SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC SIMMA Existence of the dispute as a condition to the exercise of the Court’s contentious jurisdiction — Question whether the dispute between the Parties continued to exist at the time of the decision — “Convergence of positions” not an agreement — Interpretation of the submissions of the Parties — Hollowed out dispute — The role of the Court in the pacific settlement of disputes. 1. I have voted with some reluctance in favour of the operative part of this Judgment. While I accept that the Court, being a court of justice, cannot exceed the inherent limitations incumbent upon it in the exercise of its judicial function, I wonder if justice is served when the Court renders a judgment of the kind it rendered today. Moreover, I am disappointed with the uncritical and somewhat impressionistic way in which the Court has ascertained whether certain points concerning the status and use of the waters of the Silala were still in dispute between the Parties at the time of the decision. These concerns have compelled me to append the present separate opinion. 2. It is a curiosity of this Judgment that it decides almost nothing. The Court has rendered a Judgment which is compact, almost “transactional” in form1. Of the five claims advanced by Chile and three counter-claims advanced by Bolivia, two are rejected (Judgment, paras. 128 and 162) and six are found to no longer have any object such that the Court is not called upon to give a decision thereon (ibid., paras. 59, 65, 76, 86, 147 and 155). The reasons given in the Judgment are on the whole confined to recording the various shifts and changes in the Respondent’s case made in the course of the proceedings. The operative part of the Judgment has little “operative” about it. With the exception of point 5, which concerns Chile’s submission (e), the operative part of the Judgment does not settle any of the points in dispute between the Parties (ibid., para. 163 (5)). 3. Why did the Court render such a Judgment? How did the mountain give birth to the proverbial mouse? The answer lies in the disappearance of most of the points in dispute between the Parties during the proceedings. I wish to make three sets of observations in this regard. I. THE DISAPPEARANCE OF CERTAIN POINTS IN DISPUTE 4. When in 2016 Chile instituted proceedings against Bolivia, the two neighbouring States had been embroiled in a dispute over the nature and use of the Silala waters for about twenty years. At the core of this dispute was a simple question: is the Silala River an international watercourse under customary international law? Chile affirmed that it was an international watercourse, and Bolivia denied this. For Bolivia, the Silala River was a national river whose waters had been diverted to Chile through channel works built at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Silala being a national river, it followed, in Bolivia’s view, that Chile did not have a right to the equitable and reasonable use of the waters to which riparian States are entitled under customary international law. Chile’s entitlement to an equitable and reasonable use of the waters thus turned on the nature of the Silala River under international law, which raised scientific and technical questions. By 1999, the nature of the Silala River had become a point of contention (Judgment, para. 34). The Parties’ various efforts to find common ground over the years proved unfruitful. Finally, in 2016, the President of Bolivia denied that the Silala was an international river (ibid., para. 37). 1 This is not the first judgment giving me this impression; cf. my separate opinion in the case concerning the Application of the Interim Accord of 13 September 1995 (the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia v. Greece), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), p. 697, para. 6. - 2 - 5. This statement appears to have prompted the Applicant to institute proceedings before the Court, asking, essentially, for a declaratory judgment as to the nature of the Silala River. This kind of judgment is designed to “ensure recognition of a situation at law, once and for all and with binding force as between the [p]arties; so that the legal position thus established cannot again be called in question in so far as the legal effects ensuing therefrom are concerned”2. 6. I do not find it necessary to dwell on the many ways the dispute has been altered by the Respondent’s shifts and changes throughout the proceedings. The Court takes note of these shifts and changes with sobriety (Judgment, paras. 52, 53, 62, 68, 79 and 152). The basic point is that the Respondent admitted the soundness of the Applicant’s case on the Silala and relinquished most of its claims. In their final submissions and in their oral arguments, both Parties therefore asked the Court to reject some or all of the other Party’s submissions on the ground that they no longer had any object because the Parties agreed with respect to the subject-matter of these submissions. 7. Yet, the Parties were at pains to explain exactly what it is that they were agreed about. 8. I agree that the existence of a dispute at the time of the decision is a condition for the Court to render a judgment on the merits and to pass upon the parties’ submissions. As the Court emphasized in the case concerning Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), “[t]he dispute brought before [the Court] must . . . continue to exist at the time when the Court makes its decision”3. There must be an element of “actual” dispute. 9. The Judgment’s test to decide whether a dispute has disappeared in the proceedings seems to me too low a bar. The Judgment asserts in paragraph 42 that the Court must “ascertain whether specific claims have become without object as a consequence of a convergence of positions or agreement between the Parties, or for some other reason” (emphasis added). I am not aware of any case where the Court has used the “convergence of positions” standard. To my mind, a finding that a point in dispute has disappeared during the proceedings calls for a high threshold because of the important repercussions it may have on the case. It may cause the Court to decide not to render a judgment or it may significantly narrow the decision to be rendered by the Court (as illustrated by the present Judgment). A “convergence of positions” is not an agreement. Parties before the Court may converge on the manner in which a problem arises but disagree on the solution of that problem. Parties whose views have converged may still wish to obtain from the Court a recognition and statement of the situation at law between them on the points which are still in dispute. 10. The Judgment concludes that the Parties agree on five claims, namely submissions (a), (b), (c) and (d) of Chile and Bolivia’s counter-claim (a) (Judgment, paras. 59, 65, 76, 86 and 146-147). I agree. The Judgment also concludes that the Parties’ positions have converged with regard to one submission, namely Bolivia’s counter-claim (b) (ibid., para. 155). I am more sceptical about this conclusion. This brings me to my second set of observations which touches on the Court’s interpretation of Bolivia’s counter-claim (b). 2 Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7 and 8 (Factory at Chorzów), Judgment No. 11, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 13, p. 20. 3 Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 270-271, para. 55. - 3 - II. THE INTERPRETATION OF THE PARTIES’ SUBMISSIONS 11. The Court had to interpret the Parties’ submissions to determine whether they reflected a dispute between them. The Judgment asserts that the Court “will take into account not only the submissions, but also, inter alia, the Application as well as all the arguments put forward by the Parties in the course of the written and oral proceedings” (Judgment, para. 43). Citing the case concerning Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, the Judgment also emphasizes that the Court has no power to “substitute itself for [the parties] and formulate new submissions simply on the basis of arguments and facts advanced”4. This is understood: the Court is always required to rule on the final submissions of the parties as formulated at the close of the oral proceedings5. 12. I am not convinced that the Court faithfully followed the methodology thus stated when interpreting Bolivia’s counter-claims, in particular counter-claim (b). 13. For context: Bolivia’s counter-claim (b), as formulated in its Counter-Memorial and Rejoinder, asked the Court to adjudge and declare that “Bolivia has sovereignty over the artificial flow of Silala waters engineered, enhanced, or produced in its territory and Chile has no right to that artificial flow” (Judgment, para. 26). This submission reflected Bolivia’s new theory of its case (by then it had abandoned its diversion theory6) that the Silala waters are part of an “artificially enhanced watercourse”. Bolivia referred to what it called the “artificial flow” of the Silala, explaining that international and domestic judicial decisions “recognize the legal relevance of the distinction between the existence of natural and artificial flows”7. It contended that its sovereignty over the waterworks located within its territory afforded it full sovereignty over the artificial flow of waters generated by the waterworks. The upshot of this view was that Chile could not use the “artificial flows” without Bolivia’s consent. This was the theory underpinning counter-claim (b). 14. Counter-claim (b) became untenable when, not a moment too soon during the oral proceedings, the Respondent acknowledged that Chile’s right to make equitable and reasonable use of the waters of the Silala covers the entirety of the waters (Judgment, para. 63). 15. At this point, it may be thought that the Respondent would have abandoned its counter-claim. It did not. Instead, the Respondent reformulated counter-claim (b), suggesting a strained interpretation which is inconsistent with that claim’s very wording. 16. The counter-claim as reformulated by Bolivia at the end of the oral proceedings asks the Court to adjudge and declare that “Bolivia has sovereignty over the artificial flow of Silala waters engineered, enhanced, or produced in its territory and Chile has no acquired right to that artificial flow” (emphasis added). The terms of the submission are clear, and the reader is justified in assuming that they mean what they say. The fig leaf added (the word “acquired”) does not alchemize its purport. The origin of the submission must also be borne in mind. In the light of this, it escapes me 4 Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Merits, Judgment No. 7, 1926, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7, p. 35. 5 Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Niger), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2013, p. 68, para. 41. 6 The experts of the Parties agreed that the Silala River flows naturally from Bolivia to Chile due to the topographical gradient. See Counter-Memorial of Bolivia, Vol. 2, Ann. 17, Danish Hydraulic Institute (DHI), Study of the Flows in the Silala Wetlands and Springs System, 2018, p. 266, para. 10 (noting that “without canals, both surface and groundwater will cross the border”); Reply of Chile, H. S. Wheater and D. W. Peach, Impacts of Channelization of the Silala River in Bolivia on the Hydrology of the Silala River Basin, 2019, p. 43 (noting that Chile’s and Bolivia’s experts agree that “[t]he Silala River flows naturally from Bolivia to Chile”). 7 CMB, p. 58, para. 81. - 4 - how the Judgment interprets this submission as requesting the Court to adjudge and declare that Bolivia has the “sovereign right” to decide whether and how to maintain the channels and drainage mechanisms located in its territory (Judgment, para. 153) 8. 17. All the same, the Court adopts the Respondent’s interpretation. Having adopted this interpretation, the Court is able to conclude that the positions of the Parties have converged on that claim and that, therefore, the Court is not called upon to give a decision thereon. I note that the Court, in the end, rejects the Respondent’s theory of sovereignty over the “artificial flow” in a brief yet illuminating passage (ibid., para. 93). Rightly so. This theory is inconsistent with international and domestic decisions on the matter9. III. IMPLICATIONS BEYOND THIS CASE 18. This brings me to my third and final set of observations. States appearing before the Court have a legitimate interest in seeking declaratory judgments that may ensure recognition of a situation at law, once and for all and with binding force. In order to be binding, this recognition must be clothed in the operative part of the judgment, which alone is binding on the parties. I am troubled that the present Judgment might be read as sending the signal that any position may be held, however untenable, so long as this position is abandoned at the eleventh hour of the judicial proceedings. In this regard, I see a difference between a dispute that has disappeared because the parties genuinely have come to agree in the course of the proceedings, and a dispute that has been hollowed out by one party wishing to evade a declaratory judgment and the legal effects ensuing therefrom. 19. I am perplexed as to why the Judgment does not record the agreement of the Parties reached in the course of the proceedings. In the circumstances of this case, it would have been appropriate and helpful to the Parties. In the case concerning Société Commerciale de Belgique, the Court’s predecessor, the Permanent Court of International Justice, stated in the operative clause that it “not[ed] the agreement between the Parties”10. The agreement in question was arrived at towards the end of the oral proceedings, as a consequence of declarations of the Greek Government (in fact, counsel speaking on behalf of the Agent who was present in the Court), declarations which Belgium 8 This interpretation also makes counter-claim (b) entirely redundant with counter-claim (a), which asks the Court to adjudge and declare that “Bolivia has sovereignty over the artificial canals and drainage mechanisms in the Silala that are located in its territory [note the lapalissade!] and has the right to decide whether and how to maintain them”, emphasis added. 9 From among the relevant jurisprudence, see Aargau v. Zurich, Entscheidungen des Schweizerischen Bundesgerichts, Vol. IV (1878), p. 34 (where the Swiss Federal Court stated that “[w]ith regard to public waters, the cantons have no private ownership, but only sovereignty”); Societe énergie électrique du littoral méditerranéen v. Compagnia imprese elettriche liguri, 1939, Italian Court of Cassation, Annual Digest and Reports of Public International Law Cases, Vol. 9 (1938-1940), p. 121 (where the Italian Court of Cassation stated that “[i]nternational law recognizes the right on the part of every riparian State to enjoy, as a participant of a kind of partnership created by the river, all the advantages deriving from it for the purpose of securing the welfare and the economic and civil progress of the nation”, emphasis added); Report of the Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal, Vol. I, p. 30 (where the Tribunal stated that “[n]o State has a proprietary interest in a particular volume of water of an Inter-State River on the basis of its contribution or irrigable area”); Report of the Ravi-Beas Waters Tribunal, p. 94 (where the Tribunal stated that “[t]here is nothing in law for anyone including the State to claim absolute proprietary rights in river waters”); Mississippi v. Tennessee, United States Reports, Vol. 525 (2021), pp. 9-10 (where the Supreme Court of the United States stated that the fact that a State has full jurisdiction over the lands within its borders, including the beds of streams and other waters, “does not confer unfettered ‘ownership or control’ of flowing interstate waters themselves”). 10 Société Commerciale de Belgique, Judgment, 1939, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 78, p. 178. - 5 - treated as “changing the character of the dispute”, leading it to withdraw part of its original submissions 11. This situation is uncannily analogous to the one which presented itself here. 20. States do not institute proceedings before the World Court at the drop of a hat. The cases they bring to the Court are usually of considerable importance legally and politically and the volume of preparation and work involved is significant, sometimes enormous. Hundreds of professionals may be involved. Technical or scientific expertise may be mobilized. The Court owes it to the parties to render well-reasoned judgments which settle their disputes with binding force, and, where appropriate, offers them guidance on their rights and obligations. Reflecting on the Court’s deliberative process, the then President of the Permanent Court of International Justice, Max Huber, once compared the Court’s decisions to “ships which are intended to be launched on the high seas of international criticism”12. It is a pity that today the Court chose to launch an empty vessel. (Signed) Bruno SIMMA. ___________ 11 As the Court notes in Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Niger), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2013, p. 72, para. 57. 12 Quoted in Ole Spiermann, International Legal Argument in the Permanent Court of International Justice: The Rise of the International Judiciary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 248.
677
67
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC SIMMA
Existence of the dispute as a condition to the exercise of the Court’s contentious
jurisdiction — Question whether the dispute between the Parties continued to exist
at the time of the decision — “Convergence of positions” not an agreement —
Interpretation of the submissions of the Parties — Hollowed out dispute — The
role of the Court in the pacific settlement of disputes.
1. I have voted with some reluctance in favour of the operative part of
this Judgment. While I accept that the Court, being a court of justice,
cannot exceed the inherent limitations incumbent upon it in the exercise
of its judicial function, I wonder if justice is served when the Court renders
a judgment of the kind it rendered today. Moreover, I am disappointed
with the uncritical and somewhat impressionistic way in which
the Court has ascertained whether certain points concerning the status
and use of the waters of the Silala were still in dispute between the Parties
at the time of the decision. These concerns have compelled me to append
the present separate opinion.
2. It is a curiosity of this Judgment that it decides almost nothing. The
Court has rendered a Judgment which is compact, almost “transactional”
in form 1. Of the five claims advanced by Chile and three counter-claims
advanced by Bolivia, two are rejected (Judgment, paras. 128 and 162) and
six are found to no longer have any object such that the Court is not
called upon to give a decision thereon (ibid., paras. 59, 65, 76, 86, 147 and
155). The reasons given in the Judgment are on the whole confined
to recording the various shifts and changes in the Respondent’s case
made in the course of the proceedings. The operative part of the Judgment
has little “operative” about it. With the exception of point 5, which
concerns Chile’s submission (e), the operative part of the Judgment
does not settle any of the points in dispute between the Parties (ibid.,
para. 163 (5)).
3. Why did the Court render such a Judgment? How did the mountain
give birth to the proverbial mouse? The answer lies in the disappearance
of most of the points in dispute between the Parties during the
proceedings. I wish to make three sets of observations in this regard.
1 This is not the first judgment giving me this impression; cf. my separate opinion in
the case concerning the Application of the Interim Accord of 13 September 1995 (the former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia v. Greece), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), p. 697, para. 6.
677
67
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC SIMMA
[Traduction]
Existence du différend comme condition à l’exercice par la Cour de sa compéence
contentieuse — Question de savoir si le différend entre les Parties persistait
au moment de la décision — « Convergence des positions » n’étant pas un accord
— Interprétation des conclusions des Parties — Différend vidé de sa substance —
Rôle de la Cour dans le règlement pacifique des différends.
1. C’est avec une certaine réticence que j’ai voté en faveur du dispositif
du présent arrêt. Je conviens que la Cour, en tant que tribunal, ne peut
outrepasser les limitations inhérentes à l’exercice de sa fonction judiciaire,
mais je me demande néanmoins si justice est rendue lorsqu’elle statue
comme elle l’a fait aujourd’hui. En outre, je suis déçu de l’approche non
critique et quelque peu impressionniste qu’a suivie la Cour pour déterminer
si certains points en litige entre les Parties concernant le statut et
l’utilisation des eaux du Silala persistaient au moment où elle a statué.
Aussi ai-je estimé qu’il me fallait joindre à l’arrêt la présente opinion individuelle.
2. Cet arrêt est curieux en ce qu’il ne décide presque rien ; il est concis
et comme « transactionnel » dans sa forme 1. Sur les cinq demandes présentées
par le Chili et les trois demandes reconventionnelles présentées
par la Bolivie, la Cour en a rejeté deux (arrêt, par. 128 et 162) et a considéré
que les six autres étaient devenues sans objet de sorte qu’elle n’était
plus appelée à y statuer (ibid., par. 59, 65, 76, 86, 147 et 155). Les motifs
exposés dans l’arrêt se limitent dans l’ensemble à un constat des divers
changements et revirements opérés par la défenderesse dans sa thèse en
cours de procédure. Le dispositif ne « dispose » guère. Il ne tranche aucun
des points en litige entre les Parties, à l’exception du point 5, qui concerne
la demande formulée par le Chili à l’alinéa e) de sa conclusion finale (ibid.,
par. 163, point 5).
3. Pourquoi la Cour a-t-elle rendu pareil arrêt ? Comment, pour citer le
proverbe, la montagne a-t-elle pu accoucher d’une souris ? La réponse
tient à ce que la plupart des points en litige entre les Parties ont disparu
en cours d’instance. Je souhaite faire trois séries d’observations à cet
égard.
1 Ce n’est pas le premier arrêt qui me donne cette impression ; cf. mon opinion individuelle
dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de l’accord intérimaire du 13 septembre 1995
(ex‑République yougoslave de Macédoine c. Grèce), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II), p. 697,
par. 6.
678 status and use of the silala (sep. op. simma)
68
I. The Disappearance of Certain Points in Dispute
4. When in 2016 Chile instituted proceedings against Bolivia, the two
neighbouring States had been embroiled in a dispute over the nature and
use of the Silala waters for about 20 years. At the core of this dispute was
a simple question: is the Silala River an international watercourse under
customary international law? Chile affirmed that it was an international
watercourse, and Bolivia denied this. For Bolivia, the Silala River was a
national river whose waters had been diverted to Chile through channel
works built at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Silala being a
national river, it followed, in Bolivia’s view, that Chile did not have a
right to the equitable and reasonable use of the waters to which riparian
States are entitled under customary international law. Chile’s entitlement
to an equitable and reasonable use of the waters thus turned on the nature
of the Silala River under international law, which raised scientific and
technical questions. By 1999, the nature of the Silala River had become a
point of contention (Judgment, para. 32). The Parties’ various efforts to
find common ground over the years proved unfruitful. Finally, in 2016,
the President of Bolivia denied that the Silala was an international river
(ibid., para. 37).
5. This statement appears to have prompted the Applicant to institute
proceedings before the Court, asking, essentially, for a declaratory judgment
as to the nature of the Silala River. This kind of judgment is
designed to “ensure recognition of a situation at law, once and for all and
with binding force as between the [p]arties; so that the legal position thus
established cannot again be called in question in so far as the legal effects
ensuing therefrom are concerned” 2.
6. I do not find it necessary to dwell on the many ways the dispute has
been altered by the Respondent’s shifts and changes throughout the proceedings.
The Court takes note of these shifts and changes with sobriety
(ibid., paras. 52-53, 62, 68, 79 and 152). The basic point is that the Respondent
admitted the soundness of the Applicant’s case on the Silala and
relinquished most of its claims. In their final submissions and in their oral
arguments, both Parties therefore asked the Court to reject some or all
of the other Party’s submissions on the ground that they no longer had
any object because the Parties agreed with respect to the subject-matter of
these submissions.
7. Yet, the Parties were at pains to explain exactly what it is that they
were agreed about.
8. I agree that the existence of a dispute at the time of the decision is a
condition for the Court to render a judgment on the merits and to pass
upon the parties’ submissions. As the Court emphasized in the case concerning
Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), “[t]he dispute brought before
2 Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7 and 8 (Factory at Chorzów), Judgment No. 11, 1927,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 13, p. 20.
statut et utilisation du silala (op. ind. simma) 678
68
I. La disparition de certains points en litige
4. Lorsque le Chili a introduit l’instance contre la Bolivie en 2016, cela
faisait près de 20 ans que les deux Etats voisins étaient pris dans un litige
sur le caractère et l’utilisation des eaux du Silala. La question au coeur du
différend était simple : le Silala était-il un cours d’eau international au
sens du droit international coutumier ? Le Chili considérait que c’était le
cas, mais pas la Bolivie. Pour la défenderesse, le Silala était un cours
d’eau national dont les eaux avaient été détournées par le Chili au moyen
d’ouvrages de chenalisation construits au début du XXe siècle. Le Silala
étant pour elle un cours d’eau national, la Bolivie estimait que le Chili
n’avait pas droit à l’utilisation équitable et raisonnable des eaux auxquelles
les Etats riverains peuvent prétendre en droit international coutumier.
Le droit du Chili à une utilisation équitable et raisonnable des
eaux du Silala dépendait donc du caractère de ce cours d’eau en droit
international coutumier, ce qui soulevait des questions techniques et
scientifiques. A partir de 1999, la question du caractère du Silala est
devenue un sujet de désaccord (arrêt, par. 32). Les divers efforts déployés
par les Parties au fil des ans pour trouver un terrain d’entente se sont
révélés vains. Finalement, en 2016, le président bolivien a publiquement
contesté que le Silala fût un cours d’eau international (ibid., par. 37).
5. Cette déclaration semble avoir décidé le Chili à saisir la Cour afin
de solliciter, pour l’essentiel, un jugement déclaratoire quant au caractère
du Silala. Ce type de jugement vise à « faire reconnaître une situation
de droit une fois pour toutes et avec effet obligatoire entre les [p]arties, en
sorte que la situation juridique ainsi fixée ne puisse plus être mise en discussion,
pour ce qui est des conséquences juridiques qui en découlent » 2.
6. Je ne pense pas qu’il soit nécessaire de nous attarder sur les nombreuses
façons dont le différend a été modifié par suite des changements
et revirements de la défenderesse pendant la procédure. La Cour a pris
sobrement note de ces changements (ibid., par. 52-53, 62, 68, 79 et 152).
Ce qu’il faut retenir c’est que la défenderesse a reconnu le bien-fondé des
arguments du demandeur concernant le Silala et a renoncé à la plupart de
ses demandes. Dans leurs plaidoiries et leurs conclusions finales, les deux
Parties ont ainsi prié la Cour de rejeter tout ou partie des demandes de
l’autre au motif que celles-ci étaient devenues sans objet par suite de leur
accord à cet égard.
7. Pourtant, les Parties ont difficilement su expliquer ce sur quoi précisément
elles s’accordaient.
8. Je conviens que l’existence d’un différend au moment de statuer est
une condition pour que la Cour rende un arrêt au fond et se prononce sur
les conclusions des parties. Ainsi qu’elle l’a souligné dans l’affaire des
Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), « [l]e différend dont [elle est] saisie
2 Interprétation des arrêts nos 7 et 8 (usine de Chorzów), arrêt no 11, 1927, C.P.J.I. série A
no 13, p. 20.
679 status and use of the silala (sep. op. simma)
69
[the Court] must . . . continue to exist at the time when the Court makes
its decision” 3. There must be an element of “actual” dispute.
9. The Judgment’s test to decide whether a dispute has disappeared in
the proceedings seems to me too low a bar. The Judgment asserts in paragraph
42 that the Court must “ascertain whether specific claims have
become without object as a consequence of a convergence of positions or
agreement between the Parties, or for some other reason” (emphasis
added). I am not aware of any case where the Court has used the “convergence
of positions” standard. To my mind, a finding that a point in
dispute has disappeared during the proceedings calls for a high threshold
because of the important repercussions it may have on the case. It may
cause the Court to decide not to render a judgment or it may significantly
narrow the decision to be rendered by the Court (as illustrated by the
present Judgment). A “convergence of positions” is not an agreement.
Parties before the Court may converge on the manner in which a problem
arises but disagree on the solution of that problem. Parties whose views
have converged may still wish to obtain from the Court a recognition and
statement of the situation at law between them on the points which are
still in dispute.
10. The Judgment concludes that the Parties agree on five claims,
namely submissions (a), (b), (c) and (d) of Chile and Bolivia’s counterclaim
(a) (Judgment, paras. 59, 65, 76, 86 and 146-147). I agree. The
Judgment also concludes that the Parties’ positions have converged with
regard to one submission, namely Bolivia’s counter-claim (b) (ibid.,
para. 155). I am more sceptical about this conclusion. This brings me to
my second set of observations which touches on the Court’s interpretation
of Bolivia’s counter-claim (b).
II. The Interpretation of the Parties’ Submissions
11. The Court had to interpret the Parties’ submissions to determine
whether they reflected a dispute between them. The Judgment asserts that
the Court “will take into account not only the submissions, but also, inter
alia, the Application as well as all the arguments put forward by the Parties
in the course of the written and oral proceedings” (ibid., para. 43).
Citing the case concerning Certain German Interests in Polish Upper
Silesia, the Judgment also emphasizes that the Court has no power
to “substitute itself for [the parties] and formulate new submissions simply
on the basis of arguments and facts advanced” 4. This is understood:
3 Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 271, para. 55.
4 Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Merits, Judgment No. 7, 1926, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 7, p. 35.
statut et utilisation du silala (op. ind. simma) 679
69
doit ... persister au moment où elle statue » 3. Il doit y avoir un élément de
litige « réel ».
9. J’estime, au vu des considérations exposées dans l’arrêt, que le seuil
à partir duquel il est établi qu’un différend a disparu en cours d’instance
est ici trop bas. Il est dit, au paragraphe 42, que la Cour doit « rechercher
si des demandes données sont devenues sans objet à la suite d’une convergence
des positions des Parties ou d’un accord entre celles-ci, ou pour
quelque autre raison » (les italiques sont de moi). Je ne crois pas que la
Cour ait jamais auparavant pris comme référence la « convergence des
positions ». A mon sens, le seuil à partir duquel il est possible de conclure
qu’un point en litige a disparu pendant la procédure doit être élevé en
raison des répercussions importantes que cela peut avoir sur l’affaire : la
Cour pourrait en effet décider de ne pas statuer, ou la décision à rendre
pourrait s’en trouver considérablement réduite (comme l’illustre le présent
arrêt). Une « convergence des positions » n’est pas un accord. Ainsi,
il se peut que les Parties devant la Cour voient leurs positions converger
quant à la façon dont un problème se pose, mais soient en désaccord sur
la solution à apporter à ce problème. Les Parties dont les vues ont
convergé peuvent malgré tout souhaiter faire reconnaître et constater par
la Cour la situation de droit entre elles sur les points qui demeurent en
litige.
10. Il est conclu dans l’arrêt que les Parties s’accordent sur cinq
demandes, à savoir celles contenues dans les conclusions finales a), b), c)
et d) du Chili et dans la demande reconventionnelle a) de la Bolivie (arrêt,
par. 59, 65, 76, 86 et 146-147), ce à quoi je souscris. Il y est aussi conclu
que les positions des Parties ont convergé s’agissant de la demande reconventionnelle
b) de la Bolivie (ibid., par. 155), ce sur quoi je suis un peu
plus sceptique. Cela m’amène à ma deuxième série d’observations, qui
concerne l’interprétation faite par la Cour de la demande reconventionnelle
b) de la Bolivie.
II. L’interprétation des conclusions des Parties
11. La Cour devait interpréter les conclusions des Parties afin de déterminer
si elles reflétaient un différend entre ces dernières. Il est dit dans
l’arrêt que, pour ce faire, la Cour « prend en considération non seulement
les conclusions, mais aussi, entre autres, la requête et tous les arguments
avancés par les Parties au cours de la procédure écrite et orale » (ibid.,
par. 43). Il y est en outre souligné, par renvoi à l’affaire relative à Certains
intérêts allemands en Haute-Silésie polonaise, que la Cour n’a pas le pouvoir
de « se substituer [aux parties] pour … formuler de nouvelles [conclusions]
sur la [seule] base des … thèses avancées et faits allégués » 4. C’est un
3 Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 271, par. 55.
4 Certains intérêts allemands en Haute-Silésie polonaise, fond, arrêt no 7, 1926, C.P.J.I.
série A no 7, p. 35.
680 status and use of the silala (sep. op. simma)
70
the Court is always required to rule on the final submissions of the parties
as formulated at the close of the oral proceedings 5.
12. I am not convinced that the Court faithfully followed the methodology
thus stated when interpreting Bolivia’s counter-claims, in particular
counter-claim (b).
13. For context: Bolivia’s counter-claim (b), as formulated in its
Counter-Memorial and Rejoinder, asked the Court to adjudge and
declare that “Bolivia has sovereignty over the artificial flow of Silala
waters engineered, enhanced, or produced in its territory and Chile has
no right to that artificial flow” (Judgment, para. 26). This submission
reflected Bolivia’s new theory of its case (by then it had abandoned its
diversion theory 6) that the Silala waters are part of an “artificially
enhanced watercourse”. Bolivia referred to what it called the “artificial
flow” of the Silala, explaining that international and domestic judicial
decisions “recognize the legal relevance of the distinction between the
existence of natural and artificial flows” 7. It contended that its sovereignty
over the waterworks located within its territory afforded it full sovereignty
over the artificial flow of waters generated by the waterworks.
The upshot of this view was that Chile could not use the “artificial flows”
without Bolivia’s consent. This was the theory underpinning counterclaim
(b).
14. Counter-claim (b) became untenable when, not a moment too soon
during the oral proceedings, the Respondent acknowledged that Chile’s
right to make equitable and reasonable use of the waters of the Silala
covers the entirety of the waters (ibid., para. 63).
15. At this point, it may be thought that the Respondent would have
abandoned its counter-claim. It did not. Instead, the Respondent reformulated
counter-claim (b), suggesting a strained interpretation which is
inconsistent with that claim’s very wording.
16. The counter-claim as reformulated by Bolivia at the end of the oral
proceedings asks the Court to adjudge and declare that “Bolivia has sovereignty
over the artificial flow of Silala waters engineered, enhanced, or
produced in its territory and Chile has no acquired right to that artificial
5 Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Niger), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2013, p. 68, para. 41.
6 The experts of the Parties agreed that the Silala River flows naturally from Bolivia to
Chile due to the topographical gradient. See Counter-Memorial of Bolivia, Vol. 2, Ann. 17,
Danish Hydraulic Institute (DHI), Study of the Flows in the Silala Wetlands and Springs
System, 2018, p. 266, para. 10 (noting that “without canals, both surface and groundwater
will cross the border”); Reply of Chile, H. S. Wheater and D. W. Peach, Impacts of Channelization
of the Silala River in Bolivia on the Hydrology of the Silala River Basin, 2019, p. 43
(noting that Chile’s and Bolivia’s experts agree that “[t]he Silala River flows naturally from
Bolivia to Chile”).
7 Counter-Memorial of Bolivia, p. 58, para. 81.
statut et utilisation du silala (op. ind. simma) 680
70
fait entendu : la Cour est toujours appelée à statuer sur les conclusions
finales des parties telles qu’elles sont formulées au terme de la procédure
orale 5.
12. Je ne suis pas convaincu que la Cour ait fidèlement suivi la méthodologie
ainsi établie lorsqu’elle a interprété les demandes reconventionnelles
de la Bolivie, en particulier la demande reconventionnelle b).
13. Pour rappel, la Bolivie, dans sa demande reconventionnelle b) telle
qu’elle est formulée dans le contre-mémoire et la duplique, priait la Cour
de dire et juger qu’elle « détient la souveraineté sur les eaux du Silala dont
l’écoulement a été artificiellement aménagé, amélioré ou créé sur son territoire,
et [que] le Chili n’a pas droit à cet écoulement artificiel » (arrêt,
par. 26). Cette prétention reflétait la nouvelle théorie de la Bolivie (qui
avait alors abandonné sa théorie du détournement des eaux 6) selon
laquelle les eaux du Silala faisaient partie d’un « cours d’eau artificiellement
amélioré ». La Bolivie se référait à ce qu’elle appelait l’« écoulement
artificiel » du Silala, affirmant que « l’intérêt juridique d’établir une distinction
entre écoulements naturels et écoulements artificiels a[vait] été
reconnu » dans des décisions judiciaires nationales et internationales 7.
Elle soutenait que la souveraineté qu’elle détient sur les ouvrages hydrauliques
situés sur son territoire lui conférait la pleine souveraineté sur
l’écoulement artificiel des eaux généré par lesdits ouvrages. Il en résultait
que le Chili ne pouvait pas utiliser les eaux qui « s’écoulent artificiellement
» sans son consentement. Voilà la théorie qui sous-tendait la
demande reconventionnelle b).
14. Or la demande reconventionnelle b) est devenue indéfendable
lorsque, pendant les audiences, la défenderesse a enfin admis que le droit
du Chili à l’utilisation équitable et raisonnable des eaux du Silala s’appliquait
à la globalité des eaux (ibid., par. 63).
15. On aurait alors pu penser que la défenderesse abandonnerait sa
demande reconventionnelle b), mais elle n’en a rien fait. Elle a préféré la
reformuler et en proposer une interprétation forcée qui en contredit les
termes mêmes.
16. Ainsi, la Bolivie, dans sa demande reconventionnelle b) telle que
reformulée à l’issue de la procédure orale, priait la Cour de dire et juger
qu’elle « détient la souveraineté sur les eaux du Silala dont l’écoulement a
été artificiellement aménagé, amélioré ou créé sur son territoire, et [que] le
5 Différend frontalier (Burkina Faso/Niger), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2013, p. 68, par. 41.
6 Les experts des Parties sont convenus que le Silala s’écoule naturellement de la Bolivie
au Chili en raison de la pente topographique. Voir le contre-mémoire de la Bolivie, vol. 2,
annexe 17, Danish Hydraulic Institute (DHI), Etude des écoulements dans les zones humides
et le système de sources du Silala, 2018, p. 266, par. 10 (où il est indiqué que, « [e]n l’absence
de canaux, tant les eaux de surface que les eaux souterraines traverseraient la frontière ») ;
et la réplique du Chili, H. S. Wheater et D. W. Peach, Incidences de la chenalisation du
Silala en Bolivie sur l’hydrologie de son bassin hydrographique, 2019, p. 43 (où il est dit
que les experts du Chili et ceux de la Bolivie conviennent que « [l]e Silala s’écoule naturellement
de la Bolivie au Chili »).
7 Contre-mémoire de la Bolivie, p. 58, par. 81.
681 status and use of the silala (sep. op. simma)
71
flow” (emphasis added). The terms of the submission are clear, and the
reader is justified in assuming that they mean what they say. The fig leaf
added (the word “acquired”) does not alchemize its purport. The origin
of the submission must also be borne in mind. In the light of this, it
escapes me how the Judgment interprets this submission as requesting the
Court to adjudge and declare that Bolivia has the “sovereign right” to
decide whether and how to maintain the channels and drainage mechanisms
located in its territory (Judgment, para. 153) 8.
17. All the same, the Court adopts the Respondent’s interpretation.
Having adopted this interpretation, the Court is able to conclude that the
positions of the Parties have converged on that claim and that, therefore,
the Court is not called upon to give a decision thereon.
I note that the Court, in the end, rejects the Respondent’s theory of
sovereignty over the “artificial flow” in a brief yet illuminating passage
(ibid., para. 93). Rightly so. This theory is inconsistent with international
and domestic decisions on the matter 9.
III. Implications beyond This Case
18. This brings me to my third and final set of observations. States
appearing before the Court have a legitimate interest in seeking declara-
8 This interpretation also makes counter-claim (b) entirely redundant with counterclaim
(a), which asks the Court to adjudge and declare that “Bolivia has sovereignty over
the artificial canals and drainage mechanisms in the Silala that are located in its territory
[note the lapalissade!] and has the right to decide whether and how to maintain them”,
(emphasis added).
9 From among the relevant jurisprudence, see Aargau v. Zurich, Entscheidungen des
Schweizerischen Bundesgerichts, Vol. IV (1878), p. 34 (where the Swiss Federal Court stated
that “[w]ith regard to public waters, the cantons have no private ownership, but only sovereignty”);
Societe énergie électrique du littoral méditerranéen v. Compagnia imprese elettriche
liguri, 1939, Italian Court of Cassation, Annual Digest and Reports of Public International
Law Cases, Vol. 9 (1938-1940), p. 121 (where the Italian Court of Cassation stated that
“[i]nternational law recognizes the right on the part of every riparian State to enjoy, as a
participant of a kind of partnership created by the river, all the advantages deriving from it
for the purpose of securing the welfare and the economic and civil progress of the nation”,
(emphasis added)); Report of the Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal, Vol. I, p. 30 (where the
Tribunal stated that “[n]o State has a proprietary interest in a particular volume of water
of an Inter-State River on the basis of its contribution or irrigable area”); Report of the
Ravi-Beas Waters Tribunal, p. 94 (where the Tribunal stated that “[t]here is nothing in
law for anyone including the State to claim absolute proprietary rights in river waters”);
Mississippi v. Tennessee, United States Reports, Vol. 525 (2021), pp. 9-10 (where the Supreme
Court of the United States stated that the fact that a State has full jurisdiction over the
lands within its borders, including the beds of streams and other waters, “does not confer
unfettered ‘ownership or control’ of flowing interstate waters themselves”).
statut et utilisation du silala (op. ind. simma) 681
71
Chili n’a pas de droit acquis sur cet écoulement artificiel » (les italiques
sont de moi). Les termes employés ici sont clairs, et le lecteur est fondé à
supposer qu’ils signifient ce qu’ils disent. L’ajout d’un artifice (le terme
« acquis ») n’en transforme pas la signification. Il convient en outre de
garder à l’esprit l’origine de la demande. Au vu de tout cela, je ne parviens
pas à comprendre comment, dans l’arrêt, la Cour a pu interpréter
qu’elle était priée, par cette demande, de dire et juger que la Bolivie
détient le « droit souverain » de décider si les canaux et les installations de
drainage qui sont situés sur son territoire doivent être maintenus et selon
quelles modalités (arrêt, par. 153) 8.
17. Il reste que la Cour adopte l’interprétation de la défenderesse, ce
qui lui permet de conclure que les positions des Parties ont convergé sur
cette demande et qu’il n’y a dès lors pas lieu pour elle d’y statuer.
Je constate que la Cour, dans un paragraphe succinct qui n’en reste pas
moins révélateur, rejette en définitive la théorie de la défenderesse concernant
la souveraineté sur l’« écoulement artificiel » (ibid., par. 93), et ce, à
juste titre. Cette théorie était incompatible avec des décisions nationales
et internationales rendues en la matière 9.
III. Les conséquences au-delà de la présente espèce
18. Cela m’amène à ma troisième et dernière série d’observations. Les
Etats qui se présentent devant la Cour ont un intérêt légitime à requérir
8 Ainsi interprétée, la demande reconventionnelle b) fait en outre double emploi avec
la demande reconventionnelle a), dans laquelle la Cour est priée de dire et juger que « la
Bolivie détient la souveraineté sur les canaux artificiels et les installations de drainage du
Silala qui sont situés sur son territoire [notons la lapalissade !] et a le droit de décider si
ceux-ci doivent être maintenus et selon quelles modalités » (les italiques sont de moi).
9 Parmi la jurisprudence pertinente, voir Aargau v. Zurich, Entscheidungen des Schweizerischen
Bundesgerichts, 1878, vol. IV, p. 34 (où le Tribunal fédéral suisse a déclaré que,
« [s]’agissant des eaux publiques, les cantons ne détiennent aucun droit de propriété privée ;
ils détiennent seulement la souveraineté ») ; Société énergie électrique du littoral méditerranéen
v. Compagnia imprese elettriche liguri, 1939, Cour de cassation italienne, Annual
Digest and Reports of Public International Law Cases, vol. 9, 1938-1940, p. 121 (où la Cour
de cassation italienne a dit que « [l]e droit international reconnaît à tout Etat riverain le
droit de jouir, en tant que participant à une sorte de partenariat né du fleuve, de tous les
avantages qui en découlent afin d’assurer le bien-être et le progrès économique et civil de
la nation » (les italiques sont de moi)) ; Report of the Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal, vol. I,
p. 30 (où le tribunal des eaux chargé des litiges relatifs au fleuve Krishna a dit qu’« [a]ucun
Etat n’est propriétaire d’un volume particulier d’eau d’un fleuve interétatique sur la base
de sa contribution ou de sa superficie irrigable ») ; Report of the Ravi-Beas Waters Tribunal,
p. 94 (où le tribunal des eaux chargé des litiges relatifs aux fleuves Ravi et Beas a dit que
« [r]ien, en droit, ne permet à quiconque, Etat compris, de revendiquer des droits de
propriété pleine et entière à l’égard d’eaux fluviales ») ; Mississippi v. Tennessee, United
States Reports, vol. 525, 2021, p. 9-10 (où la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis a conclu que le
fait qu’un Etat ait pleine juridiction sur les terres situées à l’intérieur de ses frontières, y
compris les lits de cours d’eau et autres types d’eaux, « ne conf[érait] pas « la propriété ou
le contrôle » illimité des eaux transfrontières proprement dites »).
682 status and use of the silala (sep. op. simma)
72
tory judgments that may ensure recognition of a situation at law, once
and for all and with binding force. In order to be binding, this recognition
must be clothed in the operative part of the judgment, which alone is
binding on the parties. I am troubled that the present Judgment might be
read as sending the signal that any position may be held, however untenable,
so long as this position is abandoned at the eleventh hour of the
judicial proceedings. In this regard, I see a difference between a dispute
that has disappeared because the parties genuinely have come to agree in
the course of the proceedings, and a dispute that has been hollowed out
by one party wishing to evade a declaratory judgment and the legal effects
ensuing therefrom.
19. I am perplexed as to why the Judgment does not record the agreement
of the Parties reached in the course of the proceedings. In the circumstances
of this case, it would have been appropriate and helpful to the
Parties. In the case concerning Société Commerciale de Belgique, the
Court’s predecessor, the Permanent Court of International Justice, stated
in the operative clause that it “not[ed] the agreement between the
Parties” 10. The agreement in question was arrived at towards the end of
the oral proceedings, as a consequence of declarations of the Greek Government
(in fact, counsel speaking on behalf of the Agent who was present
in the Court), declarations which Belgium treated as “changing the
character of the dispute”, leading it to withdraw part of its original submissions
11. This situation is uncannily analogous to the one which presented
itself here.
20. States do not institute proceedings before the World Court at the
drop of a hat. The cases they bring to the Court are usually of considerable
importance legally and politically and the volume of preparation and
work involved is significant, sometimes enormous. Hundreds of professionals
may be involved. Technical or scientific expertise may be mobilized.
The Court owes it to the parties to render well-reasoned judgments
which settle their disputes with binding force, and, where appropriate,
offers them guidance on their rights and obligations. Reflecting on the
Court’s deliberative process, the then President of the Permanent Court
of International Justice, Max Huber, once compared the Court’s decisions
to “ships which are intended to be launched on the high seas of
international criticism” 12. It is a pity that today the Court chose to launch
an empty vessel.
(Signed) Bruno Simma.
10 Société Commerciale de Belgique, Judgment, 1939, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 78, p. 178.
11 As the Court notes in Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Niger), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2013, p. 72, para. 57.
12 Quoted in Ole Spiermann, International Legal Argument in the Permanent Court of
International Justice: The Rise of the International Judiciary, Cambridge University Press,
2005, p. 248.
statut et utilisation du silala (op. ind. simma) 682
72
un arrêt déclaratoire pouvant faire reconnaître une situation de droit une
fois pour toutes et avec effet obligatoire. Pour être contraignante, cette
reconnaissance doit figurer dans le dispositif de l’arrêt, lui seul s’imposant
aux parties. Je crains que le présent arrêt ne puisse donner à entendre que
toute position peut être défendue, aussi insoutenable soit-elle, pour autant
qu’elle soit abandonnée juste avant la fin de la procédure judiciaire. A cet
égard, j’estime qu’il existe une distinction entre un différend qui a disparu
par suite d’un véritable accord entre les parties en cours d’instance et un
différend qui a été vidé de sa substance par l’une des parties qui souhaite
échapper à un arrêt déclaratoire et aux effets juridiques qui en découleraient.
19. Je me demande pourquoi le dispositif de l’arrêt ne prend pas acte
de l’accord auquel les Parties sont parvenues pendant la procédure. Dans
les circonstances de la présente affaire, cela aurait été approprié et utile
pour les Parties. Dans l’affaire de la Société commerciale de Belgique, la
devancière de la Cour, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale,
avait précisé dans son dispositif qu’elle « constat[ait] l’accord des Parties
» 10. L’accord en question était intervenu vers la fin de la procédure
orale, en conséquence de déclarations faites par le Gouvernement hellénique
(en fait, le conseil parlant au nom de l’agent qui était présent) et
dont la Belgique avait considéré qu’elles « modifiaient le caractère du différend
», la conduisant à retirer une partie de ses conclusions initiales 11.
Cette situation est étonnamment analogue à celle qui s’est présentée ici.
20. Les Etats ne saisissent pas la Cour pour un oui ou pour un non.
Les affaires portées devant cette juridiction mondiale sont généralement
d’une importance considérable sur le plan juridique et politique, et supposent
une préparation et une charge de travail importantes, voire colossales.
Elles peuvent parfois nécessiter la participation de centaines de
professionnels et mobiliser des experts techniques et scientifiques. La
Cour doit aux parties de rendre des arrêts solidement motivés qui règlent
leurs différends avec force obligatoire et, le cas échéant, leur donnent des
orientations sur leurs droits et obligations. Réfléchissant sur le processus
de délibération de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, dont il
était alors président, Max Huber compara les décisions judiciaires à « des
navires destinés à être mis à l’eau dans la haute mer des critiques internationales
» 12. Il est regrettable que la Cour ait choisi aujourd’hui de mettre
à l’eau un navire vide.
(Signé) Bruno Simma.
10 Société commerciale de Belgique, arrêt, 1939, C.P.J.I. série A/B no 78, p. 178.
11 Comme la Cour l’a relevé dans l’affaire du Différend frontalier (Burkina Faso/Niger),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2013, p. 72, par. 57.
12 Cité dans Ole Spiermann, International Legal Argument in the Permanent Court of
International Justice: The Rise of the International Judiciary, Cambridge University Press,
2005, p. 248.
Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Simma