Judgment of 16 March 2001

Document Number
087-20010316-JUD-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE DE LA DÉLIMITATION MARITIME
ET DES QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES

ENTRE QATAR ET BAHREIN

(QATAR c. BAHREIN)

FOND

ARRÊT DU 16 MARS 2001

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASECONCERNING MARITIME DELIMITATION

AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS
BETWEEN QATAR AND BAHRAIN

(QATAR vBAHRAIN)

MERITS

JUDGMENT OF 16 MARCH2001 COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE DE LA DÉLIMITATION MARITIME
ET DES QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES

ENTRE QATAR ET BAHREÏN
(QATAR c. BAHREIN)

FOND

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

IiEPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASECONCEKNING MARITIME DELIMITATION
AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS

BETWEEN QATAR AND BAHRAIN
(QATAR vBAHRAIN)

MERITS

JUDGMENT OF 16 MARCH 2001 Mode officielde citation:
Délimitationmaritime et questions territoriales
entrC.I.J. Recueil20p. 40nd, arrêt,

Officialcita:ion

Mbetween Qatarand Bahrain,Merits, Judgment,ions
1.CJ. Reports 200140p.

Node vente:
ISSN 0074-4441 Sales number820 1
ISBN 921-070919-5 16 MARS 2001

ARRÊT

DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES
ENTRE QATAR ET BAHREÏN

(QATAR c. BAHREÏN)

FOND

MARITIME DELIMITATIONAND TERRITORIALQUESTIONS
BE'TWEENQATAR AND BAHRAIN

(QATAR vBAHRAIN)

MERITS

16 MARCH 2001

JUDGMENT INTlZRNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 2001 200 1
16March
General List
16 March2001 No. 87

CASECONCERNING MARITIME DELIMITATION

AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS

BETWEENQATAR AND BAHRAIN

(QATAR v.BAHRAIN)

MERITS

Territorial dispute - The Parties' claims.
Geographical setting - Historical context - States formerly protected by
Great Britain - Good ofjces of the King of Saudi Arabia - "Bahrainifor-
mula" - Doha "Mi~zutes".

Zubarah - Content and significance of the Agreements concluded on 6 and
12 September 1868 tletitleenthe British Government and the Chiefs of Bahrain
and Qatar respectiver'y - Lack of direct acts of authority by Bahrain - Irrele-
vunce of ties of allegiance between the Naim tribe and the Ruler of Bahrain -

Recognition of Qatari sovereignty hy the British and the Ottomans - The un-
rat~jîed Anglo-Ottomran Convention of 29 July 1913 and the Anglo-Ottornan
Treaty of 9 March 1914 - Position of the British Government - Acts of
authority by the Rulcr of Qatar - Events of 1937.
Hawar Islands - "Bahrainiformula" - Nature and legal significance of the

British decision of 11 July 1939 - Validity of the decision - Parties' consent
to theprocess -- Absence of procedural violations - Lack of reasons - Oppos-
ability - Significance of ofJicialprotests by Qatar - No needfor the Court to
rule on original title, geographical proximity, territorial unity, effectivités,or

the principle of uti possidetis juris.

Janan and Hadd Janan - No defnition of the Hawar Islands in the British
decision of 11 July 1!)39 - Lists produced hy Bahrain in 1936, 1937, 1938 and
1946 - Letters sent on 23 December 1947to the Rulers of Qatar and Bahrain

by the British Government Authoritative interpretation of the British decision
of 11 July 1939.
Request for the drawing of a single maritime boundary - Delimitation of
variousjurisdictions - Delimitation of the territorial sea of two States with
opposite coasts - Delimitation of the continental shelf and the exclusive eco- MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 41

omic zone of two States with coasts comparable to adjacent coasts.

Law applicableto the delimitation - 1958 Conventionon the Territorial Sea
and the ContiguousZone - 1982 UnitedNations Conventionon the Law of the
Sea - Customary itrternationallaw.
Method consistingof provisionally drawingan equidistanceline and adjusting
it to take acrount oj special circumstances or to obtain an equitable result.

Determination of baselines andbasepoints -- Relevant coasts - Relevant

baselines -Low-water line and straight baselines - Claim to status of an
archipelagicState - Finality of the Judgrnent.
Fasht al Azm - t'art of island or low-tide elevation.
Qit'at Jaradah - Island status- Acts performed titre de souverain -
Construction of navi~:ationalaids.
Fasht ad Dibal - Low-tide elevation - Low-tide elevations situated in the

territorial sea of only one State - Low-tide elevations situated in theover-
lapping zoneof the territorial seas of two States - Question of appropriation.

Equidistancelspeci~ilcircumstances rule - Location and small size of an
island.
Equitableprincipleslrelevant circurnstances - Pearling banks - Line divid-

ing the seabed established in 1947 by the British Government - Respective
lengths of the relevant coasts - Fasht al Jarim - Effect of this maritimefea-
ture on the delimitation.
Delimitation undertaken without affecting rights of third States.
Single delimitation line - Co-ordinatesof that line.
Waters separating the Hawar Islands from the other Bahraini Islands - Not

interna1 waters - Right of innocent passage - Passage of Qatari vessels
through Bahrain's territorial waters.

JUDGMENT

Present: President GUILLAUME V;ice-President SHI; Judges ODA,BEDJAOUI,
RANJEVA,HERCZEGH,FLEISCHHAUERK , OROMA,VERESHCHETIN,
Hicci~s, PARRA-ARANGURE KNO,OIJMANS R,EZEK,AL-KHASAWNEH,
BUERGENTHA JLd;ges ad hoc TORRES BERNARDF EOZ, TIER;Registrar
COUVREUR.

In the case concerning maritime delimitation and territorial questions,
between

the State of Qatar,

represented by
H.E. Mr. Abdullah bin Abdulatif Al-Muslemani, Secretary-General of the
Cabinet of the Government of the State of Qatar,

as Agent and Counisel;
Mr. Adel Sherbini, Legal Adviser, MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS(JUDGMENT) 42

Mr. Sami Abushaikha, Legal Expert,
as Counsel;

Mr. Eric David, Professor of International Law, Université libre de
Bruxelles.
Mr. Ali bin Fetais Al-Meri, Director of Legal Department, Diwan Amiri,
Mr. Jean-Pierre Qluéneudec,Professor of International Law, University of
Paris 1 (panthéon- orb bonne),
Mr. Jean Salmon, Professor emeritus of International Law, Université libre
de Bruxelles, Member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. R. K. P. Shankardass, Senior Advocate, Supreme Court of India,
former President of the International Bar Association,
Sir Ian Sinclair, K.C.M.G., Q.C., Barrister at Law, Member of the Institut
de droit international,
Sir Francis Vallat, G.B.E., K.C.M.G., Q.C., Professor emeritus of Interna-
tional Law, University of London, Member emeritus of the Institut de
droit international,
Mr. Rodman R. Biundy,avocat à la Cour d'appel de Paris, Member of the
New York Bar, Frere CholmeleylEversheds, Paris,
Ms Nanette E. Pilkington, avocat àla Cour d'appel de Paris, Frere Cholme-

ley/Eversheds, Paris,
as Counsel and Aclvocates;
Ms Cheryl Dunn, Member of the State Bar of California, Frere Cholmeleyl
Eversheds, Paris,
Ms Ines Sabine Wilk, Rechtsanwalt before the Court of Appeal, Member of
the Chamber of Lawyers of Berlin,

as Counsel
Mr. Scott B. Edmonds, Director of Cartographic Operations,
MapQuest.com, Columbia, Maryland (United States of America),
Mr. Robert C. Rizzutti, Project Manager, MapQuest.com, Columbia, Mary-
land (United States of America),
Ms Stephanie K. Clark, Senior Cartographer, MapQuest.com, Columbia,
Maryland (United States of America),

as Experts;
H.E. Sheikh Hamad bin Jassim bin Jabor Al-Thani, Minister for Foreign
Affairs of the St;îte of Qatar,
H.E. Mr. Ahmed bin Abdullah Al-Mahmoud, Minister of State for Foreign
Affairs of the State of Qatar,

as Observers;
and

the State of Bahrain,
represented by

H.E. Mr. Jawad Salim Al-Arayed, Minister of State of the State of Bahrain,
as Agent;

Mr. Fathi Kemicha, Kemicha & Associés(Tunis), avocat à la Cour d'appel
de Paris,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht, Q.C., C.B.E., Honorary Professor of the University of
Cambridge, Menlber of the Institut de droit international, MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS(JUDGMENT) 43

Mr. Jan Paulssori, Freshfields, Paris, avocat a la Cour d'appel de Paris,
Member of the District of Columbia Bar (United States of America),

Mr. Michael Reisman, Myres S. McDougal Professor of International Law

of Yale Law <ichool, Member of the Bar of Connecticut, associé de
l'Institut de droit international,
Mr. Robert Volterra, Freshfields, London, Member of the Bar of Upper
Canada,
Mr. Prosper Weil, Emeritus Professor at the University of Paris II (Pan-
théon-Assas),Member of the Académie des sciencesmorales et politiques
(Institut de France), Member of the Institut de droit international,
as Counsel and Aldvocates;

Sheikh Khalid biri Ahmed Al-Khalifa, First Secretary, Ministry of Foreign
Affairs of the State of Bahrain,
Commander Christopher Carleton, M.B.E., Head of the Law of the Sea
Division of the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office,
Mr. Hongwu Chen, Freshfields, Paris, avocat à la Cour d'appel de Paris,
Member of the Beijing Bar,
Mr. Graham Coop, Freshfields, Paris, Barrister and Solicitor of the High
Court of New Zealand and Solicitor of the Supreme Court of England and
Wales.
Mr. Andrew Newcombe, Freshfields, Paris, Member of the Bar of British
Columbia (Canada),

Ms Beth Olsen, Adviser, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Mr. John Wilkinson, Former Reader at the University of Oxford, Emeritus
Fellow, St. Hugh's College, Oxford,
as Advisers;

H.E. Sheikh Mohammed bin Mubarak Al Khalifa, Minister for Foreign
Affairs, State of Bahrain,
H.E. Sheikh Abdul-Aziz bin Mubarak Al Khalifa, Ambassador of the State
of Bahrain to the Netherlands,
H.E. Mr. Mohammed Jaber Al-Ansari, Adviser to His Highness, the Amir of
Bahrain,
Mr. Ghazi Al-Gosaibi, Under-Secretary of Foreign Affairs, State of Bahrain,

H.E. Sheikha Haya Al Khalifa, Ambassador of the State of Bahrain in
France,
Mr. Yousef Mahmood, Director of the Office ofthe Foreign Minister, State
of Bahrain,

as Observers ;
Mr. Jon Addison, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Ms Maisoon Al-Airayed,Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Ms Alia Al-Khatar, Freshfields,
Mr. Nabeel Al-Ruimaihi, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Mr. Hafedh Al-Qassab, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Mr. Yousif Busheery, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Bahrain,

Ms Janet Cooper, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Ms Eleonore Gleitz, Freshfields,
Ms Aneesa Hanna.. Embassy of Bahrain in the United Kingdom,
Ms Jeanette Harding, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain, MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 44

Ms Vanessa Harris, Freshfields,
Ms Iva Kratchanova, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Ms Sonja Knijnsberg, Freshfields,
Ms Sarah Mochen, Freshfields,
Mr. Kevin Mottram, Freshfields,
Mr. Yasser Shaheen, Second Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the
State of Bahrain,
as Administrative :Staff,

THECOURT,

composed as above,
after deliberation,

delivers thefolloiving Judgment :

1. On 8 July 1991 the Minister for Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar
(hereinafter referredto as "Qatar") filed inthe Registry of the Court an Appli-
cation instituting promceedingsgainst the State of Bahrain (hereinafter referred
to as "Bahrain") in respect of certain disputes between the two States relating
to "sovereignty over the Hawar islands, sovereign rights over the shoals of
Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah, and the delimitation of the maritime areas of the two
States".
In this Applicatioin, Qatar contended that the Court had jurisdiction to
entertain the dispute by virtue of two "agreements" concluded between the
Parties in December 1987 and December 1990 respectively, the subject and
scope of the commitment to the Court's jurisdiction being determined, accord-
ing to the Applicant, by a formula proposed by Bahrain to Qatar on 26 Octo-
ber 1988and accepted by Qatar in December 1990(hereinafter referred to as
the "Bahraini formul,an).
2. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, the

Application was forthwith communicated by the Registrar of the Court to the
Government of Bahrain; in accordance with paragraph 3 of that Article, al1
other States entitled to appear before the Court were notified by the Registrar
of the Application.
3. By letters addressed to the Registrar on 14July 1991and 18August 1991,
Bahrain contested the basis of jurisdiction invoked by Qatar.
4. By an Order of 11October 1991,the President of the Court, having con-
sulted the Parties in accordance with Article 31 of the Rules of Court, and tak-
ing into account the agreement reached between them concerning procedure,
decided that the written pleadings should first be addressed to the questions of
the jurisdiction of the Court to entertain the dispute and of the admissibility of
the Application. By the same Order, the President fixedtime-limits forthe filing
of a Memorial by Qatar and a Counter-Mernorial by Bahrain on the questions
ofjurisdiction and adimissibility;those pleadings were duly filedwithin the time
prescribed.
5. By an Order of 26 June 1992, the Court, considering that the filing of
further pleadings by the Parties was necessary, directed that a Reply by Qatar

and a Rejoinder by Bahrain be filedon the questions of jurisdiction and admis-
sibility, and fixed time-limits for the filing of those pleadings; these pleadings
were duly filed within the time prescribed.
6. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferred bycircumstances of the case, extended to 30 September 1996the time-limit for the
filing of those pleadings; these were duly filed within the time-limit thus
extended.
By an Order of 313October 1996, the President of the Court, taking into
account the views expressed by the Agents of the Parties, fixed 31 December
1997 as the time-linlit for the filing by each of the Parties of a Counter-
Memorial on the merits.
14. By letter of 17February 1997,the Agent of Bahrain informed the Court
that his Governmeni: had chosen Mr. Mohamed Shahabuddeen as judge ad
hoc. The latter having resigned from his duties with effect from 18 September
1997,the Agent of Bahrain, by letter of 20 October 1997,informed the Court
that his Government had chosen Mr. Yves Fortier to replace him.
15. By letter of 25 September 1997,the Agent of Bahrain informed the Court
that his Governmeni challenged the authenticity of 81 documents, copies of

which had been produced by Qataras annexes to its Memorial, that this matter
was "distinct and sevi:rablefrom the merits", and that Bahrain would disregard
the content of the documents in question for the purposes of preparing its
Counter-Memorial; ito that communication were attached various document
search and experts' r~zports.

By letter of 8 October 1997,the Agent of Qatar informed the Court that, in
his Government's view, the objections raised by Bahrain were linked to the
merits, that they should be considered and determined within the framework of
the merits, and thatthe Court could not, however, "expect Qatar, at the present
stage of preparation of its own Counter-Memorial, to comment on the detailed
Bahraini allegations".
By letter of 17 0ct.ober 1997,the Agent of Bahrain stated that his Govern-
ment considered that the use by Qatar of the challenged documents gave rise to
"procedural difficulti'esthat strike at the fundamentals of the orderly develop-

ment of the case"; subsequently, by letter of 18November 1997with enclosure,
he informed the Court inte rlia of a "new development" concerning the origin
of the seals with which some of the documents produced by Qatar were
impressed, and which was relevant to assessment of the authenticity of those
documents.
16. At the conclu~.ionof a meeting held by the President of the Court on
25 November 1997with the Agents of the Parties, it was agreed interaliathat
the Counter-Memorials would not cover the question of the authenticity of the
documents challenged by Bahrain and that other pleadings would be submitted
by the Parties at alater date.
17. The Counter-h4emorials of the Parties were duly filedand exchanged on
23 December 1997.
18. By letter of 31 December 1997,the Agent of Bahrain sent the Court par-
ticular documents sulpplementingthose presented on 25 September 1997; sub-
sequently, in a letter of 2 February 1998,he noted that Qatar was continuing in
its Counter-Memorial to rely on the challenged documents and emphasized the

need for the Court to decide the question of their authenticity as a preliminary
issue.
By letter of 26 March 1998,to which wereattached a document and experts'
reports, the Agent of Bahrain also disputed the authenticity of a document
annexed to the Counter-Memorial of Qatar. Consequently, there were in total
82 documents challenged by Bahrain.
19. By an Order of 30 March 1998, the Court, having regard to the viewsexpressed by the Agents of the Parties lit a further meeting held with them by
the President on 17 blarch 1998, fixed30 September 1998as the time-limit for
the filingby Qatar "of an interim report, to be as comprehensive and specificas
possible, on the question of the authenticity of each of the documents chal-
lenged by Bahrain". Ilnthe same Order, the Court directed the submission of a
Reply on the merits by each of the Parties and decided that "the Reply of Qatar
will contain its detailed and definitive position on the question" and that "the
Reply of Bahrain will contain its observations on the interim report of Qatar" ;
it fixed 30March 1999as the time-limit for the filing of those Replies.

20. Qatar duly filed its interim report within the time-limit fixed.Citing the
differing views betwe,enthe experts of the Parties and between its own experts,
Qatar stated in that report that it had "decided [to] disregard al1the 82 chal-

lenged documents for the purposes of the present case so as to enable the Court
to address the merits of the case without further procedural complications".

In a letter of 27 November 1998the Agent of Bahrain noted "the effective
abandonment by Qatar of. . . the impeached documents" and concluded in
consequence that Qatar "cannot make any further reference to the 82 forged
documents, that it wiillnot adduce the content of these documents in connec-
tion with any of its arguments and that, in general, the merits of the case will be
adjudicated by the Ccourtwithout regard to these documents".
By letter of 15 December 1998,the Agent of Qatar expressed "[his Govern-
ment's] regret at the situation that [had] arisen and the inconvenience that this
[had] caused to the Court and Bahrain".
21. By letter of 11 December 1998,the Agent of Qatar requested the Court
to extend to 30 May 1999the time-limit for the filing of the Parties' Replies.

22. By letter of 13 January 1999, the Agent of Bahrain, acknowledging

receipt of the letters of1I and 15 December 1998 from the Agent of Qatar,
stated that his Government "appreciate[d] Qatar's expression of regret" and
"ha[d] no objection to the modification of the Court's Order of 30 March 1998
to accommodate Qatar's request".
By letter of 1 February 1999, the Agent of Qatar, referring to the position
adopted by his Govei-nment with regard to the documents challenged by Bah-
rain, confirmed that ihis was its definitive position.
23. By an Order o~f17 February 1999, the Court, taking into account the
concordant views of the Parties on the treatment of the disputed documents
and their agreement on the extension of time-limits for the filing of Replies,
placed on record the decision of Qatar to disregard, for the purposes of the
present case, the 82 documents whose authenticityhad been challenged by Bah-
rain, decided thatthe Replies would not rely on those documents, and extended
to 30 May 1999the time-limit for the filingof the said Replies; those pleadings
were duly filed withirithe time-limit asthus extended.

24. Following a meeting held by the President of the Court on 28 June 1999
with the Agents of th<:Parties, the Court decided that no further round of writ-
ten pleadings would take place in the case;that the Parties would be authorized
to file supplemental documents, accompanied by a brief commentary of no
more than a page per document, limited to placing the document in question in
the context of the wri.ttenpleadings; and that the Court would fix a time-limit
within which such documents would have to be filedonce it had determined the MARITIME DELIhfITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 48

date for the opening of the hearings on the merits. As instructed by the Court,
the Registrar informed the Agents of the Parties of this decision by letters of
5 July 1999.
25. At a further meeting held by the President of the Court with the Agents
of the Parties on 16 November 1999,the latter expressed their agreement that
the hearings on the rnerits should commence on 29 May 2000; it appeared,
however, that the Parties disagreed as to the length ofthose hearings, and that
they had reached differing views as to the nature and scope of the "supplemen-
ta1documents" that they would be permitted to produce.
Following this meeting, the Court decided:

(1) to permit the Parties to file supplemental experts' reports and historic
documents. but rio further witness statements, it being understood that
they would endeavour to produce such supplementaldocuments in the two
official languages of the Court, French and English;
(2) to fix 1 March 2000 as the time-limit for the filing of the supplemental
documents ;

(3) that the hearings would open on Monday 29 May 2000, at 10 a.m., and
would last for a maximum of five weeks, and that the Parties should
endeavour to reach agreement on the organization of the oral proceedings.
As instructed by the Court, the Registrar informed the Agents of the Parties of

thisdecision by letterii of 9 December 1999.
At Bahrain's request,to which Qatar raised no objection,the Court extended
to 6 March 2000 the time-limit for the filing of supplemental documents by
Bahrain. Each of the Parties proceeded to file its documents within the time-
limit allowed to it.
26. By separate 1eti:ersof 1 March 2000, the Agents of the Parties commu-
nicated to the Court the text of a joint statement embodying the result of their
consultations concerning the organization of the oral proceedings. The Court,
taking account of the views of the Parties, set a timetable for the hearings and
the Registrar communicated it to the Parties by letters of 7 April 2000.
27. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court,
having consulted the Parties, decided that the following would become avail-
able to the public at the openingof the oral proceedings: the Memorials, Coun-
ter-Memorials and Replies and al1the documents annexed thereto; the supple-
mental documents filed by the Parties in March 2000 in accordance with the
relevant decisions of the Court; and al1 the communications, including any

documents or reports annexed thereto, submitted by the Parties to the Court
with regard to the qu1:stionof the authenticity of certain documents.

28. Public hearings were held from 29 May to 29 June 2000, at which the
Court heard the oral arguments and replies of:

For Qatar: H.E. Mr. Abdullah bin Abdulatif Al-Muslemani,
Mr. Jean Salmon,
Ms Nanette E. Pilkington,
Mr. Ali bin Fetais Al-Meri,
Mr. R. IK.P. Shankardass,
Sir Ian Sinclair,
Mr. Rodman R. Bundy,
Mr. Eric David,
Mr. Jeaii-Pierre Quéneudec. MARITIME DELIEAITATIONAND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 49

For Bahrain: H.E. ]Ur. Jawad Salim Al-Arayed,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht,
Mr. Jan Paulsson,
Mr. Michael Reisman,
Mr. R.obert Volterra,
Mr. Fathi Kemicha,
Mr. Prosper Weil.

29. At the hearing:;, Members of the Court put questions to the Parties, to
which replies were givenin writing, in accordance with Article 61, paragraph 4,
of the Rules of Court. Each of the Parties submitted written comments on the
replies provided by t:he other, in accordance with Article 72 of the Rules of
Court.
30. In the course of the oral proceedings and after their closure, each of the
Parties produced new documents pursuant to Article 56 of the Rules of Court
without any objectionibeing raised by the other Party. As Bahrain referred, in
support of its arguments during its last round of oral pleadings, to five new
documents that it had initially proposed to use only for purposes of its reply to
a question from a Member of the Court, the Court decided, in order to safe-
guard the adversarial nature of the proceedings, to authorize Qatar, in accord-
ance with the wish expressed by it, to submit written comments on the line of
argument thus put forward by Bahrain and on the documents in question.
Those comments werisfiled by Qatar within the time-limit fixed for that pur-
pose.

31. In its Application filed in the Registry on 8 July 1991,Qatar made the

following requests :
"Reserving its right to supplement or amend its requests, the State of
Qatar requests thieCourt:

1. To adjudge and declare in accordance with international law
(A) that the State of Qatar has sovereignty over the Hawar islands;
and
(B) that the :Stateof Qatar has sovereign rights over Dibal and Qit'at
Jaradah shoals;

and
II. With due regard to the line dividing the sea-bed of the two States as
described in the British decision of 23 December 1947, to draw in
accordance with international law a singlemaritime boundary between
the maritime areas of sea-bed, subsoil and superjacent waters apper-
taining respectively to the State of Qatar and the State of Bahrain."

32. In its Application as formulated on 30 November 1994("Act to comply
with paragraphs (3) and (4) of operative paragraph 41 of the Judgment of the
Court dated 1July 19'94"),Qatar submitted the following requests:

"The following subjects fa11within thejurisdiction of the Court by virtue
of the rights and obligations created by the international agreements
of December 1987 and 25 December 1990 and are, by virtue of Qatar's
Application datetl 5 July 1991and the present Act, submitted to the Court: 1. The Hawar Islands, including the island of Janan;
2. Fasht ad Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah;
3. The archipelagic baselines ;
4. Zubarah;
5. The areas for fishing for pearls and for fishing for swimming fish and

any other matters connected with maritime boundaries.
It is understood by Qatar that Bahrain defines its claim concerning
Zubarah as a claim of sovereignty.
Further to its Application Qatar requests the Court to adjudge and
declare that Bahrain has no sovereignty or other territorial right over the
island of Janan or over Zubarah, and that any claim by Bahrain concern-
ing archipelagic baselines and areas for fishing for pearls and swimming
fish would be irrelevant for the purpose of maritime delimitation in the

present case."
33. In the course of the written proceedings, the following submissions were
presented by the Parties:

On behalfof /he Govc>rnineno tf Qatar,
in the Memorial, Counter-Memorial and Reply on the merits (mutatis mutandis
identical texts):

"In viewof the above, the State of Qatar respectfully requests the Court,
rejecting al1contirary claims and submissions :

1. To adjudgc:and declare in accordance with international law:
A. (1) That the State of Qatar has sovereignty over the Hawar
islaind;
(2) That Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah shoals are low-tide elevations
which are under Qatar's sovereignty;
B. (1) That the State of Bahrain has no sovereignty over the island
of Janan ;
(2) That the State of Bahrain has no sovereignty over Zubarah;

(3) That any claim by Bahrain concerning archipelagic base-
lines and areas for fishing for pearls and swimming fish
would be irrelevant for the purpose of maritime delimitation
in the present case;
II. To draw a single maritime boundary between the maritime areas of
sea-bed, subsoil and superjacent waters appertaining respectively to
the State of Qatar and the State of Bahrain on the basis that the

Hawar islands and the island of Janan appertain to the State of
Qatar and not to the State of Bahrain, that boundary starting from
point 2 of the delimitation agreement concluded between Bahrain
and Iran in 1971(51 O05'54" E and 27"02'47" N), thence proceeding
in a southerly direction up to BLV (50"57'30" E and 26"33'35" N),
then following the line of the British decision of 23 December 1947
up to NSL.B (50°49'48" E and 26'21'24" N) and up to point L
(50"43'00" E and 25'47'27'' N), thence proceeding to point S1 of
the delimitation agreement concluded by Bahrain and Saudi Arabia
in 1958(50"31'45" E and 25"35'38" N) . . ."On behaif of the Government of Bahrain,
in the Memorial, Couriter-Memorial and Reply on the merits (mutatis mutandis
identical texts:

"In view of the:facts and arguments set forth in Bahrain's Memorial,
Counter-Memorial and .. . Reply;
May it please the Court, rejecting al1contrary claims and submissions,
to adjudge and declare that:

1. Bahrain is sovereign over Zubarah.
2. Bahrain is sovereign over the Hawar Islands, including Janan and
Hadd Janan.
3. In viewof Bahrain's sovereignty over al1the insular and other features,
including Fasht ad Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah, comprising the Bahraini
archipelago, the maritime boundary between Bahrain and Qatar is as
described in Part Two of Bahrain's Memorial, Part Two of Bahrain's

Counter-Memorial and in [its]Reply.

Bahrain reserve:sthe right to supplement or modify the preceding sub-
missions."

34. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presentedby the
Parties:

On behalfof the Government of Qatar,
at the hearing of 22 June 2000:

"The State of Qatar respectfully requests the Court, rejecting al1con-
trary claims and submissions:
1. To adjudge and declare in accordance with international law:

A. (1) That the State of Qatar has sovereignty over the Hawar
islands ;
(2) That Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah shoals are low-tide elevations
whiishare under Qatar's sovereignty ;
B. (1) That the State of Bahrain has no sovereignty over the island
of Janan;
(2) That the State of Bahrain has no sovereignty overZubarah;
(3) That any claim by Bahrain concerning archipelagic base-
lineij and areas for fishing for pearls and swirnrning fish
wouildbe irrelevant for the purpose of maritime delimitation
in the present case;

II. To draw a single maritime boundary between the maritime areas
of sea-bed, subsoil and superjacent waters appertaining respec-
tively to the State of Qatar and the State of Bahrain on the basis
that Zubarah, the Hawar islands and the island of Janan apper-
tain to the State of Qatar and not to the State of Bahrain, that
boundary starting from point 2 of the delimitation agreement con-
cluded between Bahrain and Iran in 1971 (51"05'54" E and
27O02'47" IV), thence proceeding in a southerly direction up to
BLV (50"57'30" E and 26" 33'35"N), then following the line of the
British decision of 23 December 1947 up to NSLB (50'49'48" E

and 26"21'24"N) and up to point L (50"43'00" E and 25"47'27"N), thence proceeding to point S1 of the delimitation agreement
concluded by Bahrain and Saudi Arabia in 1958 (50"31'45" E
and 25"3fi'38"N)."

On behay of the Gov,ernrnentof Bahrain,

at the hearing of 29J'une2000:
"Having regar,dto the factsand arguments set forth in Bahrain'sMemo-
rial, Counter-Memorial, and Reply, and in the present hearings,

May it please the Court, rejecting al1contrary claims and submissions,
to adjudge and cleclarethat:
1. Bahrain is sovereignover Zubarah.
2. Bahrain is sovereign over the Hawar Islands, including Janan and

Hadd Janan.
3. In view ofBa:hrain'ssovereignty overal1the insular and other features,
including Fasht adDibal and Qit'at Jaradah, comprising the Bahraini
archipelago, the maritime boundary between Bahrain and Qatar is as
described inPart Two of Bahrain's Memorial."

35. The Stateof Qatarand the State of Bahrain are both located in the
southern part of the ArabianIPersian Gulf (hereinafter referred to as "the
Gulf'), almost halfway between the mouth of the Shatt al'Arab, to the
north-west, and the Strait of Hormuz, at the Gulfs eastern end, to the
north of Oman. The mainland to the west and south of the main island of

Bahrain and to the south of the Qatar peninsula is part of the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia. The mainland on the northern shore of the Gulf is part
of Iran (see sketch-rnap No. 1, p. 53 below).
The Qatar peninsula projects northward into the Gulf, on the West
from the bay called Dawhat Salwah, and on the east from the region
lying to the south of Khor al-Udaid. The capital of the State of Qatar,

Doha, is situated ori the eastern coast of the peninsula.
Bahrain is composed of a number of islands, islets and shoals situated
off the eastern and western coasts of its main island, which is also called
al-Awal Island. The capital of the State of Bahrain, Manama, is situated
in the north-eastern part of al-Awal Island.
Zubarah is 1ocate:don the north-west coast of the Qatar peninsula,

opposite the main island of Bahrain.
The Hawar Islancls are located in the immediate vicinity of the central
part of the West Coast of the Qatar peninsula, to the south-east of the
main island of Bahrain and at a distance of approximately 10 nautical
miles from the latter.
Janan is located off the south-western tip of Hawar Island proper.

Fasht ad Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah are two maritime features located MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL. QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 54

off the north-western Coast of the Qatar peninsula and to the north-east

of the main island of Bahrain.

36. The Court will begin with a brief account of the complex history
which forms the background to the dispute between the Parties.
37. Navigation in the Gulf was traditionally in the hands of the inhabi-

tants of the region. From the beginning of the sixteenth century, Euro-
pean powers began to show interest in the area, which lay along one of
the trading routes with India. Thus the Portuguese took control of Hor-
muz, on the strait of the same name, where the Gulf meets the Indian
Ocean. Portugal's virtual monopoly of trade was not challenged until the
beginning of the seventeenth century. Great Britain was then anxious to

consolidate its presi:nce in the Gulf to protect the growing commercial
interests of the East India Company.

38. Between 1797and 1819 Great Britain despatched numerous puni-
tive expeditions in rlrsponse to acts of plunder and piracy by Arab tribes
led by theQawahim against British and local ships. In 18 19,Great Britain

took control of Ras al Khaimah, headquarters of the Qawasim, and
signed separate agreements with the various sheikhs of the region. These
sheikhs undertook to enter into a General Treaty of Peace. Such a treaty
was in fact signed in January 1820 by the British Government. the
Sheikhs of Ras al K.haimah, of Jourat al Kamra, of Abu Dhabi and of
Zyah; in the following weeks, it was also signed by the Sheikh of Dubai,

the Chief of Sharjah, the Sheikhs of Bahrain, the Chief of Ajman and the
Chief of Umm al Qaywayn. By this Treaty, these sheikhs and chiefs
undertook on behall'of themselves and their subjects interuliu to abstain
for the future from plunder and piracy. Piracy nonetheless persisted, and
in 1835 a maritime truce was concluded, on the initiative of the British,
by the heads of what then became known as the "Trucial Sheikhdoms".
This truce was renewed on a yearly basis until the signature on24August

1853 of a Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity, compliance being
guaranteed by Great Britain, by force if necessary. The need to establish
peace at sea and to protect its interests, drew Great Britain into interven-
ing in tribal disputes, though such intervention did not establish any Brit-
ish sovereignty or suzerainty over the various sheikhdoms or territories in
the area. It was only towards the end of the nineteenth century that Great

Britain would adopt a general policy of protection in the Gulf, conclud-
ing "exclusive agreements" with most sheikhdoms, including those of
Bahrain. Abu Dhabi, Sharjah and Dubai. Representation of British
interests in the region was entrusted to a British Political Resident in
the Gulf, installed in Bushire (Persia), to whom British Political Agents
were subseauentlv subordinated in various sheikhdoms with which Great

Britain had concluded agreements. MARITIME DELIlvllTATlON AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 55

39. On 31 May 1861 the British Government signed a "Perpetual
treaty of peace and friendship" with Sheikh Mahomed bin Khalifah,
referred to in the treaty as independent Ruler of Bahrain. Under this
treaty, Bahrain undertook inter trlito refrain from al1maritime aggres-
sion of every description, while Great Britain undertook to provide
Bahrain with the niecessary support in the maintenance of security of

its possessions agaiinst aggression. There was no provision in this treaty
defining the extent of these possessions.
40. Following hostilities on the Qatar peninsula, the towns of Doha
and Wakrah were destroyed in 1867 by the combined forces of the
Sheikhs of Bahrain and Abu Dhabi. This action led the British Political
Resident in the Gulf to intervene. He approached Sheikh Ali bin Khali-

fah, Chief of Bahrain, and Sheikh Mohamed Al-Thani, Chief of Qatar,
and, on 6 and 12September 1868respectively, occasioned each to sign an
agreement with Great Britain. By these agreements, the Chief of Bahrain
recognized irztcruliithat certain acts of piracy had been committed by
Mahomed bin Khalifah, his predecessor. and, "[iln view of preserving the
peace at sea, and precluding the occurrence of further disturbance and in

order to keep the Political Resident informed of what happens", he
promised to appoint an agent with the Political Resident; for his part, the
Chief of Qatar undertook inter uliato return to and reside peacefully in
Doha. not to put to sea with hostile intention, and, in the event of dis-
putes or misunderstanding arising, invariably to refer to the Political
Resident. On 13 September 1868. again through the mediation of the

British Political Resident, tribal chiefs "residing in the province of Qatar"
solemnly agreed to lpayto Sheikh Ali bin Khalifah, Chief of Bahrain. the
annual sums previously paid by them to the Chiefs of Bahrain; these
sums were paid to Mohamed Al-Thani of Doha. who was in turn to
transmit them togei.her with his own contribution to the Political Resi-
dent for delivery of the total to the agent of the Chief of Bahrain.

41. According to Bahrain, the "events of 1867-1868" demonstratethat
Qatar was not independent from Bahrain; the British Political Resident
is said rather to have "extracted iinilateral personal undertakings from
the Rulers of Bahra~inand Abu Dhabi, as well as from Muhammed bin
Thani, chief of the Doha confederation, not to engage in naval military

activities". Furthermore, the formalization of the taxes payable by the
dependent tribes of the Qatar peninsula to the Ruler of Bahrain, in the
manner provided for by the Agreement of 13 September 1868 between
the Sheikhs of Qatar and the Sheikh of Bahrain. confirmed the latter as
the sovereign authority on the peninsula; Sheikh Al-Thani of Doha had
thus acknowledged the continuing authority of the Rulers of Bahrain and

their right to claim taxes from him. ln Bahrain's view, until 1916. there
was thus no State of Qatar possessing attributes of sovereignty over the
whole of the peninsula of Qatar. 42. According tcs Qatar, on the contrary, the 1868 Agreements for-
mally recognized fi3r the first time the separate identity of Qatar. They
treated the Ruler of Bahrain and the Ruler of Qatar as equals and ako
confirmed that the British recognized that the authority of the Sheikh of
Bahrain did not exiend to the territory of Qatar.The British Government

considered that the undertaking of 13 September 1868, providing for the
payment of tribute to the Ruler of Bahrain by Mohamed Al-Thani on
behalf of the chiefs of Qatari tribes, in no way affected the independence
of Qatar vis-à-vis Eiahrain; that payment was to be considered as a fixed
contribution by Qatar to sums to be paid by both Qatar and Bahrain to
the "Wahhabis", in order to secure their frontiersagainst the latter,more

particularly during the pearl-diving season. The tribute was in any event
only paid for two years and was discontinued "when the Turks estab-
lished themselves in Bida" (which is part of present-day Doha).

43. While Great Britain had become the dominant maritirne Power in
the Gulf by this time. the Ottoman Empire, for its part, had re-estab-
lished its authority over extensive areas of the land on the southern side
of the Gulf. At the beginning of the 1870s,the Ottomans installed a gar-
rison in Bida and made Qatar an administrative division of their empire.
They accorded their protection to Sheikh Mohamed Al-Thani. who was

designated k~~itnuk~inîof thekuru of Qatar. They remained for more than
40 years on the Qatar peninsula.
44. In the years following the arriva1 of the Ottomans on the Qatar
peninsula, Great Britain increased its influence over Bahrain. By an
agreement of 22 December 1880 with Lieutenant-Colonel Ross. British
Political Resident in the Gulf, Sheikh Isa bin Ali al Khalifah, Chief of

Bahrain, bound hirnself and his successors to abstain from entering into
any negotiations, or making treaties of any sort, or establishing diplo-
matic or consular agencies, with any third government without the con-
sent of the British. The special ties thus established culminated in the
conclusion of the Exclusive Protection Agreement of 13 March 1892

between Sheikh Isa bin Ali, Chief of Bahrain, and Lieutenant-Colonel
Talbot, British Political Resident in the Gulf. Under this agreement the
Chief of Bahrain undertook it1tc.r.ulthat neither he nor his heirs and
successors would enter into any agreement or correspondence "with any
Power other than the British Government". He undertook further that he
would not permit, \vithout the assent of the British Government, the resi-

dence within Bahrain of the agent of any other Government and that he
would not cede. sell, mortgage or otherwise give for occupation any part
of his territory save to the British Government.

45. Subsequently, Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire, desiring to

settle certain questions relating to their respective interests in the Gulf
and in the surroui-iding territories. as well as to preclude al1 possiblecauses of misunderstanding with respect to those questions, opened treaty
negotiations. On 29 July 1913,the Anglo-Ottoman "Convention relating
to the Persian Gulf and surrounding territories" was signed, but it was
never ratified. SecticonII of this Convention dealt with Qatar. Article11
described the course of the line which, according to the agreement

between the parties, was to separate the Ottoman Sunjuk of Nejd from
the "peninsula of all-Qatar" (see paragraph 87 below).

46. Qatar contends that the non-ratification of this Convention was
largely attributable to the outbreak of the First World War. Qatar
further points out t.hat the Ottomans and the British had also signed, on
9 March 1914, a treaty concerning the frontiers of Aden, which was

ratified that same year and whose Article III provided that the line sep-
arating Qatar from the S~~njuhof Nejd would be "in accordance with
Article 11 of the Ariglo-Ottoman Convention of 29 July 1913 relating to
the Persian Gulf and the surrounding territories".
47. For its part, Bahrain contends that "[tlhe 1913 Convention was
not ratified because the complex set of interdependent proposals . ..ulti-

mately fell apart": the "Wahhabis", under Ibn Saud, had expelled the
Ottomans from Hasa on the eastern Coast of Arabia, and the Al-Thani
had rapidly lost their control over Doha, while the Ruler of Bahrain had
remained in possession, inter (lli~, of the northern part of the Qatar
peninsula. Bahrain also observes that the text of the 1913treaty and that
of the 1914 treaty do not coincide.

48. After the cc~nclusion of the 1913 Convention, the Ottomans
maintained their g;lrrison at Doha, of which the last personnel left
only following the arriva1 of a British warship on 19 August 1915.
Negotiations subsequently ensued between Great Britain and Sheikh
Al-Thani regarding an exclusive agreement, comparable to those

concluded with the other Arab Sheikhs. These negotiations resulted
in the signature, cm 3 November 1916, of a treaty between Great
Britain and the Sheikh of Qatar. Under this treaty. whose preamble
referred to the untlertakings by the grandfather of Sheikh Al-Thani
under the Anglo-Qatari Agreement of 12 September 1868, the Sheikh
of Qatar bound hiniself interLII~nIot to "have relations nor correspond
with, nor receive the agent of. any other Power without the consent

of the High British Government"; nor, without such consent, to cede
to any other Power or its subjects, land either on lease, sale, transfer,
gilt, or in any oth'er way whatsoever: nor, without such consent, to
grant any monopollies or concessions. In 1-eturn, the British Govern-
ment undertook to protect the Sheikh of Qatarand his subjects and terri-
tory from al1 aggression by sea and to do its utmost to exact repara-

tion for al1 injuries that the Slieikh of Qatar or his subjects might
suffer "wheii proceeding to sea upon [their] lawf~il occasions". The
British Government also undertook to grant its "good offices" should the
Sheikh or his subjects be assailed by land within the territories of Qatar. MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITOR14L QUESTIONS (.IIJDGMENT) 58

There was no provision in this treaty defining the extent of those
territories.
49. The first petroleum concession between the Ruler of Bahrain and

Eastern and General Syndicate Ltd. was concluded on 2 December 1925.
Under the terms of that agreement. the Ruler of Bahrain granted the
company an exclusive exploration licence for a period not exceeding two
years (with the possibility of extension for a further period of two years)
"throughout the whole of the territories under his control". The Ruler of
Bahrain also undertook to grant Eastern and General Syndicate Ltd.,

either during the duration of the exploration licence or upon its expiry, a
prospecting licence over areas to be selected by the company with the
approval of the Ruler and with the cognizance of the British Political
Resident in the Gulf. In addition, the Ruler undertook to grant to the
company, on the ex.piry of the prospecting licence, a "mining lease over
an aggregate area not exceeding 100,000 acres", divided into blocks to be

selected by the company. Beginning in 1928,negotiations were conducted
between Eastern and General Syndicate Ltd., its successor the Bahrain
Petroleum Compan:y Ltd. (which, in 1930,took over the 1925concession)
and the Ruler of Bahrain for a concession over the "additional" or "un-
allotted" area. that is, that portion of the Bahrain islands and territorial
waters remaining after the company had chosen its 100,000 acres.

50. In March 1934discussions were held between the British Political
Resident and the Rider of Qatar regarding the grant of an oil concession
by the latter. On II May 1935, the British Political Resident in the Gulf

wrote to the Ruler of Qatar concerning the protection which Great Brit-
ain was prepared to extend to hi111 on land. In return for this protection.
the Ruler of Qatar vqasasked to grant a petroleum concession to the Brit-
ish company Anglo-Persian Oil Company. Such a concession was granted
on 17 May 1935. The second article of the Agreement stated that the
company could opei-ate in any part of the State of Qatar, Le., "the whole

area over which the Shaikh [of Qatar] rules and which is marked on the
north of the line drawn on the map attached" to the Agreement, which
line separated the peninsula of Qatar from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

5 1. The negotiations conducted between 1928 and 1933 between the
Ruler of Bahrain and the concessionaires for a concession in the addi-

tional area in Bahraini territory were intended to identify the acreage of
land and territorial waters which would be included in that concession in
the unallotted area: they were suspended in 1933 at the request of the
Bahrain Petroleum Company Ltd. and were not resumed until 1936,
when Petroleum Concessions Ltd.. which had taken over the concession
granted by Qatar 1.0 the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, joined in the

bidding.
52. In a letter dated 28 April 1936, Charles Belgrave, Adviser to the
Government of Bahrain, referring to the negotiations then in progress forthe grant of an oil concession over the territory of Bahrain, informed the
British Political Agent that "the Hawar group of islands lying between
the southern extrennity of Bahrain Island and the coast of Qatar [was]
indisputably part OITthe State of Bahrain".

53. On 29 April 1936the representative of Petroleum Concessions Ltd.
wrote to the British India Office, which had responsibility for relations
with the protected !Statesin the Gulf, drawing its attention to the Qatar
oil concession of 17 May 1935 and observing that the Ruler of Bahrain,
in his negotiations with Petroleum Concessions Ltd. over the unallotted
area, had laid clairri to Hawar; he accordingly enquired to which of the

two Sheikhdoms (Bahrain or Qatar) Hawar belonged.

54. In a letter d;ited 6 May 1936, addressed to the British Political
Resident in the Gulf, the Political Agent in Bahrain supported Bahrain's
claim to Hawar. On 25 May 1936,the Political Resident wrote to the Sec-
retary of State for India in London that he was inclined to the view that
Hawar should be rcigarded as belonging to the Sheikh of Bahrain and

that the burden of disproving his clairn should lie on the Sheikh of Qatar.
On 10 July 1936 t~vo India Office officiaisinformed Bahrain, through
Charles Belgrave, that on the evidence then available to the British Gov-
ernment Hawar appeared to belong to the Sheikh of Bahrain and that
any potential claimant would therefore have the burden of disproving the
Bahrain claim. On 14 July 1936, Petroleum Concessioiis Ltd. was

informed by the lndlia Office that it appeared to the British Government
that Hawar belonged to the Sheikh of Bahrain. The content of those
communications was not conveyed to the Sheikh of Qatar.

55. In 1937, Qatair attempted to impose taxation on the Naim inhab-

iting the Zubarah region; Bahrain opposed this as it claimed rights over
this region. Relations between Qatar and Bahrain deteriorated. Negotia-
tions started between the two States in spring of 1937 and were broken
off in July of that year. According to Bahrain Qatar illegally took Zuba-
rah by f&ce and illegally destroyed the community of the Bahraini sub-
jects living there. Qatar contends that the steps taken by its Ruler in 1937
were only designed to exercise his authority by force on his own territory

over certain members of the Naim tribe, and to put an end to their
smuggling and othei- unlawful activities.
56. Qatar alleges that Bahrain clandestinely and illegally occupied the
Hnwar Islands in 1937.Bahrain maintains that its Ruler was simply per-
forming legitimate acts of continuing administration in his own territory.

57. By a letter dai:e10 May 1938,the Ruler of Qatar protested to the
British Government against what he called "the irregular action taken by
Bahrain against Qatar", to which he had already referred in February
1938 in a conversaticonwhich took place in Doha with the British Politi-
cal Agent in Bahrain. On 20 May 1938, the latter wrote to the Ruler ofQatar, inviting him to state his case on Hawar at the earliest possible
moment. The Ruler of Qatar responded by a letter dated 27 May 1938.
Some months later., on 3 January 1939, Bahrain submitted a counter-
claim dated 22 December 1938. In a letter of 30 March 1939,the Ruler of
Qatar presented his comments on Bahrain's counter-claim to the British

Political Agent in Bahrain. The Rulers of Qatar and Bahrain were
informed on 11July 1939 that the British Government had decided that
the Hawar Islands belonged to Bahrain.

58. Qatar points to no less than five protests it claims to have made,
on 4 August 1939, 18 November 1939, 7 June 1940, 13 July 1946 and

21 February 1948,against this decision and the "unlawful occupation" of
the Hawar Islands by Bahrain. The latter claims that Qatar protested
only three times between 1939 and 1965 against the British decision of
1939, in July 1946, February 1948and April 1965.
Bahrain also States that it made, from 1937 until the mid-1960s,
numerous officially recorded claims to Great Britain and Qatar in rela-

tion to the Zubarah region.
59. On 24 June 1944.the British Political Agent, acting as mediator in
order to resolve the dispute over Zubarah, succeeded in getting the two
parties to sign an agreement providing as follows:

"The Ruler of Bahrain and Ruler of Qatar agree to the restoration
of friendly relations between them as they were in the past. The
Ruler of Qatar undertakes that Zubara will remain without anything

being done in it which did not exist in the past. This is from consid-
eration and reverence to Al Khalifah. The Ruler of Bahrain, also, on
his part undertakes not to do anything that might harm the interest
of the Ruler of Qatar. This agreement does not affect the agreement
with the Oil Company operating in Qatar whose rights are pro-
tected."

60. According to Bahrain, the weakness of this agreement lay in its use

of the concept of the stutuCJUO antr; as the basic goal of both parties was
to achieve recognition of their sovereignty over the Zubarah region, each
interpreted the agreement in the way that best suited it.
61. In May 1946, the Bahrain Petroleum Company Ltd. sought per-
mission to drill in certainareas of the continental shelf, some of which
the British considered might belong to Qatar. The British Government

decided that this permission could not be granted until there had been a
division of the sea-bed between Bahrain and Qatar. It studied the matter
and. on 23 December 1947,the British Political Agent in Bahrain sent the
Rulers of Qatar and Bahrain two letters, in the same terms, stating inter
cilicithe following :

"2. 1 am, therefore, to forward herewith for Your Excellency's
information a copy of a map showingthe line (from point 'M' to the

'Bahrain Light 'Vessel')which, His Majesty's Government considers, divides in accordance with equitable principles the sea-bed aforesaid.
This is a median line based generally on the configuration of the
coast-line of the Bahrain main island and the peninsula of Qatar.

3. With the exceptions noted below His Majesty's Government
will, in future, regard al1the sea-bed lying to the west of this line as
being under the sovereignty of [the Sheikh of Bahrain] and al1 the
sea-bed lying to the east of it as being under the sovereignty of [the

Slieikh of Qatar]. This decision covers the sea-bed only and not the
waters above it and is without prejudice to existing navigation
rights.
4. The exceptions referred to above are:

His Highness the Shaikh of Bahrain is recognised as having

sovereign right:~in
(i)the areas.of the Dibal and Jaradeh shoals which are above the

spring tide low-water level. After a full examination of the
position under international law. His Majesty's Government
are of opinion that these shoals should not be considered to
be islands having territorial waters.

(ii)Hawar Island, the islands of the Hawar group and the terri-
torial waters pertaining thereto and delimited again in accord-
ance with the usual principles of international law. These
islands and their territorial waters are shown on the map

enclosed by the line A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, 1,J,K, and L. As
this deliimitation will, however, leave a narrow tongue of
water (fc~rmedby the points M, J, and 1) pertaining to Qatar
it has been decided to alter the line H, 1, J, to H, P, Q. thus

exchanging an equal area P 1 O for O J Q. It should be noted
that Jan;an Island is iiot regarded as being included in the
islands of the Hawar group.

5. The points mentioned are defined as follows:

Position T~LIC N(1~1ticl11 Frot~
Brririrlg Miles

A 015" 3.00 N. point of Rabadh 1.
B 056'/2" 3.20 N.E. corner of Ajaira 1.
C 064" 2.06 E. corner of No. 3 Al Wakara
3, ,> 33
D 058" 1.14 3, 9. 3,
E 163'/2" 1.23
F 141'' 0.81 No. 9 Bu Sa'ada 1.
G 168" 1.20 3, 3%

H 159l/2" 0.30 S.E. corne,,of3,awar 1.
1 298'h0 7.31
J 24 1" 4.77 W. corner of Al Ma'tarad 1.
K 291"' 2.36 3, 3.
3, >,,3
L 324'/r0 3.38 MARITIME DELllMITATlON AND TERRITORIAL OCESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 62

62. In 1950. the Ruler of Bahrain and the Ruler of Qatar reached
another agreement on the status of Zubarah thanks to mediation by the
British Political Agent in Bahrain; in a letter dated 7 February 1950 to
the Foreign Office, the British Political Resident in the Gulf described

that agreement in tihe following terms:
"[Tlhe Ruler of Qatar has agreed that the Shaikh of Bahrain may

send his follow,:rs and tribesmen to Zubarah for grazing without any
passport or customs formalities and also to leave the fort vacant
provided in return the Shaikh of Bahrain will allow goods for Qatar
the same privileges in respect to the payment of transit duties as
goods for Sau,di Arabia. Shaikh Salman has accepted this and is
making arrangements to send from 150to 200 of his people to Zuba-

rah with the nt:cessary rations to support them."

63. That agreement did not put an end to the dispute. On 5 May 1954.
the British Government proposed another agreement, but the parties
rejected it.
64. In 1964. the British Political Agent in Qatar forwarded to the
Qatari authorities a request for modification of the 1947line that Bahrain

had sent to the British Government in the form of a memorandum claim-
ing inter U/~Cthat I'asht ad Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah were islands with
territorial waters and that they belonged to Bahrain. In response. on
21 April 1965 Qatar sent the British Government a memorandum in
which it denied Balirain's claims and recommended arbitration to settle
the disputes between the two States. No progress was achieved in settling

these disputes in th12following years.

65. In 1971 Qatar and Bahrain ceased to be British protected States,
following an Exchange of Notes between the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland and Bahrain on 15 August 1971, and an

Exchange of Notes between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland and Qatar on 3 September 1971. On 21 September
1971. Qatar and Bahrain were both admitted to the United Nations.

66. Beginning in 1976, mediation, also referred to as "good offices",
was conducted by the King of Saudi Arabia with the agreement of the

Amirs of Bahrain and Qatar. The first consequence of that mediation was
that a set of "Principles for the Framework for Reaching a Settlement"
was approved duririg a tripartite meeting in March 1983. As a result of
the persistence of the dispute over the following years. the King of Saudi
Arabia sent the Arnirs of Qatar and Bahrain letters in identical terms
dated 19 December 1987, in which he put forward new proposals. Those

proposals were accepted by letters from the two Heads of State, dated
respectively 21 and 26 December 1987. In addition, on 21 December 1987
an announcement vias issued by Saudi Arabia, the terms of which were MARITIME DELIR4ITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT)
63

approved by the two Parties. That announcement stated that Bahrain
and Qatar accepted "that the matter be submitted for arbitration, in pur-
suance of the princiiplesof the framework for settlement which had been
agreed by the two sisterly States, particularly the 'fifth principle"' as

adopted in 1983, the text of which was quoted. It went on to state that
"under the five pririciples" it had been agreed to establish a Tripartite
Committee, whose task was described in the same terms as in the
Exchange of Letters of December 1987.
67. That Tripartite Committee held a preliminary meeting in Riyadh
in December 1987. Qatar theii presented a draft of a joint letter to the

International Court of Justice which expressly contemplated, intcr trliu,
the drafting of a spe.cialagreement. Bahrain proposed an agreement of a
procedural character, relating to the organization and functioning of the
Committee. The Committee held its first forma1 meeting on 17 January
1988. Bahrain then filed a revised version of its draft stating expressly
that the Committee was formed with the aim of reaching a special agree-

ment. After a discussion, it was agreed that each of the Parties would
present a draft spec.ial agreement. Several texts were subsequently pre-
sented to the Committee by Qatar and Bahrain, but no agreement could
be reached in the course of the first four meetings. Then, on 26 October
1988,following an initiative by Saudi Arabia, the Heir Apparent of Bah-

rain. when on a visit to Qatar, transmitted to the Heir Apparent of Qatar
a text subsequently known as the "Bahraini formula", which reads as
follows :

"The Parties request the Court to decide any matter of territorial
right or other title or interest which may be a matter of difference
between them; and to draw a single maritime boundary between
their respective maritime areas of seabed, subsoil and superjacent
waters."

68. During the fifth meeting of the Committee on 15 November 1988,
the representative of Saudi Arabia appealed to the Parties to come to an

agreement and poinited out that the date of the beginning of the Co-
operation Council of Arab States of the Gulf summit in December 1988
would be the date for terminating the Committee's mission whether or
not it had succeedecl in achieving what had been requested from it. The
Committee held its sixth meeting on 6-7 December 1988 but was unable
to complete its work for lack of agreement between the Parties. With this

sixth meeting. the Saudi mediator considered that the mission of the Tri-
partite Committee would come to an end, and in fact no further meetings
of the Committee were held.
69. The matter was again the subject of discussion two years later, on
the occasion of the annual meeting of the Co-operation Council of Arab
States of the Gulf at Doha in December 1990.Qatar then let it be known

that it was ready to accept the Bahraini formula. Following that meeting,
the Foreign Ministers of Qatar, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia signed Min-
utes recording that "Within the framework of the good offices of . . . M4RITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 64

King Fahd Ben Abdul Aziz", consultations concerning the existing dis-
pute between Qatar and Bahrain had taken place between the Foreign
Ministers of those two States in the presence of the Foreign Minister of
Saudi Arabia. Those Minutes, the text of which was in Arabic and whose

English translations supplied by the Parties differ on certain points, pro-
vided into uli~~that King Fahd could continue his good offices until May
1991.The good offices of King Fahd did not lead to the desired outcome
within the time-limit thus fixed, and on 8 July 1991Qatar instituted pro-
ceedings before the Court against Bahrain (see paragraphs 1 cfsrq.
above).

70. The first of the territorial questions before tlie Court is that of sov-
ereignty over Zubarah. which is situated in the north-western part of the
Qatar peninsula (sec sketch-niap No. 3, p. 105 below).
71. The "Act to comply with paragraphs (3)and (4)of operative para-

graph 41 of the Judgment of the Court dated 1 July 1994", presented by
Qatar on 30 November 1994, included Zubarah as number 4 of the sub-
jects falling within the jurisdictioii of the Court by virtue of the interna-
tional agreements of December 1987and 25 December 1990. In the same
"Act", Qatar explained that it understood that "Bahrain defines its claim
conceriiing Zubarah as a daim of sovereignty". Accordingly, in its final

submissions, which repeat its earlier submissions, Qatar requests the
Court, rejecting al1 contrary claims and submissions, to declare and
adjudge in accordarice with international law "that the State of Bahrain
has no sovereignty over Zubarah" (see paragraphs 33 and 34 above.)

72. Bahrain mainitains the opposite position. In its final submissions,

wliich repeat its earlier submissions. it requests the Court, rejecting al1
contrary claims and submissions, to adjudge and declare that "Bahrain is
sovereign over Zubarah" (see paragraphs 33 and 34 above).
73. In support of'its claim Bahrain argues generally

"that from 1783 until 1937.it had full and internationally recognised
title to the region, both by reference to the international standard of
contextually proportionate effective occupation and by reference to
tlie regional standard of the fealty of the inhabitants of Zubarah to
the Ruler of Bahsain".

74. Bahrain states that in the 1760sthe Al-Khalifah camefrom present-
day Kuwait and establislied themselves in Zubarah, which quickly flour-

ished, rich in trade and pearl fishing; and that, some decades later, the
Al-Khalifah moved their seat of government to the islands of Bahrain.
According to Bahrain. the Al-Khalifah Sheikhs resided in the islands of
Bahrain during summers and in Zubarah during winters: towards the end
of the eighteenth century, they decided to establish their court on the MARITIME DELlhllTATlON AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JIIDGMENT) 65

main island of Bahrain and subsequently on al-Muharraq, and they
appointed a governor to rule the province of Zubarah. The town of

Zubarah then entered into decline: it was destroyed in 1878 by the Al-
Thani and was entirely vacated in 1895following a military intervention
by the British. The area nevertheless remained under the Sheikh of Bah-
rain's authority through a tribal confederation led by the Naim, adher-
entsof the Al-Khalilàh of Bahrain. Great Britain had furthermore always

considered that Bahrain had rights to sovereignty in Zubarah.

75. Bahrain also !Statesthat in 1937Sheikh Abdullah of Doha tried to
impose taxation on the Naim who complained about this to Sheikh

Hamad of Bahrain; that a series of unsuccessful negotiations took place
between Bahrain and Qatar; and that, on 7 July 1937,"the Al-Thani and
their adherents forcibly evicted from Zubarah the Naim tribesmen loyal
to Balirain who represented the continuing authority in Zubarah of the
Riilers of Bahrain".

76. Bahrain maintains that Qatar's "aggression" against Zubarah was
an unlawful use of force from which no legal rights could arise, support-
ing its contention by reference to various international instruments from
the relevant period dealing with the illegal use of force. Therefore,
according to Bahrain, even if Qatar has physically controlled Zubarah

from 1937up to the present day, such factual occupation did not give rise
to a valid title of sovereignty over Zubarah.
77. Qatar claims that a town existed in the area of Zubarah well before
two sections of the: Al-Utub tribe - the Bin Khalifah and the Al-
Jalahma - left present-day Kuwait for Bahrain and thence for Zubarah.

In Zubarah, the local sheikhs laid down a condition for their settlement:
payment of the usua.1taxes in exchange for the right to trade in the area.
The Al-Utub refused this condition and in 1768 built the fort known as
Murair at some distiince outside the outer wall of Zubarah. According to
Qatar, the Al-Utub left Murair in 1783to settle in Bahrain. The town of

Zubarah was destroyed in 1878 after Sheikh Jassim bin Thani of Qatar
had taken steps to punish acts of piracy and attacks on other tribes by
its inhabitants. Qatar denies that the Bin Khalifah continued to rule
Zubarah during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries through

members of the Naim.

78. Qatar suppoirts its position by recalling that in 1867 Sheikh
Mohamed bin Khalifah of Bahrain launched an attack on Qatar, directed

at Wakrah and Bida, totally destroying them; that in retaliation the
Qataris, led by Mohamed bin Thani, sailed in June 1868for Bahrain with
an armed force;that Sheikh Mohamed bin Khalifah attacked theQataris.
who suffered heavy casualties in the engagement: that the British consid-
ered Sheikh Moharried bin Khalifah's attack on Qatar as a violation of

the agreement whicli they had concluded in 1861with the Ruler of Bah-
rain; that the affair was settled by the agreement of 6 September 1868 MARITIME DELlkllTATlON ANI> TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 66

between Great Britain and the new Ruler of Bahrain whereby the latter
acknowledged the illegality of the actions of his predecessor and assumed
the obligation not to repeat them in the future, thus accepting, contrary

to what Bahrain now contends (see paragraph 41 above), that it had no
rights of sovereignty over the Qatar peninsula, or over Zubarah in
particular.

79. Bahrain contests the foregoing line of argument and recalls that,
although Great Britain punished Bahrain in 1868for violating the inari-

time peace of the 1861 Treaty. it also punished the Doha confederation
for its rebellion. and sent Sheikh Mohained Al-Thani back to the east
coast of the peninsula.
80. According to Qatar, Great Britain has always recognized Qatar's
title to Zubarah. Thus it maintains that, even though it was not ratified.

the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 29 July 1913 accurately reflected the
coinmon view of the Ottoman Imperia1 Government and the British
Governinent "as to -theterritorial situation at the time and the status of
the Al-Thani Rulers as having governed in the past and as still governing,
the entire Peninsula"; and that the sovereignty of Qatar over the whole
peninsula was also recognized by the Anglo-Ottoman Treaty of 9 March

1914. which bras duly ratified, and by the Treaty of 3 November 1916
between the British Government and Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al-
Thani. Sheikh of Qatar.

81. Qatar adds that in the 1930sits main concern in Zubarah was to

protect the security of its borders aiid to control imports through the
imposition of custorns duties; that to this end the Ruler of Qatar took
steps to impose controls against various dissenting members of one sec-
tion of the Al-Naini tribe, led by Rashid bin Jabor: that Rashid bin
Jabor's actions were being controlled at least in part by Bahrain to obtain
evidence of alleged Bahraini rights over Zubarah; that, this being an

interiial matter, in 1037Qatar imposed by force its authority upon a ter-
ritory under its sovereignty; and that its rights of sovereignty over Zuba-
rah were recognized again by the British wlien they refused to provide
assistance to Bahrain in 1937, notwithstanding the formal request made
by the Sheikh of Bahrain to the British Political Agent. According to
Qatar, no official acts have been performed by Bahrain in Zubarah since

1868,while Qatar has carried out many acts of sovereign authority there.
Whatever rights the liuler of Bahrain inay have asserted in Zubarah, they
were in any event personal rights and not rights of sovereignty.

82. TheCourt notes that both Parties agree that the Al-Khalifah occu-
pied Zubarah in the 1760sand that, some years later, they settled in Bah-rain, but that they disagree as to the legal situation which prevailed there-
after and which culniinated in the events of 1937. Bahrain maintains that
it continued to rule Zubarah through members of a Naim-led tribal con-
federation. while Qatar denies this.

83. In the opening paragraph of the agreement of 6 September 1868
coricluded between Ali Bin Khalifah and the British Political Resident in
the Gulf (see paragraph 40 above), the parties acknowledged that
Mohamed bin Khalifah had "repeatedly committed acts of piracy and
other irregularities aitsea" and that after "his recent piratical act" he had

fled from Bahrain. Iri consequence, Ali Bin Khalifah accepted the follow-
ing conditions: (1) to deliver iinmediately to the British al1 "war buglas
and buteels belongirig to Mahomed bin Khalifeh and [himjself"; (2) to
pay the sums indicated in paragraph 2 of the agreement; (3) "to consider
Mahomed bin Khalifeh as permanently excluded from al1 participation
in the affairs of Bahrain and as having no claim to that territory": and
(4) to appoint an agent in Bushire in order to keep the British Resident

informed. "in view of preserving the peace at sea, and precluding the
occurrence of furtheir disturbance".
84. In the Court's view, the terms of the 1868 Agreement show that
any attempt by Bahrain to pursue its claims toZubarah through military
action at sea would not be tolerated by the British. The Court finds that
thereafter, the new rulers of Bahrain were never in a position to engage in

direct acts of authority in Zubarah. Moreover, in 1895, only an armed
intervention by the EIritishstopped the Al-Thani and the Ottomans from
attempting to invade Bahrain from Zubarah.

85. Bahrain maintains, however, that the Al-Khalifah continued to
exercise control over Zubarah through a Naim-led tribal confederation

loyal to them, notwilthstanding that at the end of the eighteenth century
they had moved the seat of their government to the islands of Bahrain.

86. The Court cannot accept this contention. While there may have
been, at different tinies. ties of personal allegiance between some mem-
bers of the Naim and the Ruler of Bahrain. there is also evidence that

some members of the Naim served both the Al-Khalifah and the Al-
Thani. In any event, there is no evidence that members of the Nain1 exer-
cised sovereign authority on behalf of the Sheikh of Bahrain within
Zubarah. Indeed, they came under the jurisdiction of the local territorial
sovereign, which was not Bahrain and had not been Bahrain at least since
the events of 1868.
87. In view of the role played by Great Britain and the Ottoman

Empire in the region in that period, it is significant to note Articl11 of
the Anglo-Ottoman Convention signed on 29 July 1913 (see para-
graph 45 above). This article described the course of the line agreed to
separate the Strnjrrk of Nejd "from the peninsula of Al-Qatar". and then
went on to state: MARITIME DELlh.IIT..\TION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (SI'DGMENT) 68

"The Imperia1 Ottoman Government having renounced al1 its
claims to the peninsula of al-Qatar, it is agreed between the two
Governinents that the said peninsula will, as in the past, be governed
by the Sheikh .Jasim-bin-Sani and his successors. The Government

of His Britannic Majesty declares that it will not permit the Sheikh
of Bahrain to iriterfere in the interna1 affairs of Qatar. to violate the
autonomy of tEiatcountry or to annex it."

88. Both Parties iigree that the 1913 Anglo-Ottoman Convention was
never ratified (see paragraphs 46 and 47 above); they differ on the other
hand as to its value irsevidence of Qatar's sovereignty over the peninsula.

89. The Court observes that signed but unratified treaties may consti-
tute an accurate expiressionof the understanding of the parties at the time
of signature. In the circumstances of this case the Court has come to the
conclusion that the Anglo-Ottoman Convention does represent evidence
of the views of Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire as to the factual

extent of the authority of the Al-Thani Ruler in Qatar up to 1913.
90. The text of Article 11 of the Anglo-Ottoman Convention is clear:
"it is agreed between the two Governments that the said peninsula will,
as in the past, be governed by the Sheikh Jasim-bin-Sani and his succes-
sors". Thus Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire did not recognize
Bahrain's sovereignity over the peninsula, including Zubarah. In their

opinion the whole Qatar peninsula would continue to be governed by
Sheikh Jassim Al-Thani, who had formerly been nominated kuirnuk~~n~
by the Ottomans, arid by his successors.
91. The Court also observes that Article 11 of the 1913 Convention is
referred to by ArticleIII of the Anglo-Ottoman treaty of 9 March 1914,
duly ratified thatsame year (see paragraph 46 above). That Article III

defined the boundary of the Ottoman territories by reference to "the
direct. straight line in a southerly direction . . . separating the Ottoman
territory of the .rcrnjukof Nejd from the territory of Al-Qatar, in accord-
ance with Article 11 of the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 29 July 1913
relating to the PersicinGulf and the surrounding territories". The parties
therefore did not contemplate any authority over the peninsula other
than that of Qatar.

92. The Court will now examine certain events which took place in
Zubarah in 1937, afi.er the Sheikh of Qatar had tried to impose taxation
on the Naim (see paragraph 55 above). The British Political Agent in
Bahrain, in a letter of 3 May 1937,reported those incidents to the British
Political Resident iri the Gulf. On 5 May 1937, the Political Resident
reported in turn on those incidents to the Secretary of State for India,

recalling that "until 1868 Bahrain held part of Qatar, including Zubarah,
and from then until 1871 the Qatar Shaikhs, headed by the Al Thani,
acknowledged the suzerainty of Bahrain by being prepared to pay trib-
~ite". He added, however. that "[slince about that date i.e. 1871 the Al
Thani (the present ruliiig family of Qatar) have held Qatar, including M4KlTlME DELIMIITATION ,\NI>TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMFNT) 69

Zubarah", and that "[ais far back as 1873 . .. the Government of India
expressed their concurrence in the view that the Shaikh of Bahrain had
no clear or important rights in Qatar", which had been conveyed to the
Ruler of Bahrain in a letter dated 31 May 1875. The Political Resident
stated that he was "[plersonally, therefore, . . . of the opinion that juridi-

cally the Bahrain claim to Zubarah must fail".

93. On 1July 193'7,the British Political Agent in Bahrain informed the
British Political Resident that the Adviser to the Government of Bahrain
had informed him that the negotiations between Qatar and Bahrain on
Zubarah had tàiled ;and that the Sheikh of Bahrain was requesting that
the Sheikh of Qatar "'berestrained from making war on Bahrain subjects

who reside in the Zubarah area which he claims to be his territory".
94. In a telegram of 4 July 1937to the Secretary of State for India, the
British Political Resident suggested that he be authorized to reply to the
Sheikh of Bahrain to the effect that, on the evidence before it. the British
Government was of the opinion that Zubarah belonged to the Sheikh of
Qatar and to remind him in this connection of the terms of the letter of

31 May 1875 wlieret>ythe British Governmeiit had informed the Sheikh
of Bahrain that he should not interfere in the affairs of Zubarah. In a
telegram of 15July 1937to the Political Resident. the British Secretary of
State indicated that the Sheikh of Bahrain should be informed that the
British Government regretted that it was "not prepared to intervene
between Sheikh of Qatar and Naim tribe".

95. In view of the foregoing, the Court cannot accept Bahrain's con-
tention that Great Britain had always regarded Zubarah as belonging to
Bahrain. The terms of the 1868 agreement between the British Govern-
ment and the Sheikh of Bahrain, of the 1913 and 1914 conventions and
of the letters in 1937 from the British Political Resident to the Secretary
of State for India, and from the Secretary of State to the Political Resi-

dent, al1 show otherwise. In effect, in 1937 the British Government did
not consider that Bahrain had sovereignty over Zubarah; it is for this
reason that it refus'ed to provide Bahrain with the assistance which
it requested on the basis of the agreements in force between the two
countries.
96. In the period after 1868,the authority of the Sheikh of Qatar over

the territory of Zub'arah was gradually consolidated; it was acknow-
ledged in the 1913 Anglo-Ottoman Convention and was definitively
established in 1937. The actions of the Sheikh of Qatar in Zubarah that
year were an exercise of his authority on his territory and, contrary to
what Bahrain has alli:ged, were not an unlawful use of force against Bah-
raiii.
97. For al1these reasons, the Court concludes that the first subniission

made by Bahrain carinot be upheld. and that Qatar has sovereignty over
Zubarah. 98. The Court will now turn to the question of sovereignty over the
Hawar Islands, leaving aside the question of Janan for the moment.
99. According to Qatar, the Hawar Islands are under its sovereignty
essentially because of the priority to be accorded to its original title as
well as the principle of proximity and territorial unity. Qatar points out
that, in terms of the overall geography of the area, it is clear that the

Hawar Islands have a close connection with its mainland territory and
that each one of these islands is nearer to the latter than to the main
island of Bahrain; n~otonly do the majority of the islands and islets con-
stituting the Hawar Islands lie wholly or partly within a 3-nautical mile
territorial sea-limit from the mainland coast, but al1of them lie within the

12-nautical mile territorial sea-limit corresponding to the modern defini-
tion of the territorial sea. The Hawar Islands are accordingly an integral
part of the mainlancl coast of Qatar, and this is confirmed both by geo-
logy and by geomorphology. In considering the applicability of the prin-
ciple of proximity to the Hawar Islands, account must also be taken of
the particular historical circumstances, and above al1 of the events of

1867-1868 (see paragraphs 40 and 78-79 above). Following these events,
the British in effect recognized the existence of the separate entity of
Qatar, distinct from Bahrain and separated from it by sea;the purpose of
this recognition of i.he separate identity of Qatar as an entity distinct
from Bahrain was thiemaintenance of the maritime peace and thus must
also have been intended to cover not only the coasts of mainland Qatar

but also the immediate offshore islands, in particular the Hawar Islands.

In support of its argument, Qatar further relies on a large number of
nineteenth- and tweritieth-century maps from various countries and from
both officia1and unofficial sources, and in particular the maps annexed

to the "Anglo-Ottoman Convention relating to the Persian Gulf and the
surrounding territoriles" of 29 July 1913 (Anns. V and V (u)) Ali these
maps, it claims, confirm that the territory of Qatar encompassed the
entire Qatar peninsula; that the Hawar Islands were regarded as forming
part of that entity; and that Bahrain was consistently depicted as con-
sisting only of a li.mited group of islands, not including the Hawar

Islands.
100. Bahrain for its part contends that Qatar's proposition, that proxi-
mity, adjacency or c,ontiguity of a disputed territory to the territory of a
claimant is sufficient to vest title in the latter, was denied in general terms
by the arbitrator Max Huber in the Islund c?f'Puln~ucsase, who said that:

"[tlhe title of contigility, understood as a basis of territorial sovereignty,
has no foundation in international law" (United Nations, Reports of
Internutionul Arhitrc,rlAirurds, Vol. II, p. 869). The irrelevance of the fact
of geographical proximity of inhabited islands is also said to have been
deinonstrated by the Court in its decision in the Minyuicvs uncl Ecrello.~
case. Bahrain further contends that it does not require the use of maps to

support its claim, sirice it has presented sufficient legally relevant facts to
establish its title, and Qatar's lack of title, to the Hawar Islands. More-over, since there is no factual support for Qatar's claim to any significant
status as a "political entity" in the nineteenth century and the earlier part
of the twentieth century, the maps, even if granted a relevance and
quality that they do not possess, cannot deprive Bahrain of the title to
the Hawar Islands that it has had since the eighteenth century, and has
maintained by possession and control ever since.

101. Thus, according to Bahrain, its sovereignty over the Hawar
Islands has been exercised continuously and uninterruptedly over the last
two centuries and lhas been acknowledged by the inhabitants of the

islands, and Qatar Eiasnever exercised any kind of competing authority
over the islands. In support of its argument, Bahrain cites many examples
of the alleged exercise of its authority over the Hawar Islands from both
before and after 1938-1939.
For the period prior to 1938, Bahrain cites in particular: the permis-
sion granted by the Al-Khalifah to the Dowasir tribe to settle in the

Hawar Islands following the former's conquest of the Bahrain islands in
the eighteenth century; the recognition by the Dowasir of the authority
of the Ruler of Bahrain; the recognition in an official survey prepared by
a British officer in the 1820sthat the Hawar Islands had "two . . . villages
. . .and belong[ed] 1.0Bahrain"; the continued presence of the Dowasir
on the Hawar Islands, both before and after they received permission
from the Ruler of Bahrain to settle as well on the main island of Bahrain

in 1845; the rescue in 1873 by the Ruler of Bahrain of Ottoman soldiers
shipwrecked on the Hawar Islands; Bahrain court decisions dating from
as early as 1909 relating to land rights and fishing traps in the Hawar
Islands; the arrest and compelled attendance in Bahrain courts of Hawar
Island residents; the recognition in 1909 by the Ottoman Empire and
Great Britain that the Hawar Islands belonged to Bahrain, as implicitly

evidenced by their recognition of Bahrain's rights to Zakhnuniyah Island;
the offer made in 19 l Iby the Ruler of Bahrain, at the request of the Brit-
ish Political Agent, 10 compel a resident of the Hawar Islands to appear
before the courts in a civil case: and recognition in a British Admiralty
survey of the Gulf tliat the Hawar Islands were occupied by the Dowasir
of Bahrain.

102. In support of its argument, Bahrain also invokes the testimony of
former Hawar Islands residents, currently living in other parts of Bah-
rain, of their lives on the Hawar Islands and of the political and eco-
nomic links between the Hawar Islands and the rest of Bahrain; a 1932

case before the Bahrain courts between two Hawar Islands residents; the
granting and protection of fishing rights off the Hawar Islands' shores by
the Ruler of Bahrairi; registration in Bahrain of fishing boats moored at
the Hawar Islands, and payment to the Government of Bahrain of feesfor boat registration and diving licences by Hawar Islanders engaged in

the pearling industry; construction and maintenance of dams and water
cisterns by Hawar Island residents and the Government of Bahrain;
licensing by Bahraiii of the gypsum industry on the Hawar Islands in the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries; regulation by Bahrain of other natu-
ral resources. including fishing, on the Hawar Islands; the consistent
inclusion of the Hawar Islands in oil concession discussions between

Bahrain, Great Britain and prospective oil concessionaires during the
1930s: recognition by Great Britain that the Hawar Islands were claimed
by Bahrain from the first occasion that they arose as an issue during oil
concession negotiations in 1933,and the lack of any competing claim by
Qatar; a report by the British Political Agent in 1936 that Bahrain's
claim to sovereign1.y over Hawar Island had real substance and that

Qatar had never protested against the activities of Bahrain's subjects
there; drilling for water on the Hawar Islands as sanctioned by Bahrain
during the 1930s; construction by Bahrain of a government pier on the
main island of Hawar in 1937; issuing of Bahrain passports to Hawar
Islands residents; irecognition of Bahrain's jurisdiction and authority
over the Hawar Islands by the Ruler of Qatar on several occasions; and

the erection and maintenance by Bahrain of maritime markers on the
Hawar Islands.

103. Bahrain moreover relies on the decision of 11 July 1939of Great
Britain that theHawar Islands belonged to Bahrain and not to Qatar (see
paragraph 57 above); this decision, according to Bahrain, must be
regarded as an arbitral award, being rrs judicatn, or at the very least as a
binding political decrision.Bahrain further maintains that the principle of
utipossidetis juris is applicable in this case. It claims that both Qatar and

Bahrain are former protectorates of Great Britain, which prior to 1971
did not therefore enjoy the full, exclusive interna1 and external powers
which are the attributes of sovereignty;it adds that utipo.ssidrtis is a uni-
versal principle applicable to States born of decolonization wherever it
may occur. In respect of the Hawar Islands, the British decision of 1939,
whatever its legal nature, is indisputably part of the colonial heritage.

According to Bahrilin, the line in existence at the time of independence
was drawn by Great Britain and that line must be respected.

104. Bahrain further emphasizes that its acts of sovereignty over the
Hawar Islands continued after the British decision of 1939was rendered.
As evidence of this, it cites inter uIiu the introduction to the islands of

native Arabian species as part of a wildlife protection programme; the
creation of a wildlife preserve in 1996 on part of the main island of
Hawar; regular paitrolling of the Hawar Islands by the Bahrain coast-guard; the presenci: of a defensive military capability on the Hawar
Islands and the maintenance, since 1941,of a full defensive military com-
plex there; the construction and maintenance of a road network on the
Hawar Islands; the construction and maintenance of facilities to produce
fresh water, including a desalinization plant; and the construction and
maintenance of electricity infrastructure integrated with Bahrain's power

grid. Bahrain also relies upon the maps produced by the British Director
of Military Survey and the American National Geographic Society show-
ing the Hawar Islands to be part of Bahrain.

105. Qatar maintains that the principle of utipossidrtis does not apply
to the present case because it presupposes a succession of States, a break-

ing-off. The two sheikhdoms were however neither colonies nor protec-
torates of Great Britain. Even before their protected status with Great
Britain was terminated, each of these sheikhdoms enjoyed an independ-
ence that was in any case sufficient for their consent on boundary ques-
tions to be indispensable if they were to be bound. True, Great Britain
had a monopoly on the exercise of both States' foreign relations, but it

did not have the power to dispose of their rights of territorial sovereignty
without their consent. Bahrain and Qatar were at al1 times independent
States, both before the 1971Agreements and at the time of their signing;
there was no new legal personality which succeeded to the rights and
obligations of any administering power, nor any State succession, and
consequently there cvasno "colonial heritage" any more than there was a

"clean slate".
106. Qatar also rnaintains that the 1939 British decision is nuIl and
void because Qatar :neverconsented to the process. Qatar adds that there
was bias on the part of the relevant officiaiof the British Government
and that the decisiori was not supported by reasons; it considers that pro-
cedural violations tainted not only the 1939 decision but also the "pro-

visional" decision rendered in 1936 (see paragraph 54 above). In addi-
tion, Qatar maintains that the Ruler of Qatar protested on several
occasions against the procedure followed by the British Government in
1938-1939and that he continued thereafter to protest against the British
decision of 11 July 1939 and Bahrain's "unlawful occupation" of the
islands; his protests plainly show that at no time did Qatar acquiesce in

the attribution of th': Hawar Islands to Bahrain, and that this attribution
was therefore not opposable to it.

107. Qatar relies on the primacy of its title over the'c.tivit&s claimed
by Bahrain. Recallirig the schema set out in its Judgment of 22 December
1986 by the Chamber of the Court dealing with the case concerning Fron-

iirr Dispute (BU~~~KF IC~I~.solRepuhlocfMali) (Judgnrcnt, I. C.J. report.^
IYK6, pp. 586-587, para. 63). Qatar maintains that the significance of
<fli.ctivitc;sin relation to a territory depends upon the status of that
territory and on any legal title that may be validly invoked over that terri-
tory by another State. Thus, if a territory is rcs nulliu.~,effective occu-pation creates a titlir of sovereignty provided that it fulfils the necessary
conditions. If, on the other hand, another State has sovereignty over the
territory, it is a ma.tter of illegal occupation or usurpation, which can
have no legal effect; this, in Qatar's view, is the case of Bahrain's occupa-
tion of the Hawar Islands. Such a defucto occupation cannot metamor-
phose into a dc~,juresituation, into territorial title, unless there is acqui-

escence by the territorial sovereign. Qatar maintains that the Court is not
therefore required in this case to resolve a conflict between two claims
based on c~fectivitc;,~whose respective merits have to be evaluated, and
which has to be settled by granting the territory to the party with the
better established <flhc.tivitC..sI.f one State occupies an uninhabited part
of the territory of ariother State, there can be no question of invoking the
occupying State's qlirL.ctiilitéasgainst the lack of rffectivitc;~of the holder

of the territorial title. According to Qatar, the whole of Bahrain's argu-
ment as to the prcccdcncc of the ~~~ectivit4sof its occupation of the
Hawar Islands is thierefore irrelevant. Only acquiescence by Qatar, the
territorial sovereign. could have created a title. Qatar further states that,
assuming it possibk: to invoke the <ffèctivitC.srelied upon by Bahrain,
these would remain ineffective because they do not meet the standards
required to create a right. In any event, according to Qatar, al1of Bah-

rain's acts subsequent to the claim to the Hawar Islands addressed by it
to the British Government on 28 April 1936, without Qatar being
inlormed thereof. are inor,..osable to the latter: these acts are sim.ld evi-
dence of Bahrain's desire to seize territory belonging to somebody else
and cannot override Qatar's pre-existing sovereignty. As regards the pre-
1936 effi.ctiviti.s alleged by Bahrain, Qatar maintains that they are with-
out foundation. In regard specifically to the ties the Dowasir are said to

have maintained with the Ruler of Bahrain, Qatar states that in view of
the make-ur, and historv of this tribe. its members were clearlv not sub-
jects of Bahrain but formed an autonomous tribal unit whose members
left Bahrain for Saudi Arabia in 1923 and returned from 1928.

108. Qatar stresses that it was instead the successive Al-Thani Rulers

who gradually extended their authority over the whole of the Qatar
peninsula during the second half of the nineteenth century and that this is
attested to by many authorities, in particular Turkish and British. As evi-
dence of its long-standing sovereignty over the Hawar Islands, Qatar
cites itltrr uliu: the 1868 Agreements designed to ensure maritime peace
by separating the territories of Qatar and Bahrain; the absence of the
Hawar Islands from descriptions of Bahrain after 1868; the description

given in 1908,by J. (3.Lorimer of the India Civil Service, in his Guzcttrrr
oj'tlzc.Persiun Gulf; of the Hawar Islands as part of Qatar; the apparent
refùsal of the Ruler of Bahrain to lay claim to the Hawar Islands in 1909
despite a suggestion by the British Political Agent, who was anxious to
contain Ottoman expansion; the description of the Hawar Islands as part
of Qatar in the British Admiralty War Staff (Intelligence Division)Survey of 1915; the exclusion of the Hawar Islands from the 1923 map
signed by the representative of the Eastern & General Syndicate Ltd. and
attached to the draft first Bahrain Concession Agreement; the absence of
any reference to those islands in the Concession Agreement signed by

Bahrain in 1925, and the inclusion of the islands in the territories of
Qatar on the Iraq Pi:troleum Company's map of 1933; and the Oil Con-
cession Agreement signed in 1935 by Qatar and the Anglo-Persian Oil
Company (APOC).

109. Qatar also cites a number of other statements and documents
from the British archives which, in its view, show that the Hawar Islands
were regarded as part of Qatar until 1937, including: an official British
Report of the India Office of 1928 entitled "Status of certain Groups of
Islands in the PersiainGulf', and reproduced in the Persian Gulf Histori-
cal Summaries 1907-1928, where the Bahrain archipelago is defined as

consisting of a certain number of specific, named islands which do not
include the Hawar Islands; an India Office letter of 3 May 1933giving an
almost identical description of Bahrain as that in the 1928 Report; the
Political Resident's telegram of 31 July 1933 to the Secretary of State for
India, stating that "Hawar Island is clearly not one of the Bahrain
group", with which the India Office agreed; a description of a marked

map showing the area recognized as Bahrain islands, submitted by the
Political Resident on 4 August 1933 to the Secretary of State for India,
clearly indicating that Bahrain's territory did not include the Hawar
Islands; a report of an aerial reconnaissance undertaken on 9 May 1934
by the Royal Air Force after permission had been obtained from the

Ruler of Qatar, whic:hreport included an attached photograph of Hawar
Island; a note from Mr. G. W. Rendel, a Foreign Office official, dated
30 December 1937, confirming that the Hawar Islands were geographi-
cally part of Qatar; and the views expressed on 26 October 1941 by Prior
(who was British Political Agent in Bahrain from April 1929 to Novem-
ber 1932, and Political Resident from September 1939 to May 1946),

according to which the Hawar Islands "belong to Qatar, a view sup-
ported by Lorimer".

110. The Parties' lengthy arguments on the issue of sovereignty over
the Hawar Islands raise several legal issues: the nature and validity of the
1939 decision by Great Britain; the existence of an original title; rJfec-

tivités; and the applicability of the principle of uti possidetjuristo the
present case. The Court will begin by considering the nature and validity
of the 1939 British clecision. 111. Bahrain maintains that the British decision of 1939 must be con-
sidered primarily as an arbitral award, which is res judicutu. It claims
that the Court does inothave jurisdiction to review the award of another
tribunal, basing its proposition on

"a virtual jurisprutlencc con.stuntcJ,not to review, invalidate or even
confirm awards taken by other international tribunals, unless there
is .~pecijic.c'cprc7s,dditionul consent to reopen the award".

Thus Bahrain refers to the decision of 15 June 1939 by the Permanent
Court of International Justice in the case of the Sociétt.Corîznîercialede

Belgique (P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 78, p. 160); and to those rendered by
the present Court on 18November 1960 in the case concerning the Arbi-
tral A,i~ardm~ldeby rhc.King of Spuin on 23 December 1906 (Honduras
v. Nicaraguuj (I.C.J: Reports 1960, p. 192), as well as on 12 November
1991 in the case concerning the Arhitrul A~zlurd($31 July 1989 (Guineu-
Bissau V.Senegrrl) (1.C.J. Reports 1991, p. 53).

112. Qatar denies the relevance of the judgments cited by Bahrain. It
contends that
"[Nlone of tEiemare in the slightest degree relevant to the issue

which the Court has to determine in the present case, namely,
whether the procedures followed by the British Government in 1938
and 1939 amounted to a process of arbitration which could result in
an arbitral awai-d binding upon the parties."

Qatar also advances in support of its position the 19 October 1981 arbi-
tral award rendered by the Court of Arbitration in the DubuilShurjuh
Border case; in that award, which in Qatar's view was rendered under
circumstances comparable to those of the present case, the Court of
Arbitration concluded that boundary delimitation decisions taken by the

British Government were not arbitral awards but rather administrative
decisions of a binding character (Internutionul Luit' report.^, Vol. 91,
p. 579; see also pp. 577, 583 and 585).

113. The Court will first consider the question whether the 1939 Brit-
ish decision must be deemed to constitute an arbitral award. The Court

observes in this respect that the word arbitration, for purposes of public
international law, usually refers to "the settlement of differences between
States by judges of tlieir own choice, and on the basis of respect for law".
This wording was adLoptedin Article 15of the Hague Convention for the
Pacifie Settlement 01'International Disputes, dated 29 July 1899. It was
repeated in Article 37 of the Hague Convention dated 18 October 1907,

having the same object. It was adopted by the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice in its Advisory Opinion of 21 November 1925,interpret-
ing Article 3, paragraph 2,of the Treaty of Lausanne (P.C.I.J., Scrips B,
No. 12, p. 26). It was reaffirmed in the work of the International LawCommission, which reserved the casewhere the parties might have decided
that the requested decision should be taken es myuo ct hono (Report by
Mr. Georges Scelle, Special Rapporteur of the Commission, Document
AlCN.41113, of 6 Miarch 1958, Ycurbook of the Internutionul Law Com-
ti~ission,1958,Vol. 1I, p. 2). Finally, more recently, it was adopted by the
Court of Arbitration called upon to settle the border dispute between

Dubai and Sharjah in a dispute bearing some similarities to the present
case (Duh~~ilShrrrjuhBortler Arbitrarion, arbitral award of 19 October
198 1,Internutiontil l,u~i.Reports, Vol. 91, pp. 574 and 575).

114. The Court observes that in the present case no agreement existed
between the Parties ltosubmit their case to an arbitral tribunal made up

of judges chosen by them, who would rule either on the basis of the law
or c.ï aquo ct bono. The Parties had only agreed that the issue would be
decided by "His Majesty's Government", but left it to the latter to deter-
mine how that decisrnion would be arrived at, and by which officiais.It
follows that the decision whereby, in 1939, the British Government held
that the Hawar Islarids belonged to Bahrain, did not constitute an inter-

national arbitral award.
115. Since the 1939 decision did not constitute an international arbi-
tral award, the Court will not need to consider Bahrain's argument con-
cerning the Court's jurisdiction to examine the validity of arbitral awards.
It will confine itself .to noting that the Parties have undertaken

"to submit to the Court the whole of the dispute between them, as
circumscribed by the text proposed by Bahrain to Qatar on 26 Octo-
ber 1988, and a.ccepted by Qatar in December 1990, referred to in

the 1990Doha Minutes as the 'Bahraini formula'" (Maritirne Delitni-
tution uncl Terriforiul Questiotzs hetii>erriQutur und Bahruin, Juris-
diction r~nd Adni.~.sihility. Judgmc~nt.1.C.J. Reports 1994, pp. 126-
127, para. 41, point 2).

116. The "Bahraini formula", as accepted by both Parties (see para-
graph 67 above), is very comprehensive, since it authorizes the Parties to
"request the Court to decide any matter of territorial right or other title
or interest which may be a matter of difference between them". Conse-
quently, the agreement between the Parties embraces al1questions relat-

ing to the Hawar Isl;ands,including the dispute concerning the 1939 Brit-
ish decision. Therefore the Court has jurisdiction to decide the various
matters raised by Qatar in relation to the 1939 British decision.

117. The fact that a decision is not an arbitral award does not however
mean that the decision is devoid of legal effect, as was acknowledged by

the Court of Arbitration in the DuhuilShurjah Border Arbitrutiorz (Intrr-
nutionul Lait. Reports, Vol. 91, p. 577). In order to determine the legal
effect of the 1939 British decision, the events which preceded and imme-
diately followed its adoption need to be recalled. 118. On 10 May 1938,the Ruler of Qatar wrote to the British Political
Agent informing him that "Hawar is, by its natural position, a part of
Qatar", but that "the Bahrain Government [were] making interferences
at Hawar". He concluded: "1 am quite confident that you will, in order to
keep the peace and tranquillity, do what is necessary in the matter".

119. On 20 May 1938, the British Political Agent informed the Ruler

of Qatar, among other matters, of the following:
"It is indeed a fact that by their formal occupation of the Islands

for some time past the Bahrain Government possess a prima facie
claim to them, but 1am authorised by the Honourable the Political
Resident to Say that even so His Majesty's Government will be pre-
pared to give the fullest consideration to any formal claim put for-
ward by you to the Hawar Islands, provided that your claim is sup-
ported by a full and complete statement of the evidence on which
you rely in asserting that you, as Shaikh of Qatar, possess sover-

eignty over them . . .1 need scarcely remind you that the matter will
be decided in the light of truth and justice by His Majesty's Govern-
ment when your formal claim and evidence are received . . ."

120. By a letter of 27 May 1938, the Ruler of Qatar stated to the
British Political Agent that he was

"also thankful to His Majesty's Government who will, as you said,
decide the matter in the light of truth and justice. 1was confident of
and relying on the justice and equity of His Majesty's Government
who are fanious for these things in al1instances".

The Ruler of Qatar added
"1 now submit my formal complaint against the steps taken by the

Bahrain Government in islands belonging to others as follows:

.............................

5. . . .it is my right to object to any act undertaken by the Bah-
rain Government in Islands which 1consider to be belonging to me
. . . 1also request you to stop the activities and interferences which
the Bahrain Government are undertaking in Hawar Islands until the
matter is decided by His Majesty's Government in the light ofjustice
and equity as you have said in your letter. 1trust that His Majesty's

Government will administer justice and equity and that you will do
so in the preserit circumstances so that the present matters may take
one and the saine course until the facts become clear." 121. On 3 June 1938 the British Political Agent, Mr. H. Weightman,
informed the British Political Resident of the complaint presented by
Qatar. He also madle the following comment:

"In regard to the substance of the Shaikh of Qatar's claim, it will
be observed that it consists of (1) a bare assertion of sovereignty and
(2) the affirmation that the Hawar Islands are part of the geographi-
cal unit of Qat.ar.

No evidence is offered of formal occupation by Qatar, no mention
is made of collection of taxes, of sale of fishing rights, of the exercise
of judicial authority, or indeed, of the performance of any function
which might denote sovereign rights."

122. In a letter t,o the British Political Resident of 21 July 1938, the
Secretary of State for India stated the following:

"on the whole it would be preferable to give him [the Sheikh of
Qatar] an opportunity to comment on the Bahrain reply. This would

be more in accordance with the normal procedure in such cases, and
it is undesirable, if the eventual decision is in favour of Bahrain, that
the Sheikh of Qatar should be left with a sense of grievance that he
had not been flullyheard. Delay involved is not likely to cause any
inconvenience.
If therefore you see no serious objection please communicate

statement of Bahrain Government when received to Sheikh of Qatar
and allow him reasonable period for his comments and for the pro-
duction of any further evidence in support of his claim, and on
receipt of his reply please submit correspondence to me with your
views."

123. On 14 August 1938 the British Political Agent sent to the acting
adviser to the Government of Bahrain a copy of the Sheikh of Qatar's
detailed claim, requesting that

"the Bahrain Government will now submit a full and detailed state-
ment of their co~unter-claimto Hawar, covering the Shaikhof Qatar's

claim as well a:; any other point they wish to make".

124. The counter-claim of Bahrain was presented on 22 December
1938 in a letter sent to the British Political Agent, explaining the reasons
supporting its position and contradicting the position of Qatar. Annexed
to that letter was ii petition signed "by the leading men of Hawar",
stating that they were subjects of the Ruler of Bahrain.

125. The British 1301iticalAgent wrote on 5 January 1939to the Ruler
of Qatar, with reference to the "detailed claim to the Hawar Islands with
[his]letter dated the 27th May 1938". The Political Agent annexed to hiscommunication the counter-claim presented by Bahrain and stated the
following :

"1 request you now, my friend, to study the Bahrain Govern-
ment's reply carefully and to inform me as soon as it may be possible
whether you wish to put forward any fiirther arguments in support
of your claim or whether you have any further evidence to show.
When 1 have received your reply and al1other evidence which you

may wish to produce the whole matter will be submitted to His
Majesty's Government through the Honourable the Political Resi-
dent in the Persian Gulf for their final decision."

126. The Ruler of Qatar informed the British Political Agent on
19 March 1939 that "a reply to the Hawar case needs careful study and
an opportunity for such a study", but that even so the reply "will reach
you shortly containing Statements, objections and protests which 1 may
have".

127. On 30 March 1939,the Ruler of Qatar sent to the British Political
Agent a 15-page letter with his comments on the claims of Bahrain in
relation to the Hawar Islands. He also annexed testimonial evidence in
support of his own claims.
128. The British Political Agent, Mr. H. Weightman, then sent a

renort on 22 A~rii 1939 to the British Political Resident. Lieutenant-
~hlonel Fowle,'reporting on the claims presented by ~atar over the
Hawar Islands. In that report the Political Agent enumerated the docu-
ments in the case and examined the various arguments advanced as well
as the evidence submitted by the parties. Then he concluded:

"13. To sum up. The Shaikh of Qatar has produced no evidence
whatsoever. He relies solely on an uncorroborated assertion of sov-

ereignty, on geographical propinquity and on the alleged statements
of certain unidentified persons. On the Bahrain side there is evidence
that the original occupation of Hawar by the Dawasir was effected
under the authority of the Al Khalifah, that the Zellaq Dawasir have
frequented thesr: islands for a great number of years, that the courts
established by the Shaikhsof Bahrain have promulgated decisions in

regard to dispuites over property there, that questions of ownership
of fish tram have been submitted to the decision of the Bahrain
Sharia Court, that seven years ago Bahrain processes were served in
Hawar, that the boats owned by the Dawasir of Hawar are regis-
tered in Bahraiii and that gypsum or juss is excavated from Hawar
under licence fr,om the Bahrain Government. 1am not able to state
definitely that these Dawasir have for the past 150 years occupied

Hawar at al1 si:asons of the year. though those now in residence
there claim that this is so. On the other hand the cemeteries, the
water cisterns. the ruins of the old fort which 1have mvself seen and
the type of house in use al1 provide evidence of consiistent occupa- MARITIME DELIhllTATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 81

tion for at least the greater part of the year. And finally in the
absence of any iindication of occupation or of the exercise ofjurisdic-
tion by the Shaikh of Qatar, the construction of a police post by the
Bahrain Goverinment there some 18 months ago, the building of a
mosque in the riorthern village under the orders of His Highness the

Shaikh of Bahrain and the efforts made to drive an artesian well
constitute, in the light of older history, a valid and proper assump-
tion of constitutional authority on the part of the Bahrain Govern-
ment. The small barren and uninhabited islands and rocky islets
which form the complete Hawargroup presumably faIl to the author-
ity of the Ruler establishing himself in the Hawar main island, par-

ticularly since niarks have been erected on al1of them by the Bahrain
Goverriment."

129. On 29 April 1939 Lieutenant-Colonel Fowle forwarded Weight-
man's report to the Secretary of State for India and observed that it was
"a very clear statement of the case", and that it confirmed his opinion.
130. Some weeks later, on 13June 1939, Mr. C. W. Baxter of the For-
eign Office informed the Secretary of State, lndia Office, that

"Lord Halifax concurs to the Marquees of Betland's proposal to
request the Government of India, if they see no object, to instruct

the political Resident in the Persian Gulf to inform the Sheikhs of
Bahrain and Qatar that His Majesty's Government have decided
that these islands belong to Sheikh of Bahrain."

131. On 1July 1939 the Deputy Secretary to the Government of lndia
informed the Political Resident that "Government of India concur in the
view that the Hawar Islands belong to Bahrain and not to Qatar and
request that you will inform the Shaikhs concerned as proposed."

132. The British decision was communicated on 11 July 1939 to the
Ruler of Bahrain by the Political Resident. The communication stated:

"With reference to correspondence ending with your Adviser's
letter No. 1972/SF, dated the 22nd December 1938 (Shawwal 29,
1357), on the siubject of the ownership of the Hawar Islands 1 am
directed by His Majesty's Government to inform you that, after care-
ful consideration of the evidence adduced by your Highness and

the Shaikh of Qatar, they have decided that these Islands belong
to the State of IBahrainand not to the State of Qatar.
I am informiiig the Shaikh of Qatar accordingly."

133. On the samt: day, 11 July 1939, the British Political Resident
communicated the British decision to the Ruler of Qatar in similar terms,
as follows: "With refereiice to correspondence ending with your letter dated
the 30th March 1939 (Safar 9th, 1358) on the subject of the owner-
ship of the Hawar Islands 1am directed by His Majesty's Govern-
ment to inform you that, after careful consideration of the evidence

adduced by youiand His Highness the Shaikh of Bahrain, they have
decided that these Islands belong to the State of Bahrain and not to
the State of Qatar.
1 am informing His Highness the Shaikh of Bahrain accordingly."

134. The Ruler of Qatar reacted to the British decision in a letter sent
on 4 August 1939 to the British Political Resident. stating:

"Naturally eniough 1was deeply astonished at the news and in my
astonishment tried to find the cause for what His Majesty's Govern-
ment have made the basis of their opinion on this question while
1 had provided them with proofs, evidence, and contexts which
1 thought were adequate to clarify the correct position and condi-
tions of these Islands."

He added :
"1am unable to remain quiet over the case, which preferably is the

result of abstruseness. ambiguity, and non-elucidation of the rele-
vant facts.Itherefore protest for a second time asking for the clari-
fication of the question, and appeal to Your Honour's humanity and
to His Majesty':; Government's sense of justice to look into the case
with due justice and equity, as 1 am perfectly confident that His
Majesty's Government and Your Honour's sense of justice and

humanity would not agree that any transgression should be made
on my territory or my natural rights."

The letter of the Ruler of Qatar ended by requesting that "the question
may be considered again and that enquiries may again be made into it";
and "reserv[ing] for inyself my rights to the Hawar Islands until the true
position has become clear".
135. By a letter dated25 September 1939,the British Political Resident
replied to the Ruler of Qatar, informing him that the decision notified by

the letter of11 July 1939"was a final decision and the matter cannot be
opened afresh". Sonie time later, on 18 November 1939, the Ruler of
Qatar wrote to the P'oliticalResident acknowledging receipt of his letter
of 25 September but asserting that "[wlhatever may happen my belief in
the Justice of His M~ijesty'sGovernment remains unshaken" and that he
was "unshakeably confident that His Majesty's Government will think
about the matter ancl will review it in a clearer manner than hitherto".

136. Having recalled these events. the Court will now consider Qatar's
argument challenging the validity of the 1939 British decision. 137. Qatar first contends that it never gave its consent to have the
question of the Hawar Islands decided by the British Government. The
Court observes, however, that following the Exchange of Letters of 10and
20 May 1938 (see paragraphs 118 and 119 above), the Ruler of Qatar
consented on 27 May 1938to entrust decision of the Hawar Islands ques-

tion to the British Government (see paragraph 120 above). On that day
he had submitted hiij complaint to the British Political Agent. Finally,
like the Ruler of Bahrain, he had consented to participate in the proceed-
ings that were to lead to the 1939 decision (see paragraphs 118 to 133
above). The jurisdiction of the British Government to take the decision
concerning the Hawar Islands derived from these two consents; the

Court therefore has no need to examine whether, in the absence of such
consent, the British Government would have had the authority to do so
under the treaties making Bahrain and Qatar protected States of Great
Britain, namely the 1880 and 1892 treaties with Bahrain and the 1916
treaty with Qatar (see paragraphs 44 and 48 above).

138. Qatar maintains in the second place that the British officials
responsible for the Hawar Islands question were biased and had pre-
judged the matter. The procedure followed is accordingly alleged to have
violated "the rule which prohibits bias in a decision-maker on the inter-
national plane". It is also claimed that the parties were not given an equal
and fair opportunity to present their arguments and that the decision was

not reasoned.

139. The Court will begin by recalling that the 1939decision is not an
arbitral award (see paragraphs 113-114 above). This does not, however,
mean that it was devoid of al1 legal effect. Quite to the contrary, the
pleadings, and in particular the Exchange of Letters referred to above

(see paragraphs 118 and 119 above), show that Bahrain and Qatar con-
sented to the British Government settling their dispute over the Hawar
Islands. The 1939decision must therefore be regarded as a decision that
was binding from the outset on both States and continued to be binding
on those same States after 1971,when they ceased to be British protected
States (see paragraph 65 above).

140. The validity of that decision was certainly not subject to the pro-
cedural principles governing the validity of arbitral awards. However as
the British Political Agent undertook on 20 May 1938. and as was
repeated in the letter of the Ruler of Qatar of 27 May 1938 (see para-
graphs 119and 120above), this decision was to be rendered "in the light

of truth and justice".
141. In this connection, the Court observes in the first place that the
Ruler of Qatar in thiat last letter entrusted the question of the Hawar
Islands to the British Government for decision, notwithstanding that
seven days before the British Political Agent had informed him that "by MARITIME DELIM.ITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 84

their formal occupation of the Islands for some time past the Bahrain
Government possess a prima facie claim to them" and that it was there-
fore for the Ruler of Qatar to submit a "formal claim . . . supported by a
full and complete statement of the evidence" on which he relied (see para-

graph 119 above). This procedure was followed and the competent Brit-
ish officials found that "[tlhe Shaikh of Qatar ha[d] produced no evidence
whatsoever" to counter the rJ/C.ctiic. limied.sy Bahrain, in particular
its occupation of the islandssince 1937(see pnragraph 128above). Under
these circumstances, while it is true that the competent British officials
proceeded on the pri-mise that Bahrain possessed prima facie title to the

islands and that the burden of proving the opposite lay on the Ruler of
Qatar, Qatar cannot maintain that it was contrary to justice to proceed
on the basis of this piremisewhen Qatar had been informed before agree-
ing to the procedure that this would occur and had consented to the pro-
ceedings being conducted on that basis.

142. The proceedings leading to the 1939 British decision summarized
above (see paragraphs 118 to 133 above) further show that Qatar and
Bahrain both had the opportunity to present their arguments in relation
to the Hawar Island:; and the evidence supporting them. Qatar presented

its claim in its letteri; of 10 a27 May 1938. Bahrain's opposing claims
were presented on 22 December 1938,with an annex containing the dec-
larations of several witnesses. Qatar commented on this statement of
Bahrain in its letter of 30 March 1939, to which testimonial evidence to
support its arguments was also annexed. Thus the two Rulers were able
to present their arguments and each of them was afforded an amount of

time which the Couirt considers was sufficient for this purpose; Qatar's
contention that it was subjected to unequal treatment therefore cannot be
upheld.

143. Finally, the Court notes that, while the reasoning supporting the

1939decision was not communicated to the Rulers of Bahrain and Qatar,
this lack of reasons lias no influence on the validity of the decision taken,
because no obligatia~nto state reasons had been imposed on the British
Government when it was entrusted with the settlement of the matter.

144. Moreover, in the present case the reaction of the Ruler of Qatar

was to inform the British Political Resident that he was "deeply aston-
ished" by the decision, but he did not claim that it was invalid for lack of
reasons. Qatar statecl that it had provided enough evidence to support its
position. and limited itself to requesting the British Government to re-
examine its decision. Therefore, Qatar's contention that the 1939 British
decision is invalid for lack of reasons cannot be upheld.

145. Finally, the fact that the Sheikh of Qatar had protested on several
occasions against the content of the British decision of 1939after he hadbeen informed of it is not such as to render the decision inopposable to
him, contrary to what Qatar maintains.
146. The Court accordingly concludes that the decision taken by the
British Government on 11 July 1939 is binding on the Parties.

147. For al1 of these reasons, the Court concludes that Bahrain has

sovereignty over the Hawar Islands, and that it therefore cannot uphold
the submissions of Qatar on this question.
148. The conclusion thus reached by the Court on the basis of the
British decision of 1939makes it unnecessary for the Court to rule on the
arguments of the Parties based on the existence of an original title, efy'c-
tivitas, and the applicability of the principle of uti possidetis,juris to the

present case.

149. The Court will now consider the Parties' claims to Janan Island.
In this regard, the Court would begin by observing that Qatar and Bah-

rain have differing idleasof what should be understood by the expression
"Janan Island". According to Qatar,
"Janan is an island approximately 700 metres long and 175metres

wide situated off the southwestern tip of the main Hawar island. The
island is located 2.9 nautical miles or 5,360 metres from the nearest
point on Qatar's low water line and 17nautical miles from the near-
est point of Bahrain (Ras al Barr) ... It is located 1.6nautical miles
or 2,890 metres from the main Hawar island."

For Bahrain the ternn covers

"two islands, siituated between one and two nautical miles off the
southern coast of Jazirat Hawar, which merge into a single island at
low tide. The two islands have a combined surface area of just over
0.1 km' and are called Janan and Hadd Janan. Generally, however,
they are referretl to together simply as 'Janan'."

In this regard, Qatar states that,

"at the location of 'Hadd Janan' as indicated on the Bahraini charts,
there is a small area of sandy bottom which is below water at low
tide. Therefore, leaving aside the question of whether Bahrain's

claim to two isliands would be admissible, given that the issue sub-
mitted to the Court in this respect was entitled 'the island of Janan',
the geographical facts simply do not provide a basis for Bahrain to
claim a second island."

Bahrain denies this contention by Qatar in the following terms: "[tlo
avoid al1 misunderstanding, Bahrain rejects the implication that [the MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT)86

Court's] jurisdiction over title to Janan does not extend, whether directly
or incidentally, to H.add Janan", adding: "Whether Hadd Janan is an
extension of Janan or an island formation within Janan's territorial
waters, the fact rema.insthat it pertains to Bahrain."

150. The Court notes that Qatar has not formally raised the question
of the admissibility of Bahrain's claim concerning "Hadd Janan". In any
event, since, for Qatar, Hadd Janan is "a small area of sandy bottom
below water at low t.ideWa ,nd, for Bahrain, forms only one island with
Janan at low tide, the Court considers itself entitled to treat Janan and
Hadd Janan as one island.

151. Qatar claims sovereignty over Janan Island, and relies in the first

instance on its argument in regard to the Hawar Islands. It maintains
that: "the reasons given by it to show that the Hawar islands belong to
Qatar, in particular the principles governing proximity and sovereignty
over islands in territclrial waters. . apply equally to Janan". It argues in
particular that "any island which falls partially within a 3-mile limit
drawn from the low-water line along the mainland enjoys the benefit of
the régimeapplicable to islands located wholly within that 3-mile limit".

152. For its part, Bahrain contends that "only half of Janan . . .lie[s]
within the 3-mile lirriit" and that "[plroximity is not a basis for title in
international law", adding that "[iln point of fact, there is the proximity
of Janan to the Hawars, over which Bahrain has sovereignty".

153. Qatar contends secondly that

"in 1939, when the British Government wrongly decided that the
Hawar Islands belonged to Bahrain and not to Qatar, the letters
addressed to thr: respective Rulers of the two States by the British
Political Resident in the Persian Gulf contained no indication as to
what the expression 'Hawar Islands' meant . ..It was only in 1947,
at the time of tlhedetermination of a seabed delimitation, that the
British circumsc-ribedthe Hawar Islands group by drawing an enclave
that left Janan on the outside. Furthermore, the British decision
announced in the letters of 23 December 1947contained the follow-
ing statement :'lltshould be noted that Janan Island is not regarded

as being included in the islands of the Hawar group' . . In the eyes
of the British Government, matters were quite clear: in deciding in
1939upon the attribution of the Hawar Islands, they had in no way
recognized Bahirain'ssovereignty over Janan Island. The clarifica-
tion they provided on this point in 1947in a sense, in their eyes, pro-
longed their earlier decision."

154. Bahrain rejects this argument by Qatar in the following terms: "The record shows that the 1939Award recognized Bahrain's sov-
ereignty over Janan as part of the Hawars. The list of islands which
Bahrain submitted to the British Government included Janan. Janan
was considered part of the Hawars during oil concession negotia-
tions in the 1930s. Janan was beaconed by Bahrain in 1939, follow-

ing the 1939 decision and so on. In the 1940s. a number of incon-
sistent British communications dealt with Janan in a contradictory
fashion. In its Counter-Memorial, Bahrain reviewed those commu-
nications to show that the differing objectives and frequently under-
standable confusions about the islands in the Hawars group can
easily be placed in context. In any case, even the British officials

accepted the finality of the 1939 arbitration. Bahrain submits to the
Court that that arbitration, which established Bahrain's sovereignty
over the Hawar:~,included Janan."

155. Bahrain further argues that "Bahrain has also established . . . its

sovereignty over Janan Island on the basis of that island's use by Bah-
raini subjects and the Ruler of Bahrain's exercise of authority over the
Island". In this regard it cites inteuliu the regular use of Janan by Bah-
raini fishermen, who were "required to obtain the Ruler of Bahrain's per-
mission before they could erect huts on the island", and the fact that the
island "had been beaconed by Bahrain in 1939,following the British deci-
sion awarding the Hawar Islands to Bahrain".

156. For its part, Qatar contends that "the fact that Bahraini subjects
used Janan for fishinigactivities around it [cannot] serve as an indication
of sovereignty", and denies that "the Bahraini fishermen visiting this
island had to obtairi prior authorization from the Ruler of Bahrain in
order to put up huts or simple shelters". With regard to Bahrain's argu-
ment concerning the beaconing of Janan, Qatar contends that "this kind

of activity cannot in itself be considered as a manifestation of sover-
eignty" and that "[ili.can generally only be taken into account as a form
of subsidiary consideration". It goes on to state the following:

"According to the most well-established international jurispru-
dence, probativ'e value can attach only to activities relating to the
exercise of State functions: legislation, administration, jurisdiction.

It cannot be inferred from the installation of lights, beacons or
buoys that the State carrying out such installations was acting asthe
territorial sovereign."

157. The Court, alsit has done in regard to the Parties' claims to the
Hawar Islands, will begin by considering the effects of the British deci-
sion of 1939 on the question of sovereignty over Janan Island. As has
already been stated, in that decision the British Government concludedthat the Hawar Islands "belong[ed] to the State of Bahrain andnot to the
State of Qatar". No mention was made of Janan Island. Nor was it speci-
fied what was to be understood by the expression "Hawar Islands". The
Parties have accordingly debated at length over the issue of whether
Janan fell to be regarded as part of the Hawar Islands and whether, as a
result, it pertained t,oBahrain's sovereignty by virtue of the 1939decision
or whether, on the contrary, it was not covered by that decision.

158. In support of their respective arguments, Qatar and Bahrain have
each cited documents both anterior and posterior to the British decision
of 1939.Qatar has in particular relied on a "decision" by the British Gov-

ernment in 1947 re:lating to the sea-bed delimitation between the two
States. The Court vliilnow examine these documents, as they were sub-
mitted by the partit:^in support of their respective arguments.

159. Bahrain recalled that it had submitted four lists to the British
Government - in April 1936,August 1937,May 1938and July 1946 -
with regard to the composition of the Hawar Islands. It explained as fol-
lows, in respect of each of those lists, the circumstances of its submission:

"The first list was submitted at the end of April 1936,in the con-
text of the negotiations for an oil concession over the Bahrain un-
allotted area . . .The statement contailied a list of the islands con-
sidered by the Ruler at that time to be part of the Hawar Islands. It
did not in any way purport to be an exhaustive listing.
The significance of the 1936list lies in the fact that Janan Island
was included iriwhat appears to be the first forma1written statement
by Bahrain of its sovereignty over the Hawar Islands . . .[tlhe 1936
list was ignored by the British Political Agent when making his

recommendation in 1947regarding the seabed delimitation between
Bahrain and Qatar.
The second list was submitted in August 1937 in response to a
request by the British Government for a list setting out the islands
the Ruler of Bahrain considered to be among his dominions. No
mention is made specifically of Janan Island in that list. However,
neither is any mention made of the other islands that were identified
in the previou:; list, including the main island of Hawar . . .in the
light of the clearly demarcated concession area that Bahrain was
offering to PC'L[Petroleum Concessions Ltd.] at the time, with Brit-
ain's acquiesci:nce, it is abundantly clear that Janan Island was
understood to be one of the 'nine'[islands]considered to constitute
the 'Howar archipelago' . ..

The third list was submitted .. . in May 1938,as an attachment to
a preliminary statement of evidence submitted in connection with
the Hawar Islands arbitration .. .

The attachrrient . . provide[s] a listing of those islands or rocks MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 89

which had been marked with a Bahraini beacon, as of the date the
list was submitt'ed.. . The Bahraini beacon on Janan was not con-
structed until sometime after 21 February 1939 (corresponding to
1358 A.H.) . . .
The last of i.he four lists was submitted in July 1946. It was
described as a complete list of 'the cairns which were erected on the
various reefs and islands . . .built during 1357and 1358[Le., 1938
and 19391'.All of the islands numbered 1through 18on the list were
considered to be part of the Hawar Islands. Janan Island was
included on the list as number 15. (This confirms the fact that the

1938 listwas orily a limited listing ofBahraini beaconed islands.)"
160. Qatar, for it:;part, has referred to the letters dated 23 December
1947,drafted in identical terms and sent by the British Political Agent in
Bahrain to the Rullers of Qatar and Bahrain, in which the sea-bed
between the two States wasdelimited by the British Government (see para-
graph 61 above). In those letters Bahrain was recognized as having
sovereign rights ovei-

"Hawar Island, the islands of the Hawar groupand the territorial
waters pertaining thereto and delimited again in accordance with the
usual principles of international law .. . It should be noted that
Janan Island is not regarded as being included in the islands of the
Hawar group."

Qatar has explained that
"[alt the time of the consideration of delimitation of the maritime

boundary, it was the 1938 list, sent with Belgrave's 'preliminary
statement' of 29 May 1938,which came to be regarded as the specific
list on the basis of which the decision of 11July 1939was made."
161. Bahrain, hov~ever,argued in this regard that in 1947"[tlhe British
Political Agent [hadllfailed to take into account the list submitted by the
Ruler of Bahrain in 1936 . . and [had]instead arbitrarily and mistakenly
relied on the list of beaconed islands and rocks submitted in 1938". It
further contended that:

"The purpose of the 1947letters was not to notify the Rulers of a
'decision'whickithey would be bound to respect. It was merely to
inform them that the British authorities would henceforth consider
the seabed as being divided by the line described in the letters, par-
ticularly in the course of their dealings with the two oil companies,
PCL [Petroleuni Concessions Ltd.] and BAPCO [Bahrain Petroleum
Company]."

162. Finally, Qatar has argued as follows:

"Admittedly, Bahrain challenges the exclusion of Janan from the
Hawar island group by criticising the British authorities for relying,
in making this exclusion, on the list established by Belgrave in his letter of 29 May 1938.According to Bahrain, in formulating this list,
Belgrave did n~otintend to identify al1 the islands in the Hawar
group, but simply to list those on which beacons had been placed.
Yet Bahrain fails to mention that, ... Belgrave expressly stated: 'On
each of the islaiîds there is a Stone beacon'. . .

If each of the Hawar Islands bore a beacon, it would not matter
whether the list was a list of the islands or of the numbers of the
beacons. Janan had not been 'beaconed' . . at that date, and there-
fore was not on the list. As Belgrave'sletter stated that each island in
the Hawar group had been beaconed, and listed those islands or
those beacons, this must mean that Janan Island was not considered,
at the time the British were about to take their decision, as part of
the Hawar Islands group. The decision of 1947, therefore, merely
confirmed in this regard a fact accepted in 1938-1939."

163. The Court notes that the three lists submitted prior to 1939 by

Bahrain to the British Government with regard to the composition of the
Hawar group are n,ot identical. In particular, Janan Island appears by
name in only one of those three lists. As to the fourth list, which is dif-
ferent from the three previous ones, it does make express reference to
Janan Island, but if.was submitted to the British Government only in
1946, several years after the adoption of the 1939decision. Thus, no defi-
nite conclusion may be drawn from these various lists.

164. The Court willnow consider the letters sent on 23 December 1947
by the British Po1itic:alAgent in Bahrain to the Rulers of Qatar and Bah-
rain. By those letters the Political Agent acting on behalf of the British
Government informed the two States of the delimitation of their sea-beds
effected by the British Government. This Government, which had been
responsible for the 1939 decision on the Hawar Islands, sought, in the
last sentence of subparagraph 4 (ii) of these letters, to make it clear that
"Janan Island is not regarded as being included in the islands of the
Hawar group" (seeparagraph 61 above). The British Government accord-
ingly did not "recognize" the Sheikh of Bahrain as having "sovereign
rights" over that island and, in determining the points fixed in para-
graph 5 of those letters (see paragraph 61 above), as well as in drawing

the map enclosed with those letters, it regarded Janan as belonging to
Qatar. The Court considers that the British Government, in thus pro-
ceeding, provided a.n authoritative interpretation of the 1939 decision
and of the situation resulting from it.
165. Having regard to al1 of the foregoing, the Court cannot accept
Bahrain's argument that in 1939 the British Government recognized
"Bahrain's sovereigintyover Janan as part of the Hawars". It finds thatQatar has sovereignty over Janan Island including Hadd Janan, on the
basis of the decisiori taken by the British Government in 1939,as inter-
preted in 1947.The Court thus cannot uphold the submission of Bahrain
on this point.

166. The Court will now turn to the question of the maritime delimita-
tion.
167. The Parties are in agreement that the Court should render its

decision on the maritime delimitation in accordance with international
law. Neither Bahrain nor Qatar is party to the Geneva Conventions on
the Law of the Sea of 29 April 1958; Bahrain has ratified the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 but
Qatar is only a signatory to it. Customary international law, therefore, is
the applicable law. Both Parties, however, agree that most of the provi-
sions of the 1982 Convention which are relevant for the present case
reflect customary 1a.w.
168. Under the terms of the "Bahraini formula" adopted in December
1990(see paragraphs 67 and 69 above), the Parties requested the Court,
"to draw a single maritime boundary between their respective maritime
areas of seabed, subsoil and superjacent waters".
In its finalsubmiissions, which are identical to the submissions pre-
sented in the writteri proceedings, Qatar requested the Court to "draw a
single maritime boundary between the maritime areas of sea-bed, subsoil
and superjacent waters appertaining respectively to the State of Qatar
and the State of Balhrain . ..".

Bahrain for its part asked the Court to adjudge and declare that "the
maritime boundary between Bahrain and Qatar is as described in Part
Two of Bahrain's Memorial". From this Memorial and the maps annexed
thereto, it followstl-iatBahrain, too, is asking the Court to draw a single
maritime boundary.
Both Parties therefore requested the Court to draw a single maritime
boundary (see sketch-map No. 2, p. 92 below).
169. It should be kept in mind that the concept of "single maritime
boundary" may encompass a number of functions. In the present case the
single maritime boundary will be the result of the delimitation of various
jurisdictions. In the southern part of the delimitation area, which is situ-
ated where the coasts of the Parties are opposite to each other, the dis-
tance between these coasts is nowhere more than 24 nautical miles. The
boundary the Court is expected to draw will, therefore, delimit exclu-
sively their territorial seas and, consequently. an area over which they
enjoy territorial sovereignty.

170. More to the north, however, where the coasts of the two States
are no longer opposite to each other but are rather comparable to adja-
cent coasts, the delimitation to be carried out will be one between the MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 92

Sketch-map No 7 Lines Proposed by Qatar and Bahrain

Qatar

Th6 sketch-rnap onwhrh maritimefealuresareshownInslmpliliedform has&en prepared eurposesMcywp
IISwthoufpieludicetothenatureofceriainolmeseleatures
SourcessubmissionsofthePartiesMernorialofQatar Vol 17 Map24 Ml fBahtainVol 7 Maps10 113and15continental shelf and exclusive economic zone belonging to each of the
Parties, areas in which States have only sovereign rights and functional
jurisdiction. Thus both Parties have differentiated between a southern
and a northern sector.
171. In the oral proceedings Qatar argued that the Court had not been
requested to determine, on the one hand, a line delimiting the respective
territorialseas and, on the other, a delimitation line for the continental
shelf and the exclusi.veeconomic zone of each State. but to decide on the

course of a single delimitation line, regardless of the'designation or inter-
national status of the various maritime areas. Qatar also drew attention
to the fact that, when the proceedings were initiated in 1991,the territo-
rial seas of both States had a breadth of 3 nautical miles and that conse-
quently the delimitai.ion area in the southern sector also had a multifunc-
tional character.
172. By a decree of 16April 1992,Qatar extended the breadth of its
territorial sea to 12 nautical miles; Bahrain did likewise by decree of
20 April 1993.As a result, the waters in the southern sector now consist
exclusivelyof territorial seas which partially overlap. According to Qatar
it would be difficult to accept, however, that the extension of the breadth
of the territorial seas to 12 nautical miles has radically changed the
parameters of the delimitation problem.
173. The Court observes that the concept of a single maritime bound-

ary does not stem from multilateral treaty law but from State practice,
and that it finds its explanation in the wish of States to establish one un-
interrupted boundary line delimiting the various - partially coincident
- zones of maritime jurisdiction appertaining to them. In the case of
coincident jurisdictional zones, the determination of a single boundary
for the different objects of delimitation
"can only be carried out by the application of a criterion, or combina-

tion of criteria, which does not give preferential treatment to one of
these .. .objectijto the detriment of the other, and at the same time is
such as to be equally suitable to the division of either of them",
as was stated by the Chamber of the Court in the Gulf of Maine case
(I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 327, para. 194). In that case, the Chamber was
asked to draw a single line which would delimitboth the continental shelf

and the superjacent water column.
174. Delimitation of territorial seas does not present comparable prob-
lems, since the righ1.sof the coastal State in the area concerned are not
functional but territorial, and entail sovereignty over the sea-bed and the
superjacent waters ,and air column. Therefore, when carrying out that
part of its task, the Court has to apply first and foremost the principles
and rules of international customary law which refer to the delimitation
of the territorial sea, whiletaking into account that its ultimate task is to
draw a single maritime boundary that serves other purposes as well.
175. The Parties agree that the provisions of Article 15 of the 1982
Convention on the Law of the Sea, headed "Delimitation of the territo-applies both to the Qatar peninsula, which should be understood as
including the main Hawar Island, and to Bahrain, of which the islands to
be taken into consitleration are al-Awal (also called Bahrain Island),
together with al-Mu.harraq and Sitrah. For Qatar, application of the
mainland-to-mainland method has two main consequences.

First, it takes no account of the islands (except for the above-
mentioned islands,Hawar on the Qatar sideand al-Awal, al-Muharraq and
Sitrah on the Bahrain side), islets, rocks, reefs or low-tide elevations lying
in the relevant area. According to Qatar, the delimitation area contains
"[a] multitude of island, rock, coral or sand formations". These features
are said to be of littli: significance"because of their small size,their loca-
tion and in the case of the low-tide elevations, their legal characteriza-
tion". The majority are very small, uninhabited islands, or even simply
rocks that are quite uninhabitable, and correspond in reality to what are

often referred to in international case-law as "minor geographical
features", in other words, to repeat the words used in the Judgment given
by the Chamber dealing with the Gulf of Maine case:

"the . . .type of minor geographical features which . . should be
discounted if itlisdesired that a delimitation line should result so far
as feasible inan equal division of the areas in which the respective
maritime projec:tions of the two countries' coasts overlap" (I.C.J.
Reports 1984, p. 332, para. 210).

Qatar argues that what applies for islets is valid a fortiori for low-tide
elevations.
Second, in Qatar's view, application of the mainland-to-mainland
method of calculation would also mean that the equidistance line has to
be constructed by reference to the high-water line. A clear distinction

must be drawn between the determination of the outer limit of the terri-
torial sea of a State or other territorial entity, and the delimitation of a
maritime boundary between two States with opposite coasts. The fact
that the low-water line is "the normal baseline" for determining the outer
limit of the territorial sea does not for Qatar necessarily mean that the
same low-water line is the baseline from which an equidistance line must
be constructed. In Qatar's view, the low-water line rule is not obligatory
as a rule of general application, and the use of the high-water line isjus-
tified on both technical and legal grounds, precisely in order to achieve
an equitable delimitation. Qatar contends in particular that the low-
water line is by definition precarious, subjective or even arbitrary, in so
far as it may Varyw:ithtime, whereas the high-water line can be drawn in
a sure and objective way, being relativelyinvariable. 180. Bahrain contends that it is a de facto archipelago or multiple-
island State, characterized by a variety of maritime features of diverse
character and size. A!Ilthese features are closely interlinked and together
they constitute the State of Bahrain; reducing that State to a limited
number of so-called "'principal" islands would be a distortion of reality
and a refashioning of geography. Since it is the land which determines
maritime rights, the relevant basepoints are situated on al1those mari-
time features over which Bahrain has sovereignty.

Bahrain further cointendsthat, according to conventional and custom-
ary international law, it is the low-water line which is determinative for
the breadth of the territorial sea and for the delimitation of overlapping

territorial waters.
181. Finally, Bahr.ainhas stated that, as a defacto archipelagic State,
it is entitled todeclare itself an archipelagic State under Part IV of the
1982Law of the Sea Convention and to draw the permissive baselines of
Article 47 of that Convention, Le.,"straight archipelagic baselinesjoining
the outermost point:; of the outermost islands and drying reefs of the
archipelago". Bahrain justifies its entitlement to declare itself an archi-
pelagic State on the $:roundsthat the ratio of sea to land in Bahrain lies,
at al1 moments of tidal measurement, well within the statutory spatial
ratio of the above-m'entionedArticle 47, namely a ratio "between 1 to 1
and 9 to 1". Bahrain notes that it has asserted its archipelagic claims in
its diplomatic correspondence with other States and during multilateral
negotiations over the:course of the last century. Further, it claims it has
been prepared to declare itself an archipelagic State but has been con-
strained from doing so by the undertaking not to modify the status quo
given in the framework of the mediation of the King of Saudi Arabia,
and that will lapse orilywith the judgment of this Court. It further asserts
that its entitlement to declare itself an archipelagic State is an option to

be exercised freely, and is neither contingent upon recognition by third
parties nor subject to time limitations.
182. Qatar has contested Bahrain's claim that it is entitled to declare
itself an archipelagic State under Part IV of the 1982Convention; it con-
tends inter aka that Part IV has not become customary law, and that
consequently it is not opposable to it. Moreover, Bahrain has never pro-
duced a claim of archipelagic status, either as regards its relations with
Qatar or with respect to other States; the basic reason for this is that
Bahrain would have difficulty in proving that it meets the relevant
requirements of the 1982Convention, in particular the requirement relat-
ing to the ratio of the area of water to the area of land provided for in
Article 47, paragrapln 1.In its final submissions Qatar asked the Court to
declare that any claim by Bahrain concerning archipelagic baselines are
irrelevant for the purpose of maritime delimitation in the present case.

183. With regard to Bahrain's claim that it is entitled to the status of
archipelagic State in the sense of the 1982Convention on the Law of the MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 97

Sea, the Court observes that Bahrain has not made this claim one of its
formal submissions a.ndthat the Court is therefore not requested to take
a position on this issue. What the Court, however, is called upon to do is
to draw a single maritime boundary in accordance with international law.
The Court can carry out this delimitation only by applying those rules
and principles of customary law which are pertinent under the prevailing
circumstances. The Judgment of the Court willhave binding force between
the Parties, in accordance with Article 59of the Statute of the Court, and
consequently could not be put in issueby the unilateral action of either of
the Parties, and in particular, by any decision of Bahrain to declare itself
an archipelagic State.
184. The Court, tkierefore,will accordingly now turn to the determina-
tion of the relevant toasts from which the breadth of the territorial seas

of the Parties is measured. In this respect the Court recalls that under the
applicable rules of international law the normal baseline for measuring
this breadth is the low-water line along the Coast (Art. 5, 1982Conven-
tion on the Law of the Sea).
185. In previous cases the Court has made clear that maritime rights
derive from the coastal State's sovereignty over the land, a principle
which can be summ;irized as "the land dominates the sea" (North Sea
Continental Shelf: 1.(7J. Reports 1969, p. 51, para. 96;Aegean Sea Con-
tinental SheIf;I.C.J. Reports 1978, p. 36, para. 86).
It is thus the terrestrial territorial situation that must be taken as start-
ing point for the determination of the maritime rights of a coastal State.
In accordance with Article 121,paragraph 2, of the 1982Convention on
the Law of the Sea, which reflects customary international law, islands,
regardless of their size, in this respect enjoy thesame status, and there-
fore generate the sanle maritime rights, as other land territory.

186. In order to determine what constitutes Bahrain's relevant coasts
and what are the relevant baselines on the Bahraini side, the Court must
first establish which islandscome under Bahraini sovereignty.
187. In the preceding part of the Judgment (see paragraphs 98 to 165)
the Court has concluded that the Hawar Islands belong to Bahrain and
that Janan belongs to Qatar. Other islands which can be identified in the
delimitation area which are relevant for delimitation purposes in the
southern sector are Jazirat Mashtan and Umm Jalid, islands which are at
high tide very small in size, but at low tide have a surface which is con-
siderably larger. Bahrain claims to have sovereignty over these islands, a
claim which is not contested by Qatar.
188. However, the:Parties are divided on the issue of whether Fasht al
Azm must be deemed to be part of the island of Sitrah or whether it is a
low-tide elevation which is not naturally connected to Sitrah Island. In
1982 Bahrain undertook reclamation works for the construction of a
petrochemical plant., during which an artificial channel was dredged

connecting the waters on both sides of Fasht al Azm. 189. According to Qatar, Fasht al Azm is a low-tide elevation which
has always been separated from Sitrah Island by a natural channel (a
"fisherman's channel") which was navigable even at low tide; this natural
channel was filled during the 1982construction works, as evidenced by a
technical circular of an expert of Bahrain of March 1982.
Bahrain does not clenythat there are and have been natural inlets on
Fasht al Azm, which at low tide is by no means a flat sandbank, but
denies that these inlets have ever constituted a channel which would have
been navigable at low tide, separating the island of Sitrah from Fasht al

Azm. Bahrain has provided the Court with a number of maritime charts
and plots, both of British and of Bahraini origin, none of which indicates
the existence of a naitural channel separating Sitrah from Fasht al Azm
which does not dry aitlow tide, in particular in the area mentioned in the
1982technical circular.
Both Parties have submitted reports of experts which come to diver-
gent conclusions as to the existence of such a permanently navigable
channel.
190. After careful analysis of the various reports, documents and
charts submitted by the Parties, the Court has been unable to establish
whether a permanent passage separating Sitrah Island from Fasht al
Azm existed before the reclamation works of 1982were undertaken. For
the reasons explainecl below, the Court is nonetheless able to undertake
the requested delimitation in this sector without determining the question
whether Fasht al Azrn is to be regarded as part of the island of Sitrah or
as a low-tide elevation (see paragraphs 218-220 below).

191. Another issue:on which the Parties have totally opposing views is

whether Qit'at Jaradah is an island or a low-tide elevation. Qit'at Jara-
dah is a maritime feature, situated north-east of Fasht al Azm. When the
British Government (decidedin 1947to draw a line dividing the sea-bed
between Bahrain and Qatar in view of the operations of oil companies in
the area concerned, it informed the two States, by letters dated 23 Decem-
ber 1947, that it recognized the Ruler of Bahrain's "sovereign rights in
the areas of the Dibal and Jaradah shoals which are above the spring tide
low-water level", although these two maritime features were located on
the Qatari side of the line. It added that "these shoals should not be con-
sidered to be islands having territorial waters" (see paragraph 61 above).

192. From the foregoing it is clear that the British Government was of
the view that Qit'at Jaradah and Fasht ad Dibal were not islands at the
time the dividing line of 1947was drawn. Bahrain, however, contended
that there are strong: indications that even before 1947, Qit'at Jaradah
was an island that remained dry at high tide and that in any event, it

certainly was after tlhat date. It referred in this respect to a number of
eyewitness reports which concluded that it was evident that part of its
sandbank had not been covered by water for some time. Bahrain further MARITlME DELIMIrATlO NND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 99

stated that Qit'at Jaradah, after the upper part of its surface had been
removed on Qatar's instruction in 1986, recovered its island status by
natural accretion.

193. Qatar maintains that Qit'at Jaradah is not, and has never been,
reflected on nautical charts asan island but always as a low-tide elevation
and that this is in conformity with its true character. Even if there are
periods when it has not been completely submerged at high tide, its

physical status has been constantly changing, and it should therefore be
considered for legal purposes to be no more than a shoal, despite the
attempts made by Bahrain in 1985-1986 to alter its nature.

194. Bahrain comrnissioned an expert to examine the geographical

situation; this expert concluded that Qit'at Jaradah - though small in
size - is permanentby above water, and is thus an island. Qatar asked
two experts to evaluate this conclusion; they considered that the surveys
conducted in 1998 by the Bahraini expert "did not provide a basis for a
definitive determination whether it is an islet or a low-tide elevation".

195. The Court recalls that the legal definition of an island is "a natu-
rally formed area of land, surrounded by water, which is above water at
high tide" (1958 Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous
Zone, Art. 10, para. 1 ;1982Convention on the Law of the Sea, Art. 121,

para. 1).The Court has carefully analysed the evidence submitted by the
Parties and weighed the conclusions of the experts referred to above, in
particular the fact that the experts appointed by Qatar did not themselves
maintain that it was siiientificallyproven that Qit'at Jaradah is a low-tide
elevation. On these bases, the Court concludes that the maritime feature
of Oit'at Jaradah satisfies the above-mentioned criteria and that it is an

island which should as such be taken into consideration for the drawing
of the equidistance lirie.
196. Bahrain claims that Qit'at Jaradah comes under Bahraini sover-
eignty, since it has displayed its authority over it in various ways, and
that this was recognized by the British Government in 1947. In this

respect it has referred to a number of activities, including the erection of
a beacon, the ordering of the drilling of an artesian well, the granting of
an oil concession, and the licensing of fish traps. Qatar contends that
Qit'at Jaradah, being a low-tide elevation, cannot be appropriated, and
that, since it is situated in the part of the territorial sea which belong to

Qatar, Qatar has sovereign rights over it.

197. The Court firist notes that Qit'at Jaradah is a very small island
situated within the 12-mile limit of both States. According to the report
of the expert commissioned by Bahrain, at high tide its length and

breadth are about 12 by 4 metres, whereas at low tide they are 600 and
75 metres. At high ticle, its altitude is approximately 0.4 metres.
Certain types of activities invoked by Bahrain such as the drilling ofartesian wellswould, taken by themselves, be considered controversial as
acts performed a titre de souverain. The construction of navigational
aids, on the other hand, can be legally relevant in the case of very small
islands. In the preseiit case, taking into account the size of Qit'at Jara-
dah, the activities cairriedout by Bahrain on that island must be consid-
ered sufficient to support Bahrain's claim that it has sovereignty over it.

198. In this context the Court recalls that the Permanent Court of
International Justice observed in the Legal Status of Eastern Greenland
case that
"It is impossible to read the records of the decisions in cases as to
territorial sovereignty without observing that in many cases the tri-
bunal has been satisfied with verylittle in the way of the actual exer-

cise of sovereign rights, provided that the other State could not
make out a superior claim." (P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 53, p. 46.)

199. Similar acts of authority have been invoked by Bahrain in order
to support its claim that it has sovereignty over Fasht ad Dibal. In this
respect Bahrain recalls that the British Government in 1947 recognized

that Bahrain had sovereign rights over Fasht ad Dibal, even if it could
not be considered as an island having territorial waters.

200. Both Parties agree that Fasht ad Dibal is a low-tide elevation.
Whereas Qatar maintains - just as it did with regard to Qit'at Jaradah
- that Fasht ad Dibal as a low-tide elevation cannot be appropriated,
Bahrain contends thiit low-tide elevations by their very nature are terri-
tory, and therefore c:anbe appropriated in accordance with the criteria
which pertain to the acquisition of territory. "Whatever their location,
low-tide elevations are always subject to the law which governs the acqui-
sition and preservation of territorial sovereignty, with its subtle dialectic
of title and eJfectivitks."

201. According to the relevant provisions of the Conventions on the
Law of the Sea, which reflect customary international law, a low-tide
elevation is a naturalily formed area of land which is surrounded by and
above water at low tide but submerged at high tide (1958 Convention on
the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, paragraph 1of Article 11 ;
1982Convention on the Law of the Sea, paragraph 1of Article 13).

Under these provisions, the low-water line of a low-tide elevation may
be used as the baseliinefor measuring the breadth of the territorial sea if
it is situated wholly or partly at a distance not exceeding the breadth of
the territorial sea from the mainland or an island. If a low-tide elevation
is wholly situated at a distance exceeding the breadth of the territorial
sea, it has no territorial sea of its own. The above-mentioned Conven-

tions further provide that straight baselines shall not be drawn to and MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 101

from low-tide elevatic~ns,unless lighthouses or similar installations which
are permanently above sea level have been built on them (1958 Con-
vention, paragraph .3 of Article 4; 1982 Convention, paragraph 4 of
Article 7). According to Bahrain this is the case with regard to al1low-
tide elevations which are relevant in the present case for the delimita-
tion process.

202. When a low-tide elevation is situated in the overlapping area of
the territorial sea of two States, whether with opposite or with adjacent
coasts, both States in principle are entitled to use its low-water line for
the measuring of the breadth of their territorial sea. The same low-tide
elevation then forms part of the coastal configuration of the two States.
That is so even if the low-tide elevation is nearer to the coast of one State

than that of the other, or nearer to an island belonging to one party than
it is to the mainland coast of the other. For delimitation purposes the
competing rights deriivedby both coastal States from the relevant provi-
sions of the law of the sea would by necessity seem to neutralize each
other.
203. In Bahrain's view, however, it depends upon the effectivi pré-s
sented by the two coiistal States which of them has a superior title to the
low-tide elevation in question and is therefore entitled to exercise the
right attributed by the relevant provisions of the law of the sea,just as in
the case of islands which are situated within the limits of the breadth of
the territorial sea of morethan one State.
Bahrain contends that it has submitted sufficient evidence of the dis-
play of sovereign authority over al1 the low-tide elevations situated in
the sea between Bahrain's main islands and the coast of the Qatar
peninsula.
204. Whether this claim by Bahrain is well founded depends upon the

answer to the question whether low-tide elevations are territory and can
be appropriated in conformity with the rules and principles of territorial
acquisition. In the view of the Court, the question in the present case is
not whether low-tide elevations are or are not part of the geographical
configuration and as such may determinethe legal coastline. The relevant
rules of the law of th'esea explicitly attribute to them that function when
they are within a State's territorialsea. Nor is there any doubt that a
coastal State has sovereignty over low-tide elevations which are situated
within its territorial sea,ince it has sovereignty over the territorial sea
itself, including its sea-bed and subsoil. The decisive question for the
present case is whether a State can acquire sovereignty by appropriation
over a low-tide elevation situated within the breadth of its territorial sea
when that same low-tide elevation lies also within the breadth of the ter-
ritorial sea of another State.

205. International treaty law is silent on the question whether low-
tide elevations can be considered to be "territory". Nor is the Court MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT1 )02

aware of a uniform and widespread State practice which might have

given rise to a customary rule which unequivocally permits or excludes
appropriation of low-tide elevations. It is only in the context of the law
of the sea that a nurnber of permissive rules have been established with
regard to low-tide elevations which are situated at a relatively short dis-
tance from a Coast.

206. The few existing rules do not justify a general assumption that
low-tide elevations aireterritory in the same sense as islands. It has never
been disputed that islands constitute terra firma, and are subject to the
rules and principles of territorial acquisition; the difference in effects
which the law of the: sea attributes to islands and low-tide elevations is

considerable. It is thus not established that in the absence of other rules
and legal prinçiples, low-tide elevations can, from the viewpoint of the
acquisition of sovereignty, be fully assimilated with islands or other land
territory.

207. In this respect the Court recalls therule that a low-tide elevation
which is situated beyond the limits of the territorial sea does not have a
territorial sea of its own. A low-tide elevation, therefore, as such does
not generate the same rights as islands or other territory. Moreover, it is
generally recognized and implicit in the words of the relevant provisions
of the Conventions cinthe Law of the Sea that, whereas a low-tide eleva-

tion which is situatetl within the limits of the territorial sea may be used
for the determination of its breadth, this does not hold for a low-tide
elevation which is situated less than 12 nautical miles from that low-tide
elevation but is beyond the limits of the territorial sea. The law of the sea
does not in these cir(:umstances allow application of the so-called "leap-
frogging" method. ln this respect it is irrelevant whether the coastal

State has treated such a low-tide elevation as its property and carried out
some governmental acts with regard to it; it does not generate a terri-
torial sea.
208. Paragraph 3 of Article4 of the 1958 Convention on the Territo-
rial Sea and the Coi~tiguous Zone and paragraph 4 of Article 7 of the
1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea provide that straight baselines
shall not be drawn to and from low-tide elevations unless lighthouses or

similar installations which are permanently above sea level have been
built on them. These provisions are another indication that low-tide
elevations cannot be equated with islands, which under al1circumstances
qualify as basepoints for straight baselines.

209. The Court, c:onsequently, is of the view that in the present case

there is no ground for recognizing the right of Bahrain to use as a base-
line the low-water line of those low-tide elevations which are situated in
the zone of overlapping claims, or for recognizing Qatar as having such a MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 103

right. The Court accordingly concludes that for the purposes of drawing
the equidistance line, such low-tide elevations must be disregarded.

210. Bahrain has contended that, as a multiple-island State, its coast
consists of the lines connecting its outermost islands and such low-tide
elevations as liewithin their territorial waters. Without explicitly refer-
ring to Article 4 of )the1958 Convention on the Territorial Sea and the
Contiguous Zone or Article 7 of the 1982Convention on the Law of the
Sea, Bahrain in its reasoning and in the maps provided to the Court
applied the method ,ofstraight baselines. This is also clear from its con-
tention that the area of sea to the Westof the Hawar Islands, between

these islands and Bahrain's main island, is comprised of interna1 waters
of Bahrain.
211. Bahrain maintains that as a multiple-island State characterized
by a cluster of islands off the coast of its main islands, it is entitled to
draw a line connecf.ing the outermost islands and low-tide elevations.
According to ~ahrain,"in such cases the external fringe should serve as
the baseline for the )territorialsea.
212. The Court observes that the method of straight baselines, which
is an exception to the normal rules for the determination of baselines,
may only be applied if a number of conditions are met. This method must
be applied restrictively. Such conditions are primarily that either the
coastline is deeply indented and cut into, or that there is a fringe of
islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity.

213. The fact thait a State considers itself a multiple-island State or a
de facto archipelagic State does not allow it to deviate from the normal

rules for the determination of baselines unless the relevant conditionsare
met. The coasts of B,ahrain'smain islands do not form a deeply indented
coast, nor does Bahrain claim this. It contends, however, that the mari-
time features off the coast of the main islands may be assimilated to a
fringe of islands which constitute a whole with the mainland.

214. The Court does not deny that the maritime features east of Bah-
rain's main islands are part of the overall geographical-configuration; it
would be going too far, however, to quaiify them as a fringe of islands
along the coast. The islands concerned are relatively small in number.
Moreover, in the prr:sent case it is only possible to speak of a "cluster of
islands" or an "islarid system" if Bahrain's main islands are included in
that concept. In such a situation, the method of straight baselines is
applicable only if th'eState has declared itself to be an archipelagic State
under Part IV of the 1982Convention on the Law of the Sea, which is
not true of Bahrain in this case.
215. The Court, therefore, concludes that Bahrain is not entitled to
apply the method of straight baselines. Thus each maritime feature has MARITIME DELIhdlTATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 104

its own effect for the determination of the baselines, on the understand-
ing that, on the groiinds set out before, the low-tide elevations situated in
the overlapping zone of territorial seas will be disregarded. It is on this
basis that the equidistance line must be drawn.

216. Fasht al Azm however requires special mention. If this feature
were to be regarded as part of the island of Sitrah, the basepoints for the
purposes of determining the equidistance line would be situated on Fasht
al Azm's eastern low-water line. If it were not to be regarded as part of
the island of Sitrah, Fasht alAzm could not provide such basepoints. As
the Court has not determined whether this feature does form part of the
island of Sitrah (see paragraph 190 above), it has drawn two equidistance
lines reflecting each of these hypotheses (see sketch-maps Nos. 3,4, 5 and
6, pp. 105-108 below).

217. The Court niowturns to the question of whether there are special

circumstances which make it necessary to adjust the equidistance line as
provisionally drawci in order to obtain an equitable result in relation to
this part of the single maritime boundary to be fixed (see the case con-
cerning Maritime Delimitation in the Areu betiveen Greenland and
Jun Mayen (Denmark v. Nortifay), Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 60,
para. 50, p. 62, para. 54).
218. The first question to be considered is that of Fasht al Azm. The
Court considers that if Fasht al Azm were to be regarded as part of the
island of Sitrah, itdouldnot be appropriate to take the equidistance line
as the maritime boiindary since, in view of the fact that less than 20 per
cent of the surface of this island is permanently above water, this would
place the boundary disproportionately close to Qatar's mainland coast
(see sketch-maps Nos. 3 and 5, pp. 105and 107below). If, on the other
hand, Fasht al Azm wereto be regarded as a Iow-tide elevation, the equi-

distance line would brush Fasht al Azm, and for this reason would also
be an inappropriate delimitation line (see sketch-maps Nos. 3 and 6,
pp. 105and 108below). The Court considers that, on either hypothesis,
there are thus speciiilcircumstances which justify choosing a delimitation
line passing betwee.nFasht al Azm and Qit'at ash Shajarah.

219. The next question to be considered is that of Qit'at Jaradah. The
Court observes that Qit'at Jaradah is a very small island, uninhabited
and without any vegetation. This tiny island, which - as the Court has
determined (see paragraph 197 above) - comes under Bahraini sover-
eignty, is situated about midway between the main island of Bahrain and
the Qatar peninsula. Consequently, if its low-water line were to be used
for determining a basepoint in the construction of the equidistance line,
and this line takeri as the delimitation line, a disproportionate effect Sketch-map No. 3. Equidistance Line Taking into Consideration Al1the Islands
and Those Low-tide Elevations Located in the Territorial Sea of One State only

Thissketch-map, onwhfchmantimeleaturssareshowninsimptllledtom. hasbeenprepared for~IlustrallvpeurposesMily
It1withoulprepdicetothenaiureofceriairiofthesefeatures
Tb framedzones are enlargeinSKETCH-MAPNos 4.5 and6 MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QIIFSTIOUY (.IIIDGMENT) 106

Ski~iili-iil;No. 1.Fiil~ti.~enieiitof Sketch-nxtp No. 7 (Region of ili~s
lI~IL\LI~~l:lll~l\~

42' 45' 48' 51' 54' 57' 51°E MARITIME DELI~~ITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 107

Sketch-map No. 5. Enlargement of Sketch-map No. 3 (Fasht al Azm Being

Rcyiirded as Part of the Island of Sitrah)

40' 44' 48' 52' 56' 51°€ 4'

. , . ..

. . ... .

. , ...

- - -m~H~MH~T4T

.. .. .

40' 44' 48' 5Y 56' 51'~ 4'

TYs -map. mrhi maritmeWUCI areIhown m simlntiktam hasbe%npeparcd fa üumalivsp~poacsoniy.
IllsMmOulpreiuduxY>Vienahirc4ernteh d ihssebarnSketch-map No. 6. Enlargement of Sketch-map No. 3 (Fasht al Azm Being
Regarded as a Low-tide Elevation)would be given to an insignificant maritime feature (see sketch-maps
Nos. 3, 5 and 6, pp. 105, 107and 108above).
In similar situations the Court has sometimes been led to eliminate the
disproportionate effect of small islands (seeNorth Sea Continental Shelf;
I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 36, para. 57; Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab
JamahiriyalMalta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 48, para. 64).The
Court thus finds thai:there is a special circumstance in this case warrant-
ing the choice of a delimitation line passing immediately to the east of
Qit'at Jaradah.
220. The Court observed earlier (see paragraph 216 above) that, since
it did not determine whether Fasht al Azm is part of Sitrah island or a
separate low-tide elevation, it is necessary to draw provisionally two
equidistance lines. If no effect is given to Qit'at Jaradah and in the event

that Fasht al Azm lisconsidered to be part of Sitrah island, the equi-
distance line thus adjusted cuts through Fasht ad Dibal leaving the greater
part of it on the Qatari side. If, however, Fasht al Azm is seen as a
low-tide elevation, the adjusted equidistance line runs Westof Fasht ad
Dibal. In view of the fact that under both hypotheses, Fasht ad Dibal is
largely or totally on the Qatari side of the adjusted equidistance line, the
Court considers it appropriate to draw the boundary line between Qit'at
Jaradah and Fasht ad Dibal. As Fasht ad Dibal thus is situated in the
territorial sea of Qatar, itfalls for that reason under the sovereignty of
that State.

221. The Court is,now in a position to determine the course of that
part of the single maritime boundary which will delimit the territorial
seas of the Parties. Before doing so the Court notes, however, that it can-
not fix the boundary's southernmost point, since its definitive location is
dependent upon the limits of the respective maritime zones of Saudi
Arabia and of the Parties. The Court also considers it appropriate, in

accordance with connmon practice, to simplify what would otherwise be
a very complex delirnitation line in the region of the Hawar Islands.
222. Taking account of al1 of the foregoing, the Court decides that,
from the point of intersection of the respective maritime limits of Saudi
Arabia on the one hand and of Bahrain and Qatar on the other, which
cannot be fixed,the boundary will follow a north-easterly direction, then
immediately turn in an easterly direction, after which it will pass between
Jazirat Hawar and Janan; it will subsequently turn to the north and pass
between the Hawar Islands and the Qatar peninsula and continue in a
northerly direction, 'leavingthe low-tide elevation of Fasht Bu Thur, and
Fasht al Azm, on th'eBahraini side, and the low-tide elevations of Qita'a
el Erge and Qit'at ash Shajarah on the Qatari side; finally it will pass
between Qit'at Jaradah and Fasht ad Dibal, leaving Qit'at Jaradah on
the Bahraini side and Fasht ad Dibal on the Qatari side.
223. The Court notes that, because of the line thus adopted, Qatar's
maritime zones situated to the south of the Hawar Islands and those
situated to the north of those islands are connected only by the channel MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 110

separating the Hawar Islands from the peninsula. This channel is narrow
and shallow, and little suited to navigation.
The Court theref~sreemphasizes that, as Bahrain is not entitled to
apply the method of straight baselines (see paragraph 215 above), the
waters lying betweeri the Hawar Islands and the other Bahraini islands
are not interna1 waters of Bahrain, but the territorial sea of that State.
Consequently, Qatari vessels, like those of al1other States, shall enjoy in

these waters the right of innocent passage accorded by customary inter-
national law. In the same way, Bahraini vessels, like those of al1other
States, enjoy this right of innocent passage in the territorial sea of Qatar.

224. The Court will now deal with the drawing of the single maritime
boundary in that part of the delimitation area which covers both the con-
tinental shelf and the exclusiveeconomiczone (seeparagraph 170 above).

225. In its Judgment of 1984,the Chamber of the Court dealing with
the Gulfof Muine case noted that an increasing demand for singledelimi-
tation was foreseeable in order to avoid the disadvantages inherent in a
plurality of separate delimitations; according to the Chamber, "prefer-
ence will henceforth inevitably be given to criteria that, because of their
more neutral character, are best suited for use in a multi-purpose delimi-

tation" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 327, para. 194).
226. The Court itself referred to the close relationship between conti-
nental shelf and excllusiveeconomic zone for delimitation purposes in its
Judgment in the case concerning the Continental Shelf (Libyan Arub
JamuhiriyalMulta). It observed that
"even though the present case relates only to the delimitation of the
continental shelf and not to that of the exclusiveeconomic zone, the
principles and rules underlying the latter concept cannot be left out

of consideration. As the 1982 Convention demonstrates the two
institutions- continental shelf and exclusive economic zone - are
linked together in modern law." (1.C.J. Reports 1985,p. 33,para. 33.)

And the Court werit on to Say that, in case of delimitation, "greater
importance must be attributed to elements, such as distance from the
Coast, which are cornmon to both concepts" (ibid.).
227. A similar approach was taken by the Court in the Jan Mayen

case, where it was also asked to draw a single maritime boundary. With
regard to the delimitation of the continental shelf the Court stated that
"even if it were appropriate to apply . .. customary law concern-
ing the continental shelf as developed in the decided cases [the
Court had referred to the Gulfof Maine and the Lihyun Arah Jurna- hiriyalMalta cases], it is in accord with precedents to begin with the
median line as iaprovisional line and then to ask whether 'special
circumstances' [the term used in Article 6 of the 1958 Convention
on the Continerital Shelf, which was the applicable law in the case]
require any adjustment or shifting of that line" (1.C.J. Reports 1993,
p. 61, para. 51).

228. After having come to a similar conclusion with regard to the
fishery zones, the Court stated:

"It thus appears that, both for the continental shelf and for the
fishery zones in this case, its proper to begin the process of delimi-
tation by a median line provisionally drawn." (Ibid., p. 62, para. 53.)

229. The Court vlient on to Say that it was further called upon to

examine those factoas which might suggest an adjustment or shifting
of the median line in order to achieve an "equitable result". The Court
concluded :
"It is thus apparent that special circumstances are those circum-
stances which might modify the result produced by an unqualified
application of tlneequidistance principle. General international law,
as it has developed through the case-law of the Court and arbitral

jurisprudence, alnd through the work of the Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea, has employed the concept of
'relevant circunistances'. This conceDt can be described as a fact
necessary to be taken into account in the delimitation process."
(Ibid., p. 62, para. 55.)
230. The Court will follow the same approach in the present case. For
the delimitation of ithemaritime zones beyond the 12-mile zone it will

first provisionally draw an equidistance line and then consider whether
there are circumstances which must lead to an adjustment of that line.

231. The Court l'urther notes that the equidistancelspecial circum-
stances rule, which .isapplicable in particular to the delimitation of the
territorial sea, and the equitableprincipleslrelevant circumstances rule, as
it has been developed since 1958 in case-law and State practice with
regard to the delimitation of the continental shelf and the exclusive eco-
nomic zone, are closely interrelated.
23-. The Court lwillnow examine whether there are circumstances
which might make ii.necessary to adjust the equidistance line in order to
achieve an equitable result.
233. The Court recalls first that in its Judgment in the case concerning
Continental Sheif (Libyan Arab JamahiriyalMalta) it said:
the

"the equidistance method is not the only method applicable to the
present dispute.,and it does not even have the benefit of a presump- tion in its favour. Thus, under existing law, it must be demonstrated
that the equidistance method leads to an equitable result in the case
in question." (1.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 47, para. 63.)
234. The Court wiishes,furthermore, to repeat what it said in its Judg-
ment in the North Sea Continental Slzelfcase:

"Delimitation in an equitable manner is one thing, but not the
same thing as al~arding a just and equitable share of a previously
undelimited area, even though in a number of cases the results may
be comparable, or even identical." (1.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 22,
para. 18.)

In the same sense the Court stated in the Judgment in the Jun Majvn
case :
"The task of a,tribunal is to define the boundary line between the
areas under the maritime jurisdiction of two States; the sharing-out
of the area is therefore the consequence of the delimitation, not vice
versa." (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 67, para. 64.)

235. Bahrain has claimed that there are a significant number of pearl-
ing banks, many of which are situated to the north of the Qatar penin-
sula, which have appertained to Bahrain since time immemorial and that
they constitute a special circumstance which must be taken into consid-
eration in carrying out the delimitation.
Qatar denies that EIahrainhas ever had exclusiverights over the exploi-
tation of the pearling banks. While not denying that Bahraini fishermen
have been active in pearl diving in the area concerned and that the Ruler
of Bahrain had personal jurisdiction over these fishermen and their boats,
Qatar claims that these fisherieshave always been considered as common
to al1tribes along the shores of the Gulf.

Qatar also argued that Bahrain's claim had lost its relevance in any
event, because the pearl fisheries had ceased to exist over half a century

ago.
236. The Court fiirsttakes note of the fact that the pearling industry
effectively ceased to exist a considerable time ago.
It further observe:; that, from the evidence submitted to it, it is clear
that pearl diving in the Gulf area traditionally was considered as a right
which was common to the coastal population. Mention should be made
in this respect of the reply given in March 1903 by the British Political
Resident in the Gulf to a French entrepreneur who wished to engage in
pearl diving and had raised the possibility ofseeking permission from the
Ruler of Bahrain; thiePolitical Resident told this entrepreneur that "the
pearl banks were the common property of the Coast Arabs and that the
Chief of Bahrain hatl no right to give any one permission to take part in
the diving operatioris". Moreover, even if it were taken as established
that pearling had bi:en carried out by a group of fishermen from one
State only, this activity seems in any event never to have led to the recog-nition of an exclusive:quasi-territorial right to the fishing grounds them-
selves or to the superjacent waters.

The Court, therefore, does not consider the existence of pearling
banks, though predoininantly exploited in the past by Bahrain fishermen,
as forming a circumst.ancewhich wouldjustify an eastward shifting of the
equidistance line as requested by Bahrain.

237. In itsApplica.tion of 1991Qatar requested the Court to draw the
single maritime bounidary "with due regard to the line dividing the sea-
bed of the two States as described in the British decision of 23 December
1947" (see paragraph 31 above). According to Qatar

"the 1947line in itselfconstitutes a special circumstance insofar as it
was drawn in order to permit each of the two interested States actu-
ally to exercise il:sinherent right over the sea-bed. While it cannot be
said that any historic title has derived from that decision, the situa-
tion thus created however does not fall short of it."

During the oral piroceedingsQatar modulated this view when it said
that

"the nature of the 1947line .. .relates not so much to the line itself,
as drawn, but rather to the elements on the basis of which the line
was drawn by the British; in Ourview the important factor is, above
all, that this lini: was drawn starting from the principal coasts and
was constructed in a simplified manner on the basis of a few signifi-
cant points".

238. Bahrain has contested the relevance of the 1947 line for the
present delimitation process on a number of grounds. It stated, intearlia,

that its course does not meet the requirements of contemporary law and
that it merely served the purpose of regulating activities of oil companies
and was not intended by its authors nor understood by its recipients as
having binding legal force.

239. The Court does not need to determine the legal character of the
"decision" contained. in the letters of 23 December 1947to the Rulers of
Bahrain and Qatar vvithrespect to the division of the sea-bed. It suffices
for it to note that neither of the Parties has accepted it as a binding deci-
sion and that they have invoked only parts of it to support their argu-
ments.
240. The Court further observes that the British decision only con-
cerned the division of the sea-bed between the Parties. The delimitation
to be effected by the:Court, however, is partly a delimitation of the ter-
ritorial sea and partly a combined delimitation of the continental shelf MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT1)14

and the exclusiveeconomic zone. The 1947 linecannot therefore be con-
sidered to have direct relevance for the present delimitation process.

241. Qatar has also argued that there is a significant disparity between
the coastal lengths of the Parties, and that the ratio of its mainland
Coast to that of Bahrain's principal islands is 1.59 :1. It has referred to
earlier decisions of the Court where the Court has qualified a substantial
disparity between the lengths of the coasts as a special or relevant cir-
cumstance calling for an appropriate correction of the delimitation line
provisionally arrived at.
242. Bahrain has stated that the purported disparity is the result of
Qatar's assumption that the Hawar Islands are under its sovereignty; if

these islands are considered as appertaining to Bahrain, the lengths of the
relevant coasts woulclbe almost equal.
243. Taking into aiîcount the fact that the Court has decided that Bah-
rain has sovereignty over the Hawar Islands, the disparity in length of the
coastal fronts of the Parties cannot be considered such as to necessitate
an adjustment of the equidistance line.
244. The Court will now consider whether there are other reasons
which might require an adjustment of the course of the equidistance line
in order to achieve ail equitable solution.
245. In drawing the line which delimits the continental shelves and
exclusiveeconomic zones of the Parties the Court cannot ignore the loca-
tion of Fasht al Jarirn, a sizeable maritime feature partly situated in the
territorial sea of Bahrain. The Parties have expressed differing views on
the legal nature of this maritime feature but, in any event, given the fea-
ture's location, its lovv-waterline may be used as the baseline from which
the breadth not onlv of the territorial sea. but also of the continental
shelf and the exclusive economic zone, is measured.

246. TheCourt recalls that in thLibyan Arab JamahiuiyalMalta case,
referred to above, it stated:
"the equitableness of an equidistance line depends on whether the
precaution is taken of eliminating the disproportionate effect of cer-
tain 'islets,rocks and minor coastal projections', to use the language

of the Court in iits1969Judgment [(caseconcerning North Sea Con-
tinental Shelj)]" (1.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 48, para. 64).

247. TheCourt fui-therrecalls that in the northern sector the coasts of
the Parties are compalrable to adjacentcoasts abutting on the same mari-
time areas extending seawards into the Gulf. The northern coasts of the
territories belonging to the Parties are not markedly different in character
or extent; both are fliitand have a very gentle slope. The only noticeable

element is Fasht al Ja.rimas a remote projection of Bahrain's coastline in
theGulf area, which, if given fulleffect, would "distort the boundary andhave disproportionate effects" (Continental Shelf case (FrancelUnited
Kingdom), United Nations, Reports of International Arbitral Awards,
Vol. XVIII, p. 114, para. 244).

248. In the viewof the Court, such a distortion, due to a maritime fea-
ture located well out to sea and of which at most a minute part is above
water at high tide, would not lead to an equitable solution which would
be in accord with al1other relevant factors referred to above. In the cir-
cumstances of the case considerations of equity require that Fasht al
Jarim should have no effect in determining the boundary line in the
northern sector.

249. The Court accordingly decides that the singlemaritime boundary
in this sector shall be formed in the first place by a line which, from a
point situated to the north-west of Fasht ad Dibal, shall meet the equi-
distance line as adjusted to take account of the absence of effect givento
Fasht al Jarim. The b~oundaryshall then follow this adjusted equidistance
line until it meets the delimitation line between the respective maritime
zones of Iran on the one hand and of Bahrain and Qatar on the other.

250. The Court concludes from al1 of the foregoing that the single
maritime boundary that divides the various maritime zones of the State
of Qatar and the Stat'eof Bahrain shall be formed by a series of geodesic
lines joining, in the order specified, the points with the following co-
ordinates:

[World Geodetic System, 1984)
Point Latitude North Longitude East

1 25"34'34" 50"34' 3"
2 25"35' 10" 50"34'48"
3 25"34'53" 50°41'22"
4 25"34'50" 50°41'35"
5 25"34'21" 50'44' 5"
6 25"33'29" 50"45'49"
7 25"32'49" 50"46' 11"
8 25"32'55" 50"46'48"
9 25"32'43" 50"47'46"
10 25"32' 6" 50"48'36"
11 25"32'40" 50"48'54"
12 25"32'55" 50"48'48"
13 25"33'44" 50"49' 4"
14 25"33'49" 50"48'32"

15 25"34'33" 50"47'37"
16 25"35'33" 50"46'49" MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 116

Point Latitude North Longitude East
17 25"37'21" 50"47'54"
18 25"37'45" 50"49'44"
19 25"38'19" 50"50'22"
20 25"38'43" 50"50' 26"

2 1 25"39'31" 50"50' 6"
22 25"40'10" 50"50'30"
23 25'41'27'' 50"51'43"
24 25"42'27" 50"51' 9"
25 25"44' 7" 50"51'58"
26 25"44'58" 50"52' 5"
27 25"45'35" 50"51'53"
28 25'46' O" 50"51'40"
29 25'46' 57" 50" 51'23"
30 25"48'43" 50"50' 32"
3 1 25"51'40" 50"49'53"
32 25"52'26" 50"49'12"
33 25"53'42" 50"48'57"
34 26" 0'40" 50"51'00"
35 26" 4'38" 50"54'27"
36 26"11' 2" 50'55' 3"
37 26"15'55" 50"55'22"

38 26" 17' 58" 50"55'58"
39 26"20' 2" 50"57'16"
40 26"26'11" 50"59'12"
4 1 26"43'58" 51" 3'16"
42 27" 2' 0" 51" 7'11"
Below point 1, the single maritime boundary shall follow, in a south-
westerly direction, a loxodrome having an azimuth of 234"16'53",until it

meets the delimitation line between the respective maritime zones of
Saudi Arabia on the one hand and of Bahrain and Qatar on the other.
Beyond point 42, the single maritime boundary shall follow, in aorth-
north-easterly direction, a loxodrome having an azimuth of 12"15'12",
until it meets the delimitation line between the respective maritime zones
of Iran on the oneband and of Bahrain and Qatar on the other.
251. The course of this boundary has been indicated, for illustrative
purposes only, on sketch-map No. 7 attached to the Judgment'.

* * *

252. For these reasons,
THECOURT,

(1) Unanimously,

'A copy of this map will be found in a pocket at the end of this fascicle or inside the
back cover of the volume of Report2001.[Note by the Registry.]

80 MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 1 17

Finds that the State of Qatar has sovereignty over Zubarah;

(2) (a) By twelve votes to five,

Finds that the Stateof Bahrain has sovereignty over the Hawar Islands;
IN FAVOUR P:resideizt Guillaume; Vice-President Shi; Judges Oda, Herc-
zegh, Fleischhauer, Higgins, Parra-Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek, Al-
Khasawneh, Buergenthal; Judge ad hoc Fortier;

AGAINST J:dges Bedjaoui. Ranjeva, Koroma, Vereshchetin; Judge ad hoc
Torres Bernardez .,

(b) Unanimously,
Recalls that vesse1:jof the State of Qatar enjoy in the territorial sea of

Bahrain separatingthe Hawar Islands from theother Bahraini islands the
right of innocent passage accorded by customary international law;

(3) By thirteen votes to four,
Finds that the State of Qatar has sovereignty over Janan Island,

including Hadd Janan;
IN FAVOURP :resident Guillaume; Vice-President Shi; Judges Bedjaoui,
Ranjeva, Herczegh,Fleischhauer,Koroma, Vereshchetin,Parra-Aranguren,
Rezek, Al-Khasavmeh, Buergenthal; Judge ad hoc Torres Bernardez;

AGAINSJ Tu:dges Oda, Higgins, Kooijmans; Judge ad hoc Fortier;

(3) By twelve votes to five,
Finds that the State of Bahrain has sovereignty over the island of Qit'at

Jaradah;
IN FAVOUR P:residetzt Guillaume; Vice-President Shi; Judges Oda, Herc-
zegh, Fleischhauer, Higgins, Parra-Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek, Al-
Khasawneh, Buergenthal; Judge ad hoc Fortier;

AGAINST Ju:dges Bedjaoui, Ranjeva, Koroma, Vereshchetin; Judge ad hoc
Torres Bernardez:

(5) Unanimously,
Finds that the lovi-tide elevation of Fasht ad Dibal falls under the

sovereignty of the St,ate of Qatar;
(6) By thirteen votes to four,

Decides that the single maritime boundary that divides the various
maritime zones of the State of Qatar and the State of Bahrain shall be

drawn as indicated in paragraph 250 of the present Judgment;
IN FAVOUR P:resideni'Guillaume; Vice-PresidentShi; Judges Oda, Herczegh,
Fleischhauer, Vereshchetin, Higgins,Parra-Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek,
Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal ;Judge ad hoc Fortier;

AGAINSTJ:udges Bedjaoui, Ranjeva, Koroma; Judge ad hoc Torres
Bernardez. MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTION(JUDGMENT1 )18

Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this sixteenth day of March two thousand
and one, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the
Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the State of

Qatar and the Government of the Stateof Bahrain, respectively.

(Signrd) Gilbert GUILLAUME,

President.
(Signrd) Philippe COUVREUR,

Registrar.

Judge ODAappends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court;
Judges BEDJAOUR I,ANJEVAand KOROMA append ajoint dissentingopinion

to the Judgment of the Court; Judges HERCZEGH, VERESHCHETI and
HIC~GINa Sppend declarations to the Judgment of the Court; Judges
PARRA-ARANGIJREN, KOOIJMANa Snd AL-KHASAWNEa ppend separate
opinions to the Judgrnent of the Court; Juudhoc.TORRES BERNARDEZ
appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judhoc

FOKTIER appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court.

(lnitiulledG.G.
(InitiulledPh.C.

Bilingual Content

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE DE LA DÉLIMITATION MARITIME
ET DES QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES

ENTRE QATAR ET BAHREIN

(QATAR c. BAHREIN)

FOND

ARRÊT DU 16 MARS 2001

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASECONCERNING MARITIME DELIMITATION

AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS
BETWEEN QATAR AND BAHRAIN

(QATAR vBAHRAIN)

MERITS

JUDGMENT OF 16 MARCH2001 COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIRE DE LA DÉLIMITATION MARITIME
ET DES QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES

ENTRE QATAR ET BAHREÏN
(QATAR c. BAHREIN)

FOND

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

IiEPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CASECONCEKNING MARITIME DELIMITATION
AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS

BETWEEN QATAR AND BAHRAIN
(QATAR vBAHRAIN)

MERITS

JUDGMENT OF 16 MARCH 2001 Mode officielde citation:
Délimitationmaritime et questions territoriales
entrC.I.J. Recueil20p. 40nd, arrêt,

Officialcita:ion

Mbetween Qatarand Bahrain,Merits, Judgment,ions
1.CJ. Reports 200140p.

Node vente:
ISSN 0074-4441 Sales number820 1
ISBN 921-070919-5 16 MARS 2001

ARRÊT

DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES
ENTRE QATAR ET BAHREÏN

(QATAR c. BAHREÏN)

FOND

MARITIME DELIMITATIONAND TERRITORIALQUESTIONS
BE'TWEENQATAR AND BAHRAIN

(QATAR vBAHRAIN)

MERITS

16 MARCH 2001

JUDGMENT COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

2001 ANNÉE 2001
16mars
Rôle général
no87 16 mars2001

AFFAIRE DE LA DÉLIMITATION MARITIME

ET DES QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES

ENTRE QATAR ET BAHREÏN

(QATAR c. BAHREIN)

FOND

Diffërend territorial - Revendications des Parties.
Cadre géographique - Contexte historique - Etats anciennement protégés
par la Grande-Bretagne - Bons ofJicesdu roi d'Arabie saoudite - ((Formule
bahreïnite)) - « ProcPs-verbal))de Doha.

Zubarah - Contenu et portée desaccords conclus les 6 et 12 septembre 1868
entre /e Gouvernement hritanniqueet les chefs de Bahrein et de Qatar, respec-
tivement - Absence d'actes directs d'autoritéde Bahreïn - Non-pertinencedes
liens d'allégeanceentre la tribu des Naim et le souverain de Bahreïn - Recon-

naissance del'autoritéqatarie par les Britanniques et les Ottomans - Conven-
tion anglo-ottomane non rati$éedu 29 juillet 1913 et traitéanglo-ottoman du
9 mars 1914 - Position du Gouvernement britannique - Actes d'autoritédu
souverain de Qatar - Evénementsde 1937.
Iles Hawar - ((Formulebahreïnite)) - Nature et portéejuridique de la déci-

sion britannique du II juillet 1939 - Validitéde la décision - Consentement
des Parties à laprocédure - Absence de vices deprocédure - Absence dernoti-
vation - Opposabilité - Portéedes protestations ofjcielles de Qatar - Non-
nécessitépour la Cour de se prononcer sur letitre originaire, la proximité
géographiqueet /'unitéterritoriaje, les effectivité.~et le principe de I'uti possi-

detis juris.
Janan et Hadd Janan - Absence de déjnition des îles Hawardans la décision
britannique du II juillet 1939 - Listes produites par Bahrein en 1936, 1937,
1938 et 1946 - Lettres adresséesle 23 décembre1947aux souverains deQatar
et de Bahreinpar le Gouvernement hritannique - Interprétation faisantfoi de

la décision britanniquedu Il juillet 1939.
Demande tendant au tracéd'une limite maritime unique - Délimitation
de diversesjuridictions - Délimitationde lamer territoriale de deux Etats dont
les côtes se font face - Délimitation du plareau continentul et de la zone INTlZRNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 2001 200 1
16March
General List
16 March2001 No. 87

CASECONCERNING MARITIME DELIMITATION

AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS

BETWEENQATAR AND BAHRAIN

(QATAR v.BAHRAIN)

MERITS

Territorial dispute - The Parties' claims.
Geographical setting - Historical context - States formerly protected by
Great Britain - Good ofjces of the King of Saudi Arabia - "Bahrainifor-
mula" - Doha "Mi~zutes".

Zubarah - Content and significance of the Agreements concluded on 6 and
12 September 1868 tletitleenthe British Government and the Chiefs of Bahrain
and Qatar respectiver'y - Lack of direct acts of authority by Bahrain - Irrele-
vunce of ties of allegiance between the Naim tribe and the Ruler of Bahrain -

Recognition of Qatari sovereignty hy the British and the Ottomans - The un-
rat~jîed Anglo-Ottomran Convention of 29 July 1913 and the Anglo-Ottornan
Treaty of 9 March 1914 - Position of the British Government - Acts of
authority by the Rulcr of Qatar - Events of 1937.
Hawar Islands - "Bahrainiformula" - Nature and legal significance of the

British decision of 11 July 1939 - Validity of the decision - Parties' consent
to theprocess -- Absence of procedural violations - Lack of reasons - Oppos-
ability - Significance of ofJicialprotests by Qatar - No needfor the Court to
rule on original title, geographical proximity, territorial unity, effectivités,or

the principle of uti possidetis juris.

Janan and Hadd Janan - No defnition of the Hawar Islands in the British
decision of 11 July 1!)39 - Lists produced hy Bahrain in 1936, 1937, 1938 and
1946 - Letters sent on 23 December 1947to the Rulers of Qatar and Bahrain

by the British Government Authoritative interpretation of the British decision
of 11 July 1939.
Request for the drawing of a single maritime boundary - Delimitation of
variousjurisdictions - Delimitation of the territorial sea of two States with
opposite coasts - Delimitation of the continental shelf and the exclusive eco-économique exclusive dedeux Etats dont les côtes sont comparables à des côtes
adjacentes.
Droit applicable à la délimitation- Convention de 1958 sur la mer territo-
riale et la zone contiguë- Convention des Nations Uniessur le droit de la mer
de 1982 -.Droit international coutumier.
Méthode consistant à tracer une ligne d'équidistance à titre provisoire età
l'ajuster compte tenu des circonstances spéciales ou pour parvenir à un résultat

équitable.
Détermination des lignesde baseet despoints de base - Côtespertinentes -
Lignes de base pertinentes - Laisse debasse mer et lignes de base droites -
Prétention à la qualitéd'Etat archipel - Caractèredéjnitif de l'arrêt.
Fasht al Azm - Partie d'île ou haut-fond découvrant.
Qit'atJaradah - Qualité d'île - Actes accomplis à titre de souverain-

Construction d'aides à la navigation.
Fasht ad Dibal - Haut-fond découvrant - Hauts-fonds découvrants situés
dans la mer territoriale d'unseul Etat- Hauts-fonds découvrants situés danlsa
zone de chevauchement des mers territoriales de deux Etats - Question de
l'appropriation.
Equidistancelcirconstancesspéciales - Situation et caractèreexigu d'uneîle.

Principes équitableslcirconstancespertinentes - Bancs d'huîtresperlières -
Ligne de partage desfonds marins établieen 1947par le Gouvernement britan-
nique - Longueur respectivedes côtespertinentes - Fasht al Jarim - Effet de
cetteformation maritime sur la délimitation.
Délimitationopérée sans porteratteinte aux droits des Etats tiers.
Ligne unique dedélimitation - Coordonnéesde cette ligne.
Eaux séparant lesîles Hawar des autres îles bahreïnites - Absence d'eaux

intérieures-Droit de passageinoffensif -Passage desnavires qataris dans les
eaux territoriales bahreïnites.

Présents: M. GUILLAUME p,résident; M. SHI, vice-président; MM. ODA,
BEDJAOUR I,ANJEVAH , ERCZEGHF,LEISCHHAUE KRO,ROMAV , ERESH-
CHETIN M, meHIGGINSM , M. PARRA-ARANGURK EONO, IJMANR S, ZEK,
AL-KHASAWNEH, BUERGENTHA jug,es; MM. TORRESBERNARDEZ,
FORTIER ju,ges ad hoc; M. COUVREUg Rr,efJier.

En l'affaire de la délimitation maritime et des questions territoriales,

entre

I'Etat de Qatar,

représentépar
S. Exc. M. Abdullah bin Abdulatif Al-Muslemani, secrétaire généraldu
cabinet du Gouvernement de 1'Etatde Qatar,

comme agent et conseil;
M. Adel Sherbini, conseillerjuridique, MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 41

omic zone of two States with coasts comparable to adjacent coasts.

Law applicableto the delimitation - 1958 Conventionon the Territorial Sea
and the ContiguousZone - 1982 UnitedNations Conventionon the Law of the
Sea - Customary itrternationallaw.
Method consistingof provisionally drawingan equidistanceline and adjusting
it to take acrount oj special circumstances or to obtain an equitable result.

Determination of baselines andbasepoints -- Relevant coasts - Relevant

baselines -Low-water line and straight baselines - Claim to status of an
archipelagicState - Finality of the Judgrnent.
Fasht al Azm - t'art of island or low-tide elevation.
Qit'at Jaradah - Island status- Acts performed titre de souverain -
Construction of navi~:ationalaids.
Fasht ad Dibal - Low-tide elevation - Low-tide elevations situated in the

territorial sea of only one State - Low-tide elevations situated in theover-
lapping zoneof the territorial seas of two States - Question of appropriation.

Equidistancelspeci~ilcircumstances rule - Location and small size of an
island.
Equitableprincipleslrelevant circurnstances - Pearling banks - Line divid-

ing the seabed established in 1947 by the British Government - Respective
lengths of the relevant coasts - Fasht al Jarim - Effect of this maritimefea-
ture on the delimitation.
Delimitation undertaken without affecting rights of third States.
Single delimitation line - Co-ordinatesof that line.
Waters separating the Hawar Islands from the other Bahraini Islands - Not

interna1 waters - Right of innocent passage - Passage of Qatari vessels
through Bahrain's territorial waters.

JUDGMENT

Present: President GUILLAUME V;ice-President SHI; Judges ODA,BEDJAOUI,
RANJEVA,HERCZEGH,FLEISCHHAUERK , OROMA,VERESHCHETIN,
Hicci~s, PARRA-ARANGURE KNO,OIJMANS R,EZEK,AL-KHASAWNEH,
BUERGENTHA JLd;ges ad hoc TORRES BERNARDF EOZ, TIER;Registrar
COUVREUR.

In the case concerning maritime delimitation and territorial questions,
between

the State of Qatar,

represented by
H.E. Mr. Abdullah bin Abdulatif Al-Muslemani, Secretary-General of the
Cabinet of the Government of the State of Qatar,

as Agent and Counisel;
Mr. Adel Sherbini, Legal Adviser,42 DELIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÊT)

M. Sami Abushaikha, expert juridique,

comme conseils ;
M. Eric David, professeur de droit international à l'université libre de
Bruxelles,
M. Ali bin Fetais Al-Meri, directeur des affairesjuridiques,Diwan Amiri,
M. Jean-Pierre Quéneudec,professeur de droit international a l'université de
Paris 1(Panthéon-Sorbonne),
M. Jean Salmon, professeur émérite de droit internationalàl'universitélibre
de Bruxelles, membre de l'Institut de droit international,
M. R. K. P. Shankardass, Senior Advocare à la Cour suprêmede l'Inde,
ancien présidentde l'Association internationale du barreau,

Sir Ian Sinclair, K.C.M.G., Q.C., Barrister at Law, membre de l'institut de
droit international,
Sir Francis Vallat, G.B.E., K.C.M.G., Q.C., professeur éméritede droit
internationala l'université deLondres, membre honoraire de l'institut de
droit international,
M. Rodman R. Bundy, avocat a la Cour d'appel de Paris, membre du bar-
reau de New York, cabinet Frere CholmeleylEversheds, Paris,
MlleNanette E. Pilkington, avocat à la Cour d'appel de Paris, cabinet Frere
CholmeleylEversheds, Paris,

comme conseils et avocats;
MmeCheryl Dunn, membre du barreau de 1'Etatde Californie, cabinet Frere
CholmeleylEversheds, Paris,
Mme Inès Sabine Wilk, Rechtsanivalt à la Cour d'appel, membre de la
chambre des avocats de Berlin,
comme conseils ;

M. Scott B. Edmonds, directeur du service des levéscartographiques, société
MapQuest.com, Columbia, Maryland (Etats-Unis d'Amérique),
M. Robert C. Rizzutti, administrateur de projet, sociétéMapQuest.com,
Columbia, Maryland (Etats-Unis d'Amérique),
MmeStephanie K. Clark, cartographe hors classe, sociétéMapQuest.com,
Columbia, Maryland (Etats-Unis d'Amérique),

comme experts ;
S. Exc. le cheikh Hamad bin Jassim bin Jabor Al-Thani, ministre des affaires
étrangèresde I'Etat de Qatar,
S. Exc. M. Ahmed bin Abdullah Al-Mahmoud, ministre d'Etat aux affaires
étrangèresde 1'Etatde Qatar,

comme observateurs,
et

1'Etatde Bahreïn,
représenté par

S. Exc. M. Jawad Salim Al-Arayed, ministre d'Etat de 1'Etatde Bahreïn,
comme agent;

M. Fathi Kemicha, cabinet Kemicha & Associés,Tunis, avocat a la Cour
d'appel de Paris,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht, Q.C., C.B.E., professeur honoraire à l'université de
Cambridge, membre de l'Institut de droit international, MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS(JUDGMENT) 42

Mr. Sami Abushaikha, Legal Expert,
as Counsel;

Mr. Eric David, Professor of International Law, Université libre de
Bruxelles.
Mr. Ali bin Fetais Al-Meri, Director of Legal Department, Diwan Amiri,
Mr. Jean-Pierre Qluéneudec,Professor of International Law, University of
Paris 1 (panthéon- orb bonne),
Mr. Jean Salmon, Professor emeritus of International Law, Université libre
de Bruxelles, Member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. R. K. P. Shankardass, Senior Advocate, Supreme Court of India,
former President of the International Bar Association,
Sir Ian Sinclair, K.C.M.G., Q.C., Barrister at Law, Member of the Institut
de droit international,
Sir Francis Vallat, G.B.E., K.C.M.G., Q.C., Professor emeritus of Interna-
tional Law, University of London, Member emeritus of the Institut de
droit international,
Mr. Rodman R. Biundy,avocat à la Cour d'appel de Paris, Member of the
New York Bar, Frere CholmeleylEversheds, Paris,
Ms Nanette E. Pilkington, avocat àla Cour d'appel de Paris, Frere Cholme-

ley/Eversheds, Paris,
as Counsel and Aclvocates;
Ms Cheryl Dunn, Member of the State Bar of California, Frere Cholmeleyl
Eversheds, Paris,
Ms Ines Sabine Wilk, Rechtsanwalt before the Court of Appeal, Member of
the Chamber of Lawyers of Berlin,

as Counsel
Mr. Scott B. Edmonds, Director of Cartographic Operations,
MapQuest.com, Columbia, Maryland (United States of America),
Mr. Robert C. Rizzutti, Project Manager, MapQuest.com, Columbia, Mary-
land (United States of America),
Ms Stephanie K. Clark, Senior Cartographer, MapQuest.com, Columbia,
Maryland (United States of America),

as Experts;
H.E. Sheikh Hamad bin Jassim bin Jabor Al-Thani, Minister for Foreign
Affairs of the St;îte of Qatar,
H.E. Mr. Ahmed bin Abdullah Al-Mahmoud, Minister of State for Foreign
Affairs of the State of Qatar,

as Observers;
and

the State of Bahrain,
represented by

H.E. Mr. Jawad Salim Al-Arayed, Minister of State of the State of Bahrain,
as Agent;

Mr. Fathi Kemicha, Kemicha & Associés(Tunis), avocat à la Cour d'appel
de Paris,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht, Q.C., C.B.E., Honorary Professor of the University of
Cambridge, Menlber of the Institut de droit international,M. Jan Paulsson, cabinet Freshfields, Paris, avocat à la Cour d'appel de
Paris, membre du barreau du district de Columbia (Etats-Unis d'Amé-
rique),
M. Michael Reisman, professeur de droit international à l'université de
Yale, titulaire de la chaire Myres S. McDougal, membre du barreau du
Connecticut, associéde l'Institut de droit international,
M. Robert Volterra, cabinet Freshfields, Londres, membre du barreau du
Haut-Canada,
M. Prosper Weil, professeur émérite a l'université de Paris II (Panthéon-
Assas), membre de l'Académiedes sciencesmorales et politiques (Institut
de France), membre de l'Institut de droit international,

comme conseils et avocats;
Le cheikh Khalid bin Ahmed Al-Khalifa, premier secrétaire,ministère des
affaires étrangèresde 1'Etatde Bahreïn,
Le capitaine de frégateChristopher Carleton, M.B.E., directeur de la divi-
sion du droit de la mer du bureau hydrographique du Royaume-Uni,
M. Hongwu Chen, cabinet Freshfields, Paris, avocat à la Cour d'appel de
Paris, membre du barreau de Beijing,
M. Graham Coop, cabinet Freshfields, Paris, Barrister and Solicitor a la

High Court de Nouvelle-Zélande et Solicitor à la Cour suprême d'Angle-
terre et du Pays de Galles,
M. Andrew Newcombe, cabinet Freshfields, Paris, membre du barreau de la
Colombie-Britannique (Canada),
MmeBeth Olsen, conseiller, ministèred'Etat de 1'Etatde Bahreïn,
M. John Wilkinson, ancien maître de conférence a l'université d'Oxford,
membre éméritedu CollègeSaint Hugh, Oxford,
comme conseillers ;

S. Exc. le cheikh Mohammed bin Mubarak Al Khalifa, ministre des affaires
étrangèresde 1'Etatde Bahreïn,
S. Exc. le cheikh Abdul-Aziz bin Mubarak Al Khalifa, ambassadeur de
I'Etat de Bahreïn aux Pays-Bas,
S. Exc. M. Mohammed Jaber Al-Ansari, conseiller de Son Altesse l'émirde
Bahreïn,
M. Ghazi Al-Gosaibi, sous-secrétaired'Etat aux affaires étrangèresde 1'Etat
de Bahreïn,
S. Exc. la cheikha Haya Al Khalifa, ambassadeur de 1'Etat de Bahreïn en
France,
M. Yousef Mahmood, directeur du bureau du ministre des affaires étran-
gèresde 1'Etatde Bahreïn,

comme observateurs ;
M. Jon Addison, ministère d'Etat de 1'Etatde Bahreïn,
MmeMaisoon Al-Arayed, ministère d'Etat de I'Etat de Bahreïn,
MmeAlia Al-Khatar, cabinet Freshfields,
M. Nabeel Al-Rumaihi, ministèred'Etat de 1'Etatde Bahreïn,
M. Hafedh Al-Qassab, ministère d'Etat de 1'Etatde Bahreïn,
M. Yousif Busheery, ministèredes affaires étrangèresde I'Etat de Bahreïn,

MmeJanet Cooper, ministèred'Etat de l'Etat.de Bahreïn,
MmeEleonore Gleitz, cabinet Freshfields,
MmeAneesa Hanna, ambassade de I'Etat de Bahreïn au Royaume-Uni,
MmeJeanette Harding, ministèred'Etat de 1'Etatde Bahreïn, MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS(JUDGMENT) 43

Mr. Jan Paulssori, Freshfields, Paris, avocat a la Cour d'appel de Paris,
Member of the District of Columbia Bar (United States of America),

Mr. Michael Reisman, Myres S. McDougal Professor of International Law

of Yale Law <ichool, Member of the Bar of Connecticut, associé de
l'Institut de droit international,
Mr. Robert Volterra, Freshfields, London, Member of the Bar of Upper
Canada,
Mr. Prosper Weil, Emeritus Professor at the University of Paris II (Pan-
théon-Assas),Member of the Académie des sciencesmorales et politiques
(Institut de France), Member of the Institut de droit international,
as Counsel and Aldvocates;

Sheikh Khalid biri Ahmed Al-Khalifa, First Secretary, Ministry of Foreign
Affairs of the State of Bahrain,
Commander Christopher Carleton, M.B.E., Head of the Law of the Sea
Division of the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office,
Mr. Hongwu Chen, Freshfields, Paris, avocat à la Cour d'appel de Paris,
Member of the Beijing Bar,
Mr. Graham Coop, Freshfields, Paris, Barrister and Solicitor of the High
Court of New Zealand and Solicitor of the Supreme Court of England and
Wales.
Mr. Andrew Newcombe, Freshfields, Paris, Member of the Bar of British
Columbia (Canada),

Ms Beth Olsen, Adviser, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Mr. John Wilkinson, Former Reader at the University of Oxford, Emeritus
Fellow, St. Hugh's College, Oxford,
as Advisers;

H.E. Sheikh Mohammed bin Mubarak Al Khalifa, Minister for Foreign
Affairs, State of Bahrain,
H.E. Sheikh Abdul-Aziz bin Mubarak Al Khalifa, Ambassador of the State
of Bahrain to the Netherlands,
H.E. Mr. Mohammed Jaber Al-Ansari, Adviser to His Highness, the Amir of
Bahrain,
Mr. Ghazi Al-Gosaibi, Under-Secretary of Foreign Affairs, State of Bahrain,

H.E. Sheikha Haya Al Khalifa, Ambassador of the State of Bahrain in
France,
Mr. Yousef Mahmood, Director of the Office ofthe Foreign Minister, State
of Bahrain,

as Observers ;
Mr. Jon Addison, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Ms Maisoon Al-Airayed,Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Ms Alia Al-Khatar, Freshfields,
Mr. Nabeel Al-Ruimaihi, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Mr. Hafedh Al-Qassab, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Mr. Yousif Busheery, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State of Bahrain,

Ms Janet Cooper, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Ms Eleonore Gleitz, Freshfields,
Ms Aneesa Hanna.. Embassy of Bahrain in the United Kingdom,
Ms Jeanette Harding, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain, MmeVanessa Harris, cabinet Freshfields,
MmeIva Kratchanova, ministère d'Etat de 1'Etatde Bahreïn,
MmeSonja Knijnsberg, cabinet Freshfields,
MmeSarah Mochen, cabinet Freshfields,
M. Kevin Mottram, cabinet Freshfields,
M. Yasser Shaheen, deuxième secrétaire, ministère des affairesétrangères de
1'Etatde Bahreïn,

comme personnel administratif,

ainsi composée,

après délibéré en chambre du Conseil,
rend l'arrêt suivant:

1. Le 8 juillet 1991, le ministre des affaires étrangères deI'Etat de Qatar
(dénomméci-après«Qatar») a déposéau Greffe de la Cour une requêteintro-
duisant une instance contre 1'Etat de Bahreïn (dénomméci-après «Bahreïn>))
au sujet de certains différendsentre les deux Etats relatifs «à la souverainetésur
les îles Hawar, aux droits souverains sur les hauts-fonds deDibal et de Qit'at
Jaradah et à la délimitationdes zones maritimes entre les deux Etats)).

Dans cette requête, Qatar soutenait que la Cour était compétente pour
connaître du différenden vertu de deux «accords» conclus par les Parties res-
pectivement en décembre1987et en décembre 1990;selonledemandeur, l'objet
et la portée del'engagement ainsi pris ence qui concerne la compétencede la
Cour étaient déterminéspar une formule proposée à Qatar par Bahreïn le

26 octobre 1988et acceptéepar Qatar en décembre1990(dénommée ci-après la
((formule bahreïnite))).
2. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l'article 40 du Statut de la Cour, la
requête aété immédiatemenc tommuniquéepar le greffier de la Cour au Gou-
vernement de Bahreïn; conformément au paragraphe 3 du même article,le
greffier en a informétous les autres Etats admis à ester devant la Cour.

3. Par lettres adressées au greffier le 14 juillet 1991 et le 18 août 1991,
Bahreïn a contestéla base de compétence invoquéepar Qatar.
4. Par ordonnance en date du 11octobre 1991,le présidentde la Cour, après
avoir consultéles Parties en vertu de l'article 31du Règlement, etcompte tenu
de l'accord intervenu entre elles au sujet de la procédure, adécique les pièces
de la procédureécriteporteraient d'abord sur la question de la compétencede
la Cour pour connaître du différend etsur cellede la recevabilité dela requête.
Par cette mêmeordonnance, le président a fixédes délaispour le dépôtd'un
mémoirede Qatar et d'un contre-mémoire deBahreïn sur les questions de com-
pétenceet de recevabilité;ces piècesont étédûment déposéesdans les délais
ainsi fixés.

5. Par ordonnance en date du 26juin 1992,la Cour, considérant que la pré-
sentation d'autres piècesde procédure par les Parties étaitnécessaire,a prescrit
la présentation d'une répliquede Qatar et d'une duplique de Bahreïn sur les
questions de compétence etde recevabilité, eta fixédes délaispour le dépôt de
ces pièces;celles-ciont étédûment déposéesdans les délais ainsifixés.
6. La Cour ne comptant sur le siègeaucun juge de la nationalitédes Parties,
chacune d'elles a procédé,dans l'exercice du droit que lui confère le para- MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 44

Ms Vanessa Harris, Freshfields,
Ms Iva Kratchanova, Ministry of State of the State of Bahrain,
Ms Sonja Knijnsberg, Freshfields,
Ms Sarah Mochen, Freshfields,
Mr. Kevin Mottram, Freshfields,
Mr. Yasser Shaheen, Second Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the
State of Bahrain,
as Administrative :Staff,

THECOURT,

composed as above,
after deliberation,

delivers thefolloiving Judgment :

1. On 8 July 1991 the Minister for Foreign Affairs of the State of Qatar
(hereinafter referredto as "Qatar") filed inthe Registry of the Court an Appli-
cation instituting promceedingsgainst the State of Bahrain (hereinafter referred
to as "Bahrain") in respect of certain disputes between the two States relating
to "sovereignty over the Hawar islands, sovereign rights over the shoals of
Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah, and the delimitation of the maritime areas of the two
States".
In this Applicatioin, Qatar contended that the Court had jurisdiction to
entertain the dispute by virtue of two "agreements" concluded between the
Parties in December 1987 and December 1990 respectively, the subject and
scope of the commitment to the Court's jurisdiction being determined, accord-
ing to the Applicant, by a formula proposed by Bahrain to Qatar on 26 Octo-
ber 1988and accepted by Qatar in December 1990(hereinafter referred to as
the "Bahraini formul,an).
2. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, the

Application was forthwith communicated by the Registrar of the Court to the
Government of Bahrain; in accordance with paragraph 3 of that Article, al1
other States entitled to appear before the Court were notified by the Registrar
of the Application.
3. By letters addressed to the Registrar on 14July 1991and 18August 1991,
Bahrain contested the basis of jurisdiction invoked by Qatar.
4. By an Order of 11October 1991,the President of the Court, having con-
sulted the Parties in accordance with Article 31 of the Rules of Court, and tak-
ing into account the agreement reached between them concerning procedure,
decided that the written pleadings should first be addressed to the questions of
the jurisdiction of the Court to entertain the dispute and of the admissibility of
the Application. By the same Order, the President fixedtime-limits forthe filing
of a Memorial by Qatar and a Counter-Mernorial by Bahrain on the questions
ofjurisdiction and adimissibility;those pleadings were duly filedwithin the time
prescribed.
5. By an Order of 26 June 1992, the Court, considering that the filing of
further pleadings by the Parties was necessary, directed that a Reply by Qatar

and a Rejoinder by Bahrain be filedon the questions of jurisdiction and admis-
sibility, and fixed time-limits for the filing of those pleadings; these pleadings
were duly filed within the time prescribed.
6. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferred bygraphe 3 de l'article 31 du Statutà la désignation d'unjuge ad hoc pour siéger
en l'affaire: Bahreïn a désignéM. Nicolas Valticos, et Qatar M. José Maria
Ruda.
7. Au cours d'audiences publiques tenues entre le 28 févrieret le 11mars
1994,les Parties ont été entenduessur les questions de compétencede la Cour
et de recevabilitéde la requête.
8. Par arrêtdu le'juillet 1994,la Cour a dit que les échangesde lettres entre
le roi d'Arabiesaoudite et l'émirde Qatar, datéesdes 19et 21 décembre1987,
et entre le roi d'Arabieaoudite et l'émirde Bahreïn, datées des19et 26 décem-
bre 1987, ainsi que le document intitulé «Procès-verbal>),signéà Doha le

25 décembre1990par les ministres des affaires étrangèresde Bahreïn, de Qatar
et de l'Arabie saoudite, constituaient des accords internationaux créant des
droits et des obligations pour les Parties; et qu'aux termes de ces accords les
Parties avaient pris l'engagement de soumettre à la Cour l'ensemble du diffé-
rend qui les oppose, tel que circonscrit par la formule bahreïnite. Ayant noté
qu'elledisposait seulement d'une requètede Qatar exposant les prétentions spé-
cifiques de cet Etat dans le cadre de cette formule, la Cour a décidéde donner
aux Parties l'occasion de lui soumettre l'ensemble du différend.Elle a fixéau
30 novembre 1994la date d'expiration du délaidans lequel les Parties devaient
agir conjointement ou individuellement à cette fin,et a résertoute autre ques-
tion pour décisionultérieure. La Cour a en outre préciséque, une fois que
l'ensembledu différendlui aurait été soumise ,lle fixerait lesdélaisdans lesquels
il serait procédéau dépôt simultané despiècesde la procédure écrite,chaque
Partie déposant dans les mêmes délaiu sn mémoire, puis uncontre-mémoire.

9. M. Ruda, juge ad hoc, est décédé le 7 juillet 1994. Par lettre du 5 sep-
tembre 1994, l'agent de Qatar a informéla Cour que son gouvernement avait
désignépour le remplacer M. Santiago Torres Bernardez.
10. Le 30 novembre 1994, dans le délaifixépar l'arrêtdu 1" juillet 1994,
Qatar a déposéau Greffe un document intitulé«Démarche tendant à donner
effet aux points 3et 4 du paragraphe 41 de l'arrêt rendupar la Cour le" juillet
1994», dans lequel il faisait état de l'absence d'accord des Parties pour agir
conjointement et déclarait soumettre à la Cour ((l'ensembledu différend)).

Le mêmejour, Bahreïn a déposéau Greffe un document intitulé((Rapport
de 1'Etatde Bahreïn à la Cour internationale de Justice sur la tentative faite par
les Parties pour donner effet a l'arrêtrendu par la Cour le le' juillet 1994));
puis, par lettre du 5 décembre 1994, l'agent de Bahreïn a fait savoir que «la
démarcheindividuelle de Qatar ...ne saurait établir[la compétencede la Cour],

ni saisir valablement la Cour en l'absence du consentement de Bahreïn».
11. Par arrêtdu 15février 1995,la Cour a dit qu'elle avait compétencepour
statuer sur le différendentre Qatar et Bahreïn, qui lui avait étésoumis; qu'elle
étaitdésormaissaisie de I'ensembledu différend;et que la requêtede I'Etat de
Qatar telle que formuléele 30 novembre 1994étaitrecevable.

12. M. Valticos a démissionnéde ses fonctions de juge ad hoc à la date du
15 février1995.
13. Par ordonnance du 28 avril 1995,la Cour, après avoir recueilli les vues
deQatar et avoir donné à Bahreïn la possibilitéde faire connaître les siennes, a
fixéau 29 février1996la date d'expiration du délaipour le dépôt par chacune
des Parties d'un mémoire surle fond.
Par ordonnance du le' février 1996, la Cour,à la demande de Bahreïn, et
compte tenu tant des vues expriméespar les Parties que des circonstances46 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÊT)

particulières de l'affaire, a reporté au 30 septembre 1996 la date d'expiration
du délaipour le dépôt deces pièces;celles-ciont étédûment déposéesdans le
délai ainsiprorogé.
Par ordonnance du 30octobre 1996,le présidentde la Cour, compte tenu des
vues expriméespar les agents des Parties, a fixéau 31 décembre1997la date
d'expiration du délai pour le dépôt par chacune des Parties d'un contre-
mémoiresur le fond.
14. Par lettre du 17 février 1997, l'agentde Bahreïn a fait savoàrla Cour
que son gouvernement avait désignéM. Mohamed Shahabuddeen comme juge
ad hoc. Ce dernier ayant démissionnéde sesfonctions à la datedu 18septembre
1997,I'agent de Bahreïn, par lettre du 20 octobre 1997,a informe la Cour que
son gouvernement avait désignépour le remplacer M. Yves Fortier.

15. Par lettre du 25 septembre 1997,I'agentde Bahreïn a portéà la connais-
sance de la Cour que son gouvernement mettait en cause l'authenticité de
quatre-vingt-un documents dont des copies avaient étéproduites par Qatar en
annexe à son mémoire, que cette question était ((distincte et détachable du
fond» et que Bahreïn ne prendrait pas en considération le contenu des docu-
ments concernésaux fins de la préparation de son contre-mémoire;cette com-
munication étaitaccompagnéede divers rapports de recherche et d'expertisede
documents.
Par lettre du 8 octobre 1997,l'agent de Qatar a fait connaîtàela Cour que,
de l'avisde son gouvernement, les objections soulevéespar Bahreïn étaientliées
au fond, qu'elles devaient êtreexaminées et faire l'objetd'une décisiondans le
cadre du fond, et que la Cour ne pouvait toutefois ((attendre de Qatar, à ce
stade de la préparation de son propre contre-mémoire,qu'il présente des obser-

vations sur le détail des allégationshreïnitesn.
Par lettre du 17 octobre 1997,l'agent de Bahreïn a indiquéque son gouver-
nement estimait que le recours par Qatar aux documents mis en cause créaitdes
((difficultésd'ordre procédural de natureà porter atteinte, de manière fonda-
mentale, au bon déroulement de l'affaire)); puis, par lettre avec annexe du
18 novembre 1997, il a notamment informéla Cour d'un ((nouveau dévelop-
pement)) concernant l'origine des sceaux apposéssur certains des documents
produits par Qatar, et pertinent à l'effet d'apprécier l'authenticitédesdits
documents.
16. Au terme d'une réunionque le présidentde la Cour a tenue le 25novem-
bre 1997avec les agents des Parties, il a notamment été convenuque les contre-
mémoiresne traiteraient pas de la question de l'authenticité des documentsmis
en cause par Bahreïn et que d'autres piècesde procédure seraient ultérieure-

ment présentéespar les Parties.
17. Les contre-mémoires des Parties ont étédûment déposés etéchangésle
23 décembre 1997.
18. Par lettre du 31 décembre1997,I'agentde Bahreïn a fait tenir àla Cour
certains documents complétant ceux présentésle 25 septembre 1997;puis, par
lettre du 2 février 1998,il a noté que Qatar, dans son contre-mémoire, conti-
nuait de se fonder sur les documents mis en cause et a insistésur la nécessité
pour la Cour de trancher la question de leur authenticité à titre préliminaire.

Par lettre du 26 mars 1998, accompagnée d'un document et de rapports
d'experts, I'agent de Bahreïn a en outre contesté l'authenticitéd'un document
annexéau contre-mémoire de Qatar. Bahreïn a par conséquent mis en cause
quatre-vingt-deux documents au total.
19. Par ordonnance du 30 mars 1998, laCour, tenant compte des vues expri-circumstances of the case, extended to 30 September 1996the time-limit for the
filing of those pleadings; these were duly filed within the time-limit thus
extended.
By an Order of 313October 1996, the President of the Court, taking into
account the views expressed by the Agents of the Parties, fixed 31 December
1997 as the time-linlit for the filing by each of the Parties of a Counter-
Memorial on the merits.
14. By letter of 17February 1997,the Agent of Bahrain informed the Court
that his Governmeni: had chosen Mr. Mohamed Shahabuddeen as judge ad
hoc. The latter having resigned from his duties with effect from 18 September
1997,the Agent of Bahrain, by letter of 20 October 1997,informed the Court
that his Government had chosen Mr. Yves Fortier to replace him.
15. By letter of 25 September 1997,the Agent of Bahrain informed the Court
that his Governmeni challenged the authenticity of 81 documents, copies of

which had been produced by Qataras annexes to its Memorial, that this matter
was "distinct and sevi:rablefrom the merits", and that Bahrain would disregard
the content of the documents in question for the purposes of preparing its
Counter-Memorial; ito that communication were attached various document
search and experts' r~zports.

By letter of 8 October 1997,the Agent of Qatar informed the Court that, in
his Government's view, the objections raised by Bahrain were linked to the
merits, that they should be considered and determined within the framework of
the merits, and thatthe Court could not, however, "expect Qatar, at the present
stage of preparation of its own Counter-Memorial, to comment on the detailed
Bahraini allegations".
By letter of 17 0ct.ober 1997,the Agent of Bahrain stated that his Govern-
ment considered that the use by Qatar of the challenged documents gave rise to
"procedural difficulti'esthat strike at the fundamentals of the orderly develop-

ment of the case"; subsequently, by letter of 18November 1997with enclosure,
he informed the Court inte rlia of a "new development" concerning the origin
of the seals with which some of the documents produced by Qatar were
impressed, and which was relevant to assessment of the authenticity of those
documents.
16. At the conclu~.ionof a meeting held by the President of the Court on
25 November 1997with the Agents of the Parties, it was agreed interaliathat
the Counter-Memorials would not cover the question of the authenticity of the
documents challenged by Bahrain and that other pleadings would be submitted
by the Parties at alater date.
17. The Counter-h4emorials of the Parties were duly filedand exchanged on
23 December 1997.
18. By letter of 31 December 1997,the Agent of Bahrain sent the Court par-
ticular documents sulpplementingthose presented on 25 September 1997; sub-
sequently, in a letter of 2 February 1998,he noted that Qatar was continuing in
its Counter-Memorial to rely on the challenged documents and emphasized the

need for the Court to decide the question of their authenticity as a preliminary
issue.
By letter of 26 March 1998,to which wereattached a document and experts'
reports, the Agent of Bahrain also disputed the authenticity of a document
annexed to the Counter-Memorial of Qatar. Consequently, there were in total
82 documents challenged by Bahrain.
19. By an Order of 30 March 1998, the Court, having regard to the views47 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES(ARRÊT)

méespar les agents des Parties lors d'une nouvelle réunionque le présidenta
tenue avec ceux-ci le 17mars 1998,a fixéau 30 septembre 1998la date d'expira-
tion du délaipour le dépôtpar Qatar «d'un rapport provisoire, aussi complet
et précisque possible, sur la question de l'authenticitéde chacun des documents
mis en cause par Bahreïn)). Dans la mêmeordonnance, la Cour a prescrit la
présentation d'une répliquesur le fond par chacune des Parties et a décidéque
«la répliquede Qatar exposera la position détailléeet définitivede cet Etat sur
la question)) et que«la répliquede Bahreïn contiendra ses observations sur le
rapport provisoire de Qatar)); elle a fixéau 30 mars 1999 la date d'expiration
du délaipour le dépôt deces répliques.

20. Qatar a dûment déposé sonrapport provisoire dans le délaifixé.Invo-
quant les divergences de vues apparues entre les experts des Parties et entre ses
propres experts, il y indiquait avoir «décidéde ne pas tenir compte, aux fins de
la présente affaire,des quatre-vingt-deux documents contestés,de sorte que la
Cour puisse examiner l'affaire au fond sans rencontrer de nouvelles complica-
tions procédurales».
Par lettre du 27 novembre 1998,I'agentde Bahreïn a noté((l'abandon effectif
par Qatar des documents incriminés))eten a conclu que ce dernier «ne pourra
plus faire mention des quatre-vingt-deux faux documents, qu'il n'invoquera le
contenu de ces documents pour aucun de ses arguments et que, d'une manière
généralel,e fond de l'affaire serajugépar la Cour sansque lesdocuments soient
pris en compte».
Par lettre du 15 décembre1998, I'agent de Qatar a exprimé((lesregrets [de
son gouvernement] pour la situation qui [avait] étécrééeet les inconvénients

qui [avaient] pu en découlerpour la Cour et Bahreïn)).
21. Par lettre du 11décembre1998,l'agent de Qatar a prié laCour de repor-
ter au 30 mai 1999 la date d'expiration du délaipour le dépôtdes répliquesdes
Parties.
22. Par lettre du 13janvier 1999,I'agent de Bahreïn, accusant réception des
lettres, en date des 11et 15décembre1998,de I'agentde Qatar, a indiquéque
son gouvernement avait «accueill[i] avec satisfaction les regrets expriméspar
Qatar)) et «ne vo[yait] aucune objection à ce que l'ordonnance de la Cour du
30 mars 1998soit modifiéede façon à accéder à la demande de Qatar)).
Par lettre du 1"' février 1999,l'agent de Qatar, se référantà la position
adoptée par son gouvernement au sujet des documents mis en cause par
Bahreïn, a confirméque cette position étaitdéfinitive.
23. Par ordonnance du 17 février1999, la Cour, compte tenu de la coïnci-
dence de vues entre les Parties sur la question du traitement à réserveraux

documents contestéset de leur accord sur celle de la prorogation du délaipour
le dépôt des répliques, a pris acte de la décisionde Qatar de ne pas tenir
compte, aux fins de la présente affaire, des quatre-vingt-deux documents
contestéspar Bahreïn, a décidéque les répliquesne s'appuieraient pas sur ces
documents et a reporté au 30 mai 1999 la date d'expiration du délaipour le
dépôt desdites répliques;ces piècesont étédûment déposéesdans le délai ainsi
prorogé.
24. A la suite d'une réunionque le présidentde la Cour a tenue le 28juin
1999 avec les agents des Parties, la Cour a décidé qu'il n'y avait pas lieu en
l'espècede prévoir un nouvel échangede pièces deprocédure écrite; que les
Parties seraient autoriséeà déposer desdocuments supplémentaires, accompa-
gnés,pour chaque document, d'un bref commentaire d'une page au plus se
limitant à situer le document en question parmi les pièces de la procédure
écrite; et que la Cour fixerait un délaipour le dépôt de ces documents dèsexpressed by the Agents of the Parties lit a further meeting held with them by
the President on 17 blarch 1998, fixed30 September 1998as the time-limit for
the filingby Qatar "of an interim report, to be as comprehensive and specificas
possible, on the question of the authenticity of each of the documents chal-
lenged by Bahrain". Ilnthe same Order, the Court directed the submission of a
Reply on the merits by each of the Parties and decided that "the Reply of Qatar
will contain its detailed and definitive position on the question" and that "the
Reply of Bahrain will contain its observations on the interim report of Qatar" ;
it fixed 30March 1999as the time-limit for the filing of those Replies.

20. Qatar duly filed its interim report within the time-limit fixed.Citing the
differing views betwe,enthe experts of the Parties and between its own experts,
Qatar stated in that report that it had "decided [to] disregard al1the 82 chal-

lenged documents for the purposes of the present case so as to enable the Court
to address the merits of the case without further procedural complications".

In a letter of 27 November 1998the Agent of Bahrain noted "the effective
abandonment by Qatar of. . . the impeached documents" and concluded in
consequence that Qatar "cannot make any further reference to the 82 forged
documents, that it wiillnot adduce the content of these documents in connec-
tion with any of its arguments and that, in general, the merits of the case will be
adjudicated by the Ccourtwithout regard to these documents".
By letter of 15 December 1998,the Agent of Qatar expressed "[his Govern-
ment's] regret at the situation that [had] arisen and the inconvenience that this
[had] caused to the Court and Bahrain".
21. By letter of 11 December 1998,the Agent of Qatar requested the Court
to extend to 30 May 1999the time-limit for the filing of the Parties' Replies.

22. By letter of 13 January 1999, the Agent of Bahrain, acknowledging

receipt of the letters of1I and 15 December 1998 from the Agent of Qatar,
stated that his Government "appreciate[d] Qatar's expression of regret" and
"ha[d] no objection to the modification of the Court's Order of 30 March 1998
to accommodate Qatar's request".
By letter of 1 February 1999, the Agent of Qatar, referring to the position
adopted by his Govei-nment with regard to the documents challenged by Bah-
rain, confirmed that ihis was its definitive position.
23. By an Order o~f17 February 1999, the Court, taking into account the
concordant views of the Parties on the treatment of the disputed documents
and their agreement on the extension of time-limits for the filing of Replies,
placed on record the decision of Qatar to disregard, for the purposes of the
present case, the 82 documents whose authenticityhad been challenged by Bah-
rain, decided thatthe Replies would not rely on those documents, and extended
to 30 May 1999the time-limit for the filingof the said Replies; those pleadings
were duly filed withirithe time-limit asthus extended.

24. Following a meeting held by the President of the Court on 28 June 1999
with the Agents of th<:Parties, the Court decided that no further round of writ-
ten pleadings would take place in the case;that the Parties would be authorized
to file supplemental documents, accompanied by a brief commentary of no
more than a page per document, limited to placing the document in question in
the context of the wri.ttenpleadings; and that the Court would fix a time-limit
within which such documents would have to be filedonce it had determined thequ'elle aurait arrêtéla date d'ouverture des audiences sur le fond. Conformé-
ment aux instructions de la Cour, le greffier a informéles agents des Parties de
cette décisionpar lettres du 5 juillet 1999.
25. Au cours d'une nouvelle réunionque le présidentde la Cour a tenue avec
les agents des Parties, le 16 novembre 1999, ceux-ci ont marqué leur accord
pour que les audiences sur le fond s'ouvrent le 29 mai 2000; il est en revanche
apparu que les Parties étaient en désaccord sur la duréede ces audiences et
qu'elles s'étaientformées une conception différentede la nature et de la portée
des ((documents supplémentaires))qu'elles seraientautoriséesà produire.

A la suite de cette réunion, laCour a décidé:
1) d'autoriser les Partiesà présenterdes rapports d'experts et des documents
historiques supplémentaires, mais non de nouvelles dépositionsde témoins,
étantentendu qu'elless'efforceraient de produire cesdocuments supplémen-

taires dans les deux langues officiellesde la Cour, le français et l'anglais;
2) de fixer au le' mars 2000 la date d'expiration du délaipour le dépôt des
documents supplémentaires ;
3) de fixer l'ouverture des audiences au lundi 29 mai 2000 à 10 heures et d'en
limiter la duréeà cinq semaines maximum, les Parties devant s'efforcer de
parvenir à un accord sur l'organisation de la procédure orale.

Conformément aux instructions de la Cour, le greffier a informéles agents des
Parties de cette décisionpar lettres du 9 décembre1999.
A la demande de Bahreïn, et Qatar n'ayant pas soulevéd'objection, la Cour
a reportéau 6 mars 2000 la date d'expiration du délaipour le dépôtdes docu-
ments supplémentairesde Bahreïn. Chacune des Parties a procédéau dépôt de
ses documents dans le délaiqui lui avait étéimparti.
26. Par lettres distinctes dule'mars 2000, les agents des Parties ont commu-
niqué à la Cour le texte d'une déclarationconjointe faisant étatdu résultatde
leurs consultations sur l'organisation de la procédure orale.La Cour, compte
tenu des vues des Parties, a arrêtéle calendrier des audiences et le greffier a
communiquécelui-ci aux Parties par lettres du 7 avril 2000.

27. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l'article 53 du Règlement, la Cour,
après s'êtrerenseignée auprès des Parties, a décidéque seraient rendus
accessibles au publicà l'ouverture de la procédure oraleles mémoires,contre-
mémoires et répliques, ainsi que l'ensemble des documents qui y étaient
annexés;les documents supplémentaires déposés par les Parties en mars 2000
conformémentaux décisionspertinentes de la Cour; et l'ensemble descommuni-
cations, y compris, le cas échéant,les documents et rapports qui y étaient
annexés,que les Parties avaient adressées à la Cour sur la question de l'authen-
ticitéde certains documents.
28. Des audiences publiques ont été tenuesdu 29 mai au 29 juin 2000, au
cours desquelles ont étéentendus en leurs plaidoiries et réponses:

Pour Qatar; S. Exc. M. Abdullah bin Abdulatif Al-Muslemani,
M. Jean Salmon,
M'leNanette E. Pilkington,
M. Ali bin Fetais Al-Meri,
M. R. K. P. Shankardass,
sir Ian Sinclair,
M. Rodman R. Bundy,

M. Eric David,
M. Jean-Pierre Quéneudec. MARITIME DELIhfITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 48

date for the opening of the hearings on the merits. As instructed by the Court,
the Registrar informed the Agents of the Parties of this decision by letters of
5 July 1999.
25. At a further meeting held by the President of the Court with the Agents
of the Parties on 16 November 1999,the latter expressed their agreement that
the hearings on the rnerits should commence on 29 May 2000; it appeared,
however, that the Parties disagreed as to the length ofthose hearings, and that
they had reached differing views as to the nature and scope of the "supplemen-
ta1documents" that they would be permitted to produce.
Following this meeting, the Court decided:

(1) to permit the Parties to file supplemental experts' reports and historic
documents. but rio further witness statements, it being understood that
they would endeavour to produce such supplementaldocuments in the two
official languages of the Court, French and English;
(2) to fix 1 March 2000 as the time-limit for the filing of the supplemental
documents ;

(3) that the hearings would open on Monday 29 May 2000, at 10 a.m., and
would last for a maximum of five weeks, and that the Parties should
endeavour to reach agreement on the organization of the oral proceedings.
As instructed by the Court, the Registrar informed the Agents of the Parties of

thisdecision by letterii of 9 December 1999.
At Bahrain's request,to which Qatar raised no objection,the Court extended
to 6 March 2000 the time-limit for the filing of supplemental documents by
Bahrain. Each of the Parties proceeded to file its documents within the time-
limit allowed to it.
26. By separate 1eti:ersof 1 March 2000, the Agents of the Parties commu-
nicated to the Court the text of a joint statement embodying the result of their
consultations concerning the organization of the oral proceedings. The Court,
taking account of the views of the Parties, set a timetable for the hearings and
the Registrar communicated it to the Parties by letters of 7 April 2000.
27. Pursuant to Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the Court,
having consulted the Parties, decided that the following would become avail-
able to the public at the openingof the oral proceedings: the Memorials, Coun-
ter-Memorials and Replies and al1the documents annexed thereto; the supple-
mental documents filed by the Parties in March 2000 in accordance with the
relevant decisions of the Court; and al1 the communications, including any

documents or reports annexed thereto, submitted by the Parties to the Court
with regard to the qu1:stionof the authenticity of certain documents.

28. Public hearings were held from 29 May to 29 June 2000, at which the
Court heard the oral arguments and replies of:

For Qatar: H.E. Mr. Abdullah bin Abdulatif Al-Muslemani,
Mr. Jean Salmon,
Ms Nanette E. Pilkington,
Mr. Ali bin Fetais Al-Meri,
Mr. R. IK.P. Shankardass,
Sir Ian Sinclair,
Mr. Rodman R. Bundy,
Mr. Eric David,
Mr. Jeaii-Pierre Quéneudec.49 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÊT)

Pour Bahreïn: S. Exc. M. Jawad Salim Al-Arayed,
sir Elihu Lauterpacht,
M. Jan Paulsson,
M. Michael Reisman,
M. Robert Volterra,
M. Fathi Kemicha,
M. Prosper Weil.

29. A l'audience, des membres de la Cour ont poséaux Parties des ques-
tions auxquelles il a été répondupar écrit, conformémentau paragraphe 4 de
l'article 61 du Règlement. Chacune des Parties a présentédes observations
écritessur les réponses fourniespar l'autre Partie, conformément à l'article 72
du Règlement.
30. Au cours de la procédureorale et aprèsla clôturede celle-ci,chacune des
Parties a produit des documents nouveaux au titre de l'article 56du Règlement
sans que l'autre Partie y fasse objection. Bahreïn ayant invoqué, à l'appui
d'arguments développés lorsde son dernier tour de plaidoiries, cinq documents

nouveaux qu'il ne s'était initialement proposé d'utiliser qu'aux fins de sa
réponse à une question poséepar un membre de la Cour, cette dernière, en vue
d'assurer lecaractèrecontradictoirede la procédure, adécidé d'autoriser Qatar,
comme celui-cien avait expriméle souhait, à soumettre des observations écrites
sur l'argumentation ainsi développéepar Bahreïn et sur lesdocuments en cause.
De telles observations ont été déposép ear Qatar dans le délaiqui lui avait été
fixéà cet effet.

31. Dans sa requêteenregistréeau Greffe le 8juillet 1991,Qatar a formulé
les demandes ci-après :

«Se réservantle droit de compléter oude modifier sesdemandes, 1'Etat
de Qatar prie la Cour de:
1. Dire et juger conformément au droit international

A) que 1'Etatde Qatar a souveraineté surles îles de Hawar; et

B) que 1'Etatde Qatar a des droits souverains sur les hauts-fonds de
Dibal et de Qit'at Jaradah;

II. Compte dûment tenu de la ligne de partage des fonds marins des deux
Etats décritedans la décisionbritannique du 23 décembre1947,tracer
conformément au droit international une limite maritime unique entre
les zones maritimes comprenant les fonds marins, le sous-sol et les
eaux surjacentes qui relèvent respectivementde 1'Etat de Qatar et de
1'Etatde Bahreïn.»

32. Dans sa requète telle que formuléele 30 novembre 1994 (((Démarche
tendant à donner effet aux points 3 et 4 du paragraphe 41 de l'arrêt rendupar
la Cour le 1" juillet 1994»), Qatar a présentéles demandes ci-après:
((Conformémentaux droits et obligations crééspar les accords interna-

tionaux de décembre1987et du 25 décembre1990, lesquestions suivantes
relèvent de la compétencede la Cour, et lui sont soumises en vertu de la
requêteintroduite par Qatar le 5juillet 1991et de la présentedémarche: MARITIME DELIEAITATIONAND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 49

For Bahrain: H.E. ]Ur. Jawad Salim Al-Arayed,
Sir Elihu Lauterpacht,
Mr. Jan Paulsson,
Mr. Michael Reisman,
Mr. R.obert Volterra,
Mr. Fathi Kemicha,
Mr. Prosper Weil.

29. At the hearing:;, Members of the Court put questions to the Parties, to
which replies were givenin writing, in accordance with Article 61, paragraph 4,
of the Rules of Court. Each of the Parties submitted written comments on the
replies provided by t:he other, in accordance with Article 72 of the Rules of
Court.
30. In the course of the oral proceedings and after their closure, each of the
Parties produced new documents pursuant to Article 56 of the Rules of Court
without any objectionibeing raised by the other Party. As Bahrain referred, in
support of its arguments during its last round of oral pleadings, to five new
documents that it had initially proposed to use only for purposes of its reply to
a question from a Member of the Court, the Court decided, in order to safe-
guard the adversarial nature of the proceedings, to authorize Qatar, in accord-
ance with the wish expressed by it, to submit written comments on the line of
argument thus put forward by Bahrain and on the documents in question.
Those comments werisfiled by Qatar within the time-limit fixed for that pur-
pose.

31. In its Application filed in the Registry on 8 July 1991,Qatar made the

following requests :
"Reserving its right to supplement or amend its requests, the State of
Qatar requests thieCourt:

1. To adjudge and declare in accordance with international law
(A) that the State of Qatar has sovereignty over the Hawar islands;
and
(B) that the :Stateof Qatar has sovereign rights over Dibal and Qit'at
Jaradah shoals;

and
II. With due regard to the line dividing the sea-bed of the two States as
described in the British decision of 23 December 1947, to draw in
accordance with international law a singlemaritime boundary between
the maritime areas of sea-bed, subsoil and superjacent waters apper-
taining respectively to the State of Qatar and the State of Bahrain."

32. In its Application as formulated on 30 November 1994("Act to comply
with paragraphs (3) and (4) of operative paragraph 41 of the Judgment of the
Court dated 1July 19'94"),Qatar submitted the following requests:

"The following subjects fa11within thejurisdiction of the Court by virtue
of the rights and obligations created by the international agreements
of December 1987 and 25 December 1990 and are, by virtue of Qatar's
Application datetl 5 July 1991and the present Act, submitted to the Court: 1. Les îles Hawar, y compris l'îledeJanan;
2. Fasht ad Dibal et Qit'at Jaradah;
3. Les lignesde base archipélagiques;
4. Zubarah;
5. Les zones désignées pour la pêchedes perles et pour la pêchedes pois-
sons et toutes autres questions liéesaux limites maritimes.
Qatar considère que Bahreïn définitsa revendication concernant Zuba-

rah comme une revendication de souveraineté.
Comme suite à sa requête,Qatar prie la Cour de dire et juger que
Bahreïn n'a aucune souveraineténi aucun autre droit territorial sur l'îlede
Janan et sur Zubarah, et que toute revendication de Bahreïn concernant
les lignes de base archipélagiqueset les zones désignées pour la pêchedes
perles et des poissons serait dénuéede pertinence aux fins de la délimita-
tion maritime dans la présente instance. ))

33. Dans la procédureécrite,les conclusions ci-aprèsont étéprésentéespar
les Parties:
Au nom duGouvernementde Qatar,

dans le mémoire,le contre-mémoireet la répliquesur le fond (textes identiques
mutatis mutandis) :
«Au vu de ce qui précède,1'Etat de Qatar prie respectueusement la
Cour, une fois rejetéestoutes demandes et conclusions en sens contraire,

1. de dire et juger conformémentau droit international:
A. 1) que 1'Etatde Qatar a souverainetésur les îles Hawar;

2) que les hauts-fonds de Dibal et de Qit'at Jaradah sont des

hauts-fonds découvrants sur lesquels Qatar a souveraineté;
B. 1) que I'Etat de Bahreïn n'a pas souverainetésur l'îlede Janan;

2) que 1'Etatde Bahreïn n'a pas souverainetésur Zubarah;
3) que toute demandede Bahreïn concernant des lignesde base
archipélagiqueset des zones de pêche à l'huître perlièreet au
poisson serait sans pertinence aux fins de la délimitation
maritime a opérer enl'espèce.
II. de tracer une limite maritime unique entre les espaces maritimes

comprenant les fonds marins, le sous-sol et les eaux surjacentes qui
relèvent respectivement de 1'Etat de Qatar et de I'Etat de Bahreïn
étant convenu que les îles Hawar et l'île de Janan appartiennent à
1'Etatde Qatar et non à 1'Etatde Bahreïn, et que ladite limite part
du point 2 de l'accord de délimitation concluen 1971entre Bahreïn
et l'Iran (51"05'54" de longitude est et 27'02'47" de latitude nord),
se dirige ensuite vers le sud jusqu'au point BLV (50'57'30" de lon-
gitude est et 26'33'35" de latitude nord), suit à partir dudit point
BLV la ligne établie par la décisionbritannique du 23 décembre
1947jusqu'au point NSLB (50'49'48" de longitude est et 26'21'24"
de latitude nord) puis jusqu'au point L (50"43'00" de longitude est
et 25'47'27" de latitude nord) et se prolonge jusqu'au point SI de
l'accord de délimitation conclu en 1958 entre Bahreïn et l'Arabie
saoudite (50'31'45" de longitude est et 25'35' 38" de latitude

nord)...)) 1. The Hawar Islands, including the island of Janan;
2. Fasht ad Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah;
3. The archipelagic baselines ;
4. Zubarah;
5. The areas for fishing for pearls and for fishing for swimming fish and

any other matters connected with maritime boundaries.
It is understood by Qatar that Bahrain defines its claim concerning
Zubarah as a claim of sovereignty.
Further to its Application Qatar requests the Court to adjudge and
declare that Bahrain has no sovereignty or other territorial right over the
island of Janan or over Zubarah, and that any claim by Bahrain concern-
ing archipelagic baselines and areas for fishing for pearls and swimming
fish would be irrelevant for the purpose of maritime delimitation in the

present case."
33. In the course of the written proceedings, the following submissions were
presented by the Parties:

On behalfof /he Govc>rnineno tf Qatar,
in the Memorial, Counter-Memorial and Reply on the merits (mutatis mutandis
identical texts):

"In viewof the above, the State of Qatar respectfully requests the Court,
rejecting al1contirary claims and submissions :

1. To adjudgc:and declare in accordance with international law:
A. (1) That the State of Qatar has sovereignty over the Hawar
islaind;
(2) That Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah shoals are low-tide elevations
which are under Qatar's sovereignty;
B. (1) That the State of Bahrain has no sovereignty over the island
of Janan ;
(2) That the State of Bahrain has no sovereignty over Zubarah;

(3) That any claim by Bahrain concerning archipelagic base-
lines and areas for fishing for pearls and swimming fish
would be irrelevant for the purpose of maritime delimitation
in the present case;
II. To draw a single maritime boundary between the maritime areas of
sea-bed, subsoil and superjacent waters appertaining respectively to
the State of Qatar and the State of Bahrain on the basis that the

Hawar islands and the island of Janan appertain to the State of
Qatar and not to the State of Bahrain, that boundary starting from
point 2 of the delimitation agreement concluded between Bahrain
and Iran in 1971(51 O05'54" E and 27"02'47" N), thence proceeding
in a southerly direction up to BLV (50"57'30" E and 26"33'35" N),
then following the line of the British decision of 23 December 1947
up to NSL.B (50°49'48" E and 26'21'24" N) and up to point L
(50"43'00" E and 25'47'27'' N), thence proceeding to point S1 of
the delimitation agreement concluded by Bahrain and Saudi Arabia
in 1958(50"31'45" E and 25"35'38" N) . . ."Au nom du Gouvernement de Bahreïn,
dans le mémoire,le contre-mémoireet la répliquesur le fond (textes identiques
mutatis mutandis) :

«Qu'ilplaise a la Cour de rejeter, sur la base des faits et des arguments
exposés dans le mémoire et le contre-mémoire de Bahreïn ainsi que
dans la ... réplique,toutes demandes et conclusions contraires et dire et
juger que:

1. Bahreïn a souverainetésur Zubarah.
2. Bahreïn a souverainetésur les îlesHawar, y compris surJanan et Hadd
Janan.
3. Compte tenu de la souveraineté de Bahreïn sur toutes les formations,
insulaires et autres,y compris sur Fasht ad Dibal et Qit'at Jaradah,
qui constituent l'archipel bahreïnite, la limite maritime entre Bahreïn
et Qatar est celle décrite dans la deuxième partie du mémoire de
Bahreïn, la deuxièmepartie du contre-mémoire de Bahreïn et dans [sa]
réplique.

Bahreïn se réservele droit de compléter ou de modifier les conclusions
qui précèdent.»
34. Dans la procédure orale, les conclusions ci-après ont étéprésentéespar
les Parties:

Au nom du Gouvernement de Qatar,

a l'audience du 22juin 2000:
«L'Etat de Qatar prie respectueusement la Cour, une fois rejetéestoutes
autres demandes et conclusions en sens contraire,

1. de dire et juger conformément au droit international :
A. 1) que 1'Etatde Qatar a souverainetésur les îles Hawar;

2) que les hauts-fonds de Dibal et de Qit'at Jaradah sont des
hauts-fonds découvrants sur lesquels Qatar a souveraineté;

B. 1) que 1'Etatde Bahreïn n'a pas souverainetésur I'îlede Janan;

2) que 1'Etatde Bahreïn n'a pas souverainetésur Zubarah;
3) que toute demande de Bahreïn concernant des lignes de base
archipélagiques et des zones de pêche àl'huître perlière etau
poisson serait sans pertinence aux fins de la délimitation
maritime a opéreren l'espèce;
II. de tracer une limite maritime unique entre les espaces maritimes
comprenant les fonds marins, le sous-sol et les eaux surjacentes qui
relèvent respectivement de 1'Etat de Qatar et de 1'Etat de Bahreïn,
étant convenu que Zubarah, les îles Hawar et I'îlede Janan appar-

tiennent à 1'Etat de Qatar et non a I'Etat de Bahreïn, et que ladite
limite part du point 2 de l'accord de délimitation concluen 1971
entre Bahreïn et l'Iran (51'05'54" de longitude est et 27'02'47" de
latitude nord), se dirige ensuite vers le sud jusqu'au point BLV
(50"57'30"de longitude est et 26' 33' 35"de latitude nord), suivant à
partir dudit point BLVla ligneétabliepar la décisionbritannique du
23 décembre1947jusqu'au point NSLB (50°49'48" de longitude estOn behaif of the Government of Bahrain,
in the Memorial, Couriter-Memorial and Reply on the merits (mutatis mutandis
identical texts:

"In view of the:facts and arguments set forth in Bahrain's Memorial,
Counter-Memorial and .. . Reply;
May it please the Court, rejecting al1contrary claims and submissions,
to adjudge and declare that:

1. Bahrain is sovereign over Zubarah.
2. Bahrain is sovereign over the Hawar Islands, including Janan and
Hadd Janan.
3. In viewof Bahrain's sovereignty over al1the insular and other features,
including Fasht ad Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah, comprising the Bahraini
archipelago, the maritime boundary between Bahrain and Qatar is as
described in Part Two of Bahrain's Memorial, Part Two of Bahrain's

Counter-Memorial and in [its]Reply.

Bahrain reserve:sthe right to supplement or modify the preceding sub-
missions."

34. At the oral proceedings, the following submissions were presentedby the
Parties:

On behalfof the Government of Qatar,
at the hearing of 22 June 2000:

"The State of Qatar respectfully requests the Court, rejecting al1con-
trary claims and submissions:
1. To adjudge and declare in accordance with international law:

A. (1) That the State of Qatar has sovereignty over the Hawar
islands ;
(2) That Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah shoals are low-tide elevations
whiishare under Qatar's sovereignty ;
B. (1) That the State of Bahrain has no sovereignty over the island
of Janan;
(2) That the State of Bahrain has no sovereignty overZubarah;
(3) That any claim by Bahrain concerning archipelagic base-
lineij and areas for fishing for pearls and swirnrning fish
wouildbe irrelevant for the purpose of maritime delimitation
in the present case;

II. To draw a single maritime boundary between the maritime areas
of sea-bed, subsoil and superjacent waters appertaining respec-
tively to the State of Qatar and the State of Bahrain on the basis
that Zubarah, the Hawar islands and the island of Janan apper-
tain to the State of Qatar and not to the State of Bahrain, that
boundary starting from point 2 of the delimitation agreement con-
cluded between Bahrain and Iran in 1971 (51"05'54" E and
27O02'47" IV), thence proceeding in a southerly direction up to
BLV (50"57'30" E and 26" 33'35"N), then following the line of the
British decision of 23 December 1947 up to NSLB (50'49'48" E

and 26"21'24"N) and up to point L (50"43'00" E and 25"47'27"N), et 26'21'24" de latitude nord) puisjusqu'au point L (50'43'00" de
longitude est et25'47'27''de latitude nord) et se prolonge jusqu'au
point S1de l'accord de délimitation concleun 1958entre Bahreïn et
l'Arabiesaoudite (50" 31'45"de longitude est et 25'35'38''de lati-
tude nord).»

Au nom du Gouvernement de Bahreïn,
a l'audiencedu 29juin 2000:

«Sur la base des faits et des arguments exposésdans le mémoire,le
contre-mémoire et la réplique de Bahreïn ainsi que lors des présentes
audiences,

Qu'il plaise à la Cour de rejeter toutes demandes et conclusions .
contraires et dire et jugerque:
1. Bahreïn a souverainetésur Zubarah.
2. Bahreïna souverainetésur les îlesHawar, y compris surJanan et Hadd
Janan.
3. Compte tenu de la souverainetéde Bahreïn surtoutes les formations,

insulaires etautres, comprissur Fasht ad Dibal et Qit'atJaradah, qui
constituent l'archipel bahreïnite, la limite maritimentre Bahreïn et
Qatar est celledécritedans la deuxièmepartie du mémoirede Bahreïn. ))

35. L'Etat de Qatar et 1'Etat de Bahreïn sont tous deux situésdans la
partie méridionale du golfe arabo-persique (ci-après dénommé le
«Golfe»), presque à mi-chemin entre l'embouchure du Chatt al-Arab, au
nord-ouest, et le détroit d'Ormuz, à l'extrémitéorientale du Golfe, au
nord d'Oman. La zone continentale situéeà l'ouest et au sud de I'îleprin-
cipale de Bahreïn et au sud de la péninsuledeQatar fait partie intégrante

du Royaume d'Arabie saoudite. La zone continentale qui borde le Golfe
au nord fait partie de l'Iran (voir ci-après, p. 53,croquis no 1).
La péninsulede Qatar s'avance dans le Golfe selon une direction nord
à partir de la baie dénomméeDawhat Salwah, à l'ouest, et de la région
situéeau sud du Khor al-Udaid, à l'est. La capitale de 1'Etat de Qatar,
Doha, est situéesur la côte orientale de la péninsule.

Bahreïn est constitué d'un certain nombre d'îles, d'îlots et de hauts-
fonds situés au large des côtes orientale et occidentale de son île princi-
pale, qui est également appeléeîle Al-Awal. La capitale de 1'Etat de
Bahreïn, Manama, est situéedans la partie nord-est de I'îleAl-Awal.
Zubarah se situe sur la côte nord-ouest de la péninsulede Qatar, face à
l'île principale de Bahreïn.

Les îles Hawar se situent a proximité immédiatede la partie médiane
de la côte occidentale de la péninsulede Qatar, au sud-est de l'île princi-
pale de Bahreïn et à une distance approximative de 10 milles marins de
celle-ci.
Janan est situéeau large de la pointe sud-ouest de I'îleHawar propre-

ment dite.
Fasht ad Dibal et Qit'at Jaradah sont deux formations maritimes qui thence proceeding to point S1 of the delimitation agreement
concluded by Bahrain and Saudi Arabia in 1958 (50"31'45" E
and 25"3fi'38"N)."

On behay of the Gov,ernrnentof Bahrain,

at the hearing of 29J'une2000:
"Having regar,dto the factsand arguments set forth in Bahrain'sMemo-
rial, Counter-Memorial, and Reply, and in the present hearings,

May it please the Court, rejecting al1contrary claims and submissions,
to adjudge and cleclarethat:
1. Bahrain is sovereignover Zubarah.
2. Bahrain is sovereign over the Hawar Islands, including Janan and

Hadd Janan.
3. In view ofBa:hrain'ssovereignty overal1the insular and other features,
including Fasht adDibal and Qit'at Jaradah, comprising the Bahraini
archipelago, the maritime boundary between Bahrain and Qatar is as
described inPart Two of Bahrain's Memorial."

35. The Stateof Qatarand the State of Bahrain are both located in the
southern part of the ArabianIPersian Gulf (hereinafter referred to as "the
Gulf'), almost halfway between the mouth of the Shatt al'Arab, to the
north-west, and the Strait of Hormuz, at the Gulfs eastern end, to the
north of Oman. The mainland to the west and south of the main island of

Bahrain and to the south of the Qatar peninsula is part of the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia. The mainland on the northern shore of the Gulf is part
of Iran (see sketch-rnap No. 1, p. 53 below).
The Qatar peninsula projects northward into the Gulf, on the West
from the bay called Dawhat Salwah, and on the east from the region
lying to the south of Khor al-Udaid. The capital of the State of Qatar,

Doha, is situated ori the eastern coast of the peninsula.
Bahrain is composed of a number of islands, islets and shoals situated
off the eastern and western coasts of its main island, which is also called
al-Awal Island. The capital of the State of Bahrain, Manama, is situated
in the north-eastern part of al-Awal Island.
Zubarah is 1ocate:don the north-west coast of the Qatar peninsula,

opposite the main island of Bahrain.
The Hawar Islancls are located in the immediate vicinity of the central
part of the West Coast of the Qatar peninsula, to the south-east of the
main island of Bahrain and at a distance of approximately 10 nautical
miles from the latter.
Janan is located off the south-western tip of Hawar Island proper.

Fasht ad Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah are two maritime features located Croquis no 1 Contexte géographique général

31°N

C
4

30°N

29ON

28'~

270~

ARAMESAOUMTE

26'~

25ON

24%

EMIRATSARABESUNI

23'~

Ce -a. swlque( klannabonsmanssonthgwh uxiwa loma mpiiTiee. a 41amieshnsbiBu3UaBm
Ilnp18pipBpasde b naWmdsCeMmece¶IumaDomse situent au large de la côte nord-ouest de la péninsulede Qatar et au
nord-est de l'îleprincipale de Bahreïn.

36. La Cour commencera par un bref exposéde l'histoire complexe
qui sert de toile de fond au différendentre les Parties.
37. La navigation dans le Golfe étaittraditionnellement aux mains des
habitants de la région.A partir du début du XVIesiècle, lespuissances
européennes commencèrent a s'intéressera cette région quijouxtait l'une

des routes commerciales vers l'Inde. Les Portugais prirent ainsi lecontrôle
d'Ormuz sur le détroit du mêmenom situé a la limite du Golfe et de
l'océan Indien.Le quasi-monopole commercial exercépar les Portugais ne
fut remis en cause qu'au début du XVIIe siècle. En effet, la Grande-
Bretagne désira alors renforcer sa présencedans le Golfe aux fins de
protéger les intérêts commerciauxcroissants de la compagnie des Indes
orientales.
38. Entre 1797et 1819,la Grande-Bretagne lança de nombreuses expé-
ditions punitives pour riposter aux actes de pillage et de piraterie perpé-
trés par des tribus arabes dirigéespar les Qawasim contre des navires
britanniques et locaux. En 1819,elleprit le contrôle de Ras al-Khaimah,
quartier général desQawasim, et conclut des accords séparés avec lesdif-
férentscheikhs de la région. Ces cheikhs s'engagèrenta conclure un traité
généralde paix. Un tel traitéfut effectivement signéenjanvier 1820par le

Gouvernement britannique, les cheikhs de Ras al-Khaimah, de Jourat al
Kamra, d'Abou Dhabi et de Zyah; dans les semaines qui suivirent, il fut
également signé par le cheikh de Doubaï, le chef de Chardjah, lescheikhs
de Bahreïn, le chef de Ajman et le chef de Umm al-Qaïwain. Par ce traité,
ces cheikhs et chefs s'engageaient notamment tant en leur nom propre
qu'en celui de leurs sujets s'abstenir a l'avenir de tout acte de pillage ou
de piraterie. La piraterie n'enpersista pas moins et une trêvemaritime fut
conclue en 1835, à l'initiative des Britanniques, par les chefs des entités
qui devinrent alors connues sous le nom de ((principautésde la Trêve».
Cette trêve futreconduite d'annéeen année jusqu'a la signature le 24 août
1853d'un traitéde paix maritime perpétuelledont le respect étaitassuré
par la Grande-Bretagne au besoin par la force. Les nécessités de la paix
maritime et de la protection de ses intérêts amenèrenctelle-ci intervenir
dans les conflits entre tribus, mais cette intervention n'instaurait aucune
souveraineté ou suzeraineté britannique sur les différentesprincipautés

ou territoires de la région.Ce n'est que vers la fin duXIXe siècleque la
Grande-Bretagne adoptera une politique généralede protection dans le
Golfe en concluant des caccords exclusifs» avec la plupart des princi-
pautésdont cellesde Bahreïn, d'Abou Dhabi, de Chardjah et de Doubaï.
La représentation des intérêts dela Grande-Bretagne dans la région fut
confiée à un résident politique britannique dans le Golfe, installé à
Bushire (Perse), auquel furent par la suite subordonnés des agents poli-
tiques dans différentesprincipautés avec lesquelles Ia Grande-Bretagne
avait conclu des accords. MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL. QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 54

off the north-western Coast of the Qatar peninsula and to the north-east

of the main island of Bahrain.

36. The Court will begin with a brief account of the complex history
which forms the background to the dispute between the Parties.
37. Navigation in the Gulf was traditionally in the hands of the inhabi-

tants of the region. From the beginning of the sixteenth century, Euro-
pean powers began to show interest in the area, which lay along one of
the trading routes with India. Thus the Portuguese took control of Hor-
muz, on the strait of the same name, where the Gulf meets the Indian
Ocean. Portugal's virtual monopoly of trade was not challenged until the
beginning of the seventeenth century. Great Britain was then anxious to

consolidate its presi:nce in the Gulf to protect the growing commercial
interests of the East India Company.

38. Between 1797and 1819 Great Britain despatched numerous puni-
tive expeditions in rlrsponse to acts of plunder and piracy by Arab tribes
led by theQawahim against British and local ships. In 18 19,Great Britain

took control of Ras al Khaimah, headquarters of the Qawasim, and
signed separate agreements with the various sheikhs of the region. These
sheikhs undertook to enter into a General Treaty of Peace. Such a treaty
was in fact signed in January 1820 by the British Government. the
Sheikhs of Ras al K.haimah, of Jourat al Kamra, of Abu Dhabi and of
Zyah; in the following weeks, it was also signed by the Sheikh of Dubai,

the Chief of Sharjah, the Sheikhs of Bahrain, the Chief of Ajman and the
Chief of Umm al Qaywayn. By this Treaty, these sheikhs and chiefs
undertook on behall'of themselves and their subjects interuliu to abstain
for the future from plunder and piracy. Piracy nonetheless persisted, and
in 1835 a maritime truce was concluded, on the initiative of the British,
by the heads of what then became known as the "Trucial Sheikhdoms".
This truce was renewed on a yearly basis until the signature on24August

1853 of a Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity, compliance being
guaranteed by Great Britain, by force if necessary. The need to establish
peace at sea and to protect its interests, drew Great Britain into interven-
ing in tribal disputes, though such intervention did not establish any Brit-
ish sovereignty or suzerainty over the various sheikhdoms or territories in
the area. It was only towards the end of the nineteenth century that Great

Britain would adopt a general policy of protection in the Gulf, conclud-
ing "exclusive agreements" with most sheikhdoms, including those of
Bahrain. Abu Dhabi, Sharjah and Dubai. Representation of British
interests in the region was entrusted to a British Political Resident in
the Gulf, installed in Bushire (Persia), to whom British Political Agents
were subseauentlv subordinated in various sheikhdoms with which Great

Britain had concluded agreements. 39. Le 31 mai 1861, le Gouvernement britannique conclut un ((Traité
perpétuel de paix et d'amitié))avec le cheikh Mahomed bin Khalifah,
dans lequel ce dernier était désignécomme souverain indépendant de
Bahreïn. Aux termes de ce traité, Bahreïn s'engageait notamment à s'abs-
tenir de toute agression maritime de quelque nature qu'elle soit, tandis
que la Grande-Bretagne s'engageait à fournir à Bahreïn l'appui néces-

saire pour maintenir la sécuritéde ses possessions contre toute agression.
Aucune disposition de ce traité ne précisait l'étenduede ces possessions.
40. A la suite d'hostilitésqui avaient éclatédans la péninsulede Qatar,
les villes deDoha et de Wakrah furent détruites en 1867 par les forces
combinées des cheikhs de Bahreïn et d'Abou Dhabi. Cette action condui-
sit le résidentpolitique britannique dans le Golfe à intervenir. 11se mit en

rapport avec le cheikh Ali bin Khalifah. chef de Bahreïn, et le cheikh
Mohamed Al-Thani, chef deQatar et, les 6 et 12septembre 1868,respec-
tivement, les amena l'un et l'autre à signer un accord avec la Grande-
Bretagne. Par ces accords, le chef de Bahreïn reconnaissait notamment
que certains actes de piraterie avaient été commis par Mahomed bin

Khalifah, son prédécesseur,et, «afin de sauvegarder la paix en mer et de
prévenir la survenance d'autres troubles ainsi que pour tenir le résident
politique informé de ce qui se passe)), il promettait de désignerun repré-
sentant auprès de ce dernier; quant au chef de Qatar, il s'engageait. entre
autres, à retourner à Doha et à y résider pacifiquement, à ne pas prendre
la mer avec des intentions hostiles et, au cas où surgiraient des différends

ou des malentendus, ien référersans exception au résidentpolitique. Le
13 septembre 1868. toujours grice à la médiation du résident politique
britannique, les chefs tribaux ((résidant dans la province de Qatar))
convinrent solennellement de verser au cheikh Ali bin Khalifah, chef de
Bahreïn, les sommes qu'ils payaient jusqu'alors chaque année aux chefs
de Bahreïn; ces sommes étaient remises à Mohamed Al-Thani de Doha

qui devait les transmettre à son tour, avec sa propre contributionau rési-
dent politique britannique pour remise de la totalité à l'agent du chef de
Bahreïn.
41. Selon Bahreïn, les ((événementsde 1867-1868 » démontrent que
Qatar n'était pas indépendant de Bahreïn; le résident politique britan-

nique aurait plutôt ((arrachédes engagements personnels unilatéraux aux
souverains de Bahreïn et d'Abou Dhabi ainsi qu'à Mohammed bin
Thani, le chef de la confédérationde Doha, par lesquels ceux-ci promet-
taient de ne pas se livrer à des activités militaires navales)). Au surplus.
l'autorité souveraine du cheikh de Bahreïn sur la ~éninsule aurait été
confirmée par l'officialisation des impôts dus par les tribus de la pénin-

sule de Qatar subordonnées au souverain de Bahreïn, telle qu'elle aurait
été opérépear l'accord du 13septembre 1868entre lescheikhs de Qatar et
celui de Bahreïn: le cheikh Al-Thani de Doha aurait ainsi reconnu la
pérennitéde l'autoritédes souverains de Bahreïn et leur droit à lui récla-
mer l'impôt. De l'opinion de Bahreïn.jusqu'en 1916,il n'y avait donc pas
d'Etat de Qatar doté d'attributs de souveraineté sur l'ensemble de la

péninsulede Qatar. MARITIME DELIlvllTATlON AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 55

39. On 31 May 1861 the British Government signed a "Perpetual
treaty of peace and friendship" with Sheikh Mahomed bin Khalifah,
referred to in the treaty as independent Ruler of Bahrain. Under this
treaty, Bahrain undertook inter trlito refrain from al1maritime aggres-
sion of every description, while Great Britain undertook to provide
Bahrain with the niecessary support in the maintenance of security of

its possessions agaiinst aggression. There was no provision in this treaty
defining the extent of these possessions.
40. Following hostilities on the Qatar peninsula, the towns of Doha
and Wakrah were destroyed in 1867 by the combined forces of the
Sheikhs of Bahrain and Abu Dhabi. This action led the British Political
Resident in the Gulf to intervene. He approached Sheikh Ali bin Khali-

fah, Chief of Bahrain, and Sheikh Mohamed Al-Thani, Chief of Qatar,
and, on 6 and 12September 1868respectively, occasioned each to sign an
agreement with Great Britain. By these agreements, the Chief of Bahrain
recognized irztcruliithat certain acts of piracy had been committed by
Mahomed bin Khalifah, his predecessor. and, "[iln view of preserving the
peace at sea, and precluding the occurrence of further disturbance and in

order to keep the Political Resident informed of what happens", he
promised to appoint an agent with the Political Resident; for his part, the
Chief of Qatar undertook inter uliato return to and reside peacefully in
Doha. not to put to sea with hostile intention, and, in the event of dis-
putes or misunderstanding arising, invariably to refer to the Political
Resident. On 13 September 1868. again through the mediation of the

British Political Resident, tribal chiefs "residing in the province of Qatar"
solemnly agreed to lpayto Sheikh Ali bin Khalifah, Chief of Bahrain. the
annual sums previously paid by them to the Chiefs of Bahrain; these
sums were paid to Mohamed Al-Thani of Doha. who was in turn to
transmit them togei.her with his own contribution to the Political Resi-
dent for delivery of the total to the agent of the Chief of Bahrain.

41. According to Bahrain, the "events of 1867-1868" demonstratethat
Qatar was not independent from Bahrain; the British Political Resident
is said rather to have "extracted iinilateral personal undertakings from
the Rulers of Bahra~inand Abu Dhabi, as well as from Muhammed bin
Thani, chief of the Doha confederation, not to engage in naval military

activities". Furthermore, the formalization of the taxes payable by the
dependent tribes of the Qatar peninsula to the Ruler of Bahrain, in the
manner provided for by the Agreement of 13 September 1868 between
the Sheikhs of Qatar and the Sheikh of Bahrain. confirmed the latter as
the sovereign authority on the peninsula; Sheikh Al-Thani of Doha had
thus acknowledged the continuing authority of the Rulers of Bahrain and

their right to claim taxes from him. ln Bahrain's view, until 1916. there
was thus no State of Qatar possessing attributes of sovereignty over the
whole of the peninsula of Qatar.56 DELIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITOR1,4LES (ARRÈT)

42. Selon Qatar au contraire, les accords de 1868reconnaissaient pour
la première fois officiellement l'identitédistincte de Qatar. Ils traitaient
sur un pied d'égalitéle souverain de Bahreïn et celui de Qatar et confir-
maient également que les Britanniques reconnaissaient que l'autorité du
cheikh de Bahreïn ne s'étendait pas au territoire de Qatar. Le Gouverne-
ment britannique considérait que l'engagement du 13 septembre 1868

prévoyant le paiement par Mohamed Al-Thani, au nom des chefs de tri-
bus qataris, d'un tribut au souverain de Bahreïn ne mettait aucunement
en cause l'indépendance de Qatar vis-à-vis de Bahreïn; ce paiement
devait en effet s'analyser comme une contribution fixe de Qatar à des
sommes que Qatar et Bahreïn devaient verser aux «Wahhabites» pour
mettre leurs frontièresà l'abri de ces derniers, plus particulièrement pen-

dant la saison de la pêcheaux huîtres perlières. Ce tribut n'aurait en
tout étatde cause étépayéque pendant deux ans et aurait cesséde l'être
«lorsque les Turcs s'établirent A Bida» (qui fait partie de ce qui est
aujourd'hui Doha).
43. Si la Grande-Bretagne étaità l'époquela puissance maritime domi-
nante dans le Golfe, l'Empire ottoman avait pour sa part rétabli son

autorité sur de vastes régionsterrestres du côté méridionaldu Golfe. Au
début des années 1870, lesOttomans installèrent une garnison à Bida et
firent deQatar une division administrative de leur empire. 11saccordèrent
leur protection au cheikh Mohamed Al-Thani qui fut désigné kaiinrrkutn
du k~zzu de Qatar. Ils demeurèrent plus de quarante ans dans la pérlinsule
de Qatar.
44. Dans les annéesqui suivirent l'arrivéedes Ottomansdans la pénin-

sule de Qatar, la Grande-Bretagne accrut son influence aBahreïn. Par un
accord du 22 décembre 1880 avec le lieutenant-colonel Ross, résident
politique britannique dans le Golfe, le cheikh Issa bin Ali al Khalifah,
chef de Bahreïn, s'engagea. ainsi que ses successeurs, à s'abstenir de
négocier ou de conclure tout type de traité et d'établir des représen-
tations diplomatiques ou consulaires avec tout gouvernement tiers sans le

consentement des Britanniques. Les relations particulières ainsi établies
trouvèrent leur point culminant dans la conclusion de l'accord exclusif
de protection du 13 mars 1892 entre le cheikh Issa bin Ali, chef de Bah-
reïn, et le lieutenant-colonel Talbot, résident politique britannique dans
le Golfe. Aux termes de cet accord, le souverain de Bahreïn s'enga-
geait notamment à ce que ni lui-mêmeni ses héritiers et successeurs

ne concluent d'accord et n'entretiennent de corresaondance «avec
toute puissance autre que le Gouvernement britannique)). IIs'engageait
en outre à ne pas permettre, sans l'assentiment du Gouvernement britan-
nique, a un agent d'un autre gouvernement de résider à Bahreïn, et
à ne céder, vendre, hypothéquer ou remettre pour occupation à un
titre quelconque, aucune partie de son territoire sauf au Gouvernement
britannique.

45. Par la suite, la Grande-Bretagne et l'Empire ottoman, désireuxde
régler certaines questions relatives à leurs intérêtsrespectifs dans la
régiondu Golfe et dans les territoires environnants. ainsi que de prévenir 42. According tcs Qatar, on the contrary, the 1868 Agreements for-
mally recognized fi3r the first time the separate identity of Qatar. They
treated the Ruler of Bahrain and the Ruler of Qatar as equals and ako
confirmed that the British recognized that the authority of the Sheikh of
Bahrain did not exiend to the territory of Qatar.The British Government

considered that the undertaking of 13 September 1868, providing for the
payment of tribute to the Ruler of Bahrain by Mohamed Al-Thani on
behalf of the chiefs of Qatari tribes, in no way affected the independence
of Qatar vis-à-vis Eiahrain; that payment was to be considered as a fixed
contribution by Qatar to sums to be paid by both Qatar and Bahrain to
the "Wahhabis", in order to secure their frontiersagainst the latter,more

particularly during the pearl-diving season. The tribute was in any event
only paid for two years and was discontinued "when the Turks estab-
lished themselves in Bida" (which is part of present-day Doha).

43. While Great Britain had become the dominant maritirne Power in
the Gulf by this time. the Ottoman Empire, for its part, had re-estab-
lished its authority over extensive areas of the land on the southern side
of the Gulf. At the beginning of the 1870s,the Ottomans installed a gar-
rison in Bida and made Qatar an administrative division of their empire.
They accorded their protection to Sheikh Mohamed Al-Thani. who was

designated k~~itnuk~inîof thekuru of Qatar. They remained for more than
40 years on the Qatar peninsula.
44. In the years following the arriva1 of the Ottomans on the Qatar
peninsula, Great Britain increased its influence over Bahrain. By an
agreement of 22 December 1880 with Lieutenant-Colonel Ross. British
Political Resident in the Gulf, Sheikh Isa bin Ali al Khalifah, Chief of

Bahrain, bound hirnself and his successors to abstain from entering into
any negotiations, or making treaties of any sort, or establishing diplo-
matic or consular agencies, with any third government without the con-
sent of the British. The special ties thus established culminated in the
conclusion of the Exclusive Protection Agreement of 13 March 1892

between Sheikh Isa bin Ali, Chief of Bahrain, and Lieutenant-Colonel
Talbot, British Political Resident in the Gulf. Under this agreement the
Chief of Bahrain undertook it1tc.r.ulthat neither he nor his heirs and
successors would enter into any agreement or correspondence "with any
Power other than the British Government". He undertook further that he
would not permit, \vithout the assent of the British Government, the resi-

dence within Bahrain of the agent of any other Government and that he
would not cede. sell, mortgage or otherwise give for occupation any part
of his territory save to the British Government.

45. Subsequently, Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire, desiring to

settle certain questions relating to their respective interests in the Gulf
and in the surroui-iding territories. as well as to preclude al1 possibletoute cause éventuellede malentendu en ce qui concerne ces questions,
engagèrent des négociations en vue de la conclusion d'un traité. La
((Conventionanglo-ottomane relative au golfe Persique et aux territoires
environnants)) fut signéele 29juillet 1913,mais ne fut jamais ratifiée.La
section II de cette convention portait surQatar. Son article 1I décrivaitle

tracé de la ligne qui, selon l'accord entre les parties, devait séparer le
sundjcik ottoman du Nedjd de la ((presqu'île d'El-Katr)) (voir para-
graphe 87 ci-après).
46. Qatar indique que la non-ratification de cette convention fut en
grande partie due à la première guerre mondiale, qui venait d'éclater. Il
fait par ailleurs valoir que les Ottomans et les Britanniques avaient éga-
lement signé,le 9 mars 1914, un traité concernant les frontières d'Aden,

ratifiéla même annéed . ont l'article III précisaitque la délimitation entre
Qatar et le sundjuk du Nedjd serait «en conformité de l'article1I de la
convention anglo-ottomane du 29 juillet 1913. relative au golfe Persique
et aux territoires environnants)).
47. Bahreïn soutient pour sa part que <<laconvention de 1913 n'a pas
étératifiée parce que l'édificecomplexe de propositions interdépen-

dantes ... avait fini par s'écrouler)): les «Wahhabites>>,sous la direction
d'Ibn Saud, avaient expulséles Ottomans du Hasa sur la côte orientale
de l'Arabie, et les Al-Thani avaient rapidement perdu leur contrôle sur
Doha. tandis aue le souverain de Bahreïn était notamment demeuré en
possession de la partie septentrionale de la péninsulede Qatar. Bahreïn
observe égalementque le texte du traitéde 1913et celui du traitéde 1914

ne coïncident pas.
48. Après la signature de la convention de 1913. les Ottomans main-
tinrent à Doha leur garnison, dont les derniers hommes ne partirent qu'à
la suite de l'arrivéed'un navire de guerre britannique le 19août 1915.Des
négociationsfurent ensuite engagéesentre la Grande-Bretagne et lecheikh
Al-Thani au sujet d'un eccord exclusif comparable à ceux conclus avec

les autres cheikhs arabes. Ces négociations abcutirent a la signature, le
3 novembre 1916, d'un traité entre la Grande-Bretagne et le cheikh de
Qatar. Par ce traité, dont le préambule se référaitaux obligations assu-
méespar le grand-père du cheikh Al-Thani en vertu de l'accord anglo-
qatari du 12septembre 1868, lecheikh deQatar s'engageait notamment à
«ne pas avoir de relations et à ne pas correspondre avec une autre puis-
sance, ni à recevoir son agent, sans le consentement du Gouvernement

britannique)). à nc pas céder, sans Lintel consentement, de terres à une
autre puissance ni à ses sujets, que ce soit en les affermant, en les ven-
dant, en les transférant, en les donnant ou de toute autre manière et à ne
pas accorder sans ce consentement de monopoles ou de concessions. En
échange, le Gouvernement britannique s'engageait iiprotéger le cheikh
de Qatar ainsi que ses sujets et le territoire de Qatar de tolite agression

par mer et à s'efforcer d'obtenir réparation des préjudicesque le cheikh
de Qatar ou ses sujets pourraient subir en se «rendant en mer pour des
raisons licites». Le Gouvernement britannique s'engageait également à
prêterses «bons offices» au cas où le cheikh ou ses sujets seraient atta-causes of misunderstanding with respect to those questions, opened treaty
negotiations. On 29 July 1913,the Anglo-Ottoman "Convention relating
to the Persian Gulf and surrounding territories" was signed, but it was
never ratified. SecticonII of this Convention dealt with Qatar. Article11
described the course of the line which, according to the agreement

between the parties, was to separate the Ottoman Sunjuk of Nejd from
the "peninsula of all-Qatar" (see paragraph 87 below).

46. Qatar contends that the non-ratification of this Convention was
largely attributable to the outbreak of the First World War. Qatar
further points out t.hat the Ottomans and the British had also signed, on
9 March 1914, a treaty concerning the frontiers of Aden, which was

ratified that same year and whose Article III provided that the line sep-
arating Qatar from the S~~njuhof Nejd would be "in accordance with
Article 11 of the Ariglo-Ottoman Convention of 29 July 1913 relating to
the Persian Gulf and the surrounding territories".
47. For its part, Bahrain contends that "[tlhe 1913 Convention was
not ratified because the complex set of interdependent proposals . ..ulti-

mately fell apart": the "Wahhabis", under Ibn Saud, had expelled the
Ottomans from Hasa on the eastern Coast of Arabia, and the Al-Thani
had rapidly lost their control over Doha, while the Ruler of Bahrain had
remained in possession, inter (lli~, of the northern part of the Qatar
peninsula. Bahrain also observes that the text of the 1913treaty and that
of the 1914 treaty do not coincide.

48. After the cc~nclusion of the 1913 Convention, the Ottomans
maintained their g;lrrison at Doha, of which the last personnel left
only following the arriva1 of a British warship on 19 August 1915.
Negotiations subsequently ensued between Great Britain and Sheikh
Al-Thani regarding an exclusive agreement, comparable to those

concluded with the other Arab Sheikhs. These negotiations resulted
in the signature, cm 3 November 1916, of a treaty between Great
Britain and the Sheikh of Qatar. Under this treaty. whose preamble
referred to the untlertakings by the grandfather of Sheikh Al-Thani
under the Anglo-Qatari Agreement of 12 September 1868, the Sheikh
of Qatar bound hiniself interLII~nIot to "have relations nor correspond
with, nor receive the agent of. any other Power without the consent

of the High British Government"; nor, without such consent, to cede
to any other Power or its subjects, land either on lease, sale, transfer,
gilt, or in any oth'er way whatsoever: nor, without such consent, to
grant any monopollies or concessions. In 1-eturn, the British Govern-
ment undertook to protect the Sheikh of Qatarand his subjects and terri-
tory from al1 aggression by sea and to do its utmost to exact repara-

tion for al1 injuries that the Slieikh of Qatar or his subjects might
suffer "wheii proceeding to sea upon [their] lawf~il occasions". The
British Government also undertook to grant its "good offices" should the
Sheikh or his subjects be assailed by land within the territories of Qatar.quéspar voie terrestre sur les territoires de Qatar. Aucune disposition de
ce traité ne précisait l'étenduede ces territoires.
49. Le premier accord de concession pétrolièreentre le souverain de
Bahreïn et l'Eastern and General Syndicate Ltd. fut conclu le 2 décembre
1925. Aux termes de cet accord, le souverain de Bahreïn accordait a la
compagnie un permis d'exploration exclusif, pour uile période nedépas-

sant pas deux ans (avec possibilité de reconduction pour deux années
supplémentaires) ((dans l'ensemble des territoires placés sous son
contrôle)). Le souverain de Bahreïn s'engageait également A octroyer à
l'Eastern and General Syndicate Ltd., soit pendant la durée du permis
d'exploration, soit à l'expiration de celui-ci, un permis de prospection
valable pour des zones qu'aurait choisies la compagnie avec son aval et
au su du résident politique britannique dans le Golfe. En outre, le sou-

verain de Bahreïn prenait l'engagement d'accorder à la compagnie, a
I'expiration du permis de prospection, un «bail d'exploitation valable
pour une superficie totale de 100000 acres au maximum)), diviséeen lots
au choix de la compagnie. En 1928, des négociations s'engagèrent entre
]'Eastern and General Syndicate Ltd., relayée ultérieurement par la
Bahrain Petroleum Company Ltd. (qui, en 1930, reprit la concession
octroyéeen 1925). et le souverain de Bahreïn pour l'octroi d'une conces-

sion dans le secteur dit ((supplémentaire)) ou «non attribué)).c'est-A-dire
la portion des îles et des eaux territoriales bahreïnitesubsisterait une
fois que la compagnie aurait choisi 100 000 acres.
50. En mars 1934,des discussions eurent lie~ientre le résidentpolitique
britannique et le souverain deQatar au sujet de I'octroi d'une concession
pétrolièrepar ce dernier. Le11mai 1935, lerésident politique britannique
dans le Golfe écrivitau souverain de Qatar au sujet de la protection que

la Grande-Bretagne étaitdisposéeà lui accorder sur terre. En échangede
cette ~rotection. il était demandé au souverain de .atar d'accorder une
concession pétrolière à la sociétébritannique Anglo-Persian Oil Com-
pany. Une telle concession fut accordéele 17mai 1935; son article 2 pré-
cisait que la sociétépourrait exercer ses activités dans n'importe quelle
partie de I'Etat de Qatar, c'est-à-dire ((l'ensemble de la zone sur laquelle
règne le cheikh [de Qatar] et qui figure au nord de la ligne tracéesur la

cartejointe)) A la concession, ligne qui sépare la péninsule de Qatar du
Royaume d'Arabie saoudite.
51. Les négociations engagéesentre 1928et 1933entre le souverain de
Bahreïn et les concessionnaires pour I'octroi d'un secteur supplémentaire
sur le territoire bahreïnite eurent pour objet la détermination de la super-
ficie des terres et des eaux territoriales qui. dans le secteur non attribué,
seraient comprises dans la concession; elles furent suspendues en 1933 à

la demande de la Bahrain Petroleum Company Ltd. et ne reprirent qu'en
1936 lorsque la Petroleum Concessions Ltd., qui avait repris la conces-
sion accordée par Qatar A I'Anglo-Persian Oil Company, fit A son tour
une offre.
52. Dans une lettre en date du 28 avril 1936, Charles Belgrave,
conseiller du Gouvernement de Bahreïn, mentionnant les négociationsen MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITOR14L QUESTIONS (.IIJDGMENT) 58

There was no provision in this treaty defining the extent of those
territories.
49. The first petroleum concession between the Ruler of Bahrain and

Eastern and General Syndicate Ltd. was concluded on 2 December 1925.
Under the terms of that agreement. the Ruler of Bahrain granted the
company an exclusive exploration licence for a period not exceeding two
years (with the possibility of extension for a further period of two years)
"throughout the whole of the territories under his control". The Ruler of
Bahrain also undertook to grant Eastern and General Syndicate Ltd.,

either during the duration of the exploration licence or upon its expiry, a
prospecting licence over areas to be selected by the company with the
approval of the Ruler and with the cognizance of the British Political
Resident in the Gulf. In addition, the Ruler undertook to grant to the
company, on the ex.piry of the prospecting licence, a "mining lease over
an aggregate area not exceeding 100,000 acres", divided into blocks to be

selected by the company. Beginning in 1928,negotiations were conducted
between Eastern and General Syndicate Ltd., its successor the Bahrain
Petroleum Compan:y Ltd. (which, in 1930,took over the 1925concession)
and the Ruler of Bahrain for a concession over the "additional" or "un-
allotted" area. that is, that portion of the Bahrain islands and territorial
waters remaining after the company had chosen its 100,000 acres.

50. In March 1934discussions were held between the British Political
Resident and the Rider of Qatar regarding the grant of an oil concession
by the latter. On II May 1935, the British Political Resident in the Gulf

wrote to the Ruler of Qatar concerning the protection which Great Brit-
ain was prepared to extend to hi111 on land. In return for this protection.
the Ruler of Qatar vqasasked to grant a petroleum concession to the Brit-
ish company Anglo-Persian Oil Company. Such a concession was granted
on 17 May 1935. The second article of the Agreement stated that the
company could opei-ate in any part of the State of Qatar, Le., "the whole

area over which the Shaikh [of Qatar] rules and which is marked on the
north of the line drawn on the map attached" to the Agreement, which
line separated the peninsula of Qatar from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

5 1. The negotiations conducted between 1928 and 1933 between the
Ruler of Bahrain and the concessionaires for a concession in the addi-

tional area in Bahraini territory were intended to identify the acreage of
land and territorial waters which would be included in that concession in
the unallotted area: they were suspended in 1933 at the request of the
Bahrain Petroleum Company Ltd. and were not resumed until 1936,
when Petroleum Concessions Ltd.. which had taken over the concession
granted by Qatar 1.0 the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, joined in the

bidding.
52. In a letter dated 28 April 1936, Charles Belgrave, Adviser to the
Government of Bahrain, referring to the negotiations then in progress forcours au sujet de l'octroi d'une concession pétrolièresur le territoire de
Bahreïn, fit savoir à l'agent politique britannique que (<legroupe d'îles
des Hawar, situéentre l'extrémitésud de l'île de Bahreïn et la côte de
Qatar, fai[sait] incontestablement partie de 1'Etat de Bahreïn)).

53. Le 29 avril 1936. le représentant de la Petroleum Concessions Ltd.
attira par écritl'attention de I'lndia Office britannique, qui était respon-
sable des relations avec les Etats protégésdu Golfe, sur l'accord de
concession qatari du 17 mai 1935 et fit observer que le souverain de
Bahreïn revendiquait Hawar dans le cadre des négociations qu'il menait
avec la Petroleum Concessions Ltd. au sujet du secteur non attribué; il
demanda en conséquence auquel des deux émirats (Bahreïn ou Qatar)

Hawar appartenait.
54. Dans une lettre en date du 6 mai 1936. adresséeau résident poli-
tique britannique dans le Golfe, l'agent politique à Bahreïn soutint les
revendications de Bahreïn sur Hawar. Le 25 mai 1936, le résident poli-
tique écrivit au secrétaire d'Etat aux affaires indiennes a Londres qu'il
étaitenclin à penser que Hawar devrait êtreregardéecomme une posses-

sion du cheikh de Bahreïn, et qu'il appartiendrait au cheikh de Qatar de
réfuter les revendications bahreïnites. Le 10juillet 1936, deux fonction-
naires de I'India Office portèrent à la connaissance de Bahreïn, par le tru-
chement de Charles Belgrave, que, sur la base des preuves alors à la
disposition du Gouvernement britannique, Hawar semblait appartenir au
cheikh de Bahreïn et que la charge de réfuter cette revendication incom-

berait a tout demandeur éventuel.Le 14juillet 1936,la Petroleum Conces-
sions Ltd. fut informée par I'lndia Office qu'il apparaissait au Gouver-
nement britannique que Hawar appartenait au cheikh de Bahreïn. Le
contenu de ces communications ne fut pas porté à la connaissance du
cheikh de Qatar.
55. En 1937, Qatar tenta d'imposer les Naim établis à Zubarah;
Bahreïn s'y opposa, car il prétendait avoir des droits sur cette région.Les

relations entre Qatar et Bahreïn se dégradèrent.Des négociations s'enga-
gèrent entre les deux Etats au printemps 1937et furent rompues en juillet
de la même année.Selon Bahreïn, Qatar aurait alors illicitement conquis
Zubarah par la force et anéanti la communauté des sujets bahreïnites qui
y vivait. Qatar soutient que les mesures prises par son souverain en 1937
n'auraient viséqu'à exercer par la force son autorité sur son propre terri-

toire sur certains membres de la tribu des Naim, en mettant fin à leurs
opérations de contrebande et autres activités illicites.
56. Selon Qatar, Bahreïn aurait occupé clandestinement et illicitement
les îles Hawar en 1937. Bahreïn soutient que son souverain ne faisait
alors qu'accomplir des actes légitimes participant de l'administration
continue de son propre territoire.

57. Par lettre en date du 10 mai 1938, le souverain de Qatar protesta
auprès du Gouvernement britannique contre ce qu'il qualifiait d'«actions
irrégulières menéespar Bahreïn contre Qatar)) et auxquelles ils'étaitdéja
référé en février 1938au cours d'une conversation qu'il avait eue a Doha
avec l'agent politique britannique à Bahreïn. Le 20 mai 1938,ce dernierthe grant of an oil concession over the territory of Bahrain, informed the
British Political Agent that "the Hawar group of islands lying between
the southern extrennity of Bahrain Island and the coast of Qatar [was]
indisputably part OITthe State of Bahrain".

53. On 29 April 1936the representative of Petroleum Concessions Ltd.
wrote to the British India Office, which had responsibility for relations
with the protected !Statesin the Gulf, drawing its attention to the Qatar
oil concession of 17 May 1935 and observing that the Ruler of Bahrain,
in his negotiations with Petroleum Concessions Ltd. over the unallotted
area, had laid clairri to Hawar; he accordingly enquired to which of the

two Sheikhdoms (Bahrain or Qatar) Hawar belonged.

54. In a letter d;ited 6 May 1936, addressed to the British Political
Resident in the Gulf, the Political Agent in Bahrain supported Bahrain's
claim to Hawar. On 25 May 1936,the Political Resident wrote to the Sec-
retary of State for India in London that he was inclined to the view that
Hawar should be rcigarded as belonging to the Sheikh of Bahrain and

that the burden of disproving his clairn should lie on the Sheikh of Qatar.
On 10 July 1936 t~vo India Office officiaisinformed Bahrain, through
Charles Belgrave, that on the evidence then available to the British Gov-
ernment Hawar appeared to belong to the Sheikh of Bahrain and that
any potential claimant would therefore have the burden of disproving the
Bahrain claim. On 14 July 1936, Petroleum Concessioiis Ltd. was

informed by the lndlia Office that it appeared to the British Government
that Hawar belonged to the Sheikh of Bahrain. The content of those
communications was not conveyed to the Sheikh of Qatar.

55. In 1937, Qatair attempted to impose taxation on the Naim inhab-

iting the Zubarah region; Bahrain opposed this as it claimed rights over
this region. Relations between Qatar and Bahrain deteriorated. Negotia-
tions started between the two States in spring of 1937 and were broken
off in July of that year. According to Bahrain Qatar illegally took Zuba-
rah by f&ce and illegally destroyed the community of the Bahraini sub-
jects living there. Qatar contends that the steps taken by its Ruler in 1937
were only designed to exercise his authority by force on his own territory

over certain members of the Naim tribe, and to put an end to their
smuggling and othei- unlawful activities.
56. Qatar alleges that Bahrain clandestinely and illegally occupied the
Hnwar Islands in 1937.Bahrain maintains that its Ruler was simply per-
forming legitimate acts of continuing administration in his own territory.

57. By a letter dai:e10 May 1938,the Ruler of Qatar protested to the
British Government against what he called "the irregular action taken by
Bahrain against Qatar", to which he had already referred in February
1938 in a conversaticonwhich took place in Doha with the British Politi-
cal Agent in Bahrain. On 20 May 1938, the latter wrote to the Ruler ofécrivitau souverain deQatar pour l'inviter à exposer au plus tôt ses pré-
tentions sur Hawar. Le souverain deQatar répondit dans une lettre datée

du 27 mai 1938.Quelques mois plus tard, le 3 janvier 1939, Bahreïn pré-
senta en réponse ses propres prétentions datées du 22 décembre 1938.
Dans une lettre du 30 mars 1939,le souverain de Qatar présenta A I'agent
politique britannique Bahreïn ses observations sur les prétentions
bahreïnites. Le 1I juillet 1939, les souverains de Qatar et de Bahreïn
furent informés que le Gouvernement britannique avait décidéque les îles

Hawar appartenaient à Bahreïn.
58. Qatar fait état de pas moins de cinq protestations qu'il aurait éle-
vées les4 aoùt 1939, 18 novembre 1939. 7 juin 1940. 13juillet 1946 et
21 février 1948 contre cette décision et l'<<occupationillégale))des îles
Hawar par Bahreïn. Ce dernier prétend qu'entre 1939 et 1965 Qatar
n'avait élevéque trois protestations contre la décision britannique de

1939, en juillet 1946,en février 1948et en avril 1965.
Bahreïn indique également qu'entre 1937 et le milieu des années
soixante il a adressé a la Grande-Bretagne et à Qatar de nombreuses
réclamations officielles relatives à la régionde Zubarah.
59. Le 24 juin 1944,l'agent politique britannique. intervenant comme
médiateur pour réglerle litige relatif à Zubarah, obtint des deux parties

qu'elles signent un accord qui se lisait comme suit:

«Le souverain de Bahreïn et le souverain de Qatar conviennent de
rétablir entre eux des relations aussi amicales qu'elles l'étaientdans
le passé.Le souverain de Qatar s'engage à ce que Zubarah demeure
en l'état,sans que rien n'y soit fait qui n'existât dans le passé,ceci
par égard pour et en hommage à Al-Khalifah. Pour sa part, le sou-
verain de Bahreïn s'engage à ne rien faire qui puisse porter atteinte

aux intérêtsdu souveraiii de Qatar. Le présentaccord n'affecte pas
l'accord avec la compagnie pétrolièreopérant à Qatar dont les droits
sont protégés.))

60. Selon Bahreïn, la faiblesse de cet accord tenait à l'emploi du
concept de statu yzro rrrite; le but fondamental des deux parties étant
d'obtenir la reconnaissance de leur souveraineté sur la région de Zuba-
rah, chacune aurait interprété l'accorddans le sens qui lui convenait.

61. En mai 1946,la Bahrain Petroleum Company Ltd. demanda I'auto-
risation de forer dans des zones du plateau continental dont certaines pou-
vaient. de l'avis des Britanniques, appartenir a Qatar. Le ouv verne ment
britannique décida que cette autorisation ne pourrait êtreaccordée tant
qu'il n'yaurait pas eu délimitation des fonds marins entre Bahreïn et Qatar.
Il procédaà un examen de la question et, le 23 décembre1947.l'agent poli-

tique britannique à Bahreïn adressa aux souverains de Qatar et de Bahreïn
deux lettres, ayant la mêmeteneur, qui indiquaient notamment ce qui suit:

((2. Il m'incombe donc de vous transmettre ci-joint, pour infor-
mation, copie d'une carte où figure la ligne (du point<M )jusqu'au
cbateau-phare de Bahreïn )))que le gouvernement de Sa MajestéQatar, inviting him to state his case on Hawar at the earliest possible
moment. The Ruler of Qatar responded by a letter dated 27 May 1938.
Some months later., on 3 January 1939, Bahrain submitted a counter-
claim dated 22 December 1938. In a letter of 30 March 1939,the Ruler of
Qatar presented his comments on Bahrain's counter-claim to the British

Political Agent in Bahrain. The Rulers of Qatar and Bahrain were
informed on 11July 1939 that the British Government had decided that
the Hawar Islands belonged to Bahrain.

58. Qatar points to no less than five protests it claims to have made,
on 4 August 1939, 18 November 1939, 7 June 1940, 13 July 1946 and

21 February 1948,against this decision and the "unlawful occupation" of
the Hawar Islands by Bahrain. The latter claims that Qatar protested
only three times between 1939 and 1965 against the British decision of
1939, in July 1946, February 1948and April 1965.
Bahrain also States that it made, from 1937 until the mid-1960s,
numerous officially recorded claims to Great Britain and Qatar in rela-

tion to the Zubarah region.
59. On 24 June 1944.the British Political Agent, acting as mediator in
order to resolve the dispute over Zubarah, succeeded in getting the two
parties to sign an agreement providing as follows:

"The Ruler of Bahrain and Ruler of Qatar agree to the restoration
of friendly relations between them as they were in the past. The
Ruler of Qatar undertakes that Zubara will remain without anything

being done in it which did not exist in the past. This is from consid-
eration and reverence to Al Khalifah. The Ruler of Bahrain, also, on
his part undertakes not to do anything that might harm the interest
of the Ruler of Qatar. This agreement does not affect the agreement
with the Oil Company operating in Qatar whose rights are pro-
tected."

60. According to Bahrain, the weakness of this agreement lay in its use

of the concept of the stutuCJUO antr; as the basic goal of both parties was
to achieve recognition of their sovereignty over the Zubarah region, each
interpreted the agreement in the way that best suited it.
61. In May 1946, the Bahrain Petroleum Company Ltd. sought per-
mission to drill in certainareas of the continental shelf, some of which
the British considered might belong to Qatar. The British Government

decided that this permission could not be granted until there had been a
division of the sea-bed between Bahrain and Qatar. It studied the matter
and. on 23 December 1947,the British Political Agent in Bahrain sent the
Rulers of Qatar and Bahrain two letters, in the same terms, stating inter
cilicithe following :

"2. 1 am, therefore, to forward herewith for Your Excellency's
information a copy of a map showingthe line (from point 'M' to the

'Bahrain Light 'Vessel')which, His Majesty's Government considers, considère comme partageant les fonds marins en question selon des
principes équitables. Il s'agit d'une ligne médiane fondée, d'une

façon générale,sur la configuration du littoral de l'île principale de
Bahreïn et de la péninsulede Qatar.
3. A l'exception des casindiquésci-dessous, le gouvernement de Sa
Majesté considérera dorénavant l'ensemble des fonds marins qui

s'étendentà l'ouest de cette ligne comme étant sous la souveraineté
[du cheikh de Bahreïn] et tous les fonds marins à l'estde la mêmeligne
comme étantsous la souveraineté [ducheikh de Qatar]. Cette décision
s'applique seulement aux fonds marins, et non aux eaux qui les recou-

vrent, et elle est sans préjudice desdroits de navigation existants.
4. Les exceptions viséesci-dessus sont les suivantes:

Il est reconnu que Son Altesse le cheikh de Bahrein a des droits
souverains sur

i) la régiondes hauts-fonds de Dibal et de Jaradah qui affleurent
aux maréesbasses de vive eau. Après un examen complet de la
situation au regard du droit international, le gouvernement de
Sa Majestéest d'avis que ces hauts-fonds ne doivent pas être

considéréscomme des iles possédant des eaux territoriales;
ii) I'île Hawar, les îles du groupe des Hawar et les eaux territo-
riales qui en relèvent etqui sont délimitéeségalement selon les
principes habituels du droit international. Ces îles et leurs eaux

territoriales sont figuréessur la carte ci-jointe, par la ligne A,
B, C, D, E, F, G, H, 1,J. K et L. Du fait que cette délimitation
laissera subsister une étroite étendue d'eau (marquée par les
points M, J et 1)relevant de Qatar, il a toutefois étédécidé de

remplacer la ligne H, 1, J par H, P, Q, réalisant ainsi un
échange deszones équivalentes P 1O contre O J Q. 11y a lieu
de relever que I'île de Janan n'est pas considéréecomme fai-
sant partie du groupe des Hawar.

5. Les points mentionnés sont définiscomme suit:

Position Rcli.rc,ti~c~nr Millc,s A prrrtir rlc~
1,rui ti111rit1.s

A 015" 3 Pointe N de l'île Rabadh
B 056I/r0 3,20 Angle N-E de l'île Ajaira
C 064" 2,06 Angle E de l'île AlWakara no 3
3, 3, 3%
D 058" 1.14 ,? 3, 3,
E 163'/:" 1,23
F 141" 0,8l Ile Bu Sa'ada no 9
G 168" 1,20 3, 31
H 159l/?" 0,30 Angle S-E de l'île Hawar
.. 37 3,
1 29831' 1 7,31
J 241" 4,77 Angle O de l'île Al Ma'tarad
K 291" 2,36 3, 3, 3,
L 3241/2" 3,38 .. ,, .,.>) divides in accordance with equitable principles the sea-bed aforesaid.
This is a median line based generally on the configuration of the
coast-line of the Bahrain main island and the peninsula of Qatar.

3. With the exceptions noted below His Majesty's Government
will, in future, regard al1the sea-bed lying to the west of this line as
being under the sovereignty of [the Sheikh of Bahrain] and al1 the
sea-bed lying to the east of it as being under the sovereignty of [the

Slieikh of Qatar]. This decision covers the sea-bed only and not the
waters above it and is without prejudice to existing navigation
rights.
4. The exceptions referred to above are:

His Highness the Shaikh of Bahrain is recognised as having

sovereign right:~in
(i)the areas.of the Dibal and Jaradeh shoals which are above the

spring tide low-water level. After a full examination of the
position under international law. His Majesty's Government
are of opinion that these shoals should not be considered to
be islands having territorial waters.

(ii)Hawar Island, the islands of the Hawar group and the terri-
torial waters pertaining thereto and delimited again in accord-
ance with the usual principles of international law. These
islands and their territorial waters are shown on the map

enclosed by the line A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, 1,J,K, and L. As
this deliimitation will, however, leave a narrow tongue of
water (fc~rmedby the points M, J, and 1) pertaining to Qatar
it has been decided to alter the line H, 1, J, to H, P, Q. thus

exchanging an equal area P 1 O for O J Q. It should be noted
that Jan;an Island is iiot regarded as being included in the
islands of the Hawar group.

5. The points mentioned are defined as follows:

Position T~LIC N(1~1ticl11 Frot~
Brririrlg Miles

A 015" 3.00 N. point of Rabadh 1.
B 056'/2" 3.20 N.E. corner of Ajaira 1.
C 064" 2.06 E. corner of No. 3 Al Wakara
3, ,> 33
D 058" 1.14 3, 9. 3,
E 163'/2" 1.23
F 141'' 0.81 No. 9 Bu Sa'ada 1.
G 168" 1.20 3, 3%

H 159l/2" 0.30 S.E. corne,,of3,awar 1.
1 298'h0 7.31
J 24 1" 4.77 W. corner of Al Ma'tarad 1.
K 291"' 2.36 3, 3.
3, >,,3
L 324'/r0 3.38 62. En 1950,le souverain de Bahreïn et celui de Qatar parvinrent à un
autre accord sur le statut de Zubarah grâce à la médiation de l'agent poli-
tique britannique à Bahreïn ;cet accord fut décritdans les termes suivants
dans une lettre du 7 février 1950adresséeau Foreign Office par le rési-
dent politique britannique dans le Golfe:

«Le souverain de Qatar consent à ce que le cheikh de Bahreïn
envoie ses partisans et les membres de sa tribu à Zubarah pour [s'y
livrer au] pacage sans aucun passeport ou formalités de douane.

ainsi qu'à laisser le fort inoccupé,à condition qu'en contrepartie le
cheikh de Bahreïn accorde aux marchandises à destination de Qatar
les mêmesprivilègesrelatifs au paiement des droits de transit qu'aux
marchandises destinées àl'Arabie saoudite. Lecheikh Salman accepte
et prend les mesures voulues pour envoyer de cent cinquante à deux
cents de ses gens à Zubarah avec les rations nécessairespour subve-
nir à leurs besoins. »

63. Cet accord ne mit pas fin au différend. Le 5 mai 1954, le Gouver-
nement britannique proposa un autre accord aux parties, mais celles-ci le

refusèrent.
64. En 1964, l'agent politique britannique à Qatar transmit aux auto-
rités qataries une demande de modification de la ligne de 1947 que
Bahreïn avait adresséeau Gouvernement britannique sous la forme d'un
mémorandum faisant notamment valoir que Fasht ad Dibal et Qit'at
Jaradah étaient des îles dotées d'eaux territoriales et qu'elles apparte-
naient à Bahreïn. En réponse,le 2 1 avril 1965.Qatar adressa au Gouver-

nement britannique un mémorandum par lequel il rejetait les revendica-
tions de Bahreïn et recommandait le recours a l'arbitrage pour résoudre
les différendsentre les deux Etats. Aucun progrès ne fut enregistrédans le
règlement de ces différends au cours des années qui suivirent.
65. En 1971,Qatar et Bahreïn cessèrent d'êtredes Etats protégéspar la
Grande-Bretagne, à la suite d'un échangede notes entre le Royaume-Uni

de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord et Bahreïn, en date du 15aoùt
1971, et d'un échange de notes entre le Royaume-Uni de Grande-
Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord et Qatar, en date du 3 septembre 1971.
Le 21 septembre 1971,Qatar et Bahreïn furent tous deux admis à l'Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies.
66. A partir de 1976, une médiation, également qualifiée de ((bons

offices)).fut menéepar le roi d'Arabie saoudite avec l'accord des émirsde
Bahreïn et de Qatar. Le premier résultat de cette médiation fut l'appro-
bation d'un ensemble de ((principes pour un cadre de règlement)) lors
d'une réunion tripartite tenue en mars 1983. La persistance du litige dans
les annéesqui suivirent conduisit le roi d'Arabie saoudite à adresser aux
émirs de Qatar et de Bahreïn des lettres rédigéesen termes identiques,
datéesdu 19décembre 1987,dans lesquelles il formulait de nouvelles pro-

positions. Ces dernières furent acceptéespar lettres des deux chefs d'Etat
datées respectivement des 21 et 26 décembre 1987. Le 21 décembre 1987
était en outre publiéeune déclaration saoudienne dont les termes furent MARITIME DELllMITATlON AND TERRITORIAL OCESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 62

62. In 1950. the Ruler of Bahrain and the Ruler of Qatar reached
another agreement on the status of Zubarah thanks to mediation by the
British Political Agent in Bahrain; in a letter dated 7 February 1950 to
the Foreign Office, the British Political Resident in the Gulf described

that agreement in tihe following terms:
"[Tlhe Ruler of Qatar has agreed that the Shaikh of Bahrain may

send his follow,:rs and tribesmen to Zubarah for grazing without any
passport or customs formalities and also to leave the fort vacant
provided in return the Shaikh of Bahrain will allow goods for Qatar
the same privileges in respect to the payment of transit duties as
goods for Sau,di Arabia. Shaikh Salman has accepted this and is
making arrangements to send from 150to 200 of his people to Zuba-

rah with the nt:cessary rations to support them."

63. That agreement did not put an end to the dispute. On 5 May 1954.
the British Government proposed another agreement, but the parties
rejected it.
64. In 1964. the British Political Agent in Qatar forwarded to the
Qatari authorities a request for modification of the 1947line that Bahrain

had sent to the British Government in the form of a memorandum claim-
ing inter U/~Cthat I'asht ad Dibal and Qit'at Jaradah were islands with
territorial waters and that they belonged to Bahrain. In response. on
21 April 1965 Qatar sent the British Government a memorandum in
which it denied Balirain's claims and recommended arbitration to settle
the disputes between the two States. No progress was achieved in settling

these disputes in th12following years.

65. In 1971 Qatar and Bahrain ceased to be British protected States,
following an Exchange of Notes between the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland and Bahrain on 15 August 1971, and an

Exchange of Notes between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland and Qatar on 3 September 1971. On 21 September
1971. Qatar and Bahrain were both admitted to the United Nations.

66. Beginning in 1976, mediation, also referred to as "good offices",
was conducted by the King of Saudi Arabia with the agreement of the

Amirs of Bahrain and Qatar. The first consequence of that mediation was
that a set of "Principles for the Framework for Reaching a Settlement"
was approved duririg a tripartite meeting in March 1983. As a result of
the persistence of the dispute over the following years. the King of Saudi
Arabia sent the Arnirs of Qatar and Bahrain letters in identical terms
dated 19 December 1987, in which he put forward new proposals. Those

proposals were accepted by letters from the two Heads of State, dated
respectively 21 and 26 December 1987. In addition, on 21 December 1987
an announcement vias issued by Saudi Arabia, the terms of which wereapprouvés par les deux Parties. Cette déclaration précisait que Qatar et
Bahreïn acceptaient ((que la question soit soumise à l'arbitrage, en appli-
cation des principes énoncésdans le cadre de règlement qui avait étéfixé
par accord des deux Etats frères, en particulier du ((cinquièmeprincipe))
retenu en 1983, dont les termes étaient rappelés. La déclaration ajoutait

que, ((conformémentaux cinq principes)), ilétait convenu de constituer
une commission tripartite dont la tache était décrite dans les termes
mêmesdes échangesde lettres de décembre 1987.
67. Cette commission tripartite tint une réunion préliminaire à Riyad
en décembre 1987.Qatar présenta alors un projet de lettre commune à la
Cour internationale de Justice envisageant expressément, entre autres, la

rédaction d'un compromis. Bahreïn proposa un accord de caractère pro-
céduralconcernant l'organisation et le fonctionnement de la commission.
Celle-ci tint sa première réunion officielle le 17 janvier 1988. Bahreïn
déposa alors une version reviséede son projet, précisant expressément
que la commission était constituéedans le but de conclure un compromis.
Après discussion, il fut convenu que chaque Partie présenterait un projet
de compromis. Divers projets furent ensuite présentésà la commission

par Qatar et Bahreïn. mais aucun accord ne put intervenir lors des quatre
premières réunions. Puis, le 26 octobre 1988,à la suite d'une initiative de
l'Arabie saoudite, le prince héritierde Bahreïn, lors d'une visite a Qatar,
transmit au prince héritier deQatar un texte qualifiépar la suite de «for-
mule bahreïniten se lisant comme suit:

«Les Parties prient la Cour de trancher toute question relative à
un droit territorial ou à tout autre titre ou intérêtqui peut faire

l'objet d'un différend entre elles; et de tracer une limite maritime
unique entre leurs zones maritimes respectives, comprenant les fonds
marins, le sous-sol et les eaux surjacentes.))

68. Lors de la cinquième réunion de la commission, le 15 novembre
1988. le représentant de l'Arabie saoudite lança un appel aux Parties
pour que celles-ci parviennent à un accord et il précisa que le jour de
l'ouverture de la réunion au sommet du Conseil de coopération des Etats
arabes du Golfe, en décembre 1988,devait marquer la fin de la mission de
la commission, qu'elle ait ou non réussi à réaliser cequ'on attendait

d'elle. La commission tint sa sixième réunion les 6 et 7 décembre 1988,
mais ses travaux ne purent aboutir faute d'accord entre les Parties. Le
médiateur saoudien considéra alors que la mission de la commission tri-
partite devait prendre fin avec cette sixième réunion. De fait, la commis-
sion ne s'est plus réunie.
69. L'affaire revint en discussion deux ans plus tard, iil'occasion de la
réunion annuelle du Conseil de coopération des Etats arabes du Golfe

qui se tint en décembre 1990à Doha. Qatar fit alors connaître qu'il était
prêtà accepter la formule bahreïnite. Puis, à l'issue de la réunion,les mi-
nistres des affaires étrangères de Qatar, de Bahreïn et de l'Arabie saou-
dite signèrent un procès-verbal constatant que, ((dans le cadre des bons MARITIME DELIR4ITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT)
63

approved by the two Parties. That announcement stated that Bahrain
and Qatar accepted "that the matter be submitted for arbitration, in pur-
suance of the princiiplesof the framework for settlement which had been
agreed by the two sisterly States, particularly the 'fifth principle"' as

adopted in 1983, the text of which was quoted. It went on to state that
"under the five pririciples" it had been agreed to establish a Tripartite
Committee, whose task was described in the same terms as in the
Exchange of Letters of December 1987.
67. That Tripartite Committee held a preliminary meeting in Riyadh
in December 1987. Qatar theii presented a draft of a joint letter to the

International Court of Justice which expressly contemplated, intcr trliu,
the drafting of a spe.cialagreement. Bahrain proposed an agreement of a
procedural character, relating to the organization and functioning of the
Committee. The Committee held its first forma1 meeting on 17 January
1988. Bahrain then filed a revised version of its draft stating expressly
that the Committee was formed with the aim of reaching a special agree-

ment. After a discussion, it was agreed that each of the Parties would
present a draft spec.ial agreement. Several texts were subsequently pre-
sented to the Committee by Qatar and Bahrain, but no agreement could
be reached in the course of the first four meetings. Then, on 26 October
1988,following an initiative by Saudi Arabia, the Heir Apparent of Bah-

rain. when on a visit to Qatar, transmitted to the Heir Apparent of Qatar
a text subsequently known as the "Bahraini formula", which reads as
follows :

"The Parties request the Court to decide any matter of territorial
right or other title or interest which may be a matter of difference
between them; and to draw a single maritime boundary between
their respective maritime areas of seabed, subsoil and superjacent
waters."

68. During the fifth meeting of the Committee on 15 November 1988,
the representative of Saudi Arabia appealed to the Parties to come to an

agreement and poinited out that the date of the beginning of the Co-
operation Council of Arab States of the Gulf summit in December 1988
would be the date for terminating the Committee's mission whether or
not it had succeedecl in achieving what had been requested from it. The
Committee held its sixth meeting on 6-7 December 1988 but was unable
to complete its work for lack of agreement between the Parties. With this

sixth meeting. the Saudi mediator considered that the mission of the Tri-
partite Committee would come to an end, and in fact no further meetings
of the Committee were held.
69. The matter was again the subject of discussion two years later, on
the occasion of the annual meeting of the Co-operation Council of Arab
States of the Gulf at Doha in December 1990.Qatar then let it be known

that it was ready to accept the Bahraini formula. Following that meeting,
the Foreign Ministers of Qatar, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia signed Min-
utes recording that "Within the framework of the good offices of . . .offices du roi Fahd Ben Abdul Aziz)), des consultations concernant le dif-
férendexistant entre Qatar et Bahreïn avaient eu lieu entre les ministres
des affaires étrangères de ces deux Etats en présence du ministre des
affairesétrangèresde l'Arabie saoudite. Ce procès-verbal, rédigé enarabe

et dont les traductions en anglais fournies par les Parties divergent sur
certains points, prévoyait notamment que le roi Fahd pourrait poursui-
vre ses bons offices jusqu'au mois de mai 1991. Les bons offices du roi
Fahd n'aboutirent pas dans le délai ainsifixé,et Qatar, le 8 juillet 1991,
introduisit devant la Cour une instance contre Bahreïn (voir para-
graphes 1 et suivants ci-dessus).

70. La première des questions territoriales soumises à la Cour est celle
relative à la souveraineté sur Zubarah, situéedans le nord-ouest de la
péninsulede Qatar (voir ci-après. p. 105, croquis no 3).

71. Dans la ((Démarche tendant à donner effet aux points 3 et 4 du
paragraphe 41 de l'arrêtrendu par la Cour le 1" juillet 1994», présentée
par Qatar le 30 novembre 1994, Zubarah figure sous le numéro 4 parmi
les questions relevant de la compétence de la Cour en vertu des accords
internationaux de décembre 1987 et du 25 décembre 1990. Dans cette
même((Démarche)),Qatar précisequ'il considère que (Bahreïn définitsa

revendication concernant Zubarah comme une revendication de souve-
raineté)). En conséquence, dans ses conclusions finales, qui d'ailleurs
reprennent ses conclusions antérieures, Qatar prie la Cour, une fois reje-
téestoutes autres demandes et conclusioiis en sens contraire, de dire et
juger conformément au droit international «que 1'Etatde Bahreïn n'a pas

souveraineté sur Zubarah)) (voir paragraphes 33 et 34 ci-dessus).
72. Bahreïn adopte la position opposée. Dans ses conclusions finales.
qui reprennent ses conclusions antérieures, il prie la Cour de rejeter
toutes demandes et conclusionscontraires et de direet juger que «Bahreïn
a souveraineté sur Zubarah» (voir paragraphes 33 et 34 ci-dessus).
73. A l'appui de sa revendication, ~ahrëïn soutient de manière géné-

rale que
((de 1783à 1937,il avait un titre à part entière et internationalement

reconnu sur cette région,au regard tant de la norme internationale
qui exigeait une occupation effective dans la mesure où le contexte le
permettait quede la norme régionalequi voulait que les habitants de
Zubarah fassent acte d'allégeanceau souverain bahreïnite)).

74. Bahreïn expose que, dans les années 1760, les Al-Khalifah quit-
tèrent ce qui est aujourd'hui le Koweït et s'installèrent à Zubarah, qui
devint rapidement florissante grâce à la richesse de son commerce et de la
pêchedes perles et que, quelques décennies plus tard, ils déplacèrentle
siège de leur gouvernement vers les îles de Bahreïn. Selon Bahreïn, les

cheikhs Al-Khalifah résidaientdans les îles de Bahreïn l'été et à Zubarah
l'hiver: vers la fin du XVIII' siècle. ilsdécidèrent d'installerleur cour M4RITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 64

King Fahd Ben Abdul Aziz", consultations concerning the existing dis-
pute between Qatar and Bahrain had taken place between the Foreign
Ministers of those two States in the presence of the Foreign Minister of
Saudi Arabia. Those Minutes, the text of which was in Arabic and whose

English translations supplied by the Parties differ on certain points, pro-
vided into uli~~that King Fahd could continue his good offices until May
1991.The good offices of King Fahd did not lead to the desired outcome
within the time-limit thus fixed, and on 8 July 1991Qatar instituted pro-
ceedings before the Court against Bahrain (see paragraphs 1 cfsrq.
above).

70. The first of the territorial questions before tlie Court is that of sov-
ereignty over Zubarah. which is situated in the north-western part of the
Qatar peninsula (sec sketch-niap No. 3, p. 105 below).
71. The "Act to comply with paragraphs (3)and (4)of operative para-

graph 41 of the Judgment of the Court dated 1 July 1994", presented by
Qatar on 30 November 1994, included Zubarah as number 4 of the sub-
jects falling within the jurisdictioii of the Court by virtue of the interna-
tional agreements of December 1987and 25 December 1990. In the same
"Act", Qatar explained that it understood that "Bahrain defines its claim
conceriiing Zubarah as a daim of sovereignty". Accordingly, in its final

submissions, which repeat its earlier submissions, Qatar requests the
Court, rejecting al1 contrary claims and submissions, to declare and
adjudge in accordarice with international law "that the State of Bahrain
has no sovereignty over Zubarah" (see paragraphs 33 and 34 above.)

72. Bahrain mainitains the opposite position. In its final submissions,

wliich repeat its earlier submissions. it requests the Court, rejecting al1
contrary claims and submissions, to adjudge and declare that "Bahrain is
sovereign over Zubarah" (see paragraphs 33 and 34 above).
73. In support of'its claim Bahrain argues generally

"that from 1783 until 1937.it had full and internationally recognised
title to the region, both by reference to the international standard of
contextually proportionate effective occupation and by reference to
tlie regional standard of the fealty of the inhabitants of Zubarah to
the Ruler of Bahsain".

74. Bahrain states that in the 1760sthe Al-Khalifah camefrom present-
day Kuwait and establislied themselves in Zubarah, which quickly flour-

ished, rich in trade and pearl fishing; and that, some decades later, the
Al-Khalifah moved their seat of government to the islands of Bahrain.
According to Bahrain. the Al-Khalifah Sheikhs resided in the islands of
Bahrain during summers and in Zubarah during winters: towards the end
of the eighteenth century, they decided to establish their court on the65 DELIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRET)

dans I'île principale de Bahreïn puis dans I'île de Al-Muharraq et nom-
mèrent un gouverneur pour administrer la province de Zubarah. Par la
suite, la ville de Zubarah déclina; elle fut détruite en 1878 par les Al-

Thani et totalement abandonnée en 1895 A la suite d'une intervention
militaire des Britanniques. La région n'enserait pas moins demeurée sous
l'autorité du cheikh de Bahreïn par l'intermédiaire d'une confédération
tribale dirigéepar les Naim, partisans des Al-Khalifah de Bahreïn. La
Grande-Bretagne aurait en outre toujours considéréque Bahreïn avait

des droits de souveraineté à Zubarah.
75. Bahreïn affirme également qu'en 1937 lecheikh Abdullah de Doha
a tenté d'imposer les Naim qui s'en sont plaints auprès du cheikh Hamad
de Bahreïn; qu'une sériede négociations infructueuses s'ensuivirent entre
Bahreïn et Qatar, et que, le 7juillet 1937,es Al-Thani et leurs partisans
expulsèrent par la force de Zubarah les membres de la tribu des Naim

fidèlesà Bahreïn, qui y représentaient l'exercice continu de l'autorité des
souverains de Bahreïn ».
76. Bahreïn soutient que l'«agression» deQatar contre Zubarah cons-
tituait un emploi illicite de la force, qui ne pouvait faire naître des droits;
il invoque, pour étayer sa thèse. différents instruments internationaux

datant de la période pertinente et traitant du recours illicite à la force.
Ainsi, selon Bahreïn, mêmesi Qatar a matériellement exercéle contrôle
sur Zubarah de 1937 à ce jour, cette occupation de fait n'a pas donné
naissance à un titre valable de souveraineté sur Zubarah.
77. Qatar prétend qu'une ville existait dans la régionde Zubarah bien

avant que deux branches de la tribu des Al-Utub - les Bin Khalifah et
les Al-Jalahma - ne partent de ce qui est aujourd'hui le Koweït en direc-
tion de Bahreïn pour se rendre ensuite àZubarah. A Zubarah, les cheikhs
locaux auraient mis une condition à leur établissement: le paiement des
taxes habituelles en échange du droit de faire commerce dans la région.
Les Al-Utub auraient refusécette condition et construit en 1768, a une

certaine distance du mur extérieur de Zubarah, le fort appelé Murair.
Selon Qatar, les Al-Utub quittèrent Murair en 1783 pour s'établir à
Bahreïn. En 1878, la ville de Zubarah fut détruite après que le cheikh
Jassim bin Thani deQatar eut pris les mesures voulues pour réprimerdes
actes de piraterie et des attaques perpétréspar ses habitantsA l'encontre

d'autres tribus. Qatar conteste que les Bin Khalifah aient continuéd'exer-
cer leur autorité sur Zubarah au cours du XIXc siècle et au début du
XX' sièclepar l'intermédiaire de membres des Naim.
78. A l'appui de sa position, Qatar rappelle qu'en 1867 le cheikh
Mohamed bin Khalifah de Bahreïn lança une attaque contre Qatar,
dirigée contre Wakrah et Bida, et que ces dernières furent totalement

détruites; qu'en représailles les Qataris, sousla direction de Mohamed
bin Thani, mirent le cap en juin 1868sur Bahreïn, avec une force armée;
que le cheikh Mohamed bin Khalifah attaqua les Qataris, qui subirent de
lourdes pertes dans l'affrontement; que les Britanniques considérèrent
que l'attaque du cheikh Mohamed bin Khalifah contre Qatar était une

violation de l'accord qu'ils avaient conclu en 1861 avec le souverain de MARITIME DELlhllTATlON AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JIIDGMENT) 65

main island of Bahrain and subsequently on al-Muharraq, and they
appointed a governor to rule the province of Zubarah. The town of

Zubarah then entered into decline: it was destroyed in 1878 by the Al-
Thani and was entirely vacated in 1895following a military intervention
by the British. The area nevertheless remained under the Sheikh of Bah-
rain's authority through a tribal confederation led by the Naim, adher-
entsof the Al-Khalilàh of Bahrain. Great Britain had furthermore always

considered that Bahrain had rights to sovereignty in Zubarah.

75. Bahrain also !Statesthat in 1937Sheikh Abdullah of Doha tried to
impose taxation on the Naim who complained about this to Sheikh

Hamad of Bahrain; that a series of unsuccessful negotiations took place
between Bahrain and Qatar; and that, on 7 July 1937,"the Al-Thani and
their adherents forcibly evicted from Zubarah the Naim tribesmen loyal
to Balirain who represented the continuing authority in Zubarah of the
Riilers of Bahrain".

76. Bahrain maintains that Qatar's "aggression" against Zubarah was
an unlawful use of force from which no legal rights could arise, support-
ing its contention by reference to various international instruments from
the relevant period dealing with the illegal use of force. Therefore,
according to Bahrain, even if Qatar has physically controlled Zubarah

from 1937up to the present day, such factual occupation did not give rise
to a valid title of sovereignty over Zubarah.
77. Qatar claims that a town existed in the area of Zubarah well before
two sections of the: Al-Utub tribe - the Bin Khalifah and the Al-
Jalahma - left present-day Kuwait for Bahrain and thence for Zubarah.

In Zubarah, the local sheikhs laid down a condition for their settlement:
payment of the usua.1taxes in exchange for the right to trade in the area.
The Al-Utub refused this condition and in 1768 built the fort known as
Murair at some distiince outside the outer wall of Zubarah. According to
Qatar, the Al-Utub left Murair in 1783to settle in Bahrain. The town of

Zubarah was destroyed in 1878 after Sheikh Jassim bin Thani of Qatar
had taken steps to punish acts of piracy and attacks on other tribes by
its inhabitants. Qatar denies that the Bin Khalifah continued to rule
Zubarah during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries through

members of the Naim.

78. Qatar suppoirts its position by recalling that in 1867 Sheikh
Mohamed bin Khalifah of Bahrain launched an attack on Qatar, directed

at Wakrah and Bida, totally destroying them; that in retaliation the
Qataris, led by Mohamed bin Thani, sailed in June 1868for Bahrain with
an armed force;that Sheikh Mohamed bin Khalifah attacked theQataris.
who suffered heavy casualties in the engagement: that the British consid-
ered Sheikh Moharried bin Khalifah's attack on Qatar as a violation of

the agreement whicli they had concluded in 1861with the Ruler of Bah-
rain; that the affair was settled by the agreement of 6 September 1868Bahreïn; que l'affaire fut régléepar l'accord du 6 septembre 1868entre la
Grande-Bretagne et le nouveau souverain de Bahreïn, aux termes duquel
ce dernier reconnaissait l'illégalitédes actions de son prédécesseuret
s'engageait à ne pas les répéterà l'avenir, admettant par li même,
contrairement à ce que soutient maintenant Bahreïil (voir paragraphe 41
ci-dessus), qu'il n'avait aucun droit souverain sur la péninsulede Qatar,
et sur Zubarah en particulier.

79. Bahreïn conteste cette argumentation et rappelle que si. en 1868,la
Grande-Bretagne a sévicontre Bahreïn, parce que celui-ci avait rompu la
paix maritime instaurée par le traitéde 1861, ellea égalementsévicontre
la confédérationde Doha, parce que celle-ci s'étaitrebellée,et a renvoyé
le cheikh Mohamed Al-Thani sur la côte est de la péninsule.
80. Selon Qatar, la Grande-Bretagne a toujours reconnu le titre de

Qatar sur Zubarah. II prétendainsi que la convention anglo-ottomane du
29 juillet 1913, mêmesi elle n'a pas étératifiée.exprimait fidèlement le
point de vue commun du Gouvernement de l'Empire ottoman et du Gou-
vernement britannique «au sujet de la situation territoriale de l'époqueet
du statut des souverains Al-Thani. dont [ces gouvernements] considé-
raient qu'ils avaient gouverné dans le passéet qu'ils continuaient de gou-
verner toute la péninsulede Qatar)); et que la souveraineté de Qatar sur

l'ensemble de la péninsule a également été reconnuepar le traité anglo-
ottoman du 9 mars 1914. qui a étédûment ratifié, et par le traité du
3 novembre 1916 entre le Gouvernement britannique et le cheikh de
Qatar. Abdullah bin Jassim Al-Thani.
81. Qatar ajoute que. dans les années trente, son principal souci A
Zubarah était de veiller i la sécuritéde ses frontières et de contrôler les
importations en imposant des droits de douane; que le souverain de

Qatar avait à cette fin pris des mesures restrictives à l'encontre de diffé-
rents membres dissidents de l'une des branches de la tribu des Al-Naim,
dirigéspar Rashid bin Jabor; que les actions de ce dernier étaient com-
manditéesdu moins en partie par Bahreïn en vue d'obtenir les preuves de
prétendus droits bahreïnites sur Zubarah; que. puisqu'il s'agissaitd'une
question intérieure, Qatar imposa son autorité par la force, en 1937, sur
un territoire relevant de sa souveraineté; et que ses droits de souveraineté

sur Zubarah furent reconnus à nouveau par les Britanniques lorsqu'en
1937 ceux-ci refusèrent de prêterassistance à Bahreïn. bien que le cheikh
de Bahreïn en eût officiellement fait la demande à l'agent politique bri-
tannique. Selon Qatar, aucun acte officiel n'a été effectuépar Bahreïn à
Zubarah depuis 1868, alors que Qatar y a accompli de nombreux actes
d'autorité souveraine. Quels que soient en définitiveles droits que le sou-
verain de Bahreïn ait pu revendiquer sur Zubarah, il se serait agi en tout

étatde cause de droits personnels et non de droits de souveraineté.

82. La Cour note que les deux Parties conviennent que les Al-Khalifah
ont occupéZubarah dans les années 1760 et que, quelques années plus MARITIME DELlkllTATlON ANI> TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 66

between Great Britain and the new Ruler of Bahrain whereby the latter
acknowledged the illegality of the actions of his predecessor and assumed
the obligation not to repeat them in the future, thus accepting, contrary

to what Bahrain now contends (see paragraph 41 above), that it had no
rights of sovereignty over the Qatar peninsula, or over Zubarah in
particular.

79. Bahrain contests the foregoing line of argument and recalls that,
although Great Britain punished Bahrain in 1868for violating the inari-

time peace of the 1861 Treaty. it also punished the Doha confederation
for its rebellion. and sent Sheikh Mohained Al-Thani back to the east
coast of the peninsula.
80. According to Qatar, Great Britain has always recognized Qatar's
title to Zubarah. Thus it maintains that, even though it was not ratified.

the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 29 July 1913 accurately reflected the
coinmon view of the Ottoman Imperia1 Government and the British
Governinent "as to -theterritorial situation at the time and the status of
the Al-Thani Rulers as having governed in the past and as still governing,
the entire Peninsula"; and that the sovereignty of Qatar over the whole
peninsula was also recognized by the Anglo-Ottoman Treaty of 9 March

1914. which bras duly ratified, and by the Treaty of 3 November 1916
between the British Government and Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al-
Thani. Sheikh of Qatar.

81. Qatar adds that in the 1930sits main concern in Zubarah was to

protect the security of its borders aiid to control imports through the
imposition of custorns duties; that to this end the Ruler of Qatar took
steps to impose controls against various dissenting members of one sec-
tion of the Al-Naini tribe, led by Rashid bin Jabor: that Rashid bin
Jabor's actions were being controlled at least in part by Bahrain to obtain
evidence of alleged Bahraini rights over Zubarah; that, this being an

interiial matter, in 1037Qatar imposed by force its authority upon a ter-
ritory under its sovereignty; and that its rights of sovereignty over Zuba-
rah were recognized again by the British wlien they refused to provide
assistance to Bahrain in 1937, notwithstanding the formal request made
by the Sheikh of Bahrain to the British Political Agent. According to
Qatar, no official acts have been performed by Bahrain in Zubarah since

1868,while Qatar has carried out many acts of sovereign authority there.
Whatever rights the liuler of Bahrain inay have asserted in Zubarah, they
were in any event personal rights and not rights of sovereignty.

82. TheCourt notes that both Parties agree that the Al-Khalifah occu-
pied Zubarah in the 1760sand that, some years later, they settled in Bah-tard, ceux-ci se sont établisà Bahreïn, mais qu'elles sont en désaccordsur
la situation juridique qui a prévalu par la suite et qui déboucha sur les
événementsde 1937. Bahreïn soutient avoir continué d'exercer son auto-
ritésur Zubarah par l'intermédiaire de membres d'une confédérationtri-
bale dirigéepar les Naim, ce que Qatar conteste.

83. Dans le préambule de l'accord du 6 septembre 1868 conclu entre
Ali bin Khalifah et le résident politique britannique dans le Golfe (voir
paragraphe 40 ci-dessus), les parties constataient que Mohamed bin Kha-
lifah cca[vait]commis à maintes reprises des actes de piraterie et d'autres
irrégularitésen mer et qu'à la suite de son récent acte de piraterie il
s'[était]enfui de Bahreïn)). En conséquence, Ali bin Khalifah accepta les

conditions suivantes: 1)remettre immédiatement aux Britanniques ((tous
les baggalas et butils de guerre appartenant à Mahomed bin Khalifeh et
à [lui]-même)) ;)payer lessommes indiquéesau paragraphe 2 de l'accord;
3) ((considérer que Mahomed bin Khalifeh est définitivement exclu de
toute participation aux affaires de Bahreïn et dépourvu de tout droit de
prétendre à ce territoire)); et 4) désignerun représentant à Bushire en vue

de tenir le résidentinformé«afin de sauvegarder la paix en mer et de pré-
venir la survenance d'autres troubles)).
84. De l'avis de la Cour, les termes de l'accord de 1868 montrent que
les Britanniques n'eussent pas toléréque Bahreïn cherchât à appuyer ses
revendications sur Zubarah par des actions militaires en mer. La Cour
relève que, par la suite, les souverains de Bahreïn n'ont jamais étéen

mesure d'accomplir des actes directs d'autorité à Zubarah. Bien plus, en
1895. seule une intervention armée britannique stoppa une tentative
d'invasion de Bahreïn par les Al-Thani et les Ottomans à partir de
Zubarah.
85. Bahreïn soutient toutefois que les Al-Khalifah ont continuéd'exer-
cer leur autorité sur Zubarah par l'intermédiaired'une confédérationtri-

bale dirigée par les Naim loyaux à Bahreïn, nonobstant le fait qu'ils
avaient déplacéle siègede leur gouvernement vers les îles de Bahreïn à la
fin du XVIII' siècle.
86. La Cour ne saurait accepter cette affirmation. S'il peut y avoir eu,
à différentes époques. des liens d'allégeance personnelle entre certains
membres des Naim et le souverain de Bahreïn, il est égalementétablique
certains membres des Naim prêtaient leurs services tant aux Al-Khalifah

qu'aux Al-Thani. En tout état de cause, il n'est pas prouvé que des
membres des Naim aient exercéune autoritésouveraine au nom du cheikh
de Bahreïn à Zubarah. De fait, ceux-ci étaient soumis à la juridiction
du souverain territorial local, qui n'était pas Bahreïn et n'avait pas été
Bahreïn depuis les événementsde 1868 au moins.
87. Eu égard au rôle joué ë l'époque par la Grande-Bretagne et

l'Empire ottoman dans la région,il importe de mentionner l'article 11 de
la conveiition anglo-ottomane, signée le 29 juillet 1913 (voir para-
graphe 45 ci-dessus). Cet article décrivait le tracé de la ligne convenue
devant séparerle .srrncljtdu Nedjd «de In presqu'île d'El-Katr» et ajou-
tait ensuite:rain, but that they disagree as to the legal situation which prevailed there-
after and which culniinated in the events of 1937. Bahrain maintains that
it continued to rule Zubarah through members of a Naim-led tribal con-
federation. while Qatar denies this.

83. In the opening paragraph of the agreement of 6 September 1868
coricluded between Ali Bin Khalifah and the British Political Resident in
the Gulf (see paragraph 40 above), the parties acknowledged that
Mohamed bin Khalifah had "repeatedly committed acts of piracy and
other irregularities aitsea" and that after "his recent piratical act" he had

fled from Bahrain. Iri consequence, Ali Bin Khalifah accepted the follow-
ing conditions: (1) to deliver iinmediately to the British al1 "war buglas
and buteels belongirig to Mahomed bin Khalifeh and [himjself"; (2) to
pay the sums indicated in paragraph 2 of the agreement; (3) "to consider
Mahomed bin Khalifeh as permanently excluded from al1 participation
in the affairs of Bahrain and as having no claim to that territory": and
(4) to appoint an agent in Bushire in order to keep the British Resident

informed. "in view of preserving the peace at sea, and precluding the
occurrence of furtheir disturbance".
84. In the Court's view, the terms of the 1868 Agreement show that
any attempt by Bahrain to pursue its claims toZubarah through military
action at sea would not be tolerated by the British. The Court finds that
thereafter, the new rulers of Bahrain were never in a position to engage in

direct acts of authority in Zubarah. Moreover, in 1895, only an armed
intervention by the EIritishstopped the Al-Thani and the Ottomans from
attempting to invade Bahrain from Zubarah.

85. Bahrain maintains, however, that the Al-Khalifah continued to
exercise control over Zubarah through a Naim-led tribal confederation

loyal to them, notwilthstanding that at the end of the eighteenth century
they had moved the seat of their government to the islands of Bahrain.

86. The Court cannot accept this contention. While there may have
been, at different tinies. ties of personal allegiance between some mem-
bers of the Naim and the Ruler of Bahrain. there is also evidence that

some members of the Naim served both the Al-Khalifah and the Al-
Thani. In any event, there is no evidence that members of the Nain1 exer-
cised sovereign authority on behalf of the Sheikh of Bahrain within
Zubarah. Indeed, they came under the jurisdiction of the local territorial
sovereign, which was not Bahrain and had not been Bahrain at least since
the events of 1868.
87. In view of the role played by Great Britain and the Ottoman

Empire in the region in that period, it is significant to note Articl11 of
the Anglo-Ottoman Convention signed on 29 July 1913 (see para-
graph 45 above). This article described the course of the line agreed to
separate the Strnjrrk of Nejd "from the peninsula of Al-Qatar". and then
went on to state: <<LeGouvernement impérial ottoman ayant renoncé A toutes ses
réclamationsconcernant la presqu'îled'El-Katr, il est entendu entre les
deux gouvernements que ladite presqu'île sera, comme par le passé,

gouvernéepar le cheikh Djassim-bin-Sani et par ses successeurs. Le
gouvernement de Sa Majestébritannique déclare qu'ilne permettra
pas au cheikh de Bahreïn de s'immiscer dans les affaires intérieures
d'El-Katr, de porter atteinte àl'autonomie dece pays ou de l'annexerH

88. Les deux Parties conviennent que la convention anglo-ottomane de
1913 n'a jamais étératifiée(voir paragraphes 46 et 47 ci-dessus); elles
divergent en revanche sur la valeur probante A lui accorder en ce qui
concerne la souveraineté de Qatar sur la presqu'île.
89. La Cour observe que les accords signésmais non ratifiéspeuvent
constituer l'expression fidèledes vues communes des parties iil'époquede

la signature. En l'espèce,la Cour aboutit ë la conclusion que la conven-
tion anglo-ottomane établit quelles étaient les vues de la Grande-
Bretagne et de l'Empire ottoman en ce qui concerne l'étendue factuelle
de l'autorité du souverain Al-Thani à Qatar jusqu'en 1913.
90. Or, le texte de l'arti11ede la convention anglo-ottomane est clair:

<<ilest entendu entre les deux gouvernements que ladite presqu'île sera,
comme par le passé,gouvernéepar le cheikh Djassim-bin-Sani et par ses
successeurs)). Ainsi. la Grande-Bretagne et l'Empire ottoman n'ont pas
reconnu la souveraineté de Bahreïn sur la presqu'île, y compris Zubarah.
Ils considéraientque la presqu'île de Qatar dans soi1ensemblecontinuerait

d'être gouvernép ear le cheikh Jassim Al-Thani - qui avait étéprécédem-
ment nomméktrinlukun~par les Ottomans - et par ses successeurs.
91. La Cour observe également que I'article 11 de la convention de
1913est viséà I'article IIIdu traitéanglo-ottoman du 9 mars 1914.qui a
étédûment ratifié au cours de la mêmeannée (voir paragraphe 46 ci-
dessus). Cet article111définissait lafrontière des territoires ottomanspar

référenceà <<laligne droite et directe vers le sud ... qui séparele territoire
ottoman du scrrltljukde Nedjd du territoire d'El-Katr. en conformité de
I'articleIIde la convention anglo-ottomane du 29juillet 1913relative au
golfe Persique et aux territoires environnants)). Les parties n'envisa-
geaient donc d'autre autorité sur la péninsuleque celle de Qatar.

92. La Cour passera maintenant à l'examen de certains incidents sur-
venus à Zubarah en 1937après que le cheikh de Qatar eut tenté d'impo-
ser les Naim (voir paragraphe 55ci-dessus). L'agent politique britannique
à Bahreïn, dans une lettre du 3 mai 1937, rendit compte de ces incidents

au résidentpolitique britannique dans le Golfe. Le 5 mai 1937,le résident
politique rendit à son tour compte de ces incidents au secrétaired'Etat
pour les Indes, lui rappelant que «jusqu'à 1868, Bahreïn détenait une
partie de Qatar, y compris Zubarah, et qu'à partir de cette date jusqu'en
1871les cheikhs de Qatar, sous la conduite des Al-Thani, reconnurent la
suzeraineté de Bahreïn en étant disposés A payer un tribut». Il ajoutait

toutefois que ~[dlepuis cette date de 1871, les Al-Thani (famille du sou- MARITIME DELlh.IIT..\TION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (SI'DGMENT) 68

"The Imperia1 Ottoman Government having renounced al1 its
claims to the peninsula of al-Qatar, it is agreed between the two
Governinents that the said peninsula will, as in the past, be governed
by the Sheikh .Jasim-bin-Sani and his successors. The Government

of His Britannic Majesty declares that it will not permit the Sheikh
of Bahrain to iriterfere in the interna1 affairs of Qatar. to violate the
autonomy of tEiatcountry or to annex it."

88. Both Parties iigree that the 1913 Anglo-Ottoman Convention was
never ratified (see paragraphs 46 and 47 above); they differ on the other
hand as to its value irsevidence of Qatar's sovereignty over the peninsula.

89. The Court observes that signed but unratified treaties may consti-
tute an accurate expiressionof the understanding of the parties at the time
of signature. In the circumstances of this case the Court has come to the
conclusion that the Anglo-Ottoman Convention does represent evidence
of the views of Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire as to the factual

extent of the authority of the Al-Thani Ruler in Qatar up to 1913.
90. The text of Article 11 of the Anglo-Ottoman Convention is clear:
"it is agreed between the two Governments that the said peninsula will,
as in the past, be governed by the Sheikh Jasim-bin-Sani and his succes-
sors". Thus Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire did not recognize
Bahrain's sovereignity over the peninsula, including Zubarah. In their

opinion the whole Qatar peninsula would continue to be governed by
Sheikh Jassim Al-Thani, who had formerly been nominated kuirnuk~~n~
by the Ottomans, arid by his successors.
91. The Court also observes that Article 11 of the 1913 Convention is
referred to by ArticleIII of the Anglo-Ottoman treaty of 9 March 1914,
duly ratified thatsame year (see paragraph 46 above). That Article III

defined the boundary of the Ottoman territories by reference to "the
direct. straight line in a southerly direction . . . separating the Ottoman
territory of the .rcrnjukof Nejd from the territory of Al-Qatar, in accord-
ance with Article 11 of the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 29 July 1913
relating to the PersicinGulf and the surrounding territories". The parties
therefore did not contemplate any authority over the peninsula other
than that of Qatar.

92. The Court will now examine certain events which took place in
Zubarah in 1937, afi.er the Sheikh of Qatar had tried to impose taxation
on the Naim (see paragraph 55 above). The British Political Agent in
Bahrain, in a letter of 3 May 1937,reported those incidents to the British
Political Resident iri the Gulf. On 5 May 1937, the Political Resident
reported in turn on those incidents to the Secretary of State for India,

recalling that "until 1868 Bahrain held part of Qatar, including Zubarah,
and from then until 1871 the Qatar Shaikhs, headed by the Al Thani,
acknowledged the suzerainty of Bahrain by being prepared to pay trib-
~ite". He added, however. that "[slince about that date i.e. 1871 the Al
Thani (the present ruliiig family of Qatar) have held Qatar, including69 DELIMITATIONMARITIMEET QIIESTIONS TERRITORIALES(ARRET)

verain actuel de Qatar) sont a la têtede Qatar, y compris Zubarah)) et
qu'<<[e]n1873 déja ... le Gouvernement des Indes disait êtrelui aussi
d'avis que le cheikh de Bahreïn n'avait aucun droit précisni important
sur Qatar)), opinion qui avait étécommuniquée au souverain de Bahreïn

par lettre du31 mai 1875. Ilindiquait en conséquencequ'il estimait « per-
sonnellement ... que, du point de vue juridique, les prétentions bahreï-
nites sur Zubarah [étaient] vouées A l'échec)).
93. Le 1" juillet 1937.l'agent politique britannique à Bahreïn informa le
résidentpolitique britannique que leconseillerdu Gouvernement de Bahreïn
l'avait aviséde l'échecdes négociations engagéesentre Qatar et Bahreïn
au sujet de Zubarah et que le cheikh de Bahreïn demandait que le cheikh

de Qatar «soit empêché de faire la guerre aux sujets de Bahreïn résidant
dans la zone de Zubarah, zone qui, selon lui. appartient à son territoire)).
94. Dans un télégrammedu 4juillet 1937adresséau secrétairedlEtat
pour les Indes, le résident politique britannique suggéra d'êtrautorisé à
répondre au cheikh de Bahreïn que. sur la base des preuves disponibles, le
Gouvernement britannique était d'avis que Zubarah appartenait au

cheikh de Qatar, et à lui rappeler à cet égard les termes de la lettre du
31 mai 1875 par laquelle le Gouvernement britannique avait fait savoir
au cheikh de Bahreïn qu'il ne devait pas s'immiscer dans les affaires de
Zubarah. Par télégrammedu 15juillet 1937, le secrétaire d'Etat britan-
nique indiqua au résident politique que le cheikh de Bahreïn devait être
informé que le Gouvernement britannique regrettait «de ne pouvoir
intervenir dans le litige opposant le cheikh deQatara la tribu des Naim)).

95. Compte tenu de ce qui précède,la Cour ne peut accepter I'affirma-
tion de Bahreïn selon laquelle la Grande-Bretagne aurait toujours consi-
déréque Zubarah appartenait à Bahreïn. Les termes de l'accord de 1868
conclu entre le Gouvernement britannique et le cheikh de Bahreïn. ceux
des conventions de 1913 et 1914et ceux des lettres de 1937 adresséesau
secrétaire d'Etat pour les Indes par le résident politique et au résident

politique par le secrétaired'Etat témoignent tous du contraire. De fait. le
Gouvernement britannique ne considérait pas en 1937que Bahreïn avait
souveraineté sur Zubarah; c'est la raison pour laquelle il avait refuséde
fournir à Bahreïn l'assistance que celui-ci sollicitait sur la base des
accords en vigueur entre les deux pays.
96. Dans la périodeayant suivi 1868.l'autoritédu cheikh deQatar sur

le territoire de Zubarah se consolida graduellement; elle fut constatée
dans la convention anglo-ottomane de 1913et étaitdéfinitivement établie
en 1937. Les actes accomplis par le cheikh de Qatar à Zubarah cette
année-là participaient de l'exercice de son autorité sur son territoire et.
contrairement à ce que Bahreïn allègue, ne constituaient pas un recours
illicite à la force contre Bahreïn.

97. Pour tous ces motifs, la Cour conclut q~i'ellene saurait accueillir
In première conclusion de Bahreïn et que Qatar a souveraineté sur
Zubarah. M4KlTlME DELIMIITATION ,\NI>TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMFNT) 69

Zubarah", and that "[ais far back as 1873 . .. the Government of India
expressed their concurrence in the view that the Shaikh of Bahrain had
no clear or important rights in Qatar", which had been conveyed to the
Ruler of Bahrain in a letter dated 31 May 1875. The Political Resident
stated that he was "[plersonally, therefore, . . . of the opinion that juridi-

cally the Bahrain claim to Zubarah must fail".

93. On 1July 193'7,the British Political Agent in Bahrain informed the
British Political Resident that the Adviser to the Government of Bahrain
had informed him that the negotiations between Qatar and Bahrain on
Zubarah had tàiled ;and that the Sheikh of Bahrain was requesting that
the Sheikh of Qatar "'berestrained from making war on Bahrain subjects

who reside in the Zubarah area which he claims to be his territory".
94. In a telegram of 4 July 1937to the Secretary of State for India, the
British Political Resident suggested that he be authorized to reply to the
Sheikh of Bahrain to the effect that, on the evidence before it. the British
Government was of the opinion that Zubarah belonged to the Sheikh of
Qatar and to remind him in this connection of the terms of the letter of

31 May 1875 wlieret>ythe British Governmeiit had informed the Sheikh
of Bahrain that he should not interfere in the affairs of Zubarah. In a
telegram of 15July 1937to the Political Resident. the British Secretary of
State indicated that the Sheikh of Bahrain should be informed that the
British Government regretted that it was "not prepared to intervene
between Sheikh of Qatar and Naim tribe".

95. In view of the foregoing, the Court cannot accept Bahrain's con-
tention that Great Britain had always regarded Zubarah as belonging to
Bahrain. The terms of the 1868 agreement between the British Govern-
ment and the Sheikh of Bahrain, of the 1913 and 1914 conventions and
of the letters in 1937 from the British Political Resident to the Secretary
of State for India, and from the Secretary of State to the Political Resi-

dent, al1 show otherwise. In effect, in 1937 the British Government did
not consider that Bahrain had sovereignty over Zubarah; it is for this
reason that it refus'ed to provide Bahrain with the assistance which
it requested on the basis of the agreements in force between the two
countries.
96. In the period after 1868,the authority of the Sheikh of Qatar over

the territory of Zub'arah was gradually consolidated; it was acknow-
ledged in the 1913 Anglo-Ottoman Convention and was definitively
established in 1937. The actions of the Sheikh of Qatar in Zubarah that
year were an exercise of his authority on his territory and, contrary to
what Bahrain has alli:ged, were not an unlawful use of force against Bah-
raiii.
97. For al1these reasons, the Court concludes that the first subniission

made by Bahrain carinot be upheld. and that Qatar has sovereignty over
Zubarah.70 DELIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÉT)

98. La Cour traitera maintenant de la question de la souveraineté sur
les îles Hawar, laissant de côté pour le moment la question de Janan.
99. Selon Qatar, les îles Hawar relèvent de sa souveraineté essentielle-
ment du fait de la primauté de son titre originaire ainsi que du principe
de proximité et d'unitéterritoriale. Qatar fait observer que. d'un point de

vue macrogéographique, les îles Hawar présentent manifestement un lien
étroit avec son territoire continental et que chacune de ces îles est plus
proche de celui-ci que de l'île priiîcipale de Bahreïn; non seulement la
majoritédes îles et îlots qui constituent les Hawar se situent-ils en tout ou
en partie dans la limite d'une mer territoriale de 3 milles marins à partir
de la côte du continent. mais la totalité de ces îles etts se situent dans
la limite des 12milles marins correspondant à la définitionmoderne de la

mer territoriale. Les îles Hawar feraient en conséquence partie intégrante
de la côte continentale de Qatar et cela serait confirmé tant par la géo-
logie que par la géomorphologie. L'applicabilitédu principe de proximité
aux îles Hawar devrait également être appréciée à la lumièrede certaines
circonstances historiques particulières au premier rang desquelles figurent
les événementsde 1867-1868(voir paragraphes 40 et 78-79 ci-dessus). A

la suite de ces événements, en effet,les Britanniques auraient reconnu
l'existence de Qatar en tant qu'entité distincte de Bahreïn et séparéede
celle-ci par la mer: cette reconnaissance de l'identitépropre de Qatar en
tant qu'entité distinctede Bahreïn aurait eu pour but de préserverla paix
maritime et devait donc inclure aussi bien lescôtes de la partie continen-
tale de Qatar que les îles immédiatement adjacentes. en particulier les îles

Hawar.
A l'appui de son argumentation, Qatar invoque en outre un grand
nombre de cartes du XIX' et du XX' siècle,provenant de divers pays et
de sources aussi bien officiellesque non officielles.et notamment lescartes
annexées a la ((convention anglo-ottomane relative au golfe Persique et
aux territoires environnants)) du 29 juillet 1913 (annexes V et V LI)).

Toutes ces cartes confirmeraieiît que le territoire de Qatar s'étendait à
l'ensemble de la péninsule de Qatar; que les îles Hawar étaient
considérées comme faisant partie de cette entité: et que Bahreïn était
uniformément représentécomme ne constituaiit qu'un groupe limité
d'îles n'incluant pas les îles Hawar.
100. Bahreïn soutient quant à lui que l'argumentation avancée par
Qatar, selon laquelle la proximité, l'adjacence ou la contiguïté d'un ter-

ritoire en litige par rapport au territoire de celui qiii le réclame suffiraient
à conférer un titre à ce dernier, a été démentieen termes générauxpar
Max Huber, l'arbitre dans l'affaire de l'lle (1. Pr~lrsi,nsi que suit: «[l]e
titre de la contiguïté, envisagécomme base de la souveraineté territoriale,
n'a aucun fondement en droit international)) (Nations Unies, Rcc*ucildes
.sc~ntc~n~u~resitrulc.s,volII,p. 869; trad. fr., Rciwc gc;nCrrrIde droit

intcrnutioncrlpirhIi<.,t. XLII, 1935, p. 199). Le défaut de pertinence de la
proximité géographiqueen ce qui concerne des îles habitéesaurait égale-
ment étédémontrépar la Cour dans l'arrêtqu'elle a rendu dans I'affaire
des Mirlquic~rsot Ecrc;lio~i.s.Balîreïn indique en outre qu'il n'a pas 98. The Court will now turn to the question of sovereignty over the
Hawar Islands, leaving aside the question of Janan for the moment.
99. According to Qatar, the Hawar Islands are under its sovereignty
essentially because of the priority to be accorded to its original title as
well as the principle of proximity and territorial unity. Qatar points out
that, in terms of the overall geography of the area, it is clear that the

Hawar Islands have a close connection with its mainland territory and
that each one of these islands is nearer to the latter than to the main
island of Bahrain; n~otonly do the majority of the islands and islets con-
stituting the Hawar Islands lie wholly or partly within a 3-nautical mile
territorial sea-limit from the mainland coast, but al1of them lie within the

12-nautical mile territorial sea-limit corresponding to the modern defini-
tion of the territorial sea. The Hawar Islands are accordingly an integral
part of the mainlancl coast of Qatar, and this is confirmed both by geo-
logy and by geomorphology. In considering the applicability of the prin-
ciple of proximity to the Hawar Islands, account must also be taken of
the particular historical circumstances, and above al1 of the events of

1867-1868 (see paragraphs 40 and 78-79 above). Following these events,
the British in effect recognized the existence of the separate entity of
Qatar, distinct from Bahrain and separated from it by sea;the purpose of
this recognition of i.he separate identity of Qatar as an entity distinct
from Bahrain was thiemaintenance of the maritime peace and thus must
also have been intended to cover not only the coasts of mainland Qatar

but also the immediate offshore islands, in particular the Hawar Islands.

In support of its argument, Qatar further relies on a large number of
nineteenth- and tweritieth-century maps from various countries and from
both officia1and unofficial sources, and in particular the maps annexed

to the "Anglo-Ottoman Convention relating to the Persian Gulf and the
surrounding territoriles" of 29 July 1913 (Anns. V and V (u)) Ali these
maps, it claims, confirm that the territory of Qatar encompassed the
entire Qatar peninsula; that the Hawar Islands were regarded as forming
part of that entity; and that Bahrain was consistently depicted as con-
sisting only of a li.mited group of islands, not including the Hawar

Islands.
100. Bahrain for its part contends that Qatar's proposition, that proxi-
mity, adjacency or c,ontiguity of a disputed territory to the territory of a
claimant is sufficient to vest title in the latter, was denied in general terms
by the arbitrator Max Huber in the Islund c?f'Puln~ucsase, who said that:

"[tlhe title of contigility, understood as a basis of territorial sovereignty,
has no foundation in international law" (United Nations, Reports of
Internutionul Arhitrc,rlAirurds, Vol. II, p. 869). The irrelevance of the fact
of geographical proximity of inhabited islands is also said to have been
deinonstrated by the Court in its decision in the Minyuicvs uncl Ecrello.~
case. Bahrain further contends that it does not require the use of maps to

support its claim, sirice it has presented sufficient legally relevant facts to
establish its title, and Qatar's lack of title, to the Hawar Islands. More-besoin du matériau cartographique pour étayer sa thèse dans la mesure
où il a présentésuffisamment de faitsjuridiquement pertinents pour éta-
blir son titre et le défaut de titre deQatar sur les îles Hawar. Au demeu-
rant, comme rien dans les faits ne confirme que Qatar ait eu un quel-
conque statut d'«entité politique)) au XIX' siècle et au début du
XX' siècle, lescarte- quand bien mêmeon leur reconnaîtrait une perti-

nence et une qualité qu'elles n'ont pas - ne sauraient priver Bahreïn
du titre qu'il a sur les îles Hawar depuis le XVIII' siècle, et qu'il a
toujours conservépar la possession et l'exercice de son contrôle.
101. Selon Bahreïn, en effet, sa souveraineté sur les îles Hawar s'est
exercéede façon continue et ininterrompue au cours des deux derniers

siècles;cette souveraineté aurait étéacceptéepar les habitants des îles et
Qatar n'aurait exercéaucune espèced'autorité concurrente sur ces îles. A
l'appui de son argumentation, Bahreïn invoque nombre d'exemples
d'exercice alléguéde son autorité sur les îles Hawar, tant avant qu'après
1938-1939.
Pour la période antérieure à 1938, Bahreïn cite notamment: la permis-

sion accordéepar les Al-Khalifah a la tribu des Dowasir de s'installer sur
les îles Hawar à la suite de la conquête par les premiers des îles de
Bahreïn au XVIII' siècle;la reconnaissance par les Dowasir de l'autorité
du souverain de Bahreïn: la reconnaissance, dans un levé officielétabli
par un officier britannique dans les années 1820,de ce que les îles Hawar
comptaient ((deux villages et appart[enaient] à Bahreïnn; la présence

continuedes Dowasir sur les îles Hawar aussi bien avant qu'après l'octroi
à ceux-ci par le souverain de Bahreïn de la permission de s'installer aussi
sur l'île principale de Bahreïn en 1845: le sauvetage en 1873, par le sou-
verain de Bahreïn, de soldats ottomans dont le bateau s'étaitéchouéaux
îles Hawar; des décisions de tribunaux bahreïnites remontant aussi loin
que 1909 au sujet de droits fonciers et de pièges à poissons aux îles

Hawar; l'arrestation et la comparution forcéede résidentsdes îles Hawar
devant des tribunaux de Bahreïn; la reconnaissance en 1909,par l'Empire
ottoman et la Grande-Bretagne, de l'appartenance des îles Hawar a
Bahreïn telle qu'elle résulte implicitement de leur reconnaissance des
droits de Bahreïn sur I'île de Zakhnuniyah; la proposition faite en 191 1

par le souverain de Bahreïn, à la demande de l'agent politique britan-
nique, de contraindre un résident des îles Hawar A comparaître dans
une instance civile et la reconnaissance de l'occupation des îles Hawar
par les Dowasir de Bahreïn dans un levédu Golfe réalisépar l'amirauté
britannique.
102. A l'appui de son argumentation, Bahreïn invoque également le

témoignage d'anciens résidentsdes îles Hawar vivant actuellement dans
d'autres régionsde Bahreïn, relatant leur vie dans ces îleset décrivant les
liens politiques et économiques existant entre celles-ci et le reste de
Bahreïn; une affaire portée en 1932devant les tribunaux de Bahreïn entre
deux résidents des îles Hawar: l'attribution de droits de pèche au large
des côtes des îles Hawar et la protection de l'exercicede ces droits par le

souverain de Bahreïn: l'immatriculation à Bahreïn de bateaux de pêcheover, since there is no factual support for Qatar's claim to any significant
status as a "political entity" in the nineteenth century and the earlier part
of the twentieth century, the maps, even if granted a relevance and
quality that they do not possess, cannot deprive Bahrain of the title to
the Hawar Islands that it has had since the eighteenth century, and has
maintained by possession and control ever since.

101. Thus, according to Bahrain, its sovereignty over the Hawar
Islands has been exercised continuously and uninterruptedly over the last
two centuries and lhas been acknowledged by the inhabitants of the

islands, and Qatar Eiasnever exercised any kind of competing authority
over the islands. In support of its argument, Bahrain cites many examples
of the alleged exercise of its authority over the Hawar Islands from both
before and after 1938-1939.
For the period prior to 1938, Bahrain cites in particular: the permis-
sion granted by the Al-Khalifah to the Dowasir tribe to settle in the

Hawar Islands following the former's conquest of the Bahrain islands in
the eighteenth century; the recognition by the Dowasir of the authority
of the Ruler of Bahrain; the recognition in an official survey prepared by
a British officer in the 1820sthat the Hawar Islands had "two . . . villages
. . .and belong[ed] 1.0Bahrain"; the continued presence of the Dowasir
on the Hawar Islands, both before and after they received permission
from the Ruler of Bahrain to settle as well on the main island of Bahrain

in 1845; the rescue in 1873 by the Ruler of Bahrain of Ottoman soldiers
shipwrecked on the Hawar Islands; Bahrain court decisions dating from
as early as 1909 relating to land rights and fishing traps in the Hawar
Islands; the arrest and compelled attendance in Bahrain courts of Hawar
Island residents; the recognition in 1909 by the Ottoman Empire and
Great Britain that the Hawar Islands belonged to Bahrain, as implicitly

evidenced by their recognition of Bahrain's rights to Zakhnuniyah Island;
the offer made in 19 l Iby the Ruler of Bahrain, at the request of the Brit-
ish Political Agent, 10 compel a resident of the Hawar Islands to appear
before the courts in a civil case: and recognition in a British Admiralty
survey of the Gulf tliat the Hawar Islands were occupied by the Dowasir
of Bahrain.

102. In support of its argument, Bahrain also invokes the testimony of
former Hawar Islands residents, currently living in other parts of Bah-
rain, of their lives on the Hawar Islands and of the political and eco-
nomic links between the Hawar Islands and the rest of Bahrain; a 1932

case before the Bahrain courts between two Hawar Islands residents; the
granting and protection of fishing rights off the Hawar Islands' shores by
the Ruler of Bahrairi; registration in Bahrain of fishing boats moored at
the Hawar Islands, and payment to the Government of Bahrain of fees72 DELIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRET)

mouillant aux îles Hawar; le versement au Gouvernement de Bahreïn de
droits d'immatriculation et de droits pour des permis de plongéepar des
habitants des îles Hawar se livrant à la pêcheaux huîtres perlières; la
construction et l'entretien de barrages et de citernes d'eau par des rési-
dents des îles Hawar et le Gouvernement de Bahreïn; la réglementation

de l'exploitation du gypse aux îles Hawar par Bahreïn aux XIX' et
XX' siècles; laréglementation par Bahreïn de l'exploitation d'autres res-
sources naturelles,ycompris la pêchedes poissons, aux îles Hawar; la prise
en compte constante des îles Hawar dans les négociations relatives aux
concessions pétrolièresentre Bahreïn, la Grande-Bretagne et les éventuels
concessionnaires dans les annéestrente; la reconnaissance par la Grande-

Bretagne de ce que Bahreïn avait revendiqué les îles Hawar dès que la
question de ces îles s'étaitposéeau cours des négociations relatives aux
concessions pétrolières en 1933, et l'absence de toute revendication
concurrente de la part de Qatar; un rapport de l'agent politique britan-
nique de 1936, indiquant que la prétention de souveraineté de Bahreïn

sur l'île Hawar étaitsérieuseet que Qatar n'avait jamais élevéde protes-
tations contre les activitésdes sujets de Bahreïn dans cette île; les forages
de puits artésiens réalisésdans les années trente aux îles Hawar avec
l'aval de Bahreïn; la construction par Bahreïn d'une jetée publique sur
I'îleprincipale de Hawar en 1937; la délivrancede passeports bahreïnites
à des résidentsdes îles Hawar; la reconnaissance à diverses reprises, par

le souverain de Qatar, de la juridiction et de l'autoritéde Bahreïn sur les
îles Hawar; ou encore l'installation et l'entretien de balises maritimes par
Bahreïn aux îles Hawar.
103. Bahreïn invoque en outre la décisionde la Grande-Bretagne du
11juillet 1939 selon laquelle les îles Hawar appartenaient à Bahreïn et
non à Qatar (voir paragraphe 57 ci-dessus); cette décision doit, selon

Bahreïn, êtreanalyséecomme une sentence arbitraleayant force de chose
jugée,ou pour lemoinscomme une décisionpolitiqueobligatoire. Bahreïn
soutient en outre que le principe de I'utipo.~siu'etijsuris est applicable en
l'espèce.Il prétendqueQatar tout comme Bahreïn sont d'anciens protec-
torats britanniques qui, avant 1971, ne possédaient pas la plénitude et

l'exclusivitédes compétences internes et externes qui sont les attributs de
la souveraineté; il ajoute que l'utipossi(1eti.sest un principe de portéeuni-
verselle applicable aux Etats issus de la décolonisation ou qu'elle se pro-
duise. En ce qui concerne les îles Hawar, la décisionbritannique de 1939,
quelle que soit sa nature juridique, ferait incontestablement partie inté-
grante du legs colonial. Selon Bahreïn, la ligne existante au moment de

l'indépendance serait celle que la Grande-Bretagne a tracée et cette ligne
devrait êtreresvectée.
104. Bahreïn fait encore valoir que ses actes de souverainetésur les îles
Hawar se sont poursuivis après que fut rendue la décisionbritannique de
1939. Il cite notamment à titre de preuve: l'introduction, dans les îles,
d'animaux originaires d'Arabie dans le cadre d'un programme de protec-

tion de la faune sauvage; la création d'une réserved'animaux sauvages
dans une partie de I'îleprincipale de Hawar en 1996; les patrouilles régu-for boat registration and diving licences by Hawar Islanders engaged in

the pearling industry; construction and maintenance of dams and water
cisterns by Hawar Island residents and the Government of Bahrain;
licensing by Bahraiii of the gypsum industry on the Hawar Islands in the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries; regulation by Bahrain of other natu-
ral resources. including fishing, on the Hawar Islands; the consistent
inclusion of the Hawar Islands in oil concession discussions between

Bahrain, Great Britain and prospective oil concessionaires during the
1930s: recognition by Great Britain that the Hawar Islands were claimed
by Bahrain from the first occasion that they arose as an issue during oil
concession negotiations in 1933,and the lack of any competing claim by
Qatar; a report by the British Political Agent in 1936 that Bahrain's
claim to sovereign1.y over Hawar Island had real substance and that

Qatar had never protested against the activities of Bahrain's subjects
there; drilling for water on the Hawar Islands as sanctioned by Bahrain
during the 1930s; construction by Bahrain of a government pier on the
main island of Hawar in 1937; issuing of Bahrain passports to Hawar
Islands residents; irecognition of Bahrain's jurisdiction and authority
over the Hawar Islands by the Ruler of Qatar on several occasions; and

the erection and maintenance by Bahrain of maritime markers on the
Hawar Islands.

103. Bahrain moreover relies on the decision of 11 July 1939of Great
Britain that theHawar Islands belonged to Bahrain and not to Qatar (see
paragraph 57 above); this decision, according to Bahrain, must be
regarded as an arbitral award, being rrs judicatn, or at the very least as a
binding political decrision.Bahrain further maintains that the principle of
utipossidetis juris is applicable in this case. It claims that both Qatar and

Bahrain are former protectorates of Great Britain, which prior to 1971
did not therefore enjoy the full, exclusive interna1 and external powers
which are the attributes of sovereignty;it adds that utipo.ssidrtis is a uni-
versal principle applicable to States born of decolonization wherever it
may occur. In respect of the Hawar Islands, the British decision of 1939,
whatever its legal nature, is indisputably part of the colonial heritage.

According to Bahrilin, the line in existence at the time of independence
was drawn by Great Britain and that line must be respected.

104. Bahrain further emphasizes that its acts of sovereignty over the
Hawar Islands continued after the British decision of 1939was rendered.
As evidence of this, it cites inter uIiu the introduction to the islands of

native Arabian species as part of a wildlife protection programme; the
creation of a wildlife preserve in 1996 on part of the main island of
Hawar; regular paitrolling of the Hawar Islands by the Bahrain coast-lièreseffectuéespar la gendarmerie maritime de Bahreïn à proximité des
îles Hawar; la présencede moyens de défense militaire aux îles Hawar et
le maintien sur ces îles, depuis 1941, d'un véritable dispositif de défense
militaire; la construction et l'entretien d'un réseauroutier aux îles Hawar;
la construction et l'entretien d'installations de production d'eau douce, y
compris une installation de dessalement de l'eau de mer et la construction

et l'entretien d'un réseau électrique intégré ii celui de Bahreïn. Bahreïn
invoque également descartes établiespar le directeur du service topogra-
phique de l'arméebritannique et par la National Geographic Society des
Etats-Unis figurant les îles Hawar comme faisant partie de Bahreïn.
105. Qatar soutient que le principe de I'uti possicletis n'est pas appli-
cable en l'espècecar il suppose une succession dlEtats, une rupture. Or,
les deux principautés n'auraient éténi des colonies ni des protectorats de

la Grande-Bretagne. Avant même qu'ilne soit mis fin à leur statut d'Etat
protégépar la Grande-Bretagne, chacune de ces principautés aurait joui
d'une indépendance en tout cas suffisante pour que son consentement sur
les questions de frontières soit indispensable afin de'engager. La Grande-
Bretagne aurait certes possédéle monopole de l'exercice des relations
extérieures des deux Etats, mais elle n'avait pas compétence pour dispo-

ser de leurs droits de souveraineté territoriale sans leur consentement.
Bahreïn et Qatar auraient toujours été desEtats indépendants, aussi bien
avant qu'au moment de signer les accords de 197 1;il n'y aurait pas eu de
personnalité juridique nouvelle succédant aux droits et obligations d'une
puissance administrante quelconque, ni de succession d'Etats et, par
conséquent, pas plus de «legs colonial>>que de ((table rase)).

106. Qatar soutient par ailleurs que la décisionbritannique de 1939est
nulle et non avenue, car iln'ajamais consenti à ce qu'il soit procédé dela
sorte. Qatar ajoute que les fonctionnaires du Gouvernement britannique
qui ont joué un rôle à cette occasion étaient de parti pris et que la déci-
sion n'était pas motivée; ilestime que des irrégularitésde procédureenta-
cheraient non seulement la décisionde 1939,mais aussi la décision«pro-

visoire)) rendue en 1936 (voir le paragraphe 54 ci-dessus). Qatar affirme
en outre que le souverain de Qatar a plusieurs fois protestécontre la pro-
cédure suivie par le Gouvernement britannique en 1938-1939 et qu'il a
continué par la suite de protester contre la décision britannique du
11juillet 1939et l'«occupation illégale» desîles par Bahreïn; ses protes-
tations montreraient à l'évidenceque Qatar n'a à aucun moment consenti

à l'attribution des îles Hawar à Bahreïn et que cette attribution ne lui
était par conséquent pas opposable.
107. Qatar fait valoir la primauté de son titre sur les effectivitésdont
se prévaut Bahreïn. ~a~~elant la typologie retenue dans son arrêtdu
22 décembre 1986 par la Chambre de la Cour chargée de connaître de
l'affaire du Dif;fZrendfrontalier (Burkinrr Fu.rolRépuhlique du Mali)
(arrêt, C.I.J. Reczrril 1986, p. 586-587, par. 63), Qatar soutient que la

pertinence d'une effectivitésur un territoire dépend du statut de ce terri-
toire et du titre juridique qui, le cas échéant, peut être valablement
invoqué sur celui-ci par un autre Etat. Ainsi, si un territoire est rrs izul-guard; the presenci: of a defensive military capability on the Hawar
Islands and the maintenance, since 1941,of a full defensive military com-
plex there; the construction and maintenance of a road network on the
Hawar Islands; the construction and maintenance of facilities to produce
fresh water, including a desalinization plant; and the construction and
maintenance of electricity infrastructure integrated with Bahrain's power

grid. Bahrain also relies upon the maps produced by the British Director
of Military Survey and the American National Geographic Society show-
ing the Hawar Islands to be part of Bahrain.

105. Qatar maintains that the principle of utipossidrtis does not apply
to the present case because it presupposes a succession of States, a break-

ing-off. The two sheikhdoms were however neither colonies nor protec-
torates of Great Britain. Even before their protected status with Great
Britain was terminated, each of these sheikhdoms enjoyed an independ-
ence that was in any case sufficient for their consent on boundary ques-
tions to be indispensable if they were to be bound. True, Great Britain
had a monopoly on the exercise of both States' foreign relations, but it

did not have the power to dispose of their rights of territorial sovereignty
without their consent. Bahrain and Qatar were at al1 times independent
States, both before the 1971Agreements and at the time of their signing;
there was no new legal personality which succeeded to the rights and
obligations of any administering power, nor any State succession, and
consequently there cvasno "colonial heritage" any more than there was a

"clean slate".
106. Qatar also rnaintains that the 1939 British decision is nuIl and
void because Qatar :neverconsented to the process. Qatar adds that there
was bias on the part of the relevant officiaiof the British Government
and that the decisiori was not supported by reasons; it considers that pro-
cedural violations tainted not only the 1939 decision but also the "pro-

visional" decision rendered in 1936 (see paragraph 54 above). In addi-
tion, Qatar maintains that the Ruler of Qatar protested on several
occasions against the procedure followed by the British Government in
1938-1939and that he continued thereafter to protest against the British
decision of 11 July 1939 and Bahrain's "unlawful occupation" of the
islands; his protests plainly show that at no time did Qatar acquiesce in

the attribution of th': Hawar Islands to Bahrain, and that this attribution
was therefore not opposable to it.

107. Qatar relies on the primacy of its title over the'c.tivit&s claimed
by Bahrain. Recallirig the schema set out in its Judgment of 22 December
1986 by the Chamber of the Court dealing with the case concerning Fron-

iirr Dispute (BU~~~KF IC~I~.solRepuhlocfMali) (Judgnrcnt, I. C.J. report.^
IYK6, pp. 586-587, para. 63). Qatar maintains that the significance of
<fli.ctivitc;sin relation to a territory depends upon the status of that
territory and on any legal title that may be validly invoked over that terri-
tory by another State. Thus, if a territory is rcs nulliu.~,effective occu-lius, l'occupation effective crée un titre de souveraineté, pourvu qu'elle
remplisse les conditions nécessaires. Si,en revanche, le territoire relèvede
la souveraineté d'un autre Etat. il s'agit là d'une occupation illégaleou
d'une usurpation qui ne peut avoir aucun effet de droit; selon Qatar, ce
serait la le cas de l'occupation par Bahreïn des îles Hawar. Une telle
occupation de fait ne pourrait se transformer en situation de droit, en

titre territorial, sauf acquiescement de la part du souverain territorial.
Qatar soutient qu'en conséquence la Cour n'a pas, en l'espèce,à résoudre
un conflit entre deux prétentions fondéessur des effectivitésdont il fau-
drait peser les mérites respectifs et qui devrait se réglerpar l'octroi du
territoire a la partie bénéficiantdes meilleures effectivités. Si un Etat
occupe une partie inhabitée du territoire d'un autre Etat, il n'est pas

question d'opposer les effectivitésde l'occupant A l'absence d'effectivités
du titulaire du titre territorial. Selon Qatar, toute l'argumentation de
Bahreïn sur la prédominance de I'effectivitéde son occupation des îles
Hawar est donc sans pertinence. Seul un acquiescement de Qatar, souve-
rain territorial, aurait pu créerun titre. Qatar préciseencore qu'à suppo-
ser qu'il soit possible d'invoquer les effectivitésdont Bahreïn se prévaut.

celles-ci seraient inopérantes car elles ne remplissent pas les conditions
requises pour créerun droit. En tout étatde cause, selon Qatar, tous les
actes accomplis par Bahreïn postérieurement à la revendication des îles
Hawar qu'il a adresséeaux autorités britanniques le 28 avril 1936 sans
qu'elle soit portéea la connaissance deQatar sont inopposables à ce der-
nier; ces actes témoignent seulement de la volontéde Bahreïn de s'empa-

rer du territoire d'autrui et sont incapables de renverser la souveraineté
préexistante de Qatar. En ce qui concerne les effectivités alléguéep sar
Bahreïn qui sont antérieures à 1936,Qatar soutient qu'elles ne possèdent
aucun fondement. Il affirme en particulier, à propos des liens que la tribu
des Dowasir aurait entretenus avec le souverain de Bahreïn, que, compte
tenu de la composition et de l'histoire de cette tribu, ses membres n'étaient
manifestement pas des sujets bahreïnites, formaient au contraire une

unité tribale autonome et, d'ailleurs, quittèrent Bahreïn a destination de
l'Arabie saoudite en 1923, pour y revenir a partir de 1928.
108. Qatar souligne que ce sont plutot les souverains successifs de la
famille des Al-Thani qui ont progressivement étendu leur autorité a
l'ensemble de la péninsule de Qatar durant la seconde moitié du
XIX" siècleet que cela est attesté par de nombreuses sources, en particulier

turques et britanniques. Comme éléments depreuve de la souverainetéde
longue date qu'il aurait exercéesur les îles Hawar, Qatar invoque notam-
ment: les accords de 1868dont l'objet était d'assurer la paix maritime en
séparant les territoires deQatar et de Bahreïn; l'absence de toute mention
des îles Hawar dans les descriptions de Bahreïn postérieures a 1868;la
description que J. G. Lorimer. de 1'India Civil Service. donnait en 1908,

dans son Guzrttec~r of tlw Prrsian Gulf; des îles Hawar comme faisant
partie de Qatar; le refus apparent du souverain de Bahreïn de formuler
une revendication sur les îles Hawar en 1909 en dépitd'une suggestion de
l'agent politique britannique soucieux de contenir l'expansion ottomane;pation creates a titlir of sovereignty provided that it fulfils the necessary
conditions. If, on the other hand, another State has sovereignty over the
territory, it is a ma.tter of illegal occupation or usurpation, which can
have no legal effect; this, in Qatar's view, is the case of Bahrain's occupa-
tion of the Hawar Islands. Such a defucto occupation cannot metamor-
phose into a dc~,juresituation, into territorial title, unless there is acqui-

escence by the territorial sovereign. Qatar maintains that the Court is not
therefore required in this case to resolve a conflict between two claims
based on c~fectivitc;,~whose respective merits have to be evaluated, and
which has to be settled by granting the territory to the party with the
better established <flhc.tivitC..sI.f one State occupies an uninhabited part
of the territory of ariother State, there can be no question of invoking the
occupying State's qlirL.ctiilitéasgainst the lack of rffectivitc;~of the holder

of the territorial title. According to Qatar, the whole of Bahrain's argu-
ment as to the prcccdcncc of the ~~~ectivit4sof its occupation of the
Hawar Islands is thierefore irrelevant. Only acquiescence by Qatar, the
territorial sovereign. could have created a title. Qatar further states that,
assuming it possibk: to invoke the <ffèctivitC.srelied upon by Bahrain,
these would remain ineffective because they do not meet the standards
required to create a right. In any event, according to Qatar, al1of Bah-

rain's acts subsequent to the claim to the Hawar Islands addressed by it
to the British Government on 28 April 1936, without Qatar being
inlormed thereof. are inor,..osable to the latter: these acts are sim.ld evi-
dence of Bahrain's desire to seize territory belonging to somebody else
and cannot override Qatar's pre-existing sovereignty. As regards the pre-
1936 effi.ctiviti.s alleged by Bahrain, Qatar maintains that they are with-
out foundation. In regard specifically to the ties the Dowasir are said to

have maintained with the Ruler of Bahrain, Qatar states that in view of
the make-ur, and historv of this tribe. its members were clearlv not sub-
jects of Bahrain but formed an autonomous tribal unit whose members
left Bahrain for Saudi Arabia in 1923 and returned from 1928.

108. Qatar stresses that it was instead the successive Al-Thani Rulers

who gradually extended their authority over the whole of the Qatar
peninsula during the second half of the nineteenth century and that this is
attested to by many authorities, in particular Turkish and British. As evi-
dence of its long-standing sovereignty over the Hawar Islands, Qatar
cites itltrr uliu: the 1868 Agreements designed to ensure maritime peace
by separating the territories of Qatar and Bahrain; the absence of the
Hawar Islands from descriptions of Bahrain after 1868; the description

given in 1908,by J. (3.Lorimer of the India Civil Service, in his Guzcttrrr
oj'tlzc.Persiun Gulf; of the Hawar Islands as part of Qatar; the apparent
refùsal of the Ruler of Bahrain to lay claim to the Hawar Islands in 1909
despite a suggestion by the British Political Agent, who was anxious to
contain Ottoman expansion; the description of the Hawar Islands as part
of Qatar in the British Admiralty War Staff (Intelligence Division)la description des îles Hawar rattachant ces îlesA Qatar figurant dans le
British Admirulty Wur StuJf (Intelligence Division) Survry de 1915; le
fait que les îles Hawar ne figurent pas sur la carte de 1923 signéepar le
représentant de l'Eastern & General Syndicate Ltd. et jointe au projet de
premier accord de concession bahreïnite; l'absence de toute référenceà

ces îles dans l'accord de concession signépar Bahreïn en 1925et l'inclu-
sion des îles au nombre des territoires de Qatar sur la carte de l'Irak
Petroleum Company de 1933; et l'accord de concession pétrolière signé
en 1935 par Qatar avec I'Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC).
109. Qatar invoque également un certain nombre d'autres déclarations
et documents provenant des archives britanniques et montrant selon lui

que, jusqu'en 1937,les îles Hawar étaientconsidéréescomme faisant par-
tie de Qatar, parmi lesquels: un rapport britannique officielde 1928éma-
nant de I'lndia Office, intitulé ((Situation de certains groupes d'îles dans
le golfe Persique))et reproduit dans les Per.riunGulf'Historicul Summu-
ries 1907-1928, ou l'archipel de Bahreïn est définicomme se composant
d'un certain nombre d'îles, nommément désignées,parmi lesquelles ne

figuraient pas les îles Hawar; une lettre de I'lndia Office en date3dmai
1933 contenant une description de Bahreïn presque identique a celle qui
figurait dans le rapport de 1928; un télégrammeadresséle 31juillet 1933
au secrétaired'Etat pour les Indes par le résidentpolitique, où il était dit
que ((l'île de Hawar ne fai[sait] manifestement pas partie du groupe de
Bahreïn)), ce à quoi l'lndia Office aurait acquiescé;une description d'une
carte annotée des territoires reconnus comme constituant les îles de

Bahreïn, adresséele 4 août 1933au secrétaire d'Etat pour les Indes par le
résident politique, dans laquelle ilétait clairement indiqué que le terri-
toire de Bahreïn ne comprenait pas les îles Hawar; un rapport rendant
compte d'une reconnaissance aerienne effectuée le 9 mai1934 par la
Royal Air Force après qu'une autorisation eut étéobtenue du souverain
de Qatar, rapport auquel était jointe une photographie de l'île Hawar;

une note en date du 30 décembre 1937de M. G. W. Rendel, fonctionnaire
du Foreign Office, confirmant que d'un point de vue géographique les îles
Hawar faisaient partie de Qatar; et les vues expriméesle 26 octobre 1941
par Prior (qui fut agent politique britannique à Bahreïn d'avril 1929
a novembre 1932,puis résidentpolitique de septembre 1939à mai 1946),
selon lesquelles les îles Hawar ((appartiennentaQatar, comme le pensait
Lorimer ».

110. L'abondante argumentation développéepar les Parties en ce qui
concerne la souveraineté sur les îles Hawar soulève plusieurs questions
juridiques: la nature et la validité de la décision prise par la Grande-

Bretagne en 1939; l'existence d'un titre originaire; les effectivités; et
I'applicabilité en l'espècedu principe de I'uti possidrtis juris. La Cour
commencera par examiner la nature et la validité de la décision
britannique de 1939.Survey of 1915; the exclusion of the Hawar Islands from the 1923 map
signed by the representative of the Eastern & General Syndicate Ltd. and
attached to the draft first Bahrain Concession Agreement; the absence of
any reference to those islands in the Concession Agreement signed by

Bahrain in 1925, and the inclusion of the islands in the territories of
Qatar on the Iraq Pi:troleum Company's map of 1933; and the Oil Con-
cession Agreement signed in 1935 by Qatar and the Anglo-Persian Oil
Company (APOC).

109. Qatar also cites a number of other statements and documents
from the British archives which, in its view, show that the Hawar Islands
were regarded as part of Qatar until 1937, including: an official British
Report of the India Office of 1928 entitled "Status of certain Groups of
Islands in the PersiainGulf', and reproduced in the Persian Gulf Histori-
cal Summaries 1907-1928, where the Bahrain archipelago is defined as

consisting of a certain number of specific, named islands which do not
include the Hawar Islands; an India Office letter of 3 May 1933giving an
almost identical description of Bahrain as that in the 1928 Report; the
Political Resident's telegram of 31 July 1933 to the Secretary of State for
India, stating that "Hawar Island is clearly not one of the Bahrain
group", with which the India Office agreed; a description of a marked

map showing the area recognized as Bahrain islands, submitted by the
Political Resident on 4 August 1933 to the Secretary of State for India,
clearly indicating that Bahrain's territory did not include the Hawar
Islands; a report of an aerial reconnaissance undertaken on 9 May 1934
by the Royal Air Force after permission had been obtained from the

Ruler of Qatar, whic:hreport included an attached photograph of Hawar
Island; a note from Mr. G. W. Rendel, a Foreign Office official, dated
30 December 1937, confirming that the Hawar Islands were geographi-
cally part of Qatar; and the views expressed on 26 October 1941 by Prior
(who was British Political Agent in Bahrain from April 1929 to Novem-
ber 1932, and Political Resident from September 1939 to May 1946),

according to which the Hawar Islands "belong to Qatar, a view sup-
ported by Lorimer".

110. The Parties' lengthy arguments on the issue of sovereignty over
the Hawar Islands raise several legal issues: the nature and validity of the
1939 decision by Great Britain; the existence of an original title; rJfec-

tivités; and the applicability of the principle of uti possidetjuristo the
present case. The Court will begin by considering the nature and validity
of the 1939 British clecision. 111. Bahreïn soutient que la décision britannique de 1939 doit être

regardée à titre principal comme une sentence arbitrale passée enforce de
chose jugée.Il défendl'idéeque la Cour n'a pas compétencepour réexami-
ner la sentence rendue par un autre tribunal, en invoquant à cette fin une
<(juri.sprudc~nquasi constante suivant laquelle il ne convient pas de

réexaminer, d'annuler ni mêmede confirmer des sentences rendues
par d'autres tribunaux internationaux, à moins que n'ait étédonné
un consentement sp:pc;cififiyc'r,pricJt.suppli.nientuir.cà la réouver-
ture de l'affaire».

Bahreïn rappelle ainsi les arrêtsrendus par la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale le15juin 1939dans I'affaire de la Sociétéc~omniercicrldee
Belgique (C. P.J.I. sc;rieAIB if'78, p. 160) et par la présente Cour le
18novembre 1960dans I'affaire de la Sentence urhitrcrlrrendue.par leroi
d'Espugne le 23 décembre1906 (Hondurus c. Nicarugucr) (C.I.J. Recsueil
1960, p. 192)ainsi que le 12novembre 199 1 dans I'affaire de la Srntrnce
urhi~rule du 31 juillet 1989 (CuinPe-Bi.~suuc. Sénkgul) (C.I.J. Rccu~il
1991, p. 53).

112. Qatar conteste la pertinence des arrêtsauxquels Bahreïn se réfère.
Ilaffirme ce qui suit:
«[A]ucune de ces affaires ne présente la moindre pertinence pour
la question que la Cour doit trancher dans la présenteinstance et qui

est celle-ci: les procédures suivies par le Gouvernement britannique
en 1938 et 1939 peuvent-elles êtreassimiléesà un processus arbitral
susceptible d'aboutir à une sentence obligatoire pour les parties?))

Qatar rappelle aussi à l'appui de sa thèse la sentence arbitrale rendue le
19 octobre 1981 par le tribunal arbitral dans I'affaire du Dgjii.rrndfron-
~ulicrentre Clzurdjcrlict Douhui';dans cette sentence qui, selon Qatar, a
étérendue dans des circonstances comparables à celles de la présente
es~éce.le tribunal arbitral a conclu aue des décisions de délimitation
frintalière prises par le ouv verne brmtaennq;e ne constituaient pas
des sentences arbitrales, mais des décisions administratives à caractère
obligatoire (Internutionul Luii Rc~port.~v,ol. 91, p. 579: voir aussi p. 577,
583 et 585).

113. La Cour se penchera tout d'abord sur la question de savoir si la
décisionbritannique de 1939doit êtreconsidéréecomme constituant une
sentence arbitrale. Elle observe à cet égard qu'en droit international
public le mot arbitrage vise communément ((le règlement des litiges entre
les Etats par des juges de leur choix et sur la base du respect du droi)).
Cette formulation avait étéadoptée à l'article 15de la convention de La
Haye pour le règlement pacifique des différends internationaux du
29 juillet 1899. Elle avait étéreprise à l'article 37 de la convention de La

Haye du 18 octobre 1907 ayant le même objet. Elle fut retenue par la
Cour permanente de Justice internationale dans son avis consultatif du
21 novembre 1925 portant interprétation de l'article 3,paragraphe 2. du
traitéde Lausanne (C. P. J.I. si.rieno 12, p. 26). Elle fut réaffirméedans 111. Bahrain maintains that the British decision of 1939 must be con-
sidered primarily as an arbitral award, which is res judicutu. It claims
that the Court does inothave jurisdiction to review the award of another
tribunal, basing its proposition on

"a virtual jurisprutlencc con.stuntcJ,not to review, invalidate or even
confirm awards taken by other international tribunals, unless there
is .~pecijic.c'cprc7s,dditionul consent to reopen the award".

Thus Bahrain refers to the decision of 15 June 1939 by the Permanent
Court of International Justice in the case of the Sociétt.Corîznîercialede

Belgique (P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 78, p. 160); and to those rendered by
the present Court on 18November 1960 in the case concerning the Arbi-
tral A,i~ardm~ldeby rhc.King of Spuin on 23 December 1906 (Honduras
v. Nicaraguuj (I.C.J: Reports 1960, p. 192), as well as on 12 November
1991 in the case concerning the Arhitrul A~zlurd($31 July 1989 (Guineu-
Bissau V.Senegrrl) (1.C.J. Reports 1991, p. 53).

112. Qatar denies the relevance of the judgments cited by Bahrain. It
contends that
"[Nlone of tEiemare in the slightest degree relevant to the issue

which the Court has to determine in the present case, namely,
whether the procedures followed by the British Government in 1938
and 1939 amounted to a process of arbitration which could result in
an arbitral awai-d binding upon the parties."

Qatar also advances in support of its position the 19 October 1981 arbi-
tral award rendered by the Court of Arbitration in the DubuilShurjuh
Border case; in that award, which in Qatar's view was rendered under
circumstances comparable to those of the present case, the Court of
Arbitration concluded that boundary delimitation decisions taken by the

British Government were not arbitral awards but rather administrative
decisions of a binding character (Internutionul Luit' report.^, Vol. 91,
p. 579; see also pp. 577, 583 and 585).

113. The Court will first consider the question whether the 1939 Brit-
ish decision must be deemed to constitute an arbitral award. The Court

observes in this respect that the word arbitration, for purposes of public
international law, usually refers to "the settlement of differences between
States by judges of tlieir own choice, and on the basis of respect for law".
This wording was adLoptedin Article 15of the Hague Convention for the
Pacifie Settlement 01'International Disputes, dated 29 July 1899. It was
repeated in Article 37 of the Hague Convention dated 18 October 1907,

having the same object. It was adopted by the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice in its Advisory Opinion of 21 November 1925,interpret-
ing Article 3, paragraph 2,of the Treaty of Lausanne (P.C.I.J., Scrips B,
No. 12, p. 26). It was reaffirmed in the work of the International Lawles travaux de la Commission du droit international, qui ont réservéle

cas dans lequel les parties conviendraient que la décisionsollicitéedevrait
être rendueex aequo et hono (rapport de M. Georges Scelle, rapporteur
spécial de la Commission, document AlCN.41113 du 6 mars 1958,
Annuaire de la Con?tnis,siot~ (lu droit ir~terrzutional,1958, volII, p. 2).
Enfin, plus récemment, elle fut adoptée par le tribunal arbitral chargéde
trancher le différendfrontalier entre Chardjah et Doubaï dans une affaire
comportant certaines similitudes avec la présente espèce (affaire du

Di,!fi;rendfrontrrlier crltrr Clzrrrcijuct Doubuï, sentence arbitrale du
19 octobre 1981, It~t'rnutional Lait, Rc1port.s.vol. 91, p. 574 et 575).
114. La Cour observe qu'au cas particulier iln'existait aucun accord
entre les parties pour se soumettre à un arbitrage rendu par des juges de
leur choix et statuant soit en droit soit ex aequo et hono. Les parties
étaient seulement convenues que la question serait tranchée par ((le gou-
vernement de Sa Majesté)),mais elles laissaient à l'appréciationde ce der-

nier le soin de déterminer comment et par lesquels de ses fonctionnaires
cette décisionserait prise. Dès lors, la décisionpar laquelle le Gouverne-
ment britannique a estimé en 1939 que les îles Hawar appartenaient à
Bahreïn ne constituait pas une sentence arbitrale internationale.
115. La décision de 1939 ne constituant pas une sentence arbitrale
internationale, la Cour n'aura pas à examiner la thèsede Bahreïn concer-
nant sa compétence pour connaître de la validitéde sentences arbitrales.

Elle se bornera a constater que les Parties ont pris l'engagement
«de soumettre à la Cour l'ensemble du différend qui les oppose, tel

que circonscrit dans le texte proposé par Bahreïn à Qatar le 26 oc-
tobre 1988, et accepté par Qatar en décembre 1990, que le procès-
verbal de Doha de 1990 dénomme la ((formule bahreïnite)) (Délimi-
tation muritinle ct questions tc~rritorirrlescJntreQatar c't Bahreïn,
conlpktence ct recc~ilabilit6.urrrt, C.1J. Recueil 1994, p. 126-127,
par. 41, point 2).

116. La ((formule bahreïniten, acceptéepar les deux Parties (voirpara-
graphe 67 ci-dessus), est très large, car elle autorise celles-ci à prier «la
Cour de trancher toute question relative à un droit territorial ou à tout
autre titre ou intérêqt ui peut faire l'objet d'un différendentre elles)). Par

conséquent, l'accord intervenu entre les Parties couvre toutes les ques-
tions relatives aux îles Hawar, y compris le différend relatif ë la décision
britannique de 1939. La Cour est donc compétente pour statuer sur les
différentes questions soulevéespar Qatar au sujet de la décisionbritan-
nique de 1939.
117. La circonstance qu'une décision n'est pas une sentence arbitrale
n'implique cependant pas que cette décisionsoit dépourvue d'effets juri-

diques, ainsi d'ailleurs que l'a reconnu le tribunal arbitral dans l'affaire
du Diffkrend frontalier entre CIzarq(/h et Dolibuï (Intcrtzutionul Lait
Reports, vol. 91, p. 577). Pour apprécier quel est l'effet juridique de la
décisionbritannique de 1939, il est nécessairede rappeler les événements
qui en précédèrent. puis en suivirentimmédiatement l'adoption.Commission, which reserved the casewhere the parties might have decided
that the requested decision should be taken es myuo ct hono (Report by
Mr. Georges Scelle, Special Rapporteur of the Commission, Document
AlCN.41113, of 6 Miarch 1958, Ycurbook of the Internutionul Law Com-
ti~ission,1958,Vol. 1I, p. 2). Finally, more recently, it was adopted by the
Court of Arbitration called upon to settle the border dispute between

Dubai and Sharjah in a dispute bearing some similarities to the present
case (Duh~~ilShrrrjuhBortler Arbitrarion, arbitral award of 19 October
198 1,Internutiontil l,u~i.Reports, Vol. 91, pp. 574 and 575).

114. The Court observes that in the present case no agreement existed
between the Parties ltosubmit their case to an arbitral tribunal made up

of judges chosen by them, who would rule either on the basis of the law
or c.ï aquo ct bono. The Parties had only agreed that the issue would be
decided by "His Majesty's Government", but left it to the latter to deter-
mine how that decisrnion would be arrived at, and by which officiais.It
follows that the decision whereby, in 1939, the British Government held
that the Hawar Islarids belonged to Bahrain, did not constitute an inter-

national arbitral award.
115. Since the 1939 decision did not constitute an international arbi-
tral award, the Court will not need to consider Bahrain's argument con-
cerning the Court's jurisdiction to examine the validity of arbitral awards.
It will confine itself .to noting that the Parties have undertaken

"to submit to the Court the whole of the dispute between them, as
circumscribed by the text proposed by Bahrain to Qatar on 26 Octo-
ber 1988, and a.ccepted by Qatar in December 1990, referred to in

the 1990Doha Minutes as the 'Bahraini formula'" (Maritirne Delitni-
tution uncl Terriforiul Questiotzs hetii>erriQutur und Bahruin, Juris-
diction r~nd Adni.~.sihility. Judgmc~nt.1.C.J. Reports 1994, pp. 126-
127, para. 41, point 2).

116. The "Bahraini formula", as accepted by both Parties (see para-
graph 67 above), is very comprehensive, since it authorizes the Parties to
"request the Court to decide any matter of territorial right or other title
or interest which may be a matter of difference between them". Conse-
quently, the agreement between the Parties embraces al1questions relat-

ing to the Hawar Isl;ands,including the dispute concerning the 1939 Brit-
ish decision. Therefore the Court has jurisdiction to decide the various
matters raised by Qatar in relation to the 1939 British decision.

117. The fact that a decision is not an arbitral award does not however
mean that the decision is devoid of legal effect, as was acknowledged by

the Court of Arbitration in the DuhuilShurjah Border Arbitrutiorz (Intrr-
nutionul Lait. Reports, Vol. 91, p. 577). In order to determine the legal
effect of the 1939 British decision, the events which preceded and imme-
diately followed its adoption need to be recalled. 118. Le 10 mai 1938, le souverain de Qatar écrività l'agent politique
britannique pour l'informer que, ((par sa situation naturelle, Hawar fai-
[sait] partie de Qatar)), mais que «le Gouvernement de Bahreïn [voulait]
s'ingérer dans les affaires de Hawar)). Il conclut: ((Je suis persuadé
que vous ferez le nécessairedans cette affaire pour préserverla paix et la
tranquillité))
119. Le 20 mai 1938, l'agent politique britannique fit notamment

savoir au souverain de Qatar ce qui suit:
«11est de fait que, par l'occupation formelle de ces îles depuis un

certain temps, le Gouvernement de Bahreïn possède primufucie un
titre sur ces îles, mais je suis autorisé par le résidentpolitiauvous
direque, néanmoins, le gouvernement de Sa Majestéserait disposé a
considérer attentivement toute revendication formelle que vous pré-
senteriez au sujet des îles Hawar, sous réserve que celle-ci soit
appuyée par un exposé complet des moyens de preuve que vous
invoquez pour affirmer que vous, cheikh de Qatar, avez souveraineté

sur ces île...Ilest inutile que je vous rappelle que le gouvernement
de Sa Majestéstatuera a ce sujet dans un esprit de véritéet de justice
quand il aura reçu votre requêteformelle et l'exposéde vos moyens
de preuve. »

120. Par lettre du 27 mai 1938, le souverain de Qatar s'adressa a
l'agent politique britannique en ces termes:

«Je remercie aussi le gouvernement de Sa Majesté qui, comme
vous l'avez dit, décidera de la question en s'inspirant de la vérité et
de la justice. Je faisais confiance et je me fiais justice ea l'équité
du gouvernement de Sa Majesté,qui est réputéà cet égarden toutes

circonstances.))
Le souverain de Qatar ajouta:

«Je présente maintenant ma plainte officielle contre les mesures

prises par le Gouvernement de Bahreïn surdes îles qui appartiennent
a d'autres que lui dans les termes suivants:

5. ... [Jl'use de mon droit en m'opposant à tout acte entrepris par
le Gouvernement de Bahrein sur des îles qui, je l'estime,
m'appartiennent ... Je vous demande aussi de faire arrêterles acti-
vitéset ingérencesdu Gouvernement de Bahreïn sur les îles Hawar
jusqu'i ce que le gouvernement de Sa Majesté ait statué sur l'affaire
en s'inspirant de la justice et de l'équitécomme vous l'avez dit dans

votre lettre..je suis persuadéque le gouvernement de Sa Majestése
prononcera en toute justice et équité etque vous le ferez dans les
circonstances présentes, de sorte que les questions actuelles puissent
suivre un seul et mêmecours jusqu'à ce que les faits aient ététirésau
clair...» 118. On 10 May 1938,the Ruler of Qatar wrote to the British Political
Agent informing him that "Hawar is, by its natural position, a part of
Qatar", but that "the Bahrain Government [were] making interferences
at Hawar". He concluded: "1 am quite confident that you will, in order to
keep the peace and tranquillity, do what is necessary in the matter".

119. On 20 May 1938, the British Political Agent informed the Ruler

of Qatar, among other matters, of the following:
"It is indeed a fact that by their formal occupation of the Islands

for some time past the Bahrain Government possess a prima facie
claim to them, but 1am authorised by the Honourable the Political
Resident to Say that even so His Majesty's Government will be pre-
pared to give the fullest consideration to any formal claim put for-
ward by you to the Hawar Islands, provided that your claim is sup-
ported by a full and complete statement of the evidence on which
you rely in asserting that you, as Shaikh of Qatar, possess sover-

eignty over them . . .1 need scarcely remind you that the matter will
be decided in the light of truth and justice by His Majesty's Govern-
ment when your formal claim and evidence are received . . ."

120. By a letter of 27 May 1938, the Ruler of Qatar stated to the
British Political Agent that he was

"also thankful to His Majesty's Government who will, as you said,
decide the matter in the light of truth and justice. 1was confident of
and relying on the justice and equity of His Majesty's Government
who are fanious for these things in al1instances".

The Ruler of Qatar added
"1 now submit my formal complaint against the steps taken by the

Bahrain Government in islands belonging to others as follows:

.............................

5. . . .it is my right to object to any act undertaken by the Bah-
rain Government in Islands which 1consider to be belonging to me
. . . 1also request you to stop the activities and interferences which
the Bahrain Government are undertaking in Hawar Islands until the
matter is decided by His Majesty's Government in the light ofjustice
and equity as you have said in your letter. 1trust that His Majesty's

Government will administer justice and equity and that you will do
so in the preserit circumstances so that the present matters may take
one and the saine course until the facts become clear." 121. Le 3 juin 1938, l'agent politique britannique, M. H. Weightman,
informa le résident politique britannique de la plainte présentéepar
Qatar. 11ajouta le commentaire suivant:

<<Ence qui concerne le fond de la revendication du cheikh de
Qatar, on observera que celle-ciconsiste 1)en une simple affirmation
de souveraineté, et 2) en l'affirmation que les îles Hawar font partie
de l'ensemble géographique de Qatar.

Aucune preuve n'est apportée d'une occupation formelle par
Qatar, aucune mention n'est faite d'impôts. de vente de droits
de pêche, d'exercice de l'autorité judiciaire, voire de l'exercice
d'une fonction quelconque qui puisse ètre l'expression de droits
souverains. »

122. Dans une lettre en date du 21 juillet 1938, adresséeau résident
politique britannique, le secrétaire d'Etat pour les Indes écrivit ce qui
suit:

«[tout bien considéré] ilserait bon de ... donner [au cheikh de Qatar]
l'occasion de commenter la réponse de Bahreïn. Ce serait plus en
accord avec la procédure normale dansde tels cas et il n'est pas sou-

haitable, si une décision devait finalement êtreprise en faveur de
Bahreïn, que le cheikh deQatar ait l'impression que son avis n'a pas
étéentendu comme il se doit. Le retard que cela occasionnerait ne
devrait pas ètre trop gênant.
Dès lors, si vous n'y voyez aucune objection, veuillez communi-

quer les déclarations du Gouvernement de Bahreïn au cheikh de
Qatar et lui donner un délairaisonnable pour faire ses commentaires
et produire toute autre preuve de ses allégations,et à la réceptionde
sa réponse,veuillez me transmettre la correspondance accompagnée
de vos remarques. ))

123. Le 14août 1938,l'agent politique britannique adressa au conseiller
ad interim auprès du Gouvernement de Bahreïn une copie de la revendi-
cation détailléedu cheikh de Qatar, en demandant que:

«le Gouvernement de Bahreïn soumette maintenant l'exposécom-
plet et détailléde ses prétentions sur Hawar, répondant ainsi la
revendication du cheikh de Qatar et avançant tout autre argument

qu'il souhaite)).
124. Les prétentions en réponse de Bahreïn furent présentées le

22 décembre 1938dans une lettre adressée à l'agent politique britannique,
qui exposait les motifs invoqués à l'appui de la position de Bahreïn et
contredisait les thèsesde Qatar. Une pétition signée((par les notables de
Hawarn, qui déclaraient êtreles sujets du souverain de Bahreïn, était
jointe à cette lettre.
125. L'agent politique britannique écrivitle 5 janvier 1939 au souve-

rain de Qatar en se référantà la ((revendication détailléesur les îles
Hawar ... annexéeà [sa] lettre du 27 mai 1938)).L'agent politique joignit 121. On 3 June 1938 the British Political Agent, Mr. H. Weightman,
informed the British Political Resident of the complaint presented by
Qatar. He also madle the following comment:

"In regard to the substance of the Shaikh of Qatar's claim, it will
be observed that it consists of (1) a bare assertion of sovereignty and
(2) the affirmation that the Hawar Islands are part of the geographi-
cal unit of Qat.ar.

No evidence is offered of formal occupation by Qatar, no mention
is made of collection of taxes, of sale of fishing rights, of the exercise
of judicial authority, or indeed, of the performance of any function
which might denote sovereign rights."

122. In a letter t,o the British Political Resident of 21 July 1938, the
Secretary of State for India stated the following:

"on the whole it would be preferable to give him [the Sheikh of
Qatar] an opportunity to comment on the Bahrain reply. This would

be more in accordance with the normal procedure in such cases, and
it is undesirable, if the eventual decision is in favour of Bahrain, that
the Sheikh of Qatar should be left with a sense of grievance that he
had not been flullyheard. Delay involved is not likely to cause any
inconvenience.
If therefore you see no serious objection please communicate

statement of Bahrain Government when received to Sheikh of Qatar
and allow him reasonable period for his comments and for the pro-
duction of any further evidence in support of his claim, and on
receipt of his reply please submit correspondence to me with your
views."

123. On 14 August 1938 the British Political Agent sent to the acting
adviser to the Government of Bahrain a copy of the Sheikh of Qatar's
detailed claim, requesting that

"the Bahrain Government will now submit a full and detailed state-
ment of their co~unter-claimto Hawar, covering the Shaikhof Qatar's

claim as well a:; any other point they wish to make".

124. The counter-claim of Bahrain was presented on 22 December
1938 in a letter sent to the British Political Agent, explaining the reasons
supporting its position and contradicting the position of Qatar. Annexed
to that letter was ii petition signed "by the leading men of Hawar",
stating that they were subjects of the Ruler of Bahrain.

125. The British 1301iticalAgent wrote on 5 January 1939to the Ruler
of Qatar, with reference to the "detailed claim to the Hawar Islands with
[his]letter dated the 27th May 1938". The Political Agent annexed to hisa sa communication les prétentions en réponse de Bahreïn et indiqua ce
qui suit:

<<Jevous demanderai maintenant, mon ami, d'étudier attentive-
ment la réponsedu Gouvernement de Bahreïn et de m'informer aussi
rapidement que possible de tout argument supplémentaire que vous
souhaiteriez faire valoir à l'appui de votre revendication ou toute
preuve que vous voudriez soumettre. Lorsque j'aurai reçu votre
réponseet toutes les autres preuves que vous produirez, je transmet-
trai l'affaire au gouvernement de Sa Majestépar l'intermédiaire du

résident politique dans le golfe Persique pour décision finale.))
126. Le souverain deQatar fit savoir à l'agent politique britannique le

19mars 1939((qu'une réponse a la question concernant Hawar inérit[ait]
une étudeattentive et qu'il [fallait]consacrer un certain tempsa cet exa-
men» mais que, néanmoins, cette réponse lui <<parviendra[it] bientôt,
accompagnée des déclarations, objections et protestations que [le souve-
rain] pourrai[t] avoir)).
127. Le 30 mars 1939,le souverain deQatar adressa a l'agent politique

britannique une lettre de quinze pages contenant ses commentaires sur les
affirmations de Bahreïn au sujet des îles Hawar. Ily ajouta des témoi-
gnages à l'appui de ses revendications.
128. L'agent politique britannique, M. H. Weightman, envoya alors,
le 22 avril 1939, au résident politique britannique, le lieutenant-colonel
Fowle, un rapport sur les revendications présentéespar Qatar sur les îles
Hawar. L'agent politique y énumérait les documents relatifs a cette

affaire et y analysait les divers arguments avancésainsi que les éléments
de preuve présentéspar les parties. Il concluait ainsi:

((13. Résumé.Le cheikh de Qatar n'a produit absolument aucune
preuve. II s'appuie uniquement sur une affirmation non étayéede
souveraineté, sur la proximité géographique et sur les prétendues
déclarations de certaines personnes non identifiées. Du côté de
Bahreïn, il existe une preuve que l'occupation de Hawar a été réa-
liséepar les Dawasir sous l'autoritédes Al Khalifah, que les Dawasir
de Zellaq fréquentent ces îles depuis de nombreuses années,que les

tribunaux établispar les cheikhs de Bahreïn ont prononcé des juge-
ments concernant des biens fonciers à Hawar, que des questions
relatives à la propriétéde piègesà poissons ont été soumisesau juge-
ment du tribunal de la charia a Bahreïn, que des citations à compa-
raître à Bahreïn ont étéremises i Hawar il y a sept ans, que les
bateaux dont les Dawasir de Hawar sont propriétaires sont enregis-

trésà Bahreïn et que du gypse est extrait à Hawar sous licence du
Gouvernement de Bahreïn. Je ne suis pas en mesure d'affirmer avec
certitude que ces Dawasir ont occupéHawar pendant toute l'annéeau
cours des cent cinquante dernières années maisceux qui y habitent
actuellement prétendent que c'est le cas. Par ailleurs, les cime-
tières, les réservoirsd'eau, les ruines du vieux fort que j'ai moi-mêmecommunication the counter-claim presented by Bahrain and stated the
following :

"1 request you now, my friend, to study the Bahrain Govern-
ment's reply carefully and to inform me as soon as it may be possible
whether you wish to put forward any fiirther arguments in support
of your claim or whether you have any further evidence to show.
When 1 have received your reply and al1other evidence which you

may wish to produce the whole matter will be submitted to His
Majesty's Government through the Honourable the Political Resi-
dent in the Persian Gulf for their final decision."

126. The Ruler of Qatar informed the British Political Agent on
19 March 1939 that "a reply to the Hawar case needs careful study and
an opportunity for such a study", but that even so the reply "will reach
you shortly containing Statements, objections and protests which 1 may
have".

127. On 30 March 1939,the Ruler of Qatar sent to the British Political
Agent a 15-page letter with his comments on the claims of Bahrain in
relation to the Hawar Islands. He also annexed testimonial evidence in
support of his own claims.
128. The British Political Agent, Mr. H. Weightman, then sent a

renort on 22 A~rii 1939 to the British Political Resident. Lieutenant-
~hlonel Fowle,'reporting on the claims presented by ~atar over the
Hawar Islands. In that report the Political Agent enumerated the docu-
ments in the case and examined the various arguments advanced as well
as the evidence submitted by the parties. Then he concluded:

"13. To sum up. The Shaikh of Qatar has produced no evidence
whatsoever. He relies solely on an uncorroborated assertion of sov-

ereignty, on geographical propinquity and on the alleged statements
of certain unidentified persons. On the Bahrain side there is evidence
that the original occupation of Hawar by the Dawasir was effected
under the authority of the Al Khalifah, that the Zellaq Dawasir have
frequented thesr: islands for a great number of years, that the courts
established by the Shaikhsof Bahrain have promulgated decisions in

regard to dispuites over property there, that questions of ownership
of fish tram have been submitted to the decision of the Bahrain
Sharia Court, that seven years ago Bahrain processes were served in
Hawar, that the boats owned by the Dawasir of Hawar are regis-
tered in Bahraiii and that gypsum or juss is excavated from Hawar
under licence fr,om the Bahrain Government. 1am not able to state
definitely that these Dawasir have for the past 150 years occupied

Hawar at al1 si:asons of the year. though those now in residence
there claim that this is so. On the other hand the cemeteries, the
water cisterns. the ruins of the old fort which 1have mvself seen and
the type of house in use al1 provide evidence of consiistent occupa- vues et le type des maisons habitées donnent la preuve d'une occupa-
tion continue pendant la majeure partie de l'année. Enfin, en
l'absence detout indice d'occupation ou d'exercice du pouvoir par le
cheikh de Qatar, la construction d'un poste de police par le Gouver-
nement de Bahreïn voici dix-huit mois, la construction d'une mos-

quéedans le village du nord, a l'initiative de Son Altesse le cheikh de
Bahreïn, et les travaux menés pour creuser un puits artésien per-
mettent, compte tenu du passé plusancien, de conclure à l'exercice
valable et légitimed'une autorité constitutionnelle de la part du Gou-
vernement de Bahreïn. Les petites îles arides et inhabitées et les îlots
rocailleux qui forment la totalité de l'archipel de Hawar tombent

probablement sous l'autorité du souverain qui s'est établi sur l'île
principale de Hawar, en particulier depuis que des repères ont été
construits sur toutes ces îles par le Gouvernement de Bahreïn. ))

129. Le 29 avril 1939, le lieutenant-colonel Fowle transmit le rapport
de Weightman au secrétaired'Etat pour les Indes en observant que c'était
«un exposé très clair sur l'affaire)), lequel confirmait son opinion.
130. Quelques semaines plus tard, le 13juin 1939,M. C. W. Baxter, du

Foreign Office, fit savoir au secrétaired'Etat de I'India Office que
((Lord Halifax approuv[ait] la proposition du marquis de Betland,

consistant à demander au Gouvernement des Indes, s'il n'yvo[yait]
pas d'objection, de charger le résident politique dans le golfe Per-
sique d'informer les cheikhs de Bahreïn et de Qatar que le gouverne-
ment de Sa Majesté a[vait] décidéque ces îles appart[enaient] au
cheikh de Bahreïn. »

131. Le 1" juillet 1939, le secrétaire adjoint du Gouvernement des
Indes s'adressa au résidentpolitique britannique en ces termes: ((Le Gou-

vernement des Indes partage l'avis selon lequel les îles Hawar appar-
tiennent à Bahreïn et non à Qatar et vous prie d'informer les cheikhs
concernéscomme proposé. ))
132. La décision britannique fut communiquée le 1l juillet 1939 au
souverain de Bahreïn par le résidentpolitique britannique. La communi-
cation était libelléecomme suit:

«En référence a la correspondance se terminant par la lettre

no 1972lSF de votre conseiller datéedu 22 décembre 1938(29 shawal
1357)au sujet de l'appartenance des îles Hawar, le gouvernement de
Sa Majesté me charge de vous faire savoir qu'après examen attentif
des preuves fournies par Votre Altesse et le cheikh de Qatar il a
décidéque ces îles appartiennent à 1'Etat de Bahreïn et non à 1'Etat
de Qatar.

J'en informe également le cheikh de Qatar. »
133. Ce même11 juillet 1939, le résident politique britannique com-

muniqua la décision britannique au souverain de Qatar en termes ana-
logues, ainsi que suit: MARITIME DELIhllTATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 81

tion for at least the greater part of the year. And finally in the
absence of any iindication of occupation or of the exercise ofjurisdic-
tion by the Shaikh of Qatar, the construction of a police post by the
Bahrain Goverinment there some 18 months ago, the building of a
mosque in the riorthern village under the orders of His Highness the

Shaikh of Bahrain and the efforts made to drive an artesian well
constitute, in the light of older history, a valid and proper assump-
tion of constitutional authority on the part of the Bahrain Govern-
ment. The small barren and uninhabited islands and rocky islets
which form the complete Hawargroup presumably faIl to the author-
ity of the Ruler establishing himself in the Hawar main island, par-

ticularly since niarks have been erected on al1of them by the Bahrain
Goverriment."

129. On 29 April 1939 Lieutenant-Colonel Fowle forwarded Weight-
man's report to the Secretary of State for India and observed that it was
"a very clear statement of the case", and that it confirmed his opinion.
130. Some weeks later, on 13June 1939, Mr. C. W. Baxter of the For-
eign Office informed the Secretary of State, lndia Office, that

"Lord Halifax concurs to the Marquees of Betland's proposal to
request the Government of India, if they see no object, to instruct

the political Resident in the Persian Gulf to inform the Sheikhs of
Bahrain and Qatar that His Majesty's Government have decided
that these islands belong to Sheikh of Bahrain."

131. On 1July 1939 the Deputy Secretary to the Government of lndia
informed the Political Resident that "Government of India concur in the
view that the Hawar Islands belong to Bahrain and not to Qatar and
request that you will inform the Shaikhs concerned as proposed."

132. The British decision was communicated on 11 July 1939 to the
Ruler of Bahrain by the Political Resident. The communication stated:

"With reference to correspondence ending with your Adviser's
letter No. 1972/SF, dated the 22nd December 1938 (Shawwal 29,
1357), on the siubject of the ownership of the Hawar Islands 1 am
directed by His Majesty's Government to inform you that, after care-
ful consideration of the evidence adduced by your Highness and

the Shaikh of Qatar, they have decided that these Islands belong
to the State of IBahrainand not to the State of Qatar.
I am informiiig the Shaikh of Qatar accordingly."

133. On the samt: day, 11 July 1939, the British Political Resident
communicated the British decision to the Ruler of Qatar in similar terms,
as follows:82 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTlONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÊT)

(<En référenceà la correspondance se terminant par votre lettre
datéedu 30 mars 1939 (9 safar 1358)au sujet de l'appartenance des
îles Hawar, le gouvernement de Sa Majestéme charge de vous faire
savoir qu'après examen attentif des preuves fournies par vous et Son
Altesse le cheikh de Bahreïn ila décidéque ces îles appartiennent à

1'Etat de Bahreïn et non à 1'Etat de Qatar.

J'en informe également Son Altesse le cheikh de Bahrein.))

134. Le souverain de Qatar, dans une lettre adresséele 4 août 1939au
résident politique britannique, réagit à la décision britannique dans les
termes suivants :

«Bien entendu. j'ai été profondémentétonné par la nouvelle et
dans ma surprise j'ai cherchéà identifier la raison sur laquelle s'est
fondéle gouvernement de Sa Majestépour rendre sa décisionalors
que je lui avais fourni des preuves, des témoignages et des éléments

contextuels que je croyais suffisants pour montrer clairement ce
qu'étaient la situation et le statut véritablesde ces îles.))
II ajoutait:

«Je ne peux demeurer silencieux sur cette affaire dans laquelle les
faits pertinents ont pour le moins étéprésentésde manière confuse et
ambiguë, sans que les éclaircissementsvoulus aient été donnésC . 'est
pourquoi je proteste une deuxième foiset demande des explications.
J'en appelle à la bienveillance de Votre Excellence et au sens de la

justice du gouvernement de Sa Majesté pour examiner l'affaire en
toute justice et équité,car je suis persuadéque le sens de la justice et
la bienveillance du gouvernement de Sa Majesté et de Votre Excel-
lence ne sauraient tolérer une violation quelconque de mon territoire
ou de mes droits naturels. ))

Le souverain deOat.r terminait sa lettre en demandant <<sue la aues-
tion puisse être réexaminée et que des recherches supplémentaires
puissent être effectuées));il précisait enfin: «je réserve mesdroits sur

les îles Hawar jusqu'à ce que la question soit véritablement éclaircie)).
135. Par lettre en date du 25 septembre 1939, lerésidentpolitique bri-
tannique répondit au souverain de Qatar que la décisionqui lui avait été
notifiéepar la lettre du 11juillet 1939«constituait une décisiondéfinitive
et [que] le débat ne pouvait être ouvertà nouveau)). Quelque temps plus
tard, le 18novembre 1939,le souverain deQatar accusa réceptionau rési-

dent politique de sa lettre du 25 septembre, tout en affirmant que «[q]uoi
qu'il puisse arriver, [s]afoi dans la justice du gouvernement de Sa Majesté
demeur[ait] inébranlable)) et qu'il ((rest[ait] convaincu que le gouverne-
ment de Sa Majestéréfléchira[it]à la question et la réexaminera[it]d'une
manière plus claire qu'il ne l'a[vait] fait jusqu'à présent)).
136. Ces événementsétant rappelés, la Cour passera a l'examen de

l'argumentation à laquelle Qatar a recours pour contester la validitéde la
décisionbritannique de 1939. "With refereiice to correspondence ending with your letter dated
the 30th March 1939 (Safar 9th, 1358) on the subject of the owner-
ship of the Hawar Islands 1am directed by His Majesty's Govern-
ment to inform you that, after careful consideration of the evidence

adduced by youiand His Highness the Shaikh of Bahrain, they have
decided that these Islands belong to the State of Bahrain and not to
the State of Qatar.
1 am informing His Highness the Shaikh of Bahrain accordingly."

134. The Ruler of Qatar reacted to the British decision in a letter sent
on 4 August 1939 to the British Political Resident. stating:

"Naturally eniough 1was deeply astonished at the news and in my
astonishment tried to find the cause for what His Majesty's Govern-
ment have made the basis of their opinion on this question while
1 had provided them with proofs, evidence, and contexts which
1 thought were adequate to clarify the correct position and condi-
tions of these Islands."

He added :
"1am unable to remain quiet over the case, which preferably is the

result of abstruseness. ambiguity, and non-elucidation of the rele-
vant facts.Itherefore protest for a second time asking for the clari-
fication of the question, and appeal to Your Honour's humanity and
to His Majesty':; Government's sense of justice to look into the case
with due justice and equity, as 1 am perfectly confident that His
Majesty's Government and Your Honour's sense of justice and

humanity would not agree that any transgression should be made
on my territory or my natural rights."

The letter of the Ruler of Qatar ended by requesting that "the question
may be considered again and that enquiries may again be made into it";
and "reserv[ing] for inyself my rights to the Hawar Islands until the true
position has become clear".
135. By a letter dated25 September 1939,the British Political Resident
replied to the Ruler of Qatar, informing him that the decision notified by

the letter of11 July 1939"was a final decision and the matter cannot be
opened afresh". Sonie time later, on 18 November 1939, the Ruler of
Qatar wrote to the P'oliticalResident acknowledging receipt of his letter
of 25 September but asserting that "[wlhatever may happen my belief in
the Justice of His M~ijesty'sGovernment remains unshaken" and that he
was "unshakeably confident that His Majesty's Government will think
about the matter ancl will review it in a clearer manner than hitherto".

136. Having recalled these events. the Court will now consider Qatar's
argument challenging the validity of the 1939 British decision. 137. Qatar soutient en premier lieu n'avoir jamais consenti a ce que la
question des îles Hawar soit tranchée par le Gouvernement britannique.
La Cour relèvera cependant que, à la suite de l'échangede lettres des
10 mai et 20 mai 1938 (voirparagraphes 118 et 119ci-dessus), le souve-
rain de Qatar avait accepté le 27 mai 1938 de confier au Gouvernement

britannique le soin de déciderde la question des îles Hawar (voir para-
graphe 120). Il avait le mêmejour présentésa plainte à l'agent politique
britannique. II avait enfin accepté, comme le souverain de Bahreïn, de
participer àla procédure qui devait mener àla décisionde 1939(voir para-
graphes 118 à 133 ci-dessus). La compétence du Gouvernement britan-
nique pour prendre la décisionconcernant les îles Hawar découlait de ce

double consentement; la Cour n'a donc pas à examiner si, en l'absence
d'un tel consentement, le Gouvernement britannique aurait eu autorité
pour ce faire en vertu des traités faisant de Bahreïn comme deQatar des
Etats protégésde la Grande-Bretagne, a savoir les traitésde 1880et 1892
avec Bahreïn et le traité de 1916 avec Qatar (voir paragraphes 44 et 48
ci-dessus).
138. Qatar soutient en second lieu que les fonctionnaires britanniques

chargés de la question des îles Hawar étaient de parti pris et que leur
jugement avait été arrêtéd'avance. La procédure suivie aurait par suite
méconnu «la règle interdisant toute partialité chez une autorité investie
du pouvoir de décider au niveau international)). En outre, les parties
n'auraient pas étémises à mêmede présenter leurs arguments sur un
pied d'égalitéet de façon équitable, et la décisionprise n'aurait pas été

motivée.
139. La Cour commencera par rappeler que la décision de 1939 ne
constitue pas une sentence arbitrale (voir paragraphes 113 et 114 ci-
dessus). IIn'en résulte cependant pas qu'elle ait étédépourvue de tout
effet juridique. Bien au contraire, il ressort du dossier, et notamment
des échangesde correspondance rappelés ci-dessus (voirparagraphes 118et
119 ci-dessus), que Bahreïn et Qatar avaient accepté que le Gouverne-

ment britannique règle leur différend ence qui concerne les îles Hawar.
Dès lors, la décisionde 1939 doit êtreregardéecomme une décisionqui
était dès l'origine obligatoire pour les deux Etats et a continué de l'être
pour ces mêmesEtats après 1971,annéeau cours de laquelle ils ont cessé
d'êtredes Etats protégéspar la Grande-Bretagne (voir paragraphe 65
ci-dessus).

140. La validitéd'une telle décisionn'étaitcertes pas subordonnée aux
principes de procédure qui gouvernent la validitédes sentences arbitrales.
Toutefois, comme l'agent politique britannique s'y étaitengagéle 20 mai
1938 et comme le souverain de Qatar l'avait répété dans sa lettre du
27 mai 1938(voir paragraphes 119et 120ci-dessus), cette décision devait
être rendue«dans un esprit de véritéet de justice...)>.
141. A cet égard, la Cour observe d'abord que, dans cette dernière

lettre, le souverain de Qatar avait confiéau Gouvernement britannique
le soin de régler laquestion des îles Hawar bien que, sept jours aupara-
vant, l'agent politique britannique lui eût fait savoir que <<parI'occu- 137. Qatar first contends that it never gave its consent to have the
question of the Hawar Islands decided by the British Government. The
Court observes, however, that following the Exchange of Letters of 10and
20 May 1938 (see paragraphs 118 and 119 above), the Ruler of Qatar
consented on 27 May 1938to entrust decision of the Hawar Islands ques-

tion to the British Government (see paragraph 120 above). On that day
he had submitted hiij complaint to the British Political Agent. Finally,
like the Ruler of Bahrain, he had consented to participate in the proceed-
ings that were to lead to the 1939 decision (see paragraphs 118 to 133
above). The jurisdiction of the British Government to take the decision
concerning the Hawar Islands derived from these two consents; the

Court therefore has no need to examine whether, in the absence of such
consent, the British Government would have had the authority to do so
under the treaties making Bahrain and Qatar protected States of Great
Britain, namely the 1880 and 1892 treaties with Bahrain and the 1916
treaty with Qatar (see paragraphs 44 and 48 above).

138. Qatar maintains in the second place that the British officials
responsible for the Hawar Islands question were biased and had pre-
judged the matter. The procedure followed is accordingly alleged to have
violated "the rule which prohibits bias in a decision-maker on the inter-
national plane". It is also claimed that the parties were not given an equal
and fair opportunity to present their arguments and that the decision was

not reasoned.

139. The Court will begin by recalling that the 1939decision is not an
arbitral award (see paragraphs 113-114 above). This does not, however,
mean that it was devoid of al1 legal effect. Quite to the contrary, the
pleadings, and in particular the Exchange of Letters referred to above

(see paragraphs 118 and 119 above), show that Bahrain and Qatar con-
sented to the British Government settling their dispute over the Hawar
Islands. The 1939decision must therefore be regarded as a decision that
was binding from the outset on both States and continued to be binding
on those same States after 1971,when they ceased to be British protected
States (see paragraph 65 above).

140. The validity of that decision was certainly not subject to the pro-
cedural principles governing the validity of arbitral awards. However as
the British Political Agent undertook on 20 May 1938. and as was
repeated in the letter of the Ruler of Qatar of 27 May 1938 (see para-
graphs 119and 120above), this decision was to be rendered "in the light

of truth and justice".
141. In this connection, the Court observes in the first place that the
Ruler of Qatar in thiat last letter entrusted the question of the Hawar
Islands to the British Government for decision, notwithstanding that
seven days before the British Political Agent had informed him that "bypation formelle de ces îles depuis un certain temps, le Gouverne-
ment de Bahreïn posséd[ait] pri/?ztrfi~ciun titre sur ces îles» et qu'il
appartiendrait par suite au souverain de Qatar de présenter «une reven-
dication formelle ...appuyée par un exposé complet des moyens de
preuve)) invoqués (voir paragraphe 119 ci-dessus). Cette procédure fut
suivie et les fonctionnaires britanniques chargés du dossier constatèrent
que «le cheikh de Qatar n'a[vait] produit aucune preuve)) face aux

effectivités invoquées par Bahreïn et en particulier face à l'occupation
des lieux opérée depuis 1937 (voir paragraphe 128 ci-dessus). Dans
ces conditions, s'il est exact qu'au cours de cette procédure les fonction-
naires britanniques chargés du dossier sont partis de la prémisse que
Bahreïn possédait pvimu ,fuc.ic un titre sur les îles et que la charge de la
preuve contraire reposait sur le souverain de Qatar, Qatar ne saurait

soutenir qu'il ait étécontraire à la justice de partir de cette prémisse
dans la mesure où il en avait été informéavant de consentir à la procé-
dure et où il n'en a pas moins consenti A ce qu'elle se déroule sur cette
base.
142. La procédure qui a abouti à la décisionbritannique de 1939,telle
qu'elle est résumée ci-dessus(voir paragraphes 118 à 133 ci-dessus),
montre par ailleurs que Qatar et Bahreïn ont tous .deux eu l'occasion de

présenterleurs arguments au sujet des îles Hawar, ainsi que leurs moyens
de preuve. Qatar a exposésa revendication dans ses lettres des 10et 27 mai
1938. Les prétentions en réponse de Bahreïn ont été présentées le
22 décembre 1938, accompagnées d'une annexe contenant les déclara-
tions de plusieurs témoins.Qatar a commentécet exposéde Bahreïn dans
sa lettre du 30 mars 1939 à laquelle étaient égalementjoints des témoi-
gnages destinésà appuyer ses arguments. Ainsi, les deux souverains ont

pu présenter leur argumentation et chacun d'entre eux a disposé d'un
temps que la Cour estime suffisant à cet effet; la thèse de Qatar selon
laquelle il aurait étévictime d'une inégalitéde traitement ne saurait donc
êtreaccueillie.
143. La Cour notera enfin que, si les motifs retenus a l'appui de la
décisionde 1939 n'ont pas étécommuniqués aux souverains de Bahreïn
et de Qatar, cette absence de motivation est sans influence sur la régula-

ritéde la décisionintervenue dès lors qu'aucune obligation de motivation
n'avait étéimposéeau Gouvernement britannique lorsque celui-ci s'était
vu chargéde réglerl'affaire.
144. En l'espèce,de surcroît, la réactiondu souverain deQatar a étéde
faire savoir au résident politique britannique qu'il était ((profondément
étonné» par la décision,non de prétendre que celle-ci n'était pasvalable

faute de motivation. Qatar a affirmé avoir fourni suffisamment d'élé-
ments de preuve A l'appui de sa thèseet s'est bornéa demander au Gou-
vernement britannique de réexaminer sa décision. LaCour ne peut donc
faire droit à la thèse de Qatar selon laquelle la décision britannique de
1939 n'étaitpas valide faute de motivation.
145. Enfin, le fait que le cheikh de Qatar ait protesté à plusieurs
reprises contre le contenu de la décision britannique de 1939 après en MARITIME DELIM.ITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 84

their formal occupation of the Islands for some time past the Bahrain
Government possess a prima facie claim to them" and that it was there-
fore for the Ruler of Qatar to submit a "formal claim . . . supported by a
full and complete statement of the evidence" on which he relied (see para-

graph 119 above). This procedure was followed and the competent Brit-
ish officials found that "[tlhe Shaikh of Qatar ha[d] produced no evidence
whatsoever" to counter the rJ/C.ctiic. limied.sy Bahrain, in particular
its occupation of the islandssince 1937(see pnragraph 128above). Under
these circumstances, while it is true that the competent British officials
proceeded on the pri-mise that Bahrain possessed prima facie title to the

islands and that the burden of proving the opposite lay on the Ruler of
Qatar, Qatar cannot maintain that it was contrary to justice to proceed
on the basis of this piremisewhen Qatar had been informed before agree-
ing to the procedure that this would occur and had consented to the pro-
ceedings being conducted on that basis.

142. The proceedings leading to the 1939 British decision summarized
above (see paragraphs 118 to 133 above) further show that Qatar and
Bahrain both had the opportunity to present their arguments in relation
to the Hawar Island:; and the evidence supporting them. Qatar presented

its claim in its letteri; of 10 a27 May 1938. Bahrain's opposing claims
were presented on 22 December 1938,with an annex containing the dec-
larations of several witnesses. Qatar commented on this statement of
Bahrain in its letter of 30 March 1939, to which testimonial evidence to
support its arguments was also annexed. Thus the two Rulers were able
to present their arguments and each of them was afforded an amount of

time which the Couirt considers was sufficient for this purpose; Qatar's
contention that it was subjected to unequal treatment therefore cannot be
upheld.

143. Finally, the Court notes that, while the reasoning supporting the

1939decision was not communicated to the Rulers of Bahrain and Qatar,
this lack of reasons lias no influence on the validity of the decision taken,
because no obligatia~nto state reasons had been imposed on the British
Government when it was entrusted with the settlement of the matter.

144. Moreover, in the present case the reaction of the Ruler of Qatar

was to inform the British Political Resident that he was "deeply aston-
ished" by the decision, but he did not claim that it was invalid for lack of
reasons. Qatar statecl that it had provided enough evidence to support its
position. and limited itself to requesting the British Government to re-
examine its decision. Therefore, Qatar's contention that the 1939 British
decision is invalid for lack of reasons cannot be upheld.

145. Finally, the fact that the Sheikh of Qatar had protested on several
occasions against the content of the British decision of 1939after he hadavoir été informén'a pu rendre cette décision inopposable au cheikh,
contrairement à ce que prétend Qatar.
146. La Cour parvient donc à la conclusion que la décision prisepar le
Gouvernement britannique le IIjuillet 1939 présente un caractère obli-
gatoire pour les Parties.
147. Pour tous ces motifs, la Cour conclut que Bahreïn a souveraineté
sur les îles Hawar et que, partant, elle ne saurait accueillir lesconclusions

de Qatar sur cette question.
148. La conclusion à laquelle la Cour est ainsi parvenue sur la base de
la décision britannique de 1939 la dispense de se prononcer sur l'argu-
mentation des Parties tiréede l'existence d'un titre originaire, des effec-
tivitésou de l'applicabilité enl'espècedu principe de l'utipossicktis juris.

149. La Cour examinera maintenant les prétentions des Parties sur I'île
deJanan. A cet égard,il convient d'observer à titre liminaire que Qatar et
Bahreïn se font une idéedivergente de ce qu'il convient d'entendre par
l'expression«île de Janan ». Selon Qatar,

((Janan est une île d'environ 700 mètres de long et 175 mètres de
large, situéeau large de la pointe sud-ouest de I'île Hawar propre-
ment dite. Elle se trouva 2,9 milles marins ou 5360 mètres du point
le plus proche de la laisse de basse mer de Qatar et à 17milles marins

du point le plus proche de Bahreïn (Ras al Barr) ...Elle se situe à
1,6 mille marin ou 2890 mètres de l'île Hawar proprement dite.))

Pour Bahreïn, l'expression vise
«deux îles qui se trouvent à une distance de 1 à 2 milles marins au
large de la côte méridionale de Jazirat Hawar, et qui, à maréebasse,

ne forment plus qu'une île. Ensemble, ces deux îles ont une surface
d'à peine plus de0,l kilomètre carréet sont appeléesJanan et Hadd
Janan. Cela dit, en général,on les appelle ensemble simplement
«Janan ».»

Qatar allègue à cet égard que
((l'endroit appelé«Hadd Janan)) sur les cartes bahreïnites corres-

pond à une petite étendue de fonds sablonneux qui demeure
immergée a marée basse. Par conséquent, abstraction faite de la
question de savoir si la revendication de Bahreïn portant sur les deux
îles serait recevable compte tenu du fait que le point soumis a la
Cour à ce sujet était intitulé«l'île de Janan)), cette revendication sur
une seconde île est dénuéede tout fondement au regard des réalités
géographiques. »

Bahreïn réfute l'argument ainsi formulé par Qatar en précisant, «[p]our
évitertout malentendu, ... qu'il rejette tout moyen laissant entendre quebeen informed of it is not such as to render the decision inopposable to
him, contrary to what Qatar maintains.
146. The Court accordingly concludes that the decision taken by the
British Government on 11 July 1939 is binding on the Parties.

147. For al1 of these reasons, the Court concludes that Bahrain has

sovereignty over the Hawar Islands, and that it therefore cannot uphold
the submissions of Qatar on this question.
148. The conclusion thus reached by the Court on the basis of the
British decision of 1939makes it unnecessary for the Court to rule on the
arguments of the Parties based on the existence of an original title, efy'c-
tivitas, and the applicability of the principle of uti possidetis,juris to the

present case.

149. The Court will now consider the Parties' claims to Janan Island.
In this regard, the Court would begin by observing that Qatar and Bah-

rain have differing idleasof what should be understood by the expression
"Janan Island". According to Qatar,
"Janan is an island approximately 700 metres long and 175metres

wide situated off the southwestern tip of the main Hawar island. The
island is located 2.9 nautical miles or 5,360 metres from the nearest
point on Qatar's low water line and 17nautical miles from the near-
est point of Bahrain (Ras al Barr) ... It is located 1.6nautical miles
or 2,890 metres from the main Hawar island."

For Bahrain the ternn covers

"two islands, siituated between one and two nautical miles off the
southern coast of Jazirat Hawar, which merge into a single island at
low tide. The two islands have a combined surface area of just over
0.1 km' and are called Janan and Hadd Janan. Generally, however,
they are referretl to together simply as 'Janan'."

In this regard, Qatar states that,

"at the location of 'Hadd Janan' as indicated on the Bahraini charts,
there is a small area of sandy bottom which is below water at low
tide. Therefore, leaving aside the question of whether Bahrain's

claim to two isliands would be admissible, given that the issue sub-
mitted to the Court in this respect was entitled 'the island of Janan',
the geographical facts simply do not provide a basis for Bahrain to
claim a second island."

Bahrain denies this contention by Qatar in the following terms: "[tlo
avoid al1 misunderstanding, Bahrain rejects the implication that [thela compétence de la Cour pour connaître du titre surJanan ne s'étendpas
à Hadd Janan, que ce soit directement ou accessoirement)) et en ajoutant
ce qui suit: <<QueHadd Janan soit le prolongement de Janan ou une for-
mation insulaire située dans les eaux territoriales de Janan, il n'en reste
pas moins qu'il relèvede Bahreïn. ))
150. La Cour constate que Qatar n'a pas formellement soulevé la

question de la recevabilitéde la demande bahreïnite concernant «Hadd
Janan)). En tout état de cause, puisque, pour Qatar, Hadd Janan est
«une petite étendue de fonds sablonneux qui demeure immergéeà marée
basse; et que, pour Bahreïn, elle ne forme plus qu'une île avec Janan à
maréebasse, la Cour estime pouvoir traiter Janan et Hadd Janan comme
une seule île.

151. Qatar revendique la souveraineté sur I'îlede Janan et se réfèreen
premier lieu A son argumentation relative aux îles Hawar. Il affirme que
((les raisons qui, selon lui, prouvent que les îles Hawar appartiennent à
Qatar, en particulier les principes régissantla proximité et la souveraineté
sur les îles situéesdans les eaux territoriales..s'appliquent égalementà
Janan». Il fait valoir en particulier que «toute île qui se situe en partia
moins de 3 milles de la laisse de basse mer de la côte continentale jouit

des avantages du régimeapplicable aux îles situéesentièrement en deçà
de cette limite de 3 milles)).
152. Bahreïn allègue pour sa part que «seule la moitiéde Janan ... [est]
en deçà de la limite [des 3 milles]» et que <<[l]aproximité n'est pas un
fondement de titre de souveraineté en droit international)), tout en ajou-
tant qu'~[e]n réalitéil y a proximitéentre Janan et les îles Hawar, et [que]

la souveraineté sur les îles Hawar revient à Bahreïn)).
153. Qatar soutient en deuxième lieu

«qu'en 1939,lorsque le Gouvernement britannique décidaindûment
que les îles Hawar appartenaient à Bahreïn et non à Qatar, les lettres
adressées aux souverains respectifs des deux Etats par le résident
politique britannique dans le Golfe ne contenaient aucune indication
quant à ce qu'il convenait d'entendre par l'expression «îles Hawar» ...
Ce n'est qu'en 1947, lors de l'établissementd'une ligne de délimita-
tion des fonds marins, que les Britanniques vinrent circonscrire le

groupe des îles Hawar par le tracéd'une enclave qui laissait Janan à
l'extérieur. Enoutre, la décisionbritannique énoncéedans les lettres
du 23 décembre 1947comportait la mention expresse suivante: «Il y
a lieu de relever que l'île de Janan n'est pas considéréecomme fai-
sant partie du groupe des Hawar .»... Aux yeux du Gouvernement
britannique, la cause était donc entendue: en se prononçant en 1939

sur l'attribution des îles Hawar, ils n'avaient nullement reconnu la
souverainetéde Bahreïn sur l'îlede Janan. La précisionqu'ils appor-
tèrent sur ce point en 1947apparaissait à leurs yeux comme prolon-
geant en quelque sorte leur décisionantérieure.»

154. Bahreïn rejette l'argumentation ainsi développéepar Qatar et
expose ce qui suit : MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT)86

Court's] jurisdiction over title to Janan does not extend, whether directly
or incidentally, to H.add Janan", adding: "Whether Hadd Janan is an
extension of Janan or an island formation within Janan's territorial
waters, the fact rema.insthat it pertains to Bahrain."

150. The Court notes that Qatar has not formally raised the question
of the admissibility of Bahrain's claim concerning "Hadd Janan". In any
event, since, for Qatar, Hadd Janan is "a small area of sandy bottom
below water at low t.ideWa ,nd, for Bahrain, forms only one island with
Janan at low tide, the Court considers itself entitled to treat Janan and
Hadd Janan as one island.

151. Qatar claims sovereignty over Janan Island, and relies in the first

instance on its argument in regard to the Hawar Islands. It maintains
that: "the reasons given by it to show that the Hawar islands belong to
Qatar, in particular the principles governing proximity and sovereignty
over islands in territclrial waters. . apply equally to Janan". It argues in
particular that "any island which falls partially within a 3-mile limit
drawn from the low-water line along the mainland enjoys the benefit of
the régimeapplicable to islands located wholly within that 3-mile limit".

152. For its part, Bahrain contends that "only half of Janan . . .lie[s]
within the 3-mile lirriit" and that "[plroximity is not a basis for title in
international law", adding that "[iln point of fact, there is the proximity
of Janan to the Hawars, over which Bahrain has sovereignty".

153. Qatar contends secondly that

"in 1939, when the British Government wrongly decided that the
Hawar Islands belonged to Bahrain and not to Qatar, the letters
addressed to thr: respective Rulers of the two States by the British
Political Resident in the Persian Gulf contained no indication as to
what the expression 'Hawar Islands' meant . ..It was only in 1947,
at the time of tlhedetermination of a seabed delimitation, that the
British circumsc-ribedthe Hawar Islands group by drawing an enclave
that left Janan on the outside. Furthermore, the British decision
announced in the letters of 23 December 1947contained the follow-
ing statement :'lltshould be noted that Janan Island is not regarded

as being included in the islands of the Hawar group' . . In the eyes
of the British Government, matters were quite clear: in deciding in
1939upon the attribution of the Hawar Islands, they had in no way
recognized Bahirain'ssovereignty over Janan Island. The clarifica-
tion they provided on this point in 1947in a sense, in their eyes, pro-
longed their earlier decision."

154. Bahrain rejects this argument by Qatar in the following terms:87 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÊT)

«Le dossier montre que la sentence de 1939reconnaissait la sou-
verainetéde Bahreïn sur Janan parce que celle-cifaisait partie inté-
grante des îles Hawar. Janan figurait sur la liste des îles que Bahreïn
a soumise au Gouvernement britannique. Janan a étéconsidérée
comme faisant partie des îles Hawar lors des négociations relatives
aux concessions pétrolières desannées trente. Bahreïn a installé des
balises sur Janan en 1939,suite à la décisionde 1939,etc. Dans les
années quarante, un certain nombre de communications britan-
niques peu cohérentes ont traité Janan de manière contradictoire.
Dans son contre-mémoire. Bahreïn a passéces communications en

revue pour démontrer que l'on peut facilement replacer dans leur
contexte les divergences d'objectifs et les confusions souvent com-
préhensiblesconcernant les îles du groupe des Hawar. En tout état
de cause, mêmeles fonctionnaires britanniques ont acceptéle carac-
tère définitifde l'arbitrage de 1939. Bahreïn défenddevant la Cour
l'idéeque cet arbitrage, qui a établi la souveraineté de Bahreïn sur
les îles Hawar, s'étendaità Janan.))

155. Bahreïn fait également valoir qu'il<(aaussi établi...sa souverai-
netésur l'îlede Janan en se fondant sur l'utilisation de cette île par des
sujets bahreïnites et sur l'autoritéqu'y exerçaitle souverain deahreïn)).
Il cite notamment à cet égard l'utilisation régulièrede Janan par des
pêcheurs bahreïnites, «tenus d'obtenir l'autorisation du souverain de
Bahreïn pour y construire des cabanes)), et l'installation ((de balises en
1939après la décisionbritannique attribuant les îles Hawar à Bahreïnn.

156. Qatar, pour sa part, soutient que cc[n]esaurait ...êtreprésenté
comme un indice de souveraineté le fait que des sujets bahreïnites aient
utiliséI'îlede Janan pour mener des activitésde pêchedans leseaux avoi-

sinantes)), et nieque les pêcheursbahreïnites ...devaient obtenir l'auto-
risation préalable du souverain de Bahreïn afin de pouvoir y dresser des
huttes ou des abris sommaires)).Concernant l'argument de Bahreïn rela-
tif au balisage de Janan, Qatar allègue qu'«une telle activitén'est pas
considéréeen soi comme étant une manifestation de souveraineté)) et
qu'«[e]lle ne peut généralementêtreprise en considération qu'à titre, en
quelque sorte, surabondant)). 11précise enoutre ce qui suit:

«Selon lajurisprudence internationale la mieux établie, une valeur
probante ne peut s'attacher qu'à des actes qui se rapportentà I'exer-
cice de fonctions étatiques: législation,administration, juridiction.
Or, l'installation de feux, de balises ou de bouées.ne permet pas
d'en déduireque 1'Etat ayant procédé à cette installation a agi en
tant que souverain territorial»

157. La Cour, ainsi qu'elle l'a faitdans le cas des revendications des
Parties sur les îles Hawar, examinera tout d'abord les effets de la décision
britannique de 1939 quant à la question de la souveraineté sur I'îlede
Janan. Comme elle l'a indiquéprécédemment,aux termes de cette déci- "The record shows that the 1939Award recognized Bahrain's sov-
ereignty over Janan as part of the Hawars. The list of islands which
Bahrain submitted to the British Government included Janan. Janan
was considered part of the Hawars during oil concession negotia-
tions in the 1930s. Janan was beaconed by Bahrain in 1939, follow-

ing the 1939 decision and so on. In the 1940s. a number of incon-
sistent British communications dealt with Janan in a contradictory
fashion. In its Counter-Memorial, Bahrain reviewed those commu-
nications to show that the differing objectives and frequently under-
standable confusions about the islands in the Hawars group can
easily be placed in context. In any case, even the British officials

accepted the finality of the 1939 arbitration. Bahrain submits to the
Court that that arbitration, which established Bahrain's sovereignty
over the Hawar:~,included Janan."

155. Bahrain further argues that "Bahrain has also established . . . its

sovereignty over Janan Island on the basis of that island's use by Bah-
raini subjects and the Ruler of Bahrain's exercise of authority over the
Island". In this regard it cites inteuliu the regular use of Janan by Bah-
raini fishermen, who were "required to obtain the Ruler of Bahrain's per-
mission before they could erect huts on the island", and the fact that the
island "had been beaconed by Bahrain in 1939,following the British deci-
sion awarding the Hawar Islands to Bahrain".

156. For its part, Qatar contends that "the fact that Bahraini subjects
used Janan for fishinigactivities around it [cannot] serve as an indication
of sovereignty", and denies that "the Bahraini fishermen visiting this
island had to obtairi prior authorization from the Ruler of Bahrain in
order to put up huts or simple shelters". With regard to Bahrain's argu-
ment concerning the beaconing of Janan, Qatar contends that "this kind

of activity cannot in itself be considered as a manifestation of sover-
eignty" and that "[ili.can generally only be taken into account as a form
of subsidiary consideration". It goes on to state the following:

"According to the most well-established international jurispru-
dence, probativ'e value can attach only to activities relating to the
exercise of State functions: legislation, administration, jurisdiction.

It cannot be inferred from the installation of lights, beacons or
buoys that the State carrying out such installations was acting asthe
territorial sovereign."

157. The Court, alsit has done in regard to the Parties' claims to the
Hawar Islands, will begin by considering the effects of the British deci-
sion of 1939 on the question of sovereignty over Janan Island. As has
already been stated, in that decision the British Government concluded88 DELIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRET)

sion, le Gouvernement britannique avait conclu que les îles Hawar
«appart[enaient] à 1'Etat de Bahreïn et non à 1'Etatde Qatar)). Aucune
mention n'étaitfaite de I'îlede Janan. Il n'était cependantpas préciséce
qu'il convenait d'entendre par l'expression«îles Hawar)). Les Parties ont
dèslors longuement discuté de la question de savoir si Janan devait être
regardéecomme faisant partie des îles Hawar et si, par suite, elle relevait
de la souveraineté bahreïnite en vertu de la décisionde 1939 ou si, au
contraire, elle n'étaitpas couverte par cette décision.

158. A l'appui deleurs thèses respectives,Qatar et Bahreïn ont invoqué
des documents tant antérieurs que postérieurs à la décisionbritannique
de 1939.Qatar s'est enparticulier fondé sur une «décision»du Gouver-
nement britannique de 1947ayant trait à la délimitationdes fonds marins
entre les deux Etats. La Cour examinera maintenant cette documenta-
tion, telle qu'elle a été présentépear les Parties pour étayerleurs thèses
respectives.
159. Bahreïn a rappelé qu'il avait soumis quatre listes au Gouverne-
ment britannique en avril 1936, août 1937, mai 1938et juillet 1946, au
sujet de la composition des îles Hawar. Il a expliquéde la manière sui-
vante, pour chacune de ces listes, les circonstances de sa présentation:

«La première listea été soumise à la findu mois d'avril 1936dans

le cadre des négociationsconcernant une concession pétrolière visant
le secteur non attribué de Bahreïn ...Cet exposéénuméraitles îles
qui, selon le souverain, faisaient partie'époque desîles Hawar. 11
ne visait nullementà I'exhaustivité.
L'importance de la liste de 1936 tient au fait que I'îlede Janan
était incluse dans ce qui semble êtrela première affirmation écrite
officiellepar Bahreïn de sa souverainetésurlesîlesHawar ...[Ll'agent
politique britannique n'a pas tenu compte de la liste de 1936lorsqu'il
a formulésa recommandation en 1947au sujet de la délimitationdes
fonds marins entre Bahreïn et Qatar.
La deuxième liste a été soumiseen août 1937 à la suite de la
demande adresséepar le Gouvernement britannique au souverain de
Bahreïn priant celui-cid'indiquer les îlesqu'ilconsidérait commefai-

sant partie de ses possessions. L'île de Janan n'est pas mentionnée
expressémentdans cette liste qui ne reprend toutefois pas non plus
les autres îles qui étaienténuméréedsans la liste précédente,notam-
ment l'île principale de Hawar...[Clompte tenu du territoire claire-
ment délimitéde la concession que Bahreïn offrait àl'époque à PCL
[Petroleum Concessions Ltd.] avec l'assentiment de la Grande-
Bretagne, il est parfaitement clair que l'île de Janan était consi-
déréecomme étantl'une des «neuf» îles constituant l'«archipel des
Hawar)) ...
La troisième liste, soumise en mai 1938,étaitjointe à un exposé
préliminaire des élémentd se preuve produits à l'occasion de I'arbi-
trage relatif aux îles Hawa...
Cette annexe énumère ...les îles ou rochers où Bahreïn avaitthat the Hawar Islands "belong[ed] to the State of Bahrain andnot to the
State of Qatar". No mention was made of Janan Island. Nor was it speci-
fied what was to be understood by the expression "Hawar Islands". The
Parties have accordingly debated at length over the issue of whether
Janan fell to be regarded as part of the Hawar Islands and whether, as a
result, it pertained t,oBahrain's sovereignty by virtue of the 1939decision
or whether, on the contrary, it was not covered by that decision.

158. In support of their respective arguments, Qatar and Bahrain have
each cited documents both anterior and posterior to the British decision
of 1939.Qatar has in particular relied on a "decision" by the British Gov-

ernment in 1947 re:lating to the sea-bed delimitation between the two
States. The Court vliilnow examine these documents, as they were sub-
mitted by the partit:^in support of their respective arguments.

159. Bahrain recalled that it had submitted four lists to the British
Government - in April 1936,August 1937,May 1938and July 1946 -
with regard to the composition of the Hawar Islands. It explained as fol-
lows, in respect of each of those lists, the circumstances of its submission:

"The first list was submitted at the end of April 1936,in the con-
text of the negotiations for an oil concession over the Bahrain un-
allotted area . . .The statement contailied a list of the islands con-
sidered by the Ruler at that time to be part of the Hawar Islands. It
did not in any way purport to be an exhaustive listing.
The significance of the 1936list lies in the fact that Janan Island
was included iriwhat appears to be the first forma1written statement
by Bahrain of its sovereignty over the Hawar Islands . . .[tlhe 1936
list was ignored by the British Political Agent when making his

recommendation in 1947regarding the seabed delimitation between
Bahrain and Qatar.
The second list was submitted in August 1937 in response to a
request by the British Government for a list setting out the islands
the Ruler of Bahrain considered to be among his dominions. No
mention is made specifically of Janan Island in that list. However,
neither is any mention made of the other islands that were identified
in the previou:; list, including the main island of Hawar . . .in the
light of the clearly demarcated concession area that Bahrain was
offering to PC'L[Petroleum Concessions Ltd.] at the time, with Brit-
ain's acquiesci:nce, it is abundantly clear that Janan Island was
understood to be one of the 'nine'[islands]considered to constitute
the 'Howar archipelago' . ..

The third list was submitted .. . in May 1938,as an attachment to
a preliminary statement of evidence submitted in connection with
the Hawar Islands arbitration .. .

The attachrrient . . provide[s] a listing of those islands or rocks installé une balise à la date à laquelle cette liste a été établ.i.e.
Bahreïn n'a installéune balise sur Janan qu'après le 21 février1939
(correspondant à l'an 1358de l'hégire.)..

La dernièredes quatre listes a été soumiseen juillet 1946. Elle est

qualifiéede liste complète des ((cairns qui ont étéconstruits sur les
divers récifs et îles.en 1357et 1358[c'est-à-dire en 1938et 19391)).
Toutes les îlesnumérotées de1 à 18dans la liste étaientconsidérées
comme faisant partie des îles Hawar. L'îledeJanan y figurait sous le
numéro 15(ce qui confirme que la liste de 1938ne mentionnait que
lesiles de Bahreïn équipées d'unebalise).))

160. Qatar s'est référpéour sa part aux lettres en date du 23 décembre
1947. rédigéesen termes identiques, que l'agent politique britannique à
Bahreïn avait adresséesaux souverains de Qatar et de Bahreïn, et par les-
quelles le Gouvernement britannique partageait les fondsmarinsentre les
deux Etats (voir paragraphe 61 ci-dessus). II étaitprécisé dans ces lettres
que des droits souverains étaient reconnus à Bahreïn sur

((l'îleHawar, les îles du groupe des Hawar et les eaux territoriales
qui en relèvent etqui sont délimitées également selolnes principes
habituels du droit international ... Iy a lieu de relever que l'île de
Janan n'est pas considéréecomme faisant partie du groupe des
Hawar. ))

Qatar a expliquéque:
<<[àl]'époquede l'étudedu tracéde la frontière maritime, c'estla liste
de 1938, transmise avec l'«exposé préliminaire)) de Belgrave du
29 mai 1938,qui en vint a êtreconsidérée comme la liste mêmeayant
servi de base à la décisiondu 11juillet 1939)).

161. Bahreïn a quant iilui indiqué à ce sujet qu'en 1947((l'agentpoli-
tique britannique n'a[vait]pas tenu compte de la liste soumise par le sou-
verain de Bahreïn en 1936 ...[et avait] préférse fonder de manièrearbi-
traire et erronée sur la liste des îles et rochers équipésde balises, soumise
en 1938 ». 11a ajoutéque :

«Les lettres de 1947n'avaient pas pour objet de notifier aux sou-
verains une ((décision))qu'ils étaient tenusde respecter. Elles se bor-
naient a leur faire savoir que les autorités britanniques considéraient
désormaisles fondsmarins comme étant diviséspar la lignequi était
décrite, tout particulièrement dans leurs rapports avec les deux
sociétéspétrolières, la PCL [Petroleum Concessions Ltd.] et la

BAPCO [Bahrain Petroleum Company]. ))
162. Enfin, Qatar a fait valoir ce qui suit:

((Certes, Bahreïn conteste l'exclusion de Janan du groupe des îles
Hawar en reprochant aux autorités britanniques de s'êtreappuyées,
pour prononcer cette exclusion, sur la liste établiepar Belgravedans MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 89

which had been marked with a Bahraini beacon, as of the date the
list was submitt'ed.. . The Bahraini beacon on Janan was not con-
structed until sometime after 21 February 1939 (corresponding to
1358 A.H.) . . .
The last of i.he four lists was submitted in July 1946. It was
described as a complete list of 'the cairns which were erected on the
various reefs and islands . . .built during 1357and 1358[Le., 1938
and 19391'.All of the islands numbered 1through 18on the list were
considered to be part of the Hawar Islands. Janan Island was
included on the list as number 15. (This confirms the fact that the

1938 listwas orily a limited listing ofBahraini beaconed islands.)"
160. Qatar, for it:;part, has referred to the letters dated 23 December
1947,drafted in identical terms and sent by the British Political Agent in
Bahrain to the Rullers of Qatar and Bahrain, in which the sea-bed
between the two States wasdelimited by the British Government (see para-
graph 61 above). In those letters Bahrain was recognized as having
sovereign rights ovei-

"Hawar Island, the islands of the Hawar groupand the territorial
waters pertaining thereto and delimited again in accordance with the
usual principles of international law .. . It should be noted that
Janan Island is not regarded as being included in the islands of the
Hawar group."

Qatar has explained that
"[alt the time of the consideration of delimitation of the maritime

boundary, it was the 1938 list, sent with Belgrave's 'preliminary
statement' of 29 May 1938,which came to be regarded as the specific
list on the basis of which the decision of 11July 1939was made."
161. Bahrain, hov~ever,argued in this regard that in 1947"[tlhe British
Political Agent [hadllfailed to take into account the list submitted by the
Ruler of Bahrain in 1936 . . and [had]instead arbitrarily and mistakenly
relied on the list of beaconed islands and rocks submitted in 1938". It
further contended that:

"The purpose of the 1947letters was not to notify the Rulers of a
'decision'whickithey would be bound to respect. It was merely to
inform them that the British authorities would henceforth consider
the seabed as being divided by the line described in the letters, par-
ticularly in the course of their dealings with the two oil companies,
PCL [Petroleuni Concessions Ltd.] and BAPCO [Bahrain Petroleum
Company]."

162. Finally, Qatar has argued as follows:

"Admittedly, Bahrain challenges the exclusion of Janan from the
Hawar island group by criticising the British authorities for relying,
in making this exclusion, on the list established by Belgrave in his90 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÊT)

sa lettre du 29 mai 1938. Selon Bahreïn, en dressant cette liste,
Belgrave n'aurait pas eu l'intention d'identifiertoutes les îles com-
posant le groupe des Hawar, mais simplement d'énumérercelles sur
lesquelles des balises avaient été placées...Mais Bahreïn omet de
préciserque ..Belgrave [avait indiqué]expressément:«sur chacune
des îles il y a une balise en pierres».
Sichacune des îles du groupe des Hawar portait une balise, il était
indifférentque la liste fût celle des îles ou des numérosdes balises.
Janan n'avait pas été((balisé» ...àcette date,et ne figurait doncpas
sur cette liste. Comme la lettre de Belgrave déclarait que chaque île

du groupe des Hawar avait été balisée eé t numéraitces îles ou ces
balises, c'est donc que I'île de Janan n'était pas considéréea ,u
moment où les Britanniques allaient prendre leur décision,comme
faisant partie du groupe des îles Hawar. En somme la décisionde
1947 n'a fait qu'entériner sur ce point un fait admis en 1938 et
1939.»

163. La Cour constate qu'il n'y a pas identité entre les trois listes que
Bahreïn, avant 1939,a soumises au Gouvernement britannique au sujet
de la composition du groupe des Hawar. En particulier, I'îlede Janan ne
figure nommémentque sur l'une de ces trois listes. Quanà la quatrième
liste, différente elle-même des trois premières, elle mentionne expressé-
ment I'îlede Janan, mais elle n'a été soumiseau Gouvernement britan-
nique qu'en 1946,soit plusieurs annéesaprèsl'adoption de la décision de
1939. Ainsi, aucune conclusion certaine ne peut êtretiréede ces diffé-
rentes listes.

164. La Cour se penchera maintenant sur les lettres adressées le
23 décembre1947aux souverains de Qatar et de Bahreïn par l'agent poli-
tique britannique à Bahreïn. Par ces lettres, l'agent politique, agissant au
nom du Gouvernement britannique, informait les deux Etats du partage
de leurs fonds marins effectuépar le Gouvernement britannique. Or, ledit
gouvernement, qui avait adopté la décision de 1939 relative aux îles
Hawar, a entendu préciser,dans la dernière phrasede l'alinéa ii) du para-
graphe 4 de ces lettres, que «l'îlede Janan n'est pas considéréecomme fai-
sant partie du groupe des Hawarn (voir paragraphe 61 ci-dessus).Le Gou-
vernement britannique, par voie de conséquence,n'a pas «reconnu» au
cheikh de Bahreïn «des droits souverains))sur cette île et, pour la détermi-
nation des points fixésau paragraphe 5 de ces lettres (voir paragraphe 61
ci-dessus),comme pour l'établissement dela carte jointe auxdites lettres, a
regardéJanan comme appartenant à Qatar. La Cour considèreque, enpro-
cédant dela sorte, leGouvernement britannique a fourni une interprétation
faisant foi de la décisionde 1939et de la situation en résultant.
165. Compte tenu de l'ensemble de ce qui précède,la Cour ne saurait
accepter la thèsede Bahreïn selon laquelle le Gouvernement britannique,

en 1939, aurait reconnu «la souveraineté de Bahreïn sur Janan en tant letter of 29 May 1938.According to Bahrain, in formulating this list,
Belgrave did n~otintend to identify al1 the islands in the Hawar
group, but simply to list those on which beacons had been placed.
Yet Bahrain fails to mention that, ... Belgrave expressly stated: 'On
each of the islaiîds there is a Stone beacon'. . .

If each of the Hawar Islands bore a beacon, it would not matter
whether the list was a list of the islands or of the numbers of the
beacons. Janan had not been 'beaconed' . . at that date, and there-
fore was not on the list. As Belgrave'sletter stated that each island in
the Hawar group had been beaconed, and listed those islands or
those beacons, this must mean that Janan Island was not considered,
at the time the British were about to take their decision, as part of
the Hawar Islands group. The decision of 1947, therefore, merely
confirmed in this regard a fact accepted in 1938-1939."

163. The Court notes that the three lists submitted prior to 1939 by

Bahrain to the British Government with regard to the composition of the
Hawar group are n,ot identical. In particular, Janan Island appears by
name in only one of those three lists. As to the fourth list, which is dif-
ferent from the three previous ones, it does make express reference to
Janan Island, but if.was submitted to the British Government only in
1946, several years after the adoption of the 1939decision. Thus, no defi-
nite conclusion may be drawn from these various lists.

164. The Court willnow consider the letters sent on 23 December 1947
by the British Po1itic:alAgent in Bahrain to the Rulers of Qatar and Bah-
rain. By those letters the Political Agent acting on behalf of the British
Government informed the two States of the delimitation of their sea-beds
effected by the British Government. This Government, which had been
responsible for the 1939 decision on the Hawar Islands, sought, in the
last sentence of subparagraph 4 (ii) of these letters, to make it clear that
"Janan Island is not regarded as being included in the islands of the
Hawar group" (seeparagraph 61 above). The British Government accord-
ingly did not "recognize" the Sheikh of Bahrain as having "sovereign
rights" over that island and, in determining the points fixed in para-
graph 5 of those letters (see paragraph 61 above), as well as in drawing

the map enclosed with those letters, it regarded Janan as belonging to
Qatar. The Court considers that the British Government, in thus pro-
ceeding, provided a.n authoritative interpretation of the 1939 decision
and of the situation resulting from it.
165. Having regard to al1 of the foregoing, the Court cannot accept
Bahrain's argument that in 1939 the British Government recognized
"Bahrain's sovereigintyover Janan as part of the Hawars". It finds thatque partie intégrante des îles Hawar)). Elle conclut que Qatar a souverai-
neté sur l'île de Janan y inclus Hadd Janan, sur la base de la décision
prise par le Gouvernement britannique en 1939, telle qu'interprétéeen
1947.La Cour ne saurait donc accueillir la conclusion de Bahreïn sur ce
point.

166. La Cour passera maintenant à l'examen dela question de la déli-

mitation maritime.
167. LesParties conviennent que la Cour doit se prononcer sur la déli-
mitation maritime conformément au droit international. Ni Bahreïn ni
Qatar ne sont parties aux conventions de Genèvesur le droit de la mer du
29 avril 1958; Bahreïn a ratifiéla convention des Nations Unies sur le
droit de la mer du 10décembre1982,mais Qatar l'a seulement signée.En
conséquence,c'est le droit international coutumier qui est le droit appli-
cable. Cela étant, les deux Parties reconnaissent que la plupart des
dispositions de la convention de 1982 qui sont pertinentes en l'espèce
reflètentle droit coutumier.
168. Aux termes de la ((formule bahreïnitep, adoptée en décembre
1990,(voir lesparagraphes 67 et 69ci-dessus), lesParties ont priéla Cour
((detracer une limite maritime unique entre leurs zones maritimes respec-
tives, comprenant les fonds marins, le sous-sol et les eaux surjacentes)).

Dans ses conclusions finales, qui sont identiques aux conclusions qu'il
a présentéesdans la procédureécrite,Qatar a priéla Cour de ((tracer une
limite maritime unique entre les espaces maritimes comprenant les fonds
marins, le sous-sol et les eaux surjacentes qui relèvent respectivement de
1'Etatde Qatar et de I'Etat de Bahreïn ..».
Bahreïn, pour sa part, a demandé à la Cour de dire et juger que «la
limite maritime entre Bahreïn et Qatar est celle décritedans la deuxiéme
partie du mémoirede Bahreïn)). Il ressort de ce mémoireet des cartes qui
lui sont annexéesque Bahreïn demande, lui aussi, à la Cour de tracer une
limite maritime unique.
Les deux Parties ont ainsi priéla Cour de tracer une limite maritime
unique (voir ci-après, p. 92, croquisno 2).
169. Il ne faut pas oublier que le concept de ((limitemaritime unique))
peut revêtir plusieursfonctions. Dans la présente affaire, la limite mari-

time unique procédera de la délimitation dediversesjuridictions. Dans la
partie méridionale de l'aireà délimiter,qui est située làoù les côtes des
Parties se font face, la distance entre ces côtes n'est nullepart supérieure
à 24 milles marins. La limite que la Cour aura à tracer délimiteradonc
exclusivement leur mer territoriale et, de ce fait, un espace sur lequel les
Parties exercent une souveraineté territoriale.

170. Cependant, plus au nord, là où lescôtes des deux Etats ne se font
plus face, mais sont plutôt comparables àdes côtes adjacentes, la dèlimi-
tation à opérer sera une délimitation entre le plateau continental et laQatar has sovereignty over Janan Island including Hadd Janan, on the
basis of the decisiori taken by the British Government in 1939,as inter-
preted in 1947.The Court thus cannot uphold the submission of Bahrain
on this point.

166. The Court will now turn to the question of the maritime delimita-
tion.
167. The Parties are in agreement that the Court should render its

decision on the maritime delimitation in accordance with international
law. Neither Bahrain nor Qatar is party to the Geneva Conventions on
the Law of the Sea of 29 April 1958; Bahrain has ratified the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 but
Qatar is only a signatory to it. Customary international law, therefore, is
the applicable law. Both Parties, however, agree that most of the provi-
sions of the 1982 Convention which are relevant for the present case
reflect customary 1a.w.
168. Under the terms of the "Bahraini formula" adopted in December
1990(see paragraphs 67 and 69 above), the Parties requested the Court,
"to draw a single maritime boundary between their respective maritime
areas of seabed, subsoil and superjacent waters".
In its finalsubmiissions, which are identical to the submissions pre-
sented in the writteri proceedings, Qatar requested the Court to "draw a
single maritime boundary between the maritime areas of sea-bed, subsoil
and superjacent waters appertaining respectively to the State of Qatar
and the State of Balhrain . ..".

Bahrain for its part asked the Court to adjudge and declare that "the
maritime boundary between Bahrain and Qatar is as described in Part
Two of Bahrain's Memorial". From this Memorial and the maps annexed
thereto, it followstl-iatBahrain, too, is asking the Court to draw a single
maritime boundary.
Both Parties therefore requested the Court to draw a single maritime
boundary (see sketch-map No. 2, p. 92 below).
169. It should be kept in mind that the concept of "single maritime
boundary" may encompass a number of functions. In the present case the
single maritime boundary will be the result of the delimitation of various
jurisdictions. In the southern part of the delimitation area, which is situ-
ated where the coasts of the Parties are opposite to each other, the dis-
tance between these coasts is nowhere more than 24 nautical miles. The
boundary the Court is expected to draw will, therefore, delimit exclu-
sively their territorial seas and, consequently. an area over which they
enjoy territorial sovereignty.

170. More to the north, however, where the coasts of the two States
are no longer opposite to each other but are rather comparable to adja-
cent coasts, the delimitation to be carried out will be one between theCsaW. wr lequel
llormstim nkadvMI nomiigurWM un fomu sinviik, a Md6lebPseuleslin. dlliwuation.
II mmdju* p.sdaIPnaturde os<tais de cas~onnatim
Sourceamndurions6.a Pini-:nuimirsdeOemr, twM 17,Me 24:mdmoiredoBphmh, loms 7. cima 10,ll. 1301 19. MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 92

Sketch-map No 7 Lines Proposed by Qatar and Bahrain

Qatar

Th6 sketch-rnap onwhrh maritimefealuresareshownInslmpliliedform has&en prepared eurposesMcywp
IISwthoufpieludicetothenatureofceriainolmeseleatures
SourcessubmissionsofthePartiesMernorialofQatar Vol 17 Map24 Ml fBahtainVol 7 Maps10 113and1593 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÈT)

zone économique exclusive relevant de chacune des Parties, c'est-à-dire
entre des espaces dans lesquels ces Etats exercent seulement des droits
souverains et des compétencesfonctionnelles. Aussi les deux Parties ont-
elles entendu distinguer un secteur sud et un secteur nord.
171. Au cours de la procédure orale,Qatar a fait valoir que la Cour
n'a pas étépriéede déterminerd'une part une ligne délimitantles mers
territoriales respectives et d'autre part une ligne délimitant le plateau

continental et la zone économiqueexclusivede chacun des Etats, mais de
déciderdu tracé d'uneligne de délimitation unique,sans se préoccuperde
la désignation ni du statut international des différenteszones maritimes
concernées.Qatar a du reste signaléqu'au moment où l'instance a été
introduite, en 1991,la mer territoriale des deux Etats avait une largeur de
3 milles marins et que, par conséquent, la zone à délimiterdans le secteur
sud avait égalementun caractère polyvalent.
172. Par décreten date du 16avril 1992,Qatar a étendula largeur de
sa mer territorialeà 12 millesmarins; Bahreïn a fait de mêmepar décret
du 20 avril 1993. En conséquence,dans le secteur sud, on a désormais
affaire exclusivement à des mers territoriales qui se chevauchent partiel-
lement. Toutefois, selon Qatar, on pourrait difficilement admettre que

l'extension à 12 millesde la largeur des mers territoriales ait changé fon-
damentalement les donnéesdu problème de délimitation.
173. La Cour observe que le concept de limite maritime unique n'est
pas issu du droit conventionnel multilatéral mais de la pratique étatique
et qu'il s'expliquepar le vŒudes Etats d'établir unelimite ininterrompue
unique délimitant les différenteszones maritimes - coïncidant partielle-
ment - qui relèventde leur juridiction. Dans le cas de zones de juridic-
tion qui coïncident, la détermination d'une ligne unique pour les diffé-
rents objets de la délimitation

((ne saurait êtreeffectuéeque par l'application d'un critèreou d'une
combinaison de critèresqui ne favorise pas l'un de ces ..objets au
détriment de l'autre et soit en mêmetemps susceptible de convenir
également à une division de chacun d'eux)),

comme l'a relevé laChambre constituée par la Cour dans l'affaire du
Golfedu Maine (C. I.J.Recueil 1984, p. 327,par. 194).Dans cette affaire,
il avait étédemandé à la Chambre de tracer une ligne unique valant à la
fois pour le plateau continental et la colonne d'eau surjacente.
174. La délimitationdes mers territoriales ne soulèvepas de problèmes
de cegenrecar lesdroits de 1'Etatcôtier dans la zone concernéene sont pas
fonctionnels mais territoriaux et impliquent souverainetésur le fond de la
mer, leseaux surjacenteset l'espace aériesurjacent. La Cour,pour s'acquit-
ter de cet aspect de sa tâche, doit donc appliquer d'abord et avant tout les
principes et règlesdu droit international coutumier qui ont traità la déli-

mitation de la mer territoriale, sans oublier que sa tâche ultime consiste
tracer une limitemaritime unique qui soit valable aussi àd'autres fins.
175. Les Parties conviennent que les dispositions de l'article 15 de la
convention de 1982sur le droit de la mer qui est intitulé((Délimitationdecontinental shelf and exclusive economic zone belonging to each of the
Parties, areas in which States have only sovereign rights and functional
jurisdiction. Thus both Parties have differentiated between a southern
and a northern sector.
171. In the oral proceedings Qatar argued that the Court had not been
requested to determine, on the one hand, a line delimiting the respective
territorialseas and, on the other, a delimitation line for the continental
shelf and the exclusi.veeconomic zone of each State. but to decide on the

course of a single delimitation line, regardless of the'designation or inter-
national status of the various maritime areas. Qatar also drew attention
to the fact that, when the proceedings were initiated in 1991,the territo-
rial seas of both States had a breadth of 3 nautical miles and that conse-
quently the delimitai.ion area in the southern sector also had a multifunc-
tional character.
172. By a decree of 16April 1992,Qatar extended the breadth of its
territorial sea to 12 nautical miles; Bahrain did likewise by decree of
20 April 1993.As a result, the waters in the southern sector now consist
exclusivelyof territorial seas which partially overlap. According to Qatar
it would be difficult to accept, however, that the extension of the breadth
of the territorial seas to 12 nautical miles has radically changed the
parameters of the delimitation problem.
173. The Court observes that the concept of a single maritime bound-

ary does not stem from multilateral treaty law but from State practice,
and that it finds its explanation in the wish of States to establish one un-
interrupted boundary line delimiting the various - partially coincident
- zones of maritime jurisdiction appertaining to them. In the case of
coincident jurisdictional zones, the determination of a single boundary
for the different objects of delimitation
"can only be carried out by the application of a criterion, or combina-

tion of criteria, which does not give preferential treatment to one of
these .. .objectijto the detriment of the other, and at the same time is
such as to be equally suitable to the division of either of them",
as was stated by the Chamber of the Court in the Gulf of Maine case
(I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 327, para. 194). In that case, the Chamber was
asked to draw a single line which would delimitboth the continental shelf

and the superjacent water column.
174. Delimitation of territorial seas does not present comparable prob-
lems, since the righ1.sof the coastal State in the area concerned are not
functional but territorial, and entail sovereignty over the sea-bed and the
superjacent waters ,and air column. Therefore, when carrying out that
part of its task, the Court has to apply first and foremost the principles
and rules of international customary law which refer to the delimitation
of the territorial sea, whiletaking into account that its ultimate task is to
draw a single maritime boundary that serves other purposes as well.
175. The Parties agree that the provisions of Article 15 of the 1982
Convention on the Law of the Sea, headed "Delimitation of the territo-94 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRET)

la mer territoriale entre Etats dont les côtes sont adjacentes ou se font
face» font partie du droit coutumier. Cet article dispose:

((Lorsque les côtes de deux Etats sont adjacentes ou se font face,
ni l'un ni l'autre de ces Etats n'est en droit, sauf accord contraire
entre eux, d'étendresa mer territoriale au-delà de la ligne médiane
dont tous les points sont équidistants des points les plus proches des
lignes de base à partir desquelles est mesurée lalargeur de la mer
territoriale de chacun des deux Etats. Cette disposition ne s'applique
cependant pas dans le cas où, en raison de I'existencede titres his-
toriques ou d'autres circonstances spéciales,il est nécessairede déli-
miter autrement la mer territoriale des deux Etats.»

176. L'article 15de la convention de 1982est pratiquement identique
au paragraphe 1de l'article 12de la convention de 1958sur la mer terri-
toriale et la zone contiguë, et doit être regardé comme possédantun
caractère coutumier. Il y est souvent fait référencecomme à la règle
«équidistance/circonstances spéciales». Laméthode la plus logique et la
plus largement pratiquée consiste à tracer d'abord à titre provisoire une

ligne d'équidistanceet à examiner ensuite si cette ligne doit êtreajustée
pour tenir compte de I'existence de circonstances spéciales.Une fois
qu'elle aura délimitésur cette base les mers territoriales des Parties, la
Cour déterminera quels sont les règleset principes du droit coutumier a
appliquer pour la délimitation de leurs plateaux continentaux et de leurs
zones économiquesexclusives ou de leurs zones de pêche.La Cour déci-
dera alors si la méthode à retenir pour opérer cette délimitationest simi-
laire a celle qui vient d'être décriou si elle est différente.
177. La ligne d'équidistanceest la ligne dont chaque point est équidis-
tant des points les plus proches des lignes de basepartir desquels la lar-
geur de la mer territoriale de chacun des deux Etats est mesurée.Elle ne
peut être tracée que lorsqueles lignes de base sont connues. Ni l'une ni

l'autre des Parties n'a encore précisé quellessont les lignes de base qui
doivent êtreutiliséesaux fins de la détermination de la larguur de leur
mer territoriale; elles n'ont pas davantage produit de cartes ou de cartes
marines officielles où figuraient de telles lignes de base. Ce n'est qu'au
cours de la présenteprocédurequ'ellesont fourni a la Cour des points de
base approximatifs que la Cour pourrait, à leur avis, utiliser pour déter-
miner la limite maritime.

178. La Cour déterminera donc en premier lieu les côtes pertinentes
des Parties,à partir desquelles sera fixél'emplacement des lignes de base

ainsi que des points de base appropriés permettant de construire la ligne
d'équidistance.
179. Qatar a fait valoir que, aux fins de la présentedélimitation, la
ligne d'équidistance devrait être construitepar application de la méthode
de calcul de masse terrestre à masse terrestre. Le concept de ((masseterrestre)) s'appliquerait taàtla péninsulede Qatar, àlaquelle ilconvien-
drait d'intégrerI'ileprincipale du groupe des Hawar, qu'à Bahreïn, pour
lequel devraient êtreprises en considération l'îleAl-Awal (aussi appelée
île de Bahreïn) ainsi que les îles Al-Muharraq et Sitrah. L'application
de la méthode de calcul de masse terrestre a masse terrestre aurait deux
conséquencesprincipales.
En premier lieu, elle aurait pour effet de ne tenir aucun compte des îles
(sous réservedes îles précitéesde Hawar du côté qatari et d'Al-Awal,
d'Al-Muharraq et de Sitrah du côté bahreïnite), îlots, rochers, récifset
hauts-fonds découvrants situés dans la zone pertinente. Selon Qatar,

dans la zone de délimitation,on dénombrerait ((une multitude de forma-
tions insulaires, rocheuses, coralliennes ou sablonneuses)). Ces forma-
tions seraient peu significativesen raison de leur exiguïté, enraison de
leur localisation et, pour ce qui est des hauts-fonds, en raison de leur
qualification)). Ces formations consisteraient pour la plupart en de
toutes petites îles inhabitées, voire en de simples rochers proprement
inhabitables, et correspondraient en réalitéà ce qui est souvent présenté
dans la jurisprudence internationale comme des ((formations maritimes
mineures)),c'est-à-dire, pour reprendre les termes de l'arrêt rendu parla
Chambre chargéede connaître de l'affaire du Golfe du Maine,

«le type d'accident géographique mineurdont ...il convient de faire
abstraction sil'on veut qu'une ligne de délimitation aboutisseautant
que possible à une division par parts égalesdes zones de chevauche-

ment des projections maritimes respectives des deux pays» (C. I.J.
Recueil 1984, p. 332, par. 210).

Ce qui vaut a l'égarddes îlots vaudrait à fortiori pour les hauts-fonds
découvrants.
En second lieu, selon Qatar, la mise en ceuvrede la méthodede calcul
de masse terrestre à masse terrestre impliquerait égalementque la ligne
d'équidistance devraitêtreconstruite àpartir de la laisse de haute mer. Il
conviendrait de distinguer nettement entre la détermination de la limite
extérieurede la mer territoriale d'un Etat ou de toute autre entité terri-
toriale et la fixation d'une limite maritime entre deux Etats dont lescôtes
se font face. Le choix de la laisse de basse mer comme ((ligne de base
normale)) pour déterminer la limite extérieure de la mer territoriale
n'impliquerait pas nécessairementque la même laisse debasse mer soit la

ligne de base à partir de laquelle la ligne d'équidistancedoit êtrecons-
truite. Le recoursà la laisse de basse mer ne serait pas une règleobliga-
toire de portée généralee,t le recoursà la laisse de haute mer sejustifie-
rait, précisémentpour parvenir a une délimitation équitable,tant d'un
point de vue technique que juridique. Qatar relèvenotamment que la
laisse de basse mer est par définition précaire,subjective, voire arbitraire,
dans la mesure où elle est susceptible de varier dans le temps, tandis que
la laisse de haute mer permet un tracé sûr et objectif, car elle est relati-
vement invariable.applies both to the Qatar peninsula, which should be understood as
including the main Hawar Island, and to Bahrain, of which the islands to
be taken into consitleration are al-Awal (also called Bahrain Island),
together with al-Mu.harraq and Sitrah. For Qatar, application of the
mainland-to-mainland method has two main consequences.

First, it takes no account of the islands (except for the above-
mentioned islands,Hawar on the Qatar sideand al-Awal, al-Muharraq and
Sitrah on the Bahrain side), islets, rocks, reefs or low-tide elevations lying
in the relevant area. According to Qatar, the delimitation area contains
"[a] multitude of island, rock, coral or sand formations". These features
are said to be of littli: significance"because of their small size,their loca-
tion and in the case of the low-tide elevations, their legal characteriza-
tion". The majority are very small, uninhabited islands, or even simply
rocks that are quite uninhabitable, and correspond in reality to what are

often referred to in international case-law as "minor geographical
features", in other words, to repeat the words used in the Judgment given
by the Chamber dealing with the Gulf of Maine case:

"the . . .type of minor geographical features which . . should be
discounted if itlisdesired that a delimitation line should result so far
as feasible inan equal division of the areas in which the respective
maritime projec:tions of the two countries' coasts overlap" (I.C.J.
Reports 1984, p. 332, para. 210).

Qatar argues that what applies for islets is valid a fortiori for low-tide
elevations.
Second, in Qatar's view, application of the mainland-to-mainland
method of calculation would also mean that the equidistance line has to
be constructed by reference to the high-water line. A clear distinction

must be drawn between the determination of the outer limit of the terri-
torial sea of a State or other territorial entity, and the delimitation of a
maritime boundary between two States with opposite coasts. The fact
that the low-water line is "the normal baseline" for determining the outer
limit of the territorial sea does not for Qatar necessarily mean that the
same low-water line is the baseline from which an equidistance line must
be constructed. In Qatar's view, the low-water line rule is not obligatory
as a rule of general application, and the use of the high-water line isjus-
tified on both technical and legal grounds, precisely in order to achieve
an equitable delimitation. Qatar contends in particular that the low-
water line is by definition precarious, subjective or even arbitrary, in so
far as it may Varyw:ithtime, whereas the high-water line can be drawn in
a sure and objective way, being relativelyinvariable. 180. Bahreïn a soutenu êtrede facto un Etat archipel ou un Etat pluri-
insulaire,caractérisépar une variétéde formations maritimes de nature et
de dimensions diverses. Toutes ces formations seraient étroitement liées
entre elles et constitueraient ensemble1'Etatde Bahreïn; réduire cetEtat
à un nombre limité d'îlesprétendument ((principales ))reviendraità remo-
deler la nature eta refaire la géographie.Puisque c'est la terre qui déter-
mine lesdroits exercésen mer, lespoints de base pertinents seraient situés
sur l'ensemble de ces formations maritimes, sur lesquelles Bahreïn a sou-
veraineté.
Bahreïn a égalementsoutenu que, selon le droit international conven-
tionnel et coutumier, c'est la laisse de basse mer qui est déterminante et

sert pour calculer la largeur de la mer territoriale et délimiter leseaux
territoriales qui se chevauchent.
181. Bahreïn a enfin soutenu que, en tant qu'Etat archipel de fucto, il
est en droit de déclarer qu'il estun Etat archipel au sens de la partiede
la convention de 1982sur le droit de la mer et de tracer les lignesde base
autoriséespar l'article 47 de cette convention, c'est-à-dire«des lignes de
base archipélagiques droites reliant les points extrêmes desîles les plus
éloignées et des récifsdécouvrants de l'archipel)).Bahreïn s'estime fondé
à se déclarer Etat archipel parce que le rapport de la superficie de ses
eaux à celle de ses terres est, quel que soit le moment auquel est mesuré
le niveau de la marée, largement dans les limites du rapport prévupar
l'article 47 susvisé, soit un rapport ((compris entre 1 à I et 1 a 9)).
Bahreïn observe qu'il a fait valoir son statut d'Etat archipel dans sa
correspondance diplomatique avec d'autres Etats ainsi qu'au cours de

négociationsmultilatérales depuis un siècle. Il prétend enoutre qu'ilétait
sur le point de se déclarerEtat archipel, mais qu'il ena été empêchpé ar
l'engagementde ne pas modifier le statu quo,pris dans lecadrede la média-
tion du Roi d'Arabie saoudite et qui n'expirera que lorsque sera rendu
l'arrêt dela Cour. 11affirme de surcroît que le droit qu'il a de se déclarer
Etat archipel est un choix qu'il est libre d'exercer, etqui n'est passubor-
donné à la reconnaissance de tiers ni sujet a forclusion.
182. Qatar a contesté la prétention de Bahreïn selon laquelle celui-ci
serait en droit de se déclarerEtat archipel au sens de la partie IV de la
convention de 1982;il soutient notamment que cette partie ne reflètepas
le droit coutumier et que, par conséquent, elle ne lui est pas opposable.
Bahreïn n'aurait par ailleurs jamais prétendu au statut d'archipel, que ce
soit dans ses relations avec Qatar ou avec d'autres Etats; la raison fon-
damentale en serait que Bahreïn aurait du mal à prouver qu'il remplitles

conditions prescrites à cet effet par la convention de 1982,en particulier
celle prévueau paragraphe 1de l'article 47 en ce qui concerne le rapport
de la superficie des eaux et celle des terres. Dans ses conclusions finales,
Qatar a priéla Cour de dire que toute demande de Bahreïn concernant
des lignes de base archipélagiques seraitsans pertinence aux fins de la
délimitation maritime à opéreren l'espèce.
183. S'agissant de la prétention de Bahreïn selon laquelle cet Etat
aurait droit au statutd'Etat archipel au sens de la convention de 1982sur 180. Bahrain contends that it is a de facto archipelago or multiple-
island State, characterized by a variety of maritime features of diverse
character and size. A!Ilthese features are closely interlinked and together
they constitute the State of Bahrain; reducing that State to a limited
number of so-called "'principal" islands would be a distortion of reality
and a refashioning of geography. Since it is the land which determines
maritime rights, the relevant basepoints are situated on al1those mari-
time features over which Bahrain has sovereignty.

Bahrain further cointendsthat, according to conventional and custom-
ary international law, it is the low-water line which is determinative for
the breadth of the territorial sea and for the delimitation of overlapping

territorial waters.
181. Finally, Bahr.ainhas stated that, as a defacto archipelagic State,
it is entitled todeclare itself an archipelagic State under Part IV of the
1982Law of the Sea Convention and to draw the permissive baselines of
Article 47 of that Convention, Le.,"straight archipelagic baselinesjoining
the outermost point:; of the outermost islands and drying reefs of the
archipelago". Bahrain justifies its entitlement to declare itself an archi-
pelagic State on the $:roundsthat the ratio of sea to land in Bahrain lies,
at al1 moments of tidal measurement, well within the statutory spatial
ratio of the above-m'entionedArticle 47, namely a ratio "between 1 to 1
and 9 to 1". Bahrain notes that it has asserted its archipelagic claims in
its diplomatic correspondence with other States and during multilateral
negotiations over the:course of the last century. Further, it claims it has
been prepared to declare itself an archipelagic State but has been con-
strained from doing so by the undertaking not to modify the status quo
given in the framework of the mediation of the King of Saudi Arabia,
and that will lapse orilywith the judgment of this Court. It further asserts
that its entitlement to declare itself an archipelagic State is an option to

be exercised freely, and is neither contingent upon recognition by third
parties nor subject to time limitations.
182. Qatar has contested Bahrain's claim that it is entitled to declare
itself an archipelagic State under Part IV of the 1982Convention; it con-
tends inter aka that Part IV has not become customary law, and that
consequently it is not opposable to it. Moreover, Bahrain has never pro-
duced a claim of archipelagic status, either as regards its relations with
Qatar or with respect to other States; the basic reason for this is that
Bahrain would have difficulty in proving that it meets the relevant
requirements of the 1982Convention, in particular the requirement relat-
ing to the ratio of the area of water to the area of land provided for in
Article 47, paragrapln 1.In its final submissions Qatar asked the Court to
declare that any claim by Bahrain concerning archipelagic baselines are
irrelevant for the purpose of maritime delimitation in the present case.

183. With regard to Bahrain's claim that it is entitled to the status of
archipelagic State in the sense of the 1982Convention on the Law of the97 DELIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRET)

le droit de la mer, la Cour constate que Bahreïn n'a pas fait de cette
revendication l'une de ses conclusions formelles et que, partant, elle n'est
pas priéede prendre position sur cette question. En revanche, ce que la
Cour est appelée à faire, c'est tracer une limite maritime unique confor-
mémentau droit international. La Cour ne peut procéder à cette délimi-

tation qu'en appliquant les règleset principes du droit coutumier perti-
nents dans les circonstances actuelles. L'arrêtde la Cour aura force
obligatoire pour les Parties en litige conformément l'article 59du Statut
de la Cour et ne saurait par suite êtreremis en cause par l'action unila-
téralede l'uneou l'autre des Parties, et notamment par une décision éven-
tuelle de Bahreïn de se proclamer Etat archipel.
184. La Cour s'attachera donc maintenant à déterminerles côtes per-
tinentesà partir desquelles la largeur de la mer territoriale de chacune des
Parties est mesurée.Elle rappelleàcet égard que,selon les règlesde droit
international applicables, la ligne de base normalepartir de laquelle est
mesuréela largeur de la mer territoriale est la laisse de basse mer le long
de la côte (article 5 de la convention de 1982sur le droit de la mer).
185. Dans des affaires antérieures, la Cour a dit clairement que les

droits sur la mer dériventde la souveraineté de 1'Etatcôtier sur la terre,
principe qui peut êtrerésumécomme suit: cla terre domine la mer»(Pla-
teau continentul de lun~erdu Nord, C.I.J. Recueil 1969. p. 51, par. 96;
Plateau continental de la mer Egée,C.I.J. Recueil 1978, p. 36, par. 86).
C'est donc la situation territoriale terrestre qu'il faut prendre pour
point de départ pour déterminer les droits d'un Etat côtier en mer.
Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l'article 12 1de la convention de 1982
sur le droit de la mer, qui reflètele droit international coutumier, les îles,
quelles que soient leurs dimensions, jouissentcet égarddu mêmestatut,
et par conséquent engendrent les mêmesdroits en mer que les autres
territoires possédant la qualitéde terre ferme.
186. Aux finsde déterminerquellessont lescôtes pertinentes de Bahreïn

et les lignes de base pertinentes du côté bahreïnite, la Cour doit d'abord
établirquelles îles relèventde la souveraineté bahreïnite.
187. Dans la partie de l'arrêt quiprécède (voirparagraphes 98 à 165),
la Cour a conclu que les îles Hawar appartiennent à Bahreïn et que l'île
de Janan appartient à Qatar. D'autres îles qui peuvent êtreidentifiées
dans l'aire de délimitation, et qui sont pertinentes aux fins de la délimita-
tion dans le secteur sud, sont Jazirat Mashtan et Umm Jalid qui,àmarée
haute, sont des îles de très petites dimensions, mais qui, marée basse,
ont une surface beaucoup plus étendue.Bahreïn revendique la souverai-
netésur ces îles, et cette revendication n'est pas contestéepar Qatar.
188. Les Parties s'opposent en revanche sur le point de savoir si Fasht
al Azm doit être réputé faire partie de l'île de Sitrah ou s'il s'agit d'un
haut-fond découvrant qui n'est pas naturellement relié à l'îlede Sitrah.

En 1982, Bahreïn a entrepris des travaux de terrassement pour la cons-
truction d'une usine pétrochimique, travaux au cours desquels un chenal
artificiel a étédragué, faisant communiquer les eaux des deux côtés de
Fasht al Azm. MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 97

Sea, the Court observes that Bahrain has not made this claim one of its
formal submissions a.ndthat the Court is therefore not requested to take
a position on this issue. What the Court, however, is called upon to do is
to draw a single maritime boundary in accordance with international law.
The Court can carry out this delimitation only by applying those rules
and principles of customary law which are pertinent under the prevailing
circumstances. The Judgment of the Court willhave binding force between
the Parties, in accordance with Article 59of the Statute of the Court, and
consequently could not be put in issueby the unilateral action of either of
the Parties, and in particular, by any decision of Bahrain to declare itself
an archipelagic State.
184. The Court, tkierefore,will accordingly now turn to the determina-
tion of the relevant toasts from which the breadth of the territorial seas

of the Parties is measured. In this respect the Court recalls that under the
applicable rules of international law the normal baseline for measuring
this breadth is the low-water line along the Coast (Art. 5, 1982Conven-
tion on the Law of the Sea).
185. In previous cases the Court has made clear that maritime rights
derive from the coastal State's sovereignty over the land, a principle
which can be summ;irized as "the land dominates the sea" (North Sea
Continental Shelf: 1.(7J. Reports 1969, p. 51, para. 96;Aegean Sea Con-
tinental SheIf;I.C.J. Reports 1978, p. 36, para. 86).
It is thus the terrestrial territorial situation that must be taken as start-
ing point for the determination of the maritime rights of a coastal State.
In accordance with Article 121,paragraph 2, of the 1982Convention on
the Law of the Sea, which reflects customary international law, islands,
regardless of their size, in this respect enjoy thesame status, and there-
fore generate the sanle maritime rights, as other land territory.

186. In order to determine what constitutes Bahrain's relevant coasts
and what are the relevant baselines on the Bahraini side, the Court must
first establish which islandscome under Bahraini sovereignty.
187. In the preceding part of the Judgment (see paragraphs 98 to 165)
the Court has concluded that the Hawar Islands belong to Bahrain and
that Janan belongs to Qatar. Other islands which can be identified in the
delimitation area which are relevant for delimitation purposes in the
southern sector are Jazirat Mashtan and Umm Jalid, islands which are at
high tide very small in size, but at low tide have a surface which is con-
siderably larger. Bahrain claims to have sovereignty over these islands, a
claim which is not contested by Qatar.
188. However, the:Parties are divided on the issue of whether Fasht al
Azm must be deemed to be part of the island of Sitrah or whether it is a
low-tide elevation which is not naturally connected to Sitrah Island. In
1982 Bahrain undertook reclamation works for the construction of a
petrochemical plant., during which an artificial channel was dredged

connecting the waters on both sides of Fasht al Azm.98 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÊT)

189. Selon Qatar, Fasht al Azm est un haut-fond découvrant, qui a
toujours étéséparéde I'îlede Sitrah par un chenal naturel (un ((chenal de
pêcheurs))) navigablemême à maréebasse; ce chenal naturel aurait été
combléau cours des travaux de construction de 1982comme le Drouve-
rait une circulaire technique d'un expert de Bahreïn, de mars 1982.
Bahreïn ne nie pas qu'il yait eu et qu'il yait encore des échancrures
naturelles sur Fasht al Azm, qui à maréebasse n'est nullement un banc
de sable plat, mais il nie que ces échancrures aient jamais constituéun
chenal séparantl'îlede Sitrah de Fasht al Azm, qui aurait éténavigable
marée basse. Bahreïn a fourni à la Cour un certain nombre de cartes

marines et de relevéshydrographiques, d'origine tant britannique que
bahreïnite, dont aucun n'indique I'existenced'un chenalnaturel séparant
Sitrah de Fasht al Azm, qui n'assécherait pasàmaréebasse, notamment
dans la zone couverte par la circulaire technique de 1982.
Les deux Parties ont présenté desrapports d'experts qui parviennent
des conclusions divergentes quant à I'existenced'un tel chenal navigable
en permanence.
190. Après avoir analysé attentivement les divers rapports, documents
et cartes soumis par les Parties, la Cour a étédans l'incapacité d'établir
s'il existait ou non un passage séparant de façon permanente I'île de
Sitrah de Fasht al Azm avant les travaux d'aménagementde 1982.Pour
les raisons qui seront exposées ultérieurement, la Cour n'en sera pas
moins à même d'opérerla délimitation sollicitéedans ce secteur, sans

avoir à se prononcer sur la question de savoir si Fasht al Azm doit être
regardécomme faisant partie de I'îlede Sitrah ou comme un haut-fond
découvrant (voir paragraphes 218-220ci-après).
191. Les Parties ont égalementadopté des points de vue diamétrale-
ment opposés sur la question de savoir si Qit'atradah est une île ou un
haut-fond découvrant. Qit'at Jaradah est une formation maritime, située
au nord-est de Fasht al Azm. Lorsque le Gouvernement britannique a
décidé,en 1947, de tracer une ligne partageant les fonds marins entre
Bahreïn et Qatar pour que les compagnies pétrolières puissentmener
leurs activitésdans la zone concernée,il a fait savoirsdeux Etats, par
des lettres datées du 23 décembre1947,qu'il reconnaissait au souverain
de Bahreïn «des droits souverains sur la région deshauts-fonds de Dibal
et de Jaradah qui affleurent aux maréesbasses de vive eau»,bien que ces

deux formations maritimes soient situéesdu côtéqatari de la ligne. Il a
ajoutéque «ces hauts-fonds ne [devaient] pas êtreconsidéréscomme des
îles possédantdes eaux territoriales)) (voir paragraphe ci-dessus).
192. 11ressort clairement de ce qui précèdequ'au moment où la ligne
de 1947 a été tracée le Gouvernement britannique estimait que Qit'at
Jaradah et Fasht ad Dibal n'étaient pasdes îles. Toutefois, Bahreïn a
soutenu que, d'après des indications très fiables, dès avant 1947, Qit'at
Jaradah étaitune île restant émergéeà maréehaute et qu'en tout état de
cause elle l'étaitcertainement après cette date. A ce sujet, Bahreïn a
invoquéun certain nombre de dépositions de témoins oculairespour les-
quels il étaitévidentqu'une partie du banc de sable n'avait pas étérecou- 189. According to Qatar, Fasht al Azm is a low-tide elevation which
has always been separated from Sitrah Island by a natural channel (a
"fisherman's channel") which was navigable even at low tide; this natural
channel was filled during the 1982construction works, as evidenced by a
technical circular of an expert of Bahrain of March 1982.
Bahrain does not clenythat there are and have been natural inlets on
Fasht al Azm, which at low tide is by no means a flat sandbank, but
denies that these inlets have ever constituted a channel which would have
been navigable at low tide, separating the island of Sitrah from Fasht al

Azm. Bahrain has provided the Court with a number of maritime charts
and plots, both of British and of Bahraini origin, none of which indicates
the existence of a naitural channel separating Sitrah from Fasht al Azm
which does not dry aitlow tide, in particular in the area mentioned in the
1982technical circular.
Both Parties have submitted reports of experts which come to diver-
gent conclusions as to the existence of such a permanently navigable
channel.
190. After careful analysis of the various reports, documents and
charts submitted by the Parties, the Court has been unable to establish
whether a permanent passage separating Sitrah Island from Fasht al
Azm existed before the reclamation works of 1982were undertaken. For
the reasons explainecl below, the Court is nonetheless able to undertake
the requested delimitation in this sector without determining the question
whether Fasht al Azrn is to be regarded as part of the island of Sitrah or
as a low-tide elevation (see paragraphs 218-220 below).

191. Another issue:on which the Parties have totally opposing views is

whether Qit'at Jaradah is an island or a low-tide elevation. Qit'at Jara-
dah is a maritime feature, situated north-east of Fasht al Azm. When the
British Government (decidedin 1947to draw a line dividing the sea-bed
between Bahrain and Qatar in view of the operations of oil companies in
the area concerned, it informed the two States, by letters dated 23 Decem-
ber 1947, that it recognized the Ruler of Bahrain's "sovereign rights in
the areas of the Dibal and Jaradah shoals which are above the spring tide
low-water level", although these two maritime features were located on
the Qatari side of the line. It added that "these shoals should not be con-
sidered to be islands having territorial waters" (see paragraph 61 above).

192. From the foregoing it is clear that the British Government was of
the view that Qit'at Jaradah and Fasht ad Dibal were not islands at the
time the dividing line of 1947was drawn. Bahrain, however, contended
that there are strong: indications that even before 1947, Qit'at Jaradah
was an island that remained dry at high tide and that in any event, it

certainly was after tlhat date. It referred in this respect to a number of
eyewitness reports which concluded that it was evident that part of its
sandbank had not been covered by water for some time. Bahrain furtherverte d'eau depuis un certain temps. Bahreïn a également exposé qu'après
que la couche supérieurede sa surface eut étééliminée sur lesinstructions
de Qatar en 1986Qit'at Jaradah avait retrouvéson statut d'îlegrâce a un
phénomène naturelde sédimentation.
193. Qatar fait valoir que Qit'at Jaradah n'est pas et n'a jamais été
indiquésur lescartes marines comme une île, mais l'atoujours étécomme
un haut-fond découvrant, ce qui est conforme à sa véritable nature.
Mêmesi, à certaines périodes, ce haut-fond n'a pas été entièrement
recouvert à marée haute, ses caractéristiques physiques n'ont cesséde
changer et il ne devrait donc pas être considéré, à des fins juridiques,

comme autre chose qu'un haut-fond, malgré les tentatives faites par
Bahreïn en 1985-1986pour en modifier la nature.
194. Bahreïn a chargéun expert d'examiner la situation du point de
vue géographique;celui-cia conclu que Qit'at Jaradah, bien quede faible
superficie,est émergée enpermanence et est donc une île.Qatar a demandé
a deux experts d'évaluer cette conclusion, et ceux-ci ont estiméque les
étudesmenées en1998par l'expert bahreïnite <<nepermett[aien]t pas de
trancher définitivementla question de savoir sil'on étaiten présence d'un
îlot...ou d'un haut-fond découvrant...)).
195. La Cour rappelle qu'une île est définieen droit comme «une éten-
due naturelle de terre entouréed'eau quireste découverte à maréehaute))
(article 10,paragraphe 1,de la convention de 1958sur la mer territoriale
et la zone contiguë; article 121,paragraphe 1, de la convention de 1982
sur le droit de la mer). La Cour a examiné attentivement les élémentsde
preuve produits par les Parties et évaluéles conclusions des expertises
susmentionnées,en particulier le fait que lesexperts de Qatar eux-mêmes
n'aient pas soutenu qu'il étaitscientifiquement prouvéque Qit'atJaradah
soit un haut-fond découvrant. Sur ces bases, la Cour conclut que la

formation maritime de Qit'at Jaradah répond aux critères énumérés
ci-dessus et qu'il s'agitd'une île qui doit comme telle êtreprise en consi-
dération aux fins du tracéde la ligne d'équidistance.
196. Bahreïn soutient que Qit'at Jaradah se trouve sous sa souverai-
netécar il y a exercéson autorité de différentesfaçons, ce que le Gou-
vernement britannique avait reconnu en 1947. A cet égard,Bahreïn a cité
un certain nombre d'activités, ycompris la construction d'une balise, le
forage, sur son ordre, d'un puits artésien,l'octroi d'une concession pétro-
lièreet la délivranced'autorisations de poser des pièges poissons. Qatar
fait valoir que, en tant que haut-fond découvrant, Qit'atJaradah ne sau-
rait faire l'objet d'une appropriation et que, ce haut-fond étant situés
la partie de la mer territoriale qui lui appartient, c'est Qatar qui détient
des droits souverains sur celui-ci.
197. La Cour notera tout d'abord que Qit'at Jaradah est une très
petite île situéedans la limite des 12milles des deux Etats. Selon le rap-
port de I'expert retenu par Bahreïn, ellefait environ 12mètresde long sur
4 mètres de large à marée haute et 600 mètresde long sur 75 mètresde

large àmaréebasse. A maréehaute, son altitude est d'environ 0,40 mètre.
Certaines catégories d'activitésinvoquées par Bahreïn, telles que le MARITlME DELIMIrATlO NND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 99

stated that Qit'at Jaradah, after the upper part of its surface had been
removed on Qatar's instruction in 1986, recovered its island status by
natural accretion.

193. Qatar maintains that Qit'at Jaradah is not, and has never been,
reflected on nautical charts asan island but always as a low-tide elevation
and that this is in conformity with its true character. Even if there are
periods when it has not been completely submerged at high tide, its

physical status has been constantly changing, and it should therefore be
considered for legal purposes to be no more than a shoal, despite the
attempts made by Bahrain in 1985-1986 to alter its nature.

194. Bahrain comrnissioned an expert to examine the geographical

situation; this expert concluded that Qit'at Jaradah - though small in
size - is permanentby above water, and is thus an island. Qatar asked
two experts to evaluate this conclusion; they considered that the surveys
conducted in 1998 by the Bahraini expert "did not provide a basis for a
definitive determination whether it is an islet or a low-tide elevation".

195. The Court recalls that the legal definition of an island is "a natu-
rally formed area of land, surrounded by water, which is above water at
high tide" (1958 Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous
Zone, Art. 10, para. 1 ;1982Convention on the Law of the Sea, Art. 121,

para. 1).The Court has carefully analysed the evidence submitted by the
Parties and weighed the conclusions of the experts referred to above, in
particular the fact that the experts appointed by Qatar did not themselves
maintain that it was siiientificallyproven that Qit'at Jaradah is a low-tide
elevation. On these bases, the Court concludes that the maritime feature
of Oit'at Jaradah satisfies the above-mentioned criteria and that it is an

island which should as such be taken into consideration for the drawing
of the equidistance lirie.
196. Bahrain claims that Qit'at Jaradah comes under Bahraini sover-
eignty, since it has displayed its authority over it in various ways, and
that this was recognized by the British Government in 1947. In this

respect it has referred to a number of activities, including the erection of
a beacon, the ordering of the drilling of an artesian well, the granting of
an oil concession, and the licensing of fish traps. Qatar contends that
Qit'at Jaradah, being a low-tide elevation, cannot be appropriated, and
that, since it is situated in the part of the territorial sea which belong to

Qatar, Qatar has sovereign rights over it.

197. The Court firist notes that Qit'at Jaradah is a very small island
situated within the 12-mile limit of both States. According to the report
of the expert commissioned by Bahrain, at high tide its length and

breadth are about 12 by 4 metres, whereas at low tide they are 600 and
75 metres. At high ticle, its altitude is approximately 0.4 metres.
Certain types of activities invoked by Bahrain such as the drilling offorage de puits artésiens,pourraient en soi êtreconsidéréescomme dis-
cutables en tant qu'actes accomplis à titre de souverain. La construction
d'aides à la navigation, en revanche, peut êtrejuridiquement pertinente
dans le cas de très petites îles. En l'espèce,compte tenu de la taille de
Qit'atJaradah, les activitésexercéespar Bahrein sur cette île peuvent être
considéréescommesuffisantes pour étayer sa revendicationselon laquelle
celle-cise trouve sous sa souveraineté.
198. Dans ce contexte, la Cour rappelle ce qu'a dit la Cour perma-
nente de Justice internationale dans son arrêt surle Stutut juridique du
Groënland oriental:

cc11est impossible d'examiner les décisions rendues dans les
affairesvisant la souveraineté territoriale sans observer que, dans
beaucoup de cas, le tribunal n'a pas exigéde nombreuses manifes-
tations d'un exercice de droits souverains pourvu que l'autre Etat
en cause ne pût faire valoir une prétention supérieure)) (C. P.J.I.
sérieAIB no53, p. 46.)

199. Bahreïn a invoquédes actes d'autorité similaires a l'appui de sa
prétention selon laquelle Fasht ad Dibal relèvede sa souveraineté.A cet
égard, Bahreïn a une nouvelle fois évoquéle fait qu'en 1947le Gouver-
nement britannique lui avait reconnu des droits souverains sur Fasht ad
Dibal, mêmes'il n'était paspossible d'y voirune île dotéed'eaux terri-
toriales.
200. Les deux Parties conviennent que Fasht ad Dibal est un haut-
fond découvrant. Mais alors que Qatar soutient, comme il l'a fait pour
Qit'atJaradah, que Fasht ad Dibal, en tant que haut-fond découvrant,ne
saurait faire l'objet d'une appropriation, Bahreïn prétend que les hauts-
fonds découvrants, de par leur nature même,sont des territoires et

peuvent donc faire l'objet d'appropriation conformément aux critères
applicables à l'acquisition de territoires: cc[q]uelleque soit leur situa-
tion, les hauts-fonds découvrants sont toujours soumis au droit qui régit
l'acquisition et la conservation de la souveraineté territoriale, avec sa
dialectique subtile du titre et des effectivités.
201. D'après les dispositions pertinentes des conventions sur le droit
de la mer, qui reflètent le droit international coutumier, on entend par
cchauts-fonds découvrants)) les élévations naturellesde terrain qui sont
entouréespar la mer, découvertes à maréebasse et recouvertes à marée
haute (article 11, paragraphe 1, de la convention de 1958 sur la mer
territorialet la zone contiguë; paragraphe 1de l'article 13de la conven-
tion de 1982sur le droit de la mer).
Selon ces dispositions, lorsque des hauts-fonds découvrants se
trouvent, entièrement ou en partie, a une distance du continent ou
d'une île ne dépassant pas la largeur de la mer territoriale, la laisse de
basse mer sur ces hauts-fonds peut êtreprise comme ligne de base pour
mesurer la largeur de la mer territoriale. Lorsque des hauts-fonds décou-

vrants se trouvent entièrement a une distance supérieure à la largeur de
la mer territoriale, ils n'ont pas de mer territoriale qui leur soit propre.artesian wellswould, taken by themselves, be considered controversial as
acts performed a titre de souverain. The construction of navigational
aids, on the other hand, can be legally relevant in the case of very small
islands. In the preseiit case, taking into account the size of Qit'at Jara-
dah, the activities cairriedout by Bahrain on that island must be consid-
ered sufficient to support Bahrain's claim that it has sovereignty over it.

198. In this context the Court recalls that the Permanent Court of
International Justice observed in the Legal Status of Eastern Greenland
case that
"It is impossible to read the records of the decisions in cases as to
territorial sovereignty without observing that in many cases the tri-
bunal has been satisfied with verylittle in the way of the actual exer-

cise of sovereign rights, provided that the other State could not
make out a superior claim." (P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 53, p. 46.)

199. Similar acts of authority have been invoked by Bahrain in order
to support its claim that it has sovereignty over Fasht ad Dibal. In this
respect Bahrain recalls that the British Government in 1947 recognized

that Bahrain had sovereign rights over Fasht ad Dibal, even if it could
not be considered as an island having territorial waters.

200. Both Parties agree that Fasht ad Dibal is a low-tide elevation.
Whereas Qatar maintains - just as it did with regard to Qit'at Jaradah
- that Fasht ad Dibal as a low-tide elevation cannot be appropriated,
Bahrain contends thiit low-tide elevations by their very nature are terri-
tory, and therefore c:anbe appropriated in accordance with the criteria
which pertain to the acquisition of territory. "Whatever their location,
low-tide elevations are always subject to the law which governs the acqui-
sition and preservation of territorial sovereignty, with its subtle dialectic
of title and eJfectivitks."

201. According to the relevant provisions of the Conventions on the
Law of the Sea, which reflect customary international law, a low-tide
elevation is a naturalily formed area of land which is surrounded by and
above water at low tide but submerged at high tide (1958 Convention on
the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, paragraph 1of Article 11 ;
1982Convention on the Law of the Sea, paragraph 1of Article 13).

Under these provisions, the low-water line of a low-tide elevation may
be used as the baseliinefor measuring the breadth of the territorial sea if
it is situated wholly or partly at a distance not exceeding the breadth of
the territorial sea from the mainland or an island. If a low-tide elevation
is wholly situated at a distance exceeding the breadth of the territorial
sea, it has no territorial sea of its own. The above-mentioned Conven-

tions further provide that straight baselines shall not be drawn to and101 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRET)

Lesconventions susmentionnées disposenten outre que des lignesde base
droites ne doivent pas êtretirées versou depuis des hauts-fonds décou-
vrants, à moins que des phares ou des installations similaires émergées
en permanence n'y aient étéconstruits (paragraphe 3 de l'article 4 de la
convention de 1958;paragraphe 4 de l'article 7 de la convention de 1982).
Selon Bahreïn. tel est le cas de tous les hauts-fonds découvrants qui sont
pertinents en l'espèceaux fins de la délimitation.
202. Lorsqu'un haut-fond découvrant est situédans la zone de chevau-
chement de la mer territoriale de deux Etats. que leurs côtes soient adja-
centes ou se fassent face,cesdeux Etats ont, en principe, le droit d'utiliser
la laisse de basse mer du haut-fond pour mesurer la largeur de leur mer

territoriale. Le mêmehaut-fond découvrant fait alors ~artie de la confi-
guration côtière des deux Etats. II en est ainsi mêmesi ce haut-fond
découvrantest plus proche de la côte d'un Etat quede cellede l'autre, ou
plus proche d'une île appartenant à l'un que du territoire principal
de l'autre. Aux fins de la délimitation, les droits concurrents que les
deux Etats côtiers tirent des dispositions pertinentes du droit de la mer
semblent nécessairementdevoir se neutraliser.
203. Toutefois, de l'avis de Bahreïn, ce sont les effectivitésprésentées
par les deux Etats côtiers qui déterminent lequel d'entre eux a un titre
supérieursur le haut-fond découvrant en question et, par là même, lequel
est habilitéa exercer le droit que lui attribuent lesdispositions pertinentes
du droit de la mer, tout comme dans le cas des îles qui sont situéesdans
les limites de la mer territoriale de plus d'un Etat.
Bahreïn soutient avoir apporté de façon satisfaisante la preuve de
l'exercicede son autoritésouveraine surtous leshauts-fonds découvrants
situésen mer entre lesîles principales de Bahreïn et la côte de la péninsule

de Qatar.
204. Le bien-fondéde cette prétentionde Bahreïn dépendde la réponse
à la question de savoir si les hauts-fonds découvrants sont des territoires
susceptibles d'appropriation conformément aux règles et principes de
l'acquisition territoriale. De l'avis de la Cour, dans la présenteespèce,il
ne s'agit donc pas de savoir si les hauts-fonds découvrantsfont ou non
partie de la configuration géographique et s'ilssont susceptibles, en tant
que tels, de déterminer laligne de côte au sensjuridique. Les règlesper-
tinentes du droit de la mer leur reconnaissent expressémentcette fonction
quand ils se situent dans la mer territoriale d'un Etat.Il ne fait pas non
plus dedoute qu'un Etat côtier exerce sa souverainetésur leshauts-fonds
découvrants situésdans sa mer territoriale, puisqu'il exerce sa souverai-
netésur la mer territoriale elle-même,y compris les fonds marins et le
sous-sol. La question décisive,aux finsde la présente espèce, estde savoir
si un Etat peut, par voie d'appropriation, acquérirla souverainetésur un
haut-fond découvrant situédans les limites de sa mer territoriale lorsque
le mêmehaut-fond se situe égalementdans les limites de la mer terri-
toriale d'un autre Etat.

205. Le droit international conventionnel est muet sur la question de
savoir si les hauts-fonds découvrants peuvent êtreconsidéréscomme MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 101

from low-tide elevatic~ns,unless lighthouses or similar installations which
are permanently above sea level have been built on them (1958 Con-
vention, paragraph .3 of Article 4; 1982 Convention, paragraph 4 of
Article 7). According to Bahrain this is the case with regard to al1low-
tide elevations which are relevant in the present case for the delimita-
tion process.

202. When a low-tide elevation is situated in the overlapping area of
the territorial sea of two States, whether with opposite or with adjacent
coasts, both States in principle are entitled to use its low-water line for
the measuring of the breadth of their territorial sea. The same low-tide
elevation then forms part of the coastal configuration of the two States.
That is so even if the low-tide elevation is nearer to the coast of one State

than that of the other, or nearer to an island belonging to one party than
it is to the mainland coast of the other. For delimitation purposes the
competing rights deriivedby both coastal States from the relevant provi-
sions of the law of the sea would by necessity seem to neutralize each
other.
203. In Bahrain's view, however, it depends upon the effectivi pré-s
sented by the two coiistal States which of them has a superior title to the
low-tide elevation in question and is therefore entitled to exercise the
right attributed by the relevant provisions of the law of the sea,just as in
the case of islands which are situated within the limits of the breadth of
the territorial sea of morethan one State.
Bahrain contends that it has submitted sufficient evidence of the dis-
play of sovereign authority over al1 the low-tide elevations situated in
the sea between Bahrain's main islands and the coast of the Qatar
peninsula.
204. Whether this claim by Bahrain is well founded depends upon the

answer to the question whether low-tide elevations are territory and can
be appropriated in conformity with the rules and principles of territorial
acquisition. In the view of the Court, the question in the present case is
not whether low-tide elevations are or are not part of the geographical
configuration and as such may determinethe legal coastline. The relevant
rules of the law of th'esea explicitly attribute to them that function when
they are within a State's territorialsea. Nor is there any doubt that a
coastal State has sovereignty over low-tide elevations which are situated
within its territorial sea,ince it has sovereignty over the territorial sea
itself, including its sea-bed and subsoil. The decisive question for the
present case is whether a State can acquire sovereignty by appropriation
over a low-tide elevation situated within the breadth of its territorial sea
when that same low-tide elevation lies also within the breadth of the ter-
ritorial sea of another State.

205. International treaty law is silent on the question whether low-
tide elevations can be considered to be "territory". Nor is the Courtdes ((territoires)). A la connaissance de la Cour, il n'existe pas non plus
de pratique étatique uniforme et largement répandue qui aurait pu
donner naissance à une règle coutumière autorisant ou excluant caté-
goriquement l'appropriation des hauts-fonds découvrants. C'est seule-
ment dans le domaine du droit de la mer qu'un certain nombre de
règlesouvrant des droits aux Etats ont été établies en ce qui concerne
les hauts-fonds découvrants situés à une distance relativement faible
d'une côte.
206. Les quelques règles existantes ne justifient pas que l'on pré-
sume de façon généraleque les hauts-fonds découvrants constituent
des territoires au mêmetitre que les îles. Il n'a jamais étécontesté
que les îles constituent de la terre ferme et qu'elles sont soumises aux
règleset principes de l'acquisition territoriale; il existe en revanche une
importante différenceentre les effets que le droit de la mer attribue aux

îles et ceux qu'il attribue aux hauts-fonds découvrants. Il n'est donc
pas établi que, en l'absence d'autres règles et principes juridiques, les
hauts-fonds découvrants puissent, du point de vue de l'acquisition de
la souveraineté, êtrepleinement assimilésaux îles et autres territoires
terrestres.
207. A cet égard, la Cour rappelle la règle selon laquelle les hauts-
fonds découvrants situésau-delà des limites de la mer territoriale ne sont
pas dotés d'une mer territoriale propre. Ainsi, un haut-fond découvrant
n'engendre pas en tant que tel les mêmesdroits qu'une île ou un autre
territoire. En outre, il est reconnu de manièregénéraleet de façon impli-
cite dans les termes des dispositions pertinentes des conventions sur le
droit de la mer que, si un haut-fond découvrant situédans les limites de
la mer territoriale peut êtreutiliséaux fins de la détermination de la lar-
geur de cette mer, il n'en va pas de mêmepour un haut-fond découvrant
situé à moins de 12 milles marins du précédent, mais au-delàdesdites
limites. Le droit de la mer ne permet pas l'application dans ce cas de la

méthode dite du ((saute-mouton)). A cet égard,peu importe qu'un Etat
côtier ait traité un tel haut-fond découvrant comme lui appartenant et
que son gouvernement y ait menécertaines activités;il n'engendre pas de
mer territoriale.
208. Le paragraphe 3 de l'article 4 de la convention de 1958sur la mer
territoriale et la zone contiguë et le paragraphe 4 de l'article 7 de la
convention de 1982sur le droit de la mer disposent que leslignes de base
droites ne doivent pas êtretirées versou depuis des hauts-fonds décou-
vrant~, àmoins que des phares ou des installations similaires émergéeesn
permanence n'y aient été construits. Ces dispositions indiquent, elles
aussi, que les hauts-fonds découvrants ne sauraient êtreassimilésaux îles
qui, en toutes circonstances, peuvent fournir des points de base pour le
tracéde lignes de base droites.
209. En conséquence,la Cour estime que rien ne permet en l'espècede
reconnaître à Bahreïn le droit d'utiliser comme ligne de base la laisse de
basse mer des hauts-fonds découvrants qui sont situésdans la zone de
chevauchement ou d'accorder le mêmedroit à Qatar. La Cour conclut MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT1 )02

aware of a uniform and widespread State practice which might have

given rise to a customary rule which unequivocally permits or excludes
appropriation of low-tide elevations. It is only in the context of the law
of the sea that a nurnber of permissive rules have been established with
regard to low-tide elevations which are situated at a relatively short dis-
tance from a Coast.

206. The few existing rules do not justify a general assumption that
low-tide elevations aireterritory in the same sense as islands. It has never
been disputed that islands constitute terra firma, and are subject to the
rules and principles of territorial acquisition; the difference in effects
which the law of the: sea attributes to islands and low-tide elevations is

considerable. It is thus not established that in the absence of other rules
and legal prinçiples, low-tide elevations can, from the viewpoint of the
acquisition of sovereignty, be fully assimilated with islands or other land
territory.

207. In this respect the Court recalls therule that a low-tide elevation
which is situated beyond the limits of the territorial sea does not have a
territorial sea of its own. A low-tide elevation, therefore, as such does
not generate the same rights as islands or other territory. Moreover, it is
generally recognized and implicit in the words of the relevant provisions
of the Conventions cinthe Law of the Sea that, whereas a low-tide eleva-

tion which is situatetl within the limits of the territorial sea may be used
for the determination of its breadth, this does not hold for a low-tide
elevation which is situated less than 12 nautical miles from that low-tide
elevation but is beyond the limits of the territorial sea. The law of the sea
does not in these cir(:umstances allow application of the so-called "leap-
frogging" method. ln this respect it is irrelevant whether the coastal

State has treated such a low-tide elevation as its property and carried out
some governmental acts with regard to it; it does not generate a terri-
torial sea.
208. Paragraph 3 of Article4 of the 1958 Convention on the Territo-
rial Sea and the Coi~tiguous Zone and paragraph 4 of Article 7 of the
1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea provide that straight baselines
shall not be drawn to and from low-tide elevations unless lighthouses or

similar installations which are permanently above sea level have been
built on them. These provisions are another indication that low-tide
elevations cannot be equated with islands, which under al1circumstances
qualify as basepoints for straight baselines.

209. The Court, c:onsequently, is of the view that in the present case

there is no ground for recognizing the right of Bahrain to use as a base-
line the low-water line of those low-tide elevations which are situated in
the zone of overlapping claims, or for recognizing Qatar as having such apar suite que de tels hauts-fonds découvrants ne doivent pas être prisen
compte aux fins du tracé dela ligne d'équidistance.

210. Bahreïn a prétendu qu'en tant qu'Etat pluri-insulaire sa côte
serait constituée par les lignes reliant ses îles les plus éloignées etles
hauts-fonds découvrantssituésdans leseaux territoriales de ces îles.Sans
invoquer explicitement l'article4 de la convention de 1958sur la mer terri-
toriale et la zone contiguë ou l'article7 de la convention de 1982 sur le
droit de la mer, Bahreïn, dans son argumentation et dans les cartes qu'il
a fournies a la Cour, a appliqué la méthode des lignes de base droites.
Cela ressort clairement aussi de la thèse défenduepar Bahreïn selon

laquelle la zone maritime à l'ouest desîles Hawar, entre ces îles et l'île
principale de Bahreïn, serait constituéed'eaux intérieuresde Bahreïn.
211. Bahreïn soutient que, en tant qu'Etat pluri-insulaire caractérisé
par un amas d'îlesau large de la côte de ses îlesprincipales, il est en droit
de tirer une ligne reliant les îles et les hauts-fonds découvrants les plus
éloignés. En pareilcas, selon Bahreïn, c'est la limite extrêmequi devrait
servir de ligne de base pour la mer territoriale.
212. La Cour constate que la méthodedes lignes de base droites, qui
déroge auxrèglesnormales de détermination des lignes de base, ne peut
être appliquéeque si plusieurs conditions sont remplies. Cette méthode
doit êtreappliquée de façon restrictive. Pour l'essentiel, ces conditions
sont les suivantes: la côte doit être profondémentéchancréeet découpée
ou bien il doit exister un chapelet d'îles le long de la côte,à proximité
immédiatede celle-ci.
21 3. Le fait qu'un Etat se regarde comme un Etat pluri-insulaire ou un
Etat archipel defacto ne l'autorise pasà s'écarter desrèglesnormales de
détermination des lignes de base, a moins que les conditions voulues

soient remplies. Les côtes des îles principales de Bahreïn ne sont pas
profondément échancrées et d'ailleurs Bahreïn nel'a pas soutenu. En
revanche, Bahreïn a fait valoir que les formations maritimes au large de
la côte de sesîles principales pouvaient êtreassimiléesa un chapelet d'îles
formant un tout avec son territoire principal.
214. La Cour ne conteste pas que les formations maritimes situées à
l'est des îles principales de Bahreïn font partie de la configuration géo-
graphique générale;ce serait néanmoinsaller trop loin que de les quali-
fier de chapelet d'îles le long de la côte. Les îles dont il s'agit sont assez
peu nombreuses. Qui plus est, dans la présente affaire,il n'est possible de
parler d'un «amas d'îles))ou d'un «système insulaire))qu'en prenant en
considération les îles principales de Bahreïn. Dans une telle situation, la
méthodedes lignes de base droites n'est applicable que si 1'Etata déclaré
êtreun Etat archipel au sens de la partie IV de la convention de 1982sur
le droit de la mer, ce qui n'est pas le cas de Bahreïn en l'espèce.
215. La Cour conclut par conséquent que Bahreïn n'est pas fondé à
appliquer la méthodedes lignes de base droites. Chaque formation mari- MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 103

right. The Court accordingly concludes that for the purposes of drawing
the equidistance line, such low-tide elevations must be disregarded.

210. Bahrain has contended that, as a multiple-island State, its coast
consists of the lines connecting its outermost islands and such low-tide
elevations as liewithin their territorial waters. Without explicitly refer-
ring to Article 4 of )the1958 Convention on the Territorial Sea and the
Contiguous Zone or Article 7 of the 1982Convention on the Law of the
Sea, Bahrain in its reasoning and in the maps provided to the Court
applied the method ,ofstraight baselines. This is also clear from its con-
tention that the area of sea to the Westof the Hawar Islands, between

these islands and Bahrain's main island, is comprised of interna1 waters
of Bahrain.
211. Bahrain maintains that as a multiple-island State characterized
by a cluster of islands off the coast of its main islands, it is entitled to
draw a line connecf.ing the outermost islands and low-tide elevations.
According to ~ahrain,"in such cases the external fringe should serve as
the baseline for the )territorialsea.
212. The Court observes that the method of straight baselines, which
is an exception to the normal rules for the determination of baselines,
may only be applied if a number of conditions are met. This method must
be applied restrictively. Such conditions are primarily that either the
coastline is deeply indented and cut into, or that there is a fringe of
islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity.

213. The fact thait a State considers itself a multiple-island State or a
de facto archipelagic State does not allow it to deviate from the normal

rules for the determination of baselines unless the relevant conditionsare
met. The coasts of B,ahrain'smain islands do not form a deeply indented
coast, nor does Bahrain claim this. It contends, however, that the mari-
time features off the coast of the main islands may be assimilated to a
fringe of islands which constitute a whole with the mainland.

214. The Court does not deny that the maritime features east of Bah-
rain's main islands are part of the overall geographical-configuration; it
would be going too far, however, to quaiify them as a fringe of islands
along the coast. The islands concerned are relatively small in number.
Moreover, in the prr:sent case it is only possible to speak of a "cluster of
islands" or an "islarid system" if Bahrain's main islands are included in
that concept. In such a situation, the method of straight baselines is
applicable only if th'eState has declared itself to be an archipelagic State
under Part IV of the 1982Convention on the Law of the Sea, which is
not true of Bahrain in this case.
215. The Court, therefore, concludes that Bahrain is not entitled to
apply the method of straight baselines. Thus each maritime feature hastime aura ainsi son propre effet sur la détermination des lignes de base,
étant entendu que, pour les raisons ci-dessus exposées, les hauts-fonds
découvrants qui se situent dans la zone de chevauchement des mers ter-
ritoriales ne seront pas pris en compte. C'est sur cette base que la ligne

d'équidistancedoit êtretracée.
216. Fasht al Azm méritecependant une mention particulière. Si cette
formation devait êtreregardéecomme faisant partie de l'îlede Sitrah, les
points de base servant à déterminer laligne d'équidistanceseraient situés
sur la laissede basse mer orientale de Fasht al Azm. Sicette formation ne
devait pas êtreregardéecomme faisant partie de l'îlede Sitrah, Fasht al
Azrn ne pourrait pas fournir de tels points de base. Comme la Cour ne
s'est pas prononcée sur la question de savoir si cette formation fait ou
non partie de l'îlede Sitrah (voir le paragraphe 190ci-dessus),elletracera
une double ligne d'équidistancereflétantchacune de ces hypothèses(voir
ci-après, p. 105-108,croquis no", 4, 5 et 6).

217. La Cour examinera à présents'ilexistedes circonstances spéciales
qui exigeraient d'ajuster la ligne d'équidistance tracéeà titre provisoire
afin d'obtenir un résultat équitableen ce qui concerne cette partie de la
limite maritime unique qui doit êtrefixée(voir l'affaire de la Délimi-
tation maritime dans lu régionsituée entre le Groenland et Jun Mayen
(Danemark c. Norvège), urrgt, C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 60, par. 50,
p. 62, par. 54).
218. La première question à examiner est celle de Fasht al Azm. La
Cour considère que, si Fasht al Azrn devait êtreregardécomme faisant

partie de l'îlede Sitrah,il ne conviendrait pas d'adopter la ligne d'équi-
distance comme limite maritime car, compte tenu du fait que cette île ne
reste découverteen permanence que sur moins de vingt pour cent de sa
superficie, cette solution situerait la limite une distance exagérément
proche de la côte du territoire continental de Qatar (voir ci-après,p. 105
et 107,croquis nos 3 et 5).Si,à l'inverse, Fasht al Azm devait êtreconsi-
déré commeun haut-fond découvrant, la ligne d'équidistanceeffleurerait
Fasht al Azm et, pour ce motif, ne conviendrait pas davantage comme
ligne de délimitation(voir ci-après,p. 105et 108,croquis nos3 et 6). La
Cour estime que, dans une hypothèse comme dans l'autre, ilexiste ainsi
des circonstances spécialesqui justifient le choix d'une ligne de délimita-

tion passant entre Fasht al Azm et Qit'at ash Shajarah.
219. L'autre question à examiner est celle de Qit'at Jaradah. La Cour
constate que Qit'at Jaradah est une île trèspetite, inhabitéeet totalement
dépourvuede végétation.Cette île minuscule, qui - comme la Cour l'a
établi(voirparagraphe 197ci-dessus) - se trouve sous la souveraineté de
Bahreïn, se situeà peu près A mi-chemin entre l'îleprincipale de Bahreïn
et la péninsulede Qatar. De ce fait, utiliser sa laisse de basse mer pour
déterminerun point de base servant à construire la ligned'équidistance et
retenir cette ligne comme ligne de délimitation reviendraità attribuer un MARITIME DELIhdlTATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 104

its own effect for the determination of the baselines, on the understand-
ing that, on the groiinds set out before, the low-tide elevations situated in
the overlapping zone of territorial seas will be disregarded. It is on this
basis that the equidistance line must be drawn.

216. Fasht al Azm however requires special mention. If this feature
were to be regarded as part of the island of Sitrah, the basepoints for the
purposes of determining the equidistance line would be situated on Fasht
al Azm's eastern low-water line. If it were not to be regarded as part of
the island of Sitrah, Fasht alAzm could not provide such basepoints. As
the Court has not determined whether this feature does form part of the
island of Sitrah (see paragraph 190 above), it has drawn two equidistance
lines reflecting each of these hypotheses (see sketch-maps Nos. 3,4, 5 and
6, pp. 105-108 below).

217. The Court niowturns to the question of whether there are special

circumstances which make it necessary to adjust the equidistance line as
provisionally drawci in order to obtain an equitable result in relation to
this part of the single maritime boundary to be fixed (see the case con-
cerning Maritime Delimitation in the Areu betiveen Greenland and
Jun Mayen (Denmark v. Nortifay), Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 60,
para. 50, p. 62, para. 54).
218. The first question to be considered is that of Fasht al Azm. The
Court considers that if Fasht al Azm were to be regarded as part of the
island of Sitrah, itdouldnot be appropriate to take the equidistance line
as the maritime boiindary since, in view of the fact that less than 20 per
cent of the surface of this island is permanently above water, this would
place the boundary disproportionately close to Qatar's mainland coast
(see sketch-maps Nos. 3 and 5, pp. 105and 107below). If, on the other
hand, Fasht al Azm wereto be regarded as a Iow-tide elevation, the equi-

distance line would brush Fasht al Azm, and for this reason would also
be an inappropriate delimitation line (see sketch-maps Nos. 3 and 6,
pp. 105and 108below). The Court considers that, on either hypothesis,
there are thus speciiilcircumstances which justify choosing a delimitation
line passing betwee.nFasht al Azm and Qit'at ash Shajarah.

219. The next question to be considered is that of Qit'at Jaradah. The
Court observes that Qit'at Jaradah is a very small island, uninhabited
and without any vegetation. This tiny island, which - as the Court has
determined (see paragraph 197 above) - comes under Bahraini sover-
eignty, is situated about midway between the main island of Bahrain and
the Qatar peninsula. Consequently, if its low-water line were to be used
for determining a basepoint in the construction of the equidistance line,
and this line takeri as the delimitation line, a disproportionate effectCeamuis.u WuaItes~üom maii(imarraWgurba ~arsw (omu sinpllasidïsdtd a seuh linsbms(atm.
Itmp~pndelaRehn6eŒtWesdeîssIûmaliau.

La mms dna&4m son1wan&et euxCROOulS V4.5 n 6 Sketch-map No. 3. Equidistance Line Taking into Consideration Al1the Islands
and Those Low-tide Elevations Located in the Territorial Sea of One State only

Thissketch-map, onwhfchmantimeleaturssareshowninsimptllledtom. hasbeenprepared for~IlustrallvpeurposesMily
It1withoulprepdicetothenaiureofceriairiofthesefeatures
Tb framedzones are enlargeinSKETCH-MAPNos 4.5 and6Croquis no 4. Agrandissement du croquis no 3 (régiondes îles Hawar) MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QIIFSTIOUY (.IIIDGMENT) 106

Ski~iili-iil;No. 1.Fiil~ti.~enieiitof Sketch-nxtp No. 7 (Region of ili~s
lI~IL\LI~~l:lll~l\~

42' 45' 48' 51' 54' 57' 51°ECroquis no 5. Agrandissement du croquis no3 (Fasht al Azm étantregardé
comme f;iis:iiit partie de l'îldc Sitr:ih) MARITIME DELI~~ITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 107

Sketch-map No. 5. Enlargement of Sketch-map No. 3 (Fasht al Azm Being

Rcyiirded as Part of the Island of Sitrah)

40' 44' 48' 52' 56' 51°€ 4'

. , . ..

. . ... .

. , ...

- - -m~H~MH~T4T

.. .. .

40' 44' 48' 5Y 56' 51'~ 4'

TYs -map. mrhi maritmeWUCI areIhown m simlntiktam hasbe%npeparcd fa üumalivsp~poacsoniy.
IllsMmOulpreiuduxY>Vienahirc4ernteh d ihssebarn 108 DELIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÊT)

Croquis nu 6. Agrandissement du croquis no 3 (Fasht al Azm étant regardé
comine un haut-fond découvrant)

W croqui. uNucibslorrmihnrrmrilimla t~guréeMsur unetom rimglahl* 6UMiseulstinsüifluslr8lim.
II nepr6juwpdolanaiudoCeMinesdscesIonnationsSketch-map No. 6. Enlargement of Sketch-map No. 3 (Fasht al Azm Being
Regarded as a Low-tide Elevation) 109 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÊT)

effet disproportionné à une formation maritime insignifiante (voir ci-
dessus, p. 105, 107et 108,croquis nos3, 5 et 6).
Dans des situations similaires, la Cour a parfois été amené e éliminer
l'effet exagéréde petites îles (cf.lateau continental (Jamahiriya arabe
libyennefMalte), arrêt,C.Z.J. Recueil 1985, p. 48, par. 64; Plateau conti-
nental de la mer du Nord, C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 36, par. 57 ).Aussi la
Cour estime-t-elle qu'ily a en l'espèceune circonstance spécialequi jus-
tifie le choix d'une ligne de délimitation passant immédiatementà I'estde
Qit'at Jaradah.

220. La Cour a observé plushaut (voir le paragraphe 216 ci-dessus)
que, ne s'étantpas prononcéesur la question de savoir si Fasht al Azm
fait partie de l'îlede Sitrah ou s'il s'agit d'un haut-fond découvrant dis-
tinct, il convient de tracer titre provisoire deux lignes d'équidistance.Si
aucun effet n'est donné à Qit'at Jaradah, et dans l'hypothèse ou l'on
considère que Fasht al Azm fait partie de I'îlede Sitrah, la ligne d'équi-
distance ainsi ajustéecoupe Fasht ad Dibal, laissant la majeure partie de
ce haut-fond du côtéqatari. Si, en revanche, Fasht al Azm est regardé
comme un haut-fond découvrant, la ligne d'équidistance ajustéepasse à
l'ouest de Fasht ad Dibal. Compte tenu du fait que, dans ces deux hypo-
thèses,Fasht ad Dibal se trouve, dans une large mesure ou en totalité,du
côté qatari de la ligne d'équidistance ajustée, la Cour considère qu'il
convient de tracer la ligne de délimitation entre Qit'atJaradah et Fasht

ad Dibal. Comme Fasht ad Dibal est ainsi situédans la mer territoriale
de Qatar, il relèvepour ce motif de la souveraineté decet Etat.
221. La Cour est désormais en mesure de déterminer le tracéde ce
tronçon de la frontière maritime unique qui délimiterales mers territo-
riales des Parties. Elle relèvetoutefois auparavant qu'elle nepeut fixer le
point situéle plus au sud de cette frontière, car l'emplacement définitifde
ce point est tributaire des limites des zones maritimes respectives de
l'Arabie saoudite et des Parties. La Cour estime aussi qu'il y a lieu de
simplifier, comme il est de pratique courante, ce qui serait autrement une
ligne de délimitation trèscomplexe dans la région desîles Hawar.
222. Compte tenu de tout ce qui précède, laCour décidequ'à partir du
point d'intersection des limites maritimes respectivesdel'Arabie saoudite
d'une part et de Bahreïn et de Qatar de l'autre, qui ne peut êtrefixé,la
frontière se dirigera dans une direction nord-est, puis obliquera immédia-

tement en direction de I'est et passera ensuite entre Jazirat Hawar et
Janan; elle s'infléchira plus loin versle nord pour passer entre les îles
Hawar et la péninsulede Qatar et continuera en direction du nord, en
laissant le haut-fond découvrant de Fasht Bu Thur et Fasht al Azm du
côté de Bahreïn et les hauts-fonds découvrants de Qita'a el Erge et de
Qit'at ash Shajarah du côtéde Qatar; enfin ellepassera entre Qit'at Jara-
dah et Fasht ad Dibal, en laissant Qit'at Jaradah du côté deBahreïn et
Fasht ad Dibal du côté deQatar.
223. La Cour note que, du fait du tracé ainsi adopté, les espaces
maritimes de Qatar situésau sud des îles Hawar et ceux situésau nord
de ces îles ne sont reliésque par le chenal séparant les îles Hawar de lawould be given to an insignificant maritime feature (see sketch-maps
Nos. 3, 5 and 6, pp. 105, 107and 108above).
In similar situations the Court has sometimes been led to eliminate the
disproportionate effect of small islands (seeNorth Sea Continental Shelf;
I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 36, para. 57; Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab
JamahiriyalMalta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 48, para. 64).The
Court thus finds thai:there is a special circumstance in this case warrant-
ing the choice of a delimitation line passing immediately to the east of
Qit'at Jaradah.
220. The Court observed earlier (see paragraph 216 above) that, since
it did not determine whether Fasht al Azm is part of Sitrah island or a
separate low-tide elevation, it is necessary to draw provisionally two
equidistance lines. If no effect is given to Qit'at Jaradah and in the event

that Fasht al Azm lisconsidered to be part of Sitrah island, the equi-
distance line thus adjusted cuts through Fasht ad Dibal leaving the greater
part of it on the Qatari side. If, however, Fasht al Azm is seen as a
low-tide elevation, the adjusted equidistance line runs Westof Fasht ad
Dibal. In view of the fact that under both hypotheses, Fasht ad Dibal is
largely or totally on the Qatari side of the adjusted equidistance line, the
Court considers it appropriate to draw the boundary line between Qit'at
Jaradah and Fasht ad Dibal. As Fasht ad Dibal thus is situated in the
territorial sea of Qatar, itfalls for that reason under the sovereignty of
that State.

221. The Court is,now in a position to determine the course of that
part of the single maritime boundary which will delimit the territorial
seas of the Parties. Before doing so the Court notes, however, that it can-
not fix the boundary's southernmost point, since its definitive location is
dependent upon the limits of the respective maritime zones of Saudi
Arabia and of the Parties. The Court also considers it appropriate, in

accordance with connmon practice, to simplify what would otherwise be
a very complex delirnitation line in the region of the Hawar Islands.
222. Taking account of al1 of the foregoing, the Court decides that,
from the point of intersection of the respective maritime limits of Saudi
Arabia on the one hand and of Bahrain and Qatar on the other, which
cannot be fixed,the boundary will follow a north-easterly direction, then
immediately turn in an easterly direction, after which it will pass between
Jazirat Hawar and Janan; it will subsequently turn to the north and pass
between the Hawar Islands and the Qatar peninsula and continue in a
northerly direction, 'leavingthe low-tide elevation of Fasht Bu Thur, and
Fasht al Azm, on th'eBahraini side, and the low-tide elevations of Qita'a
el Erge and Qit'at ash Shajarah on the Qatari side; finally it will pass
between Qit'at Jaradah and Fasht ad Dibal, leaving Qit'at Jaradah on
the Bahraini side and Fasht ad Dibal on the Qatari side.
223. The Court notes that, because of the line thus adopted, Qatar's
maritime zones situated to the south of the Hawar Islands and those
situated to the north of those islands are connected only by the channelpéninsule. Ce chenal étroit et peu profond est peu propice à la navi-
gation.
Aussi la Cour entend-elle souligner que, Bahreïn n'étant pasfondéa
appliquer la méthodedes lignes de base droites (voir paragraphe 215 ci-
dessus), les eaux s'étendantentre les îles Hawar et les autres îlesbahreï-
nites constituent, non des eaux intérieuresde Bahreïn, mais la mer terri-
toriale de cet Etat. Par voie de conséquence,les navires de Qatar, comme

d'ailleurs ceux de tous lesautres Etats, jouissent dans ceseaux du droit de
passage inoffensif consacré par le droit international coutumier. De
même,les navires de Bahreïn, comme d'ailleurs ceuxde tous les autres
Etats, jouissent dans la mer territoriale de Qatar de ce droit de passage
inoffensif.

224. La Cour abordera à présentle tracéde la limite maritime unique
dans la partie de la zone de délimitation qui couvre à la fois le plateau
continental et la zone économique exclusive (voir paragraphe 170 ci-
dessus).
225. Dans l'arrêtqu'elle a rendu en 1984, la Chambre de la Cour
chargéede connaître de l'affaire du Golfe du Maine a observé qu'il fallait
s'attendre àvoir se multiplier lesdemandes de délimitation uniqueen vue
d'éviterles inconvénients inhérents à une pluralitéde délimitationsdis-
tinctes; selon la Chambre, «la préférence ira désormais ... des critéresse
prêtantmieux, par leur caractère plus neutre, à une délimitation poly-

valente))(C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 327, par. 194).
226. Dans l'arrêtqu'elle a rendu en l'affaire du Plateau continental
(Jumahiriya urube IibyenneIMaltc), la Cour elle-mêmea constatéle lien
étroitqui existe entre le plateau continental et la zone économiqueexclu-
sive aux fins de la délimitation. Elle a observéque
«bien que la présente affairen'ait trait qu'à la délimitationdu pla-
teau continental et non à celle de la zone économiqueexclusive, il

n'est pas possible de faire abstraction des principes et règlessur les-
quels cette dernière repose. Ainsi que la convention de 1982 le
démontre, les deux institutions du plateau continental et de la zone
économique exclusive sont liéesdans le droit moderne. » (C.I.J.
Recueil 1985, p. 33, par. 33.)
Et la Cour a ajoutéqu'en matièrede délimitation«il conv[enait] d'attri-
buer plus d'importance aux éléments, telsque la distance de la côte, qui
sont communs à l'une et a l'autre notion»(ibid.).

227. La Cour a adopté une démarche semblable dans l'affaire
Jan Mayen, ou elle étaitégalement priéede tracer une limite maritime
unique. Au sujet de la délimitationdu plateau continental, elle a dit:
«mêmes'il convenait d'appliquer ...le droit coutumier du plateau
continental tel qu'il s'est développédans la jurisprudence [la Cour
avait fait allusion aux affaires du Golfe du Maine et Jamahiriya MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 110

separating the Hawar Islands from the peninsula. This channel is narrow
and shallow, and little suited to navigation.
The Court theref~sreemphasizes that, as Bahrain is not entitled to
apply the method of straight baselines (see paragraph 215 above), the
waters lying betweeri the Hawar Islands and the other Bahraini islands
are not interna1 waters of Bahrain, but the territorial sea of that State.
Consequently, Qatari vessels, like those of al1other States, shall enjoy in

these waters the right of innocent passage accorded by customary inter-
national law. In the same way, Bahraini vessels, like those of al1other
States, enjoy this right of innocent passage in the territorial sea of Qatar.

224. The Court will now deal with the drawing of the single maritime
boundary in that part of the delimitation area which covers both the con-
tinental shelf and the exclusiveeconomiczone (seeparagraph 170 above).

225. In its Judgment of 1984,the Chamber of the Court dealing with
the Gulfof Muine case noted that an increasing demand for singledelimi-
tation was foreseeable in order to avoid the disadvantages inherent in a
plurality of separate delimitations; according to the Chamber, "prefer-
ence will henceforth inevitably be given to criteria that, because of their
more neutral character, are best suited for use in a multi-purpose delimi-

tation" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 327, para. 194).
226. The Court itself referred to the close relationship between conti-
nental shelf and excllusiveeconomic zone for delimitation purposes in its
Judgment in the case concerning the Continental Shelf (Libyan Arub
JamuhiriyalMulta). It observed that
"even though the present case relates only to the delimitation of the
continental shelf and not to that of the exclusiveeconomic zone, the
principles and rules underlying the latter concept cannot be left out

of consideration. As the 1982 Convention demonstrates the two
institutions- continental shelf and exclusive economic zone - are
linked together in modern law." (1.C.J. Reports 1985,p. 33,para. 33.)

And the Court werit on to Say that, in case of delimitation, "greater
importance must be attributed to elements, such as distance from the
Coast, which are cornmon to both concepts" (ibid.).
227. A similar approach was taken by the Court in the Jan Mayen

case, where it was also asked to draw a single maritime boundary. With
regard to the delimitation of the continental shelf the Court stated that
"even if it were appropriate to apply . .. customary law concern-
ing the continental shelf as developed in the decided cases [the
Court had referred to the Gulfof Maine and the Lihyun Arah Jurna- arabe libyenneIMalte], ce serait se conformer aux précédentsque de
commencer par la ligne médiane à titre de ligne provisoire, puis de
rechercher si des ((circonstances spéciales)) [formule qui figureà
l'article 6 de la convention de 1958sur le plateau continental, le droit
applicable en l'espèce]obligent à ajuster ou déplacer cette ligne))
(C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 61, par. 51).

228. Aprèsêtre parvenue à une conclusion similaire en ce qui concerne
les zones de pêche, laCour a déclaré:
«II apparaît donc que, tant pour le plateau continental que pour

leszones de pêche,il est appropriéen l'espèced'entamer le processus
de délimitation par une ligne médiane tracée à titre provisoire.))
(Ibid, p. 62, par. 53.)
229. La Cour a ajoutéqu'elledevait égalementse livrer à l'examen des
facteurs susceptibles d'inciter ajuster ou déplacer laligne médianeafin
de parvenir à un ((résultatéquitable)).Elle a conclu:

«Ainsi, les circonstances spécialesapparaissent comme des cir-
constances susceptibles de modifier le résultat produit par une appli-
cation automatique du principe d'équidistance.Le droit internatio-
nal général,tel qu'il s'est développé gràceà la jurisprudence de la
Cour et à la jurisprudence arbitrale, ainsi qu'à travers les travaux de
la troisièmeConférencedes Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, uti-

lise la notion de «circonstances pertinentes)). Cette notion peut être
décritecomme un fait devant êtrepris en compte dans l'opération de
délimitation.))Ibid., p. 62, par. 55.)
230. La Cour adoptera la mêmedémarche dans la présente espèce.
Pour la délimitationdes zones maritimes au-delà de la zone des 12milles,
elle tracera d'abord,àtitre provisoire, une ligne d'équidistanceet exami-
nera ensuite s'il existe des circonstances devant conduireà ajuster cette

ligne.
231. La Cour note en outre que la règlede l'équidistance/circonstances
spéciales,qui est applicable en particuliàla délimitation dela mer terri-
toriale, et la règledes principesuitableslcirconstancespertinentes, telle
qu'elle s'est développédeepuis 1958dans la jurisprudence et la pratique
des Etats quand il s'agitde délimiterle plateau continental et la zone éco-
nomique exclusive, sont étroitement liéesl'une à l'autre.
232. La Cour examinera à présent s'il existe des circonstances qui
pourraient rendre nécessaired'ajuster la ligne d'équidistanceafin d'abou-
tirà un résultat équitable.
233. La Cour commencera par rappeler que, dans l'arrêt qu'ellea
rendu en l'affaire du Plateau continental (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne1
Malte), elle a déclaréce qui suit:

«la méthode de l'équidistance n'estpas la méthode unique appli-
cable au présent différend,et elle ne bénéficiemêmepas d'une hiriyalMalta cases], it is in accord with precedents to begin with the
median line as iaprovisional line and then to ask whether 'special
circumstances' [the term used in Article 6 of the 1958 Convention
on the Continerital Shelf, which was the applicable law in the case]
require any adjustment or shifting of that line" (1.C.J. Reports 1993,
p. 61, para. 51).

228. After having come to a similar conclusion with regard to the
fishery zones, the Court stated:

"It thus appears that, both for the continental shelf and for the
fishery zones in this case, its proper to begin the process of delimi-
tation by a median line provisionally drawn." (Ibid., p. 62, para. 53.)

229. The Court vlient on to Say that it was further called upon to

examine those factoas which might suggest an adjustment or shifting
of the median line in order to achieve an "equitable result". The Court
concluded :
"It is thus apparent that special circumstances are those circum-
stances which might modify the result produced by an unqualified
application of tlneequidistance principle. General international law,
as it has developed through the case-law of the Court and arbitral

jurisprudence, alnd through the work of the Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea, has employed the concept of
'relevant circunistances'. This conceDt can be described as a fact
necessary to be taken into account in the delimitation process."
(Ibid., p. 62, para. 55.)
230. The Court will follow the same approach in the present case. For
the delimitation of ithemaritime zones beyond the 12-mile zone it will

first provisionally draw an equidistance line and then consider whether
there are circumstances which must lead to an adjustment of that line.

231. The Court l'urther notes that the equidistancelspecial circum-
stances rule, which .isapplicable in particular to the delimitation of the
territorial sea, and the equitableprincipleslrelevant circumstances rule, as
it has been developed since 1958 in case-law and State practice with
regard to the delimitation of the continental shelf and the exclusive eco-
nomic zone, are closely interrelated.
23-. The Court lwillnow examine whether there are circumstances
which might make ii.necessary to adjust the equidistance line in order to
achieve an equitable result.
233. The Court recalls first that in its Judgment in the case concerning
Continental Sheif (Libyan Arab JamahiriyalMalta) it said:
the

"the equidistance method is not the only method applicable to the
present dispute.,and it does not even have the benefit of a presump-112 DÉLIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRET)

présomptionen safaveur. Selonledroit actuel ildoit donc êtredémon-
tréque la méthodede l'équidistanceaboutit, dans le cas considéré,
a un résultatéquitable.))(C.Z.J. Recueil 1985, p. 47, par. 63.)

234. La Cour tient en outre à répéterce qu'elle adit dans l'arrêtqu'elle
a rendu en l'affaire du Plateau continental de la mer du Nord:
((Délimiterd'une manière équitableest une chose, mais c'en est
une autre que d'attribuer une part juste et équitabled'une zone non
encore délimitée, quand bien mêmele résultat des deux opérations
serait dans certains cascomparable, voire identique.»(C.1.J. Recueil

1969, p. 22, par. 18.)
Dans l'arrêtqu'elle arendu en l'affaireJan Mayen, la Cour, en adoptant
le mêmepoint de vue, s'est expriméeainsi:

«[u]ne cour a pour tâche de définirla ligne de délimitationentre les
zones qui relèvent de la juridiction maritime de deux Etats; c'est
donc le partage de la régionqui résultede la délimitation et non
l'inverse))C.Z.J.Recueil 1993, p. 67, par. 64).
235. Bahreïn soutient qu'il existe un bon nombre de bancs d'huîtres

perlières,dont beaucoup sont situésau nord de la péninsuledeQatar, qui
lui appartiennent depuis des temps immémoriauxet constituent une cir-
constance spéciale à prendreen compte dans le processus de délimitation.

Qatar conteste que Bahreïn ait jamais bénéficid ée droits exclusifsen ce
qui concerne l'exploitation des bancs d'huîtres perlières.Qatar ne nie pas
que des pêcheurs bahreïnitesse soient effectivement livrés àla pêcheaux
huîtres perlières dans la zone concernée ni que ces pêcheurset leurs
bateaux aient relevéde lajuridiction personnelle du souverain de Bahreïn,
mais Qatar fait néanmoinsvaloir que ces pêcheriesont toujours étéconsi-
déréescomme communes a toutes les tribus du littoral du Golfe.
Qatar soutient également que de toute manière la revendication de

Bahreïn est désormaisdépourvuede pertinence, car les pêcheries perlières
ont cesséd'exister depuis plus d'un demi-siècle.
236. La Cour constate tout d'abord que l'industrie perlière aeffective-
ment disparu, et ce depuis fort longtemps.
Elle observe ensuite qu'il ressortclairement des élémentde preuve qui
lui ont été présenté qsue la pêcheaux huîtres perlièresdans la régiondu
Golfe était traditionnellement considéréecomme un droit exercéen com-
mun par les populations riveraines. Il convient a cet égardde mentionner
la réponse faiteen mars 1903par le résidentpolitique britannique dans le
Golfe à un entrepreneur français qui souhaitait exercer une activitéde
pêcheperlièreet évoquaitla possibilitéde demander une autorisation au
souverain de Bahreïn; le résident a eneffet indiquéà cet entrepreneur que

((lesbancs de perles étaient la propriétécommune des Arabes de la côte
et que le chef de Bahreïn n'avait aucun droit d'autoriser qui que ce soit
participer aux opérations de plongée)).Bien plus, mêmesi l'on devait
tenir pour établique la pêche perlièren'avait été pratiquée que par un tion in its favour. Thus, under existing law, it must be demonstrated
that the equidistance method leads to an equitable result in the case
in question." (1.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 47, para. 63.)
234. The Court wiishes,furthermore, to repeat what it said in its Judg-
ment in the North Sea Continental Slzelfcase:

"Delimitation in an equitable manner is one thing, but not the
same thing as al~arding a just and equitable share of a previously
undelimited area, even though in a number of cases the results may
be comparable, or even identical." (1.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 22,
para. 18.)

In the same sense the Court stated in the Judgment in the Jun Majvn
case :
"The task of a,tribunal is to define the boundary line between the
areas under the maritime jurisdiction of two States; the sharing-out
of the area is therefore the consequence of the delimitation, not vice
versa." (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 67, para. 64.)

235. Bahrain has claimed that there are a significant number of pearl-
ing banks, many of which are situated to the north of the Qatar penin-
sula, which have appertained to Bahrain since time immemorial and that
they constitute a special circumstance which must be taken into consid-
eration in carrying out the delimitation.
Qatar denies that EIahrainhas ever had exclusiverights over the exploi-
tation of the pearling banks. While not denying that Bahraini fishermen
have been active in pearl diving in the area concerned and that the Ruler
of Bahrain had personal jurisdiction over these fishermen and their boats,
Qatar claims that these fisherieshave always been considered as common
to al1tribes along the shores of the Gulf.

Qatar also argued that Bahrain's claim had lost its relevance in any
event, because the pearl fisheries had ceased to exist over half a century

ago.
236. The Court fiirsttakes note of the fact that the pearling industry
effectively ceased to exist a considerable time ago.
It further observe:; that, from the evidence submitted to it, it is clear
that pearl diving in the Gulf area traditionally was considered as a right
which was common to the coastal population. Mention should be made
in this respect of the reply given in March 1903 by the British Political
Resident in the Gulf to a French entrepreneur who wished to engage in
pearl diving and had raised the possibility ofseeking permission from the
Ruler of Bahrain; thiePolitical Resident told this entrepreneur that "the
pearl banks were the common property of the Coast Arabs and that the
Chief of Bahrain hatl no right to give any one permission to take part in
the diving operatioris". Moreover, even if it were taken as established
that pearling had bi:en carried out by a group of fishermen from one
State only, this activity seems in any event never to have led to the recog-113 DELIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORIALES (ARRÊT)

groupe de pêcheurs originaires d'unseul et mêmeEtat, il semble en tout
état de cause qu'il n'en soit jamais résultéde reconnaissance d'un droit
quasi territorial exclusif sur les bancs de pêcheproprement dits ni sur les
eaux surjacentes.
En conséquence, la Cour ne considère pas que l'existence de bancs

d'huîtresperlières,bien qu'exploitésdans le passéde façon prédominante
par des pêcheursbahreïnites, constitue une circonstance qui justifierait un
déplacement vers l'est de la ligne d'équidistance comme le demande
Bahreïn.
237. En 1991, dans sa requête,Qatar a prié la Cour de tracer la
limite maritime unique «compte dûment tenu de la ligne de partage
des fonds marins des deux Etats décritedans la décisionbritannique du
23 décembre1947 » (voir paragraphe 31ci-dessus). Selon Qatar :

(<laligne de 1947constitue par elle-même unecirconstance spéciale
dans la mesure où ellea été définidee façonà permettre à chacun des
deux Etats intéressés d'exercer effectivemens ton droit inhérent sur
les fonds marins. On ne peut pas dire que cette décisionait donné
naissance a un quelconque titre historique, mais la situation qui a été
ainsi créée n'en esptas très éloignée).

Au cours de la procédure orale, Qatar a nuancé ce point de vue en
déclarant que
«le caractère de ... la ligne de 1947 ne concerne pas tant la ligne

elle-même, telle qu'ellea ététracée,que les élémentssur lesquels les
Britanniques s'étaient fondés pour tracer cette ligne. A nos yeux,
en effet, ce qui constitue surtout le facteur important, c'est le fait
que cette ligne a ététracée à partir des côtes principales et a été
construite de manière simplifiéesur la base de quelques points
remarquables. »

238. Bahreïn a contesté la pertinence de la ligne de 1947 aux fins du
présent processus de délimitation pour un certain nombre de motifs.
Bahreïn a notamment déclaréque le tracé de cetteligne ne répondait pas
aux exigencesdu droit contemporain, qu'elle ne servaitqu'à encadrer les
activités des sociétés pétrolières et n'avpiats été conçuepar ses auteurs,
ni comprise par ses destinataires, comme étant dotée d'unevaleur juri-
dique obligatoire.
239. La Cour n'a pas à définirla valeur juridique de la «décision»
contenue dans les lettres du 23 décembre1947adresséesaux souverains
de Bahreïn et de Qatar, en ce qui concerne la division des fonds marins.
11lui suffit de noter qu'aucune des Parties ne l'a acceptéecomme ayant
force obligatoire et qu'elles n'en ont invoqué que certains éléments à

l'appui de leurs arguments.
240. La Cour note par ailleurs que la décisionbritannique ne concer-
nait que le partage des fonds marins entre les Parties. Or, la délimitation
que la Cour doit opérer constitue pour partie une délimitation de la mer
territoriale et pour partie une délimitation combinéedu plateaucontinen-nition of an exclusive:quasi-territorial right to the fishing grounds them-
selves or to the superjacent waters.

The Court, therefore, does not consider the existence of pearling
banks, though predoininantly exploited in the past by Bahrain fishermen,
as forming a circumst.ancewhich wouldjustify an eastward shifting of the
equidistance line as requested by Bahrain.

237. In itsApplica.tion of 1991Qatar requested the Court to draw the
single maritime bounidary "with due regard to the line dividing the sea-
bed of the two States as described in the British decision of 23 December
1947" (see paragraph 31 above). According to Qatar

"the 1947line in itselfconstitutes a special circumstance insofar as it
was drawn in order to permit each of the two interested States actu-
ally to exercise il:sinherent right over the sea-bed. While it cannot be
said that any historic title has derived from that decision, the situa-
tion thus created however does not fall short of it."

During the oral piroceedingsQatar modulated this view when it said
that

"the nature of the 1947line .. .relates not so much to the line itself,
as drawn, but rather to the elements on the basis of which the line
was drawn by the British; in Ourview the important factor is, above
all, that this lini: was drawn starting from the principal coasts and
was constructed in a simplified manner on the basis of a few signifi-
cant points".

238. Bahrain has contested the relevance of the 1947 line for the
present delimitation process on a number of grounds. It stated, intearlia,

that its course does not meet the requirements of contemporary law and
that it merely served the purpose of regulating activities of oil companies
and was not intended by its authors nor understood by its recipients as
having binding legal force.

239. The Court does not need to determine the legal character of the
"decision" contained. in the letters of 23 December 1947to the Rulers of
Bahrain and Qatar vvithrespect to the division of the sea-bed. It suffices
for it to note that neither of the Parties has accepted it as a binding deci-
sion and that they have invoked only parts of it to support their argu-
ments.
240. The Court further observes that the British decision only con-
cerned the division of the sea-bed between the Parties. The delimitation
to be effected by the:Court, however, is partly a delimitation of the ter-
ritorial sea and partly a combined delimitation of the continental shelfta1et de la zone économiqueexclusive. La ligne de 1947ne saurait donc
êtreconsidéréecomme directement pertinente aux fins du présent proces-
sus de délimitation.
241. Qatar a égalementsoutenu qu'il y a une différence sensibleentre
les longueurs des côtes des Parties et que le rapport entre la côte de la
péninsulede Qatar et celle des îles principales de Bahreïn est de 1,59
contre un. Qatar s'est appuyé sur des décisionsantérieures de la Cour
dans lesquelles celle-cia qualifiéune différencesubstantielle entre les lon-

gueurs des côtes de circonstance spécialeou pertinente appelant une cor-
rection appropriée de la ligne de délimitation établiea titre provisoire.
242. Bahreïn a déclaréque cette prétendue différencede longueur des
côtes tient au fait queQatar part du principe que les îlesHawar relèvent
de sa souveraineté; si l'on considère que ces îles relèventde Bahreïn, la
longueur des côtes pertinentes serait a peu près la mème.
243. Ayant décidé que Bahreïn avait souverainetésur les îlesHawar, la
Cour est d'avis que la différencede longueur entre lesfaçades côtièresdes
Parties n'est pas de nature à imposer d'ajuster la ligne d'équidistance.

244. La Cour examinera a présents'ilexiste d'autres motifs qui pour-
raient rendre nécessaireun ajustement de la ligne d'équidistanceafin de
parvenir à une solution équitable.
245. En traçant la ligne qui délimiteles plateaux continentaux et les

zones économiques exclusives des Parties, la Cour ne saurait faire abs-
traction de la localisation de Fasht al Jarim, formation maritime assez
étenduequi est partiellement situéedans la mer territoriale de Bahreïn.
Les Parties ont exprimé desvues divergentes sur la nature juridique de
cette formation maritime. Mais, en tout état de cause, compte tenu de la
situation de cette formation, sa laisse de basse mer peut servir de ligne de
base à partir de laquelle est mesuréela largeur, non seulement de la mer
territoriale, mais aussi du plateau continental et de la zone économique
exclusive.
246. La Cour rappelle que, dans l'affaire Jarnahiriyu arabe libyenne1
Multe citée ci-dessus,elle a déclaré:

«l'effet équitable d'uneligne d'équidistance dépendde la précaution
que l'on aura prise d'éliminerl'effetexagéréde certains îlots, rochers
ou légerssaillants des côtes, pour reprendre les termes utiliséspar la
Cour dans le passage précitéde son arrêt de 1969[(affaire du Pla-
teau continentul de la mer du Nord)]» (C.I.J. Recueil I985, p. 48,
par. 64).

247. La Cour rappelle en outre que, dans le secteur nord, lescôtes des
Parties sont comparables a des côtes adjacentes bordant les mêmeszones
maritimes qui s'étendentvers le large dans le Golfe. Les côtes septentrio-
nales des territoires appartenant aux Parties ne sont pas très différentes
quant à leur caractère ou a leur étendue; tant du côté deQatar que de
Bahreïn, le relief est plat, marqué par une très légèredéclivité.Le seul
élémentremarquable est Fasht al Jarim, qui est comme un saillant de la MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT1)14

and the exclusiveeconomic zone. The 1947 linecannot therefore be con-
sidered to have direct relevance for the present delimitation process.

241. Qatar has also argued that there is a significant disparity between
the coastal lengths of the Parties, and that the ratio of its mainland
Coast to that of Bahrain's principal islands is 1.59 :1. It has referred to
earlier decisions of the Court where the Court has qualified a substantial
disparity between the lengths of the coasts as a special or relevant cir-
cumstance calling for an appropriate correction of the delimitation line
provisionally arrived at.
242. Bahrain has stated that the purported disparity is the result of
Qatar's assumption that the Hawar Islands are under its sovereignty; if

these islands are considered as appertaining to Bahrain, the lengths of the
relevant coasts woulclbe almost equal.
243. Taking into aiîcount the fact that the Court has decided that Bah-
rain has sovereignty over the Hawar Islands, the disparity in length of the
coastal fronts of the Parties cannot be considered such as to necessitate
an adjustment of the equidistance line.
244. The Court will now consider whether there are other reasons
which might require an adjustment of the course of the equidistance line
in order to achieve ail equitable solution.
245. In drawing the line which delimits the continental shelves and
exclusiveeconomic zones of the Parties the Court cannot ignore the loca-
tion of Fasht al Jarirn, a sizeable maritime feature partly situated in the
territorial sea of Bahrain. The Parties have expressed differing views on
the legal nature of this maritime feature but, in any event, given the fea-
ture's location, its lovv-waterline may be used as the baseline from which
the breadth not onlv of the territorial sea. but also of the continental
shelf and the exclusive economic zone, is measured.

246. TheCourt recalls that in thLibyan Arab JamahiuiyalMalta case,
referred to above, it stated:
"the equitableness of an equidistance line depends on whether the
precaution is taken of eliminating the disproportionate effect of cer-
tain 'islets,rocks and minor coastal projections', to use the language

of the Court in iits1969Judgment [(caseconcerning North Sea Con-
tinental Shelj)]" (1.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 48, para. 64).

247. TheCourt fui-therrecalls that in the northern sector the coasts of
the Parties are compalrable to adjacentcoasts abutting on the same mari-
time areas extending seawards into the Gulf. The northern coasts of the
territories belonging to the Parties are not markedly different in character
or extent; both are fliitand have a very gentle slope. The only noticeable

element is Fasht al Ja.rimas a remote projection of Bahrain's coastline in
theGulf area, which, if given fulleffect, would "distort the boundary andcôte de Bahreïn s'avançant loin dans le Golfe, et qui, s'il luiétaitreconnu
un plein effet, (([ferait] dévier la limite etr[ait] des effets dispro-
portionnés)) (affaire du Plateau continental (FrancelRoyaume-Uni),
Nations Unies, Recueil des sentences arbitrales,vol. XVIII, p. 252,
par. 244).
248. De l'avis de la Cour, une telle déviation, duà une formation
maritime située trèsau large et dont, au plus, une partie infime serait
découverte à maréehaute, n'aboutirait pasà une solution équitable qui
tienne compte de tous les autres facteurs pertinents indiqués ci-dessus.
Dans les circonstances de l'espèce, desconsidérations d'éqexigent de
ne pas donner d'effetàFasht al Jarim aux fins de la détermination dela

ligne de délimitation dans le secteur nord.
249. La Cour décidepar conséquent que la limite maritime unique
dans ce secteur sera constituéeen premier lieu par une ligne qui, partant
d'un point situé au nord-ouest de Fasht ad Dibal, rejoindra la ligne
d'équidistance ajustéepour tenir compte de l'absence d'effetreconnuà
Fasht al Jarim. La limite suivra ensuite cette ligne d'équidistanceajustée
jusqu'à ce qu'elle rencontre la ligne de délimitation des zones maritimes
respectives del'Iran d'une part et de Bahreïn et de Qatar de l'autre.

250. La Cour conclut de tout ce qui précèdeque la limite maritime
unique divisant les différentes zonesmaritimes de 1'Etat de Qatar et de
1'Etatde Bahreïn sera forméepar une sériede lignes géodésiques reliant,
dans l'ordre précisé, lespoints ayant les coordonnées suivantes:

(Système géodésique mondial, 1984)
Point Latitude nord Longitude est

1 25"34'34" 50"34' 3"
2 25"35' 10" 50"34'48"
3 25"34'53" 50°41'22"
4 25"34'50" 50'41'35"
5 25"34'21" 50"44' 5"
6 25"33'29" 50"45'49"
7 25"32'49" 50"46'11"
8 25"32' 55" 50"46' 48"
9 25"32'43" 50"47'46"
1O 25"32' 6" 50"48' 36"
11 25"32'40" 50"48'54"
12 25"32'55" 50"48'48"
13 25"33'44" 50"49' 4"
14 25" 33'49"
50"48'32"
15 25"34'33" 50"47' 37"
16 25"35'33" 50"46'49"have disproportionate effects" (Continental Shelf case (FrancelUnited
Kingdom), United Nations, Reports of International Arbitral Awards,
Vol. XVIII, p. 114, para. 244).

248. In the viewof the Court, such a distortion, due to a maritime fea-
ture located well out to sea and of which at most a minute part is above
water at high tide, would not lead to an equitable solution which would
be in accord with al1other relevant factors referred to above. In the cir-
cumstances of the case considerations of equity require that Fasht al
Jarim should have no effect in determining the boundary line in the
northern sector.

249. The Court accordingly decides that the singlemaritime boundary
in this sector shall be formed in the first place by a line which, from a
point situated to the north-west of Fasht ad Dibal, shall meet the equi-
distance line as adjusted to take account of the absence of effect givento
Fasht al Jarim. The b~oundaryshall then follow this adjusted equidistance
line until it meets the delimitation line between the respective maritime
zones of Iran on the one hand and of Bahrain and Qatar on the other.

250. The Court concludes from al1 of the foregoing that the single
maritime boundary that divides the various maritime zones of the State
of Qatar and the Stat'eof Bahrain shall be formed by a series of geodesic
lines joining, in the order specified, the points with the following co-
ordinates:

[World Geodetic System, 1984)
Point Latitude North Longitude East

1 25"34'34" 50"34' 3"
2 25"35' 10" 50"34'48"
3 25"34'53" 50°41'22"
4 25"34'50" 50°41'35"
5 25"34'21" 50'44' 5"
6 25"33'29" 50"45'49"
7 25"32'49" 50"46' 11"
8 25"32'55" 50"46'48"
9 25"32'43" 50"47'46"
10 25"32' 6" 50"48'36"
11 25"32'40" 50"48'54"
12 25"32'55" 50"48'48"
13 25"33'44" 50"49' 4"
14 25"33'49" 50"48'32"

15 25"34'33" 50"47'37"
16 25"35'33" 50"46'49"116 DELIMITATION MARITIME ET QUESTIONS TERRITORlALES (ARRÊT)

Point Latitude nord Longitude est
17 25"37'21" 50"47'54"
18 25"37'45" 50"49' 44"
19 25"38' 19" 50"50' 22"
20 25"38'43" 50"50' 26"

21 25"39'31" 50"50' 6"
22 25"40'10" 50"50'30"
23 25"41'27" 50"51'43"
24 25"42'27" 50'51' 9"
25 25"44' 7" 50"51'58"
26 25"44'58" 50"52' 5"
27 25"45'35" 50"5 1'53"
28 25"46' 0" 50"51'40"
29 25"46'57" 50"51'23"
30 25"48'43" 50"50'32"
31 25"51'40" 50"49'53"
32 25"52'26" 50"49'12"
33 25"53'42" 50"48'57"
34 26" 0'40" 50"51'00"
35 26" 4'38" 50"54'27"
36 26"Il' 2" 50"55' 3"
37 26"15'55" 50"55' 22"
38 26" 17' 58" 50"55'58"

39 26'20' 2" 50"57' 16"
40 26"26'11 " 50"59'12"
41 26"43' 58" 51" 3'16"
42 27" 2' 0" 51" 7'11"
En deçà du point 1, la limite maritime unique suivra, en direction du
sud-ouest, une ligne loxodromique ayant un azimut de 234"16'53",jus-
qu'à ce qu'ellerencontre la ligne de délimitationentre leszones maritimes
respectives del'Arabie saoudite d'une part et de Bahreïn et de Qatar de

l'autre. Au-delà du point2, la ligne maritime unique suivra, en direction
du nord-nord-est, une ligne loxodromiqueayant un azimut de12"15'12",
jusqu'à ce qu'ellerencontre la ligne de délimitationentre les zones mari-
times respectivesdel'Iran d'une part et de Bahreïn et deQatarde l'autre.
251. Le tracéde cette limite a été indiquà, seules fins d'illustration,
sur le croquis no 7joinà l'arrêt'.

* * *
252. Par ces motifs,

LACOUR,
1) A l'unanimité,

'On trouvera un exemplaire de cette carte dans une pocla fin du présent
fascicule ou du volume C.I.J. Recueil 2001 selon le cas. [Note du Greffe.]

80 MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 116

Point Latitude North Longitude East
17 25"37'21" 50"47'54"
18 25"37'45" 50"49'44"
19 25"38'19" 50"50'22"
20 25"38'43" 50"50' 26"

2 1 25"39'31" 50"50' 6"
22 25"40'10" 50"50'30"
23 25'41'27'' 50"51'43"
24 25"42'27" 50"51' 9"
25 25"44' 7" 50"51'58"
26 25"44'58" 50"52' 5"
27 25"45'35" 50"51'53"
28 25'46' O" 50"51'40"
29 25'46' 57" 50" 51'23"
30 25"48'43" 50"50' 32"
3 1 25"51'40" 50"49'53"
32 25"52'26" 50"49'12"
33 25"53'42" 50"48'57"
34 26" 0'40" 50"51'00"
35 26" 4'38" 50"54'27"
36 26"11' 2" 50'55' 3"
37 26"15'55" 50"55'22"

38 26" 17' 58" 50"55'58"
39 26"20' 2" 50"57'16"
40 26"26'11" 50"59'12"
4 1 26"43'58" 51" 3'16"
42 27" 2' 0" 51" 7'11"
Below point 1, the single maritime boundary shall follow, in a south-
westerly direction, a loxodrome having an azimuth of 234"16'53",until it

meets the delimitation line between the respective maritime zones of
Saudi Arabia on the one hand and of Bahrain and Qatar on the other.
Beyond point 42, the single maritime boundary shall follow, in aorth-
north-easterly direction, a loxodrome having an azimuth of 12"15'12",
until it meets the delimitation line between the respective maritime zones
of Iran on the oneband and of Bahrain and Qatar on the other.
251. The course of this boundary has been indicated, for illustrative
purposes only, on sketch-map No. 7 attached to the Judgment'.

* * *

252. For these reasons,
THECOURT,

(1) Unanimously,

'A copy of this map will be found in a pocket at the end of this fascicle or inside the
back cover of the volume of Report2001.[Note by the Registry.]

80 Dit que 1'Etat de Qatar a souveraineté sur Zubarah;
2) a) Par douze voix contre cinq,

Dit que 1'Etat de Bahreïn a souveraineté sur les îles Hawar;

POUR: M. Guillaume,président;M. Shi, vice-président;MM. Oda, Herczegh,
Fleischhauer, MmeHiggins, MM. Parra-Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek,
Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal,juges; M. Fortier juge ad hoc;
CONTRE: MM. Bedjaoui, Ranjeva, Koroma, Vereshchetin,juges; M. Torres
Bernardez,juge ad hoc;

b) A l'unanimité,
1'Etat deQatar jouissent dans la mer terri-
Rappelle que les navires de
toriale de Bahreïn séparant les îles Hawar des autres îles bahreinites du
droit de passage inoffensif consacré par le droit international coutumier;

3) Par treize voix contre quatre,
Dit que 1'Etat de Qatar a souveraineté sur l'île de Janan,y compris
Hadd Janan ;

POURM : . Guillaume,président;M. Shi, vice-président;MM. Bedjaoui, Ran-
jeva,Herczegh,Fleischhauer,Koroma,Vereshchetin,Parra-Aranguren,Rezek,
Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal,juges; M. Torres Bernardez,juge ad hoc;
CONTRE: M. Oda, MmeHiggins, M. Kooijmans, juges; M. Fortier, juge
ad hoc;

4) Par douze voix contre cinq,

Dit que 1'Etat de Bahreïn a souveraineté sur l'île de Qit'at Jaradah;

POURM : . Guillaume,président;M. Shi, vice-président;MM. Oda, Herczegh,
Fleischhauer, MmeHiggins, MM. Parra-Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek,
Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal,juges; M. Fortier juge ad hoc;
CONTRE: MM. Bedjaoui, Ranjeva, Koroma, Vereshchetin,juges; M. Torres
Bernardez,juge ad hoc;

5) A l'unanimité,
Dit que le haut-fond découvrant de Fasht ad Dibal relèvede la souve-

raineté de 1'Etat de Qatar;
6) Par treize voix contre quatre,

Décide que la limite maritime unique divisant les différentes zones
maritimes de 1'Etat de Qatar et de 1'Etat de Bahreïn doit être tracée
comme indiqué au paragraphe 250 du présent arrêt;

POUR: M. Guillaume,président;M. Shi, vice-président;MM. Oda, Herczegh,
Fleischhauer, Vereshchetin,MmeHiggins, MM. Parra-Aranguren, Kooij-
mans, Rezek, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal,juges;M. Fortier juge ad hoc;
CONTRE: MM. Bedjaoui, Ranjeva, Koroma,juges; M. Torres Bernardez,juge
ad hoc. MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTIONS (JUDGMENT) 1 17

Finds that the State of Qatar has sovereignty over Zubarah;

(2) (a) By twelve votes to five,

Finds that the Stateof Bahrain has sovereignty over the Hawar Islands;
IN FAVOUR P:resideizt Guillaume; Vice-President Shi; Judges Oda, Herc-
zegh, Fleischhauer, Higgins, Parra-Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek, Al-
Khasawneh, Buergenthal; Judge ad hoc Fortier;

AGAINST J:dges Bedjaoui. Ranjeva, Koroma, Vereshchetin; Judge ad hoc
Torres Bernardez .,

(b) Unanimously,
Recalls that vesse1:jof the State of Qatar enjoy in the territorial sea of

Bahrain separatingthe Hawar Islands from theother Bahraini islands the
right of innocent passage accorded by customary international law;

(3) By thirteen votes to four,
Finds that the State of Qatar has sovereignty over Janan Island,

including Hadd Janan;
IN FAVOURP :resident Guillaume; Vice-President Shi; Judges Bedjaoui,
Ranjeva, Herczegh,Fleischhauer,Koroma, Vereshchetin,Parra-Aranguren,
Rezek, Al-Khasavmeh, Buergenthal; Judge ad hoc Torres Bernardez;

AGAINSJ Tu:dges Oda, Higgins, Kooijmans; Judge ad hoc Fortier;

(3) By twelve votes to five,
Finds that the State of Bahrain has sovereignty over the island of Qit'at

Jaradah;
IN FAVOUR P:residetzt Guillaume; Vice-President Shi; Judges Oda, Herc-
zegh, Fleischhauer, Higgins, Parra-Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek, Al-
Khasawneh, Buergenthal; Judge ad hoc Fortier;

AGAINST Ju:dges Bedjaoui, Ranjeva, Koroma, Vereshchetin; Judge ad hoc
Torres Bernardez:

(5) Unanimously,
Finds that the lovi-tide elevation of Fasht ad Dibal falls under the

sovereignty of the St,ate of Qatar;
(6) By thirteen votes to four,

Decides that the single maritime boundary that divides the various
maritime zones of the State of Qatar and the State of Bahrain shall be

drawn as indicated in paragraph 250 of the present Judgment;
IN FAVOUR P:resideni'Guillaume; Vice-PresidentShi; Judges Oda, Herczegh,
Fleischhauer, Vereshchetin, Higgins,Parra-Aranguren, Kooijmans, Rezek,
Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal ;Judge ad hoc Fortier;

AGAINSTJ:udges Bedjaoui, Ranjeva, Koroma; Judge ad hoc Torres
Bernardez. Fait en français et en anglais, le texte français faisant foi, au Palais de
la Paixà La Haye, le seizemars deux mille un, en trois exemplaires, dont
l'un restera déposéaux archives de la Cour et les autres seront transmis
respectivement au Gouvernement de1'Etatde Qatar et au Gouvernement
de I'Etat de Bahreïn.

Le président,
(Signé) Gilbert GUILLAUME.

Le greffier,
(Signé) Philippe COUVREUR.

M. ODA,juge, joint a l'arrêtl'exposéde son opinion individuelle;
MM. BEDJAOUI, RANJEVA et KOROMA ,ges, joignenti l'arrêtl'exposé
de leur opinion dissidente commune; MM. HERCZEGe t VERESHCHETIN,
et MmeHIGGINSj,uges, joignent des déclarations l'arrêt;MM. PARRA-
ARANGUREK NO, OIJMANSet AL-KHASAWNE Hg,es, joignena l'arrêtles
exposésde leur opinion individuelle; M. TORBERNARDEju Z,e adhoc,
jointA l'arrêtl'exposéde son opinion dissidente; M. FORTIERj,uge ad
hoc,jointà l'arrêtl'exposéde son opinion individuelle.

(Parapht.)Ci.G.

(Paraphé) Ph. C. MARITIME DELIMITATION AND TERRITORIAL QUESTION(JUDGMENT1 )18

Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this sixteenth day of March two thousand
and one, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the
Court and the others transmitted to the Government of the State of

Qatar and the Government of the Stateof Bahrain, respectively.

(Signrd) Gilbert GUILLAUME,

President.
(Signrd) Philippe COUVREUR,

Registrar.

Judge ODAappends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court;
Judges BEDJAOUR I,ANJEVAand KOROMA append ajoint dissentingopinion

to the Judgment of the Court; Judges HERCZEGH, VERESHCHETI and
HIC~GINa Sppend declarations to the Judgment of the Court; Judges
PARRA-ARANGIJREN, KOOIJMANa Snd AL-KHASAWNEa ppend separate
opinions to the Judgrnent of the Court; Juudhoc.TORRES BERNARDEZ
appends a dissenting opinion to the Judgment of the Court; Judhoc

FOKTIER appends a separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court.

(lnitiulledG.G.
(InitiulledPh.C.

ICJ document subtitle

Merits

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Judgment of 16 March 2001

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