEricofPomnaniabeganto lcvyadutyon intemationaishipping
passinghugh thesmits. lhusassdng fullDanishdominance ovn srnitpassag e?
longlineof Danishkingsfollowcdhisexample.inordcrtocasclhcirfinancialsimation.At
theirpeak,theduesconstimtedsomcwo-thirds of theDanishSmtebudget.

Thereira vcrexvnsiveCluanirronUrquestionofthcDanirhSoundDum. Forthcfollowing
IcxLrccinpaninilarthfollmingroumcs":AflmningcalSund-ochBelaoldenALulykkcr
qhc rom Manurtipi foMedlrnimem cfRigsraadeigmcddelv d Udemigsmuii
tillaadelwH.inoriskTidrsbifr3(1858-1859)p.p.455-558:Mm Rubin,'Sundloldcm
Aflmning".HisrorisTidrsknfi7:(1905-1906pp.172-311:Hem HemingscnSkipprc.
Kiarercrtah Toldere.1970)Svomcn Tolo~~hirtoIll IHirrorinllintnri(1983):BK
Miichcl.uromanHirroricalSm~inic1s750-197. bidmi Edition.(1978):kddcrunDon-
mk og~o&nto ormrcrd, (1856)lrnrrson ~hr~o;nd.~uepurrion.(1855).C.E Hùl.
Tk D-h SouidDuesondtheCod o/lk BaJltc1928)

Forihpvrparcoflevyina duly fopairagInihesmu. EncqualifiedthSound andthc
Beli aparuof'Danuh vatcrmwer" ("~UKCSde l'eadumyaum de Dammark").ihw W.-
xning Ur rovMg~'s naditionanghtloVnp dulie onfmiprs mvringhis rralm Cf.M.
DcTaube "LestanijuridiqudelamerBaltiqujusqu' debuiduxixesic~lc". Recurides
Cwrs (1935UI)p.481. IS

41.InOctober1855thDeanishGovemmm thensent nous toth eovanmentsofthe
munnies involvedin the wffic hughthe suaisnics notesmntainedthe Danish
mwosaitoendthedusin rem for themymmi of acapid sumtoDenmarkand an

amounted.m~6.2million~anishDOII~. HOW&, it was imp6ssihleto persuathe
munnics involvcdtoraisa sumof that si%Afvrextensivedelikrarions in wual
mŒtin- thatlnstedovnave.r.them waslowmdto35.0millionDanis whDchllm.
s&&nited thebasisior mecalcuiationofsham of thediffemt narions.Ea~h
munnyhadtopayits shareininsralmmtsovnapcriodoiwuityyearsOnthi sasis,the
Treatyon theRcdemptionoftheSoundDueswassigncdon14Mmh 1857.Ratifications

wm exchangcdon30March1857.

TABLE 1THE CAiCüLATlONOF THESHARESOFTHEVARIOUS CO-
(Secopposi rrgc.)

43.nieSoun ducshavekm vcrywidelydiscussiclegallitaannIhc pnvailiing
opinionismatbythetimeoftheir&liti& in 1857,theywm alrradysomewhaiofan
amduunism .oclawoftheseahadbythm dcvelopem thedinctionofprovidfor&
passageininternatislwiu.oratl&ofcastiogsaiousdoubtmthe~oas~Sta~'snght
toexactdutieshanshiprorgoodspassinghughsuehshaits.niesiniationispertiapsb
est

"leuaitémquestionfaituneapplieationpo~itive.mŒqi canelepassagedes
dénuitsdanois.m vm~sdewix.da rèdcsatnhales dudmitintemationnirle
passagedesdétroits&tionaux en&ps&paix.c'est i~din :it depassage
inoffensifdesvks demmmm parla eauxterritoris..".'

44.hadditiontotheDanishaacmtpturplainthcSounddues-andthustheshaitsregime
-asa oanoftheDantshKim's damminimt.m wm othu amectsofshaitspassagechat
wuc ky ml& tovie& mgardingthesianisofthe~a~tic. . -

45.nius. thuc wasaprohibitiononfomignwarsssingtheswits withoultheDanish
King'spission. Thi sastcund 1658.whm Denmark'sSwedishprovince- among
ihmithe~v~ofScania.orthcsouthmpanofSw&n -paoccdedWSwedcn
, ~ ,~~ ~ ~ ~
intheswits.htheTrenryofRos>tiIdcof26Frbnit658.Denmarkand~wedendsided
mn iointmntrolof~assaeebvwmhi~shuehtheswils fArticleiin.'niis iointmnnui
WU putintCFSCCd;ruig-theL~ 0fi691-3.-

46.loc TrcorofNvsrnd ~Uwikau~Una oJf30Auput 1721out an endtoSwedish
damii inth;Ëaltic astartaa&ri$ of~ussii su&. Russiahadthesame
inmestasotherdominantwwm intheBalticin barrinoutsidenavalwwm han the
Balti~enŒ,ùia~onvc&nrcspcnin~thc~alrickrm~n~urr~and~~&nof9~arch

'W; Brik'Ls stmiis danoispouideN dudmitinicmatjd,36R~ve GinCrde&
DroilnumolionoPubli(1929).p. 116.
Cf.ParrCy.solidatTrcatyScrivol5.p.30. 35.Athl, the dueswm paidby theownuormasurof theshipiisell:thecargowas
mtuscdasa~undforduarmningIheduty.LntheMvof~L(1426-81).howeva,

morchoncor&pP.~t~ft~m-mw~the~t1eof&~~~lsioore.and
theSounrdanaim hemain sourcof incomehu&ut thehisw of thesecusmms'

ingk dues,muchdgndiag onthepoiitiai situaofthe&y?-
37.Towardsthekginni 17thfmthcry.theEuropcanscapowm.Britain.HoUand
andsane othcrskm w showa markedintacst intheBaltic.reasowasthatthe
naaual of-manyBalticmunuies pidcd rawmamiais foüiewooicn sailing

naviesothedavThi swneftion ktwm foresuandsc awersait thousandsofBritish
andDut&shiG inw IhcBaltitfetchthegoodtheirm&es nccdcdtimbcr, pitch
and hv. At theclose the18thccnturvùutch shiuk- to los-ropuim their
cornpetikaandBritishshipgan w &te theSok
38.The unpopuiaritytheSounddues inmasaistcadilyin the ninclŒnthcmw.
th~1ingthe427y~oftheirexistm~thedueshadnevu bmvery popularbutthepmtcsk
hadbcenprcviouslymoresubducdthantheybecamedurinihcIasthalfcennnwhich
prsedcd ihe~re& whichmded the dues.

39.On April14th. 1855theU.S. Ambassadw Copmhagen.HenryBaüngcr,was
insmictcdwsendanotctotheDanishGmmmtinfmingi 4thofiprlomthe
1856onwardsthe Amaicanswercmt going topay any funher duesfor their shipsor
earga psassingtDanishSwits. ïhis initiafroma nation whwas hynomeans
Ihemostimportantofthemunuia usingtSoundforlheirmmhant shi(thAmmcan
shiusdid not cvm mach the numkr of 1M annuaonythe averane),induccdmore
int&ationalpmusts. Consquenlly the~anish~ov~mtdrcwupth;:oullinesofaplan
w putanendtotheSoundduesand toprovidesuitablemmpmsationDaunark.

40.Thefus1pmblcmfortheDanirhForci@Mjnistiywasw demine Ihesk of the
comrrnsation. Pavmentsduringverid of 1842-1853wcre takcnas a bfor this
calciationTG wm sevaai& of dueandfm paidduringthipriod.themost
imwnant bei the acluai customsducs whiwercuaid for the mitof difierat
co&nodities<the cargoesof theshand.thelightho& fm. whichwm paidbythe
shipirrcspectiveof whethertheywm IoaQd orballastai

Smugglin<vaa grrpmblemforUuùanishauthon& Itiimpossibm&mm Ur
amouniofgmdnrranrponhgh Uu Sovndwitho-r dslaratiokiduryevasion
rcoambvegwconaUUuti~.Tompran~UuDancrni~ihai4prŒntofUu
dutyps*wrsm gom Ur mastofUr rhipwhiteU&&. ofcoura. cninmDanish
cashboxeT.hisipulaIhadUueRsi ihaUir capminhmiinlaeinactinm iihair
ampletccagowm dŒlarcdpmpaiy.

'AtUu hc ofSenin (1570)SwcdcnaiuprovinceswcliberafromUuSoundducs
d~k.
'Lam.iwm dsiW m luve Upmod of 18481850ouui&Uubis ofcalcul~oonUr
gmundrUiaihepoliocandcîonaic balaM ofEioop wmdirmrbiihmcpaniculycars.
~mUuhcandandvolalvtiomBL;ingplncctbuLthiuaff~ihcamouniofducrflo~Ui. 20

1759thcovewwas -whilcmaising mvmtectmmmercianlaviaationofal1wunuies
Table1

THE CAUNU~~O OFTHE SHARE OSF SHEVARIOU CSOUNIRE INPA~NG
47.'Ibccndofpmm~mdosethcBalticeamcwitbGusramptmaablishalcBgul
SHE COMPUYSAT 7U~ïHNDANIS &VERNMENT INACCORDAN WCrE op'AnncNcuoaiuyin178M and1800.'ik F~KILeaguewacaabW foUoar9ag
THE TWTY OFna ABOWON OFna SOUND DUES dcclaratinEmprrssCamarnknofRussiao ~Zbniar1780.hhaddotomainlywih
astridefuiitionofwntragoodsM. snpowas mtcd thcdcclmuionPumantto
it hvoConvationmrc coocludewitkidmtical &t onebawcm Russiand
DaunakandGuoWbnwmRusniaandS~nicNe~latcrdtolhis

"doublewnvmaon".ïbc IWOCaiventiollswntaithLXMDI thatGuBalac"cst
unema famée,inwntcstsblcmaitccllsasiNatiIO&" (Ahde D'lnin anempt
to isolareChuiwli?theBaltica DMirhSmdishConvuuton of 27 March1794
pi~e~ymat~~altiwdevant&jnirs~re~~ewrmcrf~
a inamsible AdesvfksauamitdesPartis aguan Cloignh".(Artide IO)?
48.CamcrinesooPaulLmcnqwd mrmw üwLeagueofAmai NuitralityinlSOO

wit bsaiesof ucak duQd bcouec Rusniand Damark-NorwayS.w& and
Russia'Afta thcNapaImnicwamand Gu bombadmmt of ~opnhag n 1807.
howcva.ibsamcdcartbatDemmkwas mt inapmitionalonetogusratccclosun
ofthesuaimsthenavicsofoutsidepowas.
49.AaemplstoclmeofîkBaltichavealwaysrelatcdtosomBalticnation'swisbto
~cepbe~ig-wsrshrprawaywh-~haveoevaamodman&&e

denialofthenghtofcommcrcshipm useGu Balticinsame wayasanyofhapan
ofwddseas~hmngthcu~caiauy.~harbccnm>gnousa~&b~thc
intemationliaraaertheDanishsaaiandthcrightPU wunuiesintim ofpcaa.
tod kiranimaci asselsthrougth on apafdy qua1 footing
M. TheDanishmais rcgimewas thsubjm of intemational&ltkrations at thc
VrrsBüic~eoceConf~ren1c9e18.heVasaiilPcaceTreawlimiuàGamanv'srinht

m cm folKif~ca~>~-cIthcswitsana ni3was dme.as-waaauà in&cle Ï95
ofthcTIWIY".[iinaderaisurfrcaassaeicnthcBalnw alnations"Paitidarlv
intasring &=-fanihattheprovisionasaibfrcpassageightt"ainationani
mt simdv ithesiaimmiw inthc3857CoDmhamTrcm. Asone wnnnmratorhar

51.hiring iheintcr-wsevaalcdifïicaùonananp~.bawdonAnide 23(e)ofthc

kague Covniantwac umhmka~ soas toenhanccthcfrcedo of navigationand

'Wny.Contolid<uedTrcnrySsl.41.p.285.
lPany. Concolida~edqenu. vol.47.p.345.
'hmy.Cont01idaicdTrenrySc~.vap.191.

'Cf. CaivcnrianBnwM RuamiSwedenforUrRc-Ertablùhlf m AmrdNedry.
4/16Dxcrnbcr 1800.M amldedmilan 27 Febniary180I.lheR-DanirhConvcn-
tianof 5/16Dxcmbcr 18MihRusse-RurpianConvrof6/18Dcambcr180haveUr
ram wnunrCt Wrry.CwolidoiedTrcarySerirr.vol55.p.411.
'ForuxtoAn 19d. AMer6
'Rina'U stanturidiquedMaaBaltiqPpartirW(e si&le".52Rccvcildu Corn
(193511p.159.i #g#$S: 'gsgg$P PMg80""tNN '8 " 1 1 ' INN- ' 'O
N N - 5:

IlOlllhllll l Il l l t l l
uïm-mc-mo -00--rm. mo-oo.8. 6- 8
m ,- N -mmmcrrr.OneexamplewastheBmcelo~ ConvenrionondSmueonFree&mofrrmir,
adopadon20Apd 1921TheConventionandStaNtar epplicablal1territoriesunder
thesovcreignMy authorityof Smparties.and includingterritmiwam. The
da aaceW faciliufrruansitoarson and~wds intheirterritoria.Arcsmation
ismade,-howem.rrgardingteunom aoidti& ngardingmi1 intheirterritorial
waters(Amde 2)Ihe ConventioandStatutewcrraiifibvDcnmarL on27Ocwber
1922snd the"prbvisionswcreimplemenbyDanis -hO. 197of 19Apd 1923.
(Lovtihxk 1923A ii1205.)
52.Thepositionin theinter-wissummarizedbyBrllelasfoilows:

"...depuisgum, ilsemanifa unetendanaû& neneAmueindreI'exarise
desdroitsdel'Emnvaain muucsurlespassagesquiontuneimporpourles
communicationinmtionaies".'
53.Insofarastheswiürcgimecankinfmcd fromviewsrcgardingtstahiofLhc
BalticScaLhcaeasionalsuggestionsto~~tothcBalticby~ofnonuklstal
Sm haveonlymnŒmedwmhim andthesesuggestions have nevcramountcdIoa
diangcinthela stansfthe~aliicinmaclusc&. Inthefoilowiiwu sectionsthe
stahiofthesuaiisuaminedfromthepcrspstiveDanishlawandrcgularims.PIll
ofthemdal wiUelaborateonthepÏ&tintemalionallaw appliintheSraiü.

54.Itmayk appropnattoendthi&son byrcfmùigwthe ReponfiomrkeNordic
SeniorOflScinGrow arsi~nedroSrudvrkePrereouisifesfora Nuciear-Wumn-Free
-in rhc~ordic~r;rr'.Th;~e~wiprepad byhghg~vemmmtao lfficiaishuma11
theNordicwunuia. includingFinlandandDnmiaandilwassubmincdmk Nordic
Facign Mininmat theirmeetingKarlshamnSwedm.on22 March1991.TheReport
noteslhattheDanishsuailsarc"inmuonal suaiü" andha!
"...theNordicmunuies'intamctatiais of theneht ofoassaee.as fnmulatedin

muonalrcgulauonsforsmü:arem fulla-mkt wi&the&naPt of'inrocmi
oassan mc'e1958ConvmbonIontheTmiorialScaandthcConu-iousZoneï'
issï83.)
55.Iheom sea fharac oftreBalticand theintemationaistatu of the suairsis
~nambi~uouslyrccognired. The Repnn observes that the establishment of a
nuclcar-wcamn-frme (is. theclo-ineof theBalticfromacass bvan..n mus of
ships)

Wd rcquk lhainuclcar-wcappowus approvcdihemunciation of their
righü10'innaml passage'.asguaranbydinternationall(Sen 83.)
IIwneludcslhat
"ïoday. a largepropomonof theBaSeamnsins of inmtional watar A
limivdgrop of Sm -liketheNordiccounui-canmt legallydccidcon iü
~NS hithe&mewayastheycanrcgardingtheirom landtenitandintemal
watersFunhamm. evmintheuterritorialwam. thelawtheseawould..not

aUow foasrstltestheneht tomuhibitnuclcarweawnboardtheVQSCIoSf
fonignstatawhicharc 'ùuKxrnt NNmstancs a>nmning
.ass- iztotheBaltiScacanmt k r-milatbv coastalstatesùnsoecriveof
internationalla(Scct8.7.)

'ErikBal la Mu damiraupointdvudedmitinonintid'. 55Rec&süCm
(19361).p.679. SenionIL Denmark'sTerritorial Sea
(Sa alsMap 5:Danishfcmiorial mrrers)

56.Dennmk hasa territoriaof 3 nauticaldes (555Km).The baselins of its
taritonalseaaredcumiincdby~~o.437of2i~kr1%6'and<)rduiana
No.I89of 19Amil1978(amtainin~minormodif irchcaiclns).Atitsnanuwest

poinirhc~reai'~eltise"closedwkn Drnmark'svrritorseaThe~irileBeltispan
of Danishin& watm. Thewatm intheSound arcipan Danishlmitoriaga.buta
panofintemalwatmrcaches uptothelineof&limitati&esrablishedintheDanishSwcd-
ishDeclarationof30Januarv1932'.Shi~scannotvasstheSouthoe anishsi& ofthe
internationaltmundarywith~utpassingihrough&mark's intemalwatus.

Sectionïïï. TDaniih SûnlbNangation RegIrneunderDanish
Law

57.TheTmty ontheRcdcmptionof theSoundDues of 14March18.57abolishedthe
paymentsduetotheDanishKingf~shipsandcargasIavasingthesIaits.krOppmhch
mred:

'With üresedueshasdisappca tnd 1stwiKncssoffomin timswhen hu
navigation thesewasnotunivasallyrccognised"'
58. Inthe20thCenlury.Danishturimrial watm regdationshavealwaysassumedfree
passageintheth swits. Two poinaredevant ithi sonnedon:
a)Most of theregulationswncem passbyewarships.Thoughtheam no1dirdy
relevantwpassagebycommercialvcssels,tkarestülimporrantinshowinga kindof

minimumnghtofpassageinthesû'aitsbasedongaimilmtomary law.Itisgenaally held
thatthe 1857Trcatydidnotwvcpassagof warships,bihatthisquestionisregdatod
bygmed customarylawand therelevantDanishrcgulalions.Becausetheintentionofthe
1857T~N wasnot IOresuictbutrathertoliberalLar>aiehts.iicte inferredthat
whatcverrhcrightswhichwmmmial vesselsmaycnjoyuRderthe1857Tmty, thcymust
à at leastas liberalasthebasic st-ove m-naarsh'is.
b)The relevantregdations show that Danishlaw irxlf makesa legally significmt
distinctionberwem"ordinary"Danwalm(territ~alseaand intmcmantheone
handandthe'hanuai wat&ays" existinginthesrraitson theohand

59.Hm isarapidsurveyof therelevantDanishrcgulations:
1)TheRovalDerree of20 December1912R- -dine Danishneuwlitv inlimeof wa9
a&blished;hemainnileoffreeacass forbelligemitwarshipstoDanishkmtorialwaters.
TheKin&howevn,r~~~cdtherighttoprohibittheumq intoDaniihintcmaiwatusWin
panicularcircumstancesandfortheprotectionofthesmereignrightsoftheKiandom
therestinitionof itsncuwlity" (Chapter1.1(c))."Inmal watm". again.wcrcdcfimdas

'AMCX S.

AMCX9.
'AMCX IO.
'L @plkÙll. IntcMOMf h. A TrcobrVol.1PeaCC3.Cd.(Cdb)F.Roxburgh).
(1920)p.350.
'ANiexIl.'Pxls, muancies poW, roadsteads.bays.tmitorial watm simatcdbetwm andon the
insideoislands.isietsand arenot~ttyhat subme~~S' A.nexwtiontothis
&finitiono& wams was made,ho&va, inr&xt ofthatpmof thekgat, the

Sound t,eGreat BeltandtheLiaieBelt"whichfomsnaturaiassage-waybetwŒnthe
Nonh Sea andtheBalt..."h'eroadsteadof Cqmhapn (Hoiiaenderdybanhogdm)
was,boweva. exemptcdhm hre passage(Ch.11(a)).
2) It wasexplicitlysravd in Denmark'sanswerto the questionnaireprepawdfor the
League of Nations' 1930 Conferenceon the Codificationof intemational Law that
Damark reu>gkd theinternationalstamsofthesûaitsandthat theregimecsmeunder
gmralcustomarylaw. Damark explaimdthatit wasthepurposeofthe 1857Tmty on
theSoundDus:

'?Obringthe watershenceforwarunderthegencraldes of international law
nlati-g to suairsrnmm-.g two&ons oftheopensea".'
3)TheRoyolDme of31May 1938on Danis N~wlity Rules'followcdcloselythe
neuwlityrkuŒof 1912Itptuhibitedthcmuyolbw eUaihaisaldsubnmincisnto

Danis ihtentaiwaws withtheexceptionofthatparDanis wa& inthe suaitwhich
fomithenaavalmuteforWnic ('%oiesdewfc nafweiis") bctwantheNonh Seaand
theBaltic.'Agaiacass m theportandmadstcadofCopenhagm mamsl phibitcd
(Article2(1),2 (2)infuic).
4)OrdinanceNo.356 of25Julv1951Remc~a theAdmissionof Forcim Warshius
and~ilitarAirwft toD&h ~&itor~ infime oreace' containcdbothaisfinition of
theDankh lantoriascaandintemal waterand reauiationsfor vasage of foreim
- . - -
warships.
a)As far as thedefmitionof intemalw("ma tmitorial waters")concemcd
(Article3).anexceptionwmade rcgardintheSoundandthcGreatBeltinwhichonly
pons.enIistopom.docks.baysand~ordsplusceirainspecificallymummtcd~wcn
reg~asintentaiwatns.Ihemainchamielsofthewosuai~(butnotthetiaieBelt)wm
thusdefd as lantorisea
b)As regardsmswe by warshim.theChhana establishedas main de that no
advance notic8rpa.&ë by f&ign wanhips hugh knmsrL's temtoriaseawas

needcdunlessthedurationof passazDanis whatersexcededtwo wholedays(Article
6).Internaiwaterswm tobe&m$etely closcdforfmign wmhips (Artic10)
A speiaplrovisiomnamcd enuy tothcpartarcaof Fdmhhavn. Elsinarcand
Copcnhagenwhch rcquindspcnalp&mmi&- nevmheless.anadvancenoncesufiad
dthe wanhip intendeddy topasshugh theütugden ortheHollamderdyb(Arnd8).

".-danilapaniedacauxtcniwialdamiwr duKancgm .uSundduGrandetduPetitbel^
qui fm la voiesdwficnanuclleenm laMerduNordetlMa Baltique.R.ègls cmu-
wlil élablparordnmanocRoyaldu20 dQmk 1912.Manm. NWYCCZ Rmuil Gtnl
3bne~Tdm7.p.90.
'Anna 12
'Anna 13.

'Anncxl3S.ealrolawNo.297of1Ssptembcr193RohibitiEntryofBellipntWantiipr
inmhnish Hmimm ,rTeniiorialWaicn whichatabWin mth An Z sec4 of
Ur fomrrOrdinam.oeMuiwar inwiichUiemm ofkllirrreahim wm farbiddSlraiu 5)Ordi~nceNo. 437of21Derember 1966(amcnduibyûrdinanceNo.189of19Aprü
1978)Govaninn th Delimitationof the TmiwriaiSeais silenton passagerighü. Il
m&the O& diwinctionbeweethctantonalsea(somelimasl.&ealléd"Ülcmal
mrimriaiwam") andintemalwam. Thcmainehamrl inihcGm Bell and pairofthe
~oundare&fincdas~anofthetanwriaiscalhncisnothmgwmdi~thar&passage

wouldnot be amlieablein thesea arcas. n inracsringprovisionwnccms internai
wam. Amcle 3 of theOrciinapmvidcsthatlbii(i.th ;anthatapan ofthsea isa
pan of inlcmalwam) "shallinvolvnomuktions inthecxistingnght of passagefor
fmign vesselsthroughthosepansofthe theintemalwatertheSan% kit,tbe~ittle
belthe GreatBe15and theSound,whicarenonnallyusedforsuchpassage".'

6)'Ihe~mmt nilaontheoassancofforcimwarshmsarecontaincdinOrdi~nceNo.
73il976j~ovcmuig thc~&ioi ofF&& ~arshiiand MililaryAucrafm Damsh
Tmiwry inTimeofPeace'.Fmign warshipsUshaUjoy th ightofpassagehugh thc
lariloriaissubjM m advancenotificationking giventhroughdiplomaticcha...".
inrcPYd m iheGirat&IL Sanu0 BellandtheSoundh. oweva.notificationshno1be

excepsirÜeraria,fpas& &ou@ ~aaderdybe~gden f~ whichnily advancc
notificationapplics(Ar4).e
60.inotherwordstheregimeofsrrairsdislinguirhedfrothegewai rcgimeofrhe
Donish 1em~looM sea.andis subjecw mm libaal nghi of passage.Thm is no

quiremenlof advancenotifxaionforpassageowanhipsthroughthcmaimasg acd
nile.Evmwherctbc partoftheswitareapanof intmial wattheregimeofnavigation
by wrships ismm favourablc.no1quiring advancepermission.thaninothpartof
mranalwaters.

61.inconclu~wn itmaybenotcdthatasfaraspassag by sbipsoh thawnarsbii
throughtheGmt Beltisummncd.thacar neospccialprovisionsforcenie fan that
w&s areeivm a more libaal marnent in the GreatBelthanin thosoan rf
~enmks temtorial seano1panofintemationalswii showsthatDcmnarkitwifmaks
therelevantdistinction.Thsew~ossesamial sianis:astanise-.oyed. .hi~sofal1
nations.

''ThetexuseUr Englii WnslirionUNLcguhiivr ScrVs.NarionaiLczukuioTrcuics
rrhiinw lk TcrrUod Sen.ùwCoiuiguovZone.rkConiimninlSkfJ rk HighScasnndro
FirlungandComc~yafiofùw iivinRcrowcesofrkSeo.STAECXEü.BII5.pp.71-76

whichisalsoconmincdinA~ex 8. Anahwnrlati oonr~~ieOrdinancirconmincinUr
mm ment UN PublicationTheImofrk Sen.Basclin: ariomdLcgkhrionwirhlllwmuivr
Mm. UnitedNatiarr. NewYork1989.o. 122mducedono.60ofUr FinnishAn~lication
& lanadiffeaiaiifim,v ~m~~~~~~~~-.ver~.~nd &neam mnf----~Id;f;nDen-
man 'sm ~ ~ &as-mrmuuigofuiunal mi imrnai -mm~ waim...~~IC~-ions
M WL iwwver. usein~rm of UT don aiBUwhid 6p& of-u.cllci mmd sea"
mind'iniunalmiW sa".A tiicraldon of Ur niginalihc iexwwld ineUrexp
sions-utcmal rcnimMJwatcrr"and'in4mitaialwuers".Arth3 dutimios howevu.
dar nM conveyandifferrncnrcrpnIDihcinrcmationayrtablisdistinctionbcrvccn
"Icnitaisa" and"inIoml waimasrcfd min Ur 1958ConventiononUr TcnitaSea
andUr ConIig~usZM. Ur forniwnrlaii uairefcrab. lsol mmspondrmm clmcly
m lhc vvaabuluwdinUr franrla ofiro1976Ordi~m GoveminU grAdmissioofFor-
Pm WanhimandMiliiarvAM IDanuh Tarit01inTi of&. wMirhcd-n UN Lsk-
&ive ~cncsNarionalL&Iariai andT-errclanng-mUr LawoGia, STNG/SWB~~~.
13Jun 1978pp.142-144and@dcd IDUr UN byUr ihc DanirbeoyFomp Aïfaiina
NoieVeMt of IIOnobu I9TI(ANLI 15). Sedion N. TheGreat Belisa Stdt Wsed for International
Navigation"

62.intheCorfuChanneIcase,tCsouncharactcrizcdaninternationalsuaitasa"suait
usedforintaMtronalnavigationbcwantwo paofthehighseas(IU Repons 1949p.

~"'gwpphical" aiteria fori&ruritionoïan mlcmationalmail. ~utheprepa.rl

atoryworkforUNCLQS1.thehumauonal LawCommissiondiscusscdthequestionofthe
definitiosomeImgth.The&baummrniedmctimaonthe functional.metima
onthegeographicpan ofthedermition.Theresult,asiswelllaiown.bccamcAnicle 16
(4)ofthe 1958Conventionon theTmitorial Seaand theContiguousZone.madeh
rcfuenŒto"suaiü whichan ud forintemationalnavigationbewemonepanoflhe hgh
sca snd anothapanof thehighseasor thetariton3scaof anodm State'To this
&finition the 1UN2 Conventionon theLawoftheSeaaddeda rcfamccW thenew
mcnitioooftheuclusiveemn wneEcEZ)andanumberof emmohicaluce~tiom
which howevcl.anof noconsquene tthicase(ofmm amsequa itheexception
inArticle3%. butthaidoesnottouchmntheauestionof theMmSion).

63.11is no1necessarytakca dcfmiu standon the legalslallhc"fundonal"
aiurion. Thmcan benodoubtthatthGreatBellisanmumaDonalsuai&inasmuchas
itisa verywidelyusedpassage-way.
64. With an annuainumkr of shippassageshughthe Danishsrnits in excm of

130.000'.the~~ishsuaiisarcthc~m~1hcanl~~vigaiedsuai~intheworld-nut
dy W theEnglishChannel.The GreatBeli is a udai-and"nmaily" used -for
intanational navigationbetwcai iwopathhighseas.ThoughtheSoundmaystill
havealargcruafïicmeasurcdnnumbersofshipstheGreatBelhasthelargnuaffic in
tums ofnetWnnage.
65.ThewfficintheGreaiBelihasbmsteadilyinnrasfflg.Henarcthe!ablesrepdmg
thenumberofNo~uth~assa~sofshipsofover5OGRTin theGreatBellandtheSound

dm theym 1981-1984(morenccntdaia hasno1beenavailable)':

Yw TheGreatBelt TheSound

1981 19816 25728
1982 185% 24588

1983 20238 26110
1984 19763 26098

Today.ova 20.000shipsof ova 50GRTpasseveryyearlongitudinallyhughthe
GMt bel^Ofthm. ovo athod havebeenlargerihan40.0DWT. About7percent

'UweJenùch%cent Law ofihScaDevelopmntintheWfic Sea",38A&npoIii(1987).
p.362.
. aFwmdsdirrkmmet1985.F~<~scncÜ im~lyse 1W.p. 12.oftheshipshaveanavigatigraughollovn 10mem. in olhcrwords.forasigniricani
nmberofshi~sthatparsihroughtheBalucSea avaaiablcxunhvcistly
GreatBelttheSouidking üw shallow.

navigatiotheGrcat~eiiisanintemationsuaitPrim farieaileastthm seemsnu
reasotodenytheapplicatioonfgend ruiesofuassagnternationsatlmintheGreat
Belt~hcth&thisissoandwhaÏqualificatinsighrbneededIOthisconclusiwillbe
funherdiwussedinPanüi. 67.IthasbcniargucdoOmtheDanishsi&thattheo~onscsuscdbythefuedlinL
ova theGmt Beltcan becompmsatcdbydimting &IC initheSoun cg.statunent
by AmbassadorFergo.2Juiy1991).Whatevabasisthisrcfucm toanalumaliveparsege
may haveinlaw(anditismntaidedthat ilhmnom inIbeNcumnaMcsof theGreatMt).

theargumrntisinmmci asapointof facr 7navigationconditionsothe t Soeund.
thele@ statu ofitsmainwalcrwa@mgden), andth elanIObuildafiacdlinl;ova iL
makcila muchlessuschilmule intoandhom theBaiticthath enatBelL
68.Theamibincdaiv~tal impli&ons oftheGreatBellpjcctand thpelafor
a fixclink ova theSoundhave givenristo much mnŒm in thetwo mastal Stam

(Swedm andDmmark)asweU asclscwhercinth ealticregion,includFig As
discussionon thow spxrs of thetwo projecareamtinuia ngd infornialionthe
effectsisstillincomplek.Fuilandwillrefraui~talùngthisasp~ofthemaaaupat
this
slage.l

SectionL TheDeptb oftheSoundisonly hallofthatd
the Great Belt

Sweden(cf.Map4). Though;ts nahem partEdcepenoughtoa&munodatc passage by
anyexistinsbiithi sno1th easeinrem ofthtwoavailablechannelinitssouthcm
theD&&n onLhchsh si& andiheFIinm on theSwedisshi&. Thdcepa
ofUmeisDmpdenw . hichissituatedbenvthehsh islandsofAmagcrandSaltholm.

Drogdenis 297)mems wide andhasaguaranteedimimum&pth of f7 mem.
70.NavigationintheSound~tsnopaninilardinicuitiesingmd weather.'Ihcrran
severalnavinationalliais and thenmw oansofthesuarweUbunvd Nevmheless.
theofilcial&ught of7.7 me-inthekgden ismcasurcdamean wkr levelandmay
beMer rcduecd.Thetidalvariationisinsienif~. utwinand cumnts mavhavea

signiricanteflect:"the watn levelisliablcton>nseasonalanationandkay rise
orfdl asmuchas7 fŒi(2.1mJabovcorbelowth e w levcl"~Galesmav ai= Iowa the
waterlevel2to3 fce(0.6- 0cm9) klow meanwakr level.'

Cf. hovveve.heSiamai ontheinfluenceof PcnnanmtRondConnenion oo~sthe
DanishSou& on thBalocEnWonmui~ SubmincdbyF- BaltManK Envimnmni
RoiccgonCnnmirsion-Envimnmnt Commiasc(EO -hnd Meeting.dyniaFulandSI3
Ssptnnt1 c9r91.ECYU4.Septanber1991Annu 16.
'CommanderH. Kenrrdy.AB"cfGcogrqhica1andHydrogm phiiofStraitsWhich
Comn'weRovrcrfor/nitWi~~/ Tdc. UNDoc.AXI)NF.13/6andAdd.1. UnisNations
Cmif- ~~n&L~W o.~~~Sea Off& R& V~l 1:-.-m~-,-.--munÿ. ~ ~~a1~58
p. 142.AccordiIOUnitedSw DelenseMapphgAgewy.hiling D8reciion(rPlanning
Gu&l ForikNonhSeo endik BaiIicSrPubN.o.I9û3rdcd.1.990.p. 1waer-levcl
&onr amarfollawr\'mton cowdby horilWrsicrlyWiinTheSound:.29. plu 2.7
fee(0.88-plus0.m):EnrenwWaerLvrh in SoundondBalirm 191MD The Sam6
ma: plu 3.6-5fee(1.101.80 m)Mnmmar 15-23 fcc(0.460.70m).

'UniteSiaiaalense msppinApq, SoilingDirmionr (EmoyvJforBaificSe(Souih-
rrnPan).PubNo. 194Stheb.1989.p.6. 71.nim is a 1km advaniagein usingtheSoundinstcadof theGmt Bellwhen
navigawikm theNonhSeaand thenonhan pis otheBaltic.Whcnplanningthe
mure.howcvn,inadditiontocamomandthe fanorsoihernmsideralmrstaLenim
acmuni.niesc incluthNk causebyWK andseauinaM weah mnditions.
72.nie risksitheSoundarcnmtidarlv evidentdurinnthe wintermonthswhen
cun&ts,dccrcasedisibility.lackif buoysandpmblmisca& byia kutakeninto
auaunt Durinenormalwintenia mvmeventhe southcmoansoftheBaltic.Ia ismost
widespreadinFebniaryaMarchMile theSoundisthen&vncd byanevenia surface.

thm isscanercdri atintheGrcai&IL EveLhLnia mavaffectestminaofasb
withnoorlittleicesmngthmiDue toihhenam>wncsfih Sound,iaun& ipack-
afactwhichmakesnav-mtionstillmorediffidr
73.Themutehugh -dm hastheadditionaidisadvantagcof passingbyseveral
largecities.includingCopenhTdc isheavyanddangnousgoodscaniedblarge
amminuvasels Siacaw therisof saioudamage&bg hum mllisioms.ecausof
groundingsndseveralnearaccidmsevd shippingcompanieshaveadvisedshipsin
ucessof3.WO-4.W OiW tusethcGreatBelt

74.hgden aisopassebyKasmpairpOhAmplana ilyinovw th eavigatiol ute
tolandShimwithahei~tinuf mseIcs3u5stno-if-flinht~~nmIwohomkfore
passingbyi<acuups& toavoidmllisions.

A.UND~amRANcE

75.TheDanish-Fd dkusion8 onthe"hogdaialternative"hbem mm~lieaud
by wrmainty regadmgthena!csuyundcrkrmdal;ocÏcvana andthusthe&ccrive
drau~hiinthhgdm. Theconcepiotheundcrkalclcdranaisdealtwithinmdelail
inAnw 4. nie foüowingp~intsa&rclcvanticonnectirni:
I)'Thcdraughtofmcms isthcmeasimofihcOnuolly&ring mer colm. Unlie

thecaseinsomcothercountries(indudingFinland).noexw watwcanbead10the
notifiedclavanceof7.7'lheffectiveclavancc.t4ccaicuiatbysubuactingthe
rquircdUKC hum thedraughtof7.7mtns.
2)Thm m nommpulsoryintemationlrnationaldes onthecaldation oüiiC
inthcBalticSeaaccesws.Inthcf wdlkforisimasitrofashioto&temiine
whaimeasureof cl-a isnadai. havingrcgardtothe@se circumitancof the
pmidar voyage(cg. thetypeofthcship.thespced.water-lcvelmnditionsetc.).
Nevcfihcles.omcguidan ispmvidedfrombothDanis hndinternatiolources.

3) The rcriuiWCd for hogdcn mayk measwedin variouswavs.The Danish
~ovcmmeni&mctimes~uiresa&om W&C. ~othwithstandin~the~ff17meut
&th intheGmt BelLDanishmots havebem insrnid hi "shiuswithac&atfmore
& 15meuts(49h)wi&rnornialconbtionswillnoikablempa&hughthemm~
of thBalacSa"' Twomarcs WC isalsoimplieIIihcrelevant1MORcsolutions.'
~wlied totheSoundthiwouldmcanlhatheD~Üedm hasaneff~ ~~-~=-~-h~f.~iv5.7
&irrs.~ntheothwhandsomeinf~onsu~~a~lhatintheh~dmthcr~~~mendcd
UKC ionlv0.4mm -butevmlhatwouldmcanthatinthecva oftheDanish maritime
authorities?3mm mus1k lhcmaximumdraughtofva&wingit ~his,howcvw,is

'UnitcdSmcsDefenrcMappiAm. SailiDincrioniPhnninGuide)for rkNoSea
ondrhcBoiricSPubN.o.190.3rdcb.199pW.insufficicntforthepu>powsof manyoftheshipswhichacnialpassthugh theDanish
#laits.

4)nie wommcndations givm bythePiANC(Fumanent intemationalAswriation of
Navi~tionConmss)'forthc WCoflam vaxls would wbcnawlicdto theSound.give

5) Some funher guidancecan k hadhm insmictionsgivcn by masml Statcs in
mmpanble snaiü. Raammmdations forthe EnglishChannelandtheDovn Swit lis1a
WC of 5.0-7.6 merrcs2.The remminendcd WC fordeeDdrauehi vessclsnavinaiinz
-
thmughtheSuaiuof Mal- andSingapcneis"atleast3.5 kres".3~alaysiI&nesL
andSin-.rarehave.however.remmmmdeda UKCof2545 mforvessels~~those -
snaits
6) Inadditionspeeiacircumstanm shouid betakm into acmunt Acmrding IOthe
manmendation by DetNorskeVentas5:

"Sufficimi undcrkal clearancc shoulx nisitrcduring tow. A minimum
undnl<klclcaranaofm~mtofthemaxllnumdrsught&5merrcs.whichcva
islw. shouldbcnisimd plusamotionallowana mnsidaing mu.pitch.heave.
iowingloads.etc. A.dcr u ~ l clearam may bca&pmble upm
evaluationof theexteniandmethodof survcyfortheiowingroule."
inmnclusion.iiiscontendcdihatformwagepwpows. undcrkcelclearancedioukd 5

m. whilcfor othn purpows. a 2 m clcaranceis sufficient 'Theeffectivedraughtof the
hedcn I5.7m.Evm ifthePiANCruwmmcndaiionisfollowcdamaaunumdrauehiof
6.8k receivediswhich issiBnificantlylhanthe 15rnappli~blc inthGruu &IL

B.0THER

76. The Dronden hasken dredeed severaltimesdurine the msmt mnw. nK
possib~lioffu;iherdredPghasro~etirncjbeendiscusvd fodredgc iriothesamidepth
astheGrcaiBe11(17meucs)wouldk unrealisticallycxpnsivc. A45bn chml would

77.inanycase iisveryunclearwhcthnafunher Mging ofthehgden wouldtean
cnvimnmentallyacceptablealtemative.Muchofthedomcjticandintemationaldiscussion
reesrdi-.theolanncdDanish-Swcdishfued iii overtheSounhas mncenwicd on the
cfTsuon thewholeofBalticofchangingthcphysical~nditionsofthewatdowbcW~n
theNonh Sca andthe Baltic.

78.Acmuni musialso k takenofthefactihaitheplannedprojeciforafued I i inthe
Sod ismtcndcdtoincludea ni~elundn theDrogden.Thiswouldmakedredging IOa

Cf. Appcndix1ofAnnr 4.
'UnitcdStatDefeme MappingAgcnçy .nilingDircciionr(Pbming Guide)for ikNonh Seo
ondtheBalriSeoPub.No. 190.3rcd. 1990.p. 294.
'Anrrx 17.

'Koh SnoiuinInunwnionaiNm'gation:Conrr"p0mrluucr(1982).p84.
'Va- Mmk Opcdons. SImdwdforlmvmce Wormnry Swryr inMarineOpcroIiom.
RccommcndcP drMiccsRPZ SeaTmqmmion forSelFloaringTovMgasf 5.821,d An-
ne%4.Appndu 2.dcpthinexcessof 10metresimpossible,asthatisthedepthatwhichthemf ofthetunnel
isplannc10k.
79.'IheothernangatidmuteintheSoundpassecmofDmgdai. intheFlinaBmian.
niis haspuarsnladcah of7.1mem. Thecm1 ismmmrhac tha nntheDm-.
~specially-undu south& cmknts. shmus takcearet w mllide with t&cd
lighthousesal the sides of the mute. The fact that theDrogtheprincipal
altanative mute totheGreatBellismanibysexistingw: out oftîû.00vswls
thatpass thmugthSoundannually,abou87percentuseDmgdcn.

80.WhateverplansthmarcfortuvoftheSowibthedcpthofth wcUrmngdcn
sianüicanilyltha nhaiof the inumaiionremmimi Roue T mvming theGmt
%IL ROU~Tisalsowiderandeasierw navigit& the2WmeIc wide Il is
thmfore much moreappmpriateforlargeshiis and imnsp-prccisclythe kindsof
passagtehattheEastChmel bridgwouldprcvenr ifmmpleted

81.As ~iel notedi1936:
"...lapassedeFiinmmdc, qudan spanielamoinsprofonden'aque7mm,
N le Drogdc-dontlaprofondeurquiautrefoisne dtpasrai6m 50,mint
aujourd'hu8méms grâa Adestravauxd'approfondisscmmteffeeaih dcpuisla
guem -.nesait praticables pogandsnavins. Ceux-cidoivcparmnw
quenr fairedétourparleGrandBdf.."'

SectionILTheDlogden kDanishlntvnnl Waters

82.Themm1signirtcantlcgaldiffmnbeovc thnCmat Beltandthedeepestpwagc
oftheSound-thehwdcn (aDanoftheroadstcadofCooniham)-isthatwhiletheformer
isapanof~rnmark';&to"al seaih amisencloscd witG hark's intemalwaters.
ThoughDanish OrduiancNo.437 (L%6)Coveming the Delimitationof theTenitmial
Se.'providehl thercim remidon on therightof foreignshipstopassthmughthow
pansofthcDanishswiü whch arcinlcmalwam and"whch an nonnalluscdforsuch
&a&' (Arlic3)thediffmna kwm theregimesremainsmnside~ble.

83.InChaprcrü. sectiom above. ii was pointed out that the various otdinancss
regardmgthepassageofwarshps alwarj mamihmadnead ofCopcnhagcnasaspecial
caw inwhichmabm of passagwasmorelimiicdL! inothepansofthesuaiima
Thur. aaxdnp. toOrdmanaNo. 73 (1976) Conamine the Admissionof Forcien
Wmhips and ~ilitaiyAirnan inDanish ~cnitoryin &c ofha'. no advan&
notificatiorcquircwhenIss thaka warshipsofthesamenationalitypass thmugh
theGreat bel^Notificationis.howevcr,quLcd inme ofpassagethmughDrogdcn(secf
4 (2)).

84. From the pmpective of intemationathcmaindifima ktwm theIWO
channelsihi whiie therightof passagein the GMtisalsogovcmcdby gmcral
Nstomarylaw ~gardingpassagethmugh internationalstraiis, passage riheis in
bugden. asapanofinumalDanishwaters.canwbly k saidioderiveody fmmlocal
cust&nw whicheffsi isgivebytherelevanDanis&hdimaas.

'W: Bdkl,'Ludénuitsanoiaupointdcvuedcdroitindonal"55Recucil esCm
(1931).p. 602. Seaioniü.The Rom RxedLink over the Sound

85.On 23March1991 Denmark andSwedmsignal a Tmty ConccmingaFUedLi&
ova theSound'T.heGovcmmmtsthercbv ad onth eonsmftionandouerationof a

fued railanroadlinkktween Copcnha&n~theDanishcapitaand alm m iniwcdcn.
86.S~diesonfd linkbstwkn DenmarkandSwedenhavebeen inpmpss morea
las mntinuously sincthe1950s.Inthe summer of 1973 the Swedisand Danish
ûovemmentswæ inapositionIosignamty mnaming fued linkoserthSod The
Uearywas.however.~j;ctcd bythe6anish~&liamen~p&anlyecauwofiümmection
withthemnmvmial questionof Gpmhgm's airpoking localcdon theislandof
-
SaltholmoffCopnhagen.
81.in1984itwasa@ thathrsh talksbewem SwedenandDenmarkon fuedlinks
overtheSoundshouldsm without delay.ACommissionsetupbySwedm IOengagein
thesetalkwaschargedwithdrawingup,jointlywiththemrrcspondDanishCommis-
sion a dmfmty. However.no dmfiwasmcsmted becausnodecisionona fucd link

overtheGreatB~ILwhichwasmnsidacd an importantpresondirim bytheDanishside.
hadbeen ialrm.
88.Thetalk wcreresumedinthelatc 1980s.Theexistingmaterialwassupplmmted
in anainrespects.Ajoint draftfor an inta-govsmmmtal Ueatywasprcbymid-
March1991.

89.ArxordiigtoIhTm. a fi linkovertheSoundisplannui IoleavetheDanish
mainlanadtKasmipandjointheSwedishmastal Limhamn.FmmKasmrptheI@kwould
beIcdinIoanapproximatc2-kmsubmarinenuuieundeth e rogdenchanml.TheNnncl
wouldbelocatedinsuchawavthatthedenthofwatcintheshiinp: msil laneatmean
warcrlevelcouldbeind~mthe~&ni7.7memtoatle&i10~e~sacn>ssawidth
of600 meuesl.

90.Anartificialisletsouth-westof Saltholmwouldprovidea sitcforthe intachange
betweenthetunneand a lowbri-ae.
91.Inthe watcrson the Swedishside of the Soundthcm arc two mlana. the

HinuannanandTnndelrannanchannels w ouedbueuilsahighbndge with
aclearana ofa1least50meires~~~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~channclmnnallv usedbvveGls no1
choosinth~Dmgdmchannel.and atl masver~rindel~~. ltis&sed that
themit laneintheF~JZIWM channel.whichisabout230mcms mde. wouldhave a
navigable width of at least 300 mem. The mmsponding navigable width in the
Trindel&mm channelwouldbeat leas200mcm. Theexact navigablewidths.as wcll
as theclearancesneedmain tobeworkedout inthesubsquent planning stages.

92.Theconwcu forthebuildingofthclinkovn tiebeoufredintcmationally
forender. Theaimistobeginthemnsmictionin 1993.IIwouldthbepossible forthe
linkIObeopnicd forIaffic byaboutthey2000.
~-.~ ~ ~-~d linkovertheSound-~l-~-o~ ~ ~vtheSwedishandDanishstates.in

qua1hharrshugh nationalmmpania. ihe latakrtworktogetherinaconsorùh.
whichistoown andberesponsibleforal1activitiesrctothelink.

'AMCX2.
'Farillurumini.AMCX 18. 94.IheSod isno1arelevantdumaive fotheGrcat&Il asanintemationaipassage
forlargeshipsFirstthdepthoftheSoundis hsufïhmi. Lfthe intemationarsom-

mded underkkl clearancesarcfollowd thgdm canbep d dy bysbiis with
abughi significanilylclha7mem. SCCIJII~ t.elcgalstatu oftheDrogdmprovida
formorelimitcdriphuthanarcmiarantccforforcim shmsintheGreatBelM. ilis
unclearwbetherth; conditionsif theSocanbekainkuiedifthepmposed fued link
isbuilioverit.
95.IIisdoubthilwheiherthemm pmcm of analtemativpassageissuficimlasa

jutifiuitiIOcunail therighipassageIIanintcmatiod suaitInany caseil would
ml secmpossibletoreplacenanuaichannelby ananif~cialoneinshon if thm wm
a feasiblediemauvIOpassageagcugh theGMI &II. thicase wouldnevn have ben

'CorfvChoml. Menu.J&m. IU Rcporü 1949.p.28.
'CI.Mar SDrms~ Siarcmni o29Januar1y62IOUr GreatBeCommiuΠPan II.ScAn-
ncx19. 96.ïhcre isasocio.emnomicbackmund to theF i claimremding therightof
passageintheGreat bel^About90 p& an! of Fish upons andover 80 pn &nt of
Fuuiishimpons arrransponedby wa.Outofthetotalamouniswnsponcd in 1990(525
millionIO&).46 anÏ passcdthmughtheDanii straits.

97.me proposcdbridgeovn theEast Channelof thcGreatBeltis intendIOstayin
olace for at leasta annirnd orobablvfor lonpn. Iu blockineeffectwiilextendfar
beyoncltoday'scconomikt-& andt&hnologi&lknowlcdge. historicalpcrspxtive
ni thedevelwmentof theFinnishintmst isthusunioellcd thver.sub?cctitrelf.FM
thcquestion'isnot, as Denmarkhassometimesc&ed. about a juxtaposition of an
imoortantDanishinterestinthelonn-ternidevelment ofitsintdrranspoandhaff~c
mincctim al~n~sidethemit~intmsuof ~innishmm~anies.AIS& isaneswntial
conditionoffinland'sforeignùanioughtheùnmediatemnwqu hnecisgeflan

would -as foliowshm thenarur ef themana -indeedfallonFinnishprivateindustry.
thelong-tcrmmnsequences.thoughunforeseeableindetail,wouldclearlyimpimgeonthe
verysubsmcnue of thcFish uanomy.
98. To set thismamr in pcrspectivc.this sectionwillbricflyrthehistoryof
Finland'smle as a usaof theDanishsuaitsovn a periodapproximatclyas longas the
projsted Life-timeof thebridge.

Sdon 1.Fuiland and the Sound Dues

99. The aboliuonof the Sound dueswas diwussed m sectionB.I.1.above Here the
munuon istolookaiFinland'sconnibunonto thesmü MIC andiotheRussianpanof
thecompensationpaidtoDmmark.

100.The total numk of ships passingthrough the suais pw steadiiy ahcr the
institutionoftheduesin 1429.Whiletheannlumberofshi~smiMe thesuaitsinthe
16thanniry was only about 300and 1500in 17thanw: around5h shipspasscd
throueheachvcarinthemiddleofthe18thmnirvandovn 10.000at thebemn ofthe
1% inthc1Ws thefigurewasaboui26.000.and thehghat numL becorethe
aboliuonoftheduesm 1857was24.648shps m 1853

101.Compadtothenumbnofshipsundnvanousm otheSougnd.thoseunder
theRussianflanwercnoinummus. Theirnumtu vanedkwŒn around300m 1830 10
slightlyovn 7~0towardsthemddlc ofth1% anniry Buta remarkablefactwahi of
al1theshps underRussianflagmthBaltic.veryfewactua~ong-iaicdmRussmprop.
~hc&<i.nof~ ~-~~~ullshai&cd shioswithinihcRussiantotalvaricdbenucen8Oand60
pcr ant,and of the mmainder.mmt wac shipshm the RussianBalticprovinas of

Estonia. Latvia and Lithuania The ships origùiating in Russian ponsicwere
insignificanilyfew.'
'IIipooribletmunrthemialiveaharofthehomepansoftheshipby audyinUr mtim-
lowlvbt book ofthDaniahcusu>masnhmiks atheNaùd Mvcs ofCopnhaaen
~achahipis givmanuidividia~yinthmi m.giaerithepa ofiosding~rpai ofdati-
mon the hom pa. the namcoftheshppn.the-positionofUr cargothemounl pd in
cwiomr duesandhgh- feu andhnallytdaleofW.TABLE2:PERCENTAG OEFFiNMSHMEFSANT SHIPSINTHESOUND COWAREDTO
i01M NUMBEROFSHlPSUNDER RUSSIANFUG INTHEYEARS1830.IU2 AND1849.

102 Riebasiofthccaleularnfthcompnsationsumof35millionDanisDollars
ü>DmmarLhaobernditnisydabove(Qlppici~.s+aionlA).ForRusriaIhc~ultofüu
~rcayof~opaihagm wasrtimuchmgifor Ihcnghiofm ihmughthe~~ish
Smiûme Russiansadm pay9.793993DanisWars (whichcquals7millionRuasian
süverRoublen.iircpr&&d n.83 percenofthcmm lmp&aion paid bythc 15
munuicswhichwmsigmnicsofthchctyof~ 103.Amongthe shipsundertheRuuian flag,as wasnoledabove,thepcrcmtageof
Fish shmsand shios hm Russia's Baltic orovinceswas verv lame. ïFimllsh
&h&tion, wh~chhadiismo~inthe~e~odwhcn~inib anlon&to~wcden. was
EJIUIThismesntthataftcr1809.wtirnFuilandbccanva RussianGrandDwhv. Fum

thel&tdsadesof thelhh&tq whm~ar~esteamshipkscamefommoniniNanaIiod
wffic andFuilandwasunableioraisethecapitalnŒdedto buythem.
104.inMarch1858.Fish authoritieswerenotifiaiheEmprorhad dccidcdthat
thcFinnswcrc toconuibut400.00 0ilvcrRoubleIOtheRussiancomponentshare0
millionsilverRoubles)of mempmsation forDenmarkThisamountcdto5.71percent
oftheRussianmnüibution.Mm-. Fuilandwouldhavetopayanadditional4perŒnt
inmt on tham. In 1859.on the22ndJanum anLmDaia lmu was~ubüshd. in

whichthcFinnswereordercdtoinstitue a dimponduty tofuianceth; abolitionof
UK Sound Dus'. Thiwasiobc mlld inconjunctionwiththenormalimponduiy.The
Fi paidtherevenuefromthisdutytothe~ÜuianCmm fornventyycaÏs.
1M. ThesumspaidbyRuuia andFiniandrapectively, whcncaldatcd percapitain
relationto thcmDulationsof the nvomunuiarcin no mowrtion tead,othn. 'Ihe
~us~ianpopd&n in 1857 isatimaled as713 million.w& thcpopdationofFdand
wac1.7million2Thus.Fuilandoaid0.2silvcrRoublesarcaoiia whercasthearmsamd-

ingfigu forRussiaisonly0.6 silverRoubles.inothir wo& kuilandwasanimp;mant
amuibutor to the Russianshareothemati~ation tobc~aidfor Denmark for thc
rrdcmptionof theSoundducsandtheestablihmt offm righrtoai latiom.

Scaioo ilF.iniand'sDepeadeoerw Parcagein
<beDanishStraiîssincelm

106.AroundthemiddleoftheIhhŒntq, whmtheSounddueswereabolishai,Fuiland
was a rathermor and~erbheralmunw. But itssonomv wasalnadv in somcdeme
intcptcd wii he~&t Ekpm "cm". Fmm theearlyi71hŒnNry.kuiland hadb&n
anerainnasan imwrtantMuducerof"navalstores"suchas"Stockholmtaandtimber.

andGe&cipal b&ersoisuchpduc~ werefound m theNethcrl&. Gmt Bnm. and
latn evm m the han PrninsulaandtheWesternMcditcnaneah On Lheotha hana
Fuilandaisedepndedon cmainunponrdgmds. aboveal1sal~wh~chcamemdy hm
Sou- Euope.AU thesewm relanvclychcaMd bulkygoods.thcuanspm of whch

Fish shigmprisedthe ma&ity of;essels sailingunda~ussi& f&ag thc~altii.
107.dur in^the"last mldm davsofsail".thcmaioriwofFinnish-omed tonnaze

wasmgaged ilongds&cewd;igoutside thc~alucandeva benvcenforeignpaz. F&
u.mulc. bothui1853and 1861.UKmms fmm mastal tomsudicau thanolessthan
KI%Oftheirtotaltomgc wasaway & voyagesatthad oftheyear.Sincewinm-tùne
navigatiowilhitnhBalticwasvayrarc.practicaaiofUK shipsinquestionmusthave
ban sailinbcyon theDanishshaitsinfact.FuilandthmhadpbablyUuu timcsmore
tomage tha n as nc&d tocany itom upons and impnns.The primarymarLeftor
Fuinishshiiing layin'%lue-watef'Wic outsidethcBaltic.l

'Cthx20.
'Rwisn populaionswistiB.R Mitchel. wopcoHinorimlSraisiCs1750-1970,
AbridgeEditio, NewYork1978)p.10mtc 54Fi& Populatinlalirt.vomrnTa-
lo~thiswr111.ale 1.3.
'Unlesindi& oihcnvu e.demiprimiofahippinbefm 191isbascon Kaul;iairrn.
S4ilinimoTwlighrFFUuh ShippiuIonAge oTramponrevolyn'o.860-19141991). 36

108.ForFiand's shiminpindus the fourdecadesbefmtheFht WorldWarWar
wm farfmm happy. M&&I toruia.kgan w shnnkandtheIonnage ofstcamships
imxasc dnmicly dowly.Byabout1913. steamshipsonlyaccounicfa 24%of total
Finnishseagoingumnag-byfarthelowm figwcanywhcrcin EuropeorNoroiAmaica.

inmie ofUushisünc,Finnishshippingcontinucdtorelonlongdistaoa wding.In
19l2-13.foruamplc.closcto75%~f~~h~mg&eori&icdfmm~~
whichoperaicdoutsidtheBalticwatm!
109.7hcpcriodbetwan thetwoWorldWm sawthedefuiitivemition fmm sailIo
stcam.Becausewdc withposmvolutionaryRud almmtstoppa Finland's wde and

marituneconm became evenmm orimiedtowards thewot Ihanthehadbeenbefore.
~~t~ritainkcam~themmtim~tdestinationof~~h~.&thasharrofover
40Whvvaluc). 'lhis ind therelativeima>Mnccofmaritimeüanswrl. Urhilcabout
709bbf~iand's exporr sm carricdinshiis kfm 1914.this-mge mu to95%
afta 191810fallhivscleand mFih ww withcwo. thefollowingpropom'o~ had

110.Finland'smmhantto~sufïdmlossesdiirùin WorldWarI.Conswuent-
ly.duringthccarly192~~uuiishdups~~ibleto~n~sihanathirdofall F&h
upons and impons.Afkr1925.Finnishmnchanttonnageigrwfairlyfa.andthesharc

of-ding vessëlsshmk to les thana tenthof thetotal.Befauseof lowmancosü.
FuuUshv~lswmaMetomaLeaprofi1 wrnduiingthcycarsoflow~ightchargs.Noi
onlvdidthevmanaeetoincrcasetheirshareofex&and immrtdtion I35-44%.

'lhniubolFinlandfo'cigwdc Md shippinnrc almncly dependeinUr p%n&s bc-
nvoaiUr BalticandUNonh ScaAl*cal shipim wm dl below1.000tonnc~andva-
aisom 3m tomwere m. almm aloflhiMit parscthmughll~ Sou(inihmtdays.
Ur *cal draughtfaiuUyloadesteamnof3,000Œiionswar7-75mm). hily in 1895
didaviablealVmativeappc.sihKiel(orKaiserWilhclCanaw opcncdM. anfinnish
1UnstcMuhip sailhgmorhm BelgiumandUr NcUrrlandsbeganpasihcCanalbutfor
.ailinwuclrandmo ricarncarminsc h hL pmds lhiwaruaex~cnsivcanalumb

ove Nciiherbd ~irdaod hmi fi m H~U&si nguiarisureii'shoncnihcvoy-
ageonlyby rom lm mlesA quainfiduarwuld bcihaLjurbelon Uvar.bcnveeaqnuar-
mandafihhof~cagobc~Fdandandpon<beyondUrBal~cpaucdUrKielCanalTABLE3. PROPORTION OSFFINNlSHSHlWlNG RUjULARLY ENGAGER DITRADING
BCIOND THES7RAI7S. 1920-1938:

Paccniage ogmss Umme accumulamb iyionnagesailingbeyond theBaltic,ofwrre-
spondingtotalFih shippinginwme.

A= crpon andimportshippingB=cross-trading

Tic A B W

1921Li.2 59 83 64
1929BO 70 85 74
1937B8 81 81 81

Som: FiMirhOfficialSiatpr.B (Shipping).

111.Table3revealsthat themormnionofshiwinn inwmederivedhm wffic bevond
theBalticwasslightlylowerdAg thcarly l920sihan iihadbŒnjus1beforethe~ar.
However.ir rossreadilyduringthe priod parallelwithmwth of tonnage.and
cxceeùcd8Wbbefo~~~ ~ ~ ~ond~orldWar.fsemisthat~innih s..mi-pwncmwted
onBritishandAtlanticwdes mm thaneverbeforc,andtoan&en pater extentthandid
Finnishfor-imûadcinotbersectors.

112.SincetheSecondWorldWar,Fuinishwde relations havccxperienccda gradual
change.The SovietUnionbccameone of ils mon imponanwdc parniersSincean
imp&nantshan ofthiswde gas byrailthcdevelopm~nt f maritimemsponhas not
closelyfollowcdthmwib of foreignwde. ûIhcr famorshavcwntributedtsame
effet. FirstthcnhvsicalvolumeofFinnishehaserommonslowlvthanthcirvalue.
kcausc of relativelyhigh added-;due ha; ken substim& for cheapbulk
cxwris. Ontheotherhand. theimwn nude oilhasmm IOsuchdimernionsthatthe
ioh volumeofFinnishunportsa&oachtd thatofexp& andactuallysurpasiduring
theearlylm. Thur.afundamenulchangeinthedemandforshippingwasbroughtabout.

113.Thegmwth ofFumishforeip wde was 60fast(on average 6.3yearbeween
1950and 1985)thateventhednnandformaritimeodnnwnexvandcdvastlyFrom1950
to 1985ihphysicalvolumeoffinnisseah 4 and~pons. exp&sed inions.
grewovn fivefoloronaverageaiarate014.8% perannum.'Atihcsamenme.howevn.
rhegmgraphicdismbutionof FuuUshloreignwdc waschangmg.Cnideoilshipmenu
wihn theBalticindshippingmovemenuberweai ihcSovietUNonandFinland:and
thetradewitanotherneighboruig Swacucnhas,pm inimportanŒ.Ontheotha
hand.Britaihaslos!itsformerposition;iu shan of Finnishehasdeclinehmn

aboutoneauanetrome mth. a& itsshareofimmm hasben lkstill. 'Thichanneis
alsotok &en inthvolumeOfsbipmenfs.inihc'mid-195aily aboutthidof~i&
seabornuamwm wae wnfii withithBealtic.butthissenw toovu509bdurine
thelaic 198&.Howevn. m acnialvolume.Dansponsbeyond-k Danishsuailshave
ocbled.IImusialsoberanembed thatasubstannparofthehuw m'oh m mtn-Baluc
shippingmulted fromboomingcar-fmy Mc betieen ~uilandardwcdai. 114.Table4showsthatincumefromshippingbeyoBaltic,althoughincreasingin
wuaï fi~(theFumishrn~~~hantto~~~gcpwmpidlyduringthe1960sand1970s).has
dslllieinpmpatiotototalKit nvmue.
115.However.if dy goodwnspasarc tzkenintoamuni, the dcciisnotso
dmmaticin1975.forexample.almost2096ofal1hmorigina itcdssaign Mc.
whichwastha andstüiscmrinedtotheBaltarc a.us,almost7096ofinmmehum
gacdstranspowasstillcameciinothcrthanBalticlimiesthathm wasaslight

dcclineduringthe19whminnmsingamounaofcni dmemiloncdfromRussia:
butwiththedcclimofRussianexponstheücndhasslnady beenrcvcrsed

TABLE4:PROPORTlO NSFlNNlSHSHIPPINGEGULARL ENGAGEDIN TRADING
BEYONDlHB ENTlC.1955-1975.

Pcrcentageof pssinmme aocumulatcby tonnagesailing beyondthe Sound, of
mn'cspmdingtotalFuuùshshippmgUieome.

-

A =uponandimpo~shippingB = nos-hading

Tlme A B ALL
1955 74 59 71

1%5 60 62 60
1975 49 73 54

SoiirFuuiiOrhiciStalistisIB(rhipping).

116.Fortheperiodhumtcarf1980sonwardilisno1mcaningfutiocalculausimilar
prceniagestecausofthemassive'nagging*ut" ofFmnishtoThishasoccd
pamcularlymrclauontoranLmanddrybulkcargos. iththerrsultthatthcproporuon
of passenga andothn spccialfago mhaspwn disproporuonaulyas fihcs
tonnagesullsailmgundertheFinnishflagiscancernIIisanundeniablefthai

suaia.ca&n &al-uampowmntinw-mrclymtallyon.k hugh than.

117.Duringthelast5Oycaraorsofhc smmiuiacawin shi~sizs has foman
hcmlsing nuÏ&erof shipJaihugh theGreatBevisleaof thSound Modem
tankmand dq cargvawls. andevm la- mm shim, havebemdivmcd hum theu
traditionalpa&&past Copnhagm and Ëlsh.N' statima rcvealwhichfaiways
Fmsh shps havebem usingwhmsailinghumorttheBaltic.andthisdeveloonmt 39

TABLE 9 GROWTH OFSHlP INRNNISHMERCHANïFLEET.

1=Average grasstonnage(ucluding shipsunda 100GRTJ

2=Total tonnag 1.000GRTJof shipsova 10,000GRT

Year 1 2
1950 1.O

1960 1.944 1695
1970 3.077 761.9
1980 6JM 1.833.0

Som: FuuWh OfficiSiatutics.If(shipping).

nie fimm for 1980msenü avesselwhich.whm hillvloadedhasadrauphtofabout
cightmetrcs.OnGuoh& hand.shrpsofover 10.000tokgus, which mhy rcquk
apassageatout 9mems dq. rcpramted over5096ofiod Fmsh tonnageby 1970and.
tm ycarslain.theirpropnion wasclow 80%.Alfhoughmany shps whch cannolpas
the SoundwercableIO cleatheKielCanal.manyof thcmcannot ux itbecauseof iü
insufficien1hthM au clcaranoM bsausc nas~ ~ ~f cmnomv. A subsmtial Danof

~ihshrppir;gmoved hm the~oimdwtheGrcat~eltdurin~&l960s and1970;.~ith
the continuineinaease of shios-sdictaledbv thecmnomicsof scale(theneedfor
increasedca& andpassenga&ace) theprospstkf aficd limitatio65mems inship
heiphtwillbecomeanextemallvimwsedand arbiwrvlimitationtothedevelomncntof A ~WMPIION OFTHE DANIS PH ANSTû MODI Fi3 NAVIGATIONAL
CoNDrno~ ms'iïiGREA BTar

118.Overthvcm. sevaal~lanshavemecd forthemnsbuction ofafued ünkovu
theh t Belt lie &id and&momic impo&nceoftheseplansibase n thefan Ihat
theGreatBeltliesbetwan twoalmwualhaivesoDcnmak TheWic overtheGmt
BelthssUaditionabeenorganucdby'avay cntcimt fcny service.

Won LEariyRans

119Plan fsrmmccting SjaclaandFyn haveMod foravcrylongtun.'in 1936
-a year afvr the Little &II bridge was mm-a suggestion was madbythe
m&arhe fum Qirimani& NicW Hsinaard & Schultz andKamristo build a
m&rway :ver theGmt &ILThesuggestionpmrnpod thefmt offiOalproj"l planned
bvtheDSB'sClhcDanishRailways)bridsoff-theoffiŒthathadbanrrsponsiblefor
rhcadminis&m of theLittleBkt .pmj& ThepmjectwassuspenbecaÜ xfWorld
WarTwo.
lîû.Durinetheexecotionalw linmlof 1947dimcultiwmcauscdforfmv

~cinthe~mt~eli~~&h~ov~~~rntal~mmissionwass 19tu~neG&t
BeltCommission)to stuthpossibilitiesfued linwu theswiL
121.The Commission issueda preliminary Report in 1956 and a fuialReportin
Dmmber1959iRewn237/1%0~. Amonethecmclusionsoft whasse~snrtim
tobuildabridgef'barhoaand*l wff;c fromHalsskov~evon~jacland.ova<pmgo
island.toKnudshovedFvn.TheCommissionhadalw>middtheefffflofiheproject
onhy passageitkGreai bel^in acmrdancewitha statcmmtbythethmlegaladv&
tothe DanishForeign MiisnyMr Max SBrnism,the Commissionmncluded that
considerationsofinternationallawdidnotthebuildingofafued laslongasit
allowcdunhamarcd ass saneal1existinp.shipsthmullhtheGreatBdt.'
. -. -. -
122 No TI dccisionswm madeaithegovemmmlal level al this me. hicad. a
WorlÿngGmupwas xi upin 1960tocanyoutames of exploratorydnlligs andothu
seismicandhydmlogicaltests.aswellasa newMic anaAynewreporregardmgthe
Mic i theneighbowimodofCopaihagmwaspublishedin196byacomrnineeofnvd
servanüesmblishedbvtheDarushMm~~.vforPublicWorks.TheCommineesupeesled
i~eralh.thatabridg; shoklbuiltovethGreatBel&tobebmughtintousbY 1975:
123.in 1965-67the Woikine Gmuo oraanized an internationaldesim mm~etition
foiiowingasuggestionbythe~&ish ~n'pin&~~ssociation. Thisarou&igreat hIcrrst

and 144sumstions fortunnelandbrideeallemative~tamted.Manv.um--iais
mnraùied'%mbined bridge-tunnelal&tive.
-

SmorComnanvStaubmcnSuirekli whichcrtablisto cmcouthchid~fmiiniunder
law4140i13jm 1973andwardiunani1dnthcsuspn<imofjrpmp-tinï958.Cf~n
Rc&~crekc/or& ofsmbmrn StoreBalimrdforofhnr414of13.lwÙ1973omanlpgof
bran oveSmrtk11 vndfonrfo&re&ndt or&~&r1977.1979. A ~WMPIION OFTHE DANIS PH ANSTû MODI Fi3 NAVIGATIONAL
CoNDmo~ IN'iïiGREA BTar

118.Overthvcm. wd ~lanshavan- forthemnsbuction ofafued ünkovu
theh t Belt lie &id and&momic impo&nceoftheseplansibase n thefan Ihat
theGreatBeltliesbetwan twoalmwualhaivesoDcnmak TheWic overtheGmt
BelthssUaditionaban organucdby'avay cntcimt fcny service.

SectioLEariyRans

119Plan fsrmmccting SjaclaandFyn haveMod foravay longtun.'in 1936
-a year afvr the Little &II bridge was mm-a suggestion was madbythe
m&arhe fum Qirimani& NicW Hsinaard & Schultz andKamristo build a
m&rway :ver theGmt &ILThesuggestionpmrnpod thefmt offiOalproj"l planned
bvtheDSB'sClhcDanishRailways)bridsoff-theoffiŒthathadbanrrsponsiblefor
rhcadminis&m of theLittleBkt .pmj& ThepmjectwassuspenbecaÜ xfWorld
WarTwo.
lîû.Durinetheexecotionalw linmlof 1947düf~niltwmcauscdforfmv

~cinthe~mt~eli~~&h~ov~~~rntal~mmissionwass 19tu~neG&t
BeltCommission)to stuthpossibilitiesfued linwu theswiL
121.The Commission issueda preliminary Report in 1956 and a fuialReportin
Dmmber1959iRewn237/1%0~. Amonethecmclusionsoft whasse~snrtim
IObuildabridgef&IIIroaand*l wff;c fromHalsskov~evon~jacland.ova<pmgo
island.toKnudshovedFvn.TheCommissionhadalw>middtheefffflofiheproject
onh~ passageintkGreai bel^in acmrdancewitha statcmmtbythethmlegaladv&
tothe DanishForeign MiisnyMr Max SBrnism,the Commissionmncluded that
considerationsofinternationallawdidnotthebuildingofafued laslongasit
allowcdunhamarcd ass saneal1existinp.shipsthmullhtheGreatBdt.'
. -. -. -
122 No TI dccisionswm madeaithegovemmmlal level al this me. hicad. a
WorlÿngGmupwas xi upin 1960tocanyoutames of exploratorydnlligs andothu
seismicandhydmlogicaltests.aswellasa newMic anaAynewreporregardmgthe
Mic i theneighbowimodofCopaihagmwaspublishedin196byacomrnineeofnvd
servanüesmblishedbvtheDarushMm~~.vforPublicWorLs.TheCommineesupeesled
i~eralh.thatabridg; shoklbuiltovethGreatBel&tobebmughtintousbY 1975:
123.in 1965-67the Woikine Gmuo oraanized an internationaldesim mm~etition
foiiowingasuggestionbythe~&ish ~n'pin&~~ssociation. Thisarou&igreat hIcrrst

and 144su~~~stiofortunnelandbrideeallematives~tamted.Manv.um--iais
mnraùied'%mbined bridge-tunnelal&tive.
-

SmorComnanvStaubmcnSuirekli whichcrtablisto cmcouthchid~fmiiniunder
law4140i13jm 1973andwardiunani1dnthcsuspn<imofjrpmp-tinï958.Cf~n
Rc&~crekc/or& ofsmbmrn StoreBalimrdforofhnr414of13.)mi 1973oanlpgof
bran oveSmrtk11 vndfonrfo&re&ndt or&~&r1977.1979. 41

124.The Working Gmup's fuiareponwas publishedin 196(Report50811968).
Relyingheavilyonknomic considera&onst.heWorkmgGmupsuggmed themmic-
tionofa bridgewitha comburd nvwrack dway plusa six-lanemotmaal lnone
flom.Theauestionotheimolicationsofthevlanf~the riht offrecoassaneinthekat

~eltwasdiscusscdandstudwerec~ed~~re~~th~highesta~drau&tsofuistin~
shim. in a hinh... .Max %rem reileratedhis vicwlhatthm wouidbe no leaal
d~~culrywith thepmjecttotheexlentlhatthenavigationaiclcarancelookaccountofthe
highcstshipsthenexisting.'in hisviewtheinlervening1958UNConfmna on theLaw
ofthe Seahadno1broughia changeinthenavigationilregimeof thesuait.
125.in 1970. howevcr, a TechnicalWorking Croup çJesperseGmup) was
atablishcdtou~lethevariousishnical andeconomicrcmm. Srnialconsideration was
tobegivm toammbined car-bainaltemative.in 1972th~Jcspe&nGmupsuggesrcdthat
themostsonomicai waywbuildthesu~estedfu wasltuml<mictalowbridneovff
theWestChannel anda nvo-railcar-& tunneluntrhEastChannel. -

1%.Nevarhelcss.aLmv ontheGrcarBelrBri-ze(41411973)wmactcd on 13Junc
1973'.TheMuusUy of PublicWh wascommiuionedtoprodua a conccpmisting
ofnvopans.alowlevelwesternbridgebenvan FyandSpmgoandahighlevelbridge
bcnveui Smm andSiacland 'Ihclüwmvidcd fa acombina roadandÏdwav bridne
withsixl&s?or mota MIC andnvo kks fortheraùway.TheBoardo& I%
aSmuCompanyfor IhcGmr &II bndnewaselsied (Smlw forStat~bromSm Bslf
SSB).

thefeasibiliryofthesuggcstcd'. hiIesonÏewishedtosu&nd lheprojectal&th6
othas haddiffermtviewsontheprioriticsbetwanU~ diffmnt ishnical alThe.
politicalatmosphm was so u&rtain that il was not untilJanuarytheSmleat
Company(SSB)beganfunctioningwithapermanentstaff.

128.Thiswasalsotheoccasion forthedematchof theDanishNoteVerbalereeardine
theplannedbridgetoforeignEmbassiesinc'opmhagminMay 1977'.~ccotdhg toth;
Nole.theolannedbridgewasrohavea hcizhtof62mems but"ltlhe mnsmction of the
seclion a-s the ei&n Channelwill. conlormirywith l"t&national Law. allou
intemationaishippingbenvan theKancgatand lheBSeaIomumd asin the~ast".
IIwaspointaoiith aoismictionwo& wm "scheduledtokginin 1978or 1979and
togoon foraboutc-gh~ean".
129.The notificationproduccdmctions hm the SovietUnionand Poland'bothof
whichcxpmxd theirmncem overthesumtai clearanceof62mem. As forFinland.

m mction was umsidered nmcssary&use of the expresssuranccregardmg
navigationalrighisand the veryuncniain charaau of thedmcstic politicalconsensus
behindthe. .
130.Mcanwhilc.parliameniarydebaleson ihe mamr mntinued in Copmhagm. in
March1978theSSBorgad amahg vith ihefounemcmemia lhathadqualifiaifor
theicndning proceOn.16March.theMiamnit rejcctai yetamthepmposalbythe
"Vcnsm" and"SaialisiisL FoUupan1"suspmdthebridgeprojat altogetha. 131.On1Junc1978thePariiamentfdly decidcdtomnsidcr thebridgedecisionat
theinitiativtheVensue.NevathelesstheSSB comwnŒd tenderipvŒdures.
132.The fd susansion of thebridpemiecf as a mult of theformation ofa nm
govemmcntalcoaliti-Vmsmandthe-~al~~nmrnim-wasmadc~ublicon30~u~ust
1978.Themwm thathadbemnemtiaicdonthemnsuuco'onworkswm lefiunsi~ed
andthetmdcrùigpmŒdurrswerechled

133.inSeptmiber 1978.theGovcmmentmade anofficialdecisionto end thebridge
projecl AgovemmentalsialementtolhiseffectwasmadeintheParliamenton17Octobcr
1978. All materialswere sent to the archiva. The Adminiswion of the SSB was
ierminated.Theprojecihadbempubliclyandcxpliciilytemiwcthnodate king se1
formnsideration beyondanindicationfromtheMinisurofPublicWorkrthaihedidnot
expectthatthemaneÏmuld bresumedforat least45tyears,

Mon ILThePmeat Plan1
(SealsoFigwe I.)

134.DesignworkonanewGMt Beltprojffl stznedagainin 1983.Nevatheaswe,
havean. by1984 -wh adraftucaryontheSoundwasprcparc-thm wasnodecision
inLknmarkastowhetha toproQd withaGMt &II linkornoLAprcliminarypolitical
ag~urnen!on the cslablishementof a fued link was nachcd only on 12June 1986.

Meanwhile.exisung fmy connectionsfor railwayandmotorwayUichadhem un-
provedin 1985-86amotmay btidgcwasmuunedon theislandoFyntoamalgamate
&way andcarfmy srnias. 'lhisbnd wgesncvaused foritsoriginalpurposcandmus1
be danolishedtomakcroomforthefued Ilik.

1987onthe~onsuucÜonola~ued~uikanossthe~nat pm vi~Tdorsihew
a hrgh-lwcl bndge or a tunnelamssEaneChannel The mntmm of this law were
mmmunicatedioloreignembassiesinCopnhagen bytheCucuiarNoteof30June 1987'
Thcmcdaliua of thepresentprojecidiliercdsigniricantlyfromthevanousearlierona
lns~of asinglebridgesolu&;henew ~ct~videdf&svdalalmativatobemade

theobjectof fwthn snidies.Inneadof apubl~cb~dy.a privatemmpany wasengagcdIo
carryoutthepmject.

A.THE CON<ZPiVAL DESIGN

136.The mnŒptualdesignwaspublishedin 1987 and1988.The fixedlinkbenvan
KnudshovedinFvnandHalsskovinSiaelandwastobe 18kilomemslona.Ilwastoansis1

137ThelowlcvelWcrrBridgeCombmedrdiiwayandmororwaybridge,alvmatively
IWO separatebridgesforraiandmoronvay.werepmposedfortheWat Channel.Thc

Foradnailedcmiptia cfAnnu 25.
Amu 26.

'Amu27.bridge wasto be 6100metres long.The navigationclearanceofthechannelwas setal 15
meues (Forill~~(frariosne,eFigure2.).

138.TheEasternRaihvayTunnel.This subpmject was toconsist of a double Wck
railwav tunnel between S~me0 and Siaeland The Nnnel was to be either boRdor
ùiuiiek. Theveriicalali&&nt of hcbored optionplaces theNnneldeeperdown. ?he
roof of thetunnel wasata&th of 68metresundersealevel.Thebored Nnnel wasto be
7900meas long.Theimmer&itunnel waslobe placedinadredgedhmch. Atthelowcst
point theroofof the inunerd tunnel wasIolie40 mcas underseaIcvcl.Thc immcrscd
tunnelwasto be 5600metres long.in the inunerscdoption.theNMCIwaslengthcnedby
pdy submergedrampsintheseabcd.The ramps werc10 bemadeofdrcdgedmatenal(For
illusfration.see~i~ie3).

139.TheEasternRoadLink -abridgeoratunnel?Thelawof 1987providedforeither
a hi&-level bridge or a Nnnel for the motonvav to cross the Eastern Channel. The
con&p~al desi& report presented two bridge imposai and two immersed Nnnel
pmposals.
140.Thebridgesstudiedwereacable-stayed bridgewithamain span of780meas and
a suspensionbridge with a main span of 1416metres. At both shoresthe bridges were

mnnected to approachbridgesby several 164ment long spans.The total lengthof each
alternativewasabout5500metres.
141.The tunnel alternativeswere a concrete Nnnel and a steel tunnel with identical
longitudinalpmfües.Thetunnelsweredesignedtobeplacedmainiln yanexcavatedtrench.
Atthedeemst wint however.a 150meue longsectionofeachNnnel wasto beplacedon
an emba&ne"t. Ai the samepin1 themol oicach ~nnel was40 metresundersea levcl.
Each tunneluas 5300metreslong. However.he road wasstill undersealcvclat theend

of the tunnel. Thnefore. the tunnels would lenglhened by submerged ramps. Thc
submergedrampswouldbeswroau nilcialslandsmadefmmdredgedmat~al(For
illustrationofThe East Bndge andThe East TunnelProposaisee Ftgures4 atrd5.).
142.The official commentaryto the law, prepami by the Miisby of hiblic Works,
observed that between the two altemative- bri-ge and Nnnel- "there was no such
differencefmmafunctional,secuntyorenvhnmentalpoint ofview thatwouldbedecisive
forthechoice.1indeed.it isnowhere madeclearforwhatreasonsorat whatpoint intime

the decision in favour of a bridge was made. Accordingto the Agentof Denmark a$the
heanngs on therequestfortheinterinmeasures,thedecisionthatonlyahigh-levelbridge
shouldgo out for tender wasmadeby the Minisby of Transport inNovember 198.'
143.Theramps.thepiersofthewestand theeastbridges,and thetunnelsaffecttheflow
of water.nerequirementplacedon thcprojecibythe&ish Parliamentwas thatthetoial
ilowofwaiershouldremainunchangedinspiteoftheconsmictionof hc lixedlink.Inorder
toneutraiizetheeffectsofthesmc&s ilwasdecidedto makecornuensatineexcavations
-
inthcchanncls.Someofthedredged mavrial wastobc usedforlandmlamation alSprogo
and Halsskov.The maximum scabedma Iobedredgcd was5 million square metres.
144.Atthe limeof finalu.ingtheconcepmaldesignthe followingtimc scheduleswere
mcnted: The railwav link wasto k mned in 1993,and themad lu&in 1996.For thc
westernbridgefhismiantstartingcons&ction workattheendof 1988.andcompletingthe

'LovforslanrL 177RL.1.1987(FonlagtilLavom anlagaffastfomindeloua Storebglt).
Bemrkninger tilIovfonlagFoIkctingsri de86-e987Ti/& A.p.3443-80,p. 3444:
"Funlttioneltsikkerhedsmessieotemiliamessieterderikkemellernallemaivemehaibroeller
ml sadanm forskelle,aidiGekrhokm v&re beste-ende forvalget".
Statemenbytheagentof Denmark .r.Magid.2luly 1991. Figure3

I YB- I
, arn 47

Figu4e

THEE.WERNRw F'ROPOGAL railwaybridaeattheen1992andtheroadbrid~eat 19he.enroiwayme1
work&aspÏmed to siaalthe endof 1988and70k fmishedalthebeginnif1993.
Consmiclionwork on theeasmadnme1 or bridgewnnection w10sian altheend
of 1991andtobefdhed atthe endof 1996.
145.Significantdelayshavc,however.occurred.inparticularduetodifficultieswith the

melmnsmiction.Asthewliticalaerrementof1986m~dedthattherailwa~connection
shouldhavewo- iolokycar adv&iageoverthemotomay link.thismcai thatdelays
inthefmalizatiotherailImkwillhavcunmediatemrrruss~ons forcompletionofthe
motorwaylink.For themoment,the Storeklt compky9s ownestilnateisEasttthe
bridgemightbewmpletcd bytheendof 199'

146.Acvmpany.Storebel46. wasfowidedto~n theprojeci.TheDanishslateisthe
onlyshareholderinbis . .any.The -udgetfo.themieci wasDKKt17.85billion.
at1988prices.
147.TkFirstWorhin 1989:Submissionsoftendersfordmigingand landnclmation
wm made at thkminn of 1989.Tenderonces varicdfmmDKK1.1m 1.4billion.
Mging andland~lamazon aiSpromsianCd in~s11989. Rcparatoryworhadtobe
doneforthebord NNXIandfortheartificialIslandamheoftheoripinal40 hectare
islandwasuebled Inûctoàr 1989theislandwascmedtotheold Thecmnd
phasewnsistcdofmtnictina theramvs.ThematcrialusedonSrmm was5millioncubic
Acres of sandanri1million-cubicktres of Stone.Mtht&ccrialwasacqui
tlnougdredgingclosetotheislandofSpmg0.However,somematmal hadtodmiged at
RamMin the northernpanof the GreatBell,outsidethe ongllialam.kLater.
materialwasalsodepositedatthesiteofwo anchorblocksforthesuspcndedbridge.He=
ellipsoid~~cialislands wm builtmundthe blockstodecreasethem~ceofthe water
flow.

148.Exw dredeine was later done to snaiehten the navieattheEasternn
Channel.Thehandi& of seabcmdatmal, iniotalout 14-donabic metres.was
fmishedinthesummn of 199The dredpinanddewsitine owations causedsedimen-
iationintheamclowtothesite.~ 15ailistanfrs&eoftationwasm~
w lesstha2 millimem. Noseriousimoactoseatedfaunswasobse~~edexm that
whichcccunwiin theamncansrt~pm&. ~rcd~in~andlandf~~ausedlossc;to the
fuhinz indus^but an amment withthefishennai's uniononwmoensatioDKK
600,~ solvethipmbkn.
149.TheWrstBndge.A wnm forbuildingtheWestbridgewassi& inJune1989.
ConstnictionworkstartedinAugust1990.Onlyminoralterationsweremadeinthetenda

~imaflcrtendainz.Thelinkcom~s arailwavbrideeandaseuaratemotombidze.
ihcbndges consiotf3wncrcte Lkgirdm eaihwil hqan l&gthof 110mcÏmr.fie
wiallmmhof thebridaeis6900memsLnthenaviaationchannelthenaviaationclearana
is 18mcues.Fromsutker 1990onwardno shipi largn t1.00DN? wm allowed
tousethewesternchannel.Laer, whenthebridgeiswmplcicd ilwillk decidedwhcthn
tokecpthismuinion at the samelevelor to ciito2.00D0WT. Thewsu of the
westernrailway and motorbridgeareestimatcDKK 3.2billion.Nodous delays
inthispmjecthavbem rrpacd & far.

'NovsfromStoreklrN10191(31OMbu 1991)..7.

'Se+alsoAMcx28. 150.TheRoilmryTunnel.A conma forbuildingtherailwaylinkbenvan Spg0 and
Sealan wassimed inNovcmber1988.nie sameycarexcavationsslarlcdforrampsbolh
on~alsskovan>~p~.nie boringofthedway nvinelsianedin~u~us11990.However.
thebo~gmachinesdidnotoprateasexpn~andadelayo ycariaulipaied.
-~~~r~-~ ~~o-~-,~-~e& of thenuinelshad ban bored.Thewsls of thproiccarc
ahalcd atDKK 3.3 billion.Consmictionriskssuch as. forexample. unfkble
submiilwnditionswbch miehhindn anddelayIhcboringoprationsareno1includedin

lhisprice.Nor is inslallatioiof dway equip~rnt includcdin ~s wnAcseparale
mnmctofDKK 1.4biioncovrringall dway installationsforthe18kilanetrc fuedli
was signedin January 1989.On &lober 14 1991.the lwo me1 boringmachineson
Spg0 were floodedwhcn waterbmke hugh the tunnels.For the momcnl,it isno1
possibltoestimatethe delayscausedbythataccident

151.TheEartBridge.nie immersedtunneloptionwasabandonedinNovemkr 1988.
Itisnolclearwhatwmthemain~nsforthis.Aooaraitl~.venrilatw ionldnthemel
causehigh servicecosandwouldbetechnicall;hema&g.
152.Calculationsofaccidentmubabilitvandsimulationsofshipwllisions wmded
outasapan ofthedesignofthekasbridk. Accordintothcy saidiesnsksforcollisions

wuld eficctivelvbenducedbyIenmhcnin~themainman. Sinccastay-cablebridgecan
onlyhavea-immmainsp~ofi~1uX)me~.&esuspnidedbndgesol wuthi~
a mainspan1624mlong wasselectcd.With thenuosidespansof 535m thesuspmded
bridge would bethehgat bridgem Europc.The mtal lcngth otheEasmn Bridge
induding thapproachspan wsouldbe6900mem.
153.Theamcconialdesien~Udanavipationalcl~Œof77mforthebndaeCnK

Rcponof theCI& Bclt &ion of 1%0 provid eor afnesailingheighiof 67
mm'). Thenavigationalclcanuiceof76-77mem wasalsoadopledinthetheEx1ofthe
Govcmmrnlalproposafiortherelevantlaw.'Thispbably reflux4 tbefan that thesNdy
regardingmas hcighls,includedintheReponof IhcGreatBeltCommissionof1968(5081
1968).lislctheheightof 715 m for aDanishdrillship.'Also.il appcarsDanishe
Minisnyof Indusnyhadnoiedin 1986thatvcsselshaban builtwiihmastheadssbgh
as up675 mems.

154.TheGreatBeltwmpany was wellawan thatby1989thereexisledspecialvesseis.
includinedrillswhwith-tlv installeddariuosto75metrcshia.aane vasels
up m 90ke.m igh d'jack-up & witha heighoi152metrcs.'~&va. a speciai
hnidvwasfanmissioncd bvth e oanv fromDctNor* Vcritas'lhissnidvwndudcd
mat;xciudingdrü lhips,&-up, &bnmsibllcs, nane shipsandomVLk. abridge
attheheiehtof65mem wouldmesmtnomublcmsforuisti neeshmus.duded
-.
are .f&&se. prcciYlyihose\;hose nght'ofp~ge is ofgreatecon- mFiniand.
155.'Ihcmpany wmtonmo~ethat withanavigarionaldcaranŒof65memstbe
EastBridge wouldà more magy &tcimt thana bridgeof77mems. Thebridgewould
beIss stecp,sothatvehicleswouluselessfuetopassovcriLConscquently.mehc

Knnmirriam MgaendeenSmrebslubm.EndligBckzNtnin(Li7119W)p47.
'"Lovfdag nrL 177LZ1.1.1987alag tillovormla gffasforbindelcverSumbalt),
tiov~t". F&n'ngsii&n& 19861987.Tilkg A.p.3449-3450.
Fm1ForbindrLvovcrSiore&II. BeucNtniNr 5üâ(1969).Bindp.6

'NovsfromSwreklt No.6/89(30June1989).p.2.
For threvisionthatsMy. cf.Mx 1010th.Daitirwrincnobwivatim o28Jm 1991.duringthesummcrof 1989.thedecisionwasmadebytheDanishMmistTranspo Wn
lowerthebridgeheightfmmtheoriginallyplanncd7677 mems wtheprewnt65metm.
156.TcndcrsfortheEastBridgewmnoeivcdon 18Dccanb1990.Negotiationswith
mnmm too kacefmm lune 1991andthemtracis forthe EastBndee wm siencd
on 22 ûcwber1691,whilethebilatnal discussionskFiian dnd-bmark& a
muniallvaceeotabtedinicsolution.ininatedinmusuanceof tbisCourt'sOrderof 29

July 1G1, w& stiüinprogrcss.

s€rtionm. Conclusion

157.TheGreatBellfixcdluil;thatistheobjeciofthescpmwahgs originalesin alaw
of 10June 1987.That lawpmvidcd fora bridgeor a tunnelacmainnavigable
diamielof thes&itheEast Channel.Thedecisionto optforabridgeinstcadof atunnel
wasmadeatanadminisrrativelevelinNovanber1988.Thedecisiontobuildabridgewas
mmmunicated to oh munuies in Octokr 1989.Tendm for the East Bridge wne
noeived inDeErniber59ûandtheconmas wcresignal inOctokr 1991.
158.lthassomctimesken claimedthe anishsidethatthewoarsofaradvanad
thainomodificationintheplanscankmadc.'lhis iincorrcct.Therightsofpassage
whichFinlansaks wupholdwwld havetan -andsiillctc-fullyacmmmodatcdby
opning thEast Bridgaeithcrofthesi& ap~machesw thesmpc&ionbride.isisa
minor modificationwhichmuld easily tanemade afm theinitim ntacts with
Fiian nthesumma of 1989asthedsision onwhethm optfor acablc-staora
suspensionbridge wasnot falicnuntil March 1990.es we havesen,svd

modirtations havealrcadybmade IOtheoriginalmnapaial designof 1988D.The
tenderprojectswac no1fonvatoprcqualifiedmmmuntil Aprü 1990.Evaas the
mnmcts wne si& -on22Ocwba1991-a huthamodifjcation&asmade.cxtading
the appmachspanby25 mem -w 193rneues'.Atthctime of hting. no physical
mns~~coOn forthsimcïuroftheEastBridgehasbeaiundmaloi. Withlastminute
extensionoftheappmacspanthm isnowamplepossibiiityfmDemnarkwmcdi@the
bridge plan aiioguamiieefrcepassagthroughtheGA ~e~tw aiexistingand
rcasonablyforeseeashi,Uicludi.dnlships.semisubmersibledr-llriiack-uu
dri uaIgcs.
159. Fily, itshouldk notcdthatotStam haveal60cxprrssedthcirmnam at
thecKectsof thepnsmtbridplantointanallaial navigihus.therepraentative
of theSoviet Union.forexample,mkmaan upaithe66thSessionof Coundof

theInimiationalMaritimeObtion inlune 1991.miucsfinetthCouncii"ad
W Dnvnark w makeadjus&ts m iu plansnie CO^ &ded W take mtc :;the
mnm w;rmssedbutrcfrainedfromhirllm actioninvthefactthatthisCorn has
bemseized.ofthma&.

'Novrfrom Slorcb~llNo.101Ocrobe1991)p.5.

'CfAnnexes29Bnd30. 160.TheplanncdEastBndgewouldcloseoffacassIOor hm iheBalucforshipsand
mwru withaheiebtof 65memor aboveandadrauphtinexcessofthaloftheDrogdcn
in th; Sound(L717m minusundcrkeelclearance).fkis has immediateefO"cthe
abiiityocenaispcial vessclsandlaroampnïs IOmovebetwem theBalucandthe
Nonh Sw. Takmgintoaccountpastmnds inshipsizes,it mayalLxinfd thatthe
bndpewouldobsmictthefariaci~ofBalticshipbuiw lorntoideniderspatein
reg&ing verylargeships théfunire.

Section1.ERe& on the Passageof ORshore Cran

161.Themostdramatic.inunedias andcornoleteobstructiontbreatmcdbridae
projeciwncemshce passagebydt uud foroffshoreexplorauandupÏoitation a&

rclatedoumousShcs et aimostmvariablyhaveaheiebtincxfas of65mcms. Theu
passa& &ugh the Grea teltwouldkcoméimpossiblëif theEastBndge iscbmpleted
asplannal.
162.Itisuscfultostthesurvcyoftheeffens ofthefïrcdlinLonpasbygoffshore
uaiialsobecausethepmblemscxperimcedbythm illusmk ailthediff~cultiesexperi-
mcedbvothertvocsofuresentandfunirevcs.ÜIthebrideeconsmictionismodificdso
asto allowpas&e by~ffshoredfpassagebyalother&ivable typcsofshipswould
beabletocontinuunhampd

A TYPESAND DIMENSIONS OFOFFSHORE CRAFI

163.Smicnircusedforoffshoreexploration,exploiandnlated activitiesbey
divided into fuedand mobile smick.SLIUC& pmnanently fucdin the s&ed
(submersiblepladomiar nessaice towersbuiltthsea-bedThesepladm ar cot
desiaicd IbemobileAs such.thearemuchlessflexiblethanmobi&S. Theratioof
submmibles toaloffshoraaft duringthepas1y- ban daxeasing. By 1990,the
submmible flet haddy 36uni&o. f whichonlyabout25perantnmained active.
164. Mobileoffshocm7 (alsosometimescallcd"MobileOffshoreMing UNS".
"M0DUs"forshon) arcusuallyclassificdinthnetypcs: drülships,semi-submersibledrül
rigsandjack-upngs. Thesethne typcsacwunt fa 617(93percal) of thetotalof 662
offshore inusetodayThe resareclassiCraas submersibledadomis anddriiiinx
-
barges.
165.Eachtypeofoffshorcm7has iu om mical arcofuse.Imsriectiveofthm.
howcver.thGd caryroughlysimilardriiiing~~i~menr~hiussuallyincludesadnÜ&
tower.adcmck, thNpportuigsmicnircsfothcdan& anddrüiingequipment.anthc
complu elccuicai.clcchonic,~hydraandmccbanicalsystemsfor &&aca<alWing
functionandaccnmmodationforthecrcw.

166.Because of the standardinatureof the drilhg equipmeand operatiom.
indudingthclmgthofthedrüiingpipe whicanconvmicntlybehandledintheupright
positiothcSINCNKh IIeightofacompletedriüingsysm isvaymuch thesamconcach
ofthediffant typsof offshorcraf tbisheight includesdmidr itself(about52mears) plus the subsmicnire (about 10mears) above the maindeck level. To gel thc
absoluteairdraft requiredbyan offshrnh. thc hciahiof the maindaklevelfmm sa
levelhastobeaddedto theabovemcntionedsmicniralheiehtofthedrillinesvstem.Whcn
transferringjack-ups and wmisubmersiblesover very long distancesheLv.lift ships are
often used.This leadsto-hieher airdraflsthanmentionedabove.
167.Most~wtingproductionplatfoms.suc shipssndsemisubnmibles.
arc design4 io have a drilling facilitywith a derrick mching an air draughtof over 65
mems. Inaddition.al1fiwtingproduclionplarforhasvca fiareboomforbuminglhcextra
gas wparaied fmm thc main flow.The Ilareboomis higherthan65 mears.

1.TheDrill Ship

168.hllshipsarcregularshipsquippcd withadrillingtowcr (dcrrick)andequipmenL
Theyareusedespeciallyforoperaiionsinremotcareaskcauv oftheirabiliiytomovcl-ng
distancesunderÏheiroh pwer' (fo rllusnatioseeFigure6).
169.Thereareatpresent 36drillshipsinuseamund theworld.Twelveofthew haveken
mnverted hm shios used forotheromses. ?hrecof theexistine drillshi~shavc ken
wnsmicled in~inlhd -the valentinshahin(1981)thc~ilaor~urivienko(i982) andihe
MihtlMirchmt (1982).The usualhciahiofadnll shioisaround80mem. wnsisting of

the hullplusaderrick.Thedraughtof a-drillshipisus"allybehveen6.5and8.5metrei. A
typicalexamplewould k the Chnncellor~iIIewhichwasbuiltin 1976.Il hasadraught
of 21.2 feei (about 7 mem) at full load.The deepest water depth rad drill ship is the
DiscovererSevenSeas. alsobuilt in 1976, whosedraught is24.9 feet (about8 m.ues)
170.Thcdraughuofdrill shipshaveno1changedmuchoverthe. Norisilexpectedthat
technicalinnovationwillleIOa radiai depanure hm presentstandanisordimensions.

171.NoneofthepresentlyexistingdrillshipswouldbeabletopasstheGreatBellifthe
bridgewm completedas planned.

2.TheSemisubmersible

172.The semisubmersible isa noating craft whose hull is specificallydesigned for
mobility. It usually has hvo pontoons (catamaran)and a deck supportedb10fow
columns. A majohiy of the& havc kcn designcd by only foui comp3nics (Fricd&
Goldman24percent. Aker 15perceni,Earl& WrightSedco 12perceniandODECO10
pcrcent) (foÏil~usmtioseeFigure 7).

173.Thefmtsemisubmersibleof weredolvererinft963.Therearcpresently
176semisubmersiblesinexistence.The advantige of thesemisubmersibleoversubmers-
iblepladorms orjack-uprigis ils independencehm the sea-bedandilsgrealmobiiity.
Most of themsentlv existinr!semisubmersiblesare. ..d ,- en-s and p. .llers
(3hrusters")'to maki them in-dependentlynavigable. Figure6

DRU SHIP 55

Figure7 174.Thederrickwhich standsonthedeck usuaily hasaheightofabout40metres.The
air draughtof a semisubmersible iskween 76and90 mem' .

175.The averagetransirdraughtof a semisubmersible isbctween6 and 10mems
aithouahsomemavhave ndrauehtof UVio 16.5mems (RowanMulland.Pelmlia).The
uansitdraught ofasemi-subm&ible iSdependenton whetheror no1it is ballastedfor
towing.Wheninoperationatadrülingsite,thesemisubmersibleisbdlasted to25metres
foraltainingagoodstability.Overrecent years. aslightincreaseintheüansitdraughlsof
semisubmersiblecraftcank discemed.

176.Theearlvsemisubmersiblesweredesienedtoworkinaround200mems ofwater.
Today,manyoithem are able10drülinwate;depthsof600-700metersandsomeasdeep
as2000mems. Semisubmersiblesareoflendividedin10threeclassesbyreferenciotheir
weightandoperationalenvironment:
a)heavyxmisubmersiblesofupto25.Wlonnes foruseinharshenvhnmenls(Alaska,
Nonh Sa...);

b)compactsemisubmmiblesbewem 12.000and 15.000lmes for usein rclativcly
mildcliatic andoceanicmnditions(Gulfof Mexim);
C) light semisubmersiblesof 6.W tonnes upwards for use in specific.designated
localities.

177.Noneof thepremily existingsemisubmersibleswouldkable lopassIbroughthe
GreatBclt ithe East Bridgewcrecompletedasplanned.

3.TheJack-Up

178.Thejack-uprigisanoffshorecraftwithaderrickandotherdnllingequipmenton
thedeck supportedby(usuallythreelegswhich areloweredwithajackingsystemon to
theseabonomat thelocationofdrillmgoperations.Whenthelegsarelifted.thejack-up
reeains its floatine mition. ïhe desiens and caoacitiesof iack-urishave develd
m>kedlydunng th hstoryofofishoreacuvity.~oda~'snga& muchiargerthanthe in1
jack-upngs ihatwere usedinthe 1960's(forillusaarion,seeFi~8.).

179.The world'sjack-up fleetconsistsof405unis. Theadvanlageof ajack-upisthat
il is capableof king convenedioserveother uses.It may, for example.k used for
accommodationor thelayingofpipe-linesintheseabed.
180.ïhe airdraughtof ajack-upisa funclionof thelengthof ilslegs.whicharelifted
upasthecraftisintransiLïaverageairdraughtrangeskwee 00and 140merres2.ïhe
nquired airdraughtmay.however,alsobesignificantlyhigher.Thelongestlegsofajack-

upareabout200mem (605feet).
181.Themit draughtof]ad<-uipssinthe rangeof 13to30fee(4taIOmem).lhe
drauahühavenotvariedven,muchdurinp: tcers.TheBn1anniawbichwasbuiltin1968
hasa-draughtof5mems (15fat). the0;ean~ide. delivcredin 1971hasadraughtof 5.8
mems (17feet)whdetheRowanGorilla.builtin 1984ha.?a draughtof 5.7mems (16.5 57

Figure8

JACK-UPfeei).Hercisatableofsomecxislingjack-ups whichhaveanairdraught higher65am
and atransitraughlinexcessof 7 mcues. Spudcansam includedin the ttansiidraught:'

Name Design Airdraught Draught

[ml [ml

WestBeta ETA EUROPE 150 8.5

NeddrillTrigon CFEM 139.4 Y.3
TridentX& XI CFEM 122.2 9.6

Marlin No. 6 116.4 8.5
KCA Sandpiper 123.5 10.0

Diamond MGem 121.4 8.4

Noneoftheexistingjack-ups wouldbeabletopasstheGreatBellifthe bridgewere
completedasplanned.

B.THE MOVEMENT OFOFFSHORE CRAFT

I.Underfheirownpropulsion
182.Therearcthe basicwaysinwhichoffshorecraftmoveon thesea.Drillshipsmove
undertheirownpropulsioniiieanotherships. Sodomany semisubmersibles,whichhave

teenequippedwiththnistersunde;theirponfoonsthatim naepethentlynavigable.
incase oflongvoyages,however,evensemisubmersiblbc ytcrusirsaredsually
towed inordcr to speed up the passage.lackareusually movedby towing. A thud
meansof movcmentis camiageby heavyliftuanspon ships.In the followingparagraphs,
moreis said aboutthesetwo lanermeansof movement.

183.Themodalitiesof iowagcofa pmiçularoffshorecrmftdcicrminedbyrcfcrcncc
tothcsizeof thcnaft andtheenvimnrncntalconditionsofthetou. Thesccrilcriadeteminc
the sizeandnumberof nigsto be used TheexperiencedCompany,Noble DentonMarine
Services,requiresthat thetowingvessel(s)shouldbe capableofmaintainingthe position
of themfi in40hot winds,5m seas.and 1knotcurrent,ailacting againstthe u.it2

184.Traditional towage takes place with the crafi floating on its own and perhaps
assistingtheme(s) withiuommulsion(~cailed"wetfow").Sometimes.however,the
wmisubmersib~corthc jack-upisplaced onabarge whichisthenconnectcdtothe towing
vcsscl(sJ.Sucha"dry tow"isasomcwhat fasterformofmovcmeni.Thespeedofa weitow
is appmximately4fo6 knots,whilethe "dry tow"movesbehveen7.5aid Yknots.

185.Thebargesusedfordry towsof thiskinddonotusually haveanavigatingequipment
oftheirown,thoughtheymayhavesmailpmpellerstoassistin maintainingdirectionunder

Spudcansaresrnimurea1thebotmmof thlegswhichdisuibutethe leg weighotvsaile
oncethelegsarauachedIOthewabed.
'Cf.Annex32.tow. They can usuallybe ballastedfor the purposeof anaching the craft to the bargeor
detachingit attheendof the tow(forillustratiseeFigwe 9).

3. Carriage bySemisubmersibleHeavyliftTransportShips

186.Towage -wet or dry- is a relatively slow means of movementand involves a
significantrisk. Quite freauentlv. accidenu occur under tow, sometimes resultine in a
Mmp~ctclossofthcnafi (iorcxAple, theRowanGonlla lin 1988.lnterocean11L1989
andtheWestGammain1990j.'Sincctheendofthe 1970's. ihasbecomepossibletoavoid
someofthensk inhereniintowagc byusmgspcially designedsemisubmcnibleheavylih
nansponshipsiocanytheoffshorenafttoiisope iIasuaiion.eaFtiwon(for

10)
187.Inadditiontonavigationalsafety.thcadvanlageofthex craftovcrtraditionaliows
is thcirspeedof movement.whichmakespossiblean wly commencement ofthemfi's
operationalactitiesonlocation.Thcadditionalrevcnued wcilnmemdyfmasthis
off%ithe highercosu involvedin usinga heavylih shp insicadof a traditionaltow.

188. Cumntly. semisubmcnibles tend IObe iowed very long dislanccs unlcss the
distanccinvolvedisquiicexceptional.Jack-uprigs.on the other hand.aretowedonly for
distancesof uoto aboui l.000 miles:forloneervovaeesheavvliftmswn shi'sare used
for reasonsispeed. economyand ifety (forill&&tion. se;Figure il).
189.Amical heavyliftmsoon shi~hasanowrating drauht farinexcessof 7meas.
They can ihus pas the ~anish suai&only by "sing the Great Belt. If the bridge were
consmcted asplanned,noheavyliftshi~scouldbeused forthetransportof offshorenaft

throughthe~GticSeaaccesses:

C.OFESHORC ERAFT INTRANSIT THROUGH TERRITORIAW LATERS AND
INTERNATTONS ALRAITS

190.The movement of offhore craft thughthe territorial seas of thii States and
internaiionalirails is an everyday occumn&. AccordingIO one cxpen esiimaie. the
numbcrofsuchmovemcnisisinthcrangeof401 50annually.'A recentrepontotheCM1
rclaiingioihcDraftConventiononOffshoreMobileCnft noicd'a vcrysubsmiial increase
inmovemenisofdnllinp unitsthmughouithcworldand addedthat"laJdistinctivc lcarure
of thedeveloomenthasbeen themivernent ofdriliineuniu betweendifferenrcontinental
shelvesandoverlargegeoag rrsp.'hMcostrigmovementshaveken intotheNonh
Seaand WestAFncafromotherareasof the world.oanicularlvfrom theGulf of Mexico
..
and SoutheastAsia4.
191.When usingthemostcommonmutestotheu owrational locations.offshorecraft
mutinelypass boÜgh suchiniemationalsuailsasthehglish Channel.Gibnlwr. Magcl-
lan. Babel-Mandab.Homuz. Malacca.SundaandToms svaiu (OffshoreDaiaRewn.
Annex31 .).

'Cf.Offsho MroebileRigAccidents1955-pres. ffshoreDalaSewices1991.
'Cf. Re..yb.MrOuwehandof 3 November1991inAnnex 33.

'ComiteMaritimeIniernaiionDr@ Conventioon OffS-horeMobileCrafr,ReportonQues-
lionnoiretoiheCM1MenzhcAr ssociolio.rodeRingdal,Osl24 Seplember1991.CM1 Dac.
Off-Shore-1.-91.p2.SeeAnnex 34.
'Forthemostcommonlyused routescf. Annex31.Figure9 Figure 10

I)IMnusi~sAhm TRANSPO SRTP 62

Figure11

JACK-W BEINGCARRlEDBA S~ISUBERSBLE HU\VYUFTSHIP 1.The SoundOprion

198.Tram'rthroughtheSoundirMI a rechnimllyrelevamopt~o.snotedinChaptcr
m. Senion I abovc.thcSoundhasan omcial drauehtof 7.7mcm whichisth~~ ~ ~l
physicaldepthofthehgden channelat itsshallowk point.Thisdraughtmay,because
ofclhatic orsuisonaiconditibereducedbvasmuchas2mems.Accordineto another
b
estimatethewarerlevelmaydecrrase0.100.70mem.
199.Wehavescnitha1thetypical uansitdraughrofasemisubmmibleisbcwee6and
10mems andthatofatypicaijack-upwhentowed between4and 10mems. Ifcarrieon
a heavyliftmspon ship,thesetransitdraughu willincreasesigniîïcantly.Accordingto

dat ayWijsmullcr.thekelof"MighryScmnrW typesemisubmersibleheavyliftshipwill
descendto8memwitha 15.000to18.000DWloadandmIOme~sat26.000to31.000
DW load

TABLE 6:DEADWUGHT SCALESOF A MlGKlYSERVANTVESSEL. 200. Quite apan hm the fact that this "option" is completely unava10most
movementsof offshoremft andto al1movementsbv heavvliftshivs.it isauestionable
whethercompellingtowagacsthconlyavailablemode~fmovcmentlitweenie Balticand
theonh Sea1saeood ideamthefus!vlaccThemovementofoffshorecraftisahazdous
activity.Ofa tolaÏof 1.289livesko122accidents offshorehm 1964to date,almost
700liveswerelos1inconneclionwithaccidentsdurineIranmnation (includinaaccidents

withhelicopten). During the 10-yearperiod1980-5,the& was a total of39 towing
accidents.'AccordingtooffshoreDatastatistics.towageisabotimesmoredangernus
than caniage by heavylifluanspon ship. By far the mosr imponant singlesource of
actidenrsundergonebyjack-upsduring1955-1991istowageinmughweather.
TABLE7:CAUSESOFOFFSHORE MOBU RIGACCIDENiS:

201.Becauseofiu advanrageshm a safctypointofvicw. undwifers andsuivcym
lookfavourablyuponmovementbyheavylifttranspoflshipsintheinsuranceapprovalof

suchvenmres2C. onsequenUyt,hecos6 of insurana fora movementbyheavyliftshipis
mnsiderablylowerthanthe mt ofmovementbvtow.
202.Mora>ver.theoendinthedcsignofoffshoremfthasbeentowardsunitsofaheavier
srnicm anddŒpr dnught. Thiscank san. forexample. m the1stofcrafttcndcrcdbv
Rauma-RepolaOffshmiince 1984.Thosetendersu>ncemsmcnnes manyof which

possessa dnught ofapproximatelyIl1012meaes3.

'Anrrx 34.
'Cf. AMCx32.
'Cf.Table16aipara263 klow. 203.Forthesereasonsandfortheotha reasonsdevclopedinChapterIIIabove.itmay
be mncludcdthatthe imlevance of theSoundopuon ispmcularly evidin regar10
offshorecraft Forthesecraft.usmgtheSoundisphysicallyunpossible Forothnsitps.
presmts adangerfarinexass of thehazarinvol&l inking theGreatBelt
204.'Ihcquestionof theunderkeelclearancehasalsobeenueatedinChapIIIp,ra.
75aboveandinhex 4andelsewherc'.Sufficeitheretorecapinilaretherelevantpoints:

1)Anunderkeelclearanceofas muchas5 mem may be nquired fortowage:
2) Ownersofoffshorecraftli10seeat least2mems belowthekee13:
3jAminimuminternationalstandardof0.9mem isapplicableforconventionalships.
2û5. 'Ihe 2-mem UKC for offshorecd is not a theoreticalabstraction.II may be
supponedby thefactthata windof 50 bots -a generallyusedcriterioninthedesignof
offshorecraf-causes an inmeasein draughtof 1.7 mem for aOcean Rangertype
semisubmersibletypeking builtinFinland'.

206. Howevn onelooksat theserecommendations.il is clearthat safepassageby an
offshorenaft can be ensuredonly by aüowingfor an underkeelclearancewhichwrre-
spondscloselymtheDanishrewmendation for thGreatBelt(i.e.Zmetres),specifically
meantforpassageby heavyshipsAs canbe seenhm thelis1of offshorecraflbuiitand
tmderedinFinlandbyRauma-RepolaOffshore.noneofthesecraftwuld havepasscdthe
Drogdenifallowana forthenecessar2 metresclearanceismade(Annex4).Evenifthe
P.I.A.N.C.remmendation forshipsof conventionalsizeanddesign(15percent of the
acmaldepth -i.e.0.9 metresinthehgden)isfoliowed.theresultisthesame.

2.Thc DismantlinOption

207.ïhe Danishsunzestionthatoffshorecraficbcdismantiedatseasoas toenable
theirpassageunderthzreat Beltbridgeisacwious"option". Surelyitwasneverquimi
thata shi~.inordertobeabletouse ribt offneDassaeeshouldunderzoanommtion
. -
tochan& itsshapeandlorsizc?Surelysuchanquircmmtcannotbe easilykwnsiied with
anymcaninafulnotionof"unhamdoassane".and ismoreinthenanueof afar-reachine
"&lentionouemave" of thk& expiiciilGhibitedbythe 1857Copmhagen ~~ty.
208.Much hm ken saidaboutthis"ootion"inthemeliminm hearinesonthis case(Cf.
e.g.pleadingbyAmbassadorFergo.2l;ly 1991).~iffta i&te thatsuch anoperation
wouldinvolveanexass mstanddelavthat wodd teincom~atiblewithanomal meanine
of unhamperedpassage'.'Ihe fa&t suchdismantiingk sometimesdone in internz
waters(theGulfof Maracaibo.MissisimiRiver)ishardlvanamunent forimwsineast
a conditionfor passagekugh an iGer~rio~l sn& ~urth~more,case; of known
disassemblymnarnonly lightweightsm~cuues.donotinvolveharshenvimnments,heavy
jack-upsorsemisubmenibles.aiiofwhichmchamcteristicofthc currentpanernofacnial

internationalu.agethcDanishswits.
209.Accorduigtoastatm1e [email protected] mlaeraeonalcompany
ofnavalarchirectsandmaru>eenginanandaleadingdes~gnnofw nm~ssubmersiblednll

Anncx32.
'Anncx 4.AppendU2
'Anncx32.

'CI. alwTable16.
'Cf.AMexcî 37.38.39.40.
6~41. (and panicularly of the kindsuin harsh envimnments)such a job would igood
weathcr.with suficimt manpowerand withadcquatehandlingequipment(cranesetc.)

eitheronboardtherigora min vesse1ordockside,requircfrom5IO7week. Thejob
ofdismantlingthe derrick of a semisubmersiblewould thus be "time-consumingand
expensivein&misofdiresicos!andlos1rigeamings".Consequcnlly"MODUoperaton
woulddo whatcvcrillook10avoidsuchanoperationifatal1possible".

Secîionm. ER& onPassage by Other Typesof Cran

210.Thoughtheobsmction createdby theGreatBeltbridgeiscleareston passageby
offshoremft. itmavbeusefulto look atitsim~lications-.reeards-.ssaeebvokinds
of craft.panicularl;cenain types ofspecialvéssels.

A. MSSFLS OFCONVENïiONALDESIGN

211.Conventionalcommerciavl esselscanbefurtherdividedinto"weight carriers"and

"volume carriers".WeightcarriaredesignedIocarryasmuchdeadweight aspossible.
ke includeoiltankers.orecarrecc.Thcy tendtohaveas largea draughtaspossible.
However,when theship sizeinmases, theairdraughtalsoinmases. Au draughts ofthe
orderof 55Io70 mems existforUlm LargeCmdeOilCarriers(ULCC).'
212. Volumecarriersared~~-enedtohaveas la-neintemalvolumeas wssible. 'These
includecontaincrvessels,RoRoships,carcarriers,passmgerveses.Theytend10have
aslameasideheiehtaswssible. Recmtlv-builtlareecontlinervcsselshaveanairdraueht
inthe-rangeof 40- 5mem. largeRORO vessel;in the rangeof4-48mems. and -car
carriersof about40mems.

1.PassengerShips

213.AtpresenLtheonlyexishgpassengershipwithanairdraugihnexcessof65mc~
istheClub Medsaiiingship with a mast heightof 68 mems. Nevertheless,thernois
particularmagicinthfigu re65m.TheheightoftheQueenMarywas65.5mcas and
oftheQueenElizabeth63meas. Modernpassengcrvessels arincreasingtheuhcighas
theneedto takeon boardevcrlargernumbersofpassengerspws.

214.AnexampleofalargemodempassengervesselistheMIVFanmq, builtinFiand
by Kvzrner Masa-Yardsin 1990(forillusùailo, eFigwe 12).
215.'Ihemuuedclearanceofrhe MIVFo~<~~isabout56.3mem.'Ihe waurdrauehr
is 7.7 mems. .Theair draughtandmaidimensio fr snumberof exis~g
vesselsandferriesl.asa hinaionofthe vcarthcvcssclswei-cdelivered.isde~ietcdinTable
8 &en below.IIch besecnthatinthes- oflargepassengervcsse~then'isaclearmnd
duringthepas1decadesto in- aidraughis.

'Cf.DeiNonLe Vmiar. RmkedSNdy onAir.DroughlofhicrchnShpsCm'td Oufor AS.
SIo~klu/o~b~ndc&cn(.0Mmh 1989).Forcrof LIYNdy sscAMCr 1010LI Y h Wnl- 68

Figure12

MN "FANTASY"

MN 'FANTASY'

Builden: Masayards Inc..HelsinkiNew Equipmcnc
ShipyeardHelsinkiFinland 2elm. hydr.siceringgearor mnml
Yardnumbcr:479 of2 independentnidderr
Type :ruiw Liner 3 bowihnisten. 3 stemthnisten
Delivcry:lanuary26. 1990
1activefoldingfinstabilirerpxa14.5m'
.&ner: Carnival ruix LinerIn.iami 1radar8600ARPA. I radar7MX)ARPA.
Classification:Lloyd'sRegirterof Shipping1cchosoundcrEchopph 481(Knipp Atlas)
Tonnage GT70367 satellitecommunication.ulex. telefax.
Deadweight 7000t satellitenavigatorMagnavox1100,wa-tel
iength o.a 260.80m satellite-at-sc forsecreivdTV pn>-
Bread*,m. M.W m grams .oranC navigator.Omeganavigalor
Bread*. waurlinc 31.9 2 setsof wmb. windlarwrhmring winches
HeighiIOv p dcck 40.40m 2 25-monringwinchesfonvard
HeightIOtopof fuml 64.Wm 325-1mring winchesafi
haught 7.70m 12passcngcrliftsfor 18penons or 1350kg
Speed: 22 kn 2 passcngcrobservationltsithglasrhntagc

Ropellingmachincry: for 15penons or 1200kg
2 W%rIsila/Sulzcdrieselprrraior sets. 2ncw liftsfor 18pnons or 1350kg
typc8ZAL40s. 1cqo liftfor 15Wkg
4 W%rIsilWSuSudlerelgcncmor seu. 1provisionslififor750kg
type l2ZAV40 S. Crew 980pusons
lotaabout42000kW
6 VvlkanRato coupüngs 4611. .&?for main Accununodationfor 2604wnpn
drive Cabine:
2mnmllable pilchproplien.05.2m. OIMU'S suim 2
14000kW,each suim 28

AuxCi engines: doubleouuide ubins 56-5
4 gwrraton 10300kVA doubleùuide Bbim 383
2gcneratDn6800kVA demisvires 26
doubleI+ 1cabins 19
total 1024 69

TABLE8.AIRDRAUGHT FORA NUMBER OF FERRIES ANDPASSENGER VESSUS:

216.Forreasonsof energy.sonomics andnavigationalconvcnicnce,therehas been

renewedinterestintheuseofpasseneersailvessels.ïbereareseveral whichhave
anairdraughiexcsding65mctresM.entionhasalrcadybecnmadcofihe;xisnngsa~lship.
theClubMed.builtbytheAtclic~c!ChantiersReunisduHavrin1990,whichhasanau
draughtof68meues<foriilusmtionseeFigure13).
217.Thefmt largesailnuise vessel,theWindSrnr,wasbuiltinFrancein1986.Thishas
anairdrauehtof62.2meues.Ithasbeensucceedeùbvwo simiiarvessels. theWindSonp

in 1987andWindSpinrin 1988.Ihe~/ub~ed~'sail vesselsana s&nd gaination
of thitypeofshipandillusuatethetendencyIoincrcasedvessclheights.
218.Sailorsail-assistedpmpulmaynk an amactivealtemativeinthefumalsfor
commercial vesselstha than passeneershi~s.for examle bulk carriers.This is a
developmeniwhichtheprrsen&of thc-pm)sied bridgewouldhamper.For instance.a
30@XI DW cargoveswluould needtohave a 80metrehighngging.

2.Cargo Ships

219.As farascargovesseareconcemed.theNmke VentasShidyof 10March1989
commissionedby ih etorcBaltCompany.indicarehi mort .thoughnotquitcal1-of
suchshipshaveanairdnugh! oflessthan65mcm.

'Cf.Annx 10mtheDanishWrinenObservatioof28Jw 1991. 70

Figure13

CLUBi VESSEL. DIMENSIONS

SAILCRUISE

SHIPS

CLUBMEDONE
CLUBMED TWO

MAINDIMENSIONS:
LENGTHoveral1 187.00m
BEAM 22.0m
DRAUGHT 5.m0
SAlL AREAT 2500sqm 220.However, itidficult to presentdetailcdand exact nuregardingthe air
draunha of cam shiosusedworldwide.asthevariousre~suies haveasa mawr of
&"Ge. listedie air&ugha und mtly. andcventhen-onlyina haphazardfashion.A
wmputer printof 751 pagehai Uoyd's Rcgistiy.forexample.lisringal1cargo and
passengershpsregisrerebyLloyd'sandhavmga waterbughl inexcessof7.7memi
lisistheheinhtforonlvaboutevm, lOthvesse1inthercmsier.Generalizationsregarding
shipheighgworldwidecanthus;niy bemadewilhsomë hesitation.
221.Takinpt.heserrsmations intoacwunt. itmayà notedthatout ofa totalof3.100

wnvmtional&oandpaswngerships forwhich~l~~d'sre~israsthheight(abou1lOper
Œniofthetotal).137hada heighikwecn 60.0mem and64.6mems.26 kiween65 and
70mems and12inexassoff~meas. As Llovd'slistsonivthetotalheinht however,the
calculalionoftheairdraugiu musik dcnvedbysubmctmgeithertheniufied maximum
draught or,morercalisucally.theesumaud Balucdraught(15ml. hm thetotalheight
Thisleavesavmymiall numkrforwhichthepmjencdbndgemighicau~Sd he~culucs
Nonke Valas swdyidmnkd one ~YDof lameiankerwithaau draughlof68memi
~earin~Uusc&o&resmationsin&and$cularly thelackofrcadilyavailabledata
on shipheigha. iimayk tcntativelyconcludcdthaithismay indeedrcprcsenttheclassof
high&tair&ughi f&conventioni cargoshipdesignsof ihich infhatioavailable.
It ishardlyan insignificantcategory.however.

3. Vny LmgeCrudeCam'ers (VKCs J

W. ïhe Danishsuairsforman important international gatewafyortheemrgy move-
mma of thecounuiesamundtheBalticSea.Inancra1 mde oil andoilvroducu move
''
hugh the GreatBeltwhilethegenerailysrnail&chemicalandgascarrik makeuseof
theSound
23. A pi pan ofihemde oiland pmductmovmena to Finlandhave takmplaŒ
insidetheBalucSea.Forcxamole8090 Derant ofthech oilimwncd toFinland(7-
8 bill.tons/a)hasoriginaihc~oviet'unionBecauseof mm &ingent dunands&
sul~hurwntent and~uctiondifficulties intheSovietUnion.amtcrmuwniwillbc
ha homouaide theBaltichm 1992onwatds.Thiswiiiin+ti&m&n ycar-mund
naflic huah theDanishswim involvinp.lamefnideocmim (over100000DW.
- - -
U4. NesteOy.theF i siate04 oil andcherniealmpanyisopratingtwooil
refuienesandamrhemical &mes. whicharrthclaracstokir kindintheNdc
wunuies.'~hcnu dlimpons inthlau 705andcsrl885 wm oh ûansporad fmm
the MiddleEastbyVeryLargeCN& Canim (ahL250000 DWD whichwen lightencd
intheNorthSeaontovsxls ofaboutl00000DWT sizetoattaintheBalticdraughiof 15
m. Bothships.thVLCC and the 100.000tonner,wouldthm sailhughthe suais to
Neste'sPorvoorefmcry.

225.Table9 showsthenumkofships over150000DWT whichhavedischargedth&
carg ot PorvooWorksannuaüyfrom1975 101991. 72

TABLE 9:NUMBER OF SHlPCALLSOVER 15000DWT ATNESTE OY PORVOD WORKS:

YEAR
TTU 1 A91.1001

226.A notable chanaffecthgiheairdraughtof large oilc-miscurmlly mdcr
discussionintheInternatil aritimeOrganization(IMO).namelytheobliga10use
adoublehullconsmetioninonia w ducc theNk of accidentalpollution.Thedesign
muimnmlsoffunuc ULCCandVLCC wilinerrawairdraughtforthefollowingrcasons:

- thedoublehuUmnsIUNmmayi~ihe~p~~tioand~ultina~terfrre
boardalballastdraughtthana singlehullmmction.
- theIMO rcquirm>enotfminimum forwardvisibilityfm thebridgewiin- the
nwsary heightofthesupasmicatrr.

227.The possibilitycannteacludcd ihathewmqwnt mmaxs intankerheigk
toecthcrwit~aal~~ ~usedmnswmtion method(i.e."liphtminz"aVLCC in10Baltic
draught)becoma mitih if tGA kit bridgewiilhave-dca&ce of65metrcs.

B.INDUSlRlALAND SERVICEVESSElS

228.-nadd~~ ~~ ~fshm c~~~~.mithertnrofindustrialveswlwhichmuld nolow
thGm Beltiftheairdraughtwoc limitcdg65 mthe~efrojorlllprojecb trcqucst&l
-olanor.'Ihisisafloatheoducw thichvilleeld.foremloitationma&

oilf~lds.Theve&l&ilïhve an& &tof 90me= (forillus&tion.sec ~igut 14
and15).
229.Alsomostlarguanc vessckwithahoistingcapacityof4.000menictoormm
haveanairdraught inuccss 65 meaes.A ListofthesevesselsisgivinTable10. 73

Figure 14

PEIROJA1 RL 74

Figur15

P~ROJARLn
PRw 75

TABLE 10PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONSE OFISnNGCRANEVESSELS:

Name Lifting Transit Opersting Air
capadty draught draught draught

Challenger1 800shr 7.32m 30.0m
Champion 1150sht 5.72m 38.6m
Tor 3000shr 11.5m 53.5111
Odin 3000shr 8.56m 12.0m 62.5m

StanislavYudin 16üOmt 5.5m 62.6m
iTh4Challenger 4000ml 85 m 70.0m
McDermonDB50 4MX)mt 9.5m 17.5m
Balda 7000shl 1l.Om 81.0m
Hermod 9000sht l1.0m 81.0m

McDermonDB 101 2000sht 7.5m 85.0m
McDermonDB 100 1800 mr 8.3m 85.7m
Mimperi7000 14000ml 105m 275m 1035m
McDermonDB 102 12MX) ml 13.2m 105.5m

me airdraughtofthesevesseisisplonedagainsttheirliftingcapacityinTable11.

TABLE IlAIRDRAUGHT OFEXISTINGCRANEVESSELSAS AFLMCIlONOFLlFnNG
CAPACm:

Cranevessels
U-~I~I capadty and airdreughl
110
lm

m
8

m

(D
50

4
8

?O
10

O 76

230T.heexclusionoflameme vessclsfromtheBalticcouldhaveseriousconsequmc-
a.Forcxamp\e.itmight;=vent thecanyingoutofsalvageoperationsincase anhclear
wwercd submarinewei-hin-more tha4n.000tonnes ismeckcditheBaluc SeaThe
&vention ofthepassageintotheBalticbythevaritype sfoffshorecraftwouldalso
affectthefunueofoffshoreexolorationandconsûun.a-omiccuintheBaltic(cf.Mer
sectionN. B.below).
231.11is sometimesmed that a bridaeat a heightof 65 memeswouldmsmt no

practicalhindranceforthejassageofmëshipastheme can bceasilydismantledin
ordertoundede thepassage.WhateversigniiïcanŒsuchaclaimmighthaveaapoint
oflaw,itisanovenimplificationasamaneroftact.Iftheupperpan ofh me hIOk
dismantledforthebridgeunderpass.thefollomksg andcosü arise':

- thecranehasIobedesignedforeasydismantl. hichwiüincreasethecranepriceby
about2ar cent:
- afterw/kshop tesü.thederiga n d d i s m a n
and~~~~nnectionofsystmaisdrcstingafterthebridge,thecos1ofpassageisestimatcd
IObeabout2.5MillionUSD.depcndingonthe sizeantypeoftheme:
- thediii-rebuiidineoenod isestimated weeks.whichinmasesthecost
ofthewholevesse1by 1-Ti prrcmr

C.FUTUREVESSFlS

232.New vesselm. includinefloatinehotels.toms and factoriesmav well be
innuducedduringthi&levanitimei;amc(i.; 100-150y--thepmjenedpe;iodofthe
bridge'sexistenc. neexamolofanon--in-. .ectal tmeovinninestaeethe
cc& gong rem miser fa$333passengasmtly und; acliw'mnsidekti& athe
Kvorncr Masa-Yar shsovardin Helsinki.Themainmnicularsof suchvcssarcits
draughtof 11me- andk~ draughtof 70 me~s'. ~iso otherlargevesareunder
mnsideration3.
233.Toforeseethhnue developmentofshipsim. itmabcusehl tolookatcmaùi
aspectsof shi~buildingtechnolopv.
-24. When'&mn~&&~ them& dimensionsof ashiptobebuilt.theusetowhichthe

vesselwiübeputandc.niscpumtlv,hetypeandsizearethestartinevalues.Bvthesize
ofavesselisnÏeahcrl~ad~-~ca~a&. itheaiseofahright&in.the~unit usad
isusuallatome;inthecas ofvolumef~ights-suchasl.aui-as eascubtmem. T~IC
sizeofa~g~vesseliscxpnssedastheÜumberofparsmgmshecancarryorasakind
of volumeuni4asgmsstonnage.
235.~fterthedetaminationoftheuseth ecssel.anmtionwillbcdkc~~~ ~~-main
dimensions:depthheigh beamrand@airdra~ght~Th~ds~ioncai cemin~use
alreadvhavedetamined somethineof the dimensions.For examole.in a shio whm
volumeisa major factor.&edesignas mus1makcsurekt thedimenlioarc
lamemou& for thereuuiredolume. On teh hand thdimasionsar clsodemdmt
on-mh otiicr.

'Cf .lsoUrpicnienAnnu 43.

=Annu 44.
'Annex45.
'huth isthmeaarr mmUr bom tolk uu~mosi hd &IL DccWauscoandsummc-
on& Ne fm ihidcckupwardr. eighrUr.&wc fromUr bonorntUrup-SI dcck-
how or supcm dcct 7henu& Bndfunnclri%aboveihirmcasmanddeicrmitheair
draughifav-L Cf.illumatiinAMex 46. 236.Thus.theairraughtofavessel isusuallydependentonthedepthandheight.The
bigger thecpthofa vesse1is,thebigger the heicdonsequmt tiebiggerthair
draughtW. henthecapacityofacargovesisconsiderrdthedepthisrelevantwhmas
wha thecapacityof a passengervesselor avolumechiconsidmai,the heightis
relevant.
237.hthedetmninationofships~.economicsofsca lelvact.lvieously
vesse1haasmaüerunitcos1perpassengerorpercargodeadweithanasmallone.Iis
thereforemoresonomical thansmallone.

TABLE 12.ïRANSPORT COSTSPWI iUN OFCARGOAS AFüNCTiONOFSHIPSVE. 15000
NMVOYAGE273000NMVOYAGE':

238.A largevessehasalsoolheradvantages:il providesa morestableplatfom for
humanactivitiesascte seeninTable13below.

'sshanimect n ai..ShiandShippiofTomorrow(.1983).fig.58.TABLE 13.PERSONNELEFFiCIENCIINASEAWAY AS AFUNCilONOF SHlPSIE':

239.Anyincrea isshipsizwiüusuallyshowinanincreaofsheship's&ught in
othewords.fore~~>micrcasons.~shipdesigmroftenmdeav~~l~~>~~hievemaUmum

draughtUthm aremajorlimitatitothedraught,uetosea-ladepthsinthewaters
inwhichtheshipistosailthelimitation-detemidraughtitakenasthefmt main
dimension.
240.Table14dcpicütheairdraughtotveswlslis&inAnnex42 asfunctioflheir
draught.canclcarlyk sanhi airdraughin- asdraught oes.TABLE 14.AIRDRAUGMVERSUSDRAUGM FOR PASSENGERVESSELSANDFERRIES
GlVENIN ANNU[ 42:

241.Consquentiy. thetacanalsok usedforexn-apolatthemaindimensionsfor

a futubigoceangoingpassengervcssel.Assume thedraughiofthev10ke15m as
that isapracticalmaximumdraughtforaBalticvessel.Thenumk 6.6ischosethcr
akdraughtmeam-ratiwhichisamcanvaluefortheexistuiglargepassengavcssels.Fmm
thetable can now k caicluded that witha fum incmx of ship draughtithe
maximum aliowableBalticdraught(15m),shipsmighthaveanairdraughtof99mut
andinanycasemuchinexcessof 65m.'

A.THEDEVELOPMEN T FFlNNiSHSHlPgUlLDINGINTHEPO--WAR UU:
70WARDSPEClALSHIPS

242.lnrelationthesizeaindusüiaca~acitvihemunuvF . uilandoosseaescU
developcdandcfficicnishipbuildingindusb. li marketsworldproductio@a
centofCGT)hasin 1989and 1990ben 33.

'A mas detailcddismion ah1 Umrrticaibackpwd foUrchaiŒof imain&ucn
Bonsfora vawisgiveinANU 41. 243.ïhe repmussions of the secondWdd War wm the dnvingfora bebinthe
developmentftheFih shipbuildingindusïhe warrrparatioIOtheSovieUnion
includedmorcthan500vssels, whichquirui buildingupa substantialshipbuilding
capacity.Sincethen.however,theindusùy'ssurhasbcenbasedonilsmmpctitive-
ness.

244.In theearlv1960sthe shucWe of shius orderedhm Fuilandundemat a
substantialchange&siz efthe vsselIbe b"ilrgrcwandtheirnumberdeclimdtoa
auanerofitsfomlevel.ThisrcquindthatFinni ushsihlprruichdngrscome
decisions.Someof hem hansfemdIOnewsectors&le thosewhoiemainedbegan
implcmentlarge-scalcinvesbnals. Insteadof buildinggiant productionfaciliticsfor
super-sitcvsse-sashappemdintheIcadingshipbuildingmunme-theFih yards
mcenwled on developingsuitabletypesof their own. Highclav designand widc
experiencegainedinbuildingahighiydiversifiedrangeofspecialvesselshavesincethen
fonnedthebasisoftheFish shipyards'succes.

245.intheI960sFuilandmsw 15thplaceintheinmational shibuildinglcague.with
anamximate 2 ce^anr sh. ofthewdd market.Newvesse1typessuchascarferria
and.&&sengnlinm, cniix vcsels. cablelayas. gas-nubinep6wewarships.large
iŒbreakersetc.wen addedtothrangofmcducts.InmliaborationwilhtheUnivmiry
ofTechnology,anewnationalshipb&d@ laboratorywasstablished.

246.Sina thcn,theFinnishshipbuiinduswhasbecnproducingthkindoftonnage
forwhichdemandwouldmnainklativel~consrahrcgardlessofcyciicalfluctuandons
which wouldensm the existenceof a regulargroup of cuslaeThis hasled to
specialisati, iththeFihyardsdu>sufily evaone-offorders.Thisisbackcd
UPnOO t nlybyproductionwuipmatdesignmflexibili, utalsobyexceptionlarge

MPORTC 181582 7.3113 2878.14 2188.7 U118.5 UU.9.4 4.4662
%OFTHETOTAL 224 20.4 21.6 158 13.4 3 19.6
Mm AND
FNOINEERlNG=RT

DOMESTlC 103.0 927.4 1.334.1 1.732.1 833.6 210.0
U(WRT 5816.1 6.624.9 4.7563 3.955.0 2224.9 3N 1
%OFTHETOTAL 233 23.1 15.9 124 68 98
rnAL AND

247.inthecoursofthe pas30years.metalandengineerihasgrownintoanexpmt
indus^~u~~rheforrstand~a~~~~~torisnvolume.valueandmamowcr. in196üthe
metal.&d'cngin&ringindumis kcounted for 15% of Finnishex&. the forcmy

indusmesfor688. Thecorrcsoondmafims for 1990werc:metalandamnecrin~44 %
andforrsùy39%.Wilhimthemetalak &inming senor,theshipbuildin;andoifshcm
quipmat indusûy hasplayedaprominentrolinthc198hthesharcofthesesubsccto~~
ofthetotalmetaandmginŒringexponswasovcr 20% atilshighest(%in 1983).'Ihc
urpon figuresdo not includeships deliIOdomstic buym, suchas icebrrakers, icesuengthenedmerchantvesselsand state-of-the-mpassengerships.The relativede-
crraseoftheshareofshipbuildingandoffshoreoftheexpoirsofthetotalofmetalindusuies
in 1985-7reflecu parüy the inmase in domesticdemand,pady the inmase of the
productionof metalindustriesgenerally.

248Inal]cornmes,thedomesticcontentoftheshipbuildingandoffshoreindusuiesis
vw hi&:inFinlandilisove1%.Anextaisive subconaactineactivitvonthissubsMor
harp-wn in thc country. Someof the subconbacton have ~ucceedidin establishg
thanselves theintemationalmarketas well.
249.A smicniralrationaiizationwas succcssfullycarriedout withintheFinnishship
buildingindustryat thebeginningof theseventies.Smallershipyardsweremergedwith
largershipbuildingpups. Largercompanieshadbenerre1modemizetheviable

shipyardsthan small independentcompanieswouldhavehad. DurModththree
completelynewyardsweÏestanedinFinland.
250.In 1973the state-omied Vaimetbuilt a new shipyardoutside Helsinkiwith a
capacityIomnsmict vesseupto250000 DWT. Anothershipyardwasestablishedin
Turku by Wlirrsila(Now Kvsmer Masa-Yards)in 1In1972LheRauma Repola
companymnsmictedcxtensiveengineeringworksontheFinnishwestcoast&mirthe
ofPori.Witbtheincreasingdemandforquipotrtheoffshoresector.thiscompanyhas
becomeaconsiderablemoducerofoffshoremit.

251.Theihreenewyardsareamongthemostupto -eatnEum pcTihtiesin
followinglisishowsLheexmmelydivmifiedcharacteroftheb~mdFuuiishpnh:

ORDERSONHANDWiI1iFûWISH SHIPYARDS IN1983:

lPpe of vssel Number
River-seavesse1 2
Researchvesse1 3

Researchvesse1 1
Researchvessel 5
Supplyvesse1 4
Tankn 1
Arctictankn 5
Rwm vesse1 1
Ro-m vesse1 2
OCeangokg Ng 3
Passengervesse1 2
Palmlvesse1 1
hy cargovesse1 4
Bargecarier 2
Accommodationvesse1 4
Fary boat 1

lcebrraker 6
SupplyVessel 2
Passengervcssel 2
Luxurycnii sessel 1
Luxurycnii sesse1 2
Caripassenpuferry 2
hy cargovesse1 3
m-canicr 2
Drycargo 3Multi-puiposevesse1
mg-
Heavylit vasel
Rodwttankcr
hedga
HeavyLiftvasel
ai ming rig
Oilming rig,jack up
Total

BLARGEPASSWGERAND CRUTSE VESSELS

252. Kvsmer Masa-YardsLtd is a Fuuushshi~buildinewmoanv owned bv the
NonvegianKvmer AS.With 4000employeesithka capac&of&,CF%tonnesoistecl
peryuirandranksasthelarges1shiibuüdingcompanyinFiand Kvmer Masa-Yards
holdsasubstantialmarketshareinmise ships, wsneoftheshipbuildsegments
whereWest Eumaan vardsareauite com~etitive.The Comvanv'soresrnt duN
includesomeofth; woid'slargest~ssenge~esselfutureési& Gcludeshps with
anairdra-ehtfarinexfessof65metres.
253.Sina 1961,over5passagershipshavebŒndeliverd byihismmpanyandils
prrdsessor.Whil8 Oy.Anovmiew of thevshipgraphicailyshowsthepwing mnd
ofthepassaga shipsbuiltbytheyardduringthepas1thirtïhealargesiandnewest

cniiseferryistheSiijaSympho. itha draughiof6.4mandair draughi53m.
Mmtionhasalreadyban madeofthemisa MN Famasywhichwasdelivmd byIbis
mrnpanyin 1990withanairdraughtof about56.3 andwaterdraughiof7.7m.
254.ThepmducüofKvmer Masa-YardsLld. arthemult oflechnologid innova-
tions.arketnads. ecnnomicalviabiandbusinessommwities. in mancases.he
company hasbecornemgaged in projecu whm devëioprneniand adop& otncw
lechnologyhasben anintegrpan'Ihcrcforfulurerdm cannotbereiiablyexwp

latedfromthepsent silualion.~unhcrm. hmoneniestodrawmds for& funirc.
ilmus1bekcptinmmdthatindividualshipscanonlybeconsiderd asexamplesineach
marketsegment.
255.Ihe company'sshipbuildingfacilarelocatedin Helsiand Turku.00th
shiovardshavethecaoaciwtoconsuuctvcsselsfarmexnssofthe h65meaes.ïhe
TI& Newshipyarddwams mpletcdin 1975andfunherdeveloXethe1980s.1tslarge
modula fromthefabricationshcanbehandledbvthedak'600tomecauacitveanm
me. whichhasanoveraillifM;!heighiof85m'inihprcscntfaciliticsin~ekth;
mainasscmblvfacilisatotallvmvncddivdak. on00.54m wide*9.5mdeeo.
ïhe Yardc&tly émploys&und 131Wunpasok T.he yard-has gainedexperihna
spsialised vesselsswh asicebre. ise ships,cableships. craft

256.'Ihecompaniscontinuousinvolvedinthedevelopmentoffuluremiselinmand
ferries.includinnfastershios,lamershios.floatinnself-mmclledrcsorts.sailineshiusand
socallcd"~~~-~ shipsi.The-kwn.forthe in4 &of the shipsisth;e&nomy
ofscaie.argn vessecan acwmmdate 1- numbm ofpassagers.

'Anncx48.
'iherc d~~ndOMarpavrcdinhmx 49.

'Two &igw foraucvcssclardepiad inAnncx50shipheighLIna 'ultihull shipstabiliryisno1endangeredbyamarkcdininheighi
ïhc rshnicalevoluuonisreprexnled klow (seillusuaiioninFi~ure16).

258.Themultihullarraneemmtavoidsanextremelvloneandnanuwwnsmictionwith
unfavourablemanoeuvrab~ityandwcakstability.II2vcs-the vesselamplestabiiityand
manauMina characteristics.kcms thedistancesonboardwithinnasonable limits.while
offerinmmy indoorandoutd&rpublicspacesandwithoutoverloadingthelongitudinal
smngth of thevessel.

C.INDUSIRIALANDSERVICE VESSELS

259. Lnthefunire.thevasioilandgasresourccsontheEurasiancontinentalshelvesin
theArcticoceanillbecomeccnnomicailyviableforexploitation.LargesUeiabreaking
vessels.drillingquipment.supponcquipmentand~n dco~nedfoÏ~iaily

thaicnvimnmmtwillthenk wnsmicted Kvmcr Masa-Yar itendstopdcipatc in
thisdevclopmcnr
260. Sevuaioffshoresupplyships.divingsupportscram.vessels.hcavyhanspon
shipshavealreadkm delivered.Noteworthyisthe1600toncraneshipSfanislavYudin,
picturedbelowinFigure 17.nie dimensionsofthisshiasfoUows:draught5.0mair
draught63.2m.

261. The wmpany hasdelivmd xvm 75,000 m3 LPGIammoniatankers.As the
demandforliauinafwa eascarrier.(LN~)iauickivmwinn. andashm issubstantial
know-howwihin the~v&ner gmup.thiscompanyis-aisoinhved inhinireLNGship
mjects.Typicaldelvieriesofothaspecialshipsbeencablelaycrs,mcdaers,~search
ships.navalvesxls. Also containe;ships.LASH bargecarriers;~o~o sh$. chemicai
tanken,productiankers.arcucr resfrshio.pusibargesysiemsarcincluded
intheliiÏof pmducts.

D.OFFSHORE CRAFï

Aswehaveseen,themostimmedita tteplffnedE aft~ieIbridgeistoclose
offnavigationthroughtheGreatBeltbydrillships,semisubmedrillrigsandjack-up

rip.

. ~-~ ~ ~ . .
aloffshoreoil agasexploraiionindusuy.~nsmiciion of sdih wassrancdai the
ManwluotoWo&sof Rauma-Rcwlaintheciwof Poriin 1972.SincethaiUme23iack-
ups,~misubmersi~esanddrillsh~pshavebe ieyard'.vwoodtrcsm~m
multismiΠsemisubmersibleswithoutadrillin2derrick.Twoiack-upswm delivend to
theVyborgShipyardinRussiawithanunfunu&cddeck.ïhc Russi& insta1ledc.g.theu

drùimaesuipmmi onboard.The numbcrof semisubmersiblesbuilbyRauma-Repola
makesesthe.c&npatyebiggestbuildcrof tCypeof craftinEumpe.-
263. The followingthree tables list al1the offshore craftbuilt by Rauma-Repola
Offshoreaswellasexamplesof tendered craft,annualdeliveriesofMODUsworldwide
andfromRROas wellasMODUspresentlyunderconsmiction.Tables16-18.) Figu16

TECHMUCAE LVOLUUOOM

MONOHULL

'WIDEBODY'
MONOHULL

TIELTA'
MONOHULL

*MIDEDECK.
MULTHULL a5

Figure17 86

TABLE16.OFFSHORECRAFTBUUTBYRRO ANDEXAMPLES OFTEND- PROJECTS

A. SEMISUBMERSIBLES

BUnT 1974-79 AIRDRAUGHT(M) WATERDRAUGHT BI)
Wgi
Pentagon84 %.7 11.8

Pentagon85 %.7 11.8
Pentagon86 96.7 11.8
Aka H-3 90.0 7.0
Aka H9 90.0 7.0
Aker H9 90.0 7.0
Aka H-3 90.0 7.0
AkaHJ 90.0 7.0
Aka H-3 90.0 7.0

BULT 1980-89
ME^
OceanRanger 1122 75

MSV 666 115
Fnedc &GoldmanLW 1063 75
Fnede &GoldmanL9û7 1062 75
tiedc &GoldmanL9ü7 1062 75

TENDEREû198489 AIRDRAUGHT(M) WATERDRAUGHT 61)
Daip

Trendxlter 102.0 13.0
RR-2952 1013 11.6
Ulm Yany 836 11.8
Goodneh 109.0 122
RR-2152Cmoating abl65.0 7.6

RoducuonVerwl)

TENDERED19W-
Design
Readin& Bas abL95.0 ah. 14.0

B.JACK-UPS

BUILT 1985-
Mgi
Gusio 144.9 103
Gusm 144.9 85

Miudprom* 140.0 ova 8.0
Minsudprom. 140.0 ova 8.0

BuilincmpraiionwiihtheVyborgShipyarinRussin
haughi informationasmeived fmmtyard (JACK-UPS.CONTINUED)

TENDERED1988- AIRDRAUCHT(M) WATERDRAUGHTBI)
-
=A 136.9 8.0
m-500 160.0 10.0
Fried& Galdm~nMd VI 1523 10.0
Fried& GoldmanMd V 155.0 8.0
Fnede&GoldmanMd II 127.6 7.0
MSCU62 SIX) 159.8 86
MSC US4 152.0 8.0
Fricd&Goldman 204.8 92
Readin& Bata 186.0 8.0
KingKw 158.4 11-12

C.DRILISHIPS

BUILT1981-
Dai@
Guro Rlican 803 73
GurtoRlican 803 73
GYSUR>lican 803 73

TENDERED1989- AIRDRAUCHT(M) WATERDRAUCHTBI)
hi@

Guto Pelican(Rcpirk) 803 73
Gvao Rlican (Rcpid) 803 73

D. OTHEROFFSHORE CRAFT

'ENDERED 1981 . .
aaign
RRdOW 107.-. 8.0
RR-3190 106.0 8.0
MSV 60.4 152
CVA4500 (Flcatbg abt60.0 128
RoductimVessel)

E. OTHEROFFSHORE PRODOCTS

TENDU<ED1981
oaign
hilling moduleofa fird
propunionplatfam 723 ab^3.0

Drillingmodulcofa fixed
pmductionplmfam 52.0 a. 3.0TABLE17.ANNUALD m OFMODUSWORLDWIDEANDFROMRAUMA-REFQU
OFFSHORE:

WORLDWIDE DELIVERIES RROB
YEAR DELIVERIES FROM RRO SHARE %

1974 28 1 36
1975 39 2 5.1
1976 41 2 4.9
1977 36 4 11.1

1978 18 1 5.6
1979 32 O O
1980 35 1 29
1981 85 1 12
1982 114 2 1.8
1983 67 1 15
1984 18 2 11.1

1985 16 2 125
1986 9 O O
1987 1 O O
1988 9 O O
1989 2 O O
1990 4 O O
1991.) 3 1 335

TOTAL 573 20 35

*)By thendofOctober.1991

TABLE 18MODU'SUNDERCONSTRUCïïONINNOVEMBER1991(WORLD-WIDE):

MODUtype Client Builda

Jack-:-up Miarudpmm Vybq Shipyardand

Rauma-RepolOflshac
Jack-up NaiiniaiIranOilCmpany Ra--Repola Offsharc
Jack-:-up B&U MwhDnLcToumuu
Jack-:-up Mac& DriUing FarEsuWi
Jsk-:-up MaCrsDirilling FarEw Lcvingrtni
Jsk-up SanlFeüriüing FarEanLcvi

264.Considaable invesmimîshave bem madebyRauma-RepolaOnshore w meetthe
changuigdemandsofthe industry.Duringthepas126 yean themkl hasevolvedrhrough
fourgenaations ofoffshoremobilecr& rechnology.With theinvesmenu madeby RRO
intheduction facititis thecaoabilitvwbuidl MODUdesim has~ ~~~e~-~~ain-taincd

nit iost eswntiaiphysicalh-of amodan offshon craiyardare thesize othe
aswmblv.mfer andnamumation facilitia. Durinethe 1980sRROfocu~~~~i~ -~~--~-
mnîs G Mproving iîsc~&~titivaicss in thosare; ~.~thoughme sectionsorothm

pans of offshore mobilecr& may be subconuactcd out ofthe yard w impmve mst
wmpetitivrness the assembly and aii fuial phases of the delivery ukc place at the
wmpany's om yard 265.ThefollowinginvesmcnuhavebeenmadebyRama-RepolaOffshoreIofaciliiale
the competitiveconstruction.kansferand wnsporiationoftypesof beavyoffshore

producu
1 Assemblyyardwithoffloadingstrucnuesanduansfer
railsyslems;
2 Jack-upassemblysuppons;

3 Load-outiuansportatibarge;
4 Deeu waler(30m)basin.

266.Theseinvesmcnu. toialluigsomc61m~llioFmish Markkas(USDI5.2million).
areaddiuonaltotheinvestmenumadeastheyardwaseslablishedThroughtheseu~lpmved
facilitiesaconstructlime6 monthssho&r forsemisubrneniblesand2 monthsshorter
forjack-ups is achievcomparedwiththetraditional assembmethod.
267.The deepwaterbasinwasbuilras an inlegralpan of the km longdeepwaler
channelfromtheopenxato theTahkoluotoharbouroftheCityofPori(forillustrauon.sŒ

Figure 18)
268.Thebasicinvesmcnü indeepeningthechannelandtheharbowbasinto175memes
(redve dnuaht 15.3m. cf.Annex 4) in 1983-85amountedto 113millionFinnish
~a;kkas(~~~282million). Dndging&hep watcrbasinto30merrescostanaddi~nzl
II million(USD2.7million).

269.ïhe deenwaterbasin am~ ~ ~-sedas thebaseforworkon offshorecrahwhox
diught istood& forfloatingtothequay oftheyard.The basi salsoused formating
ooerationswhe~thehullofasemisubmersibleisloweredIoaüowthefloali-eofthedsk
ontop.
270.TheresounxswithinthedomainofRauma-Rewla'soffshoreindusw Uicludethe
main yardal M~tyluolo in Pori.theKalajoki~orkSand a big mginee&gmup, now

omnkd inasmte wmoanvPI-Rama Ov.Al1thex rewurces areneededandusedin
a~nstruction~jectforan'off~horemobile~~~Iotolalnumberofem~lo .~eesinvolved
intheseprojecu iappr. 1000.
271.The marketfornewoffshore dl has beenverycyclicalsinceth&y 1970s.
Consmuentlvthe workloada1RROhas varicdconsiduablv. As a resultof the hiaha
workl&ads&, ma-~epola Offshorehasincreascdilsown work forceto 1500;therenhas
beena comspondingincreaseintheworkforceofsubconùanorsatthe yard

272.Theeconomicfeasibilityof RRO'sMODUconsmictionis vny sensitiveIoany
chanzesintheassemMv D~DECSSBothinm~ect of thedelivewtirneandmnstrunioncosi
itisciscntialthatthen?;fiiscompleredin~iand. Ifthn~tpossiblcd~ublin~ofmany
msücould no1 bcavoidcdandthcdeliverywoulddefuiiielybcdelaycdforwvd WC&.
Thiswouldnotonlycauseadditionalumsktctionand in&st wst b"talsodisqdiRR0
from what isahighlycompetitivcdct.
-.
273.Rama-Repola buildsal1ihrc tepesofoffshoremft IIisoneofthefcwbuildm
ofheavyoffshorecraftintheworldïh~sisshowintherefemcesoftheMODUsdelivercd
andinthelislof rigsunderconsmictionthiwriting.Novemkr 1991.The facilitiesand
the productionorganizationof RRO haveban devclopod to mat the competitivc
requhenu ofnim-kcydeliv- ofMODUSintheheaviestclass.

î74. InadditiontoMODUStheintemationaloffshoreoilandgas indusuyneedsotha
aai~asweU,forcxamplevesselsforoil andgasproductionRRO hasdevelopediu own
xmisubmeniblc productionvesse1designandhasbccn xvcraltims inapositionIobid
onbuildingaiioatingproductionvessblasedonitsownorsomebodyelse'sdesign.The
havenonnallyWing equiprnentanddemckand thu snairbught highertha 6n5m. Figur18

RAUMA-REFQ b LA WATERBASIN

Pon0PO,;vessels(MSVs)anddivingsuppm vesxls @SVs).RROhasbuilttwoMSVsandhas ban
inapositiontobion xvd ohm. Spical ofthex mii isaheavypropulsionsysian for
k-g themii positionedwhm itisGrating. 'Rie propulsionsystemgivesthecrafta
deepdraught.

1.The MovemenrroHemierCr@

276 Thm isagrowthuendbothintheaudraughtandthewaierdraughtofoffshoreaafr.
7he inmase intheau draughtofjack-ups isdIO thelengthmingof legs. Someof the
newestdesiensex& 200i.~ewtechnologvailowstheu&of iack-unsindeeoerwaters
thanhitheni. Longer legsarcthereforerequid whichmakeithc Aole c&t heavier.
Excludinethemallest.th-iack-uostenderedsinŒ1990haveauanmortationdra-ehtof
atleas8% m.
277. 'Rienad to drill foroil and aas in daar watm than before aiso infiumces
xmisubmenible dcsigns.in ordwb; able iotvorkindeeperwatersan10drilldeeper

biggerandheavier.asiocarryheavierloa& onitsdsk. Thismakes theMODUiwlf

278.Theuendo heMODUairandwaterdraughts.bascdondesignsbuiltorbidbyRRO
isshow telow.TABLE1TRENüOFMODUAIRANDWAER DRAUGHTS:

-
P
=,. 0 .I
a à f
- =rl l.
g5
2 s
oe2
t üre a-,
2;~ 7
K K.
os*
$-i.g
;;;,
arl
-0B3"
-2- Srsnnmuva 2. Themrket for ofshore cr&

279.nie cyclical natureoftheinternationalMODUmarketispicniredintablebelow.

TABLE20:MODU DELlVUUES 197091:

MODUDELIVERIES FROMYARDS
IN197- 1991

280.nie numbnof MODUsdelivercdannuallyduringpcriodvariesfromahighof
114in1982toalow of2 in 1989.ebuildnlikeRR0 hastoaccommodateitxlftothese
changesslillmaintainingtheinvestm&uandcapabilitiesonarcasonablclevel8lalltunes.
281.nie numberofintcmatiodv marketedcomtitive offsho~cr554with373
jack-ups, 151 scmisubmersiblcs&d 30 drillshipsi.me total numbm for drillships.
snnisubmcrsiblesandiack-unsarecontaineidnmram~bs 164.16and179above.)
nius.the~mover1~~0~~snotmuntedin&e~0~~titiveflm1~~mm.nicav&
aeeof thcmoetitiveflccr wasmthesummer1991:iack-uuYearsemkubmmibls
15ycan andd;illships14yem. in 10ycan IlmiwilbeonÏhcav'mgewellovcr20
Yearsold.hieherthantheaneofMODUsdeletedhm theflŒIinthe 1980thehiehcr
wvnario&lia mppingaieof 20ycan.somc380oftheexistingMODUswillbedeited

by20M andintheIowa scenariowitha swpping of25 yam thiscnnpetitiveflat
wouldbe rcduccdbyw>me 140uni&CurrcnUythaeareonlyfivenewMODUs unda
amsfructionfortheinternational-rillingmarket
'OCCMlndwry.Seplemter199pp.122-123.TABLE21.THEAGE PROFiLEOFMODU

Table 3-Age profile of MODU fleet, July 1991
Age inyears
auantiiy 1-15 16-20 21 + Total Av.age
43 27 373 12
Jack-ups 303
Semis 95 48 8 151 13
Drillships 21 9 O 30 14
flWt 419 100 35 554
Utilizatio%,
Jack-ups 79 65 37 75
semis 85 71 25 77
Dtillships 52 33 NIA 47

Fleet 79 65 34 74

Table 4419 scrapplng, 1983-89
Year NurnberlAv.agewhen scrapped
Jack-ups Sernls Drillships
O 1136
1983 1/26
1984 1/28 O ln6
1985 ln6 O O
1986 7/22 3/19 1/20
1987 1/30 2/18 2/19
1888 2/23 2/19 4/25
1989 7122 3/18 O
Total 201227 lOH8.5 8123.3

282.Takingintomnsidcrationthenadtoqlafes~rappedunitsandthef-tpwth
inthedanandfordrilluigsmimthnumbcrofncwMODUsto bebuiltbthcycaUXn

willbe 150400.Applyingthe averagemarketshaRROf inthepas1delivdes and
MODUs undu mnsuuctiothcnumbcrofoffshoncdt tobebuiltbRRO durinthis
periodwilbe6-20 .his doesnot includeotheroffcdtrWrefioatingproduction
vesselswhichRROisfrsquentlybiddingon.

283.The nad for new MODUsor utmsive modemirationof existinuni& is
additionallyboosbydchangs inthetechnicandnguiatory mvbmunmt.suchas
inming loadcmyhgcapacity.newclassif~canninnira muinmmu aswellas
changesinoilmmpanyguidelines.TABLE 22FORECAST (MRNLF( OFFSHORE)D :EMAND FORSEMISUBMERSIBLES:

'Worldwide
To summarllc our foreuut, we refer to thepph below. We anticipateto mch a
pmanent 90% utilizationbymid1991.'Thisisthelcvelatwhichthcmarketismnsidercd
m beinbalance. Appmachingthislevel,weexpectthedayratetiiuthmimpmve-
mens compand tothecumnt Icvel.

FORECAST:DEMANDFOR SEMI SUBMERSIBLES

200

160
#A
160

140

120

100

! 60

& 60
E 40

! 20

O
86 87 88 89 90 Pl 92 03 94 95

FEARNLE'YOFFSHORAIS (01.012RP2011

Ascanbeseen t,esmngestpick-up forthemi markethkm inthe~.~.'sectorof
theNorthSeaWe w;o~ thatcloseto50%ofthemmtitive mi flat wüibecmolowd
intheNah Seaa& and2û%in theGUI~of~oii&," . . ~-

W. RROhasmaintaincditspositionasamajorMODUbuilderduringthcdepression
yem inthemarkeLoarticivatin~inthemnsmictionof threeunis dur in^thesecondhalf
of the 1980sandthe'beginkngif the1. avingsuc& inthi sO isoneof thc
fcwbuildm of heavyMODUSactivetoday.

3 The dimantling option

285.RRO rmives invitationsIo ondoffshoremil frominternationaldrilline
mnwcton. The conwcton basetheu inquirieson dsigns prefemd byoilmmpanies-
thcirowncusiomen.Ihe inquirypackageisthesameforal1biddcrcandidates.iflheinvited
yarddmdes tobiandsubmitsa~jnuposailntersting moughtotheddiing mnuactor thiswiiiaudittheyardtomakesurethattyardiscapableofdeliveringtheMODUasq~cified
and onlime.Internationalcompetitionwillthen weedout buiiderswhocmot fulfd the

286.A heightof6.5metresfor the Great Bell bridgewould wverely damage RRO's
wmrrtitivmcsson theintemauonalmarket.RROwuld noidcliverMODUSrcady IOwork
hm iu yardata wmpetitive priceand onlime.

a)DismanUiigthe denick?

287.InRRO'smarketsegmentofheavyandhanh environmentoffshorecrafttherehas
neverken aninauirvtobidon a unit withaderrickand therelateddriilingsy10bes
disasscmblcdd~g~~mrionoroperation.~houldthisforany rcaronkdoneasa
ofthedeliveryofanewbuiiiMODUthebuiidcrwouldautomaiily be diîqualiicd hum

thecornuetiti&duetoexua cosu'andextendcddelivervlime1
288.Éefore mmpoiwig a new MODU hm the yard IOiu fmt operatinglocation
extensivlcsnuisanduiaishaveIobemcd OUL Theswtcms IObetcstednumkraround
100.mosiofthmiapplyingalsotoLhednllingsysumu. nfeasbuliotktoially
ofdisaswmblinn.reasrcrnbl- andtcsl- -anainthercsystcmsaltertheMODUhasbeen
delived hm &e yard.
289.To demonsuatetheunfeasibilityanhi& wst ofdiimbling andreassmiblinr!
thekindofdemck mnŒmcd il canb;mentio;;ed ihatthe opratio& wouldhaveto b;
extcndcdtothepipc-handiiigwinch.motionwmpmsaior as wellastothe mud.amcnt,
cooline.oressu&& air.insnÜmentatiofm andalann oioine.etc. It wouldk essential
that th;&sasscmbliig kd wsemblig of the dmifk with its numaous systemswere

canie outbvthesamem.e.. Partofthecrewofthecranwouldneedtostavonboardto
Nn the utiliies.
290.Torasmone theassemblvof thederricw k canie outsomewhereon theother
sidcofthe'ûr&tBeltissimply~t faible [roma logisticalandcwnomic pointof vicw.
ThclogisncsofRRO'sMODUwnmuctionan bawdon~aralleloroarcssofdiflmt Dans
oftheÜnittocutconsmictiontimc.~cavin~~anofthew&unwkpktedat the iould
desuoy thecompetitivenessof the wholewnsmiction praess.

b)Dismantlig thelegsof ajack-up?

291.RRO hasneverr&ved arequest IObidon ajack-up whoselepgwereintnidedIO
beculandjoicdsomcwhm outsidctheyard lfsucha~qummeni w& forsome rcaron
impowdonRROaloncLhecompanywuldkdisqualificd hmthe wmpeuuonon Lhebis
ofextra cosu3andwrtcndcddeliveiylime'.~ucha quireinent wouldinterfercwiththe
efficientuseofRRO'sasscmblyinvestmenuandwirhthelo.icalwuence ofwmulc.inr-
theworkinawmpetitive mmcr' .c) Dismantlingthrusters?

292.Shouldasmiisubmenibledesignedandbuiltwiththrustenbehamportedthrough
analternativeChanneltothatoftheGreatBelt,itsdraughtwuld technicallybereduŒdby
removingthethrustm forpassingtheplacewithdraughtrestrictionsandreinstalltngthem
after this passage. Considerableextra wst' and lossarecausedalso by these
measures. -

293. in thecaseof deliveringa new MODUhm the yard, ashasken the casewith
Rama-Repola,every dayofstoppageduringthemspomUon wouldcauseaconsiderable
interestcoIO theownn asweU aslostrevenuebecausehe mot conmacihis unitfor
drillhg duringtheextra deliverytime.Therevenue madein theNonh Seawitha harsh
envimnmentrig isin therangeof 100.000USdollarsperday.

SectionIV.Other Efïefts

A. iFFECTSON EXCEPnONWY LARGElXANSPORT:
CRANES -KONEOY. A CASE SIUDY

294.Wehave alreadvseenthattheGreatBeltbrideewilleffectivelvoreventthe useof
heavylift transportshi; asa meanstomoveoffshorecraftbeiweenthéNorthSeaand the
Baltic.Anothef-. ofobstructioncausedbytheDanishbr-.geplanaffectsnomport
oflargecranes.
295.TheFinnishCompanyKONECorporation hasduringthelas120yearscked out
150 transportsof 220 cranes'.The tpical UanspoMtionheightof such cranes varies
between55-100m. It is estimatedby the KONECorporationthat ithefutur sech
ùanspons williakcplacethroughIheGreat Bcltappmximatelyrwtayw
296 Anncx57containsadetailcdsurveyofthempom undenakenbyKONEsina
theinceutionofitstranswMtion activiwin 1969.Thoughmostoftheuasttranmom have
taken insidethe il ica.27ùan.sportshavcbccntakcnfmmthB altic&ugh the
Danishstraits.ThetwocranesdeliveredtoGothcnburg.Swedcn.(NonhSea).forexample,
had aheightof 100m (Forthedcsttnationsof Konenane transponsFigure19.).

297.Cranesarctransportcdbasicalbv usineIwo methods.The first method1sthe
towagcofthemeon a barge.Though~ri~tnallyintenfedshondisLances.towagecan
alsok usedforoceanvoyages.Kone has hiowngcdislancesofover7.000nauticalmiles
(forillustration: seeë20).
298.Thesecondmethodis touseheavyliftUansportvesselstoundertakethecamage.
ïhe advantageof thmode isitsmuchkater speed.Thesevesselscanamin a spedof
12to15hou incornpaison to the bargespeedof4 to8hou. With themanoeuvrability
fea~resofthesevessél. ostofthedeicienciesofa bareetowaeesvstemcanbeavoided.
Aspointedout inparagraphs186188 above.cdage b; heavGiftshipsis an inherently
muchsaferalternativethantowage(ForillustratseeFigure21.).

B.EFFEffSONOFFSHORE ACiIiIITY THEBMC

299.InSection1abovc.ne havcsurveyedtheeffectsof theGreatBeltbridgeplanon

passageby offshorecnft matnlyfmm the Balticto the Nonh Sea. lncreaseofoïishorr 98

Figure19

R- use0 FOrn lRANSPORTATIOFKONE CRANES 99

Figure 20

CRAN EEINmm ONA BARGE Figure21

CRANF ON AHEAVYL TIFATNSPO SHTIP

,
b? *8
fi-w '.- .")'2 f!
P'ri ki
fi ri-
", .j;: K.:. ><''
.;-~z I,;~-~.z.j!;+&f%.or,? 8 ., . i
t. . 1. ', i: iactivitvthBaliicwiU.howevcr.inevifincreasA.saraulf thæ wialsbeanad
lobri&offshmd&oursidesea-~mthe~altic.'ihis&onwill bureyl~
the.um.cs of dcvcl.r-theBaitiSeaasanoilex~loration-caion
MO.Oilandgasrrploratioo~ntiesmmCBalticSeaaancdin~Latc197(bburmC
mais sri laeexplorrd Sofar.mmmmial diseoveriahaonlybon made incssm
pattsof theBaltic&a,Pold andtheUSSR

Ml. in thiisection, theSeaanditshydmmkm pountial isooveredmunnyby
muntry.
302.OilexplmtiononthDanishcontinenshelfstancdatthekginningof1960s.
Fit signsof oil werc foundin 1%6 in the Danish North Seasector.buttheBalticSca
amtinmtal shelfgainedinvrcstasapountial exparcaonlinthe 1980'. hefmt
explorationmnocssionsintheDanishBaSeaamlinenta1shemf gmntcdin 1985'.

M3.Two largesedimentabasm withmmmmial oil andgaspotaitiar ocatcin
theaanis haltSea mnhtal W. TheNonhGmMa Basinmvas alame arcaboth
oashoreandoffshorcinDaMarkandnoithanGmnany.Onthe~anishhidescvd
nishorcwcusandoneoffshorcwahavebandriUedTheoffshmwaishiownas
KE43NAES-iInhlock54101M.ThedrillingstancdinAugust1985awasmmpleccdm
Onobcr1985aftertestitheweU.NotestRfultarcrclcascd.butrumimganexpaisive
testpmpm givesan indicationthatpmbablysomehydrocarhonshowsbanefound
Ajack-uptypedrillhg DyviEpsilo(nowNeddriIl7wasus& lthasamit draught
of4m(13fat)anditsl1 e0gma(344fŒt)highUsuallytherigisapratingintheNonh
Sea.

304PerfiapsmmpromisingistheRo ~asnrntbenesternsideofBoPnholm.
ThegeologyofthisbasinissimloCmtrplGrabenintheNonhSeawhm aithem1
pmducingDanis oil and gasfiearclocatcd On the SW side of Bornholmsevd
wrrrloratblockswen rcleasedin19M5later.Tma iswidrlysurveyedwithseismic
v&ls andinternationaloilmmpanianactive inthemnocssions.~~ wilduit
wcUs wcredrilled in 19andthejack-utyperigGlomarMomy Firr 1. nonnally
opaating intheNorSea.wasusedforboth.Thedraughtofthisaaft is53 m(173 fat)
andIeglength151m(498fŒt).BothwcUs(PERNILLE-I.Apnl-Jw '89,block5514BO
andSTINA-1J.w-July '89.block541W) havehŒndecland"tightW..oinfonnation
isavailablethoughtheoperatorofRmille-1.Nonk Hydm.isoptimisticaboutthepotential

ofthearea.
305.in 1989atoraloffourexplorationweUswmdrilledon lheDanishconlinmlalshclf.
iwoof whicam intheNorthSea andiwoontheSWsideof BornholmintheBaltSea.
hiring1991and 1992Wxe willbeamundfive explorationwdls king drilledannually.
someof whichmi-hthelocatcdmund Bornholmduetomncessionmmmilmmts.
3û6.Sweden has bcen pmducingoil theislandof Gotland fordecade and the

sunuundinpa.mtinatal shelfban sysmnacicallyerplond sihe1970s.TheGulf
ofBotbnia-hban surveyedsevd tinÏcsdurithc1980s.butissofarkcptoutsthe
amassion mh.
307 .he1970swasthemostactivem inuoloration on theSwedishamtimntal shclf,
butmwoptimimiandactiviryhas~aftrrl&oildi~mesoffhiaand~ithuimia
andthesolutionof thecontinentalshelfdisputebenvan Swcdmand theUSSRin 1988.
?bisagreementhasreleasedlaarcaforexplorationintheprevious"wne"onthe
easm sideof Gotland A fuialdrillingapplicationwassubminedin April 1991by an

Cf plsMapNo. 6(DanishBŒnaam) andMapNo.7(SedimatarbasiminDcmnsrl;).paclmilofmep~by~md~rigandaUsmicsurvcyuaiecunemly
kiu-amed au.(CI.MWNO .:hh Aaivin-Souh Swcdm).
MB.~infamarimiairiggitpdoniheSwcdLihEontmcnîalsheüismtavPilablC
butatias~apmiaibdbierypcigTram Sc& haxbŒnusedItopaueaiiamnlly
miheNonbSeaandhaxanmarimumoDcratinndeahof380m~l~A).ibcbcinhtof~
hulli36m (12A)wihut mpsidclsin& nkimumfm.hcigJ11s0m 76m 1has
aWt dra-nhto6.8r(21.98ftu).
309.lnbo<bpamdk~aislydi~~&oiland@~bvcb
fo~mdSomeoftkΠtiel-fmumi~lz KielanSchwdmeck-Sa offKi-mcad ~IUO

~~~rpi~~~l'@uscd~ihe~'p~ns~fk~
M. H-, m IIaiJfpevwJy govcmdby GDR rbcjxk-urigPcmfd& has
~itpd(saepoi~a).~hc~f-~~~'ronly~ind@plodiringfumE>de~~
ërdoiltiommeisaumui undcrprivWo4 andbiifmmmurnafiaioiampnks
havealrraby rmcived

310.OnihePdishcontmmralshelfsanecDmmaMloiland~~dirovaiabveb
maQbutmyc<dmlopdibc~uprypcngPdr~hasbandTberigwat
owrrdbayJoimVcnaincompa FUmbaltim,drbcpankipm wac thUSSRGDR
andFblandïücrigimw Fblishpmpary.anioffercdfusemrbc*le BaltVSca
Tbc~~arntiwwpmdmmofihePmobol~is91rnOmAl.ltslenaml275

haxaigocaluicofinuniwithdnyi~ahiPya hafiinci& sW& amainiauwa
snviccfoNah Seabavddnllmrigs.(CMapNo.9 -Polanandh ad-mi arc&)

312tir~koprnmgillms~andoffshorcoilandgasficl&u>fmignmpames
and uyinm bOml updomestioilpmducuonLthh andAPrbaydzhansi@ a
rshni&ICsi&opmUiai~~ inOctob 1990pmvidinforassimieIoLithumilia
hitu rceraiiosnrbLithuan inaùunral if. Dnvnasi@ asimüaragrrnnait

313.EighwellsweredriaitheLimurmiumtllrntadiclbyUICmoMrik (se
Polemim ihe19705and1980s.lhnwellwercdry hionehadoishowsIn1983a
~bywasmadc(D65cld)andfws-hrlwcbmdriUedmrppraigthc
~.ibcD6fwldisddcrrda>mmcrculandlJrclymkdcwlopcdmrbcocnr
hinnc.Aig~isarbcm~mc~pWmbringdiur-md0nm.k
LimuaDiangcoIogi8fsBmnaicpamrulundigwacdoilrcsounrronrbcLimumian
~Mfathigtiat350mi71iaibarrcls.(6.MopNo. 1&.R<rolctmiAcfinry-USSRtobcsignifimt duelolargediscovcriesinmighbouringarcasonandiLithuanian
continentalshclvs.

316.Ejtonihasnoknown muid hymoearbrm-s. butisan hpomnf oiishale
produm. Ihcpromierioisfromacvmuda-gmund and fouropnçast minm.
317.Finianhasn,known li.uih.dmcarborncsma.
318. Inamclusion.ilmbcmtcdthailhae iinmashg interestinrhehydmcahn
potcntialtheBaltiSeabsauseofsevaalrcasons:

1.Relativelyumxploarca
2Diswvenes anencwraging.
3. Closwexistinandfuturmarkets.

4.Recenteunomic andpoliticaldcvelopmmuincasteEurope-nccdtoin-
domstic oüutmiunioninMwindependmlStates.
5NorrWe enwonmat -des fielcm be aunmuciai.
6.Globasuppl myi dcmandof oiisin balanceinmasmg productioncapacnyt
maainoilpromicingregioascankupnsive.

319.EvcrymIy arwnd IheBaltiSeahasforescmthepossibiiforoffsh oil
explontionin theu legislarion.whetherdirectlyin peUolcumlegislationor in mining
iegislation(asFinland).
320.hirinalhelasdsadcarlcasüinediffmt drillmarinstnvojack-Uandone
semi-submcGble)havbcm transpachdmughthe he-s&&f& th~Na heata
lheBaltic'cfuoffshmoiland-.lmtion.Asactivityin . wild mo~ngs
mpassinmaicBaltie.

321.'IheonlyrigpemancntibascidntheBaltiSeaisthejack-uPenoboili. s
offshorcactiviwwill in- moreexoloratiocrafafrneeded Durinaexulaation
activityisnistomaryforthamtrac& w usesmmd-handrigsprcvio&lyinployai
elsewheree.inthcNonh Sa Formanv ofsuchcraiithGnarBeltbnd-ewill~resmr
aneffective-khance.
322 Inmaal. oil driüiscarriaioutbyindependentconiractors.'Ihcconiraclor
selsu lhc&ostsuiiabledrill& unitaccordingiothe+cial conditionsofsiu.rilling
Daymc forthednlltngriisno!theoniycrimon forseleaion:dnllinglocation.wavr
deplh.formationcharacterisua(deplh.tempe. ressure.smugraphy).dnllutgunit
capaciues(mudpiü.watapits.fuelswragcloadlimit.-. iesthgquipmeniielc..
aÜplayaroleRigmobili&on costs& mrmallymal1mmpd w totaldrillingmü.
andthaeforcmovingrighalfwayroundtheworldino1unmon.

- -
oniylocalliftheBalticSwen separalcfmm0th~~offshmeexplm%onreGons, 017
comuanieswouldk forcedwuseamonowlistiwnmcior -withalIheadditionalcosts
anditherpmblmissuchapositionwouldnitaii. SsiiooL Tbe GreatBeltBridgeiLheOnlgObsûucîiw aTerritorialSen
Coostitniing Paranflutemational SVPit

mnfomistoanintemational~~tyidaidforbridges~~~~~~majorw~t~wa~"~.uithihseft
i&
of themernorialthefactuaibacLwundof thisDanishdaim uamincd
-
325.Beforcsurveyingexistingpraccccerningùridges.howevimuhtk mted
that h Danishanemut to disman"intemationaistandaof bridge-buildiU-is
fou& h arcckkl diffat- kwm the plamai Gm Bi11bridgean dl
eisrinbridpa,which&the h i Beltbridgepmja uniquïhc Great&Il bridge

ofapanof thterrit seaifte-;al state.Aüorheruisting bramseswatcnva$
thatuamtheintwnai watcrsofthe~talStan.nieunmuaessoftheGmtBeltbridzc
lieisthat it-ts thefmt -ion inthehistoryofinf;mationalnavigationinwtiich
a smit thatiuanof thetwrimriseiskin- cross c-a ..ysicalobsûuction.

326 .ough theGreat&IIiuniqu ithismse howcver.itisofmursc nuniquas
aninternationalwatmvay.Accordingly.SectionIIIwülmakeabriefmiew ofsituations
inthislimitedsenwcompmbletotheG~tBeItThe~~~: is~haiohndrawnfran
ascawayhasanimanationastatus.Statshavcpreftned aum athnnhathan
a bridge.

327. TheWrifreObsewatio~ ofDenmark relating tothe quefor provisii
measuns maLcreferencetoa numbcrof bridgesin supportof thepropositionthal"[al
bridgeclcanna o65mm takc suoimiofthemaximumheightofmntemporaryship
andmaynowbemnsidered an'internationalstandard'forbridgeheights"(parapph 65).
Aftcrabriefrefermcetobridgesex isdlpagandhebri<eeyinthePanama
and KielCanals.tcnbridansmationcd.'

328.Allofthesetenbridanssiniand ininterna1waters.AUocrosawataway
Iavminz the intcriorof the mastalState iuelf. Any obstructio-teey isy
seif-uira iinifaed bythebridgStatirsclNA ofthcm--an inknational
watawav- eva lcssaninternationalsuait Thenofrcoassageisinawlicablcinail

329 .pitic mentionismadeintheDanWrinniObsavationsof theKanmonBridge
andthesevd linksktwm HonshuandShikok (uara63).uttheKanmonbndne (and

-
'TùeVmaram Nam Bridg(New Yat ). GoldenOBridg(SanFraMsm) .ayBridge
(SMFmuckd. LiomGateBridneNanomver. aw Rim Brida(lisbaiMdbo Brids
(Vc-la). ~ianakm BayBriigi(~dc~arrim~ydneyHBb;>&~ridgSydney)Alva-
bŒgBridg(GoUrnburg)ndYokohamBay Bridg(Yokohama).locationisentkly withinlapaneseintemalwatm. Momva, itispos~lcummv-'
igatth eutepassingundtheKanmonbMgeby passinmund theKyushuislandï.lie
Honshu-Shikoklui nmsthe SemNBüca (iSeInlanSea)wbch isdosedbysnaigbt
bascluieandalsof& wholiywithiJapancsinfcm waltersNom ofthefiveswits
rsognizuibyJapanasundo;btcdly"inkd suaits" (the SoyaStheTsugaru
Shi, theeastemand wcm chanmls ofthTsushimaSuaitandtheOsumiSuait)is
amrcd bya bridge.

33û.~bridgcsmntionedby DenmarkarenoLofcourw theon qyùridgesinthc
world.lthamuldbeaddedtothelist Thcarseverallain bridntsinJthaenited
SratsandtheUmtedKmgdom.forexamplc.Thcrcisalsoih;6lan;i bridkm ~andcn
theSaudiArabu-BahremCausewavm thePerst anlf.Therelevantoomtis.howevn.
thatnoquestionfm passageundaintanationalleanariscinr&t ofthem .O&
of~~osssanin~dsuaitandmofthemposesanobstacle-a~mia
obmution foranyStatebetwknitwasu andworldoce&.
331.Inothawor& evm ifonewac tolookforan'wonai standar od"ridge
hcight(adubiousvmaue thefm place),thescsituationsmuibccitedisuppni
ofanysuchstandard

332.Ifattentionisnunedhnon-intematiowatmvaystointematidwatmvays,
thesituationiscompleteiydüfermt ApantheBosphonisbrid-andevm theylie
cntir rliyininternwams -no siaiationmmpsrsblethatotheGreatBellexim.
ï%e~ simpiarncobridgesova intematisu& sinui intenimial watas. Whaiis
more.inanumbxof mmparableeassthcoastaltatcorStateshavedclibaacbosm
an aitanatita bridgesolution.
333.'Ihcrehave.ofa>urse.kcnmistsrelaicdto indubitablvintemationalsuaits.such
asthe plans for ficd linksovn ~ib;alw or the ina. a. cithprojathas
reachcdfniitiLn.neiihn case hasthere beena deimitedetoop1for a bridge
altemative.evm INSa bridgesolutionrhatwouldnotaccommodataeilexistingships.-

334.In thefollowingpxagnphs. situationsarereviewedinwharlinksover
indubitablyinternationalwmrways.

335.n~ üucemcstnotableeanalthncorld-thKi*,SuezandPanamaCanals-al1
ar ituatedmtuclwithiteterritoryoftherapenfanaSlates(Gamany.Egypand
Panama).Theyposelimitalionsof draandwidthandsometimesof hcightto ships
passinthroughthm. lhcarcindubitablyintanationalwatmwthesnistharthey
arcmu& usd byintemationashiig. Tki~ navigationrcgùneis also bascdon
inmwiod tMcieaaswellason thecanalStates'dcclaratim 'Ihcirlegd statu is.of
murse.düïermt h thestatu ofintemationalsûaits.But whatispntiapsmoreimportant

suchassûaiuForwhilethenavigationalmnditionsinfsnals arethercsultofdelihte

hum intcrvmtion.thmnditionsin intemati&isl areML

'Cf.lapanLilonrmcnOlduof17lune197ofLawNo.30of2May1977on IhTenitorid
Ses.UNL8iriaNcSericNmionolLgÜl<uionondTrcoriesRc&h Lw ofthe SeSTI
LEOIS~Bn9. p.57. 336.TheKielC~hassevd bndges.Alsonewbndgesaremkbuiltinthcnearfum.
Asanuample.thcKidHoltaiauBridgecankmmtioncd11willbea518rneUclongnccl
ninkrbrid& withaborunital soanofi70mca atwamlevel. 'lbevciticalcleara& will
bethc-~asato~~iel&bndgep,ix.42meaeghthe~c-thmuissan
olderbridec.anda thirdism bt buil1lm. TheCad is an intemationalwamv

si^ k&y in aman tmitory (ci.ChaI.sstioW.
337.TheSuezCd. builtin 1859-69i.ssitinErrvDflu) kmcas1Cairo.he
nonhmend ofthis161kcana lsitua& atportsaida& ~cditarancan lu southcm
endisetthGulfofSuez.TheGulfiscmremd ttheRcdSea .hichaminismatcd
the IndianOceanvia the Babel-MandcbSandtthe Gulf of ~dén.The distance
knvmtheMeditmeanSeaandthehdianSea 3isûkb.Atthenmwestpoint.
thewidihofthcana 1wavr leveis190mem. ThedcpIhofthecanail12me& a
aorc.lhcrrannoloclisinihiscanal.ltisihe~dbusimcanalinthew~d;therrcadcd

Tncmaximum beam ofvasels wnsitthecan as210fffl(64 m)andthemaaimum
draunhtisnonnallv33fat itom).Thac ism maximumhcixhtmrransitthecanal.Srsial
itguikom govan theua&it [email protected] itepalcunis andbwcd

SheSuu CanalBridgeaiElFerdanwascornpletcdin 195bridgisadoubleam

swingbridgewithamainspof167m.Irtotallcngi317m.Thebridgecarriesasingle
railwavuack.butifisfr&foruassaec ofve&iwellwhmno &are schcduledto
crossTh euu Canalisanui&aÜonal watmay siutcd enurclyinEgyptianmtory.
Thenavipauaal reme ofthCanalisbasdonthe1888Tm olConstanwioolel.and
the~~iian Dccl&tion of24A@ 1957).
338.ThePanama Cam1issiutcd on the kthmusof Wnamaihuai Amcrica 11
mmts theCanbtcanSeawilhthePaxifOccanT.nclm@ ofthe canais82km. lis
widthobnom levelvariesknvcm 92mem and300mem. ïk de~this125 mem
M more.There arcseverallocks and lakes kwŒnIWOeends of the Canai.The
mnsmciion ofthe Panama Cawlascompletedin 1914.ThePanamaCanaireducn the

searoutefromtheAtlanticOccantothePaOccanbymorehan 14000km.ln 1980.
14000veswlspysed hugh thcanaiThemaximumdimensionsolshipswnsiiig the
Canalarel:ngth294 mkam 3f61 m.dniught10.81m.hcight57.91m.'
339.TherareaiIcastnvonotablcbndmss the PanamaCanal.TheonebuiltTUSL
theMlraiioresBndewascomolciedin 1942.11is a swingbndee.TheThFmcher
Bridgewasn>rnplei;din1ILtotallengthis 1.6km.Thëveni& clearancealthemain
spais61mems.ThemvmimwofPanamaoverth andtneCanalu>ncisexr>iicilly
&ognuid in the hca & Trcalla of 7 Scptemkr 1977'.thougn&hc of
oprationare vated intheUnitcdStaihewu)(M. Thesemaiiesalsoprovidefor

theopemessofthCanalforpeaccfuitransitbGhips ofal1nationsoncquaitmns.
340.Eachofthehre canalshasalwayhadlimitationsofwianddraught Height
maictions applyinKicPanam aanals.Detailcdngulationshavegoverncdwffic in

Suu Canalullirairy.RulesofNmigmba J1986pp71-83,9!%101.
Cf.Mancns.OWCOYrcniril gtnémi.&a.r &ne W. pp557-9%.

'Fothetu&d 51AmeriunJod ofl~uer~Iionall(1957.p673-675.
'PanamaCanalTr1r 280yNTS.p.3.
'PanamaCanCaolmissiM.arinDincmr'sNorIOShippin.o1-91(Janumy1991pp.
2-7.han. nies imitatioamaconsequace of thecanals'anifcial characm andcannot,
thmfore. be held to supaninmuarionastanda ofdcnatinncw limitationsfa
passagin intunationaisuaim.

ofEngland It isone&fb;J% intanationalscarouI&s.becircunmavigat&but
hl would meanadetourof awmuximate2MO km aro~mtdheBritishisls.
34~Thesmiitislusthui21~&wideiorapanofiülm~th.~ttheendofl971.~nioce
utmdcdiüla~itorialscaf mmmito.~jjsttoammedianlkinthe~t.'Britain
didlikewk bvthTerritorialSeaAct 1.'O2Novanber 1988theiwoGovemmmis
publishea&laration iwhicb"...thhe~ovsnmenü rreognkerighü ofunimpoded
mit vasae formmbant veyels.Ratvesselsandinuanicu iarhms."
343.iw&thedrcamof~a~olmtwomaincsa~o~to~~the~&hLFl&withFrance.
Lnihc 1880ananmot wasmade byEndishmm whoùuiita25 kmInia auuicltowsrds
France.mis pmjec;as.howcvn.di&tinued fa miliiarcasons. the1970'sthe
cms~~ctionworkwasnancd aaai bhbecauseofthbadacaiomic situationduthe
oilcristheworkwasstop@ aga ihneuiaampt tobuildtheChannelnmnelbegan
iniul1987.'lhislcdtoa~~~mOnoba1990.The~msmCeon~orkises~vd
. -
344T.hélunnesystaundertheEnglishChmel, calledEumtunnel,consiseofthra
pdel lunnels:two railwaytunnanda smicetunnelbeiweenthun.'Ihe distance
ktwcm theindividualnmneis15rnem.The widthoftherunningDumeis7.6mem
andthatofthesmia tunnelisabout4.5mem. AUthra tunnarscnncc~dbvnoss
passagesofappmximately33mcmduvncier. whicharcrcquircdforsafetyandop&on-
alrasonsa!375meut inmals. ThetotalImmhof theEUTONNK beiwemthctunnel
aimm is50h.of whichabout37kmisund phseaAt thedccpst pothteunnel

islocaud about70mcm belowtheseabcof theSwit ofDova. 'Ihesdon undcrthe
seaisrntirelyklow theseabed.whichmeansthat thenuineldocsnotimpedeseawffic at
di.TheEurotunnelwillbeoperavdonlyb&. whichwillcar~arandpeople.
345.TheChannelfd linkcrossan imponantintcmstionalsea-mutewhich at the
the of ilsplanning.confaineda highseaschannelbutisnowapanof theterritorialcas
of metwomasraiStates.Iü internationalcharacterwasiakenintoacmunlintherelevant
preparatorymaterials.Thus.itwssnotcdbytheBritishMinisnyofTranspon.iniü 1%3
ReporIontheFixcLi&. fhaabridgealternative:

"..wuld notbe carricdout,havingrtdtheprincipls of intemationallaw.
untilGreatBritainandFrancehadsoughttheamnirrtheStatesprincipally
amcernedwithnavigationthClmml. An apment oflhiskind,whichwuld
inpanicui becon4 mth thedrawingupof a syJrorthengulatioof
navigation, wouldcatainly mvolvelmgthyncgotwhichwouldonly with

'LawNo.71-1060of2Dcernibc1971UNLrg~hiiwStrieNorio~/LgLInii&Tm.
nerRtloringrorhrLmvofrk ST/LEG/SERB/Ip.17.
UN Offiafooçian.~fiairrthLawoftheSe.%wcnrDevelopnuntsSm Pmetiec.
Na.ll(1988J.p.48.
'Anrrx58.

'Annu 59'Ihcitatiis hm par..9. Inshq abridgedtanative wasconsideredfortheEnChannelbutitwasrejd
in favour ofauuic Ul,n aliu fthcnasonthat the bridgewouid have rrqukd
intematid ncgoiiatioamongdl concanc nationthercsultsowhich@ have
tanimatam.

C'l'HETSUGARUSîRAïï,JUAN

346.ïk Tsugani Saait is locbMKai Honshu.the main island of Jaand
Hoklraido.thenonheislanItswidhathcnmwesi wint isabou20km.TheTsugani
Saait cank chunvatcd by circumnavigating~okkàIslandbutthiwsould&
apptuximatclya 1500kmdetour.ThemahasawidehighscachannrlinthcmiddlrAt
tiÜtirnofth dmuionof itsTerritorialWatas Lawon2 Mav 1977.Jam sacifcaiiv
mùicied itscialln~toinitorial watersinthcKorcar.oyaand&ami'switsm j
nautid miles.'%Tsueani Saaitismentionaias a'brincioalintemationalAsianswit'.'
347. In 1%4caisinierim umk fora lunnel.callédihC~eü;anwas swlaiw
linthehe island. hfiiimelluig wasmvletcd inMarch1985 andthcfirtst
nmtoo klaainMmh 1988. -

348.'Ibe~Tumrlmnsistsofamainaumelandasmiaauiocl.Thedist~ceof
thctunneli3Omm. Ateverv 6M metratherkcacros.uas-am betwcmthetunnels.
Thediamucrofthcmain ouuuiiabout10meIcs andthatofthsavia tunneliabout
4 marcs.AIiad-st wint thcmel is situated100me= bclowdusckd which
means240mem b;low'seaIcvel.nie lm@ ofthcundmca andundmground&IS arc
23.3kmand305 km.mpctively. Theovd lmmh of theSeh Tunnelis53.8km.

&Y.

D.BOSPHORUS

349.Thesuai&ofthcBosphonandDadanellesarclocaiaiktwetheMcdivrraman
andthe BlacSeaWhcn sailingfrothcMcditmanca n theBlackSea.onehasIopass
thmuehtheseiwomaiu. Atitsnmwest winr theBosohomsSaait isno mihankm
wide.ïts lm@ is30Ini.Iidivithcij,ofilanbul iatotwopanr. BoththeBosphonis
andDardanellesarcmcloxd bvsaaibt baslina. adoutcdbvTurkevin theTmihal
WatmLawof 15May 1964. -

350.Passagethmughthesaaisgovmib eytheMonaux Conventionof1936.'which
providesfor"complcte oftransandnavigationintheSaaits" (Article2).
351.ïk fvsBtosphonuBridg(forüiusmtion. Figure22)wasbuilt6kmnorthof
üieamamtheSeaofManaraandoanedm~cinOctoàr1973.Itkasusouision
bridgewitcm siupndc dpanandsevh appmach spanaibothmdr.Thetoi length
ofthcbndgek 1.6~.Thevdcalclearanaatthcmidspanis64mem.Thebndgecam~
amotorwaywithsixmflk h. A secondbridge.callaiForihSulrnnMehmetBridge

wasbuiltabout5hm nonhofîhcfmtoncand w uafîïinJuly1988.lisalsa
aispensiobridgeIIhasdy me singlebpan.thIagth of whichk1090 mem. The
vmical clearanis64mc~cs.The bidgeearriacJotonvaywithcighiwfftc lam.

Lsa ro.30012May 197aiUr TeniiorialScaVNkgukuive Se. ofwdkgiskuwn
OndTrenticsekuinio ic ofthSea.SïILEUSER.BI p.5.-57.

KC Koh SmlrOuIllfemiodNmn~uiion. CollfempySSYC(. 982).17.
3Cnn~nri~n~ UrRegim ofth cIaiUMonlnu.20 Jaly936Il3 LNlS213. 109

Figu22

THEBOSPHORBR IDGE 352. Lie the Bosphoms, the DardanellesStrait is also very narrow in relationto its
length.whichisabout70km. Sofarthereisneither abridgenor aNnnelacmss thissuait.
thoughsome informationhas ken releasedsuggestingthata bridgemightbebuiltin the
funire.

E SCHELDE

353 T.houghariver,theSchelde(Westerschelde)isaninterestingcasebecauseitfom
ana~uralacce~fromthe~cl~iantownofAntwc~&u~hthe~eth~landstothe~orth~ca.
Though noLof course. identical.the situationof Belgiumin respectof tbis river has an

obvioÜssimilarityto Fuiland'ssituationinrelationto-the~anish'straits
354. Since 1988.negotiationshave beenheld bctween Belgium and theNetherlands
becauseofBelgianoppositiontoa Dutchplanto buildabridgewithavemcalcleaianceof
54 melm overthe river.Accordingto Belgium,theplan wouldhavecrealedaneffective
obstacleforshipssaili.gktween Antwemand the NorthSea.
355.Thc lcgalviewsexpresxd bytheGovcmmcntof Belgiumarehved inp~nicularon

Articles 108to 117of the Final Act of the Vienna Conferenccof 1815conceming the
heedom ofnavieationoninternationalrivers.andon Article9.oaramhs 1.2 and3 if the
PcaccTreatyc&cluded on 19Aprii 1839by Bclgium andth;Neiheriand\. Bclgiumhas
funher refd lo the MannheimConventionof 1868concemingtrafic of the Rhine'.
Anicle 9.paragnph 3ofthe 1839PeaceTrearypmvidesthainodclayor hindranccof
anykmdshdl kcausedio shipssailhg ioBelgiumontheScheldenver.TheGovemment
of~el~ium uiterpreü this provisio16the cEect tbat any bndge acmss the nvcr would
constirnieuch a hindrance The Govcmmcntof Belgiumdemandedal an earlier stage -
whenabridgewas stiapmbable alternativ- thatthebridge shoulbe90mems inheight
orpmvided withan opening.
~ -
356. B,Aumi-11989.theNetherlands tohauvereiectedtheorieinalbrideenlan.
Thepresentintentionis t'obuild a bridgea&ss anibutary of theriver&d rnmi inder
the main river. The modalities of the ~mwsed Nmel are still under discussion. The
Govemmeniof Belgiumwishestoconciudéamty on thematter.whiletheGovemment
ofthe Nctherlandsfin& itsufficimi thaithccondiiionsamed areentercd inthemvisions
of the concessionwhichis givm to theconsmictioncoipany.

SectionW. Condusion

357.ALIofthebridgescitedb Dyenmarkinsum>ortofthealleged"inlernationalstandarddard'

are sirnated in internai waters.Almost al1of thcm cmss passages that lead only to the
territoivofthecoastalStateitselt Ifattentionisdireciedto international.t-aiseasieh
corridorsorothernaüual walenuaysofinternationalimportance,nofmedbridgesare tok
found,with theexceptionof the Bosphonis.

'Cf.ActoftheCongressofVienna,Parry. onrolidarcdTmry SerieVol.64p.453:Treaty
betweenBelpumand theNetherlandrelativlotheSeparaiionofthcirrespectiveTenilories,
Mannheim.15iOclober1868.ibidhl.138Cp.168.ionre.wcti-etheNaviaatioontheRhine. 358. Doesthe existenceof the nvo Bosphoms bridges constitue an "intemational
standa~Yofbndgcclcarance,opposabl10~kandin theGreatBelt?Surelynot.inthrus1
place.theBosphomslies~tIMly withininternaiwaters.andpassagerightsinitfully
mvemed bv internationalT&W ftowhichFinlandisnota-oamï. inthe sewnd nlaci.
thei^noévidenceof anyexistingnavigationthatwouldinfin h;viken hame& bi

the brideesal trimeof theirwnsuuction-unlikethe casewiththe GreatBelt. where
establisk navigationwouldbepreventedbythebuildingofthe bridget.inthethiriplace.
it is hardlv wssible tonmedi an intemationallvamlicable standard out ofone.
idiosyncnii~local situa-panicularlyinviewof riie+lete absenceof evidenceof
anyopinioiuritothateffecL
359.ifa bmader view is rakenof f~ed links overnaml watemays of international
imporlanceIWO facmaiconclusionsimwse themselves.In the fus1olace. thareno
bridgesover intemationaismiaitssimatedin the terrsea.~owhere is the right of

innocentormsit passagehamperedbyanexistingbridge.Sewnd, therareIWO casesin
whichanintematio~ds&tis&sledby amnnel(iheDo&rand~su~msmiu).~nrcs~ect
oftheDoverstratih~d,ecisiontoopt fora tunnelwasmadepanlyat leastbecauwofthe
legaiviewthaalbridgewouldhaven-sitated prioragreer&ntkith ailtheusersof the
suait

'h thepas10yuus . ooffshore4 haveWnsited thsuair. fANEX 36@@y byTwXey's
MinWuy ofTranspon).PARTm
THELAW CHAPTERI

THE RIGH OTFPASSAT GHEROU GEHGREA BTELT

SectionL Introduction

376.ItisFinland'scontenrionthatthfrepassagetiuuughtheGreatBeltapplies
to al1shipsenteringand LcavingFponssand shipyardsincludiig drill ships and
MODU'sandexrendstoreasonably foreseeable shipI.t isthisright.based,in Finland's

contention.onexistinzandaoolicabledes ofinternationallaw. whoseexistenceFiniand
askstheCounIO&cl&. Thé&~les arebothwnventionalandiustomaiyinnam. They
dl haveincommon.however.thattheysme theourwse ofmtectinz navigationinsea
mas closeio thecoasi.whcrctheco&ial Suic exeiises iü'sovereig&.inhis is me
generalas regardsthe territorialsea.and ii is insuaiü. whiarethose
pmicularpansofthwa(andnonnallyofthet er)whionlillwopansofthehigh
seas(ora pan of the hiIOtheiemtorialses)andconstinitethereforeimponantand
oftenirreplaceablepas&gewaysforinternationauaffic.ime
3n.nierightof passagec~aby~uilandisbasecionni~esseftonhinvarioussources.
Noneofthesenilesis suchastoexclude.ortoexcludewholly,theapplicabilityoftheothers,
andeachofthcm-evatakascpmtely-is suficicnttouphold thcFinnishclaim.ïheniles
andthereiationshiosbetweenthemwillbeexaminedfmt. inordertoconsiderlaterwhy
theyarabasisfoitheFiish claim.

SectioILConventionaniles

378.Theconvationan loflawtobeexamincdarthe1857Couenhaea Tmw on
theRcdcmptionoftheSoundDues'andthe1958~enev>onvention& theicnitorii~ea
andtheContirnousZone.Customarvlawahaamleioolav.The 1982United Nations
Convention theLawof theSea,&en thoughnotyetini&e. isrelevanthm various
wmls of vicw.as willbe indicad
379.TheTlearyfmtheRedanpuonof theSoundDues.&neatCopnhagaon14March
1857,providesthat theducswhichwm lcbycDenmarkon shipsandcargovassing
thmughtheSoundorthe cltsmul& abolishcdinexchangethrpayrnm~oialump
sum bytheConIacling PartiesüianDmmark.

Article1,paragmph1.sfterpvidingf~thcabolthcdues.continus,inilsFrcnch
authentictext.as foilows:
"Aucun navirequelconquenepourradbonnaiss.ousquelquequecesoit.Cm
assujetiau passageduSundou desBelis.Aunedétentionoucnwve quelwnquc:mas
Sa~ajcstciRO~de DanemarkserCwrexpressémenledmiide&ers accords
paruculien. n'impliquantni visite ni détention.le udivmmt fieesl ci douani
Mviw appartenai& Puissancesquin'paspri a" auprcsentTraite."

Thisprovision makesclearthat theengagementofDno1tosubjectshipspassing
tiuuughtheSoundandBelutoanydétentionorhindrsn wcewheterynsallvswls,
belongtotheconmcting partino^TheonlyrewivationmadebyDcnmarLrcla6cd
thefiscalandcustomsueatmentof vesselsbclongingto non-Panies. ThePartiesIothe1857Treatywere.apan frornDenmark t,eUnitedKingdomofGreat
BritainandIreland Austria.Belgiurn.France,Hanover,Mecklemburg-Schwerin. lden-
burg. theNetherlands.F'russia,Russia.Sweden and Nonvay. the HanseaticToms of
Liibeck.BrernenandHamburg.

380.Finland thcna Grand-DuchyofRussia,wasnotas sucha Party,eventhoughthe
GmdDuchy of~inlandmnmbuted4~.000roubl nssilvertothepp;iymetyRussiaof
iü pan of thecompensationdueIODenmarkundcrtheCopenhagcn.Treaty. '
381. The nght of passage without détentionor hiidrance is provided for in the
formulationof Anicle 1.paragraph 1 of thTreat or,the benefit of al1StatThis

intmtation ismnfmcd inaninterventionatthefmt UnitedNationsConferenceonthe
~awoftheSeabytheDanishrepresentative,M Sp.rensen.Hesaidthat:"Panofthe Danish
coastborderedan internationalsuait ioiningtwopansof thehighseas.andformorethan
onehundredyean hiscountryhadrn&tained fre;dornofnavigationthmughsuchsuaitin
theinteresuof internationaluade."
Thus. the righü providcdby thTreat king accorded10 al1States,Finlandcan be
considerrd-imer al& accordingto Anicle 36 of the ViennaConventionon theLaw of
Treatic-asathirdpartybcncfic&yofthecopcnhagen~reaty.This haskcn acccptedby

Denmarkinitspleadii.sbeforetheCounontheIndicationofPmvisionalMeasurcsinthe
prescricase'.
382.ThepositionofFinlandinrelationtotheCopenhagcnTmty mayalsobe bascdon
mnsidcrationsdifferentfromthoseconnectedwiththelawof ueaties.IIrnightbeargued
thatthe1857TreatyofCopenhagcn~~tcsanobjectiveregime.inotherwardsawtofniles
whichmavbe invoM bvail interestcdStates.indeoendent,v~f~ ~ ~rbcinevarticstothe
mIy. Thk wastheopinionofthelnternatio&l~okminee oflunsü estabi;shedin 1920
by theCounciiof theLeamieofNationsto adviv iton theclaimoutfomard bv Sweden
againstFinland10thedekilitarization of the kand IslanThi;claun was bascdon a

Conventionconcludedon 30 March 1856bctweenFranceand Geai Britainon theone
hand.andRussiaon theother. The InternationalComrniaeeof ~ÙrisIsadvixd ha1even
thoughSwedenwasno1a mm, itaiuld claimihatFinlandwasboundIoabidebvtheniles
ondérniliiarizatiof the.lsl&ds.TheCommiaeesaidthat:
'me provisions [ofthe 1856Treaty] were laiddown in Europcan imrens. 'lhey
mnstiNted a special internationalstanis,relatingIo militaryconsiderations.for the
kand Islands.It followsfhatuntilthcseprovisiaredulvre~laŒdbyothers.evm

-. -
outof thesysternof dmilitarization establishedby th& provisions."

11doesnot mancrveryrnuchin theprexnt mntext whetheronespeaksof an"objective
regirne".ofa "wnlerncnt regulatingEwopeaniterestr"orofa %al plitical sta~s the
effecu of whicharefelt ou%& th imdiate circleof mnmcwig ~anies".Ali thex
expressionare containedintheRcponof theComrniaeeofiunsts'. Mat counrsisthatin

'Annex20.

'Annex 73.
'Swmuil byihc Couwl of anmah Dr.JimQczde MEhaga on2 July1991. 1920Finiandwasheldboundbyanobiigauonbasedonaireatyto whichilwasno1apq
and. moreremarkabl-inrelationioaclaimantStaiedu>wasno1apanyIothe Lrcary.
InFinland'.oniniontheoblinationsassumedbvDenmarkundertheTreatyofCouenhanen
(&ncludedjustoneyearafzthe TreatyonthibrlandIslaaresimilar* na& tothose
assumed bv Russia (and held amlica10eFiniandassuccesxir in the exercise of

u>vmign&ovathcA~and~slan&j~re~ardsthedcmili~lionofthe Aland1slands.The
unwnanceof lhDanishSmis forthewliocal baianceintheNonhernpanofEm. and
in'particularin the Bareics eviknt. The indicationby Denmark,quotedin the
oncedinn ~aramh. of the"intcresisof internationalhade"as a reason for Denmark
mainiainkgfr&& of navigation ihroughtheswiis forova onehundredyem clearly
poinü inthesamedirection.ConsequenilyFiniandisentiiledIoinvoketheprovisions of
theCopenhagenTreatyindcpcndenilyof iispositionihiardny beneficiary.
383.TheConventionon theTerritorialSeaandtheContiguousZone.adopicdaiGeneva
onthe 29Amil 1958.wasrarüicdbvFinlandon 16Fcbw 1965andbvDenmarkon26
Seplemberi968.Conwquenily.underAnicle29paragaphi ofthnt~on;ention. iteniend
intoforcebeween thewo Partiesas hm 25Oclober1968.
ThaiConventionconiainsniles on the innocentpassageof foreignshipsihroughthe
icrriiorialwa.11ody mentionsswiü uscdforinmational navigationbenvan onepanof
thehiehscasandanotherom ofthehid~was orthehional wa ofa forciRnStarcona.
in &cle 16paragrap4: Amrding ;O thiprovisio"thershallbe no &pension" of
innocmtpassageihroughsuchshaiis.

AcmrdingtoAnicle25 ofthe 195Convention.~~provisionsofthisConvmtionshall
notaffectconventionsorotherinternationala-enisalreinforcevasbewan StaIes

Section111.Rie relatiooshbehveeotheCopeohagen Treat of 1857aod
Ibe Ceneva Conventionof 1958

384.As farasmty lawisconcmed p-e ihroughtheGnat Bel1isIhusrcgula-ed
askwan DenmarkandFiniand -bvthe 1958GenevaConventionIOwhichbothSW
arepartie.nd by the1857Cqahabn Treaty,whetherbecauseFuilandithudParty
bmeficiaryoronthebasisof anwisting objstivc regime.

Wt is theeffcct,in theligihipositionof Finiand,of Art25of theGmcva
Convention.auovd above.accordinntowhictheorovisionsof theGenwa Convention
"shall itaffmcmventi&s orothe~intcrnationala&menrs alreadyinfoasbenvan
StatesPartiesIothcm'?
Somedoubü might beraisedasto whetha a thii pany beneficiarycanbeconsidend
asaStaieParryforthcpurrasesof Article25. W~everdoubimay beraisedintheabsmr.
thefactthat&recentl~ask 19~enmarkhaswnside~d~uilandathird~anybmefici~
meansthataccordinIODenmark -whichistheonlyStalehavinnoblinationsconceming

passagebugh th;ûreat &II unda the 185TI& -~uilid c& invoketherighk
dcriving hm the Treaty of Copoihagcn nowifhstanding fact thatheGencva
Convehon isinfora bekan Lk&nakand Fuilan Theconsmictionmentioncdabove
of theCopmhagcnTrcaryascrcatinganobjectiveregimnfm thiconclusion SectioW. The regimeofpassagethmugh the Great Belt:
The changingDanishview

' 385.TheDanishpositionasregardsth wepaseagawugh~heleea1 Belt
hashemfarhm consistentoverthevears.ItisnonethelcsscleUVttothebeninnina
ofthe-nt case .endcon withoutdélenuoorhmdrance&uvidedf& m th;
Tmw ofCoo.nhae-nof 1857 hasbeensen hvDaunarkasapanof.oras thebas=of. a
rcgimeof whichcustomarylawisawmponait

386.ln1929.inresa>ndinetoaaue~tionnaiR~re~aredinviewoftheLeamcofNations'
~onfmnccfor&e~obificati&ofhmational l&.Denmarkindicated itsksitiononthc
r-ehe of.ass-eeintheSoundandBeltsasfollows:
'TheTreatyofMarch14th.1857.fortheredemptionoftolldueson theSoundand
theBeluisregardcdbytheDanishGo hveigbeenprsmadyinmded
IOabolishthespecialdes prcviouslyinforceinthcscw-linparticular.the
collectionothedueshown as the "Soundducs"-andto bruigtheu waun
hencefoward under the gend mles of inlemationallaw relaungstrails
wnnsting nvoportionsoftheopensea."'
-.
387.ln his interveat thefmt United NationsConferenceontheLawof theSea,
quotedabove,M. SBrenscns,peakingonkhalf ofDenmark,havingrsalled thatDcnmark
had maintainedfreedomof navigationhugh the Danish suails in the interestof
intemationaiuadeforoveronchundrcdyears.statedthat:
"suchanobligationasthatwhich hiscounWhadassumedshouldk counierbal-
ancedbyc~~~ndin~~~hls~other~ans~ftheworld.and~nmarkaccordin~l~
ex~ectedthat therewouldk Fm passas for ils shivshughseaiu in the
tektonalseaofotherstales.'*.. - -

388.lntheinterventiat theThitd United NaConferenceontheLawofthesea,
Denmarkpreuntcdyetadiffercntposition.

Fcrgo.cmph&isedthaiin me nam>wsuaiis.'~apefialregunehadde&lopd ova thc
ycarsbawdonUcaties.customand thecoastaiSiale'snationallegislalionandadaptcdto
locaconditions.Transithugh the internationalstraitslcadinginto the ~aliic. for

example.wassoregulatcd.on thebasisof theCopenhagenConventionof 1857.Such
speciharrangcmenÜwhichhadprovedkir valueovaih yearsandscrveiheintercsts
ofcoaslalSiam andtheintanationaiwmunity shoukd maintained'."
ThesameDanishrepreuntativercferredagainin anotherinterv10the"spsial
regunescrvingtheintemis ofboththecoaslalsialeand theinternationalcommunity"'.
AnotherDanishdiplomagwhodu>anvedasrcprcscntatiofhiswunw ItheThud

UniiedNationsConferenceontheLawoftheSea.AmbassadorIbRAndrcascn.TCmed
inan interventioantacadmucmatins thatthenovision of theCooenha~cnTreaN
accordingw whichnovesse1shaklsubjkt inilsPassagehughthe&undk ~clu &

LagueofNatinu.ConfcremefofkCodfirafionoflniernotionolLaw.Batcr ofDucussion.
vol.11-C74.M.39.192913.SeeAmc.zIZ
UNredNmonoCmonfcremeonfkLawoffhrSea.q9icial Reco.olU.p.65SecAnnex73
tothprevntMemonal.
'Annex74.

'Annex75. 121

anydetentionorhindrance."isanu~ssionofaregimeofpassagethroughshü"andthat
"k the Danishswiü a special&me of pas%& adaptid to Ïocalconditionshas been
developedover the yearsbasedon the Copenhagm Conventionof 1857, international
~st~aty law.andRationalreguiation".l

389.The opinion that whatapplicsto theDanishswiü isnot a maly buta "regime"
emerPesalsofmmthefactthatDenmarkcons~~ersthatArticle35(c)of the UnitedNations
~onGntionon the~awofthe~eaapplicstothe~anishswiü andhom theconmts ofthai
Anicle.Thiswint wasmadeexdicitlv bvthe l~deroftheDanish&leeation.Ambassador
~eter~~c&r. inintervening the~~eiatyofthenird U.N.~awoithe ScaConferencc

on 31March1982:"HisdclcaationwassatisfiedthatAnicle35(c)avplicdiothevcific
reguneintheDanishsnaits.aregime whichhaddevelopcdove the'yearson thebastsof
theCopenha.enConventionof 1857."'
hdeed.Article 3.(.)oftheConv-~~-~n-~ ~rlvaimsatsafemiardinesomethinedifferent
hm me= maty obligations.This appearscléarfyif one &mpare; this pmv~sionwith
Article25oftheGncvaConvmtionon theTerntorial SeaandtheContimiousZonc.~uotcd

above.7he 1982provisionprovidesthat thenewConvention's Pm llïon Swits shhl not
aiieci. "the -ceal-reeime in swits in w.icho-ssaae is rermlatedin wholeor ibv
long-standinguitcrnaiionalconventionsin forcespecific$y relatedto suchsuaiThe
1982omvisionmaks of a"lexalreeime". andno!. as doesthatof 1958.of"conventions
or othk intemationala-c&.". i ;paifies thatthe conventionsmustk "spsifically
related"to theswit in question.and mi& to say that themnventionsmustbe in force
betweenthePatties.

Mmver.the 1982orovisionconsidm conventionswhichwlateoassaee throughthc
swiuinwholeorinpo~.~onsc~ucntl~ ,ifoneacccptstheviewt6atthe~op&agen~ty
doesnotwver aU asacts ofpassaecthrouehtheDanishstraiü(asDenmar ams tohave
maintainedthroughihevariousphasesof k thinkingontheregimeoftheStraiü).nileson
aspectsofpassagenotwlated bvtheTreatvareseenasremairtineunaffected
. - - -
390.ThepositionofDenmarkastothc"rcgime"ofthe hishshüchangedonceagain
in 1991.asmiergesfromtheDanishWrincnObservationsand fromtheDmsh pleadings
durinethediscusSionofFuiland'sRux - ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~suresinthemesmicase. 61
this;ore recent occasion the applicable law was indicated~bDemkxk to mnsist
cxclusivelvof theGeneva Conve~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~857Tnatvo. Cov~ ~aeeninmmct of
which Fiiand was. accordingto Demnarka . tiurdpanyknefi~iary.3-llc mn&t of

"repune". unon which Dcnmar hkad insisiedsomuchdurine theThird United Nations
~oifcrenie'ontheLawofthe Sea,wasabsentintheseprono&cements.ïhe relevana of
customatylaw.alsooftenmentionedonpreviousoccasionsby Demark .asexcluded

'"Commmtary" Thclow oftheSeainthc1980s.ProcredingsofthcLuwofthcSeoImtim.
14thAnml ConferenceO .ctober20.23,KieGcmy. (cd) Chmn-ho Park.(1983pp.
ml.
'Am 76.Sctalstheinmention madconbehalfofDcnmark byMI. Mellbinon27 Augu
1980.ibidrmvol.XN. p. 61AMex 77.
'DanishWtiticnObservationsf28lune1991.paraç.%-123.Secal- swrnent bythccoml
ofDenmark. h.Jimtnczde Artchaga SectionV.The roleofcusiomarylaw

391.TheviewofFiand asregardsthelawapplicableto passagethtuughtheDanish
suairsandinparticularthtuughtheGreatBeltis,hroadlyspeaking.simüartothatheldby
Denmar kuringtheThirdUnited NationsConferenceon theLawof the Sea:passage
throughtheDanishsuairsis indceda specificregime.thecomponenuof wharethe
atove mcntionedueatyprovisionsaswellasrulesofcustomarylaw.

Whatprecixly isthemleofcustomary lawintheshapingofthisregune?
392.Suchamlecanbeseen.firstlv.ifoneconsidenthatthedescontainedm theTreaty
of 1857havenowbemmedesof cistomarylaw. Th= isthecasfortherulcthatexclu&
al1foms of cusiomsor dues forpassas in theSoundor Bels "for ever".Amcle 18.
pangraph 1.of the 1958Gcneva~onvëntionon theTemionalSeaand theContiguous
Zone.mted inArticle26.pansaph 1.oftheUniiedNationsConventionon theLawof
the Seaof 1982.sw that."Noihaigemay belevieduponforeignshipsbyreasononly
oftheirpassage throutheterritorialsea".
Furthemore. the nile mvidinz for thenaht of oassazewithoutanv hindrorŒ
démtionhasbsorneac&tomaryLw nile.in th ;an;dcc&of irsapplicat~enmark

hasnevn invokedlhefanIhaicenaisbs passinathtuunhthmais fltheflaaofaStav
partytotheCopenhagenmaty inorder;Okat th;mdifTerenthm &ipsofStatesthat
arenotpartiestotheTnatyCettainlnosuchdistinctionwasevm hintedatinthenotes
sentby the Danish~inisb of ~orëigAnairson the plans for afued linkto all the
EmbassiesinCo~enha-m.
393.Semndly,thedcvdopmrnuwncming thenotionofinnocentpassaparishg hm
theUnitedNationsConventionon theLawoftheSeaof 19arenoiwithouiconwquence
forthecustomarylawnotionofsuchpassage.andalsofortheintrrprctationofthatnotion
asenvisagedinthe1958Conventioon theTenitonalScaand theContiguouZone.This
isme. inphcular. asregardsthelistingofactivities.selfonhinAnicle19parapph 2

of the 1982Convention. whichhallk amsiderc10 k miudicial totheme. aood
mderorsecurityofthewastalstate".Asiswellknown,the&eva ~onventih say&dy
thai'passageisinnocentsolongasitisnotprejudicialtothepcace.goodorderorsccuriry
ofthecoastalSIate"(Anicle14.paragrap. iiiarly. thelistinginAnicle21ofthe1982
Conventionof thesubjectsrclatingio which thecoastalStatc'inay adopt nila and
regulation..elatinw innocentp&agc throughtheterritorses".-c kawnen asan
authontativeindicatioihae subja hm lhepmpectiveofNstomarylawaswdi as
humthatoftheintemretatioof&ide 17ofthe6encvaConvention.which mentionsin
gencralternithea&tal State'slawsandregulations.
indeed.twoimwnantStatcsoaniestotheGenevaConvention.thenitedStatesathe
Sovietunion. Gve mntly j;intly statedthat."the relevantiles of internationallaw
goveminginnocentpassageof shipsin the territoriarestatedin the 1982Unitcd

NationsConventionontheLaowftheSea...articularlyinPU,section3",andspeci!ied
thatthelistofactivitieswhich wouldrenierDanon-innocentsetfonh inAnicle 19
ofthe1982~onvmtion,is"uhaustive"andthatth~desofintemationallawinconfomi~
wilhwhichthewastalStatemustadooanvlawsandre"uiationsare"r iefliceted"
21.2'2.23and25 ofthesameConvAtion'. Moreover.dornesticlegislationon innocent passage hasalreadystaned to reflen the

listingsinthe 1982Convention(see,forinstance,theBulgarianLawof8July 1987.'and
note thatBulgariais a pany to theGeneva Conventionon the Temitonal Sea and the
ContiguousZone)or tomakerefcrenccto theConventionof 1982.asdocs, forinstuice.
theGhanaianMaritimeZones(Delimitation)Actof 1986.'

394.niirdly, therax suongmnds ininternationalpranice towardstheestablishment
of a customary internationallaw nile on passagethroughswiu making suchpassage
indeandent of thenotionof"innocento.ssa-e".
Thismnd iscvidcncedbythcacceptanceofthenotiono"ftransip tassage"throughswiü

used forinternationalnavigatinttheThi United NationsConferenceon theLawofthe
Sa andbythefactthatth%notionhas ben indicatedbysomeStates. unilaterallyor in
Ueaties,asking pan of customarylaw.
Onemaymail, inparticular,thattheRcsidentofthe UnitedStatesinhishlamation

onthelemtonalseaof27Decemkr 1988statedthat:'inaccordancewithinternationallaw,
asreflectedintheapplicableprovisionsofthe 1982ConventionontheLawoftheSa...the
shipsandairrrafotf ailwunuies enjoythenght of mit passagethroughinternational
swits"'. Sirnilarly.inaJointDeclarationof2November1988.theGovemmentsofFrance
andof the UnitedKingdomaffmed thal.

'Theexistenceofaspecificregimeofnavigationinswiu isgenmlly acceptedin
the cmnt stateof internationallaw"
andthat

"thetwoûovemmenu momre righüofunimpcdedmsit passageformerchant
ships .statevcswlsand, inpartrcular.warshipsfollowingtheu normalmodcof
na;igation. aswellastherightofovefflightf&airçraft.Gthe Suaiü of Dover"'.

in itsdecree-lawNo. 14/18Sac-Tameet-Principeaftïms thar
"shallrespectfrrcdomofnavigationinandovefflightofswiu orsealanesusedfor
internationalna~igation"~.

In Anicle 5, Daramaph2. of the SouthPacificNuclear-Fm Zone Tmw. simed a1
Rarotongaon6AuGst: 1985,"mit passage ofswits" ismcntionedinsucha <ay that
no doubt is lefi that the i. .wpatties wnsiderasta conccpt belon- -to existin-
internationallad.

--
'UnitedNorton~OBcefor OcconAffairsandthLow oftheSeo.Thekiw oftheSm.Cunrnr
DevelopnunirInSwtePrnrrircNo IINewYak 1989. p.3et 9.. An 20.
UnircdNarionSOBceoftheSpccialRcprcscnrarioeftheSccrero>y-Gtncror thLow ofthe
Sen.TheLow oftheSen,CunenrDevelopmemis nStateProcrice.ewYok. 1987. p.33eiW..
An.2. WC.1.

UnitcdNnriom. for OcemAffairaandrhrLow oftheSen.TheImu ofrheSen.Currem
DevelopmnüinSioieProrrice.No.II.New York,1989.p.83.
'Annex 58.
'Ln2 UnitedNationImu oftheScaBulletin(Decemkr 1983)p.73.

6"Ea~h Wny inUr cxemscofiusoverllgn righremaimk Io &de forimlf wheh toal-
lowvisiuby foreignshiandaircra Iniu ponrandeidieldslmmiiofiu ainpaa byfmign
aimafl andnavigatioby foreignshiiniu imiIoriareaorarchipclagcatcrin amannr mi
cwvercdby Urrighüofinnocen tassagearchiplagicsca-lanpassageorrmnniparsageof
maW (undertùùng addcd).(UnimiNNatim.OfFiaofthcSpcial Reprrwntativefthc
Sccrew-Gmcral forUr Law ofthcSca Tk Lm. oftheSea.CurrrnDcveio~mnirofSmte
pr~icei New York,1987.p.192.) The"rightofpassageinmit'' isalsomentionedintheBowidaryDelimitanonTreary
wncludedon31March1978bctwan VenezuelaandtheNetherlands(Article4)'.
-~Artic~e7ofthe-~re~~ ~tbewcenAuswliaandPa~uaNewGuimaof 18Davmkr
1978aregimeofpassagethroughtheToms Suaitsisdeciaredappliwhichshouldnot
bemorcrcsuictivethanthtfaansitoassage~rov iitherelvantarticlesofthethen
mosi&nt lrifonnal~e~otiatu~eitof iheihird UnitcdNationsConferenceonthe Law

of theSea TheAnicleaddsthat "if theprovisionsof thox aarerrvisatareno1
includeiniheLawofthesea~onvcntionorfailtobecomegcnerallyampied pruinpls
ofinternauonallaw"thepamcswouldconsultinordertoagreeonanotherregune?Nosuch
wnsultauonhasoccurrcdandthepanierhaveranficdtheAgreemenin1985.mahg il
leginmatetowncludethattheyconsider~i. pa.sa1beagenerallyacceptedpruiciple
ofiintemationallaw.
395.Thex examplesfromthepracticeofStatesofvariousregionsoftheworldindicate
thatthere is evidenceof an emergingprinciplcon "wnsil passage"throughswiu,
mithstanding thefactthatanimberofStates(albeitasrnailandadiminishingnumàr)

stillholdaciifferntview.
Potiapssuchanmergingprinciplcdos notincludeal1thedetailsxt forthintheUnited
NationsConventionontheawoftheSea.nitmanif~~tatiowofpractiŒconsidnadabove
wouldseem.howev~.suficicn intnypasefortheviewthatprcsdaycustomary
lawonpassagethmughsuaitdoesno1correspondanylongerwiththeprescriptionsofthe
GentvaConventionontheTaritorid SeaandtheContiguousZon, withanyrestrictive

396.Itissignificantfmmthepointofviewofcustomarylaw thatalthoughthousandsof
shipshavepasscdandpasseveryyearthroughtheDanishswits. nepcnmark northe
fiagStatesof theseshipshaveevn indicatedthatthispasexgrariaIliapassage
basedonlaw.onanobligationofDenmark Nodistinctionhasevebeenmadebetween
passagebasedon the&neva Convention.on the CopaihagcnTreatyor on gcncral
intemationallaw.'lhisseemstoindicatethatal1the above-mentioncds eme.in
theirapplicationtopassagethmughtheDanishSuaits.intoagcnd nileof medom of
passas.

SectioVI.Customsry Law and Artide35 (c)
ofthe Lawofthe SeaConventionof 1982

397. Spcial provisionismadeinthe1982
Unite NationsConventionaihe Lawof
theSeafor straitswhiarethe subject oflong-siandinginternationalucaties.lndaQ
Fuilandwasanactivcproponmtofthat ovision.Anicle35(c t)ptrovingnPsan
IIIofthe198Convention.onstrai~usedf~i nalgatiti.haalffect"iheleaal
regimein sbdia in whichpassageisregulatd in whoOÏ inpan by long-stand&
internationlonventionsinforcespecificallyrclatingtosuchsuaits".
398. Oneintemrcratofthismvision isthat.whateverthemieimoactofthewnceot
ofmit passa&ihmug hw~rSincustomaryiw .passagthrou ghjr ani shwiik
sheltardfrumsuchimmctbvAmcle35(c).Suchanintemretatiis .owever.ofdoubmil
validiryinthepmcnt ;taiethelaw.TheUnitcd~ations~onvmtiononth; Lawofihe

Seaof 1982isno!inforce.ConwquentlynoproblemsmncerningwnflictsLrtwemthe

'InUMicdNaIiomO. ma foOccanARah andihsLawof ihSca Tk h offkSca.MM-
iùnr BovtdnAgrccmem (1970-1984NewYoh 1987.p.139.
"Ihelheotfih-ment iin8lnurnorionIrgd Maeriok. 1979.p.291. Ucaw pmvisionswntained in it andotherdes of inlemationallacanarisebeforethe
Convention.includingAnicle 35.becomesbindingforthepartiesasaûeaty.
399.The auestion of the influenceon customw law of the mles set fonh in the

Conventioni;different.Theinternational~ounoflusÏicehasstatedthatevenifIwonoms
klonging IOIWOsourcesof intemuonai lawawar idenucalinconienLandcven if lhe
Statesinquestionarboundby these des bothon the lcvelof ueaty-lawand onthatof
cusiomav internationallawthesnoms retainaseparateexistcncc.'Canitbesaidththe
exisiniŒ~ofAnicle 35 (cl in the 1982Convention.mnsidered in ifs ment staasa
daument not yet bindkg as a mty. is such as to prcclude any &rcussionon the
customarvlawuendtowardsthe wnsolidationofarceimeofoassaze throuehintmationai
suaits sikilar. in itsbroadoutline,to thatof"transi~assag;"? inFin1and;sopinionsuch
repercussionscannobe excluded.alleasasregardspassageofshipsotherthanwarships.

Evm were the wnlenu of hicle 35(c)mnsidered to be inseparablehm whatever
customawmlehasemcrgedinwmspondena with thewnccpt ofWsit passage".this
would notexcludethe&mcl ofsucha de onthereeimeof theDanish~trairs.~imilarlv.
- il is submin-dwere &e 1982Conventiontoen& intofonr, Anicle 35(c)wouldno1
mccludesuchimoactofthe"mit .ass-ee"nùes oftheConvcntion.Thereasoisthatthe
kgime applicabl;tothe DanishSuairsincl~desacustomar~law'wrn~ne wnhtichmains
oan 10influena hm theeeneralmlesofinternationalcustomarvlaw.Suchamssibiiiw

u& taken in wnsiderati& by the drafarsof the 1982~onv&tion. when iheyma&
refmncc in paragaph 35(c) w long-slandingconventionsregulatingpassage through
suairs inwholeor inpart.
400.Theimmceof thecustomw mmixmentoftheleaairepimeoftheDanishsmifs
dependsa hiw mmprchensivetheÙcary la; mles.andnocbly themieon passageofthe
1857Trcaty,~wnsidercdiobe.ItiswellI<nownthatviewsdiffaonA thcorpogint

to somc.thewty of Copmhagm "n'a pasCtabliun rtgime particulierpourlesdéuoifs
danois-sonseulbu1Clantdefairedisparah uneenuaveBlanavigation-etparconsquent
aspassages sontsoumisaurtgunegtnéraldesdémiu inicrna~ionaux"~Aissnotcdabove.
thispositionwasalsoheldbyDenmark initsreplytoa qucsuonnaucseninprcparabonfor
theLeagueof NauonsConferenceof 1930fa theCodificationof Intemuonal Law.
SimilaristhepositionheldbytheDanishprofessorEBrlilelhisûeatiseonintanational

Suaifs'.as weUas.more raxntlv. bv the DanishauthorS. hn4 and bv the Geman

Othersholdtheviewthatthe 1857Trearyistheprin~pallegalbasisofthenghtof~gc
of ships(a atleastof shipsotthan wanhips) throughtheDanishsiraiW.'Thisposiüon

'MilitaryandParamilitActivitiaiandagaùrrtNicarag(Nicamgwv. UnitedSWes of
AmericaJM).enu.JudgnunrI.CJRcpom1986.p.95.para178.
'R Lapidoth,rr dCnoitendroilucrMIwnal.(1972)p.112.

'ErikBrOel.mednaiSmùn. (1947)VOLU.W. 4041.
"Psuagc hugh Swiu. An Anal* ofLheConilite- LheGmral InurrriinFrcNavi-
&On andlheMRilar Lnmn of LhSlaiiSwr inConmllingLhehcltoll'lhrcaPovdby
LheWreckofOùT&n asillusDaibv UrDMJh Swiu Conmvcny". 47Norduk Tidrkr~fi

'7hc BaltiSwiu". ThcImu ofthcSeom the1980s.Mngn Lawof LheSeahtiniu 14<h
AnnualGmferma. Kiel.1980.(cdnioo~ho-Park,p.537eiW.. erpec.p565.hasbeeniakenrsentiybytheGermaxholarH.L<)schnd.The hedsyiterunark
altheThirdUnited NatioConfemce ontheLawoftheSeaandmentionedbeforemay

wme closetothisview.

SectionW. The regimeofpassageand theFinnishclaim

401.Ihasbeenshow thattheregùneofpassagehugh theGreatBellisthercsultof
ammbiion of des emergingfGmvkus sources.andthaiheprsciserelationship
betweenthe%sourcesmaybetheobjectof debaie.eventhoughilEms anain that the
TreatyofCopenhagenandcutomarj des haveaparlicularimportanceintheshapingof
there.ime.
Asregardstheright bclFiimeidisnotnecessar.owever,todetermheexactly

whatistherelationshipbetweenthe variousdes. Eachofhem, eveniakenseparalely,
providessuscient s&irforsuchright
402.Irissometimesarguaithatinceminrespeclsthedcs oninnocentpasetfonh
in the GenevaConventionon theTerritorialSea and the Contiguou arcmore
resmclivLhanthoseonmit passagemntainedin theUNtedNationsConventiononthe
Lawof the Seaof 1982andthispointcouldk madealsoasqards thecuswmaiylaw
reiiectionof thcsemies.IImkstconsidercdnonetheiess.thit oftm themitmon for
mnsideruinonede ofinternational conccmingpassag10bemore M lessresmctive
thanano& iswhethcr,orunderwhatconditions,passageofwarshipsispmnincd This

secmstobe thecriterionadoptai byDenmarintheWhen Ob~e~arioIUit presented
dunng thedixussion oihe6ues.Ï for pmvisionalmuisurcsin the-ntcd. This
auestionisno1relevantthpurpowof theprrwntd'iule.andshouldnotiniluenccthe
&sessrnentbythe~ounof th;ckcter oft& mieconhg passage.

SeciioVm. Passageforal1ships

403.Al1thevaryingnùesofinternationallawtowhichatthasbeendrawnobligate
Denmark toensurepassageofshipsofal1StatesthroughtheGreatBell.Noexceptionis
made for a.v.oartidar kind of.-hi.. ahm warshius.indecdthe dcs under
wnsideration envisage shipsdiffemt hm warships(as weUas, in ment times,
govemment+miedships not usd for commercialpurposcs),as agmd rcsiduary

ca~cgory.
404.llis mcn?es clearlyifoneexaminesthesmcnin of themvisions on innocnit
passageinthho va ~on&ntionontheTerrito"a1Seaandthe&ntiguousZoneof 1958
as well as the smcnue of the wmswndina vrovisionsof the 1982UnitedNations
ConventionontheLawof theSea Inthésepm~ikons:'warships"and"othcrgovment
ships"arclcarlyidnitifid. whüetheotherships.althoughcalled'k~ship inthe
titieofsub-sectionBofse~mlnoftheGenevaConvmti onfsndtofsubsection
IIIofPan lofthe 1982Convention.rcSemasa singlecatcaory.wilhoutanyrcfercna

i8,19.20 ofth; &a Convention.27and of the1982~onventi&t).

"ShippinRoutrIOandwithinthBalticSe30 Avpnpolit1979p.174elW.. cnpcpp.
278-279.
DanishWnuen Observatiof28Jun 1991p.arasI.LI11. 127

405. ïleTrearvofCopenhagenof 1857alsoenvisagesailship "msarcdanttonly
shps accordingtothe m&i resÜiciivemeaningofthcÏerm.althoughilpmbablyexcludes
warships.whichil does no1mention.in itsplcadings beforethe iniemaiionaiCoun of
Jusria inthehcaringsonthercquestforpmvlsionaimaures inhcpreprecrse.Denmark

heldtheopwsitc view'.Accordinatotknmark. theprovisionsof thematy "haveinmind
merchant~<essels.ecausethe~Galyrefersto"foÏreignshipsand thei&oes" and 10
"commercialrelaiions".Tnisarment doesnot,howeva. intoaccountthefollowingIwo
aspectsof thebeaty:that thep&blementions,jus1afterthestatementofthepurposeof
increasing"'commercielations",thatofincreasingUmaritimreelations":andthatthedues
on shivsandoncare-eswerethensnwate

Asexplainedbythe DanishCommissionerdunngthenc teo18iaTtialn.he
dues"wmof IWO kinds.namelvtheSounddueswhichareleviedonmerchand&...andthe
duesIcvicduponshipping.whiih areaisooftwo classes. theoneunderthenameof Lighl
duesking seiapui forthcmainrenanaoftheIighthousie nthenodubdaysBelts.
andtheolherdled "Expedit~ondues".king fŒsIcviedforthepurpowsofdcfrdyingthe
expenscsof the Cuslomhause.'"nie dues levicdon shippingdqended on the fnclof

passage At leasras faras theLighiduare conccrned.therecanbe nodoublthai whal
wunted was the fact of naviaarionhugh the Sound and Belt and of uiiluing the
lighthouscsandbuoys. andnGthat theshipwasengagingin-de.
406. Internationallawhas neverlimitednghts of passagethroughtenitonai seasand
suaits to an exclusivecateeow of beneficiaries.whetherdcfined as shivs. vessels.or

othemise. Rather,rightsofk&ge havethemsel;es ken amccivedinafunctionalsnsc.
accord ina nehl of navipationto ail craftwhichnavieateuwn the .hisfunctional
appachtoth~~fmitimOf~ghtsofP~aP issofund&en~astopewa&themtkbody
ofjuristicwririand practia. ratherthankingconid tospaiticprovisions inlexon
thesubject Thus,forexample.it wassratedinoneof theprominenttextsofthecarlypari
of lhicmw that:

"hallcasesin whichicrriionalwatmaresoplacedfhatpassageoverthemiscithu
necessaryor convenientfor the navigationof opxas.as in thal of marginai
wam, or of anappmpnalcd swit connecringunappmpriatedwaters.thcy arc
subjectIOa nghrof innocenusebyail mankindforIhcpurposesof wmmercial
navigation..mor morethannvohundrcd and CiRyyearsnoEuropcan territorial
marinewaterswhch muld k wd arathoroughfare.or intowhichvesselscould

accidcntallyswy orbe dnvm. have ban cl& IOwmmacial navigation:and
sina thebeguuiingof thenineunith annuy nosuchwalcrshaveken closcdin
any part ofthe civilised world The nghi thmfore mut be mnsidcrtdlok
cslablishedinthemostcomplcu.mariner."[Foomrcs omined] l.

'Starementy Ihmm1 ofDcMiarL .r.JinCnude Adchaga 2luly1991.
'Repon ofIhcMinistcofGmi BriminwII KoW ofDcnmarkon IIK egotiatioonIherc-
demptionoftheSounddues.22March1857.Manens.NouveaurecueilgtnirderrraircZhne
series,ThneXVI.p.331etW.. atp.332.rcporiingIhcexplanatimoniheduesgivenbytk
ïhnùh hnprcscntative.

'WE HallATreoriseonInicr~riodlmv. 8ted(cd.A. RarceHiggins)(.1924).pp.197-
198.Tosimileaffensc.e.e.F.Pucls(m. L Arendt). mI& droim'fine. (18W. o.
~~ -.~ , ~ ~, ~ ~ ,~-
pp.181-1831...hmmron law ofdons mw imposeupon al1ma~%~mStareIhcduiyof
allo\nngak parrageihrougruchofihcutcmtona<vaun armr channelsofmmmunjcarion
be%n Iwopanionsof Ihchigh-1; AS. dc BusiamaniySirvcn(LranP.GoulC)Lnmcr
um'wrrnle(1930)para 1811.Hmoc. "!ImmcndequelquetstgledudmiiintcmaIiodedans
ledomainedu mmmunicaDonesldumil". 40Recuril&sCorn (193211..462:G.Gidcl.
Ledroitiniemtiomldela merval.3(1932).pp.201escq Sdon M. Thecontentsofthe variousnile

407. Theswcepingaffiiation oftheTreatyof 1857thatpassagsehallno1k hùidued
orhampered shouldbeintapretedas ueating a verygenandlveryliberalregimeof
passage.Thisiswnfmed bytheobservationmadebyMaxS0nnseninhi dcclarationas
legaladvisorwtheDanishForeignMiUy of4Fcbniary1957'w. herhemphatisesthal
withtheword"entrave"containeintheabovequomiArticle1.paragaph mience 2.
theTreaty

"...presumabyexcludesno1onlyanabsolutehindrana buteverymeasurethatcan
mder passagedifficult".
408.Whateverthewsitionmavk onthesco~eoftheCouenhaamTreaty.theruleson
"innocent passagGuire moredetailedexamhafionbccake. atïeastdAg thediscus-
sionofthercquestforprovisionalmeasurethneresnitcasDenmark reliedonthem.
arguingthat thearemoreresuictivethan thoseon mit passageand that theare
formulatedinsuchawavasnot toave sumn IotheFish claim.
- ..
Whethcrtheserulescanbelabelcdasmoreresuictivethanothen isnotrelevant.What
isimponantiswhethertheFmish claimcanbebase odnthm. Ifoneanalyzestheniles
oninnocentpassagitemergesthattheysupponfowbasicpropositio, hicaresuchas
w givefullsuppm w theFinnishclaim.Thse propositiarethefollowing
1) Theinnocena ofp;issapeisclearlydefmed
2) Shipsexmisingtherightofiiuiamtpassageshdlcomplywithlhclawsandregulations
of thewastal StatewhichmusLhowcvabeconï~metomin subjecu.
3) PassagenotinwnfonnitywiththemastalSiate'slawsandregdationsnoLassuch.
'hon--innocm"
4) Thewastal Siatcmustnothampcordmy orimpairinnocent passage.

409.Asregardsthefrst proposit, hile'passage".accordingtoArticleI4,pmgrnph
2. of the GenevaConvention theTenitorid Seaandthe CnntiguousZone."means
navigationthroughthetemiiorialforthepurposcitherofmveiing thatsewithout
enteringintemalwaters,orofpmcadhg tointd watersorofmakingforthehighseas
hem &mal waters".it"iiocent".&cordineto. -.h 4ofthe&ne Articie" so
longasitisnotprejudicitothepea&.good O& orssurity othe-tal ~tatc":
AshasbeenMcn.the 1982Conventioneivesa lit which.as saidkfore. reflectsthe
prsrnt trcndincus&mmylawandcanserve-asanintctpretati~ofthe~meviconvention
-of activitieswhrender.ass-.mc-udicial totma. eoodorderandssuriw ofthe
00â5talSiate.andmnquently no1innocent(Articlei9 pggraph 23.If onerealithis
itam clearlvüiatnoneoftheaclivitiesincludtdin ithasanvconmctionwharroevn
wiKthepassa&of MODUSorotherlallships.Thispassagei& assuch.non-innocent.

410.Cominaw thesewndmsition. shivsexercisinntheriehtof innocentu e
shall.acwrdiig w ArticlelfoftheCienevaCnnventi&,"fomply with thelawsand
regulatioaianc dythewastalStateinwnfonnitywiththesearticlesandotherrulesof
internationalland,inparticula.withsuchlawsandregulationsrelatingwwnrportand
navigation".Similarly.the 1982Convention,in Article21,paragraph4, providesthat
foreignshipscxmising the rightof innocentpassageshallcomplywith al1laws and
regulationsadoutbythemtal Siam on thesubiectslistedinvaramh 1ofthesame 129

The lis'doesnotconfainany item which wouldas suchpermitinterferencewith the
passageofMODUSandother&l shipsnpanfmmtheaspcci,mentionedinsubparagraph
(a)of"safeiyandnavigationand theregulauonofmaritimemaliic".Momver. theselaws
and regulations"shalinot apply to thë design.consmiction.manningor equipmentof
foreignshipsunlesstheare givingeffectto generallyacceptedinternationalniles and
standards"@aragraph2ofAnicle21).AccordingtoArticle22thecoastalSmteespeciaily
asregards"tankers.nuclearpoweredshipsandshipscarryingnuclearorotherinherently
daneerousornoxioussubstances"-mavreauitelbatshiosusesealanesor&~cseparation
schimes it may designateor AS was indicatedbefore, the more'detailed
indicationsofthe1982Conventionareinfluen-inacustomarylawandcbeusedinorder
tointerprettheGencva Convention.
411.As lo the lhii onwsition. lbat vassageno1in wnformiry with these lawsand
regulauonsis no!auto~au~allyto bem~ideréas"noninnocent",iiiscormboraiedby
Anicle 17 oftheCenevaConvation. repmduccdabove.inprescnbuigcornplianccwlth
thecoaslalState'slawsandregulaiions.thisAnicleenvisagesships"ëxercishg theright

of innacni passage".The UnitedNationsConventionon thLaw of the Sea of 1982
wnfm the~samcmsition. as itsuecifiesthat thewastal State'slawsandremilalions
musire~ate"toinn&cr;t~as tetem~trimse~"(An21). ~oreover,hiclc 14.
.rar-.raoh4,ofIheCnnevaConventionmfnns thiswint oconnorio.asilmvides that
passagebyfishingvessels"shallno[bewnsideredinniceniiftheydonoiobseke suchlaws
andremilaiionsasIhecoastalState-aymakeandpublishinordertopreventsuchvessels
hm &hg inthewmtorialsea".
412. Comingnow to the fourthand las1proposit-that themaslal Statemusi no1
hamperor denyor impair innocent pass-acmrdingtotheGencvaConvention,while
thecoastalStatemay"takethenecessarystepsiniu territori10prevent passagethat
is not innocmt" (Arti16).as longas passageis innocentthecoastalState"mustno1
hamper"it (Article15,paragraph1).The 1982Conventionrepeatsthat the"masral srate
shallno1hampcrthe innmnt passageof forcignshipsthmughthe terrilonalsea" and
spciiies that "in panicular. in the applicationof thisConventionor of any lawsor ..
regdationsadoptedinconformirywiththisConvention.thecoaslSatlateshallnot..imposc

quiremen6 onforeignshipswhich havethepracticaleffectofdenyingorimpairingthe
rightof innocent passage" (Ar25,paragaph I-a).
As passageofMODUSandothntall ship is,assuch.innocmi,itmustno1behampcd
deniedor impairedby themasralState.
413.nienileson huisitpassagem theUnitedNationsConventiotheLawoftheSea,
whileformulatedin sucha wavas to eive lessdiscretion10thecoaslaiamiil,the
formulationof similarproposiiite mitpassageis clearly&fmed (hicle 38.para-

-. 2).Forcimshi~sexcrcisinath riehtoftransitwsa~eshallmm~lywith thelawsand
regulations'kianngtmit adoptedbithe.%tes borde& suaiu: bu1these
lawsandrwlations ar obeconfmed wcenainsubiecü(Articles42and43).Passageno1
inconfmity withtheabovemenlionedlawsand ireoierseonüidc the&pe
of transit passage(Anicle42 on"lawsandrcgulationsof Statesborderinreloring
rorransilPa~soge'Statesborderingmais shallnothamperuansirpassage.andkir laws
andremdationsshallmi havethepracucaleffeciofdmying.hamperingor impairingthe
righof transit passage(Arti&land 42.paragraph2).
414.Thedevelopmcntsaboveindicstelbatacmrdingloal1thenilesthatmayapplylo
passagethmughtheGreatBelithereexist-leavingasidethequestionofwarsh-anghlofpassage forailships,whichDenmarastheStateborderingtheswit. cm01 hamperor
in any way deny- as in fact it has never hamperedor denied iL Denmarkcan adopt
regdationsconcemingsuchpassage%se regulationscannothowever,havethepractical
effectof makingpassage impossible.
415.Thecomplexnatureoftheregimeof passagethroughtheGreatBelt.whichashas
beenindicatedisbasedonb lesofvariousorimnsandnam, makesimlevant onelineof
reasoningputfornard by Denmark in the ~iscussionof the Rquestforpmvisional
measuresinthenresentcase.Accordineto thislineofreasonastheStatespartiesIothe
Copcnbagen TA^ haveacceptedthezearancc of65metersbj theulackofreacilothe
DamshCircularNoie announcinethe intmnon of buildinna bndne of such clearance.
Fiiland couldnotclaimanghtof &sage extendiigtoshipsklerth& 65meten,bsause,
asa thirdnartvbeneficiarvitwouldnbe entitl"10invokeadditionalnnhu or amore
favorable'makent thaniheonea@ to bytheacnialpartiestothe 1857~reafy".'

This Iineof reasoninzannl-ifat ai-onlyasfaras the 1857CopenhagenTreafyis
wncerncd. Ashaskcn-&n. thereguneof throughtheG~Ï Bel!Ïs baxd only
paniallyonthalmaty. andconsisuof nilesofcustomaryandmat. or-gineachof which
issufficienttosuppoktheFinnishclaim.Obviously,thehghu Fiiand enjoysonthebasis
of these les dono1dependinan-.ay-n theauinideof othcrStates.
Evm withùithenamw framework adoptedby Dmmarknamclytha~of therightsof
Fiand are those of thir pdny bmcficiary of the CopcnhagcnT~ty -the line of
Ieawnin-hereconsideredisnMbevvMidobiection.Rsnehtin ocfnaes5lursthe
ships.andconsequenllyalsotallFinnish;hips. Thihcrigl;t(dezved forthepurposes
of theornent discussion.fromthe 1857Coanhaecn Treaw)of whichFinlandisalhird
paqbeneficiary.Thisri&tcanbercvokedirm&'fied byihéparties.amrding 10Article
37.naramh 2.oftheVianaConvationon theLawofTreaties(unlessamen1 10the
oanuarycanbeestablished)Bu& itissubmitted.a suies ofwnknu (mo;éovnmit) by

maN naniesno1 10obiectIoamodificationnlmed bvanothertrraloanv Iothefacnial
siniitiinin whichthe&ht isexercisnot~uivaientiothepanies~v~kù;gormodi~ing
an&t thathasarisenforathi n.nv. an a-ment tothateffectstems 10benurssarv..
and;videncc of this,intheprcwcase i.missing.

SecîionX.MODUS as"shipswithspecialcharacteristies'?

416. In the pleadigs before the InternationalCowt of lusticc on the rcqucst for
provisionalmeasuns inthe-t cas 'eDenmark haswt fornard theideathatthereisa
newnotionof"shipswithq&al charactcristics"whichhasbem inucducedinPan IIof
theConventionof 1982.and whichcouldincludealsoMODUS.Passaaeof thiscaieeoiv
ofshipscould ilisaid besubjecw marnent differenlhm thatam& toothersip;.
Onemaynote,inpassing. thattispositionofoneof Denmark'smaincounselconcedes
twopoinkDamark hasbcmotherw/se veryrclunanttoaaept-namelythaiMODUS arc
ships.and that the1982ConvmtioncanbeinvokedindiscussingpassagethmughtheGreai
Bell.

'DmirhWriuen Observatioof28 lune1991,para10%pluidùigbyUrmual ofDcnmak
Dr.litnzde AiCchaga2July1991.
PleadingbyUrmunul ofDe- Dr.limtnzdc ArtEhaga2July1991.
Pleadinby ihmuwl of Denmarfki,Jiménez& ArCchag 2July1991. 417.Comingbacktothequestionof "sps withspsial characteristics",illhisethat
expressionisuÏscdPan of theconvenuonof 1982.11appearsinAnicle22.paragraph
3-c,whm iissiaud thai"ln dcsignationof slanesand theprescriptionof tnffic
separationschemesundcrthisarticle.IhecoastalStateshalliakeintoaccount:
c)thespecialcharacteristicsof particularshipsandchannels".

It emereesclearlvfmm thisomvisionthat theConvation doesnot intmd 10mate a
categoryif "ships kispecial'charact fonistiads"e.Articlein itsenfirely.il
am immediatelythatitcon- onlysealanesandMIC srparalionschemesthatthe
Gastal Sraiemaydesignateor prescrior the useof forci& ships"whm neccssaiy
havingregardtothesafetvofnaviaauon"(paragraphIofthesameAnicandwhorc uw
it maj Guire for tankers,nucle&powëÏ ships and ships carryingnuclcaror other
inninsicallydangrnus or noxious subst-nce~ ~aragraph2).
Conseauentlv.al1thatcanbeinferredhum the1982Convation isthatthewastaiSlate

may des&nate-&.alanes and prescriMIC separationschemes for the passage of
MODUS.ifthis inecessarvforthesafetvof navieation.Whatcannotbe inisthat
lawsor &gulationsmaymakethe" righcof passagedependentupontheirheightor the
adaptationof theirmnsuuctiontothepresenceofa bridge.

SectioXL The right of pssssge and the height ofa bridge over the strait

418.TherightoftheStatbordeiingtheswit toadoptlawsandreguiitionsconîcming
thequauon ofsafetyofnavigation6Nequmtid totheexistenceoïa bndgeissim16ar
thenghiofadoptuiglawsandrcgulanons iooenaqttatheiudiihasacenain
&Dthor a cemin width.Iiaheht conseau&tialtoa f'a~Nlituation.Buta leealrieht
cahot arisehum facts which Ge State &vokuigthe nght hasitsclf bmught ibouïin
violationof internationallaw.

Therighttoprcsrribethaishipsmaypasshughthesnaironlyilthey donotuceed a
cenainheighbecaus eftheexinenceofabndaeofacenainhcighrissimilarthenehi
loprescribéthatshipsmaypassditheydon~excecdacenain~idthoraîcnaindraught
because ofthewidth or &th of thesuai t ucb nght cannot. howeveiustifvthe
consmictionofa bridge.amorelhantheolherrighismeniioncdabovecanjuitifyworks
Lhaimakcthe suait nmwn orshallower.Il isonethuo adoptlawsandregulations
mnsequcntialtoa facmalsituatioisquitemthcr to&ange &ch a faetualsituation.

iakeintoaccoui~exisim~.evenwhenihebuilding Eofoiheonndmielywi&
inmiional law. In the lacasea problcmof internationalrcsponsibiiiwobviously
arises.'lhis isimplicitintheCourt'sO29July 1991ontheGuest f&pnwisio&I
measms in thepresencasew.hac iisstarcdthat
"ifiisesrablishcdthatthemwctionofwork svolvesaninfiingemcntofalegd
nghk rhepossibilirycannot na1bescloueddpnonof ajudicialfmhg
üiatsuch~workmkt no1 becontinucM mus1bemodificdor diktlcd".' -

Adiffuait viewwasheld,apparently,bytheDanishschoandforniegai Adviser
totheDanishForeignMinisuy,Max SBrcnscnwhosams to wnsfonn whatisafaçnuil
mccssity in10a legalprincipleofprAccordingloSBrrnsen:

'ICJRepom 1991p.19(par a1). 'ûnce thebridge isinplacefuturcshipbuildingmus!iaitintoaccount.Onecan
invokefmm thispointof vicwa pncise principleof priorily"'.

EvenstarringfromSsrcnsen'spointof vicw.thishas.however.noihig todo withthe
auestionof whetherthe bri-nefan -.eallybc buill inthe faceof th. obligationtoallow
passagtehroughthesuait.
420.Whie therccan k nodoubtthatterritorialsovereignwoverthelandwhox coasts

borderthe suait andover the watersof the suait includ~ the right Iobuild a iued link
kWan thecoastsmarated by thesmur.thm can bcno doubteither lhatsucha right
cannotbcexercisedin~uchawa~asrodeprivethesuait.inwholeorinpan-ofi~chara&r
as a navigablewatenvay.This ispmicularly me inthe lightof the positive obligationto
permitpassagewhich exisisforDenmarkasregardstheGreatBelt.TheDanishspeciaiist
on thelaw ofsuaits.ErikBdel. inconsidcrinetheCopnhagen Trealyof 1857.expmsed
theseconceptsas follows:"...evenifthema6 dŒs noiplaceuponDenmarkanyduty IO
mainraintheSuaiüasnavigab wlatcrwaysthefactthatitdaspre-supposethemtoksuch

Evenin an interventionthat Dcnmarkquotedin suppon of iü positioninthe W&en
Observariom concemine the Reauest for muvisionalmeasurcsin the Dresentcd. the
~anishnpresenranve,~bassad~r~ergo,didnot ~oondmaknigthehwntesred~int
thatthe consmaion ofbrideesandtunnelsacrostheDanishsuaitswasvitalforDenmark

withinthe limiü of"theobGgationnot thamper the hc passage ofshipsintransit".'
421.Thenavigationwhichmustbcpnsavcd is thatofal1ships.Br(lel;havingsaidthat
"Bridgesandenbanknenü mustbcsomnsmcudthatpracticalla yl1shipscanpass

undcr,resacuvcly throughthemwithoutsuchdifiïniltiesinmanŒuve~gihai the
suaitceak IObeanavigable~atcmay'~aiïums thaLiftheviewwere &cepml
thatDenmarkcan"by wayof a bridgeor enbankmcntor insomeotherwayclose
me orevm wo of thm 0.c. lhcDanishmai&). as longasone is lefiopen",
'Viesuait that is leh omus1at ailcvmü k passablebydl shipsi.e.onlythe
GreatBeltcouldbeco&idercdas hiliili-e Ibismnditionsincethewnsmctionof
theLitt &Ie bridge"?

'Unofficial iulatihm the Oem original:'BnckenbaundDurcNahncninMemngen".
inRechtNnDienridrr F"cdcnrFcsuchriJî~WEbcrhordM~nrcBl.erli1975.p.551etq.. al
p.557.
'W< B*l. IniernnriondSlmiü11947).OL IIo.43.italicsiheorianai.Ithelsturcmade
inF-h m 1936'Les démiudiois &I poin&vue dudmiii-inai". RecueilesCours
(19361).p. 595cq.. alp.623.Bel utesiheexpuion "inmention positive"whicremis
W conveyevcn morecleasilhanihcEnglisexpailon "mivelydeprive"ihideaofamodifi-

caùonofihenaniniaituatiaoflkrWiL
'Pan 122.
'Amu N8 75.
'EriBkml. Imem'o~l Suaiu. (19471,ol.ILp.43.iailicrsupplied

'Ibid.. p. i181icisnUarigllial. Sgmsm maks the point that the bridge mustcsoconstwctedthat"ildoesno1create
anyobstacleforthenavigationthroughthesuaitevm of the biggcstshipsexistingatthe
the"! Healsoobservesthat

"ilisnotpossible.andthmfore alsono1necessary,Iotakeintoaccountunknown
futuredevelopments".
422.These authoritativepositionsconvergeinholdingthat theheight ofa bbedgeto
wnsmcted dependson theheightof thelaIlestshipsknowntoexis-withoutexcluding,
asisclearfmm thelastauotationofS0rens feNrekcvewommts. Theimwnance
offuturetrendsinshipbuildingwasunderlinedbyPolandintts~oteof6 ~ecem&r 1977'
inwhich ircspondedIOtheDanishNoteof 12 May1977'.Irespondm1 a0thePolishnote.

Denmark b.kdicatingthatilhadmadeasmdyofthe"tendenc~sac~e~lemen1~~visiblcs
dans lestech~quesdeconsmictionsmaritimes".concedesthatsuchtendarrelevantas
regardstheco&mction ofa bridge'.
423. 'ihe existenceof MODUSexceedingin height the maximumclearanceof the
olanned bridge was well known in the 1970s whenDenmark oassed its fmt. and
kuccessful.ïaw on thewnsmictionofthebndge.nie passageofsich shipsfhroughthe
GreatBeltwasanormaloccurrenceinthe 1980s.when theecondlawwasadwledand the
decisiontbuildabridgeandnotatunnelforroadwfiicamss theLut channilwastaken.

Conswuentlv.hep.annedbridac.ifwnshucled insuchawav astomakcthepassageof
~~~~~im~ossible.wouldnot~compatiblc withthelimitstotheexerciseof Le rightof
buildingafued linkindicalcdabovAs willbcdemonsnatedklow, MODUS areships:
andth& areexistingships. notunknownfuturedevelopments.
4%. It mayk argued-andithas ken arguedbyDenmark initsWrincnobservations

and pleading$bcfo; thisCoun on the~i&h tt&~csifor provisionalmeasuresin the
prcscntcase-tha ttha bridgeshaveken consuucledovn suaitandihatUmebndgts
haveaclcarancequa1 orsimilarto thatoftheplanncdGreatBeltbridge.Thiswouldgivc
nu roaLuidof"intanational standard10whichtheplannedGreatBel!bridgewouldk
wnfonning.
Fùst ofdl, anysuchsupposedinternational stanwouldanainly notbewnstant in
the. So.forinstance.indisnissingin 1936theLittleBellbridgeandtheideasthm under

wnsiderationfor abridgeovertheGreatBellErikBriielexpresscdsmng doubtni the
mmuatibiiitvwithinternationallawof thewnsmictionof~t~r~dPo-c~the LittleBelt
bcc?.useby*givingitaclearanceof 33 mems,Denmar "a non seulementrenduplus
dificile lepassagepardCmit,maisaussi-san d'autresmotifsquedessimplesraisons
d'tconomie - compleremnr privé une panie des navires de la possibilitCmeme de
I'utili~er'~Briielthanstatesthata clearan42ometrcswould haveban meferable
becauseilwouldhave pmnined passageofalmostal1shisand addsthat thef& that the
plansthennirrmt forabridgeontheGreatBeltenvisagaiaclearanceo42 metrcsmade

'Unofficiliution hm uic r+m onginaBdckenbauund DinehialminMee~ngm
quoledabovepara419fwmoic1,p. 5%.

Ibidp.557.unofficil l.
'AMCx 24.
'AMCx 22.

'NoicVcrbal0i3 Iul1978Anncx No.6rolhcDanishWrincnObswaiim onthcrrqucslfor
provisionlussurrinthcpMni cau.
'Enk Br(ie"Lesdémirsdanohaupointdevuedudmitintanationa.5Rwvil desCorn
(19%1)p. 595etpq,aip.672.theproposedbridgccompatiblewith theCopenhagenTmty aswellaswithgeneraldes

ofthelawofnationsconcerninginternatiol traits.
Forty-twomeuesisŒnainldiffemtfromsixry-five.Ifthe~isanintemationalstandard
ilisŒnainlyoneîhatchangeswiththepassingofiùne.
425. Momver. doubtsmay be nised as to the existenceof any such intemational
standardAlltheexamplesgivenmnm bridgcsinintemalwaten(CtPartll.ChaprerVl1

above).Andal1-withtheexceptionoftheBosphonisbridg-havealternatipassages.
This isparticularlyme of thebridgesbuiltinJapm. whichare. mor.l1included
withi theJapanewbaselinesandconsequentlyinJapanewintewaters.Togetherwith
theBosphombridges,theGreaBteltbridgewoulbetheonlybridgeoveraninlemational
swit notpermininganalternativemute(themutesbugh theLittleBeltandthroughthe
Soundnotking realalternativesbecauseofthepresenceofabridgeoverthefint andof
theshallomessofthesecond).Canan"internatioltandard"à builtuponsuchlimited
practice?
426.Leavinaasidethefact.whichisnot.however.withoutrelevant hiletheGreat
Beltincludcsbanish temtonsca,theBosphomsliesenurclywithinintemalwatcnof
Twkev. th eaindifferencebetweentheGreat&Ir and theBosphom isthaltheGreatBelt

isami&forthepassageoftallMODUS andoftailcruiwhips,whiletheBosphonisisnot.
Foreachsuaitthenotion ofexistingandreasonablyfomeeableshipsmayà different
The decisivcelemmtiswhichshiidoinfactpassthroughaspecificsuaitorarelikelyto
pass in thelightof knom trendsof maritiMIC and shipbuilding.An inluesting
indicationoointineinthisdirectiobeafoundina rcccntRe~orIbvthe International
~aritime&ga&tion's ~ub-Commit&on~afctyof~avigati4 as IC&~S thepruposed
bridaeovertheSuaitofMessina.Thissuait.itmavk noied.uennitsaniltemativemute
on& highseas.~oreover.thedecisionmbuildas~ nndeddicuss~onisstill
asthcalUrnativeof anundmvaterbridgeatadeptho30metresisacIivelyconsidered'.

TheReponstztesthat the minimcleamncespmposedinthehvoaltemativepmposals
forasuspendedbridge.amely55 mctresforawo-spanbridgean64 mcms fora single
spanbridge."should be mortehanadequateforshipslikelyIouçetheSnaitofhfessi~, so
far asconbeforeseen''
'Ibisisaclearindicationîhat.inas~~~~ingthecl~~rbridgeoveraninternational

suait.thesacific Mitus in^thatoaitidar suaitshbecasidered: anthinotonlv
asf&as theprcsentiam-ed b;t alsoasregardstheforesechi&.

SecîionW. Conciuding Remarks

427.inthelightoftheobservatia ollmadngmtaùiconclusiosaybedram
as r-m the law-.pplicato.ass-gethro-ghtheGreatBelt
Thenghtof passagehugh theGreatBelt.whoweustace FinlandaskstheCoun to
declarc,is baseon a setof mla which constitutcsa regime with mty-law and
customary-lawcompomm.

Thisrcgimehas bem fonnedonthebasisof theCopcnhagenTrcatyof 1857.andhas
devclopedin the light of the notion ofhampassageas dified in the Gencva

Reponin 1.M.O.ocumniNAV 35/1No.3.7.4aswelasEcor.ml'sMonihlyMagazine.
exarptsbnn No.212R13.p65 etseq.

2LM.0 .onacnt NAV 35/1of2Febniary1989.itasuppliedConventionof 1958andasshapedbycustomq law. mostreccntlyundertheinfluenceof
the 1982United NationConvation on theLawoftheSea,aswcllasofthecmcrgmceof
specialmlesonpassage applicableto smiu.
ïlis regime-andalsothepractia ofDenmark -pmvides forfreepassagehugh the
GreatBellofshipsno1includedinthecategoryof warships.withoutdistinctionbawdon

thenationaliwor on thecharacteristictheships.
Eachofthcrulesthatmergeintothespecificpassagcregimcoftheûreat Beltis.however.
sufiïcien10 uphold the right claimed by Finiand.Thime.s in par~icular.as faxas
"innocentpassage"isconcemcd
'IheSete borderingthesuaitisentitlIOadoptlawsandregulationsconcemingsafety
ofnavieation:butthisdoesnotincludetheriehttointerfereactivelvinthefactuaisituation
of theAit sothat itlosesinwholeor ipG itscharacteras aninternationalwateway.

Theheighrof abridge whichcanbebuiltovera suait doesno1dependon international
standardsbutonthecharactensticsoftheshipswhichinfactusethatpanicularstraitormay
reasonablybe foreseentouseil.
MODUSdirened IOandcaing fromFinish ponsandshipyardsandexŒedingthe
heightoftheplannedbndge havebccnpassinghugh theGreatBcltforabouttwodsades
andcan be foreseento bs hugh.it in &e lu&: moreover.mise and other ships
excecdingthatheightmaybef-ntopassinthehiNre.ConwquenUy.thmexisuanght

of passage hugh the Great Belt which Dmmarkis bound not Io violate with the
consmictionof thebridgeasplanned. Section1.lntmdudion

428.Thehistoryofshipbuildingisoneofcontinualinnovation.'Iherean innovationsin

the use of materials.suchas ironslad, ironhulled and plastichulled vesares.There
innovationsindesien.suchasthedevelmmmtof aircraf<caniers.subma.Vme.Lame
CmdeCarriers(or's"penanken"). andiydmfoils. Whilethereisanoveralltendcncy6r
thesizeofmerchantvessel10increase.itisdifficulttooredictthemise natureof funire
developmentsforaperiodaslongaheid as thebridgeimss theBellis inten10lasl.
429.Eventhedimensionsofexistingip moposfaolinlitemesonshntonthe
sizeof ships.Asonerecentsmdyobsewed:

"ln ordcr to cater for the inmsize and varietvof vessels.and to orovide
ad@onal landclosetodeep-waterknhs. manywditional pns haveeitended
downsueam hm theu historic locations at the heads of estuaries. The most
suaesshil pons havekn almostmmpletely rebuilt.."'

forlargerponfacilities: andne;. largeportfacilitiesenmrage ge bui~din~ofshiisasbig

as the emnomics of the..in- wde dictate.Neitherdevelmenü in shiodesign nor
developmenüinpnconsmctioncankprcdictcd withmuchaccuracyo~crthelon~tem.

SectionIi .ypa ofShip

431. Inthecontextof thepresentcaseandof the internationalregulationof navigation
il is hclpfulto classifythediffe~nt typesofshipaccordingto therelevantcharacteristics
of theu mnsmiction. Therc is as much varietv amonn shimas there i-amone Stats.
Warshipsandmal1 plcasurccrafarenotolmiccrn Antexi of thesepraxdings.
Butshiosoffiveotheridcnti ar.ahcseetvoeaevesselsofmnvmuonal desien.
drill ships, semisubmersibV&s,Largecm& faniers (VLCCs),and jack-up &li
barges.

432. The characteristicsof thesevarede&M inmore detail in Pilof this
Manorial (pamgraphs163-181,21@275).Hm il is nuxssary ody to draw attentionto
theu mon salicntcharamristics.
433.Mcrchantshipsofconventional&sienre.bvdef~ition.thcar chchNotesof
shipping.~onsmic& with a hull of conv~ntionaishape.po&dwhobyor largely by
mechanicalmeans,navigable.andkaring theucareoes inthe holdoron thedeckorinthe
supersmicnue,they&sent thewditi&al mncGion of a ship.Atthelowcrendof the

scaletheymage withthecategoryofpleasurcrafandincludetugsandsmaübarges.At

Notealsothdcvelopmenotfoffshoreloadingfacilrtr USA.~gulareunderthDccpwa-.
terPonActof 1974kW. RovineDigestof UnitedSloPractieeinIntcrmtio~l Law 1974
(1975).pp.355.360.theupperendtheyinclu&vesselssuchasthe67,0a)GRT,293mem-longQupenEIiroberh
2.

434.Drillshipsareshipsbuiltwithhullsofwnventionalshapemodifiedtoacceptadnll
riginstalledonthe&ck.Thcirheighttypicallyamund8Omeues.andtheirdraughtaround
7mem. Thev~,-se-f-n,o.lled'Thevhavenoothersvecialcharacteristicsmarlungthm
out hum shipsof wnventionaldesi&, and theycb;assimilatedIothoseships.Ships
canying cranesmayalsobe includedinthiscategory.
435. Semi-submersibles are navigablpelatfoms bearingdrMlotherequipment
Some have been wnvmed or suecificallybuilt for use as productionplatorrms
acmmmodationuruuforoffshore&orken. Whmbe~ngdrill~~s.thei hciovtedl
reacharound80mcms. They aircommonlypoweredbyindependenienginesanachedto
their legsandknownasthniGers.Thethnisin can thesemi-submersibleaispeeds

appmximatelyauivalent10thespeedatwhichtheycouldbeiowed.thisking around10
&&.S The thrusien may alsbeuscd to maintain the -misubmnsible in the precise
locationinlendedwhenitisoperatingonsitehullsofsemi-submersiblesareofvariable
design.InsometheoFrating platfonnissupponedon twoor morepontwns shapedlike
wnventionalshiphulls.Othear eupporledbystabilirycolumnswhichwnml flotauon
of the semi-subniersibleby ballasiing:thesehave a shaP cloxr inappearanceto fixed
offshoreplatforms.Semisubmeniblesarc designedso as to be casilynavigable.and to
operateaÏloa~ratherthanrestingon thesea-bedas isthecasewithsubmersible drill rigs.

436.Thetm VLCCdoesnotsmctlydesignateadis~ctclassof ship,butratherapplim
tothelargerbulkoilcarnie. helarges1crudecarriersarehom asULCCs-Ulm Lage
Cm& Carriers.Becauseoftheirsize,suchvesselshaveconsiderabledifficultyinstopping
andmanoeuweing.Theyareacwrdinglyma103diHerentlyfmmothwvesselsforcenain
purposes,notablyunderthe1972CollisionRegulations.in whicha VLCCorULCCfalls
underthe hcadineof ''vveswrlcsbicted in ha abiiiw to manoeum." UlmCrude
Carriersmayhav; draughtsofaroundIOmeuesandair draughtsoftheorderof55metm
to70metres.
437.Jack.updnll bargcsareseawonhybargeshavingihrcemmore"lcgs" whichcanbe
jackeddowntothesea-bd Thelegsgivethebuge an airdraughtofaround 100mcms to

140mcm.OnŒthclegsarerrsMgof ndhesa-bedthebargeisjackeduponthelegs
uniiiiisclearofthewater.Althoughsomemayfinedoutsoastobecapablcofnavigation
undertheir-w~~--.~~.s~~rebwed ioandhum thesitesonwhichthcvoumale.EM
prrsnitpirrposes,refmces tojack-aretothox notself-propelled:selfilljick-
uosmav. be ~~~-~~~~~~to semisubmenibles).Tows are of two tvas. The fmt is the
&ditional wettow.usingoneor,innamw ordifficultpassagtw~iugsme otheristhe
drytow.inwhich thejack-upiscaniedonabargewhichisirselftowed,oronaheavylift
barge,thedeckof whichcanbelowcredklow sealevelbyballashg inordertopermitthe
jack-uptobemanoeud intoapositiondmtly abovethedeck.whichislhenraised.The
jack-up is thsccuredtoand!xanspncd on thedcckin gennal. modemjack-iipare
designedtomoveacmssoceanw siththeirfullIeglengthintacr

438. Ir shouldbe noted that both semisubmerigsandjack-up bargeairquite
distinctfran the traditionalfued offshoremuduaion ~ladoms. which arein essena
towersbuildonthesea-bcdinthecaseofth& fuedplaim themainpmof thecenid
suooonuietowww~hkarsthe~rodu~on~ladmisbuiltonshmandesm'edbyh~w-
liiiwgc ;Otheproduction site.Whereitisliwercd intothewatcrandssuredto&y
seabd Theolatformisdesienedasa 'krmanent" aaachmenttothesea-be an,isnot
designcdiok mobile. Set&ubmersibla andjack-up bargeson the othcr hand,arcdesignedpreciselyinorderthat theyshouldbecapableofnavigatingeasilyandfrequently

fromsitetosite.Forexamole.intheNonh Seaalonethearmund 300locationmoves
each year. Thisreflects ie diffcnng economicsof offshore oil production.for which a
Permanentolatform mavbe a.. .ate. and offshore oil exploration. forwhich fwd
&tallationarenotappkpnate.
439. Ml ships, semisubmersibledrill rigs. and jack-up driarerefenrd to
collcctivelyasMODUs(MobileOffshoreDrillingUnits).However,itmustbeemphasid
that misubmersible olatformarenot used only to caryrill ngs. They may carry
accommodationunitsforoffshnrcwnrkcrs.offshorepmdu&ionfacilitics.orotherqui&
mcnL(SeealsoAnncx 3I.OffshoreDataRcpon).Pla ~anrmrsmavcnedfrom
one such use toanother.Accordinelv.il wouldbe moreaccurateto use theterm MOUS

(MobileOffshoreUnits)torefertod;iiiships. semisubmersibles(whethercarryingdrillrigs
or other loadsl and iack-undrill barees u>llectivelv.Howeva. in deferenceto current
fashion, the tcM~DU is used hek, with theunderstandingthat it includesmobiie
offshoreunitscarryingequipmentotha thandrillngs.
440.Notal1ofthedistinctionsbetweendifferentkindsoarmealenalinthecontext
of theresentcaseDrillshiosancran shioshave.whüenaviaatingno characteristics
whichneassitate theirsepar&on inthecontextofconsideration>nghtsof navigationand
passagefromtheclassof shipsofmnvmtional design.

441.Semisubmersiblesarcdesigncdtobeabtonavigateindependentlyandundertheir
om power. As willbeshom. theyarinfacimatcd forthepurposesof navigationinthe
samemannerasanyothership. However.bsause theydono1poswssthesamedep of
manauvrability as small ships of conventionaldesigarepmperly groupcd with
MCCs asshps havingaresfnciedabilit10manoeuvre.
442.Jackupsarenotusuallyindependentlypowerrd,but navigatebybeig towed.It is
thereforeappropriatetogive thcmspccialmideratias isdonebelow.

443.indraftingthe widevarietyofregulationsapplicabletoshippingitisaptoeate
draw distinctionsinordertoacamtmodate thepanicularcharacteristicsof the vasels in
question.Thus.inthesameway thatpollutioninsmmentscommonly distinguishbetween
tanke rsd other shios. and the Monmux Conventionof 1936distineuishesbetwaen
capitalshipsand0th" wmhips. itmaybedesirableIodistinguishbetwgn differenttypes
ofshipforthepurpasesofregulatingnavigation.This.inispreciselytherationaleof
the specialcategoryof "vasels restrictedintheirabiiitytomanoeuvre"intheCollisions
Remtlations made unda the 1972 Conventionon the international Remilations for
RévmtingCollisionsat Sea. The appmpriatenessof specialconsideration-fordifferent

typesofshipdors noc howeva. implythatsomevesselsceasetobe ships.

Secüon m. The Concept ofaShip in internationLaw

444.Theconcep ofa shi~in internationallawisawide andnosineledefmitionis
acceptedas authontative.'ihe followingparagraphsdmesscopeof-thatconceptin
internationalmty practice,municipallaw.docaand.the actualpractiŒof States.

~-

'SecD.P .'conne~~.k In~cmrionn~muofrheSeovoln (cdIA.Shearcr1964)pp. 747-
750. 445. Tkre isno single defullfiontheword "ship" accepted in international Ueaty
practice. Many Ueaties mncluded in the fmhaifof ibim~ry simply used the temi
'%essel "r"shio'*without omvidin~ anvdefmition of îhetemi:and someinsmunents
usedboth temis:d~wing no'distinctikbetween them.'ïhc words "ship" and '%essel"

usually mmspond m asingle word in Fmch navire',and in Spanish. bque'.
Some of the Icaties concluded du~g thipniod did anempt definitions of the lm
"ship" or '%cssel".lThese defuitions tcIOkdsimple. andIOcmphasiw thebreadihof

'See.foruample. thmatin listcdinAMex80.
'See.foruamplc. thutais listcdinAMex80.
'See.e.g.theConvcnuon(Ramble) and StaruiconIhelnvmauonal kgime of ManumePm.

ûcncva 9 kmkr 1923.58LNTS285.Convenuon forUie U~ficauonofCemn Rula rclat
ingIOtheLinutauonof lshlity ofOwnurofScagoingVerulr. Bnisuls. 25August1924.120
LNTS 123.PanAmencan SaniiarCaivmuon. Habann1.4Novembcr1924.86LNTS43.Con-
venuonforUr Unifimion ofCemn RulerRlaUngto Ur LmmumlyofSiau-04 Vc<.xh.
Bnÿselr. 10Apnl 1926.176LNTS 199.SaniiaryConvenuonPans .1Jwr 1926.78LNTS
22%Convcnuonon Manum e euwliw.Habana.20Jan- 1928.135LNTS187.Convenuon
onSaietyof iifai~caLandon.31 ~i~ 1929.andAM~X i~c~ulmionsmmpictingthePIOM-
sionsof thConvention onSafelyofLifeSen)andAMex II (kgulmions forRvcnIing Colli-
~i~n~ai-~a.. ~ ~LNTS 81:Conventionmnccmin-~ ~~e~" oftheSuaim.Monmaux 20
July 1936.173LNTS 213:&-verbal mmming RuleoofSubmknc Warfarr.Landon.6
Novcmbcr1936.173LNTS 35.

See.forexample.thConventionfortheUnificationofCcnainRvln relmingIotLimitaDion
ofLiabiliiyof0wm-s ofSeagoingVawlr Brus3c1s2.5 Augurl1924.120 LNTS123 Conven-
tion oMaritim ecuwlity. Hainna20January1928.135LNTS187:Conventionmnaming
theRegimeofthe Suaim.Monmux. 2OJuly1936.173 LNTS 213.

Whercuiland navigationvcrsclswm mnamd. theword'baicau"oftcnmmpondcd toUie
word 'vesselsce orexample.theConventionforthUnificationofCenainRula mnccming
Collisim ininlandNavigatioOencva 9 DFamber19% IHudrni.Intcmtiom1kgirlnrion.
vol.V. 8151.andthConvention onthRcgiswtion of lnlandNavigationVesRightsinrem
oversuchVaxh. andoUierCognatcQwtions, Oeneva 9Wbcr 1930[Hudson.Interm-
tionalkgukztion. vol.V. 8221.Wrwanhip arsi&niiifdheword%d" issome!imx
mlatcd ar'Mtiment":sceforexample.thehty fortheLimitaDioofNavalAmmnunl, Lm-
don.25 MMh 1936.184LNTS 115:Conventionmnccmingthe Regimeofthe Suaim.Mm-

maux. 20July 1936.173LM3 213.
Thaeis m misicnt praniΠdeicnniningthreiationshipkwen theicm. Forinstanes thc
Promole de cldwe oftheModiuVivcndimnccmingthe RcvisedConventionforthNaviga-
tionoftheRhine.Suasbourg.4 May1936.stipulaed thnt'le icrme'bâtiment's'aauxique
navireset bateaux.y comprisln enginsnottans et leshydroglisseurs.ainsiqu'auxradead'
pIu&on, IntcmntionolkgirInn'on,vol.W. 2901.Ontok hamithe IL0Rcvixd Conven-

tionFixingthMinimumAgeforUr Admiaion of ChildtetoEmployrnentaiSca Ocneva24
Octota 1936.40UNTS205,nipulatcdindcle 1Ular' Pourl'applicationdela prccon-c
vention. icm 'navid doieueenrcndu& tousleskaeaux.nad oubâtimenm.quelsqu'ils
soienl deproprietépubliqueoupri.ffmiianlunenavigationmaiitim.."
'Sa. forexample,UrPan-Amnic SMnitarConventionHatiMa 14Novemta 1924.86
LN'S 43:Tq on hicmational CommmialNavigationLaw.Montevideo.19MMh 1940.
Hudson.Inrc~nallguInrion, vol.Vm. 460. Spanishpracticeisles wMJrcnt Uian

h& FMimtanŒt . hConvention onthRcprcaion ofSmuggling.Buem Airs. 19JUK
1935.uusUr mms"mb~om" (an6) .bcd (an 6 )'bpor" (an 10 )d'buquc"
(an 13).ieachcay mlatcd ar "vssclsM -1" inthEnglishiuc HudsonI.nrem-
riomIlg~kztwn. vol.WI. 100.
*Example,of~catyprovisionsdciiningthe 'shiparrXI out inAMCX80.thewncepL'lheConvcntionfortheUnificationofCenainRulesrelatinIOBilsofLadiig
fortheCarnageof Goodsby Sea.1924.forexample.siipulaiehi:
" Ship'meansanyvesse1 uscdforthecaniage of goodsbyW."'

446.A mm derailed,but equally bmad,defition was adopted in thc fit Ucaties
mncludcd under theauspicesof the IntematioLabow Organization:
"Forthepurposeof thisconvention, theterni"vessel"includesallshipsandboau,

of any naturewhaisoever,engagedin maritime navigation. whether puborcly
pnvatelyowned."
447.IncenainConventionsmncemw edith thewelfareofseamenthiswassubpequently
revisedtoreadasfollows:

"ForthepurposeofthisConventionthefollowingexpressionshavethemeanings
hereb.ass-med tothem.vu
(a)thetmn '>esse lcludes anyshipor boatofanynam wharw>everw . hetha
publiclyor privatelyowncd.ordinarilymgagcd inmaritimenavigation;''
. .
'illnmwin~ of themcanine of "vessels" by inclusion thereference to vessels
"ordinarilyengagedinnavigati;nv'isexplicablebythepurposeoftheConventions.These
Conventionswereconamcd withseamen.ratherthanwithvesselsassuch:andtheeffect
of themodificationwastomnfmc ihe ambitof thaaty to pmons whowereordinarily
an~lovcd as seamm ratherthanasoffshoreworkm ingend.
. . .
448.Inmultilaural matics of thehier-war periodspcifically conamcd withnaviga-
tion on thelha han& lhncisnoevidmvof anymd towardsnmwing ofthemeaning
of"shmor"vcswl".Forinstance.th e930ConventionfortheUniTicationofCenainRulcs
mn&ning CoUisions ininlandNavigationstipulatedthat:

'TorthenimosesofthisCmvm teiniv,sshl'includeshydrovlanes.rafu.
fmyboak. 'dndgcn, floating mes and elevaton. movable &ions of boat-
bri-aesandal1float-ng..fianas orplantof a simiiarnature."'
ïhough hited intuexamples bythevesselsinoperationatthetimc lhatthcConvention
wasdrafteQ th defuutionillustratescleatheiendencytodefmevesselsinafwictional

Bnrrrels2.August1924.M. I(d).IZLN'S 155
'M ConventioRxingthe Minimum AgiforAdmissioofaiildrenIOEmploymcn tlSca,
Oem 9ldy 1920.Artick1.38UNTS109. Scedro M ConventionconcemingUnemploy-
ment lndcmnilinoseofLos or FounderingftheShipûmoa 9ldy 1920.38UNIS 119:
M ConventioFuinp Ur Minimum AzefortheAdmissioofYounePersom IOEmolovment
arTnnacr. M s ~ . Gcma II ~ovanbcr1921.38UNTS203: IÜJConConnnQ konmng
theCompulsoryMedicalhsmrmon ofQnldren andYoung Rnonr EmployedalSeaGmva
IINovanin 1921.38UNIS 217:M Red GmvenuonFimg Ur MtmmumAgcfor Ur
Admissionofaiildm IOEmploymot alSca,Ocneva 24OMba 1936.40UNTS205.
~ ~
' M ConventioCoMming Seamn'sArticlesofMon. Geneva24 lm 1926.article2.
38UNIS 295.Sa alsaIL0Convention~onrmingUr RcpaaiationoSewm. Grneva,23lm
1926.38UNTS315.
'Gmva 9Dcmnin1930. an IIHuh. Inirmor'onal"~iriati.ol.V.815.CI.theCon-
venuononUr Regismon of InlanNaviganonVcsnelF.aghuin reoversuchV-b. and
ahcr Cog~v Qucsnao.Geneva9Dcmnin1930.mclc 6of whchprondcd ihat

'EaehConlracnnSiaurnay.undacooditinarcferrIOinArriclu3and4. quireM petmit
UrfollowinIObccnle-ediiu ~gjsicn:(floaiinN MI andelevaionanddl similaappli.
anas:(2)Plsasuerah 3)Veuels.includindredgcroflesrihan0dc tons.IHudron.
imc~nal~irknion, volV. 8221 mam, includingallkindofcraftinfactengagedinorcapableof navigation.
449. A similar approach was adopted in the 1938 Police Regulationswnaming

Navigation'ontheRhineT. hoseRegulationswereadoptedinthecontextofanicle I ofthe
Treawof Mannheim,whichstipulatedthat
''Lnaviganondu Rhin etdc ws embouchures.&puis Bâlejusqu'hla pleinmer.
soi1en dcscmdanl soiten remonml sera libreauxnavins dc touteslesnations

mur lewnswrt desmarchandisesetdesmnnes. hlaconditiondesc confornier
auxstipulationscontenuesdanslaprésenteConventionet auxmesuresprescrites
pourle maintiende la secunteg6n6ale."'
Anicle I of the 1938Regulationsread asfollows:

" Dansleprésent rè.lement:
a)Le terme 'Mtiment's'applique auxnavires el bateaux.y comprisles engins

flottants,les hydmglisscurs.les menues embarcationset les bacs;b) Le terme
'e-mnflonant'd&&e-lesconsuunions flonantessurlewuellessontinstallbdcs
appareilsmécaniquestelsu'appareilsdedragage.grues.élévateurss,onnenes(et
les bacs)ilne s'appliquepas auxradeau^."^

450.IImaybcnolcdthatthedraltAnicleson theTerritorialSeaprepamibytheSecond
Commineeof the HamieCodficaiion Conferenceof 1930 ascrikd a tiahl of innocent
passag no!onlytovcLelsùaversingthemritorial wa withoutmuring i&nd walm but
alsoIO veswlsproc&dig IOuilandwatersormakingforthehigh seasfrominlandwaters.'
Thebmaddefktion ofshipsadoptai ininsmimen&ncemcdwith inlandnavigationarc.
thercfore.dircctlyrelevanIOthe questionof the categoryofcran enjoyingihe righlof
. ~ ~. .
innocent passage.
451. Both marine and aerial navigation wm conceived in functional ternis. The
hinctionalanmuachevid-n~intheme~ ~ ~ascribedtothe Lmn "vessels"wasmin-oredin
rr ~ ~ ~
thedef~tion of Ihetemi';linraft''iIheian-&kcan Saniwy Convention.aniclc2of
whjchrcadasfollows: "Defuurionr"Aircr<dr-Anyvehiclewhch tscapableofùansponing

'Canventionnrmnine NaMc-ion~ ~ ~hhem. Mmnkirn. 17 hbcr 1968.anKk 1.Pnrrv.
conroiidnred~r;orys;ricvol.138.p. 168.ktalpathe~rcaryof~ayencr.31 uarth 1831:
articl1.Pany.ComolidnrcdTreq Senu. vol.81p. W.

'PoliccRegulauonomnaming Navigananon theRhvr. Paris25Augwt1938. Hudson .nter-
~1tonolLr~irlononv.olVIII.103The RegulaLionconlinuea<follo~:
"c)Le arme 'radeaudaignemut a~~cmblag eepitocsdeboisdcr@ R ue wnspné par
nottap, qu'ilsoouoon mmoqd;

d)Le am 'Ctablhcmenftlouant"bigne mua installatifloftanltaumqueIc riZlllmnU
etIcrradeauxaUe que bainsdocksappnmuiu. hangarpw M~aux:
e)Le lumc 'tüomenimuni demoyens mCcaniquu depmpulsmo n'cisndau Mnmmtsuah-
MI pw Icwppulsion unmoawauril8auc . ëm Ionquea Wur crlplacésw wr in-
stallauonfloaanvmxc (chaloup & propulsioou & mon). que lachaloup & propul-
sionoude&cm ais ou min6 ~~X&IIMI& xwiΠpcmiannr;cc tame nes'ersnpas
auxbgtimenu m~r(li;ts...-

Article 3:24AIILSupp.239(1930).7hc dconitionsotheriet ofinnocuipauage inthe1958
CnnvcntionontheTenitoriaSea andContiguou son (article14(2)).Itr1982 UN Convex-
ticmontheLBV oftheSea (article18(1. rmvched insimilataM.penons orthiigs throughtheair.includingaemplanes.seaplanes,glidm, helicopters.au
ships.baüwns andcaptive baüwns."'

452. Aftcr 1945mry-making in mancn &Mg shpping became an innrasingly
specialisedmamr. panicularlyafvr theentiy intoforcein 1958ofUaty establishing
theInterCovmunatal Marime ConsultativeOrganization.subscquenilyre-namedthe
inmiutional MaritimeOrganization. Alihough some Ucalicsmtinued the practiceof
usingthetenn "ship"or'\essel" withourdcfuiingil'.inothenthe inmasingspecializarion

in may-making is rcflsted in the refmment of the dcfmiuon of meaning ofumis
"ship" and"vessel". aithoughwithoulany rcdunion in the brcadthof thai meaning.
453. Theuicrrasuigrcfuiementoftheconccprio sfvisenintheconrext l
of trcatieson marine pollution.The 1954IntemaiionalConvmtion for the Rveniion of
PollutionoftheSeaby Oil'&dno1definetheword"ship". whichilurcdtodenominaiethe

mfi to which obligations under the Convention appliAddcfuiiiion was. however.
adootcdinthe 1962Amadmars IOthe 1954Convention.Article . .1)of thoseAmad-
mGü included thestipulationthat:
"Amcle 1

Forthepurposesofthepresen Ctonvation,the followingexpressionsshünlcss
the,contextotherwise havetueireaningshcrebyrespectivelyassignai Io
thm. thatisIOSay

"Ship"means anysea-goingvcsxlofany typewhaisoever.includiigfloaiingerafl.
whethcrself-propclledor towed by anotherveswl, makuig a seavoyage; and "
tanker" meais a;hip inwhichthebaier pan ofthecargo&ce isconstnictcdor
adapledforthecarriageofliq bulkdfdwrhioeisiontfortheihcking.

cm$ng a cargoothcrthan od inUÏapan of ircargospace."'

'Habana 14Novernkr1924.86 LNlS 43.Cf..UrSanitarConventionforAmalNaviganon.
Thc Hague.12Apd 1933.161 LNiT 65.aniclel(1 )of wlcriale7hc wordoircrofin-
cludcsanymachine whichan&rivesu~~ortinUr amosphcrchm iheremions oft&àirand
iinendehfor=rialnavigation"
'Se, forexample.Ur ConventiononUr IntcrûovcmnialMaritimConsultatiOTganiza-

tion.Gcnev6%Maxh 1948,289UNTS48, ConventiononUrTerritoriScaandContiguous
ZoneG.eneva29Aoril19~..516U~TS 2M:Conventionon UrHieh SearGencva29Amil
1958;450U& 82;ConvcntiononUr ~&ÏtikntalShclf.&neva29AMI 1958.469UNfS
311;ConvcntiononUr FaEilitaofInternational MariTeraffic.London 9April1%5,591
UNIS 26% IIIIntemationl onventionfUr SafetyofLifalScaLondon.I Novmber 1974.
1184UNIS 2;ConventiononLimitationofLiabiliiyforMaritimeClaim.LondonNovcm-
ber1976.16Inier~rionnlLtgdMmcMLr 606( 1977):UniteNationsConvmtionon Ur Car-
* ofGoodsbv Sca Hamh. 31March 1978. 1Inier~rio~l~~al Mmcnnl<608i 1978i:
th;Intemational-Gmv on-tiannardofTrainineof~crtificationandwatchkeminifoi
Seafmn, London.7Jvly1978.UKTS50 ( 1984);Glgium-~enmwk-~md-kdeh Lptiblic
of-yGrococ-klanbltaly-NeUrrlands-Non Kingdom,
Mmrandum ofUndenamàingonPonSiauConmlinlmplemntingA-ntr onMaritime
SafctyanRotcctionofUr Marim EnWonmenL Paris26Janw 1982.21hrer~~onnlLtgal
Ma~eMls (1982).
'London 12May1954,327 UNIS 3.

'1962Amendmnw IOtheIntematid ConwntionforUr heventionofPollutionofUScab~,
011.19%.600 UNTS332. Thc oamcdcfiniuonwm adopicdin ih1969Ammdmcne IOUr
19%Convention:UKTS2 1(1978J.Sec dm iheConventiona ihcRcvenuonof MarinePol-
luuonbyDumpmgof Wmra andotherMancr.London.29Dccanbn1972.article111.1ü46
UNIS 120. 454. ThisdefinitioniiluswtesthrcepinF.in&thedefinition~faship~eveninaueaty
withsospecificapurposeastheprcvcntionofoilpollution,isremarkablybmad.Itratsthe

defnition onthefactof thevesse1makinea seavovaze.fatha thaamn characteristics
of consmiction or purpox whch migl;tmk Ge categoiy of shiis to which ihc
Conventionrclalcs.Semnd,iexplicidyincludeswithinthe &finitionnon-self-propelled
craf makmga seavoyage underww byanothcrvcssel.This isof parucularrelevawa
jack-up barges.whch arccommonlymsponed inlhismanner.Andihird.theancillary
definitionof thcword--r" &m&.swtes themanna inwhichdfic characteristics
ofmnsmictionorpurpose(or,ashm. both) am Iakm intoacwunt inordcrIomw the
defnition ofacsselincircumstanas wherethatiswnsiderednecessaW.Thatmwing
doesnot applyat the levelof theconceptionof a shipor vessel:itapplus bythecreatioi

of a subcategory of thecategoryof ship.'
455. Thedefuiitioninthe 1954OPollutionConvent~onmightbethoughttoleaveopcn
theauesiionwheiherthim "shm"should bemdsubiectto animpliedconditionlimiting
thetm tovesselswithana+Œsimiiartoshipsoirraditional &sign.soastoexclu&
forexamrile.riladom. Thatauestionwasclearlyanswcredinsubwuent mties.
. .
456.Oneofthe fmtclearaniculatib onsaofthhcfiheconcep iasiaclhied
inthc1972OsloConveniionfort hcventionofMarinePollutionbyDumpingfromShips
and Aircrafarticle 19ofwhichstatedthat: "ForthepurposeofthisConveniion:

...
2)"Ships and aircrafmeans sea-gohg vesselandair-borncraf oiany type
whatsoever.Thisexpressionindudesair-cushnafL floaticrafiwhethcrself-
propelledor noand fued or floatingplatSom.'*

457.Ancmptsw revme thetendcncyiowardscxpliciluseof suchbrDaddefinitionsof
thetenn"sh~" wm unsuccessful.~csucŒssortoth1 c954OilPollutionConvention.thc
1973"~~~~"Convcntion. wniainedthefollowhg stipulation:"Anic2Definitions
For thepurposesof theprcwniConvention.dess exprcsly providedothawise:

(4) "Ship" means a vessel of antypewhatsoeveropaating in the marine
mvironmmt and i~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~foii bats. air-cushionvehicles. submnsibles.
floatincrafaidfued or fliating plado&.'''

OnatleastfivcocuisionsintheConfmnŒ whichadoptedthe1973MARïQLConvcntion
proposaiw deletehumthedefnitionofshipstherefaence Iofd and floatingplatSm

'ButsocUrdefuatimninUr htcmationalConventionCivilLiabilityforOilPollDam-n
agc.B-Ir. 29Nomnba 1969.973 Ulim 3.aniclc1ofwhichpmvidedIha1"'Shmaii~
anywa-goingv-l andmywabomc naftofmy rypwhauocvcra.cniallycarryingobulk
asogo"; andcf..UrConm Rgardinganhmim Supplemcnt tTdu LiabilityforOilPol-
lution.14lanuaiy197IOInrcm~ionollgolMorcriah137(1971)

Similarl.nicle2ofUr IMOhaft RotocolIOUr lntcmafionl anvcntonnCiviLiability
forOilPollutiDamage 1969Lodmb 1984.23InIcmMmMo~ikgaiM<UC 17a(h198p)
ndcd ihaanic~Iofthc1969mty Conventiok wrnded IOpmvidethnt"'Ship'mcam
mysa-mg ve~~ealndsca-bomccr&of anryp whauocvcrmnmuncd oradaptcforthc
camiagofoilinkùL:ascargopmvidcdthaashipcapableoearryinoiandoUrr sagoss%hall
bercgdcd 8sashipdy whco itu aEtuacanyingoiinkùL:anddu~g [thcl[anylvoyage
hUowuig auchcm'riag[eunliispmved ht itham midusr ofsuchBmagc ofoiinbuk
aboard[ifilharcsidvaofsucBmagc ofoil kùL:stilloboard]."
l<klo. 1kbniay 1972.11Infc~~lg~Mofcriah262 (1972).
'uiodonal Convmùon forUrRMntion ofPoUution fmm ShipsLondon2.Novcmbsr1973.
12hIer~rion<rlitgoiM~~rin1319(1973).wcrc defearcd Iisdificult tsec how it wuldk made plainer thaailkindsof vesscl.
includingdrill ships and drillplatarcincluded withinthis defdtion. which iswidcly

cchoed in oihu pollution mues.Platfonnsarc ships for the pirrposcs of thex ùcaties.
458. ïhisbmad defdtion of shm is not a wuliariw of treaties concmedwith the
pwention of pollution. A similarbmad dekition adopted in oihu contcxü.For
uamol.. .he Convcntion on the lntcmational Maritime Saiellit- Organization provides
that:

'Tor the purposes of thh Convcntion:
...

(0 'Ship' means a vesse1 of antype operating in the marine environment. It
includesimmolia hydrofoil boaaircushionvehiclcs.su fbomcnnirfles.
and platfom not pennanentiy moored.**

Similarlythe Convention for the Suppression of Unlawhil Acts again~t the Safety of
Maritime NavigationStatesthat:
'Tor thepurposesol thisConvention. 'ship'mm avcsxl of anytypwhatsoever

no! pcrmanently aitachcd thesea-bcd,including dynamically supportcoah,
submersibles. or any oh floatincraft."
And the international Convcntion on Saivage slaies that: "Veüel mcans anYship
or crafLor any smicturc capabofnavigation'*

459. One miy of intmst because il admcsvs ingencral iams the isofwhat counts
as a shi~isihe1986 UN Convention on the ConditionforReaistrationofShips? The
~onv&on was concludcdunder the auspices UNCïAD and&cordingly rrfl&ts that

Se. forinstanc.hcConvcntionforthcRcventini oMarinePallunonbyDinnpingfmm
Ship andAircrah.Cklo.15kbniary 1972 1I Inirmalio~llrgol MorerioLr262(1972).article

19:thcConvcntionon tRotcctionofIhcMarineEnvim~uni ofthe Baltic.%aHelsinki.22
.Mar~h1974.13Illf~rMlb~l~~a)~~l~~/S 546(1974).articl2:thcRUtOCOflorthcRXVCIl-
tionofPollutioofUr ~ediicrraneaScabyDumping imm Shiprand AiraafSBarxlom 16
Febmatv1976.15Inrrrnorio~llrnal Moieriok2W(1976).article3:Ur RemnialConvention
forhc&mation ofthcRed land Gulfof AdenEnWommnLJeddah.i4 Fcbnia ry82 1.
RmI-Buùka andS.Wo. SelemcdMultiloremlTmlies in ihcFiehiofthe Emimnmem.vol.
2 (1991).144.
ïïx Convtnrim onthc RevemionofMamr Pollutionbykmping 01WawcrandOihcrMann.
London.MummCsry.Mmw andWdungtni. 29 Demnbn 1972.1044UNTS 120.amclc 111
OXa),mayappmGnin wuntcrIothismn6 in diftingvishkmn "vmls" and"pLufomis"

inthcrcfmnce Io"vcîrels.airaafL platfom oromanrmadesmciu~u': However.articleIII
R) ofihat Conventionstiwlata i"'vawb andaircral' canswatcrbomoerairbom nafi of
&v lm whawcva. Tl& exornion inclvdcraircushiodcrPnandilauin. d whethcrxlf-
p&&icd or noi"Wlc ~ic; mighi bcpladom&ihich arcMI veirclo.ruchar fiman-made
platfom hilda low-tidielevationr.thcdefininni in aniclc 111(2).whictoiMsiinlar
Ur 1973MARPOL ipbmadcnoughiocmbrarr drillshpand dnll plaüom ofthc Lÿndissue
inîhicau.
'London. 3 ScpIembcr1976.114UKlS 105.artide 1.

'Rome. 10March1988.27 lnlemolwnaiLegalMoreriol672(1988).article 1.
'London.28Ad 1989.14UniIedNoliomLuw ofIlu SeoBuilcr.nlkmbcr 19~~...7'.h-
cle 1.Cf..Ur IMODr& Conventionan ~iab,-~~&d Ca-.---tio~n Cond~n wiî-U.~C---
nageofNoaiourand~&ou~ ~ubstaKesby~ea London 1984.23Lnmtional kgal Mami-
al5150(1984).articleI of whch pmndco 'ship'meam anyga-going vesse1andanrca-
borncm? of anyrypcwhauocva amying oneor morchazardoluuibs~ta~~ar cargo."oruanization~snanicularconcemwith theinternationa..h-~~inamaderatherthanwith the
rcgulationofshps assuch.amancrwhichfdls withinthecornpetenceofthelnremational
MaritimeOrganizauon.Nonetheless.theConvcntionadopü a funciionaiappmachIothc
concept01 a ship.no1IimiiingIhcconceptof a shipbyreferenceIoany paniculardesign
characunstics. Aniclc 2of theConventionsripulatesthar:

"'Ship' means any self-pmpelled xn-going vcswlusedin thc international
seabornewdc forthemanspon ofgoods,pasxngcn. orbothwiththecxccprionof
vessels oflessthan50Sss registed tons."
460.Perhapstheueaty definitionmostrelevantIothepresentcase is hat given inthe
ReeulationsattachedIothe1972ConventionontheIntemationalRemilationsforRevent-
ingCollisionsa1Sea.'ThoseRegulationsarespecificallyintendedto&tablish~lesforthe
avoidanceofcollisionsbval1navieatinevessels:inotherwords.theirintendedamCO-is

extensivewiththecateg&yofna;igatrng vessels. Ru3siaiesIhat:
"For thepurposesof theseRules.exceptwhen thecontexrothenviserequires(a)
Thcword "vessel" includesevery descriptionof watamft, including non-
displacementmft and seaplancs.usedor capableof beimgusedasa meansof
Wnsponation on wakr. (b)The terni 'powcr-drivenvcssel" means any vesse1
propelledbymachinery.

(0 nie tm "vesse1not undercommand meansa vessel whichthroughsome
exceutionalcircumstanceisunabletomanoeuvreareguirodbytheseRulesandis
theifore unabl10keepoutof thewayof anotherve&l.

(g)Themn4"vessel resmctedinha abilitytomanoeuvre"meansavessel which
hm thenaNn ofherwmkisresmctedinher abilityIomanoeuvreasrequiredby
theseRulesand isihereforeunabletokeepouiof theway ofanothervessel.
The followingvessels shail be regardedasvesselsrestnned in their a10lity
manoeuvre:

(i)aveîulcngagedin smaiciuigg~pickingupanavigationmarksubmarine
cablcM pipeline;
(ü)a vesselmgaged indrcdging.survcyingorwiderwatcroperations;

(üi)avasel mgaged inreplcnishmentortramferringpmons.provisioMscargo
whilcundmay;

(vi)a vcsselmgagcd in a towingoperationsuchassevmly rcsmm the towing
vesselandher towiniheirabili10deviatehm iheircourse.

WhilenoexplicitreferenŒismadetoMODUS.theyplainlycomewithinthedefmition,
andaretreatedinpracticeasdoingso.
-
461.ïi%s bmaddefhtion of thelem "ship"and>vesseil samtinuing innirrcrit
practice. neofthemost-ni Ieaties onmaritimcmanen. theInkmationalConvention
& OilPollutionF'reparedne, uponw andCoopwtionl. usets hefollowingdefuiition:
"Articl2

FMthepurposesof Ihi~onv&tion:

'London 20October1972.IBOUNTS16.1143UKlS 346.
'Londo3 n0Novcmber 1990.30bfenuuionolk8alMaferiob 73(1991). (3)"Ship" means a vessel of anytype whauoever operating in the marine
avironmat andincludeshydrofoilbats, aircushion vehicles.submersibles,and
floatingra ffany type."

462. Asisthecascinrelationmp~c-1945mties,thereisnoevidmceofany syaematic
distinctionkindram ktwem theterms"ship" and?essel". A Rcpon of theDrafting
Cornmitte oftheniirdUN Confcrena ontheLawof theSea.havingnotedthe useofboth
mms inthedrafttext ofthe UNConventionon theLawof the Sea.statcd:

7ïis problemaffectsonlytheEnglishandRussianvenions sinceonlyoneword
isusedinotherlanguages,cg.buque inSpanishandmvire in
Fmch. The words"ship" and "vessel" arenot interpretedas meaningdifferent
thingsin thetext.

...
Inthe Arabic.Chinese.Frenchand Suanishtexts.one wordis usedconsistentlv
throughoutthe text.The Drahing ~oimince suggsted that thechairmethé
Wish andRussianlanmae mu~s mightwnsult witheachotherinanammut
toksolve theissuewithllitheirgroups."'

The issue was not, howevn. resolved Although towards the end of the wnfcrance
suggestion was made that the term"vessel" was broaderthan the term "ship"? no
hmonizationoftheterms wasachievedandboth"shipPpandd'v t~1"giphpearin
tut,inthesameprovisions whichhadledthe DraftingCornmimetorcpmthatthemms
did not mean different things. "Ship" and''vessel"remain interchangeabletams in
internationallaw.
463.Multilatertreatypractichughout thismniry leadtothewnclusion thathe

lead concation of a shi~or vessel hasconsisbemtlabroadand hinaional one. tied
tc-hcfactof thmft inquestion navigatingtheseaor withthe capacitytodsol
464.BilateralmtvoracticedocsnotdivemFmmthisoatrcm M.ostbilateralmues use
themms"ship" or";c&l" withouldefuimg-hcrn.'~&. andnotablexceptionisanicle
I of the Ammeni benveen the Govanment of the Km& of Denmarkand the
~ovmimen~of the GermanDemocraticRepublicwnarn& SaivageOperationsin the

Intemal Watm and Taritorid Seas of the Kin-dom of Llenmark and the German
DemocraticRepublic. whichstates:
"Forthepurposesof thisAmmat: 1.'Shiu'meansavessel ofanvM>e which
isusedaÏsei. includinghy&foil bats. air&hion vchicles.su&&. fioating
vesselsand fued or iloaiingpladom.~

'UN Doc.AICONF.6UL40.22 Auguri1979:UNCU)SIII.O.R..volXII.p.95aip.97.
'SeeUNCLOS m. O.R. vol.XVLp.13.para56 (MrYankov).

'Seef.orelample.AgrrmvntbcrwŒnUr ûovemmuiiofUr Kmgdorn ofDcnmar lndUr
GovrnimniofUr UNonofSovlcl SonaltuRepublincnimnvig Slopptng.17Onober1973.
976 UNTS 293:A-ni on Manome Trampon bcrwtcnUrGovemmcno ifUr Kinndornof
Ur Ncthlrlanand Ur Govanmuilofthe~e&le'sRc~ubliofChina.14Auwt 1976.1021
UNTS 249:A-nt onMaritimeTranmon &tweui.UrGovanmentofUr-kwblic ofFui-
landandUr&venunentofUr Roole's&aur ~ - ~ ~ ~ -~7 Inn, ~ ~7.......& 6s;
UMM ~wi&Arncrica. anam ma '&analTrraryScprcrnber977.1280UNTS 3:
Apcmeni anTradeandShippingbcrwe+Ur CrsboJlovakSonalirRcpblicand Ur Rcpubiie
ofCuba,5Novmta 1977.1135 üNïS 169;Agrramm on Maritimerawpn bct<ve, hc
Govemmcno tfSpainandUr GovmimentofUr RepublicofEgualoril uinca5Deonnba 465.Onequalificationneedstobemadetothiswnclusion.Ashas ban sen. severaif

thedefmitionsareframe dni- widemou& toenmmpassdrillplatfm engagcdin
seabedexploitationandengagcdinopnations thm. as wellasplaÏfons navigatingthe
seasT. he 1973MARFOLderinition (""Ship"means a vesse1of anytypewharsoeva
operathg in the marinemvironmmi and includa hydrofoilbats. air-cushionvchicles.
submersibles.floatingcrafiand rixedor floaungplatfons'? isagoodexample.

466. 'Ib~~ ~ ~ ~ ~h~ ~atha~ ~ ~inamoriale inthewnlext Ofthereaulationofthe
activiticsof vesselstony tofaadisti&& bewm "vvesscln savigaùng and"vessels
meaeed intheexoloitationof seakd mouras": a vesse1mightfailintobth categorics.
7% ï972~ollisi& ~e~ulauons.forinsianm.includcdredge&(10whichvessels&ver-
ingdeepsea bcdminaals ar assimilable)withithecatcgoryof vessels.nieir inclusion
isapproprialekcauw suchcru3 arnavigaringwhiletheyarewllectinwabed resowces.
However.cenain vesselsceasenavigatinginordcrtorecoveror otherwiseengagein the

uoloiiation ofseabedr~ ~ur- - ~ ~ ~arc vesselsof suchkm& We thevarefued
toke seabedtheyarcnotnavigatinganddomt behaveUc ships.
467.nie amromiatedistinctioninthewntcxtof theremdationofnavigation,thcrefore.
isthaidramibetwm~~~~s whicharc.and~0~us wh.icharcnot.navi'garingaithehe
in question.Thisdistinctionis drawn cxplicitlym several insüumThe. 1976IL0
~oivcntion on MmimurnStsndardsinM&h&t ships'stipulatesthat:

"Anicle 1
1.ExceptasothemiseprovidcdinthisArticle,WConvention~lies~ev~~-

goingship.whethcrpubliclyorprivaely omed, whichkengagcd inthIanspon
of cargoor passenps for the purpose of wde or is mployed for any oüur
wmmmiai pirrpost.
...

4.nii Csonventiondoesnotapplyto -
(a)ship primarilypmpellcdbysaiiwhetha ormi they arcfincdwithauriliary
mgines:

@) shipsengagedinftshingor inwhalingor insimilarpmuits;
(c)smallvesscls and vesscls such as oil rigs and drillmgplatfonns when not
engaged in navigation, the decisiontoswhich vesscls arc mvmd bythis

subpamgraphtobeîaùenbythecompctnit~uthorityinc~chwuntryinmultation
withthe mm1represmtativeorganuationsof sùipownem ruidams."
Hm. oilrigsanddrillmgplatfonnsmaybeeqludcd fromthesqw oftheConvention
by the flagStae. butonlywhentheyarcno1engagcdinnavigation

468.nie samedistinctioishm inothermties.The 1976INMARSATC~~V~I~~~
excludesfmm the defmitionof a shipplatfonnswhicharc'pmNmenUymoond*. The
1989lnvrnational Conventionon Sdvap-'also excludcsthm. in mm preciw uns.
Article3of thatConventionstateht:

'This Conventicmshalotapplytofixedafloatingpl~omor~mobilcoffshon
drüiing uni6 when such pia&ms or units&ion locatim engaged in the
uploratiai. exploitationorproductioseabcd minera iOUTCQ."

'Conventioai Ur Inicmaud MaiituncSatcUiuOrganuatim Lmidos 3Sepmnba 1976.
1143UNTSIü5,am'cle 1.

'Landon.28 A@ 1989.14UnitcdNm'onsLuw ofrhcScaBuilcri(Dmmbsr1989).p. 77. Suchpladoms and uniu arewithinthe defuutionof veshiarticlelm) of the 1989
Conventionwhen ihcyarenotsolaatcd andcngaged.Aniclelm)providesthat"vssels
meansanyship ordt, oranysrncnirc capableof navigation."

469.'Thisis underlinedby the fan IIMIdurthenegotiationof the 1989Salvage
Convention.as theConfermamrds note:
"The Commineedecided toamcndsubpamgraph (b)byinserthg theword"any"
beforethe word"smicture': inortomakeitclearthat thephrase"capable of
navigation"shouldbe undmtood as a qualificationonlywithrIOihdumi
"smcnue", and noi with regard io kme "shiv." 'The quation whethera
smcture is a vesse1is made mo on the funnional criterion of the fan iu
capabililyof engagingin navigation,and not on any other charactetisticsof iu

shapeor design.'
470. One of the fullat intemationaldiscussionsof the distinctionkoueen pladm
which areandpladoms which areno!shipsoccurredduringthenegotiation ofthe 1988
ConventionforihcSuppressionofUnlawfulAcüagainst theSafetyofNavigation.'Thcrc
thelinewasdrawnbewan "a vssel ofanytypewhatsaver no1pmnanenlly anachcdIo
thesca-bcd"which asashipiscoveredbyihc 1988ConventioniüelP. and"an anificial
island. installationor s& oemianmÏlv anachedIOthe sca-balfor th.um.sc of
uploration orexploitationofrc&unxsor f&othercmnomic purposes".whia'ïiied
~IaEorm"mvmd bvthe 1988hmol forihcSmssion of UnlawfulACISagaulstthe
~afclyof Fied ~ladonns Locaiedonthe ~ontin//ial Shelf.' -

471. The disrinctionin the 1988Conventandhtocol. which mu pladonns
opmting on locationbutnopcrrrmnenrlanachcdto the sea-kdas ships.pahaps goes
hinherthatnhecumt gmed uractice.The~~naall~acccvteddistinctionregardssuch
plarfoms asshipswhm&ey &navigating. u&dly fiknO& dnuing siteto orto
orfroma shipyard.butno1whm theyaremting on location.whetheror nottare
'permanentl$'anachedio ihcsca-b& .~his&ned~acce~ieddin~ictiiscpitomisédby
the lems of a noieIoIMOResolutionA.671(16).Thatnoiema& as follows:

"Forthepurpovofthisnsolution mobileoffshorcdnllinguniu(M0DUs) uscdfor
exploratorydnllingopcrationsoffareconsidercdtbc vasels whm theare
mgaged innansian ndorngage dnadrillhg operation.areconsiderciobe
installationsor suucnircswhencngagedinadrillmgopration."

'Nokonarticle1IMO Da. LEGKONF.7ICw/RD/Z 1,April1989.
>Cf.theLnkmaaonaCl onvcnooonOiIPolluooRparcd-. London 30November1990.30
InurmionnllcgolMafcnaù733(1991).mclc 2.wluchdisonguirberwccnoffshoreinsial-
lanonand v-1.5uigcxralonlkaUrerai ihattheinsiallauaremgagedinexplorauon
andexploiiaoaCLivitic%
'ROM. IO W1988.27 IIVC~M'O~<~~L~OIMOIC~ 672(1988).

'Articl1.
'27Inur~n'o~itgai~o~ 685(1988).arti1.e 149

B.CONCLUSION FS OM TREAN PRACTICE

472.Internationalueatvmactiaomvides nowarrantfortheamlicationofanycriterion
oh thanacapabilityofnavigationseaorperhaps anac~al&gagemat innavigation
atsea.indetcnnini-c!whetheM no1a-pivacraf wunlsas a shiM vcssel.
473. It maybesaidthai intheabwna of anauthontativeand gcneraldcfuiitionof the
umis "ship" and"Vesscl"a purposiveintcrprctationmus!be adopled,adminhg thal the
dcfuiitionmavvarvhm oncwntutto another.'Suchanamach would be sumartcd in
thecontextoimkes bytheprovisionsoftheViennaconvention on theLawoi~reaties

wncming ireah,intemtation.'Howeverwhm,as inthemesentcase.thequestionisone
ofrighlso?navigation,'ihewnclusionmbetthesame:théquestionwhetheragivencrafi
Qes or doesnotd.fy . asa shipsoas to mjoy righlsof navigationmun depnd on ils
capabiiityofnavigationsca,oiperhapsilsac~aïen~agcmenf innavigational sca.
474.Drillshipsandmisubmersibles [email protected]
navigatingaseq andindeedardesigncdspecificallytonavigatealse&and theydoinfact
navigateal sea.

475.Jack-u~saremoremoblematic.Thevare&simcdtobemwcdatsea,eithcrb~heavy
ri bargesor by tugs.whm towcdby a bLvy lin bargetheywnstinite thecargoof that
bans.Assuchthev oanak oftheriehto.pass-geofthebarn? ïhk wasmadeexplicitin
earli formulatio'onosf the "ghi of'uuiamt passage. whiChstipulaml thai shih, thcir
passcngm andcargoenjoycdthatrigh~'AIth0ughthisisnotcxprcsslystaml inthe 1958
TerriionaSca - - -~~~~~~the 1982LINC~nventiona ~ ~-~ ~fthe Sea lisabsurd
rosuggestthatashipenjoys thcrightofpasbuteilscargodoesnor Thmis nocvidena
innationalepislationortrcatv-makineutxticcof riehlsofoassaeebeinedeandent uwn
- W . - . - -.
shipskaring cargoof anyspsific six.
476.Thewsition isdifferentinrelationtoiack-u~swhareunderwettowor which
arebeiig towcdon a barge.Thcn is no evidnice e&blishing theexistenceof a gnied
resuiremmttharashio.f~ihe~unassofint lwm.atioableofnavinationunda
ilshwn power.me i986 inv inventi onnthe ~onditi&s fo;~e~ismtio~Ïof Shipsis
unusualindefuina shipsas "self-pro~eiied"vessels.and 0th- insmunmls.asthe
1972CollisionRe&ations, cleariy&tain no suchquimmt. lhac is,thercfore.no

justificationforexcludingjack-upshm thecategoryof shipsonthcbasisthatthcycm01
navigateundertheirompoweIrn.dŒd.the1972CoKlsionsRegulation UscaNpglicitly
andtowas twovessels:'thefactlbatthemwmay beunableIomoveunderilsownpowa
isirrelevant

-
'Se D.P.O'ComU. TheIntcmniio~l &woffhSeo.vol.I(cdI.A.Shcaicr)(1984).p.749.
'23 May1969.Il55 UNTS331.Amcles31-33.

'Cf.Rule24ofthe1972CollisioRegulation.050UNTS16.1143 UNTS346. whichuema
wg andkr iowasa(ringle)powndrivevcsscwhcntheyar"rigidlmnrrncd iacornposiv

'W. forinsianc, .Schiiçkins emomdm ioUr SuWommittceoftheLcagucofNarinu
Cornmimo efExp foUr RogmsivcCodificatiooflntcmationl aw.LeaguocfNarinu
Doc.C196.M.70.1927V. A~ril20.192o.71:AS. deBusiamanicvSWM iWN P.Goule).

'See.foelample.Rul24oftheCollisim RegulaIinqwhichwu oui thercquirrmnü for
boththelowingvcrwandkr tow. 477.Itmayk thoughtthatthcreis.orou10k. adistinctionkwanvesselscapable
ofnavigationunderthcirownpowerand thoseno1socapable,thecffectthatjack-up

bargesam noIok regardcdasvesscls.Howeverthdefulltionsofthe tcrms"ship" and
'%essel"in internationalmaties dono1cotheconclusionand. as is show klow.
municipalpracticedoesno1supportanysuchquiremminternationalpracticehasnotso
furexcludcdjack-ubargefmmthecategoryof ships.
478.Evm if international lawwereto requirea capabiiityof navigationunderirsown
wwer inorderthatcrafaualifvasashiv,itwouldnof ofcourse,nuxssariiy followrhat
non-powedmfihaveno~gh~~f~assa~e. ~ighrsofpassagemightapplyeqkallytoshis
andnon-powed vessels.Altanativcly. non-powed vesselsmighthave anindependent
rightof passage, establishedby theconsistentandrepeatedpracticeof Statesinailowing
Ihemtonavigateunhamperedhughthetmitonal seainthesamemannnasconventional

ships.Or.thirdly.a~wedja ckhelptmighakeofthenghtofpassageofthemg,
onthebasis thatitiscargo,orthatitandareasinglenavigatingunitforthis purpose
or,again.onthebasisthatStatepracticeclearlyestablishesthattowarjecateds
ashavingarightofpassage.Whateverlegaicharactaizationmightbeadoptedthatfact
towedjack-uparemated inamanncrconsistentwithIheirpossessinga rightof passage
isundeniable. C'l'HEDEFINITION OF SHIPSINNATIONA LAW AND DOCIRNE

479.'Iheconceptofa shiporvesse1inmry-making caainly extendsto dri lhpsand
semisubmersible platfom and arguably to jack-ups. The defuiitionof ship adopted in
municipal lawissmilarlybroad -

480.Mostnationallegislationwnceming thelarilorial seaexpliciliyaffums therightof
navinalionorof innocentDassaee.insomecases.thisrieht isphed in-eral lemis. in
othek itisappliedto"dl ships"or "dl shipsothir thanwanhip~".~

481. Unlessthcy arcanchorcdormanenliv fued to the sea-bedanas of national
junsdiction?or Aess they arcengag& in thiacmal explorationor exploitation of the
resourcesof thesea-bedof the coastal sue.' there is no vndency to excludedrill ships.
semisubmersiblesor jack-up drill bargesfrothedefulllion orshiPr in the applicable
nationallegislanon.Onthecontraiy.thow pises of naiionallegislalionwhichdefuit the
words "shiÜ"or '%essel"te~d~o ~r-., th;bmadesttcms whichwuld no1wnccivablv

be intcrpreted to exclude such vessels. This applies both to legislationconmning thé
turitonal seaeencrallv.and saciaiidle-islationdeal-ne withissuessuchasvollution.
fheries. cusk re&ation.;tc.
482. Sme nationaljurisdictionsestablishsuecialrrsuictivc reeimes forthePassaReof
warships, nuclear ships and ships uirrying'ulw-hazardous sibstanasMODU arc

gennally no1subject10suchspccia larnent whiiein mit.' lnafewcases,thecoasial

'Asin intcmationlsage.theirmu'shipand'vrrwl'arcokn uwdinterchmgeablyH. g.thc
repa ofthcChaimianof thMg Cniunincc oftheïüirUniedNationsConferenccon thc
Lawof theSea AKONF.6Y40UNCLOSIll.OfficialRecordvs olXII,p.95.nt97.

'Coas~ ~~~ ~huc~.lv, ,doot.=-~~mi Icdrlafio~-~rdnll".atf-~~~~~~~dtthcseabcd
However.svchlegiolatiismi mlcvaniin tmnvrt ofihismmorial.whichaddrrswsthc~
-1g01io~I nghu ofMODUS lnrnuninpd caslav iimungrmicnires heàinonepl- arc
alsogenrallycxcludedhm lhedefuiitionofrhip. se.gTk CarFimt WhilronNo.2.
118971A.C.337(H.L).TkNormndy. [19M] P.187:TheU~pccmc 1.191P.160.TheBlow
Lm. [1912P. 217:MocDo~Idv.~&rnFcInri..1981 AMC 536:DrcsscrIndv.Fiàclirand
Ca.. 1978AMC2588: lnSrcpknronv.Mckm Conrmerinx1 . 988AMC 2640a cranbarge
opable ofmovingdongiu oh anehorIi washcldml &teavencl.Howeverc . h-is
dislinguishableihcbargeinquestiowasconsuaid iniu abili10move byfucd cablaand
Urrcfm unaùlctonavigat.fruly. Wh navigatin. ODUsasc fru hm suchconsuainu.

'ïhc nghiofcmrial Stararelah~othcregulmonofexplormonorerploiiauonofMniralm.
rom on thcsen-bcarcofcouncofa&Kcrentand vidernaturihatnhcnghwmhng tothe
porslbleinlerferewlh Ur msdom ofnanganon mur .loflhcJunrdicûonrsweyed klow
d i thcpassageofMODUs.aithoughsonÜwouldapplyspccializcd. ndponnibmm re-
SUicIivlcegislat.houldMODUsengageinexplnaiionorcxploiiaüonset. c.gPanW. sut-
sction 655(2)otheCanadianShippingAcLandDouùi.ErnracfucldesIdgülnrionrna~io~les
enmariired'urilirnrdcr/ond<mn>inr(1985)ap. pp38cfseq.
'Nomgkn Ie@lation (Royal of %S. reprodwsdinihcAnmx)xquirestmifimionof
themovemcno t fdrillingplalfintcndeforuseinareausndciNonvegiajuridiction.How-

cva. ihisstipulationdm mt requinmtifidon forplalfomsnotinendcdfortueinNonucgian
wams. iz. itdm mt applygcdly toMODUS inmit Funhcmiam. Ur NorwegimDcnss

atcnha~in~salctyofnavigatio.athc&p"Iuding navigationSetheIMO Rccommen&-
riononsirfeZonesondSo/cryo/NwigmwnoroundOfshorcInrrnllaliontdSrmwes. un&
whichccatal Slatauihori~n Uro~crationofoffshoreinriallaandownures dmuld ïc-
quirop&dorrofMODUS to&n&'advance muceofanychangtof iheu1-on tothcappm
pnan aulhontof thmsrM Stav soastoailowomely&sue ofrclevaoiNoucatoMaMn":
MO RcsA671(16).AMe?..Amclel(1).Statemav rmuk oriononrotificationfor reasonsof safctywhm oiamnking towed

through&ah arc&of ia unitorid xa. bccauwof theiircsmcud abilitytomaioeuvre.
Howcver.inthaicasethear e tedjust likeothershipswhichsimilarlyrcsmctat and

4â3.A nwnbm of legislativeans simply defm a vesscl as a smnurc capable of
floiation.'Undoubicdlydl MODUswouldsatisfythiscriterion.Suchabroaddermitionis
dso reflectedinthe viewsoflcadmias onthesubjen Duckwofthnous hi Uu word
'ship'"docsno!limiiia meaning.butratherailarges i~"'Caronfmdsthatthe"customary
inumational law defmition would k quiu enmmpassing."'ïlspecialized literanvc
explicillyincludesdnlling ships.xmisubmasibles, and. io anexlmt.jack-up ngs inthe
defuiitionof shios. Wvlie Soicer.a lectmr in MaritimeLaw at Dalhousie University.

concluder:'7blhc'dcbaiabi hethcrawlf-propelledacmisub issripibusm>w
k over -itisa ship."*

2.The requiremenrf'navigarion'

484. Manydefinitionsinnationallegislationrerhefunctionalailerion of vessels
capableof,ormgaged innavigation.'Ihefunnionalapproadiisdso supportcdinmunicipal
lawjurisprudenceanddocuine. It is wellestablishedincommonlawjurisprudencethat

"evcry vesscl that substangailygmeseais a ship."lAsimilarly broadappmach is
evidenccdincivillawjurisdictions.'And,inmorerccasesM.ODUshave ben found

'Eg.U.r US NawgaoonRulcs.Rule3(q(n)7hc lam 'vmcù rumned inUruabùity10
manŒuwe'rhau lulludhi mi teLunitcioawsrelengagcdinatomg opraDonruchas
aevesdymmcu Ur mwngvcueland hertowtnWhe ibry iode* homUr mm rhcu
foU0wing."
lSomcfùmsreferme ismadetoUr faciUiilmus1bcahollowsmiîNR-e nimion hilfilled
by MODUr

The PMcipicsofMarirùncLov(1930)p. 1:hmhanfmnca toUrlircranacrgiwnbelow.
'ShipsNarionaliyndStanqinBernhardt cd)I.ENycloprdiaOfPubiicInumoiionnlLaw
(1989)p. îSQ.

'CMadian MantuneLaw andUrOffshorr15JownaiofMannnu Lov andCommcrrc (19M)p
489 'Ihc Amnm Law hmtc em incl& tüed usmihom. "Chdnllmgplaüomu and
simUarfixehmümions arcinwnnerropcusvbjcntoUr lawofUrsraand maritilawas if
Ury wereshim"2 Restorcmeiftk Law.theForeiznRclnritov oflk UniIedSr<llc12.
hi Uroh hd asiodiçaodabwc inmaiaial &wntim andnationallegislalui10
uclude fixediamüaiau anirmallmiosdcviocrmpaaed in temloratioanduoloiŒtion
of& msoumsof th rca-bcandthcooea nm fmmihédcfuùtioniUr iam .S~~D'.'MODUS
intransarcofm<ms mthcr fixctothat~ flm magagcd inUrexploratiaexplmm-
tionofsuchmm.
'&p. Fcrguton 1871)LP.6Q.ù.280.fuNrr- mecilcbelow.
'&g..UrûcmianBvndes~~rirhu~ 1952NJVi113XindW FMchCass..1844.1.197.Il
maybcmiedthaiuia~niarytoUrDanirhMari~An.iiisriaLedihaiin~pk~y
"espi (iDBniSYwY7 imspetive ofiu sizctyp a usemaytecolipideraahi~Crtib"?

niiaofUr An 9lovrnmcd~mmcnwcrved l#rgcBrcdhoit*~lLmPhiiip(1986)p .3.to fallwithinthehuictionalcriterionofcapabilityMfuse innavigation. Forexample,in
In rc Seafarerss'1nrrr~l;onaI Unionofcinodo-v. CrosbieOjqshoie~erviceLrd..Judge

niwlow oftheCanadian FcderalCourlofAppealpiniedout withrrspcct10oilrigs:'The
ri=are alsoshms.Ihev havemm ofself-m~dsion but foroneRason M anotha mav
bewwed ioa cir iIe"' This view hasalsob;m maintainedwith consistencyin othër
iurisdictio.s..noanicular the UnitedStates.'

485. Writen toohave followcdthe funcuonal approach. in the words of Gidel, it is
"I'aptiNdeB lanavigation" whichfumishesthedscisive clemmt of thedefmition.'Cidcl
,ad&:"il simble puioirrcssoni~quelena- demerdesurfacen'ut passeulemat tout
mgin flonant.maistout en-in.~ueuesque soientsesdimensionsctsadenomimtion. apte
Bxmouvoirduisleses~accs maritimes(&I'cxclusiondesaumsmilicuxa )vecl'armement
etl'équipagequi luioAtpopresen vuedes servicesquecomponc l'indusùicBlaquelleil

ut cm~loyé."ia?arator. in an anicle devotedIothe Drf5nir;o.Shi.s in Nati0~1 and
lnrer~tio~nalh, conciudestha~"the abilityto navigak is the paramountest'*
486. Some pieces of national leeislation rIOe'vesselscapable to navigafc',while
othmcova vcuels 'uwdinnavig&on'.~echntcallty h.crcmigl;tk adistincion betwan

these IWO concepts. A vessel 'capable' of navigation would include any detachcd or
detachable smicnire which floaü. cven if it is ncver movcd. whilc a vesxl 'uscd' in
navigationmustactuallyk cmployedinmovementin watcr.However.thisdistinction1s
not maintaincd with &v nmsist&cv in municioal law. For examolc. the Aushalian
NavigationActcovnsv&.sclsused inavigatio"ihilc thc~iswli~hipping ~egism-

tionActapplicsIO vcsse~scapableofnavigating.Ihc~ethalands ACI~e~ardingShiming
Trafficrefen to bathrequircmenü simultanmusly.covaing anyvessel'whichamally is
uscd or suitabletbeusédasmeansformovementbywatcr'.~omclegislativcactsapply
explicitly to vessels whicha'sea-going'or 'oceangoing'J11is no1clear whethn this

'EI.. OffrhorCO:v.Robinron.1959AMC(5h Cimit): ProduccrsDdling Co. v.Grny. 1966
AMC1260(5UiCircuit):A-1 lnd&cr Inc.vBargeRig # 2. 1979AMC1486(LD. Louisiana);
h reComploino rfScdcoInc..1982AMC1461.21 Inre1~1ionollgn~MnVriak(~982). p.318
(S.D.Tuas).

' I LdroiiNuernnriomlpublir lo nur(1932).p.65See alsoe.g..NguyenQuoc.Wlicr.
RUeLDroirimer~mio~lpublic (1987). p.958:Brcdholand Rilip. SIlovrnmrdKomnvnwer
(1986)p.63:Socdnqui~ Droitinier~rionmirime (19U)).p. 1MCalvo.2Dtcriomirr &
droifinier~rio~l(1885).pI1.
'22 Rrv.Hcllcniqu& &oitintc1~n'onol(l%9).p. 78ForW ms Lazamloswld dmy
hi pladom engagedinexploitatioand fixcIdth eeabed~JTshiprSeealtoCA. Flcircher,
Perroleumrcn..19--,..~4-.Ii mavbemicd Uia tnmid-scvcn~~a Nmeh mvckntal ~ p
CommiticconUr lawapplicableIodnllingnafLngr andplailm prcpmdaRepondirusing
Ur lcganatureofsuchnah The Reponconcludes(NOU197659. p.16)thaiinromcsiniafions

adnllingpladm ialr mnvchsimilariIOa'shrp".whüeinothcn Ur rarrisml Ur case.Thc
Rcponmntuiucrtomtc hi thcr wrarm gcncrapl mvirIo dctmnincIowhatumt themla
andrrgulatiomonship inUr Nomgian MaritimeAcIandoUrrRlevantam wac alw,applica-
Me Iodnllingpladomu.AccordingIoth Rem onehad tosmdy incm Ur indiriduamla U,
awcrta hnoraoolicabili.ndhi inm ~awr drillin~ladorm wouldoommandIo shim
wtiik ioihm &y wule ML ~"vnrrc~L~lirgccglerf~rrfmoyc~. ~or~csflc'nrllmc&-
ger.NOU 197659.
'Eg.. Mm, IdmitirneBoundariand JuridictioAd, 1976:OrenadMa aritimBoundMa
An 1976:Japan MaMe muutionRvcntion Law.1970. ïïx umi 'wa-going'ha3ben inm-
picd IOindicanarvigatibeyondinmnal waters.BigFm1 Twoiim Prorr.. 1989AMC1004.

1008.crilenonwouldk ofanobjective~subjstive naiurc.i.c..whelha itrclatestothe absbact

capabiliryofnavigatingonthchighwasortothepractiŒofacnialn lavigatingtheoceans.
Inany evenI,MODUSwouldfulfdlboththeobjenive and thesubjectivelesLBydesign
they arc ca~ableof lona-dislance navimtion. and by defmition tharc engagcd in
na;igation whenanemp& toucrcise therightof thmughwatersunder-nitional
juridiction.

487.Thesubjectivecrit~onofveswls'uscd'innavigationmight be inlerpmcd tomw
thatthcprimaryuseof avesse1mustbetharofnavigation.'Gcnerally,municipallawcouris
tend to requireevidenŒoniyof occasionaluse innavigation,or even oniy acnialusein
navigationatasinglepointintimewhenthesmicnireinquestionwasinvolvedintheevents
givingnse 10the iudiciaioroccedinas.'
- - -
488. InQuolisv.Amic Almh Fisherics. the US Dishct Coun. Dismn of Alaska.
affmd that "Courtshave foundthat thevesseldoesno1have to be acniallyplying the
watersforit10be 'innavigation',"addingthat:"generailythe 'innavigation'requirement
isused in the bmad sensenot suictlyconfinedto thosevesselsthat acniallynaviMate

move, but can includc thme vessek thatarcengaged as insments ofmmm& M
Uanspomtion innavig.blewaters."
489. In1982, theUSDismctCoun. SouthcmDismctof Texas. wasfacedwith the
necessiryof defning thcharacm of a ship inlitigationarisingfmm the ktoc 1oil weU

disasur. Itswnmarizedhe cricriv rclahg iothecapabiliryof.orusefornavigationinthe
foUowingwaywhenirinvesiigatcdwhetha an oiirigcouldk considd a vcsscl:'Thus
asthelawhasevolvd. severalfactorshavemerpcd asindiciaofwhethcracraft isaveswl
under the[US~imilationof~iabiliry]AcL~irst,kecraf mus1k builtwilhthe intentlhat
ilbe uscdinnavigationasameansofbanspodon. Sefond thecontrivancemustno1be
pmnanenlly anihd 10theshoreorwabcd.Finaily.thenaft mus k subjffl IOthepds

of thexa. Comparingthesefactorstothecraf~inquestion.theCoun fmdsthe Sedco135
semisubmersibleri=%be a vessel unda the ~*itation Act'"lhc Court addedthal
"semisubmersibled;illingrikr long havebeenheldvesselsforother slanitoryp-S."

'Examplsrofsucharcquimnentinnationallegislatarrm. andihcy mmllyICI= spsifi-
callyIOmaritMccommetce.whichisml ofdka CC~CYM~ IOMODUS ..8.Momau. Codc de
CommcraManBrne:"Lenavireest kbatimntaui doue habiwllanmt am narinarion"ln
MerCham'MarineIMMNC Co.lid vNonh~~~,-nn~ ~t~c~~-~~ & ~~mni~~,~a~ ~ ~ ~.~
11926125U.LR 446. RochJ.dedi mm acaw where ihcprimarpiirpm fn whchaplm-
form hadbcuidcrigxd was70 floaandIOlih andno1IOnavigate. edenicdhl Ur platforni
wxs ashipbscausc"whatcvaothuquaütiaarc anachd toashiporverulIhcadaptabüifyor
nangation.anditsurfa thalpinposeiinmyjudgmrnt oneof thmmt eprcntielenmus."
HowcvcrU . UcasemlatcdIa~nmn. ~XT&IO invabank byàiainw rh.icws almmtim-
possibletomove.andhadonlyken obscwedIOdoso m.

'Ex.. Panon-TuüyTmmpMIwn Compuiy v.Tumrr.269F. 334(61hCir.1920)The
Cmighall.[19101P.207CA); In rCremLols Tr-1 CorpomPon .3FLd10U. 1931 AMC
[email protected]); affimrd i63F2nd 84% 1933AMC 1019(6tCir.1933)MmhcCrqî
Conr~c~orslid. v.ErWBlomqvisr (Engincen)Lld. [.953]1Uoyd'sRsp .14:Cwk v.
Dredging& CoNrmCRon Co.m.. 1195a Uoyd'sREP.334. Tk Qveen v.SIJohnShipbuifding
&Dry Dolk Co.(1981).126DU (M) [email protected]).
' 1911AMC 582.Ah WkclingPilubwghSvclCorp.. 1975 AMC 2.527:197AMC 149%
RMlos Y.UniversaiDrcdginCorp.547F.Supp.661,664(D.Haw.1982).

'InDrilling UnUSedco135,1982AMC 1461.21In~crnmiomllgaiM<~vri& (1982)p.318m
337.
'Id..a334.rclyinon ûfshomCo.v Robbn. 266 F2d 769.779(5Cir.1959). 490.Applyingthethm elementsofthemi enuncialcdintheSedcocaseilisclcarihat
MODUsofaiitwcsarc fullycovmdbv thedefinitionofshi~s.The~havebanspecificaüy

designedto allowfor mov&ncntinwater,thcym obvio&lynoiatlachcd toih seakd
whilcmovinz andthevmovethrouahmaritime spacs,offm forconsiderablcdistances.
~venjack-u~-~~schan~locationwithsomefmluëncy. bothwithinpaniculardnllingm
andsometimesforwnwontinenral relocationor refurbishmeni.

3. Usedfor PurposesofTrampon

491.It isarasionally rcquid that avesselmube engagcdin mspori of goodsand

wrsons. infishineorothn~micular activities.'niisreaukmentcan usuabeemlained
kthrefmcetothc faclIha~thele~slationinquestiont~ndstobespecializcddcal&gwith
maritime transpon remilation.fsheries, eu. While such lcgislativemeasures should
thutfore no1betaken6 indicatethatthereisageneralcriterion&uiring vetobesud
forG-ansponof goodsorpem inordertoqualifyasships, MODUswouldinanyevmt
fulfdlthiicrite&. nievaredesienedoreciselvinordetomswn drillries.accommo-
-~~~
dationunits.orotheroff;hore equipmnithm plaŒtoplaŒ.~eice. a MOD m ovingby
iwlf. orkine mmed in wn or drv-tow. is of wurseenaaecin wnsDon This was
speciricailyal%umeinIheSedcoc&. whemthe US~isuiitkooun. ~oulhernDisbictof
Tuas. held thata semisubmeniblednlline olatfonn"was builtandutiiircdas anwan-
goingvssel innavigationasa meansof &&ohg a fued cargo"?

4. Meam ofPropulsion

492. The Ausaali NavigationAct. asamendcd. includes MODUs in iis gcneiai
definilionof ships.bu1spccificailyexcludesthoseMODUswhicharcno!self-propclled
7hcVcnezuelanShippingAc1requins an 'integratedmeansof propulsion'.Howcvn. a
subsiannainumberofothcrlegislativactsexplicitiyexcludthemeansof pmpulsionas

'Fmh donine distinguishsclwoclemvh andle Mfimnt "Le mvk. betimmidemer. est
aussplusqutcelaOum nonaptitudeBahionterpi1 marin,ilsmriw parsafonction,
quiestdewnspomr du personneoudu biensCeac mndition eteassairetsuffisanpour
valou?unWment de merla qualificaüonnavS R~CouüiMid. DroiiMariiinv42
(1985).Howew. Ur sameanthorconfimiwithrrrpcnIOplores~oms deforaze:Tes Mti-
mena sonhoommcles naviresisoltsupmts aupcd marin: leurmodedecnurmnionet

Icw amuiagm>enu monmntqu'ilsysontdestin&.Aussiamines règlemM<VmsA .I'origim
ancuts murlesnaviresonvocation lemcir ir:sontŒllesauson1cmmadh LW leneril
min: i-lmi~n~d~ ~~~- .assista~--&~-s ---~.cniriep a~~r-...-S.~ ~ ~~-~-~
mariurneenrevanchen'ontpaclieudelesinkm cesontceUcsquisontjustifpxelemle
dumvlre.quiestdewnrponcr."Id.ai39.Inadditio.om paruofFrenchlegislanexpliciily
uicludc'lesplaies-forniefslonatousengnsil~tantquiment aumpmpuldsoumn"in
thcdefimuonofUr mm mtrc. (secAnncr 78)InPrtstyvHaIy TibbitsCon<n<rlioCo.
1988AMC1894.thc US DisrncCoun DiminofMaryland ammied ihainordeIObc "inmvi-
@on" a vayl mus1bcpcrfonningUrfunnio of&ponuig pople olhinginninmiuoi.
?baicas edald oarticvlsIOUr ..~l~ ~~i~ ~~~~ Jorn An and Urr~~~~~~ofaw&
ara "aeamanink mnrex;ofmuchantshipping .U. incomiwmt placvŒihirmquircmntof
wnrpoMaonofpople or ihUig3harbon inmpmd cdy. e.g~hom Co.vRobison.a
vessemay meanmorr han amaus ofwnspnt onwatcr."266FU 769,776(5thCir.1959).
AlsoTheMac.(1882)7P.D.126.131(C.A.),CouonU.: 7hsquestion cmmt daend onUr
NNmsia~ wklbcr& cwia a cargfwnponwpon"

*1982I\MC 1461.1474:21ln~r~tio~l kgol Mot&Lr 318.337. 494.Tmly-making practice and SIatepnctice in the form of municipallegislation
amrd in renardinpdrillships,semisubmersiblesandjack-ups capableof navigationas
ships.ow&cr, &may not'kdsisive. AsJudge~cadobse&ed & the~n~lo-~inue~ian
Fisiunescase in the wnuxi of the cvalualionof Staie pnctice conaming clai10
maritimejuisdiction:

" Customaryinternationallawisthegeneralizationofthepracticeof States.This
cm1 be cstablishedbv citine cases wherecoastalSmteshave madecxtcnsive
claims.buthavenotmaktainei theirclaimsbytheacnialassertionofsovcreignty
ovcrnrspassing foreignshi.....
Theonlywnvincingevidenceof Statepracticeistobe foundinseizures,where the
wasial Stateassensitssovereigntyoverlhewatefsinquestim byarrestingaforeign

shipandby maintainhg ils positionin thewwse of diplomaticnegotiationand
internationalbiuation."'
495. Theevidenceaffordedbyueaty-makingpracticeandmunicipallegislationmustk
vicwedintheliphtof themannerinwhichStatesinfactact Werethm 10 k substantial
cvidencethai~itesdistin~uishforthepurporesofrighüofnavigalonndpassagcbetween
wnvmtional shipsanddrillships.semisubmcnibleso brges.he-nfemcedrawn
abovefmmthemaricsandlcgislationmightkopentoqucsuon.OntheotherhaniQ fStates
wnsistentlydrawnosuchdisiinction.theconclusionthaldrillships.xmisubmcrsiblcsand

jack-upba&esarc shipsforthepurposesofnavigationandpassagenghtsmuslk regardcd
as Tmly cstablishedincustomaryinlemationallaw.
496.Actualoracticeconfmnstheconclusionthatdrillshios.semisubmersiblesandiack-
ups arematkas shipsforthepurposesofnavigationandpassage.Astheannexeddétailst
demonsuate.oassaecsthrouzbsuaitsbv MODUS arecommon.Themainsuaits throuzb
whichMODUShaFepssed-arethe B&S,Danish.Dover,Gibraltar,Hormuz,~a~ellk,
Malacca. Sunda.andToms suaits2.

497.Nolonesinglecase isknom inwhich thepermissionofthecoastalStatehasbcen
soughtforthemmpassageofadrillship.misubmmibleorjack-upbargethroughasUair
Nolonesinglecaseisknom inwhich thepermissionofthewastal Statehas beensought
forthe.assa- ofadrill sb. semisubmmibleor iack-upbamethmuehterritorialwatcrs.
Incvay knom caserights-ofpassage arcexcrcisedby&Il ;hips. sffnisubmeniblesand
jack-.p ba.gesinexactlythesamcmanncrasby merchantshim of conventionaldesim.
-
498.Noris anycaxknowninwhichpriornomcation hasbemgivm toacoasial Statc
inadvanceofmm passagebyadrillshii, semisubmmiblcorjack-upbarge.unlessforthe
purposeofobtainingservicessuchaspilotageorinordertocomplywith thenqukmmts
of a reponing-in system such as that operalinthenDovcr Suaits, in whiccases
notificatiisgivm inthesamcmanncrasil isgivm bymerchantshipsof wnventional
design.Nocaseisknownin whichnotificationhasbeengivenmcircwnsmas whichmight
cas1doublon therighlofpassage.

499. Nor is any case knom in which any wastal State has trrat aedrill ship,
semisubmersibleorjack-up bargeinanywaydiffdy hummerchantshipsof cmvcn-tionaldes-m inrela~~onIo~ ~e~ ~ciseof-rieht.ofDawsaor na-ieation.Thewticc of
theauthoririesinthe UnitedKingdomrcsponsibleforsupervisingnavigationIhroughthe
DoverSmiis. whicharetheiniemtional suaie mostfmumtlv wnsined byMODUs.and
oftheauthoritiesinStalcssuchas~ala~sia. Mexico,th;~ethérlands,and~ingaporeIO
reauùr themIocomo..withthe 1972CollisionRem-ationsinexactlythesamemanneras
other~hi~s.1

500.MODUsarecommonlyenteredupon thesameregistersasconventionalships.This
isthecasein.forexample,Denmark.Mexico.Nomay andtheUSA.Ininsuranccmanen
fhepracticeisIùism drülingvessclsanddrillingrigsunderHull andMachineryclauses
asamarinerisk.hall relevantrespecisinternationalpracticeistolreatMODUsinthesame
manneras shipsofconventionaldesign,at leastwhiiethearenotanachedIolheseabed

or engagedinexplorationand exploitationactivitics.'
501.ThealtitudeofStatesto MODUsis exanplied byapassagehm thedecisionof
the USmm in lheSedcocase:

'7he SEDCO 135was built in 1965at theIngallsShipyardin Mississippiand
betwan thattimeand 1979.whenshe wasscuttled,she madetwotrans-atlantic
voyages and elevcn long ocean voyages, logging a total of 15,947 miles in
navigationThesejoumeystookhertothc watersoffPomigal,thmto the was~ of
Afncaandevmtually to theBayofCampeche.hiring thcsevoyagestheSEDCO
135was subjcctto al1pcrils of the sea and without questionwould have ken

mnsidend a vesse1undertheLimitationAct hadanaccidentoccumd dwing ha
uavcls.Additionally,shewasdesigned10lnnspon cargo.aibeatpermanentone.
throughouther voyages.
The SEDCO 135 was rcgistered as a UnitedStaus vcsselmgaged in foreign
mmmcrcei>unuanttofederallaw.ShewasinsrxctedbytheU.S.CoastGuard and

surveyedonanannualbasis by theAmcrican Bureauif ~hi~p~in~M.oreover.she
wassubiectedtoarirefermishivmortgage.Clearly.shcwas buiitandutilizeas
an &-gohg vekl innavigationLameans oiwnsporting a fixedcargo.'"
502.Ihe practiceofmting drülships.semisubmersibles.jack-buagesandmerchant

shps ofco&entional desig ikc. withoutdrawinganydistiÏctioni>ew&nthm so furas
righisof passagarc concemcd,isthe criticalclemmt as fa<UIC ambitof the .ight of
pissass&emu& theDanishsuaiis ismnccmed.
503.Whcthertheright ofpassage of MODUsisrcgardedasflowingfmmthcirstatu as

ships, or from a distinct right established in State pisa matter mvolving the
impositionofa legalcharacterizationuponanestablishedpractice. Whatevercharacteriza-
non rnaybeadopted,it isevidentha MiODUs havea rightof passage.

OSuniMy. ihrrgulauoraonprl-e ihmughUr Panama CMaldirunguirhiuo basihndo of
vcrsl UDJewhch amrclf.pmpclicand!hm whicharemr ÇeePanama CanaClaunisrion.
MarineDirccror'NoticIOShippingNo.1-91.
~ ~-
"Thispositioniah a.ld inindonai fm mt spccificslmnd vithm~gaIion
Secf.orhiam. theLn&& LabourOrganiwion71i1Session,Repon ofUicCommiaceof
Exrriu onUKAwlicationa€ConveMonr andRcmmmwbAm. Rem II1iPar14A).1985o.
12.Alrodrillingnsidcrtowam hwcd wdcr HuU and~achiner~ClausesaA mknc &'
I*e anyoh shipsSa Ama 82.
'US DisLricICovRSouUicrDimiet ofTcm. InIk Marrerofik Com,nlaini fSedcInr.21
INernaIwnaflgal MoirmLc 318.app.337-338. E.CONCLUSIONS

504.internationallawcontainsnoauthoritativedefmitionof a ship.
505.inmational maty puce includeswirhinthecaregoryof a shipal1 cdt which

floalandnavigau. or arecapableof flotarionandnavigation.uponthesea.aileastwhilc
thcv areno1anache~-o~ ~ - - ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~iteria arciulfdledbv MODUsandotherIme
shib whichmustpassthrought-eGreat~eltinorder IO enteror lave theBaltic&a.-

506.Municioalleeislati~-~~~~onlvindudes within thecateeorv of a shi~al1 cdt
whichfloatan; navi&te.or are capabléoffloiationandnavigarioR&on thesa. at least
while thev arenot anachedto the seabedor ennaacd in cxploitingils nsources. niex
critma a&fulfüledby MODUSandotherlargeihips which-mustks throughtheGreat
Beltin ordertoenter orleavetheBalticSea

507.Statepracticeh.eatsMODUSandothcrlarge shipswhich mustpass thmughthe
DanishsirairsinordertoenterorleavetheBalticSeainthesamemannerasconventional
shipsasngards theirnghtsof passage.

508.MODUsandotherlargeshipswhichmustpassthroughtheDanishswits in order
toenterandIeavetheBalticSeahavebeenpassingwithout~issionor hindrannüuough
thcse and other siraits for many years. Regardlcssof their classification,that practiŒ
establishesthattheyhavearightofpassagethroughstrairsusedforintematin oanvailgation. AUEGE ADCQ~~~CE BY F-D INm BUILDI NFTHE GREA TELT

BRW~EJN~PPES~~YPLANNEDFORM

sectiol.Intmdnctim

509. It must be anticthaDtenmarkwüi contendthat Finiandhassaichow
q"esccd in the buildi& of a bridgeovertheeastcrnchannelof theCrcatBcltin its
mnilv ~lannedfonn.andisthmforconcludedfromassarinxthatshipswithaclearana
8fmore%an65mem. includingdrillshiis,scmisubmmibl~,jac.ndreasaably
foresceableshipsmanufacnuedinFimishshipyardshaveafmgpassagethmugh
theGreatBelt.'lhiscontm orosndow eidyeDanishWriüenObservations
of 28 June, 1991,subminedjus1priororatlcarinon the Finnishrequestfor
provisionalmeasurcs.Itisalsofomhadowedinme ofthesiatemeonàhslf of
Denmarkatthosorahearings.
510.'Ihus.intheDanishWriwnObsmationsof28June.1991,onFimuest for
aninmcationofprovisionalmcasures,itisncallcdthatFiand wasdYcctlyinfomcdof
theGreatBel!h-.tbvCirculaNotcsin 1977and 1987.Ilisthensiated:
"OtherBalticSratesrcactedto theseNotes. butno rcactionwasmeived fmm
Fuiland"@ara.36).

Demnarkamcedesha1on 18Julv.1989.Fuilanddrcwanentionibvmcansof alencr
fmmthe~omm&cial&xmnkt $th Feih Embassyicdgen totheDanish
BoardofNavieationltothefan that.accordinetoavailableinformatiame Finland'ls
transpo&e.q.hlin~ plsdork wifma he&t of 150mem. woulbeobsmicled;y
thenewbnk lm. 35).Liewiw. DenmarkalsocondaihaLinMav.1990.Fuiland
quesud talkbkuss aspxlofmianabonallawpenainmgiothepassageof
dnllui~~latformsthrheGreatBelLandthaton19June.1990.theEmbassvofFuiland
sentaGotetothe~anishMi~of ~o~i~~ffairssmssin~thatthepro~o~brid~eover
thecastan channeloftheGreatBeltwouldimadethe trans-.ofdrillinn-latfomshuah
theGrcarBel@aras38and39).
511.Paham moredirstlv inmint isthearment advancedatDaras.130to 132ofthe
Danis ~ririn ~bservatio&oi28 Jtme.1ipara.130Dmma trtoricaüyrcfm
tothc"strilDassivitv"ofFuilandasrcnar dorDundiih~ovenseGreat
~el~~ointin~utthat~~hashaddi~~maticrciationin~since 1918.

inpara.131.itbaldlsial&
'Rie silenceby Finlandthmughal1theseyears [semblesince 1be81mus1
inurprctcdsimplyasacquicyma inDenmark'srighttoconaahi&-kvel
bridgeaaoss theGreatBelt"
Denmarkthenprocee10argue (para132)thattmi elcmentourgencmse in
1977 whentheDanishM i ofForeia Aîïairsissutd its fmt Noteon ihc
BridgeRojen Denmarkadmitsthat the secondCiaNoteuvlicitly sialedthat a
porsÏbilityeaisud toconsaun an immerscdnimielinsceadof thehi@-lc&lbridge.but
armes tha'Wuswasthelastcal"rSiateshavingpmblms forthcirspassirthe
D&sh smits toexpressandexplaintheseprobletniÏotheCovemmentof&k-'~hc
UwdCirculaNrotcof24October.1989.ischaracutisedbyDeassim~lyconveyinx
"supplernmtaryinfmaua".includintheinformaiionthat iib&dendal 6
consminahigh-levelbndgeomeIaovertheEanChann iclspaidicaü-te& "Atthatlimethedunmtofurgeny ouldappeartohavebeenovertaknibyevenu
inthesemethatit wodd bealmostimoossibletostopeventhisvan of theentire

hemhgson theFumishrquest forprovisionalmeasureshcldinTheHaguebewm 1and
5Julv.1991.nius.AmbassadorLchmmin, hissiatementof2July. 1991.arguesintcralia

"...heconductonthepanofFinland[semble.innotreactingtotheCircularNotes
of 1977and 19871should notbe rewardedbv indirafinaprovisionalmeasms
agah Denmark b.utshouldrafbcconsidekdasa fac&vhich estops~inlnnd
Rompwsuing themnnerfunher." (Emphasissupplied.)
MrMagid.inhipreseniationof2 July.1991,mnfuicdhimwlfbmdly toaprcsmiation
offacu whichmighbethoughttosusfaintheargumhlt Fiand hadaquiewed inthe
mnsnuctionofa highlevelbndgcovnthecastemchannelofthcGBtellwithaclmce
of65 meues.Fiially. ProfessorBowen,inhisstatemcntof5July. 1991.argues.indealing
with theauestionofumencv.that"il seemsauiteexInordina&IhatFinlankmhould
silent.knowingthGnmak wouldbeginascherne. spendkg millionsandmilifons
dollars.and kavitDIDIPSmtü a mint ihe solarelhaDrenmar wkas already
commi~ andihat"4here ~ovcmm&tsbelievetheirintemationallegaarundis
threaSthey haan obligationspcakout".
-
513.AlthoughtheseDanishargummuareduestcdspecificallytowardstheelementof
wgcncyinhermtinaquesi fortheindicationofprovisionalmeasm. andalthoughthey
wereno1advertcdtoint~~ ~un'sOrderof29J..v. 1991.f-idinethatthecircumstanccs.
astheynowpresnitthcmselves,w~renotsuch~
underArticle41oftheStamweindicatemuvisionalmeasum. Finlandmustassumethat
Denmar killrcsuscitateia argumentsbasadonacquiatthemeris sap. Fuiland
isaccordinelvdevotinethisoanofitsMemwananalvsisofthcs-arpumenuinthefm
conviction-&ihcy unmeritoriousinfan and inlai.
514.'~hcreisnot'muchdis~uteabouttheessentialfans relevanttothc ~anisharmunmis
aboutaquiaŒnŒ: but th&are ~ig~cani andssious diffnmca betwm FiGandand

Dmmark astohowtheseessentialfareobeinierprered.Thus.Finlanddoesno1dispute
ihaiiruxivaiihrreC~ularNolshm~~&td 12May.1977.30Jwic.1987.and
24Onobrr.1989.Nordos Fuilanddisputethamnuned nofd rcplw thefus!Iwo
oftheseCMar Notes.northat~hfmi Fih mctionw thedefuiitireDanishdaision
Ïomnsnuct ahighlevebridgovn theeastcrnchanneloftheGreat&II withaclearance
heightof65mencswasmnveydwDemarkinthclea 18Jufy.1989hanthcFinnish
EmbassyinCopcnhagmtotheDanishBoardofNavigaDon(Anncx61).foliowcdbythe
Noteof 19June. 1990.fr&m FumishEmbassyinCoa.ham- totheDyiishMinimy
of ForeignAffairs(&ex64).
515.Finlandmses. fmf w analysethelawrclatwnawuiescmce andestomcl in
thelightof whiih validityof iani arguments& acqÜisamcccanely be
asscsseand,smndly (andmm siprllficantiy)t,oanalyschowthelawsbcmliai
w thepdcular cinuistances of th; pr&.ent - .-

SecîioIL TheLaw RelatingtoAcquiesceocend Estoppl

516.Aquiwrri~e iamŒpt whichfornispartofassies ofprinciplaof intcmational
Lawbaseduponanddcrivinghm themnductof aStaiPartytoanintanationaldispute.ltisthusrelatecognateprinciplsuchasestoppelormgnition, al1!hreederivinghm
StateconductForpurposesofanalysis,however.itisnecessarytodistinguishacquiesence
..
517.Inavay -nt judgment,aChambe rftheCourthasdram attentiotosomeof

theessentialelcmentsnquind byestoppelwhichitdefmesas:
"..astament orqmmtation madebyonepany ioanotk andrclianceupon
itby thatotpany tohisdehent or totheadvantageofthepartymakingil'."

fmmprcducmgevideiceoftic eunaici ofthelegimterests onwhch itrclbyrcason

ofartam assemonsoffact andlawmadebyElSalvadorandHondurasmtheproceedings
which.it wascontended,consti~tedm&tion of theexistenceof majorlegalinteresü
pertainingtoNicaragua.nQiambcrfoundnoevidniceof enheolepeilgsofEl

'me indicationtobefoundinthepleadingsoftheviewsofthePartiesaW the
existenceornatureofNicaramianinterestswithh or withouttheGulf.nodoubt
amount tosomecvidencewhch theChambercanrakeintaccountNoneofthese
howeveramounts 10an admissio. enition orsuitementlhintheviewofthe
suchthattheymaybe affectbyd
~artyconŒrned ,heraerinteresof
thedccisionoftheChamberinthecase.'"
518.Bowendefmesestoppeliniemiswhichcomspondcloxly tothedermitiongiven
bytheChamber oftheCour initsjudgmentonNicaragua's applicIOintmene inthe
Lad, IslandandMarirUnc~ro&r DisputeBOWU~tats:

"llIe nileofestoppoperatçsoastoplude apartyIÏom denyingthemithof
a statementmademviouslv bvthaoam toanothcrwherebv that thhasacted
tohis&hmt~~;he~arty&&~&s~temmthassecirrcd~so amucknefit:
thede hasbeaiaoxptedbyintemationaltribunals.'"
519.Inhispecialisedmonographo npsutipipelnationallawpublishedmore
Rantlv. Martin.havin~conductadetailcdsurvevofintematinasl-lawanddocnine.
prcsaitbis04 dehZion ofestoppe~. hichisaiexprrsscdinsuimb~nam>wwmsl

'Y3nautmdonnaladtfinitionsuivanti.mirtcdelaconcwtionrestricttelle
qu'eileparaîts'impomaujourd'huidanslaj;rispnidenŒint&dtionale,desdicta
dejuacs.descxwJts cenains laideuretdesobservationsdeauelauesauteurs:
lo..i>unc partie,pardtcla~tim, seanc osusescompor&enis. a conduit
uneaum Me hmire enl'existenced'uncertainCtatdechosesurlafoiduquel
euel'a incitéehagir,ou s'absAeagir.de tellesottequ'ilen estresultCune
modificationans leurspositionsrelatives(au préjudicede la seconAeou
l'avantagede la prcfiou lesdeuxA la fois).la prc"hcest empâhépar

I'estoppl d'Ctabluhl'encontredelassonde untechosesdiffcrentdecelui
qu'elle-aanterieurct senté commeexistant"
520. In ordcr tofounan estoppl. the qmmtation of fact musbe clear and
unequivocalithcsmse thatitmustruisonablysuppmtk meaningamibutedtoitbythe

'ludgmni of 13Sepranb1.990.nNicaragua'aspplidmninrmeneinthe~awwmming
lond, 15MaadMMnme FmRberDùpuu (EI~Hondvr01). IURepwrr 199D..30.
'lbid.
'DerekBowcn "E,Wpplbefm Inlemationl ribunnd ilrelatiWnAcquieuuirr': 33
BritishYearBwkoflnunian'on<ll(1957p.Zül.

'AnwW Manin,CutoppeI endroirUilcrnawn<llpc1979p).2.59-2a1.partyraisingtheplcaofestoppel;andthatpartymustsatisfythecourtthatitunderstoodthe
statcmenttohavethatmeaning.Therationaleforthisrtquiremcntwouldappeartobethat
suggestedina reccntaniclcon estoppel:
'Tlear and uneauivocalrmresentation. wiudice or deIimareno1simply
addenda;thcy &iggerthe Lery justificaiioi for specific protsehian of
exristations. Anileoforinci~lewhichwouldmhibitany modif~cationofwndun
statmicnt or rcpresen~tioniastly ovmstim~tes thektcntials of lawand is no!
evensuitableordeshblc inordertopromotepmtectio.ofgoodfaith.rclianceand
wnfidence ininternationalrelations."'

521.Anessentid elementintheruleofestoppl isthattheremusthaveteen relianŒin
good faithupon ther~~rescntaofoneparty-bytheothcrpar10hisdeuiment.ortothe
advantagcof the pany mmakintghe reprcsentation.Thus.in the hmrbiacase.the
questionmse whether.bvtheuconductinacc. -.nnD.ment ofinterestumn theloansin
fraich fran~saso~~osed~o"~oldfrancs".the~r hadneh&bcotdthatheyrs
wereIJ~ared to acc. . .ment inFrenchfrancs.if thevhad itwasat anyrateamable
that&yivere hencefomhestoppcdfromclaimtngpayrn&raccordmgtoth; smcttcms of
theloans.7he PermanentCoun concludedthat thchadkn noclcaranduncquivocal
rcpresentationofthebondholdcrsupn whichthedebtorSlatcwascntitlcdtorcly:Butthe
Courtwentfunhnand svessedthatthcrehadinfarken norelianceblhcdebtorstateon
theallcgedreprcscnration:

'7herchaskn nochangeinpositionon thepan ofthedebtorstatThe Serbian
debt remainsas itwas-.iaindlv incurmt theonlvactionbv thedebtohastc
ben topaylessthanthe amountowing&der thétcrmsof;heloanconuacts.'*
522. So also.the armentwasadvancedby CostaRicainthe Tinocoarbiwtionthat
GreatBritain.byreasoiof itsnonrecognitionoithe~ioco govemmcntinCostaRica.was
estomcd hm asscrtithat theTioco govemmentcouldwnfer nhts which wouldbe
bindingupn succcsso~vcmments incosta Rica.7hesolearbihato~.~&~,summan?y
dismissedthiargument:

"Idonot understandtheargumentsuponwhichanquitablecstoppel insuchacase
canmt. The faüure w recognise the defaao govemmcnt did not luthe
sucacdinggovemment tochangeitspositioninan; wayupn thefaitho... n
quitable estoppl toprovethemth mut restonpreviouswnductof thepmon to
becstoooed whichhasledthe~emnclauiiin~thest..oelintoawsitionin which
themi& wiilinjurehimTher isno suchc& hm.'"

523.Athirdessentid elunent inthecrcationof abiidine cstcnmclisthatthc statcmmt
M nprcsentation must be voluntary. unmnditional and-au&&iA rrprcwntation
rrmcwedbyfraud duressM cm willndlifvanv ~leaofesto~oel.'ïhat thcmmsmtation
mus1 beunionditionaisupportai byth&vi&& opinioniithc ~mnaneni~oun inthe
Ewopeon Commissionof rhcDanube case.whm the Courirehiwd to upholda pleaof
estoppelbascdonthemnduct ofdelcgatcsof France.Gnat BrilainandIialyinagming,
duringthecowseofnegotiations.thaie cfulriaioentteofmmision could
belehto the~oumanik authorities.Theagreementofthedclegatcswmadedepnident
uponomditions whichwm notarrcpledbytheRomanian GovmunmL The Pcrmancnl

8~emhardt(ed.);7~~yc~opcdaf~nrcrmriom~im(1984).p.79.

'PCIJRtpom. SeriesANor.2W1 (1929)p.39.
'18am cric^Jour~l ofliucr~liomllm>(1924)1%.
'SalvadoCommerciC almpanycsu U.Ned SiarForeignReiatio(1902).p.867.Courtrefusedtoregardthisconditionalrrprescntationascreatinga bindingestoppel."lhat

thercplcsentationmutemadebyapuson havingauthorityto dosoisdmed by the
meannentoftheMen declarationintheEarternGreeniundcase.'Thatuniladeclara-
tionsor statementsmadebvGovanment Mini. havineostensibleauthortomakc
thcmwillbercgardcdasbiding upontheGovanment w&med ishinherco&med by
theiudmnentsof themsentCoun inthcNurIearTestscase(AusualiavFrance).)andin
the-cie concerningMilitaryand Para-Milirary Aclivitiandagaimr Nicaragua
(MaitsY; andby thejudgmentof the Chamberof tCoun in thcas encerningthe
FromierDispiue(BurkinaFasoIMali)<.
524.Funhcr indicationsof thenquircments of a bue estoppel,andof therelationship
tenveen estomwlandacauiesenec.at.tefoundinsomeof themorerecmt case-lawof
thepreml &;n ThefAt casetobewnsidercdisthecasewncerningtheArbinalAwd

made bytheKin-. .min on23 Decernbrr.1906INicaraedHonduras)'. whichhaskn
characbriseas illuswting Yhe nmw distinctionsbc&een acquie&nce, prcclusion.
estal. andrewurse tothesubseuuentconductth&es asameansofintemtation
of a.&aty."ln thcase .icara~uaadvanceda num& of rrasonswhythe 1& arbiual
awardwas invalid includingtheargwnentthat thedesignationoKingeof Spain as
arbiwtorinthefmnticrdisputithHondurasun&rthetemsoftheCom~-BonillaTmry
of7 OcIober.1894,wasnuIland voiabinirio.theTrraty havinglapsedbeforctheKing
of Spain had signfied auxpta~~ othe office of arbiuatorr A; a maitma6of
murpretation,theCm foundlhatIheintentionthepaniestothe1894Treatyhadkn
that.conwly tothecontentionsofNicaragua.theten-ycarpcriodforwhichtheTreatywas
tomain infoire shouidkgln torunhm thedateof theexchangeof ratifications.'lhe
Counhoweva alsogaveabroaderreasonfor itswnclusion

Tinally, theCourtmidm that. havingregardtothefactthedesignationof
theKi-.of Soainwashlv ad tobvNicaram. thatnoobiectionwastaken
hy Nicaraguato thejurisdikGn ofkghe ofSPA as arbihatoreitheron the
mund of immiltuitvin his desimatiasarbiwwr or on thewund thatthc
&mu-~onilla~na& hadlapsbd;ven befotheICingof painha dignifiecihis
acŒutanc ef theofficeof arbiwtor. andthatNicaramiafuilvoanicioatedinthe

. . -
supplied.)'

Thus.the Courdou not axme taorave rcmrdetheconductof Nicaramiaas havine
creami a binding estoppe~i&o senru. bui nthnas having create~ircumstancci
diuniilling Nicara[rom wntendingthatthapwinment wasinvalidandoutof time.
on grounds of aciuiesacnce or precI&ion. Nomention made of csroppeinthe
judgmentoftheCoun thoughtheadhocjudgeappointedbyNicaragua(Umtia Holguin)
diwussedthepossibilityofestopnIhisdissentingopinion,oyrcjst itonthegrounds

'PCMRcpons .aiesB.No.14(1927).p.35.
PCIJReponr.SaiesAiB.No.53.pp.69.71.
'IURcporu 1974.p.253.atpp.267-71.
'ICJRcpm 1986. p.14atp. 132.

IU Rrpom1986.p.554.atpp.573-574.
ICJRcwm 1960.o.189.
'Hughlhuiway.7hc Law andRoçcdurcofihlniemationlounofJwnŒ.19@1989: M)
Bnrüh YearBookoflnrernoriol w(1989)pM thattherehadbeennoreliancebyHondurason theconductof Nicaraguainthisrespect.'

525.Nicaraeuahadalsorcliedonotherammenu inancndeavourIodemonstnte thai
the 1906aw2. even if not nuIland voidgbrnino by rcasonof the irrcgulariryin the
desimationof theKiWn.f Spainasarbitntor. wasinvalidor i.capableofexccution.The
CO&S fmdiig onthisaspectof tcase w& that Nicaragua:
"...yexpressdalaration andbyconduct,rsognisul theAward asvalidanditis
nolonge;opcn IoNicaragua IOgobackuponihatrecognitionandIochdlengcthe

validiryotheAward.Nicangus's failm IOraiseanyquesdonwiihregard IOthe

loiokto ilfunherconfms théconclusionatwhich theCoun has arrivcd.'?
Here.thefndiig againappearstobeoneofabmadernotionofpreclusion(distincthm
cstoppelas such).bascduponrecognitionby Nicaraguaof the validiryof the Awardby
expressdeclarationandbyconduct,andsubsidiarily.uponacquiescenceevidencedbythe
lapseofapenod of"severalyears"kfore Nicaraguaraid anyquestionsoastodmy the
validiryof thewad

526.Theiudmmt oftheCoun intheTemole casedis~layssimiiarcharactcristics.Hcrc
thequestionwi whethcrSiam(asitthen w&) wasbo& byamap.printcdandpublished
bva French fum and handedovcrofficiallvto Siam.whichshowcdthe frontierbetwŒn
&amandCambodiaasleavingthe~em~leof PrcahVihearIoCambodia Atrrafyof 1904
berweenSiam and France(as pmtccungpowcrof Cambodia)had declaredthe fmnnn
betweenSiam and Cambodiaas followingthe watcrshedbetwem two specfied riva-
basm. and 11wasIaierestablishcdthaitheIineof the watersran theothcrsideof the

temolesothat ifIhemaDoedhntier-line had followedthewatmhed ascontem~latedbv
theiW4 aary, theremPiewouldhavebeenicfi IOïhailand (aSiamlaterbecaie).Ri;
Coun foundtharthecircumsmcu ofdelivcryof the maps u>Wand i 1908
"..wm suchascalledfor somemction, within areasonablepend. on thepan
of the Siameseauthorities.if thw wishedto disamwith the maDa had any
seriousquestiontoraiseinregardio it Theydidnotdo m. eithnroirformani
years.andtherebvmus1k heldto haveawuiesced.'"

BultheCoundidnoi rclymlclyonthislackofmction byIhcSiamcwauthonties.IIwas
abletopoinitopos~tiveacuof acquiesrrnandmgnition by theSiamse authonriesAs
Cahiei has ooinlcdout theCO& alsotookintoconsiderationthe factthat the Siamese
~inisterof tie InterharthankedFrancefa thedeliveryofthemaps andhadaskedfa
additionalmis: thefan that somevearlater.theSiames--.omohical servicehaditself
publisheda inapshowingth; tempieto bein'Cambodiankrritory: andthe faci ht the
Rcsidentof theRoyalLnstiniteofWand hadmade anoficial visittothetcm~lein1930
whm hchadbeenwelcomedbytheFrcnchauhoriticswithallIhchonoundue iohisrank.

Such a welmme was.in the viewof LheCoun. evidenilyinmmp3tiblewithThailand's
sovmignry overthetemple.IIisacumüngiy notsurprisighi &s wmbinationofinitial
uiactionfollowedbylackofproustovermany years.coupledwithpositiveacIscapableof
kingconsmied asadve aquiesana. shouldhaveIedtheCoun ~wnclude~tThailand
wasprccludcd fmm challmguigthefmntierasdepiclcdon the 1908map:

- ~
ICI Reporu1960.p.236.
Ibkl.. pp213-214.

'ICJReporü 1962.p.23.
'PhilippeCahie"Lempommni desCm nimm soum de dmiueld'obligatim: EnHom-
q e dPaulGuggenheim (1968)pp.248-249. "EveniftherewereandoubiasioSiam'sacceptance 190t,hedhacein
of the hnner indicatedthmn. the Coun wouldconsider. in the li&thef
subsequentwurseofevents.that.Thailandisnowprecludedby hmco&uct from
assertuiethalshedidnotaumt it Shehas.forfifwyears.enjoyedsuchbenefiu
asthe~kr~of 1904conl-onher.ifonl~thekne~tofas~b~htier.~rance.
andthmuphherCambodia.reliedon Thailand'saccentanceofthema..IIino1
now opcnto Thailand.whilemntinuing to claim aid cnjoy the &fof the

xttlemcnf todenvthatshewas evena conxnt-.~ ~.rWIoif'"
527.DominicC.incommmtingon the Templecax. suggesu that iiisdifIOdraw
defmiteconclusionshm thispassage.Hewinu outthat theChadalreadydemined
ihatniailand hadaceeptedthé16map&fore affming. subsidiarily,thatihailand was
now rmcluded h denvingthat acmtance. He also wondm in what termsthe Court
wouldhaveexpmd i&lfTf ii haddkld thaithe- wasno nad forilIodemine if
themaphad bem acccpied.thisfactking presumcdbymwanofthereprcscntationsaven
byThailand? . .

528.A moremcnt mentaior basalsoexpresscddoubü aboutwhetherthecircum-
stancesin the Templecase were sasIObe mtive of a mie estoppl bindingupon
Thailand.ReferringIothe samepassageintheCoun'sjudgmmf the authormmmenu:
"Iris submittedthat there is heredaamire hm the muiremenu of an
estoppel.at least on a soici interpreiationof thow tquimnenis. IOe benefii
Thailandisno1mataial: whaimuircd isachanne intherelativemitions ofthe

panies.ason awesaw,wherebythione proffmm theotha's dehen~ France.
and Cambodia. cqually with Thaiiand mioyed the knefii of theW.904
Furthmore. thebmefit which wouldbe ~l&ani isnotthe bmefit ofthe tr&.
which lhailand would have hadin any evmf but xpara~ benefii othe
represenrarwnthaThailandacceptedthemap."'(Empharis inorigi~l.)
529.IntheNonhSea ContimmlSheIfcases, DenmarkandtheNethalands wcd ihat
thequidistance nile forthedeliitatio" of thecontinentalshelfcmploycdinGcle 6of
the 1958Gemva ConventionontheContinentalShelfhadbmme bindingontheFederai
RepublicofGamany asamuli ofhersubrequmt cmduc~Afvr noiingthedetailsof the

subwqunitwnducirelieduponand sattieingeralRepublichadnotbccomebound

"Havingregardtothesemnsiderationsofp p y
the chce of a situationof stoppe1 muld suffice to lcnd sIOsthise
mtmtim- thatistosay iftheFederalRepublicwmnowpreclu~hdenying
theam>licabili~oftheconven bvieasanofeastmme.un.declarations
etc..~hichnotonly clearlyandmnsistmfiy evinccda~tanŒofthatregime.but
also had caused Denmarkor the Netherlands. in reliance on such conducf
denimenially Io change position or suffcr some prejthitshcr esno

evidencewhatevcrin theoresentcase."'
HeretheCourtisclearlymahgrefmnce IOtheessentialclmenu ofestopinthesuie
sense.andfmdingihatthereisno evidenIOsustainsuchaplea.

'IU Rrporü1962.p32.

'ChristianDominiçC.ppmpmC prinnpde I'atoppcldmilderpm: En Hommaged Pad
Guggenheim(1968p.357.
'Thirlway.locil.para524fmmov 7 above.
'ICJReport1969.p. 26. 530.IntheGulfofMainecaset.heChamkr oftheCounwasconhnted withasaies

ofargumentsbasdon pleasofestml oracquiesana.Inthefint place. Caargved

disputedarcasoftheGeorgesBankandhadneithnprotesiednorevicedany .mcuon.the
UnitedS~~IMmnduct mnveved thcclea(iffalw) impressionthat the UnitedStates
acccpiedtheCanadianclaims:thercbyesto&ingthe~niid Stateshm laterchailmging
theseclaims.me ChamberrejectedthisCanadianargument:
':whilcirmaybc concededchattheUniledStam showedaceRainhprudenoe
inmauitainingsilencealterCahadissucdthefus1pemiü forexploraonon
GeorgesBank.anyanmipitoamibutetosuchsilena. abnefsilmŒaIhaLlegai
mnscqumcestaku~gthefom ofanestoppel=ms tobegoingIOOfar."'

Canadaalsornaintainedthat theUnitedStateshadacsuiescedinthadopthf a
medianlineasthemanrimeboundarybyreasonofthe&nductof UniiedStatesofiic&.
Dam'cularlyvidenccdbvthe"HoffmanleW. Mr Hoffm. anofficialoftheBureauof
k ~a&~emeniofch;(~niiedtat tDcpamnenrofthelntcrior.inmqiuringabthc
positionofcmainCanadianamccssions .hiseenthlthincdnoauthcniry
w committheUnitcdStatesaIOthepositionif amedianline. InrejcctingtheCanadiaÜ
plca of estoppbaseduponthe "Hoffmanlem?. the Chambcrpointedout that MI
Hofihan. likchis Canadiancountemart.was actinewithinthe limiü of his technical
rqonsibilities. thaCanada couleno;rdy uponÏhemntenüof thatlcm"as though
itwm anofficialdeclarationoftheUnitedStam Govemmeontha tunuy'sinfnna-
tionalmaritimebo~ncimies.'~

531.InthGulfofMainecase ,eChamberalsomadeanimportantgmd pronounce-
mentconcaning threlationshipkoueen estoppclandacquiesance:
'TheChamberobsmesthat cansethemnccpüofaqui~nŒandes~l,
inespstive ofthestam accordedtothan byinternationallaw.bothfromow
thehindammtalprincipleogoodfaithandcquity.Thearehowcva,basedon
differentlezal reasoliin~.sinceamuicscenŒis eauivalentto tacitranmilion
manifestcdiy uailaIeral-io1hichtheotherpk mayintnprrt ascnimt
whileesum~lislinlredtothe~ofmeclusionA~atooneview,~rcclusion

is in fan %eproaduralaspectand'estwthesubstanÏveaspectof thcsame
. .ciple."'
532.Itialsowonhyof notethacinIhcGuYofMainecase,theChamlmmnducteda
rcvicwofthecase-lawinvokcdbyCanadainsumn of iü plcasofestopporacquies-
Œnce.Canadahadrcliedimrrolkon thejudgme~iofthe~o&inthe~o4egiafrrhrries
casewherctheCounhadfoundthaitheNorwcgianauthoriueshadapplicdtheusysternof
&limitationbymeansof smight base-luiesmnsismily andunintenuptedlyhm 1869
untiltheme whenthedtsputarw.andthatgend tolaationofthatNomegia@cc
wasan unchailengedfac~TheCowt foundthaswh geneniltoleranon.c&bied with

otherfam (includuigGnaBntain'"prolongcdabstention")would incasewanant
Notwav'smforcm>entof ha svstanaeamt the UnitedKuindom.'iheGulfofMaine
case.th Chamber mnsiderrd*thatthcelemcnü of factandof law in~iwe~ian
Fisluriecaseandthosein thedimutebeforeitwmIcadissimilforamm~aris<tm o
producelegalmnsequenccs.The&ber added:

'ICIRcpom1984,p. 38.
'Ibid..pp.307-M.tthemamm1 ofthemendeclaratin th&mcm Grecdamiarsand
ofrtatcmcnbyhnch Oov~t Minkm intheNuclcaTm caws.
lbùi.p305.

ICIReport1951p.139. "Neitherthe lm durationof the NonvegianmacticCIO years)nor Nonvay's
activitiesinmanifestanonofpaatnice~arrantthedrawffl~ofmnclusi forsom
the 1951Judpcnt that wouldberelevantinthe prcmtCase."'

CanadahadalsoinvokedtheawardintheGnsba&~arbiUation (beiwmi Swedenand
N~nvay)~t.hejudpenüof theCoun intheNonhScoContine~alShcycaws. theTcmplc
cax. andthecaseoftheArbinalAwardmade bytheKingofSpainon23Decembn. 1906.
But the Chamber. in tGuifof Maine case.found thathex aileged precedentswm
distinmiishableonthefans. RefeninntothecaseoftArbitralAwardmadcbytheKint-
of~pGnon23 December, 1906,theEhamber stated:

"Acquiescmcedid~lavaDm inihatcsx. butinreachinghatconclusiontheCoun
reli&onexplicitd&l&&nsof~icmgua.andonc honco~tittehava
a vc. lo-.priod. somcth-newhichdocsno1a.. .inthepresentcase."
533.lntheFrontierDispue(BurkinaFosolMalt)case.theargument was advancedby
BurkmaFasothatMalihadacquiesced utcenainpruinplesofdclunttanon approvedbythe
Legal~ubCommissionofthe0~~ Mediation~ommi&iondutinganmli& butabaive.
aaempt to resolve the dispute.BurkFasorelied on theprinciplethat a State cmot
disclaim in a panicular instance niles and principles to which it has acquiesced in
comparableNcumsfanm. whentheiroperationbernes disadvantageous10ilself.

of internationallawthatitwouldhaveio fulhe fmnOerline.weighing forthatpurposcthe
legalforceof therespmive evidcncesubmincdbythe Panies for ilsappraisal:
"lt isthereforeof littiesigtificana whether Maliadopteda panicular approach,
either in the murse of nepotiationson ftuntieraucstions.or wilh rem1 to the
mnclusions of theLegal~ub€mnmission of the OAU Mediationmission.

and whether thatamch may or may not be consmied 10reflecl a mifie
positionor indced io signify acquie&nce, tewards the principles and niles.
includingthose whichdetermine threspectivweight of the various kindsof
cvidencë amlicable tathedisoule.Ifth& orinciolesand nareamlicablc as
eicmmtsoiiaw intheprcsentLe. thcym'ain so'whateverMali'sat;i'~de.~fthe
mme isme. theChambermuld dv takeacmunt of~ ~ ~ ~hewo Paniesha~~
requesteditido SO....~
535.The leaaleffectofsilencewasaeain at issueiElcrwonicaSiculn(ELSI)case
whm the U&XI Statu arguedthat I& wasestoppedfromadvancingthe&a kat ihe

UnitedStatesamlication was inadmissiblebv ruison of the failureof the UnitedStam
mmpaniestoeXhausttheirlaal medies inth; ltalimurrs .heUnitedStatesargument
was basedonthemnsidcrationthatltalyhadfailtaraisetheargumentofnonexhaustion
of localremedieidiplmatic exchangeswiththeUnitedStatespriIOthesubmissionof
thedisputetoIheCourt.thmbvtlcitlv acccritinntheUnitedStatesviewthat localrmedies
hadbeenexhausted.lnrejstin~the~kited~tat&~leaofest~l.the~hamberofthe~oun
statedthat:
"...ithoughilcannobeexcludcdthatancs+l muld incenaincircumstamrs

arischm a silmce whm somethingoughtto haveban said, thm areobvious

'IU Rcporu1984.p.309.

'RepomoflniemaIio~1 ArbirrAwmis, Vol.XI. p161-162.
'IU Rcponr1984.p.310.
'ICI Report1986.p.57(para 42). difficultiesinconsüuctinganestoppelhm amerefailurW mentiona matteral
a parücularpointinsomewbatdesultorydiplomaticexchanges."'

uponacquiercnce. IntheTemplecase,ihe~ounrefd toSiam'slackof~mctionIothe
marisdeliveredi1908eilhcr"withinare laridn"rindeed'Yormanyyears".'In
thecaseofthe~rbiral~wrdmade by the in^of~painon23~ecember. 19& theCoun
rcliedinpan uponNicaragua'sfailmIOraiseanyquestionwithregar10thevalidityof
the Award "foreveralvcan".' Bvwavof wnmi. indctermininn.intheGulfofMaine
caset,atthe United&tes sileni; wi&respectto the issuanceotCanadian &;loration
Œnnitsoverdimtedarcas oftheGeornes Bankwas insufticimttoncate anestoppthe
Chamberrcfen;dto thesilenceas"a bief silencea1rha1"'andlainconwsted iiwith the
"conductthathadcontinuedoveravmlon~pcriodintheArbiralAwordmadebyrheKin~
ofsuain case.'nius. thetimcelemmi inGv oanicularwt of circumstancesmav wbél
~ ~ ~~ ~ ~<.~ ~~ ~
&&minative of whetheracquiescencecanor shouldbepresumed.
537.Itis subminedîhattheforegoingsurveydemonsuatesthat internationaluibunalsin
gennal, andthe PermanenCourtandthepwnt Court inpam'cular.vicwwithwnsider-
ablecautionargumentsbasedonallegedestoppeloron acquicscencebavingtheeffst of
plusion. IIisofmur= onlynad thatStatesmgaged in intanational litigwüion

misevents basedupon thevlea of assmcd estomel or acquiescena amountingto
plusFon. if only for thsoi thatthefacu sudg such a plea may have some
evidentialvalue. as demonsuatinginconsistencyof wnducl. even if the plea as such is
rejected Itishowcverstrikth& inthecase-Iawofthe~ntCo~atleartoverthep~st
th* years.argumffltrbasedum an assenedestoppeloruponacquiescmcemounring
tomeclusionhaveinmostcases-~~~~~~cteb dvtheC~~stheswevhasdmionsuated
thiswassointhe~onh~ea ~0111ine&/~he/ffase~<althoughitisfaûtadd thaDenmari
andtheNetherlandsdidnotadvanceapleaofestoppclassuch).intheGulfofMainecase.

inthecasewncerning theFronrierDispue(Bwki~ FmolMali).intheEIertronicoSicda
case,andinrhereŒntjudgmentofthcCounon Nica~agua'a spplicationtointmme inthe
iund siand and MaritimeFromier case betwm El Salvadorand Honduras. Eventhe
earliercase-lawoftheCouRandiuvredecewr (andindeedof arbit uraunalsidisDlavs
thesamecaution.ïhus. theDanish&ment intheEartern Greenlandcase thi ~owi~
wsmluded fromcontestingDanishsovereigntyoverGreenlandbyreasonof the hien
deiaration was rejested by-the PermaneCOI&, argumentr bas&on esroppel were
dismisscdbytheRmianoit 6iin intheSerbionhm case.andinitradvisoryopiniin
the ~uro~conCommissionofrk Da& case.and wm liewiw dismidbithe sole

arbiuatorintheTinm arbiuation.ïhe pwnt Corn mayhaverclied IOsomccxtent on
UnitedKingdomabsenceofprnrcstagaAt theNorwcgi&suaight base-linesysteminthe
Nomegian Fishcries case, but,as tChamber mted in the Gulf of Moine casthe
Nowegian prac" hadken appliedfor70 ycan andthmehad ban activitiesbyNoway
in manifestationof îhatpranice!

'ICJRepoN 1989.p.44.
'Saexi IOpara526fmmote3above.

3Sa tut IOparsis f.mon2above.
See tu1 IOpar530.fmmoic 1above.
'SeetutIOpara532.fmmon3 above.

6Sa lutIOpar5a32fmmote Iabve. 538.Finlanddoesm>tofcoursedenythatthepr andccquiessofchsteoppel
a placein internationallaw.panicularlyin relationtorialdisputes.As Bmwnlie

rightlypointsour
"Recognition.acquicscence.admissionsconsti~tinga parlof the evidena of
sovereingi, ndcstoppelfom an inter-relatedsubject,ndit is farfmm
easytoestablishthepointsofdistinction."'

Brownlieiiiwise concedesthat"inappmpriatcconditionsacquieseüihavethe
effectofatoppel".citingtheTem wplclcasn.fothehamssthatthcprinciple
ofestoppel"hasnopanicularcohcrcna inintanationallaw.iu incidenceandeffectsno1
king uniforni'*andthat it"mustbe usedwithcaution,morepanicularlyindealingwith
themitonalissues".lBmwnlie urgessimilarcautionin assessingthe significanceof
acquiescencemountingIopreclusion:
"Acquiescmccofthekindwhichclosestheprincipal i(whichtherefohasan
cffcctsimilarIoestoppel)mustt'est onvcrycogentcvidence"

539.Itisbelievedthat theforeeoingsurvevofthejuriwmdenceofthept'esentcomand
of itspredecessor.togctherwithththe&ssf iGrnational arbitralawardsreviewcd,
su~m Bmwnlie'sconclusions.IIisreallyonlyith+Tenwle caseandthecase ofthe
~rbirral AwardmadebyrhcKingof ~pa& on23 ~ecembrr,1906thatwe soe judicial
applicationof the pinciples of atoandlacquiewnce.The Templecase can bc
chkmrised asinvolvingbothanininalacquiemce (inrelation iothe 1908map)anda
subscquentestopp(basedonThailandslaterconduci)'.ArbinalAwordof theKing
ofSmincaseismorcdifftnilttocharacterise.Theiudmnentcarefullvrefrainshm usine
Aiof thetas estoppel,plusionoracquiescn&.fhe fi~~din&spm ofthe&cg&

irregu\ aft~VKing ofSpairisappoimmmtlwks mbe base dnacquimceb, andthe
fmdingin respecofNicaraguabroaderargumentsof invaliditylookstobebaxd upon
woenition bv Nimmia of the validitvof the Awar.bv .xms declaration andbv
cond;cI,bu&ssed byevidenceofacqu~esmcc7.

Sdon IL Applicaiim dthe Law tothe Fm

540.AtthipsoinLitisneccssa10rcventothefactsoihc-nt case.11isFinland's
silenc(andonrhatalone)inrelationtotheGreatBell--imi-ci onwhichDenma&
mus1rclyinorde osusiainanyplcaofestoppcloracquimcc.

541.Lnthefm place,itnaxssarym lookcarehillythetcmioftheDanishCircular
Nou of 12May,I W7.'ThatCiular Nou conveyedIoal1fmign dipolomaticmissions
acaediicdIoDcmnsrkuiformatioaboutconsmictionplansfortheerectionofabndgefor

'IanBm~ic, PrinciplofPublicImemoiionLm.4lhIdn (1990).161.
'Ibidp.641.
'Ibid..161.
'lbid..161-162.

'ScliutIOpara562foomot3 abovandpara526foomotc1abovc.Ithem ~IIPCw
'Ihirlwafoccilapara524.femme 7above. .46.
'Seeex1IOpara524.foomot8abovc.
'Se texIOpara525foomoe 3abovc.

'Anrrx2.2.madandnil Mic anms theGreatBeli.theDanishParliamenthavingendorscderation
of sucha bridgebyvimieof AciNo.414of 13June, 1973.nie CircularNolestatcdthai
the~lrned G~~Ï~I~ brideewouidfcanireahiahlcvelbridnemss theeastemchanne
anda lowlevelbridgeamis thewesternchmil. Itcontinuk:

'?he wnsmctionof theaectionanossthecasterncharuielwül.inwnfomity with
intanationalLaw.ailowinternationalshippingkttheeauegatandtheBaltic
10proacd as in thepast"

île Cicuiar Notealwstated:
"Accordingtoaüavailabledatathehighlevelbridgeamss theeasternchannelwiU
no1inanvwav resbictoassaterou&theGreat Beltbvexist-.nshi~swhichhave
mavigateth; wtei inrh;pas..?
ThiswashoweverfoliowedbvMer informationabouthorizontalclearanceofthetwo

sea lancsand by the(ominousjstatmmt th"..the ha vnrical clearanceforpassage
undmthebridg-wülk 62m.abovemeansea level."
542.DespiietheIWOassurancesaboutwircsrictedpassagegivinthisCiular Note.
ilmighthavebem mm prudeniifFiniandhadrcspondedtoilinwiting. ifdy Iodraw
auentiontothe mssible &wnsisfmcvkween theksed verticalcleaÏ'afor~assane
underthebridgeand theassuranceGven intheNotéiüeif. ButFiniandhad&nabie
munds forassumingthat(a)thebridgeomiectthenunderwnsidm<tionwasUnwrely u,
be punucd as a ma& of u&ncy, &en &e degrccof ind oppositionto ii wi&
Denmarkandthefactthalmanypreviouspmposalsforabridgeanms theGml Belt had

wme tonothineand ib)~cnmarlw<ouldin&v even~ifthe&m bri-. .mieclwm tobc
pursucdasama-mof~cy.give fuüeffecit~theso~massurancesgiveninthe~~
Note. Asrenards(a).referacc ismadetoCha~terV.PiofthevrcwntMemorialwhcrc
adeiaileda&unt~givniofthe variousan& plattomodify th; navigationdlconditions
intheGreatBelr IIwillk semthatplanshadalmdbem formulaicdasearlyasthe193th
forthcwnsuuction ofa bridgeamss theGreatBelLIwülk rccallehi theLinle&II
bndge(withaclcnranceofdy 33mem) hadkanoanedon 15May.1935.Bfflel.inhis
se& workonintmationaisuaiü. hasconünentcdasfollows:

"Bndm andembanhnenü mut the(sicsownsnucted thatpracticallshim
canpis under,rapstively throughthan withouisuchdifficulirmianoeu-
hg.- thatthesuaiceasestobea nav-gablewatmvay."'
Tolhisstaiemmtof gmcralprinciple.Briielathefollomngfwmote:

'Thiswasnotobsmvedin thebuildingoftheLittleBeItBrisinccit wasgivm
aheighiofonly33mm ovn thesurfaceothewawhichpicvenledno1nürcly
largewanhips (although as we archm dealing with mmhant ships this
immaierial)balsolargemerchantvcssclse.g.motorvascls engagcdinovcrseas
midehm passingthroughtheBelial all.'n
Briielcontinues:

"lnthismeaion ilmayfunherbe askedwhetherthetrealy'presuppok thatoll
rhresuai&shallk avhable aspesages M whether.im&&vc of thWly.
Denmarkcannotbymeansofabridp~anembanlanent~inw,mcotherway~lose
oneor evm IWOof themw,long&one islefiopen.Iflhisview takm -inspik

'Eri krllsl.InIemoliodSI~1947).VolIIp.43.
'Ibidfmmole 3.
'ïhaIistosay.rlrTRatyof~n ofthefactthatitmaypmenta cenaininteresttohaveseveralwaystochoosehm
thcnthesuait whichisleftouenmut aüevnitsà oassablby al1shi~si.e.only
thGereatBcltmuldk conskred asfulfillingihisc~ditionsincetmini&
of theLittlcBeltbridg(Emphasis in origi~l.1

BrüelwmmentselsewherechatdetailedplansforabridgeovertheGreatBelthadbcm
prrparedasearlyas19% andchata schemcforbridges&a boththeGreat&II and the
Soundhadbeendmwnupbyagmupof Danish andSwcdishengmeen inthemid-1930s
andpublishedin 1936.'11mains onl10addchatBrücl.inanolherpassagecommcnting
on theconsmictionof theLinleBcltBndgein 1935.exprrsws thefollowingview:

"On theotherhand,Denmarkcan now -ifshebarstheSound-nomore closethe
GreatBeltwhichfomdy hadbeenpassablebyailvessels."
Thu. thereisclcarevidena thatplansfortheconsmictionofbridgesovertheGreatBclt
and. indeed. the Sound wert under considerationin the mid-1930s. no doubt as a
conmuence of themnsmictionoftheLittle Beltbridge: and thata vav eminentDanish
interktional lawyer(Brucl)haddmwnatwntiontothe-limitationsimpo&dihcTreaty
OfCopnhagenonthe buildingofabridgeormbankmmtams theGrcatBeltwhich.after
theansminion of theLittleBeltbridge.was andremaincdtheonlyviablepassage-way
fromtheBaiticto theNorthSca(andviceverso) forlargedeepdraught vessAmrd-
ingly.thebridgepmlcctof 1977wason~ytheiatestinaxnesof suchprojccts whichhad

ken plannecisincethemid-1930s.TheCourtwillremilinrhisconteu ihataGovemmental
ConünissionwasestablishcdiDenmark in 1948tos~dy thepossibilityof consmic!ing
a bridgeover the GreatBelt,the Commissionrepming in 1%0. Again. thisled to no
immediateactionkvond thescninuoofvetanotherinvestieation.'Inailthecircumstanc-
esand intheltghtofthe longhistob ofabonivc toco&micta bridgeoverihc Great
Belt.iishardlysurunsinethatFdandshould no!havrcacudunmediaul~totheDarush
~ircular~oteof 1i~a~r19n.
543.Asreaards(3).Fiand alsotookintoacmuntthetwosolemnassuranceseivenbv
Dmmarkin thi chsr Noteaboutpassagehugh theGreatBclt.Finlandw&sure6
mtitlcd to rcon theseassurances.fortifierhcy were bv the publicviews aldy
expresscdbyIWO vcryeminentDanish iniemationallawym.~ na.a&mdny bec;

dirrctedtotheviewsexprcsscdbyBrüel:theevidenceof %mm's viewsas exriressed
inlus 1957evidmcc10ihe~arU sheatBdt Commissionandinhispublisheds&temmt
of29January.1%2. can befoundinAnna 19tothisMcmoriai.TheCircularNoteof12
May. l97.&dnotgoinwany&tailontheuchnicalspsificationsofthepmpowdbridgc.
àyond indicatinglheplanncdhorizontalavaricalclearances.Butevenabridgewiiha
verticalclcaranŒofody62mem wouldnotnecessarilyhavecausedproblemsf&~iand
ifthe moredetailcdplansforthebridgehad iakmsufiicicntaaount of themuirement,
rcfmed w inthes&nd of theIwo Danis assurances.noIO'..resuictpassa& hugh
theGreatBeltbyexistingsiupswhichhavenavigaiedlhescwaminthepas...s.ch*
includingthdrilship<suthmibla andjacl<-upsmanufacnd in~innishshipyards;

544.Finland'ssilenceandla& ofnsponw thDanish CircularNoteof12May, 197.
mut alsk assessedintheiightofthehe-frame withinwhichareactionmighthavebŒn

'ErikBrllcImcmofionolmuü (1947).VolIIpp.43-44.
'Ibid.p. 1foomoic3.
'I~u..~. 111-112.

'DanishWnnuiObscrvatinrsof28lune1991paras.II a11 calledfor.Denmarkconcedes,initsWrincnObservationsof 28June. 1991.thatthethen
DanishRime Minisia announad to theDanishParliamenton3Octokr. 1978.that,due
tofuiancialconsidcrauons.theCovmunent haddecidedtopostponetheimplemenration

oftheGreatBeltproject'Irwemsthat thedecisiontosuspendtheprojccthadalreadybem
takennolavr then30Aums".~.~~8~-,r~ ~ ~ ~ ~hRime Ministerinlmed theoublic
thatanagreementhadbeenreachedkween theSocialDemmts and ens s tasuspend
theomiectsine dieD.enmarkdeniesthatthemiect wassumnded "sine die"andwints
toiheTacttharthe DanishMinislerforhblic'~&ks hadstak on 17Octokr. 1978.that
theprojectwasnotabandonedbutmerelypostponcdforananticipatcdperiodoffowto five
years.'Howcvnoneinterprctsthetcm inwhichtheprojectwasfmallysuspendedin1978.

thm isnodoubtthat itwasput"intotherehgcrator" foranindefiniteperiod.eveiwas
expcctedor anticipatedon-theDanishsidcthat work on it mighbe resumedwithin a
measurableperiod.Accordingly.ashm 30August. 1978.aithelaiesi.thethenGreatBell
projec~to whichrcfcrena wasmadeintheDanishCircularNoteof 12May. 1977.was
effectivelysuspendedfor an undefincdpenod.Itfollowsthat anyimmediatcthreat Io
Fishrinhtsandintcrests was(atleasttcmwrarilv)removedasfmm 1978cswnmaof

sothatno-reactionhm ~inland'tthe~aniih~irchr~oteof 12May,1977.wasmcould
havebeencailedfor as hm thedateof theannouncementof thesuspension. Finland's
silenceon theDanishCiular Noteof 12May. 1977,understandablein thelightof the
considerationsto whichreferencehasalreadybeenmadi, wastherefm a"briefsilence"
(touse thephrax adoptedbytheChamkrof theCouninitsjudgmentinthe GulfofMaine
case).

545.IIisof corn nad thatDenmarkshouldhavesoughttowncenmte attentionon
theDanishCircularNoteof 12May. 1977.notwithstandingthatthebridgeprojectunder
mnsiderationinthat vearwaseffectivclvsumnded iustova avearafta theissuana of :
theNote.Itisnaniraliionlybecause&arkkks&reby tocs~blishconrinuirykwan
the1977GreatBeltpmjectandthe 198b7sreauBeltpmjecrButinfacttherewas

nosuchcontinuiry.ThisisconruincdbythefactthattheDanishûovemmenrfeltobligcd
tosendouttoforeiçnmissionsacdited roDenmarkamnd CircularNote on30June.
1987.me fus1tw~-~aragra~hosfthe 1987CircularNoteareinswctivc asdemonsmhg
the lackofcontinuiryktwan the 1977pmjectand the 1987pmjecc
'me MinisùyofForeignAffairshasthehonourtoinformthaton26May1987the

DanishFokcting (Parliament)passcdanewAct No.380of 10June 1987onthe
consmictionofafixed traffic&tion forbothvchicularandrailMIC am
theGreatBelti.e.betweni HalsskovonZealandandKnudshovcdon Funen.
'Ihe new Act re~ealsthe former Act No. 414 of 13 June 1983 (sic) on the

conmuctionofabridgeamss meGreat Belt,ofwhichal1~eadsofMissionwere
infomed byCiular Noteof 12May.19TI."
546. 'Ihus.thefmt objectofthe 1987Ciular NotewasIoinformforeip missionsof
thepassageof thisncwAct,whichwas topmvidethestamtorybasis forthenewprojst,

andof the-ai ofActNo.414of 13June, 1973.whichprovided thestatutorybasisfor
the 1977GreatBeltpmject.

1WNrh Wrinui Obwwations of28lune1991.pan 14.
Mr Magid'rsiaumcntof2 lul1991.dmng theoralheanngsonEnland'squni foranindi-
cationofpmvis8onmlearurrrButcf par15oftheDmrh WnticnObwwanons of28lune
1991.wheretheMinüur ismordcdar havingsirnplyswdUia"Ur Govunmcni upccrtdUiar
therrmsary pmnditions formumingtheRojen wouldno1bepeni until4-5yean had
passed": phasissupplicd.Aupeerakm bitssomewhas!hm ofan onriciprion.Sa alw,
ChapicrV,Pan iabove(paras130133). 547. The1987CimularNotegoeson todemonswtethesigniT~cantdillmas betwem
the 1977GrcatBelt~roist andthnew mist ofwhichnoticewasking fivm in 1987.
nie ncwpmjst wik & be tackledin iwo stages.ïhe Ihemsttagewasïgbe a railway
mnnstion. bymeansofaNnnelundathecastan channelofthe Great Beltandof alow
lcvelbridgeacrossthewcstanchanneniesecondstagewastobeamouirwaymnncction

wh~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~mssthe westernchannelon the samelow levelbridneas the railway
mnnstion. nie mnmt withthe 1977Gm Bellprojcctissignificant,sina the 1977
mistenvisapedthe railwaymnneftionacmssthecasternchannelsproceedingbymeans
;>&esarneGghlevel bridgeas wouldcany themotonvayconn&tion.But;vin mm
s-anificantisthefollo-inps;tatcmcntincludcdin the1987CimularNole:
'3hasno1yetbeendecided whethethemotonvayshallcrosstheeaslernchannel
onahighlcvelbridgeor amel."

Thisisimmediatelyfollowedbyafunhersolemnassurance:
, "lncasethe bridgesolutionisselected,theerectionof thebridgesectioncmssing
the easternchannelwüi. in mnforrniw with internationallaw. allow for the
maintenancoffreepassa~cforintemali~nalshippicoueenthe~attegatandthe
BalticSui asinthepast"

548.11isnscssary tointerpolaithemthatbenvcmtheyears1977and1987nolesthan
13Fiish drilshipsand oil.igsofvariof. . hadpas& lhmughtheGrcatBelt.
549.Denmarkraisednoobiection 10theoassaeeof theseddl shim andoil -ies.this
passage beingeffectedin acf&dancewith;h& assuran civm'byDmmarkin its
CircularNotcof12May.1977.Moreovcr.itcannotbeobjstcdlhalDenmarkwasunaware
ofthemntinuingpassagethmughtheGreatBcltofddl shipsandoilngsmanufactud in
Fiiand andtheSovietUnionduringthi uerienod
-.
550.Thatthepassageofthesedrill shipsandoilrigs(producednotonlyinFiand but
alsointheSovietUnion)had bmi notedbytheDanishauthoritiesisconiumedbythe
statment madebyMI Magidon5hly duringthe mm oftheoralhearingson~uilhd's
qucst foranindicationofpmvisionmeasur e s. agid.innsporx toaqucstionposed
byludgeShahabuddmi.refd tothefart that theofficialcommenutothe 1987Bill.
-. bythe DanishMinisw ofPublicWorks.hadassencdthat:

"Ahighlevclbridgeshallprobablyhaveanavigationalcleamncof-TImenrs."
Inmmmentingonthias ssertioMr Mag-dstatcd:
'TheMinisw base dtscstin!ateuwn infor~~-~~ -~omthe~inisw of uidustrv
. ~
and theDa& Maritime~uth&&,&hich had in 1986notedlhat ddl ~hi; ,
omducedin lhcSovietUnionandFiiand hadahciehtabovewaterlevclrannine
~tween 60and75mem andthat abridgeclcarank of76mems wasthaefo;
callafor."'
Subscquenlly.the DanishGovmunent reducedthe brid$eclearanc10 65 mcm.
notwiihstandingthienformationavailablteotheDanishMiniswoflndusIyandtheDanish
MaritimeAuihaty about h mntinuingpassageihroughthe GreatBellof ddlships
produccdintheSovietUnionandFinlandhavinpa; heinhtwcllabove65mem.
- -
551.'IhemainpointtonoteabouttheCilar Note of30June.1987,howevcr.isthat
il clea~Iyindicalthaîno fuial decimionhad ybecn made as to whethcrthe mad
mnnccuonovuthecascm chatme lhouldbcbi wayofahigh-levelbndgeorbywayof
a mel. Evenifitwae tobeby wayofahighlevelbndge.noindicationwasgivminthe Ciular Noteof what thevertical clearancewouldbe. Anain.Finlandandotherforeian
Stateswm inanycvcntreassurcdthatifthebridgesolution-wmtobeselectcd.theercctiin
ofthebridaesectionmsmgthecastemchel will"inmnfonnirywithinmtional law.
allowforthemaintenanceif freepassageforinternationalshipp&!betwan theKanegat
andïhe BalticSeaasinthepast",the'past" forthispurposeincludingthcyear1986when
theDanishauthoritieshaasDmmarkiwlf admiu.noted thepassagethroughtheGreat

Belt ofdrilslips produccdin the Soviet Union and Fuiland and having a height
mnsiderablyinexcessof 65mems.
552.Itisamplyclcarhm thefmgoing analysisofthe1987CircularNote thatFinland
cannotbeheldtohaveacauiesced.asaresultofherfailurctorsamdto thatCYcularNote,
inth; constructionofahi& levelbridgeoverthecastm channilof theGreatBelt having
averticalclearanceof65mems, thecffcn ofwhichwouldbetodenvfreevassanethmu&
theGreatBellofdrill shipsandoil rigsmanufacuircdinFinland ~~tunnifor&adUafEc
would not havehad thateflccLand theoptionof a tunnelsolunonhabeenleft open.
Morwver.cvena bridgesolutionwouldnotnecessarilyhavehadthatcffectif,indrawing
upplansforthe bridge.Denmarkhad givenfullcffcctto theassurana givento foreign
&ions inthe 1987~ircularNote. .

553.Indeedilwasno1uniilreceiptoftheihidDanishCimular Noteî4 October1989,
that FinlandandotherStateswm putfonnallyon nooa of theTm Dmsh decisionto
mnsuuct a high-levclbridgeover theeastemchannelof theGreat Belt with a vertical
clearanceof 65 mems above scalevel.Byüiatthe. Finlandhad alrcadyexprcsscdils
mncern toDcmnark.asa resultofthele& fmmtheFinnish Lnbarsy in&&nhagen to
theDanishBoardof Navigationof 18July. 1989(Anncx60IO theprcsenrManorial).As
sam as it becamecleafiÜmthe r..lvo~ the DanishMinism,of~oreim Affak of 29
August,1989(Annex61tothepresentMemorial)thatthep~~~rrat&lt bridgewould
indëcdobstructpassagethroughtheGreat&II ofdrillshipsandoilrigsmanufaitwedin
Fiand. Fuilandadeavowed toengageDemark innegoliationswithaviewto Tmdtnga
-. -
solution.
554.Quitcapan hm thefactthattheDanishCircularNoteof30Ju n98.7,didnmdl
foranyimmediatereactionfmmFuilandkcausctheoptionofatwus iollutionfmthemad
wRic mmtion aooss thecasternchannelof theGreatBelthadbeendcliberatelyleft
opn andbccauscamewed assuranaof freeoassae forintcmationalshimin~asinthe
kt had bem givm. the tùmelemmt is ais8 imp&nt in Ihisamtexîjie silena of
Dcnmarkis.ifanvthh~.evm moresienif~can thanthesilmccofFiniand.ïhuinetheoral
hearuigsonFuiland'srcquestfaan vdicavon ofprovisionalmeas-,itwasad;ninedon

behalfofDenmarktbaitheDamhMuusterofT~~ hadaldvdccided. inNovanber
1988.thaionlya high-levelmad bndgesbuld beputoutfor ~h; wereforeign
missionsno1immcdiaulynotifiedformallvofthisdsision?nie Ckular Noteof30J11ne.
1987.hadclcarlyputfokign missionsoniotiΠthatbathoptio-ahighlevelbndgeand
a tunne-werestillopenasreganlstheroadMc mmtion acmsstherasrem chel
oftheGreatBelLyeti1 wasnotutil 24Ocwber.1989 -almosta yearaiicr Denmarkhad
decidedinpnncipleinfavowofa hie-levcl bridg-tha tmign missionswae infornicd
mi only thataTm decisionhadbcni am wih Denmarkin favowof thehigh-level
bridgesolutionbutthattplanwasforahigh-levelbridgewithavdcal clearanaofody
65mem. Oneoftheasmtial elnnmuofany pleaofacquicsance isrhatthcStau allcged
IOhave acquiesccdactcdM failcdIOan in fullhowlcdgc ofthecircumsiance s.us.
Article45 ofthe Viema Convation onthe Law of Treaties, 1969 (whichdeals with
acquisance intheamlexi of thelawof ùcaoes).pvides:

'StatamntbythcagcntofDmmak MI.hiagidon2July1991. "AStalemay nolongerinvokeagroundforinvalidating.tmninating,withdrawing
hm orsu&ndiigthe opaatio" ofamaly under~icles 4.6io50orAmcles60
and62if,&r becomin.mre ofthefoc&:

(a) it shall have expresslyagrcedthat themaiy is valid or =mains in forceor
continuesinopration, asthecamayk. or
@)itmaybyreasonofiisconductbeconsi&redahavingacquiescedinthevalidily
of the mty or in its maintenancein foinoperation.asthe cmay be."
(Emphasissupplied.)

It willbenoted thatthephrase"afterkcoming awareofthefans" govemsbothlimbsof
thede so enunciatd. Inthepresencase,and applying by analogy the principle of
acquiesŒnŒ asfomulated intheconturtof thelawof ûwties. ilisapparentthatlimb(a)
iswhollyinapplicable(kcauscFuilandhas neverexpagrcedthatûenmarkisentitled
tobuilda high-levelbridgeovertheGreatBelt whichwouldpreventthefmpassageofdiiil
ships and oil rigs rnanufacNrcdin Finiand).and t(b)isequally inapplicable
(becauseFinlanddidnotbecomcawmcofthefumtD ocnnsfi~tahieh-level
bridgeovertheGreaiBeliwitha verticalclearanceof65kuntiithesummer-of1989
ai the earliat. and immedialclyventilatedils conŒrn).Ii shouldalso be noled that the
Inmational LawCommission.in iiscommeniarytowharlaterbecameMicle 45of the
Vimna Conventionon theLawofTrcaties.laidpanicularsmss on thenad fortheState
alleeedtohave acauicscethlossofarr~htto&voke- wundof invali..N.tnmination
etc.lto haban 'awarcof the fam. TheCommissionconsiders:
"...hattheawlication of thede inanveivencasewouldnesessanimvuwn
the facu andiai thegovming consi&-ionwouldbethatof goxifaith.ihis
beig so.theprinciplewouldnotoprattheStatcinquestionhadno1banawarc

ofthefans givingrire tothenght or hakai1ina positionklyIoexercise
iisnghttoinvokethenullityof thetrr'ty."
Ifone appliestheprincipleof goodfaithecclrcumslansfthepmml case. the
suspicioncannoiwhollybedismissedlhatücnmark forinurnalpoliticalorindecdforother
rea&m. haddetamin& alreadvin 1987ththemotonvav&tion amss thecastent
channeloftheGMt Bellshoulik bym-ofa hgh-leveibndge ratherüitunnel:nd
thai1heCilarNoteof30Januarv.1987.wascarefullvfmulatcdionxJuce ioaminimwn
thepossibiiilythatforeign~rafesiigbtobjectt e~eut~htecearution.ltisinan~
thatfmipmissionsa~tcdto~wnenotformallymadeawmcofthefullutent

ofthe Danishplansfora tUedlinkroadWIC acrosstheeastemchanneltheGreat
Bdtuntil24October1989.Accordinelv.anvDanishammentofacauie~cmŒbasedum

555.Fuilandwouldinanyevmt questionwhetheDenmark ismtiUcdtorclyon tacit
mnuntinthefomofacquiemnŒasabasiiforunii aayordaigaitnfom by
the gennallTUX)@~~ rigbt of fiu pasage for internationalshippinsuaiis.
Fuilandisawmcthattacitconwntdoesplayaroleinint imaonnaitollaw,notably
withthede govcmingtheacceptana ofreservatitomultilateralconventions.Butthe

rationalehm isthatal1Statespatothemultilatcralconventioninquestionorcntitled
tobecomepartiewUhaveb&nmadeawareofthemnvationf myuhereeming
Sm. and WUhave bccnmvm an 41~0nuniN toobiect ttherescrvatiand evenin
un~mis toanac tosuchobjectionthiionsequaice oia dmid of acalyrelationswiththe

--
'ReponofthcInicmionolImv ComMr~ion1966)GAOR.21siSessioSuppkmntNo.9
(Ai6U)9/Rrv.l)69(par(5ofmmmmiaiy wAn 42). 177

reservinaState.Funhcnnoreiclearlhatanyreservationwhiisincompatiblewiththe
object Gd purposeof the conventionis im~rmissible. ïareaccirdingly cenain
salemiardsforStatesconfronledwithamsewationIoamultilateralmnventionwhichthey
m&&r w becitherimpemussibleor iniicalWuo intercsis.ïhe situishowevër
quitediffereniintheconiextof pmpowdunilateralactionbya Statetommca Uaffic
linkams aninternationalsuaitwhichwouldobsnuct fne passageIhmughlhatsuaitfor

apaninilarcategoryorcalegoriesofinternationalshippingwhich havepreviouslyenjoyd
suchfneoassaae. Indeed.Finiandwouldsubmitthat,insuchckumstances. whatisneeded
istheex~sa&mmtofthcuwr~tates, thyttcStitswhichhavemditionally.
andasofrighi.utilithcsÙaii forthcfrcepassagcofvcsselscio nteirshteards.
Finlandno& thatthiswasthewsition takenbv thUnite Kdinedomand~ranŒin the
contexiof thewearlyconsidetauonofproposals;o fonsmT& a luikacrosstheDova
Srni intheEneltshChannel.inaJomiReoonofBniishandFrenchofficiaissubminew
theirrespectiv;~inistsfTransporti1963.refmncc ismadetothejuridicalpmblems
inhcrentinthemsal toconsmictabrideeacmsstheDoverSÙaitforroadandrailuse.
followinga skight route21miles long.~ifertothiskdge project,theJoiR~O;
States:

'niebridgeoffasacontinuousrnadandrail Channellinkintheopni, whichmakes
ilanamactive~~~wsalmroadusers:bulitwouldundoubtedlvbeanewandsenous
hîrardand soi&of&lay tomercantiland navalshippinh theSuailofDover.
whichisoneofthebusicsis..pp.ngchannelsintheworld.withMtc oftheordcr
of500 shipsa &y; momvcr IICO& nmbe com~m~edwithowIn~cmariO~l
agreemenrboihtothebridgeinprinciplcandtotheadditionalmeasurcsnMsary
forthesaferegdation &a wffic;';' (emphasissupplied).

ïhe samepointiswted laterintheJointReport:
'Tlesidesthe seriousdisadvanmashimine whichitwouldinvolve.thebridge
pmjectmuldnotbec&edout,~ving t~arrn~i~lesofintem&ionalla;.
untilGreatBrilainandFrancehndsoughitheconcwence theSmes primipally

co~trnrd withmvig<111innthechamel. Anagnemmt of thkind,whichcould
inoam'cularbe concernedwith thedrawina uo of a svstemfor themedation of
na;igdon, woulddnly involve~ength~n;~otiati&swhichwouldonly with
dificullbebroughtw aconclusion.'lEmphasissupp1ied.J
Inalaterchaptcrof theJointReportdevotedto'Raeticability". thejuridicalaspcfs of
the bridgepmjenan analyscdinthefoiiowingtams:

"A bridge would interfm with thuseof nxogniscd sealanesand,befm
beag ilsconsmiclion,itwoubenefessaryfmBritainandFranceroscekrhe
p&ap&ovalof the~tafes~rimipoll~conceGdwith navigatiorknChannel.
Il wouldnoi sufficemmly w notifyand Ii&i andmark obsmictions.If anv
associatedsystemforthe&gdationhf navigationwm to becompliedwith.thii
alsowouldquire internationalapcment inadvance.Internationalapmeon
amatrn of suchcomplexitycouldonlybe achievedafterprolongedanddficult

negonation." (Emphasissupplied.)

'Propos& foraFivdCh1 Li& (lointRepmbyBritiMdFrench Officialrprrwnu>d
BritisMdFrenchMinisteofTransponinJuly1963Cmnd. 2137(AMex 58w ihis ernori-
al).~hcngtioishm para1.8.

'Ibidp..ra1.9.
'Ibid..- 3.17. Ihus. it wiil be seen that. whm mnsideration was fvst given in the to6the
mnsnuctionof afixedChannellink.boihtheBritisand~rench~ovemmenümnsiderrd
itnecessarIO obtainthehe"concurrencr the'pnor approval".otheStatesprincipally
conccmedwith navigationin the Channelif a &dge solutionwm to bepursuednial
wnmce or priorapprovalwouldhavetotaketheformof an internationalagreement
which would b; difficht to negooaie. Il is ofinterestthat the planfor a bridge
mnnectionunderconsiderationwithinthehameworkof the 1963JointReponmvisaged.
forthe10spansmssing mgnised navigationchannelsa clearanceheight abovehigh
waterof 230feet00 metres).'

556.~Counwillbeawarethat~1ai~foraf~1ed~II'uik~e~e~spponedf0~~o~ine
mnsiderationof the 1963Joi~&n, and that themaner was nott&enup againby th;
twoGoventmenuuntii 1981whenafurtherioints~dvbvexoeifswascommissioned.niis
rcsulteuithesubmission.inlune, 1982.oia fwiher~&n'ofa UWFmnchSNdyCroup
anal.si-ethevariousaliernativesforafixed IinkacrosstheChannelforrailorroadMit.
ThissecondRepon isnot asspecificasthe 1963JoiReportaboutthenecd IOobtainthe
mncumce of userStates in the fom of an intemationalagreementkfom workmuid
begin on a bridge pmject. Nevcnheless, il does miterate the need for international
consultationinthewntext . .wsals forbri-ges.immeised~besor mmbinedp.oi.ce:

"All theroadpmjens quux fmedsmicms IObeplaccdinthe sea.e.g. bridge
pim. ventilationshah eu. Thex: snucniresmus1bepmlened ~gainstaccidental
&llisions with shipsevm if tharelocatedoutsidtheshippkg lana. Inthis
mpect, althoughpmposalsfor new.mmpact and economicdevicesbave been
sketchedouLtheonlvtweoforotectiownhichcanbeconsiderrdatmsentconsisfs
of anificialislands.%idim;nsions of theseislandswould havetobesubstantial
-a 4060m.~laüom mund thesnuctureand lowmad-entslm . .oneinthru to
onein five),'allprotehumd crosion.

hm thepointofviewofthehazsrdtoshiw..e.-thema.ine-fthescobstaclesand
thenexibdityof theirsiiig variesacmrding totheoptionch-.bu!nopmject
mmvletely avoidsthembeinelocaud ina mainshi.. - lane.Thercfm. foral1
the& options. measures mwi be taken to maintain the freedom and safety of
sh..in- during survevinn. mnsmiction wd and (with m-ad ro the fd
S~UCNTtC h)e0&ratùigph-&e.
Itwouldofmurse betherrsransibility ofFranccandtheUnitedKinndotodraw
~~thesepmvisionsbutoth&counuie~shouldben>nsultedihroughtheappropnale
internationalauthoritiesto dunonsuate that thenahüof mpassane will be
- . -
rspstcd and shippingsafetymaintaimd"2
Ihc pmblems associatedwithbridges.immmcd ~ks andother compositeoptions an
summarisedin thesecondReportas foUows:-
'Torbridges.immened ~besandthecompositeoptions,pmvisionsformaintain-
ingthe&ty and fretdomof shippingmut be &am up and approved by the

inumatiaialoganizaoonsonccsaidyo isstffcmjrlyadvancedThm
isnoguarantetehattheoume of suchnego&tions wouldk favo~rable.~

'Proposakfora FiredChonnrlUnk(JointRcpoby BritishaFmh OfiiFiaprrscnt tod
BritisandFmnchMinislusofTninsponinJuly1963)Cmnd 2137(hx 58 tothiMemmi-
al)atp 13.

'FuedChadUnk Rcponof UKlFrcnrS~dy Grwp (Jw. 1982):Comnd 8561 (Amx 83
IoLhiManonal).Thc cilaioirfmn ~ h ¶ 4.1and4.13. 557.Finlandis ofwuse awarethatno directmmuarimncan be madebeween the
pmposalforahigh-levclmadbridamssthe EnglishChannelandtheproposalforahigh-
levelroadbridgeaaoss theeasternchanneloftheGreatBell Fiand isqualiy awarelhat
theevcnnialktsion ofthe FrenchBritishGovemmentsforafued ChannelIinkwas
m mnsmct a boredradwayaimiel.whkhraisednoneofUKdificu1Uesidenfificdinthe
1963and1982~e~onsof&curingthewncmnce orapment oftheStatespruicipally
mnŒmedwithnavigationintheChannelandüiroughtheDoverSuait Whaishowevu.
of relevana in the&nt wnut isthemenition by boththeFrenchand British
Govenunentsofther;Œdt&UR thehe'vcm&ntof &user .Statestoaprojen(such
asabridmmien) which wouldhaveasienificantimpactuwn thesafetyandfrredomof
. .
shippingininahroughthe~ovw~uai~-
558.Finlandhassofarwncenwtedondemonsnatin gslhtaepawtothemesent
casebcforetheCoun.she is neithu esioppcdhm Challengthe&mpatibilib with
intemalionallawofthecmi Danishpmjectforestablishingafixcdwfic linkaaoss the
casternchanneloftheGreatBelthassheaauiesced inth..moi.sotarasitinvolves
theansmictionof ahi&-le&Ïbndgev&hacl&ce of65mem. Butitwiübeapparent
totheCounthat thesubstantiveissuewhtheCoun hastodecideinthepmt case.
namely,thescopeof therightopassagthroughan intemationalsnai~is a matlcrof
mncem toaimaritimeStat-indeedtotheinternatil mmunitvasawhole.Finland
doesnotofmursetaketheextremepositionlhatnoStateisentitledrownsnuclabridge

mss aninternationalnaiçbutitdocstakethewsitionlhattheStatewishii tommct
ahigh-levclbridgeoveran&temationalsuaitwiüiaclentanccheightwhicidcnyd
r>assa~toships,includinndrillshipsandoilriasmanufacniredinotherStates.mus
tmnsult
kith.andob& theposibveagr&nent of,sudi States.parrjcularlywherenoaitcmativc
mode of.ass-gethr-ughthesuaiavailableorttemadeavailableforshirssodmied
passage.
559.FinlandwouldsummariseitsuositioMYnargumentlhatmightbeadvancedby
DenmarkalleginglhatFiandis ;stoppcd fr& ch&enging the &mpatibüitywilh
intemalionallawofthenirrentDanishpmja f~lhc~ctionofahighlevebridgeover
theeastan channeloftheGreatBdrwithaclearanceheightof65mems.orhasothmise

acquiesŒdinthaproj~ intheformof thefollowingsubmiiions:
1) Noncof thewndiuonsiduitiriedbyinimiationalcase-lawas Sig rcquisitefor an
amppcl existinthe pmcnt casInpaniculm.therhasksi no~pramtation or

tomnsmci a high-kvelbridgeovetheGreat%t wijiicbwouldinmfer' wi'thor
obsmicttherightofhcepassagethroughtheGreatBeltcmntly mpyed bymadiant
vesselsandothcrshimanufactu inFdinlan.ncludingdrill-sandoilrigsso
manufacmrc Fiand relis ithiwsntext on the essentialelcmentsof stoppcl
identifiedbytheChamberoftheCouninitsrocejudgmat of 13Septemba,1990
onNicaragua'suplicatitointervmeinthecasemneeming theLond,Islandand
Maririmei+onr;ii~is~urebeweeElSalvada and~ondk, bytheCounitsclfin

theNonh ScaContincnfalShrlfcaand bvtheChambmofthe Coim intheGdof
Moine andElemonica~ic&--. ruilandquaüy =lis onthawardof the&l;
arbiwtorinlhcT;mo arbiuatiohand onthedaiions ofthePermanentCounthe
htun GreenlandandScrbianhm cases.
2) Onthefaetsofthe-t~~~.~hasbcni~~)~~~hgfqui~abyF~aswuld
wmi theCoimin ucatingthefailm oFuila to&pond tothéDanishCiular
Notes of19n and 198asoraludine FuilanfrompursuingherAmlicatiotothe
Counand seekhgtherelielihmin 60uglnpanicuiar.ar&ds thC;iular Note
of 1977.itisdearthatLhebridgepmthm &amsrniclion waspostponcdinlhe summer of 1978 for anundefmd period. so that the time element required by
intemationalcasclawto suslain a of acquiemce is not metAs regardsIhe

CiularNoteof 1987.itiseauallyclearthatit wasnotsowordedastocall forareaction
hm Fiand indef&ce of ~innkhrighisandinteresu. inthiscontext,Finlandrelies
interdia(sofaras thetimeclementisconamcd) onthejudgmenisoftheCorn inthe
NomegianFishcries case.inthecaseoth erbiralAwardde by rhrKingOfSpain
on23Decembcr,1906 andinthe Templecase,andon thejudgmenisofChamber sf
theCoun in theCulfof Maincaseandthe ElerfronicaSicucase.
3) As theplea ofacquiemnΠmis uponconsiderationsof goodfaith andequily,it is
necesïwto takeintoaccountthecunductofboth~aniestothedimute.inthiscuntexl
Fiand iubmiisthatthefailurcof Denmark.priir tothe issuancioihire~anish
CircularNoteof 24Oclober.1989.10notifyforeim missionsof Denmark'sdecision

(alreadfakeninNovemkr, 1988)looptf& ahi&-lcvelbridgerakr thantunnerlo
canydIafficovertheeastmcharuielof theGreatBeltmus1betakenasdisentitlinn
~e&ark hm advancingapleaof acquiescence asagainstFinlandinrespectof the
1987CircularNote.
4) Dcnmarkmol pmperly rely upoiaciiconun! evidencai by aquicxrncr(thc
mnditionsforwhich no!inanyeventmetinthepresentcase)inrelationtoapmject
whch wouldinterim wih and.insomeUismces.physicallyobstrucitherightof free
passagethmugh ihcGrcarBeltofcaugoricsof shbs whichhavehithmo mjoycd or
cxercisedthatright PARTN

SUBMISSIONS 560. Havingregard IOtheconsidentionsof factandof lawdevelopedinthisMemoriai.

Finlandrevcarsthe submissions itmadein 16Ap..icationof 17 May1991andasks the
Couri to adjudgeanddeclare:
(a) Thatthereisa rightof freepassagethroughthe GreatBelt whichappliesto ail ships
enteringandleaving Finnishportsandshipyards;
(b) That this right extends to drill ships,rigs.other special ships and reasonably
foreseeableshios:
(c)?hattheconstru~~onofafixedlinkoverthe GreatBeltascurrentlyplannedbyDenmark

wouldbe incompatiblewith therighlof passage mentionedinsubparagraphs (a)and
(b)abve:
(d)ThatDenmarkandFinlandshouldstan neaotiationsin good faith,onhow theriahtof
ke passage,asset outinsubparagraphs 6) to (c)above,shallbeguaranrecd. -

2û December1991
TomGmnberg

Agentof theGovemment
of Fiiand 185

LISTOFMAPS AND ANNEXESMap 1: ?htBalticSea
Map 2: TheDanishSLraiis

Map 3: TheGreatBell
Map 4: 'lh+Sound
Map 5: Denmark'Ts erritorialSea

Map 6: DanishLicenceArea
Map 7: SedimmtaryBasinsinDenmark
Map 8: kûoleum Activit-SouthSwedm

Map 9: PeûoleumActivit-PolandandAdjacenAreas
Map10: PeûoleumActivity-U.S.S.R.BaltArea

1. Ankm Niswn,"RouteT. AMajor DanishWafmay".

2 Tmty knveaitheGovammnt ofS& andtheGovmmimt ofDarmark of23
March1991wncanhg aFucd Linkovcr theSound
3. inmnatinial MaritimeOrganiration,ResolutionA.339W)

4. UndakeelClcanuice(UKC)
5. intunationalMaritimeûrphtion.ResolutionA.6%15)
6. Article195otheTmty ofRaa berwanthe Mi andAmciatcd Powcrsand
ûemmy. SinncdatVasaülcs28 June1919
- -
7. ReponhumtheNordicSeniorOf'cialsCmup assigmdtosmdy theRemquisites
foraNuclcar-Weapon-FmZme i theNordiAm. Uarch1991
8. OrderNo.437of 21Deambn 1%6on theDelimitationoftheTenitorialSca
(Denmark)

9. Dcmnara kndSwcàen.Dslaratiocondg theBoundaricsoftheSund,signed
aiStockholm.Januw 30,1932.anExchans ofNom rrlatingthmm ofrlisame

10.Tmty fortheRcdcmptionoftheSoundDua. Copnihagcn14Mmh 1857.
OnginalFrmchTex1andlis UnofficialTranslation

11.Ruls ofNeuuaiityEstablishedthRoyalïkcrŒ of20Darmber 1912
(Denmark)
12.VicwsoftheGovcmmentof Denmir okPoiit IoftheBavs of Discussionfor the
Confmnce fortheCodificationofInmational Law

13.RoyalOrderNo.209.31 May1938.wnccmingCataui NeuuaiityRegulatinis
(Denmark)
14.OrderNo.356ofî5 July 195rrspenintheAdmiiion ofForeignWarshipsand
MiitaryAycrafIODanishTenitoryiTunc of Pace (Daunark)

15.Onhance of27Fe* 1976govming theAdmission ofForeignWmhips and
MilitaryAkml m DanishTenitoryinTimeofF'eac@aunark)16.BalticMarineEnvimunentRotectionCommiss-oHelsinkiCommission,
Siaumai1submincdbyFid on theMuence of PermanentRoadCmumtions
am theDanwhSoundson theBalticEnvnmmirnl,9-13Septanber 1991
17.internationalMaritimeOqmhlioAnnu Va>ResolutionA37500

18.iilusuationofthePlanforaFixcdLinkovcrthe Sound
19.Thw StatcmcntsbthLegalAdvisertthcDanishMinistryofFmig Affairs.
MI.Max S8raism,regardiRogblms of intcmationalLawrclatcdtotheFucd
--- ovu thGreatBel1

20. Hishpcrial Majeny'sGranousOrdinana22January185910Inùoducea
RovisionalLcwIOBeColled inRcs~ectofGoodsEnIer-F,iniandinLieuof
theRepealcd~&itTanff
21. ActNo.414of 13Junc 1973ontheConmuetionofaBridgeamss theGrratBell

22.DanishCiar Nou of 12May1977
23.NoreVerbaleof29Wh 1978fmm theEmbarsyoftheUnionof SovietSocialit
RcpublicsIolheDaniMiny ofMign Affairs
24. NoreVerhaleof6 Decmiber19tïumthEmbassy ofPoland1theDanish

MniisUoyfForeignAnairs
25. Tut ofa BrochureoftheGrratBdt RojM CSt&lt")
26.IhePubliW& Aa foraFuedLinkanos SsmbaAi, Aa No.380ofJunc10.
1987

27.DanishCiar Noteof30June1987
28.intanationalMaritûrganhion, Routcingof Ships.ConmuetionFia
TranicLinkacmssthGreatBell,Nou by Dmmk

29.66thSessionothcCouncilftheinternationalMaritimeûrgmhtion. Ruvisional
Simunary~oftheFmandSccondMŒting.lOJvnc1991
30. DeOsionAdoptcdbthcGuncil othein&d Maritimeûrganhtion at 16
66thScssiono10Junc1991
31.Offsho DriaSrnicesOffsho MrebileRigSiLI hafSurvey.RouteUscdby

Offsho MrebileRip. Ovahadûbsmictionr
32. NoblDentonReport,heGm BeltCase
33. Questionnairedatcd4OMk1991fromtheMinistryforForcignAffairsof
FinlandtotheTugCompanieandReplia themo

34. ihafI ConventioOffaho i ebiCran withTworclaicdRepas
35. MajorDrill-ripi0ffshm Smcm TowMd by Bug& Tup

36.Qustionnaitcdatcd4 Oembcr19fromtheMiw foForcim Affairsof
Finland,forwardIOCoastai mlsof LmponuitIntÜnational.byFinnish
Embassies.withRepliesRseivcd ïkcunbc r991
37.Caldation of ExwCmtsforDclivay ofSanisubnaaible duetoG&IIt
Bridge.CaleulaiedaccorIORiccLevelaitbBegunungof 1991

38. EK~Tie NeededforDisas~miblyandReasmbly ofDmick andMing
Sysm ofaSanisubmaaibleOutsideMantyluoto
39. Caldation of ExwComforDclivay Jack- upgduetoGm Bdt Bridge.
Caldatcd acmrdui10hm Levd aithBegmnuigof 1991

40. ExnaTimeNeededforLegAsscmblyofaJack-upOutsideMantyluoto41. Lenerof3 October1991fmmFriede & GoldmanLldIoRauma-Repola
Offshoreoy
42. Dataon Some ExistingPassengerVesselsandFemes

43. Micoperi7000ltalyandMcDennonDB50USACraneShipsPlonedagainsta
Bridgeat theHeightof 65Mems
44. DimensionsofanOcean-goingResonCmiserfor5.000Passengm (Design)
45. FloatingHotelbyHitachiZoscn

46. Depth.Heigbt,DraughtandAirDraughtofa Ship
47. ïiteoreticalBackgmundfortheChoiceof the MainDimensionsfor aVessel

48. PaswngerVesselsBuilt oronOrderatMasa-Yards (November 1990)
49. Dimensions ofTurkuShipyard'600 TonneCapacilyGantryCrane

50. TwoDesignsfor FutureCmiseL'mers(Kv;emerMasa-Yards)
51. Rauma-Repla OffshoreDeliveries
52. DeepWater Harboura1Tahkoluoto.Pori

53. BuildingofJack-upRigsbyRauma-Repola inMatyluoto
54. Lenerof8November1991fromMarathonLeToumeauMarineCompanyto
Rauma-Repla
55. CalculationoExw Cosu forDeliveryofSrnisubmersibleduetoRemovalof

Thnistem,CalculatedacconiingIoPnce LevelinSeptmiter 1991
56. Exw TimeNeededforDisassemblyandReassemblyofThnisten ofa
SemisubmmibleOutsideMalyluoto

57. ErectSeaTransponationsofCranesPerfonnedbyKone Oy
58. Jointslaration bythe GovemmentoftheUnitcdKigdom ofGreatBritainand
Northernlrelandand theGovernmentofthe FrenchRepubli2November1988
59. Proposaisfor aFixedChannelLink

60. Laer of 18July 1989fromtheFinnishEmbassyinCopenhagento theDanish
BoardofNavigation(SBfmstyrelsen)
61. Lenerhm theDanishMiisûy of ForeignAffairs W the FinnishEmbassyin
Copenhagenof29 August1989

62. Lenerof6 Octobcr1989hm theDanishEmbassyinHelsinkitotheFinnish
MinisûyforForeign Affairs
63. DanishCircularNoteof24OcIober1989

64. FinnishNoreVerbaleof 19June 1990
65. DanishNoleVerboleof 11July 1990

66. Finish Norecrbale of7 SepIernter1990
67. DanishNoreVerboleof2 October 1990
68.FinnishNoreVerbaleof 5Novemter 1990

69.Lenerhm theFinnish MinisterforForeignTrade,Mt.Pemi Salolainen,of9
Novemter 1990to theDanish Ministerof Industry,Ms.AnneBirgineLundholt
70. LenerfmmtheRime MinisterofFinland.Mr.HarriHolkeri.of6Febmary1991 to
theRime Miister ofDenmarkM . r. PoulSchlüter

71. LenerfmmthePrimeMinisterofDenmark,Mr.PoulSchlüter,of 20Febmary1991
tothe PrimeMinister ofinlandMr. Harri Holkeri72. ReponoftheFinnish-DanishTechnicalWorkingGmup
73. TwoSiaremenuby MI. S0rwism(DenmarkU )nitedNationsConfcrenceon the
Lawofthe Sea .1958.

74. SiatcmcntbyAmbassadorFergo(DcnmarkT )h.ud UnitcdNationsConferenceon
theLawoftheSea.Second Session.PlmaryMeeting,33rdMeeting -9July 1974
75. Sbtcmeni byAmbassador Fcrgo(DenmarkT).hud UnitedNationsConferniceon
theLaw oftheSca. Second Session. Secdomrnince.Ilth Meeti-g. 22July
1974
76. SlatementbMr. Briiclmer(DenmarkW)ird UnitedNations Conferenonthe

Lawofthe SeaUeventhSession,PlenaryMeeting.163rdMeeting-31Mmh
1982
77.SiaiementbyMI. Mellbin(DenmarkT )hud UnitedNauonsconferenccontheLaw
oftheSea,ResumedNinthSession.Plcnw Meeiing.138thMeeting -26August

78. UnionofSovietSaialist Republ-cUnitedStatesofAmerica,JointStatement
withAttachedUniformlntemtation ofRulesof internationalLaweovernine
-
InnocentPassage.Doneai~kksonHole,Wyoming.23Seplember1989
79. Anicles19and21oftheUnited Nations Conventinn theLaw ofSea
80. Definitionsof"Ship"and "Vessel"in internationalTreaties

81. Exlracuhm NationalLegislationregarditheDefinitionof "Ship"and'Vssel"
82. insuranceofDrillingVesselsandMobileDrillingRigs
83. Fked ChannelLink.Reponof Wrench SmdyGmup