Judgment of 17 December 2002

Document Number
102-20021217-JUD-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASE CONCERNING SOVEREIGNTY

OVER PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN

(INDONESIAIMALAYSIA)

COLR INTERNATlONDEJUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRETS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE RELATIVE À LA SOUVERAINETÉ

SUR PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN

(INDONÉSIEIMALAISIE)PRlNTEDIN THE NETHERLANDS

ISSN 0074-4441

ISBN 92-1-070964-0 Official cit:tion
Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (IndonesialMalaysia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 625 4,''

Mode officiel de citation:
Souverainetésur Pulau Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan (ZndonésielMalaisie),
arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 625

Salenumber
ISSN 0074-4441 Node vente: 858 1
ISBN 92-1-070964-0 17DECEMBER2002

JUDGMENT

SOVEREIGNTYOVERPULAU LIGITAN
AND PULAU SIPADAN

(INDONESINMALAYSIA)

SOUVERAINETÉSUR PULAU LIGITAN
ET PULAU SIPADAN INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

2002 YEAR 2002
17 December
General List
No. 102 17 December2002

CASE CONCERNING SOVEREIGNTY OVER

PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN

(INDONESIAIMALAYSIA)

Geographicalcontext - Historical background- Bases onwhichthe Parties
found tlieir claims to the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan.

Conventional title asserted by Indonesia (1891 Convention between Great
Britain and the Netherlands}.
Indonesia's argumentthat the 1891 Convention established the4" 10' north
parallel of latitude as the dividing line between the respective possessions of

Great Britain and the Netherlands in the area of the disputed islands and that
those islands thereforebelong to it as successor to the Netherlands.

Disagreement of the Parties on the interpretation tu be given to Article IV of
the 1891 Convention - Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on theLaw
of Treaties reflect international customary law on the subject.
Text of Article IV of the 1891 Convention - Clause providing "From
4' 10'north latitude on the east Coastthe boundary-lineshall be continuedeast-
wardalong that parallel, across the Island of Sebittik ..".- Ambiguity of the
terms "shall be continued" and "across" - Ambiguity which couldhave been
avoided had the Convention expressfy st@u/ated that the 4"10' norrhparallel

constitured the line separating the islands under British sovereigntyfrom those
under Dlttck sovereignty - Ordinary meaning ofthe term "boundary".

Context of the 1891 Convention - Explanatory Memorandum appended to
the draft Law submitted to the Netherlands States-General with a view to rati-
fication of the Convention - Map appended to the Memorandum shows a red
line conlinuing out to sea along the 4"10'northparallel - Line cannot be con-
sidered to have beenextended in order to settle any dispute in the watersbeyond
Sebatik - Explanatory Memoranditm and map never transmitted by the Dutch
Government to the British Government but simplyforwardedto the latter by ifsdiplomatic agent in The Hague - Lack of reaction by the British Governnient
to tlie line cannot be deemed to constitute acquiescence.

Object and purpose of tlie Convention - Delimitation solely of the parties'
possessions within the island of Borneo.
Article IV of the Convention, when read incontext and in the light of the
Convention'sobject andpurpose, cannot be interpreted as establishing an allo-

cation litle determinittg sovereignty over the islands out to sea, to the east of
Sebatik.
Recourse to suppletnentarymeans of interpretation in order to seek apossible
confirmation of the Court's interpretation of the text of the Convention -
Neither travaux préparatoires of the Convention nor circumstances of its con-
clusionsupport the position of Indonesia.
Subsequentpractice of theparties - 1915 Agreement between Great Britain
and the lvetherlands concerningthe boundary between the State of North Bor-
neo and the Dutch possessions on Borneo reinforcesthe Court's interpretation

of the 1891 Convetition - Court cannot draw any conclusionfrom the other
documents cited.
Maps produced by tlie Parties - With the exception of the map annexed to
tlie 1915 Agreement, cartographicmaterial inconclusive in respectof the inter-
prefatiotaof Article IV.
Court ultimately cornes to the conclusion that Article IV determines the
boundarybetween the two Parties i~pto the eastern extremity of Sebatik Island
and does not establisli any allocation linefurther eastivards.

Question whetherZndonesiaor Malaysia obtainedtitle to Ligitan and Sipadan
by succession.
Indonesia's argument that it was sltccessor to the Sultan of Bulungan, the
original title-holder to the disputed islands, throughcontracts whichstated that
the Sultanate as described in the contracts formed part of the Netherlands
Indies -- Indonesia's contention cannotbe accepted.
Disputed islands not mentioned by name in any of the international legal
instruments cited - Islands not included inthe 1878 grant by which the Sultan

of Sulu ceded al1 his rights and powers over his possessions in Borneoto
Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck - Court observesthat, while the Parties
both maintain that Ligitan and Sipadan werenot terrae nullius during theperiod
in question inthe present case,they do so on the basis of diametrically opposed
reasoning,each of them claiming to hold title to those islands.

Malaysia's argumentthat it was successorto the Sultan of Sulu, the original
title-holderto the disputed islands,further to a seriesof alleged transfers of that
title to Spain, the United States, Great Britain on behalfof the State of North
Borneo, the United Kingdom, and Malaysia cannot be upheld.

Consideration of the effectivitésrelied on by the Parties.
Effectivités generally scarce in the case of very small islands which are
uninhabited or not permanently inhabited, like Ligitan and Sipadan - Courtprimarily to analyse the effectivitéswhichdatefrom theperiod before 1969, the

year in which the Parties assertedonflictingclaims to Ligitan and Sipada-
~Vatureof the activities to be taken into account by the Court in the present
case.
Effectivitésrelied on by Indones-a Activities wkich donot constituteacta
titre de souverain rejlectingthe intention and will to act in that capacity.
Effectivitésrelied on by Malaysi- Activities modest in nurnberbut diverse
in character,covering aconsiderableperiodof time and revealingan intention to
exercise State functions in respectof the trvoisl-ndNeither the Netherlands
nor Indonesia ever expressedifs disagreernentorprotest at the tinle when these
activities were carried ou- Malaysia has title to Ligitan and Sipadan on the
basis of the effectivitésthus mentioned

JUDGMENT

Present: President GUILLAUM ;EVice-President SHI; Judges ODA, RANJEVA,
HERCZEGH, FLEISCHHAUE KO,ROMA V,ERESHCHETH INI, GINSP,ARRA-
ARANGURESK , OOIJMANSR ,EZEK,AL-KHASAWNEH B,UERGENTHAL,
ELARABY;Jzidges ad hoc WEERAMANTRY F, ANCK; Registrar

COUVRECR.

In the case concerning sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan,

the Republic of Indonesia,

represented by
H.E. Mr. Hassan Wirajuda, Minister for Foreign Affairs,

as Agent;
H.E. Mr. Abdul Irsan, Ambassador of the Republic of Indonesia to the
Netherlands,

as Co-Agent;
Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University of Paris X-Nanterre, member
and former Chairman of the International Law Commission,
Mr. Alfred H. A. Soons, Professor of Public International Law, Utrecht Uni-
versity,
Sir Arthur Watts, K.C.M.G., Q.C., member of the English Bar, member of
the Institute of International Law,
Mr. Rodman R. Bundy, avocat a la cour d'appel de Paris, member of the
New York Bar, Frere CholmeleylEversheds, Pans,

Ms Loretta Malintoppi, avocat à la cour d'appel de Paris, rnember of the
Rome Bar, Frere Cholrneley/Eversheds, Paris,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Mr. Charles Claypoole, Solicitor of the Supreme Court of England and

Wales, Frere Cholrneley/Eversheds, Paris,
Mr. Mathias Forteau, Lecturer and Researcher at the University of Pans X- Nanterre, Researcher at the Centre de droit international de Nan-
terre (CEDIN), University of Paris X-Nanterre,

as Counsel;
Mr. Hasyim Saleh, Deputy Chief of Mission, Embassy of the Republic of
Indonesia, The Hague,
Mr. Rachmat Soedibyo, Director General for Oil & Natural Resources,
Department of Energy & Mining,

Major General S. N. Suwisma, Territorial Assistanceto Chief of Staff for
General Affairs, Indonesian Armed Forces Headquarters,

Mr. DonniIo Anwar, Director for International Treaties for Politics, Secunty
& Territorial Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Eddy Pratomo, Director for International Treaties for Economic, Social
& Cultural Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Bey M. Rana, Director for Territorial Defence,Department of Defence,

Mr. Suwarno, Director for BoundaryAffairs,Department of Interna1Affairs,
Mr. Subiyanto, Director for Exploration & Exploitation, Department of
Energy & Mining,
Mr. ,4. B. Lapian, Expert on Borneo History,
Mr. Kna Fahmi Pasaribu, Minister Counsellor,Embassy of the Republic of

Indonesia, The Hague,
Mr. Moenir An Soenanda, Minister Counsellor,Embassy of the Republic of
Indonesia, Pans,
Mr. Rachmat Budiman, Department of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Abdul Havied Achmad, Head of District, East Kalimantan Province,
Mr. Adam Mulawarman T., Department of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Ibnu Wahyutomo, Department of Foreign Affairs,
Capt. Wahyudi, Indonesian Armed Forces Headquarters,
Capt. Fanani Tedjakusuma, Indonesian Armed Forces Headquarters,

Croup Capt. Anef Budiman, Survey& Mapping, Indonesian Armed Forces
~ead~uarters,
Mr. Abdulkadir Jaelani, Second Secretary, Embassyof the Republic of Indo-
nesia, The Hague,

Mr. Daniel T. Simandjuntak, Third Secretary, Embassy of the Republic of
Indonesia, The Hague,
Mr. Soleman B. Ponto, Military Attaché,Ernbassyof the Republic of Indo-
nesia, The Hague,
Mr. Ishak Latuconsina, Member of the House of Representatives of the
Republic of Indonesia,
Mr. Amris Hasan, Member of the House of Representatives of the Republic
of lndonesia,

as Advisers;
Mr. Martin Pratt, International Boundaries Research Unit, University of
Durham,
Mr. Robert C. Rizzutti, Senior Mapping Specialist, International Mapping
Associates,
Mr. Thomas Frogh, Cartographer, International Mapping Associates,

as Technical Advisers, and

Malaysia
represented by

H.E. Mr. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad, Arnbassador-at-Large, Ministry
of Foreign Affairs,
as Agent ;

H.E. Dato' Noor Farida Ariffin, Ambassador of Malaysia to the Nether-
lands,
as Co-Agent;

Sir Elihu Lauterpacht, Q.C., C.B.E., Honorary Professor of International
Law, University of Cambridge, member of the Institute of International
Law,
Mr. Jean-Pierre Cot, Emeritus Professor, University ofParis 1 (Panthéon-
Sorbonne), Former Minister,
Mr. James Crawford, S.C., F.B.A., WhewellProfessor ofInternational Law,
University of Cambridge, member of the English and Australian Bars,
member of the Institute of International Law,
Mr. Nico Schrijver,Professorof International Law, Free University,Amster-

dam, and Institute of Social Studies, The Hague; mernber of the Perma-
nent Court of Arbitration,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Dato' Zaitun Zawiyah Puteh, Solicitor-General of Malaysia,

Mrs. Halima Hj. Nawab Khan, Senior Legal Officer,Sabah State Attorney-
General's Chambers,
Mr. Athmat Hassan, Legal Officer, Sabah State Attorney-General's
Chambers,
Mrs. Farahana Rabidin, Federal Counsel, Attorney-General's Chambers,
as Counsel;

Datuk Nik Mohd. Zain Hj. Nik Yusof, SecretaryGeneral, Ministry of Land
and Co-operative Development,
Datuk Jaafar Ismail, Director-General, National Security Division, Prime
Minister's Department,
H.E. Mr. Hussin Nayan, Ambassador, Under-Secretary, Territorial and
Maritime Affairs Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Ab. Rahim Hussin, Director, Maritime Security Policy, National Secu-
rity Division, Prime Minister'sDepartment,
Mr. Raja Aznam Nazrin, Principal Assistant Secretary,Territorial and Mari-
time Affairs Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Zulkifli Adnan, Counsellor of the Embassy of Malaysia in theNether-

lands,
Ms Haznah Md. Hashim, Assistant Secretary, Territorial and Maritime
Affairs Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Azfar Mohamad Mustafar, Assistant Secretary, Territorial and Mari-
time Affairs Division,Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
as Advisers;

Mr. Hasan Jamil, Director of Survey,Geodetic SurveyDivision, Department
of Survey and Mapping,630 PULAU LIG~TANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Mr. Tan Ah Bah, Principal Assistant Director of Survey, Boundary Affairs,
Department of Survey and Mapping,
Mr. Hasnan Hussin, Senior Technical Assistant,Boundary Affairs, Depart-
ment of Survey and Mapping,

as Technical Advisers,

THECOLIRT,
composed as above,

after deliberation,
delivers theJollowing Jltdgment:

1. Byjoint letter dated 30September 1998,filedin the Registry of the Court
on 2 November 1998,the Ministersfor Foreign Affairs ofthe Republic of Indo-
nesia (hereinafter "Indonesia") and of Malaysianotified to the Registrar a Spe-
cialAgreement between the twoStates,signedat Kuala Lumpur on 31May 1997
and having entered into force on 14 May 1998,the date of the exchange of
instruments of ratification.
2. The text of the Special Agreement readsas follows:

"The Government of the Republic of Indonesia and the Government of
Malaysia, hereinafter referred to as 'the Parties';
Considering that a dispute has arisen between them regarding sover-
eignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan;

Desiring that this dispute should be settled in the spirit of fnendly rela-
tions existing between the Parties as enunciated in the 1976 Treaty of
Amity and Co-operation in Southeast Asia; and
Desiring further, that this dispute should be settled by the International
Courl. of Justice (the Court),

Have agreed as follows:
Article 1

Submission of Dispute
The Parties agree to submit the dispute to the Court under the terms of
Article 36, paragraph 1, of its Statute.

Article 2
Subject of the Litigation

The Court is requested to determine on the basis of the treaties, agree-
ments and any other evidence furnished by the Parties, whether sover-
eignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan belongs to the Republic of
Indonesia or to Malaysia.

Article 3
Procedure
1. Subject to the time-limits referred to inparagraph 2 of this Article,

the proceedings shall consist of written pleadings and oral heanngs in
accordance with Article 43 of the Statute of the Court.
2. Without prejudice to any question as to the burden of proof and
havirig regard to Article 46 of the Rules of Court, the wntten pleadings
should consist of:631 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

(a) a Memorial presented simultaneously by each of the Parties not later
than 12months after the notification of this Special Agreement to the
Registry of the Court;
(b) a Counter-Memorial presented by each of the Parties not later than
4 months after the date on which each has received the certified copy

of the Memorial of the other Party;
(c) a Reply presented by each of the Parties not later than 4 months after
the date on whicheach has receivedthe certifiedcopy of the Counter-
Memorial of the other Party; and
(d) a Rejoinder, if the Parties so agree or if the Court decidesex officioor
at the request of one of the Parties that this part of the proceedings is
necessary and the Court authonzes or prescribes the presentation of a
Rejoinder.

3. The above-mentioned written pleadings and their annexes presented
to the Registrar will not be transmitted to the other Party until the
Registrar has received the part of the written pleadings corresponding to
the said Party.
4. The question of the order of speaking at the oral hearings shall be
decided by mutual agreement between theParties or, in the absence of that
agreement, by the Court. In al1 cases, however, the order of speaking
adopted shall be without prejudice to any question regarding the burden of
proof.

Article 4
Applicable Law

The principles and rules of international law applicable to the dispute
shall be those recognized in the provisions of Article 38 of the Statute of
the Court.

Article 5
Judgrnent of the Court
The Parties agree to accept the Judgrnent of the Court given pursuant to
this Special Agreement as final and binding upon them.

Article 6

Entry into Force
1. This Agreement shall enter into force upon the exchange of instru-
ments of ratification. The date of exchange of the said instruments shall be
determined through diplomatic channels.
2. This Agreement shall be registered with theSecretariat of the United
Nations pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations,
jointly or by either of the Parties.

Article 7
Notification

In accordance with Article 40 of the Statute of the Court, this Special
Agreement shall be notified to the Registrar of the Court by a joint letter
from the Parties as soon as possible after it has entered into force.

In witness whereof the undersigned, being duly authorized thereto by
their respectiveGovernments, have signed the present Agreement." 3. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court, copies of
the joint notification and of the Special Agreement were transmitted by the
Registrar to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the Members of the

United Nations and other States entitled to appear before the Court.
4. By an Order dated 10 November 1998, the Court, having regard to the
provisions of the Special Agreement concerning the written pleadings, fixed
2 November 1999 and 2 March 2000 as the respective time-limits for the filing
by each of the Parties of a Memonal and then a Counter-Mernorial. The
Memorials were filed within the prescribed time-limit. By joint letter of
18 Augusl. 1999, the Parties asked the Court to extend to 2 July 2000 the time-
limit for the filing of their Counter-Memorials. By an Order dated 14 Septem-
ber 1999, the Court agreed to that request. Byjoint letter of 8 May 2000, the
Parties asked the Court for a further extension of one month to the time-limit
for the filing of their Counter-Memorials. By Order of 11 May 2000, the Presi-
dent of the Court also agreed to that request. The Parties' Counter-Memonals
were filed within the time-limit as thus extended.

5. Under the terms of the Special Agreement, the two Parties were to file a
Reply not later than four months after the date on which each had received the
certified copy of the Counter-Memorial of the other Party. Byjoint letter dated
14October 2000, the Parties asked the Court to extend this time-limit by three
months. By an Order dated 19 October 2000, the President of the Court fixed
2 March ,2001as the time-limit for the filing by each of the Parties of a Reply.
The Replies were filed within the prescnbed time-limit. In view of the fact that
the Special Agreement provided for the possible filing of a fourth pleading by
each of the Parties, the latter informed the Court by joint letter of 28 March
2001 that they did not wish to produce any further pleadings. Nor did the
Court itself ask for such pleadings.
6. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferred by

Article 32, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad lzoc to sit in the
case: Indonesia chose Mr. Mohamed Shahabuddeen and Malaysia Mr. Chns-
topher Gregory Weeramantry.
7. Mr. Shahabuddeen, judge ad hoc, having resigned from that function on
20 March 2001, Indonesia informed the Court, by letter received in the Regis-
try on 17 May 2001, that its Government had chosen Mr. Thomas Franck to
replace him.
8. On 13March 2001, the Republic of the Philippines filed in the Registry of
the Court an Application for permission to intervene in the case, invoking Ar-
ticle2 of the Statute of the Court. By a Judgment rendered on 23 October 2001,
the Court found that the Application of the Philippines could not be granted.
9. Dunng a meeting which the President of the Court held on 6 March 2002
with the Agents of the Parties, in accordance with Article 31 of the Rules of
Court, the Agents made known the views of their Governments with regard to

vanous aspects relating to the organization of the oral proceedings. In particu-
lar, they stated that the Parties had agreed to suggest to the Court that Indo-
nesia should present its oral arguments first, it being understood that this in no
way implied that Indonesia could be considered the applicant State or Malaysia
the respondent State,nor would it have any effect on questions concerning the
burden of proof.
Further to this meeting, the Court, taking account of the views of the Parties,
fixed Monday 3 June 2002, at 10 a.m., as the date for the opening of the hear-ings, and set a timetable for them. Byletters dated 7 March 2002, the Registrar
informed the Agents of the Parties accordingly.
10. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court,
after ascertaining the viewsof the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings

and documents annexed would be made accessibleto the public on the opening
of the oral proceedings.
11. Public hearings were held from 3 to 12 June 2002, at which the Court
heard the oral arguments and replies of:
For Indonesia: H.E. Mr. Hassan Wirajuda,
Sir Arthur Watts,
Mr. Alfred H. A. Soons,
Mr. Alain Pellet,
Mr. Rodman R. Bundy,

Ms Loretta Malintoppi.
For Malaysia: H.E. Mr. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad,
H.E. Dato' Noor Fanda Ariffin,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht,
Mr. Nico Schrijver,
Mr. James Crawford,
Mr. Jean-Pierre Cot.

12. In the course of the written proceedings, the following submissions were
presented by the Parties:

On bellaif of the Goverrinientof Indonesia,
in the Memorial, Counter-Memorial and Reply:
"On the basis of the considerations set out in this [Reply], theGovern-
ment of the Republic of Indonesia requests the Court to adjudge and

declare that :
(a) sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan belongs to the Republic of Indo-
nesia; and
(6) sovereignty over Pulau Sipadan belongs to the Republic of Indo-
nesia."

On behaif of the Governmentof Malaysia.
in the Memorial, Counter-Memorial and Reply:

"In the light of the considerations set out above, Malaysia respectfully
requests the Court to adjudge and declare that sovereignty over Pulau
Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan belongs to Malaysia."
13. At the oral proceedings, the following subrnissions were presented by the
Parties:

On behaif of the Governmentof Indonesia,
"On the basis of the facts and legal considerations presented in Indo-
nesia's written pleadingsand in its oral presentation, the Government of
the Republic of Indonesia respectfully requeststhe Court to adjudge and
declare that:

(i) sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan belongsto the Republic of Indonesia;
and634 PULAU LICITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

(ii) sovereignty over Pulau Sipadan belongs to the Republic of Indo-
nesia."

On behalfof the Governnientof Malaysia,
"The Governrnentof MalaysiarespectfullyrequeststheCourt to adjudge
and declarethat sovereignty over PulauLigitanand Pulau Sipadanbelongs
toblalaysia."
* * *

14. The islands of Ligitan and Sipadan (Pulau Ligitan and Pulau
Sipadan) are both located in the Celebes Sea, off the north-east coast of
the island of Borneo, and lie approximately 15.5nautical miles apart (see /
below, pp. 635 and 636, sketch-maps Nos. 1 and 2).
Ligitan is a very small island lying at the southern extremity of a large
star-shaped reef extending southwards from the islands of Danawan and
Si Amil. Its CO-ordinatesare 4'09' latitude north and 118'53' longitude
east. The island is situated some 21 nautical miles from Tanjung Tutop,
on the Semporna Peninsula, the nearest area on Borneo. Permanently
above sea level and mostly sand, Ligitan is an island with low-lying
vegetation and some trees. It is not permanently inhabited.

Although bigger than Ligitan, Sipadan is also a small island, having an
area of approximately 0.13 sq. km. Its CO-ordinates are 4' 06' latitude
north and 118"37' longitude east. It is situated some 15 nautical miles
from Tanjung Tutop, and 42 nautical miles from the east coast of the
island of Sebatik. Sipadan is a densely wooded island of volcanic origin
and the top of a submarine mountain some 600 to 700 m in height,

around which a coral atoll has formed. It was not inhabited on a perma-
nent basis until the 1980s,when it was developed into a tourist resort for
scuba-diving.

15. The dispute between the Parties has a complex historical back-
ground, of which an overview will now be given by the Court.
In the sixteenth century Spain established itself in the Philippines and
sought to extend its influence to the islands lying further to the south.
Towards the end of the sixteenth century it began to exercise its influence
over the Sultanate of Sulu.
On 23 September 1836Spain concluded Capitulations of peace, protec-
tion and commerce with the Sultan of Sulu. In these Capitulations, Spain
guaranteed its protection to the Sultan

"in any of the islands situated within the limits of the Spanishjuris-
diction, and which extend from the western point of Mindanao
(hlagindanao) to Borneo and Paragua (Palawan), with the exception
of Sandakan and the other territories tributary to the Sultan on the
island of Borneo". SKETCH-MN AP.1.GENERA GLEOGRAPIIICSATLTING
(N.B. This sketch-map hasbeenpreparedfor illustrative-urposesonly.)
11,6^ 120" 124' 12s. 132" 136" 140"

PhilippiSea
SuluSea

4"IO

Republicof the Philippines

BruneiDarussalam636 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)637 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

On 19 April 185 1,Spain and the Sultan of Sulu concluded an "Act of

Re-Submission" whereby the island of Sulu and its dependencies were
annexed by the Spanish Crown. That Act wasconfirmed on 22 July 1878
by a Protocol whereby the Sultan recognized "as beyond discussion the
sovereignty of Spain over al1the Archipelago of Sulu and the dependen-
cies thereof'.
16. For itspart, the Netherlands established itselfon the island of-
neo at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The Netherlands East
India Company, which possessed considerable commercial interests in
the region, exercised public rights in South-East Asia under a charter
granted to it in 1602 by the Netherlands United Provinces. Under the
Charter, the Company was authorized to "conclude conventions with
Princes and Powers" of the region in the name of the States-General of
the Netherlands. Those conventions mainly involved trade issues, but
they also provided for the acceptance of the Company's suzerainty or

even the cession to it by local sovereigns of1or part of their territories.

When the Netherlands East India Company established itself on Bor-
neo in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the influence of the Sul-
tan of Banjennasin extended over large portions of southern and eastern
Borneo. On the east Coast,the territory under the control of Banjermasin
included the "Kingdom of Berou", composed of three "States": Sam-
baliung. Gunungtabur and Bulungan. The Sultans of Brunei and Sulu
exercised their influence over the northern part of Borneo.

Upon the demise of the Netherlands East India Company at the end of
the eighteenth century, al1of its territorial possessions weretransferred to
the Netherlands United Provinces. During the Napoleonic wars, Great
Britain took control of the Dutch possessions in Asia. Pursuant to the

London Convention of 13 August 1814,the newly formed Kingdom of
the Netherlands recovered most of the former Dutch possessions.

17. A Contract was concluded by the Netherlands with the Sultan of
Banjermasin on 3 January 1817.Article 5 of this Contract provided for
intearjia the cession to the Netherlands of Berou ("Barrau") and of al1
its dependencies. On 13 September 1823,an addendum was concluded,
amending Article 5 of the 1817Contract.
On 4 May 1826a new Contract wasconcluded. Article 4 thereof recon-
firmed the cession to the Netherlands of Berou ("Barou") and of its
dependencies.
Over the following years, the three territories that formed theKing-
dom of Berou, Sambaliung,Gunungtabur and Bulungan, were separated.
By a Declaration of 27 September 1834,the Sultan of Bulungan submit-
ted directly to the authority of the Netherlands East Indies Government.

In 1844the three territories wereeach recognized by the Government of
the Netherlands as separate Kingdoms. Their chiefs were officially
accorded the title of Sultan.638 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

18. In 1850the Government of the Netherlands East Indies concluded

with the sultans of the three kingdoms "contracts of vassalage", under
which the territory of their respective kingdoms was granted to them as a
fief. The Contract concluded with the Sultan of Bulungan is dated
12 November 1850.
A description of the geographical area constituting the Sultanate of
Bulungan appeared for the first time in the Contract of 12 Novem-
ber 1850.Article 2 of that Contract described the territory of Bulungan
as follows:

"The territory of Boeloengan is located within the following
boundaries :
- nrithGoenoeng-Teboer fromtheseashorelandwards, the Karang-
tiegau River from its mouth up to its origin; in addition, the
Batoe Beokkier and Mount Palpakh;
- with the Sulu possessions: at sea the cape named Batoe Tinagat,
as well as the Tawau River.

The following islands shall belong to Boeloengan: Terakkan,
Nenoekkan and Sebittikh, with the small islands belonging thereto.
This delimitation is established provisionally, and shall be com-
pletely examined and determined again."

A new Contract of Vassalage was concluded on 2 June 1878. It was
approved and ratified by the Governor-General of the Netherlands East
Indies on 18October 1878.
Article2 of the 1878Contract of Vassalage described the territory of
Bulungan as follows: "The territory of the realm of Boeloengan is
deemed to be constituted by the lands and islands as described in the
statement annexed to this contract." The text of the statement annexed to
thecontract isvirtually identical to that of Article2 of the 1850Contract.
This statement was amended in 1893to bring it into line with the 1891
Convention betweenGreat Britain and the Netherlands (seeparagraph 23

below). The new statement provided that:
"The Islands of Tarakan and Nanoekan and that portion of the
Island of Sebitik, situated to the south of the above boundary-line,
described in the 'Indisch Staatsblad' of 1892, No. 114, belong to
Boeloengan, as well as the small islands belonging to the above
islands, so far as they are situated to the south of the

boundary-line .. ."
19. Great Britain, for its part, possessed commercial interests in the
area but had no established settlements on Borneo until the nineteenth
century. After the Anglo-Dutch Convention of 13August 1814,the com-
mercial and territorial claims of Great Britain and the Netherlands on

Borneo began to overlap.

On 17 March 1824Great Britain and the Netherlands signed a newTreaty in an attempt to settle their commercial and territorial disputes in
the region.
20. In 1877, the Sultan of Brunei made three separate instruments in

which he "granted" Mr. Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck a large
area of North Borneo. Since these grants included a portion of territory
along the north coast of Borneo which was also claimed by the Sultan of
Sulu, Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck decided to enter into an
agreement with the latter Sultan.
On 22 January 1878the Sultan of Sulu agreed to "grant and cede" to
Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck, as representatives of a British
company, al1his rights and powers over:

"al1 the territories and lands being tributary to [him] on the main-
land of the Island of Borneo, commencing from the Pandassan River
on the West coast to Maludu Bay, and extending along the whole
east coast as far as theibuco River in the south, comprising al1the
provinces bordering on Maludu Bay, also the States of Pietan,
Sugut, Bangaya, Labuk, Sandakan, Kinabatangan, Mamiang, and
al1the other territories and states to the southward thereof bordering
on Darvel Bay and as far as the Sibuco River, with al1the islands
belonging thereto within three marine leagues [9nautical miles] of
the coast".

On the same day, the Sultan of Sulu signed a commission whereby he
appointed Baron von Overbeck "Dato' Bëndahara and Rajah of
Sandakan" with "the fullest power of life and death" over al1the inhabi-
tants of the territories which had been granted to him and made him
master of "al1matters . ..and [of]the revenues or 'products' " belonging
to the Sultan in those territories. The Sultan of Sulu asked the "foreign
nations" with which he had concluded "friendly treaties and alliances"
to accept "the said Dato' Bëndahara as supreme ruler over the said
dominions".
Baron von Overbeck subsequently relinquished al1his rights and inter-

ests in the British company referred to above. Alfred Dent later applied
for a Royal Charter from the British Government to administer the ter-
ritory and exploit its resources. This Charter was granted in Novem-
ber 1881. In May 1882a chartered company was officially incorporated
under the name of the "British North Borneo Company" (hereinafter the
"BNBC").
The BNBC began at that time to extend its administration to certain
islands situated beyond the 3-marine-league limit referred to in the 1878
grant.
21. On II March 1877Spain, Germany and Great Britain concluded a
Protocol establishing free commerce and navigation in the Sulu (Jol6)
Sea with a view to settling a commercial dispute which had arisen
between them. Under this Protocol, Spain undertook to guarantee and
ensure the liberty of commerce, of fishing and of navigation for ships and
subjects of Great Britain, Germany and the other Powers in "the Archi-640 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

pelago of Sulu (Jolo) and in al1parts there[oflV,without prejudice to the
rights recognized to Spain in the Protocol.
On 7 March 1885Spain, Germany and Great Britain concluded a new
Protocol of which the first three articles read as follows:

"Arricle1

The Governments of Germany and Great Britain recognize the
sovereignty of Spain over the places effectivelyoccupied, as well as
over those places not yet so occupied, of the archipelago of Sulu
(Jolo), of which the boundaries are determined in Article 2.

Article 2
The Archipelago of Sulu (Jolo), conformably to the definition
contained in Article 1 of the Treaty signed the 23rd of September
1836, between the Spanish Government and the Sultan of Sulu
(Jolb), comprisesal1the islands whichare found between the western
extremity of the island of Mindanao, on the one side, and the con-

tinent of Borneo and the island of Paragua, on the other side, with
the exception of those which are indicated in Article 3.
It is understood that the islands of Balabac and of Cagayan-Jolo
form part of the Archipelago.
Article 3

The Spanish Government relinquishes as far as regards the British
Government, al1claim of sovereignty overthe territories of the con-
tinent of Borneo which belong, or which have belonged inthe past,
to the Sultan of Sulu(Job), including therein the neighboring islands
of Balambangan, Banguey and Malawali, as wellas al1those islands
lying within a zone of three marine leagues along the coasts and
which form part of the territories administered by the Company
styled the 'BritishNorth Borneo Company'."

22. On 12 May 1888the British Government entered into an Agree-
ment with the BNBC for the creation of the State of North Borneo. This
Agreement made North Borneo a British Protectorate, with the British
Government assuming responsibility for its foreign relations.
23. On 20 June 1891the Netherlands and Great Britain concluded a
Convention (hereinafter the "1891 Convention") for the purpose of
"defining the boundaries between the Netherland possessions in the
Island of Borneo and the States in that island which [were]under British
protection" (see paragraph 36 below).
24. At the end of the Spanish-American War, Spain ceded the Philip-

pine Archipelago (see paragraph 115 below) to the United States of
America (hereinafter the "United States") through the Treaty of Peace
of Paris of10 December 1898(hereinafter the "1898 Treaty of Peace").
Article 111of the Treaty defined the Archipelago by means of certain
lines. Under the Treaty of 7 November 1900 (hereinafter the "1900641 PULAU LICITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Treaty"), Spain ceded to the United States "al1islands belonging to the
Philippine Archipelago, lying outside the lines described in Article III"
of the 1898Treaty of Peace (see paragraph 115 below).
25. On 22 April 1903the Sultan of Sulu concluded a "Confirmation of
Cession" with the Government of British North Borneo, in which were
specified the names of a certain number of islands which were to be
treated as having been included in the original cession granted to

Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck in 1878.The islands mentioned
wereas follows: Muliangin, Muliangin Kechil, Malawali, Tegabu, Bilian,
Tegaypil, Lang Kayen, Boan, Lehiman, Bakungan, Bakungan Kechil,
Libaran, Taganack, Beguan, Mantanbuan, Gaya, Omadal, Si Amil,
Mabol, Kepalai and Dinawan. The instrument further provided that
"other islands near, or round, or lying between the said islands named
above" were included in the cession of 1878. All those islands were
situated beyond the 3-marine-league limit.
26. Following a visit in 1903bythe United StatesNavy vesse1USS Qui-
ros to the area of the islands disputed in the present proceedings, the
BNBC lodged protests with the Foreign Office,on the ground that some
of the islands visited, on which the US Navy had placed flagsand tablets,
were, according to the BNBC, under its authority. The question was
dealt with in particular in a memorandum dated 23 June 1906 from
Sir H. M. Durand, British Ambassador to the United States, to the
United States Secretary of State, with which a map showing "the limits
within which the [BNBC] desire[d]to carry on the administration" was

enclosed. Under an Exchange of Notes dated 3 and 10 July 1907, the
United States temporarily waivedthe right of administration in respect of
"al1the islands to the westward and southwestward of the line traced on
the map which accompanied Sir H. M. Durand's memorandum".

27. On 28 September 1915Great Britain and the Netherlands, acting
pursuant to Article V of the 1891 Convention, signed an Agreement
relatingto "the Boundary between the State of North Borneo and the
Netherland Possessions in Borneo" (hereinafter the "1915 Agreement"),
whereby the two States confirmed a report and accompanying map pre-
pared by a mixed commission setup for the purpose (see paragraphs 70,
71 and 72 below).
On 26 March 1928Great Britain and the Netherlands signed another
agreement (hereinafter the "1928 Agreement") pursuant to Article V of
the 1891Convention, for the purpose of "further delimiting part of the
frontier established in article III of the Convention signed at London on
the 20th June, 1891" ("between the summits of the Gunong Api and of

the Gunong Raya"); a map was attached to that agreement (see para-
graph 73 below).
28. On 2 January 1930the United States and Great Britain concluded
a Convention (hereinafter the "1930 Convention") "delimiting . ..the
boundary between the Philippine Archipelago . ..and the State of North
Borneo" (see paragraph 119 below). This Convention contained fivearticles, of which the firstand third are the most relevant for the purposes
of the present case. Article 1 defined the line separating the islands
which belonged to the Philippine Archipelago and those which belonged
to the State of North Borneo; Article III stipulated as follows:

"AI1islands to the north and east of the said line and al1islands
and rocks traversed by the said line, should there be any such, shall
belong to the PhilippineArchipelago and al1islands to the south and
Westof the said line shall belong to the State of North Borneo."

29. On 26 June 1946the BNBC entered into an agreement with the
British Government whereby the Company transferred its interests,
powers and rights in respect of the State of North Borneo to the
British Crown. The State of North Borneo then became a British colony.
30. On 9 July 1963the Federation of Malaya, the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, North Borneo, Sarawak and Singa-
pore concluded an Agreement relating to Malaysia. Under Article 1 of
this Agreement, which entered into force on 16 September 1963, the
colony of North Borneo was to be "federated with the existing States of
the Federation of Malaya as the [State] of Sabah".
31. After their independence, Indonesia and Malaysia began to grant

oil prospecting licencesin waters off the east coast of Borneo during the
1960s.The first oil licencegranted by Indonesia to a foreign company in
the relevant area took the form of a production sharing agreement con-
cluded on 6 October 1966between the Indonesian state-owned company
P. N. Pertambangan Minjak Nasional ("Permina") and the Japan Petro-
leum Exploration Company Limited ("Japex"). The northern boundary
of one of theareas covered by the agreement ran eastwards in a straight
line from the east coast of Sebatik Island, following the parallel4" 09'30"
latitude north for some27 nautical miles out to sea. In 1968Malaysia in
turn granted various oil prospecting licencesto Sabah Teiseki Oil Com-
pany ("Teiseki"). The southern boundary of the maritime concession
granted to Teiseki was located at 4" 10'30"latitude north.

The present dispute crystallized in 1969in the context of discussions
concerning the delimitation of the respective continental shelves of the

two States. Following those negotiations a delimitation agreement was
reached on 27 October 1969.It entered into force on 7 November 1969.
However, it did not cover the area lying to the east ofBorneo.
In October 1991the two Parties set up a joint working group to study
the situation of the islandsof Ligitan andipadan. They did not however
reach any agreement and the issue was entrusted to special emissaries of
the two Parties who, in June 1996, recommended by mutual agreement
that the dispute should be referred to the International Court of Justice.
The Special Agreement was signedon 31 May 1997. 32. Indonesia's claim to sovereignty over the islands of Ligitan and

Sipadan rests primarily on the 1891Convention between Great Britain
and the Netherlands. It also relies on a seriesof efîectivib toéh,Dutch
and Indonesian, which it claims confirm itsconventional title. At the oral
proceedings Indonesia further contended, by way of alternative argu-
ment, that if the Court were to reject its title based on the 1891Conven-
tion, itould still claim sovereignty over thedisputed islands as successor
to the Sultan of Bulungan, because he had possessed authority over the
islands.
33. For its part, Malaysia contends that it acquired sovereignty over
the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan followinga series of alleged transmis-
sions of the titleoriginally held by the former sovereign, the Sultan of
Sulu.Malaysia claims that the title subsequentlypassed, in succession,to
Spain, to the United States, to Great Britain on behalf of the State of
North Borneo, to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland, and finally to Malaysia itself. It argues that its title, based on this
series of legal instruments, is confirmed by a certain number of British
and Malaysian effectivi otversthe islands. It argues in the alternative
that, if the Court were to conclude that the disputed islands had ori-

ginally belonged to the Netherlands, its effectivi wtould in any event
have displaced any such Netherlands title.

34. As the Court has just noted, Indonesia's main claim is that sov-
ereignty over the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan belongs to it by virtue of
the 1891Convention. Indonesia maintains that "[tlhe Convention, by its
terms, its context, and its object and purpose, established the 4" 10'N
parallel of latitude as the dividing line between the Parties' respective
possessions in the area now in question". It Statesin this connection that
its position is not that "the 1891 Convention line was from the outset
intended also to be, or in effect was, a maritime boundary. . .east of
Sebatik island" but that "the line must be considered an allocation line:
land areas, including islands located to the north of 4"10' N latitude
were. . . considered to be British, and those lying to the south were
Dutch". As the disputed islands lie to the south of that parallel, "[ilt
therefore follows that under the Convention title to those islands vested

in the Netherlands, and now vests in Indonesia".

Indonesia contends that the two States parties to the 1891Convention
clearly assumed that they were the only actors in the area. It adds in this
regard that Spain had no title to the islandsin dispute and had shown no
interest in what was going on to the south of the Sulu Archipelago.

In Indonesia's view, the Convention did not involve territorial ces-
sions; rather, each party's intention was to recognize the other party's
title to territories on Borneo and islands lying "on that party'sside" of644 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

the line, and to relinquish any claim in respect ofem. According to Indo-
nesia, "both parties no doubt considered that [the] territories...on their
side of the agreed line were already theirs, rather than that they had
become theirs by virtue of a treaty cession". It maintains that in any case,

whatever mayhave beenthe position before 1891,the Convention between
the two colonial Powers is an indisputable title which takes precedence
over any other pre-existing title.

35. For its part, Malaysia considers that Indonesia's claim to Ligitan
and Sipadan finds no support in either the text of the 1891Convention or
in itstravaux préparatoires,or in any other document that may be used
to interpret the Convention. Malaysia points out that the 1891Conven-
tion, when seen as a whole, clearly shows that the parties sought to
clarify the boundary between their respective land possessions on the
islands of Borneo and Sebatik, since the line of delimitation stops at the
easternmost point of the latter island. It contends that "the ordinary and
natural interpretation of the Treaty, and relevant rules of law, plainly
refute" Indonesia's argument and adds that the ratification of the 1891
Convention and its implementation, notably through the 1915 Agree-
ment, do not support Indonesia's position.

Malaysia additionally argues that, even if the 1891 Convention were

construed so as to allocate possessions to the east ofSebatik, that alloca-
tion could not have any consequence in respectof islands which belonged
to Spain at the time. In Malaysia's view,Great Britain could not have
envisioned ceding to the Netherlands islands which lay beyond the
3-marine-league line referred to in the 1878 grant, a line said to have
been expressly recognized by Great Britain and Spain in the Protocol
of 1885.

36. On 20June 1891,the Netherlands and Great Britain signed a Con-
vention for the purpose of "defining the boundaries between the Nether-
land possessions in the Island of Borneo and the States in that island
which [were] under British protection". The Convention was drawn up in
Dutch and in English, the two texts being equally authentic. It consists of
eight articles. Articlestipulates that "[tlhe boundary between theNether-
land possessions in Borneo and those of the British-protected States in

the same island, shall start from4" 10'north latitude on the east coast of
Borneo". Article II, after stipulating "[tlhe boundary-line shall be con-
tinued westward", then describes the course of the first part of that line.
Article III describes the further westward course of the boundary line
from the point where Article 11stops and as far as Tandjong-Datoe, on
theWestcoast of Borneo. Article V provides that "[tlhe exact positions of
the boundary-line, as described in the four preceding Articles, shall be645 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

determined hereafter by mutual agreement, at such times as the Nether-
land and the British Governments may think fit". Article VI guarantees
the parties free navigation on al1 rivers flowing into the sea between
Batoe-Tinagat and the River Siboekoe. Article VI1 grants certain rights
to the population of the Sultanate of Bulungan to the north of the
boundary. Lastly, Article VI11 stipulates the conditions in which the
Convention would come into force.
Indonesia relies essentially on Article IV of the 1891 Convention in
support of itsclaim to the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan. That provision
reads as follows:

"From 4" 10'north latitude on the east Coast the boundary-line
shall be continued eastward along that parallel, across the Island of
Sebittik: that portion of theisland situated to the north of that par-
allel shall belong unreservedly to the British North Borneo Com-
pany, and the portion south of that parallel to the Netherlands."

The Parties disagree over the interpretation to be given to that provision.

37. The Court notes that Indonesia is not a party to the Vienna Con-
vention of 23 May 1969on the Law of Treaties; the Court would never-
theless recall that, in accordance with customary international law,
reflected in Articles1 and 32 of that Convention:

"a treaty must be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the
ordinary meaning to be given to its terms in their context and in the
light of its object and purpose. Interpretation must be based above
al1upon the text of the treaty. As a supplementary measure recourse
may be had to means of interpretation such as the preparatory work
of the treaty and the circumstances of its conclusion." (Territorial
Dispute (Libyan Arab JamahiriyalChad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1994, pp. 21-22, para. 41 ;see also Maritime Delimitation and Ter-
ritorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain),
Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 18,
para. 33; Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States
of' America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I. C.J. Reports
1596 (II), p. 812, para. 23 ;KasikililSedudu Island (Botswana1
Namibia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1059, para. 18.)

Moreover, with respect to Article 31, paragraph 3, the Court has had
occasion to state that this provision alsoreflectscustomary law, stipulat-
ing that there shall be taken into account, together with the context, the
subsequent conduct of the parties to the treaty, Le., "any subsequent
agreement" (subpara. (a)) and "any subsequent practice" (subpara. (b))
(see in particular Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in646 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Armed Confiict, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 75,
para. 19; KasikililSedudu Island (BotsrvanalNamibia), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1999 (II), p. 1075,para. 48).
Indonesia does not dispute that these are the applicable rules. Nor is
the applicability of the rule contained in Article 31, paragraph 2, con-
tested by the Parties.
38. The Court willnow proceed to the interpretation of Article IV of
the 1891 Convention in the light of these rules.

39. With respect to the terms of Article IV, Indonesia maintains that

this Article contains nothing to suggest that the line stops at the east
coast of Sebatik Island. On the contrary, it contends that "the stipula-
tion that the line was to be 'continued' eastward along the prescribed
paraIlel[, across the island of Sebatik,] requires a prolongation of the
line so far as was necessary to achieve the Convention's purposes". In
this respect, Indonesia points out that had the parties to the Convention
intended not to draw an allocation line out to sea to the east of Sebatik
(see paragraph 34 above) but to end the line at a point on the coast,
they would have stipulated this expressly, as was the case in Article III.

Moreover, Indonesia notes a difference in punctuation between the
Dutch and English texts of Article IV ofthe Convention, both texts being
authentic (see paragraph 36 above), and bases itself on the English text,
which reads as follows:

"From 4"10'north latitude on the east coast the boundary-line
shall be continued eastward along that parallel, across the Island of
Sebittik: that portion of the island situated to the north of thatar-
allel shall belong unreservedly to the British North Borneo Com-
pany, and the portion south of that parallel to the Netherlands."

Indonesia emphasizes the colon in the English text, claiming that it is
used to separate two provisions of which the second develops or illus-
trates the first. It thus contends that the second part of the sentence, pre-
ceded by the colon, "is essentiallya subsidiary part of the sentence,filling
out part of its meaning, but not distorting the clear sense of the main
clause, which takes the line out to sea along the4" 10'N parallel".

40. Malaysia, for its part, contends that when Article IV of the
189 1 Convention provides that the boundary line continues eastward
along the parallel of 4"10'north, this simply means "that the extension
starts from the east coast of Borneo and runs eastward across Sebatik, in

contrast with the main part of the boundary line, which starts at theame
point, but runs westwards". According to Malaysia, the plain and ordi-
nary meaning of the words "across the Island of Sebittik" is to describe,
"in English and in Dutch, a line that crossesSebatik from the Westcoast647 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

to the eastcoast and goes no further". Malaysia moreover rejects the idea
that the parties to the 1891Convention intended to establish an "alloca-
tion perimeter", that is to Saya "theoretical line drawn in the high seas
under a convention which enables sovereignty over the islands lying
within the area in question to be apportioned between the parties".
Malaysia adds that "allocation perimeters" cannot be presumed where
the text of a treaty remains silent in such respect, as in the case of the
1891Convention, which contains no such indication.

In regard to the difference in punctuation between the Dutch and Eng-
lish texts of Article IV of the Convention, Malaysia, for its part, relies on
the Dutch text, which reads as follows:

"Van 4"10' noorder breedte ter oostkust zal de grenslijn oost-
waarts vervolgd worden langs die parallel over het eiland Sebittik;
het gedeelte van dat eiland dat gelegenis ten noorden van die par-
allel zal onvoorwaardelijk toebehooren aan de Britsche Noord Bor-
neo Maatschappij, en het gedeelte ten zuiden van die parallel aan
Nederland."

Malaysia contends that the drafting of this provision as "a single sen-
tence divided into two parts only by a semi-colon indicates the close
grammatical and functional connection between the two parts". Thus, in
Malaysia's view, the second clause of the sentence, which relates exclu-
sively to the division of the island of Sebatik, confirms that the words
"across the Island of Sebittik" refer solelyto that island.

41. The Court notes that the Parties differ as to how the preposition
"across" (in the English) or "over" (in the Dutch) in the first sentence of
Article IV of the 1891Convention should be interpreted. It acknowledges
that the word is not devoid of ambiguity and is capable of bearing either
of the meanings given to it by the Parties. A line established by treaty
may indeed pass "across" an island and terminate on the shores of such
island or continue beyond it.
The Parties also disagree on the interpretation of the part of theame
sentence which reads "the boundary-line shall be continued eastward
along that parallel[4"10'north]". In the Court's view, the phrase "shall
be continued" is also not devoid of ambiguity. Article 1 of the Conven-
tiondefines the starting point of the boundary between the two States,

whilst Articles II and III describe how that boundary continues from one
part to the next. Therefore, when Article IVrovides that "the boundary-
line shall be continued" again from the east coast of Borneo along the
4"10'N parallel and across the island of Sebatik, this does not, contrary
to Indonesia's contention, necessarily mean that the line continues as an
allocation line beyond Sebatik.

The Court moreover considers that the differencein punctuation in the
two versions of ArticleIV of the 1891Convention does not as such help648 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

elucidate the meaning of the text with respect to a possible extension of

the line out to sea, to the east ofSebatik Island (see also paragraph 56
below).
42. The Court observes that any ambiguity could have been avoided
had the Convention expresslystipulated that the 4" 10'N parallel consti-
tuted, beyond the east Coast of Sebatik, the line separating the islands
under British sovereignty from those under Dutch sovereignty. In these
circumstances, the silencein the text cannot be ignored. It supports the
position of Malaysia.
43. It should moreover be observed that a "boundary", in the ordinary
meaning of the term, does not have the function that Indonesiaattributes
to the allocation line that was supposedly established by Article IV out to
sea beyond the island of Sebatik, that is to Sayallocating to the parties
sovereignty over the islands in the area. The Court considers that, in the

absence of an express provision to this effect in the text of a treaty,it is
difficultto envisage that the States parties could seekto attribute an addi-
tional function to a boundary line.

44. Indonesia asserts that the context of the 1891Convention supports
its interpretation of Article IV of that instrument. In this regard, Indo-
nesia refers to the "interaction" between the BritishGovernment and the
Dutch Government concerning the map accompanying the Explanatory
Memorandum annexed by the latter to the draft Law submitted to the
States-General of the Netherlands with a view to the ratification of the
1891 Convention and the "purpose of [which] was to explain to the

States-General the significanceof a proposed treaty, and why its conclu-
sion was in the interests of The Netherlands". Indonesia contends that
this map, showing the prolongation out to sea to the east of Sebatik of
the line drawn on land along the 4" 10'north parallel, was forwarded to
the British Government by its own diplomatic agent and that it was
known to that Government. In support of this Indonesia points out that
"Sir Horace Rumbold, the British Minister at The Hague, sent an official
despatch back to the Foreign Office on 26 January 1892 with which he
sent two copies of the map: and he drew specificattention to it". Accord-
ing to Indonesia, this officialtransmission did not elicit any reaction from
the Foreign Office. Indonesia accordingly concludes that this implies
Great Britain's "irrefutable acquiescence in the depiction of the Conven-
tion line", and thereby its acceptance that the 1891Convention divided

up the islands to theeast of Borneo between Great Britain and the Nether-
lands. In this respect, Indonesia first maintains that this "interaction", in
terms of Article 31, paragraph 2 (a), of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties, "establishesan agreement between the two governments
regarding the seaward course ofthe Anglo-Dutch boundary east of Seba-
tik". It also considers that this "interaction" shows that the map in ques-
tion was, within the meaning of Article 31, paragraph 2 (b), of the649 PULAU LlGlTAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Vienna Convention, an instrument made by the Dutch Government in
connection with the conclusion of the 1891Convention, particularly its
Articles IV and VIII, and was accepted by the British Government asan
instrument related to the treaty. In support ofthistwofold argument, Indo-
nesia Statesintearlia that "[the map] was officiallyprepared by the Dutch
Government immediately after the conclusion of the 189 1 Convention
and in connection with itsapproval by the Netherlands States-General as
specificallyrequired by ArticleVI11of the Convention7',that "it was pub-
licly and officially available at the time", and that "the British Govern-
ment, in the face of itsofficial knowledge of the map, remained silent".

45. For its part, Malaysia contends that the rnap attached to the
Dutch Government's Explanatory Memorandum cannot be regarded as

an element of the context of the 1891 Convention. In Malaysia's view,
that rnap was prepared exclusivelyfor interna1purposes. Malaysia notes
in this respect that the rnap wasever promulgated by the Dutch authon-
ties and that neither the Government nor the Parliament of the Nether-
lands sought to incorporate it into the Convention; the Dutch act of
ratification says nothing tosuch effect.
Malaysia moreover argues that the rnap in question was never the sub-
ject of negotiations between the two Governments and was never offi-
cially communicated by the Dutch Government to the British Govern-
ment. Malaysia adds that, even if the BritishGovernment had been made
aware of this rnap through the intermediary of its Minister in The Hague,
the circiimstances "did not cal1for any particular reaction, as the rnap
had not been mentioned in the parliamentary debate and no one had
noted the extension of the boundary-line out to sea". Malaysia concludes
from this that the rnap in question was not "an Agreement or an Instru-
ment 'accepted by the other party and related to the treaty'".

46. The Court considersthat the Explanatory Memorandum appended
to the draft Law submitted to the Netherlands States-General with a view
to ratification of the 1891Convention, the only document relating to the
Convention to have been published during the period when the latter was
concluded, provides useful information on a certain number of points.
First, the Memorandum refers to the fact that, in the course of the
prior negotiations, the British delegation had proposed that the bound-
ary iine should run eastwards from the east Coastof North Borneo, pass-
ing between the islands ofSebatik and East Nanukan. It further indicates
that the Sultan ofBulungan, to whom, according to the Netherlands, the
mainland areas of Borneo then in issue between Great Britain and the
Netherlands belonged, had been consulted by the latter before the Con-
vention wasconcluded. Following this consultation, the Sultan had asked
for his people to be given the right to gather jungleproduce free of tax
within the area of the island to be attributed to the State of NorthBor-

neo; such right was accorded for a 15-year period by Article VI1of the650 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Convention. As regards Sebatik, the Memorandum explains that the
island's partition had been agreed followinga proposal by the Dutch
Government and was considered necessaryin order to provide access to
the coastal regions allocated to each Party. The Memorandum contains
no reference to the disposition of other islands lying further to the east,
and in particular there is no mention of Ligitan or Sipadan.
47. As regards the rnap appended to the Explanatory Memorandum,
the Court notes that this shows four differently coloured lines. The blue
line represents the boundary initially claimed by the Netherlands, the
yellow line the boundary initially claimed by the BNBC, the green line
the boundary proposed by the British Government and the red line the

boundary eventually agreed. The blue and yellow lines stop at the Coast;
the green line continues for a short distance out to sea, whilst the red line
continues out to sea along parallel4" 10'N to the south of Mabul Island.
In the Explanatory Memorandum there is no comment whatever on this
extension of the red line out to sea; nor was it discussed in the Dutch
Parliament.
The Court notes that the rnap shows onlya number of islands situated
to the north of parallel4" 10'; apart from a few reefs, no island is shown
to the south of that line. The Court accordingly concludes that the Mem-
bers of the Dutch Parliament were almost certainly unaware that two
tiny islands lay to thesouth of the parallel and that the red line might be
taken for an allocation line. In this regard, the Court notes that there is

nothing in the case file to suggest that Ligitan and Sipadan, or other
islandssiich as Mabul, were territories disputed between Great Britain
and the Netherlands at the time when the Convention was concluded.
TheCourtcannot therefore accept that the red line was extended in order
to settle any dispute in the waters beyond Sebatik, with the consequence
that Ligitan and Sipadan were attributed to the Netherlands.

48. Nor can the Court accept Indonesia'sargument regarding the legal
value of the rnap appended to the Explanatory Memorandum of the
Dutch Government.
The Court observes that the Explanatory Memorandum and rnap were
never transmitted by the Dutch Government to the British Government,
but were simply forwarded to the latter by its diplomatic agent in The

Hague. Sir Horace Rumbold. This agent specifiedthat the rnap had been
published in the OfficialJournal of the Netherlands and formed part of a
Report presented to the Second Chamber of the States-General. He
added that "the rnap seems to be the only interesting feature of a docu-
ment which does not otherwise cal1for special comment". However, Sir
Horace Rumbold did not draw the attention of his authorities to the red
line drawn on the rnap among other lines. The British Government did
not react to thisnterna1transmission. In these circumstances, such a lack
of reaction to this lineon the rnap appended to the Memorandum cannot
be deemed to constitute acquiescence in this line. It follows from the foregoing that the map cannot be considered either
an "agreement relating to [a] treaty which was made between al1 the
parties in connection with the conclusion of the treaty", withinthe mean-
ing of Article 31, paragraph 2 (a), of the Vienna Convention, or an

"instrument which was made by [a] part[y] in connection with the conclu-
sion of the treaty and accepted by the other parties as an instrument
related to that treaty", within the meaning of Article 31,paragraph 2 (b),
of the Vienna Convention.

49. Turning to the object and purpose of the 1891Convention, Indo-
nesia argues that the parties' intention was to draw an allocation line
between their island possessions in the north-eastern region of Borneo,
including the islands out at sea.
It stresses that the main aim of the Convention was "to resolve the
uncertainties once and for al1 so as to avoid future disputes". In this
respect, Indonesia invokes the case law of the Court and that of its pre-
decessor, the Permanent Court of International Justice. According to
Indonesia, the finality and completeness of boundary settlements were
relied on by both Courts, on several occasions,as a criterion for the inter-
pretation of treaty provisions. In particular, Indonesia cites the Advisory
Opinion of the Permanent Court on the Interpretation of Article 3,
Paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Lausanne (1925),which States:

"It is... natural that any article designedto fixa frontier should,
if possible, be so interpreted that the result of the application of its
provisions in their entirety should be the establishment of a precise,

complete and definitivefrontier." (Interpretation of Article 3, Para-
graph2, of the Treaty of Lausanne, Advisory Opinion,1925, P. C.Z.J.,
Series B. No. 12, p. 20.)
Indonesia puts forward a number of other arguments to justify its
interpretation of the Convention's object and purpose. It points out that

"in the preamble to the 1891 Convention the parties stated that they
were 'desirous of defining the boundaries' (in the plural) between the
Dutch and British possessions in Borneo" and argues that this must be
taken to mean not only the island of Borneo itself but also other island
territories. Indonesia thus contends that the line established by
Article IV of the Convention concerned not only the islands which are
the subject of the dispute now before the Court but also other islands
in the area. Moreover, Indonesia notes that, while Article IV did not
establish an endpoint for the line - providing for the line to extend
eastward of the island of Sebatik -, that does not mean that the line
extends indefinitely eastward. In Indonesia's opinion, the limit to its
eastward extent was determined by the purpose of the Convention,"the settlement, once and for all, of possible Anglo-Dutch territorial
differences in the region".
50. Malaysia, on the other hand, maintains that the object and pur-
pose of the 1891Convention, as shown by its preamble, were to "defin[e]
the boundaries between the Netherlands possessions in the island of
Borneo and the States in that island which are under British protection".
Referring to the provisions concerning the island of Sebatik, Malaysia

moreover addsthat one of the concerns of the negotiators of the Conven-
tion was also to ensure accessto the rivers - the only possible means at
the time of penetrating the interior of Borneo - and freedom of naviga-
tion. Malaysia thus concludes that the 1891Convention, when read as a
whole, reveals unambiguously that "it was intended to be a land bound-
ary treaty", as nothing in it suggests that it was intended to divide sea
areas or to allocate distant offshore islands.

51. The Court considers that the object and purpose of the 1891Con-
vention was the delimitation of boundaries between the parties' posses-
sions within the island of Borneo itself,as shown by the preamble to the
Convention, which provides that the parties were "desirous of defining
the boundaries between the Netherland possessions in the Island of Bor-
neo and the States in that islatzdwhich are under British protection"
(emphasis added by the Court). This interpretation is, in the Court's
view, supported by the very scheme of the 1891 Convention. Article 1

expressly provides that "[tlhe boundary. . .shall start from 4"10'north
latitude on the east coast of Borneo" (emphasis added by the Court).
Articles II and III then continue the description of the boundary line
westward, with its endpoint on the Westcoast being fixed by Article III.
Sincedifficulties had beenencountered concerning the status of the island
of Sebatik, which was located directly opposite the starting point of the
boundary line and controlled access to the rivers, the parties incorpo-
rated an additional provision to settle this issue.The Court does not find
anything in the Convention to suggestthat the parties intended to delimit
the boundary between their possessions to the east of the islands of
Borneo and Sebatik or to attribute sovereigntyover any other islands. As
far as the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan are concerned, the Court also
observes that the terms of the preamble to the 1891 Convention are dif-
ficult to apply to these islands as they were little known at the time, as
both Indonesia and Malaysia have acknowledged, and were not the sub-
ject of any dispute between Great Britain and the Netherlands.

52. The Court accordingly concludes that the text of Article IV of the
1891Convention, when read in context and in the light of the Conven-
tion's object andpurpose, cannot be interpreted as establishing an alloca-653 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAUSIPADAN(JUDGMENT)

tion line determining sovereignty overthe islands out to sea, to the east of
the island of Sebatik.

53. In view of the foregoing, the Court does not consider it necessary
to resort to supplementary means of interpretation, such as the travaux
préparatoires of the 1891Convention and the circumstances of its con-
clusion, to determine the meaning of that Convention; however, as in
other cases, it considers thatit can have recourse to such supplementary
means in order to seek a possible confirmation of its interpretation of the
text of the Convention (seefor example Territorial Dispute(Libyan Arab
JamahiriyalChad), I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 27,para. 55;Maritime Delimi-
tation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v.
Bahrain), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, 1C.J. Reports 1995,
p. 21, para. 40).
54. Indonesia begins by recalling that prior to the conclusion of the
1891Convention the Sultan of Bulungan had

"clear claims . ..to inland areas north of the Tawau coast and well
to the north of 4" 10'N, which wereacknowledged by Great Britain
in agreeing, in Article VI1 of the 1891 Convention, to the Sultan
having certain continuing transitional rights to jungle produce".

It adds that the Netherlands engaged in "activity in the area evidencing
Dutch claims to sovereignty extending to the north of the eventual
4" 10'N line". It further notes "the prevailing uncertainty at the time as
to the precise extent of the territories belonging to the two parties" and
mentions "the occurrence of occasional Anglo-Dutch confrontations as a
result ofthese uncertainties".

Indonesia moreover maintains that the travaux préparatoiresof the
1891Convention, though containing no express indication as to whether
Ligitan and Sipadan were British or Dutch, confirm its interpretation of
Article IV.
In Indonesia's view,there can be no doubt that during the negotiations
leading up to the signature of the Convention the two parties, and in par-
ticular Great Britain, envisaged a line continuing out to sea to the east of
the island of Borneo. In support of this argument, Indonesia submits
several maps used by the parties' delegations during the negotiations. It
considers that these maps "show a consistent pattern of the line of pro-
posed settlement, wherever it might finallyrun, being extended out to sea
along a relevant parallel of latitude".
55. Malaysia rejects Indonesia's analysis ofthe travauxpréparatoires.
In its view, "the consideration of the boundary on the coast never
extended to cover the islands east of Batu Tinagat". Malaysia furtherconsiders that the travaux préparatoiresof the 1891 Convention make
clear that the line proposed to divide Sebatik Island "was a boundary
line, not an allocation line", that the line "was adopted as a compromise
only after the 4" 10'N line was agreed as a boundary line for the main-
land of Borneo", and that the linein question "related only to the island
of Sebatik and not to other islands wellto the east". Malaysia points out
that in any event this could not have been a matter of drawing a "bound-
ary line" in the open seas becauseat the time in question maritime delimi-
tation could not extend beyond territorial waters.

56. The Court observes that following its formation, the BNBC
asserted rights which it believed it had acquired from Alfred Dent and
Baron von Overbeck to territories situated on the north-eastern coast of
the island of Borneo (in the State of Tidoeng "as far south as the Sibuco
River"); confrontations then occurred between the Company and the
Netherlands, the latter asserting its rights to the Sultan of Bulungan's
possessions, "with inclusion ofthe Tidoeng territories" (emphasis in the
original). These were the circurnstances in which Great Britain and the

Netherlands set up a Joint Commission in 1889to discuss the bases for
an agreement to settle the dispute. Specifically, the Commission was
appointed "to take into consideration the question of the disputed bound-
ary between the Netherland Indian possessions on the north-east coast of
the Island of Borneo and the territory belonging to the British North
Borneo Company" (emphasis added by the Court). It was moreover pro-
vided that "in the event of a satisfactory understanding", the two gov-
ernments would define the "inland boundary-fines which separate the
Netherland possessions in Borneo from the territories belonging to the
States of Sarawak, Brunei, and the British North Borneo Company

respectively" (emphasis added by the Court). The Joint Commission's
task was thus confined to the area in dispute, on the north-eastern coast
of Borneo. Accordingly, it was agreed that, once this dispute had been
settled, theinland boundary could be determined completely, as there
was clearly no other point of disagreement betweenthe parties.

TheJoint Commission met three tirnesand devoted itself almost exclu-
sivelyto questions relating to the disputed area of the north-east coast. It
was only at the last meeting, held on27July 1889,that the British delega-
tion proposed that the boundary should pass between the islands of

Sebatik and East Nanukan. This was the first proposal of any prolonga-
t--n of the inland boundarv out to sea. The Court however notes from
the diplornatic correspondence exchanged after the Commission was dis-
solved that it follows that the Netherlands had rejected the British pro-
posal. The specificidea of Sebatik Island beingdivided along the 4" 10'N
parallel was only introduced later. In a letter of 2 February 1891to the
British Secretary for Foreign Affairs from the Dutch Minister in London,
the latter stated that the Netherlands agreed with this partition. The Sec-retary for Foreign Affairs, in his reply dated 11February 1891,acknow-
ledged this understanding and enclosed a draft agreement. Article 4 of
the draft is practically identical in its wording to Article IV of the
1891Convention. In the draft agreement (proposed by Great Britain) the
two sentences of Article 4 are separated by a semicolon. In the final Eng-

lish text, the semicolon was replaced by a colon without the travaux
préparatoires shedding any light on the reasons for this change. Conse-
quently, no firm inferencecan be drawn from the change. There were no
further difficulties and the Convention was signed on 20 June 1891.

57. During the negotiations, the parties used various sketch-maps to
illustratetheir proposals and opinions. Some ofthese sketch-maps showed
lines drawn in pencil along certain parallels and continuing as far as the
margin. Since the reports accompanying the sketch-maps do not provide
any further explanation, the Court considers that it is impossible to
deduce anything at al1from the length of these lines.
There is however one exception. In an internal Foreign Officememo-

randum, drafted in preparation for the meeting of the Joint Commission,
the following suggestion wasmade:
"Starting eastward from a point A on the Coastnear Broers Hoek
on parallel 4" 10'of North Latitude, the line should follow that par-
allel until it is intersected . .. the Meridian 117"50' East Longi-
tude, opposite the Southernmost point of the Island of Sebattik at /'
the point marked C. The line would continue thence in an Easterly

direction along the 4th parallel, until it should meet the point of
intersection of the Meridian of 118"44'30"marked D."

This suggestion wasillustrated on a map that is reproduced asmap No. 4
of Indonesia's map atlas. Sipadan is to the Westof point D and Ligitan to
the east of this point. Neither of the two islands appears on theap. The

Court observes that there is nothing in the case file to prove that the
suggestion was ever brought to the attention of the Dutch Govern-
ment or that the line between points C and D had ever been the subject
of discussion between the parties. Although put forward in one of the
many British internal documents drawn up during the negotiations, the
suggestion was never actually adopted. Once the parties arrived at an
agreement on the partition of Sebatik, they were only interested in the
boundary on the island of Borneo itself and exchanged no views on an
allocation of the islands in the open seas to the east of Sebatik.

58. The Court concludes from the foregoing that neither the travau'c
préparatoires of the Convention nor the circumstances of its conclusion
can be regarded assupporting the position of Indonesia when itcontends
that the parties to the Convention agreed not only on the course of theland boundary but also on an allocation line beyond the east Coast of
Sebatik.

59. Concerning the subsequent practice of the parties to the 1891Con-
vention, Indonesia refers once again to the Dutch Government's Explana-
tory Memorandum rnap accompanying the draft of the Law authorizing
the ratification of the Convention (seeparagraphs 47 and 48 above). Indo-
nesia considers that this rnap can also be sien as "a subsequent agree-
ment or as subsequent practice for the purposes of Article 31.3 (a)
and (b) of the Vienna Convention" on the Law of Treaties.

60. Malaysia points out that the Explanatory Memorandum rnap sub-
mitted by the Dutch Government to the two Chambers of the States-
General, on which Indonesia bases its argument, was not annexed to the

1891Convention, which made no mention of it. Malaysia concludes that
this is not a rnap to which the parties to the Convention agreed. It further
notes that "[tlhe interna1Dutch rnap attached to the Explanatory Memo-
randum was the object of no specificcomment during the [parliamentary]
debate and did not call for any particular reaction". Thus, according to
Malaysia, this rnap cannot be seenas "a subsequent agreement or as sub-
sequent practice for the purposes of Article 31.3 (a) and (6) of the
Vienna Convention" on the Law of Treaties.

61. The Court has already given consideration (see paragraph 48
above) to the legal force of the rnap annexed to the Dutch Government's
Explanatory Memorandum accompanying the draft Law submitted by it
for the ratification of the 1891Convention. For thesame reasons as those
on which it based its previous findings, theCourt considers that this rnap
cannot be seen as "a subsequent agreement or as subsequent practice for
thepurposes of Article 31.3 (a) and (b) of the Vienna Convention".

62. In Indonesia's view, the 1893 amendment to the 1850 and 1878
Contracts of Vassalage with the Sultan of Bulungan provides a further
indication of the interpretation given bythe Netherlands Government to
the 1891 Convention. It asserts that the aim of the amendment was to
redefine the territorialxtent of the Sultanate of Bulungan to take into
account the provisions of the 1891 Convention. According to the new
definition of 1893, "[tlhe Islands of Tarakan and Nanoekan and that
portion of the Island of Sebitik, situated to the south of the above
boundary-line . . .belong to Boeloengan, as well as the small islands
belonging to the above islands, so far as they are situated to the south ofthe boundary-line . ..". According to Indonesia, this text indicates that
the Netherlands Government considered in 1893that the purpose of the
1891Convention was to establish, in relation to islands, a line of territo-
rial attribution extending out tosea. Indonesia addsthat the British Gov-
ernment showed acquiescence in this interpretation, because the text of
the 1893amendment was officiallycommunicated to the British Govern-
ment on 26 February 1895without meeting with any reaction.
63. Malaysia observes that the small islands referred to in the
1893amendment are those which "belong" to the three expressly desig-
nated islands, namely Tarakan, Nanukan and Sebatik, and which are

situated to the south of the boundary thus determined. Malaysia stresses
that it would be fanciful "to see this as establishing an allocation peri-
meter projected 50 miles out to sea".
64. TheCourt observesthat the relations between the Netherlands and
the Sultanate of Bulungan were governed by a series of contracts entered
into between them. The Contracts of 12November 1850and 2 June 1878
laid down the limits of the Sultanate. These limits extended to the north
of the land boundary that was finally agreed in 1891between the Nether-
lands and Great Britain. For this reason the Netherlands had consulted
the Sultan before concluding the Convention with Great Britain and was
moreover obliged in 1893to amend the 1878 Contract in order to take
into account the delimitation of 1891. The new text stipulated that the
islands of'Tarakan and Nanukan, and that portion of the island of Seba-
tik situated to the south of the boundary line, belonged to Bulungan,

together with "the small islands belonging to the above islands, so far as
they are situated to the south of the boundary-line". The Court observes
that these three islands are surrounded by many smaller islands that
could be said to "belong" to them geographically. The Court, however,
considers that this cannot apply to Ligitan and Sipadan, which are situ-
ated more than 40 nautical miles away from the three islands in question.
The Court observes that in any event this instrument, whatever its true
scope may have been, was res interaliosacta for Great Britain and there-
fore it could not be invoked by the Netherlands in its treaty relations
with Great Britain.

65. Indonesia also cites the Agreement concluded between Great
Britain and the Netherlands on 28 September 1915, pursuant to

ArticleV of the 1891Convention, conceming the boundary between the
State of North Bomeo and the Dutch possessions on Bomeo. It stresses
that this was a demarcation agreement which, by definition, could only
concem the inland part of the boundary. According to Indonesia, the
fact that this Agreement does not mention the boundary eastward of
the island of Sebatik does not imply that the 1891 Convention did not
establish an eastward boundary out to sea. It states that, unlike in the
case of the islands of Bomeo and Sebatik, where demarcation wasphysically possible, such an operation was not possible in the sea east of
Sebatik.
Finally, Indonesia asserts that the fact that the Commissioners' work
started at the east coast ofSebatik does not mean that the 1891Conven-
tion line began there, any more than the fact that their work ended after
covering some 20 per cent of the boundary can be interpreted to mean
that the boundary did not continue any further. It States that, contrary to
what Malaysia suggests, the Commissioners' report did not Say that the
boundary started on the east coast of Sebatik but indicated only that
"[tlraversing the island of Sibetik, the frontier line follows the parallel of
4" 10'north latitude . . .".

66. Indonesia contends that the same applies to the 1928 Agreement,
whereby the parties to the 1891 Convention agreed on a more precise
delimitation of the boundary, as defined in Article III of the Convention,
between the summits of the Gunong Api and of the Gunong Raya.

67. With respect to the maps attached to the 1915 and 1928 Agree-
ments, Indonesia acknowledges that they showed no seaward extension
of the line along the 4" 10' N parallel referred to in Article IV of the
1891 Convention. It further recognizes that these maps formed an inte-
gral part of the agreements and that as such they therefore had the same
binding legal force as those agreements for the parties. Indonesia never-
theless stresses that the maps attached to the 1915 and 1928 Agreements
should in no sense be considered as prevailing over the Dutch Explana-
tory Memorandum map of 1891in relation to stretches of the 1891Con-
vention line which were beyond the reach of the 1915 and 1928 Agree-
ments.
68. Malaysia does not share Indonesia's interpretation of the 1915and
1928 Agreements between Great Britain and the Netherlands. On the
contrary, it considers thatthese Agreements contradict Indonesia's inter-
pretation of Article IV of the 1891Convention.
With respect to the 1915 Agreement, Malaysia points out that the
Agreement "starts by stating that the frontier line traverses the island of
Sebatik following the parallel of 4" 10'N latitude marked on the east and

Westcoasts by boundary pillars, then follows the parallel westward". In
Malaysia's view, this wording "is exclusive of any prolongation of the
line eastward". Further, Malaysia maintains that the map referred to in
the preamble to the Agreement and annexed to it confirms that the
boundary linestarted on the east coast of Sebatik Island and did not con-
CernLigitan or Sipadan. In this respect, it observes that on this map the
eastern extremity of the boundary line is situated on the east coast of
Sebatik and that the map shows no sign of the line being extended out to
sea. Malaysia points out, however, that from the western endpoint of the
boundary the rnap shows the beginning of a continuation due south.
Malaysla concludes from this that "[ilf the Commissioners had thought
the [18!)1Convention] provided for an extension of the boundary lineeastwards by an allocation line, they would have likewise indicated the
beginning of such a line" as they had done at the other end of the bound-
ary. Malaysia stresses that the Commissioners not only chose not to
extend the line on the map but they evenindicated the end of the bound-
ary line on the map by a red cross. Malaysia adds that the evidentiary
value of the map annexed to the 1915 Agreement is al1 the greater
because it is "the only officialmap agreed by the Parties".

At the hearings, Malaysia further contended that the 1915Agreement
could not be considered exclusively as a demarcation agreement. It
explained that the Commissioners didnot perform an exercise of demar-

cation strictosensu, as they took liberties with the text of the 1891Con-
vention at a number of points on the land boundary, and these liberties
were subsequently endorsed by the signatories of the 1915Agreement. As
an example, Malaysia referred to the change made by the Commissioners
to the boundary line in the channel between the Westcoast of Sebatik and
mainland Borneo, for the purpose of reaching the middle of the mouth of
the River Troesan Tamboe.

69. With respect to the 1928Agreement, which pertains to an inland
sector of'the boundary between the summits of the Gunong Api and the
Gunong Raya, Malaysia considers that this instrument confirms the
1915 Agreement, since the Netherlands Government could have taken
the opportunity to correct the 1915 map and Agreement if it had so
wished.
70. The Court will recall that the 1891 Convention included a clause

providing that the parties would in the future be able to definethe course
of the boundary line more exactly. Thus, Article V of the Convention
States: "The exact positions of the boundary-line, as described in the four
preceding Articles, shall be determined hereafter by mutual agreement, at
such times as the Netherland and the British Governments may think
fit."
The firstsuch agreement was the one signed at London by Great Brit-
ain and the Netherlands on 28 September 1915relating to "the boundary
between the State of North Borneo and the Netherland possessions in
Borneo". As explained in an exchangeof letters of 16March and 3Octo-
ber 1905between Baron Gericke, Netherlands Minister in London, and
the Marquess of Lansdowne, British Foreign Secretary, and in a commu-
nication dated 19November 19 10from theNetherlands Chargéd'affaires,
the origin of that agreement was a difference of opinion between the

Netherlands and Great Britain in respect of the course of the boundary
line. The difference concerned the manner in which Article II of the
1891 Convention should be interpreted. That provision was, by way of
the 1905 exchange of letters, given an interpretation agreed by the two
Governments. In 1910,the Netherlands Minister for the Colonies made
known to the Foreign Office,by way of the above-mentioned communi-
cation from the Netherlands Chargé d'affaires,his view that "the time[had] come to open the negotiations with the British Government men-
tioned in the [Convention] of June 20, 1891,concerning the indication of

the frontier between British North Borneo and the Netherland Terri-
tory". He stated in particular that the uncertainty as to the actual course
of the boundary made itself felt "along the whole" boundary. For that
purpose, he proposed that "a mixed Commission . . .be appointed to
indicate the frontier on the ground, todescribeit and to prepare a map of
same". As the proposal was accepted, a mixed Commission carried out
the prescribed task between 8 June 1912and 30January 1913.
71. By the 1915Agreement, the two States approved and confirmed a
joint report, incorporated into that Agreement, and the map annexed
thereto, which had been drawn up by the mixed Commission. The Com-
missioners started their work on the east coast of Sebatik and, from east
to west, undertook to "delimitate on the spot the frontier" agreed in
1891,as indicated in the preamble to the Agreement. In the Court's view,
the Commissioners' assignment was not simply a demarcation exercise,

the task of the parties being to clarify the course of a line which could
only be imprecise in view of the somewhat general wording of the
1891Convention and the line'sconsiderable length. The Court finds that
the intention of the parties to clarify the 1891delimitation and the com-
plementary nature of the demarcation operations become very clear when
the text of the Agreement is examined carefully. Thus the Agreement
indicates that "[wlherephysical features did not present natural bounda-
ries conformable with the provisions of the Boundary Treaty of the
20th June, 1891, [theCommissioners] erected the following pillars".
Moreover, the Court observes that the course of the boundary line
finallyadopted in the 1915Agreement does not totally correspond to that
of the 1891Convention. Thus, as Malaysia points out, whereas the sector
of the boundary between Sebatik Island and Borneo under Article IV of
the 1891Convention was to follow a straight line along the parallel of
4"10'latitude north (seeparagraph 36 above), the 1915Agreement stipu-

lates tha:
"(2) Starting from the boundary pillar on the Westcoast of the
island of Sibetik, the boundary follows the parallel of 4" 10'north
latitude westward until it reaches the middle of the channel, thence
keeping a mid-channel course until it reaches the middle of the
mouth of Troesan Tamboe.
(3) From the mouth of Troesan Tamboe the boundary lineis con-

tinued up the middle of this Troesan until it isintersected by a simi-
lar line running through the middle of Troesan Sikapal; it then fol-
lows this line through Troesan Sikapal as far as the point where the
latter meets the watershed between the Simengaris and Seroedong
Rivers (Sikapal hill), and is connected finallywith this watershed by
a Yinetaken perpendicular to the centre line of Troesan Sikapal."

In view of the foregoing, the Court cannot accept Indonesia's argu-66 1 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

ment that the 1915 Agreement was purelya demarcation agreement; nor
can it accept the conclusion drawn therefrom by Indonesia that the very
nature of this Agreement shows that the parties were not required tocon-
Cernthemselves therein with the course of the line out to sea to the east of
Sebatik Island.
72. In connection with this agreement, the Court further notes a
number of elements which, when taken as a whole, suggest that the line
established in 1891 terminated at the east coast ofSebatik.
It first observes that the title of the 1915Agreement is very general in
nature ("Agreement between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands
relating to the Boundary between the State of North Borneo and the
Netherland Possessions in Borneo"), as is its wording. Thus, the pre-
amble to the Agreement refers to the joint report incorporated into the
Agreement and to the map accompanying it as "relating to the boundary

between the State of North Borneo and the Netherland possessions in the
island", without any further indication.Similarly, paragraphs 1and 3 of
the joint report state that the Commissioners had "travelled in the neigh-
bourhood of the frontier from the 8th June, 1912, to the 30th January,
1913" and had
"determined the boundary between the Netherland territory and the

State of British North Borneo, as described in the Boundary Treaty
supplemented by the interpretation of Article 2 of the Treaty mutu-
ally accepted by the Netherland and British Governments in 1905"
(emphasis added by the Court).
For their part, the Commissioners, far from confining their examina-
tion to the specific problem which had arisen in connection with the

interpretation of Article II of the 1891 Convention (see paragraph 70
above), also considered the situation in respect of the boundary from
Sebatik westward. Thus, they began their task at the point where the
4" 10'latitude north parallel crosses the east coast of Sebatik; they then
simply proceeded from east to West.
Moreover, subparagraph (1)of paragraph 3of thejoint report describes
the boundary line fixedby Article IV of the 1891Convention as follows:

"Traversing the island of Sibetik, the frontier line follows the par-
allel of 4"10' north latitude, as already jixed by Article 4 of the
Boimdary Treaty and marked on the east and west coasts by bound-
ary pillars" (emphasis added by the Court).
In sum, the 1915 Agreement covered a priori the entire boundary

"between the Netherland territory and the State of British North Bor-
neo" and the Commissioners performed their task beginning at the
eastern end of Sebatik. In the opinion of the Court, if the boundary
had continued in any way to the east of Sebatik, at the very least some
mention of that could have been expected in the Agreement.
The Court considers that an examination of the map annexed to the1915 Agreement reinforces the Court's interpretation of that Agreement.

The Court observes that the map, together with the map annexed to the
1928Agreement, is the only one which was agreed between the parties to
the 1891Convention. The Court notes on this map that an initial south-
ward extension of the line indicating the boundary between the Nether-
lands possessions and the other States under British protection is shown
beyond the western endpoint of the boundary defined in 1915, while a
similar extension does not appear beyond the point situated on the east
coast of Sebatik; that latter point was, in al1probability, meant to indi-
cate the spot where the boundary ended.
73. A new agreement was concluded by the parties to the 1891 Con-
vention on 26 March 1928.Although also bearing a title worded in gen-
eral terms ("Convention between Great Britain and Northern Ireland
and the Netherlands respecting the Further Delimitation of the Frontier
between the States in Borneo under British Protection and the Nether-
lands Territory in that Island"), that agreement had a much more limited

object than the 1915Agreement, as its Article 1 indicates:

"The boundary as defined in article III of the Convention signed
at London on the 20th June, 1891, is further delimited between the
summits of the Gunong Api and of the Gunong Raya as described
in the follouing article and as shown on the map attached to this

Convention."
The Court considers this too to be an agreement providing for both a
more exact delimitation of the boundary in the sector in question and its
demarcation, not solely a demarcation treaty. However, the Court finds
that in 1928it was a matter of carrying out the detailed delimitation and
demarcation of only a limited inland boundary sector. Accordingly, the
Court cannot draw any conclusions, for the purpose of interpreting

ArticleIV of the 1891 Convention, from the fact that the 1928 Agree-
ment fails to make any reference to the question of the boundary line
being extended, as an allocation line, out to sea east of Sebatik.

74. The Court lastly observes that no other agreement was concluded
subsequently by Great Britain and the Netherlands with respect to the
course of the line established by the 1891 Convention.

75. However, Indonesia refers to a debate that took place within the
Dutch Government between 1922and 1926over whether the issue of the
delimitation of the territorial waters off the east coast of the island of
Sebatik should be raised with the British Government. Indonesia sets out
the various options that had been envisaged in this respect: one of these
options consisted in considering that the 1891 Convention also estab-
lished a boundary for the territorial sea at 3nautical miles from thecoast.

The other option consisted in drawing a line perpendicular to the coast at663 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

the terminus of the land boundary, as recommended by the rules of
general international law that were applicable at the time. Indonesia
adds that the final view expressed in September 1926 by the Minister for
Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, who had opted for the perpendicular
line, was that it was not opportune to raise the matter with the British
Government. According to Indonesia, this internal debate shows that the
Dutch authorities took the same position as Indonesia in the present case
and saw the 1891line as an allocation line rather than a maritime bound-
ary. Indonesia further points out that the internal Dutch discussions were
entirely restricted to the delimitation of the territorial waters off Sebatik
Island and did not involve the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan.

76. Malaysia considers the proposal by certain Dutch authorities to
delimit the territorial waters by a line perpendicular to theast from the
endpoint of the land boundary as particularly significant as this would

have made it more difficult for the Dutch Government to make any sub-
sequent claim to sovereignty over distant islands situated to the south of
an allocation line along the4" 10'N parallel. Malaysia accordingly asserts
that, in view of this debate,it is difficult to argue that in 1926the Dutch
authorities considered that any delimitation of territorial waters or the
course of an allocation line had been provided for by an agreement
between Great Britain and the Netherlands in 1891 or later. It further
concludes from this debate that the Dutch authorities were clearly of the
viewthat no rule of international law called for the prolongation, beyond
the east coast of Sebatik, of the4" 10'N land boundary, and that in any
event the authorities did not favour such a solution, considering it to be
contras. to Dutch interests.

77. The Court notes that this internal debate sheds light on the views

of various Dutch authorities at the time as to the legal situation of the
territories to the east ofebatik Island.
In a letter of 10 December 1922to the Minister for the Colonies, the
Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies proposed certain solutions
for the delimitation of the territorial waters off theast of Sebatik. One
of these solutions was to draw "a line which is an extension of the land
border". The Ministry of Foreign Affairs wasalso consulted. In a Memo-
randum of 8 August 1923,it also mentioned the "extension of the land
boundary" dividing Sebatik Island as the possible boundary between
Dutch territorial waters and the territorial waters of the State of North
Borneo. In support of this solution, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
invoked the map annexed to the Explanatory Memorandum, "on which
the border between the areas under Dutch and British jurisdiction on
land and sea is extended along the parallel 4"10'N". The Ministry how-
ever added that "this map [did] not result from actual consultation"
between the parties, although it was probably known to the British Gov-

ernment. Nevertheless, in his letter of 27 Septernber 1926to the Ministerfor the Colonies, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, whilst not considering
it desirable to raise the question with the British Government, put

forward the perpendicular line as being the best solution. In the end
this issue was not pursued and the Dutch Government never drew it to
the attention of the British Government.

In the Court's view, the above-mentioned correspondence suggests
that, in the 1920s,the best informed Dutchauthorities did not consider
that there had been agreement in 1891on the extension out to sea of the
line drawn on land along the 4" 10'north parallel.

78. Finally, Indonesia maintains that, in granting oil concessions in
the area, both Parties always respected the 4" 10'North latitude as form-
ing the limit of their respectivejurisdiction. Accordingly, in Indonesia's
view, its grant of a licencetoJapexJTotal demonstrates that it considered
that itsjurisdictional rights extended up to the 4" 10'N line. Indonesia
goes on to indicate that Malaysia acted in similar fashion in 1968when it
granted an oil concessionto Teiseki, pointing out that the southern limit
of this concession virtually coincides with that parallel.Thus, according
to Indonesia, the Parties recognized and respected the 4" 10'N parallel as
a separation line between Indonesia's and Malaysia's respectivezones.

For its part, Malaysia notes that the oil concessions in the 1960sdid
not concern territorial delimitation and that the islands of Ligitan and
Sipadan were never included in the concession perimeters. It adds that
"[nlo activity pursuant to the Indonesian concessions had any relation to
the islands".
79. The Court notes that the limits of the oil concessions granted by
the Parties in the area to the east of Borneo did not encompass the
islands of Ligitan and Sipadan. Further, the northern limit of the explo-
ration concession granted in 1966by Indonesia and the southern limit of
that granted in 1968by Malaysia did not coincide with the 4"10'north
parallel but were fixedat 30" to either side of that parallel. These limits
may have been simply the manifestation of the caution exercised by
the Parties in granting their concessions. This caution was al1the more
natural in the present casebecause negotiations were to commence soon

afterwards between Indonesia and Malaysia with a view to delimiting
the continental shelf.
The Court cannot therefore draw any conclusion for purposes of inter-
preting Article IV ofthe 1891Convention from the practice of the Parties
in awarding oil concessions. 80. 111view of al1the foregoing, the Court considers that an examina-
tion of the subsequent practice of the parties to the 1891Convention con-
firms the conclusions at which the Court has arrived in paragraph 52
above as to the interpretation of Article IV of that Convention.

81. Lastly, both Parties have produced a series of maps of various
natures and origins in support of their respective interpretations of
Article IV of the 1891 Convention.
82. Indonesia produces maps of "Dutch" or "Indonesian" origin, such
as the rnap annexed to the Dutch Explanatory Memorandum of 1891
and a rnap of Borneo taken from an Indonesian atlas of 1953. Secondly,
itproduces "British" or "Malaysian" maps, such asthree maps published
by Stanford in 1894, 1903and 1904respectively,a rnap of Tawau "pro-
duced by Great Britain in 1965", two "maps of Malaysia of 1966 of
Malaysian origin", a "Malaysian rnap of Semporna published in 1967",
the "official Malaysian rnap of the 1968 oil concessions showing the
international boundary", another rnap of Malaysia "published by the
Malaysian Directorate of National Mapping in 1972", etc. Thirdly, Indo-

nesia relies on a rnap from an American atlas of 1897 annexed by the
United States to its Memorial in the Island of Palmas Arbitration.

83. Indonesia contends that the maps it has produced "are consistent
in depicting the boundary line as extending offshore to the north of the
known locations of the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan, thus leaving them
on what is now the Indonesian side of the line". Indonesia stresses that
"[ilt was only in 1979,well after the dispute had arisen, that Malaysia's
maps began to change in a self-serving fashion".

As regards the legal value of the maps it has produced, Indonesia con-
siders that a number of these maps fa11into the category of the "physical
expressions of the will of the State or the States concerned" and that,
while "these maps do not constitute a territorial title by themselves, they
command significant weight in the light of their consistent depiction of

the 1891Treaty line as separating the territorial possessions, including
the islands, of the Parties".
84. In regard to the evidentiary value of the maps presented by Indo-
nesia, Malaysia States that "Indonesia has produced not a single Dutch
or Indonesian map, on any scale, which shows the islands and attributes
them to Indonesia". In Malaysia'sview, contrary to what Indonesia con-
tends, the Dutch maps of 1897-1904and of 1914clearly show the bound-
ary terminating at the east coast of Sebatik. Malaysia emphasizes, more-
over, that the Indonesian officialarchipelagic claim rnap of 1960clearly
does not treat the islands as Indonesian. Malaysia asserts that even Indo-
nesian maps published since 1969do not show the islands as Indonesian.It does, however, recognizethat some modern maps might be interpreted
in a contrary sense, but it contends that these are relatively few in
number and that their legalforce is reduced by the fact that each of them
contains a disclaimer in regard to the accuracy of the boundaries. Malay-
sia moreover argues that on the majority of these latter maps the islands
of Ligitan and Sipadan are not shown at all, are in the wrong place, or

are not shown as belonging to Malaysia or to Indonesia.

85. In support of its interpretation of Article IV of the 1891Conven-
tion, Malaysia reliesin particular on the map annexed to the 1915Agree-
ment between the British and Netherlands Governments relating to the
boundary between the State of North Borneo and the Netherland pos-
sessions in Borneo: according to Malaysia, this is the only official rnap
agreed by the parties. Malaysia also relies on a series of other maps of
various origins. It first presents a certain number of Dutch maps, includ-
ing inter aliathe rnap entitled "East Coastof Borneo: Island of Tarakan
up to Dutch-English boundary" dated 1905,two maps of 1913showing
the "administrative structure of the Southern and Eastern Borneo Resi-
dence", the rnap made in 1917"by the Dutch official, Kaltofen", which,

according to Malaysia, "is a hand-drawn ethnographic rnap of Borneo",
a rnap of'"Dutch East Borneo" dated 1935,and the 1941rnap of "North
Borneo".. Secondly, it relies on certain maps of British origin, that is to
Say the rnap published in 1952 by the "Colony of North Borneo", the
"schematic map" of administrative districts of the colony of North Bor-
neo dated 1953,and the rnap of "the Semporna police district of 1958,by
S. M. Ross". Thirdly, it cites an Indonesian map: "Indonesia's continen-
tal shelf rnap of 1960".Lastly, it also relies on a 1976rnap of Malaysian
origin, entitled"Bandar Seri Begawan".

86. Malaysia considers that al1 of these maps clearly show that the
boundary line betweenthe Dutch and British possessionsin the area did
not extend into the seaeast of Sebatik and that Ligitan and Sipadan were
both regarded, depending on the period, as being British or Malaysian

islands.
87. In regard to the evidentiary value of the maps produced by Malay-
sia, Indonesia contends, first, thatvirtually none of them actually shows
Ligitan and Sipadan as Malaysian possessions. It points out that the only
map which depicts the disputed islands as Malaysian possessions "is a
rnap prepared in 1979to illustrate Malaysia's claim to the area". Indo-
nesia argues in this respectthat this map, having been published ten years
after the dispute over the islands crystallized in 1969, is without legal
relevance inthe case. Secondly,Indonesia points out that the maps relied
on by Malaysia, which do not depict the 1891line as extending out to
sea, "are entirely neutral with respect to the territorial attribution of theislands of Sipadan or Ligitan". Asregards in particular the rnap attached
to the 1915 Agreement, Indonesia considers it logical that this map
should not show the line extending eastward of the island of Sebatik
along the 4" 10'N parallel, sinceit was concernedonly with the territorial
situation on the island of Borneo. Finally, with reference to the maps
produced by Malaysia in its Memorial under the head of "Other Maps",
Indonesia asserts that none of these supports Malaysia's contentions as
to sovereignty over the two islands.

88. The Court would begin by recalling. as regards the legal value of
maps, that it has already had occasion to state the following:

"maps merely constitute information which varies in accuracy from
case to case; of themselves, and by virtue solely of their existence,
they cannot constitute a territorial title, that is, a document endowed
by international law with intrinsic legal force for the purpose of
establishing territorial rights. Of course, in some cases maps may
acquire such legal force, but where this is so the legal force does not
arise solely from their intrinsic merits: it isause such maps faIl
into the category of physical expressions ofthe will of the State or
States concerned. This is the case, for example, when maps are
annexed to an officia1text of which they form an integral part.
Except in this clearly defined case,maps are only extrinsic evidence
of varying reliability ornreliability which may be used, along with
other evidence of a circumstantial kind, to establish or reconstitute
the real facts."(Frontier Dispute (Burkina FasolRepublic of Mali),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 582, para. 54; KasikifilSedudu
Island (BotsivanalNarnibia), Judgrnent, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), J
p. 1098,para. 84.)

In the present case, the Court observes that no map reflecting the
agreed views of the parties was appended to the 1891Convention, which
would have officiallyexpressed the will of Great Britain and the Nether-
lands as to the prolongation of the boundary line, as an allocation line,
out to sea to the east of Sebatik Island.
89. In the course of the proceedings, the Partiesmade particular refer-
ence to two maps: the map annexed to the Explanatory Memorandum
appended by the Netherlands Government to thedraft Law submitted to
the States-General for the ratificationof the 1891Convention, and the map
annexedto the 1915Agreement.The Court has already set out its findings
as to the legal value ofhese maps (see paragraphs 47, 48 and 72 above).
90. Turning now to the other maps produced by the Parties, the Court
observes that Indonesia has submitted a certain number of maps pub-
lished after the 1891Convention showing a linecontinuing out to sea off
the eastern Coast of Sebatik Island, along the parallel of 4" 10'latitude
north.These maps include, for example, those of Borneo made by Stan-
ford in 1894, in 1903and in 1904, and that of 1968 published by the668 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Malaysian Ministry of Lands and Mines to illustrate oil-prospecting
licences.
The Court notes that the manner in which these maps represent the
continuation out to sea of the line formingthe land boundary varies from.
one map to another. Moreover, the length of the lineextending out to sea

varies considerably: on some maps it continues for several miles before
stopping approximately halfway to the meridians of Ligitan and Sipadan,
whilst on others it extends almost to the boundary between the Philip-
pines and Malaysia.

For its part, Malaysia has producedvarious maps on which the bound-
ary line between the British and Dutch possessions in the region stops
on the eastern Coast of Sebatik Island. These maps include the map of
British North Borneo annexed to the 1907 Exchange of Notes between
Great Britain and the United States, the Dutch map of 1913 representing
the Administrative Structure of the Southern and Eastern Borneo Resi-
dence, and the map showing the 1915 boundary line published in the
Official Gazette of the Dutch Colonies in 1916.

The Court however considers that each of these maps was produced

for specificpurposes and it is therefore unable to draw from those maps
any clear and final conclusion as to whether or not the line defined in
Article IV of the 1891Convention extended to the east of Sebatik Island.
Moreover, Malaysia was not always able to justify its criticism of the
maps submitted by Indonesia. Malaysia thus contended that the line
shown on the Stanford maps of 1894, 1903and 1904,extending out to
sea along the parallel of 4" 10'latitude north, corresponded to an admin-
istrative boundary of North Borneo, but could not cite any basis other
than the 1891Convention as support for the continuation of that State's
administrative boundary along the parallel in question.

91. In sum, with the exception of the map annexed to the 1915Agree-
ment (see paragraph 72 above), the cartographic material submitted by
the Parties is inconclusivein respect of the interpretation of Articleof

the 1891 Convention.

92. The Court ultimately cornes to the conclusion that Article IV,
interpreted in its context and in the light of the object and purpose of the
Convention, determines the boundary between the two Parties up to the
eastern extremity ofSebatik Island and does not establish any allocation
line further eastwards. That conclusion is confirmed both by thetravaux
préparatoires and by the subsequent conduct of the parties to the
1891 Clonvention. 93. The Court will now turn to the question whether Indonesia or
Malaysia obtained title to Ligitan and Sipadan by succession.

94. Indonesia contended during the second round of the oral proceed-
ings that, if the Court were to dismiss its claim to the islands in dispute
on the basis of the 1891Convention, it woutd nevertheless have title as
successorto the Netherlands, which inturn acquired its title through con-
tracts with the Sultan of Bulungan, the original title-holder.

95. Malaysia contends that Ligitan and Sipadan never belonged to the
possessions of the Sultan of Bulungan.
96. The Court observes that it has already dealt with the various con-
tracts of vassalage concluded between theNetherlands and the Sultan of
Bulungan when it considered the 1891 Convention (see paragraphs 18
and 64 above). It recalls that in the 1878Contract the island possessions
of the Sultan were described as "Terekkan rarakan], Nanoekan manu-
kan] and Sebittikh [Sebatik], with the islets belonging thereto". As
amended in 1893, this list refers to the three islands and surrounding

isletsin similarterms whiletaking into account the division of Sebatik on
the basis of the 1891Convention. The Court further recalls that it stated
above that the words "the islets belonging thereto" can only be inter-
preted as referring to the small islands lying in the immediate vicinity of
the three islands which are mentioned by name, and not to islands which
are located at a distance of more than 40 nautical miles. The Court there-
fore cannot accept Indonesia's contention that it inherited title to the dis-
puted islands from the Netherlands through thesecontracts, which stated
that the Sultanate of Bulungan as described in the contracts formed part
of the Netherlands Indies.
97. For its part, Malaysia maintains that it acquired sovereignty over
the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan further to a series of alleged transfers
of the titleoriginally held by the former sovereign, the Sultan of Sulu,
that title having allegedly passed in turn to Spain, the United States,

Great Britain on behalf of the State of North Borneo, the United King-
dom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and finally to Malaysia.

It isthis "chain of title" which, according to Malaysia, provides it with
a treaty-based title to Ligitan and Sipadan.

98. Malaysia asserts, in respect of the original title, that "[iln the
eighteenth and throughout the nineteenth century until 1878,the coastal
territory of north-east Borneo and its adjacent islands was a dependency
of the Sultanate of Sulu".
It States that "[tlhis control resulted from the allegiance of the local
people and the appointment of their local chiefsby the Sultan", but that670 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

his authority over the area in question was also recognized by other
States, notably Spain and the Netherlands.

Malaysia further states that during the nineteenth and twentieth cen-
turies, the islands and reefs along the north-east Coast of Borneo were
inhabited and used by the Bajau Laut, or Sea Gypsies, people who live
mostly on boats or in settlements ofstilt houses above water and devote
themselves in particular to fishing, collecting forest products and trade.
In respect specificallyof Ligitan and Sipadan, Malaysia notes that, even
though these islands were not permanently inhabited at the time of the
main decisive events in respectof sovereigntyover them, that is, the latter
part of the nineteenth century and the twentieth century, they were
nevertheless frequently visited and were an integral part of the marine
economy of the Bajau Laut.
99. Indonesia observesin the first place that if the title to the islands in
dispute of only one of the entities mentioned in the chain of allegedtitle-
holders cannot be proven to have been "demonstrably valid", the legal

foundation of Malaysia's "chain oftitle" argument disappears.

In this respect, Indonesia states that the disputed islands cannot be
regarded as falling at the time in question within the area controlled by
the Sultan of Sulu, as he was never present south of Darvel Bay except
through some commercial influence which in any event was receding
when the 1891 Convention between Great Britain and the Netherlands
was concluded. Indonesia admits that there may have been alliances
between the Sultan of Sulu and some Bajau Laut groups, but argues that
those ties were personal in nature and are not sufficient in any event to
establish territorial sovereignty over the disputed islands.

100. Concerning the transfer of sovereignty over the islands of Ligitan
and Sipadan by the Sultan of Sulu to Spain, Malaysia asserts that "Ar-
ticle1of the Protocol [confirmingthe Basesof Peace and Capitulation] of
22 July 1878declared 'as beyond discussionthe sovereignty of Spain over

al1 the Archipelago of Sulu and the dependencies thereof ". Malaysia
further holds that, pursuant to the Protocol concluded on 7 March 1885
between Spain, Germany and Great Britain, the latter two Powers recog-
nized Spain's sovereignty over the entire Sulu Archipelago as defined
in Article 2 of that instrument. According to that provision, the Archi-
pelago included "al1 the islands which are found between the western
extremity of the island of Mindanao, on the one side, and the continent
of Borneo and the island of Paragua, on the other side, with the excep-
tion ofthose which are indicated in Article 3". Malaysia points out that
this definition of the Archipelago is inconformity with that set out in
Article1of the Treaty signedon 23 September 1836between theSpanish
Government and the Sultan of Sulu. It adds that "[wlhatever the position
rnay have been in 1878,the sovereignty of Spain over the Sulu Archi-
pelago [and the dependenciesthereofl was clearly established in 1885". 101. Indonesia responds that there is no evidenceto show that Ligitan
and Sipadan were ever Spanish possessions. In support of this assertion,
Indonesia maintains that the disputed islands were not identified in any
of the agreements concluded between Spain and the Sultan. It further
cites the 1885Protocol concluded by Spain, Germany and Great Britain,
Article 1 of which provided: "The Governrnents of Germany and Great
Britain recognize the sovereignty of Spain over the places effectively
occupied. as well as over those places not yet so occupied, of the archi-
pelago of Sulu (Jo16)." In Indonesia's view, this reflected the spirit of the
1877Protocol concluded by those same States, which required Spain to

give Germany and Great Britain notice of any further occupation of the
islands of the Sulu Archipelago before being entitled to extend to those
new territories the agreed régimefor the territories already occupied by
it. This provision was repeated in Article 4 of the 1885Protocol. Accord-
ing to Indonesia, Spain however never actually occupied the islands of
Ligitan and Sipadan after the conclusion of the 1885 Protocol and,
accordingly, was never in a position to givesuch notice to the other con-
tracting parties.
102. Cloncerningthe transfer by Spain to the United States of Ligitan
and Sipadan, Malaysia maintains that it was generally recognized that
those islands were not covered by the allocation lines laid down in the
1898Treaty of Peace; Malaysia claims that the Sultan of Sulu neverthe-
less expressly recognized United States sovereignty over the whole Sulu
Archipelago and its dependencies by an Agreement dated 20 August 1899.
According to Malaysia, that omission from the 1898Treaty of Peace was
remedied by the 1900Treaty between Spain and the United States ceding
to the latter "any and al1 islands belonging to the Philippine Archi-
pelago . ..andparticularly . . .the islands of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu

and their dependencies". In Malaysia's view, the intent of the parties to
the 1900 Treaty was to bring within the scope of application of the
Treaty al1Spanish islands in the region which were not within the lines
laid down in the 1898Treaty of Peace.
In support of its interpretation of the 1900Treaty, Malaysia notes that
in 1903,after a visit of the USS Quiros to the region, the United States
Hydrographic Officepublished a chart of the "Northern Shore of Sibuko
Bay", showing the disputed islands on the American side of a line sepa-
rating British territory from United States territory. Malaysia concludes
from this that the 1903chart represented a public assertion by the United
States of its sovereignty over the additional islands ceded to it under
the 1900Treaty, adding that this assertion of sovereignty occasioned no
reaction from the Netherlands.

103. Malaysia also observes that after the voyage of the Quiros the
Chairman of the BNBC sent a letter of protest to the British Foreign
Office, stating that the Company had been peacefully administering the
islands off North Borneo beyond the line of 3marine leagues without any
opposition from Spain. According to Malaysia, the BNBC at the same672 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

time took steps to obtain confirmation from the Sultan of Sulu of its
authority over the islands lyingbeyond 3 marine leagues. The Sultan pro-
vided that confirmation by a certificate signedon 22 April 1903.Malaysia
States that the Foreign Officenevertheless had doubts about the interna-
tional legal effect of the Sultan of Sulu's 1903certificate and, faced with

the United States claims to the islandsunder the 1900Treaty, the British
Government "rather sought an arrangement with the United States that
would ensure the continuity of the Company's administration".

Malaysia considers that the United States and Great Britain attempted
to settle the questions concerning sovereignty over the islands and their
administration by an Exchange of Notes of 3 and 10 July 1907. Great
Britain is said to have recognized the continuing sovereignty of the
United States, as successor to Spain, over the islands beyond the
3-marine-league limit; for its part, the United States is said to have
accepted that these islands had in fact been administered by the BNBC
and to have agreed to allow that situation to continue, subject to a right
on both parts to terminate the agreement on 12months' notice. Malaysia
asserts thatal1relevant documents clearly show that the islands covered

by the 1907 Exchange of Notes included al1those adjacent to the North
Borneo Coast beyond the 3-marine-league line and that Ligitan and
Sipadan were among those islands. Malaysia relies in particular on the
1907 Exchange of Notes and the map to which it referred and which
depicts Ligitan and Sipadan as lying on the British side of the line which
separates the islands under British and American administration. It
further points out that the 1907Exchange of Notes was published at the
time by the United States and by Great Britain and that it attracted no
protest on the part of the Netherlands Government.
104. lndonesia responds that the 1900 Treaty only concerned those
islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago lying outside the line
agreed to in the 1898Treaty of Peace and that the 1900Treaty provided
that in particular the islands of Cagayan Sulu, Sibutu and their depen-
dencies were amongst the territories ceded by Spain to the United States.
However, according to Indonesia, Ligitan and Sipadan cannot be con-
sidered part of the Philippine Archipelago, nor can they be viewed as

dependencies of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu, which lie fat to the north.
Thus, the disputed islands could not have figured among the territories
which Spain allegedly ceded to the United States under the 1898 and
1900Treaties.
Indonesia adds that its position is supported by subsequent events.
According to it, the United States was uncertain as to the precise extent
of the possessions it had obtained from Spain.

To illustrate the uncertainties felt by the United States, Indonesia
observes that in October 1903the United States Navy Department had
recommended, after consultation with the State Department, that theboundary line shown on certain United States charts be omitted. Accord-
ing to Indonesia, it is significant that this recommendation concerned in
particular thechart of the "Northern Shore of Sibuko Bay" issued by the
United States Hydrographic Office in June 1903,after the voyage of the
Quiros. In Indonesia's view it is thus "clear that the 1903 Hydrographic
Office Chart, far from being a 'public assertion' of US sovereignty, as
suggested by Malaysia, was a tentative interna1position which was sub-
sequently withdrawn after more careful consideration"; the 1903 chart
can therefore not be seen as an official document, and nothing can be
made of the fact that it provoked no reaction from the Netherlands.

As regards the United States-British Exchange of Notes of 1907,Indo-
nesia considers that this consisted only of a temporary arrangement
whereby the United States waived in favour of the BNBC the administra-
tion of certain islands located"to the westward and southwestward of the
line traced on the [accompanying] map. . .[This],however, was without
prejudice to the issue of sovereignty" over the islands in question.

105. As regards the transfer of sovereignty over Ligitan and Sipadan
from the United States to Great Britain on behalf of North Borneo,
Malaysia argues that the 1907 Exchange of Notes had not totally settled
the issue of sovereignty over the islands situated beyond the line of three
marine leagues, laid down in the 1878Dent-von Overbeck grant. It States
that the question was finallysettled by the Convention of 2 January 1930,
which entered into force on 13 December 1932.Under that Convention,
it was agreed that the islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago

and those belonging to the State of North Borneo were to be separated
by a line running through ten specific points. Malaysia points out that
under the 1930Convention "al1 islands to the north and east of the line
were to belong to the Philippine Archipelago and al1islands to the south
and west were to belong to the State of Borneo". In Malaysia's view,
since Ligitan and Sipadan clearly lie to the south and Westof the 1930
line,it fellows that they were formally transferred to North Borneo under
British protection.
Malaysia makes the further point that the 1930Convention was pub-
lished both by the United States and by Great Britain and also in the
League of Nations Treaty Series, and that it evoked "no reaction from
the Netherlands, though one might have been expected if the islands dis-
posed of by it were claimed by the Netherlands".
Finally, Malaysia observes that, by an agreement concluded on
26 June 1946between the British Government and the BNBC, "the latter
ceded to the Crown al1its sovereign rights and its assets in North Bor-

neo". According to Malaysia, the disappearance of the State of North
Borneo and its replacement by the British Colony of North Borneo had
no effect on the extent of the territory belonging to North Borneo.
106. For its part, Indonesia claims that the documents relating to the
negotiation of the 1930Convention show clearly that the United Statesdeemed that it had title to islands lyingmore than 3 marine leagues from
the North Borneo coast only in areas lyingto the north of Sibutu and its
immediate dependencies. Hence, Indonesia contends that the negotia-
tions leading up to the conclusion ofthe 1930Convention focused solely
on the status of the Turtle Islands and the Mangsee Islands. It observes
that, in any event, the southern limits of the boundary fixed by the
1930 Convention lay well to the north of latitude 4" 10'north and thus
well to the north of Ligitan and Sipadan.

107. As regards transmission of the United Kingdom's title to Malay-
sia, the latter states that, by the Agreement of 9 July 1963 between the
Governments of the Federation of Malaya, the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, North Borneo, Sarawak and Singa-
pore, which came into effect on 16 September 1963, North Borneo
became a State within Malaysia under the name of Sabah.

108. The Court notes at the outset that the islands in dispute are
not mentioned by name in any of the international legal instruments
presented by Malaysia to prove the allegedconsecutive transfers of title.

The Court further notes that the two islands were not included in the

grant by which the Sultan of Sulu ceded al1his rights and powers over his
possessions in Borneo, including the islands within a limit of 3 marine
leagues, to Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck on 22 January 1878,a
fact not contested by the Parties.

Finally, the Court observes that, while the Parties both maintain that
the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan were not terrae nullius during the
period in question in the present case, theydo so on the basis ofiametri-
cally opposed reasoning, each of them claiming to hold title to those
islands.

109. The Court will first deal with the question whether Ligitan and
Sipadan were part of the possessions ofthe Sultan of Sulu. It is not con-
tested by the Parties that geographically these islands do not belong to

the Sulu Archipelago proper. In al1 relevant documents, however, the
Sultanate is invariably described as "the Archipelago of Sulu and the
dependencies thereof' or "the Island of Sooloo with al1 its dependen-
cies". In a number of these documents its territorial extent is rather
vaguely defined as "compris[ing]al1the islands which are found between
the western extremity of the island of Mindanao, on the one side,and the
continent of Borneo and the island of Paragua, on the other side" (Pro-
tocol between Spain, Germany and Great Britain, 7 March 1885;seealso675 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

the Capitulations concluded between Spain and the Sultan of Sulu,
23 September 1836). These documents, therefore, provide no answer to
the question whether Ligitan and Sipadan, which are located at a con-
siderable distance from the main island of Sulu, were part of the Sultan-
ate's dependencies.
110. Malaysia relies on the ties of allegiance whichallegedly existed
between the Sultan of Sulu and the Bajau Laut who inhabited the islands
off the coast of North Borneo and who from time to time may have made
use of the two uninhabited islands. The Court is of the opinion that such
ties may wellhave existed but that they are in themselvesnot sufficient to
provide evidence that the Sultan of Sulu claimed territorial title to these
two small islands or considered them part of his possessions. Nor is there
any evidence that the Sultan actually exercised authority over Ligitan
and Sipadan.
111. Turning now to the alleged transfer of title over Ligitan and
Sipadan to Spain, the Court notes that in the Protocol between Spain
and Sulu Confirming the Bases of Peaceand Capitulation of 22 July 1878
the Sultan of Sulu definitively ceded the "Archipelago of Sulu and the
dependencies thereof' to Spain. In the Protocol of 7 March 1885 con-
cluded between Spain, Germany and Great Britain, the Spanish Govern-
ment relinquished, as far as regarded the British Government, al1claims

of sovereignty over the territory of North Borneo and the neighbouring
islands within a zone of 3 marine leagues, mentioned in the 1878 Dent-
von Overbeck grant, whereas Great Britain and Germany recognized
Spanish sovereignty over "the places effectivelyoccupied, as well over
those places not yet so occupied, of the Archipelago of Sulu (Jolo), of
which the boundaries are determined in Article 2". Article 2contains the
rather vague definition mentioned in paragraph 109above.

112. It is not contested between the Parties that Spain at no time
showed an interest in the islands in dispute or the neighbouring islands
and that it did notextend its authority to these islands. Nor is there any
indication in the case filethat Spain gave notice of its occupation ofse
islands, in accordance with the procedure provided for in Article 4 of
the 1885 Protocol. Nor is it contested that, in the years after 1878, the
BNBC gradually extended its administration to islands lying beyond
the 3-marine-league limitwithout, however, claiming title to them and /
without protest from Spain.
113. The Court therefore cannot but conclude that there is no evidence
that Spain considered Ligitan and Sipadan as covered by the 1878 Pro-
tocol between Spain and the Sultan of Sulu or that Germany and Great
Britain recognized Spanish sovereignty over them in the 1885 Protocol.

It catinot be disputed, however, that the Sultan of Sulu relinquished
the sovereign rights over al1 his possessions in favour of Spain,
thus losing any title he may have had over islands located beyond the
3-marine-league limit from thecoast of North Borneo. He was thereforenot in a position to declare in 1903 that such islands had been
included in the 1878grant to Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck.

114. The Court, therefore, is of the opinion that Spain was the only
State which could have laid claimto Ligitan and Sipadan by virtue of the
relevant instruments but that there is no evidence that it actually did so.
It further observes that at the time neither Great Britain, on behalf of the
State of North Borneo, nor the Netherlands explicitly or implicitly laid
claim to Ligitan and Sipadan.
115. The next link in the chain of transfers of title is the Treaty of

7 November 1900between the United States and Spain, by which Spain
"relinquish[ed] to the United States al1title and claim of titl. . to any
and al1islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago" which had not
been covered by the Treaty of Peace of 10December 1898. Mention was
made in particular of the islands of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu, but no
other islands which were situated closer to the coast of North Borneo
were mentioned by name.
116. The Court first notes that, although it is undisputed that Ligitan
and Sipadan were not within the scopeof the 1898Treaty of Peace, the
1900 Treaty does not specify islands, apart from Cagayan Sulu and
Sibutu and their dependencies, that Spain ceded to the United States.
Spain nevertheless relinquished by that Treaty any claim it may have had
to Ligitan and Sipadan or other islands beyond the 3-marine-league limit
from the coast of North Borneo.

117. Subsequent events show that the United States itself was uncer-
tain to which islands it had acquired titleunder the 1900Treaty.The cor-

respondence between the United States Secretary of State and the United
States Secretaries of War and of the Navy in theaftermath of the voyage
of the USS Quiros and the re-edition of a map of the United States
Hydrographic Office, the first version of which had contained a line of
separation between United States and British possessions attributing
Ligitan and Sipadan to the United States, demonstrate that the State
Department had no clear idea of the territorial and maritime extent of
the Philippine Archipelago, title to whicht had obtained from Spain. In
this respect the Court notes that the United States Secretary of State in
hisletter of 23 October 1903to the Acting Secretary of War wrote that a
bilateral arrangement with Great Britain wasnecessary "to trace the line
demarking [their] respective jurisdictions", whereas with regard to
Sipadan he explicitly stated that he was not in a position to determine
whether "Sipadan and the included keysand rocks had been recognized
as lying within the dominions of Sulu".

118. A temporary arrangement between Great Britain and the United
States was made in 1907 by an Exchange of Notes. This Exchange of
Notes, which did not involve a transfer of territorial sovereignty, pro-vided for a continuation of the administration by the BNBC of the
islands situated more than 3marine leagues from the Coastof North Bor-
neo but left unresolved the issue to which of the parties these islands
belonged. There was no indication to which of the islands administered
by the BNBC the United States claimed title and the question of sover-
eignty was therefore left in abeyance. No conclusion therefore can be
drawn from the 1907 Exchange of Notes as regards sovereignty over
Ligitan and Sipadan.
119. This temporary arrangement lasted until 2 January 1930,when a

Convention was concluded betweenGreat Britain and the United States
in which a line wasdrawn separating the islands belonging to the Philip-
pine Archipelago on the one hand and the islands belonging to the State
of North Borneo on the other hand. Article III of that Convention stated
that al1 islands to the south and Westof the line should belong to the
State of North Borneo. From a point well to the north-east of Ligitan
and Sipadan, the lineextended to the north and to the east. The Conven-
tion did not mention any island by name apart from the Turtle and
Mangsee Islands, which were declared to be under United States sover-
eignty.
120. By concluding the 1930 Convention, the United States relin-
quished any claim it might have had to Ligitan and Sipadan and to the
neighbouring islands. But the Court cannot conclude either from the
1907 Exchange of Notes or from the 1930Convention or from any docu-
ment emanating from the United States Administration in the interven-

ing period that the United States did claim sovereigntyover these islands.
It can, therefore, not be said with any degree of certainty that by the
1930 Convention the United States transferred title to Ligitan and
Sipadan to Great Britain, as Malaysia asserts.
121. On the other hand, the Court cannot let go unnoticed that Great
Britain was of the opinion that as a result of the 1930 Convention it
acquired, on behalf of the BNBC, title to al1 the islands beyond the
3-marine-league zone which had been administered by the Company,
with the exception of the Turtle and the Mangsee Islands. To none of the
islands lying beyond the 3-marine-league zone had it ever before laid a
formal claim. Whether such title in the case of Ligitan and Sipadan
and the neighbouring islands was indeed acquired as a result of the 1930
Convention is less relevant than the fact that Great Britain's position
on the effect of this Convention was not contested by any other State.

122. The State of North Borneo was transformed into a colony in

1946. Subsequently, by virtue of Article IV of the Agreement of
9 July 1963, the Government of the United Kingdom agreed to take
"such steps as [might]be appropriate and available to them to secure the
enactment by the Parliament of the United Kingdom of an Act providing
for the relinquishmenk . . of Her Britannic Majesty's sovereignty and
jurisdiction in respect of North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore" in
favour of Malaysia.678 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

123. In 1969 Indonesia challenged Malaysia's title to Ligitan and
Sipadan and claimed to have title to the two islands on the basis of the
1891Convention.
124. In view of the foregoing, the Court concludes that it cannot
accept Malaysia's contention that there is an uninterrupted series of
transfers of title from the alleged originaltitle-holder, the Sultan of Sulu,
to Malaysia as the present one. It has not been established with certainty
that Ligitan and Sipadan belonged to the possessions of the Sultan of
Sulu nor that any of the alleged subsequent title-holders had a treaty-
based title to these two islands. The Court can therefore not find that

Malaysia has inherited a treaty-based title from its predecessor, the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

125. The Court has already found that the 1891Convention does not
provide Indonesia with a treaty-based title and that title to the islands did
not pass to Indonesia as successor to the Netherlands and the Sultan of
Bulungan (seeparagraphs 94 and 96 above).
126. The Court will therefore now consider whether evidence fur-
nished by the Parties with respect to "effectivités" relied upon by them
provides the basis for a decision - as requested in the Special Agree-
ment - on the question to whom sovereigntyover Ligitan and Sipadan
belongs. The Court recalls that it has already ruled in a number of cases
on the legal relationship between "effectivités" and title. The relevant
passage for the present case can be found in the Judgrnent in the Frontier

Dispute (Burkina FasolRepublic of Mali) case, where the Chamber of
the Court stated after having said that "a distinction must be drawn
among several eventualities": "[iln the event that the effectivité does not
CO-existwith any legal title, it must invariably be taken into considera-
tion" (I.C.J. Reports 1986,p. 587, para. 63; see also Territorial Dispute
(Libyan Arab JarnahiriyalChad), 1. C.J. Reports 1994, p. 38, paras. 75-
76; Land and Maritime Boundary between Carneroonand Nigeria (Cam-
eroon v. Nigeria: Equaiorial Guinea intervening), Judgrnent, Merits,
I.C.J. Reports 2002, pp. 353-353,para. 68).

127. Both Parties claim that the effectivitéson which they rely merely
confirm a treaty-based title. On an alternative basis, Malaysia claims that
it acquired title to Ligitan and Sipadan by virtue of continuous peaceful

possession and administration, without objection from Indonesia or its
predecessors in title.
The Court, having found that neither of the Parties has a treaty-based
title to Ligitan andSipadan (seeparagraphs 92 and 124above), willcon-
sider these effectivitésas an independent and separate issue. 128. Indonesia points out that, during the 1969 negotiations on the
delimitation of the respectivecontinental shelvesofthe two States, Malay-
sia raised a claim to sovereignty over Ligitan and Sipadan Islands.
According to Indonesia, it was thus at that time that the "critical date"
arose in the present dispute. It contends that the two Parties undertook,
in an exchange of letters of 22September 1969,to refrain from any action
which might alter the status quo in respect of the disputed islands. It
asserts that from 1969the respective claims of the Parties therefore find
themselves "legally neutralized", and that, for this reason, their subse-
quent statements or actions are not relevant to the present proceedings.

Indonesia adds that Malaysia, from 1979onwards, nevertheless took a
series of unilateral measures that were fundamentally incompatible with
the undertaking thus given to respect the situation as it existed in 1969.
By way of example Indonesia mentions the publication of maps by
Malaysia showing, unlike earlier maps, the disputed islands as Malaysian
and the establishment of a number of tourist facilitieson Sipadan. Indo-
nesia adds that it always protested whenever Malaysia took such uni-
lateral steps.

129. With respect to the critical date, Malaysia beginsby asserting that
prior to the 1969 discussions on the delimitation of the continental
shelvesof the Parties, neither Indonesia nor its predecessorshad expressed
any interest in or claim to these islands. It however emphasizes the
importance of the critical date, not so much in relation to the admissi-

bility of evidence but rather to "the weight to be given to it". Malaysia
therefore asserts that a tribunal may always take into account post-criti-
cal date activity if the party submitting it shows that the activity in ques-
tion started at a time prior to the critical date and simply continued
thereafter. As for scuba-diving activities on Sipadan, Malaysia observes
that the tourist trade, generated by this sport, emerged from the time
when it became popular, and that it had itself accepted the responsibili-
ties of sovereignty to ensure the protection of the island'senvironment as
well as to meet the basic needsof the visitors.

130. In support of its arguments relating to effectivitésIndonesia cites
patrols in the area by vesselsof the Dutch Royal Navy. It refers to a list
of Dutch ships present in the area between 1895and 1928,prepared on

the basis of the reports on the colonies presented each year to Parliament
by the Dutch Government ("Koloniale Verslagen"), and relies in par-
ticular on the presencein the area of the Dutch destroyer Lynx in Novem-
ber and December 1921.Indonesia refers to the fact that a patrol team of
the Lynx went ashore on Sipadan and that the plane carried aboard the
Lyn.r traversed the air spaceof Ligitan and its waters, whereas the 3-milezones of SiAmi1and other islands under Britishauthority were respected.
Indonesia considers that the report submitted by the commander of the
Lynx to the Commander Naval Forces Netherlands Indies after the voy-
age shows that the Dutch authorities regarded Ligitan and Sipadan
Islands as being under Dutch sovereignty,whereas other islands situated
to the north ofthe 1891line wereconsideredto be British. Indonesia also
mentions the hydrographic surveyscarried out by the Dutch, in particu-
lar the siirveying activities of the vesse1Macasserthroughout the region,
including the area around Ligitan and Sipadan, in October and Novem-
ber 1903.

As regards its own activities, Indonesia notes that"lplrior to the emer-

gence of the dispute in 1969,the Indonesian Navy was also active in the
area, visitingSipadan on several occasions".

As regards fishing activities, Indonesia States that Indonesian fisher-
men have traditionally plied their trade around the islands of Ligitan and
Sipadan. It has submitted a seriesof affidavitswhich provide a record of
occasional visits to the islands dating back to the 1950sand early 1960%
and even to the early 1970%after the dispute between the Parties had
emerged.

Finally, in regard to its Act No. 4 concerning Indonesian Waters,
promulgated on 18February 1960,in which its archipelagic baselines are
defined, Indonesia recognizes that it did not at that time include Ligitan
or Sipadan as base points for the purpose of drawing baselines and defin-

ing its archipelagic waters and territorial sea. But it argues that this can-
not be interpreted as demonstrating that Indonesia regarded the islands
as not belonging to its territory. It points out in this connection that the
Act of 1960was prepared in some haste, which can be explained by the
need to create a precedent for the recognition of the concept of archipe-
lagic waters just before the Second United Nations Conference on the
Law ofthe Sea, which wasdue to beheld from 17March to 26 April 1960.
Indonesia adds that it moreover sought to diverge as little as possible
from the existing law of the sea, one of the principles of which was that
the drawing of baselines could not depart to any appreciable extent from
the general direction of theCoast.

131. Malaysia argues that the alleged Dutch and Indonesian naval
activities are very limited innumber. Malaysia contends that these activi-

ties cannot be regarded as evidence of the continuous exercise of govern-
mental activity in and in relation to Ligitan and Sipadan that may be
indicative of any claim of title to the islands.
As regards post-colonial practice, Malaysia observes that, for the first
25 years of its independence, Indonesia showed no interest in Ligitan andSipadan. Malaysia claims that Indonesia "did not manifest any presence
in the area, did not try to administer the islands, enacted no legislation
and made no ordinances or regulations concerning the two islands or
their surrounding waters".

Malaysia further observes that Indonesian Act No. 4 of 18 Febru-
ary 1960, to which a map was attached, defined the outer limits of the
Indonesian national waters by a list of baseline CO-ordinates.However,
Indonesia did not use the disputed islands as reference points for the
baselines. Malaysia argues that, in light of the said Act and of the map

attached thereto, Ligitan and Sipadan Islands cannot be regarded as
belonging to Indonesia. Malaysia admits that it has still not published a
detailed map of its own baselines.It points out that it did, however, pub-
lish its continental shelf boundaries in 1979, in a way which takes full
account of the two islands in question.

132. As regards its effectivitéson the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan,
Malaysia mentions control over the taking of turtles and the collection of
turtle eggs; it States that collecting turtle eggs was the most important
economic activity on Sipadan for many years. As early as 1914, Great
Britain took steps to regulate and control the collection of turtle eggs on
Ligitan and Sipadan. Malaysia stresses the fact that it was to British
North Borneo officialsthat the resolution of disputes concerning the col-
lection of turtle eggs was referred. It notes that a licensing system was
established for boats used to fish the waters around the islands. Malaysia

also relies on the establishment in 1933 of a bird sanctuary on Sipadan.
Malaysia further points out that the British North Borneo colonial
authorities constructed lighthouses on Ligitan and Sipadan Islands in the
early 1960s and that these exist to this day and are maintained by the
Malaysjan authorities. Finally, Malaysia cites Malaysian Government
regulation of tourism on Sipadan and the fact that, from 25 Septem-
ber 1997, Ligitan and Sipadan became protected areas under Malaysia's
Protected Areas Order of that year.

133. Indonesia denies that the acts relied upon by Malaysia, whether
considered in isolation ortaken as a whole, are sufficientto establish the
existence of a continuous peaceful possession and administration of the
islands capable of creating a territorial title in the latter's favour.
As regards the collection ofturtle eggs, Indonesia does not contest the
facts as stated by Malaysia but argues that the regulations issued by the

British and the rules established for the resolution of disputes between
the inhabitants of the area were evidence of the exercise of personal
rather than territorial jurisdiction. Indonesia also contests the evidentiary
value of the establishment of a bird sanctuary by the British authorities
as an act à titre de souverain in relation to Sipadan. Similarly, in Indo-
nesia's view, Malaysia'sconstruction and maintenance of lighthouses do682 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

not constitute proof of acts à titre de soirverain.It observes in any event
that it did notobject to these activities by Malaysia because they were of
general interest for navigation.

134. The Court first recalls the statement by the Permanent Court
of International Justice in the Legal Status of Eastern Greenland
(Denmark v. Norway) case:
"a claim to sovereignty based not upon some particular act or title
such as a treaty of cession but merely upon continued display of

authority, involves two elements each of which must be shown to
exist: the intention and will to act as sovereign, and some actual
exercise or display of such authority.

Another circumstance which must be taken into account by any
tribunal which has to adjudicate upon a claim to sovereignty over a
particular territory, is the extent to which the sovereignty is also
claimed by some other Power."

The Permanent Court continued :
"It is impossible to read the records of the decisions in cases asto
territorial sovereignty without observing that in many cases the tri-
bunal has been satisfied with verylittle in the way of the actual exer-

cise of sovereign rights, provided that the other State could not
make out a superior claim. This is particularly true in the case of
claims to sovereignty over areas in thinly populated or unsettled
countries." (P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 53, pp. 45-46.)

In particular in the case of verysmall islands which are uninhabited or
not permanently inhabited - like Ligitan and Sipadan, which have been

of little economic importance (at least until recently)- effectivités will
indeed generally be scarce.
135. The Court further observes that it cannot take into consideration
acts having taken place after the date on which the dispute between the
Parties crystallized unlesssuch acts are a normal continuation of prior
acts and are not undertaken for the purpose of improving the legal posi-
tion of the Party which relies on them (see the Arbitral Award in the
Palena case, 38 International Law Reports (ILR), pp. 79-80). The Court
will, therefore,primarily, analyse the effectivitéswhich date from the
period before 1969, the year in which the Parties asserted conflicting
claims to Ligitan and Sipadan.

136. The Court finally observes that it can only consider those acts asconstituting a relevant display of authority which leave no doubt as to
their specific reference to the islands in dispute as such. Regulations or
administrative acts of a general naturecan therefore be taken as effec-
tivirw éith regard to Ligitan and Sipadan only if it is clear from their
terms or their effects that they pertained toese two islands.

137. Turning now to the effectivi rtied on by Indonesia, the
Court will begin by pointing out that none of them is of a legislativeor

regulatory character. Moreover, the Court cannot ignore the fact that
Indonesian Act No. 4 of 8 February 1960, which draws Indonesia's
archipelagic baselines, and its accompanying map do not mention or
indicate Ligitan and Sipadan as relevant base points or turning points.

138. Indonesia cites in the first place a continuous presence of the
Dutch and Indonesian navies in the waters around Ligitan and Sipadan.
It relies in particular on the voyage of the Dutch destroyer Lynx
in November 1921.This voyage was part of a joint action of the British
and Dutch navies to combat piracy in the waters east of Borneo. Accord-
ing to the report by the commander of the Lynx,an armed sloop was
despatched to Sipadan to gather information about pirate activitiesand a
seaplane flew a reconnaissance flight through the island's airspace and
subsequently flew overLigitan. Indonesia concludes from this operation

that the Netherlands consideredthe airspace, and thus also the islands, as
Dutch territory.

139. In the opinion of the Court, it cannot be deduced either from the
report of the commanding officer of the Lynxor from any other docu-
ment presented by Indonesia in connection with Dutch or Indonesian
naval surveillance and patrol activities that the naval authoritiescon-
cerned considered Ligitan and Sipadan and the surrounding waters to be
under the sovereignty of the Netherlands or Indonesia.
140. Finally, Indonesia States that the waters around Ligitan and
Sipadan have traditionally been used by Indonesian fishermen.TheCourt
observes, however, that activities byprivate persons cannot be seen as
effectivii fttésy do not take place on the basis of officialregulations or
under governmental authority.

141. The Court concludesthat the activities relied upon by Indonesia

do not constitute actsititr desouverari eflectingthe intention and will
to act in that capacity.

142. With regard to the effectivri eliesupon by Malaysia, the Court684 PULAU LICITAN AND I'ULAUSIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

first observes that pursuant to the 1930Convention, the United States
relinquished any claim it might have had to Ligitan and Sipadan and that
no other State asserted its sovereignty over those islands at that time or
objected to their continued administration by the State of North Borneo.
The Court further observes that those activities which took place before
the conclusion of that Convention cannot be seen as acts"à titre dsou-
veraiji",as Great Britain did not at that time claim sovereignty on behalf
of the State of North Borneo over the islandsbeyond the 3-marine-league

limit.Sinceit, however, took the position that the BNBC was entitled to
administer the islands, a position which after 1907was formally recog-
nized by the United States, these administrative activities cannot be
ignored either.

143. As evidence of such effective administration over the islands,
Malaysia cites the measures taken by the North Borneo authorities to
regulate and control the collecting of turtle eggson Ligitan and Sipadan,
an activity of some economic significancein the area at the time. It refers
in particular to the Turtle Preservation Ordinance of 1917, thepurpose of
which wasto limit the capture of turtles and the collection of turtle eggs
"within the State [of North Borneo] or the territorial waters thereof'.

The Court notes that the Ordinance provided in this respect for a
licensing system and for the creation of native reserves for the collec-
tion of turtle eggs and listedSipadan among the islands included in one
of those reserves.

Malaysia adduces several documents showing that the 1917 Turtle
Preservation Ordinance was applied until the 1950s at least. In this
regard, it cites, forample, the licence issued on 28 April 1954 by the
District Officer of Tawau permitting the capture of turtles pursuant to
Section 2 of the Ordinance. The Court observes that this licence covered
an area including "the islands of Sipadan, Ligitan, Kapalat, Mabul,
Dinawan and Si-Amil".
Further, Malaysia mentions certain casesboth before and after 1930in

which it has been shown that administrative authorities settled disputes
about the collection of turtle eggs onSipadan.

144. Malaysia also refers to the fact that in 1933 Sipadan, under
Section 28 of the Land Ordinance, 1930,was declared to be "a reserve
for the purpose of bird sanctuaries".
145. The Court is of the opinion that both the measures taken to regu-
late and control the collecting of turtle eggs and the establishment of a
bird reservemust be seen as regulatory and administrative assertions of
authority over territory which is specifiedby name.

146. Malaysia further invokes the fact that the authorities of the
colony of North Borneoconstructed a lighthouse on Sipadan in 1962and

another on Ligitan in 1963,that those lighthouses exist to this day andthat they have been maintained by Malaysian authorities since its inde-
pendence. It contends that the construction and maintenance of such
lighthouses is "part of a pattern of exercise ofStateauthority appropriate
in kind and degree to the character of the places involved".
147. The Court observesthat the construction and operation of light-
houses and navigational aids are not normally considered manifestations
of State authority (Minquiers and Ecrehos, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1953, p. 71). The Court, however, recalls that in its Judgment in the case
concerning Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between
Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain) it stated as follows:

"Certain types of activitiesinvoked by Bahrain such as the drilling
of artesian wellswould, taken by themselves, be considered contro-
versial as acts performed a titre de souverain. The construction of
navigational aids, on the other hand, can be legally relevant in the
case of very small islands. In the present case, taking into account
the size of Qit'at Jaradah, the activities carried out by Bahrain on

that island must be considered sufficientto support Bahrain's claim
that it has sovereignty over it." (Judgment, Merits, I.C.J. Reports
2001, pp. 99-100,para. 197.)
The Court is of the viewthat the sameconsiderations apply in the present
case.

148. The Court notes that the activities relied upon by Malaysia, both

in its own name and as successor State of Great Britain, are modest in
number but that they are diverse in character and include legislative,
administrative and quasi-judicial acts. They cover a considerable period
of time and show a pattern revealing an intention to exercise State func-
tions in respect of the two islands in the context of the administration of
a wider range of islands.
The Court moreover cannot disregard the fact that at the time when
these activities werecarried out, neither Indonesia nor its predecessor,the
Netherlands, ever expressed its disagreement or protest. In this regard,
the Court notes that in 1962and 1963the Indonesian authorities did not
even remind the authorities of the colony of North Borneo, or Malaysia
after its independence, that the construction of the lighthouses at those
times had taken place on territory which they considered Indonesian;
even if they regarded theselighthouses as merely destined for safenaviga-
tion in an area which was of particular importance for navigation in the

waters off North Borneo, such behaviour is unusual.

149. Given the circumstances ofthe case, and in particular in view of
the evidence furnished by the Parties, the Court concludes that Malaysiahas title to Ligitan and Sipadan on the basis of the effectivitésreferred to
above.

150. For these reasons,

By sixteen votes to one,
Finds that sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan belongs
to Malaysia.

IN FAVOUR: PresidentGuillaume; Vice-PresidenS t hi; JudgesOda, Ranjeva,
Herczegh, Fleischhauer, Koroma, Vereshchetin, Higgins, Parra-
Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal,Elaraby;
Judgead hoc Weeramantry ;
AGAINSJT u:dgead hoc Franck.

Done in English and in French, the English text beingauthoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this seventeenth day of December, two
thousand and two, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the

archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of
the Republic of Indonesia and the Government of Malaysia, respectively.

(Signed) Gilbert GUILLAUME,
President.

(Signed) Philippe COWREUR,
Registrar.

Judge ODAappends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge
ad hoc FRANCK appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the
Court.

(InitiaIIed) G.G.
(Initialled) Ph.C.

Bilingual Content

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASE CONCERNING SOVEREIGNTY

OVER PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN

(INDONESIAIMALAYSIA)

COLR INTERNATlONDEJUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRETS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE RELATIVE À LA SOUVERAINETÉ

SUR PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN

(INDONÉSIEIMALAISIE)PRlNTEDIN THE NETHERLANDS

ISSN 0074-4441

ISBN 92-1-070964-0 Official cit:tion
Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (IndonesialMalaysia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 625 4,''

Mode officiel de citation:
Souverainetésur Pulau Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan (ZndonésielMalaisie),
arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 625

Salenumber
ISSN 0074-4441 Node vente: 858 1
ISBN 92-1-070964-0 17DECEMBER2002

JUDGMENT

SOVEREIGNTYOVERPULAU LIGITAN
AND PULAU SIPADAN

(INDONESINMALAYSIA)

SOUVERAINETÉSUR PULAU LIGITAN
ET PULAU SIPADAN INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

2002 YEAR 2002
17 December
General List
No. 102 17 December2002

CASE CONCERNING SOVEREIGNTY OVER

PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN

(INDONESIAIMALAYSIA)

Geographicalcontext - Historical background- Bases onwhichthe Parties
found tlieir claims to the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan.

Conventional title asserted by Indonesia (1891 Convention between Great
Britain and the Netherlands}.
Indonesia's argumentthat the 1891 Convention established the4" 10' north
parallel of latitude as the dividing line between the respective possessions of

Great Britain and the Netherlands in the area of the disputed islands and that
those islands thereforebelong to it as successor to the Netherlands.

Disagreement of the Parties on the interpretation tu be given to Article IV of
the 1891 Convention - Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention on theLaw
of Treaties reflect international customary law on the subject.
Text of Article IV of the 1891 Convention - Clause providing "From
4' 10'north latitude on the east Coastthe boundary-lineshall be continuedeast-
wardalong that parallel, across the Island of Sebittik ..".- Ambiguity of the
terms "shall be continued" and "across" - Ambiguity which couldhave been
avoided had the Convention expressfy st@u/ated that the 4"10' norrhparallel

constitured the line separating the islands under British sovereigntyfrom those
under Dlttck sovereignty - Ordinary meaning ofthe term "boundary".

Context of the 1891 Convention - Explanatory Memorandum appended to
the draft Law submitted to the Netherlands States-General with a view to rati-
fication of the Convention - Map appended to the Memorandum shows a red
line conlinuing out to sea along the 4"10'northparallel - Line cannot be con-
sidered to have beenextended in order to settle any dispute in the watersbeyond
Sebatik - Explanatory Memoranditm and map never transmitted by the Dutch
Government to the British Government but simplyforwardedto the latter by ifs COUR INTERNATIONALEDEJUSTICE

ANNEE 2002
2002
Rôlegénéral
17décembr2 e002 no 102

SUR PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN

Cadregéographique - ContexteIristorique - Basesstirlesquelles lesParties
fondent leur revendication sur lesiles de Ligitan et Sipadan.

Titre conventionnel alléguépar l'Indonésie(convention de 1891 entre la
Grande-Bretagneet les Pays-Bas).
Argumentation de l'Indonésieselon laquelle laconvention de 1891 aurait

fixé comme lignede partage entre les possessions respectives de la Grande-
Bretagne et des Pays-Bas dans la zone des iles en litige le parallèle 4"10'de
latitude nord, lesdites iles lu~~appartenant dèslors en tant que successeur des
Pays-Bas.
Désaccorddes Parties quant a l'interprétationa donner à l'article IV de la
conventionde 1891 - Articles 31 et 32 de la conventionde Vienne sur le droit
des traitésreflétantle droit international coutumier enla matière.
Texte de l'article IV de la conventionde 1891 - Membre de phrase selon

lequel«A partir dupoint situéà 4"10'de latitude nord surla cBte orientale, la
lignefrontière sepoursuit versl'est lelong du même parallèle,à travers l'îlede
Sebittik.» -- Ambiguïtédes termes«sepoursuit w et «à travers» - Ambiguïté
quiauraitpu êtreévitée si la conventionavait précisédemanièreexpresse quele
parallèle 4"10'de latitude nord constitueraitla ligneséparantles îles sous sou-
verainetébritannique er cellessous souveraineténéerlandaise - Sens ordinaire
du terme (frontiéie)).
Contexte de la convention de 1891 - Mémorandumexplicatifjoint auprojet
de loiprésentéaux Etats-générauxdes Pays-Bas en vue de la ratification de la
convention -- Cartejointe au mémorandum comportanu tne ligne rougesepour-

suivant en mer le long duparallèle4"10'de latitude nord - Ligne ne pouvant
étreconsidéréc eomme ayant été prolongée afinderéglerune quelconque contro-
verseau largede Sebatik - Mémorandumexplicatlfet carte n'ayantjamais été
transmispar le Gouvernementnéerlandaisau Gouvernementbritannique, maisdiplomatic agent in The Hague - Lack of reaction by the British Governnient
to tlie line cannot be deemed to constitute acquiescence.

Object and purpose of tlie Convention - Delimitation solely of the parties'
possessions within the island of Borneo.
Article IV of the Convention, when read incontext and in the light of the
Convention'sobject andpurpose, cannot be interpreted as establishing an allo-

cation litle determinittg sovereignty over the islands out to sea, to the east of
Sebatik.
Recourse to suppletnentarymeans of interpretation in order to seek apossible
confirmation of the Court's interpretation of the text of the Convention -
Neither travaux préparatoires of the Convention nor circumstances of its con-
clusionsupport the position of Indonesia.
Subsequentpractice of theparties - 1915 Agreement between Great Britain
and the lvetherlands concerningthe boundary between the State of North Bor-
neo and the Dutch possessions on Borneo reinforcesthe Court's interpretation

of the 1891 Convetition - Court cannot draw any conclusionfrom the other
documents cited.
Maps produced by tlie Parties - With the exception of the map annexed to
tlie 1915 Agreement, cartographicmaterial inconclusive in respectof the inter-
prefatiotaof Article IV.
Court ultimately cornes to the conclusion that Article IV determines the
boundarybetween the two Parties i~pto the eastern extremity of Sebatik Island
and does not establisli any allocation linefurther eastivards.

Question whetherZndonesiaor Malaysia obtainedtitle to Ligitan and Sipadan
by succession.
Indonesia's argument that it was sltccessor to the Sultan of Bulungan, the
original title-holder to the disputed islands, throughcontracts whichstated that
the Sultanate as described in the contracts formed part of the Netherlands
Indies -- Indonesia's contention cannotbe accepted.
Disputed islands not mentioned by name in any of the international legal
instruments cited - Islands not included inthe 1878 grant by which the Sultan

of Sulu ceded al1 his rights and powers over his possessions in Borneoto
Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck - Court observesthat, while the Parties
both maintain that Ligitan and Sipadan werenot terrae nullius during theperiod
in question inthe present case,they do so on the basis of diametrically opposed
reasoning,each of them claiming to hold title to those islands.

Malaysia's argumentthat it was successorto the Sultan of Sulu, the original
title-holderto the disputed islands,further to a seriesof alleged transfers of that
title to Spain, the United States, Great Britain on behalfof the State of North
Borneo, the United Kingdom, and Malaysia cannot be upheld.

Consideration of the effectivitésrelied on by the Parties.
Effectivités generally scarce in the case of very small islands which are
uninhabited or not permanently inhabited, like Ligitan and Sipadan - Court PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRET) 626

ayant seulement été adressés à ce dernier par son agentdiplomatique à La Haye
- Absence de réactiondu Gouvernement britannique à l'égardde la ligne ne
pouvant êtreconsidérée comme valant acquiescement.
Objet et but de la convention - Délimitation desseules possessions des
parties à l'intérieur de l'île Bornéo.
Article II'de la convention,lu dans son contexte età la lumière de l'objetet
du but de la convention.nepouvant être interprétc éomme établissant une ligne

d'attribution de la souverainetésur des îles situéesau large, a l'est de Sebatik,

Recours à des moyens complémentaires d'interprétatioa nux fins d'y recher-
cher une confirmationéventuellede l'interprétationtiréepar laCour du texte de
la convention - Travaux préparatoiresde la convention et circonstances dans
lesquelles celle-ci a étconcluen'étayantpas la thèsede l'Indonésie.
Pratique ultérieuredes parties- Accord de 1915entre la Grande-Bretagne
et les Pays-Bas au sujet de lafrontière entre 1'Etatdu Nord-Bornéo etlespos-
sessions néerlandaisesà Bornéovenantrenforcer la lecture qu'afaite la Cour de

la convention de 1891 - Cour ne pouvant tirer aucuneconclusion des autres
documents invoqués.
Cartes produites par les Parties - Matériaucartographique nepermettant
pas, en dehors de la carte annexée à l'accord de 1915,d'aboutir à des conclu-
sions en ce qui concernel'interprétation de l'articlIV.
Couraboutissant en définitiveà la conclusion quel'articleIVfixe lafrontière
entre les deux Partiesjusqu'à l'extrémitéorientale del'île deSebatik et n'établit
aucune ligne d'attributionplus à l'est.

Question desavoirsi l'Indonésie oula Malaisie sont devenuesdétentrices d'un
titre sur Ligitan etSipadanpar voiede succession.
Argumentation de l'Indonésieselon laquelle elle aurait succédéau sultan du
Bouloungan, détenteuroriginairedu titre sur les îlesen litige, par le biaisdes
contrats quifont figurer leSultanat, tel qu'il y estdéfini,dans les Indes néer-
landaises -- Thèsede l'Indonésiene pouvant êtreretenue.
Iles en litige n'étant nommément citées daanuscundes instrumentsjuridiques
internationaux invoqués - Iles n'étantpas incluses dansla concessionde 1878
par laquellelesultan de Sulu avait cédéà A[fred Dent et au baron von Overbeck

tous ses droits et pouvoirs sur l'ensemble deses possessionsà Bornéo - Cour
constatant que, si les Parties soutiennent toutes deux que Ligitan et Sipadan
n'ontpas constituédes terrae nulliuspendant lapériodepertinente auxfins de la
présenteaffaire, elles lefont sur la basede raisonnements diamétralement oppo-
sés, chacuned'entre ellesprétendantdisposer d'un titresur ces îles.
Argumentation de la Malaisie selonlaquelle elle aurait succédé au sultan de
Sulu, détenteuroriginairedu titre sur les îles en litigà,la suite d'une sériede
transmissions alléguées de ce titreà I'Espagne, aux Etats-Unis, a la Grande-
Bretagne (pour le compte de I'Etat du Nord-Bornéo),au Royaume-Uni, et à la

Malaisie ne pouvant êtreretenue.

Examen des effectivitésinvoquées parles Parties.
Effectivitésétantgénéralement pen uombreusesdans le cas de trèspetites îles
inhabitées ou habitéed sefaçon non permanente, tellesque Ligitan et Sipadanprimarily to analyse the effectivitéswhichdatefrom theperiod before 1969, the

year in which the Parties assertedonflictingclaims to Ligitan and Sipada-
~Vatureof the activities to be taken into account by the Court in the present
case.
Effectivitésrelied on by Indones-a Activities wkich donot constituteacta
titre de souverain rejlectingthe intention and will to act in that capacity.
Effectivitésrelied on by Malaysi- Activities modest in nurnberbut diverse
in character,covering aconsiderableperiodof time and revealingan intention to
exercise State functions in respectof the trvoisl-ndNeither the Netherlands
nor Indonesia ever expressedifs disagreernentorprotest at the tinle when these
activities were carried ou- Malaysia has title to Ligitan and Sipadan on the
basis of the effectivitésthus mentioned

JUDGMENT

Present: President GUILLAUM ;EVice-President SHI; Judges ODA, RANJEVA,
HERCZEGH, FLEISCHHAUE KO,ROMA V,ERESHCHETH INI, GINSP,ARRA-
ARANGURESK , OOIJMANSR ,EZEK,AL-KHASAWNEH B,UERGENTHAL,
ELARABY;Jzidges ad hoc WEERAMANTRY F, ANCK; Registrar

COUVRECR.

In the case concerning sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan,

the Republic of Indonesia,

represented by
H.E. Mr. Hassan Wirajuda, Minister for Foreign Affairs,

as Agent;
H.E. Mr. Abdul Irsan, Ambassador of the Republic of Indonesia to the
Netherlands,

as Co-Agent;
Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University of Paris X-Nanterre, member
and former Chairman of the International Law Commission,
Mr. Alfred H. A. Soons, Professor of Public International Law, Utrecht Uni-
versity,
Sir Arthur Watts, K.C.M.G., Q.C., member of the English Bar, member of
the Institute of International Law,
Mr. Rodman R. Bundy, avocat a la cour d'appel de Paris, member of the
New York Bar, Frere CholmeleylEversheds, Pans,

Ms Loretta Malintoppi, avocat à la cour d'appel de Paris, rnember of the
Rome Bar, Frere Cholrneley/Eversheds, Paris,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Mr. Charles Claypoole, Solicitor of the Supreme Court of England and

Wales, Frere Cholrneley/Eversheds, Paris,
Mr. Mathias Forteau, Lecturer and Researcher at the University of Pans X-- Cour ayant à examiner essentiellement les effectivitésdatant de la période
antérieureà1969, annéeoù les Partiesformulèrent desprétentionsopposéessur
Ligitan et S'ipada- Nature des activitésque la Cour prendra en compte en
l'espèce.
Effectivitésinvoquéespar['Indonési- Activitésne constituant pas desactes
à titre de souverainreflétantl'intention et la volontéd'agir en cette qualité.
Effectivitks invoquéespar la Malais-e Activitésmodestes en nombre, mais

présentant un caractère varié,couvrant une périodeconsidérableet révélant
l'intention d'exercer desfonctions étatiàl'égarddes deux île- Pays-Bas
ou Indonésien'ayant jamais expriméde désaccordni élevéde protestation à
l'époqueoù ces activités ont été menées Malaisie détenant un titresur Ligi-
tan et Sipadan sur labase des effectivitésainsi mentionnées.

Présents: M. GUILLAUME pr,ésident; M. SHI, vice-président; MM. ODA,
RANJEVA,HERCZEGH,FLEISCHHAUEK RO, ROMA,VERESHCHETIN,
Mme HIGGINSM , M. PARRA-ARANGURK EOO, IJMANRS,EZEK,AL-
KHASAWNEB HU, ERGENTHA EL,ARABjYu,ges; MM. WEERAMANTRY,
FRANCK,~U~a ~Shoc; M. COUVREUgR r,ffier.

En l'affaire relativeà la souverainetésur Pulau Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan,

entre

la République d'Indonésie,
représentéepar

S. Exc. M. Hassan Wirajuda, ministre des affairesétrangères,
comme agent;
S. Exc. M. Abdul Irsan, ambassadeur de la République d'Indonésie aux
Pays-Bas,

comme coagent;
M. Alain Pellet, professeurl'université de Paris X-Nanterre, membre et
ancien président de la Commissiondu droit international,
M. Alfred H.A. Soons, professeur de droit international public à l'univer-

sitéd'Utrecht,
sir Arthur Watts, K.C.M.G., Q.C., membre du barreau d'Angleterre, /'
membre de l'Institut de droit international,
M. Rodman R. Bundy, avocat à la cour d'appel de Paris, membre du bar-
reau de New York, cabinet Frere CholmeleylEversheds, Paris,
MmeLoretta Malintoppi, avocat à la cour d'appel deParis, membre du bar-
reau de Rome, cabinet Frere Cholmeley/Eversheds, Paris,
comme conseilset avocats;

M. Charles Claypoole, Solicitoàla Cour suprêmed'Angleterre et du pays
de Galles, cabinet Frere Cholmeley/Eversheds,Paris,
M. Mathias Forteau, chargé de cours et chercheur à I'Université de Nanterre, Researcher at the Centre de droit international de Nan-
terre (CEDIN), University of Paris X-Nanterre,

as Counsel;
Mr. Hasyim Saleh, Deputy Chief of Mission, Embassy of the Republic of
Indonesia, The Hague,
Mr. Rachmat Soedibyo, Director General for Oil & Natural Resources,
Department of Energy & Mining,

Major General S. N. Suwisma, Territorial Assistanceto Chief of Staff for
General Affairs, Indonesian Armed Forces Headquarters,

Mr. DonniIo Anwar, Director for International Treaties for Politics, Secunty
& Territorial Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Eddy Pratomo, Director for International Treaties for Economic, Social
& Cultural Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Bey M. Rana, Director for Territorial Defence,Department of Defence,

Mr. Suwarno, Director for BoundaryAffairs,Department of Interna1Affairs,
Mr. Subiyanto, Director for Exploration & Exploitation, Department of
Energy & Mining,
Mr. ,4. B. Lapian, Expert on Borneo History,
Mr. Kna Fahmi Pasaribu, Minister Counsellor,Embassy of the Republic of

Indonesia, The Hague,
Mr. Moenir An Soenanda, Minister Counsellor,Embassy of the Republic of
Indonesia, Pans,
Mr. Rachmat Budiman, Department of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Abdul Havied Achmad, Head of District, East Kalimantan Province,
Mr. Adam Mulawarman T., Department of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Ibnu Wahyutomo, Department of Foreign Affairs,
Capt. Wahyudi, Indonesian Armed Forces Headquarters,
Capt. Fanani Tedjakusuma, Indonesian Armed Forces Headquarters,

Croup Capt. Anef Budiman, Survey& Mapping, Indonesian Armed Forces
~ead~uarters,
Mr. Abdulkadir Jaelani, Second Secretary, Embassyof the Republic of Indo-
nesia, The Hague,

Mr. Daniel T. Simandjuntak, Third Secretary, Embassy of the Republic of
Indonesia, The Hague,
Mr. Soleman B. Ponto, Military Attaché,Ernbassyof the Republic of Indo-
nesia, The Hague,
Mr. Ishak Latuconsina, Member of the House of Representatives of the
Republic of Indonesia,
Mr. Amris Hasan, Member of the House of Representatives of the Republic
of lndonesia,

as Advisers;
Mr. Martin Pratt, International Boundaries Research Unit, University of
Durham,
Mr. Robert C. Rizzutti, Senior Mapping Specialist, International Mapping
Associates,
Mr. Thomas Frogh, Cartographer, International Mapping Associates,

as Technical Advisers, Paris X-Nanterre, chercheur au Centre de droit international de Nanterre
(CEDIN), Université deParis X-Nanterre,
comme conseils;

M. Hasyim Saleh, chef de mission adjoint à I'ambassade de la République
d'Indonésie a La Haye,
M. Rachmat Soedibyo, directeur généralpour les ressources pétrolièreset
naturelles au ministèrede l'énergieet des mines,
le généralde division S. N. Suwisma, assistant pour les questions ternto-
nales auprès du chef d'état-major pour les affaires générales,quartier
général des forces armées indonésiennes,
M. Donnilo Anwar, directeur des traités internationaux pour les questions de
politique, de sécurité etde territoire au ministère desaffaires étrangères,

M. Eddy Pratomo, directeur des traités internationaux pour les questions
économiques, sociales et culturelles au ministère des affaires étrangères,
M. Bey M. Rana, directeur de la défenseterritoriale au ministère de la
défense,
M. Suwarno, directeur des affaires frontalières au ministèrede l'intérieur,
M. Subiyanto, directeur de l'exploration et de l'exploitation au ministèrede
l'énergieet des mines,
M. A. B. Lapian, expert sur l'histoire de Bornéo,
M. Kria Fahmi Pasaribu, ministre conseillerà l'ambassade de la République
d'Indonésie a La Haye,
M. Moenir An Soenanda, ministre conseiller a I'ambassade de la République
d'Indonésie a Paris,
M. Rachmat Budiman, ministère des affairesétrangères,

M. Abdul Havied Achmad, chef de district, province de Kalimantan est,
M. Adam Mulawarman T., ministère des affairesétrangères,
M. Ibnu Wahyutomo, ministère des affairesétrangères,
le capitaine Wahyudi, quartier général des forces armées indonésiennes,
le capitaine Fanani Tedjakusuma, quartier général des forces arméeisndo-
nésiennes,
le colonel Anef Budiman, département de la topographie et de la cartogra-
phie, quartier général des forces armées indonésiennes,
M. Abdulkadir Jaelani, deuxième secrétaire à I'ambassade de la République
d'Indonésieà La Haye,
M. Daniel T. Simandjuntak, troisième secrétaire a I'ambassade de la Répu-
blique d'Indonésiea La Haye,
M. Soleman B. Ponto, attaché militaire a I'ambassade de la République

d'Indonésiea La Haye,
M. Ishak Latuconsina, membre de la Chambre des représentants de la
République d'Indonésie,
M. Amris Hasan, membre de la Chambre des représentants de la Répu-
blique d'Indonésie,
comme conseillers ;

M. Martin Pratt, unité de recherche sur les frontières internationales de
l'université de Durham, c
M. Robert C. Rizzutti, cartographe principal, International Mapping Asso-
ciates,
M. Thomas Frogh, cartographe, International Mapping Associates,

comme conseillers techniques, and

Malaysia
represented by

H.E. Mr. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad, Arnbassador-at-Large, Ministry
of Foreign Affairs,
as Agent ;

H.E. Dato' Noor Farida Ariffin, Ambassador of Malaysia to the Nether-
lands,
as Co-Agent;

Sir Elihu Lauterpacht, Q.C., C.B.E., Honorary Professor of International
Law, University of Cambridge, member of the Institute of International
Law,
Mr. Jean-Pierre Cot, Emeritus Professor, University ofParis 1 (Panthéon-
Sorbonne), Former Minister,
Mr. James Crawford, S.C., F.B.A., WhewellProfessor ofInternational Law,
University of Cambridge, member of the English and Australian Bars,
member of the Institute of International Law,
Mr. Nico Schrijver,Professorof International Law, Free University,Amster-

dam, and Institute of Social Studies, The Hague; mernber of the Perma-
nent Court of Arbitration,
as Counsel and Advocates;
Dato' Zaitun Zawiyah Puteh, Solicitor-General of Malaysia,

Mrs. Halima Hj. Nawab Khan, Senior Legal Officer,Sabah State Attorney-
General's Chambers,
Mr. Athmat Hassan, Legal Officer, Sabah State Attorney-General's
Chambers,
Mrs. Farahana Rabidin, Federal Counsel, Attorney-General's Chambers,
as Counsel;

Datuk Nik Mohd. Zain Hj. Nik Yusof, SecretaryGeneral, Ministry of Land
and Co-operative Development,
Datuk Jaafar Ismail, Director-General, National Security Division, Prime
Minister's Department,
H.E. Mr. Hussin Nayan, Ambassador, Under-Secretary, Territorial and
Maritime Affairs Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Ab. Rahim Hussin, Director, Maritime Security Policy, National Secu-
rity Division, Prime Minister'sDepartment,
Mr. Raja Aznam Nazrin, Principal Assistant Secretary,Territorial and Mari-
time Affairs Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Zulkifli Adnan, Counsellor of the Embassy of Malaysia in theNether-

lands,
Ms Haznah Md. Hashim, Assistant Secretary, Territorial and Maritime
Affairs Division, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Azfar Mohamad Mustafar, Assistant Secretary, Territorial and Mari-
time Affairs Division,Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
as Advisers;

Mr. Hasan Jamil, Director of Survey,Geodetic SurveyDivision, Department
of Survey and Mapping,la Malaisie,

représentéepar
S. Exc. M. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad, ambassadeuren mission extra-
ordinaire, ministère des affaires étrangères,

comme agent ;
S. Exc. Mme Dato' Noor Farida Ariffin, ambassadeur de la Malaisie aux
Pays-Bas,

comme coagent ;
sir Elihu Lauterpacht, Q.C., C.B.E., professeur honoraire de droit interna-
tionalà l'université de Cambridge, membre de l'Institut de droit interna-
tional,
M. Jean-Pierre Cot, professeur émérite à l'université de Paris 1(Panthéon-
Sorbonne), ancien ministre,
M. James Crawford, S.C., F.B.A., professeur de droit international à l'Uni-

versité deCambridge, titulaire de la chaire Whewell,membre des barreaux
d'Angleterre et d'Australie, membre de l'Institut de droit international,
M. Nico Schrijver, professeur de droit international à l'université libre
d'Amsterdam et à l'Institut d'études sociales de LaHaye, membre de la
Cour permanente d'arbitrage,
comme conseils et avocats;
v
MmeDato' Zaitun Zawiyah Puteh, Solicitor-General de la Malaisie,
MmeHalima Hj. Nawab Khan, juriste principale au cabinet de l'dttorney-
General de I'Etat du Sabah,
M. Athmat Hassan, juriste au cabinet de l'Attorney-General de 1'Etat du
Sabah,
MmeFarahana Rabidin, conseiller fédéralau cabinet de l'Attorney-General,

comme conseils ;
M. Datuk Nik Mohd. Zain Hj. Nik Yusof, secrétairegénéraldu ministère de
l'aménagementdu territoire et du développementcoopératif,
M. Datuk Jaafar Ismail, directeur généraldu département de la sécurité

nationale, services du premier ministre,
S. Exc. M. Hussin Nayan, ambassadeur, sous-secrétaireau département des
affaires territoriales et maritimes du ministère desaffaires étrangères,
M. Ab. Rahim Hussin, directeur de la politique de sécuritémaritime au
département de la sécuriténationale, servicesdu premier ministre,
M. Raja Aznam Nazrin, secrétaire adjoint principal au département des
affaires territoriales et maritimes du ministère des affaires étrangères,
M. Zulkifli Adnan, conseiller de l'ambassade dela Malaisie aux Pays-Bas,

MmeHaznah Md. Hashim, secrétaireadjointe au département des affaires
territoriales et maritimes du ministère des affairesétrangères,

M. Azfar Mohamad Mustafar, secrétaireadjoint au département des affaires
territoriales et maritimes du ministère des affairesétrangères,
comme c:onseiller;

M. Hasan Jamil, directeur de la topographie, service des levésgéodésiques,
département de la topographie et de la cartographie,630 PULAU LIG~TANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Mr. Tan Ah Bah, Principal Assistant Director of Survey, Boundary Affairs,
Department of Survey and Mapping,
Mr. Hasnan Hussin, Senior Technical Assistant,Boundary Affairs, Depart-
ment of Survey and Mapping,

as Technical Advisers,

THECOLIRT,
composed as above,

after deliberation,
delivers theJollowing Jltdgment:

1. Byjoint letter dated 30September 1998,filedin the Registry of the Court
on 2 November 1998,the Ministersfor Foreign Affairs ofthe Republic of Indo-
nesia (hereinafter "Indonesia") and of Malaysianotified to the Registrar a Spe-
cialAgreement between the twoStates,signedat Kuala Lumpur on 31May 1997
and having entered into force on 14 May 1998,the date of the exchange of
instruments of ratification.
2. The text of the Special Agreement readsas follows:

"The Government of the Republic of Indonesia and the Government of
Malaysia, hereinafter referred to as 'the Parties';
Considering that a dispute has arisen between them regarding sover-
eignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan;

Desiring that this dispute should be settled in the spirit of fnendly rela-
tions existing between the Parties as enunciated in the 1976 Treaty of
Amity and Co-operation in Southeast Asia; and
Desiring further, that this dispute should be settled by the International
Courl. of Justice (the Court),

Have agreed as follows:
Article 1

Submission of Dispute
The Parties agree to submit the dispute to the Court under the terms of
Article 36, paragraph 1, of its Statute.

Article 2
Subject of the Litigation

The Court is requested to determine on the basis of the treaties, agree-
ments and any other evidence furnished by the Parties, whether sover-
eignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan belongs to the Republic of
Indonesia or to Malaysia.

Article 3
Procedure
1. Subject to the time-limits referred to inparagraph 2 of this Article,

the proceedings shall consist of written pleadings and oral heanngs in
accordance with Article 43 of the Statute of the Court.
2. Without prejudice to any question as to the burden of proof and
havirig regard to Article 46 of the Rules of Court, the wntten pleadings
should consist of: PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 630

M. Tan Ah Bah, sous-directeur principal de la topographie, servicedes fron-
tières, département de la topographie et de la cartographie,
M. Hasnan Hussin, assistant technique principal du service des frontières,
département de la topographie et de la cartographie,
comme conseillers techniques,

ainsi composée,
après délibéré en chambre du conseil,

rend l'arrêt suivant:
1. Par lettre conjointe en date du 30 septembre 1998,déposéeau Greffe de la
Cour le 2 novembre 1998,les ministres des affaires étrangèresde la République
d'Indonésie (dénomméc ei-après«Indonésie») et de la Malaisie ont notifiéau

greffierun compromis entre lesdeux Etats, signé a Kuala Lumpur le 31mai 1997
et entréen vigueur le 14mai 1998,date de l'échange desinstruments de ratifica-
tion.
2. Dans sa traduction française, le texte du compromis se lit comme suit:
«Le Gouvernement de la République d'Indonésieet le Gouvernement
de la Malaisie (ci-après dénommés les «Parties»);

Considérant qu'un différends'est élevé entre eux concernant la souve-
raineté surPulau Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan;
Désirant que ce différend soitréglédans l'esprit des relations amicales
existant entre les Parties, telles qu'elles sont consacrées dans le traité
d'amitiéet de coopération de 1976en Asie du Sud-Est; et
Désiranten outre que ce différendsoit réglépar la Cour internationale

de Justice (ci-après dénommée la «Cour »);
Sont convenus de ce qui suit:

Article premier
Soumission du différend

Les Parties conviennent de soumettre le différenda la Cour conformé-
ment au paragraphe 1 de l'article 36 de son Statut.
Article 2

Objet du litige
La Cour est priéede déterminer,sur la base des traités, accords et de
tout autre élément de preuveproduit par les Parties, si la souverainetésur
Pulau Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan appartient à la Républiqued'Indonésieou
a la Malaisie.

Article 3
Procédure

1. Sous réserve des délaisdont il est fait mention au paragraphe 2 du
présentarticle, la procédurese divisera en procédure écrite eten procédure
orale conformément a l'article 43 du Statut de la Cour.
2. Sans préjudice detoute question qui pourrait se poser quant a la
charge de la preuve et eu égard a l'article 46 du Règlementde la Cour, la
procédureécritese composera des piècessuivantes:631 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

(a) a Memorial presented simultaneously by each of the Parties not later
than 12months after the notification of this Special Agreement to the
Registry of the Court;
(b) a Counter-Memorial presented by each of the Parties not later than
4 months after the date on which each has received the certified copy

of the Memorial of the other Party;
(c) a Reply presented by each of the Parties not later than 4 months after
the date on whicheach has receivedthe certifiedcopy of the Counter-
Memorial of the other Party; and
(d) a Rejoinder, if the Parties so agree or if the Court decidesex officioor
at the request of one of the Parties that this part of the proceedings is
necessary and the Court authonzes or prescribes the presentation of a
Rejoinder.

3. The above-mentioned written pleadings and their annexes presented
to the Registrar will not be transmitted to the other Party until the
Registrar has received the part of the written pleadings corresponding to
the said Party.
4. The question of the order of speaking at the oral hearings shall be
decided by mutual agreement between theParties or, in the absence of that
agreement, by the Court. In al1 cases, however, the order of speaking
adopted shall be without prejudice to any question regarding the burden of
proof.

Article 4
Applicable Law

The principles and rules of international law applicable to the dispute
shall be those recognized in the provisions of Article 38 of the Statute of
the Court.

Article 5
Judgrnent of the Court
The Parties agree to accept the Judgrnent of the Court given pursuant to
this Special Agreement as final and binding upon them.

Article 6

Entry into Force
1. This Agreement shall enter into force upon the exchange of instru-
ments of ratification. The date of exchange of the said instruments shall be
determined through diplomatic channels.
2. This Agreement shall be registered with theSecretariat of the United
Nations pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations,
jointly or by either of the Parties.

Article 7
Notification

In accordance with Article 40 of the Statute of the Court, this Special
Agreement shall be notified to the Registrar of the Court by a joint letter
from the Parties as soon as possible after it has entered into force.

In witness whereof the undersigned, being duly authorized thereto by
their respectiveGovernments, have signed the present Agreement." PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 631

a) un mémoire qui doit êtresoumis simultanément par chacune des
Parties au plus tard douze mois après ladate de la notification du pré-
sent compromis au greffier de la Cour;
b)- un contre-mémoire présentépar chacune des Parties au plus tard
quatre mois après la date à laquelle chacune aura reçu la copie certi-
fiéeconforme du mémoirede l'autre Partie;
c) une réplique présentép ear chacune des Parties au plus tard quatre
mois après la date à laquelle chacune aura reçu la copie certifiée

conforme du contre-mémoirede I'autre Partie; et
d) une duplique, si lesParties en décident ainsid'un commun accord ou si
la Cour décided'officeou à la demande de l'une desParties que cette
piècede procédureest nécessaire etautorise ou prescrit la présentation
d'une duplique.
3. Les piècesde procédureécrite susmentionnéee st leurs annexes, dépo-
séesauprèsdu greffier, ne seront transmises à l'autre Partie que lorsque le
greffier aura reçu de ladite Partie la piècede procédurecorrespondante.

4. La question de l'ordre dans lequel les Parties prendront la parole
dans le cadre de la procédure oralesera décidée par accord mutuel entre
elles ou, a défaut d'untel accord, par la Cour. En tout état de cause, cet
ordre s'entend toutefois sans préjudicede toute question qui pourrait se
poser quant à la charge de la preuve.

Article 4
Droit applicable
Les principes et règlesde droit international applicables au différend
sont ceux qui sont reconnus dans les dispositions de l'article 38 du Statut

de la Cour.
Article 5

Arrêtde la Cour
Les Parties s'engagent à accepter l'arrêtque la Cour rendra conformé-
ment au présentcompromis comme définitifet obligatoire pour elles.

Article 6
Entréeen vigueur

1. Le présentcompromis entrera en vigueur dèsque les instruments de
ratification auront étééchangés.La date de l'échangedesdits instruments
sera fixéepar la voie diplomatique.
2. Le présentcompromis sera enregistréauprèsdu Secrétariatde l'Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies conformémentà l'article 102de la Charte des
Nations Unies, conjointement ou par l'une des Parties.

Article 7
Notijication

En application de l'article 40du Statut de la Cour, le présent compromis
sera notifiéau greffier de la Cour par une lettre conjointe des Parties aus-
sitôt que possible après son entréeen vigueur.
En foi de quoi les soussignés,dûment habilitésa cet effet par leurs gou-
vernements respectifs, ont signéle présentcompromis.» 3. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court, copies of
the joint notification and of the Special Agreement were transmitted by the
Registrar to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the Members of the

United Nations and other States entitled to appear before the Court.
4. By an Order dated 10 November 1998, the Court, having regard to the
provisions of the Special Agreement concerning the written pleadings, fixed
2 November 1999 and 2 March 2000 as the respective time-limits for the filing
by each of the Parties of a Memonal and then a Counter-Mernorial. The
Memorials were filed within the prescribed time-limit. By joint letter of
18 Augusl. 1999, the Parties asked the Court to extend to 2 July 2000 the time-
limit for the filing of their Counter-Memorials. By an Order dated 14 Septem-
ber 1999, the Court agreed to that request. Byjoint letter of 8 May 2000, the
Parties asked the Court for a further extension of one month to the time-limit
for the filing of their Counter-Memorials. By Order of 11 May 2000, the Presi-
dent of the Court also agreed to that request. The Parties' Counter-Memonals
were filed within the time-limit as thus extended.

5. Under the terms of the Special Agreement, the two Parties were to file a
Reply not later than four months after the date on which each had received the
certified copy of the Counter-Memorial of the other Party. Byjoint letter dated
14October 2000, the Parties asked the Court to extend this time-limit by three
months. By an Order dated 19 October 2000, the President of the Court fixed
2 March ,2001as the time-limit for the filing by each of the Parties of a Reply.
The Replies were filed within the prescnbed time-limit. In view of the fact that
the Special Agreement provided for the possible filing of a fourth pleading by
each of the Parties, the latter informed the Court by joint letter of 28 March
2001 that they did not wish to produce any further pleadings. Nor did the
Court itself ask for such pleadings.
6. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferred by

Article 32, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad lzoc to sit in the
case: Indonesia chose Mr. Mohamed Shahabuddeen and Malaysia Mr. Chns-
topher Gregory Weeramantry.
7. Mr. Shahabuddeen, judge ad hoc, having resigned from that function on
20 March 2001, Indonesia informed the Court, by letter received in the Regis-
try on 17 May 2001, that its Government had chosen Mr. Thomas Franck to
replace him.
8. On 13March 2001, the Republic of the Philippines filed in the Registry of
the Court an Application for permission to intervene in the case, invoking Ar-
ticle2 of the Statute of the Court. By a Judgment rendered on 23 October 2001,
the Court found that the Application of the Philippines could not be granted.
9. Dunng a meeting which the President of the Court held on 6 March 2002
with the Agents of the Parties, in accordance with Article 31 of the Rules of
Court, the Agents made known the views of their Governments with regard to

vanous aspects relating to the organization of the oral proceedings. In particu-
lar, they stated that the Parties had agreed to suggest to the Court that Indo-
nesia should present its oral arguments first, it being understood that this in no
way implied that Indonesia could be considered the applicant State or Malaysia
the respondent State,nor would it have any effect on questions concerning the
burden of proof.
Further to this meeting, the Court, taking account of the views of the Parties,
fixed Monday 3 June 2002, at 10 a.m., as the date for the opening of the hear- 3. Conformément au paragraphe 3 de l'article 40 du Statut de la Cour, le
greffier a transmis copie de la notification conjointe et du compromis au Secré-
taire général de l'organisation des Nations Unies, aux Membres des
Nations Unies et aux autres Etats admis à ester devant la Cour.
4. Par ordonnance en date du 10novembre 1998,la Cour, eu égardaux dis-
positions du compromis concernant les piècesde la procédureécrite,a fixéau
2 novembre 1999et au 2 mars 2000, respectivement, les dates d'expiration des
délaispour le dépôtd'un mémoire, puisd'un contre-mémoire par chacune des
Parties. Les mémoires des Partiesont été déposé dsans le délai ainsifixé.Par
lettre conjointe du 18août 1999,les Parties ont demandé à la Cour de reporter
au 2 juillet 2000 la date d'expiration du délaipour le dépôt de leurs contre-

mémoires. Parordonnance en date du 14 septembre 1999, la Cour a accédéà
cette demaride. Par lettreconjointe du 8 mai 2000, les Parties ont demandéà la
Cour un nouveau report d'un mois de la date d'expiration du délaipour le
dépôtde leurs contre-mémoires.Par ordonnance du 11 mai 2000, le président
de la Cour a également accédé à cette demande. Les contre-mémoires des
Parties ont étédéposésdans le délaiainsi prorogé.
5. Aux termes du compromis, les deux Parties devaient présenter une ré-
plique au plus tard quatre mois après la date à laquelle chacune aurait reçu
la copie certifiéeconforme du contre-mémoirede l'autre. Par lettre conjointe
datéedu 14 octobre 2000, les Parties ont priéla Cour de proroger ce délaide
trois mois. Par ordonnance en date du 19 octobre 2000, le président dela Cour
a fixéau 2 mars 2001 la date d'expiration du délaipour le dépôtd'une réplique
par chacune des Parties. Les répliques desParties ont étédéposéesdans le délai
ainsi prescrit. Le compromis prévoyant la possibilitédu dépôtd'une quatrieme

piècede procédurepar chacune des Parties, celles-ciont, par lettre conjointe du
28 mars 2001, informéla Cour qu'elles ne souhaitaient pas produire de pièce
supplémentaire. La Cour elle-mêmen'a pas prescrit une telle production.
6. La Cour ne comptant sur le siègeaucun juge de la nationalité des Parties,
chacune d'elles a procédé,dans l'exercice du droit que lui confère le para-
graphe 3 de l'article 31 du Statut, la désignationd'un juge ad hoc pour siéger
en I'affaire: l'Indonésiea désignéM. Mohamed Shahabuddeen, et la Malaisie
M. Christopher Gregory Weeramantry.
7. M. Shahabuddeen, juge ad hoc, ayant démissionnéde ses fonctions à la
date du 20 mars 2001, l'Indonésie,par lettre reçue au Greffe le17mai 2001, a
informéla Cour que son gouvernement avait désignéM. Thomas Franck pour
le remplacer.
8. Le 13mars 2001, la Républiquedes Philippines a déposéau Greffe de la
Cour une requête à find'intervention dans l'affaire, eninvoquant l'article62 du

Statut de la Cour. Par arrêtrendu le 23 octobre 2001, la Cour a jugéque la
requête desPhilippines ne pouvait pas êtreadmise.
9. Au cours d'une réunionque le présidentde la Cour a tenue le 6mars 2002
avec les agents des Parties, conformément à l'article 31 du Règlement,ceux-ci
lui ont fait part des vues de leur gouvernement sur divers aspects deorganisa-
tion de la procédure orale. Ils ont en particulier déclaréque les Parties étaient
convenues de suggérer à la Cour que l'Indonésieprenne la parole en premier,
étant entendu que ce choix n'impliquait en rien que celle-ci puisse êtreconsi-
déréecomme Etat demandeur ou la Malaisie comme Etat défendeur,etqu'il ne
saurait affecter aucune question relative la charge de la preuve.

A la suite de cette réunion,la Cour, compte tenu des vues des Parties, a fixé
au lundi 3juin 2002, à 10heures, la date d'ouverture des audiences et a arrêtéings, and set a timetable for them. Byletters dated 7 March 2002, the Registrar
informed the Agents of the Parties accordingly.
10. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court,
after ascertaining the viewsof the Parties, decided that copies of the pleadings

and documents annexed would be made accessibleto the public on the opening
of the oral proceedings.
11. Public hearings were held from 3 to 12 June 2002, at which the Court
heard the oral arguments and replies of:
For Indonesia: H.E. Mr. Hassan Wirajuda,
Sir Arthur Watts,
Mr. Alfred H. A. Soons,
Mr. Alain Pellet,
Mr. Rodman R. Bundy,

Ms Loretta Malintoppi.
For Malaysia: H.E. Mr. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad,
H.E. Dato' Noor Fanda Ariffin,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht,
Mr. Nico Schrijver,
Mr. James Crawford,
Mr. Jean-Pierre Cot.

12. In the course of the written proceedings, the following submissions were
presented by the Parties:

On bellaif of the Goverrinientof Indonesia,
in the Memorial, Counter-Memorial and Reply:
"On the basis of the considerations set out in this [Reply], theGovern-
ment of the Republic of Indonesia requests the Court to adjudge and

declare that :
(a) sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan belongs to the Republic of Indo-
nesia; and
(6) sovereignty over Pulau Sipadan belongs to the Republic of Indo-
nesia."

On behaif of the Governmentof Malaysia.
in the Memorial, Counter-Memorial and Reply:

"In the light of the considerations set out above, Malaysia respectfully
requests the Court to adjudge and declare that sovereignty over Pulau
Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan belongs to Malaysia."
13. At the oral proceedings, the following subrnissions were presented by the
Parties:

On behaif of the Governmentof Indonesia,
"On the basis of the facts and legal considerations presented in Indo-
nesia's written pleadingsand in its oral presentation, the Government of
the Republic of Indonesia respectfully requeststhe Court to adjudge and
declare that:

(i) sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan belongsto the Republic of Indonesia;
andle calendrier de celles-ci. Le greffier en a informéles agents des Parties par
lettres du7 mars 2002.
10. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l'article 53du Règlement, la Cour,
après s'être renseignéa euprès des Parties, a décidéque des exemplaires des
piècesde procédure et des documents annexés seraientrendus accessibles au
public à l'ouverture de la procédure orale.
11. Des audiences publiques ont été tenuesdu 3 au 12juin 2002, au cours
desquelles ont été entendusen leurs plaidoiries et réponses:

Pour l'Indonésie: S. Exc. M. Hassan Wirajuda,
sir Arthur Watts,
M. Alfred H. A. Soons,
M. Alain Pellet,
M. Rodman R. Bundy,
MmeLoretta Malintoppi.
Pour la Malaisie: S. Exc. M. Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Mohamad,
S. Exc. MmeDato' Noor Farida Ariffin,
sir Elihu Lauterpacht,
M. Nico Schrijver,
M. James Crawford,

M. Jean-Pierre Cot.

12. Dans la procédureécrite,les conclusions ci-aprèsont étéprésentéespar
les Parties:

Au nom du Gouvernement de l'Indonésie,
dans le mémoire,le contre-mémoire et la réplique:

«Sur la base des considérationsexposéesdans la présente[réplique],le
Gouvernement de la Républiqued'Indonésie priela Cour de dire et juger
que :

a) la souverainetésur Pulau Ligitan appartient a la République d'Indo-
nésie; et
b) la souverainetésur Pulau Sipadan appartient a la République d'Indo-
nésie.»
Au nom du Gouvernement dela Malaisie,

dans le mémoire,le contre-mémoire et la réplique:
«Eu égardaux considérations ci-dessus, la Malaisie prie respectueuse-
ment la Cour de dire et juger que la souveraineté sur Pulau Ligitan et
Pulau Sipadan appartient a la Malaisie.))

13. Dans la procédure orale, les conclusions ci-aprèsont étéprésentéespar
les Parties:

Au nom du Gouvernementde l'Indonésie,
«Sur la base des considérations de fait et de droit exposéesdans les
piècesde procédureécrite de l'Indonésie et dans ses plaidoiries, le Gouver-
nement de la République d'Indonésieprie respectueusement la Cour de
dire et juger que:
i) la souvegainetésur Pulau Ligitan appartient à la République d'lndo- /
nésie;et634 PULAU LICITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

(ii) sovereignty over Pulau Sipadan belongs to the Republic of Indo-
nesia."

On behalfof the Governnientof Malaysia,
"The Governrnentof MalaysiarespectfullyrequeststheCourt to adjudge
and declarethat sovereignty over PulauLigitanand Pulau Sipadanbelongs
toblalaysia."
* * *

14. The islands of Ligitan and Sipadan (Pulau Ligitan and Pulau
Sipadan) are both located in the Celebes Sea, off the north-east coast of
the island of Borneo, and lie approximately 15.5nautical miles apart (see /
below, pp. 635 and 636, sketch-maps Nos. 1 and 2).
Ligitan is a very small island lying at the southern extremity of a large
star-shaped reef extending southwards from the islands of Danawan and
Si Amil. Its CO-ordinatesare 4'09' latitude north and 118'53' longitude
east. The island is situated some 21 nautical miles from Tanjung Tutop,
on the Semporna Peninsula, the nearest area on Borneo. Permanently
above sea level and mostly sand, Ligitan is an island with low-lying
vegetation and some trees. It is not permanently inhabited.

Although bigger than Ligitan, Sipadan is also a small island, having an
area of approximately 0.13 sq. km. Its CO-ordinates are 4' 06' latitude
north and 118"37' longitude east. It is situated some 15 nautical miles
from Tanjung Tutop, and 42 nautical miles from the east coast of the
island of Sebatik. Sipadan is a densely wooded island of volcanic origin
and the top of a submarine mountain some 600 to 700 m in height,

around which a coral atoll has formed. It was not inhabited on a perma-
nent basis until the 1980s,when it was developed into a tourist resort for
scuba-diving.

15. The dispute between the Parties has a complex historical back-
ground, of which an overview will now be given by the Court.
In the sixteenth century Spain established itself in the Philippines and
sought to extend its influence to the islands lying further to the south.
Towards the end of the sixteenth century it began to exercise its influence
over the Sultanate of Sulu.
On 23 September 1836Spain concluded Capitulations of peace, protec-
tion and commerce with the Sultan of Sulu. In these Capitulations, Spain
guaranteed its protection to the Sultan

"in any of the islands situated within the limits of the Spanishjuris-
diction, and which extend from the western point of Mindanao
(hlagindanao) to Borneo and Paragua (Palawan), with the exception
of Sandakan and the other territories tributary to the Sultan on the
island of Borneo". PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 634

ii) la souverainetésur PulauSipadan appartient à la Républiqued'Indo- *'*
nésie.

Au nom du ~oukrnement de la Malaisie,
«Le Gouvernementdela Malaisie prie respectueusemenlta Cour dedire
et juger quela souverainetésur PulauLigitanet Pulau Sipadanappartient
à la Malaisie.))
*
* *
14. Les îles de Ligitan et Sipadan (Pulau Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan),
distantes l'une de l'autre d'environ 15,5 milles'marins, sont toutes deux
situéesdans la mer de Célèbes,au large de la côte nord-est de l'île de ,

Bornéo(voir ci-après, p. 635 et 636, les croquis no" et 2).
Ligitan est une île de dimension très réduitese trouvant à I'extrémité
méridionale d'un grand récif enforme d'étoilequi s'étendvers le sud à
partir des îles de Danawan et de Si Amil. Sescoordonnées sont4'09'de la-
titude nord et 118'53' de longitude est. L'île se trouve environ 21 milles
marins deTanjung Tutop, sur la péninsulede Semporna, territoire le plus
proche sur l'île de Bornéo. Constamment émergéeet essentiellement
sablonneuse, Ligitan est une île à la végétationbasse, sur laquelle se
trouvent quelques arbres. Elle n'est pas habitée de façon permanente.
Bien que plus grande que Ligitan, Sipadan est également une île de
dimension réduite; sa superficie est d'environ 0,13 kilomètre carré.Ses
coordonnéessont 4"06'de latitude nord et 118'37'de longitude est. Elle se

trouve a une quinzaine de millesmarins de Tanjung Tutop, et à 42 milles
marins de la côte est de l'îlede Sebatik. Sipadan est une île densément
boisée d'origine volcanique qui constitue le sommet d'une montagne
sous-marine d'environ 600 à 700 mètres de hauteur, autour duquel un
atoll corallien s'est formé.Elle n'a pas été habitée de façon permanente
avant les années 1980, époque de son développement commestation de
tourisme tournée vers la plongéesous-marine.

15. Le différend qui oppose les Parties s'inscrit dans un contexte his-
torique complexe, dont la Cour donnera maintenant un aperçu.

Au XVIe siècle,l'Espagne s'établitaux îles Philippines et tenta d'éten- .,--
dre son influence sur les îlessituéesplus au sud. Vers la fin du XVIesiècle,
elle commença à exercer cette influence sur le Sultanat de Sulu.

Le 23 septembre 1836, l'Espagne conclut avec le sultan de Sulu des
capitulations de paix, de protection et de commerce, par lesquelles elle
garantissait à celui-ci sa protection

«sur l'ensemble desîles situéesdans les limites de lajuridiction espa-
gnole et qui se trouvent entre I'extrémitéoccidentale de Mindanao
(Magindanao), d'une part, et Bornéo et La Paragua (Palawan), de
l'autre,à l'exception de Sandakan et des autres territoires tributaires
du sultan sur l'île de Bornéo». SKETCH-MN AP.1.GENERA GLEOGRAPIIICSATLTING
(N.B. This sketch-map hasbeenpreparedfor illustrative-urposesonly.)
11,6^ 120" 124' 12s. 132" 136" 140"

PhilippiSea
SuluSea

4"IO

Republicof the Philippines

BruneiDarussalam636 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)637 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

On 19 April 185 1,Spain and the Sultan of Sulu concluded an "Act of

Re-Submission" whereby the island of Sulu and its dependencies were
annexed by the Spanish Crown. That Act wasconfirmed on 22 July 1878
by a Protocol whereby the Sultan recognized "as beyond discussion the
sovereignty of Spain over al1the Archipelago of Sulu and the dependen-
cies thereof'.
16. For itspart, the Netherlands established itselfon the island of-
neo at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The Netherlands East
India Company, which possessed considerable commercial interests in
the region, exercised public rights in South-East Asia under a charter
granted to it in 1602 by the Netherlands United Provinces. Under the
Charter, the Company was authorized to "conclude conventions with
Princes and Powers" of the region in the name of the States-General of
the Netherlands. Those conventions mainly involved trade issues, but
they also provided for the acceptance of the Company's suzerainty or

even the cession to it by local sovereigns of1or part of their territories.

When the Netherlands East India Company established itself on Bor-
neo in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the influence of the Sul-
tan of Banjennasin extended over large portions of southern and eastern
Borneo. On the east Coast,the territory under the control of Banjermasin
included the "Kingdom of Berou", composed of three "States": Sam-
baliung. Gunungtabur and Bulungan. The Sultans of Brunei and Sulu
exercised their influence over the northern part of Borneo.

Upon the demise of the Netherlands East India Company at the end of
the eighteenth century, al1of its territorial possessions weretransferred to
the Netherlands United Provinces. During the Napoleonic wars, Great
Britain took control of the Dutch possessions in Asia. Pursuant to the

London Convention of 13 August 1814,the newly formed Kingdom of
the Netherlands recovered most of the former Dutch possessions.

17. A Contract was concluded by the Netherlands with the Sultan of
Banjermasin on 3 January 1817.Article 5 of this Contract provided for
intearjia the cession to the Netherlands of Berou ("Barrau") and of al1
its dependencies. On 13 September 1823,an addendum was concluded,
amending Article 5 of the 1817Contract.
On 4 May 1826a new Contract wasconcluded. Article 4 thereof recon-
firmed the cession to the Netherlands of Berou ("Barou") and of its
dependencies.
Over the following years, the three territories that formed theKing-
dom of Berou, Sambaliung,Gunungtabur and Bulungan, were separated.
By a Declaration of 27 September 1834,the Sultan of Bulungan submit-
ted directly to the authority of the Netherlands East Indies Government.

In 1844the three territories wereeach recognized by the Government of
the Netherlands as separate Kingdoms. Their chiefs were officially
accorded the title of Sultan. Le 19avril 1851,l'Espagne et le sultan de Sulu conclurent un «acte de
re-soumission» aux termes duquel l'îlede Sulu et ses dépendances furent
annexées à la Couronne espagnole. Cet acte fut confirméle 22juillet 1878
par un protocole disposant que le sultan reconnaissait comme ((incontes-
table la souveraineté de l'Espagnesur l'ensemblede l'archipel de Sulu et
de ses dépendances».
16. Pour leur part, les Pays-Bas s'établirentsur I'îlede Bornéo dèsle

débutdu XVIIe siècle.La Compagnie néerlandaise desIndes orientales,
qui possédait d'importants intérêts commerciauxdans la région, exerça
en Asie du Sud-Est des prérogativesd'ordre public en vertu d'une charte
qui lui fut accordéeen 1602par les Provinces-Unies des Pays-Bas. Ladite
charte autorisait la compagnie à ((conclure des conventions avec les
princes et les puissances» de la régionau nom des Etats-généraux des
Pays-Bas. Les conventions ainsi visées concernaientsurtout des questions
commerciales, mais elles avaient également pour objet l'acceptation
de la suzeraineté dela compagnie. voire la cession à cette dernière, par
les souverains locaux, de tout ou partie de leurs territoires.
Lorsque la Compagnie néerlandaise des Indes orientales s'établit a
Bornéoaux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, l'influencedu sultan du Banjermas-
sin s'étendaitsur d'importantes parties du Bornéo méridionalet oriental.
Sur la côte est, le territoire contrôlé par le Banjermassin comprenait le

((Royaume du Berou», constitué de trois ((Etats)): le Sambalioung, le
Gounoungtabour et le Bouloungan. Les sultans du Brunéi et de Sulu
exerçaient quant a eux leur influence sur la partie septentrionale de I'île
de Bornéo.
Lors de la disparition de la Compagnie néerlandaise des Indes orien-
tales,à la fin du XVIIIe siècle,toutes ses possessions territoriales furent
transféréesaux Provinces-Unies des Pays-Bas. Au cours des guerres
napoléoniennes,la Grande-Bretagneprit le contrôle des possessions néer-
landaises en Asie. En vertu de la convention de Londres du 13août 1814,
le Royaume des Pays-Bas, nouvellement constitué, recouvra la plupart
des anciennes possessions néerlandaises.
17. Un contrat fut conclu par les Pays-Bas avec le sultan du Banjer-
massin le 3janvier 1817.L'article 5 de ce contrat prévoyaitnotamment la

cession aux Pays-Bas du Berou («Barrau») et de toutes ses dépendances.
Le 13septembre 1823,un avenant fut conclu, qui modifiait l'article 5 du
contrat de 1817.
Le 4 mai 1826, un nouveau contrat fut conclu. Son article 4 reconfir-
mait la cession aux Pays-Bas du Berou («Barou») et de ses dépendances.

Au cours des années qui suivirent,les trois territoires qui formaient le
Royaume du Berou, le Sambalioung, le Gounoungtabour et le Bouloun-
gan, se séparèrent. Par une déclaration du 27 septembre 1834, le sultan
du Bouloungan se soumit directement a l'autoritédu Gouvernement des
Indes néerlandaises. En 1844,cestrois territoires furent chacun reconnus
par le Gouvernement néerlandaiscomme des royaumes distincts. Le titre
de sultan fut officiellementaccordéà leurs chefs.638 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

18. In 1850the Government of the Netherlands East Indies concluded

with the sultans of the three kingdoms "contracts of vassalage", under
which the territory of their respective kingdoms was granted to them as a
fief. The Contract concluded with the Sultan of Bulungan is dated
12 November 1850.
A description of the geographical area constituting the Sultanate of
Bulungan appeared for the first time in the Contract of 12 Novem-
ber 1850.Article 2 of that Contract described the territory of Bulungan
as follows:

"The territory of Boeloengan is located within the following
boundaries :
- nrithGoenoeng-Teboer fromtheseashorelandwards, the Karang-
tiegau River from its mouth up to its origin; in addition, the
Batoe Beokkier and Mount Palpakh;
- with the Sulu possessions: at sea the cape named Batoe Tinagat,
as well as the Tawau River.

The following islands shall belong to Boeloengan: Terakkan,
Nenoekkan and Sebittikh, with the small islands belonging thereto.
This delimitation is established provisionally, and shall be com-
pletely examined and determined again."

A new Contract of Vassalage was concluded on 2 June 1878. It was
approved and ratified by the Governor-General of the Netherlands East
Indies on 18October 1878.
Article2 of the 1878Contract of Vassalage described the territory of
Bulungan as follows: "The territory of the realm of Boeloengan is
deemed to be constituted by the lands and islands as described in the
statement annexed to this contract." The text of the statement annexed to
thecontract isvirtually identical to that of Article2 of the 1850Contract.
This statement was amended in 1893to bring it into line with the 1891
Convention betweenGreat Britain and the Netherlands (seeparagraph 23

below). The new statement provided that:
"The Islands of Tarakan and Nanoekan and that portion of the
Island of Sebitik, situated to the south of the above boundary-line,
described in the 'Indisch Staatsblad' of 1892, No. 114, belong to
Boeloengan, as well as the small islands belonging to the above
islands, so far as they are situated to the south of the

boundary-line .. ."
19. Great Britain, for its part, possessed commercial interests in the
area but had no established settlements on Borneo until the nineteenth
century. After the Anglo-Dutch Convention of 13August 1814,the com-
mercial and territorial claims of Great Britain and the Netherlands on

Borneo began to overlap.

On 17 March 1824Great Britain and the Netherlands signed a new PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 638

18. En 1850,le Gouvernement des Indes néerlandaisesconclut avec les
sultans des trois royaumes des ((contrats de vassalité))aux termes des-
quels le territoire de leurs royaumes respectifs leur était donnéen fief.
Le contrat conclu avec le sultan du Bouloungan est daté du 12 no-
vembre 1850.
Une description de la zone géographiqueconstituant le Sultanat du

Bouloungan apparut pour la première foisdans le contrat du 12 no-
vembre 1850. L'article 2 de ce contrat décrivaitle territoire du Bou-
loungan comme suit :

«Le territoire du Bouloungan est limitépar les frontières sui-
vantes :
- avec le Gounoung-Tabour: de la côte vers l'intérieur,la rivière
Karangtiegau depuisson embouchurejusqu'a sa source; enoutre,
leBatou Beoukkier et le mont Palpakh;
- avec les possessions sulu: en mer le cap dénomméBatou Tina-
gat, ainsi que la rivièreTawau.

Les îles suivantes appartiennent au Bouloungan : Terakkan,
Nanoukan et Sebatik, avec les petites îles qui s'y rattachent.
Cette délimitation est établie atitre provisoire, et donnera lieu a
un nouvel examen complet et une nouvelledétermination. ))

Un nouveau contrat de vassalitéfut conclu le 2juin 1878. Celui-cifut
approuvé et ratifiépar le gouverneur général des Indes néerlandaisesle
18octobre 1878.
L'article2 du contrat de vassalitéde 1878décrivaitleterritoire du Bou-
loungan en ces termes: «Le territoire du Royaume du Bouloungan est
réputéêtreconstituédes terres et îles qui sont désignées dans la déclara-
tion annexéeau présentcontrat.)) Le texte de la déclaration annexéeau

contrat est pratiquement identiquea celuide l'article 2 du contrat de 1850.
Cette déclaration fut amendée en 1893pour la mettre en conformité
avec la convention conclue en 1891entre la Grande-Bretagne et les Pays-
Bas (voir paragraphe 23 ci-après).La nouvelledéclarationprévoyaitque:

«les îles de Tarakan et Nanoukan, et la partie de l'île de Sebitik
situéeau sud de la ligne frontière ci-dessus, décritesdans l'lndisch
Staatsblad de 1892,no 114,appartiennent au Bouloungan, de même
que lespetites îlesserattachant aux îlessusmentionnées,pour autant
qu'ellessoient situéesau sud de la ligne frontière...)).

19. La Grande-Bretagne possédaitpour sa part des intérêts commer-
ciaux dans la zone, mais n'eut pas d'assiseterritoriale sur l'îlede Bornéo
avant le XIXe siècle. Après la convention anglo-néerlandaise du
13août 1814, les prétentionscommerciales et territoriales de la Grande-
Bretagne et des Pays-Bas sur l'îlede Bornéo commencèrent ase chevau-
cher.
Le 17mars 1824,la Grande-Bretagne et lesPays-Bas signèrentun nou-Treaty in an attempt to settle their commercial and territorial disputes in
the region.
20. In 1877, the Sultan of Brunei made three separate instruments in

which he "granted" Mr. Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck a large
area of North Borneo. Since these grants included a portion of territory
along the north coast of Borneo which was also claimed by the Sultan of
Sulu, Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck decided to enter into an
agreement with the latter Sultan.
On 22 January 1878the Sultan of Sulu agreed to "grant and cede" to
Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck, as representatives of a British
company, al1his rights and powers over:

"al1 the territories and lands being tributary to [him] on the main-
land of the Island of Borneo, commencing from the Pandassan River
on the West coast to Maludu Bay, and extending along the whole
east coast as far as theibuco River in the south, comprising al1the
provinces bordering on Maludu Bay, also the States of Pietan,
Sugut, Bangaya, Labuk, Sandakan, Kinabatangan, Mamiang, and
al1the other territories and states to the southward thereof bordering
on Darvel Bay and as far as the Sibuco River, with al1the islands
belonging thereto within three marine leagues [9nautical miles] of
the coast".

On the same day, the Sultan of Sulu signed a commission whereby he
appointed Baron von Overbeck "Dato' Bëndahara and Rajah of
Sandakan" with "the fullest power of life and death" over al1the inhabi-
tants of the territories which had been granted to him and made him
master of "al1matters . ..and [of]the revenues or 'products' " belonging
to the Sultan in those territories. The Sultan of Sulu asked the "foreign
nations" with which he had concluded "friendly treaties and alliances"
to accept "the said Dato' Bëndahara as supreme ruler over the said
dominions".
Baron von Overbeck subsequently relinquished al1his rights and inter-

ests in the British company referred to above. Alfred Dent later applied
for a Royal Charter from the British Government to administer the ter-
ritory and exploit its resources. This Charter was granted in Novem-
ber 1881. In May 1882a chartered company was officially incorporated
under the name of the "British North Borneo Company" (hereinafter the
"BNBC").
The BNBC began at that time to extend its administration to certain
islands situated beyond the 3-marine-league limit referred to in the 1878
grant.
21. On II March 1877Spain, Germany and Great Britain concluded a
Protocol establishing free commerce and navigation in the Sulu (Jol6)
Sea with a view to settling a commercial dispute which had arisen
between them. Under this Protocol, Spain undertook to guarantee and
ensure the liberty of commerce, of fishing and of navigation for ships and
subjects of Great Britain, Germany and the other Powers in "the Archi- PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 639

veau traité pour tenter de régler leurs différecommerciaux et territo-
riaux dans la région.
20. En 1877,le sultan du Brunéiaccorda, par trois titres distincts, une
vaste portion du Bornéo septentrional à Alfred Dent et au baron
von Overbeck. Compte tenu de ce que cestitres englobaient, le long de la
côte nord de Bornéo,une partie de territoire également revendiquéepar
le sultan de Sulu, Alfred Dent et le baron von Overbeck décidèrentde
conclure un accord avec ce dernier.
Le 22janvier 1878,le sultan de Sulu accepta d'«accorder et céder))à

Alfred Dent et au baron von Overbeck, en leur qualitéde représentants
d'une compagnie britannique, tous ses droits et pouvoirs sur:
«l'ensemble des territoires et des teàr[lui]soumis sur l'îlede Bor-
néo proprement dite, de la rivière Pandasan sur la côte ouest à
Maludu Bay, puis tout le long de la côte orientale jusqu'à la rivière

Sibuku au sud, y compris toutes les provinces bordant Maludu Bay,
ainsi que les Etats dePietan. Sugut, Bangaya, Labuk, Sandakan,
Kinabatangan, Mamiang et tous les autres territoires et Etats situés
au sud de Mamiang et jouxtant Darvel Bay, jusqu'a la rivière
Sibuku, y compris toutes lesîlessituéesl'intérieurd'une limitefixée
à 3 lieues marines[9milles marins] de la côte)).

Le même jour,le sultan de Sulu signa une commission par laquelle il
nommait le baron von Overbeck Dato' Bëndahara et Rajah de Sanda-
kan)), l'investissant «des pouvoirs lesplus étendusde vie et de mort» sur
tous les habitants des territoires qui lui avaient étécédéset le rendant
maître de ((toutes les choses et tous les produits)) revenant au sultan sur
lesdits territoires. Le sultan de Sulu demandait aux ((nations étrangères))
avec lesquelles il avait concludes traitésd'amitiéet des alliances)) de
reconnaître ((ledit Dato' Bëndahara comme souverain suprêmedesdites
possessions».
Le baron von Overbeck abandonna par la suite tous ses droits et inté-
rêtsdans la compagnie britannique susmentionnée.Alfred Dent adressa

ultérieurementau Gouvernement britannique une requête sollicitant une
charte royale aux fins d'administrer le territoire et d'en exploiter les res-
sources. Celle-cifut octroyéeen novembre 1881.En mai 1882,une com-
pagnie i charte fut officiellement constituée sous le nom de ((British
North Borneo Company » (dénommée ci-aprèlsa «BNBC))).
La BNBC commença à cette époque à étendreson administration à
certaines îles situéesau-delà de la limite des 3 lieues marànlaquelle il
est fait référencdans la concession de 1878.
21. Le 11 mars 1877, l'Espagne, l'Allemagne et la Grande-Bretagne
conclurent, en vue de réglerun différend commercialqui avait surgi entre
elles, un protocole relatifla libertéde commerce et de navigation dans
la mer de Sulu (Jolo). Aux termes de ce protocole,l'Espagne s'engageait
à garantir età assurer la libertéde commerce, de pêcheet de navigation

aux navires et sujets de la Grande-Bretagne, de l'Allemagneet des autres640 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

pelago of Sulu (Jolo) and in al1parts there[oflV,without prejudice to the
rights recognized to Spain in the Protocol.
On 7 March 1885Spain, Germany and Great Britain concluded a new
Protocol of which the first three articles read as follows:

"Arricle1

The Governments of Germany and Great Britain recognize the
sovereignty of Spain over the places effectivelyoccupied, as well as
over those places not yet so occupied, of the archipelago of Sulu
(Jolo), of which the boundaries are determined in Article 2.

Article 2
The Archipelago of Sulu (Jolo), conformably to the definition
contained in Article 1 of the Treaty signed the 23rd of September
1836, between the Spanish Government and the Sultan of Sulu
(Jolb), comprisesal1the islands whichare found between the western
extremity of the island of Mindanao, on the one side, and the con-

tinent of Borneo and the island of Paragua, on the other side, with
the exception of those which are indicated in Article 3.
It is understood that the islands of Balabac and of Cagayan-Jolo
form part of the Archipelago.
Article 3

The Spanish Government relinquishes as far as regards the British
Government, al1claim of sovereignty overthe territories of the con-
tinent of Borneo which belong, or which have belonged inthe past,
to the Sultan of Sulu(Job), including therein the neighboring islands
of Balambangan, Banguey and Malawali, as wellas al1those islands
lying within a zone of three marine leagues along the coasts and
which form part of the territories administered by the Company
styled the 'BritishNorth Borneo Company'."

22. On 12 May 1888the British Government entered into an Agree-
ment with the BNBC for the creation of the State of North Borneo. This
Agreement made North Borneo a British Protectorate, with the British
Government assuming responsibility for its foreign relations.
23. On 20 June 1891the Netherlands and Great Britain concluded a
Convention (hereinafter the "1891 Convention") for the purpose of
"defining the boundaries between the Netherland possessions in the
Island of Borneo and the States in that island which [were]under British
protection" (see paragraph 36 below).
24. At the end of the Spanish-American War, Spain ceded the Philip-

pine Archipelago (see paragraph 115 below) to the United States of
America (hereinafter the "United States") through the Treaty of Peace
of Paris of10 December 1898(hereinafter the "1898 Treaty of Peace").
Article 111of the Treaty defined the Archipelago by means of certain
lines. Under the Treaty of 7 November 1900 (hereinafter the "1900 PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 640

puissances dans ((l'archipel de Sulu (Jolo) et dans toutes ses parties)),
sans préjudicedes droits reconnus àl'Espagne dans ledit protocole.
Le 7 mars 1885, l'Espagne, l'Allemagne et la Grande-Bretagne

conclurent un nouveau protocole dont les trois premiers articles se
lisaient comme suit :
((Articlepremier

Les Gouvernements de l'Allemagne et de la Grande-Bretagne
reconnaissent la souverainetéde l'Espagne sur les points occupés
effectivement, ainsi que sur ceux qui ne le seraient pas encore, de
l'archipel de Sulu (Jolo), dont leslimitessont établiesdans I'article2.

Article2
L'archipel de Sulu (Jolo), conformément à la définitioncontenue
dans l'article" du traitésignéle 23 septembre 1836entre le Gou-
vernement espagnol et le sultan de Sulu (Jolo), comprend toutes les
îles qui se trouvent entre l'extrémité occidentalde l'île de Minda-
nao, d'une part, et le continent de Bornéoet l'île de Paragua, de
l'autre, l'exception de cellesqui sont indiquéesdans l'article 3.

Il est entendu que les îlesde Balabac et de Cagayan-Jolo font par-
tie de l'archipel.
Article3

Le Gouvernement espagnol renonce vis-à-vis du Gouvernement
britannique,à toute prétentionde souverainetésur les territoires du
continent de Bornéo qui appartiennent, ou qui ont appartenu dans
le passé,au sultan de Sulu (Jolo), y compris les îles voisines de-
lambangan, Banguey et Malawali, ainsi que toutes celles comprises
dans une zone de 3 lieuesmaritimes le long des côtes et qui font par-
tie des territoires administrés par la Compagnie dite British North
Borneo Company. »

22. Le 12mai 1888,le Gouvernement britannique passa avec la BNBC
un accord portant crêationde 1'Etatdu Nord-Bornéo. Cet accord faisait
du Nord-Bornéo un Etat sous protectorat britannique dont les relations
extérieures relevaientde la responsabilitédu Gouvernement britannique.
23. Le 20 juin 1891, les Pays-Bas et la Grande-Bretagne conclurent
une convention (dénomméeci-après la((convention de 1891 »)aux finsde
((définirles frontièresentre les possessions des Pays-Bas sur l'îlede Bor-
néo et les Etats de cette île placéssous protection britannique)) (voir

paragraphe 36 ci-après).
24. A l'issue de la guerre hispano-américaine, l'Espagne céda aux
Etats-Unis d'Amérique(dénommés ci-aprèlses «Etats-Unis ») l'archipel
des Philippines (voir paragraphe 115 ci-après) par le traité de paix de
Paris du 10décembre1898(dénommé ci-aprèls e((traitédepaix de 1898D).
L'article III de ce traitédéfinissait l'archipelau moyen de certaines lignes.
Par le traitédu 7 novembre 1900(dénommé ci-aprèsle ((traitéde 1900»),641 PULAU LICITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Treaty"), Spain ceded to the United States "al1islands belonging to the
Philippine Archipelago, lying outside the lines described in Article III"
of the 1898Treaty of Peace (see paragraph 115 below).
25. On 22 April 1903the Sultan of Sulu concluded a "Confirmation of
Cession" with the Government of British North Borneo, in which were
specified the names of a certain number of islands which were to be
treated as having been included in the original cession granted to

Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck in 1878.The islands mentioned
wereas follows: Muliangin, Muliangin Kechil, Malawali, Tegabu, Bilian,
Tegaypil, Lang Kayen, Boan, Lehiman, Bakungan, Bakungan Kechil,
Libaran, Taganack, Beguan, Mantanbuan, Gaya, Omadal, Si Amil,
Mabol, Kepalai and Dinawan. The instrument further provided that
"other islands near, or round, or lying between the said islands named
above" were included in the cession of 1878. All those islands were
situated beyond the 3-marine-league limit.
26. Following a visit in 1903bythe United StatesNavy vesse1USS Qui-
ros to the area of the islands disputed in the present proceedings, the
BNBC lodged protests with the Foreign Office,on the ground that some
of the islands visited, on which the US Navy had placed flagsand tablets,
were, according to the BNBC, under its authority. The question was
dealt with in particular in a memorandum dated 23 June 1906 from
Sir H. M. Durand, British Ambassador to the United States, to the
United States Secretary of State, with which a map showing "the limits
within which the [BNBC] desire[d]to carry on the administration" was

enclosed. Under an Exchange of Notes dated 3 and 10 July 1907, the
United States temporarily waivedthe right of administration in respect of
"al1the islands to the westward and southwestward of the line traced on
the map which accompanied Sir H. M. Durand's memorandum".

27. On 28 September 1915Great Britain and the Netherlands, acting
pursuant to Article V of the 1891 Convention, signed an Agreement
relatingto "the Boundary between the State of North Borneo and the
Netherland Possessions in Borneo" (hereinafter the "1915 Agreement"),
whereby the two States confirmed a report and accompanying map pre-
pared by a mixed commission setup for the purpose (see paragraphs 70,
71 and 72 below).
On 26 March 1928Great Britain and the Netherlands signed another
agreement (hereinafter the "1928 Agreement") pursuant to Article V of
the 1891Convention, for the purpose of "further delimiting part of the
frontier established in article III of the Convention signed at London on
the 20th June, 1891" ("between the summits of the Gunong Api and of

the Gunong Raya"); a map was attached to that agreement (see para-
graph 73 below).
28. On 2 January 1930the United States and Great Britain concluded
a Convention (hereinafter the "1930 Convention") "delimiting . ..the
boundary between the Philippine Archipelago . ..and the State of North
Borneo" (see paragraph 119 below). This Convention contained fivel'Espagne cédaaux Etats-Unis ((toutes les îles de l'archipel des Philip-
pines situées au-delà des lignes définies l'article III)) du traitéde paix
de 1898(voir paragraphe 115ci-après).
25. Le 22 avril 1903,le sultan de Sulu conclut avec le Gouvernement
du Nord-Bornéo britannique une ((confirmationdecession))dans laquelle
étaient indiquéesnommémentun certain nombre d'îlesqui devaient être
considéréescomme ayant étié nclusesdans la cessioninitialement consen-
tieà Alfred Dent et au baron von Overbeck en 1878.Lesîlesmentionnées
étaient les suivantes: Muliangin, Muliangin Kechil, Malawali, Tegabu,
Bilian, Tegaypil, Lang Kayen, Boan, Lehiman, Bakungan, Bakungan
Kechil, Libaran, Taganack, Beguan, Mantanbuan, Gaya, Omadal, Si

Amil, Mabol, Kepalai et Dinawan. Ledit instrument précisait enoutre
que «les autres îles situéàscôtéou autour des îles susmentionnées,ou
entre cesîles», étaientinclusesdans la cession de 1878.Toutes ces îles se
trouvaient situées au-delàde la limite des 3 lieuesmarines.
26. A la suite d'une tournée, en1903, du navire de la marine améri-
caine USS Quiro sans la région desîles en litige en l'espèce,la BNBC
éleva desprotestations auprèsdu Foreign Office,au motif que certaines
des îles visitées, sur lesquellesia marine américaine avait placé des
drapeaux et des plaques, relevaient selonelle deson autorité. Laquestion
fitnotamment l'objet, de la part de sir H. M. Durand, ambassadeur
de Grande-Bretagne aux Etats-Unis, d'un mémorandum adressé le
23 juin 1906au Secrétaire d'Etat des Etats-Unis, et auquel étaitannexée
une carte montrant «les limites dans lesquelles la [BNBC] entendait
exercer son autorité)). Aux termes d'un échange de notes des 3 et
10juillet 1907,lesEtats-Unis renoncèrentprovisoirement au droit d'admi-

nistration de ((toutes les îles situées a l'ouest et au sud-ouest de la
ligne tracée sur la carte qui accompagnait le mémorandum de
sir H. M. Durand...».
27. Le 28 septembre 1915, la Grande-Bretagne et les Pays-Bas si-
gnèrent, conformément à l'article V de la convention de 1891, un
accord relatifà «la frontièreentre 1'Etatdu Nord-Bornéoet les posses-
sions néerlandaises a Bornéo » (dénomméci-aprèsl'«accord de 1915»),
par lequel les deux Etats confirmèrent un rapport accompagné d'une
carte, qui avaient été établisar une commission mixte créée à cet effet
(voir paragraphes 70, 71 et 72 ci-après).
Le 26 mars 1928,la Grande-Bretagne et lesPays-Bas signèrent unnou-
vel accord (dénomméci-après l'aaccord de 1928)))conformément à l'ar-
ticleV de la convention de 1891, destinécette fois à ((délimiterd'une
manière plus précise lapartie de la frontière établiepar l'article III de la
convention signée à Londres le 20 juin 1891» («entre les sommets du

Gunong Api et du Gunong Raya))); une carte était annexée a cet accord
(voir paragraphe 73 ci-après).
28. Le 2janvier 1930,lesEtats-Unis et la Grande-Bretagne conclurent
une convention (dénommée ci-après la ((convention de 1930))) ((déli-
mitant ..la frontière entrel'archipel des Philippi...et 1'Etatdu Nord- V'
Bornéo» (voir paragraphe 119ci-après). Cette convention se composaitarticles, of which the firstand third are the most relevant for the purposes
of the present case. Article 1 defined the line separating the islands
which belonged to the Philippine Archipelago and those which belonged
to the State of North Borneo; Article III stipulated as follows:

"AI1islands to the north and east of the said line and al1islands
and rocks traversed by the said line, should there be any such, shall
belong to the PhilippineArchipelago and al1islands to the south and
Westof the said line shall belong to the State of North Borneo."

29. On 26 June 1946the BNBC entered into an agreement with the
British Government whereby the Company transferred its interests,
powers and rights in respect of the State of North Borneo to the
British Crown. The State of North Borneo then became a British colony.
30. On 9 July 1963the Federation of Malaya, the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, North Borneo, Sarawak and Singa-
pore concluded an Agreement relating to Malaysia. Under Article 1 of
this Agreement, which entered into force on 16 September 1963, the
colony of North Borneo was to be "federated with the existing States of
the Federation of Malaya as the [State] of Sabah".
31. After their independence, Indonesia and Malaysia began to grant

oil prospecting licencesin waters off the east coast of Borneo during the
1960s.The first oil licencegranted by Indonesia to a foreign company in
the relevant area took the form of a production sharing agreement con-
cluded on 6 October 1966between the Indonesian state-owned company
P. N. Pertambangan Minjak Nasional ("Permina") and the Japan Petro-
leum Exploration Company Limited ("Japex"). The northern boundary
of one of theareas covered by the agreement ran eastwards in a straight
line from the east coast of Sebatik Island, following the parallel4" 09'30"
latitude north for some27 nautical miles out to sea. In 1968Malaysia in
turn granted various oil prospecting licencesto Sabah Teiseki Oil Com-
pany ("Teiseki"). The southern boundary of the maritime concession
granted to Teiseki was located at 4" 10'30"latitude north.

The present dispute crystallized in 1969in the context of discussions
concerning the delimitation of the respective continental shelves of the

two States. Following those negotiations a delimitation agreement was
reached on 27 October 1969.It entered into force on 7 November 1969.
However, it did not cover the area lying to the east ofBorneo.
In October 1991the two Parties set up a joint working group to study
the situation of the islandsof Ligitan andipadan. They did not however
reach any agreement and the issue was entrusted to special emissaries of
the two Parties who, in June 1996, recommended by mutual agreement
that the dispute should be referred to the International Court of Justice.
The Special Agreement was signedon 31 May 1997.de cinq articles, dont lepremier et letroisièmesont lesplus pertinents aux
fins de la présente affaire.L'article premier définissligne séparantles
îlesqui appartenaientàl'archipeldes Philippineset cellesqui appartenaient
à 1'Etatdu Nord-Bornéo; l'articleIII étaitainsi rédigé:

«Toutes les îles situéesau nord etàI'estde ladite ligne ainsi que
toutes les îles et tous les récifscoupéspar elle, s'il en existe, appar-
tiendrontà l'archipel des Philippines et toutes les îles situéesau sud
età l'ouest de cette lignà,1'Etatdu Nord-Bornéo.»

29. Le 26juin 1946, la BNBC passa un accord avec le Gouvernement
britannique, par lequel la compagnie cédaitsesintérêt,ouvoirs et droits

concernant 1'Etatdu Nord-Bornéo à la Couronne britannique. L'Etat du
Nord-Bornéo devint alors une colonie britannique.
30. Le 9juillet 1963,la Fédérationde la Malaya, le Royaume-Uni de
Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord, le Nord-Bornéo, Sarawak et Sin-
gapour conclurent un accord relatif à la Malaisie. Aux termes de I'ar-
ticle premier de cet accord, entréen vigueur le 16septembrê1963,la colo-
nie du Nord-Bornéo étaitappelée à se «fédér[er]avec les Etats formant
[alors] la Fédérationde Malaya sous le nom [d'Etat] de Sabah)).
31. Après leur indépendance,tant l'Indonésieque la Malaisie com-
mencèrent à accorder des permis de prospection pétrolièreau large de la
côte est de Bornéo au cours des années soixante. Le premier permis
pétrolier octroyépar l'Indonésie à une sociétéétrangèredans la zone

considéréeprit la forme d'un accord de partage de la production conclu
le 6 octobre 1966entre l'entreprise'Etat indonésienneP. N. Pertamban-
gan Minjak Nasional («Permina») et la Japan Petroleum Exploration
Company Limited (((Japex))). La limite septentrionale de l'une deszones
du contrat s'étendaiten ligne droite vers I'àspartir de la côte orientale
de l'île de Sebatik, en suivant le parallèle 4O09'30" de latitude nord
jusqu'à une distance d'environ 27 milles marins au large. En 1968, la
Malaisie accorda à son tour divers permis de prospection pétrolièreà la
Sabah Teiseki Oil Company («Teiseki»). La limite sud de la concession
maritime accordée àTeiseki étaitsituéeà 4'10'30" de latitude nord.
Le présent différendse cristallisa en 1969 l'occasion de discussions-
relativesà la délimitation des plateaux continentaux respectifs des deux

Etats. A l'issuede ces négociations,un accord de délimitation fut conclu
le 27 octobre 1969.Il entra en vigueur le 7 novembre 1969. Il ne couvrait
cependant pas la région situéeà I'estde Bornéo.
En octobre 1991, les deux Parties constituèrent un groupe de travail
mixte afin d'étudier la situation des îles de Ligitan et Sipadan. Aucun
accord ne fut toutefois conclu, et la question fut confàédes émissaires
spéciauxdes deux Parties qui, en juin 1996,recommandèrent d'un com-
mun accord de soumettre la question àla Cour internationale de Justice.
Le compromis fut signéle 31 mai 1997. 32. Indonesia's claim to sovereignty over the islands of Ligitan and

Sipadan rests primarily on the 1891Convention between Great Britain
and the Netherlands. It also relies on a seriesof efîectivib toéh,Dutch
and Indonesian, which it claims confirm itsconventional title. At the oral
proceedings Indonesia further contended, by way of alternative argu-
ment, that if the Court were to reject its title based on the 1891Conven-
tion, itould still claim sovereignty over thedisputed islands as successor
to the Sultan of Bulungan, because he had possessed authority over the
islands.
33. For its part, Malaysia contends that it acquired sovereignty over
the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan followinga series of alleged transmis-
sions of the titleoriginally held by the former sovereign, the Sultan of
Sulu.Malaysia claims that the title subsequentlypassed, in succession,to
Spain, to the United States, to Great Britain on behalf of the State of
North Borneo, to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland, and finally to Malaysia itself. It argues that its title, based on this
series of legal instruments, is confirmed by a certain number of British
and Malaysian effectivi otversthe islands. It argues in the alternative
that, if the Court were to conclude that the disputed islands had ori-

ginally belonged to the Netherlands, its effectivi wtould in any event
have displaced any such Netherlands title.

34. As the Court has just noted, Indonesia's main claim is that sov-
ereignty over the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan belongs to it by virtue of
the 1891Convention. Indonesia maintains that "[tlhe Convention, by its
terms, its context, and its object and purpose, established the 4" 10'N
parallel of latitude as the dividing line between the Parties' respective
possessions in the area now in question". It Statesin this connection that
its position is not that "the 1891 Convention line was from the outset
intended also to be, or in effect was, a maritime boundary. . .east of
Sebatik island" but that "the line must be considered an allocation line:
land areas, including islands located to the north of 4"10' N latitude
were. . . considered to be British, and those lying to the south were
Dutch". As the disputed islands lie to the south of that parallel, "[ilt
therefore follows that under the Convention title to those islands vested

in the Netherlands, and now vests in Indonesia".

Indonesia contends that the two States parties to the 1891Convention
clearly assumed that they were the only actors in the area. It adds in this
regard that Spain had no title to the islandsin dispute and had shown no
interest in what was going on to the south of the Sulu Archipelago.

In Indonesia's view, the Convention did not involve territorial ces-
sions; rather, each party's intention was to recognize the other party's
title to territories on Borneo and islands lying "on that party'sside" of PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 643

32. L'Indonésie soutientà titre principal que sa souverainetésur les

îles de Ligitan et Sipadan repose sur la convention de 1891 entre la
Grande-Bretagne et lesPays-Bas.Elleinvoque également unesérie d'effec-
tivités,tant néerlandaises qu'indonésiennes,qui, selon elle, viendraient
confirmer son titre conventionnel. Au coursde la procédureorale, 1'Indo-
nésiea en outre fait valoià,titre subsidiaire,que, sila Cour ne retenait pas
son titre fondésur la convention de 1891,la souverainetésur les îles en
litigene lui en appartiendrait pas moins,du fait que celles-cise trouvaient
sous l'autoritédu sultan du Bouloungan,dont elleest le successeur.
33. Pour sa part, la Malaisie soutient qu'elle a acquis la souveraineté
sur les îles de Ligitan etSipadan à la suite d'une sériede transmissions
qu'aurait connues le titre détenua l'originepar l'ancien souverain, le sul-
tan de Sulu, titre qui serait ensuite passé, successivement, à l'Espagne,
aux Etats-Unis, à la Grande-Bretagne - pour le compte de I'Etat du

Nord-Bornéo -, au Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du
Nord, et finalement à la Malaisie elle-même. Elle affirme que son titre
fondésur cette séried'instruments juridiques est confirmépar un certain
nombre d'effectivitésbritanniques et malaisiennes sur lesdites îles. Elle
estime subsidiairement que, si la Cour parvenait à la conclusion que les
îles en litige avaient appartenuà l'origine aux Pays-Bas, ses effectivités
auraient en tout étatde cause supplantéun tel titre des Pays-Bas.

34. Comme la Cour vient de le rappeler, l'Indonésie soutient à titre
principal que la souverainetésur les îlesde Ligitan etSipadan lui appar-
tient en vertu de la convention de 1891.L'Indonésieestime que, par «ses
termes, son contexte, son objet et son but, ladite convention fixait comme

ligne de partage entre lespossessions respectivesdes Parties dans la zone
aujourd'hui en cause le parallèle 4" 10'de latitude nord)). Elle préciseà
cet égardque sa position n'est pas d'affirmer «que la ligne convention-
nelle de 1891 visait également, dès l'origine, à être une frontière
maritime ...a l'estde I'îlede Sebatik, ni qu'ellel'étaiten fait», mais plutôt
de ((regarder cette ligne comme une ligne d'attribution: les territoires,
compris les îles situéesau nord du parallèle 4"10' de latitude nord,
étaient ...considéréscomme britanniques, et ceux situésau sud comme
néerlandais)).Les îlesen litigeétantsituéesau sud de ce parallèle,«[il1en
découle[rait]qu'en vertu de la convention le titre sur ces îles appartenait
aux Pays-Bas et qu'il appartient aujourd'hui à l'Indonésie».
L'Indonésieestimequ'ilne saurait êtremis en doute que les deux Etats
parties a la convention de 1891se considéraientcomme les seuls acteurs

dans la zone. Elle ajoute a ce propos que l'Espagne ne possédaitaucun
titre sur les îles en litige et n'avait manifestéaucun inttour ce qui se
passait au sud de l'archipel deSulu.
L'Indonésierelèveque ladite convention n'impliquait pas de cessions
de territoires; l'intention de chacune des Parties aurait plutôt étéde
reconnaître letitre de l'autre sur lesterritoires de I'îlede Bornéoetles îles644 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

the line, and to relinquish any claim in respect ofem. According to Indo-
nesia, "both parties no doubt considered that [the] territories...on their
side of the agreed line were already theirs, rather than that they had
become theirs by virtue of a treaty cession". It maintains that in any case,

whatever mayhave beenthe position before 1891,the Convention between
the two colonial Powers is an indisputable title which takes precedence
over any other pre-existing title.

35. For its part, Malaysia considers that Indonesia's claim to Ligitan
and Sipadan finds no support in either the text of the 1891Convention or
in itstravaux préparatoires,or in any other document that may be used
to interpret the Convention. Malaysia points out that the 1891Conven-
tion, when seen as a whole, clearly shows that the parties sought to
clarify the boundary between their respective land possessions on the
islands of Borneo and Sebatik, since the line of delimitation stops at the
easternmost point of the latter island. It contends that "the ordinary and
natural interpretation of the Treaty, and relevant rules of law, plainly
refute" Indonesia's argument and adds that the ratification of the 1891
Convention and its implementation, notably through the 1915 Agree-
ment, do not support Indonesia's position.

Malaysia additionally argues that, even if the 1891 Convention were

construed so as to allocate possessions to the east ofSebatik, that alloca-
tion could not have any consequence in respectof islands which belonged
to Spain at the time. In Malaysia's view,Great Britain could not have
envisioned ceding to the Netherlands islands which lay beyond the
3-marine-league line referred to in the 1878 grant, a line said to have
been expressly recognized by Great Britain and Spain in the Protocol
of 1885.

36. On 20June 1891,the Netherlands and Great Britain signed a Con-
vention for the purpose of "defining the boundaries between the Nether-
land possessions in the Island of Borneo and the States in that island
which [were] under British protection". The Convention was drawn up in
Dutch and in English, the two texts being equally authentic. It consists of
eight articles. Articlestipulates that "[tlhe boundary between theNether-
land possessions in Borneo and those of the British-protected States in

the same island, shall start from4" 10'north latitude on the east coast of
Borneo". Article II, after stipulating "[tlhe boundary-line shall be con-
tinued westward", then describes the course of the first part of that line.
Article III describes the further westward course of the boundary line
from the point where Article 11stops and as far as Tandjong-Datoe, on
theWestcoast of Borneo. Article V provides that "[tlhe exact positions of
the boundary-line, as described in the four preceding Articles, shall be PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 644

situées«de son côté»de la ligne, et de renoncer àtoute prétention àleur
égard.Selon elle, «il ne fait aucun doute que, pour chacune des parties,
les territoires..situés de soncôtéde la ligne convenue lui appartenaient
déjàet ...n'étaient pasdevenus siens en vertu d'une cession issue d'un
traité)).Elle soutient que, de toute manière, quellequ'ait pu êtrela situa-
tion avant 1891, la convention conclue entre les deux puissances colo-

niales constitue un titre indiscutable qui l'emporte sur tout autre titre
susceptible de l'avoir précédé.
35. La Malaisie considèrepour sa part que la revendication de 1'Indo-
nésiesur les îles de Ligitan et Sipadan ne trouve appui ni dans le texte de
la convention de 1891,ni dans les travaux préparatoires à ladite conven-
tion, ni dans aucun autre document auquel il pourrait être recouru pour
l'interpréter.La Malaisie fait observer que la convention de 1891,appré-
ciéedans son ensemble, montre à l'évidenceque les parties entendaient
préciser lafrontière entre leurs possessions terrestres respectives dans les
îles de Bornéoet de Sebatik, la ligne de délimitations'arrêtantau point le
plus oriental de cette dernière. Elle estime que la thèsede l'Indonésiese
trouve manifestement réfutéepar l'interprétation naturelle et ordinaire

du traitéen question et les règlesde droit applicables)) et ajoute que la
ratification de la convention de 1891et sa mise en Œuvre,notamment par
l'accord de 1915,n'étayent pas lathèse indonésienne.
La Malaisie fait valoirà titre additionnel que, mêmesi la convention
de 1891devait êtreinterprétéecomme portant attribution de possessions
à l'est deSebatik, cette attribution ne saurait avoir de conséquence s'agis-
sant d'îles qui, à l'époque considéréea,ppartenaient à l'Espagne. Du
point de vue de la Malaisie, la Grande-Bretagne n'aurait pu envisager de
céder aux Pays-Bas des îles qui se trouvaient au-delà de la ligne de
3 lieues marines mentionnée dans la concession de 1878, ligne que la
Grande-Bretagne et l'Espagne auraient expressémentreconnue dans le
protocole de 1885.

36. Le 20juin 1891,les Pays-Bas et la Grande-Bretagne signèrent une
convention afin de «définirles frontières entre les possessions des Pays-
Bas sur l'îlede Bornéo etles Etats de cette île qui [étaient]sous protection
britannique)). Ladite convention fut établie enanglais et en néerlandais,
les deux versions faisant également foi.Elle comporte huit articles. L'ar-
ticle1dispose que «[l]a frontière entre les possessions des Pays-Baà Bor-
néoet celles des Etats de cette île qui sont sous protection britannique
part du point de la côte orientale de Bornéo situé à 4' 10' de latitude
nord». L'article II, après avoir préciséque «p]a ligne frontière se pour-
suit vers l'ouest)),définitle tracédu premier tronçon de cette ligne. L'ar-
ticleII1 décritla poursuite du tracéde la frontière vers l'ouesà partir du

point où s'arrêtel'article IIusqu'à Tandjong-Datou, sur la côte occiden-
tale de Bornéo. L'article V prévoitque «le tracéexact de la ligne fron-
tière, telle qu'elle est décriteaux quatre articles précédents, seradéfini645 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

determined hereafter by mutual agreement, at such times as the Nether-
land and the British Governments may think fit". Article VI guarantees
the parties free navigation on al1 rivers flowing into the sea between
Batoe-Tinagat and the River Siboekoe. Article VI1 grants certain rights
to the population of the Sultanate of Bulungan to the north of the
boundary. Lastly, Article VI11 stipulates the conditions in which the
Convention would come into force.
Indonesia relies essentially on Article IV of the 1891 Convention in
support of itsclaim to the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan. That provision
reads as follows:

"From 4" 10'north latitude on the east Coast the boundary-line
shall be continued eastward along that parallel, across the Island of
Sebittik: that portion of theisland situated to the north of that par-
allel shall belong unreservedly to the British North Borneo Com-
pany, and the portion south of that parallel to the Netherlands."

The Parties disagree over the interpretation to be given to that provision.

37. The Court notes that Indonesia is not a party to the Vienna Con-
vention of 23 May 1969on the Law of Treaties; the Court would never-
theless recall that, in accordance with customary international law,
reflected in Articles1 and 32 of that Convention:

"a treaty must be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the
ordinary meaning to be given to its terms in their context and in the
light of its object and purpose. Interpretation must be based above
al1upon the text of the treaty. As a supplementary measure recourse
may be had to means of interpretation such as the preparatory work
of the treaty and the circumstances of its conclusion." (Territorial
Dispute (Libyan Arab JamahiriyalChad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1994, pp. 21-22, para. 41 ;see also Maritime Delimitation and Ter-
ritorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain),
Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 18,
para. 33; Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States
of' America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I. C.J. Reports
1596 (II), p. 812, para. 23 ;KasikililSedudu Island (Botswana1
Namibia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1059, para. 18.)

Moreover, with respect to Article 31, paragraph 3, the Court has had
occasion to state that this provision alsoreflectscustomary law, stipulat-
ing that there shall be taken into account, together with the context, the
subsequent conduct of the parties to the treaty, Le., "any subsequent
agreement" (subpara. (a)) and "any subsequent practice" (subpara. (b))
(see in particular Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons inultérieurement d'un commun accord, aux moments que les Gouverne-

ments néerlandais et britanniquejugeront opportuns)). L'article VI garan-
tit aux parties la libertéde navigation sur tous les fleuves se jetant dans la
mer entre Batou-Tinagat et la rivièreSiboukou. L'article VI1octroie cer-
tains droits à la population du Sultanat du Bouloungan au nord de la
frontière. Enfin, l'articleVI11préciselesconditions d'entréeen vigueur de
la convention.
A l'appui de sa revendication sur les îlesde Ligitan et Sipadan, 1'Indo-
nésieinvoque essentiellement l'article IV de la convention de 1891.Cette
disposition se lit comme suit:

«A partir du point situé à 4' 10'de latitude nord sur la côte orien-
tale, la ligne frontièresepoursuit vers l'estle long du même parallèle,
àtravers l'îlede Sebittik;lapartie de l'îlesituéeau nord dudit paral-
lèleappartient sans réserve a la British North Borneo Company et la
partie situéeau sud du parallèle appartient sans réserveaux Pays-
Bas.»

Les Parties sont en désaccordquant à l'interprétation a donner à cette
disposition.

37. La Cour note que l'Indonésien'est pas partie à la convention de
Vienne du 23 mai 1969sur le droit des traités; elle rappellera toutefois
que, selon le droit international coutumier qui a trouvé son expression

dans les articles 31 et 32 de ladite convention:
«un traité doit êtreinterprété de bonnefoi suivant le sens ordinaire
à attribuer a ses termes dans leur contexte et à la lumière de son
objet et de son but. L'interprétation doit êtrefondéeavant tout sur
J le texte du traitélui-même.11peut êtrefait appel à titre complémen-
tairea des moyens d'interprétation tels les travaux préparatoires et

les circonstances dans lesquelles le traité a été conclu.))(Différend
territorial (Jamahiriya arabe libyennelTchad), arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil
1994, p. 21-22, par.41; voir aussi Délimitationmaritime et questions
territoriales entre Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahreïn), compétence
et recevabilité, arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 18, par. 33; Plates-
formes pétrolières(Républiqueislamique d'Iran c. Etats-Unis d'Amé-
rique), exception préliminaire, arrêt, C. I.J. Recueil 1996 (II),
p. 812, par. 23; Ile de KasikililSedudu (BotswanalNamibie), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 1059,par. 18.)

En ce qui concerne en outre le paragraphe 3 de l'article 31, la Cour a eu
l'occasion de préciserque cette disposition reflèteégalementle droit cou-
tumier lorsqu'elle prévoitqu'il sera tenu compte, en même tempsque du
contexte, de la conduite ultérieuredes parties au traité,à savoir de «tout
accord ultérieur))(alinéaa)) et de «toute pratique ultérieurementsuivie»
(alinéa6)) (voir notamment Licéitéde l'utilisation des armes nucléaires646 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Armed Confiict, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 75,
para. 19; KasikililSedudu Island (BotsrvanalNamibia), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1999 (II), p. 1075,para. 48).
Indonesia does not dispute that these are the applicable rules. Nor is
the applicability of the rule contained in Article 31, paragraph 2, con-
tested by the Parties.
38. The Court willnow proceed to the interpretation of Article IV of
the 1891 Convention in the light of these rules.

39. With respect to the terms of Article IV, Indonesia maintains that

this Article contains nothing to suggest that the line stops at the east
coast of Sebatik Island. On the contrary, it contends that "the stipula-
tion that the line was to be 'continued' eastward along the prescribed
paraIlel[, across the island of Sebatik,] requires a prolongation of the
line so far as was necessary to achieve the Convention's purposes". In
this respect, Indonesia points out that had the parties to the Convention
intended not to draw an allocation line out to sea to the east of Sebatik
(see paragraph 34 above) but to end the line at a point on the coast,
they would have stipulated this expressly, as was the case in Article III.

Moreover, Indonesia notes a difference in punctuation between the
Dutch and English texts of Article IV ofthe Convention, both texts being
authentic (see paragraph 36 above), and bases itself on the English text,
which reads as follows:

"From 4"10'north latitude on the east coast the boundary-line
shall be continued eastward along that parallel, across the Island of
Sebittik: that portion of the island situated to the north of thatar-
allel shall belong unreservedly to the British North Borneo Com-
pany, and the portion south of that parallel to the Netherlands."

Indonesia emphasizes the colon in the English text, claiming that it is
used to separate two provisions of which the second develops or illus-
trates the first. It thus contends that the second part of the sentence, pre-
ceded by the colon, "is essentiallya subsidiary part of the sentence,filling
out part of its meaning, but not distorting the clear sense of the main
clause, which takes the line out to sea along the4" 10'N parallel".

40. Malaysia, for its part, contends that when Article IV of the
189 1 Convention provides that the boundary line continues eastward
along the parallel of 4"10'north, this simply means "that the extension
starts from the east coast of Borneo and runs eastward across Sebatik, in

contrast with the main part of the boundary line, which starts at theame
point, but runs westwards". According to Malaysia, the plain and ordi-
nary meaning of the words "across the Island of Sebittik" is to describe,
"in English and in Dutch, a line that crossesSebatik from the Westcoastpar unEtat dans un conjit armé,avis consultat$ C.Z.J. Recueil 1996 (Z),
p. 75, par. 19; Zle de KasikililSedudu (BotswanalNamibie), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 1075, par. 48).
L'Indonésiene conteste pas que telles sont bien les règlesapplicables.
L'applicabilitéde la règlecontenue au paragraphe 2 de I'article 31 n'est
de mêmepas contestée entreles Parties.
38. La Cour procéderamaintenant à l'interprétationde I'article IVde
la convention de 1891 à la lumièrede ces règles.

39. S'agissant des termes de I'articleIV, l'Indonésiesoutient que rien
dans celui-ci ne donne àpenser que la ligne s'arrêteà la côte orientale de
I'île de Sebatik. Bien au contraire, pour cet Etat, ((l'indication selon
laquelle la ligne«se poursuit» vers l'est suivantleparallèle déterminé [,à
travers I'îlede Sebittik,]suppose obligatoirement qu'elle seprolonge aussi
loin que nécessairepour répondre aux buts de la convention». A cet
égard, l'Indonésiefait observer que, si les parties la convention avaient
entendu, non pas tracer une ligne d'attribution vers le largeà I'estde I'île
de Sebatik (voir paragraphe 34 ci-dessus), mais arrêterla ligne frontière
en un point précis de la côte, elles l'auraient expressémentindiqué,

comme cela a été fait à I'article III.
Relevant en outre une différencede ponctuation entre les textes anglais
et néerlandaisde I'article IV de la convention, qui font tous les deux foi
(voir paragraphe 36ci-dessus),l'Indonésies'appuiesur la version anglaise,
ainsi libell:e

«From 4"10'north latitude on the east coast the boundary-line
shall be continued eastward along that parallel, across the Island of
Sebittik: that portion of the island situated to the north of that
parallel shall belong unreservedly to the British North Borneo Com-
pany, and the portion south of that parallel to the Netherlands. »
//''
Elle insiste sur la présence,dans cette version, d'un deux-points; selon
elle,celui-cia pour objet de séparer deux dispositionsdont la secondedéve-
loppe ou illustre la première.Elle affirme ainsi que le second membre de
la phrase, précédé du deux-points, «est pour l'essentielune partie secon-
daire de la phrase dont [il]complètela signification,mais sans dénaturer
le sens évidentde la disposition principale, qui visele prolongement de la
ligne vers le large le long du parallèle"10'de latitude nord».
40. La Malaisie soutient quant à elle que, lorsque I'article IV de la
convention de 1891dispose que la ligne frontièrese poursuit vers I'est le
long du parallèle 4"10'de latitude nord, cela signifiesimplement «que le
prolongement a pour point de départ la côte orientale de Bornéo et se

dirige vers I'est travers Sebatik,à la différencedu tronçon principal de
la ligne frontière qui part du mêmepoint mais se dirige vers l'ouest».
Selon la Malaisie, le sens naturel et ordinaire des mots«à travers I'îlede
Sebittik))est de désigner,«en anglais et en néerlandais,une ligne qui tra-647 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

to the eastcoast and goes no further". Malaysia moreover rejects the idea
that the parties to the 1891Convention intended to establish an "alloca-
tion perimeter", that is to Saya "theoretical line drawn in the high seas
under a convention which enables sovereignty over the islands lying
within the area in question to be apportioned between the parties".
Malaysia adds that "allocation perimeters" cannot be presumed where
the text of a treaty remains silent in such respect, as in the case of the
1891Convention, which contains no such indication.

In regard to the difference in punctuation between the Dutch and Eng-
lish texts of Article IV of the Convention, Malaysia, for its part, relies on
the Dutch text, which reads as follows:

"Van 4"10' noorder breedte ter oostkust zal de grenslijn oost-
waarts vervolgd worden langs die parallel over het eiland Sebittik;
het gedeelte van dat eiland dat gelegenis ten noorden van die par-
allel zal onvoorwaardelijk toebehooren aan de Britsche Noord Bor-
neo Maatschappij, en het gedeelte ten zuiden van die parallel aan
Nederland."

Malaysia contends that the drafting of this provision as "a single sen-
tence divided into two parts only by a semi-colon indicates the close
grammatical and functional connection between the two parts". Thus, in
Malaysia's view, the second clause of the sentence, which relates exclu-
sively to the division of the island of Sebatik, confirms that the words
"across the Island of Sebittik" refer solelyto that island.

41. The Court notes that the Parties differ as to how the preposition
"across" (in the English) or "over" (in the Dutch) in the first sentence of
Article IV of the 1891Convention should be interpreted. It acknowledges
that the word is not devoid of ambiguity and is capable of bearing either
of the meanings given to it by the Parties. A line established by treaty
may indeed pass "across" an island and terminate on the shores of such
island or continue beyond it.
The Parties also disagree on the interpretation of the part of theame
sentence which reads "the boundary-line shall be continued eastward
along that parallel[4"10'north]". In the Court's view, the phrase "shall
be continued" is also not devoid of ambiguity. Article 1 of the Conven-
tiondefines the starting point of the boundary between the two States,

whilst Articles II and III describe how that boundary continues from one
part to the next. Therefore, when Article IVrovides that "the boundary-
line shall be continued" again from the east coast of Borneo along the
4"10'N parallel and across the island of Sebatik, this does not, contrary
to Indonesia's contention, necessarily mean that the line continues as an
allocation line beyond Sebatik.

The Court moreover considers that the differencein punctuation in the
two versions of ArticleIV of the 1891Convention does not as such helpverse Sebatik de la côte occidentale à la côte orientale sans aller plus
loin)). La Malaisie démentpar ailleurs que l'on puisse considérerque les
parties àla convention de 1891aient voulu établir un ((périmètre d'attri-
bution))territoriale, c'est-à-dire une«ligne théoriquetracéeen haute mer
dans le cadre d'une conventionet permettant de répartir entre lesparties
la souveraineté sur les îles se trouvant dans le secteur en cause». Pour
elle, on ne saurait présumer l'existence de((périmètresd'attribution))
lorsque le texte d'un traiténe dit rien cet égard; or, celui de la conven-
tion de 1891ne contient pas la moindre indication en ce sens.
En ce qui concerne la différencede ponctuation entre les textes anglais
et néerlandaisde l'article IV de la convention, la Malaisie, pour sa part,
invoque la version néerlandaisequi se lit comme suit:

«Van 4" 10' noorder breedte ter oostkust zal de grenslijn oost-
waarts vervolgd worden langs die parallel over heteiland Sebittik;
het gedeelte van dat eiland dat gelegen is ten noorden van die par-
allel zal onvoorwaardelijk toebehooren aan de Britsche Noord Bor-
neo Maatschappij, en het gedeelte ten zuiden van die parallel aan
Nederland. »

Elle soutient que la rédactionde cette disposition en «une seule phrase
diviséeen deux membres par un simple point-virgule indique la relation
étroiteexistant, du point de vue grammatical et fonctionnel, entre [cles
deux membres))de phrase. Ainsi, selon la Malaisie, le deuxième membre
de la phrase, qui vise exclusivementle partage de l'île de Sebatik, vient
confirmer que les mots «a travers l'île de Sebittik)) se réfèrentunique-
ment à celle-ci.
41. La Cour note que les Parties diffèrent sur le sens qu'il convient

d'accorder, dans la première phrasede l'article IVde la convention de
1891,à la préposition «across» (en anglais) ou «over» (en néerlandais).
Elle reconnaît que ce terme n'est pas sans ambiguïté etqu'il est suscep-
tible de revêtirle sens que chacune des Parties luiprête;une lignefixéepar
traitépeut en effet passer«a travers))une îleet s'arrêtersur lesrivagesde
celle-ciou se poursuivre au-delà.
Les Parties sont également en désaccordquant au sens à donner au
membre de phrase selon lequel «la ligne frontièrese poursuit vers l'estle
long» du parallèle 4" 10'de latitude nord. De l'avisde la Cour, l'expres-
sion «se poursuit)) n'est pas non plussans ambiguïté. L'article 1 de la
convention définitle point de départde la frontière entre les deux Etats,
ses articlesII et III décrivant la façondont cette frontière se poursuit de
segment en segment. Dèslors, le fait que, selon l'article IV, cette«ligne
frontière se poursuit)) encore a partir de la côte orientale de Bornéole
long du parallèle 4" 10'de latitude nord à travers l'île de Sebatik n'im-

plique pas nécessairement,contrairement a ce que soutient l'Indonésie,
qu'elledoive se poursuivre en tant que ligned'attribution au-delà de cette
île.
La Cour estime au demeurant que la différencede ponctuation dans les
deux versions de l'articleIV de la convention de 1891n'est, comme telle,648 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

elucidate the meaning of the text with respect to a possible extension of

the line out to sea, to the east ofSebatik Island (see also paragraph 56
below).
42. The Court observes that any ambiguity could have been avoided
had the Convention expresslystipulated that the 4" 10'N parallel consti-
tuted, beyond the east Coast of Sebatik, the line separating the islands
under British sovereignty from those under Dutch sovereignty. In these
circumstances, the silencein the text cannot be ignored. It supports the
position of Malaysia.
43. It should moreover be observed that a "boundary", in the ordinary
meaning of the term, does not have the function that Indonesiaattributes
to the allocation line that was supposedly established by Article IV out to
sea beyond the island of Sebatik, that is to Sayallocating to the parties
sovereignty over the islands in the area. The Court considers that, in the

absence of an express provision to this effect in the text of a treaty,it is
difficultto envisage that the States parties could seekto attribute an addi-
tional function to a boundary line.

44. Indonesia asserts that the context of the 1891Convention supports
its interpretation of Article IV of that instrument. In this regard, Indo-
nesia refers to the "interaction" between the BritishGovernment and the
Dutch Government concerning the map accompanying the Explanatory
Memorandum annexed by the latter to the draft Law submitted to the
States-General of the Netherlands with a view to the ratification of the
1891 Convention and the "purpose of [which] was to explain to the

States-General the significanceof a proposed treaty, and why its conclu-
sion was in the interests of The Netherlands". Indonesia contends that
this map, showing the prolongation out to sea to the east of Sebatik of
the line drawn on land along the 4" 10'north parallel, was forwarded to
the British Government by its own diplomatic agent and that it was
known to that Government. In support of this Indonesia points out that
"Sir Horace Rumbold, the British Minister at The Hague, sent an official
despatch back to the Foreign Office on 26 January 1892 with which he
sent two copies of the map: and he drew specificattention to it". Accord-
ing to Indonesia, this officialtransmission did not elicit any reaction from
the Foreign Office. Indonesia accordingly concludes that this implies
Great Britain's "irrefutable acquiescence in the depiction of the Conven-
tion line", and thereby its acceptance that the 1891Convention divided

up the islands to theeast of Borneo between Great Britain and the Nether-
lands. In this respect, Indonesia first maintains that this "interaction", in
terms of Article 31, paragraph 2 (a), of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties, "establishesan agreement between the two governments
regarding the seaward course ofthe Anglo-Dutch boundary east of Seba-
tik". It also considers that this "interaction" shows that the map in ques-
tion was, within the meaning of Article 31, paragraph 2 (b), of the PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 648

d'aucune assistance pour éluciderle sens du texte quant à un éventuel
prolongement de la ligne vers le largeàI'estde l'îlede Sebatik (voir éga-
lement le paragraphe 56 ci-après).
42. La Cour observe que toute ambiguïtéaurait pu êtreévitéesi la
convention avait préciséde manière expresse que le parallèle 4"10' de
latitude nord constituerait, au-delà de la côte orientale deSebatik, la
ligne séparantles îles sous souveraineté britannique et celles sous souve-
raineténéerlandaise.Dans ces conditions, le silencedu texte ne peut être
ignoré. il plaide en faveur de la thèse malaisienne.

43. Par ailleurs, il échetde relever qu7une'«frontière», au sens ordi-
naire du terme, n'a pas la fonction que l'Indonésieconfère à la ligne
d'attribution que l'article IVaurait établieau large de l'îledetik, qui
serait de répartir entre les parties la souverainetésur les îles se trouvant
dans ce secteur. La Cour considère que, sans indication expresse à cet
effet dans le texte d'un traité, il n'est guère concevableque les Etats
parties aient prétendu attribuer une fonction supplémentaireà une ligne
frontière.

44. L'Indonésie affirmeque l'examendu contexte de la convention de
1891étaye lalecture qu'ellefaitde l'articleIVdudit instrument. A ce pro-
pos, l'Indonésiese réfèreàl'«interaction» entre le Gouvernement britan-

nique et le Gouvernement néerlandais à propos de la carte du mémoran-
dum explicatif que ce dernier avait joint au projet de loi présenté aux
Etats-générauxdes Pays-Basen vue de la ratification de la convention de
1891 et qui ((avait pour objet d'expliquer aux Etats-générauxI'impor-
tance que revêtaitle traité proposé etles raisons pour lesquelles sa-
conclusion servait les intérêtdes Pays-Bas)). L'Indonésiefait valoir que
cettecarte, qui figurait le prolongement en mer versle large,'estde l'île
de Sebatik, de la ligne tracéesur terre le long du parallèle4"10'de lati-
tude nord, avait été adressée au Gouvernement britannique par son
propre agent diplomatique et qu'elle était connue dece gouvernement.
En effet, selon l'Indonésie,s]ir Horace Rumbold, ministre britannique à
La Haye, envoya au Foreign Office,le 26janvier 1892,une dépêche offi-
cielleà laquelle iljoignit deux exemplairesde la carte, sur laquelle il atti-
rait particulièrement l'attention)). Selon l'Indonésie,cette transmission
officielle nesuscita aucune réaction dela part du Foreign Office.L'Indo-

nésieen conclut que la Grande-Bretagne «a acquiescéde manière irréfu-
table au tracé de la ligne conventionnelle», acceptant par là que la
convention de 1891 portait répartition entre la Grande-Bretagne et les
Pays-Bas des îles situéesà I'estde Bornéo.A cet égard,l'Indonésiesou-
tient d'abord que cette ((interaction))vaut, au sensde l'alinéadu para-
graphe 2 de I'article31de la convention de Viennesur le droit des traités,
«accord entre lesdeux gouvernements quant au tracéde la ligne frontière
anglo-néerlandaiseen direction de la mer à I'estde Sebatik)). Elle consi-
dère en outre que cette ((interaction))montre que la carte en question649 PULAU LlGlTAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Vienna Convention, an instrument made by the Dutch Government in
connection with the conclusion of the 1891Convention, particularly its
Articles IV and VIII, and was accepted by the British Government asan
instrument related to the treaty. In support ofthistwofold argument, Indo-
nesia Statesintearlia that "[the map] was officiallyprepared by the Dutch
Government immediately after the conclusion of the 189 1 Convention
and in connection with itsapproval by the Netherlands States-General as
specificallyrequired by ArticleVI11of the Convention7',that "it was pub-
licly and officially available at the time", and that "the British Govern-
ment, in the face of itsofficial knowledge of the map, remained silent".

45. For its part, Malaysia contends that the rnap attached to the
Dutch Government's Explanatory Memorandum cannot be regarded as

an element of the context of the 1891 Convention. In Malaysia's view,
that rnap was prepared exclusivelyfor interna1purposes. Malaysia notes
in this respect that the rnap wasever promulgated by the Dutch authon-
ties and that neither the Government nor the Parliament of the Nether-
lands sought to incorporate it into the Convention; the Dutch act of
ratification says nothing tosuch effect.
Malaysia moreover argues that the rnap in question was never the sub-
ject of negotiations between the two Governments and was never offi-
cially communicated by the Dutch Government to the British Govern-
ment. Malaysia adds that, even if the BritishGovernment had been made
aware of this rnap through the intermediary of its Minister in The Hague,
the circiimstances "did not cal1for any particular reaction, as the rnap
had not been mentioned in the parliamentary debate and no one had
noted the extension of the boundary-line out to sea". Malaysia concludes
from this that the rnap in question was not "an Agreement or an Instru-
ment 'accepted by the other party and related to the treaty'".

46. The Court considersthat the Explanatory Memorandum appended
to the draft Law submitted to the Netherlands States-General with a view
to ratification of the 1891Convention, the only document relating to the
Convention to have been published during the period when the latter was
concluded, provides useful information on a certain number of points.
First, the Memorandum refers to the fact that, in the course of the
prior negotiations, the British delegation had proposed that the bound-
ary iine should run eastwards from the east Coastof North Borneo, pass-
ing between the islands ofSebatik and East Nanukan. It further indicates
that the Sultan ofBulungan, to whom, according to the Netherlands, the
mainland areas of Borneo then in issue between Great Britain and the
Netherlands belonged, had been consulted by the latter before the Con-
vention wasconcluded. Following this consultation, the Sultan had asked
for his people to be given the right to gather jungleproduce free of tax
within the area of the island to be attributed to the State of NorthBor-

neo; such right was accorded for a 15-year period by Article VI1of theconstituait, au sens de l'alinéab) du paragraphe 2 de l'article 31 de la
convention précitée, uninstrument établi par le Gouvernement néerlan-
dais à l'occasion de la conclusion de la convention de 1891, notamment
en ce qui concerne sesarticlesIV et VIII, et acceptépar le Gouvernement
britannique en tant qu'instrument se rapportant au traité.A l'appui dece

double argument, l'Indonésie avancenotamment que «la carte avait été
officiellement établie par le Gouvernement néerlandais immédiatement
après la conclusion de la convention de 1891et dans le cadre de I'appro-
bation de celle-ci par les Etats-généraux desPays-Bas, comme I'ar-
ticle VI11le prévoyaitexpressément)),qu'elle«avait à I'époqueété rendue
officiellementpublique)) et que «le Gouvernement britannique, qui avait
eu officiellement connaissance de la carte, avait gardéle silence».
45. La Malaisie soutient pour sa part que la carte jointe au mémoran-
dum explicatif du Gouvernement néerlandaisne saurait êtreconsidérée
comme un élémentdu contexte de la convention de 1891.Selon elle,cette
carte aurait étéétablieà de seules fins internes. La Malaisie précisà cet
égardque cette carte ne fit pas l'objet d'une promulgation par les auto-
ritésnéerlandaises etque ni le Gouvernement ni le Parlement néerlandais

ne cherchèrent à l'incorporer a la convention:l'acte de ratification néer-
landais ne contient aucune disposition àcet effet.
La Malaisie expose par ailleurs que la carte en question ne fitjamais
I'objet de négociations entre les deux gouvernements et ne fut pas com-
muniquéeofficiellement par le Gouvernement néerlandais au Gouverne-
ment britannique. Elle ajoute que, mêmesi le Gouvernement britannique
avait eu connaissance de cette carte par l'intermédiaire de son ministreà
La Haye, les circonstances ((n'appelaient pas de réaction particulière,
étant donnéque la carte n'avait pasété mentionnée dans le débatparle-
mentaire et que personne n'avait notéque la ligne frontière sepoursuivait
vers le large». La Malaisie en conclut que ladite carte n'a pu constituer
«un accord ou ..un instrument ((acceptépar l'autre partie et ayant rap-

port au traité»».
46. La Cour constate que le mémorandum explicatif joint au projet de
loi présentéaux Etats-générauxdes Pays-Bas en vue de la ratification de
la convention de 1891,qui constitue le seul document relatif a la conven-
tion à avoir étépubliéa l'époquede la conclusion de celle-ci, fournit des
indications utiles sur un certain nombre de points.
Tout d'abord, ce mémorandum évoquele fait que, lors des négocia-
tions préalables, la délégationbritannique avait proposé que la ligne
frontière se dirigeât vers l'est,à partir de la côte orientale du Nord-
Bornéo, enpassant entre les îles de Sebatik et Nanoukan Est. Il indique
par ailleurs que le sultan du Bouloungan, auquel, selon les Néerlandais,
appartenait la zone alors en litige entre la Grande-Bretagne et les Pays-
Bas sur l'îlede Bornéo, avait étéconsultépar ceux-ci avant la conclusion

de la convention; à la suite de cette consultation, le sultan demanda pour
sa population un droit, exempt de taxe, de récolter des produits de la
forêtdans la zone de l'île qui serait attribuéeà 1'Etat du Nord-Bornéo,
droit qui fut accordé pour quinze ans à l'article VI1 de la convention.650 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Convention. As regards Sebatik, the Memorandum explains that the
island's partition had been agreed followinga proposal by the Dutch
Government and was considered necessaryin order to provide access to
the coastal regions allocated to each Party. The Memorandum contains
no reference to the disposition of other islands lying further to the east,
and in particular there is no mention of Ligitan or Sipadan.
47. As regards the rnap appended to the Explanatory Memorandum,
the Court notes that this shows four differently coloured lines. The blue
line represents the boundary initially claimed by the Netherlands, the
yellow line the boundary initially claimed by the BNBC, the green line
the boundary proposed by the British Government and the red line the

boundary eventually agreed. The blue and yellow lines stop at the Coast;
the green line continues for a short distance out to sea, whilst the red line
continues out to sea along parallel4" 10'N to the south of Mabul Island.
In the Explanatory Memorandum there is no comment whatever on this
extension of the red line out to sea; nor was it discussed in the Dutch
Parliament.
The Court notes that the rnap shows onlya number of islands situated
to the north of parallel4" 10'; apart from a few reefs, no island is shown
to the south of that line. The Court accordingly concludes that the Mem-
bers of the Dutch Parliament were almost certainly unaware that two
tiny islands lay to thesouth of the parallel and that the red line might be
taken for an allocation line. In this regard, the Court notes that there is

nothing in the case file to suggest that Ligitan and Sipadan, or other
islandssiich as Mabul, were territories disputed between Great Britain
and the Netherlands at the time when the Convention was concluded.
TheCourtcannot therefore accept that the red line was extended in order
to settle any dispute in the waters beyond Sebatik, with the consequence
that Ligitan and Sipadan were attributed to the Netherlands.

48. Nor can the Court accept Indonesia'sargument regarding the legal
value of the rnap appended to the Explanatory Memorandum of the
Dutch Government.
The Court observes that the Explanatory Memorandum and rnap were
never transmitted by the Dutch Government to the British Government,
but were simply forwarded to the latter by its diplomatic agent in The

Hague. Sir Horace Rumbold. This agent specifiedthat the rnap had been
published in the OfficialJournal of the Netherlands and formed part of a
Report presented to the Second Chamber of the States-General. He
added that "the rnap seems to be the only interesting feature of a docu-
ment which does not otherwise cal1for special comment". However, Sir
Horace Rumbold did not draw the attention of his authorities to the red
line drawn on the rnap among other lines. The British Government did
not react to thisnterna1transmission. In these circumstances, such a lack
of reaction to this lineon the rnap appended to the Memorandum cannot
be deemed to constitute acquiescence in this line.Quant à Sebatik, le mémorandum explique que le partage de l'île avait
été convenusur proposition du Gouvernement néerlandaiset jugénéces-
saire pour permettre l'accèsaux régions côtièresattribuées aux parties.

Le mémorandum ne fait aucune allusion à l'attribution d'autres îles
plus a l'est et, en particulier, il ne fait aucune mention de Ligitan et de
Sipadan.
47. S'agissant de la carte jointe au mémorandum explicatif, la Cour
relèveque celle-cicomporte quatre lignesde couleurs différentes.La ligne
bleue représente la frontièrerevendiquée initialementpar les Pays-Bas, la
lignejaune la frontièreréclamée à l'originepar la BNBC, la ligne verte la
frontière proposéepar le Gouvernement britannique et la ligne rouge la
ligne finalement convenue. Les lignesbleue etjaune s'arrêtentsur la côte;
la ligne verte se prolonge légèremenetn mer. Quant à la ligne rouge, elle
se poursuit en mer le long du parallèle 4" 10'de latitude nord jusqu'au
sud de l'île de Maboul. Ce prolongement de la ligne rouge vers le large
n'est nullepart commentédans lemémorandumexplicatif; il ne fit l'objet
d'aucune discussion au Parlement néerlandais.
La Cour constate que la carte en question ne représentequ'un certain
nombre d'îles situéesau nord du parallèle 4"10'; mis à part quelques

récifs,aucune île n'apparaît au sud de ce parallèle.Elle en déduit queles
membres du Parlement néerlandais ignoraient très vraisemblablement
que deux îles minuscules se trouvaient au sud de ce parallèle et que la
ligne rouge pourrait éventuellementêtreconsidéréecomme une ligne
d'attribution.A cet égard, laCour note qu'aucun élémentau dossier ne
laisse a penser que Ligitan et Sipadan, ou d'autres îles comme Maboul,
auraient étédes territoires en litige entre la Grande-Bretagne et les Pays-
Bas a l'époquede la conclusion de la convention. De l'avisde la Cour, on
ne saurait donc considérerque cette ligne rouge ait étéprolongéeafin de
régler unequelconque controverse au large de Sebatik, avec pour consé-
quence que Ligitan et Sipadan auraient étéattribuéesaux Pays-Bas.
48. La Cour ne saurait au demeurant accueillir la thèsede l'Indonésie
relativeà la valeur juridique de la carte jointe au mémorandumexplicatif
du Gouvernement néerlandais.
La Cour observe que ce mémorandum explicatif et cette carte n'ont
jamais ététransmis par le Gouvernement néerlandaisau Gouvernement

britannique, mais ont seulement étéadressés à ce dernier par son agent
diplomatique a La Haye, sir Horace Rumbold. Cet agent précisaitque la
carte avait étépubliéeau journal officieldes Pays-Baset faisait partie du
rapport présenté a la deuxièmeChambre des Etats-généraux.11ajoutait
que «la carte semble êtrele seul élément intéressand t'un document qui
sinon n'appelle aucun commentaire particulier)). Toutefois, sir Horace
Rumbold n'attirait pas l'attention de ses autoritéssur la lignerouge figu-
rant sur la carte avec d'autres lignes. Le Gouvernement britannique ne
réagitpas a cette transmission interne. Dans ces circonstances, une telle
absence de réaction a l'égardde cette ligne sur la carte jointe au mémo-
randum ne saurait être considéré comme valant acquiescement à ladite
ligne. It follows from the foregoing that the map cannot be considered either
an "agreement relating to [a] treaty which was made between al1 the
parties in connection with the conclusion of the treaty", withinthe mean-
ing of Article 31, paragraph 2 (a), of the Vienna Convention, or an

"instrument which was made by [a] part[y] in connection with the conclu-
sion of the treaty and accepted by the other parties as an instrument
related to that treaty", within the meaning of Article 31,paragraph 2 (b),
of the Vienna Convention.

49. Turning to the object and purpose of the 1891Convention, Indo-
nesia argues that the parties' intention was to draw an allocation line
between their island possessions in the north-eastern region of Borneo,
including the islands out at sea.
It stresses that the main aim of the Convention was "to resolve the
uncertainties once and for al1 so as to avoid future disputes". In this
respect, Indonesia invokes the case law of the Court and that of its pre-
decessor, the Permanent Court of International Justice. According to
Indonesia, the finality and completeness of boundary settlements were
relied on by both Courts, on several occasions,as a criterion for the inter-
pretation of treaty provisions. In particular, Indonesia cites the Advisory
Opinion of the Permanent Court on the Interpretation of Article 3,
Paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Lausanne (1925),which States:

"It is... natural that any article designedto fixa frontier should,
if possible, be so interpreted that the result of the application of its
provisions in their entirety should be the establishment of a precise,

complete and definitivefrontier." (Interpretation of Article 3, Para-
graph2, of the Treaty of Lausanne, Advisory Opinion,1925, P. C.Z.J.,
Series B. No. 12, p. 20.)
Indonesia puts forward a number of other arguments to justify its
interpretation of the Convention's object and purpose. It points out that

"in the preamble to the 1891 Convention the parties stated that they
were 'desirous of defining the boundaries' (in the plural) between the
Dutch and British possessions in Borneo" and argues that this must be
taken to mean not only the island of Borneo itself but also other island
territories. Indonesia thus contends that the line established by
Article IV of the Convention concerned not only the islands which are
the subject of the dispute now before the Court but also other islands
in the area. Moreover, Indonesia notes that, while Article IV did not
establish an endpoint for the line - providing for the line to extend
eastward of the island of Sebatik -, that does not mean that the line
extends indefinitely eastward. In Indonesia's opinion, the limit to its
eastward extent was determined by the purpose of the Convention, PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRET) 651

Il ressort de ce qui précèdeque ladite carte ne peut êtreregardéeni
comme un ((accord ayant rapport a un traitéet qui est intervenu entre
toutes les partiesà l'occasion de la conclusion d'un traité», au sens de
l'alinéaa) du paragraphe 2 de l'article 31 de la convention de Vienne, ni
comme un ((instrument établipar une partie ...à l'occasion de la conclu-

sion du traitéet acceptépar lesautres parties en tant qu'instrument ayant
rapport au traité», au sens de l'alinéab) du paragraphe 2 de l'article 31
de la convention de Vienne.

49. Abordant l'objet et le but de la convention de 1891, l'Indonésie
soutient que l'intention des parties était de tracer uneligne d'attribution
entre leurs possessions insulaires dans la région'nord-est de Bornéo, y
compris les îles situéesau large.
Elle souligne que le but premier de la convention était de ((réglerdéfi-
nitivement ces incertitudes afin d'éviterque des différendsne surgissentà
l'avenir)).A cet égard,l'Indonésie invoquelajurisprudence de la Cour et
celle de sa devancière, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale.
Ainsi, selon l'Indonésie,les deux Cours auraient retenu à plusieurs re-
prises, comme critère d'interprétationdes dispositions d'un traité,le ca-
ractère définitifet complet d'un règlementde frontières. Elle mentionne

notamment l'avis consultatif rendu par la Cour permanente au sujet de
l'Interprétationde l'article3,paragraphe 2, du traitéde Lausanne (1925),
selon lequel:

«il est naturel que tout article destinéà fixer une frontière soit, si
possible, interprété detelle sorte que, par son application intégrale,
une frontière précise, complèteet définitivesoit obtenue» (Interpré-
tation de l'article3,paragraphe2, du traité de Lausanne, avis consul-
tatif: 1925, C.P.J.I. série no 12, p. 20).

A l'appui de son interprétation de l'objet et du but de la convention,
l'Indonésieavance un certain nombre d'autres arguments. Elle rappelle
que, adans le préambule dela convention de 1891, les parties se décla-
raient ((désireusesde définirles frontières)) (au pluriel) entre les posses-
sions néerlandaises et britanniques à Bornéo» etsoutient qu'il faut en-
tendre par là non seulementl'îlede Bornéo elle-même m,ais aussi d'autres
territoires insulaires. Ainsi, l'Indonésieprétendque la ligne établiepar
l'article IV de la convention ne concernait pas seulement les îlesqui font
l'objet du présent litige devant la Cour, mais aussi d'autres îles de la
région.Par ailleurs, l'Indonésie fait observerque, mêmesi l'articleIV n'a
pas fixéun point terminal à la ligne- permettant à celle-ci de se pour-

suivre à l'est de l'îlede Sebati-, il ne s'ensuitpas que cette ligne doive
courir indéfinimentvers I'est.Selon l'Indonésie,la limite de son prolon-
gement vers I'estétaitdéterminée par le but de la convention, «a savoir le"the settlement, once and for all, of possible Anglo-Dutch territorial
differences in the region".
50. Malaysia, on the other hand, maintains that the object and pur-
pose of the 1891Convention, as shown by its preamble, were to "defin[e]
the boundaries between the Netherlands possessions in the island of
Borneo and the States in that island which are under British protection".
Referring to the provisions concerning the island of Sebatik, Malaysia

moreover addsthat one of the concerns of the negotiators of the Conven-
tion was also to ensure accessto the rivers - the only possible means at
the time of penetrating the interior of Borneo - and freedom of naviga-
tion. Malaysia thus concludes that the 1891Convention, when read as a
whole, reveals unambiguously that "it was intended to be a land bound-
ary treaty", as nothing in it suggests that it was intended to divide sea
areas or to allocate distant offshore islands.

51. The Court considers that the object and purpose of the 1891Con-
vention was the delimitation of boundaries between the parties' posses-
sions within the island of Borneo itself,as shown by the preamble to the
Convention, which provides that the parties were "desirous of defining
the boundaries between the Netherland possessions in the Island of Bor-
neo and the States in that islatzdwhich are under British protection"
(emphasis added by the Court). This interpretation is, in the Court's
view, supported by the very scheme of the 1891 Convention. Article 1

expressly provides that "[tlhe boundary. . .shall start from 4"10'north
latitude on the east coast of Borneo" (emphasis added by the Court).
Articles II and III then continue the description of the boundary line
westward, with its endpoint on the Westcoast being fixed by Article III.
Sincedifficulties had beenencountered concerning the status of the island
of Sebatik, which was located directly opposite the starting point of the
boundary line and controlled access to the rivers, the parties incorpo-
rated an additional provision to settle this issue.The Court does not find
anything in the Convention to suggestthat the parties intended to delimit
the boundary between their possessions to the east of the islands of
Borneo and Sebatik or to attribute sovereigntyover any other islands. As
far as the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan are concerned, the Court also
observes that the terms of the preamble to the 1891 Convention are dif-
ficult to apply to these islands as they were little known at the time, as
both Indonesia and Malaysia have acknowledged, and were not the sub-
ject of any dispute between Great Britain and the Netherlands.

52. The Court accordingly concludes that the text of Article IV of the
1891Convention, when read in context and in the light of the Conven-
tion's object andpurpose, cannot be interpreted as establishing an alloca- PULAU LIGITAN ET PIJLAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 652

règlement définitif d'éventuels différentdesrritoriaux anglo-néerlandais
dans la région)).
50. La Malaisie souligne au contraire que l'objet et le but de la
convention de 1891, tels qu'ils ressortent de son préambule, étaient de
((définirles frontières entre les possessions des Pays-Bas sur l'île de
Bornéo et les Etats de cette île placés sous protection britannique)).
Se référant aux dispositionsrelatives à l'île de Sebatik, elle expose
par ailleurs que les négociateurs de la convention étaientaussi préoccu-
pésd'assurer l'accèsaux fleuves - seul moyen, à l'époque,de pénétrer

l'île de Bornéo - et la libertéde navigation. La Malaisie estime au
total que la lecture de la convention de 1891 considéréedans son
ensemble montre sans ambiguïté ((qu'ils'agissaitd'un traité defrontière
terrestre)), aucune de ses dispositions ne donnant à penser qu'elle visait
à diviser des zones maritimes ou a attribuer des îles situéesloin au
large.
51. La Cour considèreque l'objet et le but de la convention de 1891
étaientde délimiterlesfrontièresentre lespossessions desparties à l'inté-
rieur de l'îlede Bornéo,ainsi qu'ilressort du préambulede la convention,
lequel préciseque les parties étaient((désireusesde définir lesfrontières

entre les possessions des Pays-Bas sur l'îlede Bornéo etles Etats de cette
île qui sont sous protection britannique)) (les italiques sont de la Cour).
Cette interprétation est, de l'avis de la Cour, confortéepar la structure
mêmede la convention de 1891. L'article 1stipule expressémentque «la
frontière ...part du point de la côte orientale de Bornéositué à 4' 10'de
latitude nord» (les italiques sont de la Cour). Les articles II et III pour- !/
suivent la description de la ligne frontière en direction de l'ouest, l'ar-
ticleIII fixant le point terminal de celle-cisur la côte ouest. Des difficultés
ayant étérencontréesquant au statut de l'îlede Sebatik, qui était située
directement en face du point de départde la frontièreet contrôlait l'accès

aux rivières,lesparties inclurent une disposition additionnelle pour régler
ce problème. La Cour ne trouve dans la convention aucun indice qui
donnerait à penser que les parties auraient entendu délimiterla frontière
entre leurs possessionsà l'estdesîlesde Bornéoet de Sebatik, et attribuer
à l'une ou à l'autre la souveraineté surd'autres îles que celles-ci.S'agis-
sant plus particulièrement des îlesde Ligitan etSipadan, la Cour relève
en outre que les termes du préambule de la convention de 1891 s'ap-
pliquent difficilement celles-cidèslors que, comme l'Indonésie et laMa-
laisie l'ont toutes deux reconnu, ces îles étaientà l'époquepeu connues, ,
et ne faisaient l'objet d'aucun différendentre la Grande-Bretagne et les L

Pays-Bas.

52. La Cour parvient en conséquence à la conclusion que le texte de
l'article IV de la convention de 1891,lu dans son contexte etàla lumière
de l'objet et du but de la convention, ne saurait êtreinterprétécomme653 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAUSIPADAN(JUDGMENT)

tion line determining sovereignty overthe islands out to sea, to the east of
the island of Sebatik.

53. In view of the foregoing, the Court does not consider it necessary
to resort to supplementary means of interpretation, such as the travaux
préparatoires of the 1891Convention and the circumstances of its con-
clusion, to determine the meaning of that Convention; however, as in
other cases, it considers thatit can have recourse to such supplementary
means in order to seek a possible confirmation of its interpretation of the
text of the Convention (seefor example Territorial Dispute(Libyan Arab
JamahiriyalChad), I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 27,para. 55;Maritime Delimi-
tation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v.
Bahrain), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, 1C.J. Reports 1995,
p. 21, para. 40).
54. Indonesia begins by recalling that prior to the conclusion of the
1891Convention the Sultan of Bulungan had

"clear claims . ..to inland areas north of the Tawau coast and well
to the north of 4" 10'N, which wereacknowledged by Great Britain
in agreeing, in Article VI1 of the 1891 Convention, to the Sultan
having certain continuing transitional rights to jungle produce".

It adds that the Netherlands engaged in "activity in the area evidencing
Dutch claims to sovereignty extending to the north of the eventual
4" 10'N line". It further notes "the prevailing uncertainty at the time as
to the precise extent of the territories belonging to the two parties" and
mentions "the occurrence of occasional Anglo-Dutch confrontations as a
result ofthese uncertainties".

Indonesia moreover maintains that the travaux préparatoiresof the
1891Convention, though containing no express indication as to whether
Ligitan and Sipadan were British or Dutch, confirm its interpretation of
Article IV.
In Indonesia's view,there can be no doubt that during the negotiations
leading up to the signature of the Convention the two parties, and in par-
ticular Great Britain, envisaged a line continuing out to sea to the east of
the island of Borneo. In support of this argument, Indonesia submits
several maps used by the parties' delegations during the negotiations. It
considers that these maps "show a consistent pattern of the line of pro-
posed settlement, wherever it might finallyrun, being extended out to sea
along a relevant parallel of latitude".
55. Malaysia rejects Indonesia's analysis ofthe travauxpréparatoires.
In its view, "the consideration of the boundary on the coast never
extended to cover the islands east of Batu Tinagat". Malaysia further PULAU LlGlTAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRET) 653

établissant une ligne d'attribution de la souverainetésur des îles situées
au large,à l'est de I'îlede Sebatik.

53. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, laCour ne considèrepas nécessaire
de faireappel àdes moyens complémentairesd'interprétation,tels que les
travaux préparatoires et lescirconstancesdans lesquellesla convention de
1891a été conclue,pour déterminerle sens de ladite convention; toute-
fois, comme dans d'autres affaires, elle estime pouvoir recourir à ces
moyens complémentairespour y rechercher une confirmation éventuelle
de l'interprétation qu'elle a tiréedu texte de la convention (voir par
exemple Différend territorial (Jamahiriya arabe libyennelTchad),
C.I.J. Recueil 1994, p. 27, par. 55; Délimitationmaritime et questions
territoriales entre Qatar et Bahrein (Qatar c. Bahrein), compétence et

recevabilité,arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 21, par. 40).
54. L'Indonésie rappelletout d'abord qu'avant la conclusion de la
convention de 1891le sultan du Bouloungan avait des
((prétentionsprécises ..sur des terres de l'îlede Bornéoau nord de
la côte de Tawau et loin au nord du parallèle4"10'de latitude nord,

auxquelles la Grande-Bretagne a[vait] fait droit en consentant,à
l'article VI1de la convention de 1891,à ce que le sultan continue de
jouir, pendant une périodetransitoire, de certains droits sur les pro-
duits de la forêt)).
Elle ajoute que les Pays-Bas exerçaient dans la régiondes ((activités ...

prouv[ant] que les prétentionsde souverainetéde ceux-ci s'étendaientau
nord de la ligne de 4" 10'de latitude nord finalement convenue». Elle
signale en outre ((l'incertitude qui régnaitalors quant l'étendueprécise
des territoires appartenant aux deux parties))et mentionne les ((frictions
occasionnelles entre la Grande-Bretagne et les Pays-Bas dues à ces incer-
titudes».
L'Indonésie soutient par ailleurs que les travaux préparatoires de
la convention de 1891, bien qu'ils ne contiennent aucune mention ex-
presse du caractère britannique ou néerlandaisde Ligitan et de Sipadan,
confirment son interprétation de l'article IV.
Selon l'Indonésie,il ne saurait faire de doute que, lors des négociations

qui aboutirent à la signature de la convention, les deux parties, et en par-
ticulier la Grande-Bretagne, envisageaient une ligne se poursuivant en
mer à l'estde I'îlede Bornéo.A l'appui de cet argument, l'Indonésie pré-
sente plusieurs cartes utiliséespar lesdélégations departies au cours des
négociations. Elleconsidèreque ces cartes ((montrent, dans tous les cas,
que la ligne proposée,quel qu'ait été son tracés,e prolongeait en mer le
long du parallèle considéré)).
55. La Malaisie rejette l'analyse faitepar l'Indonésiedes travaux pré-
paratoires. Selon elle, «les discussionsconcernant la frontière sur la côte
n'ont jamais portésur les îlessituéesà l'estde Batu Tinagatn. La Malai-considers that the travaux préparatoiresof the 1891 Convention make
clear that the line proposed to divide Sebatik Island "was a boundary
line, not an allocation line", that the line "was adopted as a compromise
only after the 4" 10'N line was agreed as a boundary line for the main-
land of Borneo", and that the linein question "related only to the island
of Sebatik and not to other islands wellto the east". Malaysia points out
that in any event this could not have been a matter of drawing a "bound-
ary line" in the open seas becauseat the time in question maritime delimi-
tation could not extend beyond territorial waters.

56. The Court observes that following its formation, the BNBC
asserted rights which it believed it had acquired from Alfred Dent and
Baron von Overbeck to territories situated on the north-eastern coast of
the island of Borneo (in the State of Tidoeng "as far south as the Sibuco
River"); confrontations then occurred between the Company and the
Netherlands, the latter asserting its rights to the Sultan of Bulungan's
possessions, "with inclusion ofthe Tidoeng territories" (emphasis in the
original). These were the circurnstances in which Great Britain and the

Netherlands set up a Joint Commission in 1889to discuss the bases for
an agreement to settle the dispute. Specifically, the Commission was
appointed "to take into consideration the question of the disputed bound-
ary between the Netherland Indian possessions on the north-east coast of
the Island of Borneo and the territory belonging to the British North
Borneo Company" (emphasis added by the Court). It was moreover pro-
vided that "in the event of a satisfactory understanding", the two gov-
ernments would define the "inland boundary-fines which separate the
Netherland possessions in Borneo from the territories belonging to the
States of Sarawak, Brunei, and the British North Borneo Company

respectively" (emphasis added by the Court). The Joint Commission's
task was thus confined to the area in dispute, on the north-eastern coast
of Borneo. Accordingly, it was agreed that, once this dispute had been
settled, theinland boundary could be determined completely, as there
was clearly no other point of disagreement betweenthe parties.

TheJoint Commission met three tirnesand devoted itself almost exclu-
sivelyto questions relating to the disputed area of the north-east coast. It
was only at the last meeting, held on27July 1889,that the British delega-
tion proposed that the boundary should pass between the islands of

Sebatik and East Nanukan. This was the first proposal of any prolonga-
t--n of the inland boundarv out to sea. The Court however notes from
the diplornatic correspondence exchanged after the Commission was dis-
solved that it follows that the Netherlands had rejected the British pro-
posal. The specificidea of Sebatik Island beingdivided along the 4" 10'N
parallel was only introduced later. In a letter of 2 February 1891to the
British Secretary for Foreign Affairs from the Dutch Minister in London,
the latter stated that the Netherlands agreed with this partition. The Sec- PULAU LIGITANET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRET) 654

sie estime en outre que lestravaux préparatoires de la convention de 1891
mettent en évidencele fait que la ligne proposée afinde partager I'îlede
Sebatik «était une ligne frontière et non une ligne d'attribution)), que
ladite ligne «n'a étéadoptée comme solution de compromis qu'après

qu'ileut étéconvenu de retenir la ligne longeant leparallèle4"0'de lati-
tude nord comme ligne frontière pour l'îlemêmede Bornéo))et que la
ligne en question «ne concernait que l'îlede Sebatik et non les autres îles
situéesplus à l'est)). La Malaisie souligne qu'en tout état de cause il
n'aurait pu êtrequestion de tracer une «ligne frontière)) en haute mer
car, à l'époque, ladélimitationmaritime ne pouvait s'étendreau-delà des
eaux territoriales.
56. La Cour observe que, à la suite de la création de la BNBC,
cette dernière s'était prévaluede droits qu'elle estimait avoir acquis
d'Alfred Dent et du baron von Overbeck sur des territoires situéssur la
côte nord-est de l'îlede Bornéo(dans 1'Etatde Tidoeng «jusqu'à la rivière

Sibuco»); certaines frictions s'étaientalors produites entre la compagnie
et les Pays-Bas, ces derniers prétendant affirmer leurs droits sur les
possessions du sultan du Bouloungan, «y compris les territoires de
Tidoeng)) (les italiques figurent dans l'original). C'estdans ces circon-
- stances que la Grande-Bretagne et les Pays-Bas établirent en 1889 une
commission mixte afin de discuter des bases d'un accord susceptible de
réglerle différend. Cette commissionavait plus précisémentpour tâche
((d'examiner la question de la frontière contestéeentre les possessions
des Indes néerlandaises surla côte nord-est de I'îlede Bornéoet le terri-
toire appartenant à la British North Borneo Company)) (les italiques
sont de la Cour). Il avait par ailleurs étéprévuqu'«[e]n cas d'accord
satisfaisant» les deux gouvernements définiraient les (frontières

à l'intérieurdes terres qui séparentlespossessionsnéerlandaiseà Bornéo
et les territoires appartenant aux Etats de Sarawak et du Brunéiainsi
qu'à la British North Borneo Company)) (les italiques sont de la Cour).
La tâche de la commission mixte se limitait donc à la zone en litige sur
la côte nord-est de Bornéo. Il fut en conséquenceconvenu que, une
fois ce litige réglé,la frontière terrestre pourrait êtredéfiniedans son
ensemble. puisqu'il n'existait manifestement aucun autre point de
désaccord entreles parties.
La commission mixte se réunit à trois reprises et se consacra presque
exclusivement à des questions touchant à la zone litigieuse sur la côte
nord-est. Ce n'est que lors de la dernière réunion, qui se tint le

27 juillet 1889, que la délégationbritannique proposa que la fron-
tière passe entre les îlesde Sebatik et de Nanoukan Est. C'étaitla pre-
mièrefois qu'un prolongement en mer de la frontière terrestre était pro-
posé.La Cour note toutefois qu'il ressort de la correspondance diploma-
tique qui fut échangéeaprès la dissolution de la commission que les
Pays-Bas avaient rejetéla proposition britannique. L'idée mêmd e'un
partage de I'îledeSebatik le long du parallèle4"10'de latitude nord ne
fut quantàelle introduite qu'ultérieurement.Dans une lettre du 2 février
1891, adressée au secrétaire britannique aux affaires étrangères parretary for Foreign Affairs, in his reply dated 11February 1891,acknow-
ledged this understanding and enclosed a draft agreement. Article 4 of
the draft is practically identical in its wording to Article IV of the
1891Convention. In the draft agreement (proposed by Great Britain) the
two sentences of Article 4 are separated by a semicolon. In the final Eng-

lish text, the semicolon was replaced by a colon without the travaux
préparatoires shedding any light on the reasons for this change. Conse-
quently, no firm inferencecan be drawn from the change. There were no
further difficulties and the Convention was signed on 20 June 1891.

57. During the negotiations, the parties used various sketch-maps to
illustratetheir proposals and opinions. Some ofthese sketch-maps showed
lines drawn in pencil along certain parallels and continuing as far as the
margin. Since the reports accompanying the sketch-maps do not provide
any further explanation, the Court considers that it is impossible to
deduce anything at al1from the length of these lines.
There is however one exception. In an internal Foreign Officememo-

randum, drafted in preparation for the meeting of the Joint Commission,
the following suggestion wasmade:
"Starting eastward from a point A on the Coastnear Broers Hoek
on parallel 4" 10'of North Latitude, the line should follow that par-
allel until it is intersected . .. the Meridian 117"50' East Longi-
tude, opposite the Southernmost point of the Island of Sebattik at /'
the point marked C. The line would continue thence in an Easterly

direction along the 4th parallel, until it should meet the point of
intersection of the Meridian of 118"44'30"marked D."

This suggestion wasillustrated on a map that is reproduced asmap No. 4
of Indonesia's map atlas. Sipadan is to the Westof point D and Ligitan to
the east of this point. Neither of the two islands appears on theap. The

Court observes that there is nothing in the case file to prove that the
suggestion was ever brought to the attention of the Dutch Govern-
ment or that the line between points C and D had ever been the subject
of discussion between the parties. Although put forward in one of the
many British internal documents drawn up during the negotiations, the
suggestion was never actually adopted. Once the parties arrived at an
agreement on the partition of Sebatik, they were only interested in the
boundary on the island of Borneo itself and exchanged no views on an
allocation of the islands in the open seas to the east of Sebatik.

58. The Court concludes from the foregoing that neither the travau'c
préparatoires of the Convention nor the circumstances of its conclusion
can be regarded assupporting the position of Indonesia when itcontends
that the parties to the Convention agreed not only on the course of the PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRET) 655

le ministre néerlandais à Londres, celui-ci déclara que les Pays-Bas
souscrivaient à ce partage. Le secrétaireaux affaires étrangères,dans sa
réponsedatéedu 11 février1891, constata l'entente ainsi intervenue et
joignit un projet d'accord.L'article4 deceprojet étaitlibelléen termes pra-
tiquement identiques à ceux de l'article IV de la convention de 1891 ;
dans ce projet d'accord d'origine britannique, les deux phrases de
l'article 4 étaient séparéespar un point-virgule. Dans le texte définitif
anglais, le point-virgule fut remplacépar un deux-points, sans que les
travaux préparatoires donnent d'indication quant aux raisons de ce chan-
gement. Aucune conclusion précisene peut donc êtretirée de celui-ci.
II n'y eut plus aucune difficultéet la convention fut signée le 20 juin
1891.

57. Au cours des négociations, les parties utilisèrent divers croquis
pour illustrer leurs vues et leurs propositions. Sur quelques-uns de ces
croquis, des lignes sont tracéesau crayon le long de certains parallèleset
continuent jusque dans la marge. Les rapports accompagnant ces croquis
ne fournissant pas d'autre explication, la Cour estime qu'on ne saurait
déduirequoi que ce soit de la longueur de ces lignes.
Il existe toutefois une exception. Dans un mémorandum interne du
Foreign Office,rédigédans le cadre de la préparation des réunions de la
commission mixte, la proposition suivante fut avancée :

((Commençant en direction de l'est à partir d'un point A sur la
côte ci proximité de Broers Hoek sur le parallèle de latitude
4"10' nord, la ligne devrait suivre ce parallèlejusqu'à sa jonction
avec ...le méridiende longitude 117"50'est, à l'opposédu point le
plus au sud de l'îlede Sebatik désignépar la lettre C. De là, la ligne
continuerait en direction de l'est le long du quatrième parallèle,

jusqu'à ce qu'elle rejoignele point d'intersection du méridien de lon-
gitude 118"44'30" désigné par la lettre D.»
Cette proposition étaitillustréesur une carte, reproduite dans l'atlas car-
tographique présentépar l'Indonésie(carte no 4). Sipadan se trouve à
l'ouest du point D, Ligitan à I'est de ce point. Aucune de ces deux îles

n'apparaît sur la carte. La Cour relèveque rien au dossier ne prouve que
cette proposition ait jamais été portée à l'attention du Gouvernement
néerlandais,ni que la lignereliant les points C et D ait jamais fait l'objet
d'une discussion entre les parties. Bien qu'avancéedans l'un des nom-
breux documents internes britanniques établispendant les négociations,
cette proposition ne fut en fait jamais adoptée.Une fois que les parties
furent parvenues àun accord sur le partage de Sebatik, elles ne s'intéres-
sèrent qu'à la frontièresur l'île deBornéo elle-même s,ans procéder àun
quelconque échangede vues quant a une éventuelleattribution des îles
situéesau large, à l'est de Sebatik.
58. La Cour conclut de ce qui précèdeque lestravaux préparatoires de

la convention et les circonstances dans lesquelles elle a étéconclue ne
peuvent êtreregardéscommeétayantla thèsedel'Indonésie,selon laquelle
les partiesa ladite convention se seraient entendues non seulement sur leland boundary but also on an allocation line beyond the east Coast of
Sebatik.

59. Concerning the subsequent practice of the parties to the 1891Con-
vention, Indonesia refers once again to the Dutch Government's Explana-
tory Memorandum rnap accompanying the draft of the Law authorizing
the ratification of the Convention (seeparagraphs 47 and 48 above). Indo-
nesia considers that this rnap can also be sien as "a subsequent agree-
ment or as subsequent practice for the purposes of Article 31.3 (a)
and (b) of the Vienna Convention" on the Law of Treaties.

60. Malaysia points out that the Explanatory Memorandum rnap sub-
mitted by the Dutch Government to the two Chambers of the States-
General, on which Indonesia bases its argument, was not annexed to the

1891Convention, which made no mention of it. Malaysia concludes that
this is not a rnap to which the parties to the Convention agreed. It further
notes that "[tlhe interna1Dutch rnap attached to the Explanatory Memo-
randum was the object of no specificcomment during the [parliamentary]
debate and did not call for any particular reaction". Thus, according to
Malaysia, this rnap cannot be seenas "a subsequent agreement or as sub-
sequent practice for the purposes of Article 31.3 (a) and (6) of the
Vienna Convention" on the Law of Treaties.

61. The Court has already given consideration (see paragraph 48
above) to the legal force of the rnap annexed to the Dutch Government's
Explanatory Memorandum accompanying the draft Law submitted by it
for the ratification of the 1891Convention. For thesame reasons as those
on which it based its previous findings, theCourt considers that this rnap
cannot be seen as "a subsequent agreement or as subsequent practice for
thepurposes of Article 31.3 (a) and (b) of the Vienna Convention".

62. In Indonesia's view, the 1893 amendment to the 1850 and 1878
Contracts of Vassalage with the Sultan of Bulungan provides a further
indication of the interpretation given bythe Netherlands Government to
the 1891 Convention. It asserts that the aim of the amendment was to
redefine the territorialxtent of the Sultanate of Bulungan to take into
account the provisions of the 1891 Convention. According to the new
definition of 1893, "[tlhe Islands of Tarakan and Nanoekan and that
portion of the Island of Sebitik, situated to the south of the above
boundary-line . . .belong to Boeloengan, as well as the small islands
belonging to the above islands, so far as they are situated to the south oftracé dela frontière terrestre, mais égalementsur une ligne d'attribution
se prolongeant au-delà de la côte est de Sebatik.

59. S'agissant de la pratique ultérieuredes parties à la convention de

1891, l'Indonésie invoque à nouveau la carte jointe au mémorandum
explicatif du Gouvernement néerlandaisqui accompagnait leprojet de loi
autorisant la ratification de la convention (voir paragraphes 47 et 48 ci-
dessus). Elle estimeque cette carte peut égalementêtreconsidérée comme
«un accord ultérieur ouune pratique suivie ultérieurementaux fins des
alinéas a) et 6) du paragraphe 3 de l'article 31 de la convention de
Vienne)) sur le droit des traités.
60. La Malaisie fait valoir pour sa part que la carte jointe au mémo-
randum explicatif présenté par le Gouvernement des Pays-Bas aux deux
Chambres des Etats-généraux,sur laquelle l'Indonésiefonde son argu-
mentation, n'avait pas été annexée à la convention de 1891 et n'y était
point mentionnée.Elle en conclut qu'ilne s'agissaitdonc pas d'une carte

sur laquelle les parties la convention se seraient accordées. La Malaisie
relèvepar ailleurs que «[l]acarte néerlandaiseà usage interne annexéeau
mémorandum explicatif ne fit l'objet d'aucun commentaire particulier au
cours du débat[parlementaire] et ne suscitapas de réactionparticulière)).
Ainsi, selon la Malaisie, cette carte ne peut êtreconsidéréecomme «un
accord ultérieur ou une pratique suivie ultérieurement aux fins des ali-
néas a) et b) du paragraphe 3 de l'article 31de la convention de Vienne))
sur le droit des traités.
61. La Cour s'est déjà penchée (voirparagraphe 48 ci-dessus) sur la
question de la valeur juridique de la carte jointe au mémorandumexpli-
catif du Gouvernement néerlandaisqui accompagnait leprojet de loi pré-
sentépar celui-ci en vue de la ratification de la convention de 1891.Elle

estime que, pour les mêmes raisonsque cellesqui ont motivéses conclu-
sions antérieures, ladite cartene saurait êtreregardée comme «un accord
ultérieurou une pratique suivieultérieurementaux fins des alinéas a) et
6) du paragraphe 3 de l'article 31 de la convention de Vienne)).

62. Selon l'Indonésie, l'amendementde 1893aux contrats de vassalité
conclus avec le sultan du Bouloungan en 1850et 1878constitue un autre
élémenttémoignant de l'interprétation que le Gouvernement des Pays-
Bas donnait de la convention de 1891. Elle expose que cet amendement

visaità redéfinir l'étendueterritoriale du Sultanat du Bouloungan compte
tenu des dispositions de la convention de 1891.Aux termes de la nouvelle
définitionde 1893, «les îles de Tarakan et Nanoukan, et la partie de l'île
de Sebitik situéeau sud de la lignefrontièreci-dessus, ...appartiennent au
Bouloungan, de même queles petites îles se rattachant aux îles susmen-
tionnées,pour autant qu'ellessoient situéesau sud dela lignefrontière..)).the boundary-line . ..". According to Indonesia, this text indicates that
the Netherlands Government considered in 1893that the purpose of the
1891Convention was to establish, in relation to islands, a line of territo-
rial attribution extending out tosea. Indonesia addsthat the British Gov-
ernment showed acquiescence in this interpretation, because the text of
the 1893amendment was officiallycommunicated to the British Govern-
ment on 26 February 1895without meeting with any reaction.
63. Malaysia observes that the small islands referred to in the
1893amendment are those which "belong" to the three expressly desig-
nated islands, namely Tarakan, Nanukan and Sebatik, and which are

situated to the south of the boundary thus determined. Malaysia stresses
that it would be fanciful "to see this as establishing an allocation peri-
meter projected 50 miles out to sea".
64. TheCourt observesthat the relations between the Netherlands and
the Sultanate of Bulungan were governed by a series of contracts entered
into between them. The Contracts of 12November 1850and 2 June 1878
laid down the limits of the Sultanate. These limits extended to the north
of the land boundary that was finally agreed in 1891between the Nether-
lands and Great Britain. For this reason the Netherlands had consulted
the Sultan before concluding the Convention with Great Britain and was
moreover obliged in 1893to amend the 1878 Contract in order to take
into account the delimitation of 1891. The new text stipulated that the
islands of'Tarakan and Nanukan, and that portion of the island of Seba-
tik situated to the south of the boundary line, belonged to Bulungan,

together with "the small islands belonging to the above islands, so far as
they are situated to the south of the boundary-line". The Court observes
that these three islands are surrounded by many smaller islands that
could be said to "belong" to them geographically. The Court, however,
considers that this cannot apply to Ligitan and Sipadan, which are situ-
ated more than 40 nautical miles away from the three islands in question.
The Court observes that in any event this instrument, whatever its true
scope may have been, was res interaliosacta for Great Britain and there-
fore it could not be invoked by the Netherlands in its treaty relations
with Great Britain.

65. Indonesia also cites the Agreement concluded between Great
Britain and the Netherlands on 28 September 1915, pursuant to

ArticleV of the 1891Convention, conceming the boundary between the
State of North Bomeo and the Dutch possessions on Bomeo. It stresses
that this was a demarcation agreement which, by definition, could only
concem the inland part of the boundary. According to Indonesia, the
fact that this Agreement does not mention the boundary eastward of
the island of Sebatik does not imply that the 1891 Convention did not
establish an eastward boundary out to sea. It states that, unlike in the
case of the islands of Bomeo and Sebatik, where demarcation wasL'Indonésiesoutient qu'il ressort de ce texte que le Gouvernement néer-
landais considérait, en 1893,que la convention de 1891avait pour objet

d'établir, ence qui concerne les îles, une ligne de partage territorial se
prolongeant vers le large. Elle ajoute que leGouvernement britannique a
acquiescé à cette interprétation, puisque le texte de l'amendement de
1893 fut communiqué officiellement au Gouvernement britannique, le
26 février 1895,et que celui-ci ne réagit pas.
63. La Malaisie fait observer que lespetites îles viséesdans I'amende-
ment de 1893 sont celles qui ((serattachent » aux trois îles explicitement
désignées,à savoir Tarakan, Nanoukan et Sebatik, qui se trouvent toutes
situéesau sud de la frontièreainsi déterminéeE. t la Malaisie de souligner
qu'il faut faire montre d'imagination «pour y voir la consécration d'un
périmètred'attribution projeté à 50 millesau large)).
64. La Cour constate que lesrelations entre les Pays-Bas et le Sultanat
du Bouloungan avaient étéfixéespar une sériede contrats passésentre

eux. Les contrats des 12novembre 1850et 2 juin 1878précisaientles li-
mites du Sultanat. Ces limites s'étendaient anord de la frontière terrestre
qui fut finalement agrééeen 1891par lesPays-Baset la Grande-Bretagne.
C'est pourquoi les Pays-Bas avaient consultéle sultan avant de conclure
la convention avec la Grande-Bretagne; ils s'étaienten outre trouvés
dans l'obligation de modifier en 1893 le contrat de 1878, afin de tenir
compte de la délimitation intervenueen 1891. Lenouveau texte précisait
que les îles de Tarakan et de Nanoukan et la partie de l'île de Sebatik
situéeau sud de la ligne frontière appartenaient au Bouloungan, et qu'il
en était demêmedes ((petites îles se rattachant aux îles susmentionnées,
pour autant qu'ellessoient situéesau sud de la ligne frontière)).La Cour
note que ces trois îles sont entouréesde nombreuses îlesplus petites, qui

peuvent êtreconsidéréescomme «se rattachant)) géographiquement à
celles-ci.Elleestime en revanche que tel ne saurait êtrelecas de Ligitan et
Sipadan, situées à une distance de plus de 40 milles marins de ces trois
îles. La Cour relèvera qu'entout état de cause, quelle qu'en eût étéla
portée,ce texte étaitres inter alios acta pour la Grande-Bretagne et que,
de ce fait.,il n'aurait pu lui êtreopposépar les Pays-Bas dans leurs rela-
tions conventionnelles.

65. L'Indonésie se réfèreen outre à l'accord conclu entre la Grande-
Bretagne et les Pays-Bas le 28 septembre 1915, conformément à l'ar-
ticleV de la convention de 1891,au sujet de la frontière entre 1'Etatdu.

Nord-Bornéo et les possessions néerlandaises à Bornéo. Elle souligne
qu'il s'agissaitd'un accord de démarcation qui,par définition, ne pouvait
que concerner le tronçon terrestre de la frontière. Selon l'Indonésiel,e fait
que cet accord ne mentionne pas la frontièreen direction de l'està partir
de l'îlede Sebatik ne saurait impliquer que la convention de 1891n'éta-
blissait pas de frontière en direction de l'estvers le large. Elle expose que,
contrairement à ce qui étaitle cas sur lesîles deBornéoet de Sebatik, oùphysically possible, such an operation was not possible in the sea east of
Sebatik.
Finally, Indonesia asserts that the fact that the Commissioners' work
started at the east coast ofSebatik does not mean that the 1891Conven-
tion line began there, any more than the fact that their work ended after
covering some 20 per cent of the boundary can be interpreted to mean
that the boundary did not continue any further. It States that, contrary to
what Malaysia suggests, the Commissioners' report did not Say that the
boundary started on the east coast of Sebatik but indicated only that
"[tlraversing the island of Sibetik, the frontier line follows the parallel of
4" 10'north latitude . . .".

66. Indonesia contends that the same applies to the 1928 Agreement,
whereby the parties to the 1891 Convention agreed on a more precise
delimitation of the boundary, as defined in Article III of the Convention,
between the summits of the Gunong Api and of the Gunong Raya.

67. With respect to the maps attached to the 1915 and 1928 Agree-
ments, Indonesia acknowledges that they showed no seaward extension
of the line along the 4" 10' N parallel referred to in Article IV of the
1891 Convention. It further recognizes that these maps formed an inte-
gral part of the agreements and that as such they therefore had the same
binding legal force as those agreements for the parties. Indonesia never-
theless stresses that the maps attached to the 1915 and 1928 Agreements
should in no sense be considered as prevailing over the Dutch Explana-
tory Memorandum map of 1891in relation to stretches of the 1891Con-
vention line which were beyond the reach of the 1915 and 1928 Agree-
ments.
68. Malaysia does not share Indonesia's interpretation of the 1915and
1928 Agreements between Great Britain and the Netherlands. On the
contrary, it considers thatthese Agreements contradict Indonesia's inter-
pretation of Article IV of the 1891Convention.
With respect to the 1915 Agreement, Malaysia points out that the
Agreement "starts by stating that the frontier line traverses the island of
Sebatik following the parallel of 4" 10'N latitude marked on the east and

Westcoasts by boundary pillars, then follows the parallel westward". In
Malaysia's view, this wording "is exclusive of any prolongation of the
line eastward". Further, Malaysia maintains that the map referred to in
the preamble to the Agreement and annexed to it confirms that the
boundary linestarted on the east coast of Sebatik Island and did not con-
CernLigitan or Sipadan. In this respect, it observes that on this map the
eastern extremity of the boundary line is situated on the east coast of
Sebatik and that the map shows no sign of the line being extended out to
sea. Malaysia points out, however, that from the western endpoint of the
boundary the rnap shows the beginning of a continuation due south.
Malaysla concludes from this that "[ilf the Commissioners had thought
the [18!)1Convention] provided for an extension of the boundary line PULAU LIGITANET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRET) 658

une démarcation étaitphysiquement possible, il n'en étaitpas de même
en mer, à l'est de Sebatik.
L'Indonésierelèveenfin que le fait que les travaux des commissaires
aient commencépar la côte orientale de Sebatik n'implique pas que la
ligne conventionnelle de 1891commençait à cet endroit, pas plus que le
fait que ces travaux aient pris fin après avoir couvert environ
vingt pour cent de la frontière ne peut êtreinterprété commesignifiant
que la frontière ne se poursuivait pas au-delà. Elle affirme que le rapport

des commissaires ne précisaitpas, contrairement à ce que la Malaisie
laisse entendre, que la frontièrecommençaitsut la côte orientale deeba-
tik, mais indiquait seulement que, ((traversant l'île de Sibetik, la ligne
frontière suivait le parallèle4"0'de latitude nord...)).
66. L'Indonésie soutient que les mêmesconclusions s'appliquent à
l'accord de 1928, par lequel les parties à la convention de 1891avaient
convenu de délimiter plus précisémenlta frontière, telle que définie à
l'article III de cette convention, entre les sommets du Gunong Api et du
Gunong Raya.
67. Pour ce qui est des cartes annexéesaux accords de 1915et 1928,
l'Indonésie reconnaîtcertes que celles-ci ne figuraient aucun prolonge-
ment vers le large de la ligne passant par le parallèle 4" 10'de latitude
nord, viséeà l'article IV de la convention de 1891.Elle reconnaît en outre
que ces cartes faisaient partie intégrante des accords, et qu'ellesavaient

dèslors pour les parties la mêmevaleurjuridique obligatoire que ceux-ci.
L'Indonésie souligne néanmoins que les cartes annexées auxaccords
de 1915 et 1928 ne sauraient en aucun cas être considérées comme
l'emportant sur la carte jointe au mémorandumexplicatif néerlandaisde
1891,en ce qui concerne lessegmentsde la lignede la convention de 1891
qui dépassaientle champ d'application des accords de 1915 et 1928.
68. La Malaisie ne fait pas la même lectureque l'Indonésie desaccords
de 1915et 1928entre la Grande-Bretagne et les Pays-Bas. Elle estime au
contraire que ces accords démentent l'interprétationdonnée par 1'Indo-
nésiede l'article IV de la convention de 1891.
S'agissant de l'accord de 1915, elle souligne que celui-ci ((commence
par déclarer que la ligne frontière traverse l'île deSebatik le long du
parallèle de 4" 10'de latitude nord, marquésur les côtes est et ouest par

des bornes, puis suit le parallèle versl'ouest». Pour la Malaisie, un tel
libellé((exclut tout prolongement de la ligne vers l'est». Par ailleurs, la
Malaisie soutient que la carte mentionnéedans le préambulede l'accord
et annexée a celui-ci confirme que la ligne frontière commençait sur la
côte est de l'îlede Sebatik et ne concernait pas Ligitan et Sipadan. A cet
égard,elle fait observer que, sur cette carte, le point terminal de la ligne
frontière àl'estsetrouve sur la côte orientale de Sebatik et qu'iln'yappa-
raît aucun signe de prolongement de la ligne en mer. La Malaisie relève
qu'en revanche à partir du point terminalàl'ouestde la ligne frontière la
carte représente le début du prolongement de celle-ci vers le sud. La
Malaisieen conclut que, «si lescommissairesavaient penséque [laconven-
tion de 18911prévoyaitun prolongement de la lignefrontièrevers l'estaueastwards by an allocation line, they would have likewise indicated the
beginning of such a line" as they had done at the other end of the bound-
ary. Malaysia stresses that the Commissioners not only chose not to
extend the line on the map but they evenindicated the end of the bound-
ary line on the map by a red cross. Malaysia adds that the evidentiary
value of the map annexed to the 1915 Agreement is al1 the greater
because it is "the only officialmap agreed by the Parties".

At the hearings, Malaysia further contended that the 1915Agreement
could not be considered exclusively as a demarcation agreement. It
explained that the Commissioners didnot perform an exercise of demar-

cation strictosensu, as they took liberties with the text of the 1891Con-
vention at a number of points on the land boundary, and these liberties
were subsequently endorsed by the signatories of the 1915Agreement. As
an example, Malaysia referred to the change made by the Commissioners
to the boundary line in the channel between the Westcoast of Sebatik and
mainland Borneo, for the purpose of reaching the middle of the mouth of
the River Troesan Tamboe.

69. With respect to the 1928Agreement, which pertains to an inland
sector of'the boundary between the summits of the Gunong Api and the
Gunong Raya, Malaysia considers that this instrument confirms the
1915 Agreement, since the Netherlands Government could have taken
the opportunity to correct the 1915 map and Agreement if it had so
wished.
70. The Court will recall that the 1891 Convention included a clause

providing that the parties would in the future be able to definethe course
of the boundary line more exactly. Thus, Article V of the Convention
States: "The exact positions of the boundary-line, as described in the four
preceding Articles, shall be determined hereafter by mutual agreement, at
such times as the Netherland and the British Governments may think
fit."
The firstsuch agreement was the one signed at London by Great Brit-
ain and the Netherlands on 28 September 1915relating to "the boundary
between the State of North Borneo and the Netherland possessions in
Borneo". As explained in an exchangeof letters of 16March and 3Octo-
ber 1905between Baron Gericke, Netherlands Minister in London, and
the Marquess of Lansdowne, British Foreign Secretary, and in a commu-
nication dated 19November 19 10from theNetherlands Chargéd'affaires,
the origin of that agreement was a difference of opinion between the

Netherlands and Great Britain in respect of the course of the boundary
line. The difference concerned the manner in which Article II of the
1891 Convention should be interpreted. That provision was, by way of
the 1905 exchange of letters, given an interpretation agreed by the two
Governments. In 1910,the Netherlands Minister for the Colonies made
known to the Foreign Office,by way of the above-mentioned communi-
cation from the Netherlands Chargé d'affaires,his view that "the timemoyen d'une ligne d'attribution, ils auraient fait figurer le débutde cette
ligne sur la carte)), de la mêmefaçon qu'ils l'avaientfait à l'autre extré-
mitéde la ligne. Et la Malaisie de souligner que non seulement les com-
missaires ont choisi de ne pas prolonger la ligne sur la carte, mais qu'ils
ont mêmepris soin d'indiquer la fin de la ligne frontière sur la carte par
une croix rouge. La Malaisie ajoute que la valeurjuridique de cette carte
annexée à I'accord de 1915serait d'autant plus importante qu'elle cons-

tituerait«la seule carte officielleagréépar les parties)).
A l'audience,la Malaisie a par ailleurs soutenuque I'accord de 1915ne
saurait êtreexclusivement considéré comme un accord de démarcation.
Elle a exposéque lescommissaires ne s'étaient pas livréas un exercicede
démarcation stricto sensu car ils avaientàplusieurs endroits de la fron-
tière terrestre,pris des libertéspar rapport au texte de la convention de
1891et que ceslibertésavaient ensuite été entérinép esr lessignataires de
I'accordde 1915.La Malaisie a cité comme exemplela modification de la
ligne frontière dans le chenal situéentre la côte occidentale de Sebatik
et l'île de Bornéoproprement dite, que les commissaires avaient effec-
tuée auxfins d'atteindre le milieu de l'embouchure de la rivièreTrousan
Tambou.
69. Pour ce qui a trait I'accordde 1928,qui porte sur un segment de
la frontière situéà l'intérieurdes terres, entre les sommets du Gunong
Api et du Gunong Raya, la Malaisie estime que cet instrument vient
confirmer I'accordde 1915,dans la mesure où le Gouvernement néerlan-

dais n'a pas saisi l'opportunitéqui lui était offerte,s'il le souhaitait, de
rectifierla carte et I'accord de 1915.
70. La Cour rappellera que la convention de 1891contenait une dis-
position prévoyant lapossibilitépour lesparties, dans le futur, de définir
plus précisémenlte tracé de laligne frontière. Eneffet, l'articlede cette
convention stipule que «[l]e tracéexact de la ligne frontière, telle qu'elle
est décritedans les quatre articles précédents,sera définiultérieurement
d'un commun accord, aux moments que les Gouvernements néerlandais
et britannique jugeront opportuns)).
Le premier de ces accords est celui que la Grande-Bretagne et les Pays-
Bas conclurent à Londres le 28 septembre 1915concernant «la frontière
entre 1'Etatdu Nord-Bornéo et les possessions néerlandaises à Bornéo)).
11trouve son origine, comme l'expliquent un échange de lettres des
16mars et 3 octobre 1905entre le baron Gericke, ministre néerlandais à
Londres, et le marquis de Lansdowne, secrétairebritannique aux affaires

étrangères,ainsi qu'une communication du 19novembre 1910du chargé
d'affaires des Pays-Bas,dans une divergence d'opinions qui était surve-
nue entre les Pays-Bas et la Grande-Bretagne quant au tracé de laligne
frontière. Cette divergence portait sur l'interprétationa donner a I'ar-
ticle II de la convention de 1891.Par l'échangede lettres de 1905,ladite
disposition avait fait l'objet d'uneinterprétation convenueentre les deux
gouvernements. En 1910,par la communication susmentionnéedu chargé
d'affaires des Pays-Bas, le ministre néerlandais descolonies fit savoir au
Foreign Officequ'ilestimait que «le moment [était]venu d'ouvrir avec le[had] come to open the negotiations with the British Government men-
tioned in the [Convention] of June 20, 1891,concerning the indication of

the frontier between British North Borneo and the Netherland Terri-
tory". He stated in particular that the uncertainty as to the actual course
of the boundary made itself felt "along the whole" boundary. For that
purpose, he proposed that "a mixed Commission . . .be appointed to
indicate the frontier on the ground, todescribeit and to prepare a map of
same". As the proposal was accepted, a mixed Commission carried out
the prescribed task between 8 June 1912and 30January 1913.
71. By the 1915Agreement, the two States approved and confirmed a
joint report, incorporated into that Agreement, and the map annexed
thereto, which had been drawn up by the mixed Commission. The Com-
missioners started their work on the east coast of Sebatik and, from east
to west, undertook to "delimitate on the spot the frontier" agreed in
1891,as indicated in the preamble to the Agreement. In the Court's view,
the Commissioners' assignment was not simply a demarcation exercise,

the task of the parties being to clarify the course of a line which could
only be imprecise in view of the somewhat general wording of the
1891Convention and the line'sconsiderable length. The Court finds that
the intention of the parties to clarify the 1891delimitation and the com-
plementary nature of the demarcation operations become very clear when
the text of the Agreement is examined carefully. Thus the Agreement
indicates that "[wlherephysical features did not present natural bounda-
ries conformable with the provisions of the Boundary Treaty of the
20th June, 1891, [theCommissioners] erected the following pillars".
Moreover, the Court observes that the course of the boundary line
finallyadopted in the 1915Agreement does not totally correspond to that
of the 1891Convention. Thus, as Malaysia points out, whereas the sector
of the boundary between Sebatik Island and Borneo under Article IV of
the 1891Convention was to follow a straight line along the parallel of
4"10'latitude north (seeparagraph 36 above), the 1915Agreement stipu-

lates tha:
"(2) Starting from the boundary pillar on the Westcoast of the
island of Sibetik, the boundary follows the parallel of 4" 10'north
latitude westward until it reaches the middle of the channel, thence
keeping a mid-channel course until it reaches the middle of the
mouth of Troesan Tamboe.
(3) From the mouth of Troesan Tamboe the boundary lineis con-

tinued up the middle of this Troesan until it isintersected by a simi-
lar line running through the middle of Troesan Sikapal; it then fol-
lows this line through Troesan Sikapal as far as the point where the
latter meets the watershed between the Simengaris and Seroedong
Rivers (Sikapal hill), and is connected finallywith this watershed by
a Yinetaken perpendicular to the centre line of Troesan Sikapal."

In view of the foregoing, the Court cannot accept Indonesia's argu- PULAU LlGlTAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 660

Gouvernement britannique les négociations prévues dans [la convention
du 20 juin 18911,concernant l'indication de la frontière entre le Nord-

Bornéobritannique et le territoire néerlandais)).II précisaitnotamment
que l'incertitude quant au tracéeffectif de la frontière se faisait sentir
«tout au long)) de celle-ci.A cet effet, il proposa «la nomination d'une
commission mixte ...chargée d'indiquer lafrontière sur le terrain, de la
décrire etd'en établirune carte)). La proposition ayant étéacceptée, une
commission mixte réalisa latâche prescrite entre le 8 juin 1912 et le
30janvier 1913.
71. Par I'accord de 1915, lesdeux Etats approuvaient et confirmaient
un rapport conjoint, incorporéaudit accord, ainsi que la carte y annexée,
qui avaient étéétablispar la commission mixte. Les commissairesavaient
commencé leurs travaux sur la côte est de Sebatik et avaient entrepris,
comme le rappelle le préambule deI'accord, de ((délimitersur les lieuxla
frontière))convenue en 1891,en procédantd'esten ouest. La Cour estime
que la mission effectuéepar les commissaires n'étaitpas une mission de

simple démarcation, les parties ayant dû s'employer à préciserun tracé
qui, vu le libellé assez généra dle la convention de 1891 et la longueur
considérable dela ligne,nepouvait qu'êtreimprécis.De l'avisde la Cour,
la volonté des parties de préciser la délimitation opéréeen 1891 et
le caractère complémentairedes opérations de démarcationmenées res-
sortent ilsuffisanced'un examen attentif du texte de I'accord. Celui-ciin-
dique ainsi que « [1]où la configuration du terrain n'offrait pas de limite
naturelle conforme aux dispositions de I'accord de frontière du 20 juin
1891,Uescommissaires ont] érigéles bornes suivantes)).
Par ailleurs, la Cour constate que le tracéde la ligne finalement retenu
dans I'accord de 191 5ne correspond pas entièrement à celui de la conven-
tion de 1891.Ainsi, comme l'a relevéla Malaisie, alors que le segmentde

frontière reliant I'îlede Sebatikà I'îlede Bornéo devait,aux termes de
l'articleIV de la convention de 1891,suivre une ligne droite le long du
parallèle 4"10'de latitude nord (voir paragraphe 36 ci-dessus), l'accord
de 1915 dispose que:
((2) A partir de la borne frontière érigéesur la côte ouest de I'île
de Sibetik, la frontière suit le parallèle10'de latitude nord vers

l'ouest jusqu'au milieu du chenal, puis suit le milieu du chenal
jusqu'au milieu de l'embouchure du Trousan Tambou.

3) De l'embouchure du Trousan Tambou, la ligne frontière se
prolonge au milieu de ladite Trousan jusqu'au point où elle croise
une ligne semblablepassant par lemilieu de la Trousan Sikapal ;elle
suit ensuite cette lignepassant par larousan Sikapaljusqu'au point
où cette dernière rejoint la ligne de partage des eaux des rivières
Simengaris et Seroudong (collinede Sikapal), et elleest enfinreliéea
cette ligne de partage des eaux par une ligne perpendiculaire a celle
passant au centre de Trousan Sikapal.))

Au vu de ce qui précède, laCour ne saurait retenir l'argument de66 1 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

ment that the 1915 Agreement was purelya demarcation agreement; nor
can it accept the conclusion drawn therefrom by Indonesia that the very
nature of this Agreement shows that the parties were not required tocon-
Cernthemselves therein with the course of the line out to sea to the east of
Sebatik Island.
72. In connection with this agreement, the Court further notes a
number of elements which, when taken as a whole, suggest that the line
established in 1891 terminated at the east coast ofSebatik.
It first observes that the title of the 1915Agreement is very general in
nature ("Agreement between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands
relating to the Boundary between the State of North Borneo and the
Netherland Possessions in Borneo"), as is its wording. Thus, the pre-
amble to the Agreement refers to the joint report incorporated into the
Agreement and to the map accompanying it as "relating to the boundary

between the State of North Borneo and the Netherland possessions in the
island", without any further indication.Similarly, paragraphs 1and 3 of
the joint report state that the Commissioners had "travelled in the neigh-
bourhood of the frontier from the 8th June, 1912, to the 30th January,
1913" and had
"determined the boundary between the Netherland territory and the

State of British North Borneo, as described in the Boundary Treaty
supplemented by the interpretation of Article 2 of the Treaty mutu-
ally accepted by the Netherland and British Governments in 1905"
(emphasis added by the Court).
For their part, the Commissioners, far from confining their examina-
tion to the specific problem which had arisen in connection with the

interpretation of Article II of the 1891 Convention (see paragraph 70
above), also considered the situation in respect of the boundary from
Sebatik westward. Thus, they began their task at the point where the
4" 10'latitude north parallel crosses the east coast of Sebatik; they then
simply proceeded from east to West.
Moreover, subparagraph (1)of paragraph 3of thejoint report describes
the boundary line fixedby Article IV of the 1891Convention as follows:

"Traversing the island of Sibetik, the frontier line follows the par-
allel of 4"10' north latitude, as already jixed by Article 4 of the
Boimdary Treaty and marked on the east and west coasts by bound-
ary pillars" (emphasis added by the Court).
In sum, the 1915 Agreement covered a priori the entire boundary

"between the Netherland territory and the State of British North Bor-
neo" and the Commissioners performed their task beginning at the
eastern end of Sebatik. In the opinion of the Court, if the boundary
had continued in any way to the east of Sebatik, at the very least some
mention of that could have been expected in the Agreement.
The Court considers that an examination of the map annexed to thel'Indonésie selon lequel l'accorde 1915étaitexclusivementun accord de
démarcation. Elle ne saurait davantage accepter la conclusion qu'en tire
l'Indonésie,a savoir que, compte tenu de la nature mêmede cet accord,
lesparties n'avaient pasà sepréoccuper,dans celui-ci,du tracé dela ligne

vers le large,a l'est de l'îlede Sebatik.
72. La Cour relève parailleurs, en ce qui concerne cet accord, un cer-
tain nombre d'élémentsqui, pris dans leur ensemble, donnent à penser
que la ligne établie en1891prenait fin sur la côte est de l'île de Sebatik.
Elle observetout d'abord que letitre de l'accord de 1915a un caractère
tout a fait général(((Accordentre le Royaume-Uni et les Pays-Bas relatif
à la frontière entre 1'Etat du Nord-Bornéo et les possessions néerlan-
daises a Bornéo))),tout comme son libellé lui-même. Ainsil,e préambule
de l'accordseréfèreau rapport conjoint incorporeaudit accord et à la carte
annexée à celui-ci comme «se rapportant à la frontière entre 1'Etat du
Nord-Bornéo et les possessions néerlandaisesdans cette île», sans autre
indication.De même,lesparagraphes 1et 3durapport conjoint précisent

que les commissaires ont ((parcouru les parages de la frontière entre le
8juin 1912et le 30janvier 1913))et ont

((définile tracé de la frontière entrele territoire néerlandaisetEtat
du Nord-Bornéobritannique, telle que décritedans le traitédefron-
tière complété par l'interprétatiode l'articleI dudit traité acceptée

d'un communaccord par les Gouvernements néerlandaiset britan-
nique en 190.5))(les italiques sont de la Cour).
Pour leur part, lescommissaires, loin de limiter leur examau problème
spécifiquequi s'était posé dans le cadre de l'interprétationde l'article II

de la convention de 1891(voir paragraphe 70 ci-dessus), ont envisagéla
situation de la frontièrea partir de l'îlede Sebatik en allant vers l'ouest.
Ils ont ainsi commencé leurtâche au point où le parallèle 4"10'de lati-
tude nord touche à la côte est de Sebatik, puis ont simplement procédé
d'est en ouest.
Au demeurant, a l'alinéa1 du paragraphe 3 du rapport conjoint, la
frontière fixéea l'article IV de la convention de 1891est décritedans les
termes suivants :

((Traversant l'îlede Sibetik, la lignefrontière suitleparallèle4"10'
de latitude nord, telle qu'elleest déjùJixéù l'article IV du traitéde L'
frontière etmatérialiséesur les côtes est et ouestpar des bornesfron-
tières.)(Les italiques sont de la Cour.)

Au total, l'accord de 1915 visait à priori l'ensemble de la frontière
centre le territoire néerlandais et1'Etatdu Nord-Bornéo britannique)), et
lescommissaires avaient accompli leur tâche en partant de l'extrémité est
de Sebatik. De l'avis de la Cour, si la frontière s'étaitd'une façon ou
d'une autre poursuivieà l'estde Sebatik, on aurait pu s'attendre a ce qu'à
tout le moins il en fût fait mention dans l'accord.
La Cour estime que l'examen de la carte annexée à l'accord de 19151915 Agreement reinforces the Court's interpretation of that Agreement.

The Court observes that the map, together with the map annexed to the
1928Agreement, is the only one which was agreed between the parties to
the 1891Convention. The Court notes on this map that an initial south-
ward extension of the line indicating the boundary between the Nether-
lands possessions and the other States under British protection is shown
beyond the western endpoint of the boundary defined in 1915, while a
similar extension does not appear beyond the point situated on the east
coast of Sebatik; that latter point was, in al1probability, meant to indi-
cate the spot where the boundary ended.
73. A new agreement was concluded by the parties to the 1891 Con-
vention on 26 March 1928.Although also bearing a title worded in gen-
eral terms ("Convention between Great Britain and Northern Ireland
and the Netherlands respecting the Further Delimitation of the Frontier
between the States in Borneo under British Protection and the Nether-
lands Territory in that Island"), that agreement had a much more limited

object than the 1915Agreement, as its Article 1 indicates:

"The boundary as defined in article III of the Convention signed
at London on the 20th June, 1891, is further delimited between the
summits of the Gunong Api and of the Gunong Raya as described
in the follouing article and as shown on the map attached to this

Convention."
The Court considers this too to be an agreement providing for both a
more exact delimitation of the boundary in the sector in question and its
demarcation, not solely a demarcation treaty. However, the Court finds
that in 1928it was a matter of carrying out the detailed delimitation and
demarcation of only a limited inland boundary sector. Accordingly, the
Court cannot draw any conclusions, for the purpose of interpreting

ArticleIV of the 1891 Convention, from the fact that the 1928 Agree-
ment fails to make any reference to the question of the boundary line
being extended, as an allocation line, out to sea east of Sebatik.

74. The Court lastly observes that no other agreement was concluded
subsequently by Great Britain and the Netherlands with respect to the
course of the line established by the 1891 Convention.

75. However, Indonesia refers to a debate that took place within the
Dutch Government between 1922and 1926over whether the issue of the
delimitation of the territorial waters off the east coast of the island of
Sebatik should be raised with the British Government. Indonesia sets out
the various options that had been envisaged in this respect: one of these
options consisted in considering that the 1891 Convention also estab-
lished a boundary for the territorial sea at 3nautical miles from thecoast.

The other option consisted in drawing a line perpendicular to the coast atvient renforcer la lecture qu'ellefait de ce dernier. Elle constate que cette
carte est, avec celle annexée l'accord de 1928,la seule qui ait étagréée
entre les partieà la convention de 1891.Or la Cour relève que, surcette
carte,a partir du point d'aboutissement a l'ouest de la frontière définie
en 1915, un début de prolongement vers le sud de la ligne indiquant la
frontière entre les possessions des Pays-Bas et les autres Etats sous pro-

tection britannique a étéreprésenté,alors qu'aucun prolongement simi-
laire n'apparaît au-delà du point situésur la côte est deebatik; ce der-
nier point devait, selon toute vraisemblance, indiquer l'endroit où la
frontière se terminait.
73. Le 26 mars 1928,un nouvel accord fut conclu entre les parties à la
convention de 1891. Cet accord, bien que portant égalementun titre
libelléen termes généraux (((Conventionentre la Grande-Bretagne et
l'Irlande du Nord et lesPays-Bas, précisantla délimitationde la frontière
entre les Etats sous le protectorat britannique dans I'îlede Bornéoet le
territoire néerlandais dans cetteîle))), avait en revanche un objet beau-
coup plus limitéque celui de 1915,comme l'indique le texte de son article
premier :

«La frontière, telle qu'elleest définiea l'article III de la conven-
tion signée à Londres le 20 juin 1891, est délimitée d'une manière
plus préciseentre les sommets du Gunong Api et du Gunong Raya,
comme il est dit à l'article suivant et comme l'indique la carte
annexée àla présenteconvention.»

La Cour estime certes qu'il s'agissaitlà encore d'un accord prévoyanà
la fois une délimitationplus précisede la frontière dans le secteur envi-
sagéet sa démarcation,et non exclusivementd'un traité dedémarcation.
Toutefois, la Cour constate qu'il nes'agissaiten 1928que de procéder à
la délimitationdétaillée et la démarcation d'un secteurlimitéde la fron-
tièresitué a l'intérieur des terres.Dans ces conditions, elle ne peut tirer
aucune conclusion, aux finsdel'interprétation del'articleVde la conven-
tion de 1891,de l'absence,dans l'accord de 1928,d'une quelconque réfé-

rence à la question du prolongement de la ligne frontière vers le largeà
l'est de l'îlede Sebatik, en tant que ligne d'attribution.
74. La Cour relève en dernier lieu qu'aucun autre accord n'a été
conclu par la suite entre la Grande-Bretagne et les Pays-Bas concernant
le tracé dela ligne établiepar la convention de 1891.

75. L'Indonésie fait cependantétat d'un débatqui eut lieu au sein de
l'administration néerlandaise,de 1922 à 1926, quant à l'opportunité de
soulever auprès du Gouvernement britannique la question de la délimita-
tion de la mer territoriale au large de la côte est de I'îledebatik. Elle
expose que différentesoptions avaient été envisagéesà cet égard:l'unede
ces options consistait a considérerque la convention de 1891établissait
égalementau large, sur une distance de 3 millesmarins a partir de la côte,

une frontière pour la mer territoriale; l'autre option consistait tracer663 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

the terminus of the land boundary, as recommended by the rules of
general international law that were applicable at the time. Indonesia
adds that the final view expressed in September 1926 by the Minister for
Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, who had opted for the perpendicular
line, was that it was not opportune to raise the matter with the British
Government. According to Indonesia, this internal debate shows that the
Dutch authorities took the same position as Indonesia in the present case
and saw the 1891line as an allocation line rather than a maritime bound-
ary. Indonesia further points out that the internal Dutch discussions were
entirely restricted to the delimitation of the territorial waters off Sebatik
Island and did not involve the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan.

76. Malaysia considers the proposal by certain Dutch authorities to
delimit the territorial waters by a line perpendicular to theast from the
endpoint of the land boundary as particularly significant as this would

have made it more difficult for the Dutch Government to make any sub-
sequent claim to sovereignty over distant islands situated to the south of
an allocation line along the4" 10'N parallel. Malaysia accordingly asserts
that, in view of this debate,it is difficult to argue that in 1926the Dutch
authorities considered that any delimitation of territorial waters or the
course of an allocation line had been provided for by an agreement
between Great Britain and the Netherlands in 1891 or later. It further
concludes from this debate that the Dutch authorities were clearly of the
viewthat no rule of international law called for the prolongation, beyond
the east coast of Sebatik, of the4" 10'N land boundary, and that in any
event the authorities did not favour such a solution, considering it to be
contras. to Dutch interests.

77. The Court notes that this internal debate sheds light on the views

of various Dutch authorities at the time as to the legal situation of the
territories to the east ofebatik Island.
In a letter of 10 December 1922to the Minister for the Colonies, the
Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies proposed certain solutions
for the delimitation of the territorial waters off theast of Sebatik. One
of these solutions was to draw "a line which is an extension of the land
border". The Ministry of Foreign Affairs wasalso consulted. In a Memo-
randum of 8 August 1923,it also mentioned the "extension of the land
boundary" dividing Sebatik Island as the possible boundary between
Dutch territorial waters and the territorial waters of the State of North
Borneo. In support of this solution, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
invoked the map annexed to the Explanatory Memorandum, "on which
the border between the areas under Dutch and British jurisdiction on
land and sea is extended along the parallel 4"10'N". The Ministry how-
ever added that "this map [did] not result from actual consultation"
between the parties, although it was probably known to the British Gov-

ernment. Nevertheless, in his letter of 27 Septernber 1926to the Minister PULAlJ LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRET) 663

une ligne perpendiculaire à la côte,à partir du point terminal de la fron-

tière terrestre, comme le préconisaient les règles dedroit international
généralalors applicables. L'Indonésie précisq eue le ministre des affaires
étrangères desPays-Bas, qui avait opté pour la ligne perpendiculaire,
estima finalement en septembre 1926qu'iln'yavait pas lieu de soulever la
question auprès du Gouvernement britannique. Selon l'Indonésie, ce
débat interne montre que, pour les fonctionnaires de l'administration
néerlandaise, la ligne de 1891 était, comme elle-mêmele soutient
aujourd'hui, uneligned'attribution et non une frontièremaritime. L'Indo-
nésiesouligne enfin que ce débat interne néerlandaisse bornait stricte-
ment a la délimitationde la mer territoriale au lurge de l'îlede Sebatik et
ne concernait pas Ligitan et Sipadan.
76. La Malaisie considèreque la proposition faite par certaines auto-

ritésnéerlandaisesde délimiterleseaux territoriales par une ligneperpen-
diculaire à la côte et partant du point d'aboutissement de la frontière
terrestre est d'autant plus révélatricque cette solution aurait rendu plus
difficile, pourle Gouvernement néerlandais, la revendication éventuelle
d'îles éloignées, situéeasu sud d'une ligne d'attribution courant le long
du parallèle 4"10'de latitude nord. La Malaisie fait donc valoir que, au
vu de ce débat,il est difficilede soutenir que les autoritésnéerlandaises,
en 1926, considéraient qu'une délimitationdes eaux territoriales ou le
tracé d'uneligne d'attribution avaient fait l'objet d'un accord entre la
Grande-Bretagne et les Pays-Bas en 1891ou plus tard. Par ailleurs, elle
tire comme conséquence de ce débat que les autorités néerlandaises

étaientmanifestement d'avisqu'aucune règle dedroit international n'exi-
geait le prolongement, au-delà de la côte orientale deSebatik, de la fron-
tière terrestre le long du parallèle 4"10' de latitude nord, et qu'elles
n'étaienten tout cas pas favorables à cette solution, l'estimant contraire
aux intérêts néerlandais.
77. La Cour constate que ce débatinterne est révélateur desvues que
diverses autorités néerlandaisesavaient à l'époquequant à la situation
juridique des territoiresa l'est de l'îlede Sebatik.
Dans une lettre adresséele 10 décembre1922au ministre des colonies,
le gouverneur général desIndes orientales néerlandaisesavait proposé
certaines solutions pour délimiterla mer territoriale au large deSebatik;
l'une d'entre elles consistait a tracer «une ligne prolongeant la frontière

terrestre». Le ministère desaffaires étrangères futaussi consulté;dans un
mémorandumen date du 8 août 1923,il évoqua égalemenlta possibilité
de considérerle (prolongement de la frontière terrestre)) divisant l'îlede
Sebatik comme formant la frontière entre les eaux territoriales néerlan-
daises et les eaux territoriales de1'Etat du Nord-Bornéo. En faveur de
cette solution, le ministèredes affaires étrangèresinvoqua la carte jointe
au mémorandum explicatif, «sur laquelle la frontière entre les secteurs
terrestres et maritimes sousjuridictions néerlandaised'une part et britan-
nique d'autre part court le long du parallèlede 4"10'nord»; le ministère
précisatoutefois que «ladite carte n'[était] pasle fruit de concertations»
entre les parties, bien qu'elleeût probablement étéconnue du Gouverne- Jfor the Colonies, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, whilst not considering
it desirable to raise the question with the British Government, put

forward the perpendicular line as being the best solution. In the end
this issue was not pursued and the Dutch Government never drew it to
the attention of the British Government.

In the Court's view, the above-mentioned correspondence suggests
that, in the 1920s,the best informed Dutchauthorities did not consider
that there had been agreement in 1891on the extension out to sea of the
line drawn on land along the 4" 10'north parallel.

78. Finally, Indonesia maintains that, in granting oil concessions in
the area, both Parties always respected the 4" 10'North latitude as form-
ing the limit of their respectivejurisdiction. Accordingly, in Indonesia's
view, its grant of a licencetoJapexJTotal demonstrates that it considered
that itsjurisdictional rights extended up to the 4" 10'N line. Indonesia
goes on to indicate that Malaysia acted in similar fashion in 1968when it
granted an oil concessionto Teiseki, pointing out that the southern limit
of this concession virtually coincides with that parallel.Thus, according
to Indonesia, the Parties recognized and respected the 4" 10'N parallel as
a separation line between Indonesia's and Malaysia's respectivezones.

For its part, Malaysia notes that the oil concessions in the 1960sdid
not concern territorial delimitation and that the islands of Ligitan and
Sipadan were never included in the concession perimeters. It adds that
"[nlo activity pursuant to the Indonesian concessions had any relation to
the islands".
79. The Court notes that the limits of the oil concessions granted by
the Parties in the area to the east of Borneo did not encompass the
islands of Ligitan and Sipadan. Further, the northern limit of the explo-
ration concession granted in 1966by Indonesia and the southern limit of
that granted in 1968by Malaysia did not coincide with the 4"10'north
parallel but were fixedat 30" to either side of that parallel. These limits
may have been simply the manifestation of the caution exercised by
the Parties in granting their concessions. This caution was al1the more
natural in the present casebecause negotiations were to commence soon

afterwards between Indonesia and Malaysia with a view to delimiting
the continental shelf.
The Court cannot therefore draw any conclusion for purposes of inter-
preting Article IV ofthe 1891Convention from the practice of the Parties
in awarding oil concessions. PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 664

ment britannique. Néanmoins, dans une lettre du 27 septembre 1926
adresséeau ministre des colonies, le ministre des affaires étrangères,tout
en se déclarant partisan de ne pas soulever la question auprès du Gou-
vernement britannique, privilégiala ligneperpendiculaire comme étantla
meilleure solution. Finalement, leschoses en restèrent là; le problèmene

fut jamais porté à l'attention du Gouvernement britannique par le Gou-
vernement néerlandais.
De l'avisde la Cour, la correspondance susmentionnéelaisse à penser
que, dans les annéesvingt, lesautoritésnéerlandaisesles mieux informées
ne considéraient pasqu'il avait été convenu en1891d'un prolongement
en mer de la ligne tracée surterre le long du parallèle 4" 10'de latitude
nord.

78. L'Indonésiesoutient enfin que, lorsqu'ellesont accordédes conces-
sions pétrolièresdans la région,les deux Parties ont toujours respectéle
parallèle 4"10' de latitude nord comme limite de leurs juridictions res- .
pectives. Ainsi, selon l'Indonésie,le fait qu'elle ait octroyéun permis à
Japeflotal montrait qu'elle considéraitque sa juridiction s'étendait
jusqu'à la ligne 4" 10'de latitude nord. L'Indonésiepoursuit en indiquant
que la Malaisie a agi de la même façonen 1968,lorsqu'elle a accordéune
concession pétrolière à la Teiseki, et fait observer que la limite méridio- ,
nale de cette concession coïncidepratiquement avecce parallèle. Ainsi, de
l'avisde l'Indonésie,les Parties reconnaissaient et respectaient le parallèle

4" 10'de latitude nord comme ligne deséparationentre leszones relevant
respectivement de l'Indonésieet de la Malaisie.
La Malaisie fait valoir pour sa part que les concessions pétrolières des
années soixantene concernaient pas la délimitation territoriale, et que les
îles de Ligitan et Sipadan n'avaient jamais étéenglobéesdans les péri-
mètresayant fait l'objet de concessions. Elle ajoute qu'«[alucune activité
découlant desconcessions indonésiennesn'étaiten rapport avec les îles)).
79. La Cour fera observer que les limites des concessions pétrolières
accordéespar les Parties, dans la région à l'estde Bornéo,n'englobaient
pas les îles de Ligitan etipadan. En outre, la limite septentrionale de la
concession d'exploration octroyée en 1966 par l'Indonésie etla limite
méridionalede celle accordéepar la Malaisie en 1968ne correspondaient
pas au parallèle 4" 10'de latitude nord, mais avaient étéfixées à 30" de

part et d'autre dudit parallèle. Ces limitesont pu ne constituer qu'une
manifestation de la prudence des Parties dans l'octroi de leurs conces-
sions. Cette prudence était d'autant plus naturelle en l'espèceque des
négociations devaients'ouvrir peude temps après entre l'Indonésieet la
Malaisie en vue de la délimitationde leur plateau continental.
La Cour ne saurait dèslors tirer aucune conclusion, aux fins de I'inter-
prétation de l'article IV de la convention de 1891, de la pratique des
Parties en matière d'octroi de concessions pétrolières. 80. 111view of al1the foregoing, the Court considers that an examina-
tion of the subsequent practice of the parties to the 1891Convention con-
firms the conclusions at which the Court has arrived in paragraph 52
above as to the interpretation of Article IV of that Convention.

81. Lastly, both Parties have produced a series of maps of various
natures and origins in support of their respective interpretations of
Article IV of the 1891 Convention.
82. Indonesia produces maps of "Dutch" or "Indonesian" origin, such
as the rnap annexed to the Dutch Explanatory Memorandum of 1891
and a rnap of Borneo taken from an Indonesian atlas of 1953. Secondly,
itproduces "British" or "Malaysian" maps, such asthree maps published
by Stanford in 1894, 1903and 1904respectively,a rnap of Tawau "pro-
duced by Great Britain in 1965", two "maps of Malaysia of 1966 of
Malaysian origin", a "Malaysian rnap of Semporna published in 1967",
the "official Malaysian rnap of the 1968 oil concessions showing the
international boundary", another rnap of Malaysia "published by the
Malaysian Directorate of National Mapping in 1972", etc. Thirdly, Indo-

nesia relies on a rnap from an American atlas of 1897 annexed by the
United States to its Memorial in the Island of Palmas Arbitration.

83. Indonesia contends that the maps it has produced "are consistent
in depicting the boundary line as extending offshore to the north of the
known locations of the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan, thus leaving them
on what is now the Indonesian side of the line". Indonesia stresses that
"[ilt was only in 1979,well after the dispute had arisen, that Malaysia's
maps began to change in a self-serving fashion".

As regards the legal value of the maps it has produced, Indonesia con-
siders that a number of these maps fa11into the category of the "physical
expressions of the will of the State or the States concerned" and that,
while "these maps do not constitute a territorial title by themselves, they
command significant weight in the light of their consistent depiction of

the 1891Treaty line as separating the territorial possessions, including
the islands, of the Parties".
84. In regard to the evidentiary value of the maps presented by Indo-
nesia, Malaysia States that "Indonesia has produced not a single Dutch
or Indonesian map, on any scale, which shows the islands and attributes
them to Indonesia". In Malaysia'sview, contrary to what Indonesia con-
tends, the Dutch maps of 1897-1904and of 1914clearly show the bound-
ary terminating at the east coast of Sebatik. Malaysia emphasizes, more-
over, that the Indonesian officialarchipelagic claim rnap of 1960clearly
does not treat the islands as Indonesian. Malaysia asserts that even Indo-
nesian maps published since 1969do not show the islands as Indonesian. 80. Au vu de tout ce qui précède,la Cour considèreque l'examen de la
pratique ultérieure desparties à la convention de 1891 confirme les
conclusions auxquelleselleest parvenue au paragraphe 52ci-dessus quant
à l'interprétationde l'article IVde cette convention.

81. Enfin, chacune des deux Parties a produit,àl'appui de I'interpréta-
tion qu'elle donne de l'article IV de la convention de 1891,un ensemble
de cartes de nature et d'origine diverses.
82. L'Indonésie présente en premier lieu des cartes de provenance
((néerlandaise» ou «indonésienne», comme la carte annexéeau mémo-
randum explicatif néerlandaisde 1891,ou une carte de Bornéotiréed'un
atlas indonésien de1953.En deuxième lieu,elle présentedes cartes «bri-
tanniques)) ou «malaisiennes», telles que trois cartes publiéespar Stan-
ford en 1894, 1903et 1904respectivement, unecarte de Tawau ((produite
par la Grande-Bretagne en 1965 »,deux «cartes de la Malaisie de 1966de

provenance malaisienne)), une ((carte malaisienne de Semporna publiée
en 1967», la «carte officiellemalaisienne des concessions pétrolièresde
1968montrant la frontièreinternationale)), une autre carte de la Malaisie
((publiéepar la direction nationale des cartes malaisiennes en972»,etc.
En troisième lieu,elle s'appuie sur une carte provenant d'un atlas améri-
cain de 1897 soumise par les Etats-Unis avec leur mémoiredans I'arbi-
trage de I'IIede Palmas.
83. L'Indonésie fait valoirque les cartes qu'elle a présentées«repré-
sentent de façon constante la frontière comme passant en mer au nord
des positions connues des îles de Ligitan etipadan, ce qui laisse ces îles
du côté désormaisindonésiende la ligne)). Et l'Indonésiede souligner
que «[c]e n'est qu'en 1979,bien après la naissance du différend,que les
cartes de la Malaisie ont commencé à présenter desmodifications servant

ses intérêts)).
Quant à la valeur juridique des cartes qu'elle a produites, l'Indonésie
estime que nombre d'entreellesparticipent de ((l'expressionde la volonté
de 1'Etatou des Etats concernés))et que, même«[s]ices cartes ne repré-
sentent pas un titre territorial elles seules, elles ont d'autant plus de
poids que la ligne conventionnelle de 1891 y figure de façon constante
comme marquant la limiteentre lespossessions territoriales des Parties,
compris les îles)).
84. S'agissant de la valeur juridique des cartes présentéespar 1'Indo-
nésie,la Malaisie affirmeque «l'Indonésien'a pasproduit une seulecarte
néerlandaiseou indonésienne, à quelque échelleque cesoit, où les îles
seraient figuréeset attribuées l'Indonésie».Pour la Malaisie, contraire-
ment à ceque soutient l'Indonésie,les cartes néerlandaisesde 1897-1904

et de 1914font clairement apparaître une frontière s'arrêtant la côte est
de Sebatik. Elle souligneen outre que, sur la carte officielleindonésienne
de 1960illustrant la revendication archipélagique del'Indonésie,les îles
en question ne sont manifestement pas considérées comme indonésiennes.It does, however, recognizethat some modern maps might be interpreted
in a contrary sense, but it contends that these are relatively few in
number and that their legalforce is reduced by the fact that each of them
contains a disclaimer in regard to the accuracy of the boundaries. Malay-
sia moreover argues that on the majority of these latter maps the islands
of Ligitan and Sipadan are not shown at all, are in the wrong place, or

are not shown as belonging to Malaysia or to Indonesia.

85. In support of its interpretation of Article IV of the 1891Conven-
tion, Malaysia reliesin particular on the map annexed to the 1915Agree-
ment between the British and Netherlands Governments relating to the
boundary between the State of North Borneo and the Netherland pos-
sessions in Borneo: according to Malaysia, this is the only official rnap
agreed by the parties. Malaysia also relies on a series of other maps of
various origins. It first presents a certain number of Dutch maps, includ-
ing inter aliathe rnap entitled "East Coastof Borneo: Island of Tarakan
up to Dutch-English boundary" dated 1905,two maps of 1913showing
the "administrative structure of the Southern and Eastern Borneo Resi-
dence", the rnap made in 1917"by the Dutch official, Kaltofen", which,

according to Malaysia, "is a hand-drawn ethnographic rnap of Borneo",
a rnap of'"Dutch East Borneo" dated 1935,and the 1941rnap of "North
Borneo".. Secondly, it relies on certain maps of British origin, that is to
Say the rnap published in 1952 by the "Colony of North Borneo", the
"schematic map" of administrative districts of the colony of North Bor-
neo dated 1953,and the rnap of "the Semporna police district of 1958,by
S. M. Ross". Thirdly, it cites an Indonesian map: "Indonesia's continen-
tal shelf rnap of 1960".Lastly, it also relies on a 1976rnap of Malaysian
origin, entitled"Bandar Seri Begawan".

86. Malaysia considers that al1 of these maps clearly show that the
boundary line betweenthe Dutch and British possessionsin the area did
not extend into the seaeast of Sebatik and that Ligitan and Sipadan were
both regarded, depending on the period, as being British or Malaysian

islands.
87. In regard to the evidentiary value of the maps produced by Malay-
sia, Indonesia contends, first, thatvirtually none of them actually shows
Ligitan and Sipadan as Malaysian possessions. It points out that the only
map which depicts the disputed islands as Malaysian possessions "is a
rnap prepared in 1979to illustrate Malaysia's claim to the area". Indo-
nesia argues in this respectthat this map, having been published ten years
after the dispute over the islands crystallized in 1969, is without legal
relevance inthe case. Secondly,Indonesia points out that the maps relied
on by Malaysia, which do not depict the 1891line as extending out to
sea, "are entirely neutral with respect to the territorial attribution of the PULAU LIGITANET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRET) 666

La Malaisie prétend que, mêmesur les cartes indonésiennes publiées
depuis 1969,ces îles ne sontpas figuréescomme étantindonésiennes.Elle
reconnaît cependant que quelques cartes modernes seraient susceptibles
d'être interprétées esnens contraire, mais, pour la Malaisie, ces cartes
sont relativement peu nombreuses et leur portée juridique réduitedu fait
qu'ellescontiennent toutes une note d'avertissement réservantleur exac-
titude en ce qui concerne lesfrontières. La Malaisiefait par ailleurs valoir

que, sur la plupart de cesdernièrescartes, lesîlesde Ligitan etpadan ne
sont pas figuréesdu tout, le sont au mauvais endroit ou n'apparaissent
pas comme appartenant à la Malaisie ouà l'Indonésie.
85. Pour étayer son interprétation del'article IV de la convention de
1891, la Malaisie s'appuie notamment sur la carte annexée à l'accord
de 1915entre les Gouvernements néerlandaiset britannique relatif à la
frontière entre1'Etat du Nord-Bornéo etles possessions néerlandaises à
Bornéo :il s'agit selon ellede la seulecarte officielleagpar lesparties.
La Malaisie invoque également une série de cartes de provenances di-
verses. En premier lieu, elleprésente un certainnombre de cartes néerlan-
daises, parmi lesquelles la carte intitulée«Côte orientale de Bornéo: de
l'îlede Tarakan à la frontièrehollando-britannique)), datéede 1905,deux
cartes de 1913 «qui représententla division administrative de la résidence

méridionale et orientale de Bornéo», la carte établieen 1917 «par un
fonctionnaire néerlandais, M. Kaltofen)), qui, selon la Malaisie, «est une
carte ethnographique de Bornéo dessinée à la main)), une carte «du Bor-
néooriental néerlandais datéede 1935», et la carte «du Nord-Bornéo
de 1941». En deuxième lieu,elle se fonde sur certaines cartes d'origine
britannique, à savoir la carte publiée en1952par la ((colonie du Nord-
Bornéo »,la carte «schématisée des divisionasdministratives)) de la colo-
nie du Nord-Bornéo de 1953et la carte «du district de police de Sem-
porna établie en 1958 par S. M. Ross)). En troisième lieu,elle invoque
une carte indonésienne: la«carte du plateau continental de l'Indonésie
datée de 1960)).Enfin, elle s'appuie aussisur une carte d'origine malai-
sienne, la carte intitulée((Bandar Seri Begawan))de 1976.
86. De l'avisde la Malaisie, toutes cescartes montrentàl'évidenceque
la ligne frontière entre les possessions néerlandaiseset britanniques dans

la régionne se prolongeait pas vers le largeà l'est de l'île de Sebatik, et
que Ligitan etSipadan ont toutes lesdeux été considéréess,elon l'époque,
comme des îles britanniques ou malaisiennes.
87. S'agissant de la valeur probante des cartes produites par la Malai-
sie,l'Indonésie fait valoir en premierlieu que presque aucune d'entre elles
ne représente Ligitanet Sipadan comme faisant effectivement partie des
possessions de la Malaisie. Elle préciseque la seule carte sur laquelle les
îlesen litige figurent en tant que possessionsde la Malaisiest une carte
établie en 1979pour donner un aperçu de la revendication de la Malaisie
dans la région». L'Indonésiesoutient à cet égardque ladite carte, ayant
été publiée dixans aprèsque le différendconcernant les îles se fut cristal-
lisé en1969,est dépourvue detoute pertinence juridique en l'espèce.En
deuxième lieu, l'Indonésie considèrqeue lescartes invoquéespar la Malai-islands of Sipadan or Ligitan". Asregards in particular the rnap attached
to the 1915 Agreement, Indonesia considers it logical that this map
should not show the line extending eastward of the island of Sebatik
along the 4" 10'N parallel, sinceit was concernedonly with the territorial
situation on the island of Borneo. Finally, with reference to the maps
produced by Malaysia in its Memorial under the head of "Other Maps",
Indonesia asserts that none of these supports Malaysia's contentions as
to sovereignty over the two islands.

88. The Court would begin by recalling. as regards the legal value of
maps, that it has already had occasion to state the following:

"maps merely constitute information which varies in accuracy from
case to case; of themselves, and by virtue solely of their existence,
they cannot constitute a territorial title, that is, a document endowed
by international law with intrinsic legal force for the purpose of
establishing territorial rights. Of course, in some cases maps may
acquire such legal force, but where this is so the legal force does not
arise solely from their intrinsic merits: it isause such maps faIl
into the category of physical expressions ofthe will of the State or
States concerned. This is the case, for example, when maps are
annexed to an officia1text of which they form an integral part.
Except in this clearly defined case,maps are only extrinsic evidence
of varying reliability ornreliability which may be used, along with
other evidence of a circumstantial kind, to establish or reconstitute
the real facts."(Frontier Dispute (Burkina FasolRepublic of Mali),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 582, para. 54; KasikifilSedudu
Island (BotsivanalNarnibia), Judgrnent, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), J
p. 1098,para. 84.)

In the present case, the Court observes that no map reflecting the
agreed views of the parties was appended to the 1891Convention, which
would have officiallyexpressed the will of Great Britain and the Nether-
lands as to the prolongation of the boundary line, as an allocation line,
out to sea to the east of Sebatik Island.
89. In the course of the proceedings, the Partiesmade particular refer-
ence to two maps: the map annexed to the Explanatory Memorandum
appended by the Netherlands Government to thedraft Law submitted to
the States-General for the ratificationof the 1891Convention, and the map
annexedto the 1915Agreement.The Court has already set out its findings
as to the legal value ofhese maps (see paragraphs 47, 48 and 72 above).
90. Turning now to the other maps produced by the Parties, the Court
observes that Indonesia has submitted a certain number of maps pub-
lished after the 1891Convention showing a linecontinuing out to sea off
the eastern Coast of Sebatik Island, along the parallel of 4" 10'latitude
north.These maps include, for example, those of Borneo made by Stan-
ford in 1894, in 1903and in 1904, and that of 1968 published by thesie,et sur lesquellesla lignede 1891ne seprolonge pas en mer, «sont tota-

lement neutres s'agissant de l'attribution territoriale des îles deipadan
ou de Ligitan)). Pour ce qui est en particulier de la carte annexée à
l'accord de 1915, l'Indonésie estime logique qu'ellee figurepas de ligne à
I'est de I'île de Sebatik le long du parallèle 4"10' de latitude nord,
puisqu'elle ne concernait que la situation territoriale sur I'îlede Bornéo.
Enfin, se référant aux cartes présentéespar la Malaisie dans son mémoire
sous l'intitulé{Autrescartes», l'Indonésie prétend qu'aucune d'entreelles
n'appuie la revendication de souverainetéde la Malaisie sur les deux îles.
88. La Cour commencera par rappeler, en qequi concerne la valeur
juridique des cartes, qu'ellea déjàeu l'occasion de préciser cequi suit:

«les cartes ne sont que de simples indications, plus ou moins exactes
selon lescas; ellesne constituent jamais- à ellesseuleset du seulfait
de leur existence - un titre territorial, c'est-à-dire un documentau-
quel ledroit international confère une valeurjuridique intrinsèqueaux
fins de l'établissementdes droits territoriaux. Certes, dans quelques
cas, les cartes peuvent acquérir unetelle valeur juridique mais cette
valeur ne découle pas alors de leurs seules qualités intrinsèques:

ellerésultede ceque cescartes ont été intégréesparmlieséléments qui
constituent l'expressionde la volontéde YEtatou des Etats concernés. ,
Ainsi en va-t-il, par exemple, lorsque des cartes sont annexées à un
texte officieldont ellesfont partie intégrante. Endehors de cette hypo-
thèse clairementdéfinie,lescartes ne sont que des élémentd se preuve 1
extrinsèques,plus ou moins fiables, plus ou moins suspects, auxquels
il peut êtrefait appel, parmi d'autres éléments de preuve de nature
circonstancielle,pour établir oureconstituer la matérialitédes faits.) CL - 4
(Dfférendfrontalier (Burkina FasolRépublique du Mali), arrêtC , .I& \ ,
Recueil 1986, p. 582, par. 54; Ile de KasikililSedudu (BotswanaIjVa- a
mihie), arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 1098,par. 84.) \

La Cour relèvequ'en l'espèceaucune carte agrééepar les Parties n'a
été annexée à la convention de 1891, qui eût exprimé officiellementla --
volonté dela Grande-Bretagne et des Pays-Bas quant au prolongement
de la ligne frontière vers le large, à l'est de Sebatik, en tant que ligne
d'attribution.

89. Au cours de la procédure,les Parties se sont référéepslus particu-
lièrement à deux cartes,à savoir la carte accompagnant le mémorandum
explicatifque leGouvernement néerlandaisavaitjoint au projet de loi pré-
sentéauxEtats-généraux en vue de la ratification de la convention de 1891,
et la carte annexée àI'accordde 1915. La Cour s'estdéjà prononcée sur la
valeur juridique de ces cartes (voir paragraphes 47, 48 et 72 ci-dessus).
90. Passant maintenant à l'examen des autres cartes produites par les
Parties, la Cour observe que l'Indonésiea présenté un certain nombre de
cartes publiéesaprès la convention de 1891et figurant une ligne se pro-
longeant au large de la côte orientale de l'îledeebatik le long du paral-
lèle4" 10'de latitude nord. Il s'agit, par exemple, des cartes de Bornéo
réaliséespar Stanford en 1894, en 1903 et en 1904, ou de celle publiée668 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

Malaysian Ministry of Lands and Mines to illustrate oil-prospecting
licences.
The Court notes that the manner in which these maps represent the
continuation out to sea of the line formingthe land boundary varies from.
one map to another. Moreover, the length of the lineextending out to sea

varies considerably: on some maps it continues for several miles before
stopping approximately halfway to the meridians of Ligitan and Sipadan,
whilst on others it extends almost to the boundary between the Philip-
pines and Malaysia.

For its part, Malaysia has producedvarious maps on which the bound-
ary line between the British and Dutch possessions in the region stops
on the eastern Coast of Sebatik Island. These maps include the map of
British North Borneo annexed to the 1907 Exchange of Notes between
Great Britain and the United States, the Dutch map of 1913 representing
the Administrative Structure of the Southern and Eastern Borneo Resi-
dence, and the map showing the 1915 boundary line published in the
Official Gazette of the Dutch Colonies in 1916.

The Court however considers that each of these maps was produced

for specificpurposes and it is therefore unable to draw from those maps
any clear and final conclusion as to whether or not the line defined in
Article IV of the 1891Convention extended to the east of Sebatik Island.
Moreover, Malaysia was not always able to justify its criticism of the
maps submitted by Indonesia. Malaysia thus contended that the line
shown on the Stanford maps of 1894, 1903and 1904,extending out to
sea along the parallel of 4" 10'latitude north, corresponded to an admin-
istrative boundary of North Borneo, but could not cite any basis other
than the 1891Convention as support for the continuation of that State's
administrative boundary along the parallel in question.

91. In sum, with the exception of the map annexed to the 1915Agree-
ment (see paragraph 72 above), the cartographic material submitted by
the Parties is inconclusivein respect of the interpretation of Articleof

the 1891 Convention.

92. The Court ultimately cornes to the conclusion that Article IV,
interpreted in its context and in the light of the object and purpose of the
Convention, determines the boundary between the two Parties up to the
eastern extremity ofSebatik Island and does not establish any allocation
line further eastwards. That conclusion is confirmed both by thetravaux
préparatoires and by the subsequent conduct of the parties to the
1891 Clonvention. PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 668

en 1968par le ministère des biens fonciers et des mines de la Malaisie à

l'effet d'illustrer les concessions pétrolières.
La Cour relèveque, sur ces cartes, le prolongement en mer de la ligne
constituant la frontière terrestre est indiquépar des repères tantôt iden-
tiques, tantôt différents; par ailleurs, la longueur de la ligne se prolon-
geant en mer varie considérablement: sur certaines cartes, elle s'étendsur
quelques milles pour s'arrêter approximativement à mi-distance des méri-
diens sur lesquels se situent Ligitan etadan alors que, sur d'autres, elle
se prolonge jusqu'à proximité de la frontière entre les Philippines et la
Malaisie.
Pour sa part, la Malaisie a produit diversescartes sur lesquelles la ligne
frontièreentre lespossessions britanniques et néerlandaisesdans la région
s'arrêtesur la côte est de l'île de Sebatik. Il en va ainsi de la carte du

Nord-Bornéo britannique qui étaitannexée à l'échangede notes de 1907
entre la Grande-Bretagne et les Etats-Unis, de la carte néerlandaise
de 1913 représentant la circonscription administrative de la Résidence
méridionale et orientale de Bornéo,ou encore de la carte figurant la ligne
frontière de 1915, qui fut publiéeau journal officieldes colonies néerlan-
daises en 1916.
La Cour considère cependant que chacune de ces cartes a été établie à
des fins particulières et que, par suite, elle ne saurait tirer de l'examen de
ces cartes une conclusion claire et définitivequanà la question de savoir
si la ligne définàel'article IV de la convention de 1891 seprolongeait ou
non à l'estde I'îlede Sebatik. La Malaisie n'a au demeurant pas toujours
été enmesure de justifier les critiques qu'elle adressait aux cartes présen-

téespar l'Indonésie.Ainsi a-t-elle affirméque la ligne représentéesur les
cartes Stanford de 1894, 1903et 1904,qui seprolonge vers le large le long
du parallèle 4"10'de latitude nord, répondait à des divisions administra-
tives du Nord-Bornéo, sans pour autant expliquer sur quelle base autre
que la convention de 1891les limites des divisions administratives de cet
Etat auraient pu s'étendrele long dudit parallèle.
91. Au total, en dehors de la carte annexée à l'accord de 1915 (voir
paragraphe 72 ci-dessus), le matériau cartographique soumis par les
Parties ne permet pas d'aboutir des conclusions en ce qui concerne
l'interprétation de l'article de la convention de 1891.

92. La Couraboutit en définitive à la conclusion que I'article IV, inter-
prétédans son contexte et à la lumièredu but et de l'objet de la conven-
tion, fixela frontièreentre lesdeux Parties jusqu'à l'extrémiorientale de
I'îlede Sebatik et n'établit aucuneligne d'attribution plus à l'est. Cette
conclusion est confortée tant par les travaux préparatoires que par la
conduite ultérieure desparties à la convention de 1891. 93. The Court will now turn to the question whether Indonesia or
Malaysia obtained title to Ligitan and Sipadan by succession.

94. Indonesia contended during the second round of the oral proceed-
ings that, if the Court were to dismiss its claim to the islands in dispute
on the basis of the 1891Convention, it woutd nevertheless have title as
successorto the Netherlands, which inturn acquired its title through con-
tracts with the Sultan of Bulungan, the original title-holder.

95. Malaysia contends that Ligitan and Sipadan never belonged to the
possessions of the Sultan of Bulungan.
96. The Court observes that it has already dealt with the various con-
tracts of vassalage concluded between theNetherlands and the Sultan of
Bulungan when it considered the 1891 Convention (see paragraphs 18
and 64 above). It recalls that in the 1878Contract the island possessions
of the Sultan were described as "Terekkan rarakan], Nanoekan manu-
kan] and Sebittikh [Sebatik], with the islets belonging thereto". As
amended in 1893, this list refers to the three islands and surrounding

isletsin similarterms whiletaking into account the division of Sebatik on
the basis of the 1891Convention. The Court further recalls that it stated
above that the words "the islets belonging thereto" can only be inter-
preted as referring to the small islands lying in the immediate vicinity of
the three islands which are mentioned by name, and not to islands which
are located at a distance of more than 40 nautical miles. The Court there-
fore cannot accept Indonesia's contention that it inherited title to the dis-
puted islands from the Netherlands through thesecontracts, which stated
that the Sultanate of Bulungan as described in the contracts formed part
of the Netherlands Indies.
97. For its part, Malaysia maintains that it acquired sovereignty over
the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan further to a series of alleged transfers
of the titleoriginally held by the former sovereign, the Sultan of Sulu,
that title having allegedly passed in turn to Spain, the United States,

Great Britain on behalf of the State of North Borneo, the United King-
dom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and finally to Malaysia.

It isthis "chain of title" which, according to Malaysia, provides it with
a treaty-based title to Ligitan and Sipadan.

98. Malaysia asserts, in respect of the original title, that "[iln the
eighteenth and throughout the nineteenth century until 1878,the coastal
territory of north-east Borneo and its adjacent islands was a dependency
of the Sultanate of Sulu".
It States that "[tlhis control resulted from the allegiance of the local
people and the appointment of their local chiefsby the Sultan", but that 93. La Cour examinera à présent laquestion de savoir si l'Indonésie
ou la Malaisie sont devenues détentricesd'un titre sur Ligitan et Sipadan

par voie de succession.

94. L'Indonésiea affirmé lorsdu second tour de plaidoiries que, même
si la Cour devait écartersa revendication sur lesîles en litige fondéesur la
convention de 1891,elle n'enconserverait pas moins le titre sur cesîles en
tant que successeur des Pays-Bas, qui l'avaient eux-mêmes acquis pardes
contrats conclus avec le sultan du Bouloungan, détenteur originaire du
titre.
95. La Malaisie soutient, quant à elle, que Ligitan et Sipadan n'ont
jamais fait partie des possessions du sultan du Bouloungan.
96. La Cour relèvera qu'ellea déjà examinéles différents contrats
de vassalitéconclus entre les Pays-Bas et le sultan du Bouloungan lors-

qu'elle s'estpenchéesur la question de la convention de 1891(voir para-
graphes 18et 64 ci-dessus).Ellerappelle qu'aux termes du contrat de 1878
les îlesappartenant au sultan sont indiquéescomme étant ((Terekkan [Ta-
rakan], Nanoekan [Nanoukan]et Sebittikh [Sebatik]ainsi que lesîlots qui
en relèvent)).Cette liste, telle qu'amendéeen 1893,mentionne en termes
similaires lestrois îles et les îlots environnants, tout en tenant compte du
partage de Sebatik résultant dela convention de 1891. La Cour rappelle
en outreavoir déjàfait observer que lemembre de phrase «les îlots qui en
relèvent)) rie peut être interprétéque comme désignant les petites îles
situéesdans le voisinage immédiatdes trois îlesnommémentcitées, etnon
pas des îles situéeà une distance de plus de 40 milles marins. La Cour ne
saurait donc retenir la thèsede l'Indonésie selonlaquelle cette dernière
aurait héritédes Pays-Bas le titre sur les îles en litige par le biais des
contrats qui font figurer le Sultanat du Bouloungan, tel qu'ily est défini,
dans les Indes néerlandaises.

97. La Malaisie prétend pour sa part avoir acquis la souverainetésur
les îles de Ligitan et Sipadanà la suite d'une sériede transmissions allé-
guéesdu titre détenu à l'originepar l'ancien souverain, le sultan de Sulu,
titre qui serait passé, successivement,à l'Espagne, aux Etats-Unis, à la
Grande-Bretagne - pour le compte de I'Etat du Nord-Bornéo -, au
Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord et finalement à
la Malaisie.
La Malaisie affirme que c'est envertu de cette «chaîne de succession
du titre)) qu'elle-mêmea acquis un titre conventionnel sur Ligitan et
Sipadan.
98. La Malaisie fait valoir, au sujet du titre originaire, que, «[a]u
XVIIIe siècleet au XIXe sièclejusqu'en 1878, le littoral du nord-est de
Bornéo ainsique les îles voisines constituaient une dépendancedu Sulta-
nat de Sulu».
Elle indique que «[c]e contrôle découlaitde l'allégeance despopula-

tions locales ainsi que de la nomination de leurs chefs par le sultan)), tout670 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

his authority over the area in question was also recognized by other
States, notably Spain and the Netherlands.

Malaysia further states that during the nineteenth and twentieth cen-
turies, the islands and reefs along the north-east Coast of Borneo were
inhabited and used by the Bajau Laut, or Sea Gypsies, people who live
mostly on boats or in settlements ofstilt houses above water and devote
themselves in particular to fishing, collecting forest products and trade.
In respect specificallyof Ligitan and Sipadan, Malaysia notes that, even
though these islands were not permanently inhabited at the time of the
main decisive events in respectof sovereigntyover them, that is, the latter
part of the nineteenth century and the twentieth century, they were
nevertheless frequently visited and were an integral part of the marine
economy of the Bajau Laut.
99. Indonesia observesin the first place that if the title to the islands in
dispute of only one of the entities mentioned in the chain of allegedtitle-
holders cannot be proven to have been "demonstrably valid", the legal

foundation of Malaysia's "chain oftitle" argument disappears.

In this respect, Indonesia states that the disputed islands cannot be
regarded as falling at the time in question within the area controlled by
the Sultan of Sulu, as he was never present south of Darvel Bay except
through some commercial influence which in any event was receding
when the 1891 Convention between Great Britain and the Netherlands
was concluded. Indonesia admits that there may have been alliances
between the Sultan of Sulu and some Bajau Laut groups, but argues that
those ties were personal in nature and are not sufficient in any event to
establish territorial sovereignty over the disputed islands.

100. Concerning the transfer of sovereignty over the islands of Ligitan
and Sipadan by the Sultan of Sulu to Spain, Malaysia asserts that "Ar-
ticle1of the Protocol [confirmingthe Basesof Peace and Capitulation] of
22 July 1878declared 'as beyond discussionthe sovereignty of Spain over

al1 the Archipelago of Sulu and the dependencies thereof ". Malaysia
further holds that, pursuant to the Protocol concluded on 7 March 1885
between Spain, Germany and Great Britain, the latter two Powers recog-
nized Spain's sovereignty over the entire Sulu Archipelago as defined
in Article 2 of that instrument. According to that provision, the Archi-
pelago included "al1 the islands which are found between the western
extremity of the island of Mindanao, on the one side, and the continent
of Borneo and the island of Paragua, on the other side, with the excep-
tion ofthose which are indicated in Article 3". Malaysia points out that
this definition of the Archipelago is inconformity with that set out in
Article1of the Treaty signedon 23 September 1836between theSpanish
Government and the Sultan of Sulu. It adds that "[wlhatever the position
rnay have been in 1878,the sovereignty of Spain over the Sulu Archi-
pelago [and the dependenciesthereofl was clearly established in 1885".en précisantque l'autoritédu sultan sur la région enquestion étaitéga-
lement reconnue par d'autres Etats, en particulier l'Espagne et les Pays-

Bas.
La Malaisie ajoute que, aux XIXeet XXe siècles, lesîles et récifssitués
le long de la côte nord-est de Bornéoétaient habitésou fréquentéspar les
Bajau Laut. Egalement appelésgitans de la mer, les Bajau Laut vivent
pour la plupart sur des bateaux ou dans des villagesbâtis sur pilotis, et se
consacrent à la pêche, à la collecte de produits de la forêtet au com-
merce. S'agissant plus particulièrement de Ligitan et de Sipadan, la
Malaisie souligne que, mêmesi ces deux îles n'étaientpas habitées de
façon permanente à l'époque des principaux événements décisifs en
matière de souveraineté - c'est-à-dire vers la fin du XIXe siècleet le
XXe siècle -, elles étaient néanmoinsfréquemment visitéeset faisaient
partie intégrante del'économiemaritime des Bajau Laut.
99. L'Indonésie fait observeren premier lieu qu'il suffitque «la vali-
dité»du titre sur lesîlesen litige d'une seule des entitésformant la chaîne

des détenteurs alléguésde ce titre ne puisse pas être«démontrée» pour
que s'écrouletout le fondement juridique de la thèse malaisienne de la
((chaîne de succession du titre».
A cet égard,l'Indonésie estimeque l'on ne saurait considérer que les
îles en litige, l'époque concernée, faisaienptartie de la zone d'influence
contrôléepar le sultan de Sulu, car la présencede ce dernier ne s'est ja-
mais étendueau sud de la baie de Darvel, hormis sous la forme d'une cer-
taine influencecommerciale qui, de toute façon, était surle déclin lorsque
la Grande-Bretagne et les Pays-Bas conclurent la convention de 1891.
L'Indonésie reconnaîtque des alliances ont pu êtrenouéesentre le sultan
de Sulu et certains groupes de Bajau Laut, mais elle fait valoir que de tels
liens,à caractèrepersonnel, ne suffiraient en tout état de cause pasà éta-
blir la souverainetéterritoriale sur les îles en litige.
100. Concernant la transmission, du sultan de Sulu a l'Espagne, de la
souveraineté sur les îles de Ligitan et Sipadan, la Malaisie avance que

(([ll'articl1[du protocole du 22 juillet 1878confirmant les bases de la
paix et de la capitulation] déclare ((incontestable la souveraineté de
l'Espagne sur l'ensemblede l'archipel de Sulu et de ses dépendances»».
La Malaisie indique en outre que, par le protocole conclu le 7 mars 1885
entre l'Espagne, l'Allemagneet la Grande-Bretagne, ces deux dernières
puissances reconnurent la souveraineté espagnole sur l'ensemble de
I'archipel de Sulu tel que défini à l'article 2 du protocole. Aux termes
dudit article, I'archipel comprenait «toutes les îles qui se trouvent entre
l'extrémité occidentalede I'îlede Mindanao, d'une part, et le continent de
Bornéoet I'îlede Paragua, de l'autre, à l'exceptionde cellesqui sont indi-
quées dans I'article 3)). La Malaisie souligne que cette définition de
I'archipel estconforme à celle contenue a l'article premier du traitésigné
le 23 septembre 1836 entre le Gouvernement espagnol et le sultan de
Sulu. Elle ajoute que,[q]uelle qu'ait pu êtrela situation en 1878,la sou-

veraineté de l'Espagne sur I'archipel de Sulu [et ses dépendances]était
en 1885clairement établie)). 101. Indonesia responds that there is no evidenceto show that Ligitan
and Sipadan were ever Spanish possessions. In support of this assertion,
Indonesia maintains that the disputed islands were not identified in any
of the agreements concluded between Spain and the Sultan. It further
cites the 1885Protocol concluded by Spain, Germany and Great Britain,
Article 1 of which provided: "The Governrnents of Germany and Great
Britain recognize the sovereignty of Spain over the places effectively
occupied. as well as over those places not yet so occupied, of the archi-
pelago of Sulu (Jo16)." In Indonesia's view, this reflected the spirit of the
1877Protocol concluded by those same States, which required Spain to

give Germany and Great Britain notice of any further occupation of the
islands of the Sulu Archipelago before being entitled to extend to those
new territories the agreed régimefor the territories already occupied by
it. This provision was repeated in Article 4 of the 1885Protocol. Accord-
ing to Indonesia, Spain however never actually occupied the islands of
Ligitan and Sipadan after the conclusion of the 1885 Protocol and,
accordingly, was never in a position to givesuch notice to the other con-
tracting parties.
102. Cloncerningthe transfer by Spain to the United States of Ligitan
and Sipadan, Malaysia maintains that it was generally recognized that
those islands were not covered by the allocation lines laid down in the
1898Treaty of Peace; Malaysia claims that the Sultan of Sulu neverthe-
less expressly recognized United States sovereignty over the whole Sulu
Archipelago and its dependencies by an Agreement dated 20 August 1899.
According to Malaysia, that omission from the 1898Treaty of Peace was
remedied by the 1900Treaty between Spain and the United States ceding
to the latter "any and al1 islands belonging to the Philippine Archi-
pelago . ..andparticularly . . .the islands of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu

and their dependencies". In Malaysia's view, the intent of the parties to
the 1900 Treaty was to bring within the scope of application of the
Treaty al1Spanish islands in the region which were not within the lines
laid down in the 1898Treaty of Peace.
In support of its interpretation of the 1900Treaty, Malaysia notes that
in 1903,after a visit of the USS Quiros to the region, the United States
Hydrographic Officepublished a chart of the "Northern Shore of Sibuko
Bay", showing the disputed islands on the American side of a line sepa-
rating British territory from United States territory. Malaysia concludes
from this that the 1903chart represented a public assertion by the United
States of its sovereignty over the additional islands ceded to it under
the 1900Treaty, adding that this assertion of sovereignty occasioned no
reaction from the Netherlands.

103. Malaysia also observes that after the voyage of the Quiros the
Chairman of the BNBC sent a letter of protest to the British Foreign
Office, stating that the Company had been peacefully administering the
islands off North Borneo beyond the line of 3marine leagues without any
opposition from Spain. According to Malaysia, the BNBC at the same 101. L'Indonésie répond que rien ne prouve que Ligitan et Sipadan
aient jamais étédes possessions espagnoles. A l'appui de cet argument,
elle fait valoir que les deux îlesen litige ne sont identifiéesdans aucun des
accords coriclus entre l'Espagneet le sultan. Elle renvoie en outre au pro-

tocole conclu en 1885par l'Espagne, l'Allemagneet la Grande-Bretagne,
dont l'article premier dispose que «@]esGouvernements de l'Allemagne
et de la Grande-Bretagne reconnaissent la souverainetéde l'Espagne sur
les points occupéseffectivement, ainsi que sur ceux qui ne le seraient pas
encore, de I'archipel de Sulu (Jolo))). Selon l'Indonésie, cette disposition
s'inscrit dans le droit fildu ~rotocole conclu en 1877Darces mêmesEtats.
qui prévoyaitque l'Espagne, avant de pouvoir étendre à de nouvelles îles
de I'archipel de Sulu le régimeagréédans les îles qu'elle occupait déjà,
devait informer préalablement l'Allemagneet la Grande-Bretagne de
toute nouvelle occupation. Cette mêmedisposition fut d'ailleurs reprise à
l'article 4 du protocole de 1885. L'Indonésie affirmeque, cependant,
l'Espagne n'a en fait jamais occupéles îles de Ligitan et Sipadan aprèsla
conclusion du protocole de 1885,et n'a donc jamais eu de notification à
faire à leur sujet aux autres parties contractantes.
102. Concernant le transfert de Ligitan et deSipadan de l'Espagne aux
Etats-Unis, la Malaisie soutient qu'il étaitcommunément admis que ces
deux îles n'étaient passituéesà l'intérieurdes lignes d'attribution définies
dans le traité depaix de 1898; le sultan de Sulu aurait cependant expres- -

sémentreconnu la souveraineté américainesur l'ensemble de I'archipelde
Sulu et de ses dépendancespar un accord en date du 20 août 1899. La
Malaisie ajoute que cette lacune du traitéde paix de 1898aurait été com-
bléedans le traité de 1900, par lequel l'Espagne cédait aux Etats-Unis
((toutes les îles sans exception qui appartiennent à I'archipel des
Philippines ... et,en particulier,..les îles de Cagayan Sulu et de Sibutu
ainsi que leurs dépendances)).Selon la Malaisie, l'intention des parties
était d'englober dans le champ d'application du traité de 1900toutes les
îlesespagnoles de la région situéeshors des limites définiespar le traité de
paix de 1898.
A l'appui de son interprétation du traité de 1900,la Malaisie note que,
en 1903,après que le navire américainQuiros se fut rendu dans la région,
le service hydrographique des Etats-Unis publia une carte du ((Littoral
septentrional de la baie deSibuko)),sur laquelle les îles en litige étaientsi-
tuées du côté américain d'unleigne séparantles territoires de la Grande-
Bretagne de ceux des Etats-Unis. La Malaisie en conclut que, par cette
carte de 1903, les Etats-Unis revendiquèrent publiquement leur souverai-
neté sur les nouvelles îles qu'ils venaient d'acquérir en vertu du traité

de 1900; la Malaisie ajoute que cette affirmation de souveraineténe sus-
cita aucune réaction de la part des Pays-Bas.
103. La Malaisie relèveen outre qu'à la suite de l'expéditiondu Qui-
ros le président de la BNBC adressa une lettre de protestation au
Foreign Office britannique, en faisant remarquer que la compagnie avait
administré pacifiquement les îles situées a plus de 3 lieues marines de la
côte du Nord-Bornéo sansque l'Espagne s'ysoitjamais opposée. Selon la672 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

time took steps to obtain confirmation from the Sultan of Sulu of its
authority over the islands lyingbeyond 3 marine leagues. The Sultan pro-
vided that confirmation by a certificate signedon 22 April 1903.Malaysia
States that the Foreign Officenevertheless had doubts about the interna-
tional legal effect of the Sultan of Sulu's 1903certificate and, faced with

the United States claims to the islandsunder the 1900Treaty, the British
Government "rather sought an arrangement with the United States that
would ensure the continuity of the Company's administration".

Malaysia considers that the United States and Great Britain attempted
to settle the questions concerning sovereignty over the islands and their
administration by an Exchange of Notes of 3 and 10 July 1907. Great
Britain is said to have recognized the continuing sovereignty of the
United States, as successor to Spain, over the islands beyond the
3-marine-league limit; for its part, the United States is said to have
accepted that these islands had in fact been administered by the BNBC
and to have agreed to allow that situation to continue, subject to a right
on both parts to terminate the agreement on 12months' notice. Malaysia
asserts thatal1relevant documents clearly show that the islands covered

by the 1907 Exchange of Notes included al1those adjacent to the North
Borneo Coast beyond the 3-marine-league line and that Ligitan and
Sipadan were among those islands. Malaysia relies in particular on the
1907 Exchange of Notes and the map to which it referred and which
depicts Ligitan and Sipadan as lying on the British side of the line which
separates the islands under British and American administration. It
further points out that the 1907Exchange of Notes was published at the
time by the United States and by Great Britain and that it attracted no
protest on the part of the Netherlands Government.
104. lndonesia responds that the 1900 Treaty only concerned those
islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago lying outside the line
agreed to in the 1898Treaty of Peace and that the 1900Treaty provided
that in particular the islands of Cagayan Sulu, Sibutu and their depen-
dencies were amongst the territories ceded by Spain to the United States.
However, according to Indonesia, Ligitan and Sipadan cannot be con-
sidered part of the Philippine Archipelago, nor can they be viewed as

dependencies of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu, which lie fat to the north.
Thus, the disputed islands could not have figured among the territories
which Spain allegedly ceded to the United States under the 1898 and
1900Treaties.
Indonesia adds that its position is supported by subsequent events.
According to it, the United States was uncertain as to the precise extent
of the possessions it had obtained from Spain.

To illustrate the uncertainties felt by the United States, Indonesia
observes that in October 1903the United States Navy Department had
recommended, after consultation with the State Department, that theMalaisie, la BNBC entreprit parallèlement des démarchesauprès du sul-
tan de Sulu pour que celui-ci confirme l'autoritéqu'elle exerçait sur les
îles situéesen dehors de la zone des 3 lieues marines. Le sultan signa le
22 avril 1903 une attestation confirmant cette autorité. La Malaisie
affirme que le Foreign Office nourrissait toutefois des doutes quant à
l'effetjuridique de cette attestation au plan international, et que le Gou-
vernement britannique, confronté aux revendications des Etats-Unis sur
les îles, fondéessurle traité de1900,((s'efforçaplutôt de parvenir avec les
Etats-Unis à un arrangement qui garantirait que la compagnie continue-
raità administrer [cesîles])).
Selon la Malaisie, lesEtats-Unis et la Grande-Bretagne s'efforcèrentde
régler lesquestions relativeà la souverainetésur les îlesetà I'administra-
tion de celles-cipar l'échangede notes des 3et 10juillet 1907.La Grande-

Bretagne aurait acceptéque les Etats-Unis, en tant que successeurs de
l'Espagne, continuent d'exercer leur souverainetésur les îles situéesau-
delà de la limitedes 3lieuesmarines. De leur côté,les Etats-Unisauraient
reconnu que ces îles avaient en fait étéadministrées par la BNBC, et
auraient acceptéle maintien de cette situation sous réservedu droit pour
l'une ou l'autre partie de résilier l'accord moyennant un préavis de
douze mois. La Malaisie indique qu'il ressortclairementde tous les docu-
ments pertinents que lesîles viséesdans I'échangede notes de 1907englo-
baient toutes cellessituéesà plus de 3 lieues marines de la côte du Nord-
Bornéo, ycomprisLigitan et Sipadan. La Malaisie cite en particulier ledit
échangede notes de 1907et la carte qui l'accompagnait, sur laquelle Ligi-
tan et Sipadan figurent du côté britannique de la ligne séparant les îles
administrées, respectivement, par la Grande-Bretagne et par les Etats-
Unis. La Malaisie souligne enfin que l'échangede notes de 1907 fut
publié à l'époquepar les Etats-Unis et par la Grande-Bretagne, et qu'il ne

suscita aucune protestation de la part du Gouvernement néerlandais.
104. L'Indonésiesoutient au contraire que le traité de1900 ne concer-
nait que les îlesde l'archipel de Sulu situéesau-delà des limites convenues
dans le traitéde paix de 1898,et qu'il disposait en particulier que les îles
de Cagayan Sulu, Sibutu et leurs dépendances étaientau nombre des ter-
ritoires cédéspar l'Espagne aux Etats-Unis. L'Indonésie estimetoutefois
que Ligitan et Sipadan ne peuvent pas êtreconsidéréescomme faisant
partiede l'archipel desPhilippines, ni comme desdépendancesde Cagayan
Sulu ou de Sibutu, qui sont situées bienplus au nord. Par conséquent,les
îles en litige n'auraient pu êtreincluses dans les territoires que l'Espagne
aurait cédés auxEtats-Unis en vertu des traités de 1898et de 1900.

L'Indonésieajoute que cette thèse est confirméepar des événements
postérieurs. Notamment, les Etats-Unis ne savaient pas très bien, selon
elle, quelle étaitl'étendueexacte des possessions qu'ilsavaient acquises de

l'Espagne.
Comme exemplede cette incertitude des Etats-Unis, l'Indonésie signale
que, en octobre 1903,le ministère américainde la marine recommanda,
aprèsconsultation avec le département d'Etat, de supprimer la ligne fron-boundary line shown on certain United States charts be omitted. Accord-
ing to Indonesia, it is significant that this recommendation concerned in
particular thechart of the "Northern Shore of Sibuko Bay" issued by the
United States Hydrographic Office in June 1903,after the voyage of the
Quiros. In Indonesia's view it is thus "clear that the 1903 Hydrographic
Office Chart, far from being a 'public assertion' of US sovereignty, as
suggested by Malaysia, was a tentative interna1position which was sub-
sequently withdrawn after more careful consideration"; the 1903 chart
can therefore not be seen as an official document, and nothing can be
made of the fact that it provoked no reaction from the Netherlands.

As regards the United States-British Exchange of Notes of 1907,Indo-
nesia considers that this consisted only of a temporary arrangement
whereby the United States waived in favour of the BNBC the administra-
tion of certain islands located"to the westward and southwestward of the
line traced on the [accompanying] map. . .[This],however, was without
prejudice to the issue of sovereignty" over the islands in question.

105. As regards the transfer of sovereignty over Ligitan and Sipadan
from the United States to Great Britain on behalf of North Borneo,
Malaysia argues that the 1907 Exchange of Notes had not totally settled
the issue of sovereignty over the islands situated beyond the line of three
marine leagues, laid down in the 1878Dent-von Overbeck grant. It States
that the question was finallysettled by the Convention of 2 January 1930,
which entered into force on 13 December 1932.Under that Convention,
it was agreed that the islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago

and those belonging to the State of North Borneo were to be separated
by a line running through ten specific points. Malaysia points out that
under the 1930Convention "al1 islands to the north and east of the line
were to belong to the Philippine Archipelago and al1islands to the south
and west were to belong to the State of Borneo". In Malaysia's view,
since Ligitan and Sipadan clearly lie to the south and Westof the 1930
line,it fellows that they were formally transferred to North Borneo under
British protection.
Malaysia makes the further point that the 1930Convention was pub-
lished both by the United States and by Great Britain and also in the
League of Nations Treaty Series, and that it evoked "no reaction from
the Netherlands, though one might have been expected if the islands dis-
posed of by it were claimed by the Netherlands".
Finally, Malaysia observes that, by an agreement concluded on
26 June 1946between the British Government and the BNBC, "the latter
ceded to the Crown al1its sovereign rights and its assets in North Bor-

neo". According to Malaysia, the disappearance of the State of North
Borneo and its replacement by the British Colony of North Borneo had
no effect on the extent of the territory belonging to North Borneo.
106. For its part, Indonesia claims that the documents relating to the
negotiation of the 1930Convention show clearly that the United States PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 673

tière de certaines cartes américaines. Selon l'Indonésie,il est significatif
que cette recommandation ait en particulier concerné lacarte du ((Litto-
ral septentrional de la baie de Sibuko)), établiepar le service hydrogra-
phique américain enjuin 1903aprèsl'expéditiondu Quiros. Pour I'Indo-
nésie,«[il1 est donc incontestable que la carte de 1903 établie par le
service hydrographique, loin d'être une((manifestation publique)) de la
souverainetédes Etats-Unis, comme le dit la Malaisie, n'est qu'une prise
de position interne provisoire, qui fut retiréeultérieurement après mûre
réflexion)).La carte de 1903 ne saurait donc êtreréputée constituerun
document officiel, et aucune conclusion ne pourrait être tirée du fait

qu'elle n'a suscitéaucune réactionde la part des Pays-Bas.
Quant à l'échangede notes de 1907entre la Grande-Bretagne et les
Etats-Unis, l'Indonésieconsidèrequ'il constituait uniquement un accord
temporaire par lequel les Etats-Unis se désistaienten faveur de la BNBC,
placéesousprotection britannique, de leur droit d'administration concer-
nant certaines îles située«à l'ouest etau sud-ouest de la ligne tracéesur
la carte jointe)), sans préjudicede la question de la souveraineté sur les
îles en cause.
105. Concernant le transfert de la souveraineté sur Ligitan etipadan
des Etats-Unis à la Grande-Bretagne, agissant pour le compte de 1'Etat
du Nord-Bornéo, la Malaisie affirme que l'échangede notes de 1907
n'avait pas définitivementréglé la question de la souveraineté sur les îles

situéesau-delàde la limite des 3 lieuesmarines, définiedans la concession
Dent-von Overbeck de 1878. Selon elle, cette question fut finalement
régléepar la convention signéele 2 janvier 1930 et entréeen vigueur le
13 décembre 1932. Il fut convenu par cet instrument que les îles de
l'archipel des Philippines et celles appartenanà 1'Etat du Nord-Bornéo
seraient séparées parune ligne reliant dix points déterminés.La Malaisie
souligne qu'aux termes de la convention de 1930 ((toutes les îles situées
au nord et à l'est de la ligne faisaient partie de l'archipel des Philippines
et toutes celles situéesau sud etl'ouest faisaientpartie de 1'Etatde Bor-
néo)).Ligitanet Sipadan se trouvant manifestement au sud et à l'ouest de
la ligne définieen 1930,la Malaisie considèreque ces deux îles furent offi-
ciellémenttransféréesau Nord-Bornéo sousprotection britannique.

La Malaisie fait valoir en outre que la convention de 1930fut publiée
tant par les Etats-Unis que par la Grande-Bretagne, ainsi que par la So-
ciété desNations dans le Recueil des traitéset qu'elle ne suscita «au-
cune réaction de la part des Pays-Bas, alors qu'on aurait pu s'attendre
à une telle réaction si ceux-ci avaient revendiquéles îles ainsi cédées)).
Enfin, la Malaisie fait observer que, le 26 juin 1946, le Gouvernement
britannique et la BNBC conclurent un accord par lequel cette dernière
cédait «à la Couronne tous ses droits souverains et ses biens au Nord-
Bornéo)). Selon la Malaisie, la disparition de 1'Etat du Nord-Bornéo,
remplacépar la colonie britannique du Nord-Bornéo, n'eut aucune inci-
dence surl'étendue du territoire appartenant au Nord-Bornéo.
106. L'Indonésie soutient pour sa part que les documents relatifsà la
négociation de la convention de 1930montrent sans ambiguïté que lesdeemed that it had title to islands lyingmore than 3 marine leagues from
the North Borneo coast only in areas lyingto the north of Sibutu and its
immediate dependencies. Hence, Indonesia contends that the negotia-
tions leading up to the conclusion ofthe 1930Convention focused solely
on the status of the Turtle Islands and the Mangsee Islands. It observes
that, in any event, the southern limits of the boundary fixed by the
1930 Convention lay well to the north of latitude 4" 10'north and thus
well to the north of Ligitan and Sipadan.

107. As regards transmission of the United Kingdom's title to Malay-
sia, the latter states that, by the Agreement of 9 July 1963 between the
Governments of the Federation of Malaya, the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, North Borneo, Sarawak and Singa-
pore, which came into effect on 16 September 1963, North Borneo
became a State within Malaysia under the name of Sabah.

108. The Court notes at the outset that the islands in dispute are
not mentioned by name in any of the international legal instruments
presented by Malaysia to prove the allegedconsecutive transfers of title.

The Court further notes that the two islands were not included in the

grant by which the Sultan of Sulu ceded al1his rights and powers over his
possessions in Borneo, including the islands within a limit of 3 marine
leagues, to Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck on 22 January 1878,a
fact not contested by the Parties.

Finally, the Court observes that, while the Parties both maintain that
the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan were not terrae nullius during the
period in question in the present case, theydo so on the basis ofiametri-
cally opposed reasoning, each of them claiming to hold title to those
islands.

109. The Court will first deal with the question whether Ligitan and
Sipadan were part of the possessions ofthe Sultan of Sulu. It is not con-
tested by the Parties that geographically these islands do not belong to

the Sulu Archipelago proper. In al1 relevant documents, however, the
Sultanate is invariably described as "the Archipelago of Sulu and the
dependencies thereof' or "the Island of Sooloo with al1 its dependen-
cies". In a number of these documents its territorial extent is rather
vaguely defined as "compris[ing]al1the islands which are found between
the western extremity of the island of Mindanao, on the one side,and the
continent of Borneo and the island of Paragua, on the other side" (Pro-
tocol between Spain, Germany and Great Britain, 7 March 1885;seealsoEtats-Unis estimaient détenir seulementle titre sur les îles situéàsplus
de 3 lieuesmarines de la côte du Nord-Bornéodans les zones au nord de
Sibutu et de ses dépendancesdirectes. L'Indonésie affirmequ'en consé-
quence les négociationsqui aboutirent à la conclusion de la convention
de 1930 ne portèrent que sur le statut des îlesTurtle et des îles Mangsee.
Elle constate que, en tout état de cause, les limites méridionalesde la
frontière fixéepar la convention de 1930 se trouvent loin au nord du
parallèle 4"10'de latitude nord, et donc loin au nord de Ligitan et de
Sipadan.
107. S'agissant de la transmission du titre du Royaume-Uni à la
Malaisie, cette dernière rappelleque, par l'accord du 9juillet 1963conclu
entre la Fédération de Malaya etles Gouvernements du Royaume-Uni de
Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord, du Nord-Bornéo,du Sarawak et
de Singapour, qui entra en vigueur le 16septembre 1963,le Nord-Bornéo

devint un Etat de la fédération deMalaisie sous le nom de Sabah.

108. La Cour relèvedèsl'abord que les îles en litige ne sont nommé-
ment citéesdans aucun des instruments juridiques internationaux que la
Malaisie a produits pour démontrerles transmissions successivesdu titre
alléguées.
La Cour constate en outre que les deux îles n'étaientpas incluses dans
la concession du 22janvier 1878,par laquelle le sultan de Sulu cédait à
Alfred Dent et au baron von Overbeck tous ses droits et pouvoirs sur
l'ensemblede ses possessions à Bornéo,y compris les îles situéesdans la
limite de 3 lieues marines a partir de la côte, fait non contestépar les
Parties.
Enfin, la Cour constate que, si les Parties soutiennent toutes deux que

les îles de Ligitan etSipadan n'ont pas constituédes terrae nullius pen-
dant la périodepertinente aux fins de la présenteaffaire, elles le font sur
la base de raisonnements diamétralement opposés, chacuned'entre elles
prétendant disposer d'un titre sur ces îles.

109. La Cour examinera pour commencer si Ligitan et Sipadan fai-
saient ~artie ou non des os sessionsdu sultan de Sulu. Les Parties
conviennent que ces îlesn'appartiennent pas à l'archipel de Sulu propre-
ment dit. Cependant, dans tous les documents pertinents, le Sultanat de
Sulu est invariablement décritcomme étantformépar «tout l'archipel de
Sulu et ses dépendances))ou par l'«île de Sulu avec toutes ses dépen-
dances)). Plusieurs de ces documents donnent une définition assez vague

de son étendue territoriale,indiquant qu'il((comprendtoutes les îlesqui se
trouvent entre l'extrémité occidentaldee I'îlede Mindanao, d'une part, et
le continent de Bornéo etI'îlede Paragua, de l'autre)) (protocole conclu le
7 mars 1885 entre l'Espagne, l'Allemagneet la Grande-Bretagne; voir675 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

the Capitulations concluded between Spain and the Sultan of Sulu,
23 September 1836). These documents, therefore, provide no answer to
the question whether Ligitan and Sipadan, which are located at a con-
siderable distance from the main island of Sulu, were part of the Sultan-
ate's dependencies.
110. Malaysia relies on the ties of allegiance whichallegedly existed
between the Sultan of Sulu and the Bajau Laut who inhabited the islands
off the coast of North Borneo and who from time to time may have made
use of the two uninhabited islands. The Court is of the opinion that such
ties may wellhave existed but that they are in themselvesnot sufficient to
provide evidence that the Sultan of Sulu claimed territorial title to these
two small islands or considered them part of his possessions. Nor is there
any evidence that the Sultan actually exercised authority over Ligitan
and Sipadan.
111. Turning now to the alleged transfer of title over Ligitan and
Sipadan to Spain, the Court notes that in the Protocol between Spain
and Sulu Confirming the Bases of Peaceand Capitulation of 22 July 1878
the Sultan of Sulu definitively ceded the "Archipelago of Sulu and the
dependencies thereof' to Spain. In the Protocol of 7 March 1885 con-
cluded between Spain, Germany and Great Britain, the Spanish Govern-
ment relinquished, as far as regarded the British Government, al1claims

of sovereignty over the territory of North Borneo and the neighbouring
islands within a zone of 3 marine leagues, mentioned in the 1878 Dent-
von Overbeck grant, whereas Great Britain and Germany recognized
Spanish sovereignty over "the places effectivelyoccupied, as well over
those places not yet so occupied, of the Archipelago of Sulu (Jolo), of
which the boundaries are determined in Article 2". Article 2contains the
rather vague definition mentioned in paragraph 109above.

112. It is not contested between the Parties that Spain at no time
showed an interest in the islands in dispute or the neighbouring islands
and that it did notextend its authority to these islands. Nor is there any
indication in the case filethat Spain gave notice of its occupation ofse
islands, in accordance with the procedure provided for in Article 4 of
the 1885 Protocol. Nor is it contested that, in the years after 1878, the
BNBC gradually extended its administration to islands lying beyond
the 3-marine-league limitwithout, however, claiming title to them and /
without protest from Spain.
113. The Court therefore cannot but conclude that there is no evidence
that Spain considered Ligitan and Sipadan as covered by the 1878 Pro-
tocol between Spain and the Sultan of Sulu or that Germany and Great
Britain recognized Spanish sovereignty over them in the 1885 Protocol.

It catinot be disputed, however, that the Sultan of Sulu relinquished
the sovereign rights over al1 his possessions in favour of Spain,
thus losing any title he may have had over islands located beyond the
3-marine-league limit from thecoast of North Borneo. He was thereforeaussi les capitulations conclues le 23 septembre 1836entre l'Espagne et le
sultan de Sulu). Ces documents ne permettent donc pas d'établirsi Ligi-
tan et Sipadan, qui sont situéesà une distance considérable de l'îleprin-
cipale de Sulu, faisaient ou non partie des dépendancesdu Sultanat.

110. La Malaisie invoque les liens d'allégeancequi auraient existé
entre le sultan de Suluet les Bajau Laut, qui habitaient lesîles au large de
la côte de Bornéo et auraient occasionnellement fréquentéles deux îles
inhabitées.La Cour pense que de tels liens ont fort bien pu exister, mais
qu'ils ne suffisent pas, en eux-mêmes, à prouver que le sultan de Sulu
revendiquait le titre territorial sur cesdeux petites îles ou les incluait dans
ses possessions. De même,rien ne prouve que le sultan ait exercé une
autorité effective sur Ligitan etipadan.

111. Concernant la transmission alléguée àl'Espagne du titre sur Ligi-
tan et Sipadan, la Cour relève que, aux termes du protocole du
22juillet 1878confirmant les bases de la paix et de la capitulation conclu
entre l'Espagne et le sultan de Sulu, ce dernier céda incontestablement
((l'archipel de Sulu et...ses dépendances))aux Espagnols. Par le proto-
cole conclu le 7 mars 1885 entre l'Espagne, l'Allemagne et la Grande-
Bretagne, le Gouvernement espagnol renonça, vis-à-visde son homologue
britannique, à toute prétention desouverainetésur les territoires du nord
de Bornéoet les îles voisines situéesdans une zone de 3 lieues marines,
tels que définisdans la concession Dent-von Overbeck de 1878; de leur
côté,l'Allemagne et la Grande-Bretagne reconnaissaient la souveraineté
espagnole {(surles points occupés effectivement,ainsi que sur ceux qui ne
le seraient pas encore, de l'archipel de Sulu (Jolo), dont les limites sont

établiesdans l'article2)). Cet article 2 contient la définition assez vague
mentionnéeau paragraphe 109ci-dessus.
112. Les Parties reconnaissent que l'Espagne n'ajamais manifesté le-
moindre intérêtpour les îles enlitige ou cellesdesenvirons, ni étenduson
autoritésur elles. Le dossier ne contient de plus aucune trace de notifica-
tion par l'Espagne de l'occupation de cesîles, selon la procédureprévue à
l'article 4 du protocole de 1885.Les Parties ne contestent pas davantage
le fait que, durant les années suivant 1878,la BNBC entreprit progressi-
vement d'administrer également desîles situéesau-delà de la limite des
3 lieues marines, sans toutefois revendiquer un titrà leur égard,et sans
susciter une quelconque protestation de la part de l'Espagne.
113. Par conséquent, la Cour ne peut que conclure que rien ne prouve
que l'Espagne ait considéréque le protocole qu'elle avait conclu en 1878
avec le sultan de Sulu concernait Ligitan et Sipadan, comme rien ne
prouve que l'Allemagne et la Grande-Bretagne aient reconnu par le pro-

tocole de 1885la souveraineté espagnole surces îles.
11est cependant incontestable que le sultan de Sulu avait renoncé,au
profit de l'Espagne, àsesdroits souverains sur toutes ses possessions, per-
dant de ce fait tout titre qu'il aurait pu détenirsur les îles au-delà de la
limite des 3 lieues marines le long de la côte du Nord-Bornéo. Le sultannot in a position to declare in 1903 that such islands had been
included in the 1878grant to Alfred Dent and Baron von Overbeck.

114. The Court, therefore, is of the opinion that Spain was the only
State which could have laid claimto Ligitan and Sipadan by virtue of the
relevant instruments but that there is no evidence that it actually did so.
It further observes that at the time neither Great Britain, on behalf of the
State of North Borneo, nor the Netherlands explicitly or implicitly laid
claim to Ligitan and Sipadan.
115. The next link in the chain of transfers of title is the Treaty of

7 November 1900between the United States and Spain, by which Spain
"relinquish[ed] to the United States al1title and claim of titl. . to any
and al1islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago" which had not
been covered by the Treaty of Peace of 10December 1898. Mention was
made in particular of the islands of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu, but no
other islands which were situated closer to the coast of North Borneo
were mentioned by name.
116. The Court first notes that, although it is undisputed that Ligitan
and Sipadan were not within the scopeof the 1898Treaty of Peace, the
1900 Treaty does not specify islands, apart from Cagayan Sulu and
Sibutu and their dependencies, that Spain ceded to the United States.
Spain nevertheless relinquished by that Treaty any claim it may have had
to Ligitan and Sipadan or other islands beyond the 3-marine-league limit
from the coast of North Borneo.

117. Subsequent events show that the United States itself was uncer-
tain to which islands it had acquired titleunder the 1900Treaty.The cor-

respondence between the United States Secretary of State and the United
States Secretaries of War and of the Navy in theaftermath of the voyage
of the USS Quiros and the re-edition of a map of the United States
Hydrographic Office, the first version of which had contained a line of
separation between United States and British possessions attributing
Ligitan and Sipadan to the United States, demonstrate that the State
Department had no clear idea of the territorial and maritime extent of
the Philippine Archipelago, title to whicht had obtained from Spain. In
this respect the Court notes that the United States Secretary of State in
hisletter of 23 October 1903to the Acting Secretary of War wrote that a
bilateral arrangement with Great Britain wasnecessary "to trace the line
demarking [their] respective jurisdictions", whereas with regard to
Sipadan he explicitly stated that he was not in a position to determine
whether "Sipadan and the included keysand rocks had been recognized
as lying within the dominions of Sulu".

118. A temporary arrangement between Great Britain and the United
States was made in 1907 by an Exchange of Notes. This Exchange of
Notes, which did not involve a transfer of territorial sovereignty, pro- PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 676

n'étaitdonc pas en mesure de déclarer, en 1903,que ces îles avaient été
incluses dans la concession accordéeen 1878 à Alfred Dent et au baron
von Overbeck.
114. C'est pourquoi la Cour estime que le seul Etat qui, aux termes des '
instruments applicables, aurait pu revendiquer Ligitan et Sipadan était
l'Espagne, mais qu'il n'est pasétabliqu'elle l'aitfait. La Cour constate en
outre que, à l'époque,ni la Grande-Bretagne, pour le compte de 1'Etatdu

Nord-Bornéo, ni les Pays-Bas ne revendiquèrent Ligitan et Sipadan, que
ce soit explicitement ou implicitement.
115. Le maillon suivant dans la chaîne de' transmission du titre est
constitué par le traité hispano-américaindu 7 novembre 1900,par lequel
l'Espagne «renonç[ait] au profit des Etats-Unis à tout titre et revendica-
tion de titre ..sur toutes les îles faisant partie de l'archipel des Philip-
pines)) et n'entrant pas dans le champ d'application du traitéde paix du
10 décembre 1898. Cet instrument mentionne expressément lesîles de
Cagayan Sulu et de Sibutu, mais ne cite nommément aucune des autres
îles situéesplus présde la côte du Nord-Bornéo.
116. La Cour relèvetout d'abord que, même si, commeen convien-

nent les Parties, Ligitan et Sipadan n'entraient pas dans lechamp d'appli-
cation du traitéde paix de 1898,lesseulesîles qui, dans le traité de 1900,
soient mentionnéescomme ayant été cédées aux Etats-Unis par l'Espagne
sont Cagayan Sulu, Sibutu et leurs dépendances. L'Espagnen'en renon-
çait pas moins par ce traité àtoute prétention qu'elle aurait pu avoir sur
Ligitan et Sipadan ou d'autres îles situéesau-delà de la limite fixée à
3 lieues marines de la côte du Nord-Bornéo.
117. Les événementspostérieurs montrent que les Etats-Unis eux-
mêmesne savaient pas précisément quelles étaientlesîles sur lesquellesils
avaient acquis le titre en vertu du traité de 1900. La correspondance

échangéeentre le Secrétaire d7Etatdes Etats-Unis et seshomologues de la
guerre et de la marine, àla suite de l'expéditiondu navire américainQui-
ros, ainsi que la réédition d'unecarte du service hydrographique améri-
cain - dont la première version montrait, entre les possessions améri-
caines et britanniques, une ligne de partage attribuant Ligitan et Sipadan
aux Etats-Unis -, sont autant d'élémentsprouvant que le département
d'Etat ne se faisait pas une idée précisede l'étendueterritoriale et mari-
time de l'archipel des Philippines, sur lequel l'Espagne lui avait cédé le
titre.A cet égard, la Cour observe que, dans une lettre adressée le
23 octobre 1903au Secrétaire à la guerre par intérim,le Secrétaired'Etat
des Etats-Unis indiqua qu'un arrangement bilatéral avec la Grande-
Bretagne serait nécessairepour «tracer la ligne de démarcation entre

[leurs]juridictions respectives)); concernantSipadan, il déclaraitexplici-
tement ne pas êtreen mesure d'établirsi «Sipadan et les îlots et rochers
qui s'y rattachent [avaient] étéreconnus comme faisant partie des terri-
toires de Sulu».
118. Un arrangement provisoire entre la Grande-Bretagne et les Etats-
Unis fut conclu en 1907par un échangede notes. Cet échangede notes,
qui n'entraînait aucun transfert de souveraineté, précisaitque la BNBCvided for a continuation of the administration by the BNBC of the
islands situated more than 3marine leagues from the Coastof North Bor-
neo but left unresolved the issue to which of the parties these islands
belonged. There was no indication to which of the islands administered
by the BNBC the United States claimed title and the question of sover-
eignty was therefore left in abeyance. No conclusion therefore can be
drawn from the 1907 Exchange of Notes as regards sovereignty over
Ligitan and Sipadan.
119. This temporary arrangement lasted until 2 January 1930,when a

Convention was concluded betweenGreat Britain and the United States
in which a line wasdrawn separating the islands belonging to the Philip-
pine Archipelago on the one hand and the islands belonging to the State
of North Borneo on the other hand. Article III of that Convention stated
that al1 islands to the south and Westof the line should belong to the
State of North Borneo. From a point well to the north-east of Ligitan
and Sipadan, the lineextended to the north and to the east. The Conven-
tion did not mention any island by name apart from the Turtle and
Mangsee Islands, which were declared to be under United States sover-
eignty.
120. By concluding the 1930 Convention, the United States relin-
quished any claim it might have had to Ligitan and Sipadan and to the
neighbouring islands. But the Court cannot conclude either from the
1907 Exchange of Notes or from the 1930Convention or from any docu-
ment emanating from the United States Administration in the interven-

ing period that the United States did claim sovereigntyover these islands.
It can, therefore, not be said with any degree of certainty that by the
1930 Convention the United States transferred title to Ligitan and
Sipadan to Great Britain, as Malaysia asserts.
121. On the other hand, the Court cannot let go unnoticed that Great
Britain was of the opinion that as a result of the 1930 Convention it
acquired, on behalf of the BNBC, title to al1 the islands beyond the
3-marine-league zone which had been administered by the Company,
with the exception of the Turtle and the Mangsee Islands. To none of the
islands lying beyond the 3-marine-league zone had it ever before laid a
formal claim. Whether such title in the case of Ligitan and Sipadan
and the neighbouring islands was indeed acquired as a result of the 1930
Convention is less relevant than the fact that Great Britain's position
on the effect of this Convention was not contested by any other State.

122. The State of North Borneo was transformed into a colony in

1946. Subsequently, by virtue of Article IV of the Agreement of
9 July 1963, the Government of the United Kingdom agreed to take
"such steps as [might]be appropriate and available to them to secure the
enactment by the Parliament of the United Kingdom of an Act providing
for the relinquishmenk . . of Her Britannic Majesty's sovereignty and
jurisdiction in respect of North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore" in
favour of Malaysia.continuerait à administrer les îles situéàsplus de 3 lieues marines de la
côte du Nord-Bornéo, mais la question de savoir à laquelle des parties
appartenaient les îles n'étaitpas résolue. Rienn'indiquait lesquelles des
îles administréespar la BNBC étaientrevendiquéespar les Etats-Unis, et
la question de la souveraineté demeura par conséquent en suspens.
Aucune conclusion ne saurait donc êtretirée de I'échange de notes
de 1907s'agissant de la souveraineté sur Ligitanet Sipadan.

119. Cet arrangement provisoire dura jusqu'au 2janvier 1930, date à

laquelle la Grande-Bretagne et les Etats-Unis conclurent une convention
qui traçait une ligne séparant d'une part les îlesappartenantà l'archipel
des Philippines et d'autre part les îles appartenant à 1'Etat du Nord-
Bornéo. L'articleIII de cette convention disposait que toutes les îles si-
tuéesau sud et à l'ouest de la ligneappartenaienà1'Etatdu Nord-Bornéo.
A partir d'un point situétrèsau nord-est de Ligitan et de Sipadan, la ligne
se dirigeait d'une part vers le nord et d'autre part vers l'est. La conven-
tion ne désignaitaucune île par son nom, à l'exception des îles Turtle et
Mangsee, déclaréescomme se trouvant sous la souveraineté des Etats-
Unis.
120. En concluant la convention de 1930,les Etats-Unis renonçaient à
toute revendication qu'ils auraient pu avoir sur Ligitan et Sipadan et sur
les îlesvoisinantes. Mais la Cour ne saurait conclure ni de I'échangede

notes de 1907ni de la convention de 1930.ni d'aucun document émanant
de l'administration des Etats-Unis entre ces deux dates, que ces derniers
revendiquaient la souveraineté sur ces îles. On ne saurait donc affirmer
avec quelque certitude que ce soit que, par la convention de 1930, les
Etats-Unis auraient, comme le prétend la Malaisie,transféré à la Grande-
Bretagne le titre sur Ligitan etipadan.
121. D'autre part, la Cour ne peut manquer de faire observer que la
Grande-Bretagne considérait que, en vertu de la convention de 1930,elle
avait acquis au nom de la BNBC le titre sur toutes les îles situéesau-delà
de la zone des 3 lieues marines qui avaient étéadministréespar la com-
pagnie, à l'exception desîles Turtle et Mangsee. Elle n'avait jamais aupa-
ravant formuléde revendication officiellesur aucune des îles situéesau-

delà de la zone des 3 lieues marines. Savoir si ce titre, dans le cas de
Ligitan et Sipadan et des îles avoisinantes, fut effectivement acquis en
vertu de la convention de 1930est moins pertinent que le fait que la posi-
tion adoptéepar la Grande-Bretagne quant à l'effet de cette convention
ne fut contestéepar aucun autre Etat.
122. L'Etat du Nord-Bornéo fut transformé en colonieen 1946.Par la
suite, le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni, en vertu de l'article IV de
l'accord du 9 juillet 1963, accepta de prendre ((toutes mesures appro-
priéesen son pouvoir pour faire adopter par le Parlement du Royaume-
Uni une loi consacrant la renonciation par Sa Majestébritannique ...à
[s]a souveraineté et à [s]a juridiction...sur le Bornéo septentrional,
Sarawak et Singapour)) en faveur de la Malaisie.678 PULAU LIGITANAND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

123. In 1969 Indonesia challenged Malaysia's title to Ligitan and
Sipadan and claimed to have title to the two islands on the basis of the
1891Convention.
124. In view of the foregoing, the Court concludes that it cannot
accept Malaysia's contention that there is an uninterrupted series of
transfers of title from the alleged originaltitle-holder, the Sultan of Sulu,
to Malaysia as the present one. It has not been established with certainty
that Ligitan and Sipadan belonged to the possessions of the Sultan of
Sulu nor that any of the alleged subsequent title-holders had a treaty-
based title to these two islands. The Court can therefore not find that

Malaysia has inherited a treaty-based title from its predecessor, the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

125. The Court has already found that the 1891Convention does not
provide Indonesia with a treaty-based title and that title to the islands did
not pass to Indonesia as successor to the Netherlands and the Sultan of
Bulungan (seeparagraphs 94 and 96 above).
126. The Court will therefore now consider whether evidence fur-
nished by the Parties with respect to "effectivités" relied upon by them
provides the basis for a decision - as requested in the Special Agree-
ment - on the question to whom sovereigntyover Ligitan and Sipadan
belongs. The Court recalls that it has already ruled in a number of cases
on the legal relationship between "effectivités" and title. The relevant
passage for the present case can be found in the Judgrnent in the Frontier

Dispute (Burkina FasolRepublic of Mali) case, where the Chamber of
the Court stated after having said that "a distinction must be drawn
among several eventualities": "[iln the event that the effectivité does not
CO-existwith any legal title, it must invariably be taken into considera-
tion" (I.C.J. Reports 1986,p. 587, para. 63; see also Territorial Dispute
(Libyan Arab JarnahiriyalChad), 1. C.J. Reports 1994, p. 38, paras. 75-
76; Land and Maritime Boundary between Carneroonand Nigeria (Cam-
eroon v. Nigeria: Equaiorial Guinea intervening), Judgrnent, Merits,
I.C.J. Reports 2002, pp. 353-353,para. 68).

127. Both Parties claim that the effectivitéson which they rely merely
confirm a treaty-based title. On an alternative basis, Malaysia claims that
it acquired title to Ligitan and Sipadan by virtue of continuous peaceful

possession and administration, without objection from Indonesia or its
predecessors in title.
The Court, having found that neither of the Parties has a treaty-based
title to Ligitan andSipadan (seeparagraphs 92 and 124above), willcon-
sider these effectivitésas an independent and separate issue. PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRET) 678

123. En 1969,l'Indonésiecontesta le titre de la Malaisie sur Ligitan et
Sipadan, et prétendit détenir un titre sur les deux îles en vertu de la
convention de 1891.
124. Compte tenu de ce qui précède,la Cour conclut qu'ellene saurait
accepter la thèse de la Malaisie selon laquelle il existerait une transmis-
sion ininterrompue du titre depuis son prétendu détenteur originaire, le
sultan de Sulu, jusqu'à la Malaisie, son détenteur actuel. Il n'a pas été
établi avec certitude que Ligitan et Sipadan faisaient partie des posses-
sions du sultan de Sulu et que l'un des prétendus détenteursdu titre qui
lui auraient succédéaurait détenuun titre conventionnel sur cesdeux îles.
La Cour ne saurait par conséquent conclureque la Malaisie a héritéd'un
titre conventionnel de son prédécesseur,le Royaume-Uni de Grande-
Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord.
125. La Cour a déjà jugéque la convention de 1891ne conféraitpas
un titre conventionnel à l'Indonésie,et que l'Indonésie ne possédait

aucun titre sur lesîlesen tant que successeur des Pays-Baset du sultan du
Bouloungan (voir paragraphes 94 et 96 ci-dessus).
126. La Cour examinera donc àprésentsi leséléments de preuve four-
nis par les Parties en ce qui concerne les effectivités invoquéespar
celles-cipeuvent l'amener à déterminer - comme elleen est priéedans le
compromis - à qui appartient la souverainetésur Ligitan et Sipadan. La
Cour rappelle qu'elle a déjàeu a se prononcer dans un certain nombre
d'affaires sur la relation juridique existant entre les effectivitéset le titre.
Le prononcé pertinent, aux fins de la présenteespèce,peut être trouvé
dans l'arrêt renduen l'affaire du Différend frontalier (BurkinaFasol
République duMali), dans lequel la Chambre de la Cour a déclaréa ,près
avoir indiqué que ((plusieurséventualités doiventêtredistinguées)),que:
[dlans l'éventualitéoù l'«effectivité»ne coexiste avec aucun titre juri-
dique, elle doit inévitablement être prise en considération))
(C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 587, par. 63; voir aussi Différend territorial

(Jamahiriya arabe IibyennelTchad), C.I.J. Recueil 1994, p. 38, par. 75-
76; Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria
(Cameroun c. Nigéria; Guinéeéquatoriale (intervenant)), arrêt,fond,
C. I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 353-354,par. 68).

127. LesParties font toutes deux valoirque leseffectivitéssur lesquelles
elles s'appuient ne font que confirmer un titre conventionnel. A titre sub-,
sidiaire, la Malaisie prétend avoir acquisun titre sur Ligitanetadan paf
une possession et une administration pacifiqueset continues de celles-ci,
sans protestation de la part de l'Indonésieou de ses prédécesseuresn titre:
Ayant conclu qu'aucunedes deux Parties ne détientun titre convention-
nel sur Ligitan etSipadan (voir paragraphes 92 et 124ci-dessus),la Cour
examinera la question des effectivités demanière indépendanteet distincte. 128. Indonesia points out that, during the 1969 negotiations on the
delimitation of the respectivecontinental shelvesofthe two States, Malay-
sia raised a claim to sovereignty over Ligitan and Sipadan Islands.
According to Indonesia, it was thus at that time that the "critical date"
arose in the present dispute. It contends that the two Parties undertook,
in an exchange of letters of 22September 1969,to refrain from any action
which might alter the status quo in respect of the disputed islands. It
asserts that from 1969the respective claims of the Parties therefore find
themselves "legally neutralized", and that, for this reason, their subse-
quent statements or actions are not relevant to the present proceedings.

Indonesia adds that Malaysia, from 1979onwards, nevertheless took a
series of unilateral measures that were fundamentally incompatible with
the undertaking thus given to respect the situation as it existed in 1969.
By way of example Indonesia mentions the publication of maps by
Malaysia showing, unlike earlier maps, the disputed islands as Malaysian
and the establishment of a number of tourist facilitieson Sipadan. Indo-
nesia adds that it always protested whenever Malaysia took such uni-
lateral steps.

129. With respect to the critical date, Malaysia beginsby asserting that
prior to the 1969 discussions on the delimitation of the continental
shelvesof the Parties, neither Indonesia nor its predecessorshad expressed
any interest in or claim to these islands. It however emphasizes the
importance of the critical date, not so much in relation to the admissi-

bility of evidence but rather to "the weight to be given to it". Malaysia
therefore asserts that a tribunal may always take into account post-criti-
cal date activity if the party submitting it shows that the activity in ques-
tion started at a time prior to the critical date and simply continued
thereafter. As for scuba-diving activities on Sipadan, Malaysia observes
that the tourist trade, generated by this sport, emerged from the time
when it became popular, and that it had itself accepted the responsibili-
ties of sovereignty to ensure the protection of the island'senvironment as
well as to meet the basic needsof the visitors.

130. In support of its arguments relating to effectivitésIndonesia cites
patrols in the area by vesselsof the Dutch Royal Navy. It refers to a list
of Dutch ships present in the area between 1895and 1928,prepared on

the basis of the reports on the colonies presented each year to Parliament
by the Dutch Government ("Koloniale Verslagen"), and relies in par-
ticular on the presencein the area of the Dutch destroyer Lynx in Novem-
ber and December 1921.Indonesia refers to the fact that a patrol team of
the Lynx went ashore on Sipadan and that the plane carried aboard the
Lyn.r traversed the air spaceof Ligitan and its waters, whereas the 3-mile PULAU LIGITAN ET PIJLAUSIPADAN (ARRET) 679

128. L'Indonésie souligneque c'est pendant les négociations de 1969
sur la délimitation des plateaux continentaux respectifs des deux Etats
que la Malaisie émit une revendication de souveraineté sur les îles de
Ligitan et Sipadan. Selon l'Indonésie,ce serait donc à ce moment que se
situerait la(date critique)) dans le présent différend. Ellesoutient qu'en
effet, par échange de lettres du 22 septembre 1969, les deux Parties se

sont engagées à ne rien faire qui pourrait modifier le statu quo quant aux
îles en litige. partir de 1969, les prétentionsrespectives des Parties se
seraient par conséquent trouvées((juridiquementneutralisées)), et, pour
cette raison, leurs actions ou déclarationsultérieuresseraient sans perti-
nence aux fins de la présente espèce.
L'Indonésieajoute qu'à partir de 1979la Malaisie a cependant pris une
série de mesures unilatérales fondamentalement incompatibles avec
l'engagement ainsipris de respecter la situation existant en 1969.L'Indo-
nésiecite à titre d'exemples la publication par la Malaisie de cartes qui
représentaient les îles en litige comme étantmalaisiennes, à la différence
des cartes qu'elle avait publiéesauparavant, ainsi que la construction

d'un certain nombre d'installations touristiques à Sipadan. L'Indonésie '
ajoute qu'elle a protesté à chaque fois que la Malaisie a pris de telles
mesures unilatérales.
129. S'agissant de la date critique, la Malaisie commence par affirmer
que, avant les discussions de 1969sur la délimitation des plateaux conti-
nentaux des Parties, ni l'Indonésieni ses prédécesseursn'avaient mani-
festéun quelconque intérêtpour cesîlesou formuléde revendications sur
elles. Elle souligne toutefois l'importance de la date critique, non pour la
recevabilitédes élémentsde preuve, mais quant au «poids à leur don-
ner». Selon la Malaisie, rien n'interdit donc àun tribunal de tenir compte
d'une activitépostérieure à la date critique, si la partie qui la fait valoir

démontre que l'activité enquestion a débutéavant la date critique et s'est
simplement poursuivie ensuite. En ce qui concerne les activitésde plongée
sous-marine à Sipadan, la Malaisie fait observer que le tourisme engen-
drépar ce sport est néau moment où ce dernier est devenu populaire et
qu'elle a elle-même accepté les responsabilitésdécoulant de sa souverai-
netépour assurer la protection de l'environnement de l'îleet satisfaire les
besoins essentiels des visiteurs.

130. A l'appui de ses arguments relatifs aux effectivités,l'Indonésie

invoque les patrouilles effectuéesdans la régionpar des navires de la
marine royale des Pays-Bas. Elle mentionne une liste des navires néerlan-
dais présentsdans la régionentre 1895et 1928, établiesur la base des
rapports sur les colonies présentéschaque année au Parlement par le
Gouvernement néerlandais («Koloniale Verslagen»), en insistant parti-
culièrementsur la présencedans la régiondu destroyer néerlandais.Lynx,
en novembre et décembre 1921. L'Indonésierapporte qu'une équipe de
patrouille du Lynx fut envoyée surl'île deSipadan et que l'hydravion quizones of SiAmi1and other islands under Britishauthority were respected.
Indonesia considers that the report submitted by the commander of the
Lynx to the Commander Naval Forces Netherlands Indies after the voy-
age shows that the Dutch authorities regarded Ligitan and Sipadan
Islands as being under Dutch sovereignty,whereas other islands situated
to the north ofthe 1891line wereconsideredto be British. Indonesia also
mentions the hydrographic surveyscarried out by the Dutch, in particu-
lar the siirveying activities of the vesse1Macasserthroughout the region,
including the area around Ligitan and Sipadan, in October and Novem-
ber 1903.

As regards its own activities, Indonesia notes that"lplrior to the emer-

gence of the dispute in 1969,the Indonesian Navy was also active in the
area, visitingSipadan on several occasions".

As regards fishing activities, Indonesia States that Indonesian fisher-
men have traditionally plied their trade around the islands of Ligitan and
Sipadan. It has submitted a seriesof affidavitswhich provide a record of
occasional visits to the islands dating back to the 1950sand early 1960%
and even to the early 1970%after the dispute between the Parties had
emerged.

Finally, in regard to its Act No. 4 concerning Indonesian Waters,
promulgated on 18February 1960,in which its archipelagic baselines are
defined, Indonesia recognizes that it did not at that time include Ligitan
or Sipadan as base points for the purpose of drawing baselines and defin-

ing its archipelagic waters and territorial sea. But it argues that this can-
not be interpreted as demonstrating that Indonesia regarded the islands
as not belonging to its territory. It points out in this connection that the
Act of 1960was prepared in some haste, which can be explained by the
need to create a precedent for the recognition of the concept of archipe-
lagic waters just before the Second United Nations Conference on the
Law ofthe Sea, which wasdue to beheld from 17March to 26 April 1960.
Indonesia adds that it moreover sought to diverge as little as possible
from the existing law of the sea, one of the principles of which was that
the drawing of baselines could not depart to any appreciable extent from
the general direction of theCoast.

131. Malaysia argues that the alleged Dutch and Indonesian naval
activities are very limited innumber. Malaysia contends that these activi-

ties cannot be regarded as evidence of the continuous exercise of govern-
mental activity in and in relation to Ligitan and Sipadan that may be
indicative of any claim of title to the islands.
As regards post-colonial practice, Malaysia observes that, for the first
25 years of its independence, Indonesia showed no interest in Ligitan andétaità son bord traversa l'espace aérienet les eaux de Ligitan, tout en
respectant la zone des 3 milles autour de Si Ami1et des autres îles sous

autorité britannique. L'Indonésie considèreque le rapport soumis par le
commandant du Lynx au commandant des forces navales néerlandaises
aprèsl'expéditionmontreque lesautoritésnéerlandaisesconsidéraientles
îles de Ligitan et Sipadan comme relevant de la souveraineté néerlan-
daise, alors que d'autres îles situéesau nord de la ligne de 1891 étaient
considéréescomme britanniques. L'Indonésiementionne également les
levéshydrographiques effectuéspar les Néerlandais, et notamment ceux
réalisésen octobre et novembre 1903par le navire Macasser dans toute la
région, ycompris la zone situéeautour de Ligitan et Sipadan.
S'agissant de ses propres activités, l'Indonésie souligeu'«[alvant que
le différend ne naisse, en 1969, la marine indonésienne était elle aussi
active dans la zone et avait notamment effectuéplusieurs visites à Sipa-
dan)).
En ce qui concerne les activitésde pêche, l'Indonésie déclare quedes
pêcheurs indonésiens ont exercétraditionnellement leur métieraux abords
desîles de Ligitan etSipadan. Elle a soumis une sériede déclarations sous

serment faisant état d'expéditions occasionnellesdans les îles, qui re-
montent aux années cinquanteet au débutdes années soixante,voire au dé-
but des années soixante-dix,c'est-à-direaprèsla dateà laquelle le différend
a surgi.
Enfin, évoquantsa loi no4 relative aux eaux indonésiennespromulguée
le 18 février 1960, en vertude laquelle sont définies ses lignesde base
archipélagiques, l'Indonésiereconnaît qu'à l'époqueelle n'a pas utilisé
Ligitan ou Sipadan comme points de base pour le tracédes lignesde base
et la définitionde ses eaux archipélagiqueset de sa mer territoriale, mais
fait valoir que cela ne saurait être interprété commemontrant qu'elle
considéraitles îles comme n'appartenant pas à son territoire. L'Indonésie
souligne à cet égardque la loi de 1960fut préparéedans une certaine pré-
cipitation, qui peut s'expliquerpar la nécessitde créerun précédentaux
fins de la consécration dela notion d'eaux archipélagiques, justeavant la
deuxième conférence desNations Unies sur le droit de la mer, qui devait

se tenir du 17mars au 26 avril 1960.L'Indonésieajoute qu'elle entendait
en outre s'écarterle moins possible du droit de la mer existant, dont l'un
des principes était que le tracéde lignes de base ne pouvait s'écarterde
façon appréciable de la direction générale descôtes.

131. La Malaisie soutient que le nombre des prétendues activitésna-
vales néerlandaiseset indonésiennes esttrès limité.Elle soutient que ces
activités nesauraient être considéréecsomme des preuves de l'exercice
continu d'une activité étatiqueà l'égardde Ligitan et Sipadan qui tradui-
rait une quelconque revendication de titre sur lesdites îles.
S'agissant de la pratique postcoloniale, la Malaisie fait observer que,
pendant les vingt-cinq premièresannées de son indépendance,l'IndonésieSipadan. Malaysia claims that Indonesia "did not manifest any presence
in the area, did not try to administer the islands, enacted no legislation
and made no ordinances or regulations concerning the two islands or
their surrounding waters".

Malaysia further observes that Indonesian Act No. 4 of 18 Febru-
ary 1960, to which a map was attached, defined the outer limits of the
Indonesian national waters by a list of baseline CO-ordinates.However,
Indonesia did not use the disputed islands as reference points for the
baselines. Malaysia argues that, in light of the said Act and of the map

attached thereto, Ligitan and Sipadan Islands cannot be regarded as
belonging to Indonesia. Malaysia admits that it has still not published a
detailed map of its own baselines.It points out that it did, however, pub-
lish its continental shelf boundaries in 1979, in a way which takes full
account of the two islands in question.

132. As regards its effectivitéson the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan,
Malaysia mentions control over the taking of turtles and the collection of
turtle eggs; it States that collecting turtle eggs was the most important
economic activity on Sipadan for many years. As early as 1914, Great
Britain took steps to regulate and control the collection of turtle eggs on
Ligitan and Sipadan. Malaysia stresses the fact that it was to British
North Borneo officialsthat the resolution of disputes concerning the col-
lection of turtle eggs was referred. It notes that a licensing system was
established for boats used to fish the waters around the islands. Malaysia

also relies on the establishment in 1933 of a bird sanctuary on Sipadan.
Malaysia further points out that the British North Borneo colonial
authorities constructed lighthouses on Ligitan and Sipadan Islands in the
early 1960s and that these exist to this day and are maintained by the
Malaysjan authorities. Finally, Malaysia cites Malaysian Government
regulation of tourism on Sipadan and the fact that, from 25 Septem-
ber 1997, Ligitan and Sipadan became protected areas under Malaysia's
Protected Areas Order of that year.

133. Indonesia denies that the acts relied upon by Malaysia, whether
considered in isolation ortaken as a whole, are sufficientto establish the
existence of a continuous peaceful possession and administration of the
islands capable of creating a territorial title in the latter's favour.
As regards the collection ofturtle eggs, Indonesia does not contest the
facts as stated by Malaysia but argues that the regulations issued by the

British and the rules established for the resolution of disputes between
the inhabitants of the area were evidence of the exercise of personal
rather than territorial jurisdiction. Indonesia also contests the evidentiary
value of the establishment of a bird sanctuary by the British authorities
as an act à titre de souverain in relation to Sipadan. Similarly, in Indo-
nesia's view, Malaysia'sconstruction and maintenance of lighthouses do PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 681

n'a montré aucun intérêtpour Ligitan et Sipadan. La Malaisie allègue
que l'Indonésie «n'a nullement manifesté sa présencedans la région,n'a
pas essayé d'administrer les îles, n'a adopté aucune loi, pris aucune
ordonnance ni promulguéaucun règlementconcernant les deux îles ou les
eaux environnantes ».
La Malaisie fait en outre observer que la loi indonésienne no 4 du
18 février1960, à laquelle une carte étaitannexée, définissaitles limites
extérieures des eaux nationales indonésiennesau moyen d'une liste de -
coordonnées de lignes de base; l'Indonésie n'acependant pas utiliséles
îles en litige comme points de référencepour leslignes de base. La Malai-
sie fait valoir que, a la lumière de ladite loi et de la carte qui lui était

annexée, les îles de Ligitan et Sipadan ne sauraient êtreconsidérées
comme appartenant à l'Indonésie.Elle reconnaît qu'elle n'a toujours pas
publiéde carte détailléede sespropres lignesde base. Elle souligne qu'elle
a toutefois publiéles limitesde son plateau continental en 1979,en tenant
pleinement compte des îles en cause.
132. S'agissant de ses effectivités relativesaux îles de Ligitan et Sipa-
dan, la Malaisie évoquela réglementation de la capture des tortues et le
ramassage des Œufsde tortue; elle déclareque ce ramassage avait cons-
titué l'activitééconomique la plus importante sur Sipadan pendant de
nombreuses années.Dès 1914,la Grande-Bretagne prit des mesures pour
réglementeret limiter le ramassage des Œufsde tortue sur Ligitan et Sipa-
dan. La Malaisie souligne le fait que c'étaitdes fonctionnaires du Nord-
Bornéo britannique qu'étaitconfiéle règlement desdifférendsrelatifs au

ramassage des Œufsde tortue. Elle rappelle qu'un régimed'autorisations
avait étéinstituépour les bateaux pêchantdans les parages des îles. Elle
s'appuie égalementsur la création,en 1933,d'une réserveornithologique
sur Sipadan. Elle relèveen outre que les autorités coloniales du Nord-
Bornéo britannique construisirent des phares sur les îles de Ligitan et
Sipadan au début des années soixante, lesquels existent toujours
aujourd'hui et sont entretenus par les autorités malaisiennes. Enfin, la
Malaisie évoquela réglementationdu tourisme sur Sipadan par le Gou-
vernement malaisien et le fait que, depuis le 25 septembre 1997,Ligitan et
Sipadan ont étéclasséeszone protégéeen vertu d'un décretde la même
année surles zones protégées.
133. L'Indonésieconteste le fait que les actes invoquéspar la Malaisie,
pris isolémentou conjointement, soient suffisants pour établirl'existence

d'une possession et d'une administration continues et pacifiques des îles
susceptibles de créerun titre territorial en sa faveur.
S'agissant du ramassage des Œufsde tortue, l'Indonésie neconteste pas
les faits énoncéspar la Malaisie, mais fait valoir que les règlements
publiéspar les Britanniques et les règles misesen place pour résoudreles
litigesentre les occupants de la régionconstituaient des preuves deI'exer-
cice d'une compétence personnelle plutôt que territoriale. L'Indonésie
conteste égalementle fait que la création sur Sipadan d'une réserveorni-
thologique par les autorités britanniques soit une preuve de leur volonté
de se comporter «a titre de souverain)). De même,la construction et682 PULAU LIGITAN AND PULAU SIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

not constitute proof of acts à titre de soirverain.It observes in any event
that it did notobject to these activities by Malaysia because they were of
general interest for navigation.

134. The Court first recalls the statement by the Permanent Court
of International Justice in the Legal Status of Eastern Greenland
(Denmark v. Norway) case:
"a claim to sovereignty based not upon some particular act or title
such as a treaty of cession but merely upon continued display of

authority, involves two elements each of which must be shown to
exist: the intention and will to act as sovereign, and some actual
exercise or display of such authority.

Another circumstance which must be taken into account by any
tribunal which has to adjudicate upon a claim to sovereignty over a
particular territory, is the extent to which the sovereignty is also
claimed by some other Power."

The Permanent Court continued :
"It is impossible to read the records of the decisions in cases asto
territorial sovereignty without observing that in many cases the tri-
bunal has been satisfied with verylittle in the way of the actual exer-

cise of sovereign rights, provided that the other State could not
make out a superior claim. This is particularly true in the case of
claims to sovereignty over areas in thinly populated or unsettled
countries." (P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 53, pp. 45-46.)

In particular in the case of verysmall islands which are uninhabited or
not permanently inhabited - like Ligitan and Sipadan, which have been

of little economic importance (at least until recently)- effectivités will
indeed generally be scarce.
135. The Court further observes that it cannot take into consideration
acts having taken place after the date on which the dispute between the
Parties crystallized unlesssuch acts are a normal continuation of prior
acts and are not undertaken for the purpose of improving the legal posi-
tion of the Party which relies on them (see the Arbitral Award in the
Palena case, 38 International Law Reports (ILR), pp. 79-80). The Court
will, therefore,primarily, analyse the effectivitéswhich date from the
period before 1969, the year in which the Parties asserted conflicting
claims to Ligitan and Sipadan.

136. The Court finally observes that it can only consider those acts as PULAU LICITAN ET PIJLAU SIPADAN (ARRET) 682

l'entretien de phares par la Malaisie ne constituent pas, aux yeux de
l'Indonésie, unepreuve d'actes effectués «à titre de souverain)). Elle fait
observer en tout étatde cause que, si elle ne s'estpas opposée à ces acti-
vitésde la Malaisie, c'est parce que celles-cirevêtaientun intérêgténéral
pour la navigation.

134. La Cour rappellera tout d'abord ce qu'a indiquéla Cour perma-
nente de Justice internationale dans l'affaire du'Statut juridique du Groën-
land oriental (Danemark c. Norvège), à savoir que:
«une prétentionde souveraineté fondéen , on pas sur quelque acte ou
titre en particulier, tel qu'un traité decession, mais simplement sur

un exercice continu d'autorité, implique deux élémentsdont I'exis-
tence, pour chacun, doit êtredémontrée:l'intention et la volonté
d'agir en qualitéde souverain, et quelque manifestation ou exercice
effectif de cette autorité.
Une autre circonstance, dont doit tenir compte tout tribunal ayant
à trancher une question de souverainetésur un territoire particulier,
est la mesure dans laquelle la souverainetéest égalementrevendiquée
par une autre Puissance.))

La Cour permanente poursuivait en ces termes
«Il est impossible d'examiner des décisionsrendues dans les af-

fairesvisant la souverainetéterritoriale sans observer que, dans beau-
coup de cas, le tribunal n'a pas exigéde nombreuses manifestations
d'un exercice de droits souverains pourvu que l'autre Etat en cause
ne pût faire valoir une prétention supérieure.Ceci est particulière-
ment vrai des revendications de souverainetésur des territoires situés
dans des pays faiblement peuplésou non occupéspar des habitants
à demeure. » (C.P.J. 1.sérieAIB no53, p. 45-46.)

Dans le cas, en particulier, de trèspetites îles inhabitéesou habitéesde
façon non permanente - tellesque Ligitan et Sipadan, dont l'importance
économique était, du moins jusqu'à une date récente, modeste -, les
effectivitéssont en effet généralement peunombreuses.
135. La Cour fait en outre observer qu'elle ne saurait prendre en
considération des actes qui se sont produits après la dateà laquelle le dif-
férendentre les Parties s'estcristallisé,moins que ces activitésne cons-
tituent la continuation normale d'activitésantérieures et pour autant
qu'elles n'#aientpas été entreprises en vued'améliorer laposition juri-

dique des Parties qui les invoquent (voir la sentence arbitrale rendue en
l'affaire de laPalena, Internationa/ Law Reports (ILR), vol. 38, p. 79-
80). La Cour examinera donc essentiellement les effectivitésdatant de la
périodeantérieure à 1969, annéeou les Parties formulèrent des préten-
tions opposées sur Ligitan et Sipadan.
136. La Cour relèveenfin qu'elle ne peut tenir compte de ces activitésconstituting a relevant display of authority which leave no doubt as to
their specific reference to the islands in dispute as such. Regulations or
administrative acts of a general naturecan therefore be taken as effec-
tivirw éith regard to Ligitan and Sipadan only if it is clear from their
terms or their effects that they pertained toese two islands.

137. Turning now to the effectivi rtied on by Indonesia, the
Court will begin by pointing out that none of them is of a legislativeor

regulatory character. Moreover, the Court cannot ignore the fact that
Indonesian Act No. 4 of 8 February 1960, which draws Indonesia's
archipelagic baselines, and its accompanying map do not mention or
indicate Ligitan and Sipadan as relevant base points or turning points.

138. Indonesia cites in the first place a continuous presence of the
Dutch and Indonesian navies in the waters around Ligitan and Sipadan.
It relies in particular on the voyage of the Dutch destroyer Lynx
in November 1921.This voyage was part of a joint action of the British
and Dutch navies to combat piracy in the waters east of Borneo. Accord-
ing to the report by the commander of the Lynx,an armed sloop was
despatched to Sipadan to gather information about pirate activitiesand a
seaplane flew a reconnaissance flight through the island's airspace and
subsequently flew overLigitan. Indonesia concludes from this operation

that the Netherlands consideredthe airspace, and thus also the islands, as
Dutch territory.

139. In the opinion of the Court, it cannot be deduced either from the
report of the commanding officer of the Lynxor from any other docu-
ment presented by Indonesia in connection with Dutch or Indonesian
naval surveillance and patrol activities that the naval authoritiescon-
cerned considered Ligitan and Sipadan and the surrounding waters to be
under the sovereignty of the Netherlands or Indonesia.
140. Finally, Indonesia States that the waters around Ligitan and
Sipadan have traditionally been used by Indonesian fishermen.TheCourt
observes, however, that activities byprivate persons cannot be seen as
effectivii fttésy do not take place on the basis of officialregulations or
under governmental authority.

141. The Court concludesthat the activities relied upon by Indonesia

do not constitute actsititr desouverari eflectingthe intention and will
to act in that capacity.

142. With regard to the effectivri eliesupon by Malaysia, the Court PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 683

en tant que manifestation pertinente d'autorité que dans la mesure ou il
ne fait aucun doute qu'elles sont en relation spécifiqueavec les îles en
litige prises comme telles. Les réglementationsou actes administratifs de
nature générale ne peuventdonc êtreconsidéréscomme des effectivités
relativesà Ligitan et Sipadan que s'ilest manifeste dans leurs termes ou
leurs effets qu'ils concernaient ces deux îles.

137. Examinant à présentles effectivitésinvoquéespar l'Indonésie,la
Cour commencera par faire observer qu'aucune d'entre elles ne revêtun
caractère législatifou réglementaire. Elle ne saurait en outre ignorer le
fait que la loi indonésienneno4 du 8 février1960définissant les lignesde

base archipélagiques de l'Indonésieet la carte qui l'accompagne nemen-
tionnent ni n'indiquent Ligitan et Sipadan comme des points de base ou
des points d'inflexion pertinents.
138. L'Indonésieinvoque en premier lieu une présencecontinue de la
marine néerlandaise etde la marine indonésiennedans les parages de
Ligitan et Sipadan. Elle s'appuie notamment sur l'expédition du des-
troyer néerlandais Lynx en novembre 1921.Cette expédition faisait par-
tie d'une action conjointe des marines britannique et néerlandaise visant
a combattre la ira te riedans les eaux situées à l'est de Bornéo. Selon le
rapport du comkandant du Lynx, un cotre armé futenvoyésur siPadant
pour recueillir des informations sur les activités despirates, et un hydra-
vion effectua un vol de reconnaissance en traversant l'espace aériende
l'île,puis survola Ligitan. L'Indonésieconclut de cette opération que les
Pays-Bas considéraient cet espace aérien, et donc les îles, comme terri-

toire néerlandais.
139. De l'avis de la Cour, ni le rapport du commandant du Lynx ni
aucun autre document présentépar l'Indonésieconcernant la surveillance
et les activitésde patrouille des marines néerlandaiseou indonésiennene
permettent de conclure que les autorités maritimes concernées considé-
raient Ligitan et Sipadan, ainsi que les eaux environnantes, comme rele-
vant de la souverainetédes Pays-Bas ou de l'Indonésie.
140. L'Indonésie déclare pour finir que les eaux entourant Ligitan et
Sipadan ont traditionnellement étéutiliséespar des pêcheurs indonésiens.
Toutefois, la Cour fera observer que les activitésde personnes privéesne
sauraient êtreconsidérées comme des effectivitéssi elles ne se fondent pas
sur une réglementation officielleou ne se déroulentpas sous le contrôle
de l'autorité publique.
141. La Cour conclut que les activitésdont se prévaut l'Indonésiene

constituent pas des actes à titre de souverain reflétant l'intention et la
volonté d'agir en cette qualité.

142. Pour cequi est des effectivités invoquéepar la Malaisie, la Cour684 PULAU LICITAN AND I'ULAUSIPADAN (JUDGMENT)

first observes that pursuant to the 1930Convention, the United States
relinquished any claim it might have had to Ligitan and Sipadan and that
no other State asserted its sovereignty over those islands at that time or
objected to their continued administration by the State of North Borneo.
The Court further observes that those activities which took place before
the conclusion of that Convention cannot be seen as acts"à titre dsou-
veraiji",as Great Britain did not at that time claim sovereignty on behalf
of the State of North Borneo over the islandsbeyond the 3-marine-league

limit.Sinceit, however, took the position that the BNBC was entitled to
administer the islands, a position which after 1907was formally recog-
nized by the United States, these administrative activities cannot be
ignored either.

143. As evidence of such effective administration over the islands,
Malaysia cites the measures taken by the North Borneo authorities to
regulate and control the collecting of turtle eggson Ligitan and Sipadan,
an activity of some economic significancein the area at the time. It refers
in particular to the Turtle Preservation Ordinance of 1917, thepurpose of
which wasto limit the capture of turtles and the collection of turtle eggs
"within the State [of North Borneo] or the territorial waters thereof'.

The Court notes that the Ordinance provided in this respect for a
licensing system and for the creation of native reserves for the collec-
tion of turtle eggs and listedSipadan among the islands included in one
of those reserves.

Malaysia adduces several documents showing that the 1917 Turtle
Preservation Ordinance was applied until the 1950s at least. In this
regard, it cites, forample, the licence issued on 28 April 1954 by the
District Officer of Tawau permitting the capture of turtles pursuant to
Section 2 of the Ordinance. The Court observes that this licence covered
an area including "the islands of Sipadan, Ligitan, Kapalat, Mabul,
Dinawan and Si-Amil".
Further, Malaysia mentions certain casesboth before and after 1930in

which it has been shown that administrative authorities settled disputes
about the collection of turtle eggs onSipadan.

144. Malaysia also refers to the fact that in 1933 Sipadan, under
Section 28 of the Land Ordinance, 1930,was declared to be "a reserve
for the purpose of bird sanctuaries".
145. The Court is of the opinion that both the measures taken to regu-
late and control the collecting of turtle eggs and the establishment of a
bird reservemust be seen as regulatory and administrative assertions of
authority over territory which is specifiedby name.

146. Malaysia further invokes the fact that the authorities of the
colony of North Borneoconstructed a lighthouse on Sipadan in 1962and

another on Ligitan in 1963,that those lighthouses exist to this day and PULAU LIGITAN ET PULAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 684

relèvera tout d'abord que, par la convention de 1930, les Etats-Unis
renoncèrent à toute revendication qu'ils auraient pu avoir sur Ligitan et
Sipadan et qu'aucun autre Etat ne fità l'époqueacte de souveraineté sur
ces îles ni ne s'opposaà ce que 1'Etat du Nord-Bornéo continuât à les
administrer. La Cour observera en outre que les activités antérieureà la
conclusion de cette convention ne sauraient êtreconsidérées commedes
actes à titre de souverain, dans la mesure ou la Grande-Bretagne ne
revendiquait pas alors la souverainetépour le compte de 1'Etatdu Nord-
Bornéosur lesîles situéesau-delà de la limitedes 3 lieues marines. Cepen-

dant, la Grande-Bretagne ayant reconnu à la BNBC le droit d'admi-
nistrer les îles, position officiellement reconnue par les Etats-Unis
après 1907, ces activités administratives ne sauraient être non plus
ignorées.
143. A titre de preuve d'une telle administration effective des îles, la
Malaisie cite les mesures prises par les autorités du Nord-Bornéo pour
réglementeret limiter le ramassage des Œufsde tortue sur Ligitan et Sipa-
dan, cette activité revêtant l'époque unecertaine importance du point
de vue économique dans la région.Elle se réfèrenotamment à l'ordon-
nance de 1917 sur la protection des tortues, qui avait pour objet de res-
treindre, «dans les limites de1'Etat[du Nord-Bornéo] ou [ses]eaux ter-

ritoriales)),la capture des tortues et le ramassage de leurs Œufs. LaCour
note que ladite ordonnance prévoyait à ce propos un systèmede conces-
sion de permis et la création deréservesindigènespour le ramassage des
Œufs de tortue, et mentionnait Sipadan parmi les îles comprises dans
l'une de ces réserves.
La Malaisie invoque plusieurs documents qui démontrent que l'ordon-
nance de 1917 sur la protection des tortues a été appliquéeau moins
jusque dans les années cinquante. Elle cite par exempleà cet effet le per-
mis délivréle 28 avril 1954par le chef de district de Tawau autorisant la
capture des tortues en application de la section 2 de cette ordonnance.
La Cour relèveque cepermis visait une zone comprenant «les îlesde Sipa-
dan, Ligitan, Kapalat, Maboul, Dinawan et Si Amil)).

En outre, la Malaisie se réfèàeun certain nombre de cas dans lesquels
il est établi que les autorités administratives, après comme avant 1930,
réglèrentdes différends relatifsau ramassage des Œufsde tortue sur Sipa-
dan.
144. La Malaisie mentionne égalementle fait qu'en 1933,en applica-
tion de l'article 28de l'ordonnance de 1930portant régime foncier, Sipa-
dan fut déclarée réservo ernithologique.
145. La Cour est d'avisque tant lesmesures prises pour réglementer et
limiter le ramassage des Œufsde tortue que la création d'uneréserveorni-
thologique doivent êtreconsidérées comme des manifestations d'autorité
réglementaïreet administrative sur un territoire mentionnépar son nom.
146. La Malaisie invoque en outre le fait que les autoritésde la colonie

du Nord-Bornéo ont construit un phare sur Sipadan en 1962et un autre
sur Ligitan en 1963,que ceux-ciexistent toujours et qu'ils sont entretenusthat they have been maintained by Malaysian authorities since its inde-
pendence. It contends that the construction and maintenance of such
lighthouses is "part of a pattern of exercise ofStateauthority appropriate
in kind and degree to the character of the places involved".
147. The Court observesthat the construction and operation of light-
houses and navigational aids are not normally considered manifestations
of State authority (Minquiers and Ecrehos, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1953, p. 71). The Court, however, recalls that in its Judgment in the case
concerning Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between
Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain) it stated as follows:

"Certain types of activitiesinvoked by Bahrain such as the drilling
of artesian wellswould, taken by themselves, be considered contro-
versial as acts performed a titre de souverain. The construction of
navigational aids, on the other hand, can be legally relevant in the
case of very small islands. In the present case, taking into account
the size of Qit'at Jaradah, the activities carried out by Bahrain on

that island must be considered sufficientto support Bahrain's claim
that it has sovereignty over it." (Judgment, Merits, I.C.J. Reports
2001, pp. 99-100,para. 197.)
The Court is of the viewthat the sameconsiderations apply in the present
case.

148. The Court notes that the activities relied upon by Malaysia, both

in its own name and as successor State of Great Britain, are modest in
number but that they are diverse in character and include legislative,
administrative and quasi-judicial acts. They cover a considerable period
of time and show a pattern revealing an intention to exercise State func-
tions in respect of the two islands in the context of the administration of
a wider range of islands.
The Court moreover cannot disregard the fact that at the time when
these activities werecarried out, neither Indonesia nor its predecessor,the
Netherlands, ever expressed its disagreement or protest. In this regard,
the Court notes that in 1962and 1963the Indonesian authorities did not
even remind the authorities of the colony of North Borneo, or Malaysia
after its independence, that the construction of the lighthouses at those
times had taken place on territory which they considered Indonesian;
even if they regarded theselighthouses as merely destined for safenaviga-
tion in an area which was of particular importance for navigation in the

waters off North Borneo, such behaviour is unusual.

149. Given the circumstances ofthe case, and in particular in view of
the evidence furnished by the Parties, the Court concludes that Malaysiapar lesautoritésmalaisiennes depuis son indépendance.Ellefait valoir que
la construction et l'entretien de ces phares ((participent d'un ensemble de,
manifestations d'autorité étatique, appropriéespar leur caractère et leur
portée à la nature du lieu concerné)).
147. La Cour fait observer que la construction et l'exploitation de
phares et d'aides à la navigation ne sont généralementpas considérées
comme une manifestation de l'autorité étatique (Minquiers et Ecréhous,
arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1953, p. 71). La Cour rappelle cependant que, dans
son arrêtrendu en l'affaire de la Délimitationmaritime et des questions
territoriales entre Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahreïn),elle a déclaréce
qui suit:

((Certaines catégories d'activités invoquépesr Bahreïn, telles que
le forage de puits artésiens,pourraient en soi êtreconsidérécomme
discutables en tant qu'actes accomplisà titre de souverain. La cons-
truction d'aidesàla navigation, en revanche, peut êtrejuridiquement
pertinente dans le cas de trèspetites îles. En l'espèce,compte tenu de
la taille de Qit'atradah, les activitésexercéespar Bahreïn sur cette

île peuvent êtreconsidéréescomme suffisantespour étayer sareven-
dication selonlaquellecelle-cisetrouve soussasouveraineté.»(Arrêt,
fond, C.1J. Recueil 2001, p. 99-100, par. 197.)
La Cour est d'avisque lesmêmesconsidérationss'appliquent dans la pré-

sente espèce.

148. La Cour note que, silesactivités invoquéepsar la Malaisie,tant en
son nom propre qu'entant qu'Etat successeur dela Grande-Bretagne, sont
modestes en nombre, elles présententun caractère variéet comprennent
des actes législatifs,administratifs et quasi judiciaires. Ellescouvrent une
période considérable et présentent une structure révélantl'intention
d'exercer des fonctions étatiquesà l'égard des deuxîles, dans le contexte
de l'administration d'un ensemble plus vaste d'îles.
La Cour ne saurait en outre ignorer le fait que, l'époqueoù ces acti-
vitésont étémenées,ni l'Indonésieni son prédécesseur,les Pays-Bas,
n'ont jamais expriméde désaccord ni élevéde protestation. La Cour
relève à ce propos que les autoritésindonésiennesn'ont mêmepas rap-
peléen 1962et 1963aux autoritésde la colonie du Nord-Bornéo,ou à la
Malaisie après son indépendance,que lesphares construits alors l'avaient
été sur un territoire qu'ellesregardaient comme indonésien;mêmesi elles
considéraientces phares comme simplement destinés à la sécuritéde la

navigation dans une zone revêtantune importance particulière pour la
navigation dans les eaux situéesau large du Nord-Bornéo,une telle atti-
tude est inhabituelle.
149. Compte tenu de l'ensemble des circonstancesde l'affaire,et au vu
en particulier des élémentsde preuve fournis par les Parties, la Courhas title to Ligitan and Sipadan on the basis of the effectivitésreferred to
above.

150. For these reasons,

By sixteen votes to one,
Finds that sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan belongs
to Malaysia.

IN FAVOUR: PresidentGuillaume; Vice-PresidenS t hi; JudgesOda, Ranjeva,
Herczegh, Fleischhauer, Koroma, Vereshchetin, Higgins, Parra-
Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal,Elaraby;
Judgead hoc Weeramantry ;
AGAINSJT u:dgead hoc Franck.

Done in English and in French, the English text beingauthoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this seventeenth day of December, two
thousand and two, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the

archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of
the Republic of Indonesia and the Government of Malaysia, respectively.

(Signed) Gilbert GUILLAUME,
President.

(Signed) Philippe COWREUR,
Registrar.

Judge ODAappends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court; Judge
ad hoc FRANCK appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the
Court.

(InitiaIIed) G.G.
(Initialled) Ph.C. PULAU LIGITAN ET PIJLAU SIPADAN (ARRÊT) 686

conclut que la Malaisie détientun titre sur Ligitan et Sipadan sur la base
des effectivitésmentionnéesci-dessus.

150. Par ces motifs,

Par seizevoix contre une,

Dit que la souverainetésur Pulau Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan appartient
à la Malaisie.
POURM : Guillaume, présidentM. Shi, vice-président;MM. Oda, Ranjeva,
Herczegh, Fleischhauer, Koroma, Vereshchetin,MmeHiggins, MM. Parra-
Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal, Elaraby,
juges; M. Weeramantry, juge ad hoc;
CONTRE :M. Franck, juge ad hoc.

Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglais faisant foi, au Palais de
la Paix,à La Haye, le dix-sept décembre deux milledeux, en trois exem-
plaires, dont l'un restera déposéaux archives de la Cour et les autres
seront transmis respectivement au Gouvernement de la République

d'Indonésieet au Gouvernement de la Malaisie.

Le président,
(Signé) Gilbert GUILLAUME.

Le greffier,

(Signé) Philippe COUVREUR.

M. le juge ODAjoint une déclaration à l'arrêt; M.le juge ad hoc
FRANCjK oint à l'arrêtl'exposéde son opinion dissidente.

(Paraphé) G.G.
(Paraphé) Ph.C.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Judgment of 17 December 2002

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