SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE ROBINSON Nature and scope of rights and duties in the exclusive economic zone Exclusive sovereign rights of the coastal State Freedom of navigation. 1. I am in agreement with the Court’s finding that Colombia has breached Nicaragua’s sovereign rights in its exclusive economic zone (hereinafter “EEZ”). In this opinion I make some observations on the Court’s treatment of a coastal State’s sovereign rights in its EEZ. I treat Articles 56, 58, 61, 62, 69, 70 and 73 as reflecting customary international law. 2. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereinafter “UNCLOS” or “the Convention” or “the Montego Bay Convention”) makes two novel and monumental contributions to the law of the sea in its adoption of the concepts of an exclusive economic zone and the common heritage of mankind. This case concerns the nature and scope of the rights and obligations of States in the EEZ under customary law. 3. The EEZ was a revolutionary concept that had received such widespread acceptance by States that in 1985, three years after the adoption of the Montego Bay Convention, the Court in Libya/Malta determined that it had achieved the status of a rule of customary international law1. In a real sense the EEZ was the central pillar in the architecture of the Montego Bay Convention. 4. During the UNCLOS negotiations, a principal issue was whether the EEZ was a zone of the high seas or a zone of national jurisdiction. The Montego Bay Convention does not answer this question directly. It provides a set of interlocking rights and duties to govern the relationship between the coastal State and other States in relation to the EEZ. 5. Article 56 (2) of the Convention provides that the coastal State must exercise its sovereign rights and perform its duties in the EEZ “hav[ing] due regard to the rights and duties of other States”. However, Article 58 (3) of the Convention also provides that “[i]n exercising their rights and performing their duties under this Convention in the [EEZ], States shall have due regard to the rights and duties of the coastal State”. By these provisions, the Montego Bay Convention attempts to strike a balance between the rights and duties of the coastal State in the EEZ and the rights especially freedom of navigation and overflight and duties of other States in that zone. The many cases that have been decided in relation to the EEZ have not succeeded in unravelling the mysteries of the phrase “due regard”. An important issue is whether the “due regard” provision gives rise to procedural or substantive obligations. The balance between the coastal States’ rights, jurisdiction and duties in the EEZ on the one hand and the rights and duties of other States in that zone on the other is indeed a very delicate one. 6. The EEZ is a zone sui generis and its special character is described in Article 55 of the Convention, which provides that it is 1 Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 33, para. 34. - 2 - “an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, subject to the specific legal régime established in this Part, under which the rights and jurisdiction of the coastal State and the rights and freedoms of other States are governed by the relevant provisions of this Convention”. 7. Some commentators2 maintain that Article 56 is a “relevant provision” within the meaning of Article 58 (1) of the Convention, which provides that “in the [EEZ], all States, whether coastal or landlocked, enjoy, subject to the relevant provisions of this Convention, the freedoms referred to in article 87 of navigation and overflight”. If this interpretation is correct, the freedom of navigation of other States in the EEZ would be enjoyed, subject to the coastal State’s sovereign rights in its EEZ to explore, exploit, conserve and manage its living and non-living resources; in effect, the freedoms enjoyed by other States in the EEZ would be subordinated to the coastal State’s sovereign rights in that zone. It was never the intention in the negotiations of the Convention to address the relationship between the sovereign rights of the coastal State in its EEZ and the rights and duties of other States in that zone in anything as stark and categorical as a “subject to” formulation. This relationship is more subtly addressed in the due regard obligations in Articles 56 (2) and 58 (3). 8. Case law does not appear to support the conclusion that Article 56 is a relevant provision within the meaning of Article 58 (1) of the Montego Bay Convention. In its Judgment in M/V Virginia G, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (hereinafter “ITLOS”) had to consider Panama’s submission that bunkering fell “within the category of freedom of navigation and other internationally lawful uses of the sea related to that freedom in terms of Article 58 (1)”3. The Tribunal held that Article 58 “is to be read together with article 56”. It rejected Panama’s argument, holding that, in exercise of its sovereign rights to conserve and manage the living resources in its EEZ, the coastal State was entitled under Article 56 (1) to adopt measures to control bunkering of fishing vessels in that zone. The Tribunal arrived at this decision without making any mention of Article 56 as a relevant provision for the purposes of Article 58 (1). It is reasonable to conclude that the Tribunal arrived at its decision by applying the general rule of interpretation set out in Article 31 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (hereinafter the “VCLT”). By this process, the Tribunal decided that the nature of the sovereign rights enjoyed by coastal States in their EEZs was such that the coastal State was entitled to adopt measures in respect of bunkering of fishing vessels in their EEZs. If the enjoyment of freedom of navigation in the EEZ of a coastal State is subject to the sovereign rights of the coastal State in that zone, a dispute concerning the two sets of rights would always be resolved in favour of the coastal State’s sovereign rights, because those rights would always prevail over freedom of navigation. It is not merely, as one commentator maintains, that the “subject to” formulation creates “a rebuttable presumption in favour of the coastal State in the event of a conflict” between the two sets of rights4; rather, it is that that formulation subordinates the enjoyment of freedom of navigation to the sovereign rights of the coastal State by making the enjoyment of that freedom wholly dependent on the coastal State’s sovereign rights. A rebuttable presumption might have been created if the phrase used in Article 58 (1) was “taking into account” instead of “subject to”. In the present case, in which the two sets of rights are pitted against each 2 Nordquist, S. Nandan, S. Rosenne (eds.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982: A Commentary, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers (2002), p. 564-565, which states that the rights in Article 58 (1) “are the same as those incorporated in Article 87, provided they are compatible with the other provisions of the Convention. The difference is that these freedoms are subject to measures relating to the sovereign rights of the coastal State in the zone, and they are not subject to such measures or those rights beyond the zone”; see also Alexander Proelss (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary, Oxford, Hart Publishing 2017, p. 449, citing Yoshifumi Tanaka, The International Law of the Sea (2nd ed.), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 2015: p. 135 refers to the “subject to” provision in Article 58 (1) as creating a rebuttable presumption in favour of the coastal State in the event of a conflict between the sovereign rights of the coastal State and the enjoyment by other States of the four high seas freedoms set out in that Article. 3 M/V “Virginia G” (Panama/Guinea-Bissau), Judgment, ITLOS Reports 2014, p. 56, para. 165. 4 See fn. 2 above. - 3 - other, the Court could readily have resolved Nicaragua’s claim that Colombia by its activities breached Nicaragua’s sovereign rights in its EEZ in favour of Nicaragua, on the basis that Colombia’s enjoyment of freedom of navigation is subordinated to Nicaragua’s sovereign rights. But the Court does not take that approach. It finds that freedom of navigation does not permit Colombia to engage in the activities it carried out in Nicaragua’s EEZ. In answering Nicaragua’s claim, the Court makes no mention of Article 56 as a relevant provision for the purposes of Article 58 (1). Moreover, the question whether, in exercising its rights and performing its duties, Colombia has had due regard to the rights and duties of Nicaragua does not arise, if Colombia’s freedom of navigation is subject to Nicaragua’s sovereign rights. If the right of freedom of navigation enjoyed by other States in a coastal State’s EEZ is subject to the sovereign rights of the coastal State in that zone, the Convention would provide a definitive answer to the question whether the zone is a zone of the high seas or a zone of national jurisdiction. The Convention never provided this answer in a clear and unambiguous way. The murky relationship between the two sets of rights is addressed by the equally murky due-regard obligations in Articles 56 (2) and 58 (3). An example of a “relevant provision” for the purpose of Article 58 (1) is Article 33 relating to the contiguous zone. Since the contiguous zone is part of the EEZ, the passage of ships of third States through the contiguous zone that is part of the EEZ would be subject to the sovereign rights of the coastal State, including its enforcement powers. On the other hand, it would upset the balance that the Convention seeks to establish between the sovereign rights of the coastal State in its EEZ and the freedoms enjoyed by other States in that zone, if those freedoms were enjoyed, subject to the coastal State’s sovereign rights. 9. Nicaragua’s claim is that Colombia, by the activities that it carried out in Nicaragua’s EEZ, breached Nicaragua’s sovereign rights under Article 56 (1) (a) to explore, exploit, conserve and manage the living and non-living resources in its EEZ. In general, Colombia answers this claim by contending that its activities were carried out in exercise of its freedom of navigation and overflight and other lawful uses of the sea under Article 58 (1) of UNCLOS. The Court found that “freedoms of navigation and overflight enjoyed by other States in the exclusive economic zone of the coastal State, as reflected in Article 58 of UNCLOS, do not include rights relating to the exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of the natural resources of the maritime zone, nor do they give other States jurisdiction to enforce conservation measures in the exclusive economic zone of the coastal State. Such rights and jurisdiction are specifically reserved for the coastal State under customary international law, as reflected in Articles 56 and 73 of UNCLOS.” (Judgment, paragraph 94.) This conclusion would be more persuasive were it based on an analysis of the nature and scope of the two sets of rights. The right to freedom of navigation under Article 58 (1) does not exist in isolation or in the abstract; the right is to freedom of navigation in the EEZ, and there is a necessary and inevitable interaction between the two sets of rights. This explains why the analysis would be strengthened by an examination of the nature and scope of the two sets of rights; for example, the analysis might show that the sovereign rights of the coastal State, despite being sovereign, are so qualified as to allow for the types of activities carried out by Colombia. On the contrary, however, it is argued in this opinion that an analysis of the sovereign rights of the coastal State in its EEZ shows that those rights are exclusive to the coastal State in the sense that they may not be exercised by any other State without the consent of the coastal State. 10. In my view, the issues raised by Nicaragua’s claims and Colombia’s response call for an examination of the rights, duties and jurisdiction of the coastal State in its EEZ, as well as the nature of the rights and freedoms of other States in the zone. - 4 - THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE FREEDOM OF NAVIGATION 11. Freedom of navigation can be traced to the right of unimpeded navigation on the high seas that was trumpeted by Hugo Grotius in his famous treatise Mare Liberium (1609)5. In the Montego Bay Convention, it is treated substantively in two provisions. Article 87 (1) provides that “[t]he high seas are open to all States, whether coastal or landlocked. Freedom of the high seas is exercised under the conditions laid down by this Convention and by other rules of international law”. The Article then lists six freedoms, the first three of which are freedom of navigation, freedom of overflight, and freedom to lay submarine cables. Article 58 (1) provides that, in the EEZ, “all States, whether coastal or landlocked, enjoy, subject to the relevant provisions of this Convention, the freedoms referred to in article 87 of navigation and overflight and of the laying of submarine cables and pipelines, and other internationally lawful uses of the sea related to these freedoms, such as those associated with the operation of ships, aircraft and submarine cables and pipelines, and compatible with the other provisions of this Convention”. As a result of the formulation of Article 58 (1), the freedom of fishing, reflected in Article 87 (1) (e), is not among the high seas freedoms enjoyed by a third State in the EEZ of a coastal State. 12. The phrase “freedom of navigation” must be interpreted in accordance with the customary rules of interpretation. The ordinary meaning of the term “navigation” is to be ascertained in the context in which it is used in Articles 58 and 87 of the Montego Bay Convention, and in light of the Convention’s object and purpose. Dictionaries give several meanings of the word “navigation”. In the context in which the term is used in these Articles, the most instructive meanings are the “passage of ships” (Oxford English Dictionary) and the “movement of ships” (Collins Dictionary). In the context, therefore, of Part V of the Convention, and in light of the object and purpose of the Convention, freedom of navigation is the freedom enjoyed by a third State of the passage or movement of its ships in the EEZ of a coastal State, without any entitlement on the part of the coastal State to restrict that passage or movement in any way, unless there is carried out on the ship an activity that interferes with the enjoyment by the coastal State of its sovereign rights. 13. The essence of freedom of navigation is unimpeded passage or movement of a ship. However, the freedom of navigation in the EEZ under Article 58 (1) is obviously more limited than freedom of navigation on the high seas under Article 87. This is so because the freedom is being exercised in the EEZ of a coastal State and, naturally, the sovereign rights of the coastal State to explore, exploit, conserve and manage its living and non-living resources will impact on a third State’s freedom of navigation in the zone. If there is carried out, on a ship passing or moving through the EEZ of a coastal State, any activity that interferes with the sovereign rights of the coastal State and which, therefore, is not directly related to that passage or movement, that ship is not exercising freedom of navigation under Article 58, and it would have violated the sovereign rights of the coastal State. The Virginia Commentary observes that many coastal States take the position that military activities are not protected within the EEZ and that the coastal State may oppose such exercises by foreign ships on the basis that they may affect the living resources or the marine environment or the safety of navigation6. The activities carried out by Colombian naval vessels of harassing Nicaraguan fishermen and stopping Nicaraguan fishing vessels or other Nicaraguan-licensed vessels in order to apply what Colombia considers to be proper conservation methods, do not fall within the scope of 5 Hugo Grotius, The Free Sea (1609), Liberty Fund. 6 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary 1982, Article 87, 2013, pp. 81 and 564-565, paras. 58.10 (c) and 87.9 (c). - 5 - the freedom of navigation under Article 58 and would constitute a breach of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve and manage its natural resources, including fishing. 14. There is evidence that on an occasion when Colombian military vessels carried out patrols in Nicaragua’s EEZ, the Colombian President asserted, “[w]e find ourselves patrolling and exercising sovereignty over Colombian waters” (my emphasis); there is also evidence that at that time the Colombians were in fact in Nicaragua’s EEZ. In such a situation, the activity of patrolling has no direct relationship with the passage or movement of the Colombian ship, and Colombia is not exercising freedom of navigation; rather, it is engaging in intimidating conduct that flagrantly interferes with Nicaragua’s exclusive sovereign rights in its EEZ for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing the living and non-living resources of the zone. 15. In any event, even if the activities carried out by Colombia in Nicaragua’s EEZ could be said to be an exercise of the freedoms of navigation or overflight, Article 58 (3) of the Montego Bay Convention obliges Colombia, in carrying out such activities, to have due regard to the rights and duties of Nicaragua as the coastal State. This is a substantive obligation which requires all States, in exercising their high seas freedoms, to consider the sovereign rights of the coastal State in the EEZ and to refrain from activities that interfere with the exercise by the coastal State of its sovereign rights in its EEZ. In carrying out these activities, Colombia did not exhibit the consideration for Nicaragua’s exclusive sovereign rights required by the due regard obligation, and therefore breached those rights. The exclusivity of these rights is addressed next. THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF NICARAGUA’S SOVEREIGN RIGHTS IN ITS EEZ 16. It is also necessary to consider whether the nature and scope of the sovereign rights of a coastal State in its EEZ are such as to preclude Colombia from engaging in the activities that it carried out in Nicaragua’s EEZ. In that regard, it should be determined whether the sovereign rights of Nicaragua in its EEZ are exclusive in the sense that they may not be exercised by any other State without the consent of Nicaragua as the coastal State. If Nicaragua as the coastal State has exclusive sovereign rights for the purpose of the exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of the living and non-living resources of the EEZ, this would be a cogent basis for finding that Colombia’s interventionist activities in Nicaragua’s EEZ breached Nicaragua’s sovereign rights in that zone. 17. It is not merely, as the Court holds, that rights relating to the exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of the natural resources of the EEZ, as well as the power to design conservation policies for the zone, are “specifically reserved for the coastal State”; rather, it is that they are exclusively reserved for the coastal State. The history of the development of the concept of an EEZ, the negotiations preceding the adoption of the Montego Bay Convention and the text of the Convention itself indicate that the sovereign rights enjoyed by a coastal State in its EEZ are exclusive to that State. 18. Undeniably, it was a developmental consideration that prompted developing countries in the last part of the twentieth century to insist on a zone of what was then the high seas as an area in which they would be entitled to explore and exploit the living and non-living resources. Thus, in explaining the rationale behind the concept of the EEZ to the Asia-Africa Legal Consultative Group in 1971, Kenya pointed out that the régime of the high seas benefited developed countries which, unlike developing countries, had ships that could carry out distant water fishing off the coasts of developing countries in maritime areas that were then part of the high seas. In the interest of their growth and development, those developing States sought exclusive, not shared, sovereign rights in - 6 - relation to fisheries. Indeed, from as far back as 1952, Chile, Ecuador and Peru declared that they possessed “exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction over the sea along the coasts of their respective countries to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles from their coasts” 7. Kenya’s proposal in 1974 to the first session of the Conference was that “in the EEZ a coastal State shall have sovereignty over the living and non-living resources. It shall have sovereign rights for the purpose of regulation, control, exploration, protection and preservation of all living and non-living resources therein”8. The element of exclusivity was emphasized in the provision in Kenya’s proposal that, “subject to Article 6” — relating to the rights of landlocked and geographically disadvantaged States — “no other State has the right to explore and exploit the resources therein without the consent or agreement of the coastal States”9. In fact, the near unanimity on the concept of an EEZ establishing exclusive sovereign rights of the coastal State is highlighted by the proposal made by the United States at the first session of the UNCLOS Conference for an economic zone in which the coastal State exercised “the jurisdiction and the sovereign and exclusive rights set forth in this chapter for the purpose of exploring and exploiting the natural resources, whether renewable or non-renewable, of the seabed and subsoil of the superjacent waters”10. 19. Thus, Nicaragua is correct in its submission that “exclusive control of offshore fishing was the very raison d’être of the EEZ”. Consistent with that outlook, what Kenya and other developing countries sought and received from the Montego Bay Convention was exclusivity in this new zone in the enjoyment of sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing the living and non-living resources. Of course, developed countries also benefited from the concept of an EEZ. 20. The Chamber of the Court acknowledged this element of exclusivity in the Gulf of Maine case. The Chamber spoke plainly when it held: “But after the coastal States had set up exclusive 200-mile fishery zones, the situation radically altered. Third States and their nationals found themselves deprived of any right of access to the sea areas within those zones and of any position of advantage they might have been able to achieve within them. As for the United States, any mere factual predominance which it had been able to secure in the area was transformed into a situation of legal monopoly to the extent that the localities in question became legally part of its own exclusive fishery zone.”11 21. Colombia argues that Nicaragua’s reliance on this case is misplaced because, in its view, it merely stands for the proposition that private practice has no impact on maritime delimitation and does not address the impact of maritime delimitation on vested rights. However, a careful reading of the Judgment shows that the Chamber did not accept the argument for historic rights. The Chamber held that it would not “ascribe any decisive weight, for the purposes of the delimitation it is charged to carry out, to the antiquity or continuity of fishing activities carried on in the past within that part 7 Alexander Proelss (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary, Hart Publishing 2017, p. 439, citing Declaration on the Maritime Zone of 18 August 1952, para. II, UNTS, Vol. 1006, p. 325 et seq. 8 Alexander Proelss (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary, Hart Publishing 2017, p. 421, para. 4. 9 Satya N. Nandan and Shabtai Rosenne, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982: A Commentary, Vol. II, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2003, pp. 529-531. 10 Ibid., pp. 529-530. 11 Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 341, para. 235. - 7 - of the delimitation area” 12. In its delimitation of the exclusive fisheries zones the Chamber found such historic rights — otherwise characterized as the factual predominance in the area by United States fishermen — to be irrelevant. Ultimately, the Chamber did not enquire whether the rights were vested, since it found such rights to be not relevant. 22. Subject to the exception set out in this paragraph, the design of the Montego Bay Convention does not admit of States other than the coastal State exercising any of the sovereign rights attributed to that State in its EEZ for the purpose of conserving and managing the fisheries resources; nor does it admit of States other than the coastal State performing any of the obligations imposed on the coastal State in its EEZ for the purpose of conserving and managing the fisheries resources. In this respect, the Montego Bay Convention is comprehensive in its identification of the States that have rights and obligations in respect of living resources of the EEZ. Thus, coastal States have not only sovereign rights to explore and exploit the living resources, but also an obligation under Article 61 to determine the allowable catch and to ensure through proper conservation and management measures that the maintenance of the living resources in the EEZ is not endangered by overexploitation. Article 62 also imposes on coastal States the duty to promote the objective of optimum utilization of the living resources in the EEZ, and to determine its capacity to harvest the living resources; where it does not have the capacity to harvest the entire allowable catch, Article 62 obliges the coastal State to give other States access to the surplus of the allowable catch through agreements or other arrangements and, in doing so, to have particular regard to the provisions of Articles 69 and 70. These latter provisions give landlocked and geographically disadvantaged States a right to participate on an equitable basis in the exploitation of an appropriate part of the surplus of the living resources of the EEZ of coastal States. These agreements are the only exception to the exclusivity of a coastal State’s sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing its living resources in its EEZ. Landlocked and geographically disadvantaged States have, by way of an agreement with the coastal State, a right to participate on an equitable basis in the exploitation of an appropriate part of the surplus of the allowable catch. There is no agreement or arrangement between Colombia and Nicaragua for Colombia to have access to any surplus of the allowable catch in Nicaragua’s EEZ. 23. The obligations of the coastal State are as exclusive to that State as are its sovereign rights to exploit, explore, conserve and manage those resources; in particular, the obligation to conserve and manage the living resources in a specific way is as exclusive to the coastal State as are its sovereign rights to exploit and explore those resources. If a coastal State, such as Nicaragua, does not conserve and manage its living resources so that it is in a position to determine the allowable catch, as well as its capacity to harvest its living resources and whether there is a surplus of the allowable catch, its international responsibility may be engaged for that failure. A landlocked or geographically disadvantaged State that is unable “to participate” in “an appropriate part of the surplus”, because there is no surplus on account of the coastal State’s mismanagement, would be entitled to claim reparations for the coastal State’s breach. Interference by another State, such as Colombia, in the conservation and management of the living resources may impact adversely on the capacity of the coastal State to discharge this obligation. Such interference engages the international responsibility of that State as a breach of the Montego Bay Convention. This is all the more reason why the Convention gives a coastal State, such as Nicaragua, exclusive sovereign rights over the conservation and management of its living resources. A State’s perception that a coastal State is not discharging its obligation to conserve and manage its living resources, even if it is well founded, does not give it the right to assume the responsibility of discharging those obligations. Such a far-reaching power would have had to be expressly provided for in the Convention. No State may, consistently with the Convention, arrogate to itself the responsibility of conserving and managing the living resources in the EEZ of a coastal State on the basis of its view that the coastal State is not discharging 12 Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 341, para. 235. - 8 - its customary and conventional obligations in that regard. There is no warrant for interpreting the Montego Bay Convention as giving such a State that power. That would be a certain basis for confusion and, worse yet, conflict. 24. An important indicator of the exclusivity of the coastal State’s sovereign right to conserve and manage the living resources of its EEZ is provided in Article 73 (1), which reads as follows: “The coastal State may, in the exercise of its sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve and manage the living resources in the exclusive economic zone, take such measures, including boarding, inspection, arrest and judicial proceedings, as may be necessary to ensure compliance with the laws and regulations adopted by it in conformity with this Convention.” 25. This is an extensive and far-reaching power that has been given to the coastal State in its EEZ. In setting out this power Article 73 of the Montego Bay Convention is merely interpreting Article 56 (1), which attributes to the coastal State exclusive sovereign rights in its EEZ. Article 73 of the Convention allows the coastal State to adopt any measure in its EEZ to ensure compliance with its laws, so long as that measure is in conformity with the provisions of the Convention. Importantly, the Article sees the adoption of such measures as derived from the sovereign rights of the coastal State; that is the significance of the phrase “in the exercise of its sovereign rights”. It is by virtue of these sovereign rights that the coastal State is given these broad and pervasive enforcement powers in the conservation and management of its fisheries. The intention of the drafters is to ensure that the coastal State is able to respond to the conduct of any State that would adversely affect the enjoyment of its sovereign rights and the performance of its duties to conserve and manage its fisheries. If the coastal State has exclusive sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing its living and non-living resources, it is to be expected that it would also have the power to adopt measures within the zone that would enable it to enjoy those rights. The decision of ITLOS in M/V Virginia G illustrates very well not only the extent of the coastal State’s sovereign rights in its EEZ, but also the exclusivity of those rights. In M/V Virginia G, the Tribunal found that the sovereign rights of a coastal State under Article 56 (1) (a) “encompas[s] all rights necessary for and connected with the exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of the natural resources, including the right to take the necessary enforcement measures”13. Such enforcement rights would not have been given to the coastal State in its EEZ if other States were also entitled to the same rights in the coastal State’s EEZ. Therefore, the coastal State’s sovereign rights in its EEZ are properly interpreted as exclusive to the coastal State in the sense that no other State may exercise them without its consent. 26. It remains now to consider whether the jurisdiction of States over vessels flying their flag is an exception to the exclusive sovereign rights of the coastal State in its EEZ. 27. The Judgment refers to the ITLOS Tribunal’s finding in Request for Advisory Opinion submitted by Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission that the flag State has “an obligation to ensure compliance by vessels flying its flag with the relevant conservation measures concerning the living resources enacted by the coastal State for its exclusive economic zone”14. 13 M/V “Virginia G” (Panama/Guinea-Bissau), Judgment, ITLOS Reports 2014, p. 67, para. 211. 14 Request for Advisory Opinion submitted by the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission, Advisory Opinion, 2 April 2015, ITLOS Reports 2015, p. 37, para. 120. - 9 - 28. However, there is an important distinction between the rights and duties of a flag State in the EEZ of a coastal State and the exclusive sovereign rights of a coastal State in that zone. It is only the coastal State that has the right and duty to devise and initiate conservation measures for the protection and preservation of the marine environment in its EEZ, including such measures concerning its living resources. This is clear from a reading of Articles 56 (1) (a), 61, 62 and 73. Indeed, the coastal State’s exclusive obligation to adopt such measures may be seen as a corollary of its exclusive right to explore, exploit, conserve and manage the living resources in its EEZ. 29. Under Article 92 of the Montego Bay Convention, ships are subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the flag State on the high seas. Under Article 94, every State must effectively exercise its jurisdiction and control in administrative, technical and social matters over ships flying its flag. While the power of the flag State over its vessels under these provisions is exclusive, the exercise of that power within the EEZ of a coastal State is governed by Article 58 (2) of the Convention, which provides that “Articles 88 to 115 and other pertinent rules of international law apply to the exclusive economic zone in so far as they are not incompatible with this Part”. Thus, while a flag State has exclusive jurisdiction over its ships on the high seas, and may therefore set conservation standards for those ships while they are on the high seas, in the EEZ it is the coastal State that has the exclusive right and duty to set the applicable conservation standards for the zone. (Signed) Patrick L. ROBINSON. ___________
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149
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE ROBINSON
Nature and scope of rights and duties in the exclusive economic zone —
Exclusive sovereign rights of the coastal State — Freedom of navigation.
1. I am in agreement with the Court’s finding that Colombia has
breached Nicaragua’s sovereign rights in its exclusive economic zone
(hereinafter “EEZ”). In this opinion I make some observations on the
Court’s treatment of a coastal State’s sovereign rights in its EEZ. I treat
Articles 56, 58, 61, 62, 69, 70 and 73 as reflecting customary international
law.
2. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereinafter
“UNCLOS” or “the Convention” or “the Montego Bay Convention”)
makes two novel and monumental contributions to the law of the sea in
its adoption of the concepts of an exclusive economic zone and the
common
heritage of mankind. This case concerns the nature and scope of
the rights and obligations of States in the EEZ under customary law.
3. The EEZ was a revolutionary concept that had received such widespread
acceptance by States that in 1985, three years after the adoption of
the Montego Bay Convention, the Court in Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/
Malta determined that it had achieved the status of a rule of customary
international law 1. In a real sense the EEZ was the central pillar in the
architecture of the Montego Bay Convention.
4. During the UNCLOS negotiations, a principal issue was whether
the EEZ was a zone of the high seas or a zone of national jurisdiction.
The Montego Bay Convention does not answer this question directly. It
provides a set of interlocking rights and duties to govern the relationship
between the coastal State and other States in relation to the EEZ.
5. Article 56 (2) of the Convention provides that the coastal State must
exercise its sovereign rights and perform its duties in the EEZ “hav[ing]
due regard to the rights and duties of other States”. However, Article
58 (3) of the Convention also provides that “[i]n exercising their rights
and performing their duties under this Convention in the exclusive economic
zone, States shall have due regard to the rights and duties of the
coastal State”. By these provisions, the Montego Bay Convention
attempts to strike a balance between the rights and duties of the coastal
State in the EEZ and the rights — especially freedom of navigation and
1 Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985,
p. 33, para. 34.
411
149
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE ROBINSON
[Traduction]
Nature et portée des droits et obligations dans la zone économique exclusive —
Droits souverains exclusifs de l’Etat côtier — Liberté de navigation.
1. Je suis en accord avec la conclusion de la Cour, selon laquelle la
Colombie a violé les droits souverains que le Nicaragua possède dans sa
zone économique exclusive (ci-
après la « ZEE »). Dans la présente opinion,
je souhaite formuler quelques observations sur la façon dont la
Cour considère les droits souverains que l’Etat côtier a dans sa ZEE. Je
tiens les articles 56, 58, 61, 62, 69, 70 et 73 pour le reflet du droit international
coutumier.
2. La convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer (ci-
après la
« CNUDM », « la convention » ou « la convention de Montego Bay ») a
enrichi le droit de la mer de deux apports innovants et d’une très grande
importance, en consacrant dans son texte les notions de zone économique
exclusive et de patrimoine commun de l’humanité. La présente affaire a
trait à la nature et à la portée des droits et obligations des Etats dans la
ZEE en vertu du droit coutumier.
3. La ZEE était une notion révolutionnaire, qui fut si largement acceptée
par les Etats qu’en 1985, trois ans après l’adoption de la convention
de Montego Bay, la Cour estimait en l’affaire Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/
Malte qu’elle avait le statut de règle de droit international coutumier 1. A
dire vrai, la ZEE constituait la clef de voûte de l’architecture de la convention
de Montego Bay.
4. Au cours des négociations de la CNUDM s’est posée la question
essentielle de savoir si la ZEE était une zone de haute mer ou une zone de
juridiction nationale. A cette question, la convention de Montego Bay
n’apporte pas de réponse directe. Elle énonce une série de droits et d’obligations
étroitement liés visant à régir la relation entre l’Etat côtier et les
autres Etats s’agissant de la ZEE.
5. Le paragraphe 2 de l’article 56 de la convention dispose que l’Etat
côtier, lorsqu’il exerce ses droits souverains et s’acquitte de ses obligations
dans la ZEE, doit « t[enir] dûment compte des droits et des obligations des
autres Etats ». Toutefois, au paragraphe 3 de l’article 58, la convention
dispose également que, « [l]orsque, dans la zone économique exclusive, ils
exercent leurs droits et s’acquittent de leurs obligations en vertu de la
Convention, les Etats tiennent dûment compte des droits et des obligations
de l’Etat côtier ». Par ces dispositions, la convention de Montego Bay
cherche à établir un équilibre entre, d’une part, les droits et les obligations
1 Plateau continental (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1985,
p. 33, par. 34.
412 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
150
overflight — and duties of other States in that zone. The many cases
that have been decided in relation to the EEZ have not succeeded
in unravelling the mysteries of the phrase “due regard”. An important
issue is whether the “due regard” provision gives rise to procedural or
substantive obligations. The balance between the coastal States’ rights,
jurisdiction and duties in the EEZ on the one hand and the rights and
duties of other States in that zone on the other is indeed a very delicate
one.
6. The EEZ is a zone sui generis and its special character is described
in Article 55 of the Convention, which provides that it is
“an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, subject to the
specific legal régime established in this Part, under which the rights
and jurisdiction of the coastal State and the rights and freedoms of
other States are governed by the relevant provisions of this Convention”.
7. Some commentators 2 maintain that Article 56 is a “relevant provision”
within the meaning of Article 58 (1) of the Convention, which provides
that “in the exclusive economic zone, all States, whether coastal or
landlocked, enjoy, subject to the relevant provisions of this Convention,
the freedoms referred to in article 87 of navigation and overflight”. If this
interpretation is correct, the freedom of navigation of other States in the
EEZ would be enjoyed, subject to the coastal State’s sovereign rights in
its EEZ to explore, exploit, conserve and manage its living and non-living
resources; in effect, the freedoms enjoyed by other States in the EEZ
would be subordinated to the coastal State’s sovereign rights in that zone.
It was never the intention in the negotiations of the Convention to address
the relationship between the sovereign rights of the coastal State in
its EEZ and the rights and duties of other States in that zone in anything
as stark and categorical as a “subject to” formulation. This rela-
2 M. H. Nordquist, S. N. Nandan and S. Rosenne (eds.), United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea 1982: A Commentary, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2002,
pp. 564‑565, which states that the rights in Article 58 (1)
“are the same as those incorporated in Article 87, provided they are compatible with
the other provisions of the Convention. The difference is that these freedoms are
subject to measures relating to the sovereign rights of the coastal State in the zone,
and they are not subject to such measures or those rights beyond the zone”;
see also A. Proelss (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary,
Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2017, p. 449, citing Y. Tanaka, The International Law of the
Sea (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, 2015: page 135 refers to the “subject to” provision
in Article 58 (1) as creating a rebuttable presumption in favour of the coastal State in
the event of a conflict between the sovereign rights of the coastal State and the enjoyment
by other States of the four high seas freedoms set out in that Article.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 412
150
de l’Etat côtier dans la ZEE et, d’autre part, les droits — en particulier les
libertés de navigation et de survol — et les obligations des autres Etats
dans la zone. Les nombreuses affaires qui ont été jugées et qui avaient trait
à la ZEE n’ont pas suffi à lever les voiles du mystère de l’expression « tenir
dûment compte ». La question de savoir si la disposition en cause fait ou
non naître des obligations procédurales ou matérielles est importante.
L’équilibre entre les droits, la juridiction et les obligations des Etats côtiers
dans la ZEE, d’une part, et les droits et les obligations des autres Etats
dans cette même zone, d’autre part, est en effet très délicat.
6. La ZEE est une zone sui generis, dont le caractère particulier est
décrit à l’article 55 de la convention, qui la définit comme
« une zone située au-
delà de la mer territoriale et adjacente à celle-
ci,
soumise au régime juridique particulier établi par la présente partie,
en vertu duquel les droits et la juridiction de l’Etat côtier et les droits
et libertés des autres Etats sont gouvernés par les dispositions pertinentes
de la Convention ».
7. Pour certains commentateurs 2, l’article 56 est une « disposition pertinente
» au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article 58 de la convention, qui dispose
que, « [d]ans la zone économique exclusive, tous les Etats, qu’ils
soient côtiers ou sans littoral, jouissent, dans les conditions prévues par les
dispositions pertinentes de la Convention, des libertés de navigation et de
survol … visées à l’article 87 ». Si cette interprétation est correcte, les autres
Etats jouiraient de la liberté de navigation dans la ZEE, sous réserve du
respect des droits souverains d’exploration, d’exploitation, de conservation
et de gestion des ressources biologiques et non biologiques de l’Etat
côtier dans sa ZEE ; en effet, les libertés exercées par les autres Etats dans
la ZEE seraient subordonnées aux droits souverains de l’Etat côtier dans
la zone. Rien n’indique que, au cours des négociations de la convention,
ses rédacteurs aient eu l’intention de traiter de la relation entre les droits
souverains de l’Etat côtier dans sa ZEE et les droits et obligations des
2 M. H. Nordquist, S. N. Nandan et S. Rosenne (dir. publ.), United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea 1982 : A Commentary, La Haye, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2002,
p. 564‑565, qui affirme que les droits visés au paragraphe 1 de l’article 58
« sont identiques à ceux énoncés à l’article 87, dans la mesure où ils sont compatibles
avec les autres dispositions de la convention. La différence est que ces libertés
s’exercent sous réserve de certaines mesures portant sur les droits souverains de l’Etat
côtier dans la zone, alors qu’elles ne sont pas soumises à ces mêmes mesures ou droits
au-
delà de la zone » ;
voir aussi A. Proelss (dir. publ.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea : A
Commentary, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2017, p. 449, citant Y. Tanaka, The International
Law of the Sea (2e éd.), Cambridge University Press, 2015 : à la page 135, il est fait référence
aux termes « dans les conditions prévues par » figurant au paragraphe 1 de l’article 58,
l’auteur estimant que cette disposition crée une présomption réfragable en faveur de l’Etat
côtier dans l’éventualité d’un conflit entre les droits souverains de l’Etat côtier et la jouissance
par les autres Etats des quatre libertés de la haute mer énoncées dans cet article.
413 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
151
tionship is more subtly addressed in the due regard obligations in
Articles 56 (2) and 58 (3).
8. Case law does not appear to support the conclusion that Article 56
is a relevant provision within the meaning of Article 58 (1) of the Montego
Bay Convention. In its Judgment in M/V “Virginia G”, the International
Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (hereinafter “ITLOS” or the
“Tribunal”) had to consider Panama’s submission that bunkering fell
“within the category of freedom of navigation and other internationally
lawful uses of the sea related to that freedom in terms of Article 58 (1)” 3.
The Tribunal held that Article 58 “is to be read together with article 56”.
It rejected Panama’s argument, holding that, in exercise of its sovereign
rights to conserve and manage the living resources in its EEZ, the coastal
State was entitled under Article 56 (1) to adopt measures to control bunkering
of fishing vessels in that zone. The Tribunal arrived at this decision
without making any mention of Article 56 as a relevant provision for the
purposes of Article 58 (1). It is reasonable to conclude that the Tribunal
arrived at its decision by applying the general rule of interpretation set
out in Article 31 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (hereinafter
the “VCLT”). By this process, the Tribunal decided that the nature
of the sovereign rights enjoyed by coastal States in their EEZs was such
that the coastal State was entitled to adopt measures in respect of bunkering
of fishing vessels in their EEZs. If the enjoyment of freedom of navigation
in the EEZ of a coastal State is subject to the sovereign rights of
the coastal State in that zone, a dispute concerning the two sets of rights
would always be resolved in favour of the coastal State’s sovereign rights,
because those rights would always prevail over freedom of navigation. It
is not merely, as one commentator maintains, that the “subject to” formulation
creates “a rebuttable presumption in favour of the coastal State
in the event of a conflict” between the two sets of rights 4; rather, it is that
that formulation subordinates the enjoyment of freedom of navigation to
the sovereign rights of the coastal State by making the enjoyment of that
freedom wholly dependent on the coastal State’s sovereign rights. A
rebuttable presumption might have been created if the phrase used in
Article 58 (1) was “taking into account” instead of “subject to”. In the
present case, in which the two sets of rights are pitted against each other,
the Court could readily have resolved Nicaragua’s claim — that Colombia
by its activities breached Nicaragua’s sovereign rights in its EEZ — in
favour of Nicaragua, on the basis that Colombia’s enjoyment of freedom
of navigation is subordinated to Nicaragua’s sovereign rights. But the
Court does not take that approach. It finds that freedom of navigation
does not permit Colombia to engage in the activities it carried out in
3 M/V “Virginia G” (Panama/Guinea-Bissau),
Judgment, ITLOS Reports 2014, p. 56,
para. 165.
4 See note 2 above.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 413
151
autres Etats dans cette même zone en des termes aussi tranchés et catégoriques
que ceux de l’expression « dans les conditions prévues par ». Cette
relation est visée plus subtilement aux paragraphes 2 de l’article 56 et 3 de
l’article 58, qui créent l’obligation de tenir dûment compte.
8. La jurisprudence ne semble pas corroborer la conclusion que l’article
56 est une disposition pertinente au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article
58 de la convention de Montego Bay. Dans l’arrêt qu’il a rendu en
l’affaire du Navire « Virginia G », le Tribunal international du droit de la
mer (ci‑après le « TIDM » ou le « Tribunal ») a été prié d’examiner la
conclusion du Panama, selon qui le soutage relevait « de la liberté de navigation
et de l’utilisation de la mer à d’autres fins internationalement licites
liées à l’exercice de cette liberté, conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article
58 » 3. De l’avis du Tribunal, l’article 58 « d[eva]it être lu conjointement
avec l’article 56 ». Le Tribunal a rejeté l’argument du Panama,
estimant que, dans l’exercice de ses droits souverains de conservation et
de gestion des ressources biologiques de sa ZEE, l’Etat côtier avait le
droit, conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 56, d’adopter des
mesures pour réglementer le soutage des navires étrangers dans cette
zone. Il est parvenu à cette décision sans invoquer l’article 56 en tant que
disposition pertinente au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article 58. On peut
raisonnablement en conclure qu’il a abouti à cette décision en appliquant
la règle générale d’interprétation énoncée à l’article 31 de la convention
de Vienne sur le droit des traités (ci-
après la « convention de Vienne »). Ce
faisant, le Tribunal a jugé que, compte tenu de la nature des droits souverains
dont jouissent les Etats côtiers dans leur ZEE, l’Etat côtier était en
droit d’adopter des mesures relatives au soutage des navires de pêche
dans sa ZEE. Si la liberté de navigation dans la ZEE d’un Etat côtier
s’exerce sous réserve des droits souverains dudit Etat côtier dans la zone,
le règlement de tout différend portant sur les deux ensembles de droits se
fera toujours en faveur des droits souverains de l’Etat côtier, car ceux-
ci
primeront toujours sur la liberté de navigation. Il ne s’agit pas simplement
de dire, comme le soutient un commentateur, que les termes « dans
les conditions prévues par » créent « une présomption réfragable en faveur
de l’Etat côtier dans l’éventualité d’un conflit » entre deux ensembles de
droits 4 ; en réalité, ces termes subordonnent l’exercice de la liberté de
navigation aux droits souverains de l’Etat côtier, en conditionnant totalement
la jouissance de cette liberté au respect des droits souverains de
l’Etat côtier. On aurait pu avoir une présomption réfragable si, au paragraphe
1 de l’article 58, les termes « en tenant dûment compte des » avaient
été employés en lieu et place de « dans les conditions prévues par ». Dans
la présente affaire, où les deux ensembles de droits sont opposés l’un à
l’autre, la Cour aurait pu aisément accueillir la demande du Nicaragua
— selon qui la Colombie a, par ses activités, violé les droits souverains du
3 Navire « Virginia G » (Panama/Guinée-Bissau),
arrêt, TIDM Recueil 2014, p. 56,
par. 165.
4 Voir note de bas de page 2 ci-
dessus.
414 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
152
Nicaragua’s EEZ. In answering Nicaragua’s claim, the Court makes no
mention of Article 56 as a relevant provision for the purposes of Article
58 (1). Moreover, the question whether, in exercising its rights and
performing its duties, Colombia has had due regard to the rights and
duties of Nicaragua does not arise, if Colombia’s freedom of navigation
is subject to Nicaragua’s sovereign rights. If the right of freedom of navigation
enjoyed by other States in a coastal State’s EEZ is subject to the
sovereign rights of the coastal State in that zone, the Convention would
provide a definitive answer to the question whether the zone is a zone of
the high seas or a zone of national jurisdiction. The Convention never
provided this answer in a clear and unambiguous way. The murky relationship
between the two sets of rights is addressed by the equally murky
due-regard
obligations in Articles 56 (2) and 58 (3). An example of a “relevant
provision” for the purpose of Article 58 (1) is Article 33 relating to
the contiguous zone. Since the contiguous zone is part of the EEZ, the
passage of ships of third States through the contiguous zone that is part
of the EEZ would be subject to the sovereign rights of the coastal State,
including its enforcement powers. On the other hand, it would upset the
balance that the Convention seeks to establish between the sovereign
rights of the coastal State in its EEZ and the freedoms enjoyed by other
States in that zone, if those freedoms were enjoyed, subject to the coastal
State’s sovereign rights.
9. Nicaragua’s claim is that Colombia, by the activities that it carried
out in Nicaragua’s EEZ, breached Nicaragua’s sovereign rights under
Article 56 (1) (a) to explore, exploit, conserve and manage the living and
non-living
resources in its EEZ. In general, Colombia answers this claim
by contending that its activities were carried out in exercise of its freedom
of navigation and overflight and other lawful uses of the sea under Article
58 (1) of UNCLOS. The Court found that
“freedoms of navigation and overflight enjoyed by other States in the
exclusive economic zone of the coastal State, as reflected in Article 58
of UNCLOS, do not include rights relating to the exploration,
exploitation, conservation and management of the natural resources
of the maritime zone, nor do they give other States jurisdiction to
enforce conservation measures in the exclusive economic zone of the
coastal State. Such rights and jurisdiction are specifically reserved for
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 414
152
Nicaragua dans sa ZEE —, au motif que l’exercice par la Colombie de sa
liberté de navigation était subordonné au respect des droits souverains du
Nicaragua. Or, la Cour ne suit pas cette approche. Elle dit que la liberté
de navigation n’autorise pas la Colombie à entreprendre les activités
qu’elle a menées dans la ZEE du Nicaragua. Pour se prononcer sur la
demande du Nicaragua, la Cour n’invoque nullement l’article 56 comme
disposition pertinente aux fins du paragraphe 1 de l’article 58. En outre,
la question de savoir si, lorsqu’elle a exercé ses droits et s’est acquittée de
ses obligations, la Colombie a tenu dûment compte des droits et des obligations
du Nicaragua ne se pose pas, si la liberté de navigation de la
première s’exerce sous réserve du respect des droits souverains du second.
Si le droit à la liberté de navigation dont jouissent les autres Etats dans la
ZEE d’un Etat côtier s’exerçait sous réserve du respect des droits souverains
dudit Etat côtier dans la zone, la convention apporterait une réponse
définitive à la question de savoir si cette même zone est une zone de haute
mer ou une zone de juridiction nationale. Or, elle n’a jamais à cet égard
donné de réponse claire et sans équivoque. La relation trouble entre les
deux ensembles de droits est traitée à travers le prisme tout aussi trouble
des obligations de tenir dûment compte prévues aux paragraphes 2 de
l’article 56 et 3 de l’article 58. L’article 33 relatif à la zone contiguë est,
entre autres, une « disposition pertinente » au sens du paragraphe 1 de
l’article 58. Etant donné que la zone contiguë fait partie de la ZEE, le
passage de navires d’Etats tiers dans la zone contiguë incluse dans la ZEE
se ferait sous réserve des droits souverains de l’Etat côtier, y compris pour
ce qui concerne ses pouvoirs de répression. Par ailleurs, cette lecture
bouleverserait
l’équilibre que la convention cherche à établir entre les
droits souverains de l’Etat côtier dans sa ZEE et les libertés dont jouissent
les autres Etats dans cette même zone, dès lors que la jouissance de ces
libertés serait conditionnée au respect des droits souverains de l’Etat
côtier.
9. Le Nicaragua soutient que la Colombie a, par les activités qu’elle a
menées dans la ZEE nicaraguayenne, violé les droits souverains que lui
confère l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 56 en matière d’exploration,
d’exploitation, de conservation et de gestion des ressources biologiques
et non biologiques dans sa ZEE. De façon générale, la Colombie
fait valoir en réponse qu’elle a mené ses activités dans le cadre de l’exercice
de ses libertés de navigation et de survol et d’utilisation de la mer à
d’autres fins licites, conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 58 de
la CNUDM. La Cour a constaté que
« les libertés de navigation et de survol dont jouissent les autres Etats
dans la zone économique exclusive de l’Etat côtier, telles que reflétées
à l’article 58 de la CNUDM, n’incluent pas de droits relatifs à l’exploration,
à l’exploitation, à la conservation et à la gestion des ressources
naturelles de la zone maritime, ni ne confèrent aux autres
Etats la compétence nécessaire pour appliquer des mesures de conservation
dans la zone économique exclusive de l’Etat côtier. De tels
415 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
153
the coastal State under customary international law, as reflected in
Articles 56 and 73 of UNCLOS.” (Judgment, para. 94.)
This conclusion would be more persuasive were it based on an analysis of
the nature and scope of the two sets of rights. The right to freedom of
navigation under Article 58 (1) does not exist in isolation or in the
abstract; the right is to freedom of navigation in the EEZ, and there is a
necessary and inevitable interaction between the two sets of rights. This
explains why the analysis would be strengthened by an examination of
the nature and scope of the two sets of rights; for example, the analysis
might show that the sovereign rights of the coastal State, despite being
sovereign, are so qualified as to allow for the types of activities carried
out by Colombia. On the contrary, however, it is argued in this opinion
that an analysis of the sovereign rights of the coastal State in its EEZ
shows that those rights are exclusive to the coastal State in the sense that
they may not be exercised by any other State without the consent of the
coastal State.
10. In my view, the issues raised by Nicaragua’s claims and Colombia’s
response call for an examination of the rights, duties and jurisdiction
of the coastal State in its EEZ, as well as the nature of the rights and
freedoms of other States in the zone.
The Nature and Scope of the Freedom of Navigation
11. Freedom of navigation can be traced to the right of unimpeded
navigation on the high seas that was trumpeted by Hugo Grotius in his
famous treatise Mare Liberum (1609) 5. In the Montego Bay Convention,
it is treated substantively in two provisions. Article 87 (1) provides that
“[t]he high seas are open to all States, whether coastal or landlocked.
Freedom of the high seas is exercised under the conditions laid down by
this Convention and by other rules of international law.” The Article then
lists six freedoms, the first three of which are freedom of navigation, freedom
of overflight, and freedom to lay submarine cables. Article 58 (1)
provides that, in the EEZ,
“all States, whether coastal or land-locked,
enjoy, subject to the relevant
provisions of this Convention, the freedoms referred to in article
87 of navigation and overflight and of the laying of submarine
cables and pipelines, and other internationally lawful uses of the sea
related to these freedoms, such as those associated with the operation
of ships, aircraft and submarine cables and pipelines, and compatible
with the other provisions of this Convention”.
5 H. Grotius, The Free Sea (1609), Liberty Fund.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 415
153
droits et compétence sont spécifiquement réservés à l’Etat côtier en
droit international coutumier, ainsi qu’il ressort des articles 56 et 73
de la CNUDM. » (Arrêt, par. 94.)
Cette conclusion aurait plus de poids si elle se fondait sur une analyse de
la nature et de la portée des deux ensembles de droits. Le droit à la liberté
de navigation consacré au paragraphe 1 de l’article 58 n’existe pas seul ou
dans l’abstrait ; il a pour objet la liberté de navigation dans la ZEE et
l’interaction entre les deux ensembles de droits est à la fois nécessaire et
inévitable. C’est pourquoi l’analyse gagnerait à être complétée par un
examen de la nature et de la portée des deux ensembles de droits ; elle
pourrait, par exemple, montrer que les droits souverains de l’Etat côtier,
nonobstant leur caractère souverain, sont qualifiés de sorte à autoriser la
conduite des types d’activités menées par la Colombie. A contrario, il est
soutenu dans la présente opinion que l’analyse des droits souverains de
l’Etat côtier dans sa ZEE montre que ces droits revêtent un caractère
exclusif au sens où ils ne peuvent être exercés par aucun autre Etat sans
que l’Etat côtier y consente.
10. A mon sens, les questions soulevées par les demandes du Nicaragua
et par la réponse de la Colombie appellent un examen des droits, des
obligations et de la juridiction de l’Etat côtier dans sa ZEE, ainsi que de
la nature des droits et des libertés des autres Etats dans cette zone.
La nature et la portée de la liberté de navigation
11. La liberté de navigation trouve son origine dans le droit à la navigation
sans entrave en haute mer proclamé par Grotius dans son célèbre traité
Mare Liberum (1609) 5. Dans la convention de Montego Bay, elle fait l’objet
de deux dispositions de fond. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article 87 dispose que
« [l]a haute mer est ouverte à tous les Etats, qu’ils soient côtiers ou sans
littoral. La liberté de la haute mer s’exerce dans les conditions prévues par
les dispositions de la Convention et les autres règles du droit international.
» L’article énumère ensuite six libertés, dont les trois premières sont la
liberté de navigation, la liberté de survol et la liberté de poser des câbles
sous-marins.
Aux termes du paragraphe 1 de l’article 58, dans la ZEE,
« tous les Etats, qu’ils soient côtiers ou sans littoral, jouissent, dans
les conditions prévues par les dispositions pertinentes de la Convention,
des libertés de navigation et de survol et de la liberté de poser
des câbles et pipelines sous-marins
visées à l’article 87, ainsi que de la
liberté d’utiliser la mer à d’autres fins internationalement licites liées
à l’exercice de ces libertés et compatibles avec les autres dispositions
de la Convention, notamment dans le cadre de l’exploitation des
navires, d’aéronefs et de câbles et pipelines sous-marins
».
5 H. Grotius, Mare Liberum (De la liberté des mers), 1609.
416 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
154
As a result of the formulation of Article 58 (1), the freedom of fishing,
reflected in Article 87 (1) (e), is not among the high seas freedoms enjoyed
by a third State in the EEZ of a coastal State.
12. The phrase “freedom of navigation” must be interpreted in accordance
with the customary rules of interpretation. The ordinary meaning
of the term “navigation” is to be ascertained in the context in which it is
used in Articles 58 and 87 of the Montego Bay Convention, and in light
of the Convention’s object and purpose. Dictionaries give several meanings
of the word “navigation”. In the context in which the term is used in
these Articles, the most instructive meanings are the “passage of ships”
(Oxford English Dictionary) and the “movement of ships” (Collins Dictionary).
In the context, therefore, of Part V of the Convention, and in
light of the object and purpose of the Convention, freedom of navigation
is the freedom enjoyed by a third State of the passage or movement of its
ships in the EEZ of a coastal State, without any entitlement on the part
of the coastal State to restrict that passage or movement in any way,
unless there is carried out on the ship an activity that interferes with the
enjoyment by the coastal State of its sovereign rights.
13. The essence of freedom of navigation is unimpeded passage or
movement of a ship. However, the freedom of navigation in the EEZ
under Article 58 (1) is obviously more limited than freedom of navigation
on the high seas under Article 87. This is so because the freedom is being
exercised in the EEZ of a coastal State and, naturally, the sovereign rights
of the coastal State to explore, exploit, conserve and manage its living
and non-living
resources will impact on a third State’s freedom of navigation
in the zone. If there is carried out, on a ship passing or moving
through the EEZ of a coastal State, any activity that interferes with the
sovereign rights of the coastal State and which, therefore, is not directly
related to that passage or movement, that ship is not exercising freedom
of navigation under Article 58, and it would have violated the sovereign
rights of the coastal State. The Virginia Commentary observes that many
coastal States take the position that military activities are not protected
within the EEZ and that the coastal State may oppose such exercises by
foreign ships on the basis that they may affect the living resources or the
marine environment or the safety of navigation 6. The activities carried
out by Colombian naval vessels of harassing Nicaraguan fishermen and
stopping Nicaraguan fishing vessels or other Nicaraguan-licensed
vessels
in order to apply what Colombia considers to be proper conservation
methods, do not fall within the scope of the freedom of navigation under
Article 58 and would constitute a breach of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights
to explore, exploit, conserve and manage its natural resources, including
fishing.
6 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982: A Commentary (see note 2
supra), Article 87, 2013, pp. 81 and 564-565, paras. 58.10 (c) and 87.9 (c).
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 416
154
Compte tenu du libellé du paragraphe 1 de l’article 58, la liberté de la pêche,
reflétée à l’alinéa e) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 87, ne fait pas partie des
libertés de la haute mer dont jouit un Etat tiers dans la ZEE d’un Etat côtier.
12. L’expression « liberté de navigation » doit être interprétée conformément
aux règles coutumières d’interprétation. Le sens ordinaire à attribuer
au terme « navigation » doit être déterminé dans le contexte dans lequel ce
terme est employé dans les articles 58 et 87 de la convention de Montego
Bay, ainsi qu’à la lumière de l’objet et du but de la convention. On trouve
plusieurs acceptions du mot « navigation » dans les dictionnaires. Dans le
contexte des articles précités, les acceptions les plus éclairantes sont le
« passage de navires » (« passage of ships », Oxford English Dictionary) et
le « mouvement de navires » (« movement of ships », Collins Dictionary).
Dans le contexte, par conséquent, de la partie V de la convention et à la
lumière de l’objet et du but de celle‑ci, la liberté de navigation désigne
la liberté de passage ou de mouvement des navires d’un Etat tiers dans la
ZEE d’un Etat côtier sans que ce dernier n’ait le droit de le restreindre de
quelque manière que ce soit, à moins que lesdits navires ne se livrent à des
activités qui gênent la jouissance par l’Etat côtier de ses droits souverains.
13. L’essence de la liberté de navigation réside dans le passage ou le mouvement
sans entrave d’un navire. Toutefois, la liberté de navigation dans
la ZEE au titre du paragraphe 1 de l’article 58 est à l’évidence plus limitée
que la liberté de navigation en haute mer prévue à l’article 87. Cela s’explique
par le fait que cette liberté est exercée dans la ZEE d’un Etat côtier et
que, naturellement, les droits souverains d’exploration, d’exploitation, de
conservation et de gestion des ressources biologiques et non biologiques de
l’Etat côtier auront une incidence sur la liberté de navigation d’un Etat tiers
dans la zone. Si une quelconque activité menée à bord d’un navire de passage
ou en mouvement dans la ZEE d’un Etat côtier porte atteinte aux
droits souverains de celui-
ci et que cette activité est donc sans rapport direct
avec le passage ou mouvement, le navire n’exerce pas sa liberté de navigation
conformément à l’article 58 et aura violé les droits souverains de l’Etat
côtier. D’après le commentaire de l’Université de Virginie, de nombreux
Etats côtiers soutiennent que les activités militaires ne sont pas protégées
dans la ZEE et que l’Etat côtier peut s’opposer à la jouissance de cette liberté
par des navires étrangers dès lors que de tels exercices sont susceptibles
d’avoir une incidence sur les ressources biologiques, le milieu marin ou la
sécurité de la navigation 6. Le harcèlement de pêcheurs nicaraguayens et l’interception
de navires de pêche nicaraguayens ou d’autres navires détenteurs
d’un permis nicaraguayen auxquels se livrent les croiseurs de la marine
colombienne afin d’appliquer ce que la Colombie considère comme des
méthodes de conservation appropriées ne relèvent pas de la liberté de navigation
énoncée à l’article 58 et constituent une violation des droits souverains
du Nicaragua en matière d’exploration, d’exploitation, de conservation
et de gestion de ses ressources naturelles, notamment halieutiques.
6 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 : A Commentary (voir note de
bas de page 2 ci-dessus), Article 87, 2013, p. 81 et 564-565, par. 58.10 c) et 87.9 c).
417 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
155
14. There is evidence that on an occasion when Colombian military
vessels carried out patrols in Nicaragua’s EEZ, the Colombian President
asserted, “[w]e find ourselves patrolling and exercising sovereignty over
Colombian waters” (my emphasis); there is also evidence that at that time
the Colombians were in fact in Nicaragua’s EEZ. In such a situation, the
activity of patrolling has no direct relationship with the passage or movement
of the Colombian ship, and Colombia is not exercising freedom of
navigation; rather, it is engaging in intimidating conduct that flagrantly
interferes with Nicaragua’s exclusive sovereign rights in its EEZ for the
purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing the living and
non-living
resources of the zone.
15. In any event, even if the activities carried out by Colombia in Nicaragua’s
EEZ could be said to be an exercise of the freedoms of navigation
or overflight, Article 58 (3) of the Montego Bay Convention obliges
Colombia, in carrying out such activities, to have due regard to the rights
and duties of Nicaragua as the coastal State. This is a substantive obligation
which requires all States, in exercising their high seas freedoms, to
consider the sovereign rights of the coastal State in the EEZ and to refrain
from activities that interfere with the exercise by the coastal State of its
sovereign rights in its EEZ. In carrying out these activities, Colombia did
not exhibit the consideration for Nicaragua’s exclusive sovereign rights
required by the due regard obligation, and therefore breached those
rights. The exclusivity of these rights is addressed next.
The Nature and Scope of Nicaragua’s
Sovereign Rights in Its EEZ
16. It is also necessary to consider whether the nature and scope of the
sovereign rights of a coastal State in its EEZ are such as to preclude
Colombia from engaging in the activities that it carried out in Nicaragua’s
EEZ. In that regard, it should be determined whether the sovereign
rights of Nicaragua in its EEZ are exclusive in the sense that they may not
be exercised by any other State without the consent of Nicaragua as the
coastal State. If Nicaragua as the coastal State has exclusive sovereign
rights for the purpose of the exploration, exploitation, conservation and
management of the living and non-living
resources of the EEZ, this would
be a cogent basis for finding that Colombia’s interventionist activities in
Nicaragua’s EEZ breached Nicaragua’s sovereign rights in that zone.
17. It is not merely, as the Court holds, that rights relating to the
exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of the natural
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 417
155
14. Il existe des éléments de preuve attestant qu’en une occasion, alors
que des bâtiments de la marine colombienne patrouillaient dans la ZEE
du Nicaragua, le président colombien a affirmé : « [n]ous sommes en train
de patrouiller dans les eaux colombiennes, exerçant ainsi la souveraineté
de la Colombie » (les italiques sont de moi) ; d’autres éléments prouvent
que, à l’époque, les Colombiens se trouvaient de fait dans la ZEE du
Nicaragua. En pareil cas, la mission de patrouille est sans rapport direct
avec le passage ou le mouvement du navire colombien et ce n’est pas sa
liberté de navigation que la Colombie exerce ; en réalité, celle-
ci fait
montre d’un comportement intimidant qui porte manifestement atteinte
aux droits souverains du Nicaragua dans sa ZEE aux fins d’exploration,
d’exploitation, de conservation et de gestion des ressources biologiques et
non biologiques de la zone.
15. En tout état de cause, même si les activités menées par la Colombie
dans la ZEE du Nicaragua pouvaient être assimilées à un exercice des libertés
de navigation ou de survol, le paragraphe 3 de l’article 58 de la convention
de Montego Bay fait obligation à la Colombie, dès lors qu’elle se livre
à de telles activités, de tenir dûment compte des droits et des obligations du
Nicaragua en tant qu’Etat côtier. Il s’agit là d’une obligation de fond imposant
à tous les Etats, dans l’exercice des libertés de la haute mer dont ils
jouissent, de prendre en considération les droits souverains de l’Etat côtier
dans la ZEE et de s’abstenir de mener des activités qui entravent l’exercice
par l’Etat côtier de ses droits souverains dans sa ZEE. Lorsqu’elle s’est
livrée à ces activités, la Colombie n’a pas montré qu’elle attachait aux droits
souverains exclusifs du Nicaragua la considération requise par l’obligation
prévue par la convention et, partant, elle a violé ces droits. Nous nous intéresserons
ci-
après à la question de l’exclusivité des droits.
La nature et la portée des droits souverains
du Nicaragua dans sa ZEE
16. Il est aussi nécessaire d’examiner si, en raison de leur nature et de
leur portée, les droits souverains d’un Etat côtier dans sa ZEE font obstacle
à ce que la Colombie mène les activités qui ont été les siennes dans
la ZEE du Nicaragua. A cet égard, il convient de déterminer si les droits
souverains du Nicaragua dans sa ZEE revêtent un caractère exclusif, au
sens où ils ne pourraient être exercés par aucun autre Etat sans que le
Nicaragua, en tant qu’Etat côtier, y consente. Si le Nicaragua, en sa qualité
d’Etat côtier, a des droits souverains exclusifs aux fins d’exploration,
d’exploitation, de conservation et de gestion des ressources biologiques et
non biologiques de la ZEE, cela constituerait une base solide pour
conclure que les activités interventionnistes exercées par la Colombie dans
la ZEE du Nicaragua emportent violation des droits souverains de ce dernier
dans cette même zone.
17. Les droits relatifs à l’exploration, à l’exploitation, à la conservation
et à la gestion des ressources naturelles de la ZEE, ainsi que le pouvoir
418 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
156
resources of the EEZ, as well as the power to design conservation policies
for the zone, are “specifically reserved for the coastal State”; rather, it is
that they are exclusively reserved for the coastal State. The history of the
development of the concept of an EEZ, the negotiations preceding the
adoption of the Montego Bay Convention and the text of the Convention
itself indicate that the sovereign rights enjoyed by a coastal State in its
EEZ are exclusive to that State.
18. Undeniably, it was a developmental consideration that prompted
developing countries in the last part of the twentieth century to insist on
a zone of what was then the high seas as an area in which they would be
entitled to explore and exploit the living and non-living
resources. Thus,
in explaining the rationale behind the concept of the EEZ to the Asia-Africa
Legal Consultative Group in 1971, Kenya pointed out that the
régime of the high seas benefited developed countries which, unlike developing
countries, had ships that could carry out distant water fishing off
the coasts of developing countries in maritime areas that were then part
of the high seas. In the interest of their growth and development, those
developing States sought exclusive, not shared, sovereign rights in relation
to fisheries. Indeed, from as far back as 1952, Chile, Ecuador and
Peru declared that they possessed “exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction
over the sea along the coasts of their respective countries to a minimum
distance of 200 nautical miles from their coasts” 7. Kenya’s proposal
in 1974 to the first session of the Conference was that
“in the exclusive economic zone a coastal State shall have sovereignty
over the living and non-living
resources. It shall have sovereign rights
for the purpose of regulation, control, exploration, exploitation, protection
and preservation of all living and non-living
resources therein.”
8
The element of exclusivity was emphasized in the provision in Kenya’s
proposal that, “subject to Article 6” — relating to the rights of landlocked
and geographically disadvantaged States — “no other State has
the right to explore and exploit the resources therein without the consent
or agreement of the coastal States” 9. In fact, the near unanimity on the
concept of an EEZ establishing exclusive sovereign rights of the coastal
7 A. Proelss (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary,
Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2017, p. 439, citing Declaration on the Maritime Zone of
18 August 1952, para. II, United Nations, Treaties Series, Vol. 1006, p. 325 et seq.
8 A. Proelss (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary,
Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2017, p. 421, para. 4.
9 S. N. Nandan and S. Rosenne, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982:
A Commentary, Vol. II, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003, pp. 529‑531.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 418
156
d’élaborer des politiques de conservation concernant cette zone, ne sont
pas simplement, comme la Cour l’a conclu, « spécifiquement réservés à
l’Etat côtier » ; il conviendrait plutôt de dire qu’il s’agit de droits exclusivement
réservés à l’Etat côtier. La construction historique de la notion de
ZEE, les négociations qui ont précédé l’adoption de la convention de
Montego Bay et le texte même de la convention indiquent que les droits
souverains dont jouit un Etat côtier dans sa ZEE lui appartiennent exclusivement.
18. Ce sont sans aucun doute des considérations relatives au développement
qui ont incité des pays en développement, dans la seconde moitié
du XXe siècle, à réclamer que soit créée, dans l’espace qui relevait alors de
la haute mer, une zone où ils auraient le droit d’explorer et d’exploiter les
ressources biologiques et non biologiques. Ainsi, lorsqu’il a expliqué le
raisonnement sous‑tendant la notion de ZEE au Comité consultatif juridique
afro-asiatique
en 1971, le Kenya a souligné que le régime de la
haute mer profitait aux pays développés qui, contrairement aux autres
pays, avaient des navires capables de pratiquer la pêche en eaux lointaines
en se positionnant au large des côtes des pays en développement dans des
espaces qui relevaient alors de la haute mer. Pour assurer leur croissance
et leur développement, ces Etats en développement ont demandé que leur
soient reconnus des droits souverains exclusifs, non partagés, sur leurs
ressources halieutiques. En effet, dès 1952, le Chili, l’Equateur et le Pérou
affirment « la souveraineté et la juridiction exclusives qu’a chacun d’eux
sur la mer qui baigne les côtes de son pays jusqu’à 200 milles marins au
moins à partir desdites côtes » 7. En 1974, à la première session de la
conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, le Kenya propose le
libellé suivant :
« Dans la zone économique exclusive, l’Etat côtier exerce sa souveraineté
sur les ressources biologiques et non biologiques. Il a des
droits souverains en ce qui concerne la réglementation, le contrôle,
[l’exploration,] l’exploitation, la protection et la préservation de
toutes les ressources biologiques et non biologiques de ladite zone. » 8
Ce caractère exclusif est mis en avant dans la disposition proposée par le
Kenya : « Sans préjudice de l’article 6 » — qui traite des droits des Etats
sans littoral et géographiquement désavantagés —, « aucun Etat n’a le
droit d’explorer ni d’exploiter les ressources de ladite zone sans le consentement
ou l’accord de l’Etat côtier » 9. En fait, l’unanimité quasi parfaite
que suscite l’idée que la ZEE consacre l’établissement de droits souverains
7 A. Proelss (dir. publ.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea : A
Commentary, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2017, p. 439, citant Declaration on the Maritime
Zone of 18 August 1952 (déclaration sur la zone maritime, signée à Santiago le 18 août
1952), par. II, Nations Unies, Recueil des traités, vol. 1006, p. 325 et suiv.
8 A. Proelss (dir. publ.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea : A
Commentary, Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2017, p. 421, par. 4.
9 S. N. Nandan et S. Rosenne, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 :
A Commentary, vol. II, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003, p. 529‑531.
419 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
157
State is highlighted by the proposal made by the United States at the first
session of the UNCLOS Conference for an economic zone in which the
coastal State exercised “the jurisdiction and the sovereign and exclusive
rights set forth in this chapter for the purpose of exploring and exploiting
the natural resources, whether renewable or non-renewable,
of the seabed
and subsoil of the superjacent waters” 10.
19. Thus, Nicaragua is correct in its submission that “exclusive control
of offshore fishing was the very raison d’être of the EEZ”. Consistent with
that outlook, what Kenya and other developing countries sought and
received from the Montego Bay Convention was exclusivity in this new
zone in the enjoyment of sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring,
exploiting, conserving and managing the living and non-living
resources.
Of course, developed countries also benefited from the concept of an
EEZ.
20. The Chamber of the Court acknowledged this element of
exclusivity
in the Gulf of Maine case. The Chamber spoke plainly when it
held:
“But after the coastal States had set up exclusive 200-mile fishery
zones, the situation radically altered. Third States and their nationals
found themselves deprived of any right of access to the sea areas
within those zones and of any position of advantage they might have
been able to achieve within them. As for the United States, any mere
factual predominance which it had been able to secure in the area was
transformed into a situation of legal monopoly to the extent that the
localities in question became legally part of its own exclusive fishery
zone.” 11
21. Colombia argues that Nicaragua’s reliance on this case is misplaced
because, in its view, it merely stands for the proposition that private
practice has no impact on maritime delimitation and does not
address the impact of maritime delimitation on vested rights. However, a
careful reading of the Judgment shows that the Chamber did not accept
the argument for historic rights. The Chamber held that it would not
“ascribe any decisive weight, for the purposes of the delimitation it [was]
charged to carry out, to the antiquity or continuity of fishing activities
carried on in the past within that part of the delimitation area” 12. In its
delimitation of the exclusive fisheries zones the Chamber found such historic
rights — otherwise characterized as the factual predominance in the
area by United States fishermen — to be irrelevant. Ultimately, the
10 S. N. Nandan and S. Rosenne, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
1982 : A Commentary, Vol. II, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003, pp. 529‑530.
11 Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/
United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 341-342, para. 235.
12 Ibid., p. 341, para. 235.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 419
157
exclusifs au profit de l’Etat côtier ressort de la proposition présentée par
les Etats-Unis à la première session de la conférence, visant à ce que soit
créée une zone économique dans laquelle l’Etat côtier exerce « la juridiction
et les droits souverains et exclusifs énoncés dans le présent chapitre
aux fins de l’exploration et de l’exploitation des ressources naturelles,
renouvelables ou non renouvelables, du fond de la mer et de son sous-sol
et des eaux susjacentes » 10.
19. Le Nicaragua a donc raison lorsqu’il affirme que « le contrôle
exclusif de la pêche hauturière était la raison d’être même de la création
de la zone économique exclusive ». Dans cette perspective, ce que le
Kenya et d’autres pays en développement cherchaient à obtenir, et ont
obtenu, au titre de la convention de Montego Bay était la jouissance
exclusive, dans cette nouvelle zone, de droits souverains aux fins d’exploration,
d’exploitation, de conservation et de gestion des ressources biologiques
et non biologiques. Bien entendu, les pays développés ont eux
aussi bénéficié de la notion de ZEE.
20. Dans l’affaire du golfe du Maine, la chambre de la Cour a reconnu
ce caractère exclusif, indiquant clairement ce qui suit :
« Mais, après la création des zones de pêche exclusives de 200 milles
par les Etats côtiers, la situation a radicalement changé. Les Etats
tiers et leurs ressortissants se sont trouvés privés de tout droit d’accès
aux espaces maritimes compris dans lesdites zones et de tout avantage
qu’ils avaient pu y acquérir. Quant aux Etats-Unis, la condition
de simple primauté de fait qu’ils avaient pu s’assurer sur les lieux
s’est transformée en une situation de monopole de droit dans la
mesure où les lieux en question sont juridiquement devenus parties
de leur propre zone de pêche exclusive. » 11
21. La Colombie soutient que l’invocation de cette affaire par le Nicaragua
est erronée car celle-
ci plaide simplement, selon elle, en faveur de la
thèse que la pratique privée n’a aucune incidence sur la délimitation maritime,
et ne dit rien de l’incidence de la délimitation maritime sur les droits
acquis. Il ressort cependant d’un examen attentif de l’arrêt que la chambre
n’a pas retenu l’argument des droits historiques, décidant de ne pas
« attribuer un quelconque poids déterminant, aux fins de la délimitation
qui lui [étai]t confiée, à l’ancienneté et à la constance des activités de
pêche exercées par le passé dans la zone de l’aire de la délimitation » 12. En
procédant à la délimitation des zones de pêche exclusives, la Chambre a
considéré que ces droits historiques — désignés comme la primauté de
fait que les pêcheurs des Etats-Unis avaient pu s’assurer sur la zone —
10 S. N. Nandan et S. Rosenne, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 :
A Commentary, vol. II, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003, p. 529‑530.
11 Délimitation de la frontière maritime dans la région du golfe du Maine (Canada/
Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 341‑342, par. 235.
12 Ibid., p. 341, par. 235.
420 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
158
Chamber did not enquire whether the rights were vested, since it found
such rights to be not relevant.
22. Subject to the exception set out in this paragraph, the design of the
Montego Bay Convention does not admit of States other than the coastal
State exercising any of the sovereign rights attributed to that State in its
EEZ for the purpose of conserving and managing the fisheries resources;
nor does it admit of States other than the coastal State performing any of
the obligations imposed on the coastal State in its EEZ for the purpose of
conserving and managing the fisheries resources. In this respect, the Montego
Bay Convention is comprehensive in its identification of the States
that have rights and obligations in respect of living resources of the EEZ.
Thus, coastal States have not only sovereign rights to explore and exploit
the living resources, but also an obligation under Article 61 to determine
the allowable catch and to ensure through proper conservation and management
measures that the maintenance of the living resources in the EEZ
is not endangered by overexploitation. Article 62 also imposes on coastal
States the duty to promote the objective of optimum utilization of the
living resources in the EEZ, and to determine its capacity to harvest the
living resources; where it does not have the capacity to harvest the entire
allowable catch, Article 62 obliges the coastal State to give other States
access to the surplus of the allowable catch through agreements or other
arrangements and, in doing so, to have particular regard to the provisions
of Articles 69 and 70. These latter provisions give landlocked and
geographically
disadvantaged States a right to participate on an equitable
basis in the exploitation of an appropriate part of the surplus of the
living resources of the EEZ of coastal States. These agreements are
the only exception to the exclusivity of a coastal State’s sovereign rights
for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing its
living
resources in its EEZ. Landlocked and geographically disadvantaged
States have, by way of an agreement with the coastal State, a
right to participate on an equitable basis in the exploitation of an
appropriate
part of the surplus of the allowable catch. There is no
agreement
or arrangement between Colombia and Nicaragua for Colombia
to have access to any surplus of the allowable catch in Nicaragua’s
EEZ.
23. The obligations of the coastal State are as exclusive to that State as
are its sovereign rights to exploit, explore, conserve and manage those
resources; in particular, the obligation to conserve and manage the living
resources in a specific way is as exclusive to the coastal State as are its
sovereign rights to exploit and explore those resources. If a coastal State,
such as Nicaragua, does not conserve and manage its living resources so
that it is in a position to determine the allowable catch, as well as its
capacity to harvest its living resources and whether there is a surplus of
the allowable catch, its international responsibility may be engaged for
that failure. A landlocked or geographically disadvantaged State that is
unable “to participate” in “an appropriate part of the surplus”, because
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 420
158
étaient dépourvus de pertinence. En dernière analyse, elle n’a pas recherché
si ces droits étaient des droits acquis, étant donné qu’elle les avait
jugés sans pertinence.
22. Sous réserve de l’exception visée dans le présent paragraphe, la
convention n’entend pas autoriser d’autres Etats que l’Etat côtier à exercer
l’un quelconque des droits souverains attribués à ce dernier dans sa
ZEE en matière de conservation et de gestion des ressources halieutiques ;
elle ne les autorise pas non plus à s’acquitter de quelque obligation imposée
à l’Etat côtier dans sa ZEE en ces mêmes matières. A cet égard, la
convention de Montego Bay recense précisément les Etats ayant des
droits et des obligations en ce qui concerne les ressources biologiques de
la ZEE. Ainsi, les Etats côtiers disposent non seulement de droits souverains
en matière d’exploration et d’exploitation des ressources biologiques,
mais ils ont aussi l’obligation, en vertu de l’article 61, de fixer le
volume admissible des captures et de prendre des mesures appropriées de
conservation et de gestion pour que la pérennité des ressources biologiques
dans la ZEE ne soit pas compromise par une surexploitation. L’article
62 leur impose en outre de se fixer pour objectif de favoriser une
exploitation optimale des ressources biologiques de la ZEE et de déterminer
leur capacité d’exploitation des ressources biologiques ; si cette capacité
d’exploitation est inférieure à l’ensemble du volume admissible des
captures, ce même article les oblige à autoriser d’autres Etats, par voie
d’accords ou d’autres arrangements, à exploiter le reliquat du volume
admissible, et ce, en tenant particulièrement compte des dispositions des
articles 69 et 70. Ces dernières confèrent aux Etats sans littoral et géographiquement
désavantagés le droit de participer, sur une base équitable, à
l’exploitation d’une part appropriée du reliquat des ressources biologiques
des ZEE des Etats côtiers. Les accords en question sont la seule exception
à l’exclusivité des droits souverains de l’Etat côtier aux fins d’exploration,
d’exploitation, de conservation et de gestion de ses ressources biologiques
dans sa ZEE. Les Etats sans littoral ou géographiquement désavantagés
ont, par voie d’accord conclu avec l’Etat côtier, le droit de participer sur
une base équitable à l’exploitation d’une part appropriée du reliquat du
volume admissible des captures. La Colombie et le Nicaragua n’ont
conclu aucun accord ou arrangement autorisant la première à exploiter
tout excédent du volume admissible des captures dans la ZEE du second.
23. Les obligations de l’Etat côtier lui sont aussi exclusives que le sont
ses droits souverains en matière d’exploitation, d’exploration, de conservation
et de gestion de ces ressources ; en particulier, l’obligation d’assurer
la conservation et la gestion des ressources biologiques d’une manière
spécifique lui est aussi exclusive que le sont ses droits souverains d’explorer
et d’exploiter ces mêmes ressources. Si un Etat côtier, comme le Nicaragua,
n’assure pas la conservation et la gestion de ses ressources
biologiques de manière à pouvoir fixer le volume admissible des captures,
déterminer sa capacité d’exploitation de ses ressources biologiques et établir
s’il existe un reliquat du volume admissible, sa responsabilité internationale
peut être engagée à raison de ce manquement. Un Etat sans littoral
421 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
159
there is no surplus on account of the coastal State’s mismanagement,
would be entitled to claim reparations for the coastal State’s breach.
Interference by another State, such as Colombia, in the conservation and
management of the living resources may impact adversely on the capacity
of the coastal State to discharge this obligation. Such interference engages
the international responsibility of that State as a breach of the Montego
Bay Convention. This is all the more reason why the Convention
gives a coastal State, such as Nicaragua, exclusive sovereign rights over
the conservation and management of its living resources. A State’s perception
that a coastal State is not discharging its obligation to conserve
and manage its living resources, even if it is well founded, does not give it
the right to assume the responsibility of discharging those obligations.
Such a far-reaching
power would have had to be expressly provided for in
the Convention. No State may, consistently with the Convention, arrogate
to itself the responsibility of conserving and managing the living
resources in the EEZ of a coastal State on the basis of its view that the
coastal State is not discharging its customary and conventional obligations
in that regard. There is no warrant for interpreting the Montego Bay
Convention as giving such a State that power. That would be a certain
basis for confusion and, worse yet, conflict.
24. An important indicator of the exclusivity of the coastal State’s sovereign
right to conserve and manage the living resources of its EEZ is
provided in Article 73 (1), which reads as follows:
“The coastal State may, in the exercise of its sovereign rights to
explore, exploit, conserve and manage the living resources in the
exclusive economic zone, take such measures, including boarding,
inspection, arrest and judicial proceedings, as may be necessary to
ensure compliance with the laws and regulations adopted by it in
conformity with this Convention.”
25. This is an extensive and far-reaching
power that has been given to
the coastal State in its EEZ. In setting out this power Article 73 of the
Montego Bay Convention is merely interpreting Article 56 (1), which
attributes to the coastal State exclusive sovereign rights in its EEZ. Article
73 of the Convention allows the coastal State to adopt any measure in
its EEZ to ensure compliance with its laws, so long as that measure is in
conformity with the provisions of the Convention. Importantly, the Article
sees the adoption of such measures as derived from the sovereign
rights of the coastal State; that is the significance of the phrase “in the
exercise of its sovereign rights”. It is by virtue of these sovereign rights
that the coastal State is given these broad and pervasive enforcement
powers in the conservation and management of its fisheries. The intention
of the drafters is to ensure that the coastal State is able to respond to the
conduct of any State that would adversely affect the enjoyment of its sov-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 421
159
ou géographiquement désavantagé qui ne pourrait pas « participer … à
l’exploitation d’une part appropriée du reliquat » car un tel reliquat
n’existe pas en raison de la mauvaise gestion de l’Etat côtier serait fondé
à demander réparation pour le manquement de ce dernier. L’intervention
d’un autre Etat, comme la Colombie, dans la conservation et la gestion
des ressources biologiques peut nuire à la capacité de l’Etat côtier de s’acquitter
de cette obligation. Pareil comportement engage la responsabilité
internationale du premier Etat pour manquement à la convention de
Montego Bay. C’est précisément pourquoi la convention confère à un
Etat côtier, comme le Nicaragua, des droits souverains exclusifs aux fins
de conservation et de gestion de ses ressources biologiques. Même parfaitement
fondé, le sentiment qu’un Etat côtier ne s’acquitte pas de ses obligations
d’assurer la conservation et la gestion de ses ressources biologiques
ne donne pas à un autre Etat qui l’éprouverait le droit de s’acquitter
lui-
même de ces obligations. Un pouvoir aussi étendu aurait été expressément
prévu dans la convention. Aucun Etat ne peut, en respectant la
convention, s’arroger la responsabilité de la conservation et de la gestion
des ressources biologiques dans la ZEE d’un Etat côtier au motif que
celui-
ci ne s’acquitterait pas de ses obligations coutumières et conventionnelles
à cet égard. Rien ne justifie que l’on interprète la convention de
Montego Bay comme conférant un tel pouvoir aux Etats. Ce serait source
de confusion et, pire encore, de conflits.
24. On trouve une indication importante du caractère exclusif du droit
souverain de l’Etat côtier d’assurer la conservation et la gestion des ressources
biologiques de sa ZEE au paragraphe 1 de l’article 73, qui se lit
comme suit :
« Dans l’exercice de ses droits souverains d’exploration, d’exploitation,
de conservation et de gestion des ressources biologiques de la
zone économique exclusive, l’Etat côtier peut prendre toutes mesures,
y compris l’arraisonnement, l’inspection, la saisie et l’introduction
d’une instance judiciaire, qui sont nécessaires pour assurer le respect
des lois et règlements qu’il a adoptés conformément à la Convention. »
25. Se trouve ainsi conféré à l’Etat côtier dans sa ZEE un pouvoir étendu
d’une portée considérable. En établissant ce pouvoir, l’article 73 de la
convention de Montego Bay ne fait qu’interpréter le paragraphe 1 de l’article
56, qui attribue à l’Etat côtier des droits souverains exclusifs dans
sa ZEE. L’article 73 de la convention autorise l’Etat côtier à prendre dans sa
ZEE toutes les mesures nécessaires pour assurer le respect de ses lois, du
moment que ces mesures sont conformes aux dispositions de la convention.
Il est important de noter que, dans cet article, lesdites mesures sont présentées
comme découlant des droits souverains de l’Etat côtier ; c’est ainsi qu’il
faut comprendre les termes « dans l’exercice de ses droits souverains ». C’est
en vertu de ces droits souverains que l’Etat côtier se voit conférer des pouvoirs
coercitifs aussi étendus et généralisés en matière de conservation et de
gestion de ses pêcheries. Les rédacteurs de la convention entendaient s’assurer
qu’il serait en mesure de faire face au comportement de tout Etat qui
422 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
160
ereign rights and the performance of its duties to conserve and manage its
fisheries. If the coastal State has exclusive sovereign rights for the purpose
of exploring, exploiting, conserving and managing its living and non-living
resources, it is to be expected that it would also have the power to
adopt measures within the zone that would enable it to enjoy those rights.
The decision of ITLOS in M/V “Virginia G” illustrates very well not only
the extent of the coastal State’s sovereign rights in its EEZ, but also the
exclusivity of those rights. In M/V “Virginia G”, the Tribunal found that
the sovereign rights of a coastal State under Article 56 (1) (a) “encompas[s]
all rights necessary for and connected with the exploration, exploitation,
conservation and management of the natural resources, including the
right to take the necessary enforcement measures” 13. Such enforcement
rights would not have been given to the coastal State in its EEZ if other
States were also entitled to the same rights in the coastal State’s EEZ.
Therefore, the coastal State’s sovereign rights in its EEZ are properly
interpreted as exclusive to the coastal State in the sense that no other
State may exercise them without its consent.
26. It remains now to consider whether the jurisdiction of States over
vessels flying their flag is an exception to the exclusive sovereign rights of
the coastal State in its EEZ.
27. The Judgment refers to the ITLOS Tribunal’s finding in Request
for Advisory Opinion submitted by the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission
that the flag State has “an obligation to ensure compliance by vessels
flying
its flag with the relevant conservation measures concerning the living
resources enacted by the coastal State for its exclusive economic
zone” 14.
28. However, there is an important distinction between the rights and
duties of a flag State in the EEZ of a coastal State and the exclusive sovereign
rights of a coastal State in that zone. It is only the coastal State
that has the right and duty to devise and initiate conservation measures
for the protection and preservation of the marine environment in its EEZ,
including such measures concerning its living resources. This is clear from
a reading of Articles 56 (1) (a), 61, 62 and 73. Indeed, the coastal State’s
exclusive obligation to adopt such measures may be seen as a corollary of
its exclusive right to explore, exploit, conserve and manage the living
resources in its EEZ.
29. Under Article 92 of the Montego Bay Convention, ships are subject
to the exclusive jurisdiction of the flag State on the high seas. Under
Article 94, every State must effectively exercise its jurisdiction and control
in administrative, technical and social matters over ships flying its flag.
13 M/V “Virginia G” (Panama/Guinea-Bissau),
Judgment, ITLOS Reports 2014, p. 67,
para. 211.
14 Request for Advisory Opinion submitted by the Sub-Regional
Fisheries Commission,
Advisory Opinion, 2 April 2015, ITLOS Reports 2015, p. 37, para. 120.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 422
160
nuirait à la jouissance de ses droits souverains et à l’exécution de ses obligations
de conservation et de gestion halieutiques. Si l’Etat côtier jouit de
droits souverains exclusifs aux fins d’exploration, d’exploitation, de conservation
et de gestion de ses ressources biologiques ou non biologiques, il s’ensuit
qu’il doit également disposer du pouvoir d’adopter dans la zone en
question les mesures lui permettant d’exercer ces droits. La décision rendue
par le TIDM en l’affaire du Navire « Virginia G » illustre fort bien à la fois
l’étendue des droits souverains de l’Etat côtier dans sa ZEE et le caractère
exclusif qu’ils revêtent. Dans cette affaire, le Tribunal a estimé que les droits
souverains qu’un Etat côtier tient de l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 1 de l’article
56 « compren[ai]ent tous les droits nécessaires ou liés à l’exploration, à
l’exploitation, à la conservation et à la gestion des ressources naturelles, y
compris le droit de prendre les mesures d’exécution nécessaires » 13. Ces
droits d’exécution n’auraient pas été reconnus à l’Etat côtier dans sa ZEE si
d’autres Etats avaient été autorisés à les exercer dans la même zone. Par
conséquent, c’est à juste titre que les droits souverains de l’Etat côtier dans
sa ZEE sont considérés comme des droits exclusifs, au sens où aucun autre
Etat ne peut en revendiquer l’exercice sans le consentement dudit Etat côtier.
26. Il reste enfin à déterminer si la juridiction des Etats à l’égard des
navires battant leur pavillon déroge aux droits souverains exclusifs dont
bénéficie l’Etat côtier dans sa ZEE.
27. L’arrêt fait référence à la conclusion à laquelle est parvenu le
TIDM en ce qui concerne la Demande d’avis consultatif soumise par la
Commission sous-régionale
des pêches, à savoir que l’Etat du pavillon a
« l’obligation de veiller au respect par les navires battant son pavillon des
mesures de conservation des ressources biologiques adoptées par l’Etat
côtier pour sa zone économique exclusive » 14.
28. Toutefois, il existe une distinction importante entre les droits et les
obligations d’un Etat du pavillon dans la ZEE d’un Etat côtier et les droits
souverains exclusifs de l’Etat côtier dans cette zone. Seul l’Etat côtier a le
droit et l’obligation de concevoir et de mettre en place des mesures de
conservation aux fins de la protection et de la préservation du milieu marin
dans sa ZEE, y compris des mesures relatives à ses ressources biologiques.
C’est ce qui ressort clairement de la lecture de l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 1
de l’article 56, ainsi que des articles 61, 62 et 73. En effet, l’obligation
exclusive qu’a l’Etat côtier d’adopter de telles mesures peut être considérée
comme le corollaire de son droit exclusif d’exploration, d’exploitation, de
conservation et de gestion des ressources biologiques dans sa ZEE.
29. En vertu de l’article 92 de la convention de Montego Bay, les
navires sont soumis à la juridiction exclusive de l’Etat du pavillon en
haute mer. Conformément à l’article 94, tout Etat doit exercer effectivement
sa juridiction et son contrôle dans les domaines administratif, tech-
13 Navire « Virginia G » (Panama/Guinée-Bissau),
arrêt, TIDM Recueil 2014, p. 67,
par. 211.
14 Demande d’avis consultatif soumise par la Commission sous-régionale
des pêches, avis
consultatif, 2 avril 2015, TIDM Recueil 2015, p. 37, par. 120.
423 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (sep. op. robinson)
161
While the power of the flag State over its vessels under these provisions is
exclusive, the exercise of that power within the EEZ of a coastal State is
governed by Article 58 (2) of the Convention, which provides that “Articles
88 to 115 and other pertinent rules of international law apply to the
exclusive economic zone in so far as they are not incompatible with this
Part”. Thus, while a flag State has exclusive jurisdiction over its ships on
the high seas, and may therefore set conservation standards for those
ships while they are on the high seas, in the EEZ it is the coastal State
that has the exclusive right and duty to set the applicable conservation
standards for the zone.
(Signed) Patrick L. Robinson.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. ind. robinson) 423
161
nique et social sur les navires battant son pavillon. Si le pouvoir à l’égard
de ses navires que l’Etat du pavillon tient de ces dispositions est exclusif,
l’exercice de ce pouvoir dans la ZEE d’un Etat côtier est régi par le paragraphe
2 de l’article 58 de la convention, aux termes duquel « [l]es
articles 88 à 115, ainsi que les autres règles pertinentes du droit international,
s’appliquent à la zone économique exclusive dans la mesure où ils ne
sont pas incompatibles avec la présente partie ». Ainsi, si l’Etat du pavillon
a juridiction exclusive sur ses navires en haute mer et peut par conséquent
établir des normes de conservation à leur égard lorsque ceux-
ci s’y
trouvent, dans la ZEE, c’est l’Etat côtier qui a le droit et l’obligation
exclusifs d’établir les normes applicables à cette zone.
(Signé) Patrick L. Robinson.
Separate opinion of Judge Robinson