DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC MCRAE Disagreement with the finding of the Court that it has jurisdiction ratione temporis — No justification for the assimilation of a dispute involving events subsequent to the application to a dispute involving events subsequent to the lapse of the jurisdictional title — Responsibility may not be based on events subsequent to the lapse of the jurisdictional title — Policy considerations. Disagreement with the finding that Colombia exercised control in Nicaragua’s EEZ — Definition of enforcement — Distinction between monitoring and enforcement — Failure by Colombia to exercise its rights with due regard to Nicaragua’s rights and duties as coastal State. Disagreement with the finding that Colombia authorized fishing activities in Nicaragua’s EEZ. Agreement with the finding that Colombia’s ICZ may overlap with Nicaragua’s EEZ and that it may not extend beyond 24 nautical miles — Disagreement with the finding that the powers claimed by Colombia in its ICZ are not in conformity with international law — The powers listed in Article 33 of UNCLOS addressed security concerns of the 1950s — Evolutive interpretation of Article 33 of UNCLOS — The jurisdiction claimed by Colombia pertains to offences committed on its territory or in its territorial sea, not in the ICZ or Nicaragua’s EEZ. Disagreement with the Court’s rejection of the traditional fishing rights of the Raizales — The rights claimed by the Raizales are akin to indigenous rights — Recognition by Nicaragua of the fishing rights of the Raizales as akin to indigenous rights. Disagreement with the Court’s acceptance of the fourth counter-claim — Imprecision of the criteria for the drawing of straight baselines — Relevance of State practice in the examination of the permissibility of straight baselines. I 1. I regret that I have had to vote against the Court’s Judgment on all of the findings in this case and will elaborate on my reasons in this dissent. 2. As a preliminary matter, I would note that I voted against the Court on the finding “that the Republic of Colombia must, by means of its own choosing, bring into conformity with customary international law the provisions of Presidential Decree 1946 of 9 September 2013”, because the finding focused on the provisions of Presidential Decree 1946 which dealt with the powers to be exercised within the Integral Contiguous Zone (hereinafter “ICZ”). As I will point out in this dissent, I consider that the powers asserted by Colombia are among those that a State may exercise in its contiguous zone consistently with customary international law. However, I agree with the Court that the configuration of Colombia’s ICZ put before the Court is not in conformity with customary international law in so far as it exceeds 24 nautical miles. Thus, when it formally establishes the outer limits of its ICZ, Colombia must ensure that those limits do not exceed 24 nautical miles. II 3. I start with the issue of jurisdiction ratione temporis raised by Colombia in the course of these proceedings. 4. I disagree with the Court’s conclusion that it has jurisdiction in respect of events that allegedly took place after the lapse of the jurisdictional title (Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá) on - 2 - 27 November 2013. The point is critical because the conclusion of the Court that by interfering with the fishing and marine scientific activities of Nicaraguan-flagged or -licensed vessels and purporting to enforce conservation measures Colombia has violated Nicaragua’s rights within its exclusive economic zone (hereinafter “EEZ”) is based essentially on events that took place after the lapse of jurisdictional title. In other words, were it not for the events that occurred after the lapse of title, the Court would have had no basis for its conclusion in the second subparagraph of its operative clause that Colombia had violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction within its EEZ. In short, Colombia is found internationally responsible on the basis of alleged violations of Nicaragua’s rights and jurisdiction that took place after the Court’s jurisdictional title had lapsed. 5. On 27 November 2013, Colombia’s denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá came into effect, and from that point on the Court ceased to have jurisdiction in respect of claims brought against Colombia under the Pact. This is made evident in Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá which provides for the jurisdiction of the Court “as compulsory ipso facto, without the necessity of any special agreement so long as the present Treaty is in force”. Indeed, the Court recognized this jurisdictional limit in its Judgment of 17 March 2016 on preliminary objections, where it accepted that it had jurisdiction over Nicaragua’s claim because it was filed on 26 November 2013, the day before the lapse of jurisdictional title in accordance with Colombia’s denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá1. In doing so, the Court applied the well-established principle that its jurisdiction is to be determined as of the date of application2. 6. The Court justifies its assumption of jurisdiction in respect of events that took place after jurisdiction had lapsed, on the basis of the principle, also well established in the Court’s jurisprudence, that jurisdiction extends to “facts subsequent to the filing of the Application, but arising directly out of the question which is the subject-matter of that Application”3. But, until this case, the principle had never been applied to cases where the events subsequent to the filing of the application are events over which the Court otherwise had no jurisdiction. In none of the cases referred to in the Judgment (paragraph 44) did the question of lapse of title of jurisdiction arise. 7. The Court treats the limitation in Article XXXI as applicable only to “the subject-matter of a dispute over which the Court may exercise jurisdiction” (Judgment, paragraph 40). Since in its 2016 Judgment the Court had already determined that it did have jurisdiction, the question before it now “is whether its jurisdiction over that dispute extends to facts or events that allegedly occurred after the lapse of the title of jurisdiction” (ibid.). 8. In the critical part of its Judgment, the Court says that considerations relevant to the adjudication of claims or submissions subsequent to the date of application can be instructive in deciding this case, which deals with events that were certainly subsequent to the date of application but also, critically, subsequent to the lapse of title of jurisdiction. The Court immediately goes on (Judgment, paragraph 43) to say that the same criteria should apply to the question of jurisdiction ratione temporis in this case, that is where the events in question are subsequent to the date of lapse 1 Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 26, para. 48. 2 Ibid., p. 18, para. 33, citing Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 437-438, paras. 79-80, and Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26. 3 Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany v. Iceland), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 203, para. 72; see also Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 211-212, para. 87. - 3 - of title. The Court notes that, in the case of claims or submissions that have occurred subsequent to the date of application, it has “considered whether such a claim or submission arose directly out of the question which is the subject-matter of the application or whether entertaining such a claim or submission would transform the subject of the dispute originally submitted to the Court” (Judgment, paragraph 44). This, then, becomes the test for deciding whether jurisdiction can be taken over events occurring after the lapse of title. However, the Court does not explain how a dispute dealing with events over which it otherwise has no jurisdiction should be equated with a dispute dealing with events over which the Court has jurisdiction. It affirms that the rule for events subsequent to the date of application should be applied to events subsequent to the lapse of jurisdictional title but provides no explanation or rationale to show why this affirmation is justified. 9. The rule allowing the Court to treat events subsequent to the date that jurisdiction is established makes sense because it encourages efficiency; that is, it would be inefficient to require an applicant to bring a new application in respect of events that are part of the same dispute when they can be dealt with in the application already brought. But in the case of events subsequent to the loss of title of jurisdiction, no such efficiency considerations can be shown. A new application could not be brought in respect of events subsequent to the title of jurisdiction lapsing, because there would be no such title to do so. So, instead of applying a rule that encourages efficiency in cases where jurisdiction is established, what the Court is doing in this case is creating jurisdiction over events when no such jurisdiction would otherwise exist. 10. The Court points out that there is “nothing in the Court’s jurisprudence to suggest that the lapse of jurisdictional title after the institution of proceedings has the effect of limiting the Court’s jurisdiction ratione temporis to facts which allegedly occurred before that lapse” (Judgment, paragraph 42). But equally, there is nothing in the Court’s jurisprudence to say that the Court can take jurisdiction over events that have occurred after the lapse of jurisdictional title. 11. The Court says, too, that the 2016 Judgment “implie[d] that the Court has jurisdiction to examine every aspect of the dispute” (Judgment, paragraph 45). But the Court was careful in 2016 to identify the dispute on the basis of events that allegedly occurred before the date of the Application. It would be strange in light of this to conclude, now, that the Court at that time was asserting that it could assume jurisdiction over events allegedly occurring after the title of jurisdiction had lapsed. At best the matter is simply not dealt with in the 2016 Judgment, and no inference can be drawn from it. 12. The Court’s conclusion that “consideration” of alleged incidents that occurred after the lapse of jurisdiction “does not transform the nature of the dispute between the Parties” (Judgment, paragraph 47) and, thus, it has jurisdiction over those incidents, masks the reality of what is being decided. The question before the Court is not whether it can “entertain” or “consider” incidents subsequent to the date of filing of the Application (Judgment, paragraph 41) or date of lapse of title (Judgment, paragraph 47). Of course, the Court can “consider” or “entertain” events that took place after the lapse of title as part of the broader context of the case. But that is different from determining responsibility based on such events. 13. What is at issue in this case is whether the Court can find responsibility on the basis of events that occurred at time when the Court had no jurisdiction. To say that consideration of subsequent events after title has lapsed does not transform the nature of the dispute (Judgment, paragraph 47) ignores the fact that responsibility based on events before title lapses is responsibility in respect of a matter over which the Court has jurisdiction. Responsibility on the basis of events that - 4 - were subsequent to the lapse of title is responsibility in respect of events over which the Court has no jurisdiction. 14. The Court was right in 2016 when it took jurisdiction over the dispute between the Parties on the basis of allegations of conduct by Colombia that occurred before the filing of the Application. And it is right today in asserting that it can consider facts and events subsequent to the Application provided those events do not transform the nature of the dispute. But what the Court has been unable to do is articulate a justification for finding responsibility on the basis of events that occurred after title of jurisdiction has lapsed. 15. There are no doubt policy implications of not taking jurisdiction over events subsequent to the lapse of title. Could a State by withdrawing acceptance of jurisdiction after a case has been filed against it undermine the ability of the Court to deal with the case? While that is certainly an undesirable consequence, it is not the case here. This is not the case of a respondent withdrawing jurisdiction on finding a case has been filed against it. Rather, it is a case of an applicant waiting to the last minute before jurisdiction expired to bring the claim. 16. Equally, there are contrary policy considerations. The principle that international jurisdiction is based on consent is fundamental and the Court should not facilitate bypassing that principle. But that is the consequence here. A State that has been unable to substantiate a case on the basis of events that existed at the time of the application when the Court had jurisdiction is being permitted to bypass a jurisdictional impediment and responsibility is found on the basis of events which could not be the subject of a new application. 17. In my view, the Court has provided no justification for finding responsibility on the basis of events that have occurred after the title of jurisdiction has lapsed. As a result, I would have found that the Court lacks jurisdiction ratione temporis over the events in this case that occurred after 27 November 2013. III 18. I turn now to Colombia’s contested actions in Nicaragua’s EEZ. With one exception (Judgment, paragraphs 71-72) the actions on which the Court relies to establish Colombia’s responsibility occurred after the lapse of the jurisdictional title on 27 November 2013. Moreover, given that the approach of the Court has not been to reach a conclusion on the basis of each specific incident, but rather to base responsibility on an accumulation of incidents, it is unlikely that the Court would have been able to conclude that Colombia’s international responsibility for the alleged incidents in Nicaragua’s EEZ was engaged if that incident had stood alone. The facts are contested by the Parties and there is no basis on the evidence before the Court for choosing whose allegations are correct. Indeed, as Judge Nolte points out in his dissenting opinion, the Court does not even include this incident among those purporting to show that Colombian naval vessels were seeking to exercise enforcement jurisdiction in Nicaragua’s EEZ (Judgment, paragraph 92). 19. In other words, the Court was able to conclude that Nicaragua had substantiated its claim in respect of the alleged incidents in Nicaragua’s EEZ only because it relied on post-27 November 2013 incidents, over which the Court lacked jurisdiction. - 5 - 20. However, even if the Court’s decision to rely on events that occurred after the lapse of jurisdiction were correct, in my view the incidents on which the Court does base its conclusion on responsibility do not warrant the decision of the Court that Colombia was “interfering with fishing activities and marine scientific research of Nicaraguan-flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed vessels and with the operations of Nicaragua’s naval vessels in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone and . . . purporting to enforce conservation measures in that zone” (Judgment, paragraph 101). 21. As pointed out, this conclusion of the Court was not based on an assessment of each incident individually, but rather the Court reached a global conclusion in the light of all incidents. There are two important components to the Court’s conclusion. First, the Court said that the incidents all took place in the area of Luna Verde, east of the 82nd meridian, within Nicaragua’s EEZ (Judgment, paragraph 91). Second, the Court stated that in a number of instances Colombian naval officers read statements to vessels which they approached in the Nicaraguan EEZ, calling on them to discontinue fishing activities because they were environmentally harmful and illegal or unauthorized (Judgment, paragraph 92). The statements of these naval officers, it is said, also described the area as “Colombian jurisdictional waters” and said that the 2012 Judgment was “not applicable”. In light of this, and of statements of Colombian government authorities, the Court concludes that the evidence “sufficiently proves that the conduct of Colombian naval vessels was carried out to give effect to a policy whereby Colombia sought to continue to control fishing activities and the conservation of resources in the area that lies within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone” (ibid.). 22. The nature of the activities that the Court concludes violate the rights of Nicaragua in its EEZ are described by the Court as “exercising control over fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, implementing conservation measures on Nicaraguan-flagged or Nicaraguan-licensed ships, and hindering the operations of Nicaragua’s naval vessels” (Judgment, paragraph 100). 23. This might be compared with what actually happened in the incidents that the Court relies on. The Court refers to incidents in which there was an interaction between the Nicaraguan coast guard and a Colombian naval vessel and an incident involving a marine scientific research vessel. In each of those cases the facts are disputed, and the Court does not draw any conclusion about which Party’s factual allegations are to be accepted. Although the Court says that the presence of Colombian vessels in the area is established (Judgment, paragraph 91), the key question was not presence of the vessels; rather, it was the conduct alleged to have occurred. 24. The predominant factual circumstances in the incidents identified by the Court involve Colombian naval vessels confronting Nicaraguan fishing vessels. While the incidents show that Colombian naval vessels did approach Nicaraguan or other non-Colombian-flagged vessels and made the statements attributed to them, in no case was there any evidence that the Colombian authorities attempted to arrest fishing vessels or prosecute individuals for violation of Colombian laws. The only evidence that might be regarded as attempted enforcement are the instances where it is alleged that a Colombian vessel chased a fishing vessel away and the intervention of a Colombian naval vessel when a Nicaraguan coast guard vessel had arrested a vessel for allegedly illegal fishing (Judgment, paragraphs 71, 77 and 89). But the facts of these incidents, too, are contested both as to whether the arrested vessels had been fishing in Nicaragua’s EEZ and the events that were alleged to have taken place (Judgment, paragraphs 72, 78 and 90). Indeed, in most instances the warning statements of the Colombian naval officers, on which the Court relies, were simply ignored. The Nicaraguan fishing vessels continued their fishing. - 6 - 25. Colombia’s argument in support of the actions of its naval vessels is that they were simply “monitoring” and “informing”, which they claimed to be a right incidental to freedom of navigation4. Colombia argued further that there were responsibilities resulting from the particular environmental circumstances in the south-western Caribbean reflected in the Cartagena Convention and the SPAW Protocol (Judgment, paragraph 54). The Court rightly points out that neither of these instruments grants authority to a State to enforce its own environmental measures in the EEZ of another State (Judgment, paragraphs 98-99). However, that does not mean that the particular environmental circumstances in the south-western Caribbean or the regional arrangements encouraging the protection of the environment should be ignored in assessing the actions of States in the area. A claim to monitoring activities that might harm the environment has added legitimacy in areas where there is a regional concern about the environment. 26. Ultimately, the Court rests its conclusion of violation by Colombia on a perception of an intent by Colombia to control fishing and enforce its own national environmental laws in Nicaragua’s EEZ. The Court never defines what it means by control or enforcement. Definitions of enforcement generally refer to the exercise of State authority to apply criminal law through arrest, detention, trial and punishment5. Yet, there were no actions of control or enforcement such as arrests, detention or prosecution. The perception of an intent to control and enforce is based less on what was done in fact by Colombian vessels but rather on inferences drawn from statements read by Colombian naval officers and statements of Colombian officials who argued that the 2012 Judgment was inapplicable and had been rejected by Colombia. From this the Court concludes, there was “a policy whereby Colombia sought to continue to control fishing activities and the conservation of resources in the area that lies within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone” (Judgment, paragraph 92). In my view, this is a thin reed on which to base international responsibility and I do not find the reasoning of the Court compelling. 27. Nonetheless, the fact remains that Colombian naval vessels did approach Nicaraguan-licensed fishing vessels in the Nicaraguan EEZ and did notify them that they were fishing illegally and that they were in waters subject to Colombian jurisdiction (e.g. Judgment, paragraphs 75-76 and 81-84). And this was done without advising Nicaragua, either before or after the event, that its flag vessels, or vessels authorized by it, were being approached and information was being provided to them. Colombia claims that its vessels were doing this in exercise of their right of navigation in those waters, pursuant to their customary international law right reflected in Article 58 of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereinafter “UNCLOS”) and in the broader interests of promoting the protection of the marine environment (Judgment, paragraph 93). But, even accepting that this was a proper exercise of that customary international law right, such a right has to be exercised, having due regard to the rights and duties of the coastal State. 28. This, in my view, is the approach that the Court should have taken in this case. Instead of elevating what occurred into some kind of policy by Colombia to control fishing and enforce its own 4 See, for example, Counter-Memorial of Colombia, para. 3.59: “Colombia must be able to exercise in conformity with international law its rights of freedom of navigation, overflight, monitoring, humanitarian assistance and other related rights, which include the proper ‘monitoring of activities undertaken’ by public or private operators without being accused of impeding Nicaragua’s sovereign rights”; CR 2021/14, p. 46, para. 46 (Boisson de Chazournes): “Colombia’s environmentally focused observing and informing activities fall within the scope of what is permitted by the international law applicable to this dispute, in particular when fragile ecosystems and vulnerable habitats like that of the Raizales are concerned” [translation by the Registry]; see also CR 2021/14, p. 29, para. 22 (Wood); CR 2021/14, p. 41, para. 25 (Boisson de Chazournes), CR 2021/14, p. 45, para. 40 (Boisson de Chazournes); CR 2021/18, p. 23, paras. 11-13 (Boisson de Chazournes) 5 Patrick Daillier, Mathias Forteau and Alain Pellet, Droit International Public (Nguyen Quoc Dinh), 8th edn., LGDJ 2009, p. 565, para. 336; American Law Institute, Restatement of the Law Fourth: the Foreign Relations Law of the United States, American Law Institute Publishers 2018, p. 291, Comment to § 431; Roger O’Keefe, “Universal Jurisdiction: Clarifying the Basic Concept”, 2004, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol. 2, pp. 736-737. - 7 - environmental laws in Nicaragua’s EEZ, the Court should have focused on what was actually done, that is, monitoring the activities of Nicaraguan-licensed fishing vessels and informing them when it believed that they were fishing by environmentally harmful or illegal methods. Since Colombia had done this without informing Nicaragua either before or after the event, this is, in my view, evidence of a failure to have due regard for the rights and duties of Nicaragua as the coastal State in exercising its own jurisdiction over the marine environment. In is also in disregard of Nicaragua’s rights in its EEZ for Colombia naval vessels to advise fishing vessels, erroneously, that these are waters subject to Colombia’s jurisdiction, or to make gratuitous statements about Colombia rejecting the Court’s 2012 Judgment. These are the matters on which the Court should have focused, instead of drawing a sweeping conclusion about a Colombian policy to control fishing and enforce its own environmental laws in Nicaragua’s EEZ. 29. A statement by the Court that Colombia was acting without due regard for Nicaragua’s EEZ rights and that it should cease from doing so would have been a much more appropriate solution to this aspect of the case than what the Court has in fact done in its decision on the alleged incidents in Nicaragua’s EEZ. IV 30. I turn now to the allegation of Nicaragua that Colombia’s has granted permits for fishing in Nicaragua’s EEZ. I have voted against the Court’s conclusion that Colombia has authorized its nationals and foreign nationals to fish in Colombia’s EEZ. 31. There are three bases on which Nicaragua’s claim rests. First, Nicaragua asserts that resolutions issued by General Maritime Directorate of the Ministry of National Defence of Colombia (DIMAR) included waters within Nicaragua’s EEZ as areas where Nicaraguan-licensed vessels were permitted to operate. Second, Nicaragua claims that the Governor of the Department of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and San Catalina also issued resolutions permitting vessels to operate in the Luna Verde areas within Nicaragua’s EEZ. Third, Nicaragua identifies certain incidents at sea involving Colombian naval vessels which, it argues, reinforce that Colombia was licensing vessels to fish in Nicaragua’s EEZ (Judgment, paragraphs 103-105). 32. The Court does not appear to draw any conclusions from these resolutions, saying only that the reference to Luna Verde, in what was in fact the preamble to the Governor’s resolutions, “suggests that Colombia continues to assert the right to authorize fishing activities in parts of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone” (Judgment, paragraph 119). But the Court does not address the argument of Colombia that neither DIMAR nor the Governor had authority to issue fishing permits, a matter that was not contradicted on the evidence by Nicaragua. 33. The result is that the only real grounds the Court has for its conclusion that Colombia had issued permits to vessels to fish in Nicaragua’s EEZ are the alleged incidents at sea (Judgment, paragraphs 121-130). In this regard, it should be noted that none of these incidents occurred before 27 November 2013, the date the Pact of Bogotá ceased to be in force for Colombia. Thus, to the extent that the Court relies on these incidents to establish responsibility, it is again finding responsibility on the basis of events that occurred after the Court’s title of jurisdiction lapsed. 34. Even so, as proof that Colombia issued permits to license fishing vessels within Nicaragua’s jurisdiction, this evidence is at best problematic. There is no direct evidence of actual licences, and the Court can only draw inferences from what was reported as having been said. What the evidence does show is that Colombian naval vessels were in the area where at least some of the - 8 - alleged incidents took place and engaged in communications with fishing vessels and the Nicaraguan coast guard. But as evidence that the vessels concerned had licences issued by Colombian authorities, it really lacks any probative value. 35. The engagement between the Colombian naval vessels and Nicaragua’s coast guard in these incidents was not cited by the Court in its consideration of incidents at sea in support of the Nicaraguan claim that Colombia had violated its rights in its EEZ, although that would seem to have been a more appropriate place to consider those incidents. In that context, rather than showing a violation of Nicaragua’s rights within its EEZ, these incidents would have justified the Court cautioning Colombia to exercise its rights within Nicaragua’s EEZ with due regard to the rights and duties of the coastal State as required by Article 58 of the Convention. That, in my view, would have been a more appropriate disposition of these incidents than using them as an indirect way of concluding that Colombia had been issuing licences to fish in Nicaragua’s EEZ. V 36. With respect to Colombia’s creation of its ICZ, I agree with the Court that Colombia has the right to establish a contiguous zone off the coasts of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago notwithstanding any overlap with the EEZ of Nicaragua (Judgment, paragraph 163). As I pointed out earlier, I also agree with the Court that Colombia was not entitled to “simplify” the outer limits of its contiguous zone so that it extended more than 24 nautical miles from the Colombian coast (Judgment, paragraph 175). 37. However, I disagree with the Court’s conclusion that the ICZ as established in Presidential Decree 1946 is not in conformity with customary international law (Judgment, paragraph 187). I also disagree with the Court’s conclusion that the “expanded powers” asserted in Colombia’s ICZ directly infringe on the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua with regard to the conservation, protection and preservation of the marine environment in Nicaragua’s EEZ (Judgment, paragraph 178). 38. The objection the Court has is to Article 5 (3) of the Decree, which deals with the material scope of the zone. In the view of the Court, it confers powers on Colombia to exercise control over the infringement of its laws and regulations that extend to matters which are not permitted under customary international law. The Court’s conclusion is based on its position that the content of customary international law relating to the contiguous zone is found in Article 33 of UNCLOS, and that Colombia’s so-called “expanded powers” are not included in Article 33 (Judgment, paragraph 155). The so-called “expanded powers” of Colombia expressed in Article 5 of Decree 1946, as modified by Article 2 of Decree 1119 of 2014, that the Court found to be outside the scope of the rule reflected in Article 33 of UNCLOS, are laws and regulations related to the integral security of the State, including piracy and trafficking of drugs and psychotropic substances, conduct contrary to the security of the sea and the national maritime interests, and laws and regulations related to the preservation of the marine environment (Judgment, paragraphs 177-181)6. 39. The categories specified in Article 33 of UNCLOS are, “customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations”. The question facing the Court was whether the laws and regulations covered in the Colombian Decree fall within the ambit of those Article 33 categories or whether State practice has evolved since the inclusion of those terms of Article 33 of UNCLOS so that today they 6 I agree with the Court’s conclusion that the inclusion of the exercise of control with respect to archeological and cultural objects found within the EEZ does not violate customary international law (Judgment, paragraph 186). - 9 - can be said to cover the categories of laws identified by Colombia. Essentially, the question is whether the security claims of Colombia and the claim relating to the preservation of the marine environment fall within contiguous zone jurisdiction under Article 33 of UNCLOS. 40. As the Court points out, the provisions of Article 33 of UNCLOS were adopted in the 1958 Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone, on the basis of the 1956 work of the International Law Commission (hereinafter the “ILC” or the “Commission”), and have remained unchanged since then (Judgment, paragraph 153). They were then endorsed without change in UNCLOS. A proposal in 1958 to add security to the categories in Article 33 ultimately did not get support7. The question, then, is whether, notwithstanding what happened in 1958 and in the UNCLOS negotiations, there is a case today for seeing security and the preservation of the marine environment as matters that fall within the scope of Article 33 of UNCLOS. 41. An alternative to seeing the terms of Article 33 of UNCLOS as static that must be interpreted in the light of the world of 1956 might have led the Court to a different conclusion. The specific claim to including dealing with the trade in drugs would seem to be no more than an enlarged perception of both customs and fiscal laws. Drug trafficking is as much an issue of customs laws as was the smuggling of alcohol whose prosecution was one of the matters covered by the United States’ “hovering acts” which laid the basis for the contiguous zone8. Equally, sanitary laws in 1958, and still today, concern health. Not seeing the preservation of the environment as an issue that is fundamentally linked to health is also to ignore the reality of today. 42. The justification for seeing contiguous zone jurisdiction in contemporary terms is in fact found in the ILC commentary to what became Article 24 of the 1958 Convention and Article 33 of UNCLOS. The Court quotes the relevant part of the Commentary (Judgment, paragraph 152) but does not draw the necessary inference from it. In the relevant extract from its commentary, the ILC stated that it had not included special security rights in the draft provisions relating to the contiguous zone, indicating the term was vague and could lead to abuses and thus was not necessary. It then goes on to make the critical statement: “The enforcement of customs and sanitary regulations will be sufficient in most cases to safeguard the security of the State.” (Commentary to the articles concerning the law of the sea, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1956, Vol. II, p. 295, draft Art. 66, comment (4), quoted in Judgment, paragraph 152.) 43. What the ILC statement shows is that the Commission thought that it was adequately dealing with contemporary issues of security. And this reinforces the view that the purpose of the contiguous zone was precisely to allow States to protect their security. But no one could now consider that what was adequate to safeguard the security concerns of States at the time of the Commentary in 1956 would necessarily parallel contemporary security needs. An assessment of the security needs of States today might well include the suppression of the drug trade and the protection of the marine environment. Indeed, at a time of heightened concern about the impact of climate change, the protection of the marine environment might be seen for some States as their primary security concern. Moreover, the last twenty years have shown that piracy, which might have been dealt with adequately under international law in 1956, has been posing an increasing problem for States in certain regions, including in their territorial seas. It is not surprising then that a State might wish to act in its contiguous zone to prevent piracy within its territorial sea or to punish when piracy has occurred within its territorial sea. Indeed, the fact that a significant number of States have inserted a right to 7 Official Records of the First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, 1958, Vol. II, UN doc. A/CONF.13/38, p. 40, para. 63. 8 D. P. O’Connell, The International Law of the Sea: Volume II, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1988, p. 1038. Indeed, the content of the hovering acts themselves evolved over time. - 10 - include certain security needs among the matters over which they will exercise contiguous zone jurisdiction is testament to a change in contemporary security needs of States 9. 44. It must be recalled that contiguous zone jurisdiction only enables States to act to prevent and punish in respect of offences committed within the territory of a State or in its territorial sea, namely, offences that are committed within its jurisdiction. It does not grant authority to coastal States to prevent or punish in respect of offences committed within the contiguous zone or beyond. 45. It is the failure to recognize this that has led the Court to its conclusion that the powers asserted under Colombia’s ICZ directly infringe on the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua with respect to the conservation, protection and preservation of the marine environment in Nicaragua’s EEZ (Judgment, paragraph 187). But, as the Court points out earlier in its Judgment, the contiguous zone and the EEZ deal with different things (Judgment, paragraphs 160-161). Nicaragua certainly has jurisdiction over the preservation of the marine environment in its EEZ. And it has no jurisdiction over the protection of the marine environment in the territory of Colombia or in Colombia’s territorial sea. By the same token, Colombia, while having jurisdiction within its contiguous zone to prevent and punish in respect of offences in certain categories of matters within its territory and its territorial sea, has no jurisdiction on the basis of its contiguous zone to prevent or punish in respect of offences committed in Nicaragua’s EEZ. And since Nicaragua’s EEZ does not overlap Colombia’s territorial sea, there is no potential for overlapping jurisdiction. 46. Nor does Colombia claim jurisdiction over offences within Nicaragua’s territorial sea. Decree 1946, as amended by Decree 1119, makes this clear. It says that that Colombia has authority in its contiguous zone to prevent infractions of its laws relating to the integral security of the State “which take place in its insular territories or in their territorial sea” (Art. 5 (3) (a) of Decree 1946, as amended by Decree 1119, quoted in Judgment, paragraph 170). And it goes on to say that “[i]n the same manner” violations of the laws relating to the preservation of the environment will be prevented and controlled (ibid.). “In the same manner” can only mean that the authority asserted in respect of the environment is no different than the authority asserted in respect of security. And in respect of the other element of contiguous zone jurisdiction, the power to punish, the Decree states that it relates to the abovementioned matters “committed in its island territories or in their territorial sea” (Art. 5 (3) (b) of Decree 1946, as amended by Decree 1119, quoted in Judgment, paragraph 170). 47. None of this involves a claim to exercise jurisdiction in respect of offences committed in the contiguous zone itself or in the EEZ of Nicaragua. Thus, the regulation adopted by Colombia makes no claim to “ensure their implementation in part of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone” as asserted by the Court (Judgment, paragraph 178). Colombia’s claim in respect of the prevention of the environment is no different than its claim in respect of customs, fiscal, immigration and sanitary rights that is, to prevent and punish in respect of offences committed on Colombia’s territory or in its territorial sea. 49. In my view, this was an appropriate case for the Court to interpret Article 33 of UNCLOS in an evolutionary manner. Evolutionary (or evolutive) interpretation has been accepted in the jurisprudence of the Court10. A provision which, in 1956, the ILC saw as its purpose to protect the security needs of States must be interpreted today in a way that reflects contemporary security needs. 9 Counter-Memorial of Colombia, Appendix B; Reply of Nicaragua, para. 3.38. 10 For example, Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 242-243, paras. 64-66; see also Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan; New Zealand intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2014, p. 247, para. 45. - 11 - On this basis, all of the matters identified in Colombia’s Decree 1946 reflect contemporary security needs of some if not all States piracy, suppression of the drug trade, maritime security and the protection of the (marine) environment and thus should be seen a legitimate matters to be covered under the contiguous zone jurisdiction of States. VI 50. I turn now to Colombia’s two counter-claims, (A) Traditional and artisanal fishing rights and (B) Straight baselines. I disagree with the Court’s findings in respect of each counter-claim. A 51. I have voted against the Court’s rejection of all remaining issues in the eighth subparagraph of the operative clause because I do not agree with the Court that “Colombia has failed to establish that the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, enjoy artisanal fishing rights in waters now located in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, or that Nicaragua has, through the statements of its Head of State, accepted or recognized their traditional fishing rights, or legally undertaken to respect them” (Judgment, paragraph 231). 52. In my view, the Court has failed to address what is a critical, and to some extent unique, aspect of Colombia’s counter-claim and this has had an impact on the way the Court has both assessed the evidence of traditional fishing rights and viewed the statements of Nicaragua’s President. 53. Colombia’ third counter-claim relating to traditional or artisanal fishing rights was articulated by Colombia in a number of different ways. It was referred to as a claim in respect of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago “in particular the Raizales”11 or “including the Raizales”12 or the “traditional, historic fishing rights of the Raizales and the other fishermen of the Archipelago”13. What is common about all of these formulations is that they identify two groups: the Raizales, and the other inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago. The Raizales are included within the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago but are also seen as distinct from the other inhabitants of the Archipelago. 54. In its Counter-Memorial, Colombia identified the Raizales as “descendants of the enslaved Africans and the original Dutch, British and Spanish settlers” which “have acquired through the centuries their own specific culture”14. The Counter-Memorial also claims that “[s]ince time immemorial, they [the Raizales] have navigated all of the Southwestern Caribbean in search of resources, such as fish and turtles”15. 11 Rejoinder of Colombia, paras. 5.1 and 5.74, and submission II.3; CR 2021/18, p. 75, submission II.3 (Arrieta Padilla). 12 Rejoinder of Colombia, para. 5.76. 13 Counter-Memorial of Colombia, para. 9.25. 14 Counter-Memorial of Colombia, para. 2.64. 15 Ibid. - 12 - 55. While Nicaragua’s pleadings refer to the fishing practices of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago “including the indigenous Raizal people”16 and on another occasion simply “the Raizal people”17, their pleadings tend to treat the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago as a single group. The main argument of Nicaragua is that traditional or artisanal rights did not survive the creation of the EEZ18 and, thus, regardless of any claim to traditional or artisanal fishing, no such right exists within the EEZ. In Nicaragua’s pleadings no independent right exists for the Raizales, but rather the rights that are claimed by Colombia are rights in respect of all of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago. 56. Having described the origins of the Raizales and the fact that they had fished in the south-western Caribbean for centuries, Colombia characterizes the Raizales as “indigenous fishermen”19. They are, Colombia says, a “distinct ethnic and cultural community” who “navigated, traded and fished in this area of the Southwestern Caribbean Sea before and after the coming into existence of Nicaragua and Colombia as independent States”20. 57. In describing the Raizales in this way, Colombia is clearly creating a category that is separate from other claimants to traditional or artisanal fishing rights. The way that Colombia articulates this claim for the Raizales as a separate and distinct group and in particular the reference to the Raizales as “indigenous fishermen” suggests an analogy with indigenous rights, rights that have most recently found expression in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples21. 58. There is no accepted definition of who constitute indigenous peoples, but indicia of indigeneity include: “(i) communal attachments to ‘place’; (ii) historical precedence over dominant societies; (iii) experience of severe disruption, dislocation and exploitation; (iv) ‘historical continuity’; (v) ongoing oppression/exclusion by dominant societal groups; (vi) distinct ethnic/cultural groups; and (vii) self-identification as an indigenous community”22. It has been argued that not all of the indicia are necessary in order to establish entitlement to indigenous rights23. In any event, it is clear that the attribution of the terms “indigenous” to a people is a potentially complex task. Thus, it is not possible to reach any conclusion on whether the Raizales are properly termed “indigenous” but, as described by Colombia in its pleadings, the Raizales clearly 16 Reply of Nicaragua, para. 6.1. 17 Reply of Nicaragua, para. 6.3. 18 Reply of Nicaragua, para. 6.5; Judgment, para. 208. 19 Counter-Memorial of Colombia, para. 2.68. 20 Rejoinder of Colombia, para. 5.10. 21 Resolution 61/295 “United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples” (adopted on 13 September 2007), UN doc A/RES/61/295 (2 October 2007). 22 Stephen Allen, Nigel Bankes, Endalew Lijalem Enyew and Øyvind Ravna, “Introduction” in Stephen Allen, Nigel Bankes and Øyvind Ravna (eds.), The Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Marine Areas, Hart 2019, p. 10; a similar approach is found in Standard-setting activities: Evolution of standards concerning the rights of indigenous people, Working Paper by the Chairperson-Rapporteur, Mrs. Erica-Irene A. Daes, on the concept of ‘indigenous people’”, UN doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1996/2, 10 June 1996, para. 69. 23 Stephen Allen, Nigel Bankes, Endalew Lijalem Enyew and Øyvind Ravna, “Introduction” in Stephen Allen, Nigel Bankes and Øyvind Ravna (eds.), The Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Marine Areas, Hart 2019, p. 10. - 13 - meet many of the above indicia suggesting that at the very least an analogy with indigenous rights is appropriate. 59. Treating the situation of the Raizales as akin to that of indigenous peoples finds indirect support in the position of Nicaragua in the pleadings in this case and direct support in the statements of President Ortega. Although Nicaragua’s pleadings assimilate the Raizales to the other inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, they refer to the Raizales as “Raizal people” reinforcing a separateness from those other inhabitants of the Archipelago (see paragraph 55 above). 60. President Ortega has consistently used language that emphasizes the analogy of the Raizales with indigenous peoples. Shortly after the 2012 Judgment of the Court was delivered, President Ortega spoke of the “Raizal brethren” and of being respectful of “the Principle of Native Peoples” and of respect for their right to fish and navigate where they have historically navigated24. He later spoke of the “historical rights” of the Raizal people25. He also spoke of the rights of the Raizal people as rights of “Original People”26. All of this is language of indigenous rights, not just the language of traditional or artisanal fishing rights. 61. Furthermore, President Ortega spoke of allowing the rights of the Raizales to “continue”, and of “ensur[ing]” those rights27. The context clearly shows that what was being assured was the continuation of existing rights, not the creation of new rights where none had existed before. President Ortega’s proposal for a “commission” was for a body to ensure the orderly continuation of existing Raizal fishing. It was to help locate “where the [R]aizal people can fish in exercise of their historic rights”28. It was not a commission that would create a new right to fish. 62. In short, when viewed from the perspective of Raizal rights as the rights of a specific group with a strong analogy to indigenous rights, then President Ortega’s statements have much more meaning. They are not just an expression about claims of the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago to traditional or artisanal fishing. Nor can they be explained away as President Ortega wanting to be diplomatic or avoiding controversy and appeasing Colombia29. They are a recognition and validation of the claims of a particular community of “original peoples” to continue fishing as they had in the past. 63. Viewing the rights of the Raizales through an analogy with indigenous rights has certain consequences for the conclusions reached by the Court. The Court assesses the statements of President Ortega in terms of whether they could constitute recognition of traditional or artisanal fishing rights or of a right to fish without prior authorization (Judgment, paragraph 227). The Court also considers whether President Ortega’s statements constituted a unilateral declaration undertaking legal obligations (Judgment, paragraphs 228-230). But a more appropriate focus would have been to 24 Memorial of Nicaragua, Ann. 27. 25 Counter-Memorial of Colombia, Ann. 74. 26 Rejoinder of Colombia, Ann. 6. 27 See, for example Memorial of Nicaragua, Ann. 27: “we [Nicaragua] fully respect their right to fish and to navigate those waters, which they have historically navigated, and have also survived from the marine resources”; Counter-Memorial of Colombia, Ann. 73: “we [Nicaragua] will respect the historical rights that they (the Raizals) have had over those territories. We will find the mechanisms to ensure the right of the Raizal people to fish, in San Andrés”. 28 Counter-Memorial of Colombia, Ann. 76. 29 Reply of Nicaragua, para. 6.65; Additional pleading of Nicaragua, para. 2.29; CR 2021/6, pp. 24-25, paras. 29-32 (Martin). - 14 - consider what President Ortega was saying about the Raizales. He called them “original people”, “native people”, and spoke of their “ancestral rights”. The traditional fishing rights of the Raizales that he spoke of, were rights that flowed from their status as Raizal people. This is evidenced clearly when President Ortega argues for a commission to delimit where the Raizales are to exercise their fishing rights. He said: “they already have a permanent permit there, they do not have to be going for a permit every day, why? Because they are in their lands, they are in their waters, they are in their natural habitat.” 30 In short, for President Ortega, the right to a fishery was an inherent consequence of who the Raizal people were. Their fishing in what were now Nicaragua’s waters was their right because it was in “their lands”, in “their waters”. It was, President Ortega said, the Raizales “natural habitat”31. 64. The language and imagery President Ortega used is consistent with indigenous rights. And his statements should also be considered against the background of the jurisprudence of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights which has consistently held that “tribal and indigenous peoples” have rights to the natural resources that they have traditionally used32. In light of such developments in the Inter-American Court, it is not surprising that a president of a Latin American country would refer to the Raizales in the language that President Ortega used. 65. The fishing rights of indigenous peoples are recognized in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Article 26, paragraph 1, provides: “Indigenous peoples have the right to the lands, territories and resources which they have traditionally owned, occupied or otherwise used or acquired”33. This clearly covers indigenous fishing rights. 66. However, the Court concludes that Colombia has not established that the Raizales enjoyed traditional rights to fishing in Nicaragua’s EEZ. This conclusion is based on a rejection of affidavit evidence of fishers provided by Colombia. But this is problematic in two ways. First, the standard the Court set for establishing traditional fishing rights is essentially one that could never be reached. Second, the Court failed to see the link between what was claimed in respect of the Raizales and what was said about them, and about their right to fish in Nicaragua’s EEZ. 67. With regard to the assessment of affidavit evidence, as the Court itself notes, it is unrealistic to expect that evidence of what happened centuries ago can be gleaned from the affidavits of contemporary fishers, particularly when their culture is not a written one. It is not surprising, therefore that the Court concluded that the affidavit evidence had nothing to say about the location of fishing of the Raizales some two hundred years ago (Judgment, paragraph 221). 68. But if the claims in respect of the Raizales were seen as analogous to claims to indigenous rights then a different approach must be taken. In this regard, the Court failed to appreciate the import 30 Rejoinder of Colombia, Ann. 6. 31 Rejoinder of Colombia, Ann. 6. 32 Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Saramaka People v. Suriname, Ser C No 172, Judgment of 28 November 2007, para. 121: “members of tribal and indigenous communities have the right to own the natural resources they have traditionally used within their territory for the same reasons that they have a right to own the land they have traditionally used and occupied for centuries”; Kichwa Indigenous People of Sarayaku v. Ecuador, Ser C No 245, Judgment of 27 June 2012, para. 146: “the protection of the territories of indigenous and tribal peoples also stems from the need to guarantee the security and continuity of their control and use of natural resources, which in turn allows them to maintain their way of living”. 33 United Nations resolution 61/295 “United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples” (adopted by the General Assembly on 13 September 2007), UN doc. A/RES/61/295 (2 Oct. 2007). - 15 - of what President Ortega said. All of President Ortega’s statements were about the right of the Raizales to engage in fishing in Nicaragua’s EEZ. For President Ortega it went without saying that the original peoples, the Raizales, fished within the waters that were now subject to Nicaraguan jurisdiction. It did not require affidavit evidence of such practices. 69. Viewing the claims of the Raizales as akin to indigenous rights also makes irrelevant another part of the Court’s reasoning, that relating to the position taken by the Ministry of Labour of the Colombian Government in a complaint brought before the International Labour Organization relating to the impact of the 2012 Judgment on the Raizales and other fishers of the San Andrés Archipelago (Judgment, paras. 222-223). The rights of the Raizales that President Ortega was referring to are not rights that can be abandoned by a department of a government seeking to protect the reputation of its government in another international forum. 70. In my view, the Court has failed to appreciate the real nature of the claim relating to the Raizales in respect of the third counter-claim. It has reached a conclusion that does not accord with the entitlement of the Raizales as reflected in the words of President Ortega — that the Raizales had fished in waters that were now within the Nicaraguan EEZ and that, by virtue of their particular status as “original peoples”, they were entitled to continue that fishing. All that was needed was an arrangement between Nicaragua and Colombia to ensure the effective implementation of that right to continue fishing. 71. In paragraph 232, the Court supports the negotiation of an agreement between Nicaragua and Colombia regarding access by the Raizales community to fisheries within Nicaragua’s EEZ. The fact that the Court singles out the Raizales specifically and does not speak of an agreement for all the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago is a clear indication that the Court was at least implicitly treating the Raizales as a distinct group. The negotiation of an agreement is an important step, but it is unfortunate that the Court did not couple this recommendation with an affirmation of the rights that the Raizales have. The purpose of such an agreement should not be to grant rights to the Raizales. Rather, an agreement would, as President Ortega anticipated, provide the modalities to ensure that Raizales could continue to exercise their right to a resource that they had traditionally fished but which as a result of the 2012 Judgment was now in Nicaragua’s EEZ. B 72. I have voted against the Court’s conclusion that Nicaragua’s straight baselines do not conform with customary international law. I did so because, in my view, the Court has based its decision on a decontextualized application of the law relating to drawing straight baselines and ignored State practice which should have been taken into account in interpreting the relevant provisions of customary international law. 73. The Court notes that the Parties accept that Article 7 of UNCLOS reflects customary international law on drawing straight baselines and concludes itself that this is so (Judgment, paragraphs 241-242). As result, the issue before the Court is whether Nicaragua’s straight baselines meet the requirements of Article 7. 74. In interpreting Article 7, the Court focuses on the criteria in paragraph 1 of that Article that straight baselines can apply in localities where the coastline “is deeply indented and cut into” or whether there is a “fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity”. In respect of Nicaragua’s baseline between points 8 and 9 the Court asks whether the coast in the area meets the requirement of being “deeply indented and cut into” (Judgment, paragraph 245). The baselines - 16 - between points 1 and 8 are tested by reference to whether there is a “fringe of islands” along the coast (Judgment, paragraph 246). 75. The terms of Article 7 are essentially a direct reflection of what was said in the 1951 Judgment in the Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway) case 34. Thus, the terms constitute a description of the coasts of Norway as perceived in that Judgment. The difficulty is how to apply these terms to coasts that are not identical to those of Norway35. Thus, the challenge for the Court was to give meaning to the terms “deeply indented and cut into” or “fringe of islands” along the coast that can be readily applied to the coastal configurations in this case and can be used as guidance for States in applying Article 7 to their own coastlines. 76. Unfortunately, I do not consider that the Court has done this. It has taken the idea expressed in the language of “deeply indented and cut into” and applied it by saying that the coastal indentations of the Nicaragua coast “do not penetrate sufficiently inland or present characteristics sufficient for the Court to consider the said portion as ‘deeply indented and cut into’” (Judgment, paragraph 245). Resorting to the language of the 1951 Judgment, the Court refers to requirements of the coast being of a “very distinctive configuration” or not “broken along its length”, or indentations “often penetrating great distances inland” (ibid.). None of this is any more precise than the phrase “deeply indented or cut into” of Article 7. The impression left is that the conclusion is based not on clear criteria but on a subjective impression of what “deeply indented and cut into” means. 77. The same applies to the Court’s treatment of the term “fringe of islands”. The Court notes that in its 2012 Judgment it had referred to islands off Nicaragua’s coast as “fringing islands”, but states that it did not do so as an interpretation of Article 7 (Judgment, paragraph 249). The fact that it had used the term “fringe of islands” apparently to mean something different from the term “fringe of islands” in Article 7, should itself have alerted the Court to the perils of trying to apply the term. The closest the Court comes to elucidating the meaning of a “fringe of islands” is when it says that “the phrase ‘fringe of islands’ implies that there should not be too small a number of such islands relative to the length of coast” (Judgment, paragraph 252) and when it says, “a ‘fringe’ must enclose a set, or cluster of islands which present an interconnected system with some consistency or continuity” (Judgment, paragraph 254). But while such statements can provide an image of what the Court is seeking to establish, the link between them and the Court’s conclusion that it “is not satisfied . . . that the number of Nicaragua’s islands . . . is sufficient to constitute a ‘fringe of islands’ along Nicaragua’s coast” (Judgment, paragraph 252) or that they “are not sufficiently close to each other to form a coherent ‘cluster’ or a ‘chapelet’ along the coast and are not sufficiently linked to the land domain” (Judgment, paragraph 256) is simply not evident. In elaborating on the requirements for a fringe of islands the Court also refers to islands having “a masking effect” (Judgment, paragraph 254), but this is as imprecise as the terms to which it is supposed to give content. 78. What is missing from the Court’s analysis is a treatment of State practice in drawing straight baselines. The imprecision of the terms in Article 7 might well be lessened by considering how States in practice have interpreted and applied those provisions. There are many examples of 34 Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 116; see Myron H. Nordquist, Satya N. Nandan, Shabtai Rosenne (eds.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982: A Commentary, Vol. II, Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff 1985, para. 7.1. 35 See Tullio Scovazzi, “Baselines”, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (MPELPIL),article last updated in June 2007, para. 20. - 17 - State practice in drawing straight baselines, including the practice of Colombia itself 36. And when viewed against that practice, the straight baselines of Nicaragua do not seem to be out of line with the way States are interpreting Article 7. It is true that straight baselines are sometimes objected to by neighbouring States, but even those instances are relatively rare. There is simply no widespread objection by States to the way straight baselines have been drawn37. Only one State has consistently objected to straight baselines, reflecting its own view of what is appropriate. In light of this, it might have been prudent for the Court to have been guided by what States have been doing when establishing straight baselines. 79. In short, what the Court has done is measure Nicaragua’s baselines against an impression created by the words in Article 7, rather than giving concrete content to the words that would reduce subjectivity and provide guidance not only on how the conclusion was reached in this case but on how States should in the future be guided in the interpretation of Article 7. And this has been done without reference to State practice. Yet there is significant State practice which can throw light on how Article 7 has been interpreted and, if taken into account, would lead to a contrary conclusion. 80. Ultimately, in my view, this was not the case for the Court to provide a definitive interpretation of Article 7. It came by way of counter-claim, not as a principal claim, from a State that itself had drawn straight baselines that do not appear dissimilar from the baselines it is challenging. The case raised questions about how to assess the relevance of scale on the maps used to depict the baselines. It involved challenges to the status of features that were claimed to be islands and to the legitimacy of using them as base points. Yet the Parties did not ask the Court to appoint a technical expert who could provide guidance on aspects of the pleadings of the Parties that would have enabled the Court to reach definitive conclusions on some of these questions. 81. There is no doubt that the law relating to straight baselines is in need of clarification and perhaps the day will come when an appropriate case comes before the Court, where the matter can be considered fully with a complete articulation by the Parties of all the issues, and technical support provided for the Court. Unfortunately, that is not this case. I am concerned therefore that what the Court has done will increase uncertainty in this area, rather than providing clarification, and will leave States in considerable doubt about how to assess whether their straight baselines meet the requirements of Article 7. (Signed) Donald M. MCRAE. ___________ 36 See International Law Association, “Baselines under the International Law of the Sea: Final Report” ILA Reports of Conferences, Vol. 78 (2018), especially p. 124, para. 20, p. 126, para. 25, and p. 160, para. 105, with further references therein. 37 See International Law Association, “Baselines under the International Law of the Sea: Final Report” ILA Reports of Conferences, Vol. 78 (2018), p. 127, para. 27: “Not entirely surprisingly, the number of States which have protested relevant state practice in this regard [i.e. in relation to the drawing of straight baselines], in proportion to the number of potentially interested States, is very small.”
435
173
DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC McRAE
Disagreement with the finding of the Court that it has jurisdiction
ratione temporis — No justification for the assimilation of a dispute involving
events subsequent to the application to a dispute involving events subsequent to the
lapse of the jurisdictional title — Responsibility may not be based on events
subsequent to the lapse of the jurisdictional title — Policy considerations.
Disagreement with the finding that Colombia exercised control in Nicaragua’s
EEZ — Definition of enforcement — Distinction between monitoring and
enforcement — Failure by Colombia to exercise its rights with due regard to
Nicaragua’s rights and duties as coastal State.
Disagreement with the finding that Colombia authorized fishing activities in
Nicaragua’s EEZ.
Agreement with the finding that Colombia’s ICZ may overlap with Nicaragua’s
EEZ and that it may not extend beyond 24 nautical miles — Disagreement with
the finding that the powers claimed by Colombia in its ICZ are not in conformity
with international law — The powers listed in Article 33 of UNCLOS addressed
security concerns of the 1950s — Evolutive interpretation of Article 33 of
UNCLOS — The jurisdiction claimed by Colombia pertains to offences committed
on its territory or in its territorial sea, not in the ICZ or Nicaragua’s EEZ.
Disagreement with the Court’s rejection of the traditional fishing rights of the
Raizales — The rights claimed by the Raizales are akin to indigenous rights —
Recognition by Nicaragua of the fishing rights of the Raizales as akin to indigenous
rights.
Disagreement with the Court’s acceptance of the fourth counter-claim —
Imprecision of the criteria for the drawing of straight baselines — Relevance of
State practice in the examination of the permissibility of straight baselines.
I.
1. I regret that I have had to vote against the Court’s Judgment on all
of the findings in this case and will elaborate on my reasons in this dissent.
2. As a preliminary matter, I would note that I voted against the Court
on the finding “that the Republic of Colombia must, by means of its own
choosing, bring into conformity with customary international law the
provisions of Presidential Decree 1946 of 9 September 2013”, because the
finding focused on the provisions of Presidential Decree 1946 which dealt
with the powers to be exercised within the Integral Contiguous Zone
(hereinafter “ICZ”). As I will point out in this dissent, I consider that the
powers asserted by Colombia are among those that a State may exercise
435
173
OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC McRAE
[Traduction]
Désaccord avec le point du dispositif dans lequel la Cour se dit compétente
ratione temporis — Rien ne justifiant d’assimiler un différend faisant intervenir
des événements postérieurs à l’introduction de la requête à un différend faisant
intervenir des événements postérieurs à l’extinction du titre de compétence —
Responsabilité ne pouvant être fondée sur des événements postérieurs à l’extinction
du titre de compétence — Considérations d’ordre politique.
Désaccord avec la conclusion que la Colombie a exercé un contrôle dans la ZEE
du Nicaragua — Définition de l’exécution — Distinction entre surveillance et
exécution — Colombie n’ayant pas exercé ses droits en tenant dûment compte des
droits et obligations du Nicaragua en tant qu’Etat côtier.
Désaccord avec la conclusion que la Colombie a autorisé des activités de pêche
dans la ZEE du Nicaragua.
Accord avec la conclusion que la zone contiguë unique de la Colombie pourrait
chevaucher la ZEE du Nicaragua et ne pourrait pas s’étendre au-
delà de 24 milles
marins — Désaccord avec la conclusion que les pouvoirs revendiqués par la Colombie
dans sa zone contiguë unique ne sont pas conformes au droit international —
Pouvoirs énumérés à l’article 33 de la CNUDM traitant des préoccupations en
matière de sécurité dans les années 1950 — Interprétation évolutive de l’article 33 de
la CNUDM — Compétence invoquée par la Colombie se rapportant aux infractions
commises sur son territoire ou dans sa mer territoriale, et non dans la zone contiguë
unique ou la ZEE du Nicaragua.
Désaccord avec la décision de la Cour de rejeter les droits de pêche traditionnels
des Raizals — Droits revendiqués par les Raizals s’apparentant aux droits des
peuples autochtones — Reconnaissance par le Nicaragua des droits de pêche des
Raizals comme s’apparentant aux droits des peuples autochtones.
Désaccord avec la décision de la Cour de faire droit à la quatrième demande
reconventionnelle — Imprécision des critères régissant le tracé de lignes de base
droites — Pertinence de la pratique des Etats aux fins de l’examen de la validité
de lignes de base droites.
I.
1. Je suis au regret d’avoir dû voter contre l’arrêt de la Cour s’agissant
de toutes les conclusions tirées en l’espèce et développerai mes raisons
dans le présent exposé de mon opinion dissidente.
2. A titre préliminaire, je relèverai que j’ai voté contre le point du dispositif
dans lequel la Cour a dit « que la République de Colombie doit,
par les moyens de son choix, mettre les dispositions du décret présidentiel
1946 du 9 septembre 2013 … en conformité avec le droit international
coutumier », car cette conclusion mettait l’accent sur les dispositions dudit
décret consacrées aux pouvoirs devant être exercés dans la zone contiguë
unique. Comme je le soulignerai dans la présente opinion dissidente, j’estime
que les pouvoirs revendiqués par la Colombie sont de ceux qu’un
436 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
174
in its contiguous zone consistently with customary international law.
However, I agree with the Court that the configuration of Colombia’s
ICZ put before the Court is not in conformity with customary international
law in so far as it exceeds 24 nautical miles. Thus, when it formally
establishes the outer limits of its ICZ, Colombia must ensure that those
limits do not exceed 24 nautical miles.
II.
3. I start with the issue of jurisdiction ratione temporis raised by
Colombia in the course of these proceedings.
4. I disagree with the Court’s conclusion that it has jurisdiction in
respect of events that allegedly took place after the lapse of the jurisdictional
title (Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá) on 27 November 2013.
The point is critical because the conclusion of the Court that by interfering
with the fishing and marine scientific activities of Nicaraguan‑flagged
or ‑licensed vessels and purporting to enforce conservation measures
Colombia has violated Nicaragua’s rights within its exclusive economic
zone (hereinafter “EEZ”) is based essentially on events that took place
after the lapse of jurisdictional title. In other words, were it not for the
events that occurred after the lapse of title, the Court would have had no
basis for its conclusion in the second subparagraph of its operative clause
that Colombia had violated Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction
within its EEZ. In short, Colombia is found internationally responsible
on the basis of alleged violations of Nicaragua’s rights and jurisdiction
that took place after the Court’s jurisdictional title had lapsed.
5. On 27 November 2013, Colombia’s denunciation of the Pact of
Bogotá came into effect, and from that point on the Court ceased to have
jurisdiction in respect of claims brought against Colombia under the Pact.
This is made evident in Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá which provides
for the jurisdiction of the Court “as compulsory ipso facto, without
the necessity of any special agreement so long as the present Treaty is in
force”. Indeed, the Court recognized this jurisdictional limit in its Judgment
of 17 March 2016 on preliminary objections, where it accepted that
it had jurisdiction over Nicaragua’s claim because it was filed on
26 November 2013, the day before the lapse of jurisdictional title in
accordance with Colombia’s denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá 1. In
1 Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 26,
para. 48.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 436
174
Etat peut exercer dans sa zone contiguë en respectant le droit international
coutumier. Je conviens toutefois avec la Cour que la configuration de
la zone contiguë unique que la Colombie lui a soumise n’est pas conforme
au droit international coutumier dans la mesure où cette zone s’étend
au‑delà de 24 milles marins. Lorsqu’elle établira officiellement les limites
extérieures de sa zone contiguë unique, la Colombie devra donc veiller à
ce que celles-
ci n’excèdent pas cette distance.
II.
3. Je commencerai par la question de la compétence ratione temporis
soulevée par la Colombie au cours de la présente instance.
4. Je suis en désaccord avec le point du dispositif dans lequel la Cour
dit qu’elle a compétence à l’égard d’événements qui se seraient produits
après l’extinction du titre de compétence (article XXXI du pacte de
Bogotá), intervenue le 27 novembre 2013. Ce point est primordial, car
pour parvenir à la conclusion que, en entravant les activités de pêche et de
recherche scientifique marine de navires battant pavillon nicaraguayen
ou détenteurs d’un permis nicaraguayen et en cherchant à faire appliquer
des mesures de conservation, la Colombie a violé les droits du Nicaragua
dans sa zone économique exclusive (ci-
après la « ZEE »), la Cour s’est
fondée
essentiellement sur des événements qui se sont produits après l’extinction
du titre de compétence. Autrement dit, en l’absence de ces événements
postérieurs à la caducité du titre, rien ne lui aurait permis de
conclure, au deuxième point du dispositif, que la Colombie a violé les
droits souverains et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans sa ZEE. En résumé,
c’est sur le fondement de violations alléguées des droits et de la juridiction
du Nicaragua intervenues après l’extinction du titre de compétence de la
Cour que celle‑ci a jugé que la Colombie avait engagé sa responsabilité
internationale.
5. Le 27 novembre 2013, la dénonciation du pacte de Bogotá par la
Colombie a pris effet et, à compter de cette date, la Cour a cessé d’avoir
compétence à l’égard des demandes introduites contre cet Etat au titre du
pacte. Cela ressort à l’évidence de l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá, qui
dispose que la compétence de la Cour est « obligatoire de plein droit, et sans
convention spéciale tant que le présent Traité restera en vigueur ». La Cour
avait du reste reconnu cette limite de sa compétence dans son arrêt du
17 mars 2016 sur les exceptions préliminaires, indiquant avoir compétence
à l’égard de la demande du Nicaragua parce que celle-
ci avait été présentée
le 26 novembre 2013, la veille de l’extinction du titre de compétence conformément
à la dénonciation du pacte de Bogotá par la Colombie 1. Elle avait
1 Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des
Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I),
p. 26, par. 48.
437 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
175
doing so, the Court applied the well‑established principle that its jurisdiction
is to be determined as of the date of application 2.
6. The Court justifies its assumption of jurisdiction in respect of events
that took place after jurisdiction had lapsed, on the basis of the principle,
also well established in the Court’s jurisprudence, that jurisdiction extends
to “facts subsequent to the filing of the Application, but arising directly
out of the question which is the subject‑matter of that Application” 3.
But, until this case, the principle had never been applied to cases where
the events subsequent to the filing of the application are events over which
the Court otherwise had no jurisdiction. In none of the cases referred to
in the Judgment (para. 44) did the question of lapse of title of jurisdiction
arise.
7. The Court treats the limitation in Article XXXI as applicable only
to “the subject‑matter of a dispute over which the Court may exercise
jurisdiction” (Judgment, para. 40). Since in its 2016 Judgment the Court
had already determined that it did have jurisdiction, the question before
it now “is whether its jurisdiction over that dispute extends to facts or
events that allegedly occurred after the lapse of the title of jurisdiction”
(ibid.).
8. In the critical part of its Judgment, the Court says that considerations
relevant to the adjudication of claims or submissions subsequent to
the date of application can be instructive in deciding this case, which
deals with events that were certainly subsequent to the date of application
but also, critically, subsequent to the lapse of title of jurisdiction. The
Court immediately goes on (ibid., para. 43) to say that the same criteria
should apply to the question of jurisdiction ratione temporis in this case,
that is where the events in question are subsequent to the date of lapse of
title. The Court notes that, in the case of claims or submissions that have
occurred subsequent to the date of application, it has “considered whether
such a claim or submission arose directly out of the question which is the
subject‑matter of the application or whether entertaining such a claim or
submission would transform the subject of the dispute originally submitted
to the Court” (ibid., para. 44). This, then, becomes the test for deciding
whether jurisdiction can be taken over events occurring after the lapse
of title. However, the Court does not explain how a dispute dealing with
events over which it otherwise has no jurisdiction should be equated with
a dispute dealing with events over which the Court has jurisdiction. It
affirms that the rule for events subsequent to the date of application
2 See note 1 supra, p. 18, para. 33, citing Application of the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 437‑438, paras. 79‑80, and Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26.
3 Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany v. Iceland), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 203, para. 72; see also Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance
in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 211‑212,
para. 87.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 437
175
alors appliqué le principe constant voulant que sa compétence soit déterminée
à la date de la requête 2.
6. Pour justifier de s’être déclarée compétente à l’égard d’événements
intervenus après l’extinction de son titre de compétence, la Cour s’est fondée
sur le principe, lui aussi bien établi dans sa jurisprudence, voulant que
la compétence couvre les « faits postérieurs au dépôt de la requête mais
découlant directement de la question qui fait l’objet de cette requête » 3.
Or, jusqu’à la présente affaire, ce principe n’avait jamais été appliqué à
des cas où les événements postérieurs au dépôt de la requête étaient des
événements à l’égard desquels la Cour n’avait pas compétence par ailleurs.
La question de l’extinction du titre de compétence ne s’est posée
dans aucune des affaires mentionnées au paragraphe 44 de l’arrêt.
7. La Cour traite la limite énoncée à l’article XXXI comme étant applicable
uniquement à « l’objet des différends à l’égard desquels [elle] peut
exercer sa compétence » (arrêt, par. 40). Ayant, dans son arrêt de 2016,
déjà déterminé qu’elle était compétente, elle est maintenant saisie de la
question « de savoir si sa compétence à l’égard de ce différend s’étend aux
faits ou événements qui se seraient produits après l’extinction du titre de
compétence » (ibid.).
8. Dans la partie cruciale de son arrêt, la Cour précise que les considérations
pertinentes pour statuer sur une demande ou une conclusion postérieure
à la date de la requête peuvent être instructives pour se prononcer
sur la présente affaire, laquelle porte sur des événements qui se sont assurément
produits après cette date mais aussi, et c’est là un point essentiel,
après l’extinction du titre de compétence. La Cour ajoute immédiatement
(ibid., par. 43) que les mêmes critères devraient s’appliquer à la question de
sa compétence ratione temporis en l’espèce, c’est‑à‑dire lorsque les événements
en cause sont postérieurs à la date d’extinction du titre. Elle relève
que, dans les affaires où une demande ou une conclusion lui a été présentée
après la date de la requête, elle a « vérifié si ladite demande ou conclusion
découlait directement de la question qui faisait l’objet de la requête ou si le
fait de se prononcer sur celle-
ci aurait pour effet de transformer l’objet du
différend qui lui avait été initialement soumis » (ibid., par. 44). Cela est
ensuite devenu le critère lui permettant de déterminer si elle pouvait se
déclarer compétente à l’égard d’événements intervenant après l’extinction
du titre. Cependant, la Cour n’explique pas comment un différend ayant
trait à des événements à l’égard desquels elle n’a pas compétence par ailleurs
pourrait être assimilé à un différend se rapportant à des événements
2 Voir note de bas de page 1 ci-dessus, p. 18, par. 33, citant Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 437‑438, par. 79‑80, et Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 613, par. 26.
3 Compétence en matière de pêcheries (République fédérale d’Allemagne c. Islande),
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 203, par. 72 ; voir également Certaines questions concernant
l’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale (Djibouti c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008,
p. 211‑212, par. 87.
438 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
176
should be applied to events subsequent to the lapse of jurisdictional title
but provides no explanation or rationale to show why this affirmation is
justified.
9. The rule allowing the Court to treat events subsequent to the date
that jurisdiction is established makes sense because it encourages efficiency;
that is, it would be inefficient to require an applicant to bring a
new application in respect of events that are part of the same dispute
when they can be dealt with in the application already brought. But in the
case of events subsequent to the loss of title of jurisdiction, no such efficiency
considerations can be shown. A new application could not be
brought in respect of events subsequent to the title of jurisdiction lapsing,
because there would be no such title to do so. So, instead of applying a
rule that encourages efficiency in cases where jurisdiction is established,
what the Court is doing in this case is creating jurisdiction over events
when no such jurisdiction would otherwise exist.
10. The Court points out that there is “nothing in the Court’s jurisprudence
to suggest that the lapse of jurisdictional title after the institution of
proceedings has the effect of limiting the Court’s jurisdiction ratione temporis
to facts which allegedly occurred before that lapse” (Judgment,
para. 42). But equally, there is nothing in the Court’s jurisprudence to say
that the Court can take jurisdiction over events that have occurred after
the lapse of jurisdictional title.
11. The Court says, too, that the 2016 Judgment “implie[d] that the
Court has jurisdiction to examine every aspect of the dispute” (ibid.,
para. 45). But the Court was careful in 2016 to identify the dispute on the
basis of events that allegedly occurred before the date of the Application.
It would be strange in light of this to conclude, now, that the Court at
that time was asserting that it could assume jurisdiction over events allegedly
occurring after the title of jurisdiction had lapsed. At best the matter
is simply not dealt with in the 2016 Judgment, and no inference can be
drawn from it.
12. The Court’s conclusion that “consideration” of alleged incidents
that occurred after the lapse of jurisdiction “does not transform the
nature of the dispute between the Parties” (ibid., para. 47) and, thus, it
has jurisdiction over those incidents, masks the reality of what is being
decided. The question before the Court is not whether it can “entertain”
or “consider” incidents subsequent to the date of filing of the Application
(ibid., para. 41) or date of lapse of title (ibid., para. 47). Of course, the
Court can “consider” or “entertain” events that took place after the lapse
of title as part of the broader context of the case. But that is different
from determining responsibility based on such events.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 438
176
à l’égard desquels elle a compétence. Elle affirme que la règle relative aux
événements postérieurs à la date de la requête devrait être appliquée aux
événements postérieurs à l’extinction du titre de compétence, sans toutefois
fournir la moindre explication ou le moindre raisonnement à l’appui.
9. La règle autorisant la Cour à traiter les événements postérieurs à la
date à laquelle la compétence est établie a un sens parce qu’elle encourage
l’efficacité ; en d’autres termes, il serait inefficace d’exiger d’un demandeur
qu’il introduise une nouvelle requête concernant des événements qui font
partie du même différend lorsque ceux-
ci peuvent être traités dans le cadre
de la requête déjà introduite. S’agissant d’événements postérieurs à l’extinction
du titre de compétence, il n’est en revanche pas possible de
démontrer de telles considérations en matière d’efficacité. Une nouvelle
requête ne pourrait être introduite au sujet d’événements postérieurs à
l’extinction de la compétence, puisqu’il n’existerait plus de titre pour le
faire. En conséquence, au lieu d’appliquer une règle qui promeut l’efficacité
dans les affaires où la compétence est établie, la Cour suit en l’espèce
une approche consistant à se déclarer compétente pour connaître d’événements
à l’égard desquels elle n’aurait pas compétence par ailleurs.
10. La Cour souligne que « [r]ien, dans [s]a jurisprudence …, ne suggère
que l’extinction du titre de compétence après l’introduction d’une
instance ait pour effet de limiter [s]a compétence ratione temporis … aux
faits qui se seraient produits avant ladite caducité » (arrêt, par. 42). Il est
cependant tout aussi vrai que rien, dans la jurisprudence de la Cour, ne
permet de dire que celle‑ci peut se déclarer compétente à l’égard d’événements
intervenus après l’extinction du titre de compétence.
11. La Cour dit en outre que l’arrêt de 2016 « impliqu[ait] qu[’elle]
a[vait] compétence pour connaître de tous les aspects du différend » (ibid.,
par. 45). Or, en 2016, elle avait pris soin de déterminer le différend en
fonction d’événements censés s’être produits avant la date de la requête.
A la lumière de cela, il serait étrange de conclure aujourd’hui que, à
l’époque, la Cour avait affirmé pouvoir se déclarer compétente à l’égard
d’événements qui se produiraient après l’extinction du titre de compétence.
Dans le meilleur des cas, la question n’est tout simplement pas traitée
dans l’arrêt de 2016, dont rien ne peut donc être déduit.
12. La conclusion dans laquelle la Cour dit que la « pr[ise] en considération
» d’incidents qui auraient eu lieu après l’extinction de la compétence
« n’a pas pour effet de transformer la nature du différend qui oppose
les Parties » (ibid., par. 47) et, partant, qu’elle a compétence à l’égard de
ces incidents masque ce qui est réellement décidé. La question soumise à
la Cour n’est pas de savoir si celle‑ci peut « connaître » de certains incidents
postérieurs à la date du dépôt de la requête (ibid., par. 41) ou
de l’extinction du titre (ibid., par. 47), ou les « prendre en considération ».
Bien évidemment, rien ne l’empêche de « connaître » de certains événements
intervenus après l’extinction du titre dans le cadre du contexte
plus large de l’affaire, ou de les « prendre en considération », mais c’est
autre chose que de déterminer la responsabilité sur la base de tels événements.
439 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
177
13. What is at issue in this case is whether the Court can find responsibility
on the basis of events that occurred at the time when the Court had
no jurisdiction. To say that consideration of subsequent events after the
title has lapsed does not transform the nature of the dispute (Judgment,
para. 47), ignores the fact that responsibility based on events before title
lapses is responsibility in respect of a matter over which the Court has
jurisdiction. Responsibility on the basis of events that were subsequent to
the lapse of title is responsibility in respect of events over which the Court
has no jurisdiction.
14. The Court was right in 2016 when it took jurisdiction over the dispute
between the Parties on the basis of allegations of conduct by Colombia
that occurred before the filing of the Application. And it is right today
in asserting that it can consider facts and events subsequent to the Application
provided those events do not transform the nature of the dispute.
But what the Court has been unable to do is articulate a justification for
finding responsibility on the basis of events that occurred after title of
jurisdiction has lapsed.
15. There are no doubt policy implications of not taking jurisdiction
over events subsequent to the lapse of title. Could a State by withdrawing
acceptance of jurisdiction after a case has been filed against it undermine
the ability of the Court to deal with the case? While that is certainly an
undesirable consequence, it is not the case here. This is not the case of a
respondent withdrawing jurisdiction on finding a case has been filed
against it. Rather, it is a case of an applicant waiting to the last minute
before jurisdiction expired to bring the claim.
16. Equally, there are contrary policy considerations. The principle
that international jurisdiction is based on consent is fundamental and the
Court should not facilitate bypassing that principle. But that is the consequence
here. A State that has been unable to substantiate a case on the
basis of events that existed at the time of the application when the Court
had jurisdiction is being permitted to bypass a jurisdictional impediment
and responsibility is found on the basis of events which could not be the
subject of a new application.
17. In my view, the Court has provided no justification for finding
responsibility on the basis of events that have occurred after the title of
jurisdiction has lapsed. As a result, I would have found that the Court
lacks jurisdiction ratione temporis over the events in this case that occurred
after 27 November 2013.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 439
177
13. La question qui se pose en la présente espèce est celle de savoir si la
Cour peut juger de la responsabilité en fonction d’événements qui se sont
produits à un moment où elle n’avait pas compétence. Dire que la prise
en considération d’événements postérieurs à l’extinction du titre n’a pas
pour effet de transformer la nature du différend (arrêt, par. 47), c’est faire
abstraction de ce que la responsabilité fondée sur des événements
antérieurs
à ladite extinction est une responsabilité au titre d’une question
à l’égard de laquelle la Cour a compétence. La responsabilité fondée
sur des événements postérieurs à l’extinction du titre est une responsabilité
à raison d’événements dont la Cour n’a pas compétence pour
connaître.
14. La Cour ne s’est pas trompée lorsque, en 2016, elle s’est fondée sur
un comportement que la Colombie aurait eu avant le dépôt de la requête
pour se déclarer compétente pour connaître du différend entre les Parties.
Elle a également raison, aujourd’hui, d’affirmer pouvoir prendre en considération
des faits et événements postérieurs à la requête, pour autant
qu’ils n’aient pas pour effet de transformer la nature du différend. En
revanche, ce qu’elle n’est pas parvenue à faire, c’est se justifier d’avoir
jugé de la responsabilité en fonction d’événements qui se sont produits
après l’extinction du titre de compétence.
15. Le fait pour la Cour de ne pas se déclarer compétente à l’égard
d’événements postérieurs à l’extinction du titre aurait sans aucun doute
des incidences d’ordre politique. Un Etat pourrait‑il, en retirant son
acceptation de la juridiction après l’introduction d’une affaire contre lui,
compromettre la capacité de la Cour à traiter l’affaire ? Si cette conséquence
n’est assurément pas souhaitable, tel n’est toutefois pas le cas ici.
Nous sommes en présence non pas d’une défenderesse qui retire son
acceptation de la juridiction après avoir appris qu’une affaire a été introduite
contre elle, mais d’un demandeur qui attend la dernière minute
avant l’expiration de la compétence pour présenter sa demande.
16. Il existe également des considérations d’ordre politique opposées.
Le principe selon lequel la compétence internationale est fondée sur le
consentement est fondamental, et la Cour ne devrait pas en faciliter le
contournement. Or, c’est bien ce qui s’ensuit ici. Un Etat qui s’est révélé
incapable d’étayer son argumentation sur la base des événements qui
avaient eu lieu au moment de l’introduction de la requête, alors que la
Cour avait compétence, se voit autorisé à tourner une contrainte juridictionnelle,
et il est jugé de la responsabilité sur la base d’événements qui ne
pourraient pas faire l’objet d’une nouvelle requête.
17. A mon sens, la Cour ne s’est nullement justifiée d’avoir jugé de la
responsabilité sur le fondement d’événements intervenus après l’extinction
du titre de compétence. En conséquence, j’aurais conclu qu’elle n’a
pas compétence ratione temporis à l’égard des événements de l’espèce qui
se sont produits après le 27 novembre 2013.
440 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
178
III.
18. I turn now to Colombia’s contested actions in Nicaragua’s EEZ.
With one exception (Judgment, paras. 71‑72) the actions on which the
Court relies to establish Colombia’s responsibility occurred after the lapse
of the jurisdictional title on 27 November 2013. Moreover, given that the
approach of the Court has not been to reach a conclusion on the basis of
each specific incident, but rather to base responsibility on an accumulation
of incidents, it is unlikely that the Court would have been able to
conclude that Colombia’s international responsibility for the alleged incidents
in Nicaragua’s EEZ was engaged if that incident had stood alone.
The facts are contested by the Parties and there is no basis on the evidence
before the Court for choosing whose allegations are correct. Indeed,
as Judge Nolte points out in his dissenting opinion, the Court does not
even include this incident among those purporting to show that Colombian
naval vessels were seeking to exercise enforcement jurisdiction in
Nicaragua’s EEZ (ibid., para. 92).
19. In other words, the Court was able to conclude that Nicaragua had
substantiated its claim in respect of the alleged incidents in Nicaragua’s
EEZ only because it relied on post‑27 November 2013 incidents, over
which the Court lacked jurisdiction.
20. However, even if the Court’s decision to rely on events that
occurred after the lapse of jurisdiction were correct, in my view the incidents
on which the Court does base its conclusion on responsibility do
not warrant the decision of the Court that Colombia was
“interfering with fishing activities and marine scientific research of
Nicaraguan‑flagged or Nicaraguan‑licensed vessels and with the operations
of Nicaragua’s naval vessels in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone and . . . purporting to enforce conservation measures in that
zone” (ibid., para. 101).
21. As pointed out, this conclusion of the Court was not based on an
assessment of each incident individually, but rather the Court reached a
global conclusion in the light of all incidents. There are two important
components to the Court’s conclusion. First, the Court said that the incidents
all took place in the area of Luna Verde, east of the 82nd meridian,
within Nicaragua’s EEZ (ibid., para. 91). Second, the Court stated that in
a number of instances Colombian naval officers read statements to vessels
which they approached in the Nicaraguan EEZ, calling on them to discontinue
fishing activities because they were environmentally harmful and
illegal or unauthorized (ibid., para. 92). The statements of these naval
officers, it is said, also described the area as “Colombian jurisdictional
waters” and said that the 2012 Judgment was “not applicable”. In light of
this, and of statements of Colombian government authorities, the Court
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 440
178
III.
18. J’en viens maintenant aux actes contestés que la Colombie a
accomplis dans la ZEE du Nicaragua. A une seule exception près (arrêt,
par. 71‑72), ceux sur lesquels la Cour fait fond pour établir la responsabilité
de la Colombie ont eu lieu après l’extinction du titre de compétence,
intervenue le 27 novembre 2013. Au surplus, étant donné que l’approche
retenue a consisté non pas à tirer une conclusion sur la base de chaque
incident en particulier mais à fonder la responsabilité sur une accumulation
d’incidents, il est peu probable que la Cour aurait été à même de
conclure que la responsabilité internationale de la Colombie à raison de
ceux qui se seraient produits dans la ZEE du Nicaragua était engagée si
l’incident en question avait été un cas isolé. Les faits sont contestés par les
Parties et il n’existe aucune base, au vu des éléments soumis à la Cour,
permettant de déterminer si ces allégations sont véridiques. De fait,
comme le relève le juge Nolte dans l’exposé de son opinion dissidente, la
Cour ne compte pas même cet incident au nombre de ceux qui sont censés
montrer que les navires de la marine colombienne avaient cherché à exercer
des pouvoirs de police dans la ZEE du Nicaragua (ibid., par. 92).
19. Autrement dit, la Cour n’a pu conclure que le Nicaragua avait
étayé sa demande concernant les incidents qui auraient eu lieu dans sa
ZEE que parce qu’elle s’est fondée sur des événements postérieurs au
27 novembre 2013, à l’égard desquels elle n’avait pas compétence.
20. Cependant, même si la décision de la Cour de s’appuyer sur des
événements intervenus après l’extinction de sa compétence était correcte,
les incidents sur lesquels elle fonde effectivement sa conclusion quant à la
responsabilité ne justifient pas, selon moi, de juger que la Colombie a
« entrav[é] des activités de pêche et de recherche scientifique marine
menées par des navires battant pavillon nicaraguayen ou détenteurs
d’un permis nicaraguayen, ainsi que les opérations de navires nicaraguayens
[dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua] et …
voul[u] faire appliquer ses propres mesures de conservation dans
cette zone » (ibid., par. 101).
21. Comme je l’ai relevé, la Cour a tiré non pas une conclusion fondée
sur une appréciation individuelle de chaque incident, mais une conclusion
globale, à la lumière de tous les incidents. Cette conclusion comporte
deux éléments importants. Premièrement, la Cour a dit que les incidents
s’étaient tous produits dans la zone de Luna Verde, à l’est du 82e méridien,
dans la ZEE du Nicaragua (ibid., par. 91). Deuxièmement, elle a
précisé que, dans un certain nombre de cas, des officiers de la marine
colombienne avaient donné lecture de déclarations aux navires avec lesquels
ils avaient pris contact dans la ZEE nicaraguayenne, leur demandant
de cesser leurs activités de pêche au motif que celles-
ci étaient
préjudiciables à l’environnement et illicites, ou n’étaient pas autorisées
(ibid., par. 92). Dans leurs déclarations, ces officiers de la marine auraient
également décrit la zone comme étant située dans des « eaux relevant de la
441 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
179
concludes that the evidence “sufficiently proves that the conduct of
Colombian naval vessels was carried out to give effect to a policy whereby
Colombia sought to continue to control fishing activities and the conservation
of resources in the area that lies within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone” (Judgment, para. 92).
22. The nature of the activities that the Court concludes violate the
rights of Nicaragua in its EEZ are described by the Court as “exercising
control over fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone,
implementing conservation measures on Nicaraguan‑flagged or Nicaraguan‑licensed
ships, and hindering the operations of Nicaragua’s naval
vessels” (ibid., para. 100).
23. This might be compared with what actually happened in the incidents
that the Court relies on. The Court refers to incidents in which
there was an interaction between the Nicaraguan coast guard and a
Colombian naval vessel and an incident involving a marine scientific
research vessel. In each of those cases the facts are disputed, and the
Court does not draw any conclusion about which Party’s factual allegations
are to be accepted. Although the Court says that the presence of
Colombian vessels in the area is established (ibid., para. 91), the key question
was not presence of the vessels; rather, it was the conduct alleged to
have occurred.
24. The predominant factual circumstances in the incidents identified
by the Court involve Colombian naval vessels confronting Nicaraguan
fishing vessels. While the incidents show that Colombian naval vessels did
approach Nicaraguan or other non‑Colombian‑flagged vessels and made
the statements attributed to them, in no case was there any evidence that
the Colombian authorities attempted to arrest fishing vessels or prosecute
individuals for violation of Colombian laws. The only evidence that might
be regarded as attempted enforcement are the instances where it is alleged
that a Colombian vessel chased a fishing vessel away and the intervention
of a Colombian naval vessel when a Nicaraguan coast guard vessel had
arrested a vessel for allegedly illegal fishing (ibid., paras. 71, 77 and 89).
But the facts of these incidents, too, are contested both as to whether the
arrested vessels had been fishing in Nicaragua’s EEZ and the events that
were alleged to have taken place (ibid., paras. 72, 78 and 90). Indeed, in
most instances the warning statements of the Colombian naval officers,
on which the Court relies, were simply ignored. The Nicaraguan fishing
vessels continued their fishing.
25. Colombia’s argument in support of the actions of its naval vessels is
that they were simply “monitoring” and “informing”, which they claimed
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 441
179
juridiction de la Colombie » et affirmé que l’arrêt de 2012 « était inapplicable
». A la lumière de ce qui précède, ainsi que de certaines déclarations
des autorités du Gouvernement colombien, la Cour conclut que les éléments
de preuve « suffisent à établir que le comportement des navires des
forces navales colombiennes visait à donner effet à une politique par
laquelle la Colombie cherchait à continuer de contrôler les activités de
pêche et la conservation des ressources dans un espace qui fait partie de
la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua » (arrêt, par. 92).
22. La Cour décrit les activités dont elle conclut qu’elles violent les
droits du Nicaragua dans sa ZEE comme consistant à « exercer un
contrôle des activités de pêche dans la zone économique exclusive du
Nicaragua, à imposer des mesures de conservation à des bateaux battant
pavillon nicaraguayen ou détenteurs d’un permis nicaraguayen, et à
entraver les opérations de navires de la marine nicaraguayenne » (ibid.,
par. 100).
23. L’on peut comparer cette description à ce qu’il s’est réellement
passé au cours des incidents sur lesquels s’appuie la Cour, dont plusieurs
ont donné lieu à un échange entre les garde-côtes nicaraguayens et un
navire de la marine colombienne, et un autre concernait un navire de
recherche scientifique marine. Dans chacun de ces cas, les faits sont
contestés, et la Cour ne tire aucune conclusion quant à la Partie dont il
convient d’accueillir les allégations factuelles. Bien qu’elle dise que la présence
de navires colombiens dans la zone est établie (ibid., par. 91), la
question essentielle n’était pas de savoir si ces navires s’y trouvaient ;
c’était le comportement dont la Colombie aurait fait montre.
24. Le plus souvent, dans les incidents recensés par la Cour, des navires
de la marine colombienne faisaient face à des navires de pêche nicaraguayens.
S’il ressort de ces incidents que des navires des forces navales de
la Colombie ont bien pris contact avec des navires battant pavillon nicaraguayen
ou autre pavillon étranger et fait les déclarations qui leur sont
attribuées, il n’existe toutefois dans aucun de ces cas la moindre preuve
que les autorités colombiennes aient cherché à arrêter des navires de pêche
ou à poursuivre des personnes pour infraction à la législation colombienne.
Les seuls éléments susceptibles d’être considérés comme des tentatives
d’exercer un pouvoir de police sont le cas dans lequel il est allégué qu’un
navire colombien a chassé un navire de pêche et celui où un navire de la
marine colombienne serait intervenu lorsqu’un navire des garde-côtes
nicaraguayens avait arrêté un bateau qui aurait pratiqué la pêche de
manière illicite (ibid., par. 71, 77 et 89). Les faits relatifs à ces incidents
sont cependant eux aussi contestés, qu’il s’agisse de la question de savoir si
les navires arrêtés pêchaient dans la ZEE du Nicaragua ou des événements
qui auraient eu lieu (ibid., par. 72, 78 et 90). En effet, dans la plupart des
cas, il n’a tout simplement pas été tenu compte des avertissements des officiers
de la marine colombienne, sur lesquels la Cour fait fond. Les navires
de pêche nicaraguayens ont continué de se livrer à leurs activités.
25. L’argument avancé par la Colombie pour justifier les actes des
navires de sa marine consiste à dire que ceux‑ci se bornaient à « surveil-
442 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
180
to be a right incidental to freedom of navigation 4. Colombia argued further
that there were responsibilities resulting from the particular environmental
circumstances in the south-western
Caribbean reflected in the
Cartagena Convention and the SPAW Protocol (Judgment, para. 54). The
Court rightly points out that neither of these instruments grants authority
to a State to enforce its own environmental measures in the EEZ of
another State (ibid., paras. 98‑99). However, that does not mean that the
particular environmental circumstances in the south‑western Caribbean or
the regional arrangements encouraging the protection of the environment
should be ignored in assessing the actions of States in the area. A claim to
monitoring activities that might harm the environment has added legitimacy
in areas where there is a regional concern about the environment.
26. Ultimately, the Court rests its conclusion of violation by Colombia
on a perception of an intent by Colombia to control fishing and enforce
its own national environmental laws in Nicaragua’s EEZ. The Court
never defines what it means by control or enforcement. Definitions of
enforcement generally refer to the exercise of State authority to apply
criminal law through arrest, detention, trial and punishment 5. Yet, there
were no actions of control or enforcement such as arrests, detention or
prosecution. The perception of an intent to control and enforce is based
less on what was done in fact by Colombian vessels but rather on inferences
drawn from statements read by Colombian naval officers and statements
of Colombian officials who argued that the 2012 Judgment was
inapplicable and had been rejected by Colombia. From this the Court
concludes, there was “a policy whereby Colombia sought to continue to
control fishing activities and the conservation of resources in the area that
lies within Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone” (Judgment, para. 92). In
4 See, for example, Counter‑Memorial of Colombia, Vol. I, p. 126, para. 3.59:
“Colombia must be able to exercise in conformity with international law its rights
of freedom of navigation, overflight, monitoring, humanitarian assistance and other
related rights, which include the proper ‘monitoring of activities undertaken’ by
public or private operators without being accused of impeding Nicaragua’s sovereign
rights”;
CR 2021/14, p. 46, para. 46 (Boisson de Chazournes): “Colombia’s environmentally focused
observing and informing activities fall within the scope of what is permitted by the international
law applicable to this dispute, in particular when fragile ecosystems and vulnerable
habitats like that of the Raizales are concerned” [translation by the Registry]; see also ibid.,
p. 29, para. 22 (Wood); ibid., p. 41, para. 25 (Boisson de Chazournes), ibid., p. 45, para. 40
(Boisson de Chazournes); CR 2021/18, p. 23, paras. 11‑13 (Boisson de Chazournes)
5 P. Daillier, M. Forteau and A. Pellet, Droit international public (Nguyen Quoc Dinh),
eighth ed., Paris : LGDJ, 2009, p. 565, para. 336; American Law Institute, Restatement of
the Law Fourth: The Foreign Relations Law of the United States, American Law Institute,
2018, p. 291, Comment to § 431; R. O’Keefe, “Universal Jurisdiction: Clarifying the Basic
Concept”, 2004, Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol. 2, pp. 736‑737.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 442
180
ler » et à « informer », affirmant qu’il s’agissait là d’un droit accessoire à la
liberté de navigation 4. La défenderesse a également fait valoir que certaines
responsabilités découlaient des circonstances propres à l’environnement
dans la partie sud-ouest de la mer des Caraïbes, responsabilités
reflétées dans la convention de Carthagène et le protocole SPAW (arrêt,
par. 54). La Cour souligne à juste titre qu’aucun de ces deux instruments
ne donne à un Etat le pouvoir de faire appliquer ses propres mesures
environnementales dans la ZEE d’un autre Etat (ibid., par. 98‑99). Cela
ne signifie pas pour autant qu’il faille faire abstraction des spécificités du
milieu du sud-ouest de la mer des Caraïbes ou des arrangements régionaux
promouvant la protection de l’environnement lors de l’appréciation
des actes accomplis par les Etats dans la région. Une prétention liée à la
surveillance d’activités susceptibles de nuire à l’environnement a davantage
de légitimité dans les zones où celui-
ci suscite des préoccupations au
niveau régional.
26. En dernière analyse, la Cour conclut que la Colombie a commis une
violation en se fondant sur l’intention prêtée à cet Etat d’exercer un
contrôle sur la pêche et de faire exécuter sa propre législation nationale en
matière d’environnement dans la ZEE du Nicaragua. La Cour ne définit
cependant jamais ce qu’elle entend par contrôle ou par exécution. Les définitions
de ce second terme renvoient généralement à l’exercice du pouvoir
de l’Etat de faire appliquer le droit pénal par voie d’arrestation, de détention,
de jugement et de répression 5. Or, il n’y a pas eu d’actes de contrôle
ou d’exécution tels que des arrestations, des détentions ou des poursuites.
La perception d’une intention de contrôle et d’exécution repose moins sur
ce qu’ont réellement fait les navires colombiens que sur des conclusions
tirées de proclamations dont ont donné lecture des officiers de la marine
colombienne et de déclarations de responsables de la Colombie indiquant
que l’arrêt de 2012 était inapplicable et avait été rejeté par celle-
ci. La
Cour en conclut qu’il existait « une politique par laquelle la Colombie
4 Voir, par exemple, contre-mémoire
de la Colombie, vol. I, p. 126, par. 3.59 :
« La Colombie doit … être en mesure d’exercer conformément au droit international
son droit à la liberté de navigation, ses droits de survol, de surveillance, d’assistance
humanitaire et autres droits connexes, dont celui d’assurer comme il se doit la
« surveillance des activités entreprises » par des opérateurs publics et privés, sans être
accusée d’entraver le Nicaragua dans l’exercice de ses droits souverains » ;
CR 2021/14, p. 46, par. 46 (Boisson de Chazournes) : « les activités d’observation et d’information
à des fins environnementales de la Colombie s’inscrivent dans le cadre de ce que le
droit international applicable au présent différend permet, notamment lorsque des écosystèmes
fragiles et des habitats vulnérables comme celui des Raizals sont en cause » ; voir également
ibid., p. 29, par. 22 (Wood) ; ibid., p. 41, par. 25 (Boisson de Chazournes), ibid., p. 45,
par. 40 (Boisson de Chazournes) ; CR 2021/18, p. 23, par. 11‑13 (Boisson de Chazournes).
5 P. Daillier, M. Forteau et A. Pellet, Droit international public (Nguyen Quoc Dinh),
8e éd., Paris, LGDJ, 2009, p. 565, par. 336 ; American Law Institute, Restatement of the
Law Fourth : The Foreign Relations Law of the United States, American Law Institute,
2018, p. 291, Comment to § 431 ; R. O’Keefe, « Universal Jurisdiction : Clarifying the Basic
Concept », 2004, Journal of International Criminal Justice, vol. 2, p. 736‑737.
443 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
181
my view, this is a thin reed on which to base international responsibility
and I do not find the reasoning of the Court compelling.
27. Nonetheless, the fact remains that Colombian naval vessels did
approach Nicaraguan‑licensed fishing vessels in the Nicaraguan EEZ and
did notify them that they were fishing illegally and that they were in waters
subject to Colombian jurisdiction (e.g. Judgment, paras. 75‑76 and 81‑84).
And this was done without advising Nicaragua, either before or after the
event, that its flag vessels, or vessels authorized by it, were being approached
and information was being provided to them. Colombia claims that its
vessels were doing this in exercise of their right of navigation in those
waters, pursuant to their customary international law right reflected in
Article 58 of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereinafter
“UNCLOS”) and in the broader interests of promoting the protection
of the marine environment (ibid., para. 93). But, even accepting that this
was a proper exercise of that customary international law right, such a
right has to be exercised, having due regard to the rights and duties of the
coastal State.
28. This, in my view, is the approach that the Court should have taken
in this case. Instead of elevating what occurred into some kind of policy
by Colombia to control fishing and enforce its own environmental laws in
Nicaragua’s EEZ, the Court should have focused on what was actually
done, that is, monitoring the activities of Nicaraguan‑licensed fishing vessels
and informing them when it believed that they were fishing by environmentally
harmful or illegal methods. Since Colombia had done this without
informing Nicaragua either before or after the event, this is, in my
view, evidence of a failure to have due regard for the rights and duties of
Nicaragua as the coastal State in exercising its own jurisdiction over
the marine environment. It is also in disregard of Nicaragua’s rights in its
EEZ for Colombia naval vessels to advise fishing vessels, erroneously,
that these are waters subject to Colombia’s jurisdiction, or to make gratuitous
statements about Colombia rejecting the Court’s 2012 Judgment.
These are the matters on which the Court should have focused, instead of
drawing a sweeping conclusion about a Colombian policy to control fishing
and enforce its own environmental laws in Nicaragua’s EEZ.
29. A statement by the Court that Colombia was acting without due
regard for Nicaragua’s EEZ rights and that it should cease from doing so
would have been a much more appropriate solution to this aspect of the
case than what the Court has in fact done in its decision on the alleged
incidents in Nicaragua’s EEZ.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 443
181
cherchait à continuer de contrôler les activités de pêche et la conservation
des ressources dans un espace qui fait partie de la zone économique exclusive
du Nicaragua » (arrêt, par. 92). Voilà qui me semble être un fondement
bien ténu pour juger de la responsabilité internationale, et j’estime
que le raisonnement de la Cour n’emporte pas la conviction.
27. Il n’en demeure pas moins que des navires de la marine colombienne
ont bien pris contact avec des navires de pêche titulaires de permis
nicaraguayens dans la ZEE du Nicaragua, les avisant qu’ils pêchaient de
manière illicite et se trouvaient dans des eaux relevant de la juridiction de
la Colombie (voir, par exemple, ibid., par. 75‑76 et 81‑84) — et ce, sans
informer le Nicaragua, préalablement ou a posteriori, que les navires battant
son pavillon ou des navires titulaires d’un permis délivré par ses soins
étaient approchés et que des informations leur étaient communiquées. La
Colombie affirme que ses navires ont agi ainsi dans l’exercice de leur droit
de naviguer dans ces eaux, qu’ils tiennent du droit international coutumier
et qui trouve son expression à l’article 58 de la convention des
Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer (ci‑après la « CNUDM »), ainsi que
dans l’intérêt plus général de la promotion de la protection de l’environnement
marin (ibid., par. 93). Cela étant, même en admettant que le droit
en question ait été exercé convenablement, l’Etat qui s’en prévaut doit
tenir dûment compte des droits et obligations de l’Etat côtier.
28. A mon sens, c’est cette approche que la Cour aurait dû suivre en la
présente espèce. Au lieu d’élever ce qui s’est produit au rang de politique
de la Colombie visant à exercer un contrôle sur la pêche et à faire appliquer
sa propre législation environnementale dans la ZEE du Nicaragua,
la Cour aurait dû se concentrer sur ce que la défenderesse faisait réellement,
à savoir surveiller les activités de navires de pêche titulaires d’un
permis nicaraguayen et informer ceux‑ci lorsqu’elle estimait qu’ils recouraient
à des méthodes de pêche préjudiciables à l’environnement ou illicites.
Le fait que la Colombie ait procédé ainsi sans en aviser le Nicaragua,
que ce soit préalablement ou a posteriori, prouve, selon moi, qu’elle n’a
pas tenu dûment compte des droits et obligations de ce dernier en tant
qu’Etat côtier dans l’exercice de sa propre compétence sur l’environnement
marin. La défenderesse a également méconnu les droits du demandeur
dans sa ZEE lorsque les navires de la marine colombienne ont
signifié à tort à des navires de pêche que les eaux en question relevaient de
la juridiction de la Colombie, ou qu’ils ont fait des déclarations gratuites
concernant le rejet par celle‑ci de l’arrêt de 2012 de la Cour. C’est sur ces
points-là que cette dernière aurait dû mettre l’accent, au lieu de tirer une
conclusion inconsidérée quant à une politique par laquelle la Colombie
aurait entendu exercer un contrôle sur la pêche et faire appliquer sa
propre législation environnementale dans la ZEE du Nicaragua.
29. Une déclaration de la Cour indiquant que la Colombie agissait
sans tenir dûment compte des droits du Nicaragua dans sa ZEE et devait
cesser de se comporter ainsi aurait constitué une solution bien plus appropriée
à cet aspect de l’affaire que ce que la Cour a en réalité fait dans sa
décision concernant les incidents allégués dans la ZEE nicaraguayenne.
444 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
182
IV.
30. I turn now to the allegation of Nicaragua that Colombia has
granted permits for fishing in Nicaragua’s EEZ. I have voted against the
Court’s conclusion that Colombia has authorized its nationals and foreign
nationals to fish in Nicaragua’s EEZ.
31. There are three bases on which Nicaragua’s claim rests. First, Nicaragua
asserts that resolutions issued by the General Maritime Directorate
of the Ministry of National Defence of Colombia (hereinafter “DIMAR”)
included waters within Nicaragua’s EEZ as areas where Nicaraguan‑licensed
vessels were permitted to operate. Second, Nicaragua claims that
the Governor of the Department of the Archipelago of San Andrés,
Providencia
and San Catalina also issued resolutions permitting vessels to
operate in the Luna Verde areas within Nicaragua’s EEZ. Third, Nicaragua
identifies certain incidents at sea involving Colombian naval vessels which,
it argues, reinforce that Colombia was licensing vessels to fish in Nicaragua’s
EEZ (Judgment, paras. 103‑105).
32. The Court does not appear to draw any conclusions from these
resolutions, saying only that the reference to Luna Verde, in what was in
fact the preamble to the Governor’s resolutions, “suggests that Colombia
continues to assert the right to authorize fishing activities in parts of
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone” (ibid., para. 119). But the Court
does not address the argument of Colombia that neither DIMAR nor the
Governor had authority to issue fishing permits, a matter that was not
contradicted on the evidence by Nicaragua.
33. The result is that the only real grounds the Court has for its conclusion
that Colombia had issued permits to vessels to fish in Nicaragua’s
EEZ are the alleged incidents at sea (ibid., paras. 121‑130). In this regard,
it should be noted that none of these incidents occurred before 27 November
2013, the date the Pact of Bogotá ceased to be in force for Colombia.
Thus, to the extent that the Court relies on these incidents to establish
responsibility, it is again finding responsibility on the basis of events that
occurred after the Court’s title of jurisdiction lapsed.
34. Even so, as proof that Colombia issued permits to license fishing
vessels within Nicaragua’s jurisdiction, this evidence is at best problematic.
There is no direct evidence of actual licences, and the Court can only
draw inferences from what was reported as having been said. What the
evidence does show is that Colombian naval vessels were in the area
where at least some of the alleged incidents took place and engaged in
communications with fishing vessels and the Nicaraguan coast guard. But
as evidence that the vessels concerned had licences issued by Colombian
authorities, it really lacks any probative value.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 444
182
IV.
30. J’en viens maintenant à l’allégation du Nicaragua voulant que la
Colombie ait délivré des permis de pêche dans la ZEE nicaraguayenne. J’ai
voté contre la conclusion de la Cour, selon qui la défenderesse a autorisé
ses ressortissants et des ressortissants étrangers à pêcher dans [cette] ZEE.
31. La demande du Nicaragua repose sur trois fondements. Premièrement,
le Nicaragua avance que, selon des résolutions de la direction générale
des affaires maritimes et portuaires du ministère de la défense
colombien (ci-
après la « DIMAR »), des eaux situées dans la ZEE du
Nicaragua faisaient partie des espaces dans lesquels des navires titulaires
de permis nicaraguayens étaient autorisés à exercer leurs activités. Deuxièmement,
il affirme que le gouverneur du département de l’archipel de
San Andrés, Providencia et San Catalina a lui aussi pris des résolutions
autorisant des navires à opérer dans les zones de Luna Verde à l’intérieur
de la ZEE nicaraguayenne. Troisièmement, il recense certains incidents
survenus en mer et impliquant des navires de la marine colombienne qui
étayent selon lui le fait que la Colombie délivrait à des navires des permis
de pêcher dans la ZEE nicaraguayenne (arrêt, par. 103‑105).
32. La Cour ne tire apparemment pas la moindre conclusion de ces
résolutions, se bornant à dire que la mention de Luna Verde, qui figurait
en réalité dans le préambule des résolutions du gouverneur, « semble
montrer que la Colombie continue de faire valoir le droit d’autoriser des
activités de pêche dans certaines parties de la zone économique exclusive
du Nicaragua » (ibid., par. 119). Elle ne traite toutefois pas l’argument de
la Colombie voulant que ni la DIMAR ni le gouverneur n’aient eu le
pouvoir de délivrer des permis de pêche, point qui n’a pas été contredit
par les éléments de preuve du Nicaragua.
33. Il en résulte que les seuls véritables motifs permettant à la Cour de
conclure que la Colombie avait délivré à des navires des permis de pêcher
dans la ZEE du Nicaragua sont les incidents qui se seraient produits en
mer (ibid., par. 121‑130). A cet égard, il convient de noter qu’aucun de ces
incidents n’est antérieur au 27 novembre 2013, date à laquelle le pacte de
Bogotá a cessé d’être en vigueur à l’égard de la Colombie. Dans la mesure
où elle se fonde sur ces incidents pour établir la responsabilité, la Cour
juge donc de nouveau de celle-
ci sur la base d’événements intervenus
après l’extinction de son titre de compétence.
34. Cela étant, en tant que preuves que la Colombie a délivré à des navires
des permis de pêcher dans des eaux relevant de la juridiction du Nicaragua,
ces éléments sont dans le meilleur des cas problématiques. Il n’existe en effet
aucune preuve directe de l’existence de véritables permis, et la Cour peut
seulement tirer des conclusions de propos rapportés. Ce que les éléments de
preuve montrent bel et bien, c’est que des navires de la marine colombienne
se trouvaient dans l’espace où une partie au moins des incidents allégués ont
eu lieu et qu’ils ont communiqué avec des navires de pêche ainsi qu’avec les
garde-côtes nicaraguayens. En tant que preuves que les navires concernés
possédaient des permis délivrés par les autorités colombiennes, ces éléments
n’ont toutefois vraiment aucune valeur probante.
445 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
183
35. The engagement between the Colombian naval vessels and Nicaragua’s
coast guard in these incidents was not cited by the Court in its consideration
of incidents at sea in support of the Nicaraguan claim that
Colombia had violated its rights in its EEZ, although that would seem to
have been a more appropriate place to consider those incidents. In that
context, rather than showing a violation of Nicaragua’s rights within its
EEZ, these incidents would have justified the Court cautioning Colombia
to exercise its rights within Nicaragua’s EEZ with due regard to the rights
and duties of the coastal State as required by Article 58 of the Convention.
That, in my view, would have been a more appropriate disposition
of these incidents than using them as an indirect way of concluding that
Colombia had been issuing licences to fish in Nicaragua’s EEZ.
V.
36. With respect to Colombia’s creation of its ICZ, I agree with the
Court that Colombia has the right to establish a contiguous zone off the
coasts of the islands of the San Andrés Archipelago notwithstanding any
overlap with the EEZ of Nicaragua (Judgment, para. 163). As I pointed
out earlier, I also agree with the Court that Colombia was not entitled to
“simplify” the outer limits of its contiguous zone so that it extended more
than 24 nautical miles from the Colombian coast (ibid., para. 175).
37. However, I disagree with the Court’s conclusion that the ICZ as
established in Presidential Decree 1946 is not in conformity with customary
international law (ibid., para. 187). I also disagree with the Court’s
conclusion that the “expanded powers” asserted in Colombia’s ICZ
directly infringe on the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua
with regard to the conservation, protection and preservation of the marine
environment in Nicaragua’s EEZ (ibid., para. 178).
38. The objection the Court has is to Article 5 (3) of the Decree, which
deals with the material scope of the zone. In the view of the Court, it
confers powers on Colombia to exercise control over the infringement of
its laws and regulations that extend to matters which are not permitted
under customary international law. The Court’s conclusion is based on its
position that the content of customary international law relating to the
contiguous zone is found in Article 33 of UNCLOS, and that Colombia’s
so‑called “expanded powers” are not included in Article 33 (ibid.,
para. 155). The so‑called “expanded powers” of Colombia expressed in
Article 5 of Decree 1946, as modified by Article 2 of Decree 1119 of 2014,
that the Court found to be outside the scope of the rule reflected in Article
33 of UNCLOS, are laws and regulations related to the integral security
of the State, including piracy and trafficking of drugs and
psychotropic substances, conduct contrary to the security of the sea and
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 445
183
35. La Cour n’a pas cité les échanges qui ont eu lieu entre les navires de
la marine colombienne et les garde-côtes du Nicaragua en ces occasions lorsqu’elle
a examiné les incidents survenus en mer à l’appui de l’argument nicaraguayen
voulant que la Colombie ait violé les droits du Nicaragua dans sa
ZEE, alors même qu’il aurait paru plus opportun de le faire ici. Dans ce
contexte, plutôt que de montrer une violation des droits du Nicaragua dans
sa ZEE, ces incidents auraient justifié que la Cour somme la Colombie
d’exercer ses droits dans la ZEE nicaraguayenne en tenant dûment compte
des droits et obligations de l’Etat côtier comme l’exige l’article 58 de la
convention. A mon sens, il aurait été plus approprié de traiter ces incidents
de cette manière, plutôt que de s’en servir indirectement pour conclure que
la Colombie avait délivré des permis de pêcher dans la ZEE du Nicaragua.
V.
36. S’agissant de la création par la Colombie de sa zone contiguë
unique, je conviens avec la Cour que cet Etat a le droit d’établir une telle
zone au large des îles de l’archipel de San Andrés, indépendamment de
tout chevauchement avec la ZEE du Nicaragua (arrêt, par. 163). Comme
je l’ai déjà souligné, je suis également d’accord avec la Cour pour dire que
la Colombie n’avait pas le droit de « simplifier » les limites extérieures de
sa zone contiguë de sorte à l’étendre au‑delà de 24 milles marins de sa
côte (ibid., par. 175).
37. En revanche, je suis en désaccord avec la conclusion de la Cour,
selon qui la zone contiguë unique telle qu’elle a été établie dans le décret
présidentiel 1946 n’est pas conforme au droit international coutumier
(ibid., par. 187). Je ne souscris pas non plus à la conclusion de la
Cour voulant que les « pouvoirs étendus » revendiqués dans la zone contiguë
unique de la Colombie portent directement atteinte aux droits souverains
et à la juridiction du Nicaragua en matière de conservation, de
protection et de préservation de l’environnement marin dans sa ZEE
(ibid., par. 178).
38. L’objection que voit la Cour se rapporte au paragraphe 3 de l’article
5 du décret, qui traite du champ d’application matériel de la zone.
Selon la Cour, cette disposition confère à la Colombie des pouvoirs d’exercer
un contrôle en matière d’infraction à ses lois et règlements qui englobent
des domaines non autorisés par le droit international coutumier. La
conclusion de la Cour repose sur sa position voulant que le contenu dudit
droit relatif à la zone contiguë se trouve à l’article 33 de la CNUDM, et
que les prétendus « pouvoirs étendus » de la Colombie ne soient pas inclus
dans cette disposition (ibid., par. 155). Lesdits « pouvoirs étendus » énoncés
à l’article 5 du décret 1946, tel que modifié par l’article 2 du décret 1119
de 2014, dont la Cour a jugé qu’il n’entrait pas dans les prévisions de la
règle reflétée à l’article 33 de la CNUDM, sont les lois et règlements touchant
à la sûreté de l’Etat, notamment la piraterie et le trafic de stupéfiants
et de substances psychotropes, les comportements qui attentent à la sûreté
446 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
184
the national maritime interests, and laws and regulations related to the
preservation of the marine environment (Judgment, paras. 177‑181) 6.
39. The categories specified in Article 33 of UNCLOS are “customs,
fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations”. The question facing
the Court was whether the laws and regulations covered in the Colombian
Decree fall within the ambit of those Article 33 categories or whether
State practice has evolved since the inclusion of those terms of Article 33
of UNCLOS so that today they can be said to cover the categories of
laws identified by Colombia. Essentially, the question is whether the security
claims of Colombia and the claim relating to the preservation of the
marine environment fall within contiguous zone jurisdiction under Article
33 of UNCLOS.
40. As the Court points out, the provisions of Article 33 of UNCLOS
were adopted in the 1958 Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous
Zone, on the basis of the 1956 work of the International Law Commission
(hereinafter the “ILC” or the “Commission”), and have remained
unchanged since then (ibid., para. 153). They were then endorsed without
change in UNCLOS. A proposal in 1958 to add security to the categories
in Article 33 ultimately did not get support 7. The question, then, is
whether, notwithstanding what happened in 1958 and in the UNCLOS
negotiations, there is a case today for seeing security and the preservation
of the marine environment as matters that fall within the scope of Article
33 of UNCLOS.
41. An alternative to seeing the terms of Article 33 of UNCLOS as
static that must be interpreted in the light of the world of 1956 might have
led the Court to a different conclusion. The specific claim to including
dealing with the trade in drugs would seem to be no more than an enlarged
perception of both customs and fiscal laws. Drug trafficking is as much an
issue of customs laws as was the smuggling of alcohol whose prosecution
was one of the matters covered by the United States’ “hovering acts”
which laid the basis for the contiguous zone 8. Equally, sanitary laws in
1958, and still today, concern health. Not seeing the preservation of the
environment as an issue that is fundamentally linked to health is also to
ignore the reality of today.
42. The justification for seeing contiguous zone jurisdiction in contemporary
terms is in fact found in the ILC Commentary to what became
6 I agree with the Court’s conclusion that the inclusion of the exercise of control
with respect to archeological and cultural objects found within the EEZ does not violate
customary international law (Judgment, para. 186).
7 Official Records of the First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (1958),
Vol. II, UN doc. A/CONF.13/38, p. 40, para. 63.
8 D. P. O’Connell, The International Law of the Sea: Volume II, Oxford University
Press, 1988, p. 1038. Indeed, the content of the hovering acts themselves evolved
over time.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 446
184
en mer et aux intérêts maritimes nationaux, et les lois et règlements touchant
à la préservation de l’environnement marin (arrêt, par. 177‑181) 6.
39. Les catégories spécifiées à l’article 33 de la CNUDM sont les « lois et
règlements douaniers, fiscaux, sanitaires ou d’immigration ». La question à
laquelle la Cour devait répondre était celle de savoir si les lois et règlements
visés dans le décret colombien entraient dans ces catégories ou si la pratique
des Etats avait évolué, depuis que ces termes avaient été retenus pour le
libellé dudit article, de telle sorte que l’on pourrait dire qu’ils couvrent
aujourd’hui les catégories de lois déterminées par la Colombie. En substance,
il s’agit de savoir si les prétentions de la Colombie relatives à la sûreté
et celle concernant la préservation de l’environnement marin relèvent de la
juridiction attachée à la zone contiguë en vertu de l’article 33 de la CNUDM.
40. Comme le souligne la Cour, les dispositions de l’article 33 de la
CNUDM ont été adoptées dans la convention de 1958 sur la mer territoriale
et la zone contiguë, sur la base des travaux achevés en 1956 par la
Commission du droit international (ci-
après la « CDI »), et sont demeurées
inchangées depuis lors (ibid., par. 153). Elles ont ensuite été reprises
sans modification dans la CNUDM. Une proposition de 1958 tendant à
ce que la sûreté soit ajoutée aux catégories énoncées à l’article 33 n’a finalement
pas recueilli l’appui nécessaire 7. La question est donc de savoir si,
en dépit de ce qu’il s’est passé en 1958 et pendant les négociations de la
CNUDM, il existe aujourd’hui des arguments qui justifieraient que l’on
considère la sûreté et la préservation de l’environnement marin comme
des domaines entrant dans les prévisions de l’article 33 de la CNUDM.
41. Si elle n’avait pas considéré l’article 33 de la CNUDM comme une
disposition statique devant être interprétée à la lumière du monde tel qu’il
était en 1956, la Cour serait peut-être parvenue à une conclusion différente.
L’argument spécifique de l’inclusion de la lutte contre le trafic de
stupéfiants ne semble constituer rien de plus qu’une vision élargie des lois
aussi bien douanières que fiscales. Ce trafic est une question qui relève des
lois douanières tout autant qu’en relevait celle de la contrebande d’alcool,
dont la répression faisait partie des domaines couverts par les « hovering
acts » (lois sur le louvoiement) des Etats-Unis d’Amérique qui ont jeté la
base de la zone contiguë 8. De même, les lois sanitaires, en 1958 comme
aujourd’hui, se rapportent à la santé. Ne pas considérer la préservation de
l’environnement comme une question fondamentalement liée à la santé
revient à faire fi de la réalité de notre époque.
42. En réalité, la justification permettant de regarder la juridiction
attachée à la zone contiguë à la lumière du monde moderne réside dans le
6 Je souscris à la conclusion de la Cour, selon qui l’inclusion de l’exercice d’un contrôle
sur les objets archéologiques et culturels découverts dans la ZEE n’emporte pas violation
du droit international coutumier (arrêt, par. 186).
7 Documents officiels de la première conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer,
1958, vol. II, Nations Unies, doc. A/CONF.13/38, p. 40, par. 63.
8 D. P. O’Connell, The International Law of the Sea : Volume II, Oxford University
Press, 1988, p. 1038. Le contenu des « hovering acts » proprement dits a d’ailleurs évolué
au fil du temps.
447 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
185
Article 24 of the 1958 Convention and Article 33 of UNCLOS. The Court
quotes the relevant part of the Commentary (Judgment, para. 152) but
does not draw the necessary inference from it. In the relevant extract
from its Commentary, the ILC stated that it had not included special
security rights in the draft provisions relating to the contiguous zone,
indicating the term was vague and could lead to abuses and thus was not
necessary. It then goes on to make the critical statement: “The enforcement
of customs and sanitary regulations will be sufficient in most cases
to safeguard the security of the State.” (Commentary to the articles concerning
the law of the sea, Yearbook of the International Law Commission,
1956, Vol. II, p. 295, draft Article 66, Comment (4), quoted in Judgment,
para. 152.)
43. What the ILC statement shows is that the Commission thought
that it was adequately dealing with contemporary issues of security. And
this reinforces the view that the purpose of the contiguous zone was precisely
to allow States to protect their security. But no one could now consider
that what was adequate to safeguard the security concerns of States
at the time of the Commentary in 1956 would necessarily parallel contemporary
security needs. An assessment of the security needs of States today
might well include the suppression of the drug trade and the protection of
the marine environment. Indeed, at a time of heightened concern about
the impact of climate change, the protection of the marine environment
might be seen for some States as their primary security concern. Moreover,
the last 20 years have shown that piracy, which might have been
dealt with adequately under international law in 1956, has been posing an
increasing problem for States in certain regions, including in their territorial
seas. It is not surprising then that a State might wish to act in its
contiguous zone to prevent piracy within its territorial sea or to punish
when piracy has occurred within its territorial sea. Indeed, the fact that a
significant number of States have inserted a right to include certain security
needs among the matters over which they will exercise contiguous
zone jurisdiction is testament to a change in contemporary security needs
of States 9.
44. It must be recalled that contiguous zone jurisdiction only enables
States to act to prevent and punish in respect of offences committed
within the territory of a State or in its territorial sea, namely, offences that
are committed within its jurisdiction. It does not grant authority to
coastal States to prevent or punish in respect of offences committed
within the contiguous zone or beyond.
45. It is the failure to recognize this that has led the Court to its conclusion
that the powers asserted under Colombia’s ICZ directly infringe
9 Counter-Memorial
of Colombia, Vol. II, Appendix B; Reply of Nicaragua,
para. 3.38.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 447
185
commentaire de la CDI de ce qui est devenu l’article 24 de la convention
de 1958 et l’article 33 de la CNUDM. La Cour cite le passage pertinent
de ce commentaire (arrêt, par. 152), mais n’en déduit pas ce qui s’impose.
Dans l’extrait en question, la CDI a précisé qu’elle n’avait pas inclus dans
le projet de dispositions concernant la zone contiguë de droits spéciaux
touchant à la sûreté, indiquant que le terme était vague et pouvait donner
lieu à des abus, de sorte qu’il n’était pas nécessaire. Elle a ensuite fait la
déclaration essentielle : « [l]’exercice de la police douanière et sanitaire suffira
dans la plupart des cas à sauvegarder la sécurité de l’Etat » (commentaire
des articles relatifs au droit de la mer, Annuaire de la Commission du
droit international, 1956, vol. II, p. 295, projet d’article 66, paragraphe 4,
cité au paragraphe 152 de l’arrêt).
43. Ce qui ressort de la déclaration de la CDI, c’est que celle-
ci estimait
traiter de manière adéquate les questions contemporaines de sûreté, ce qui
renforce le point de vue selon lequel la zone contiguë avait précisément
pour but de permettre aux Etats de protéger cette sûreté. Nul ne saurait
toutefois considérer aujourd’hui que ce qui permettait de répondre aux
préoccupations des Etats en matière de sûreté en 1956, lorsque le commentaire
a été adopté, correspondrait nécessairement aux besoins
modernes dans ce domaine. Si les besoins des Etats à cet égard étaient
évalués aujourd’hui, il est fort possible qu’on y trouverait la lutte contre
le trafic de stupéfiants et la protection de l’environnement marin. De fait,
à une époque où l’on s’inquiète de plus en plus de l’incidence du changement
climatique, certains Etats pourraient même considérer la protection
de l’environnement marin comme leur première préoccupation en matière
de sûreté. En outre, les 20 dernières années montrent que la piraterie, qui
a peut-être été traitée de manière adéquate en droit international en 1956,
pose un problème de plus en plus grave aux Etats de certaines régions, y
compris dans leurs mers territoriales. Il n’est dès lors pas surprenant
qu’un Etat puisse vouloir agir dans sa zone contiguë pour prévenir la
piraterie dans sa mer territoriale ou la punir lorsqu’elle y a été commise.
En effet, le fait qu’un nombre non négligeable d’Etats aient inséré un
droit de faire figurer certains besoins liés à la sûreté au nombre des
domaines dans lesquels ils exerceraient la juridiction attachée à la zone
contiguë atteste que les besoins modernes des Etats en la matière ont
changé 9.
44. Il convient de rappeler que la juridiction attachée à la zone contiguë
permet seulement aux Etats d’agir de manière à prévenir et à réprimer
les infractions commises sur leur territoire ou dans leur mer territoriale,
c’est-à-dire celles qui relèvent de leur compétence. Cette juridiction ne
donne pas aux Etat côtiers le pouvoir de prévenir ou de réprimer les
infractions commises dans la zone contiguë ou au-
delà.
45. C’est parce que la Cour n’a pas reconnu cet état de fait qu’elle a
conclu que les pouvoirs revendiqués au titre de la zone contiguë unique de
9 Contre-mémoire
de la Colombie, vol. II, appendice B ; réplique du Nicaragua,
par. 3.38.
448 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
186
on the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua with respect to the
conservation, protection and preservation of the marine environment in
Nicaragua’s EEZ (Judgment, para. 187). But, as the Court points out
earlier in its Judgment, the contiguous zone and the EEZ deal with different
things (ibid., paras. 160‑161). Nicaragua certainly has jurisdiction
over the preservation of the marine environment in its EEZ. And it has
no jurisdiction over the protection of the marine environment in the territory
of Colombia or in Colombia’s territorial sea. By the same token,
Colombia, while having jurisdiction within its contiguous zone to prevent
and punish in respect of offences in certain categories of matters within its
territory and its territorial sea, has no jurisdiction on the basis of its
contiguous
zone to prevent or punish in respect of offences committed in
Nicaragua’s EEZ. And since Nicaragua’s EEZ does not overlap Colombia’s
territorial sea, there is no potential for overlapping jurisd-
iction.
46. Nor does Colombia claim jurisdiction over offences within Nicaragua’s
territorial sea. Decree 1946, as amended by Decree 1119, makes this
clear. It says that Colombia has authority in its contiguous zone to prevent
infractions of its laws relating to the integral security of the State
“which take place in its insular territories or in their territorial sea”
(Art. 5 (3) (a) of Decree 1946, as amended by Decree 1119, quoted in
Judgment, para. 170). And it goes on to say that “[i]n the same manner”
violations of the laws relating to the preservation of the environment will
be prevented and controlled (ibid.). “In the same manner” can only mean
that the authority asserted in respect of the environment is no different
than the authority asserted in respect of security. And in respect of
the other element of contiguous zone jurisdiction, the power to punish,
the Decree states that it relates to the above-mentioned
matters “committed
in its island territories or in their territorial sea” (Art. 5 (3) (b) of Decree
1946, as amended by Decree 1119, quoted in Judgment, para. 170).
47. None of this involves a claim to exercise jurisdiction in respect of
offences committed in the contiguous zone itself or in the EEZ of Nicaragua.
Thus, the regulation adopted by Colombia makes no claim to
“ensure their implementation in part of Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone” as asserted by the Court (ibid., para. 178). Colombia’s claim in
respect of the prevention of the environment is no different than its claim
in respect of customs, fiscal, immigration and sanitary rights — that is, to
prevent and punish in respect of offences committed on Colombia’s territory
or in its territorial sea.
48. In my view, this was an appropriate case for the Court to interpret
Article 33 of UNCLOS in an evolutionary manner. Evolutionary (or evo-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 448
186
la Colombie portaient directement atteinte aux droits souverains et à la
juridiction du Nicaragua en ce qui concernait la conservation, la protection
et la préservation de l’environnement marin dans sa ZEE (arrêt,
par. 187). Or, comme la Cour l’a relevé plus tôt dans son arrêt, la zone
contiguë et la ZEE traitent de choses différentes (ibid., par. 160‑161).
Le Nicaragua est assurément compétent en matière de préservation de
l’environnement marin dans sa ZEE. En revanche, il ne l’est pas s’agissant
de la protection de l’environnement marin sur le territoire de la
Colombie ni dans la mer territoriale de celle-
ci. De même, la Colombie, si
elle est compétente dans sa zone contiguë pour prévenir et réprimer les
infractions relevant de certaines catégories de domaines sur son territoire
et dans sa mer territoriale, n’a pas compétence sur la base de sa zone
contiguë pour prévenir et réprimer des infractions commises dans la ZEE
du Nicaragua. Celle-
ci ne chevauchant pas la mer territoriale de la
Colombie,
il n’existe du reste pas de possibilité de chevauchement de
compétences.
46. La Colombie ne revendique pas non plus de compétence à l’égard
d’infractions commises dans la mer territoriale du Nicaragua. Le
décret 1946, tel que modifié par le décret 1119, l’indique clairement.
Il précise que la Colombie a le pouvoir, dans sa zone contiguë, de prévenir
les infractions à ses lois touchant à la sûreté de l’Etat qui sont « commises
sur ses territoires insulaires ou dans leur mer territoriale »
(art. 5 3) a) du décret 1946, tel que modifié par le décret 1119, cité au
paragraphe 170 de l’arrêt), puis que, « [d]e la même manière », les infractions
aux lois touchant à la préservation de l’environnement feront l’objet
de mesures de prévention et de répression (ibid.). L’expression « [d]e
la même manière » peut uniquement signifier que le pouvoir affirmé à
l’égard de l’environnement n’est pas différent de celui revendiqué en ce
qui concerne la sûreté. Quant à l’autre élément de la juridiction attachée
à la zone contiguë, le pouvoir de réprimer, le décret indique qu’il se rapporte
aux infractions susmentionnées « commises dans les territoires insulaires
de la Colombie ou dans leur mer territoriale » (art. 5 3) b) du
décret 1946, tel que modifié par le décret 1119, cité au paragraphe 170 de
l’arrêt).
47. Rien de tout cela ne suppose que la Colombie ait revendiqué
d’exercer sa compétence à l’égard des infractions commises dans la zone
contiguë elle-même ou dans la ZEE du Nicaragua. Dans le règlement
qu’elle a adopté, la défenderesse ne prétend donc pas « assurer [son] exécution
dans une partie de la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua »
comme l’affirme la Cour (ibid., par. 178). La prétention de la Colombie
relative à la préservation de l’environnement n’est pas différente de celle
concernant ses droits en matière douanière, fiscale, d’immigration ou
sanitaire — à savoir prévenir et réprimer les infractions commises sur son
territoire ou dans sa mer territoriale.
48. Selon moi, la présente affaire se prêtait à ce que la Cour fît de l’article
33 de la CNUDM une lecture évolutive. Ce type d’interprétation a
449 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
187
lutive) interpretation has been accepted in the jurisprudence of the
Court 10. A provision which, in 1956, the ILC saw as its purpose to protect
the security needs of States must be interpreted today in a way that
reflects contemporary security needs. On this basis, all of the matters
identified in Colombia’s Presidential Decree 1946 reflect contemporary
security needs of some if not all States — piracy, suppression of the drug
trade, maritime security and the protection of the (marine) environment
— and thus should be seen as legitimate matters to be covered under
the contiguous zone jurisdiction of States.
VI.
49. I turn now to Colombia’s two counter‑claims, (A) Traditional and
artisanal fishing rights and (B) Straight baselines. I disagree with the
Court’s findings in respect of each counter‑claim.
A.
50. I have voted against the Court’s rejection of all remaining issues in
the eighth subparagraph of the operative clause because I do not agree
with the Court that
“Colombia has failed to establish that the inhabitants of the
San Andrés Archipelago, in particular the Raizales, enjoy artisanal
fishing rights in waters now located in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone, or that Nicaragua has, through the unilateral statements of its
Head of State, accepted or recognized their traditional fishing rights,
or legally undertaken to respect them” (Judgment, para. 231).
51. In my view, the Court has failed to address what is a critical, and
to some extent unique, aspect of Colombia’s counter‑claim and this has
had an impact on the way the Court has both assessed the evidence of
traditional fishing rights and viewed the statements of Nicaragua’s President.
52. Colombia’s third counter‑claim relating to traditional or artisanal
fishing rights was articulated by Colombia in a number of different ways.
It was referred to as a claim in respect of the inhabitants of the San Andrés
10 See, for example, Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v.
Nicaragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 242‑243, paras. 64‑66; see also Whaling in
the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan: New Zealand intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2014,
p. 247, para. 45.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 449
187
été admis dans sa jurisprudence 10. Une disposition dont la CDI a considéré
en 1956 qu’elle avait pour but de protéger les besoins des Etats touchant
à la sûreté doit aujourd’hui être interprétée d’une façon qui reflète
les besoins modernes en la matière. Sur cette base, tous les domaines
recensés dans le décret présidentiel 1946 de la Colombie reflètent les
besoins modernes de certains Etats, si ce n’est de tous, relatifs à la sûreté
— la piraterie, la répression du trafic de stupéfiants, la sûreté maritime et
la protection de l’environnement (marin) —, et il y a donc lieu de les
regarder comme des domaines légitimes devant être couverts par la juridiction
attachée à la zone contiguë des Etats.
VI.
49. J’en viens maintenant aux deux demandes reconventionnelles de la
Colombie, A) les droits de pêche traditionnels et de pêche artisanale, et
B) les lignes de base droites. Je suis en désaccord avec les conclusions de
la Cour en ce qui concerne chacune de ces demandes.
A.
50. J’ai voté contre le rejet par la Cour du surplus des conclusions au
huitième point du dispositif, car je ne suis pas d’accord avec elle pour dire
que
« la Colombie n’a pas établi que les habitants de l’archipel de
San Andrés, notamment les Raizals, jouissent de droits de pêche artisanale
dans les eaux situées à présent dans la zone économique exclusive
nicaraguayenne, ou que le Nicaragua a, par les déclarations
unilatérales de son président, accepté ou reconnu l’existence de leurs
droits de pêche traditionnels, ou pris l’engagement juridique de respecter
de tels droits » (arrêt, par. 231).
51. Selon moi, la Cour n’a pas traité un aspect essentiel, et dans une
certaine mesure unique, de la demande reconventionnelle de la Colombie,
ce qui a eu une incidence sur la manière dont elle a, d’une part, apprécié
les éléments de preuve relatifs aux droits de pêche traditionnels et, d’autre
part, considéré les déclarations du président du Nicaragua.
52. La Colombie a formulé sa troisième demande reconventionnelle
relative aux droits de pêche traditionnels ou artisanaux de plusieurs
façons différentes. Elle l’a présentée comme une demande se rapportant
10 Voir, par exemple, Différend relatif à des droits de navigation et des droits connexes
(Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 242‑243, par. 64‑66 ; voir également
Chasse à la baleine dans l’Antarctique (Australie c. Japon ; Nouvelle-Zélande
(intervenant)),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2014, p. 247, par. 45.
450 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
188
Archipelago “in particular the Raizales” 11 or “including the Raizales” 12
or the “traditional, historic fishing rights of the Raizales and the other
fishermen of the Archipelago” 13. What is common about all of these formulations
is that they identify two groups: the Raizales, and the other
inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago. The Raizales are included
within the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago but are also seen as
distinct from the other inhabitants of the Archipelago.
53. In its Counter‑Memorial, Colombia identified the Raizales as
“descendants of the enslaved Africans and the original Dutch, British and
Spanish settlers” which “have acquired through the centuries their own
specific culture” 14. The Counter‑Memorial also claims that “[s]ince time
immemorial, they [the Raizales] have navigated all of the Southwestern
Caribbean in search of resources, such as fish and turtles” 15.
54. While Nicaragua’s pleadings refer to the fishing practices of the
inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago “including the indigenous
Raizal people” 16 and on another occasion simply “the Raizal people” 17,
their pleadings tend to treat the inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago
as a single group. The main argument of Nicaragua is that traditional
or artisanal rights did not survive the creation of the EEZ 18 and, thus,
regardless of any claim to traditional or artisanal fishing, no such right
exists within the EEZ. In Nicaragua’s pleadings no independent
right exists for the Raizales, but rather the rights that are claimed by
Colombia are rights in respect of all of the inhabitants of the San Andrés
Archipelago.
55. Having described the origins of the Raizales and the fact that they
had fished in the south-western
Caribbean for centuries, Colombia characterizes
the Raizales as “indigenous fishermen” 19. They are, Colombia
says, a “distinct ethnic and cultural community” who “navigated, traded
and fished in this area of the Southwestern Caribbean Sea before and
after the coming into existence of Nicaragua and Colombia as independent
States” 20.
56. In describing the Raizales in this way, Colombia is clearly creating
a category that is separate from other claimants to traditional or artisanal
fishing rights. The way that Colombia articulates this claim for the Raizales
as a separate and distinct group and in particular the reference to the
Raizales as “indigenous fishermen” suggests an analogy with indigenous
11 Rejoinder of Colombia, Vol. I, paras. 5.1 and 5.74, and submission II.3; CR 2021/18,
p. 75, submission II.3 (Arrieta Padilla).
12 Rejoinder of Colombia, Vol. I, para. 5.76.
13 Counter‑Memorial of Colombia, Vol. I, para. 9.25.
14 Ibid., para. 2.64.
15 Ibid.
16 Reply of Nicaragua, para. 6.1.
17 Ibid., para. 6.3.
18 Ibid., para. 6.5; Judgment, para. 208.
19 Counter‑Memorial of Colombia, Vol. I, para. 2.68.
20 Rejoinder of Colombia, Vol. I, para. 5.10.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 450
188
aux habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, « et en particulier les Raizals
» 11 ou « au nombre desquels [comptaient] les Raizals » 12, ou encore
aux « droits de pêche traditionnels dont les Raizals et les autres pêcheurs
de l’archipel [avaie]nt toujours joui » 13. Le point commun de toutes ces
formulations est qu’elles mettent en évidence deux groupes : les Raizals et
les autres habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés. Le premier groupe fait
partie du second, mais il en est également distingué.
53. Dans son contre-mémoire,
la Colombie a décrit les Raizals comme
les « descendants des esclaves africains et des premiers colons néerlandais,
britanniques et espagnols » qui « [avaie]nt acquis au cours des siècles une
culture qui leur [étai]t propre » 14. Elle a également affirmé dans cette pièce
que, « [d]epuis des temps immémoriaux, les Raizals sillonn[ai]ent les eaux
du sud-ouest des Caraïbes pour pêcher et chasser la tortue » 15.
54. Si, dans ses écritures, il se réfère aux pratiques de pêche des habitants
de l’archipel de San Andrés, « y compris la communauté autochtone
des Raizals » 16, et, en une autre occasion, simplement à « la population
raizale » 17, le Nicaragua a tendance à traiter les habitants de l’archipel de
San Andrés comme un seul groupe. Son principal argument consiste à
dire que les droits traditionnels ou artisanaux n’ont pas survécu à la création
de la ZEE 18 et que, partant, indépendamment de toute prétention
relative à la pêche traditionnelle ou artisanale, aucun droit de ce type
n’existe dans la ZEE. Dans ses écritures, le Nicaragua considère que les
Raizals ne jouissent d’aucun droit indépendant ; les droits revendiqués
par la Colombie concernent tous les habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés.
55. Après avoir décrit leurs origines et le fait qu’ils avaient pêché dans
la partie sud-ouest de la mer des Caraïbes des siècles durant, la Colombie
qualifie les Raizals de « pêche[urs] autochtones » 19. Ils constituent selon
elle « une communauté distincte, dotée d’une culture propre », qui « naviguait,
commerçait et pêchait dans le sud-ouest de la mer des Caraïbes
avant que le Nicaragua et la Colombie ne deviennent des Etats indépendants,
et qu[i] a continué depuis lors » 20.
56. En dépeignant ainsi les Raizals, la Colombie crée manifestement
une catégorie distincte des autres personnes revendiquant des droits de
pêche traditionnels ou de pêche artisanale. La manière dont elle formule
cette demande pour les Raizals en tant que groupe séparé et différent,
notamment en les qualifiant de « pêche[urs] autochtones », conduit à tirer
11 Duplique de la Colombie, vol. I, par. 5.1 et 5.74, et conclusion II.3 ; CR 2021/18,
p. 75, conclusion II.3 (Arrieta Padilla).
12 Duplique de la Colombie, vol. I, par. 5.76.
13 Contre-mémoire
de la Colombie, vol. I, par. 9.25.
14 Ibid., par. 2.64.
15 Ibid.
16 Réplique du Nicaragua, par. 6.1.
17 Ibid., par. 6.3.
18 Ibid., par. 6.5 ; arrêt, par. 208.
19 Contre-mémoire
de la Colombie, vol. I, par. 2.68.
20 Duplique de la Colombie, vol. I, par. 5.10.
451 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
189
rights, rights that have most recently found expression in the United
Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 21.
57. There is no accepted definition of who constitute indigenous peoples,
but indicia of indigeneity include:
“(i) communal attachments to ‘place’; (ii) historical precedence over
dominant societies; (iii) experience of severe disruption, dislocation
and exploitation; (iv) ‘historical continuity’; (v) ongoing oppression/
exclusion by dominant societal groups; (vi) distinct ethnic/cultural
groups; and (vii) self-identification
as an indigenous community” 22.
It has been argued that not all of the indicia are necessary in order to
establish entitlement to indigenous rights 23. In any event, it is clear that
the attribution of the terms “indigenous” to a people is a potentially complex
task. Thus, it is not possible to reach any conclusion on whether the
Raizales are properly termed “indigenous” but, as described by Colombia
in its pleadings, the Raizales clearly meet many of the above indicia suggesting
that at the very least an analogy with indigenous rights is appropriate.
58. Treating the situation of the Raizales as akin to that of indigenous
peoples finds indirect support in the position of Nicaragua in the pleadings
in this case and direct support in the statements of President Ortega.
Although Nicaragua’s pleadings assimilate the Raizales to the other
inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago, they refer to the Raizales as
“Raizal people” reinforcing a separateness from those other inhabitants
of the Archipelago (see paragraph 54 above).
59. President Ortega has consistently used language that emphasizes
the analogy of the Raizales with indigenous peoples. Shortly after the
2012 Judgment of the Court was delivered, President Ortega spoke of the
“Raizal brethren” and of being respectful of “the Principle of Native Peoples”
and of respect for their right to fish and navigate where they have
historically navigated 24. He later spoke of the “historical rights” of the
21 United Nations General Assembly resolution 61/295 “United Nations Declaration
on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples” (adopted on 13 September 2007), UN doc. A/
RES/61/295 (2 October 2007).
22 S. Allen, N. Bankes, E. L. Enyew and O. Ravna, “Introduction”, in S. Allen,
N. Bankes and O. Ravna (eds.), The Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Marine Areas, Oxford,
Hart Publishing, 2019, p. 10; a similar approach is found in “Standard-setting
activities:
Evolution of standards concerning the rights of indigenous people: Working Paper by
the Chairperson-Rapporteur,
Mrs. E.-I. A. Daes, on the concept of ‘indigenous people’”,
UN doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1996/2, 10 June 1996, para. 69.
23 S. Allen, N. Bankes, E. L. Enyew and O. Ravna, “Introduction”, in S. Allen,
N. Bankes and O. Ravna (eds.), The Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Marine Areas, Oxford,
Hart Publishing, 2019, p. 10.
24 Memorial of Nicaragua, Ann. 27.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 451
189
un parallèle avec les droits des peuples autochtones, droits qui ont trouvé
leur expression le plus récemment dans la déclaration des Nations Unies
sur les droits des peuples autochtones 21.
57. Il n’existe aucune définition admise d’un peuple autochtone, mais
les critères de l’autochtonie sont notamment les suivants :
« i) un attachement commun à un « lieu » ; ii) une antériorité historique
par rapport aux sociétés dominantes ; iii) un vécu de perturbations,
bouleversements et formes d’exploitation graves ; iv) « une continuité
historique » ; v) une oppression/exclusion continue par les groupes
sociaux dominants ; vi) des groupes ethniques/culturels distincts ; et
vii) une auto-identification
en tant que communauté autochtone » 22.
Certains ont fait valoir que ces critères n’étaient pas tous nécessaires à
l’établissement de droits des peuples autochtones 23. En tout état de cause,
il est clair que l’attribution de l’adjectif « autochtone » à un peuple peut se
révéler une tâche complexe. L’on ne saurait donc tirer de conclusion
quant à la question de savoir si le peuple raizal est qualifié à juste titre
d’« autochtone », mais, comme la Colombie l’a exposé dans ses écritures,
les Raizals satisfont manifestement à nombre des critères susmentionnés,
ce qui semble indiquer que, à tout le moins, une analogie avec les droits
des peuples autochtones est appropriée.
58. L’option consistant à considérer la situation des Raizals comme
étant analogue à celle des peuples autochtones est indirectement étayée
par la position que le Nicaragua a adoptée dans ses écritures en l’espèce
et l’est directement par les déclarations du président Ortega. Bien que,
dans ses pièces de procédure, il assimile les Raizals aux autres habitants
de l’archipel de San Andrés, le demandeur parle de la « population raizale
», ce qui renforce la distinction établie entre ces deux groupes (voir le
paragraphe 54 ci-
dessus).
59. Le président Ortega a constamment employé des termes qui soulignent
l’analogie entre les Raizals et les peuples autochtones. Peu après le
prononcé de l’arrêt de 2012 de la Cour, il a évoqué les « frères raizals », le
respect des « droits des peuples autochtones » ainsi que leur droit de
pêcher et de naviguer dans les eaux sur lesquelles ils avaient toujours
navigué 24. Il a mentionné par la suite les « droits historiques » des
21 Assemblée générale des Nations Unies, résolution 61/295, « Déclaration des
Nations Unies sur les droits des peuples autochtones » (adoptée le 13 septembre 2007),
Nations Unies, doc. A/RES/61/295 (2 octobre 2007).
22 S. Allen, N. Bankes, E. L. Enyew et O. Ravna, « Introduction », dans S. Allen,
N. Bankes et O. Ravna (dir. publ.), The Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Marine Areas,
Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2019, p. 10 ; une approche analogue figure dans « Activités normatives
: évolution des normes concernant les droits des autochtones, document de travail du
président-rapporteur,
Mme E.-I. A. Daes, sur la notion de « peuple autochtone » », Nations
Unies, doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1996/2, 10 juin 1996, par. 69.
23 S. Allen, N. Bankes, E. L. Enyew et O. Ravna, « Introduction », dans S. Allen,
N. Bankes et O. Ravna (dir. publ.), The Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Marine Areas,
Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2019, p. 10.
24 Mémoire du Nicaragua, annexe 27.
452 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
190
Raizal people 25. He also spoke of the rights of the Raizal people as rights
of “Original People” 26. All of this is the language of indigenous rights,
not just the language of traditional or artisanal fishing rights.
60. Furthermore, President Ortega spoke of allowing the rights of the
Raizales to “continue”, and of “ensur[ing]” those rights 27. The context
clearly shows that what was being assured was the continuation of existing
rights, not the creation of new rights where none had existed before.
President Ortega’s proposal for a “commission” was for a body to ensure
the orderly continuation of existing Raizal fishing. It was to help locate
“where the [R]aizal people can fish in exercise of their historic rights” 28.
It was not a commission that would create a new right to fish.
61. In short, when viewed from the perspective of Raizal rights as the
rights of a specific group with a strong analogy to indigenous rights, then
President Ortega’s statements have much more meaning. They are not
just an expression about claims of the inhabitants of the San Andrés
Archipelago to traditional or artisanal fishing. Nor can they be explained
away as President Ortega wanting to be diplomatic or avoiding controversy
and appeasing Colombia 29. They are a recognition and validation
of the claims of a particular community of “original peoples” to continue
fishing as they had in the past.
62. Viewing the rights of the Raizales through an analogy with indigenous
rights has certain consequences for the conclusions reached by the
Court. The Court assesses the statements of President Ortega in terms of
whether they could constitute recognition of traditional or artisanal fishing
rights or of a right to fish without prior authorization (Judgment,
para. 227). The Court also considers whether President Ortega’s statements
constituted a unilateral declaration undertaking legal obligations
(ibid., paras. 228‑230). But a more appropriate focus would have been to
consider what President Ortega was saying about the Raizales. He called
them “original people”, “native people”, and spoke of their “ancestral
rights”. The traditional fishing rights of the Raizales that he spoke of,
25 Counter‑Memorial of Colombia, Vol. II, Ann. 74.
26 Rejoinder of Colombia, Vol. II, Ann. 6.
27 See, for example, Memorial of Nicaragua, Ann. 27: “we [Nicaragua] fully respect
their right to fish and to navigate those waters, which they have historically navigated, and
have also survived from the marine resources”; Counter-Memorial
of Colombia, Vol. II,
Ann. 73: “we [Nicaragua] will respect the historical rights that they (the Raizals) have had
over those territories. We will find the mechanisms to ensure the right of the Raizal people
to fish, in San Andrés”.
28 Counter‑Memorial of Colombia, Vol. II, Ann. 76.
29 Reply of Nicaragua, para. 6.65; Additional pleading of Nicaragua, para. 2.29;
CR 2021/16, pp. 24‑25, paras. 29‑32 (Martin).
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 452
190
Raizals
25. Il a également qualifié les droits du peuple raizal de droits du
« peuple autochtone » 26. Tout cela relève du langage des droits des peuples
autochtones, et pas seulement de celui des droits de pêche traditionnels
ou de pêche artisanale.
60. De plus, le président Ortega a évoqué l’idée d’autoriser les Raizals
à « continuer » d’exercer leurs droits et de « garantir » ceux-
ci 27. Il ressort
clairement du contexte qu’il était alors question de maintenir des droits
existants, et non d’en créer de nouveaux qui n’avaient pas préexisté. La
proposition du président Ortega relative à une « commission » visait à
mettre en place un organe devant permettre aux Raizals de continuer
d’exercer leurs activités de pêche de manière régulière. Cet organe était
censé contribuer à la localisation des « espaces dans lesquels le peuple
raizal
p[ouvai]t pêcher dans l’exercice de ses droits historiques » 28 : il
n’était pas appelé à créer un nouveau droit de pêche.
61. En résumé, si on les considère sous l’angle des droits des Raizals en
tant que droits d’un groupe spécifique présentant une forte analogie avec
les droits des peuples autochtones, les déclarations du président Ortega
ont bien plus de sens. Le président ne s’exprimait pas seulement au sujet
des revendications des habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés en matière
de pêche traditionnelle ou artisanale, et ses déclarations ne peuvent être
évacuées comme des tentatives de faire montre de diplomatie, ou d’éviter
une polémique et d’apaiser la Colombie 29. Les déclarations en question
sont une reconnaissance et une validation des revendications de membres
d’une communauté particulière, un « peuple autochtone », de continuer de
pêcher comme ils l’avaient fait par le passé.
62. Envisager les droits des Raizals par analogie avec les droits des
peuples autochtones a certaines conséquences pour les conclusions tirées par
la Cour. Celle-
ci recherche si les déclarations du président Ortega pourraient
emporter reconnaissance de droits de pêche traditionnels ou de pêche artisanale
ou d’un droit de pêcher sans autorisation préalable (arrêt, par. 227).
Elle recherche également si les propos en question ont constitué une déclaration
unilatérale par laquelle le chef d’Etat aurait contracté des obligations
juridiques (ibid., par. 228‑230). Il aurait toutefois été plus approprié de s’intéresser
à ce que le président Ortega a dit au sujet des Raizals, qu’il a qualifiés
de « peuple autochtone » et dont il a évoqué les « droits ancestraux ». Les
droits de pêche traditionnels des Raizals qu’il a mentionnés étaient des droits
25 Contre-mémoire
de la Colombie, vol. II, annexe 74.
26 Duplique de la Colombie, vol. II, annexe 6.
27 Voir, par exemple, mémoire du Nicaragua, annexe 27 : « nous [le Nicaragua] respectons
pleinement leur droit de pêcher et de naviguer dans les eaux sur lesquelles ils naviguent
depuis toujours, et dont ils tirent leur subsistance » ; contre‑mémoire de la Colombie,
vol. II, annexe 73 : « nous [le Nicaragua] respecterons les droits historiques qui étaient les
leurs (ceux des Raizals) dans ces territoires. Nous trouverons des mécanismes permettant
de garantir le droit du peuple raizal de pêcher à San Andrés ».
28 Contre-mémoire
de la Colombie, vol. II, annexe 76.
29 Réplique du Nicaragua, par. 6.65 ; pièce additionnelle du Nicaragua, par. 2.29 ;
CR 2021/16, p. 24‑25, par. 29‑32 (Martin).
453 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
191
were rights that flowed from their status as Raizal people. This is evidenced
clearly when President Ortega argues for a commission to delimit
where the Raizales are to exercise their fishing rights. He said: “they
already have a permanent permit there, they do not have to be going for
a permit every day, why? Because they are in their lands, they are in their
waters, they are in their natural habitat.” 30 In short, for President Ortega,
the right to a fishery was an inherent consequence of who the Raizal people
were. Their fishing in what were now Nicaragua’s waters was their
right because it was in “their lands”, in “their waters”. It was, President
Ortega said, the Raizales “natural habitat” 31.
63. The language and imagery President Ortega used is consistent with
indigenous rights. And his statements should also be considered against
the background of the jurisprudence of the Inter‑American Court of
Human Rights which has consistently held that “tribal and indigenous
peoples” have rights to the natural resources that they have traditionally
used 32. In light of such developments in the Inter‑American Court, it is
not surprising that a president of a Latin American country would refer
to the Raizales in the language that President Ortega used.
64. The fishing rights of indigenous peoples are recognized in the
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Article
26, paragraph 1, provides: “Indigenous peoples have the right to the
lands, territories and resources which they have traditionally owned,
occupied or otherwise used or acquired.” 33 This clearly covers indigenous
fishing rights.
65. However, the Court concludes that Colombia has not established
that the Raizales enjoyed traditional rights to fishing in Nicaragua’s EEZ.
This conclusion is based on a rejection of affidavit evidence of fishers provided
by Colombia. But this is problematic in two ways. First, the standard
the Court set for establishing traditional fishing rights is essentially
one that could never be reached. Second, the Court failed to see the link
between what was claimed in respect of the Raizales and what was said
about them, and about their right to fish in Nicaragua’s EEZ.
30 Rejoinder of Colombia, Vol. II, Ann. 6.
31 Ibid.
32 Inter-American
Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), Saramaka People v. Suriname,
Judgment of 28 November 2007, Series C, No. 172, p. 36, para. 121: “members of tribal
and indigenous communities have the right to own the natural resources they have traditionally
used within their territory for the same reasons that they have a right to own the
land they have traditionally used and occupied for centuries”; IACtHR, Kichwa Indigenous
People of Sarayaku v. Ecuador, Judgment of 27 June 2012, Series C, No. 245, para. 146:
“the protection of the territories of indigenous and tribal peoples also stems from the need
to guarantee the security and continuity of their control and use of natural resources,
which in turn allows them to maintain their way of living”.
33 United Nations General Assembly resolution 61/295 “United Nations Declaration
on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples” (adopted on 13 September 2007), UN doc. A/
RES/61/295 (2 October 2007).
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 453
191
qui découlaient de leur statut de peuple raizal. Cela est clairement démontré
lorsque le président Ortega plaide en faveur de la création d’une commission
chargée de délimiter les espaces dans lesquels les Raizals doivent exercer
leurs droits de pêche, déclarant ceci : « ils jouissent déjà ici d’un permis permanent,
ils n’ont pas besoin de demander un permis chaque jour, et pourquoi
? Parce qu’ils sont sur leurs terres, ils sont dans leurs eaux, ils sont dans
leur habitat naturel. » 30 En résumé, le président du Nicaragua estimait que le
droit à une pêcherie était une conséquence inhérente de l’identité du peuple
raizal ; les Raizals étaient fondés à pêcher dans des eaux appartenant désormais
au Nicaragua parce qu’ils étaient sur « leurs terres », dans « leurs eaux ».
Il s’agissait, a-t-il affirmé, de leur « habitat naturel » 31.
63. Les termes et images employés par le président Ortega cadrent avec
les droits des peuples autochtones. Il convient en outre d’examiner ses déclarations
à la lumière de la jurisprudence de la Cour interaméricaine des droits
de l’homme, qui a constamment jugé que les « peuples tribaux et autochtones
» possédaient des droits aux ressources naturelles dont ils avaient
traditionnellement
fait usage 32. Au vu de ces décisions de la Cour interaméricaine,
il n’est pas surprenant qu’un président d’un pays d’Amérique latine,
comme le président Ortega, parle des Raizals en des termes analogues.
64. Les droits de pêche des peuples autochtones sont consacrés par la
déclaration des Nations Unies sur les droits des peuples autochtones,
dont le paragraphe 1 de l’article 26 dispose ce qui suit : « Les peuples
autochtones ont le droit aux terres, territoires et ressources qu’ils possèdent
et occupent traditionnellement ou qu’ils ont utilisés ou acquis. » 33
Cela couvre clairement les droits de pêche des autochtones.
65. Cependant, la Cour conclut que la Colombie n’a pas établi que les
Raizals jouissaient de droits traditionnels de pêcher dans la ZEE du Nicaragua.
Cette conclusion est fondée sur un rejet des déclarations sous serment
fournies à titre de preuves par la Colombie, ce qui pose toutefois
deux problèmes. Premièrement, le critère que la Cour a fixé pour établir
l’existence de droits de pêche traditionnels est, en substance, un critère
auquel il est impossible de satisfaire. Deuxièmement, la Cour n’a pas vu
le lien entre ce qui était revendiqué pour les Raizals et ce qui a été dit à
leur sujet, et à propos de leur droit de pêcher dans la ZEE du Nicaragua.
30 Duplique de la Colombie, vol. II, annexe 6.
31 Ibid.
32 Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme (CIADH), Peuple Saramaka c. Suriname,
arrêt du 28 novembre 2007, série C, no 172, p. 36, par. 121 : « les membres de communautés
tribales et autochtones ont le droit de posséder les ressources naturelles dont ils ont
traditionnellement fait usage sur leur territoire pour les mêmes raisons qu’ils sont fondés à
posséder les terres qu’ils ont traditionnellement utilisées et occupées pendant des siècles » ;
Peuple indigène Kichwa de Sarayaku c. Equateur, arrêt du 27 juin 2012, série C, no 245,
par. 146 : « la protection des territoires des peuples autochtones et tribaux découle également
de la nécessité de garantir la sûreté et la continuité de leurs contrôle et usage des
ressources naturelles, ce qui leur permet ainsi de préserver leur mode de vie ».
33 Assemblée générale des Nations Unies, résolution 61/295, « Déclaration des
Nations Unies sur les droits des peuples autochtones » (adoptée le 13 septembre 2007),
Nations Unies, doc. A/RES/61/295 (2 octobre 2007).
454 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
192
66. With regard to the assessment of affidavit evidence, as the Court
itself notes, it is unrealistic to expect that evidence of what happened centuries
ago can be gleaned from the affidavits of contemporary fishers, particularly
when their culture is not a written one. It is not surprising,
therefore that the Court concluded that the affidavit evidence had nothing
to say about the location of fishing of the Raizales some two hundred
years ago (Judgment, para. 221).
67. But if the claims in respect of the Raizales were seen as analogous
to claims to indigenous rights then a different approach must be taken. In
this regard, the Court failed to appreciate the import of what President
Ortega said. All of President Ortega’s statements were about the
right of the Raizales to engage in fishing in Nicaragua’s EEZ. For President
Ortega it went without saying that the original peoples, the Raizales,
fished within the waters that were now subject to Nicaraguan jurisdiction.
It did not require affidavit evidence of such practices.
68. Viewing the claims of the Raizales as akin to indigenous rights also
makes irrelevant another part of the Court’s reasoning, that relating to
the position taken by the Ministry of Labour of the Colombian
Government
in a complaint brought before the International Labour
Organization relating to the impact of the 2012 Judgment on the Raizales
and other fishers of the San Andrés Archipelago (ibid., paras. 222‑223).
The rights of the Raizales that President Ortega was referring to are
not rights that can be abandoned by a department of a government seeking
to protect the reputation of its government in another international
forum.
69. In my view, the Court has failed to appreciate the real nature of the
claim relating to the Raizales in respect of the third counter‑claim. It has
reached a conclusion that does not accord with the entitlement of the
Raizales as reflected in the words of President Ortega — that the Raizales
had fished in waters that were now within the Nicaraguan EEZ and that,
by virtue of their particular status as “original peoples”, they were entitled
to continue that fishing. All that was needed was an arrangement
between Nicaragua and Colombia to ensure the effective implementation
of that right to continue fishing.
70. In paragraph 232, the Court supports the negotiation of an agreement
between Nicaragua and Colombia regarding access by the Raizales community
to fisheries within Nicaragua’s EEZ. The fact that the Court singles
out the Raizales specifically and does not speak of an agreement for all the
inhabitants of the San Andrés Archipelago is a clear indication that the Court
was at least implicitly treating the Raizales as a distinct group. The negotiation
of an agreement is an important step, but it is unfortunate that the Court
did not couple this recommendation with an affirmation of the rights that
the Raizales have. The purpose of such an agreement should not be to grant
rights to the Raizales. Rather, an agreement would, as President Ortega
anticipated, provide the modalities to ensure that the Raizales could continue
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 454
192
66. Pour ce qui est de l’appréciation des déclarations sous serment
fournies à titre de preuves, il est irréaliste, comme le relève la Cour ellemême,
de s’attendre à que ressortent de celles faites par des pêcheurs
vivant à notre époque des éléments démontrant ce qu’il s’est produit il y
a plusieurs siècles, surtout lorsque les intéressés n’ont pas une culture
écrite. Il n’est donc pas surprenant que la Cour ait conclu que ces déclarations
étaient muettes sur les espaces dans lesquels les Raizals avaient
pêché quelque deux cents ans auparavant (arrêt, par. 221).
67. Si toutefois l’on considère les revendications relatives aux Raizals
comme analogues aux revendications de droits des peuples autochtones, il
y a lieu de suivre une approche différente. A cet égard, la Cour n’a pas
saisi la portée des propos tenus par le président Ortega. Toutes les déclarations
de ce dernier se rapportaient au droit des Raizals de pêcher dans
la ZEE du Nicaragua. Selon lui, il allait sans dire que le peuple autochtone,
à savoir les Raizals, pêchait dans des eaux qui relevaient maintenant
de la juridiction nicaraguayenne. Point n’était besoin de démontrer l’existence
de ces pratiques par des déclarations sous serment.
68. Le fait de considérer les revendications des Raizals comme semblables
aux droits des peuples autochtones prive également de pertinence
une autre partie du raisonnement de la Cour, relative à la position adoptée
par le ministère du travail du Gouvernement colombien dans le cadre
d’une réclamation portée devant l’Organisation internationale du Travail
au sujet de l’incidence de l’arrêt de 2012 sur les Raizals et autres pêcheurs
de l’archipel de San Andrés (ibid., par. 222‑223). Les droits des Raizals
auxquels le président Ortega faisait référence ne sont pas de ceux auxquels
peut renoncer un ministère désireux de protéger la réputation de
son gouvernement dans une autre enceinte internationale.
69. A mon sens, la Cour n’a pas saisi la véritable nature de la revendication
relative aux Raizals dans le cas de la troisième demande reconventionnelle.
Elle est parvenue à une conclusion incompatible avec le droit de
ceux-
ci, tel qu’il se reflète dans les termes employés par le président Ortega
— à savoir que les Raizals avaient pêché dans des eaux qui se trouvaient
désormais dans la ZEE nicaraguayenne et que, en vertu de leur statut particulier
de « peuple autochtone », ils avaient le droit de poursuivre ces activités
de pêche. Il fallait simplement qu’il y ait une entente entre le Nicaragua
et la Colombie pour permettre la mise en oeuvre effective de ce droit.
70. Au paragraphe 232, la Cour encourage le Nicaragua et la Colombie
à négocier un accord au sujet de l’accès de la communauté raizale à des
pêcheries situées dans la ZEE nicaraguayenne. Le fait que la Cour parle
spécifiquement des seuls Raizals, et non d’un accord concernant tous les
habitants de l’archipel de San Andrés, indique clairement qu’elle a traité, ne
serait-ce qu’implicitement, les Raizals comme un groupe distinct. La négociation
d’un accord est une étape importante, mais il est fâcheux que la
Cour n’ait pas associé à cette recommandation une affirmation des droits
que possèdent les Raizals. Le but d’un tel accord devrait être non pas de
leur conférer des droits, mais, comme le prévoyait le président Ortega, de
définir les modalités garantissant qu’ils puissent continuer d’exercer leur
455 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
193
to exercise their right to a resource that they had traditionally fished but
which as a result of the 2012 Judgment was now in Nicaragua’s EEZ.
B.
71. I have voted against the Court’s conclusion that Nicaragua’s
straight baselines do not conform with customary international law. I did
so because, in my view, the Court has based its decision on a decontextualized
application of the law relating to drawing straight baselines and
ignored State practice which should have been taken into account in
interpreting the relevant provisions of customary international law.
72. The Court notes that the Parties accept that Article 7 of UNCLOS
reflects customary international law on drawing straight baselines and
concludes itself that this is so (Judgment, paras. 241‑242). As result, the
issue before the Court is whether Nicaragua’s straight baselines meet the
requirements of Article 7.
73. In interpreting Article 7, the Court focuses on the criteria in paragraph
1 of that Article that straight baselines can apply in localities where
the coastline “is deeply indented and cut into” or whether there is a
“fringe of islands along the coast in its immediate vicinity”. In respect of
Nicaragua’s baseline between points 8 and 9 the Court asks whether the
coast in the area meets the requirement of being “deeply indented and cut
into” (ibid., para. 245). The baselines between points 1 and 8 are tested by
reference to whether there is a “fringe of islands” along the coast (ibid.,
para. 247).
74. The terms of Article 7 are essentially a direct reflection of what was
said in the 1951 Judgment in the Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway)
case 34. Thus, the terms constitute a description of the coasts of Norway
as perceived in that Judgment. The difficulty is how to apply these terms
to coasts that are not identical to those of Norway 35. Thus, the challenge
for the Court was to give meaning to the terms “deeply indented and cut
into” or “fringe of islands” along the coast that can be readily applied to
the coastal configurations in this case and can be used as guidance for
States in applying Article 7 to their own coastlines.
75. Unfortunately, I do not consider that the Court has done this. It
has taken the idea expressed in the language of “deeply indented and cut
into” and applied it by saying that the coastal indentations of the Nicaragua
coast “do not penetrate sufficiently inland or present characteristics
34 Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 116; see
M. H. Nordquist, S. N. Nandan and S. Rosenne (eds.), United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea, 1982: A Commentary, Vol. II, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1985,
para. 7.1.
35 See T. Scovazzi, “Baselines”, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law,
article last updated in June 2007, para. 20.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 455
193
droit à une ressource qu’ils avaient pêchée depuis toujours, mais qui, du fait
de l’arrêt de 2012, se trouvait désormais dans la ZEE du Nicaragua.
B.
71. J’ai voté contre le point du dispositif dans lequel la Cour dit que les
lignes de base droites du Nicaragua ne sont pas conformes au droit international
coutumier. Si je l’ai fait, c’est parce qu’il me semble que la Cour
a fondé sa décision sur une application sortie de son contexte du droit
relatif au tracé de telles lignes et fait abstraction de la pratique des Etats,
qu’elle aurait dû prendre en considération pour interpréter les dispositions
pertinentes du droit international coutumier.
72. La Cour relève que les Parties reconnaissent que l’article 7 de la
CNUDM reflète le droit international coutumier relatif au tracé de lignes
de base droites et conclut elle-même qu’il en est ainsi (arrêt, par. 241‑242).
En conséquence, la question portée devant elle est celle de savoir si les
lignes de base droites du Nicaragua satisfont aux exigences de cet article.
73. En interprétant l’article 7, la Cour met l’accent sur les critères
énoncés au paragraphe 1 de cette disposition voulant que des lignes de
base droites puissent être tracées lorsque le littoral « est profondément
échancr[é] et découp[é] » ou s’il existe « un chapelet d’îles [fringe of
islands] le long de la côte, à proximité immédiate de celle-
ci ». Pour ce qui
est de la ligne de base du Nicaragua reliant les points 8 et 9, la Cour se
demande si, dans cette région, la côte satisfait à l’exigence d’être « profondément
échancrée et découpée » (ibid., par. 245). Les lignes de base situées
entre les points 1 et 8 sont examinées au regard du critère de l’existence
d’un « chapelet d’îles » le long de la côte (ibid., par. 247).
74. En substance, les termes de l’article 7 reflètent directement ce qui a
été dit dans l’arrêt rendu en 1951 dans l’affaire des Pêcheries (Royaume-
Uni c. Norvège) 34. Ils décrivent donc les côtes norvégiennes telles qu’elles
avaient été perçues dans cet arrêt. La difficulté réside dans l’application de
ces termes à des côtes qui ne sont pas identiques à celles de la Norvège 35.
La Cour devait par conséquent relever le défi consistant à donner à l’expression
« profondément échancrée et découpée » ou aux termes « chapelet
d’îles » le long de la côte un sens susceptible d’être appliqué aisément aux
configurations côtières en la présente espèce et de guider les Etats dans la
mise en oeuvre de l’article 7 en ce qui concernait leurs propres littoraux.
75. Las, je ne suis pas d’avis que la Cour ait fait cela. La Cour a repris
l’idée exprimée par les termes « profondément échancrée et découpée » et l’a
appliquée en disant que les échancrures de la côte du Nicaragua « ne
pén[étrai]ent … pas assez dans les terres pour que la Cour p[ût] considérer
34 Pêcheries (Royaume‑Uni c. Norvège), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 116 ; voir
M. H. Nordquist, S. N. Nandan et S. Rosenne (dir. publ.), United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea, 1982 : A Commentary, vol. II, Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff, 1985,
par. 7.1.
35 Voir T. Scovazzi, « Baselines », Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International
Law, dernière mise à jour de l’article en juin 2007, par. 20.
456 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
194
sufficient for the Court to consider the said portion as ‘deeply indented
and cut into’” (Judgment, para. 245). Resorting to the language of the
1951 Judgment, the Court refers to requirements of the coast being of a
“very distinctive configuration” or not “broken along its length”, or
indentations “often penetrating great distances inland” (ibid.). None of
this is any more precise than the phrase “deeply indented or cut into” of
Article 7. The impression left is that the conclusion is based not on clear
criteria but on a subjective impression of what “deeply indented and cut
into” means.
76. The same applies to the Court’s treatment of the term “fringe of
islands”. The Court notes that in its 2012 Judgment it had referred to
islands off Nicaragua’s coast as “fringing islands”, but states that it did
not do so as an interpretation of Article 7 (ibid., para. 249). The fact that
it had used the term “fringe of islands” apparently to mean something
different from the term “fringe of islands” in Article 7, should itself have
alerted the Court to the perils of trying to apply the term. The closest the
Court comes to elucidating the meaning of a “fringe of islands” is when it
says that “the phrase ‘fringe of islands’ implies that there should not be
too small a number of such islands relative to the length of coast” (ibid.,
para. 252) and when it says, “a ‘fringe’ must enclose a set, or cluster of
islands which present an interconnected system with some consistency or
continuity” (ibid., para. 254). But while such statements can provide an
image of what the Court is seeking to establish, the link between them
and the Court’s conclusion that it “is not satisfied . . . that the number of
Nicaragua’s islands . . . is sufficient to constitute a ‘fringe of islands’ along
Nicaragua’s coast” (ibid., para. 252) or that they “are not sufficiently
close to each other to form a coherent ‘cluster’ or a ‘chapelet’ along the
coast and are not sufficiently linked to the land domain” (ibid., para. 256)
is simply not evident. In elaborating on the requirements for a fringe of
islands the Court also refers to islands having “a masking effect” (ibid.,
para. 254), but this is as imprecise as the terms to which it is supposed to
give content.
77. What is missing from the Court’s analysis is a treatment of State
practice in drawing straight baselines. The imprecision of the terms in
Article 7 might well be lessened by considering how States in practice
have interpreted and applied those provisions. There are many examples
of State practice in drawing straight baselines, including the practice of
Colombia itself 36. And when viewed against that practice, the straight
baselines of Nicaragua do not seem to be out of line with the way States
are interpreting Article 7. It is true that straight baselines are sometimes
36 See International Law Association, “Baselines under the International Law of the
Sea: Final Report”, ILA Reports of Conferences, Vol. 78 (2018), especially p. 124, para. 20,
p. 126, para. 25, and p. 160, para. 105, with further references therein.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 456
194
que le littoral, à cet endroit, [étai]t « profondément échancr[é] et découp[é] » »
(arrêt, par. 245). Recourant à la formulation employée dans l’arrêt de 1951,
elle fait référence aux exigences que la côte présente « une configuration très
caractéristique » ou ne soit pas « découpée sur tout son parcours », ou
qu’elle « ouvre à tout instant des échancrures qui pénètrent dans les terres,
sur une distance souvent très considérable » (ibid.). Aucune de ces formulations
n’est un tant soit peu plus précise que l’expression « profondément
échancrée et découpée » figurant à l’article 7, ce qui laisse l’impression que
la conclusion repose non pas sur des critères clairs, mais sur une interprétation
subjective de l’expression « profondément échancrée et découpée ».
76. Il en va de même du traitement réservé par la Cour aux termes « fringe
of islands » [« chapelet d’îles »]. Celle-
ci relève que, dans son arrêt de 2012,
elle avait qualifié les îles situées au large de la côte nicaraguayenne de « fringing
islands » [« îles qui … bordent » le territoire continental du Nicaragua],
mais précise qu’il ne fallait pas y voir une interprétation de l’article 7 (ibid.,
par. 249). Le fait que, à l’époque, la Cour ait apparemment employé l’expression
« fringing islands » pour désigner autre chose que le « fringe of islands »
visé à l’article 7 aurait dû lui faire prendre conscience des dangers qu’il y avait
à tenter d’appliquer cette expression. En guise d’explication du sens de « fringe
of islands », tout au plus précise-t-elle que « l’expression « chapelet » implique
que [les îles] ne doivent pas être trop peu nombreuses au regard de la longueur
de la côte » (ibid., par. 252) et qu’« un « chapelet » doit … englober un ensemble
ou amas d’îles intégrées et interconnectées dans un système présentant une
certaine cohérence ou continuité » (ibid., par. 254). Cependant, si ces assertions
peuvent donner une idée de ce que la Cour cherche à établir, le lien
entre elles et les conclusions que cette dernière « n’a[it] pas … acquis la conviction
que le nombre d’îles du Nicaragua est suffisant … pour lui permettre de
conclure qu’il existe un « chapelet » le long de la côte nicaraguayenne » (arrêt,
par. 252) ou que ces îles « ne so[ie]nt pas suffisamment proches les unes des
autres pour former un « amas » ou « chapelet » cohérent le long de la côte, et
ne so[ie]nt pas suffisamment liées au domaine terrestre » (ibid., par. 256) n’est
tout simplement pas évident. Lorsqu’elle expose les exigences en matière de
« fringe of islands », la Cour indique aussi que les îles « peu[ven]t masquer »
une grande partie du littoral (ibid., par. 254), mais cette mention est tout aussi
imprécise que les termes auxquels elle est censée donner corps.
77. Ce qui fait défaut dans l’analyse de la Cour, c’est un traitement de
la pratique des Etats relative au tracé de lignes de base droites. Il se pourrait
fort qu’un examen de la manière dont les Etats ont concrètement
interprété et appliqué ces dispositions permette d’atténuer l’imprécision
des termes employés à l’article 7. Les exemples de lignes de base droites
abondent dans la pratique des Etats, y compris dans celle de la Colombie
elle-même 36, et, à la lumière de cette pratique, les lignes de base droites du
Nicaragua ne semblent pas incompatibles avec l’interprétation que font
36 Voir International Law Association, « Baselines under the International Law of
the Sea : Final Report », ILA Reports of Conferences, vol. 78 (2018), en particulier p. 124,
par. 20, p. 126, par. 25, et p. 160, par. 105, où figurent d’autres références.
457 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. mcrae)
195
objected to by neighbouring States, but even those instances are relatively
rare. There is simply no widespread objection by States to the way straight
baselines have been drawn 37. Only one State has consistently objected to
straight baselines, reflecting its own view of what is appropriate. In light
of this, it might have been prudent for the Court to have been guided by
what States have been doing when establishing straight baselines.
78. In short, what the Court has done is measure Nicaragua’s baselines
against an impression created by the words in Article 7, rather than giving
concrete content to the words that would reduce subjectivity and provide
guidance not only on how the conclusion was reached in this case
but on how States should in the future be guided in the interpretation of
Article 7. And this has been done without reference to State practice. Yet
there is significant State practice which can throw light on how Article 7
has been interpreted and, if taken into account, would lead to a contrary
conclusion.
79. Ultimately, in my view, this was not the case for the Court to provide
a definitive interpretation of Article 7. It came by way of counter‑claim,
not as a principal claim, from a State that itself had drawn
straight baselines that do not appear dissimilar from the baselines it is
challenging. The case raised questions about how to assess the relevance
of scale on the maps used to depict the baselines. It involved challenges to
the status of features that were claimed to be islands and to the legitimacy
of using them as base points. Yet the Parties did not ask the Court to
appoint a technical expert who could provide guidance on aspects of the
pleadings of the Parties that would have enabled the Court to reach definitive
conclusions on some of these questions.
80. There is no doubt that the law relating to straight baselines is in
need of clarification and perhaps the day will come when an appropriate
case comes before the Court, where the matter can be considered fully
with a complete articulation by the parties of all the issues, and technical
support provided for the Court. Unfortunately, that is not this case. I am
concerned therefore that what the Court has done will increase uncertainty
in this area, rather than providing clarification, and will leave
States in considerable doubt about how to assess whether their straight
baselines meet the requirements of Article 7.
(Signed) Donald M. McRae.
37 See International Law Association, “Baselines under the International Law of the
Sea: Final Report”, ILA Reports of Conferences, Vol. 78 (2018), p. 127, para. 27: “Not
entirely surprisingly, the number of States which have protested relevant state practice
in this regard [i.e. in relation to the drawing of straight baselines], in proportion to the
number of potentially interested States, is very small.”
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. mcrae) 457
195
les Etats de l’article 7. Il est vrai que pareilles lignes sont parfois contestées
par des Etats voisins, mais même ces cas de figure sont relativement
rares. La manière dont les lignes de base droites ont été tracées ne suscite
tout simplement pas de contestations généralisées des Etats 37. Un seul
s’est constamment opposé aux lignes de base droites, exprimant son
propre point de vue sur ce qu’il conviendrait de faire. En conséquence, il
aurait peut-être été prudent que la Cour s’inspire de ce que les Etats ont
fait lorsqu’ils ont établi des lignes de base droites.
78. En résumé, la Cour a mesuré les lignes de base du Nicaragua en les
comparant à une impression créée par les termes figurant à l’article 7, au
lieu de donner à ceux-
ci un contenu concret qui réduirait la subjectivité et
fournirait des orientations non seulement sur la manière dont elle est parvenue
à sa conclusion en l’espèce, mais aussi sur la façon dont les Etats
devraient à l’avenir interpréter cette disposition. Le tout sans se référer à
la pratique des Etats, pourtant importante, qui peut apporter un éclairage
sur l’interprétation faite de l’article 7 et qui, si elle était prise en considération,
conduirait à tirer une conclusion opposée.
79. En dernière analyse, la présente affaire ne se prêtait pas, selon moi, à
ce que la Cour fournisse une interprétation définitive de l’article 7. Elle a été
introduite par voie de demande reconventionnelle, et non en tant que
demande principale, par un Etat qui avait lui‑même tracé des lignes de base
droites qui ne semblent pas différentes de celles qu’il conteste. Elle soulevait
des questions sur la manière d’apprécier la pertinence de l’échelle sur les
cartes utilisées pour représenter les lignes de base. Des contestations du statut
de formations présentées comme des îles et de la légitimité d’y placer des
points de base y étaient en jeu. Or, les Parties n’ont pas demandé à la Cour
de désigner un expert technique capable de donner sur tel ou tel aspect de
leurs écritures et plaidoiries des orientations qui lui auraient permis de tirer
des conclusions définitives concernant certaines de ces questions.
80. Il n’est pas douteux que le droit relatif aux lignes de base droites doit
être précisé, et peut‑être la Cour sera-t-elle un jour saisie d’une affaire appropriée
dans laquelle elle pourra examiner pleinement la question, après avoir
entendu un exposé complet de tous les points par les parties et en bénéficiant
d’un appui technique. Malheureusement, il ne s’agit pas de la présente affaire.
Je crains donc que l’approche suivie en l’espèce par la Cour n’accroisse
encore l’incertitude dans ce domaine, plutôt que d’apporter des éclaircissements,
et ne laisse les Etats dans un doute considérable quant à la manière
d’évaluer si leurs lignes de base droites satisfont aux exigences de l’article 7.
(Signé) Donald M. McRae.
37 Voir International Law Association, « Baselines under the International Law of the
Sea : Final Report », ILA Reports of Conferences, vol. 78 (2018), p. 127, par. 27 : « Il n’est
peut-être pas tout à fait surprenant que le nombre d’Etats à avoir contesté la pratique
étatique pertinente à cet égard [c’est-à-dire en ce qui concerne le tracé de lignes de base
droites] soit très faible par rapport au nombre d’Etats potentiellement intéressés. »
Dissenting opinion of Judge ad hoc McRae