INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
APPEALRELATINGTOTHEJURISDICTION
OF THE ICA0 COUNCIL
(INDIA1,PAKISTAN)
JIlDGMENT OF 18 AUGUST 1972
COlJR INTERNATIONALDE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
APPELCONCERNANTLACOMPÉTENCE
DU CONSEIL DEL'OACI
(INDE c. PAKISTAN)
ARRÊT DU 18 AOUT 1972 Officialcita:ion
Appeal Relating to the Jurisofcthe ICA0 Council, Judgrnent,
I.C.J. Reports p. 46
Mode officielde citation:
Appel concernant lacompétencedu Conseilde I'OACI,arret,
C.I.J. Recu1972, p. 46
Sales """ber368 1
No devente: 18 AUGUST 1972
JUDGMENT
APPEAL RELATlNG TO THEJURISDlCTlON
OF THE ICA0 COUNCIL
(INDIAv.PAKISTAN)
APPEL CONCERNANT LA COMPÉTENCE
DU CONSEIL DE L'OACI
(INDE c. PAKISTAN) INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
1972
18 August
General List YEAR 1972
No.54
18 August 1972
APPEALRELATING TOTHEJURISDICTION
OFTHEICA0 COUNCIL
(INEIA v. PAKISTAN)
Appeal from decisions of the Council of the InternCivil Aviation Organi-
zation assuming jurisdictiin respect of an '2pplicatioand a "Complaint"
made IOit by Pakistan concerning the suspension by India, in alleged breach of
the 1944 Chicago InternationaCivil AviatioConvention andlnternationaAir
Services TransitAgreement, of flightof Pakistan civilaircraftover lndian
territory--Cornpetencof the Court toentertain thiappeal-lnterpretatioof
the jurisdictionclauses ofthese instruments-Jurisdictioof the Council to
entertainthe dispute between lndia and Pakistan-Questioof whetlier thi.~dis-
pute involveda "disagreement...relatingto the interpretatior application"
of the Chicago Conventioand TransitAgreement--Alleged irregularitiin the
procedure of the Council-Relevanceof this question to the task of the Court
in the present case.
JUDGMENT
Present: Vice-PresidenAMMOUN Acting President;President Sir Muhammad
ZAFRULLK AHAN; Judges Sir Gerald FITZMAURIC PEA,DILLANERVO,
FORSTERG , ROS, BENGZON,P~TRÉN,LACHS,ONYEAMAD , ILLARD,
IGNACIO-PINT DE.CASTRO M, OROZOV J,MENE ZE ARÉCHAGA J;dge
ad hoc NAUENDRS AINGH; RegistrarAQUARONE. In the Appeal relating to the Jurisdiction of the Council of the International
Civil Aviation Organization,
the Republic of India,
represented by
H.E. Lt. General Yadavindra Singh, Ambassador of India to the Nether-
lands,
as Agent,
Dr. S. P. Jagota, Joint Secretary and Legal Adviser, Ministry of External
Affairs, Government of India,
as Deputy Agent and Counsel,
Mr. T. S. Ramamurti, Secretary of Embassy,
as Deputy Agent,
assisted by
Mr. N. A. Palkhivala, Senior Advocate, Supreme Court of India,
as Chief Counsel,
Mr. B. S. Gidwani, Deputy Director General of Civil Aviation, Govern-
ment of India,
Mr. Y. S. Chitale, Advocate, Supreme Court of India,
Mr. P. Chandrasekhara Rao, Legal Adviser, Permanent Mission of India
to the United Nations, New York,
as Counsel,
and by
Mr. 1. R. Menon, Civil Aviation Department, Government of India,
as Expert,
und
Pakistan,
represented by
H.E. Mr. J. G. Kharas, Ambassador of Pakistan to the Netherlands,
as Agent,
Mr. S. T. Joshua, Secretary of Embassy,
as Deputy Agent,
assisted by
Mr. Yahya Bakhtiar, Attorney-General of Pakistan,
as Chief Counsel,
and by
Mr. Zahid Said. Deputy Legal Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Govern-
ment of Pakistan,
Mr. K. M. H. Darabu, Assistant Director, Department of Civil Aviation,
Governnient of Pakistan,
as Counsel, cornposed as above,
delivers thefollowing J~rdgmeirt:
1. By a letter of 30 August 1971, received in the Registry the sarne day,
the Ambassador of India to the Netherlands transmitted to the Registrar of
the Court an Application instituting an appeal frorn the decisions rendered
on 29 July 1971 bythe Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization
("ICAO") on the Preliminary Objections raised by India in respect of an Ap-
plication and a Cornplaint brought before the Council by Pakistan on 3 March
1971. In order to found the jurisdiction of the Court, the Application relies
on Article 84 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation signed at
Chicago on 7 Decernber 1944, Article II of the International Air Services
Transit Agreement opened for signature at Chicago on 7 Decernber 1944,
and Articles 36 and 37 of the Statute of the Court.
2. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Application was
at once cornmunicated to the Governrnent of Pakistan. In accordance with
paragraph 3 of that Article, al1other Statesentitled to appear before the Court
were notified.
3. In accordance with Article 13, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the
Vice-President acted as President in the case. Pursuant to Article 31, para-
graph 2, of the Statute of the Court, the Government of India chose Dr. Na-
gendra Singh, Mernber of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, to sit as judge
ad hoc.
4. The time-limits for the filing of the written pleadings were fixed, or
extended at the request of the Government of India, by Orders of 16Septem-
ber and 3 December 1971 and 19January and 20 March 1972.The pleadings
having been filed within the time-linlits prescribed, the case was ready for
hearing on 15 May 1972,the date on which the Rejoinder of the Governrnent
of Pakistan was filed.
5. The Government of Pakistan having advanced the contention that ques-
tions concerning the construction of the Convention on International Civil
Aviation and the International Air Services Transit Agreement were in issue,
the States other than those concerned in the case which are parties to these
two instruments were notified in accordance with Article 63, paragraph 1,of
the Statute. ICAO was also notified and copies of the written proceedings were
communicated to it in accordance with Article 34, paragraph 3, of the Statute.
By letter of 15 May 1972, the Registrar informed the Secretary General of
ICAO, in accordance with Article 57. paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court,
that 6 June 1972had been fixedas the time-limit within which the Organization
might submit its observations in writing. Within the time-lirnit fixed, the
Secretary General stated that ICA0 did not intend to submit observations.
6. Pursuant to Article 44, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the pleadings
and annexed documents were, with the agreement of the Parties, made acces-
sible to the public as from the date of the opening of the oral proceedings.
7. Hearings were held from 19to 23 and on 27, 28 and 30 June and 3 July,
in the course of which the Court heard the oral argument and replies of H.E.
Lt. General Yadavindra Singh and Mr. Palkhivala on behalf of the Govern-
ment of India, and of H.E. Mr. Kharas and Mr. Yahya Bakhtiar on behalf
of the Government of Pakistan. 8. In the course of the written proceedings, the following submissions were
presented by the Parties:
in the Application:
"May it please the Court to adjudge and declare, after such proceedings
and hearing as the Court may see fit to direct, and whether the Respon-
dent is present of absent, that the aforesaid decision of the Council is
illegal, nuIl and void, or erroneous, on the following grounds or any
others:
A. The Council has no jurisdiction to handle the matters presented by
the Respondent in its Application and Cornplaint, as the Convention
and the Transit Agreement have been terminated or suspended as
between the two States.
B. The Council has no jurisdiction to consider the Respondent's Com-
plaint since no action has been taken by the Applicant under the
Transit Agreement; in fact no action could possibly be taken by the
Applicant under the Transit Agreement since that Agreement has
been terminated or suspended as between the two States.
C. The question of Indian aircraft overflying Pakistan and Pakistan air-
craft overfiying India is governed by the Special Régime of 1966 and
not by the Convention or the Transit Agreement. Any dispute between
the twoStates can arise only under the SpecialRégime,and the Council
has no jurisdiction to handle any such dispute."
in the Memorial:
"May it please the Court to adjudge and declare, after such proceedings
and hearings as the Court may see fit to direct, and whether the Respon-
dent is present or absent, that the aforesaid decision of the Council is
illegal, nuIl and void. or erroneous, and may it further please the Court
to reverse and set aside the same, on the following grounds or any others:
A. The Council has no jurisdiction to handle the matters presented by
the Respondent in its Application and Complaint, as the Convention
and the Transit Agreement have been terminated or s~ispended as
between the two States.
B. The Council has no jurisdiction to consider the Respondent's Coni-
plaint since no action has been taken by the Applicant under the
Transit Agreement; in fact no action could possibly be taken by the
Applicant under the Transit Agreement since that Agreement has
been terminated or suspended as between the two States.
C. The question of lndian aircraft overflying Pakistan and Pakistan air-
craft overflying lndia is governed by the Special Agreement of 1966
and not by the Convention or the Transit Agreement. Any dispute
between the two States can arise only under that Bilateral Agreement,
and the Council has adrnittedly no jurisdiction to handle any such
dispute.
D. The manner and method employed by the Council in reaching its
decision render the decision irnproper, unfüir and prejudiciül to India,
and bad in Inw. May italso please the Court to order that the costs of these proceedings
be paid by the Respondent."
On behalf'ofthe Governmrnt of'PuXis~u~i,
in the Counter-Memorial:
"ln view ofthe facts and statements presented in the Counter-Memorial,
rnay it please the Court to reject the Appeal of the Government of lndia
and to confirm the decisions of the Council of the International Civil
Aviation Organization and to adjudge and declare:
A. That the question of Pakistan aircraft overflying India and lndian
aircraft overflying Pakistan is governed by the Convention and the
Transit Agreement.
B. That the contention of the Government of lndia that the Council
has no jurisdiction to handle the matters presented by Pakistan in its
Application is rnisconceived.
C. That the Appeal preferred by the Government of India against the
decision of the Council in respect of Pakistan's Complaint is incom-
petent.
D. That if the answer to the submission in C. above is in the negative
then the contention of the Government of lndia that the Council
has no jurisdiction to consider the Cornplaint of Pakistan, is mis-
conceived.
E. That the matter and rnethod employed by the Council in reaching
its decisions are proper, fair and valid.
F. That the decisions of the Council in rejecting the Preliminary Objec-
tions of the Governrnent ofIndia are correct in law.
May it please the Court to Order that the cost of these proceedings
be paid by the Appellant."
9. The present case concerns an appeal by India against decisions of
the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization ("ICAO")
assuming jurisdiction in respect (a) of an "Application" by Pakistan
made (i) under Article 84 of the Chicago International Civil Aviation
Convention of 1944("the Chicago Convention" or "the Convention")
and (ii) under Section 2 of Article II of the related International Air
Services Transit Agreement of 1944(the "Transit Agreement"), and also
in accordance with Article 2 (Chapter on "Disagreements" of the Coun-
cil's "Rules for the Settlement of Differences"); and (h) of a "Com-
plaint" made by Pakistan under Section 1 of Article II of the Transit
Agreement, and in accordance with Article 21 (Chapter on "Complaints")
of the Council's Rules. Pakistan's case before the Council was based on
alleged breaches by India of the Convention and Transit Agreement.
In rnaking her appeal, India invokes as giving her a right to do so, and
as the foundation of the Court's jurisdiction to entertain it, the same Article84 of the Convention,and also Section 2 of Article II of the Tran-
sit Agreement. The above-nientioned provisions of these two instru-
nients will be found set out iiiparagraphs 17 and 19 below.
10. The substance of the dispute between the Parties, as placrd beforc
the Council of ICA0 ("the Council") by Pakistan on 3 March 1971,
relates to the suspensioii by India of overflights of Indian territory by
Pakistan civil aircraft, on aiid from 4 February 1971, arising out of a
"hijacking" incident involving the diversion of an Indian aircraft to
Pakistan. It should be mentioned hcre that hostilities interrupting over-
flights had broken out between the two couiltries in August 1965,ceasing
in the following month, and that after this cessation the Parties adopted
what is known as the Tashkeiit Declaration of 10January 1966,by which.
and more especially by a consequential Exchange of Letters between them
dated 317 February 1966, it was agreed, inter alia,that there should be
"an immediate resumption of overflights across each other's territory
on the same hasis as that prior to 1 August 1965.. .",i.e., prior to the
hostilities-(emphasis added). Pakistan has interpreted this undertaking
as meaning that overflights would be resumed on the basis of the Con-
vention and Transit Agreement ("the Treaties"): but India has main-
tained that these Treaties having (as she alleges) been suspended during
the hostilities, were never as such revived, and that overflights were to
be resunied on the basis of a "special régime" according to which such
flights could take place in principle, biit only after permission had been
granted by India.-whereas under the Treaties they could take place as
of right. without aiiy necessity for prior permission. This special régime.
lndia contends, replaced the Ti-eatiesas between the Parties; but Pakistan
denies that any such régime ever came into existence, and also claims
that. not having been registered as an international agreement under
Article 102 of the United Nations Charter. it cannot now be invoked
by India. Consequently Pakistan maintains that, at least since Januaryi
February 1966.the Treaties have never ceased to be applicable, and that,
in accordance .with them (Article 5 of the Convention and Article 1,
Section 1,of the Transit Agreement), her civil aircraft have "the right.. .
to make flights into or in transit non-stop across [Indian] territory and
to make stops for non-trafic purposes ii,ithout the nrcessity qf ohtaining
prior permissiorr"-(Convention, Article 5-rmphasis added).
II. It niiist however be stated at the outset, that with these various
matters. and with the substance of this dispute as placed before the
Council, and the facts and contentions of the Parties relative to it. the
Court has nothing whatever to do in the present proceedings, except
in so far as these elements may relate to the purely jurisdictional issue
which alone has been referred to it, namely the cornpetence of the Coun-
cil to hear and determine the case submitted by Pakistan. Subject to this
necessary exception. the Court must avoid not only any expreîsion of
9opinion on these matters of substance, but any pronouncernents which
rnight prejudge, or appear to prejudge, the eventual decision, whatever
it rnight be, of the Council on the ultimate rnerits of the case, if the Coun-
cil is held to be cornpetent to entertain these-(see also the case of Inter-
pretation of Article 3, Puragraph 2, of the Treaty of Lausanne, Advisory
Opinion, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 12. p. 18).
12. For the sake of clarity it should be mentioned at this point that
when, in the present Judgment. reference is made to the "merits" of
the dispute or disagreernent, what is meant is the merits of the case be-
fore the Council. When referencz is intended to the substance of the
purely jurisdictional issue now before the Court, the context will rnake
this clear.
13. Before coming to the question of the Council's jurisdiction, the
Court rnust deal with certain objections to its own jurisdiction to enter-
tain India's appeal which have been advanced by Pakistan. India, for
her part, contests the right of Pakistan to do this, because the objections
concerned were not put forward at an earlier stage of the proceedings
before the Court as "preliminary" objections under Article 62 of the
Court's Rules (1946 edition). It is certainly to be desired that objections
to the jurisdiction of the Court should be put forward as preliminary
objections for separate decision in advance of the proceedings on the
merits. The Court rnust however always be satisfied that it has juris-
diction, and rnust if necessary go into that matterproprio mofu. The real
issue raised by the present case was whether, in the event of a party's
failure to put forward a jurisdictional objection as a preliminary one,
that party might not thereby be held to have acquiesced in the jurisdic-
tion of the Court. However, since the Court considers its jurisdiction
to be established irrespective of any consent of Pakistan's on that basis,
it will now proceed to consider Pakistan's objections.
14. The chief of these is that the relevant jurisdictional clauses of the
Treaties-naniely Article 84 of the Convention and Section 2 of Article
II of the Transit Agreement-only allow of an appeal to the Court frorn
a decision of the Council on the rnerits of the dispute referred to it, and
not frorn a decision concerning the Council's jurisdiction to entertain
the reference, whether such jurisdiction is affirrned or rejected by the
Council. Additionally or alternatively, Pakistan clain~sthat since it is one
of India's principal contentions that the Treaties are not in force at al1
(or at any rate in operation) between the Parties, (a) India cannot have
any jus standi to invoke their jurisdictional clauses for the purpose of
appealing to the Court, and (6) India must admit that the Court in any
1Oevent lacks jurisdiction under its own Statute because, in the case of dis-
putes referred to it under treaties or conventions, Article 36, paragraph 1,
of the Statute requires these to be "treaties and conventions in force"
(ernphasis added),-and India denies that the treaties and conventions
here concerned are in force, in the sense that she alleges that they are
at least suspended as between Pakistan and herself, or their oper-
ation is.
15. Pakistan adduces yet other grounds in support of the view that
the Court should hold itself to be incompetent in the matter, such as
the effect of one of India's reservations to her acceptance of the Court's
cornpulsory jurisdiction under Article 36. paragraph 2, of its Statute.
Also pleaded is the principle of the "compétencede la compétence"as
making the Council's jurisdictional decisions conclusive and unappeal-
able. But this prejudges the question, for if on other grounds it appears
that these decisions rnust be held appealable, this principle coiild not be
perrnitted to prevail without defeating a priori al1 possibility of appeal.
Again, having regard to the date of the Treaties (1944), a query was
raised concerning the position under Article 37 of the Court's Statute.
This matter was however disposed of by the Judgrnent of the Court in
the prelirninary phase of the case concerning the Barcelona Traction,
Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962), I.C.J. Re-
ports 1964, at pages 26-39. In any event, such matters would become
rnaterial only if it should appear that the Treaties and their jurisdictional
clauses did not suffice, and that the Court's jurisdiction must be sought
outside thern, which, for reasons now to be stated, the Court does not
find to be the case.
16. It will be convenient to deal first with the contention that India
is precluded frorn affirming the competence of the Court because she
herself rnaintains (on the rnerits of the dispute) that the Treaties are not
in force between the Parties, which contention, if correct, would entail
that their jurisdictional clauses were inapplicable, and that the Treaties
thernselvesdid not fulfil th:. conditions conternplated by Article 36, para-
graph 1,of the Court's Statute, in order that the Court should have juris-
diction in respect of disputes referred to it under those Treaties. The
Court however holds that this contention of Pakistan's isnot well-founded
for the following reasons, sorne of which have been advanced in the In-
dian arguments on this part of the case:
(a) What India has affirrned is that the Treaties-which are rnultilateral
ones-are suspended (or that their operation is suspended) as
between herself and Pakistan. This is not the sarne thing as saying
that they are not in force in the definitive sense, or even that they
have wholly ceased to be in force as between the two Parties con-
cerned.
(b) Nor in any case could a merely unilateral suspension per se render
jurisdictional clauses inoperative, since one of their purposes rnight
be, precisely, to enable the validity of the suspension to be tested.
1I If a mere allegation, as yet unestablished, that a treaty was no
longer operative could be used to defeat its jurisdictional clauses,
al1 such clauses would become potentially a dead letter, even in
cases like the present, where one of the very questions at issue on
the merits, and as yet undecided, is whether or not the treaty is
operative-i.e., whether it has been validly terminated or suspended.
The result would be that means of defeating jurisdictional clauses
would never be wanting.
(c) The argument based on preclusion could also be turned ayainst
Pakistan,--for since it is Pakistan not lndia which denies the juris-
diction of the Court, and affirms the force of the Treaties, it must
be questionable whether she can be heard to utilize for tha: purpose
an lndian denial of the force of the Treaties, put forward only as
a defence on the merits, which, ex hypothesi, have not yet been
pronounced upon. The question of the Court's jurisdiction on the
other hand. is necessarily an antecedent and independent one-
an objective question of law-which cannot be governed by pre-
clusive considerations capable of being so expressed as to tell against
either Party-or both Parties.
(d) It is significant that Pakistan also advances the coniplementary
argument that India's appeal to the Court on the basis of the juris-
dictional clauses of the Treaties necessarily involves an implied
admission that those Treaties really are in force,-thus seeking to
place lndia on the horns of a seeniingly inescapable dilemma;-
for according to this doctrine a Party, by the mere fact of invoking
the jurisdictional clause of a treaty, could be hzld to have made an
admission adverse to itself as regards the very matter in respect of
which it had invoked that clause. The Court considers this to be
an unacceptable position. Parties must be free to invoke jurisdic-
tional clauses, where otherwise applicable, without being made to
run the risk of destroying their case on the merits by means of that
process itself,-for their case could never either be established or
negatived by means of a judicial decision unless a clause conferring
junsdiction on a court to decide the matter could be invoked on
its own independent, and purely jurisdictional, foundations.
17. Greater weight is to be attached to Pakistan's contention that in
the case of these Treaties, the jurisdictional clauses themselves do not
allow of India's appeal in the present case because, on their correct
interpretation, they only provide for an appeal to the Court against a
final decision of the Council on the merits of any dispute referred to it,
and not against decisions of an interim or preliminary nature such as
are here involved. These clauses read as follows: si la suspension est valable. Si, pour rendre inopérantes les clauses
juridictionnelles, il suffisait d'alléguer, sans le prouver, qu'un traité
n'est plus applicable, toutes ces clauses risqueraient de devenir lettre
morte, mêmedans des affaires comme celle dont la Cour est saisie ou
I'une des questions mêmesqui se posent au fond et qui ne sont pas
encore tranchées est de savoir si le traité est ou non applicable, c'est-
à-dire s'il a pris fin ou a été suspendu demanière régulière.Le résultat
serait que les moyens de priver d'effet les clauses juridictionnelles ne
manqueraient jamais.
c) L'argument tiré de la forclusion pourrait aussi se retourner contre le
Pakistan; en effet, comme c'est le Pakistan et non pas l'Inde qui nie la
compétence de la Cour et soutient I'applicabilité desTraités, on peut
douter qu'il soit fondé à invoquer à cette fin l'argument de l'inappli-
cabilité des Traités présentépar l'Inde uniquement comme moyen de
défenseau fond, alors que par hypothèse on ne s'est pas encore pro-
noncé sur le fond. La compétence de la Cour est une question néces-
sairement préalable et indépendante, une question de droit objective,
qui ne saurait être régiepar des considérations de forclusion pouvant
êtreformulées de façon àjouer contre I'une des Parties ou contre les
deux.
d) Le Pakistan avance, ce qui est significatif, l'argument complémentaire
selon lequel, en interjetant appel devant la Cour sur la base des
clauses juridictionnelles des Traités, l'Inde admet nécessairement de
façon implicite le maintien en vigueur de ces Traités. IIcherche ainsi
à enfermer l'Inde dans un dilemme en apparence sans issue; en effet,
selon cette conception, on pourrait considérer que le fait pour une
partie d'invoquer la clause juridictionnelle d'un traité constitue un
acquiescement contraire à sa propre thèse sur la question mêmea
propos de laquelle elle a invoquécette clause. C'est la, selon la Cour,
une position inacceptable. Les parties doivent être libres d'invoquer
des clauses juridictionnelles, si elles sont par ailleurs applicables, sans
courir le risque, ce faisant, de réduire à néant leur thèse au fond, car
cette thèse ne saurait être déclaréebien ou mal fondée par voie de
décision judiciaire que si une clause conférant compétence à un tribu-
nal pour juger de cette question peut être invoquéeen soi comme base
indépendante de la juridiction.
17.11 faut attribuer plus de poids à la thèse du Pakistan selon laquelle
les clausesjuridictionnelles des Traités n'autorisent pas l'Inde à interjeter
appel parce que, bien interprétées, elles prévoient seulement l'appel
devant la Cour contre des décisions définitives renduespar le Conseil sur
le fond des différends qui lui sont soumis et non contre des décisionsd'un
caractère provisoire ou préliminaire comme celles dont il s'agit en
l'espèce. Ces clauses sont ainsi libellées:Council, such as decisions about the manner in which a case was to be
presented to it; as to the time-limits within which written pleadings were
to be deposited; or as to the production or admissibility of documents
or other evidence, etc. The Court however thinks that a decision of the
Council relative to its jurisdiction to entertain a dispute does not come
within the same category as the niatters just mentioned, even though,
like them, it necessarily has a preliminary character;-for although,
in the purely temporal sense, a preliminary question is involved, that
question is. in its essence, a substantial question crucially affecting the
position of the parties relative to the case, notwithstanding that it does
not decide the ultimate merits. In consequence, the Court considers that
for thepurposes of thejurisdictional clauses of the Treaties, final decisions
of the Council as to its cornpetence should not be distinguished from
final decisions on the merits. In support of this view the following further
points may be noted:
(a) Although a jurisdictional decision does not determine the "ultimate
merits" of the case. it is a decision of a substantive character, in-
asmuch as it may decide the whole affair by bringing it to an end,
if the finding is against the assumption of jurisdiction. A decision
which can have that effect is of scarcely less importance than a
decision on the merits, which it either rules out entirely or, alter-
natively, permits by endorsing the existence of the jurisdictional
basis which must form the indispensable foundation of any decision
on the merits. A jurisdictional decision is therefore unquestionably
a constituent part of the case, viewed as a whole, and should, in
principle, be regarded as being on a par with decisions on the merits
as regards any right of appeal that may be given.
(b) Nor should it be overlooked that for the party raising a jurisdic-
tional objection, its significance will also lie in the possibility it
may offer of avoiding, not only a decision, but even a hearing, on
the nierits,--a factor which is of prime importance in many cases.
An essential point of legal principle is involved here. namely that
a party should not have to give an account of itself on issues of
merits before a tribunal which lacks jurisdiction in the matler, or
whose jurisdiction has not yet been established.
(c) At the same time, many cases before the Court have shown that
although a decision on jurisdiction can never directly decide any
question of merits, the issues involved may be by no means divorced
from the nierits. A jurisdictional decision may often have to touch
upon the latter or at least involve some consideration of them. This
illustrates the importance of the jurisdictional stage of a case, and
the influence it may have on the eventual decision on the merits, if
these are reached-a factor well known to parties in litigation.
(d) Not only do issues ofjurisdiction involve questions of law, but these
questions may well be as important and complicated as any that
14 arise on the merits.-sometimes more so. They may, in the context
of such an entity as ICAO, create precedents affecting the position
and interests of a large number of States, in a way which no ordi-
nary procedural, interlocutory or other preliminary issue could do.
It would indeed be hard to accept the view that even the most routine
decisions of the Council on points of the interpretation or appli-
cation of the Treaties should be automatically appealable, while
decisions on jurisdiction, which must ex hypothesi involve important
general considerations of principle, should not be, despite the drastic
effects which, as already noticed (supra, sub-paragraph (a)), they are
capable of having.
(e) A concluding consideration is that supposing an appeal were made
to the Court from the final decision of the Council on the merits
of a dispute;-it would hardly be possible for the Court either to
affirm or reject that decision, if it found that the Council had al1
along lacked jurisdiction to go into the case. This shows that ques-
tions relating to the Council's jurisdiction cannot in the last resort
be excluded from the Court's purview: it is merely a question of
what is the stage at which the Court's supervision in this respect
is to be exercised. Clearly, not only do obviousreasons of convenience
cal1 for such exercise as early as possible-in the present case, here
and now-but also substantial considerations of principle do so,-
for it would be contrary to accepted standards of the good adminis-
tration of justice to allow an international organ to examine and
discuss the merjts of a dispute when its cornpetence to do so was
not only undetermined but actively challenged. Yet this is precisely
what the Court would be allowing if it now held itself not to have
jurisdiction to deal with the matter because it could only hear ap-
peals from final decisions of the Council on the merits.
19. The foregoing paragraphs deal with the question of the Court's
jurisdiction to entertain India's appeal as it arises generally on the rele-
vant jurisdictional clauses. A special jurisdictional issue exists however,
not on Pakistan's "Application" to the Council, but on her "Complaint"
(see paragraph 9, supra) ostensibly made under and by virtue of Section
1 of Article II of the Transit Agreement, which reads as follows:
"A contracting State which deems that action by another con-
tracting state under this Agreement is causing injustice or hardship
to it, may request the Council to examine the situation. The Council
shall thereupon inquire into the matter, and shall cal1 the States
concerned into consultation. Should such consultation fail to resolve58 ICA0 COUNCIL (JUDGMENT)
the difficulty, the Council may rnake appropriate findings and re-
commendations to the contracting States concerned. If thereafter a
contracting State concerned shall in the opinion of the Council un-
reasonably fail to take suitable corrective action, the Council may
recornmend to the Assembly of the above-mentioned Organization
that such contracting State be suspended from its rights and privi-
leges under this Agreement until such action has been taken. The
Assembly by a two-thirds vote may so suspend such contracting
State for such period of time as it rnay deem proper or until the
Council shall find that corrective action has been taken by such
State."
The special objection advanced by Pakistan to the existence of any right
of appeal to the Court relative to Council action under this provision
extends not merely to appeals about questions concerning the Council's
cornpetence in the matter of "complaints" which the Council rnay be
requested to examine, but also to appeals regarding the eventual results
of the Council's action under this same provision (i.e., its findings, re-
comrnendations, etc.),-in short, appeals relating to the "ultimate rnerits"
of the "complaint" as dealt with by the Council. The gravamen of Paki-
stan's objection is in effect that the right of reference to the Council and
thence by way of appeal to the Court, given by Section 2 of Article II,
applies, in the context, only to a "disagreement . .. relating to the inter-
pretation or application" of Section 1 itself, and not to the substance of
the "complaint" the Council is requested to examine by reason of that
Section, or to the outcome of what the Council does about it. In other
words, provided the Council applies Section 1 correctly, following the
prescribed courses and taking the prescribed steps, the result is non-
appealable, and so, a fortiorw i,ould be any decision of the Council to
assume jurisdiction in respect of a "complaint" made by virtue of this
Section.
20. The Court has no doubt that the situation contemplated by Sec-
tion 1of Article II of the Transit Agreement is quite a different one from
that of Article 84 of the Convention (and hence of Section 2 of Article
II of the Transit Agreement),-so that whatever may be the exact legi-
timate range of a "complaint" made under Section 1,its primary purpose
rnust be to permit redress against legally permissible action that never-
theless causes injustice or hardship. In other words, the basic situation
contemplated by Section 1is where a party to the Agreement, although
acting within its legal rights under the Treaties, has nevertheless caused
injustice or hardship to another party-a case not of illegal action-not
of alleged breaches of the Treaties-but of action lawful, yet prejudicial.
In such a case it is to be expected that no right of appeal to the Court
would lie,-for the findings and recommendations to be made by the
Council under this Section would not be about legal rights or obliga-tions: they would turn on considerations of equity and expediency such
as would not constitute suitable material for appeal to a court of law.
21. This is not to say that a "complaint" can never deal with matters
that would primarily form the subject of an "application", or allege
illegalities as having caused the injustice or hardship complained of. But
if it does so, then to that extent it necessarily assumes the character of
an "application". In short, it follows from the very nature of the dis-
tinction described in the preceding paragraph, that in so far as a "com-
plaint" exceeds the bounds of the type of allegation contemplated by
Section 1. and relates not to lawful action causing hardship or injustice,
but to illegal action involving breaches of the Treaties, it becornes as-
similable to the case of an "application" for the purposes of its appeala-
bility to the Court. Unless this were so, the following paradox would
arise. If for the reasons urged on behalf of Pakistan, its "Coniplaint"
were non-appealable, but the "Application" (which alleges a "disagree-
ment" under both Convention and Transit Agreement, involving charges
of breaches of these Treaties) were appealable, then, the Council having
assumed jurisdiction in respect of both "Application" and "Complaint",
it would result that if the Court should allow the appeal on the "Appli-
cation" (i.e., find that the Council has no jurisdiction to entertain it),
nevertheless the non-appealable "~orn~laint" could and would still
go on before the Council, although the issues it involved were almost
identical. Therefore, although precluded by the Court's decision frorn
pronouncing on the question of the alleged breaches of the Treaties in
respect of the "Application", the Council would be able to make these
very sarne pronouncements under the head of the "Cornplaint", thus
defeating the whole purpose of the Court's decision which should have
had the effect of preventing the Council pronouncing at al1on the ques-
tion of the alleged breaches. Naturally the Council would in any case
be in no way prevented frorn dealing with those asprcts of the rnatter
that related to injustice and hardship.
22. While drawing attention to the above considerations, the Court
does not wish to rnake any final pronouncement on the theory of the
matter because it recognizes that this is an area in which it may be difficult
to dcaw hard and fast distinctions or say definitely on which side of the
line a given case rnay fall. In the present one, however, the Court enter-
tains no d,oubts at all. Pakistan's "Application" and "Complaint" are
set out in Annexes A and B of the Indian Memorial before the Court,
and even a brief glance at them shows not only that the "Cornplaint"
rnakes exactly the same charges of breaches of the Treaties as the "Appli-
cation", but that it does so in almost identical language. The sarne ap-
plies to the redress requested, except that the "Application" asks for
damages and the "Cornplaint" does not. In al1other respects the various
remaining heads of redress are the same in both cases.
23. It is evident therefore that this particular "Complaint" does not-or for the most part does not-relate to the kind of situation for which
Section 1of Article II was primarily intended, narnely where the injustice
and hardship cornplained of does not result from action by the other
party concerned of a definitively illegal character, but where the Treaties
are applied lawfully but prejudicially. In the present case it is abundantly
clear, from the whole tenor of the "Complaint", that although it does
duly allege injustice and hardship (but so also does the "Application"),
this injustice and hardship was such as resulted from action said to be
illegal because in breach of the Treaties.
24. Having regard to these considerations, the Court must hold the
Council's decision assuming jurisdiction in respect of Pakistan's "Com-
plaint" to be appealable in so far as it covers the sarne ground as the
"Application".
25. To sum up on the question of the Court's jurisdiction to entertain
India's appeal,the conclusion in respect both of Pakistan's "Application"
and of her "Complaint" to the Council must be that, for the reasons
given above, the various objections made to the competence of the Court
cannot be sustained, whether they are based on the alleged inapplicabi-
lity of the Treaties as such, or of their jurisdictional clauses. Since there-
fore the Court is invested with jurisdiction under those clauses and, in
consequence (see paragraphs 14-16 above), under Article 36, paragraph
1, and under Article 37, of its Statute, it becomes irrelevant to consider
the objections to other possible bases of jurisdiction.
26. Before leaving this part of the case. and since this is the first tirne
any rnatter has corne to it on appcal, the Court thinks it useful to make
a few observations of a general character on the subject. The case is pre-
sented to the Court in the guise of an ordinary dispute between States
(and such a dispute underlies it). Yet in the proceedings bcfore the Court,
it is the act of a third entity-the Council of ICAO-which one of the
Parties is impugning and the other defending. In that aspect of the rnat-
ter, the appeal to the Court conternplated by the Chicago Convention and
the Transit Agreement must be regarded as an elernent of the general
régimeestablished in respect of ICAO. In thus providing for judicial re-
course by way of appeal to the Court against decisions of the Council
concerning interpretation and application-a type of recourse already
figuring in earlier conventions in the sphere of communications-the
Chicago Treaties gave rnember States, and through thern the Council.
the possibility of ensuring a certain measure of supervision by the Court
over those decisions. To this extent, these Treaties enlist the support of
the Court for the good functioning of the Organization, and therefore
the first reassurance for the Council lies in the knowledge that rneans
exist for determining whether a decision as to its own competence is inconforrnity or not with the provisions of the treaties governing its action.
If nothing in the text requires a different conclusion, an appeal against
a decision of the Council as to its own jurisdiction must therefore be
receivable since, from the standpoint of the supervision by the Court
of the validity of the Council's acts, there is no ground for distinguishing
between supervision as to jurisdiction. and supervision as to merits.
JURISDICTIO NF THE COUNCIL OF ICA0 TO ENTERTAIN
THE MERITS OF THE CASE
27. The Court now turns to the substantive issue of the correctness of
the decisions of the Council dated 29 July 1971. The question is whether
the Council iscompetent to go into and give a final decision on the rnerits
of the dispute in respect of which, at the instance of Pakistan, andject
to the present appeal, it has assumed jurisdiction. The answer to this
question clearly depends on whether Pakistan's case, considered in the
light of India's objections to it, discloses the existence of a dispute of
such a character as to amount to a "disagreernent. . .relating to the
interpretation or application" of the Chicago Convention or of the re-
lated Transit Agreement (see paragraph 17,supra). If so, then prima facie
the Council is cornpetent. Nor could the Council be deprived of juris-
diction merely because considerations that are clairned to lie outside the
Treaties may be involved if, irrespective of this, issues concerning the
interpretation or application of these instruments are nevertheless in
question. The fact that a defence on the merits is cast in a particular
forrn, cannot affect the competence of the tribunal or other organ con-
cerned,-otherwise parties would be in a position thernselves to control
that cornpetence, which would be inadmissible. As has already been seen
in the case of the competence of the Court, so with that of the Council,
its competence rnust depend on the character of the dispute submitted to
it and on the issues thus raised-not on those defences on the rnerits,
or other considerations, which would become relevant only after the
jurisdictional issues had been settled. It is desirable to stress these points
because of the way, perfectly legitimate though it was. in which the
Appeal has been presented to the Court.
28. Before proceeding further, it will be convenient to re-state Pakis-
tan's claim in its sirnplest form, and without going into any details or
side issues. It is to the effect that India, by suspendingrather, strictly,
refusing to allow overflight of her territory by Pakistan civil aircraft-
was in breach of the Treaties, which Pakistan claims have never ceased
to be applicable, and both of which conferred overflight rights, and cer-
tain landing rights, on Pakistan,-and that this suspension, or rather
prohibition, did not take place, or was no longer taking place, in the
particular circumstances-viz. "war" or declared "state of national erner-
19gencyM-in which, according to Article 89 of the Convention (cited
irlfru.paragraph 40), it could alone (so Pakistan contends) be justified.
Consequently the legal issue that has to be determined by the Court
really amounts to this. naniely whether the dispute, in the form in which
the Parties placed it before the Council, and have presented it to the
Court in their tinal submissions (supru. paragraph 8), is one that can be
resolved without any interpretation or application of the relevant Trea-
tics at all. Ifitcannot, then the Council must be competent.
29. In effect. rndia has snught to maintain that the dispute could be
resolved uithout any refereiice to the Treaties, and hence that, this being
so, it is a dispute with which the Council can have no concern. and
which lies entirely outside its cornpetence. The claim that the Treaties
are irrelevant to the present situation regarding Pakistan overîlights is
based on and involves the following main contentions:-
(1) The Trea:ies are not in force. or they are suspended, because
(a) they were or becaine terminated or suspended as between the
Parties upon the outbreak of hostilities in 1965 and have never
been revived, but were replaced by a "special régime" in respect
of which the Council could have no jurisdiction, and according
to which Pakistan ui:i.raft could only overfly lndia with prior
permission (see as to this, paragraph 10.supra);
(h) Iiidia in any case became entitled under general international
law to terminate or suspend the Treaties as from January 1971,
by reason of a material breach of them, for which Pakistan was
responsible, arising out of the hijacking incident that then
occurred.
(2) The issue involved by the case presented to the Council by Pakistan
is one of the termination or suspension of the Treaties, not of their
interpretation or application which alone the Council is competent
to deal with under the relevant jurisdictional clauses. This contention
postulates that the notion of interpretation or application does not
comprise that of termination or suspension.
30. The first of these main contentions, under both its heads, clearly
belongs to the merits of the dispute into which the Court cannot go: but
certain preliniinary points are relevant to the jurisdictional aspects of the
case and to a correct appreciation of the lndian position in that respect.
(O) As regards the contetition that the Treaties were terminated or sus-
pended, such notices or communications as there were on the part
of India appear to have related to overflights râther than to the
Treaties as such; although. admittedly, overflight rights constitute
a major item of the Treaties, and a termination or suspension may
well relate to part only of a treaty. Thus the Indian Note of 4 Feb-
ruary 1971. following Lipon the hijacking incident, was in terins confined to suspending overflights. As regards the earlier period,
from 1965onwards, the statement made in the Indian Memorial be-
fore the Court, paragraph 12, was to the effect that the "Convention
and the Transit Agreement as between the two States were . ..sus-
pended wholly or in any event in relation to overflights and landings
for non-trafic purposes" (ernphasis added).
(6) India does not appear at the tinie of the hijacking incident to have
indicated which particular provisions of the Treaties-more especi-
ally of the Chicago Convention-were alleged to have been breached
bi~akistan. ~hë was not of course in any way obliged to do so at
that stage, but the point is a material one on the jurisdictional
issue for reasons to be stated later (see injru, paragraph 38). What
was alleged in a Note of 3 February 1971, preceding the above-
mentioned Note of 4 February, was a "violation of al1 norms of
international behaviour and of International Law". In the same way,
in the letters 4fand 10February addressed on behalf of the Govern-
ment of India to the President of the Council of ICA0 concerning
the hijacking incident, Pakistan's action was stated to be not in ac-
cordance with "international law and usage and custorn"; and again,
a "deliberate act . . . in violation of international law, usage and
custom" (letter of 4 February); and similarly (letter of 10February),
to be "in clear violation of international law". But with regard to
the Treaties, al1that was stated (letter of 4 February) was that Pa-
kistan's action was "contrary to the principles of the Chicago Con-
vention and other international Conventions". The only specific
provisions mentioned were certain articles of the Tokyo and Hague
Conventions about unlawful acts on board aircraft. and not pro-
visions of the Chicago Convention or Transit Agreement. Later, in
theIndian Preliminary Objections of 28 May 1971, made before the
Council, the charge was of conduct which "amounted to the very
negation of al1the claims and objectives, the scheme and provisions
of the Convention . . . and ..Transit Agreement". Sirnilarly, in the
proceedings before the Court, the charge of "material breach of
treaty" was not particularized much more fully than inthe language
used in paragraph 27 of the Indian Memorial, where the hijacking
incident was characterized as arnounting to "a flagrant violation of
international obligations relating to the assurance of safety of air
travel, enjoined by the Convention and the Transit Agreement and
also by .. ." (here several other conventions and instruments were
specified).
(c) As mentioned, the justification given by India for the suspension of
the Treaties in February 1971(if in fact anything other than a quasi-
permanent prohibition of overflights was involved) was not said to
lie in the provisions of the Treaties theniselves, but in a principle
of general international law, or of international treaty law, allowing
of suspension or termination on this ground-and the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties was in particular invoked. In
consequence, so it was said. the Chicago Convention and Transit
Agreement were irrelevant and had no bearing on the matter, be-
cause the lndian action had been taken wholly outside them, on the
basis of general international law.
31. In considering further the Indian contentions described in para-
graph 29, supra, a convenient point of departure will be the question
mentioned in sub-paragraph (c) of paragraph 30 because, in the pro-
ceedings before the Court, this question assumed almost more promi-
nence in the lndian arguments than any other. Furthermore, it involves
a point of principle of great general importance for the jurisdictional
aspects of this-or of any-case. This contention is to the effect that
since India, in suspending overfights in February 1971,was not invoking
any right that might be afforded by the Treaties, but was acting outside
them on the basis of a general principle of international law, "therefore"
the Councii, whose jurisdiction was derived from the Treaties, and which
was entitled to deal only with nlatters arising under them, must be in-
competent. Exactly the same attitude has been evinced in regard to the
contention that the Treaties were suspended in 1965 and never revived,
or were replaced by a special régime.The Court considers however, that
for precisely the samc order of reason as has already been noticed in the
case of its own jurisdiction in the present case, a mere unilateral affir-
mation of these contentions-contested by the other party-cannot be
utilized so as to negative the Council's jurisdiction. The point is not that
these contentions are necessarily wrong but that their validity has not
yet been determined. Since therefore the Parties are in disagreement as
to whether the Treaties ever were (validly) suspended or replaced by some-
thing else; as to whether they are in force between the Parties or not;
and as to whether India's action in relation to Pakistan overfights was
such as not to involve the Treaties, but to be justifiable aliter et uliundc:
-these very questions are in issue before the Council. and no conclusions
as to jurisdiction can be drawn from them, at lcast at this stage. so as
to exclude ipso,facto and u priori the cornpetence of the Council.
32. To put the niatter in another way. these contentionsare essentially
in the nature of replies to the charge that India is in breach of theTreaties:
the Treaties were at the material times suspended or not operative, or
replaced,-hence they cannot have been infringed. lndia has not of course
claimed that. in consequence, such a matter can never be tested-b;) any
form of judicial recourse. This colitention. if it were put forward. would
be equivalent to saying that questions that prima facie may involve a
given treaty, and if so wo~ildbe within the scope ofitsjurisdictional clause,
could be removed therefroin at a stroke by a unilateral declaration that
the treaty was no longer operative. The acceptance of such a proposition
would be tantamount to opening the way to a wholesale nullification of
the practical value of jurisdictional clauses by allowing a party first topurport to terminate, or suspend the operation of a treaty, and then to
declare that the treaty being now terrninated or suspended, its jurisdic-
tional clauses were in consequence void, and could not be invoked for
the purpose of contesting the validity of the termination or suspension,
-whereas of course it may be precisely one of the objects of such a clause
to enable that matter to be adjudicated upon. Such a result, destructive
of the whole object of adjudicability, would be unacceptable.
33. The Court now proceeds to the last main category of lndian con-
tention which, though more nearly relevant to the purely jurisdictional
issue than those so far discussed, is nonetheless, like thern, closely bound
tip with the merits. This contention is to the effect that Article84 of the
Chicago Convention, and hence by reference Section 2 of Article 11of
the Transit Agreement, only allows the Council to entertain disagree-
ments relating to the "interpretation or application" of these instru-
ments,-whereas (according to India) what is involved in this case is
not any question of the interpretation or application of the Treaties, but
of their termination or suspension,-and since (so India contends) the
notion of interpretation or application does not extend to that of terrni-
nation or suspension, the Council's competence is automatically ex-
cluded. Alternatively expressed, the lndian contention is that, since the
Treaties have been terrninated or suspended, it follows ex hyporhesi that
no question of their interpretation or application can arise, such as alone
the Council would be competent to consider: non-existent treaties can-
not be interpreted or applied.
34. It is evident that this contention, although getting much nearer
to the real issue of what the Council can properly take cognizance of
under the jurisdictional clauses of the Treaties, having regard to their
actual wording, involves the same underlying assurnption that the Treaties
have in fact been (validly) terminated or suspended, and also that a
unilateral act or allegation of India's in that sense suffices.In consequence
three strands to this Indian contention can be seen to be interwoven:
(i) the Treaties are terminated or suspended, so they cannot be interpreted
or applied at all; (ii) the question whether they have been (validly) ter-
minated or suspended, is not one of interpretation or application; (iii)
in any event the answer to that question depends on considerations lying
outside the Treaties altogether. On each of these grounds India contends
that the issues involved are not within the Council's terms of reference
which are limited to interpreting and applying the Treaties. Once more
it is evident that, with respect to al1three strands of this Indian conten-
tion, with the possible exception of certain aspects of the second one,
the argument involves and depends upon questions of rnerits. In relation
to it, the Parties debated at considerable length whether the notion of
the interpretation and application of a treaty can, at least in some circurn-
stances, embrace that of a termination or suspension of it; and also as
23to whether any inherent limitations on the powers of the Council to deal
with certain types of legal questions must be presumed. But until it has
been determined by the proper means that what is involved is indeed
an issue solely of termination or suspension of the Treaties, and further
that no question of their interpretation or application arises or can arise
(and this is the only real issue involved here), the problem of whether
the one notion is comprised by the other can, for present purposes. be
regarded as hypothetical.
35. Thus far, only the negative aspects of the case have been exam-
ined; that is, the reasons why the various contentions so far considered
do not have any real bearing on the question of the cornpetence of the
Council. It is now time to turn to the positive aspects, from which it
will appear not only that Pakistan's claim discloses the existence of a
"disagreement. . . relating to the interpretation or application" of the
Treaties, but also that India's defences equally involve questions of their
interpretation or application.
36. The nature of Pakistan's "Application" and "Coniplaint" to the
Council, the full texts of which are set out in Annexes A and B of the
lndian Menlorial in the proceedings before the Court, has already been
indicated in general ternis in the discussion (supra. paragraph 22) about
the Court's jurisdiction to entertain the appeal on Pakistan's "Com-
plaint". Specific provisions of the Treaties-in particular Article 5 of
the Convention and Section 1of Article 1of the Transit Agreement-were
cited by Pakistan as having been infringed by lndia's denial of over-
flight rights. The existence of a "disagreement" relating to the application
of the Treaties was affirmed. There can therefore be no doubt about the
character of the case presented by Pakistan to the Council. It was es-
sentially a charge of breaches of the Treaties,-and in order to determine
these, the Council would inevitably be obliged to interpret and apply
the Treaties, and thus to deal with matters unquestionably within its
jurisdiction. (As will be seen later-infra, paragraphs 38-43-the under-
lying issue of the continued applicability of the Treaties themselves, is
one that would equally require an exaniination of certain provisions of
them both.)
37. India also, in the terms indicated in paragraph 30 (6). supra, has
made charges of a material breach of the Convention by Pakistan, as
justifying India in purporting to put an end to it, or suspend its operation
and that of the Transit Agreement. Thus the case is one of mutual charges
and counter-charges of breach of treaty which cannot, by reason of the
very fact that they are what they are, fail to involve questions of the inter-
pretation and application of the treaty instruments in respect of which
the breaches are alleged. It is however possible to be more specific thanthis, for not only do Pakistan's claims cite particular articles of the
Treaties, but both India's counter-charges and her defences to those of
Pakistan, can be seen to involve various treaty provisions. These will
now be considered in turn.
38. In the first place, India's allegation of a material breach of the
Treaties by Pakistan, as justifying India in treating them as terminated
or suspended, is inherently and by its very nature, one that must involve
the examination of the Treaties in order to see whether, according to
the definition of a material breach of treaty contained in Article 60 of
the 1969Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, there has been (para-
graph 3 (b)) a violation by Pakistan of "a provision essential to the ac-
complishment of the object or purpose of the Treaty". The fact that, as
has been seen in paragraph 30 (b), supra, India has in very comprehen-
sive language alleged a material breach of the Treaties, can only increase
the need for considering what particular provisions are involved by this
allegation. Even if the allegation, because of its generality, is to be re-
garded as one of conduct on the part of Pakistan amounting to a com-
plete "repudiation of the treaty" (see paragraph 3 (a) of Article 60 of
the Vienna Convention), it would still be necessary to examine the Trea-
ties in order to see whether, in relation to their provisions as a whole,
and in particular those relating to the "safety of air travel" which India
herself invoked (end of paragraph 30 (b), supra), Pakistan's conduct
must be held to constitute such a repudiation.
39. Next, as regards the Indian claim that the Treaties had been re-
placed by a special régime, it seems clear that certain provisions of the
Chicago Convention must be involved whenever two or more parties to
it purport to replace the Convention, or some part of it, by other ar-
rangements made between themselves. These provisions read as follows:
Article 82 (first sentence)
Abrogation of Inconsistent Arrangements
"The Contracting States accept this Convention as abrogating al1
obligations and understandings between them which are inconsistent
with itsterms, and undertake not to enter into any such obligations
and understandings."
Article 83
Registrcition of New Agreements
"Subject to the provisions of the preceding Article, any contracting
State may make arrangements not inconsistent with the provisions
of this Convention. Any such arrangement shall be forthwith re-
gistered with the Council. which shall make it public as soon as
possible."
There is no need for comment here, except to say that any special régime
instituted between the Parties, and more especially any disagreement
(such as there certainly is) concerning its existence and effect, would im-mediately raise issues calling for the interpretation and application by
the Council of the above-quoted provisions.
40. Finally, as regards the contention which formed the sub-stratum
of the whole lndian position, namely that the Treaties were or became
terminated or suspended between the Parties,-Pakistan, in the course
of the proceedings before the Court, contended that these matters by
no means lay outside the ambit of the Treaties but were, on the contrary,
regulated, at least implicitly, by two provisions of the Convention, Ar-
ticles 89 and 95, which read as follows:
Article 89
War and Enzergency Conditions
"In case of war, the provisions of this Convention shall not affect
the freedom of action of any of the contracting States affected.
whether as belligerents or as neutrals. The same principle shall apply
in the case of any contracting State which declares a state of national
emergency and notifies the fact to the Council."
Article 95
Denunciation of Convention
"(a) Any contracting State rnay give notice of denunciation of
this Convention three years after its coming into effect by notifica-
tion addressed to the Government of the United States of Arnerica.
which shall at once inform each of the contracting States.
(6) Denunciation shall take effect one year from the date of the
receipt of the notification and shall operate only as regards the State
effecting the denunciation."
(A provision having broadly the same effect as Article 95 of the Con-
vention appears in the Transit Agreement as Article Ill; and Article I
of this Agreement (Sections 1 and 2) covers the sarne sort of ground as
Article 89 of the Convention so far as concerns rights of overflight and
of landing for non-traffic purposes. These Articles need not be quoted
here.)
41. In connection with the provisions cited in the preceding paragraph,
Pakistan pleaded the rule (approved by the Court in the North Sea Con-
tinentul Sheij cases-I.C.J. Reports 1969, Judgmrnt, paragraph 28). ac-
cording to which, when an agreement or other instrument itself provides
for the way in which a given thing is to be done, it must be done in that
way or not at all. On this basis Pakistan contended that not only was
there no provision for the suspension of the Convention as such, but
that thispossibility was irnpliedly excluded by Articles 89 and 95. All that
was afforded (by Article 89) was a right in certain specified circumstances
to disregard the Convention. and temporarily to stop granting the rights
it provided for. As soon as these circumstances ceased to exist (as, in
the instant case, Pakistan contended that they had). this licence to dis-
regard came to an end, and the obligation to resume the full operation69 ICA0 COUNCIL (JUDGMENT)
of the rights provided for by the Convention autornatically revived.
Such was Pakistan's contention.
42. In the proceedings before the Court, lndia gave a different inter-
pretation of this provision. This was, broadly, that Article 89 was a rnere
enabling. or in a certain sense saving, clause, the object of which was to
make it clear that the Convention left intact. and was not intended to
affect. the rights which in certain circumstances the parties might derive
from sources outside the Convention, under general international law
or otherwise. The Article was (so lndia said) an example of. or equivalent
to, a type of clause often found in treaties, to the effect that the provisions
of the treaty were without prejudice to the rights ah P.\-trof the parties
in certain respects: it had no direct beariiig on the present case.
43. The Court must obviously refrain froin pronouncing on the
validity or otherwise of the opposing views of the Parties as to the object
and correct interpretation of Articles 89 and 95. since this touches
directly upon the merits of the case. But this opposition cannot but be
indicative of a direct conflict of views as to the meaning of the Articles.
or in other ~ords of a "disagreement. . .relating to the interpretation
or application of [the] Convention":-and if there is even one provision
-and especially a provision of the importance of Article 89-as to which
this is so. then the Council is invested with jurisdiction. were it but the
only such provision to be found. which is clearly not the case. However,
the Court having thus decided that the Coiincil is competent, is not
called upon to define further the exact extent of that competence, beyond
what has already been indicated.
44. There is one more matter which the Court has to consider. It was
strenuously argued on behalf of India, though denied by Pakistan, that
irrespective of the correctness in law or otherwise of the Council's
decision assuming jurisdiction in the case. from which lndia is now
appealing, it was vitiated by various procedural irregularities. and should
accordingly, on that ground alone, be declared nuIl and void. The
argument was that. but for these alleged irregularities. the result before
the Council would or rnight have been different. Consequently, it was
said, if the Court endorsed the lndian view as to the existence of these
procedural irregularities. it should refrain from now pronouncing on the
question of the Council's jurisdiction, declare the latter's decision nuIl
and void, and send the case back to it for re-decision on the basis of a
correct procedure.
45. The Court however does not deem it necessary or even appro-
priate to go into this matter. particularly as the alleged irregularities do
not prejudice iiiany fundamental way the requirements of a just proce-
dure. The Court's task in the present proceedings is to give a ruling as towhether the Council has jurisdiction in the case. This is an objective
question of law, the answer to which cannot depend on what occurred
before the Council. Since the Court holds that the Council did and does
have jurisdiction, then, if there were in fact procedural irregularities, the
position would be that the Council would have reached the right con-
clusion in the wrong way. Nevertheless it would have reached the right
conclusion. If, on the other hand, the Court had held that there was and
is no jurisdiction, then, even inthe absence of any irregularities, the Couii-
cil's decision to assume it would have stood reversed.
46. For these reasons,
by thirteen votes to three.
(1) rejects the Government of Pakistan's objections on the question of
its competence, and finds that it has jurisdiction to entertain India's
appeal ;
by fourteen votes to two.
(2) holds the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization
to be competent to entertain the Application and Complaint laid
before it by the Government of Pakistan on 3 March 1971; and in
consequence, rejects the appeal made to the Court by the Govern-
ment of India against the decision of the Council assuming juris-
diction in those respects.
Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative,
at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this eighteenth day of August, one
thousand nine hundred and seventy-two, in three copies, one of which
will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted
to the Government of lndia and to the Government of Pakistan, respec-
tively.
(Signed) F. AMMOUN,
Vice-President.
(Signed) S. AQUARONE,
Registrar.71 ICA0 COUNCIL (DECL. ZAFRULLA KHAN)
President Sir Muhammad ZAFRULL KHAN makes the following decla-
ration:
1 much regret 1am unable to agree that Article 84 of the Convention
read with Articles 5 (4), 15 and 18 of the Rules for the Settlement of
Differences provides a right of appeal against a decision of the Council of
ICAO rejecting a preliminary objection to its competence-to handle an
application or complaint. It seems to me that the considerations that
have impelled the Court to arrive at the opposite conclusion do not
carry the matter any further than the desirability of a provision to that
effect. However strong that desirability may be it cannot serve as aub-
stitute for the lack of such a provision in the Convention read with the
relevant rules. The entire scheme of the Rules excludes the possibility of
an appeal against a decision of the Council rejecting a preliminary objec-
tion against its competence. The remedy for the correction of this situa-
tion, if a correction should be desired, would be by way ofamendment of
the Convention and the Rules, and not by reading into them a meaning
which they are not capable of bearing.
Nor am 1 able to agree that Section 1 of Article II of the Transit
Agreement contemplates only cases of injustice or hardship occasioned
by action which is lawful but is prejudicial, and that to the extent to
which a complaint under that Section alleges unlawful action as the cause
of the injustice or hardship complained of, it becomes assimilable to the
case of an application for thepurposes of appealability to the Court.
In view, however, of the finding of the Court that the Council of
ICAO has jurisdiction to entertain the Application and Complaint laid
before it by the Government of Pakistan on 3 March 1971,a finding with
which 1am in entire agreement, my dissent on the question of the admissi-
bility of India's appeal assumes a purely academic aspect.
A large part of the submission of India's counsel to the Court was
devoted to the exposition of irregularities of procedure alleged to have
been committed by the Council of ICAO in dealing with India's Prelim-
inary Objection to its assumption of jurisdiction in respect of Pakistan's
Application and Complaint. The purpose of this exposition was to
persuade the Court to hold that the proceedings before the Council were
vitiated by these alleged irregularities and that the decision of the Council
on India's Preliminary Objection was thus rendered void and of no effect
and should consequently be set aside.
These alleged irregularities fall broadly into two categories; those
relating to the "manner and method" of arriving at the decision appealed
against, and those resulting from failure to comply with the requirements
laid down in Article 15 of the Rules for the Settlement of Differences.
As regards the first category, India's objections and suggestions were
thoroughly debated in the Council (Memorial of India. Annex E, (e),
Discussion, paras. 50-84) and the rulings of the President were upheld by72 ICA0 COUNCIL (DECL. ZAFRULLA KHAN)
the Council. Nothing urged by India's counsel in his submissions to the
Court in this context has served to raise any doubt in my mind concerning
the correctness and propriety of the President's rulings and of the pro-
cedure followed by the Council.
As regards the second category, the brief answer to India's objections
is that Article 15 of the Rules for the Settlement of Differences has no
relevance to a decision on a preliminary objection. The subject of Pre-
liminary Objection and Action Thereon is dealt with in Article 5 of the
Rules. This Article is comprised in Chapter III of the Rules, which deals
with Action upon Receipt of Applications. The Article is self-contained
and comprehensive. The procedure for dealing with a preliminary ob-
jection is prescribed in paragraph (4) of Article 5 which runs as follows:
"If a preliminary objection has been filed, the Council. after hearing the
parties,shall decide the question as a preliminary issue before any further
steps are taken under these Rules." This 1sexactly what the Council did.
Article 15 of the Rules is contained in Chapter IV which prescribes
the procedure to be followed in respect of "~roceedin~s", which start
after a preliminary objection has been disposed of and which relate to the
merits of the case. Article 15 which is headed "Decision" obviously has
reference to a decision on the merits, and does not relate back to a
decision on a preliminary objection disposing of the question as a pre-
liminary issue before the commencement of proceedings on the merits.
The record of the discussion before the Council does not show that
India urged compliance by the Council with the requirements of Article
15. Even before the Court some of the alleged irregularities were men-
tioned for the first time in the oral submissions of counsel and the list
was expanded in reply. Be that as it mag, it is clear that Article 15of the
Rules has no application to a decision on a preliminary objection. The
Council rightly proceeded on that assumption and not a single member
gave expression to a difference of view
Judge LACHS makes the following declaration:
Feeling as 1 do that there are certain observations which should be
made on some aspects of the Judgment, 1 avail myself of the right
conferred by Article 57 of the Statute of the Court and append hereunder
the following declaration.
While 1fully agree with the findings of the Court concerning its com-
petence to entertain the appeal, 1wish to comment further on the inter-
pretation of Article 84 of the Chicago Convention on International Civil73 ICA0 COUNCIL (DECL. LACHS)
Aviation and Section 2 of Article II of the International Air Services
Transit Agreement.
In examining the sense and import of "the decision", as used in Article
84, its strict verbal meaning should constitute a point of departure but
cannot be conclusive, for there is no qualifying word to relieve us of the
task of interpretation. It is true that the use of thedefinite article and the
singular ("the decision") relates that term directly to the action to be
taken by the Council under the first sentence of the Article. This would
seem to point to the conclusion that "the decision" contemplated must
be one whereby the Council disposes of "any disagreement between two
or more contracting States relating to the interpretation or application"
of the Convention and its Annexes which "cannot be settled by nego-
tiation".
However, it is not only by decisions on substance that the Council
can dispose of disagreements. Hence it is not only from such decisions
that appeal may be made-and 1do not, in this connection, find it pos-
sible to maintain that the Rules for the Settlement of Differences can
be so construed as to restrict appealability to any greater extent than
the Convention itself. Moreover, had the drafters definitely wished to
exclude appeals on issues other than those of substance, they could easily
have done so by suitably qualifying the term "decision": there are
well-known precedents for such drafting.
This is, of course, not so say that appeal is allowable "from every
order, or any order of the Council", which, as counsel for Pakistan sug-
gested, would "defeat the very purpose of the Convention" (hearing of
27 June 1972). The matter has to be viewed in the light of the repercus-
sions which the decision in question could have on the positions of the
Parties in regard to the case. In the present instance we are concerned
with a decision on a jurisdictional issue, and so a line has to be drawn
and the question answered as to the side of the line on which "decisions
on jurisdiction" lie. The answer is of course implicit in the crucial im-
portance which such decisions invariably have (as stressed in para. 18
of the Judgment).This is borne out by the entire history of international
adjudication, where these issues are much more vital than in the muni-
cipal context.
There is, however, a more general aspect to these issues. Great caution
and restraint have been exercised by this Court and its predecessor when
ascertaining their own jurisdiction. As Judge Lauterpacht pointed out:
"Nothing should be done which creates the impression that the Court,
in an excess of zeal, has assumed jurisdiction where none has been
conferred upon it." (The Developrnent of International Law by the Inter-
national Coitrt, 1958, p. 91.)
This restraint has had its raison d'être in the clear tendency not to im-
pose more onerous obligations on States than those they have expresslyassurned. However, in regard to appeals from other fora. this very
criterion imposes limits on the Court's caution in assumingjurisdiction.
Indeed, the sarne reasons which underlie the necessity of interpreting
jurisdictional clauses strictly impel one to adopt an interpretation of
provisions for appeal that would lend maximum effect to the safeguards
inherent in such provisions. For, as between the "lower forum" and
"the court of appeal", there exists as it were a see-saw of jurisdictional
powers. Hence to applya restrictive interpretation of rights of appeal-and
thus of the powers of the "court of appealV-would obviously entail an
extensive interpretation of the jurisdictional powers of the "court of
first instance". This would in fact imply more onerous obligations on
the States concerned: something which (as indicated above) international
tribunals have continuously endeavoured to avoid. To restrict the rights
of States to seek relief frorn what they deem to be wrongful decisions
would to sorne extent. at least. defeat the veryobject of the institution of
appeals. If that is so in general, it applies in particular to issues of juris-
diction. which. as indicated earlier, are in the international field com-
parable in importance to issues of substance. Thus this aspect confirms
the justification for the exercise of what the Judgment describes (para.
26) as "a certain measure of supervision by the Court" (cf. resolution of
25 September 1957 by the Institut de droit international, Annuaire 1957,
pp. 476 ff.).
While 1 agree that the ICA0 Council is competent to entertain the
Application and Cornplaint submitted to it, 1 wish to comment on
some procedural issues which have been raised in regard to the decision
from which an appeal has been made. lndia advanced a series of sub-
missions on the subject (Memorial of India, paras. 93-99 and 106 D).
Pakistan for its part, denied them (Counter-Memorial, para. 59).
Article 54 (c) of the Convention on International Civil Aviation
provides that: "The Council shall . . . determine its organization and
rules of procedure." Within the powers thus vested in it, the Council
approved, on 9 April 1957.the "Rules for the Settlement of Differences".
These were intended to "govern the settlement of . . . disagreements
between Contracting States which rnay be referred to the Council",
and "the consideration of any complaint regarding an action taken by
a State party to the Transit Agreement" (Art. 1(1) and (2)).
In the light of these provisions the contracting States have the right
to expect that the Co~incil will faithfully follow these rules, performing
as it does, in such situations, quasi-judicial functions, for they are anintegral part of its jurisdiction. Such rules constitute one of the guar-
antees of the proper decision-making of any collective body of this
character and they set a framework for its regular functioning: as such,
they are enacted to be complied with.
The records of the meeting of the Council on 29 July 1971do indicate
that some provisions of the Rules for the Settlement of Differences were
departed from. In general, of course, notal1departures from established
rules affect the validity of decisions, but there are some which may
prejudice the rights and interests of the parties.t is therefore reason-
able, if one of the parties concerned should submit before this Court
that procedural irregularities occurred, that these submissions should
attract the Court's attention. Thus the objections raised by lndia are
well taken.
1 therefore regret that the Court has not gone into the matter and has
limited itself to giving "a ruling as to whether the Council has juris-
diction in the case" (Judgment, para45). To pronounce upon any forma1
deficiencies the Court may find in the decision-making of the Council,
or to draw that body's attention to them, would surely corne within that
"supervision by the Court over those decisions" referred to in a pas-
sage of the Judgment (para. 26) which 1 mentioned earlier and to which
1 fully subscribe.
Moreover, it is to be taken into account that the Council, in view
of its limited experience on matters of procedure, and being composed
of experts in other fields than law, is no doubt in need of guidance, and
it is surely this Court which may give it. Such guidance would be of
great importance for the further conduct of this case and future cases,
and in the interest of the confidence of States entrusting it with the
resolution of disagreements arising in the field of civil aviation.
Judges PETRÉN,ONYEAMAD , ILLARD, DE CASTROand JIMÉNEZ DE
ARÉCHAGA append separate opinions to the Judgment of the Court.
Judge Mo~ozov and Judge ad hoc NAGENDRA SINGHappend dis-
senting opinions to the Judgment of the Court.
(Initialled) F. A.
(Initialled)S.A.
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
APPEALRELATINGTOTHEJURISDICTION
OF THE ICA0 COUNCIL
(INDIA1,PAKISTAN)
JIlDGMENT OF 18 AUGUST 1972
COlJR INTERNATIONALDE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
APPELCONCERNANTLACOMPÉTENCE
DU CONSEIL DEL'OACI
(INDE c. PAKISTAN)
ARRÊT DU 18 AOUT 1972 Officialcita:ion
Appeal Relating to the Jurisofcthe ICA0 Council, Judgrnent,
I.C.J. Reports p. 46
Mode officielde citation:
Appel concernant lacompétencedu Conseilde I'OACI,arret,
C.I.J. Recu1972, p. 46
Sales """ber368 1
No devente: 18 AUGUST 1972
JUDGMENT
APPEAL RELATlNG TO THEJURISDlCTlON
OF THE ICA0 COUNCIL
(INDIAv.PAKISTAN)
APPEL CONCERNANT LA COMPÉTENCE
DU CONSEIL DE L'OACI
(INDE c. PAKISTAN) INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
1972
18 August
General List YEAR 1972
No.54
18 August 1972
APPEALRELATING TOTHEJURISDICTION
OFTHEICA0 COUNCIL
(INEIA v. PAKISTAN)
Appeal from decisions of the Council of the InternCivil Aviation Organi-
zation assuming jurisdictiin respect of an '2pplicatioand a "Complaint"
made IOit by Pakistan concerning the suspension by India, in alleged breach of
the 1944 Chicago InternationaCivil AviatioConvention andlnternationaAir
Services TransitAgreement, of flightof Pakistan civilaircraftover lndian
territory--Cornpetencof the Court toentertain thiappeal-lnterpretatioof
the jurisdictionclauses ofthese instruments-Jurisdictioof the Council to
entertainthe dispute between lndia and Pakistan-Questioof whetlier thi.~dis-
pute involveda "disagreement...relatingto the interpretatior application"
of the Chicago Conventioand TransitAgreement--Alleged irregularitiin the
procedure of the Council-Relevanceof this question to the task of the Court
in the present case.
JUDGMENT
Present: Vice-PresidenAMMOUN Acting President;President Sir Muhammad
ZAFRULLK AHAN; Judges Sir Gerald FITZMAURIC PEA,DILLANERVO,
FORSTERG , ROS, BENGZON,P~TRÉN,LACHS,ONYEAMAD , ILLARD,
IGNACIO-PINT DE.CASTRO M, OROZOV J,MENE ZE ARÉCHAGA J;dge
ad hoc NAUENDRS AINGH; RegistrarAQUARONE. COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
1972
18 août
Rôle général
ANNÉE 1972 no 54
18 août 1972
APPELCONCERNANT LACOMPÉTENCE
DU CONSEILDE L'OACI
(INDE c. PAKISTAN)
Appel contre des décisions par lesquelles le Conseil de l'Organisation de
l'aviation civile internationale s'est déclarécompétent pour connaître d'une
(requête))et d'unI(plaint1du Pakistan au sujet de la suspension par l'Inde des
survols de son territoire par des aéronefscivilspakistanais, suspension qui serait
intervenue en violation de la Convention relativeviation civile internationale
et de l'Accord relatif au transit des services aériensinternatioàChicagonés
en 1944 - Compétencede la Courpour connaître de l'appe- Interprétationdes
clausesjuridictionnelles des deux traitésmpétence du Conseilpolir connaître
dii différendentre I'Indt7et le Pa-isQuestion desavoirsi ledifférendimpliqire
1un désaccord...à propos de l'interprétation oude l'applicat1de la Con-
vention de Chicago et de l'Accord de transitAllégations concernant des irré-
gularitésde procéduredu Conseil- Pertinence de ce point quanù la tâche de
la Cour en l'espèce.
Présents:M. AMMOUN V,ice-Présidentfaisantfonction de Présidenten l'aflaire;
sir MuhammadZAFRULLK AHAN,Président; sirGerald FITZMAURICE,
MM. PADILLA NERVOF , ORSTER G,ROS,BENGZON P,ETRÉNL,ACHS,
ONYEAMA D,ILLARDI,GNACIO-PINTO, DE CASTROM , OROZOJ VI,MÉNEZ
DE ARÉCHAGjA ri,ges; M. NACENDRA SINGHj,uge ad hoc; M. AQUA-
RONE, Greffier. In the Appeal relating to the Jurisdiction of the Council of the International
Civil Aviation Organization,
the Republic of India,
represented by
H.E. Lt. General Yadavindra Singh, Ambassador of India to the Nether-
lands,
as Agent,
Dr. S. P. Jagota, Joint Secretary and Legal Adviser, Ministry of External
Affairs, Government of India,
as Deputy Agent and Counsel,
Mr. T. S. Ramamurti, Secretary of Embassy,
as Deputy Agent,
assisted by
Mr. N. A. Palkhivala, Senior Advocate, Supreme Court of India,
as Chief Counsel,
Mr. B. S. Gidwani, Deputy Director General of Civil Aviation, Govern-
ment of India,
Mr. Y. S. Chitale, Advocate, Supreme Court of India,
Mr. P. Chandrasekhara Rao, Legal Adviser, Permanent Mission of India
to the United Nations, New York,
as Counsel,
and by
Mr. 1. R. Menon, Civil Aviation Department, Government of India,
as Expert,
und
Pakistan,
represented by
H.E. Mr. J. G. Kharas, Ambassador of Pakistan to the Netherlands,
as Agent,
Mr. S. T. Joshua, Secretary of Embassy,
as Deputy Agent,
assisted by
Mr. Yahya Bakhtiar, Attorney-General of Pakistan,
as Chief Counsel,
and by
Mr. Zahid Said. Deputy Legal Adviser, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Govern-
ment of Pakistan,
Mr. K. M. H. Darabu, Assistant Director, Department of Civil Aviation,
Governnient of Pakistan,
as Counsel, En l'affaire de l'appel concernant la compétence du Conseil de I'Organisa-
tion de I'aviation civile internationale,
entre
la Républiqiie de I'Inde,
représentéepar
S. Exc. le lieutenant général Yadavindra Singh, ambassadeur de I'lnde aux
Pays-Bas,
comme agent,
M. S. P. Jagota, secrétaire adjoint et conîeiller juridique di1 ministère des
Affaires extérieures de I'Inde,
comme agent adjoint et conseil,
M. T. S. Ramamurti, secrétaire d'ambassade,
comme agent adjoint,
assistéspar
M. N. A. Palkhivala, avocat principal a la Cour suprême deI'lnde,
comme conseil principal,
M. B. S. Gidwani, directeur généraladjoint de I'aviation civilede l'Inde,
M. Y. S. Chitale, avocat à la Cour suprêmede I'Inde,
M. P. Chandrasekhara Rao, conseiller juridique à la mission permanente de
I'Inde auprès de l'organisation des Nations Unies, New York,
comme conseils,
et par
M. 1.R. Menon, du département de I'aviiition civile de l'Inde,
comme expert,
le Pakistan,
représentépar
S. Exc. M. J. Ci.Kharas, ambassadeur du Pakistan aux Pays-Bas,
comme agent,
M. S. T. Joshua, secrétaire d'ambassade,
comme agent adjoint,
assistéspar
M. Yahya Bakhtiar, Attorr~ey-Cetleraidu Pakistan.
comme conseil principal,
et par
M. Zahid Saïd, conseiller juridique adjoint dii ministère des Affaires
étrangèresdu Pakistan,
M. K. M. H. Darabu, directeuradjoint du département de l'aviation civiledu
Pakistan,
comme conseils, cornposed as above,
delivers thefollowing J~rdgmeirt:
1. By a letter of 30 August 1971, received in the Registry the sarne day,
the Ambassador of India to the Netherlands transmitted to the Registrar of
the Court an Application instituting an appeal frorn the decisions rendered
on 29 July 1971 bythe Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization
("ICAO") on the Preliminary Objections raised by India in respect of an Ap-
plication and a Cornplaint brought before the Council by Pakistan on 3 March
1971. In order to found the jurisdiction of the Court, the Application relies
on Article 84 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation signed at
Chicago on 7 Decernber 1944, Article II of the International Air Services
Transit Agreement opened for signature at Chicago on 7 Decernber 1944,
and Articles 36 and 37 of the Statute of the Court.
2. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Application was
at once cornmunicated to the Governrnent of Pakistan. In accordance with
paragraph 3 of that Article, al1other Statesentitled to appear before the Court
were notified.
3. In accordance with Article 13, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the
Vice-President acted as President in the case. Pursuant to Article 31, para-
graph 2, of the Statute of the Court, the Government of India chose Dr. Na-
gendra Singh, Mernber of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, to sit as judge
ad hoc.
4. The time-limits for the filing of the written pleadings were fixed, or
extended at the request of the Government of India, by Orders of 16Septem-
ber and 3 December 1971 and 19January and 20 March 1972.The pleadings
having been filed within the time-linlits prescribed, the case was ready for
hearing on 15 May 1972,the date on which the Rejoinder of the Governrnent
of Pakistan was filed.
5. The Government of Pakistan having advanced the contention that ques-
tions concerning the construction of the Convention on International Civil
Aviation and the International Air Services Transit Agreement were in issue,
the States other than those concerned in the case which are parties to these
two instruments were notified in accordance with Article 63, paragraph 1,of
the Statute. ICAO was also notified and copies of the written proceedings were
communicated to it in accordance with Article 34, paragraph 3, of the Statute.
By letter of 15 May 1972, the Registrar informed the Secretary General of
ICAO, in accordance with Article 57. paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court,
that 6 June 1972had been fixedas the time-limit within which the Organization
might submit its observations in writing. Within the time-lirnit fixed, the
Secretary General stated that ICA0 did not intend to submit observations.
6. Pursuant to Article 44, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the pleadings
and annexed documents were, with the agreement of the Parties, made acces-
sible to the public as from the date of the opening of the oral proceedings.
7. Hearings were held from 19to 23 and on 27, 28 and 30 June and 3 July,
in the course of which the Court heard the oral argument and replies of H.E.
Lt. General Yadavindra Singh and Mr. Palkhivala on behalf of the Govern-
ment of India, and of H.E. Mr. Kharas and Mr. Yahya Bakhtiar on behalf
of the Government of Pakistan. ainsi composée,
rend I'arrétsuivant.
1. Par lettre du 30 août 1971reçue au Greffe le mêmejour, l'ambassadeur de
l'Inde aux Pays-Bas a transmis au Greffier de la Cour une requête du Gou-
vernement indien faisant appel des décisions prises le 29 juillet 1971 par le
Conseil de l'organisation de l'aviation civile internationale (ci-après dénom-
méeI'OACI) sur les exceptions préliminaires opposées par le Gouvernement
indien à une requéteet à une plainte dont le Gouvernement pakistanais avait
saisi le Conseil le 3 mars 1971. Pour établir la compétence de la Cour, la
requêteinvoque I'article 84 de la Convention relative à l'aviation civile inter-
nationalesignée àChicago le 7 décembre 1944,l'article II de l'Accord relatif au
transit des services aériens internationaux ouvert a la signature à Chicago le
7 décembre 1944et les articles 36 et 37 du Statut de la Cour.
2. Conformément a I'article 40, paragraphe 2, du Statut, la requêtea été
immédiatement communiquée au Gouvernement pakistanais. Conformément
au paragraphe 3 du mêmearticle, les autres Etats admis a ester devant la Cour
ont étéinformés de la requête.
3. En application de I'article 13, paragraphe 1, du Règlement de la Cour,
le Vice-Président a fait fonction de Président en l'affaire. En application de
l'article31, paragraphe 2, du Statut, le Gouvernement indien a désignéM.
Nagendra Singh, membre de la Cour permanente d'arbitrage, pour siéger
comme juge ad hoc.
4. Les délaispour le dépôtdes piècesde la procédure écriteont étéfixés,ou
prorogés à la demande du Gouvernement indien, par ordonnances des 16sep-
tembre et 3 décembre 197 1 et des 19janvier et 20 mars 1972. Ces piècesayant
étéprésentéesdans les délaisprescrits, l'affaire s'est trouvée en état le 15 mai
1972, date du dépôtde la duplique du Gouvernement pakistanais.
5. Le Gouverneme:nt pakistanais ayant fait valoir que des questions con-
cernant l'interprétation de la Convention relative à l'aviation civile interna-
tionale et de I'Accoird relatif au transit des services aériens internationaux
étaient en jeu, les Etats autres que les Parties au litige ayant participé ces
deux instruments en ont étéavertis, conformément à I'article 63,paragraphe 1,
du Statut. L'OACI a également étéaviséeet les pièces de la procédure écrite
lui ont été communiquées,en vertu de I'article 34, paragraphe 3, du Statut.
Par lettre du 15 mai 1972, le Greffier a informé le secrétaire généralde cette
organisation, aux termes de I'article 57, paragraphe 5,du Règlement, que le
délaipendant lequel elle pourrait soumettre a la Cour ses observations écrites
étaitfixéau 6juin 1972. Dans le délai ainsi prescrit, le secrétaire générala fait
connaître que I'OACI n'avait pas l'intention de présenter desobservations.
6. En application de I'article 44, paragraphe 3, du Règlement, les piècesde
la procédure écriteont, avec l'assentiment des Parties, étérendues accessibles
au public a dater de l'ouverture de la procédure orale.
7. Desaudiences publiques ont ététenues du 19 au 23 juin et les 27, 28 et
30 juin et 3 juillet, durant lesquelles ont été entendusen leurs plaidoiries et
réponses, pour le Gouvernement indien S. Exc. le lieutenant généralYada-
vindra Singh et M. Palkhivala, et, pour leGouvernement pakistanais, S. Exc.
M. Kharas et M. Yaihya Bakhtiar. 8. In the course of the written proceedings, the following submissions were
presented by the Parties:
in the Application:
"May it please the Court to adjudge and declare, after such proceedings
and hearing as the Court may see fit to direct, and whether the Respon-
dent is present of absent, that the aforesaid decision of the Council is
illegal, nuIl and void, or erroneous, on the following grounds or any
others:
A. The Council has no jurisdiction to handle the matters presented by
the Respondent in its Application and Cornplaint, as the Convention
and the Transit Agreement have been terminated or suspended as
between the two States.
B. The Council has no jurisdiction to consider the Respondent's Com-
plaint since no action has been taken by the Applicant under the
Transit Agreement; in fact no action could possibly be taken by the
Applicant under the Transit Agreement since that Agreement has
been terminated or suspended as between the two States.
C. The question of Indian aircraft overflying Pakistan and Pakistan air-
craft overfiying India is governed by the Special Régime of 1966 and
not by the Convention or the Transit Agreement. Any dispute between
the twoStates can arise only under the SpecialRégime,and the Council
has no jurisdiction to handle any such dispute."
in the Memorial:
"May it please the Court to adjudge and declare, after such proceedings
and hearings as the Court may see fit to direct, and whether the Respon-
dent is present or absent, that the aforesaid decision of the Council is
illegal, nuIl and void. or erroneous, and may it further please the Court
to reverse and set aside the same, on the following grounds or any others:
A. The Council has no jurisdiction to handle the matters presented by
the Respondent in its Application and Complaint, as the Convention
and the Transit Agreement have been terminated or s~ispended as
between the two States.
B. The Council has no jurisdiction to consider the Respondent's Coni-
plaint since no action has been taken by the Applicant under the
Transit Agreement; in fact no action could possibly be taken by the
Applicant under the Transit Agreement since that Agreement has
been terminated or suspended as between the two States.
C. The question of lndian aircraft overflying Pakistan and Pakistan air-
craft overflying lndia is governed by the Special Agreement of 1966
and not by the Convention or the Transit Agreement. Any dispute
between the two States can arise only under that Bilateral Agreement,
and the Council has adrnittedly no jurisdiction to handle any such
dispute.
D. The manner and method employed by the Council in reaching its
decision render the decision irnproper, unfüir and prejudiciül to India,
and bad in Inw. 8. Dans la procédure écrite, les conclusion ci-après ont étéprésentéespar
les Parties:
dans la requête:
(Plaise à la Cour dire et juger, après toute procédure écriteet 01-aleque
la Cour jugera opportune, et ce, que le défendeur soit présentou absent,
que la décision susviséedu Conseil est illégale, nulle et de nul effet, ou
erronée, pour les motifs suivants ou pour tout autre motif:
A. Le Conseil n'a pas compétence pour connaitre des questions que le
défendeura soulevéesdans sa requéteet dans sa plainte, la Convention
et I'Accord de transit ayant pris fin ou ayant étésuspendus entre les
deux Etats.
B. Le Conseil n'a pas compétence pour connaitre de la plainte du défen-
deur, aucune mesure n'ayant étéprise par le demandeur aux termes de
l'Accord de transit; aucune mesure ne pouvait d'ailleurs êtreprise par
le demandeuraux termes de cet accord, puisqu'il avait pris fin ou avait
été suspenduentre les deux Etats.
C. La question du survol du Pakistan par des aéronefs indiens et du
siirvol de l'Inde par des aéronefs pakistanais est régiepar le régime
spécialde 1966et non par la Convention ou I'Accord de transit. II ne
peut surgir de différend entre les deux Etats qu'i propos du régime
spécial et le Conseil n'a pas compétence pour connaitre d'un tel
dirérend )];
dans le mémoire:
« Plaiseà la Cour dire et juger, après toute procédure écriteet orale que
la Cour jugera opportune, et ce, que le défendeur soit présent ou absent,
que la décision ,susviséedu Conseil est illégale, nulle et de nul effet, ou
erronée, et plaise également à la Cour infirmer et rejeter cette décision,
pour les motifs suivants ou pour tout autre motif:
A. Le Conseil n'a pas compétence pour connaitre des questions quc
le défendeura soulevéesdans sa requêteet dans sa plainte, la Conven-
tion et l'Accord de transit ayant pris fin ou ayant étésuspendus entre
les deux Etats.
B. Le Conseil n'a pas compétence pour connaître de la plainte du défen-
deur,aucune mesure n'ayant étéprise par le demandeur aux termes de
I'Accord de transit; aucune mesure ne pouvait d'ailleurs êtreprise par
le demandeur aux termes de cet accord, puisqu'il avait pris fin ou
avait été suspendu entre les deux Etats.
C. La question du survol du Pakistan par des aéronefs indiens et du
survol de l'Inde par des aéronefs pakistanais est régie par I'Accord
spécialde 1966et non par la Convention ou I'Accord de transit. II ne
peut surgir de différendentre les deux Etats qu'à propos de cet accord
bilatéral etil est admis que le Conseil n'a pas compétence pour con-
naitre d'un t'eldifférend.
D. Etant donné la manière dont le Conseil a adopté sa décision, celle-ci
est malvenue, injuste, préjudiciable à I'lnde et mal fondéeen droit. May italso please the Court to order that the costs of these proceedings
be paid by the Respondent."
On behalf'ofthe Governmrnt of'PuXis~u~i,
in the Counter-Memorial:
"ln view ofthe facts and statements presented in the Counter-Memorial,
rnay it please the Court to reject the Appeal of the Government of lndia
and to confirm the decisions of the Council of the International Civil
Aviation Organization and to adjudge and declare:
A. That the question of Pakistan aircraft overflying India and lndian
aircraft overflying Pakistan is governed by the Convention and the
Transit Agreement.
B. That the contention of the Government of lndia that the Council
has no jurisdiction to handle the matters presented by Pakistan in its
Application is rnisconceived.
C. That the Appeal preferred by the Government of India against the
decision of the Council in respect of Pakistan's Complaint is incom-
petent.
D. That if the answer to the submission in C. above is in the negative
then the contention of the Government of lndia that the Council
has no jurisdiction to consider the Cornplaint of Pakistan, is mis-
conceived.
E. That the matter and rnethod employed by the Council in reaching
its decisions are proper, fair and valid.
F. That the decisions of the Council in rejecting the Preliminary Objec-
tions of the Governrnent ofIndia are correct in law.
May it please the Court to Order that the cost of these proceedings
be paid by the Appellant."
9. The present case concerns an appeal by India against decisions of
the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization ("ICAO")
assuming jurisdiction in respect (a) of an "Application" by Pakistan
made (i) under Article 84 of the Chicago International Civil Aviation
Convention of 1944("the Chicago Convention" or "the Convention")
and (ii) under Section 2 of Article II of the related International Air
Services Transit Agreement of 1944(the "Transit Agreement"), and also
in accordance with Article 2 (Chapter on "Disagreements" of the Coun-
cil's "Rules for the Settlement of Differences"); and (h) of a "Com-
plaint" made by Pakistan under Section 1 of Article II of the Transit
Agreement, and in accordance with Article 21 (Chapter on "Complaints")
of the Council's Rules. Pakistan's case before the Council was based on
alleged breaches by India of the Convention and Transit Agreement.
In rnaking her appeal, India invokes as giving her a right to do so, and
as the foundation of the Court's jurisdiction to entertain it, the same CONSEIL DE L'OACI (ARKÊT) 50
Plaise en outre a la Cour imputer au défendeurles frais relatifs à la
présenteinstance. 11
dans le contre-mémoire :
(:Plaise à la Cour rejeter l'appeldu Gouvernement de I'lnde, confirmer
lesdécisions du Conseil de l'Organisation de l'aviation civileinternationale
et dire et juger:
A. Que la question du survol de I'lndepar des aéronefspakistanais et du
survol du Pakistan par des aéronefs indiensest régiepar la Convention
et par I'Accord detransit.
B. Que la thèse duGouvernement indien selon laquelle le Conseil n'a pas
compétence]pourconnaître des questions soulevéespar le Pakistan
dans sa requiJteest erronée.
C. Que l'appel dela décision du Conseilsur la plainte pakistanaise inter-
jetépar le Gouvernement indien est irrecevable.
D. Que, mêmesi le point C était tranché par la négative, la thèse du
Gouvernement indien selon laquelle le Conseil n'a pas compétence
pour examiner la plainte du Pakistan est erronée.
E. Que la méthode employée par le Conseil pour parvenir à ses décisions
étaitappropriée, équitableet valable.
F. Que les décis,ionsdu Conseil rejetant les exceptions préliminairesdu
Gouvernement indien sont fondéesen droit.
Plaise a la Cour imputer au demandeur les frais relatifs à la présente
instance. 11
9. La présente affaire concerne un appel interjeté par I'lnde contre
les décisions par lesquelles le Conseil de l'organisation de l'aviation
civile internationale (ci-après dénommée I'OACI) se déclare compétent
a) à l'égard d'une ::requête )iprésentéepar le Pakistan i) en vertu de
I'article 84 de la Convention relative à I'aviation civile internationale
signéeà Chicago en 1944 (ci-après dénomméela Convention de Chicago
ou la Convention) et ii) en vertu de I'article II, section 2,de l'Accord de
1944relatif au transit des services aériensinternationaux (ci-après dénom-
méI'Accord de transit), et en outre conformément à I'article 2 du Règle-
ment du Conseil pour la solution des différends (figurant dans le chapitre
intitulé IDésaccords 11);b) à l'égard d'une Iplainte )> présentée par le
Pakistan en vertu tie I'article II, section 1, de I'Accord de transit et
conformément à I'article 21 du Règlement du Conseil (figurant dans le
chapitre intitulé «Plaintes 1)).L'affaire portée par le Pakistan devant
le Conseil était fondéesur des violations de la Convention et de I'Accord Article84 of the Convention,and also Section 2 of Article II of the Tran-
sit Agreement. The above-nientioned provisions of these two instru-
nients will be found set out iiiparagraphs 17 and 19 below.
10. The substance of the dispute between the Parties, as placrd beforc
the Council of ICA0 ("the Council") by Pakistan on 3 March 1971,
relates to the suspensioii by India of overflights of Indian territory by
Pakistan civil aircraft, on aiid from 4 February 1971, arising out of a
"hijacking" incident involving the diversion of an Indian aircraft to
Pakistan. It should be mentioned hcre that hostilities interrupting over-
flights had broken out between the two couiltries in August 1965,ceasing
in the following month, and that after this cessation the Parties adopted
what is known as the Tashkeiit Declaration of 10January 1966,by which.
and more especially by a consequential Exchange of Letters between them
dated 317 February 1966, it was agreed, inter alia,that there should be
"an immediate resumption of overflights across each other's territory
on the same hasis as that prior to 1 August 1965.. .",i.e., prior to the
hostilities-(emphasis added). Pakistan has interpreted this undertaking
as meaning that overflights would be resumed on the basis of the Con-
vention and Transit Agreement ("the Treaties"): but India has main-
tained that these Treaties having (as she alleges) been suspended during
the hostilities, were never as such revived, and that overflights were to
be resunied on the basis of a "special régime" according to which such
flights could take place in principle, biit only after permission had been
granted by India.-whereas under the Treaties they could take place as
of right. without aiiy necessity for prior permission. This special régime.
lndia contends, replaced the Ti-eatiesas between the Parties; but Pakistan
denies that any such régime ever came into existence, and also claims
that. not having been registered as an international agreement under
Article 102 of the United Nations Charter. it cannot now be invoked
by India. Consequently Pakistan maintains that, at least since Januaryi
February 1966.the Treaties have never ceased to be applicable, and that,
in accordance .with them (Article 5 of the Convention and Article 1,
Section 1,of the Transit Agreement), her civil aircraft have "the right.. .
to make flights into or in transit non-stop across [Indian] territory and
to make stops for non-trafic purposes ii,ithout the nrcessity qf ohtaining
prior permissiorr"-(Convention, Article 5-rmphasis added).
II. It niiist however be stated at the outset, that with these various
matters. and with the substance of this dispute as placed before the
Council, and the facts and contentions of the Parties relative to it. the
Court has nothing whatever to do in the present proceedings, except
in so far as these elements may relate to the purely jurisdictional issue
which alone has been referred to it, namely the cornpetence of the Coun-
cil to hear and determine the case submitted by Pakistan. Subject to this
necessary exception. the Court must avoid not only any expreîsion of
9de transit que I'lnde aurait commises. Aux fins du présent appel, l'lnde
invoque comme source de son droit de recours et comme fondement de la
compétence de la Cour l'article 84 de la Convention et l'article II,section
2,de l'Accord de transit. Le texte des dispositions susnientionnées de ces
deux instruments est reproduit aux paragraphes 17et 19ci-après.
10. L'objet du différend entre les Parties, tel qii'il a étésoumis par le
Pakistan au Conseil de I'OACI (ci-après dcnommé le Conseil) le 3mars
1971,concerne la suspension par I'lnde des survols du territoire indien par
les appareils civils pakistanais, qui est intervenue à partir du 4 février1971
à la suite d'un incident relatif au détournement vers le Pakistan d'un
avion indien. IIconvient de mentionner qiie des hostilités interrompant
les survols étaient survenues entre les deux pays en août 1965 - pour
prendre fin le mois suivant - et que, après la fin de ces hostilités, les
Parties avaient adopté la déclaration dite de Tachkent du IOjanvier 1966.
En vertu de cet instrument et plus précisément aux termes de lettres
échangéesentre elles pour y faire suite les 3 et 7 février1966,elles s'étaient
mises d'accord notamment sur 11une reprise immédiate des survols
des deux territoires sur la niên~cbase qu'u1-ant le1" aoUt 1965 »,c'est-&-dire
avant les hostilités(les italiques sont de la Cour). Le Pakistan a interprété
cet engagement cornme signifiant que les survols reprendraient sur'la
base de la Convention et de l'Accord de transit (ci-après dénommésles
Traités). L'lnde a soutenu de son côtéque ces Traittis, suspendus d'après
elle pendant les hostilités, n'avaient jamais été remisen vigueur en tant
que tels et que les survols devaient reprendre sur la base d'un (réginie
spécial ));en application de celui-ci, les survols étaient erl principe pos-
sibles mais subordonnés à une autorisation de I'lnde, alors que, d'après
les Traités, ils pouvaient avoir lieu de plein droit, sans qu'une permission
préalable fût nécessaire.L'lnde affirme que ce régime spéciala remplacé
les Traités entre les Parties, inais le Pakistan nie qu'un tel régime ait
jamais existé et prétend aussi que, faute d'avoir été enregistré coinme
accord international en vertu de l'article 102 de la Charte des Nations
Unies. il ne saurait ètre invoqué par I'lnde. En conséque, re, le Pakistan
soutient que, depuis janvier-février 1966tout au moins, ies Traités n'ont
jamais cesséd'être applicableset que, conformément à leurs dispositions
(article5 de la Convention et article 1,section 1,de l'Accord de transit), les
aéronefs civils pakistanais 1ont le droit ... de pénétrer sur [le] territoire
[indien],de le traverser en transit sans escale et d'y faire des escales non
coinmerciales sans ai>oirà ohte~iir une airtorisation préalable1(Convention,
article 5 - les italiques sont de la Cour).
II. II faut toutefois indiquer dès maintenant que la Cour n'a pas à
s'occuper de ces différentes questions, pas plus qu'elle n'a à s'occuper
du fond du différend tel qu'il a été souniis au Conseil, des faits qui
s'y rattachent ou dt:s thèses des Parties à ce sujet, si ce n'est dans la
i-i-iesureoù ces éléments peuventconcerner la question purement juridic-
tionnelle qui seule a étéportée devant la Cour. à savoir celle de la com-
pétence du Conseil pour statuer siIr l'affaire dont le Pakistan l'a saisi.
Sous cette réserve indispensable, la Cour doit non seulement éviter
9opinion on these matters of substance, but any pronouncernents which
rnight prejudge, or appear to prejudge, the eventual decision, whatever
it rnight be, of the Council on the ultimate rnerits of the case, if the Coun-
cil is held to be cornpetent to entertain these-(see also the case of Inter-
pretation of Article 3, Puragraph 2, of the Treaty of Lausanne, Advisory
Opinion, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 12. p. 18).
12. For the sake of clarity it should be mentioned at this point that
when, in the present Judgment. reference is made to the "merits" of
the dispute or disagreernent, what is meant is the merits of the case be-
fore the Council. When referencz is intended to the substance of the
purely jurisdictional issue now before the Court, the context will rnake
this clear.
13. Before coming to the question of the Council's jurisdiction, the
Court rnust deal with certain objections to its own jurisdiction to enter-
tain India's appeal which have been advanced by Pakistan. India, for
her part, contests the right of Pakistan to do this, because the objections
concerned were not put forward at an earlier stage of the proceedings
before the Court as "preliminary" objections under Article 62 of the
Court's Rules (1946 edition). It is certainly to be desired that objections
to the jurisdiction of the Court should be put forward as preliminary
objections for separate decision in advance of the proceedings on the
merits. The Court rnust however always be satisfied that it has juris-
diction, and rnust if necessary go into that matterproprio mofu. The real
issue raised by the present case was whether, in the event of a party's
failure to put forward a jurisdictional objection as a preliminary one,
that party might not thereby be held to have acquiesced in the jurisdic-
tion of the Court. However, since the Court considers its jurisdiction
to be established irrespective of any consent of Pakistan's on that basis,
it will now proceed to consider Pakistan's objections.
14. The chief of these is that the relevant jurisdictional clauses of the
Treaties-naniely Article 84 of the Convention and Section 2 of Article
II of the Transit Agreement-only allow of an appeal to the Court frorn
a decision of the Council on the rnerits of the dispute referred to it, and
not frorn a decision concerning the Council's jurisdiction to entertain
the reference, whether such jurisdiction is affirrned or rejected by the
Council. Additionally or alternatively, Pakistan clain~sthat since it is one
of India's principal contentions that the Treaties are not in force at al1
(or at any rate in operation) between the Parties, (a) India cannot have
any jus standi to invoke their jurisdictional clauses for the purpose of
appealing to the Court, and (6) India must admit that the Court in any
1Od'exprimer une opinion quelconque sur ces points de fond mais encore
se garder de tout prononcé qui pourrait préjuger de la décision finale,
quelle qu'elle soit, que le Conseil rendra sur le fond mêmede l'affaire,
à supposer qu'il sc~itdécidé qu'ilest compétent pour en connaître (voir
aussi I'affaire concernant I'/nterprétation de l'article 3, paragraphe 2,
du traitéde Lausanne, avis consultatif, 1925, C.P.J.I. sérieB no 12, p. 18).
12. Pour plus de clarté, ilconvient de mentionner que, dans le présent
arrêt,le termefond, appliqué au différend ou au désaccord, vise le fond
de I'affaire soumise au Conseil. Lorsque l'on veut parler du fond de la
question purement juridictionnelle dont la Cour est saisie, le contexte
I'indique.
13. Avant d'aborder la question de la compétence du Conseil, il con-
vient d'examiner certaines objections soulevéespar le Pakistan quant à la
compétence de la Cour pour connaître de l'appel interjeté par I'lnde.
Celle-ci conteste le droit du Pakistan de formuler ces objections attendu
qu'il ne les a pas soulevéesà un stade antérieur de la procédure comme
((exceptions préliminaires ))en vertu de l'article 62 du Règlement de la
Cour (texte de 1946). Il est assurément souhaitable que les objections
visant la compétence de la Cour prennent la forme d'exceptions préli-
minaires sur lesquelles il est statué à part avant toute procédure sur le
fond. La Cour n'en doit pas moins toujours s'assurer de sa compétence
et elle doit, s'il y a lieu, l'examiner d'office. Le vrai problème soulevé
en l'espèce,du fait qu'une Partie s'est abstenue de présenter une objec-
tion à la compétence sous la forme d'une exception préliminaire, a été
de savoir si cette Partie ne devrait pas être considéréecomme ayant
ainsi accepté la compétence de la Cour. Toutefois, puisque la Cour
tient sa compétenc:epour établie sans faire appel -au consentement du
Pakistan sur la base d'une telle acceptation, elle examinera maintenant
les objections du Piikistan.
14. D'après la principale de ces objections, les clauses juridictionnelles
des Traités, à savoir l'article 84 de la Convention et l'article II, section
2, de l'Accord de transit, n'autorisent l'appel devant la Cour que contre
les décisions du Conseil sur le fond des différends portés devant lui et
non contre des dé:cisionsconcernant la compétence du Conseil pour
connaître d'un litige, que cette compétence soit admise ou rejetée par
lui. Tenant comptt: de ce que l'une des principales thèses de I'lnde en
l'affaire consiste à ,soutenir que les Traités ne sont pas en vigueur ou du
moins ne sont pas appliqués en fait entre les Parties, le Pakistan prétend
subsidiairement a) que I'lnde ne saurait avoir qualité pour invoquer les
clauses juridictionnelles des Traités en vue de porter un appel devant laevent lacks jurisdiction under its own Statute because, in the case of dis-
putes referred to it under treaties or conventions, Article 36, paragraph 1,
of the Statute requires these to be "treaties and conventions in force"
(ernphasis added),-and India denies that the treaties and conventions
here concerned are in force, in the sense that she alleges that they are
at least suspended as between Pakistan and herself, or their oper-
ation is.
15. Pakistan adduces yet other grounds in support of the view that
the Court should hold itself to be incompetent in the matter, such as
the effect of one of India's reservations to her acceptance of the Court's
cornpulsory jurisdiction under Article 36. paragraph 2, of its Statute.
Also pleaded is the principle of the "compétencede la compétence"as
making the Council's jurisdictional decisions conclusive and unappeal-
able. But this prejudges the question, for if on other grounds it appears
that these decisions rnust be held appealable, this principle coiild not be
perrnitted to prevail without defeating a priori al1 possibility of appeal.
Again, having regard to the date of the Treaties (1944), a query was
raised concerning the position under Article 37 of the Court's Statute.
This matter was however disposed of by the Judgrnent of the Court in
the prelirninary phase of the case concerning the Barcelona Traction,
Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962), I.C.J. Re-
ports 1964, at pages 26-39. In any event, such matters would become
rnaterial only if it should appear that the Treaties and their jurisdictional
clauses did not suffice, and that the Court's jurisdiction must be sought
outside thern, which, for reasons now to be stated, the Court does not
find to be the case.
16. It will be convenient to deal first with the contention that India
is precluded frorn affirming the competence of the Court because she
herself rnaintains (on the rnerits of the dispute) that the Treaties are not
in force between the Parties, which contention, if correct, would entail
that their jurisdictional clauses were inapplicable, and that the Treaties
thernselvesdid not fulfil th:. conditions conternplated by Article 36, para-
graph 1,of the Court's Statute, in order that the Court should have juris-
diction in respect of disputes referred to it under those Treaties. The
Court however holds that this contention of Pakistan's isnot well-founded
for the following reasons, sorne of which have been advanced in the In-
dian arguments on this part of the case:
(a) What India has affirrned is that the Treaties-which are rnultilateral
ones-are suspended (or that their operation is suspended) as
between herself and Pakistan. This is not the sarne thing as saying
that they are not in force in the definitive sense, or even that they
have wholly ceased to be in force as between the two Parties con-
cerned.
(b) Nor in any case could a merely unilateral suspension per se render
jurisdictional clauses inoperative, since one of their purposes rnight
be, precisely, to enable the validity of the suspension to be tested.
1ICour et 6) que I'lnde doit de toute manière admettre l'incompétence de
la Cour par application du Statut car, s'agissant de différends soumis
à la Cour en vertu de traités ou de conventions, l'article 36, paragraphe 1,
exige que ces ((traitéset conventions 1soient «envigueur))(lesitaliques sont
de la Cour); or l'Inde nie qu'ils le soient puisqu'elle prétend qu'ils sontau
moins suspendus ou non appliquésen fait entre elle et le Pakistan.
15. Pour démontrer que la Cour devrait se déclarer incompétente en
l'espèce, le Pakistan avance encore d'autres motifs, tel que l'effet d'une
réserveapportée par l'Inde à son acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire
de la Cour en vertu de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut. Il soutient
aussi que le principe de la compétence de la compétence rend définitives
et sans appel les décisions du Conseil sur la compétence. Mais c'est là
préjuger la question car s'il apparaît que, pour d'autres raisons, ces
décisions doivent etre considérées comme susceptibles d'appel, on ne
saurait admettre la mise en jeu de ce principe sans éliminer à priori toute
possibilitéd'appel. De plus, compte tenu de la date des Traités - 1944 -
la question a étéposée de savoir quelle était la situation au regard de
l'article 37du Statut de la Cour. Or le problème a étéréglépar l'arrêt que
la Cour a rendu dans la phase préliminaire de l'affaire concernant la
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (nouvelle requête:
1962) (C.I.J. Recueil 1964, p. 26-39). En tout cas, pareils motifs ne pré-
senteraient de la pertinence que s'il s'avérait que les Traités et leurs
clauses juridictionnelles sont insuffisants et que la source de la compétence
de la Cour doit êtrerecherchéeen dehors d'eux, ce qui, d'après la Cour,
n'est pas le cas pour les raisons qui vont être indiquées.
16. 11convient d'étudier d'abord la thèse selon laquelle l'Inde est
empêchéed'invoquer la compétence de la Cour parce qu'elle soutient,
a propos du fond du différend, que les Traités ne sont pas en vigueur
entre les Parties et parce que, si cela était exact, il en résulterait que les
clauses juridictionrielles seraient inapplicables et que les Traités eux-
mêmesne rempliraient pas lesconditions prévuesà l'article 36,paragraphe
1,du Statutpour que la Cour puisse connaître des différendsàelle soumis
en application de leurs dispositions. La Cour estime que la thèse du
Pakistan n'est pas fondée pour les raisons suivantes dont certaines ont
été invoquéep sar I'lnde dans son argumentation sur cet aspect de l'affaire:
a) Ce que l'Inde a affirmé, c'est que les Traités - qui sont des traités
multilatéraux -- sont suspendus ou ne sont pas appliqués en fait
entre elle et le Pakistan. C'est autre chose de dire que les Traités
ne sont pas en vigueur de façon définitive ou même qu'ilsont totale-
ment cesséd'êtreen vigueur entre les deux Parties intéressées.
b) II n'est pas possible, en tout cas, qu'une suspension purement unila-
térale suffise à rendre inopérantes des clauses juridictionnelles dont
l'un des objectifs pourrait être précisémentde permettre de déterminer If a mere allegation, as yet unestablished, that a treaty was no
longer operative could be used to defeat its jurisdictional clauses,
al1 such clauses would become potentially a dead letter, even in
cases like the present, where one of the very questions at issue on
the merits, and as yet undecided, is whether or not the treaty is
operative-i.e., whether it has been validly terminated or suspended.
The result would be that means of defeating jurisdictional clauses
would never be wanting.
(c) The argument based on preclusion could also be turned ayainst
Pakistan,--for since it is Pakistan not lndia which denies the juris-
diction of the Court, and affirms the force of the Treaties, it must
be questionable whether she can be heard to utilize for tha: purpose
an lndian denial of the force of the Treaties, put forward only as
a defence on the merits, which, ex hypothesi, have not yet been
pronounced upon. The question of the Court's jurisdiction on the
other hand. is necessarily an antecedent and independent one-
an objective question of law-which cannot be governed by pre-
clusive considerations capable of being so expressed as to tell against
either Party-or both Parties.
(d) It is significant that Pakistan also advances the coniplementary
argument that India's appeal to the Court on the basis of the juris-
dictional clauses of the Treaties necessarily involves an implied
admission that those Treaties really are in force,-thus seeking to
place lndia on the horns of a seeniingly inescapable dilemma;-
for according to this doctrine a Party, by the mere fact of invoking
the jurisdictional clause of a treaty, could be hzld to have made an
admission adverse to itself as regards the very matter in respect of
which it had invoked that clause. The Court considers this to be
an unacceptable position. Parties must be free to invoke jurisdic-
tional clauses, where otherwise applicable, without being made to
run the risk of destroying their case on the merits by means of that
process itself,-for their case could never either be established or
negatived by means of a judicial decision unless a clause conferring
junsdiction on a court to decide the matter could be invoked on
its own independent, and purely jurisdictional, foundations.
17. Greater weight is to be attached to Pakistan's contention that in
the case of these Treaties, the jurisdictional clauses themselves do not
allow of India's appeal in the present case because, on their correct
interpretation, they only provide for an appeal to the Court against a
final decision of the Council on the merits of any dispute referred to it,
and not against decisions of an interim or preliminary nature such as
are here involved. These clauses read as follows: Article 84 of'the Convention
Settlement qfDisputes
"If any disagreement between two or more contracting States
relating to the interpretation or application of this Convention and
its Annexes cannot be settled by negotiation, it shall, on the appli-
cation of any State concerned in the disagreeinent, be decided by
the Council. No member of the Council shall vote in the consider-
ation by the Council of any dispute to which it is a Party. Any con-
tracting State may, subject to Article 85, appeal from the decision
of the Council to an ad hoc arbitral tribunal agreed upon with the
other parties to the dispute or to the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice. Any such appeal shall be notified to the Council
within sixty days of receipt of notification of the decision of the
Council."
Stzction2 of Article II of the Transit Agreement
"If any disagreement between two or more contracting States
relating to the interpretation or application of this Agreement can-
not be settled by negotiation. the provisions of Chapter XVIII of
the above-rnentioned Convention-[nota: this Chapter contains
Article 84 above quotedl-shall be applicable in the same manner
as provided therein with reference to any disagreement relating to
the interpretation or application of the above-mentioned Conven-
tion."
On the wording of these provisions the case in favour of Pakistan's
interpretation of them is as follows. The disagreement on interpretation
or application which is to be decided by the Council under Article 84
is a disagreement on a substantive issue of merits, and it is this which
is to "be decided by the Council". Consequently, the words giving a
right of "appeal froni the decision of the Council" ("the" decision, not
"a" decision) must be confined to such a decision. Also, the disagreement
that is referable to the Council under Article 84, and hence ultimately
appealable, has to be one that could not "be settled by negotiation".
Such a disagreement would normally be confined to the substantive
merits of the issue involved, since disagreements about jurisdiction are
(so the argument runs) not usually in the negotiable category. This
consideration reinforces the view that only those decisions of the Council
that consist of final decisions on the merits are appealable under Article
84. It is also poiinted out that the Council's "Rules for the Settlement
of Differences" (.in Articles 5 and 15) provide for different procedures
for dealing with the two types of decision, and that in the case of juris-
dictional decisioris, the rules do not include any obligation to give reasons
for the decision, as should normally be the case for an appealable decision.
18. This view -wouldcertainly have to be regarded as correct in respect
of any procedural or otherwise genuinely interlocutory decisions of the si la suspension est valable. Si, pour rendre inopérantes les clauses
juridictionnelles, il suffisait d'alléguer, sans le prouver, qu'un traité
n'est plus applicable, toutes ces clauses risqueraient de devenir lettre
morte, mêmedans des affaires comme celle dont la Cour est saisie ou
I'une des questions mêmesqui se posent au fond et qui ne sont pas
encore tranchées est de savoir si le traité est ou non applicable, c'est-
à-dire s'il a pris fin ou a été suspendu demanière régulière.Le résultat
serait que les moyens de priver d'effet les clauses juridictionnelles ne
manqueraient jamais.
c) L'argument tiré de la forclusion pourrait aussi se retourner contre le
Pakistan; en effet, comme c'est le Pakistan et non pas l'Inde qui nie la
compétence de la Cour et soutient I'applicabilité desTraités, on peut
douter qu'il soit fondé à invoquer à cette fin l'argument de l'inappli-
cabilité des Traités présentépar l'Inde uniquement comme moyen de
défenseau fond, alors que par hypothèse on ne s'est pas encore pro-
noncé sur le fond. La compétence de la Cour est une question néces-
sairement préalable et indépendante, une question de droit objective,
qui ne saurait être régiepar des considérations de forclusion pouvant
êtreformulées de façon àjouer contre I'une des Parties ou contre les
deux.
d) Le Pakistan avance, ce qui est significatif, l'argument complémentaire
selon lequel, en interjetant appel devant la Cour sur la base des
clauses juridictionnelles des Traités, l'Inde admet nécessairement de
façon implicite le maintien en vigueur de ces Traités. IIcherche ainsi
à enfermer l'Inde dans un dilemme en apparence sans issue; en effet,
selon cette conception, on pourrait considérer que le fait pour une
partie d'invoquer la clause juridictionnelle d'un traité constitue un
acquiescement contraire à sa propre thèse sur la question mêmea
propos de laquelle elle a invoquécette clause. C'est la, selon la Cour,
une position inacceptable. Les parties doivent être libres d'invoquer
des clauses juridictionnelles, si elles sont par ailleurs applicables, sans
courir le risque, ce faisant, de réduire à néant leur thèse au fond, car
cette thèse ne saurait être déclaréebien ou mal fondée par voie de
décision judiciaire que si une clause conférant compétence à un tribu-
nal pour juger de cette question peut être invoquéeen soi comme base
indépendante de la juridiction.
17.11 faut attribuer plus de poids à la thèse du Pakistan selon laquelle
les clausesjuridictionnelles des Traités n'autorisent pas l'Inde à interjeter
appel parce que, bien interprétées, elles prévoient seulement l'appel
devant la Cour contre des décisions définitives renduespar le Conseil sur
le fond des différends qui lui sont soumis et non contre des décisionsd'un
caractère provisoire ou préliminaire comme celles dont il s'agit en
l'espèce. Ces clauses sont ainsi libellées: CONSEIL DE L'OACI (ARRÊT)
Article 84 de la Conrlenfion
Règlementdesdrfférends
cSi un désaccord entre deux ou plusieurs Etats contractants à
propos de l'iriterprétation ou de l'application de la présente Con-
vention et de iiesannexes ne peut êtreréglépar voie de négociation,
le Conseil statue à la requête detout Etat impliquédans ce désac-
cord. Aucun inembre du Conseil ne peut voter lors de l'examen
par le Conseil d'un différendauquel il est partie. Tout Etat contrac-
tant peut, sous réserve de I'article 85,appeler de la décisiondu Con-
seil à un tribunal d'arbitrage ad hoc établien accord avec les autres
parties au différend ou à la Cour permanente de Justice interna-
tionale. Un tel appel doit êtrenotifié au Conseil dans les soixante
jours à compter de la réception de la notification de la décisiondu
Conseil. a
Article II,section 2, de l'Accord de transit
ISi un désaccord survenu entre deux ou plusieurs Etats contrac-
tants à propos de I'interprétation ou de l'application du présent
Accord ne peut être réglé par voie de négociation, lesdispositions du
chapitre XVIIl de la Convention susmentionnée [ce chapitre contient
I'article 84 cité plus haut] seront applicables dans les conditions
prévues par lesdites dispositions relativement à tout désaccord por-
tant sur I'inter.prétationou l'application de ladite Convention. 1)
Compte tenu du libelléde ces dispositions, les arguments à l'appui de
I'interprétation du Pakistan sont les suivants. Le désaccord sur I'interpré-
tation ou 1'applicat:ionque doit trancher le Conseil en vertu de l'article
84 est un désaccord sur un point essentiel de fond et c'est sur ce désac-
cord que 1le Conseil statue ))Aussi la clause qui autorise à (appeler
de la décision [et rion d'une décision] du Conseil 11n'envisage-t-elle que
cette hypothèse. De plus, pour pouvoir être soumis au Conseil en vertu
de I'article 84et par suite donner lieu à un appel, il faut que le désaccord
n'ait pu ~êtreréglépar voie de négociation ))Normalement un tel désac-
cord ne porterait que sur le fond mêmedu problème dont il s'agit, les
désaccords sur la compétence, d'après l'argumentation présentée, nese
prêtant pas d'ordinaire à la négociation. Cette considération renforce
l'idée que seules les décisions définitivesdu Conseil sur le fond sont
susceptibles d'appel en vertu de l'article 84. Il est en outre à noter que
le Règlement du Conseil pour la solution des différends prévoit des
procédures distinctes pour les deux types de décision (articles 5 et 15)
et que, s'agissant des décisions de compétence, il n'in~poseaucune obli-
gation de motiver, comme cela devrait normalement être le cas pour
toute décisionpouvant faire l'objet d'un appel.
18. Il faut certainement tenir pour exacte cette manière de voir en ce
qui concerne les décisions procédurales ou véritablement interlocutoiresCouncil, such as decisions about the manner in which a case was to be
presented to it; as to the time-limits within which written pleadings were
to be deposited; or as to the production or admissibility of documents
or other evidence, etc. The Court however thinks that a decision of the
Council relative to its jurisdiction to entertain a dispute does not come
within the same category as the niatters just mentioned, even though,
like them, it necessarily has a preliminary character;-for although,
in the purely temporal sense, a preliminary question is involved, that
question is. in its essence, a substantial question crucially affecting the
position of the parties relative to the case, notwithstanding that it does
not decide the ultimate merits. In consequence, the Court considers that
for thepurposes of thejurisdictional clauses of the Treaties, final decisions
of the Council as to its cornpetence should not be distinguished from
final decisions on the merits. In support of this view the following further
points may be noted:
(a) Although a jurisdictional decision does not determine the "ultimate
merits" of the case. it is a decision of a substantive character, in-
asmuch as it may decide the whole affair by bringing it to an end,
if the finding is against the assumption of jurisdiction. A decision
which can have that effect is of scarcely less importance than a
decision on the merits, which it either rules out entirely or, alter-
natively, permits by endorsing the existence of the jurisdictional
basis which must form the indispensable foundation of any decision
on the merits. A jurisdictional decision is therefore unquestionably
a constituent part of the case, viewed as a whole, and should, in
principle, be regarded as being on a par with decisions on the merits
as regards any right of appeal that may be given.
(b) Nor should it be overlooked that for the party raising a jurisdic-
tional objection, its significance will also lie in the possibility it
may offer of avoiding, not only a decision, but even a hearing, on
the nierits,--a factor which is of prime importance in many cases.
An essential point of legal principle is involved here. namely that
a party should not have to give an account of itself on issues of
merits before a tribunal which lacks jurisdiction in the matler, or
whose jurisdiction has not yet been established.
(c) At the same time, many cases before the Court have shown that
although a decision on jurisdiction can never directly decide any
question of merits, the issues involved may be by no means divorced
from the nierits. A jurisdictional decision may often have to touch
upon the latter or at least involve some consideration of them. This
illustrates the importance of the jurisdictional stage of a case, and
the influence it may have on the eventual decision on the merits, if
these are reached-a factor well known to parties in litigation.
(d) Not only do issues ofjurisdiction involve questions of law, but these
questions may well be as important and complicated as any that
14du Conseil: décisionssur la façon de présenter une affaire au Conseil, sur
la fixation de délais pour le dépôt des pièces écrites, sur la production
ou la recevabilité de documents ou autres élémentsde preuve, etc. En
revanche, la Cour pense qu'une décision du Conseil sur sa compétence
pour connaître d'un différend ne se range pas dans la mêmecatégorie
que celles qui viennent d'être mentionnées,bien qu'elle aussi présente
nécessairement un caractère préliminaire; en effet une question de com-
pétence, préliminaire au sens purement temporel, n'en est pas moins,
par nature, une iiriportante question dont la solution intéresse de ma-
nière cruciale la position des parties à l'égardde I'affaire, bien qu'elle ne
tranche pas le fond mêmedu procès. En conséquence, la Cour estime
qu'aux fins des clauses juridictionnelles des Traités il ne convient pas de
faire de distinction entre les décisions définitives du Conseil sur sa
compétence et ses décisions définitivessur le fond. A l'appui de cette
opinion, l'on peut noter les points suivants:
a) Bien qu'une décisionsur la compétence ne résolvepas le fond même
du procès, c'est quand même une décisionfondamentale, étant donné
qu'elle peut régler l'affaireen y mettant fin si le tribunal se déclare
incompétent. Une décision pouvant avoir cet effet n'est guère moins
importante que la décision sur le fond, car ou bien elle exclut en-
tièrement cette dernière ou bien elle lui ouvre la voie en reconnaissant
le titre juridictionnel qudoit être le fondement indispensable de
toute décision sur le fond. Une décision sur la compétence est donc
indiscutablement un élémentde l'affaire, prise comme un tout. et
devrait en principe êtreplacéesur le mêmeplan que les décisionsau
fond pour ce qui est de l'exercice d'un droit d'appel éventuel.
h) IIne faut pas oublier, car ce facteur revêtune importance majeure
dans de nombreux cas, que, pour la partie qui soulève une exception
d'incompétence, l'intérêdte celle-ci réside égalementdans la possibilité
qu'elle peut offrir d'éviter non seulement une décision, mais même
un débat sur le fond. Un principe de droit très important est en cause,
à savoir qu'une partie ne doit pas avoir à s'expliquer sur des questions
de fond devant un tribunal qui n'est pas compétent en l'espèce ou
dont la compétence n'a pas encore étéétablie.
c) D'autre part, de nombreuses affaires portées devant la Cour ont
montré que, si une décision sur la compétence ne peut jamais régler
directement un point de fond, il n'en est pas moins possible que les
questions auxquelles elle touche ne puissent êtredissociées du fond.
IIarrive souvent. qu'une décision sur la compétence doive aborder le
fond ou du moins comporter un certain examen du fond. Cela il-
lustre l'importance du stade juridictionnel d'une affaire et l'influence
qu'il peut avoir sur la décision définitiveau fond si on en arrive là:
c'est un facteur bien connu des parties à un procès.
d) Non seulement les questions de compétence soulèvent des points de
droit mais ceux-ci peuvent êtreaussi importants et complexes, sinon
14 arise on the merits.-sometimes more so. They may, in the context
of such an entity as ICAO, create precedents affecting the position
and interests of a large number of States, in a way which no ordi-
nary procedural, interlocutory or other preliminary issue could do.
It would indeed be hard to accept the view that even the most routine
decisions of the Council on points of the interpretation or appli-
cation of the Treaties should be automatically appealable, while
decisions on jurisdiction, which must ex hypothesi involve important
general considerations of principle, should not be, despite the drastic
effects which, as already noticed (supra, sub-paragraph (a)), they are
capable of having.
(e) A concluding consideration is that supposing an appeal were made
to the Court from the final decision of the Council on the merits
of a dispute;-it would hardly be possible for the Court either to
affirm or reject that decision, if it found that the Council had al1
along lacked jurisdiction to go into the case. This shows that ques-
tions relating to the Council's jurisdiction cannot in the last resort
be excluded from the Court's purview: it is merely a question of
what is the stage at which the Court's supervision in this respect
is to be exercised. Clearly, not only do obviousreasons of convenience
cal1 for such exercise as early as possible-in the present case, here
and now-but also substantial considerations of principle do so,-
for it would be contrary to accepted standards of the good adminis-
tration of justice to allow an international organ to examine and
discuss the merjts of a dispute when its cornpetence to do so was
not only undetermined but actively challenged. Yet this is precisely
what the Court would be allowing if it now held itself not to have
jurisdiction to deal with the matter because it could only hear ap-
peals from final decisions of the Council on the merits.
19. The foregoing paragraphs deal with the question of the Court's
jurisdiction to entertain India's appeal as it arises generally on the rele-
vant jurisdictional clauses. A special jurisdictional issue exists however,
not on Pakistan's "Application" to the Council, but on her "Complaint"
(see paragraph 9, supra) ostensibly made under and by virtue of Section
1 of Article II of the Transit Agreement, which reads as follows:
"A contracting State which deems that action by another con-
tracting state under this Agreement is causing injustice or hardship
to it, may request the Council to examine the situation. The Council
shall thereupon inquire into the matter, and shall cal1 the States
concerned into consultation. Should such consultation fail to resolve plus, que ceux qui se posent à propos du fond. Dans le cas d'un
organisme comme I'OACI, les questions de compétence peuvent
créer des précédentsde nature à affecter la situatidn et les intérêtsde
très nombreux Etats, et cela plus qu'aucune question préliminaire
habituelle d'ordre procédural, interlocutoire ou autre. En véritéil
est difficile d'admettre que les décisionsles plus courantes du Conseil
sur des points d'interprétation ou d'application des Traités devraient
êtreautomatiquement susceptibles d'appel, alors que les décisions
sur la compétence, qui par hypothèse mettent en jeu d'importantes
considérations généralesde principe, ne le seraient pas malgré les
conséquences extrêmement rigoureuses qu'elles peuvent avoir, ainsi
qu'on l'a vu plus haut (alinéaa)).
e) A supposer enfin qu'il soit fait appel devant la Cour de la décision
définitivedu Conseil sur le fond d'un différend,la question se poserait
pour la Cour de savoir comment elle pourrait infirmer ou confirmer
la décision si eue venait à conclure à l'incompétence initialedu Con-
seil pour connaître de l'affaire. Cela montre bien que les questions
relatives à la c:ompétencedu Conseil ne peuvent en fin de compte
être soustraites à l'examen de la Cour: le seul problème est celui du
stade auquel elle doit exercer son contrôle. Ce ne sont point seulement
d'évidentes raisons d'opportunité qui commandent que ce contrôle
soit exercéle plus tôt possible, en l'espèce dèsmaintenant; il est cer-
tain que d'importantes considérations de principe militent dans le
même sens,car permettre à un organe international de connaître du
fond d'un diffé:rendtant que sa compétence pour ce faire n'est pas
établie, et est même effectivement contestée, serait contraire aux
normes reconriues d'une bonne administration de la justice. Or
c'est précisémentce que la Cour permettrait si elle s'estimait incom-
pétente en l'espèce au motif qu'elle ne pourrait connaître en appel
que des décisions définitivesdu Conseil sur le fond.
19. Les paragraphes précédentstraitent de la question de la compé-
tence de la Cour quant à l'appel de l'Inde, telle que cette question se
présente de façon générale, sur la base des clauses juridictionnelles
applicables. II existe cependant une question particulière de compétence
qui a trait non pas à la ,(requête » du Pakistan au Conseil mais à sa
((plainte» (voir paragraphe 9 ci-dessus), laquelle se fonde apparemment
sur l'article II, section, de l'Accord de transit, qui est ainsi libellé:
(1Un Etat contractant qui estime qu'une mesure prise par un
autre Etat contractant, conformément au présent Accord, constitue
une injustice à son égard ou porte préjudice à ses intérêts,peut
demander au Conseil d'examiner la situation. Le Conseil, à la suite
d'une pareille demande, étudiera la question et réunira les Etats
1558 ICA0 COUNCIL (JUDGMENT)
the difficulty, the Council may rnake appropriate findings and re-
commendations to the contracting States concerned. If thereafter a
contracting State concerned shall in the opinion of the Council un-
reasonably fail to take suitable corrective action, the Council may
recornmend to the Assembly of the above-mentioned Organization
that such contracting State be suspended from its rights and privi-
leges under this Agreement until such action has been taken. The
Assembly by a two-thirds vote may so suspend such contracting
State for such period of time as it rnay deem proper or until the
Council shall find that corrective action has been taken by such
State."
The special objection advanced by Pakistan to the existence of any right
of appeal to the Court relative to Council action under this provision
extends not merely to appeals about questions concerning the Council's
cornpetence in the matter of "complaints" which the Council rnay be
requested to examine, but also to appeals regarding the eventual results
of the Council's action under this same provision (i.e., its findings, re-
comrnendations, etc.),-in short, appeals relating to the "ultimate rnerits"
of the "complaint" as dealt with by the Council. The gravamen of Paki-
stan's objection is in effect that the right of reference to the Council and
thence by way of appeal to the Court, given by Section 2 of Article II,
applies, in the context, only to a "disagreement . .. relating to the inter-
pretation or application" of Section 1 itself, and not to the substance of
the "complaint" the Council is requested to examine by reason of that
Section, or to the outcome of what the Council does about it. In other
words, provided the Council applies Section 1 correctly, following the
prescribed courses and taking the prescribed steps, the result is non-
appealable, and so, a fortiorw i,ould be any decision of the Council to
assume jurisdiction in respect of a "complaint" made by virtue of this
Section.
20. The Court has no doubt that the situation contemplated by Sec-
tion 1of Article II of the Transit Agreement is quite a different one from
that of Article 84 of the Convention (and hence of Section 2 of Article
II of the Transit Agreement),-so that whatever may be the exact legi-
timate range of a "complaint" made under Section 1,its primary purpose
rnust be to permit redress against legally permissible action that never-
theless causes injustice or hardship. In other words, the basic situation
contemplated by Section 1is where a party to the Agreement, although
acting within its legal rights under the Treaties, has nevertheless caused
injustice or hardship to another party-a case not of illegal action-not
of alleged breaches of the Treaties-but of action lawful, yet prejudicial.
In such a case it is to be expected that no right of appeal to the Court
would lie,-for the findings and recommendations to be made by the
Council under this Section would not be about legal rights or obliga- intéressésaux fins de consultation. Si cette consultation ne parvient
pas à résoudre la difficulté,le Conseil pourra formuler des conclu-
sions et des recommandations appropriées à l'intention des Etats
contractants intéressés. Si,par la suite, un Etat contractant inté-
resséomet de prendre des mesures correctivesappropriées, sans raison
valable de l'avis du Conseil, celui-ci pourra recommander à 1'Assem-
bléede l'organisation susmentionnée de suspendre lesdroitset privi-
lègesconféréspar leprésentAccord audit Etat contractant, jusqu'à ce
qu'il ait pris le!;mesures en question. L'Assembléepourra décider, àla
majorité des deux tiers des voix, de suspendre les droits et privilèges
de 1'Etat contractant en question pour la période qu'elle jugera con-
venable ou jusqu'à ce que le Conseil ait constaté que ledit Etat a
pris des mesures correctives. 1)
Le Pakistan s'élève plus précisémenctontre l'existence d'un droit d'appel
devant la Cour à propos des mesures que le Conseil peut prendre en vertu
de cette dispositiori, et cela que l'appel porte sur des questions relatives
à sa compétence en matière de ((plaintes 1)ou sur l'aboutissement même
de son intervention, c'est-à-dire sur ses conclusions, ses recommanda-
tions, etc., ou en d'autres termes sur le fond mêmede la (plainte » dont
il s'est occupé.En fait l'objection du Pakistan revient à dire que le droit
de saisir le Conseil et par suite d'interjeter appel devant la Cour, qui
découle de l'article II,section 2, ne vaut que pour un IIdésaccord ...à
propos de l'interprétation ou de l'application » de la section 1 elle-même
et non pas pour I'o~bjed t'une (plainte »portée devant le Conseil en vertu
de cette section, ni pour la suite que lui donne le Conseil. Autrement dit,
si le Conseil applique la section 1comme il convient, en suivant la procé-
dure appropriée et en prenant les mesures prescrites, le résultat auquel il
aboutit ne constitue: pas matière à appel et il en irait de mêmeà fortiori de
toute décision par laquelle le Conseil se déclarerait compétent pour
connaître d'une (plainte )présentéeconformément à la section 1.
20. Pour la Cour, il ne fait aucun doute que la situation prévue à
l'article II, section 1, de l'Accord de transit se distingue entièrement
de celle qui est visée à I'article 84 de la Convention et par conséquent
à l'article II,section 2, de l'Accord de transit, de sorte que, quelle que
puisse êtrela portée exacte et légitime d'une 11plainte ))présentée en vertu
de la section 1, son objet principal est de permettre que réparation soit
accordéecontre une mesure qui, pour êtrejuridiquement admissible, n'en
entraîne pas moins une injustice ou un préjudice. En d'autres termes, lecas
envisagé à la section 1 est essentiellement celui d'une partie à l'Accord
qui, bien qu'agissant dans l'exercice des droits qu'elle tient des Traités,
cause une injustice ou un préjudiceà une autrepartie; il ne s'agit donc pas
d'un acte illicite ni d'une prétendue violation des Traités,mais d'une mesure
qui, tout en étant licite, entraîne un préjudice. Dans un cas de ce genre, il
paraît normal que l'on ne puisse interjeter appel devant la Cour, car lestions: they would turn on considerations of equity and expediency such
as would not constitute suitable material for appeal to a court of law.
21. This is not to say that a "complaint" can never deal with matters
that would primarily form the subject of an "application", or allege
illegalities as having caused the injustice or hardship complained of. But
if it does so, then to that extent it necessarily assumes the character of
an "application". In short, it follows from the very nature of the dis-
tinction described in the preceding paragraph, that in so far as a "com-
plaint" exceeds the bounds of the type of allegation contemplated by
Section 1. and relates not to lawful action causing hardship or injustice,
but to illegal action involving breaches of the Treaties, it becornes as-
similable to the case of an "application" for the purposes of its appeala-
bility to the Court. Unless this were so, the following paradox would
arise. If for the reasons urged on behalf of Pakistan, its "Coniplaint"
were non-appealable, but the "Application" (which alleges a "disagree-
ment" under both Convention and Transit Agreement, involving charges
of breaches of these Treaties) were appealable, then, the Council having
assumed jurisdiction in respect of both "Application" and "Complaint",
it would result that if the Court should allow the appeal on the "Appli-
cation" (i.e., find that the Council has no jurisdiction to entertain it),
nevertheless the non-appealable "~orn~laint" could and would still
go on before the Council, although the issues it involved were almost
identical. Therefore, although precluded by the Court's decision frorn
pronouncing on the question of the alleged breaches of the Treaties in
respect of the "Application", the Council would be able to make these
very sarne pronouncements under the head of the "Cornplaint", thus
defeating the whole purpose of the Court's decision which should have
had the effect of preventing the Council pronouncing at al1on the ques-
tion of the alleged breaches. Naturally the Council would in any case
be in no way prevented frorn dealing with those asprcts of the rnatter
that related to injustice and hardship.
22. While drawing attention to the above considerations, the Court
does not wish to rnake any final pronouncement on the theory of the
matter because it recognizes that this is an area in which it may be difficult
to dcaw hard and fast distinctions or say definitely on which side of the
line a given case rnay fall. In the present one, however, the Court enter-
tains no d,oubts at all. Pakistan's "Application" and "Complaint" are
set out in Annexes A and B of the Indian Memorial before the Court,
and even a brief glance at them shows not only that the "Cornplaint"
rnakes exactly the same charges of breaches of the Treaties as the "Appli-
cation", but that it does so in almost identical language. The sarne ap-
plies to the redress requested, except that the "Application" asks for
damages and the "Cornplaint" does not. In al1other respects the various
remaining heads of redress are the same in both cases.
23. It is evident therefore that this particular "Complaint" does not-conclusions et recommandations que le Conseil fait en vertu de cette
section ne concernent pas des droits ou obligations juridiques: elles
reposent sur des considérations d'équitéet d'opportunité qui peuvent
difficilement constituer matière à un appeldevant un tribunal.
21. Il ne s'agit pas de dire qu'une ((plainte »ne peut jamais porter sur
des problèmes qui devraient faire l'objet d'une ((requête » ni alléguerque
des illégalitésont engendré l'injustice où le préjudice dont on se plaint.
Mais, quand ilen est ainsi, la plainte prend nécessairement, dans cette
mesure, lecaractère d'une (1requête ». Bref, ilrésultedela distinction décrite
au paragraphe précédentque, pour autant que les allégations sur les-
quelles se fonde une ([plainte ))sortent du cadre fixépar la section 1 et se
rapportent non pas à une mesure licite entraînant une injustice où un
préjudice mais à une mesure illicite impliquant violation des Traités,
cette ((plainte ))peut êtreassimiléeà une ((requête )pour ce qui concerne
l'existence d'un droit d'appel devant la Cour. Toute autre solution con-
duirait d'ailleurs au paradoxe suivant: si, pour les motifs invoquéspar le
Pakistan, la voie de l'appel était ferméepour la ((plainte » mais ouverte
pour la ((requête ))qui fait état d'un ((désaccord touchant aussi bien la
Convention que l'Accord de transit, lesquels auraient étéviolés, il
s'ensuivrait, puisque leConseil s'est déclarécon1p5tent et pour la «requête ))
et pour la ((plainte »,que si la Cour donnait raison à l'appelant au sujet de
la première, c'est-à-dire concluait que le Conseil n'était pas compétent
pour en connaître, le Conseil pourrait rester et resterait effectivement
saisi de la seconde., qui ne serait pas susceptible d'appel, bien que les
problèmes en jeu soient presque identiquement les mêmes.De la sorte,
la décisionde la Cour interdirait au Conseil de se prononcer quant aux
allégations de violation des Traités sur la base de la ((requête ))mais lui
permettrait de le faire au titre de la «plainte », ce qui serait contraire à
l'objet mêmede cette décision: empêcher le Conseil de statuer sur les
violations alléguées,.Bien entendu rien n'empêcherait en tout cas le
Conseil d'étudier les aspects de l'affaire ayant trait à une injustice et à
un préjudice.
22. Tout en appelant l'attention sur les considérations qui précèdent,
la Cour ne désire pas se prononcer en termes définitifs sur l'aspect
théorique du problème car elle reconnaît que c'est un domaine où il
peut êtredifficile de tracer une ligne de démarcation très nette ou de dire
à coup sûr de quel côté une affaire donnée se situe. En l'espèce, laCour
n'éprouve aucun doute. La ((requête ))et la ((plainte » du Pakistan sont
reproduites dans les annexes A et B au mémoiresoumis par le Gouverne-
ment indien à la Cour et il suffit de les parcourir pour s'apercevoir que la
«plainte ))contient exactement les mêmes griefsde violation des Traités
que la ((requête » et les énonce en des termes presque identiques. Les
satisfactions demandées sont elles aussi les mêmes,sauf que la ((requête ))
réclame des dommages-intérêtset que la ((plainte ))ne le fait pas. Les
autres satisfactions demandées sont identiques à tous égards.
23. 11est donc évidentque cette «plainte )ne concerne pas ou ne con-
17or for the most part does not-relate to the kind of situation for which
Section 1of Article II was primarily intended, narnely where the injustice
and hardship cornplained of does not result from action by the other
party concerned of a definitively illegal character, but where the Treaties
are applied lawfully but prejudicially. In the present case it is abundantly
clear, from the whole tenor of the "Complaint", that although it does
duly allege injustice and hardship (but so also does the "Application"),
this injustice and hardship was such as resulted from action said to be
illegal because in breach of the Treaties.
24. Having regard to these considerations, the Court must hold the
Council's decision assuming jurisdiction in respect of Pakistan's "Com-
plaint" to be appealable in so far as it covers the sarne ground as the
"Application".
25. To sum up on the question of the Court's jurisdiction to entertain
India's appeal,the conclusion in respect both of Pakistan's "Application"
and of her "Complaint" to the Council must be that, for the reasons
given above, the various objections made to the competence of the Court
cannot be sustained, whether they are based on the alleged inapplicabi-
lity of the Treaties as such, or of their jurisdictional clauses. Since there-
fore the Court is invested with jurisdiction under those clauses and, in
consequence (see paragraphs 14-16 above), under Article 36, paragraph
1, and under Article 37, of its Statute, it becomes irrelevant to consider
the objections to other possible bases of jurisdiction.
26. Before leaving this part of the case. and since this is the first tirne
any rnatter has corne to it on appcal, the Court thinks it useful to make
a few observations of a general character on the subject. The case is pre-
sented to the Court in the guise of an ordinary dispute between States
(and such a dispute underlies it). Yet in the proceedings bcfore the Court,
it is the act of a third entity-the Council of ICAO-which one of the
Parties is impugning and the other defending. In that aspect of the rnat-
ter, the appeal to the Court conternplated by the Chicago Convention and
the Transit Agreement must be regarded as an elernent of the general
régimeestablished in respect of ICAO. In thus providing for judicial re-
course by way of appeal to the Court against decisions of the Council
concerning interpretation and application-a type of recourse already
figuring in earlier conventions in the sphere of communications-the
Chicago Treaties gave rnember States, and through thern the Council.
the possibility of ensuring a certain measure of supervision by the Court
over those decisions. To this extent, these Treaties enlist the support of
the Court for the good functioning of the Organization, and therefore
the first reassurance for the Council lies in the knowledge that rneans
exist for determining whether a decision as to its own competence is incerne guère le genre de situation que l'article II, section 1, vise surtout,
celle où l'injustice et le préjudicedont on se plaint ne résultent pas d'une
mesure incontestablement illicite de l'autre partie, les Traités étant
appliquésà bon droit mais de manière à entraîner un préjudice.En l'espèce
cependant, la teneur mêmede la ((plainte »montre on ne peut plus claire-
ment que, bien qu'il y soit fait dûment état d'injustice et de préjudice
(comme d'ailleurs d.ans la ((requêteII),l'injustice et le préjudice sont le
résultat d'une mesure qui est taxée d'illiciteparce qu'elle aurait violéles
Traités.
24. Vu les considérations qui précèdent, la Cour doit conclure que,
dans la mesure où ((plainte ))et ((requête ))coïncident, la décision par
laquelle le Conseil s'est déclaré compétentpour connaître de la ((plainte )I
du Pakistan est susceptible d'appel.
25. En résumé, s'agissantde la compétence de la Cour pour connaître
de l'appel interjetépar l'Inde, on doit conclure, tant au sujet de la ((requête ))
qu'au sujet de la ((plainte 1présentéespar le Pakistan au Conseil, que, pour
les motifs qui ont étéénoncés,les objections à la juridiction de la Cour
ne sauraient être'rei.enues, qu'elles se fondent sur la prétendue inappli-
cabilité des Traités en tant que tels ou sur celle de leurs clauses juridic-
tionnelles. La Cour ayant donc compétence en vertu de ces clauses et par
suite (voir paragraphes 14-16) en vertu de l'article 36, paragraphe 1,
et de I'article 37 de son Statut. il est sans pertinence d'examiner les objec-
tions visant d'autres fondements possibles de sa compétence.
26. Avant d'en terminer avec cette partie de l'affaire et considérant que
c'est la première fois qu'elle a l'occasion de statuer sur un appel, la Cour
voudrait formuler quelques observations de caractère général en la
matière. L'affaire es.tprésentéeà la Cour comme un différend ordinaire
entre Etats, et trouve en effet son origine dans un tel différend. Pourtant,
dans la procédure devant la Cour, c'est l'acte d'un organisme tiers, le
Conseil de I'OACI, que l'une des Parties attaque et que l'autre défend.
De ce point de vue, l'appel à la Cour prévupar la Convention de Chicago
et l'Accord de transit do'it êtreconsidéré comme un élémentdu régime
généralétablipour I'OACI. En prévoyant ainsi un recours juridictionnel
d'appel devant la Cour contre les décisionsdu Conseil en matière d'inter-
prétation et d'application. genre de recours déjàétabli dans des conven-
tions antérieures en matière de communications, les Traités donnaient
aux Etats membres et par leur entremise au Conseil la possibilité defaire
assurer un certain contrôle de ces décisionspar la Cour. Dans cette mesure
les Traités font contribuer la Cour au bon fonctionnement de l'organisa-
tion; la première garantie pour le Conseil est donc de savoir qu'un
contrôle est possible pour vérifier si une décision prise sur sa propre
compétence est ou non conforme aux dispositions des traités qui gouver-conforrnity or not with the provisions of the treaties governing its action.
If nothing in the text requires a different conclusion, an appeal against
a decision of the Council as to its own jurisdiction must therefore be
receivable since, from the standpoint of the supervision by the Court
of the validity of the Council's acts, there is no ground for distinguishing
between supervision as to jurisdiction. and supervision as to merits.
JURISDICTIO NF THE COUNCIL OF ICA0 TO ENTERTAIN
THE MERITS OF THE CASE
27. The Court now turns to the substantive issue of the correctness of
the decisions of the Council dated 29 July 1971. The question is whether
the Council iscompetent to go into and give a final decision on the rnerits
of the dispute in respect of which, at the instance of Pakistan, andject
to the present appeal, it has assumed jurisdiction. The answer to this
question clearly depends on whether Pakistan's case, considered in the
light of India's objections to it, discloses the existence of a dispute of
such a character as to amount to a "disagreernent. . .relating to the
interpretation or application" of the Chicago Convention or of the re-
lated Transit Agreement (see paragraph 17,supra). If so, then prima facie
the Council is cornpetent. Nor could the Council be deprived of juris-
diction merely because considerations that are clairned to lie outside the
Treaties may be involved if, irrespective of this, issues concerning the
interpretation or application of these instruments are nevertheless in
question. The fact that a defence on the merits is cast in a particular
forrn, cannot affect the competence of the tribunal or other organ con-
cerned,-otherwise parties would be in a position thernselves to control
that cornpetence, which would be inadmissible. As has already been seen
in the case of the competence of the Court, so with that of the Council,
its competence rnust depend on the character of the dispute submitted to
it and on the issues thus raised-not on those defences on the rnerits,
or other considerations, which would become relevant only after the
jurisdictional issues had been settled. It is desirable to stress these points
because of the way, perfectly legitimate though it was. in which the
Appeal has been presented to the Court.
28. Before proceeding further, it will be convenient to re-state Pakis-
tan's claim in its sirnplest form, and without going into any details or
side issues. It is to the effect that India, by suspendingrather, strictly,
refusing to allow overflight of her territory by Pakistan civil aircraft-
was in breach of the Treaties, which Pakistan claims have never ceased
to be applicable, and both of which conferred overflight rights, and cer-
tain landing rights, on Pakistan,-and that this suspension, or rather
prohibition, did not take place, or was no longer taking place, in the
particular circumstances-viz. "war" or declared "state of national erner-
19nent son action. Aucune raison de texte n'imposant la solution contraire,
l'appel doit donc êtrerecevable contre une décision du Conseil sur sa
propre juridiction puisque, du point de vue du contrôle de la légalitéde
l'action du Conseil par la Cour, rien ne permet de distinguer le
contrôle de la compétence et le contrôle du fond.
COMPÉTENC DU CONSEIL DE L'OACI POUR CONNA~TRE
DU FOND DE L'AFFAIRE
27. La Cour en vient maintenant à la question du bien-fondé des
décisions du Conseil en date du 29 juillet 1971. 11s'agit d'établir si le
Conseil a compétence pour examiner et trancher définitivement le fond
du différend dont il a étésaisi par le Pakistan et à l'égardduquel il s'est,
sous réservedu pré:sentappel,déclaré compétent. Pour répondre à cette
question, il faut évidemment savoir si la thèse du Pakistan, envisagée
compte tenu des objections formulées par l'Inde à son sujet, fait appa-
raître l'existence d'~i(1désaccord ..à propos de l'interprétation ou de
l'application» de la Convention de Chicago ou de l'Accord de transit
(voir paragraphe 1'7).S'il en est ainsi, le Conseil est à première vue
compétent. On ne saurait considérer le Conseil comme privéde compé-
tence du seul fait que des donnéesextérieures aux Traités pourraient être
invoquées, dès lors que, de toute façon, des questions relatives à I'inter-
prétation ou à l'application de ceux-ci entrent en jeu. Le fait qu'une
défense au fond se présente d'une certaine manière ne peut porter at-
teinte à la compétence du tribunal ou de tout autre organe en cause;
sinon les ~arties seraient en mesure de déterminer elles-mêmescette
compétence, ce qui serait inadmissible. Comme on l'a déjà vu pour la
compétence de la Cour, la compétence du Conseil dépend nécessairement
du caractère du litige soumis au Conseil et des points soulevés, mais non
pas des moyens de défense au fond ou d'autres considérations qui ne
deviendraient pertinentes qu'une fois tranchés les problèmes juridiction-
nels. Si la Cour a estimésouhaitable de souligner ce qui précède, c'està
cause de la manière, d'ailleurs parfaitement légitime, dont l'appel a
étéprésentéà la Cour.
28. Avant d'aller plus loin,ilconvient de concrétiser, sous sa forme la
plus simple et après élimination des détails ou questions accessoires, la
thèse du Pakistan. Celle-ci c0nsiste.à dire que l'Inde, en-suspendant ou
plus exactement en refusant le survol de son territoire aux appareils civils
pakistanais, a violé lesTraités qui, d'après le Pakistan, n'ont jamais cessé
d'êtreapplicables et lui confèrent tous deux des droits de survol et
certains droits d'atterrissage; et que cette suspension, ou plutôt cette
interdiction, n'est pas intervenue ou a cesséd'intervenir dans lescircons-
tances de ((guerre ))ou d'((étatde crise nationale »qui, selon l'article 89gencyM-in which, according to Article 89 of the Convention (cited
irlfru.paragraph 40), it could alone (so Pakistan contends) be justified.
Consequently the legal issue that has to be determined by the Court
really amounts to this. naniely whether the dispute, in the form in which
the Parties placed it before the Council, and have presented it to the
Court in their tinal submissions (supru. paragraph 8), is one that can be
resolved without any interpretation or application of the relevant Trea-
tics at all. Ifitcannot, then the Council must be competent.
29. In effect. rndia has snught to maintain that the dispute could be
resolved uithout any refereiice to the Treaties, and hence that, this being
so, it is a dispute with which the Council can have no concern. and
which lies entirely outside its cornpetence. The claim that the Treaties
are irrelevant to the present situation regarding Pakistan overîlights is
based on and involves the following main contentions:-
(1) The Trea:ies are not in force. or they are suspended, because
(a) they were or becaine terminated or suspended as between the
Parties upon the outbreak of hostilities in 1965 and have never
been revived, but were replaced by a "special régime" in respect
of which the Council could have no jurisdiction, and according
to which Pakistan ui:i.raft could only overfly lndia with prior
permission (see as to this, paragraph 10.supra);
(h) Iiidia in any case became entitled under general international
law to terminate or suspend the Treaties as from January 1971,
by reason of a material breach of them, for which Pakistan was
responsible, arising out of the hijacking incident that then
occurred.
(2) The issue involved by the case presented to the Council by Pakistan
is one of the termination or suspension of the Treaties, not of their
interpretation or application which alone the Council is competent
to deal with under the relevant jurisdictional clauses. This contention
postulates that the notion of interpretation or application does not
comprise that of termination or suspension.
30. The first of these main contentions, under both its heads, clearly
belongs to the merits of the dispute into which the Court cannot go: but
certain preliniinary points are relevant to the jurisdictional aspects of the
case and to a correct appreciation of the lndian position in that respect.
(O) As regards the contetition that the Treaties were terminated or sus-
pended, such notices or communications as there were on the part
of India appear to have related to overflights râther than to the
Treaties as such; although. admittedly, overflight rights constitute
a major item of the Treaties, and a termination or suspension may
well relate to part only of a treaty. Thus the Indian Note of 4 Feb-
ruary 1971. following Lipon the hijacking incident, was in terinsde la Convention (voir paragraphe 40), auraient seules pu, d'après le
Pakistan, la justifier. La question juridique que la Cour doit trancher est
donc en fait de savoir si ce différend, sous la forme où les Parties l'ont
soumis au Conseil et l'ont présentéà la Cour dans leurs conclusions (voir
paragraphe 8), peut ëtre résolusans aucune interprétation ou application
des Traitésen cause. Si cela n'est pas possible. le Conseil a nécessairement
compétence.
29. L'Inde s'est efforcée de montrer que le différend pourrait être
résolu sans référenceaux Traités et que, pour cette raison, il n'intéresse
en rien le Conseil et se situe tout à fait en dehors de son champ de com-
pétence. L'affirmation selon laquelle les Traités ne s'appliquent pas à la
situation actuelle pour ce qui est des survols par des avions pakistanais se
fonde sur les thèses principales suivantes:
1) Les Traités ne sont pas en vigueur ou sont suspendus parce que
a) ils ont pris finOU ont étésuspendus entre les Parties lors du déclen-
chement des hostilités en 1965. n'ont jamais été remisen vigueur
et ont été remplacéspar un 1régime spécial 11à l'égard duquel le
Conseil ne pouvait avoir compétence et qui oblige les appareils
pakistanais à obtenir une autorisation préalable pour pouvoir
survoler l'Inde (voir paragraphe 10);
h) l'Inde était de toute manière fondée, au regard du droit interna-
tional général,à mettre fin aux Traités ou à en suspendre I'applica-
tion à partir de janvier 1971,en raison d'une violation substantielle
de ces instruments commise par le Pakistan à l'occasion du détour-
nement d'avion qui s'est produit à cette ipoque.
2) L'affaire soumise au Conseil par le Pakistan avait trait à une question
visant I'extinctiori ou la suspension des Traités et non leur interpré-
tation ou leur application, alors que seules l'interprétation ou I'appli-
cation relèvent de la conlpétence du Conseil d'après les clauses juri-
dictionnelles appl,icables. Cette thèse suppose implicitement que la
notion d'interprétation ou d'application n'englobe pas celle d'extinc-
tion ou de suspen:;ion.
30. La première de ces thèses principales, dans sesdeux branches, con-
cerne manifestement ilefond du différend, que la Cour ne peut examiner,
mais certains points préliminaires présentent de l'utilitéquant aux aspects
juridictionnels de I'afYaireet dans la mesure où ils permettent de com-
prendre exactement la position de I'lnde à ce sujet.
a) S'agissant de la thèse selon laquelle les Traités avaient pris fin ou
étaient siispendus, les notifications ou commiinications de I'lnde que
l'on connaît paraissent avoir concerné les survols plutôt que les
Traités eux-mêmeij;mais il faut bien admettre que le droit de survol
constitue un élément essentiel desTraités et qu'une extinction ou une
suspension peut ïort bien ne viser qu'une partie d'un traité. C'est
ainsi que la note de l'Inde du 4 février 1971qui a fait suite à l'incident confined to suspending overflights. As regards the earlier period,
from 1965onwards, the statement made in the Indian Memorial be-
fore the Court, paragraph 12, was to the effect that the "Convention
and the Transit Agreement as between the two States were . ..sus-
pended wholly or in any event in relation to overflights and landings
for non-trafic purposes" (ernphasis added).
(6) India does not appear at the tinie of the hijacking incident to have
indicated which particular provisions of the Treaties-more especi-
ally of the Chicago Convention-were alleged to have been breached
bi~akistan. ~hë was not of course in any way obliged to do so at
that stage, but the point is a material one on the jurisdictional
issue for reasons to be stated later (see injru, paragraph 38). What
was alleged in a Note of 3 February 1971, preceding the above-
mentioned Note of 4 February, was a "violation of al1 norms of
international behaviour and of International Law". In the same way,
in the letters 4fand 10February addressed on behalf of the Govern-
ment of India to the President of the Council of ICA0 concerning
the hijacking incident, Pakistan's action was stated to be not in ac-
cordance with "international law and usage and custorn"; and again,
a "deliberate act . . . in violation of international law, usage and
custom" (letter of 4 February); and similarly (letter of 10February),
to be "in clear violation of international law". But with regard to
the Treaties, al1that was stated (letter of 4 February) was that Pa-
kistan's action was "contrary to the principles of the Chicago Con-
vention and other international Conventions". The only specific
provisions mentioned were certain articles of the Tokyo and Hague
Conventions about unlawful acts on board aircraft. and not pro-
visions of the Chicago Convention or Transit Agreement. Later, in
theIndian Preliminary Objections of 28 May 1971, made before the
Council, the charge was of conduct which "amounted to the very
negation of al1the claims and objectives, the scheme and provisions
of the Convention . . . and ..Transit Agreement". Sirnilarly, in the
proceedings before the Court, the charge of "material breach of
treaty" was not particularized much more fully than inthe language
used in paragraph 27 of the Indian Memorial, where the hijacking
incident was characterized as arnounting to "a flagrant violation of
international obligations relating to the assurance of safety of air
travel, enjoined by the Convention and the Transit Agreement and
also by .. ." (here several other conventions and instruments were
specified).
(c) As mentioned, the justification given by India for the suspension of
the Treaties in February 1971(if in fact anything other than a quasi-
permanent prohibition of overflights was involved) was not said to
lie in the provisions of the Treaties theniselves, but in a principle
of general international law, or of international treaty law, allowing
of suspension or termination on this ground-and the 1969 Vienna du détournement d'avion était expressément limitéeà la suspension
des survols. En ce qui concerne la période antérieure, à partir de
1965, le Gouvernement indien a indiqué au paragraphe 12 du mé-
moire qu'il a soumis à la Cour que «la Convention et l'Accord de
transit furent ..suspendus ...en totalité ou en tout cas pour ce qui
concernait le droit de survol et d'atterrissage à desfins non commer-
ciales))(les italiques sont de la Cour).
b) II ne semble pasqu'au moment du détournement de l'avion l'Inde ait
précisé quellesdispositions des Traités, et plus spécialement de la
Convention de Chicago, auraient étéviolées par le Pakistan. Elle
n'étaitbien entendu nullement obligée de le faire à ce stade mais cela
présente de I'intkrêten ce qui concerne la question de compétence,
pour les raisons qui seront indiquées plus loin (paragraphe 38). Ce
qu'alléguait une note du 3 février 1971précédantla note susmention-
néedu 4 févrierétait (une violation de toutes les norm-s du comporte-
ment international et du droit international )).De même,dans les
lettres des 4 et 10 février adresséespar le Gouvernement indien au
président du Coriseil de I'OACI au sujet du détournement d'avion,
l'action du Pakistan était décrite comme contraire au (droit, [à] la
coutume et [à] I'ilsage international )et elle était qualifiéede viola-
tion du droit, de la coutume et de l'usage international ))(lettre du
4 février) et pareillement de (violation évidentedu droit international ))
(lettre du 10février).Quant aux Traités, l'Inde s'est bornéeà dire que
les actes du Pakistan étaient (contraires aux principes de la Conven-
tion de Chicago et d'autres conventions internationales )l(lettre du
4 février).Les seules dispositions précisesdont elle ait fait étatétaient
certains articles des conventions de Tokyo et de La Haye concernant
des actes illicites commis à bord d'aéronefs, et nullement des disposi-
tions de la Convention de Chicago ou de l'Accord de transit. Ulté-
rieurement les exireptions préliminaires présentéespar l'Inde au Con-
seil le 28 mai 1971 ont reproché au Pakistan d'avoir adopté une
attitude ((allant 51 l'encontre de tous les buts et objectifs, de l'esprit
et des dispositionis de la Convention ...et ...de l'Accord 1de transit.
De même,lors de la procédure qui s'est déroulée devantla Cour, le
grief portant sur une violation substantielle de traité n'a jamais été
beaucoup plus prkcisé que dans le paragraphe 27 du mémoire du
Gouvernement iridien, où celui-ci a indiqué que l'incident du détour-
nement d'avion ((aboutissait à une violation flagrante des obligations
internationales d.ont l'objet est d'assurer la sécurité des voyages
aériens imposée par la Convention et l'Accord de transit ))(d'autres
conventions et instruments sont cités ensuite).
c) Comme on l'a indiqué, la justification que l'Inde fournit pour avoir
suspendu 1'applic:ationdes Traités en février 1971 (à supposer qu'il
soit question d'autre chose que d'une interdiction quasi permanente
des survols) est tirée non pas des dispositions des Traitéseux-mêmes,
mais d'un principe du droit international général oudu droit des
traités qui autorise pareille suspension ou extinction et à propos
21 Convention on the Law of Treaties was in particular invoked. In
consequence, so it was said. the Chicago Convention and Transit
Agreement were irrelevant and had no bearing on the matter, be-
cause the lndian action had been taken wholly outside them, on the
basis of general international law.
31. In considering further the Indian contentions described in para-
graph 29, supra, a convenient point of departure will be the question
mentioned in sub-paragraph (c) of paragraph 30 because, in the pro-
ceedings before the Court, this question assumed almost more promi-
nence in the lndian arguments than any other. Furthermore, it involves
a point of principle of great general importance for the jurisdictional
aspects of this-or of any-case. This contention is to the effect that
since India, in suspending overfights in February 1971,was not invoking
any right that might be afforded by the Treaties, but was acting outside
them on the basis of a general principle of international law, "therefore"
the Councii, whose jurisdiction was derived from the Treaties, and which
was entitled to deal only with nlatters arising under them, must be in-
competent. Exactly the same attitude has been evinced in regard to the
contention that the Treaties were suspended in 1965 and never revived,
or were replaced by a special régime.The Court considers however, that
for precisely the samc order of reason as has already been noticed in the
case of its own jurisdiction in the present case, a mere unilateral affir-
mation of these contentions-contested by the other party-cannot be
utilized so as to negative the Council's jurisdiction. The point is not that
these contentions are necessarily wrong but that their validity has not
yet been determined. Since therefore the Parties are in disagreement as
to whether the Treaties ever were (validly) suspended or replaced by some-
thing else; as to whether they are in force between the Parties or not;
and as to whether India's action in relation to Pakistan overfights was
such as not to involve the Treaties, but to be justifiable aliter et uliundc:
-these very questions are in issue before the Council. and no conclusions
as to jurisdiction can be drawn from them, at lcast at this stage. so as
to exclude ipso,facto and u priori the cornpetence of the Council.
32. To put the niatter in another way. these contentionsare essentially
in the nature of replies to the charge that India is in breach of theTreaties:
the Treaties were at the material times suspended or not operative, or
replaced,-hence they cannot have been infringed. lndia has not of course
claimed that. in consequence, such a matter can never be tested-b;) any
form of judicial recourse. This colitention. if it were put forward. would
be equivalent to saying that questions that prima facie may involve a
given treaty, and if so wo~ildbe within the scope ofitsjurisdictional clause,
could be removed therefroin at a stroke by a unilateral declaration that
the treaty was no longer operative. The acceptance of such a proposition
would be tantamount to opening the way to a wholesale nullification of
the practical value of jurisdictional clauses by allowing a party first to duquel on a invoqué notamment la convention de Vienne de 1969sur
le droit des traités. En conséquence, est-il soutenu, la Convention de
Chicago et l'Accord de transit ne sont pas pertinents et n'intéressent
pas l'affaire, parce que I'lnde agi tout a fait en dehors de ces instru-
ments, sur la base du droit international général.
31. Pour examiner plus avant les thèses de l'Inde exposées au para-
graphe 29, il p-~it êtrecom~node de prendre pour point de départ la
question mentionnée à l'alinéa cl du paragraphe 30 parce que, lors de la
procédure qui s'est dérouléedevant la Cour, cette question a pris dans
l'argumentation de I'lnde plus de place qu'aucune autre. De plus, elle
met en jeil un principe qui présente une grande importance pour les
aspects juridictionnels de l'affaire actuelle, comme d'ailleurs de toute
autre affaire. La thèse est celle-ci: puisqu'en suspendant les survols en
février 1971 l'Inde n'invoquait aucun droit découlant des Traités mais
agissait en dehors des Traités, sur la base d'un principe généralde droit
international, il en résulte nécessairementque le Conseil, dont la compé-
tence procède des Traités et qui ne peut connaître que de questions se
posant à leur propos, est incompétent. La mêmeattitude a été adoptéeà
l'égard de la thèse d'après laquelle les Traités ont étésuspendus en
1965et n'ont jamais étéremis en vigueur ou bien ont été remplacés par
un régime spécial.La Cour considère que, pour des raisons du même
ordre que celles qu'elle a indiquées au sujet de sa propre compétence en
l'espèce, on ne saur.ait admettre qu'une simple assertion unilatérale de
ces thèses, contestées par la partie adverse, élimine la compétence du
Conseil. Ce n'est pas que ces thèses soient nécessairement mal fondées,
mais c'est que leur bien-fondé n'a pas encore été établi.Les Parties sont
en désaccord sur les points de savoir si les Traités ont jamais étévalable-
ment suspendus ou remplacés,si les Traitéssont en vigueur entre elles et
si les mesures prises par I'lnde à l'égarddes survols par des appareils
pakistanais, au lieu de mettre enjeu les Traités, se justifiaient par d'autres
motifs extérieurs; ces questions sont donc maintenant en cause devant
le Conseil et l'on rie peut tirer de leur existence, au moins à ce stade,
aucune conclusion d'ordre juridictionnel qui exclue ipso,facto et à priori
la compétence du Conseil.
32. En d'autres termes, ces assertions constituent essentiellement des
réponses au grief selon lequel l'lnde a violé les Traités: puisque, aux
moments pertinents, les Traités étaient suspendus, non appliqués en fait
ou remplacé<.ils ne:peuvent avoir étéviolés.L'Inde n'a évidemment pas
prétendu qu'une telle question ne peut en conséquence faire l'objet
d'aucun recours judiciaire, sous quelque forme que ce soit. Soutenir
cela équivaudrait à dire que des questions qui peuvent à première vue
mettre en jeu un traité et qui, si tel était le cas. relèveraient de sa clause
juridictionnelle peuvent en êtreexclues du simple fait d'une déclaration
unilatéraleselon laquelle le traitén'est plus en vigueur. Accepter une telle
proposition serait s'orienter vers une situation telle que l'on pourrait
ôter toute valeur pratique aux clauses juridictionnelles en permettant à
22purport to terminate, or suspend the operation of a treaty, and then to
declare that the treaty being now terrninated or suspended, its jurisdic-
tional clauses were in consequence void, and could not be invoked for
the purpose of contesting the validity of the termination or suspension,
-whereas of course it may be precisely one of the objects of such a clause
to enable that matter to be adjudicated upon. Such a result, destructive
of the whole object of adjudicability, would be unacceptable.
33. The Court now proceeds to the last main category of lndian con-
tention which, though more nearly relevant to the purely jurisdictional
issue than those so far discussed, is nonetheless, like thern, closely bound
tip with the merits. This contention is to the effect that Article84 of the
Chicago Convention, and hence by reference Section 2 of Article 11of
the Transit Agreement, only allows the Council to entertain disagree-
ments relating to the "interpretation or application" of these instru-
ments,-whereas (according to India) what is involved in this case is
not any question of the interpretation or application of the Treaties, but
of their termination or suspension,-and since (so India contends) the
notion of interpretation or application does not extend to that of terrni-
nation or suspension, the Council's competence is automatically ex-
cluded. Alternatively expressed, the lndian contention is that, since the
Treaties have been terrninated or suspended, it follows ex hyporhesi that
no question of their interpretation or application can arise, such as alone
the Council would be competent to consider: non-existent treaties can-
not be interpreted or applied.
34. It is evident that this contention, although getting much nearer
to the real issue of what the Council can properly take cognizance of
under the jurisdictional clauses of the Treaties, having regard to their
actual wording, involves the same underlying assurnption that the Treaties
have in fact been (validly) terminated or suspended, and also that a
unilateral act or allegation of India's in that sense suffices.In consequence
three strands to this Indian contention can be seen to be interwoven:
(i) the Treaties are terminated or suspended, so they cannot be interpreted
or applied at all; (ii) the question whether they have been (validly) ter-
minated or suspended, is not one of interpretation or application; (iii)
in any event the answer to that question depends on considerations lying
outside the Treaties altogether. On each of these grounds India contends
that the issues involved are not within the Council's terms of reference
which are limited to interpreting and applying the Treaties. Once more
it is evident that, with respect to al1three strands of this Indian conten-
tion, with the possible exception of certain aspects of the second one,
the argument involves and depends upon questions of rnerits. In relation
to it, the Parties debated at considerable length whether the notion of
the interpretation and application of a treaty can, at least in some circurn-
stances, embrace that of a termination or suspension of it; and also as
23une partie de mettre fin à un traité ou d'en suspendre l'application puis
de déclarer que, ce traité ayant pris fin ou étant suspendu, sa clause
juridictionnelle devient nulle et ne saurait être invoquée aux fins de
contester la validitéde l'extinction ou de la suspension, alors précisément
que l'un des objectifs d'une telle clause peut être depermettre qu'il soit
judiciairement statué en la matière. Un tel résultat, qui détruirait l'objet
mêmed'un règlement judiciaire, serait inacceptable.
33. La Cour en vient maintenant à la dernière des thèses principales
de I'lnde, thèse qui, tout en concernant de plus près que les précédentes
la question purement juridictionnelle, n'en est pas moins comme elles
étroitement liéeau fond. Selon cette thèse, l'article 84 de la Convention
de Chicago et, par voie de référence, l'article II,section 2, de l'Accord
de transit n'autorisent le Conseil à connaitre que des désaccords survenus
à propos de Cl'interprétation ou de l'application ))decesdeux instruments;
or, selon l'Inde, l'affaire ne porte pas sur une question d'interprétation
ou d'application des Traités mais sur une question d'extinction ou de
suspension des Traités et, puisque la notion d'interprétation ou d'appli-
cation n'englobe pas, d'après l'Inde, celle d'extinction ou de suspension,
la compétence du Conseil se trouve automatiquement exclue. En d'autres
termes, l'Inde soutient que, les Traités ayant pris fin ou ayant été sus-
pendus, ilen résulte:par hypothèse que la question de leur interprétation
ou de leur app1icat:ion - qui est la seule dont le Conseil a compétence
pour connaître - ne peut pas se poser: on ne saurait appliquer ou inter-
préter des traités inexistants.
34. Il est manife:çte que, si cette thèse serre de plus près le véritable
problème, qui est de:savoir de quoi le Conseil peut valablement connaitre
aux termes des cla.uses juridictionnelles des Traités, elle suppose elle
aussi qu'en fait lesTraitésont valablement pris fin ou ont étévalablement
suspendus. Elle repose en outre sur le mêmepostulat fondamental selon
lequel un acte unilatéral ou une allégation unilatérale de l'Inde suffirait
pour qu'il en soit a:insi.La thèse indienne entremêledonc trois thèmes:
i) les Traités ont pris fin ou sont suspendus et toute interprétation ou
application est exclue en ce qui les concerne; ii) la question de savoir si
leur extinction ou leur suspension est valable n'est pas une question
d'interprétation ou d'application; iii) de toute manière, la réponse à
cette question dépend de considérations qui sortent totalement du cadre
des Traités. Pour chacun des ces motifs, l'lnde maintientque lesproblèmes
en jeu ne sont pas du ressort du Conseil, dont la tâche est simplement
d'interpréter et d'appliquer les Traités. IIest une fois de plus évidentque,
touchant ces trois déments de la thèse indienne, à l'exception peut-être
de certains aspects du deuxième, les arguments avancés soulèvent des
questions de fond. A ce propos, les Parties ont débattu longuement la
question de savoir si la notion d'interprétation ou d'application d'un
traité peut, au moins dans certaines circonstances, recouvrir celle deto whether any inherent limitations on the powers of the Council to deal
with certain types of legal questions must be presumed. But until it has
been determined by the proper means that what is involved is indeed
an issue solely of termination or suspension of the Treaties, and further
that no question of their interpretation or application arises or can arise
(and this is the only real issue involved here), the problem of whether
the one notion is comprised by the other can, for present purposes. be
regarded as hypothetical.
35. Thus far, only the negative aspects of the case have been exam-
ined; that is, the reasons why the various contentions so far considered
do not have any real bearing on the question of the cornpetence of the
Council. It is now time to turn to the positive aspects, from which it
will appear not only that Pakistan's claim discloses the existence of a
"disagreement. . . relating to the interpretation or application" of the
Treaties, but also that India's defences equally involve questions of their
interpretation or application.
36. The nature of Pakistan's "Application" and "Coniplaint" to the
Council, the full texts of which are set out in Annexes A and B of the
lndian Menlorial in the proceedings before the Court, has already been
indicated in general ternis in the discussion (supra. paragraph 22) about
the Court's jurisdiction to entertain the appeal on Pakistan's "Com-
plaint". Specific provisions of the Treaties-in particular Article 5 of
the Convention and Section 1of Article 1of the Transit Agreement-were
cited by Pakistan as having been infringed by lndia's denial of over-
flight rights. The existence of a "disagreement" relating to the application
of the Treaties was affirmed. There can therefore be no doubt about the
character of the case presented by Pakistan to the Council. It was es-
sentially a charge of breaches of the Treaties,-and in order to determine
these, the Council would inevitably be obliged to interpret and apply
the Treaties, and thus to deal with matters unquestionably within its
jurisdiction. (As will be seen later-infra, paragraphs 38-43-the under-
lying issue of the continued applicability of the Treaties themselves, is
one that would equally require an exaniination of certain provisions of
them both.)
37. India also, in the terms indicated in paragraph 30 (6). supra, has
made charges of a material breach of the Convention by Pakistan, as
justifying India in purporting to put an end to it, or suspend its operation
and that of the Transit Agreement. Thus the case is one of mutual charges
and counter-charges of breach of treaty which cannot, by reason of the
very fact that they are what they are, fail to involve questions of the inter-
pretation and application of the treaty instruments in respect of which
the breaches are alleged. It is however possible to be more specific thanl'extinction ou de la suspension de ce traité et ont également examinési
l'on devait présumer I'existence de limitations intrinsèques aux pouvoirs
du Conseil à I'égarclde certaines catégories dequestions,juridiques. Mais,
tant qu'il n'aura pas étédéterminé commeil convient que seule I'extinc-
tion ou la suspension des Traités est en cause et que la question de leur
interprétation ou de leur application ne se pose ni ne peut se poser, et
c'est là le seul vrai problème. le point de savoir si l'une des notions est
englobéepar l'autre:peut, aux fins du présent arrêt,être considéré comme
théorique.
35. Jusqu'à présent la Cour n'a fait qu'examiner les aspects négatifs
du dossier et énoncer les motifs pour lesquels les thèses précédemment
exposéesn'ont pas .vraimentd'effet quant à la question de la compétence
du Conseil. IIconvient maintenant de passer aux aspects positifs et cet
examen montrera non seulement que la demande du Pakistan révèle
l'existence d'un désaccord ...à propos de l'interprétation ou de I'appli-
cation ))des Traités, mais encore que les moyens de défense de I'Inde
soulèvent aussi des problèmes d'interprétation ou d'application de ces
mêmesTraités.
36. La nature de la l(requête »et de la (plainte » adressées au Conseil
par le Pakistan, dont le texte est intégralement reproduit dan: les annexes
A et B au mémoire soumis par le Gouvernement indien à la Cour, a été
exposéeen termes générauxdans la partie de l'arrêt concernant la com-
pétence de la Cour pour connaître de l'appel sur la 11plainte ))du Pa-
kistan (paragraphe 22). Le Pakistan a cité desdispositions précises des
Traités, en particulier l'article 5 de la Convention et l'article 1,section 1,
de l'Accord de transit, que I'Inde aurait violées enrefusant de reconnaître
le droit de survol. 11a affirmé I'existence d'un (désaccord ))à propos de
l'application des Tr,aités.La nature de l'affaire dont le Pakistan a saisi le
Conseil ne prêtedonc à aucun doute. Elle consiste essentiellement en un
grief de violation des Traités; pour en vérifierle bien-fondé, le Conseil
serait inévitablemenltamené à interpréter ou a appliquer les Traités et à
s'occuper ainsi de rnatières relevant indubitablement de sa compétence.
Comme on le verra aux paragraphes 38 à 43 ci-après, la question de
savoir si les Traités sont demeurés applicables en tant que tels, question
qui est à la base de la précédente,est également de celles qui nécessitent
l'examen de certaines dispositions de l'un et l'autre Traité.
37. L'Inde a formulé aussi, dans les termes indiqués au paragraphe
30 b), des griefs relatifs à une violation substantielle de la Convention
qu'aurait commise le Pakistan et qui autoriserait I'Inde à mettre fin à
celle-ci ou à suspendre son application et celle de l'Accord de transit.
L'affaire se caractérisedonc par des accusations réciproques de violations
de traité qui ne peuvent, par leur nature même,manquer de soulever des
questions d'interprktation ou d'application de ces instruments. II est
toutefois possible de mieux cerner le problème car, si le Pakistan cite athis, for not only do Pakistan's claims cite particular articles of the
Treaties, but both India's counter-charges and her defences to those of
Pakistan, can be seen to involve various treaty provisions. These will
now be considered in turn.
38. In the first place, India's allegation of a material breach of the
Treaties by Pakistan, as justifying India in treating them as terminated
or suspended, is inherently and by its very nature, one that must involve
the examination of the Treaties in order to see whether, according to
the definition of a material breach of treaty contained in Article 60 of
the 1969Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, there has been (para-
graph 3 (b)) a violation by Pakistan of "a provision essential to the ac-
complishment of the object or purpose of the Treaty". The fact that, as
has been seen in paragraph 30 (b), supra, India has in very comprehen-
sive language alleged a material breach of the Treaties, can only increase
the need for considering what particular provisions are involved by this
allegation. Even if the allegation, because of its generality, is to be re-
garded as one of conduct on the part of Pakistan amounting to a com-
plete "repudiation of the treaty" (see paragraph 3 (a) of Article 60 of
the Vienna Convention), it would still be necessary to examine the Trea-
ties in order to see whether, in relation to their provisions as a whole,
and in particular those relating to the "safety of air travel" which India
herself invoked (end of paragraph 30 (b), supra), Pakistan's conduct
must be held to constitute such a repudiation.
39. Next, as regards the Indian claim that the Treaties had been re-
placed by a special régime, it seems clear that certain provisions of the
Chicago Convention must be involved whenever two or more parties to
it purport to replace the Convention, or some part of it, by other ar-
rangements made between themselves. These provisions read as follows:
Article 82 (first sentence)
Abrogation of Inconsistent Arrangements
"The Contracting States accept this Convention as abrogating al1
obligations and understandings between them which are inconsistent
with itsterms, and undertake not to enter into any such obligations
and understandings."
Article 83
Registrcition of New Agreements
"Subject to the provisions of the preceding Article, any contracting
State may make arrangements not inconsistent with the provisions
of this Convention. Any such arrangement shall be forthwith re-
gistered with the Council. which shall make it public as soon as
possible."
There is no need for comment here, except to say that any special régime
instituted between the Parties, and more especially any disagreement
(such as there certainly is) concerning its existence and effect, would im-l'appui de ses prétentions des articles déterminésdes Traités, les réponses
et moyens de défensede l'Inde, eux aussi, mettent visiblement en question
des dispositions conventionnelles. La Cour se propose maintenant
d'examiner celles-ci.
38. En premier lieu, l'Inde alléguant que le Pakistan aurait commis
une violation substantielle des Traités et s'estimant justifiée de ce fait à
considérer les Traités comme caducs ou suspendus, pareille allégation
implique de façon inhérente et par nature qu'on examine ces Traités en
vue de vérifiersi, d'après la définition de la violation substantielle d'un
traité figurant à l'article 60 de la convention de Vienne de 1969 sur le
droit des traités, le Pakistan a violé, aux termes du paragraphe 3 b),
((une disposition essentielle pour la réalisation de l'objet ou du but du
traité 1)Les termes très larges dont I'Inde s'est servie, comme on l'a vu au
paragraphe 30 b) ci-dessus, pour alléguer une violation substantielle des
Traités rendent particulièrement nécessaire que I'on recherche quelles
dispositions précises auraient étéviolées. Mêmesi l'on considérait, à
cause du caractère ,générad l e l'allégation, qu'un comportement équiva-
lant à un complet 11rejet dii traité))(convention de Vienne, article 60,
paragraphe 3 a)) est reproché au Pakistan, il resterait a examiner les
Traités afin de déterminer si I'on doit voir dans ce comportement le rejet
des dispositions de ces Traités dans l'ensemble et plus particulièrement
de leurs dispositions relatives à la ((sécuritédes voyages aériens ))in-
voquéespar l'Inde (:voirci-dessus paragraphe 30 b) infine).
39. Vient en deuxième lieu la thèse de l'Inde suivart laquelle les
Traités auraient été remplacéspar un régime spécial. II paraît clair que
certaines dispositio.ns de la Convention de Chicago entrent forcément
en jeu quand deux ou plusieurs parties prétendent la remplacer en totalité
ou partiellement par un autre accord conclu entre elles. Ces dispositions
sont ainsi libellées:
Article 82 (première phrase)
Abrogation d'arrangements incompatibles
(Les Etats contractants reconnaissent que la présente Convention
abroge toutes les obligations et ententes entre eux qui sont incom-
patibles avec ses dispositions et s'engagent à ne pas contracter de
telles obligations ni conclure de telles ententes. ))
Article 83
Enregistrementdesnourveauxarrangements
ISous réserve des dispositions de l'article précédent, tout Etat
contiactant peut conclure des arrangements qui ne soient pas in-
compatibles avec les dispositions de la présente Convention. Tout
arrangement de cette nature doit être enregistré immédiatement au
Conseil qui le rend public aussitôt que possible. ))
La seule observation à faire est que tout régime spécialinstituéentre les
Parties et plus particulièrement tout désaccord, comme il y en a cer-
tainement un, au sujet de son existence et de ses effets soulèvent immé-mediately raise issues calling for the interpretation and application by
the Council of the above-quoted provisions.
40. Finally, as regards the contention which formed the sub-stratum
of the whole lndian position, namely that the Treaties were or became
terminated or suspended between the Parties,-Pakistan, in the course
of the proceedings before the Court, contended that these matters by
no means lay outside the ambit of the Treaties but were, on the contrary,
regulated, at least implicitly, by two provisions of the Convention, Ar-
ticles 89 and 95, which read as follows:
Article 89
War and Enzergency Conditions
"In case of war, the provisions of this Convention shall not affect
the freedom of action of any of the contracting States affected.
whether as belligerents or as neutrals. The same principle shall apply
in the case of any contracting State which declares a state of national
emergency and notifies the fact to the Council."
Article 95
Denunciation of Convention
"(a) Any contracting State rnay give notice of denunciation of
this Convention three years after its coming into effect by notifica-
tion addressed to the Government of the United States of Arnerica.
which shall at once inform each of the contracting States.
(6) Denunciation shall take effect one year from the date of the
receipt of the notification and shall operate only as regards the State
effecting the denunciation."
(A provision having broadly the same effect as Article 95 of the Con-
vention appears in the Transit Agreement as Article Ill; and Article I
of this Agreement (Sections 1 and 2) covers the sarne sort of ground as
Article 89 of the Convention so far as concerns rights of overflight and
of landing for non-traffic purposes. These Articles need not be quoted
here.)
41. In connection with the provisions cited in the preceding paragraph,
Pakistan pleaded the rule (approved by the Court in the North Sea Con-
tinentul Sheij cases-I.C.J. Reports 1969, Judgmrnt, paragraph 28). ac-
cording to which, when an agreement or other instrument itself provides
for the way in which a given thing is to be done, it must be done in that
way or not at all. On this basis Pakistan contended that not only was
there no provision for the suspension of the Convention as such, but
that thispossibility was irnpliedly excluded by Articles 89 and 95. All that
was afforded (by Article 89) was a right in certain specified circumstances
to disregard the Convention. and temporarily to stop granting the rights
it provided for. As soon as these circumstances ceased to exist (as, in
the instant case, Pakistan contended that they had). this licence to dis-
regard came to an end, and the obligation to resume the full operationdiatement des problèmes tels que le Conseil doit interpréter et appliquer
lesdits articles.
40. Enfin en ce qui concerne la thèse qui est le fondement mêmede
l'attitude del'Inde, à savoir que les Traités étaientou ont étéultérieure-
ment sus~endus ou éteints entre les Parties. le Pakistan a soutenu dans
la procéd'urequi s',estdéroulée devant la Cour que ce problème ne sort
nullement du cadre des Traités mais est au contraire envisagéau moins
-
implicitement par deux dispositions de la Convention, les articles 89 et
95 ainsi libellés:
Article 89
Guerre et état de crise
11En cas de guerre, les dispositions de la présente Convention ne
portent attein1.eà la liberté d'action d'aucun des Etats contractants
concernés, qu'ils soient belligérants ou neutres. Le mêmeprincipe
s'applique dans le cas de tout Etat contractant qui proclame l'état de
crise nationale:et notifie ce fait au Conseil.1
Article 95
((a) Tout Etat contractant peut dénoncer la présente Convention
trois ans après son entrée en vigueur au moyen d'une notification
adressée au Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d'Amérique, qui en
informe immédiatement chacun des Etats contractants.
6) La dénonciation prend effet un an après la date de réception
de la notification et ne vaut qu'à l'égardde 1'Etat qui a effectué la
dénonciation. »
L'articleIII de I'A.ccordde transit a généralementla mêmeportée que
l'article 95 de la Convention et l'articl1,sections 1et 2, de l'Accord traite
plus ou moins des mêmespoints que l'article 89 de la Convention en ce
qui concerne les droits de survol et d'atterrissage à des fins non commer-
ciales. II n'y a pas lieu d'en reproduire le texte.
41. A propos des dispositions citées au paragraphe précédent,le
Pakistan a invoqué la règle approuvée par la Cour dans les affaires du
Plateau continental de la mer du Nord (C.I.J. Recueil 1969, arrêt,para-
graphe 28) d'après laquelle, quand un accord ou autre instrument sti-
pule qu'un acte doit être accompli d'une manière précise, il doit l'être
ainsi ou pas du tout. Partant de là, le Pakistan a soutenu non seulement
qu'aucune disposition n'autorise à proprement parler la suspension de la
Convention. mais aussi que cette possibilité est implicitement exclue par
les articles 89 et 95. L'article 89 permet simplement, dans certaines
circonstances bien définies,de ne plus tenir compte de la Convention et
de cesser temporairement d'accorder les droits qu'elle prévoit. Dès que
ces circonstances ni'existentplus (comme en l'espèce, selon le Pakistan),
cette latitude disparaîtet l'obligation de remettre pleinement en vigueur69 ICA0 COUNCIL (JUDGMENT)
of the rights provided for by the Convention autornatically revived.
Such was Pakistan's contention.
42. In the proceedings before the Court, lndia gave a different inter-
pretation of this provision. This was, broadly, that Article 89 was a rnere
enabling. or in a certain sense saving, clause, the object of which was to
make it clear that the Convention left intact. and was not intended to
affect. the rights which in certain circumstances the parties might derive
from sources outside the Convention, under general international law
or otherwise. The Article was (so lndia said) an example of. or equivalent
to, a type of clause often found in treaties, to the effect that the provisions
of the treaty were without prejudice to the rights ah P.\-trof the parties
in certain respects: it had no direct beariiig on the present case.
43. The Court must obviously refrain froin pronouncing on the
validity or otherwise of the opposing views of the Parties as to the object
and correct interpretation of Articles 89 and 95. since this touches
directly upon the merits of the case. But this opposition cannot but be
indicative of a direct conflict of views as to the meaning of the Articles.
or in other ~ords of a "disagreement. . .relating to the interpretation
or application of [the] Convention":-and if there is even one provision
-and especially a provision of the importance of Article 89-as to which
this is so. then the Council is invested with jurisdiction. were it but the
only such provision to be found. which is clearly not the case. However,
the Court having thus decided that the Coiincil is competent, is not
called upon to define further the exact extent of that competence, beyond
what has already been indicated.
44. There is one more matter which the Court has to consider. It was
strenuously argued on behalf of India, though denied by Pakistan, that
irrespective of the correctness in law or otherwise of the Council's
decision assuming jurisdiction in the case. from which lndia is now
appealing, it was vitiated by various procedural irregularities. and should
accordingly, on that ground alone, be declared nuIl and void. The
argument was that. but for these alleged irregularities. the result before
the Council would or rnight have been different. Consequently, it was
said, if the Court endorsed the lndian view as to the existence of these
procedural irregularities. it should refrain from now pronouncing on the
question of the Council's jurisdiction, declare the latter's decision nuIl
and void, and send the case back to it for re-decision on the basis of a
correct procedure.
45. The Court however does not deem it necessary or even appro-
priate to go into this matter. particularly as the alleged irregularities do
not prejudice iiiany fundamental way the requirements of a just proce-
dure. The Court's task in the present proceedings is to give a ruling as to CONSEIL Dg L'OACI (ARRÊT) 69
les droit prévus par la Convention renaît automatiquement. Telle a été
la thèse du Pakistan.
42. Dans la procédure devant la Cour, l'Inde a donné une autre inter-
prétation de l'article 89. Cette interprétation consiste grosso modo
à n'y voir qu'une clause d'habilitation ou, en un certain sens, de sauve-
garde, dont l'objet est de préciser que la Convention laisse intacts et
n'affecte pas les droits que les parties peuvent dans certaines circonstances
tirer de sources extérieures à la Convention, que ce soit en vertu du droit
international généralou à tout autre titre. D'après I'Inde, l'article 89
est un exemple, ou encore l'équivalent, d'un type de disposition conven-
tionnelle assez fréquente, en vertu de laquelle les dispositions du traité
dont ils'agit s'entemdent sans préjudice des droits que les parties possè-
dent en dehors du traité dans certains domaines, ce qui est sans rapport
direct avec la prése:nteaffaire.
43. il est évident, puisque cela concerne directement le fond du
différend, que la Cour doit s'abstenir de se prononcer sur le bien-fondé
des opinions divergentes des Parties quant à l'objet et à l'interprétation
exacte des articles 89 et 95. Toutefois cette divergence même révèle
l'existence de thèses directement opposées sur le sens des articles, autre-
ment dit un (désaccord ..à propos de l'interprétation ou de l'application
de la ...Convention »;n'y aurait-il qu'une disposition - surtout une dis-
position ayant l'importance de l'article 89 - àpropos de laquelle on puisse
faire cette constatation, le Conseil serait compétent, quand bien même
aucun autre texte rie serait en cause, ce qui manifestement n'est pas le cas.
Ayant ainsi décidéque le Conseil est compétent, la Cour n'a pas à dé-
finir l'étendueexacte de cette compétence au-delà de ce qu'elle a indiqué.
44. Il reste à aborder un dernier point. L'Inde a vigoureusement sou-
tenu contre le Pakistan, qui l'a nié,que, indépendamment de la question
du bien-fondéjuridique de la décisionpar laquelle le Conseil s'est déclaré
compétent et dont I'Inde a fait appel, cette décision a étéviciée par
diverses irrégularités de procédure et devrait, ne serait-ce que pour ce
motif, êtredéclarée nulleet de nul effet. La thèse de I'Inde est que, sans
ces irrégularités, le Conseil aurait abouti ou aurait pu aboutir à un
résultat différent. En conséquence, si la Cour faisait sienne la thèse de
l'Inde quant à I'existence de ces irrégularités de procédure, elle devrait
s'abstenir de statuer maintenant sur la compétence du Conseil, déclarer
nulle et de nul effet la décision de ce dernier et lui renvoyer le dossier
pour qu'il statue de nouveau en appliquant une procédure correcte.
45. La Cour ne pense pas qu'il soit nécessaireni mêmeopportun d'exa-
miner ce point en détail, alors surtout que les irrégularités alléguéen se
constituent pas une atteinte fondamentale aux exigences d'une bonne
procédure. Dans la présente instance, sa tâche est de dire si leConseil estwhether the Council has jurisdiction in the case. This is an objective
question of law, the answer to which cannot depend on what occurred
before the Council. Since the Court holds that the Council did and does
have jurisdiction, then, if there were in fact procedural irregularities, the
position would be that the Council would have reached the right con-
clusion in the wrong way. Nevertheless it would have reached the right
conclusion. If, on the other hand, the Court had held that there was and
is no jurisdiction, then, even inthe absence of any irregularities, the Couii-
cil's decision to assume it would have stood reversed.
46. For these reasons,
by thirteen votes to three.
(1) rejects the Government of Pakistan's objections on the question of
its competence, and finds that it has jurisdiction to entertain India's
appeal ;
by fourteen votes to two.
(2) holds the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization
to be competent to entertain the Application and Complaint laid
before it by the Government of Pakistan on 3 March 1971; and in
consequence, rejects the appeal made to the Court by the Govern-
ment of India against the decision of the Council assuming juris-
diction in those respects.
Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative,
at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this eighteenth day of August, one
thousand nine hundred and seventy-two, in three copies, one of which
will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted
to the Government of lndia and to the Government of Pakistan, respec-
tively.
(Signed) F. AMMOUN,
Vice-President.
(Signed) S. AQUARONE,
Registrar.compétent en l'espèce. C'est là une question juridique objective dont la
réponse ne saurait dépendre de ce qui s'est passé devant le Conseil.
Puisque la Cour conclut à la compétence du Conseil, les irrégularités de
procédure, à les supposer vérifiées,auront pour seul résultat qu'il sera
parvenu à la décision qui convient d'une manière erronée: il aura tout de
mêmeabouti au bon résultat. Si en revanche la Cour s'était prononcée
contre la compétence du Conseil, cela aurait infirmé la décisiondu Con-
seil de se déclarercompétent, mêmeen l'absence de toute irrégularité.
46. Par ces motifs,
par treize voix contre trois,
1) rejette les objections du Gouvernement pakistanais sur la question
de sa compétence et dit qu'elle est compétente pour connaitre de
l'appel de I'lnde;
par quatorze voix contre deux.
2) décide que le Conseil de l'organisation de l'aviation civile interna-
tionale estcompétent pour connaitre de la requêteet de la plainte
dont le Gouvernement pakistanais l'a saisie 3emars 1971 et rejette
en conséquence l'appel interjetédevant elle par leGouvernement indien
contre la décision par laquelle le Conseil s'est déclaré compétentsur
ces demandes.
Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglais faisant foi. au palais de la
Paix, à La Haye, le dix-huit août mil neuf cent soixante-douze, en trois
exemplaires, dont l'un restera déposéaux archives de la Cour et dont les
autres seront transmis respectivement au Gouvernement indien et au
Gouvernement pakistanais.
Le Vice-Président,
(Signé) F. AMMOUN.
Le Greffier,
(Signé) S. AQUARONE.71 ICA0 COUNCIL (DECL. ZAFRULLA KHAN)
President Sir Muhammad ZAFRULL KHAN makes the following decla-
ration:
1 much regret 1am unable to agree that Article 84 of the Convention
read with Articles 5 (4), 15 and 18 of the Rules for the Settlement of
Differences provides a right of appeal against a decision of the Council of
ICAO rejecting a preliminary objection to its competence-to handle an
application or complaint. It seems to me that the considerations that
have impelled the Court to arrive at the opposite conclusion do not
carry the matter any further than the desirability of a provision to that
effect. However strong that desirability may be it cannot serve as aub-
stitute for the lack of such a provision in the Convention read with the
relevant rules. The entire scheme of the Rules excludes the possibility of
an appeal against a decision of the Council rejecting a preliminary objec-
tion against its competence. The remedy for the correction of this situa-
tion, if a correction should be desired, would be by way ofamendment of
the Convention and the Rules, and not by reading into them a meaning
which they are not capable of bearing.
Nor am 1 able to agree that Section 1 of Article II of the Transit
Agreement contemplates only cases of injustice or hardship occasioned
by action which is lawful but is prejudicial, and that to the extent to
which a complaint under that Section alleges unlawful action as the cause
of the injustice or hardship complained of, it becomes assimilable to the
case of an application for thepurposes of appealability to the Court.
In view, however, of the finding of the Court that the Council of
ICAO has jurisdiction to entertain the Application and Complaint laid
before it by the Government of Pakistan on 3 March 1971,a finding with
which 1am in entire agreement, my dissent on the question of the admissi-
bility of India's appeal assumes a purely academic aspect.
A large part of the submission of India's counsel to the Court was
devoted to the exposition of irregularities of procedure alleged to have
been committed by the Council of ICAO in dealing with India's Prelim-
inary Objection to its assumption of jurisdiction in respect of Pakistan's
Application and Complaint. The purpose of this exposition was to
persuade the Court to hold that the proceedings before the Council were
vitiated by these alleged irregularities and that the decision of the Council
on India's Preliminary Objection was thus rendered void and of no effect
and should consequently be set aside.
These alleged irregularities fall broadly into two categories; those
relating to the "manner and method" of arriving at the decision appealed
against, and those resulting from failure to comply with the requirements
laid down in Article 15 of the Rules for the Settlement of Differences.
As regards the first category, India's objections and suggestions were
thoroughly debated in the Council (Memorial of India. Annex E, (e),
Discussion, paras. 50-84) and the rulings of the President were upheld by Sir Muhammad ZAFKULLA KHAN, Président, fait la déclaration
suivante :
A mon grand regret, ilm'est impossible d'admettre que l'article 84
de la Convention, rapproché des articles 5, paragraphe 4, 15 et 18 du
Règlement pour la solution des différends, prévoieledroit d'appeler d'une
décisionpar laquelle le Conseil de I'OACI rejette une exception prélimi-
naire soutenant qu'il n'a pascompétencepour connaitre d'une requêteou
d'une plainte. Il me semble que lesconsidérations qui ont amenéla Cour à
la conclusion contraire montrent simplement qu'une disposition à cet effet
serait souhaitable. Si souhaitable que cela soit, cependant, cette constata-
tion ne saurait remédierà l'absence d'une clause semblable dans la Con-
vention, complétée par les articles pertinents du Règlement. Le plan
généraldu Règlement exclut la possibilité d'un appel d'une décision du
Conseil rejetant une exception préliminaire contre sa compétence. Pour
rectifier cette situation, à supposer qii'on le juge opportun, il convien-
drait d'amender IcaConvention et le Règlement, et non de leur prêter
un sens qu'ils ne peuvent avoir.
Je ne pense pas non plus que l'article II, section 1, de l'Accord de
transit n'envisage que les cas d'injustice ou de préjudice causéspar des
mesures!icites mais préjudiciables, ni que, dans la mesure où une plainte
déposéeaux termes de cette section fait état de mesures illicites comme
cause de l'injustice ou du préjudice allégués, la plainte puisseêtreassi-
miléeà une requfite pour ce qui est de la possibilité d'interjeter appel
devant la Cour.
Cependant, la Cour ayant conclu que le Conseil de I'OACI a compé-
tence pour connaitre de la requêteet de la plainte qui lui ont été soumises
par le Gouvernement du Pakistan le 3 mars 1971, conclusion à laquelle
je m'associe pleinement, mon désaccord au sujet de la recevabilité de
l'appel de l'Inde revêtun caractère purement académique.
Une grande partie de la plaidoirie du conseil de l'Inde devant la Cour
a été consacréeà l'exposé des irrégularités de procédure qui auraient
étécommises par le Conseil de I'OACI lors de l'examen de l'exception
préliminaire soulevée par l'Inde contre la compétence du Conseil pour
connaitre de la requêteet de la plainte du Pakistan. Cet exposé visait à
convaincre la Cour que la procédure devant le Conseil avait étéviciéepar
ces prétendues irrégularitéset que la décision du Conseil sur l'exception
préliminaire de l'Inde étaitpour cette raison nulle et de nul effet et devait
êtreinfirmée.
Ces irrégularité:^dont on fait état rentrent dans deux catégories
principales: celles qui concernent la méthode suivie pour parvenir à la
décision attaquée et celles qui tiennent au fait que le Conseil n'aurait pas
respectéles prescriptions de I'article 15du Règlement pour la solution des
différends.
En ce qui concerne la première catégorie, les objections et affirmations
de l'Inde ont étabondamment débattues au Conseil (annexe E,e), Débat,
au mémoire du Cilouvernement indien, par. 50-84) et les décisions du72 ICA0 COUNCIL (DECL. ZAFRULLA KHAN)
the Council. Nothing urged by India's counsel in his submissions to the
Court in this context has served to raise any doubt in my mind concerning
the correctness and propriety of the President's rulings and of the pro-
cedure followed by the Council.
As regards the second category, the brief answer to India's objections
is that Article 15 of the Rules for the Settlement of Differences has no
relevance to a decision on a preliminary objection. The subject of Pre-
liminary Objection and Action Thereon is dealt with in Article 5 of the
Rules. This Article is comprised in Chapter III of the Rules, which deals
with Action upon Receipt of Applications. The Article is self-contained
and comprehensive. The procedure for dealing with a preliminary ob-
jection is prescribed in paragraph (4) of Article 5 which runs as follows:
"If a preliminary objection has been filed, the Council. after hearing the
parties,shall decide the question as a preliminary issue before any further
steps are taken under these Rules." This 1sexactly what the Council did.
Article 15 of the Rules is contained in Chapter IV which prescribes
the procedure to be followed in respect of "~roceedin~s", which start
after a preliminary objection has been disposed of and which relate to the
merits of the case. Article 15 which is headed "Decision" obviously has
reference to a decision on the merits, and does not relate back to a
decision on a preliminary objection disposing of the question as a pre-
liminary issue before the commencement of proceedings on the merits.
The record of the discussion before the Council does not show that
India urged compliance by the Council with the requirements of Article
15. Even before the Court some of the alleged irregularities were men-
tioned for the first time in the oral submissions of counsel and the list
was expanded in reply. Be that as it mag, it is clear that Article 15of the
Rules has no application to a decision on a preliminary objection. The
Council rightly proceeded on that assumption and not a single member
gave expression to a difference of view
Judge LACHS makes the following declaration:
Feeling as 1 do that there are certain observations which should be
made on some aspects of the Judgment, 1 avail myself of the right
conferred by Article 57 of the Statute of the Court and append hereunder
the following declaration.
While 1fully agree with the findings of the Court concerning its com-
petence to entertain the appeal, 1wish to comment further on the inter-
pretation of Article 84 of the Chicago Convention on International Civil COhISEILDE L'OACI (DÉCL. ZAFRULLA KHAN) 72
président ont étéconfirmées par celui-ci. Rien de ce qu'a pu dire à cet
égardle conseil de I'lnde devant la Cour n'a fait naître un doute quelcon-
que dans mon esprit à propos de la régularitéou de l'opportunité des
décisionsdu président etde la procédure suivie par le Conseil.
Pour ce qui est de la seconde catégorie, il suffit pour réfuter les objec-
tions de I'lnde de constater que I'article 15 du Règlement pour la solution
des différends ne se rapporte aucunement à unedécision relative à une
exception préliminaire. La question des exceptions préliminaires et de
leur suite fait l'objet de I'articl5 du Règlement, dans le chapitre IIIqui
traite de la suite que comportent les requêtes.Cet article a un caractère
autonome et il épuisele sujet des exceptions préliminaires. La procédure
prévuepour leur examen est définieau paragraphe 4, ainsi libellé: lSi une
exception préliminaire est soulevée, le Conseil, après avoir entendu les
parties, rend une décision sur cette question préjudicielle avant toute
mesure àprendre en vertu du présent Règlement. )C'est exactement ce que
le Conseil a fait.
L'article 15 du Règlement se trouve au chapitre IV, qui définit les
règles applicables li la(procédure 1qui s'engage après qu'une exception
préliminaire a étér,ejetéeet qui concerne le fond d'une affaire. L'article 15,
intitulé 1Décision I)concerne manifestement une décision au fond, et ne
revient pas sur la décision prisesur une exception préliminaire en tant que
question préjudicielleavant que s'engage la procédure au fond.
Le procès-verbal des débatsau Conseil ne fait pas apparaître que I'lnde
ait insistépour que le Conseil se conforme aux prescriptions de I'article
15. Mêmedevant la Cour, certaines irrégularités ont été évoquéepsour
la première fois dans la plaidoirie du conseil de I'lnde, qui a mentionné
encore d'autres irrégularitésdans sa réplique. Quoi qu'il en soit, il est
clair que l'article 15 du Règlement ne s'applique nullement à une déci-
sion .sur une exception préliminaire. C'est ce que le Conseil a supposé à
juste titre et aucun de ses membres n'a expriméd'avis contraire.
M. LACHS, juge, fait la déclaration suivante:
Estimant que certaines observations doivent être faites sur divers
aspects de l'arrêt,je me prévauxdu droit conférépar I'article 57 du Statut
de la Cour pour pr'isenter la déclaration qui suit.
Je souscris pleinement aux conclusions de la Cour concernant sa
compétence pour connaître de l'appel, mais n'en voudrais pas moins
formuler des observations complémentaires sur l'interprétation de
l'article 84 de la Convention de Chicago relative à l'aviation civile interna-73 ICA0 COUNCIL (DECL. LACHS)
Aviation and Section 2 of Article II of the International Air Services
Transit Agreement.
In examining the sense and import of "the decision", as used in Article
84, its strict verbal meaning should constitute a point of departure but
cannot be conclusive, for there is no qualifying word to relieve us of the
task of interpretation. It is true that the use of thedefinite article and the
singular ("the decision") relates that term directly to the action to be
taken by the Council under the first sentence of the Article. This would
seem to point to the conclusion that "the decision" contemplated must
be one whereby the Council disposes of "any disagreement between two
or more contracting States relating to the interpretation or application"
of the Convention and its Annexes which "cannot be settled by nego-
tiation".
However, it is not only by decisions on substance that the Council
can dispose of disagreements. Hence it is not only from such decisions
that appeal may be made-and 1do not, in this connection, find it pos-
sible to maintain that the Rules for the Settlement of Differences can
be so construed as to restrict appealability to any greater extent than
the Convention itself. Moreover, had the drafters definitely wished to
exclude appeals on issues other than those of substance, they could easily
have done so by suitably qualifying the term "decision": there are
well-known precedents for such drafting.
This is, of course, not so say that appeal is allowable "from every
order, or any order of the Council", which, as counsel for Pakistan sug-
gested, would "defeat the very purpose of the Convention" (hearing of
27 June 1972). The matter has to be viewed in the light of the repercus-
sions which the decision in question could have on the positions of the
Parties in regard to the case. In the present instance we are concerned
with a decision on a jurisdictional issue, and so a line has to be drawn
and the question answered as to the side of the line on which "decisions
on jurisdiction" lie. The answer is of course implicit in the crucial im-
portance which such decisions invariably have (as stressed in para. 18
of the Judgment).This is borne out by the entire history of international
adjudication, where these issues are much more vital than in the muni-
cipal context.
There is, however, a more general aspect to these issues. Great caution
and restraint have been exercised by this Court and its predecessor when
ascertaining their own jurisdiction. As Judge Lauterpacht pointed out:
"Nothing should be done which creates the impression that the Court,
in an excess of zeal, has assumed jurisdiction where none has been
conferred upon it." (The Developrnent of International Law by the Inter-
national Coitrt, 1958, p. 91.)
This restraint has had its raison d'être in the clear tendency not to im-
pose more onerous obligations on States than those they have expressly CONSEIL DE L'OACI (DÉCL. LACHS) 73
tionale et de l'article II, section 2, de l'Accord relatif au transit des ser-
vices aériens internationaux.
Pour examiner le sens et la portée des mots ((la décision ))employés
à l'article 84, on doit considérer que leur sens strictement littéral ne
constitue qu'un point de départ mais qu'il n'est pas nécessairement con-
cluant car nous ne trouvons aucune formule limitative qui nous dispense
de l'interpréter. Ilest vrai que l'emploi de l'article définiet du singulier
dans ala décision )relie directement cette expression à la mesure que le
Conseil doit prendre en vertu de la première phrase de l'article dont il
s'agit. Cela porterait à conclure, semble-t-il, que 1la décision»envisagée
doit êtrela décisionpar laquelle le Conseil statue sur (un désaccord entre
deux ou plusieurs Etats contractants à propos de l'interprétation ou de
l'application ))de la Convention et de ses annexes, qui ((ne peut être
réglépar voie de riégociation )I.
Mais ce n'est pas seulement en prenant des décisions au fond que
le Conseil peut statuer sur lesdifférends.Ce n'est doncpas seulement de ce
genre de décisions qu'ilpeut êtrefait appel et à cet égardje ne crois pas
possible d'admettrte que l'on peut interpréter le Règlement pour la solu-
tion des différends de telle manièrequ'il restreigne plus que la Convention
elle-même la possibilitéd'interjeter appel. Au surplus, si les rédacteurs
avaient réellement voulu exclure l'appel sur des questions autres que des
questions de fond, ils auraient pu facilement le faire en qualifiant comme
il convenait le terrrie (décision ));ilexiste des précédentsbien connus pour
une rédaction de ce genre.
Cela ne signifie pas bien sûr que (n'importe quelle décisiondu Conseil ))
est susceptible d'appel car, comme le conseil du Pakistan l'a indiqué,
(1cela irait à I'encoritre de l'objet mêmede la Convention ))(audience du 27
juin 1972). Il faut envisager le problème compte tenu des répercussions
que la décisiondont il s'agit pourrait avoir quant à la position des Parties
au regard de l'affaire. En l'espècela Cour s'occupe d'une décisionconcer-
nant un problème de compétence, de sorte qu'il faut tracer une ligne de
démarcation et dire de quel côtése situent les décisionssur la compétence.
Pour trouver la réponse, il suffit de songer à l'importance c~ucialeque ces
décisions présentent toujours, ainsi que le souligne le paragraphe 18 de
l'arrêt.Cela est corifirmépar toute l'histoire du règlement judiciaire inter-
national où les questions de cet ordreont beaucoup plus d'importance que
sur le plan national.
Ces problèmes présentent néanmoins un aspect plus général qu'il
convient d'indiquer. La Cour actuelle et sa devancière ont toujours
procédéavec beaucoup de prudence et de modération chaque fois qu'il
s'est agi de déterminer leur compétence. Conime l'a dit Lauterpacht:
(1Rien ne doit être fait qui puisse donner l'impression que la Cour, par
excèsde zèle, s'est attribué une compétence qui ne lui avait pas étécon-
férée )(The Development of International Law by the international Court,
1958, p. 91).
Cette modération s'explique par la tendance marquée que l'on constate
à ne pas imposer aux Etats des obligations plus lourdes que celles qu'ilsassurned. However, in regard to appeals from other fora. this very
criterion imposes limits on the Court's caution in assumingjurisdiction.
Indeed, the sarne reasons which underlie the necessity of interpreting
jurisdictional clauses strictly impel one to adopt an interpretation of
provisions for appeal that would lend maximum effect to the safeguards
inherent in such provisions. For, as between the "lower forum" and
"the court of appeal", there exists as it were a see-saw of jurisdictional
powers. Hence to applya restrictive interpretation of rights of appeal-and
thus of the powers of the "court of appealV-would obviously entail an
extensive interpretation of the jurisdictional powers of the "court of
first instance". This would in fact imply more onerous obligations on
the States concerned: something which (as indicated above) international
tribunals have continuously endeavoured to avoid. To restrict the rights
of States to seek relief frorn what they deem to be wrongful decisions
would to sorne extent. at least. defeat the veryobject of the institution of
appeals. If that is so in general, it applies in particular to issues of juris-
diction. which. as indicated earlier, are in the international field com-
parable in importance to issues of substance. Thus this aspect confirms
the justification for the exercise of what the Judgment describes (para.
26) as "a certain measure of supervision by the Court" (cf. resolution of
25 September 1957 by the Institut de droit international, Annuaire 1957,
pp. 476 ff.).
While 1 agree that the ICA0 Council is competent to entertain the
Application and Cornplaint submitted to it, 1 wish to comment on
some procedural issues which have been raised in regard to the decision
from which an appeal has been made. lndia advanced a series of sub-
missions on the subject (Memorial of India, paras. 93-99 and 106 D).
Pakistan for its part, denied them (Counter-Memorial, para. 59).
Article 54 (c) of the Convention on International Civil Aviation
provides that: "The Council shall . . . determine its organization and
rules of procedure." Within the powers thus vested in it, the Council
approved, on 9 April 1957.the "Rules for the Settlement of Differences".
These were intended to "govern the settlement of . . . disagreements
between Contracting States which rnay be referred to the Council",
and "the consideration of any complaint regarding an action taken by
a State party to the Transit Agreement" (Art. 1(1) and (2)).
In the light of these provisions the contracting States have the right
to expect that the Co~incil will faithfully follow these rules, performing
as it does, in such situations, quasi-judicial functions, for they are anont expressément acceptées. Cependant, dans le cas d'appels contre des
décisions d'autres instances, ce critère mêmeimpose des limites à la
prudence que la Cour manifeste quand elle doit statuer sur sa compétence.
En fait les raison:; qui expliquent la nécessitéd'interpréter strictement
les clauses juridicti~onnelles sont celles-là mêmesqui obligent à inter-
préter les dispositions en matière d'appel d'une façon qui donne le
maximum d'effet aux garanties que ces dispositions visent à assurer. On
pourrait presque dire que l'instance inférieure et la cour d'appel se ren-
voient la balle en matièredejuridiction. Par conséquent une interprétation
restrictive du droit 'd'appel, et partant des pouvoirs de la cour d'appel,
implique manifestement une interprétation large des pouvoirs juridic-
tionnels du tribunal de première instance. Cela entraînerait en fait des
obligations plus lourdes pour les Etats intéressés - ce que les tribunaux
internationaux ont constamment essayé d'éviter, comme il est indiqué
plus haut. Restreindre le droit des Etats de remettre en question des
décisions qu'ils considèrent comme injustes, ce serait, dans une certaine
mesure au moins, aller à l'encontre de l'objet mêmede l'institution de
l'appel. S'il en est ainsi en général, cela est encore plus vrai pour les
questions de compéitencequi, comme on l'a indiqué plus haut, sont com-
parables en importance, sur le plan international, aux points de fond. Les
observations qui pr~icèdentconfirment que l'exercice de ce que l'arrêt
appelle au paragraphe 26 (1un certain contrôle ... par la Cour 1est justifié
(voir la résolution de l'Institut de droit international en dat; du 25 septem-
bre 1957, Annuaire 1957, p. 476 et suiv.).
Tout en admettant que le Conseil de I'OACI a compétence pour
connaître de la requêteet de la plainte qui lui ont étésoumises, je voudrais
présenter des observiitions sur certaines questions de procédure soulevées
à propos des décisionsdont il a étéfait appel. L'Inde a fc~muléun certain
nombre de conclusions àce sujet (mémoiredu Gouvernement indien, par.
93 à 99 et par. 106 D). Le Pakistan quant à lui les a déniées(contre-
mémoire du Gouvernement pakistanais, par. 59).
L'article 54, alinéa c), de la Convention relative à l'aviation civile
internationale dispose: ((Le Conseil doit ... arrêterson organisation et son
règlement intérieur 1)Conformément aux pouvoirs qui lui étaient ainsi
conférés,le Conseil a approuvé le 9 avril 1957 le Règlement pour la solu-
tion des différends. Celui-ci avait pour objet de s'appliquer ((au règlement
des désaccords ...survenus entre Etats contractants qui peuvent être
soumis au Conseil 1)et ([à l'examen de toute plainte relative ... à une
mesure prise aux termes de l'Accord de transit par un Etat partie à cet
Accord »(article premier, par. 1et 2).
Compte tenu de ces dispositions. les Etats contractants ont le droit
d'escompter que le Conseil s'en tiendra fidèlement aux dispositions du
règlement quand ilassume, dans les situations dont il s'agit, des fonctionsintegral part of its jurisdiction. Such rules constitute one of the guar-
antees of the proper decision-making of any collective body of this
character and they set a framework for its regular functioning: as such,
they are enacted to be complied with.
The records of the meeting of the Council on 29 July 1971do indicate
that some provisions of the Rules for the Settlement of Differences were
departed from. In general, of course, notal1departures from established
rules affect the validity of decisions, but there are some which may
prejudice the rights and interests of the parties.t is therefore reason-
able, if one of the parties concerned should submit before this Court
that procedural irregularities occurred, that these submissions should
attract the Court's attention. Thus the objections raised by lndia are
well taken.
1 therefore regret that the Court has not gone into the matter and has
limited itself to giving "a ruling as to whether the Council has juris-
diction in the case" (Judgment, para45). To pronounce upon any forma1
deficiencies the Court may find in the decision-making of the Council,
or to draw that body's attention to them, would surely corne within that
"supervision by the Court over those decisions" referred to in a pas-
sage of the Judgment (para. 26) which 1 mentioned earlier and to which
1 fully subscribe.
Moreover, it is to be taken into account that the Council, in view
of its limited experience on matters of procedure, and being composed
of experts in other fields than law, is no doubt in need of guidance, and
it is surely this Court which may give it. Such guidance would be of
great importance for the further conduct of this case and future cases,
and in the interest of the confidence of States entrusting it with the
resolution of disagreements arising in the field of civil aviation.
Judges PETRÉN,ONYEAMAD , ILLARD, DE CASTROand JIMÉNEZ DE
ARÉCHAGA append separate opinions to the Judgment of the Court.
Judge Mo~ozov and Judge ad hoc NAGENDRA SINGHappend dis-
senting opinions to the Judgment of the Court.
(Initialled) F. A.
(Initialled)S.A.quasi judiciaires, qui font partie intégrante de son activité. Ces disposi-
tions sont l'un des élémentsqui garantissent que tout organe collégialde
cette nature prendra ses décisions comme ilconvient; elles constituent un
cadre pour son fonctionnement normal: à ce titre, elles sont promulguées
pour êtreappliquées.
Le compte rendu de la séance du Conseil en date du 29 juillet 1971
indique à coup sûr que l'on s'est écarté de certaines des dispositions du
Règlement pour la solution des différends. En général, ilest évidemment
vrai que toutes les dérogations aux règlesétablies ne portent pas atteinte
à la validité des décisions mais ilen est certaines qui peuvent léser les
parties dans leurs droits et leurs intérêts.C'est pourquoi si l'une des
parties intéresséessoutient devant la Cour que des irrégularités de
procédure ont été commises,il est raisonnable que cela retienne I'atten-
tion de la Cour. C'est par suite àjuste titre que l'Inde a soulevé des objec-
tions.
Je regrette donc que la Cour n'ait pas examiné la question et, dans son
arrêt,se soit bornéeà Idire si le Conseil est compétent en l'espèce)(par.
45).Statuersur les vices de forme que la Cour peut éventuellement consta-
ter dans la manière dont le Conseil a pris ses décisions ou attirer sur eux
l'attention du Conseil, cela relèverait certainement du 11contrôle de ces
décisions par la Cour ))dont il est question dans un passage de l'arrêt
(par.26) que j'ai déjàmentionnéet auquel je souscris pleinement.
En outre on ne doit pas oublier que le Conseil, vu son expérience
limitée des problèmes de procédure et composé comme il l'est d'experts
dans d'autres domaines que le droit, a sans aucun dot--: besoin de
directives et que la Cour peut certainement les lui fournir. Ces directives
seraient très importantes pour la suite du présent procès et pour les ins-
tances à venir et accroîtraient la confiance des Etats qui confient au
Conseil la tâche de régler des désaccords survenant dans le domaine de
l'aviation civile.
MM. PETRÉNO , NYEAM DAI, LARD, DE CASTRO et JIMENE ZE ARÉ-
CAHAG j,ges, joignent à l'arrêtles exposésde leur opinion individuelle.
M. Mo~ozov, juge:, et M. NACENDRA SINGH,juge ad hoc, joignent à
l'arrêtl'exposéde leur opinion dissidente.
(Paraplré) F. A.
(Paraphé) S. A.
Judgment of 18 August 1972