DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ABRAHAM
[Translation]
Disagreement with the parts of the Judgment relating to jurisdiction ratione temporis and the “integral contiguous zone” — Question of the Court’s jurisdiction over facts subsequent to 27 November 2013 not settled by the 2016 Judgment — Lack of relevance of the precedents invoked because of the novel character of the question — Difficulty in reconciling Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá with the idea that the Court can exercise jurisdiction over facts subsequent to the denunciation of the Pact — Precedents to which the Court refers relate to admissibility rather than jurisdiction — Relative flexibility of the jurisprudence on the admissibility of new claims filed in the course of proceedings — Rigour required in respect of jurisdiction — Situation in which the facts form an indivisible whole — Dissociable character in this instance of the facts subsequent and prior to the critical date — Too abstract an approach to the problem of the “integral contiguous zone” — Nicaragua’s claim limited to alleged violations of its rights in its exclusive economic zone — Questions of the conformity with international law of the “integral contiguous zone” and of respect for the rights invoked by Nicaragua do not fully coincide — “Sovereign rights” and “jurisdiction” of the coastal State deriving from the customary rule reflected in Article 56, paragraph 1 (a) and (b), of UNCLOS should serve as reference points for the examination to be undertaken — Colombia’s promulgation of Decree 1946 cannot in itself be regarded as constituting an internationally wrongful act — Possibility to interpret the Decree, at the implementation stage, in a manner consistent with Nicaragua’s rights.
1. I disagree with the present Judgment on two points: the Court’s jurisdiction ratione temporis and Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone”. Because of my disagreement on these two points, I had to vote against most of the subparagraphs of the operative clause.
I. THE COURT’S JURISDICTION RATIONE TEMPORIS
2. Some of the actions which Nicaragua attributes to Colombia, and which, according to the Applicant, constitute violations of its rights in the maritime areas that fall under its jurisdiction by virtue of the 2012 Judgment whereby the Court fixed the maritime boundary between the two Parties, took place after 27 November 2013. On that date, the title of jurisdiction enabling the Court to entertain the present dispute ceased to have effect, since Colombia had given notice of its denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá on 27 November 2012. The Respondent contested the Court’s jurisdiction to examine and rule on the lawfulness of events that occurred after 27 November 2013, and the Court rejected that objection in its Judgment and agreed to extend its examination to all the facts alleged by Nicaragua, irrespective of whether they occurred before or after the date on which its jurisdictional title ceased to have effect. It is on this point that I disagree.
3. I shall start by making two preliminary observations.
First, the Judgment on the preliminary objections raised by Colombia rendered in 2016 in the present case failed to resolve the question of jurisdiction ratione temporis either explicitly or implicitly. It did not resolve it explicitly because the question was not raised by the Respondent, which argued that the Court had no jurisdiction at all over the dispute, since, in its view, its denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá had taken effect immediately as far as the jurisdictional clause was concerned (an argument which the Court rejected). Nor did the 2016 Judgment resolve the matter implicitly. It would be going too far to maintain that in finding that it had jurisdiction over the dispute concerning Colombia’s alleged violations of Nicaragua’s rights in the maritime areas claimed by the Applicant (rightly, moreover) to have been adjudged to appertain to it in the 2012 Judgment, the
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Court had implicitly settled the question of the scope ratione temporis of its jurisdiction, a matter which the Parties did not discuss before the Court at all. Besides, Nicaragua made no attempt to claim that there was a res judicata deriving from the 2016 Judgment that would prevent the Court, at the current stage of the proceedings, from adopting a position consistent with Colombia’s argument in respect of jurisdiction ratione temporis.
4. Secondly, none of the precedents to which the Parties may have referred directly settles the point of law submitted to the Court in the present case. This is because the Court has never, in practice, found itself in a situation where it has had to determine the effects of the lapse of its jurisdictional title on its ability to examine facts subsequent to that lapse, in the context of a case already pending before it on the date when the jurisdictional title ceased to have effect. The Court, moreover, acknowledges this in the present Judgment, in paragraph 43. It was therefore incumbent on it to establish its jurisprudence in this regard. It does so, but in a way that I find open to criticism.
5. The jurisdictional basis for the Court to entertain the part of the dispute concerning the various actions that Nicaragua attributes to Colombia, which, according to the Applicant, took place in its exclusive economic zone, and each one of which it claims to be a violation of its rights, is Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá. The provisions of that article that are relevant to the question before us read as follows:
“[T]he High Contracting Parties declare that they recognize, in relation to any other American State, the jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory ipso facto, without the necessity of any special agreement so long as the present Treaty is in force, in all disputes of a juridical nature that arise among them concerning:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(c) The existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute the breach of an international obligation”.
6. It is understood that those provisions, which in substance reproduce those of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, do not allow a State to institute contentious proceedings against another State after the date on which the treaty — the Pact of Bogotá — ceased to be in force between them, whether the “fact” alleged to “constitute the breach of an international obligation” itself occurred before or after that date. But that does not answer our question, since in this case Nicaragua instituted proceedings the day before the treaty ceased to be in force between itself and Colombia.
7. In my view, it is hard to reconcile the aforementioned provisions, which circumscribe the consent given by Colombia to the Court’s jurisdiction, with the idea that the Court is competent to examine the facts attributed to the Respondent and to decide whether they constitute a breach of an international obligation, when those facts occurred after the date on which Colombia ceased to be a party to the Pact of Bogotá and its consent to the jurisdiction of the Court thus came to an end.
That those facts were brought to the attention of the Court and submitted for its examination as part of a case which was already pending, rather than through the institution of new proceedings by Nicaragua (which would obviously be impossible), does not appear to me to require a fundamentally different answer to the question of jurisdiction ratione temporis.
8. To justify the solution it adopts, the Court refers in paragraph 44 of the present Judgment to precedents which are, in my view, irrelevant.
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Most of them concern the question of whether and to what extent a party can file a new claim in the course of proceedings. The Court has found such an additional claim to be possible, on condition that either it is implicit in the application instituting proceedings or it arises directly out of the question which is the subject-matter of the application (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 657, para. 41, referring to Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992).
Yet this line of jurisprudence, which must be considered well established, is irrelevant in the present case, for several reasons.
First, it does not concern the jurisdiction of the Court, but is intended to settle what is purely a question of admissibility: that is, whether an applicant can add a claim during proceedings or whether they must file that claim in the form of a new application instituting proceedings instead. In all those precedents, the title of jurisdiction had not lapsed. That is why that jurisprudence applies irrespective of whether the new claim relates to facts which occurred before the application was made (as happened in the Diallo case) or afterwards. The date of the facts is immaterial, since the title of jurisdiction continues to exist.
There is no doubt, in my view, that the Court should have referred to that jurisprudence, and that it would have been entirely relevant, had Nicaragua introduced in the course of the proceedings, after the filing of the Application or even after the lapse of the jurisdictional title, one or more new claims relating to actions carried out by Colombia before 27 November 2013. Yet that is not the question which arises in this case.
Furthermore, the relatively flexible approach adopted by the Court in the context of the jurisprudence cited above (whose flexibility is not boundless, however: in the Diallo case, the new claim was declared inadmissible) can easily be explained by a desire to avoid excessive formalism and concerns of procedural economy and efficiency.
Such considerations have no role to play in the present case, since the question put to the Court is of an entirely different nature: the question pertains to the Court’s jurisdiction — which calls for a degree of rigour — and not to the conduct of proceedings — which would justify a degree of flexibility.
9. The Judgment also refers to the Djibouti v. France case, in which the Court explored whether it could adjudicate the claims made by the Applicant in the course of the proceedings from the standpoint of jurisdiction rather than admissibility. However, the question arose in very particular circumstances, since the Court’s jurisdiction was founded on the consent given by the Respondent after the filing of the Application, under Article 38, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court, and it was a matter of interpreting the terms and determining the scope of that consent.
Since France had given its consent “for the dispute forming the subject of the Application”, the Court had to establish what that wording covered, and it is not surprising that, to do so, it referred to its jurisprudence on new claims (Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 211-212, paras. 87-88). However, the title of jurisdiction had not lapsed, and the question that the Court had to decide was one of jurisdiction ratione materiae, not jurisdiction ratione temporis. In my opinion, no conclusion can be drawn from that Judgment that is of relevance to the question before the Court in the present case.
10. In short, I fail to see any convincing argument for extending the Court’s jurisdiction to cover facts occurring after 27 November 2013. I would certainly have no difficulty in accepting that account must be taken of facts or conduct that occurred after the date on which the jurisdictional title
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lapsed, if there were a link between those facts and the ones occurring before that date, causing them to form an indivisible whole. In such a case, it would only be possible to assess the scope of the facts occurring before the critical date, and to judge their lawfulness, by taking into consideration certain later developments from which they were indissociable.
Yet nothing of the sort applies in the present case. The facts alleged by Nicaragua to have occurred after 27 November 2013 are entirely dissociable from the earlier facts (because to my mind it does not suffice for them to be more or less of the same nature), and each of them requires separate examination, which is what the Judgment undertakes.
11. It is for the above reasons that I have had to vote against subparagraph 1 of the operative clause and, consequently, against subparagraphs 2, 3 and 4 as well.
12. Indeed, with regard to the incidents alleged to have occurred at sea and during which, according to Nicaragua, the Colombian Navy prevented the Applicant from exercising its rights, the only one to have occurred before 27 November 2013 is not, in my view, supported by sufficient evidence.
As for Colombia’s alleged authorizations of certain fishing activities in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, besides the fact that I doubt their very existence, most of the evidence identified in the Judgment to uphold that complaint dates from after 27 November 2013.
II. THE QUESTION OF THE “INTEGRAL CONTIGUOUS ZONE”
13. I also disagree with the way in which the Judgment addresses the question of the “integral contiguous zone” established by Colombia’s Decree 1946 of 9 September 2013.
14. In brief, the Court carried out an abstract examination of whether the Decree at issue (or the contiguous zone as provided for by the Decree, which amounts to the same thing) complies with “international law”. To that end, the Judgment begins by defining the content of the customary international law applicable to the creation of contiguous zones by States (paragraphs 147 to 155); it then examines Decree 1946 in order to identify which of its provisions are incompatible with international law (paragraphs 164 to 187), before considering whether, by its very promulgation, the Decree — several provisions of which the Court has already found to be contrary to the applicable law — could engage Colombia’s international responsibility (paragraphs 188 to 194). That leads the Court towards an operative clause in which, first, it finds that the contiguous zone “is not in conformity with customary international law” (subparagraph 5 of the operative clause) and, secondly, it rules that Colombia must bring the Decree into conformity with that law (subparagraph 6).
15. To my mind, this is too abstract an approach to the issue, which does not correspond to the examination that the Court was called upon to carry out in this case. Nicaragua’s complaint was that, by creating this “integral contiguous zone”, Colombia had violated the rights of the Applicant in the maritime areas adjudged by the 2012 Judgment to appertain to the latter, inasmuch as that Judgment fixed the maritime boundary separating the exclusive economic zones of Nicaragua and Colombia. Rather than examining in abstracto whether Decree 1946 (or the contiguous zone established by it, which amounts to the same thing) was in conformity with international law, the Court should have asked whether and to what extent the contiguous zone violated — or was capable of violating, when the Decree was implemented — the rights claimed by Nicaragua, the rights that the Applicant alleged Colombia failed to respect, in breach of the 2012 Judgment. Such an approach — the only correct one, in my view — would not have led the Court to the same conclusions.
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16. As a general rule, when a State comes before the Court to invoke the international responsibility of another State, it is not acting in defence of international law but to protect its own rights which, in its view, have been violated by the respondent as a result of the latter’s failure to comply with an obligation owed to the applicant. The only exception is when there are erga omnes or erga omnes partes obligations at issue: in such cases, the applicant acts to ensure protection of the collective interest which those obligations are specifically intended to guarantee.
17. It may happen, and often happens, that the question of whether a given act of the respondent is in conformity with international law and the question of whether that same act respects the applicant’s rights coincide in practice, even if they remain distinct in theory. Thus, in this case, if Nicaragua’s Decree of 27 August 2013 establishing a system of straight baselines to measure the breadth of the territorial sea is contrary to international law (as the Judgment finds, and I agree on this point), the result must be a violation of Colombia’s rights, once it is accepted that the latter is specially affected by the consequences of this wrongful act. That is why I voted in favour of subparagraph 7 of the operative clause, without dwelling on the wording, which, in my view, is not the most felicitous.
18. The situation is different as regards the question of whether Colombia’s contiguous zone is in conformity with international law and that of whether the rights invoked by Nicaragua have been respected, questions which do not fully coincide.
19. Nicaragua did not ask the Court to conduct an abstract examination of Decree 1946 in the light of international law, but to find that the Decree — and the contiguous zone defined therein —violated its rights in its exclusive economic zone. Of course, in order to answer the question thus submitted to it, the Court had to address the issue of the applicable law and examine — to some extent — whether the provisions of Decree 1946 were compatible with that law. But it should not have lost sight — which, in my opinion, it tended to do — of the fact that such an examination was only relevant in so far as it enabled the Court to decide whether Nicaragua’s rights had been violated, rather than whether Colombia had complied with international law as such.
20. The rights alleged by Nicaragua to have been violated are those which the Applicant, as a coastal State, can claim in its exclusive economic zone. Those rights are not a direct result of the 2012 Judgment but are derived from it, since that Judgment fixed the limits of the exclusive economic zone. In short, Nicaragua alleged that Colombia failed to respect the maritime boundary as drawn by the Court in 2012, by seeking to exercise, on Nicaragua’s side of the boundary, powers incompatible with the rights belonging to the Applicant in its exclusive economic zone. The rights in question are the “sovereign rights” and “jurisdiction” conferred on the coastal State in its exclusive economic zone by Article 56 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereinafter “UNCLOS”), which reflects customary international law; they are enumerated in Article 56, paragraph 1 (a) and (b), of that Convention. Note that Nicaragua did not include among the rights whose violation it alleged before the Court its right of freedom of navigation, which it (together with third States) unquestionably possesses in its exclusive economic zone, but which was in no way affected, either in its scope or in its existence, by the maritime boundary fixed by the 2012 Judgment.
In my view, it is thus the provisions of Article 56, paragraph 1 (a) and (b), of UNCLOS which should have served as a reference point for the Court’s examination of Decree 1946, rather than the provisions of Article 33, paragraph 1, of the same Convention, which defines the powers that the coastal State may exercise in its contiguous zone.
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21. I am therefore of the opinion that the Court should have addressed two questions. It should first have considered whether the provisions of Decree 1946 violate — or are capable of violating — the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua in its exclusive economic zone, as defined by Article 56, paragraph 1 (a) and (b), of UNCLOS. If the answer to that question were in the affirmative, or partially in the affirmative, the Court should then have considered whether, by its mere existence, the Decree at issue constituted an internationally wrongful act engaging Colombia’s international responsibility.
22. As regards the first question, I note that the Judgment deals at quite considerable length with a point which, under my approach, is of rather limited relevance, namely the breadth of the contiguous zone. Having found that the rule set out in Article 33, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS which states that the breadth of the contiguous zone may not exceed 24 nautical miles reflected customary law, the Court declares that Decree 1946 fails to comply with the applicable law because it extends the contiguous zone that it establishes beyond 24 nautical miles in some areas. That may be so, but it is hardly relevant in the present case. There are two possibilities here: either the powers conferred on the Colombian authorities by Decree 1946 are compatible with the “sovereign rights” and “jurisdiction” of Nicaragua, as defined in Article 56, paragraph 1 (a) and (b), of UNCLOS, in which case the fact that the Colombian contiguous zone is wider than 24 nautical miles does not per se violate Nicaragua’s rights in its exclusive economic zone; or, the powers in question are incompatible with Nicaragua’s rights, in which case there would have been a violation of those rights even if the limits of the contiguous zone had complied with the 24-nautical-mile rule, since, in any event, part of the contiguous zone would inevitably overlap with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. If there were a violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and jurisdiction, the fact that the Colombian contiguous zone extends beyond 24 nautical miles could, at the very most, be considered an aggravating circumstance, since that violation would produce geographically more extensive effects.
23. The crucial question, in fact, is whether the powers which Decree 1946 confers on the Colombian authorities are incompatible with the “sovereign rights” and “jurisdiction” of Nicaragua, as a coastal State, in its exclusive economic zone.
24. In this regard, the Court identifies several provisions in the Decree which it deems to go beyond the powers that international law namely Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS, inasmuch as it reflects customary law — allows a State to exercise in its contiguous zone. This is the case for the provisions of Article 5 of the Decree which cover the prevention of infringements and control over compliance with laws and regulations regarding the “security of the State, including piracy, trafficking of drugs and psychotropic substances, as well as conduct contrary to the security in the sea”. It is also the case for the provision covering “the preservation of the maritime environment”.
25. As regards the first category of provisions, it is quite possible that “[t]he inclusion of security in the material scope of Colombia’s powers within the ‘integral contiguous zone’ is . . . not in conformity with the relevant customary rule”, as the Court states in paragraph 177, and that the Decree is therefore contrary to international law in this respect. But, as I explained earlier, that was not the question submitted to the Court. The question was whether the powers conferred on the Colombian authorities by the Decree violated the “sovereign rights” and “jurisdiction” of Nicaragua in its exclusive economic zone. No evidence has been provided to show that this is the case as far as the provisions of the Decree relating to security are concerned; doing so would involve identifying the provisions of Article 56, paragraph 1 (a) and (b), which had been — or might be — violated by the provisions so criticized.
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26. As for the provision in the Decree referring to “the preservation of the maritime environment”, I fully accept that it raises a serious difficulty in respect of the “sovereign rights” and “jurisdiction” of Nicaragua in its exclusive economic zone. Customary law does indeed grant the State to which the exclusive economic zone belongs “jurisdiction . . . with regard to . . . the protection and preservation of the marine environment” (Article 56, paragraph 1 (b (iii), reflecting customary law). That jurisdiction is exclusive as regards the adoption of laws and regulations pertaining to the conservation of biological resources and preservation of the marine environment. However, when it comes to the application of those laws and regulations, the jurisdiction of the coastal State is not exclusive: third States thus have the power to take the necessary measures to ensure that vessels flying their flag comply with the laws and regulations enacted by the coastal State, as mentioned in the Judgment (paragraph 179, referring to an Advisory Opinion of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea: Request for Advisory Opinion submitted by the Sub-Regional Fisheries Commission, Advisory Opinion, 2 April 2015, ITLOS Reports 2015, p. 37, para. 120). Consequently, there would be a violation of Nicaragua’s jurisdiction if that particular provision of Article 5 of Decree 1946 was applied in such a way as to empower the Colombian authorities to enact rules on the “preservation of the maritime environment” in the part of the contiguous zone overlapping with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, or to exercise measures of constraint against vessels flying the flag of a third State.
27. It remains to be determined whether by its mere existence — that is to say, in the absence of any specific measure implementing the provision at issue — Decree 1946, inasmuch as it gives Colombia jurisdiction in relation to the “preservation of the maritime environment”, engages Colombia’s responsibility vis-à-vis Nicaragua.
28. I do not think it necessary to adopt a position on the general question of whether a State engages its international responsibility simply by adopting national legislation, a question in respect of which the International Law Commission rightly stated that there was no general and unequivocal answer.
It seems to me that, at the very least, for a law or regulation, by its mere adoption or its mere promulgation, to constitute an internationally wrongful act, one condition must be met, which is necessary but may not be sufficient. The condition is that the law or regulation, by virtue of its content, is such that its application cannot fail to lead to the violation of an international obligation. If the text in question is open to a number of interpretations, one or more of which would be compatible with the State’s international obligations, I find it hard to regard it as constituting a wrongful act per se, even before its practical implementation brings to light a violation of an international obligation, if such there be.
29. I am not convinced that the above condition is met in the present case. It would be possible for Decree 1946 to be interpreted by the Colombian authorities (if need be, by the judicial authorities) in a restrictive fashion, precluding the provision referring to the “preservation of the maritime environment” from being implemented in such a way as to allow Colombia to exercise legislative power in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone. This is even more apparent in respect of the provision of the Decree referring to the protection of “national maritime interests”, which, the Court notes, “through its broad wording alone, appears to encroach on the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua as set forth in Article 56, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS” (paragraph 178). It too could be interpreted in a restrictive fashion so as to render it compatible with Nicaragua’s rights.
30. The important point, to my mind, is not whether such an interpretation reflects the intentions of the Decree’s drafters (which is highly debatable). Nor am I unduly influenced by the presence in Article 5 of the Decree of the clause added in 2014, according to which “[t]he Application
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of this article will be carried out in conformity with international law”. A State is always bound to apply its legislation in conformity with international law in so far as this is possible and, if it is not, to amend it. The aforementioned clause therefore adds nothing, in terms of the international obligations of the State. The decisive point is that if, in its Judgment, the Court had provided guidance on how the provisions of Decree 1946 should be applied (and the limits within which they may be applied) in order to ensure the compatibility of the contiguous zone with Nicaragua’s rights, Colombia would have been obliged to comply with that guidance when implementing the Decree. That is how, in my opinion, the Court should have proceeded, rather than finding the contiguous zone contrary to international law and ordering Colombia to bring the Decree into conformity with that law, which requires it to be amended.
31. For the foregoing reasons, I have been compelled to vote against subparagraphs 5 and 6 of the operative clause. This does not mean that I consider that Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” does not give rise to serious difficulties in respect of Nicaragua’s rights. But I address the question from a different perspective than that chosen by most of my colleagues, and I regret that I cannot reach the same conclusions as they do.
(Signed) Ronny ABRAHAM.
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OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE ABRAHAM
Désaccord avec les parties de l’arrêt relatives à la compétence ratione temporis
et à la « zone contiguë unique » — Question de la compétence de la Cour pour
connaître des faits postérieurs au 27 novembre 2013 non tranchée par l’arrêt de
2016 — Défaut de pertinence des précédents invoqués résultant du caractère
nouveau de la question — Article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá difficilement conciliable
avec l’idée que la Cour puisse exercer sa compétence sur des faits postérieurs à la
dénonciation du pacte — Précédents auxquels se réfère la Cour ayant trait à la
recevabilité plutôt qu’à la compétence — Relative souplesse de la jurisprudence en
matière de recevabilité des demandes nouvelles en cours d’instance — Rigueur
requise en matière de compétence — Hypothèse dans laquelle les faits
constitueraient un ensemble indivisible — Caractère dissociable en l’occurrence des
faits postérieurs et antérieurs à la date critique — Approche trop abstraite du
problème de la « zone contiguë unique » — Demande du Nicaragua limitée à des
allégations de violations de ses droits dans sa zone économique exclusive —
Questions de la conformité au droit international de la « zone contiguë unique » et
du respect des droits invoqués par le Nicaragua ne coïncidant pas parfaitement —
« Droits souverains » et « juridiction » de l’Etat côtier découlant de la règle
coutumière reflétée à l’article 56, paragraphe 1 a) et b), de la CNUDM devant
servir de référence pour le contrôle à exercer — Promulgation du décret no 1946
par la Colombie ne pouvant en elle-même être considérée comme constitutive d’un
fait internationalement illicite — Possibilité d’interpréter le décret, au stade de sa
mise en oeuvre, de manière conforme aux droits du Nicaragua.
1. Je me sépare du présent arrêt sur deux questions : celle de la compétence
ratione temporis de la Cour ; celle de la « zone contiguë unique » de
la Colombie. En raison de mon désaccord sur ces deux questions, j’ai dû
voter contre la plupart des points du dispositif.
I. La compétence ratione temporis de la Cour
2. Certaines des actions que le Nicaragua attribue à la Colombie, et
qui constituent, selon le demandeur, des violations de ses droits dans les
espaces maritimes qui relèvent de sa juridiction en vertu de l’arrêt de 2012
par lequel la Cour a fixé la frontière maritime entre les deux Parties, sont
postérieures au 27 novembre 2013. A cette date, le titre de compétence
qui permet à la Cour de connaître du présent différend a cessé de produire
effet, la Colombie ayant donné notification de sa dénonciation du
pacte de Bogotá le 27 novembre 2012. La défenderesse ayant contesté la
compétence de la Cour pour examiner les faits postérieurs au
27 novembre 2013 et se prononcer sur leur licéité, l’arrêt rejette cette
exception, et accepte d’étendre son examen à tous les faits allégués par le
Nicaragua, qu’ils soient antérieurs ou postérieurs à la date à laquelle son
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DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ABRAHAM
[Translation]
Disagreement with the parts of the Judgment relating to jurisdiction ratione
temporis and the “integral contiguous zone” — Question of the Court’s jurisdiction
over facts subsequent to 27 November 2013 not settled by the 2016 Judgment —
Lack of relevance of the precedents invoked because of the novel character of the
question — Difficulty in reconciling Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá with the
idea that the Court can exercise jurisdiction over facts subsequent to the
denunciation of the Pact — Precedents to which the Court refers relate to
admissibility rather than jurisdiction — Relative flexibility of the jurisprudence on
the admissibility of new claims filed in the course of proceedings — Rigour required
in respect of jurisdiction — Situation in which the facts form an indivisible whole —
Dissociable character in this instance of the facts subsequent and prior to the
critical date — Too abstract an approach to the problem of the “integral contiguous
zone” — Nicaragua’s claim limited to alleged violations of its rights in its exclusive
economic zone — Questions of the conformity with international law of the
“integral contiguous zone” and of respect for the rights invoked by Nicaragua do
not fully coincide — “Sovereign rights” and “jurisdiction” of the coastal State
deriving from the customary rule reflected in Article 56, paragraph 1 (a) and (b),
of UNCLOS should serve as reference points for the examination to be
undertaken — Colombia’s promulgation of Decree 1946 cannot in itself be
regarded as constituting an internationally wrongful act — Possibility to interpret
the Decree, at the implementation stage, in a manner consistent with Nicaragua’s
rights.
1. I disagree with the present Judgment on two points: the Court’s
jurisdiction ratione temporis and Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone”.
Because of my disagreement on these two points, I had to vote against
most of the subparagraphs of the operative clause.
I. The Court’s Jurisdiction Ratione Temporis
2. Some of the actions which Nicaragua attributes to Colombia, and
which, according to the Applicant, constitute violations of its rights in the
maritime areas that fall under its jurisdiction by virtue of the 2012 Judgment
whereby the Court fixed the maritime boundary between the two
Parties, took place after 27 November 2013. On that date, the title of
jurisdiction enabling the Court to entertain the present dispute ceased to
have effect, since Colombia had given notice of its denunciation of the
Pact of Bogotá on 27 November 2012. The Respondent contested the
Court’s jurisdiction to examine and rule on the lawfulness of events that
occurred after 27 November 2013, and the Court rejected that objection
in its Judgment and agreed to extend its examination to all the facts
alleged by Nicaragua, irrespective of whether they occurred before or
384 droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. abraham)
122
titre de compétence a cessé de produire effet. C’est sur ce point que je ne
suis pas d’accord.
3. Je commencerai par deux observations préliminaires.
En premier lieu, l’arrêt rendu en 2016, en la présente affaire, sur les
exceptions préliminaires soulevées par la Colombie n’a tranché cette question
de compétence ratione temporis ni explicitement ni implicitement. Elle
ne l’a pas tranchée explicitement, parce que la question n’avait pas été
soulevée par la défenderesse, laquelle soutenait que la Cour n’avait pas du
tout compétence pour connaître du différend, sa dénonciation du pacte
de Bogotá ayant, selon elle, pris effet immédiatement en ce qui concerne la
clause de compétence (argument que la Cour a rejeté). L’arrêt de 2016 n’a
pas non plus tranché la question implicitement. Il serait excessif de considérer
que, en se déclarant compétente pour connaître du différend relatif
aux prétendues violations par la Colombie des droits du Nicaragua dans
les espaces maritimes dont le demandeur affirmait (d’ailleurs à bon droit)
qu’ils lui avaient été reconnus par l’arrêt de 2012, la Cour aurait implicitement
tranché la question de l’étendue ratione temporis de sa compétence,
qui n’avait été aucunement débattue devant elle par les Parties. Le Nicaragua,
d’ailleurs, n’a pas cherché à soutenir qu’il existerait une res judicata
découlant de l’arrêt de 2016 qui ferait obstacle à ce que la Cour, au stade
actuel de la procédure, adopte une position conforme à la thèse colombienne
en ce qui concerne la compétence ratione temporis.
4. En second lieu, aucun des précédents auxquels les Parties ont pu se
référer ne tranche directement la question de droit soumise à la Cour dans
la présente affaire. Il en va ainsi parce que la Cour n’a jamais été pratiquement
en situation d’avoir à décider quels étaient les effets de l’extinction
de son titre de compétence sur sa capacité à examiner des faits
postérieurs à cette extinction dans le cadre d’une instance déjà pendante
devant elle à la date à laquelle le titre de compétence a cessé de produire
effet. La Cour le reconnaît d’ailleurs dans le présent arrêt, au paragraphe
43. Il lui appartenait donc de fixer sa jurisprudence à cet égard.
C’est ce qu’elle fait, mais dans un sens que j’estime critiquable.
5. La base de compétence permettant à la Cour de connaître de la partie
du différend relative aux diverses actions que le Nicaragua attribue à
la Colombie, qui auraient eu lieu, selon le demandeur, dans sa zone économique
exclusive, et dont chacune aurait constitué une violation de ses
droits, est l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá. Les dispositions pertinentes
de cet article, pour la question qui nous occupe, se lisent comme suit :
« [L]es Hautes Parties Contractantes en ce qui concerne tout autre
Etat américain déclarent reconnaître comme obligatoire de plein
droit, et sans convention spéciale tant que le présent Traité restera en
vigueur, la juridiction de la Cour sur tous les différends d’ordre juridique
surgissant entre elles et ayant pour objet :
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
c) L’existence de tout fait qui, s’il était établi, constituerait la violation
d’un engagement international ».
sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. abraham) 384
122
after the date on which its jurisdictional title ceased to have effect. It is on
this point that I disagree.
3. I shall start by making two preliminary observations.
First, the Judgment on the preliminary objections raised by Colombia
rendered in 2016 in the present case failed to resolve the question of jurisdiction
ratione temporis either explicitly or implicitly. It did not resolve it
explicitly because the question was not raised by the Respondent, which
argued that the Court had no jurisdiction at all over the dispute, since, in
its view, its denunciation of the Pact of Bogotá had taken effect immediately
as far as the jurisdictional clause was concerned (an argument which
the Court rejected). Nor did the 2016 Judgment resolve the matter implicitly.
It would be going too far to maintain that in finding that it had
jurisdiction over the dispute concerning Colombia’s alleged violations of
Nicaragua’s rights in the maritime areas claimed by the Applicant (rightly,
moreover) to have been adjudged to appertain to it in the 2012 Judgment,
the Court had implicitly settled the question of the scope ratione temporis
of its jurisdiction, a matter which the Parties did not discuss before the
Court at all. Besides, Nicaragua made no attempt to claim that there was
a res judicata deriving from the 2016 Judgment that would prevent the
Court, at the current stage of the proceedings, from adopting a position
consistent with Colombia’s argument in respect of jurisdiction ratione temporis.
4. Secondly, none of the precedents to which the Parties may have
referred directly settles the point of law submitted to the Court in the
present case. This is because the Court has never, in practice, found itself
in a situation where it has had to determine the effects of the lapse of its
jurisdictional title on its ability to examine facts subsequent to that lapse,
in the context of a case already pending before it on the date when the
jurisdictional title ceased to have effect. The Court, moreover, acknowledges
this in the present Judgment, in paragraph 43. It was therefore
incumbent on it to establish its jurisprudence in this regard. It does so,
but in a way that I find open to criticism.
5. The jurisdictional basis for the Court to entertain the part of the
dispute concerning the various actions that Nicaragua attributes to
Colombia, which, according to the Applicant, took place in its exclusive
economic zone, and each one of which it claims to be a violation of its
rights, is Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá. The provisions of that article
that are relevant to the question before us read as follows:
“[T]he High Contracting Parties declare that they recognize in relation
to any other American State, the jurisdiction of the Court as
compulsory ipso facto, without the necessity of any special agreement
so long as the present Treaty is in force, in all disputes of a juridical
nature that arise among them concerning:
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
(c) The existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute
the breach of an international obligation”.
385 droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. abraham)
123
6. Il est entendu que ces dispositions, qui reproduisent en substance
celles de l’article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour, ne permettent
pas à un Etat d’introduire une instance contentieuse contre un autre Etat
postérieurement à la date à laquelle le traité — le pacte de Bogotá — a
cessé d’être en vigueur entre eux, que le « fait » dont il est allégué qu’il
« constituerait la violation d’un engagement international » soit lui-
même
antérieur ou postérieur à cette date. Mais cela ne répond pas à notre
question,
puisqu’en l’espèce le Nicaragua a introduit son instance la veille
du jour où le traité a cessé d’être en vigueur entre lui-
même et la Colombie.
7. Il me paraît difficile de concilier les dispositions qui précèdent, et qui
circonscrivent le consentement donné par la Colombie à la compétence de
la Cour, avec l’idée que la Cour serait compétente pour examiner des faits
qui sont attribués à la défenderesse, et décider si ceux-
ci constituent la
violation d’une obligation internationale, lorsque ces faits sont postérieurs
à la date à laquelle la Colombie a cessé d’être partie au pacte de Bogotá,
et son consentement à la juridiction de la Cour a pris fin en conséquence.
La circonstance que ces faits soient portés à la connaissance de la Cour,
et soumis à son examen, dans le cadre d’une instance déjà pendante, plutôt
que par l’introduction d’une instance nouvelle par le Nicaragua (ce
qui serait évidemment impossible), ne me paraît pas devoir changer fondamentalement
la réponse à la question de la compétence ratione temporis.
8. Pour justifier la solution qu’elle adopte, la Cour se réfère, au paragraphe
44 du présent arrêt, à des précédents qui me semblent dépourvus
de pertinence.
La plupart d’entre eux concernent la question de savoir si et dans quelle
mesure une partie peut présenter en cours d’instance une demande nouvelle.
La Cour a jugé qu’une telle demande additionnelle était possible à
condition, soit qu’elle soit implicitement contenue dans la requête introductive,
soit qu’elle découle directement de la question qui fait l’objet de
la requête (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République
démocratique du Congo), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 657,
par. 41, se référant à Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru c.
Australie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992).
Mais cette ligne jurisprudentielle, qu’on doit considérer comme bien
établie, est sans pertinence en l’espèce pour plusieurs raisons.
D’abord, elle ne concerne pas la compétence de la Cour mais vise à
régler une pure question de recevabilité : celle de savoir si un requérant
peut ajouter une demande en cours d’instance ou s’il doit plutôt présenter
cette demande sous la forme d’une nouvelle requête introductive d’instance.
Dans tous ces précédents, le titre de compétence n’avait pas disparu.
C’est pourquoi cette jurisprudence s’applique indifféremment que la
demande nouvelle se rapporte à des faits antérieurs à la requête (c’était le
cas dans l’affaire Diallo) ou postérieurs. La date des faits est sans importance,
puisque le titre de compétence perdure.
Il n’est pas douteux selon moi que la Cour aurait dû se référer à cette
jurisprudence, et que celle-
ci aurait été pleinement pertinente, si le Nica-
sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. abraham) 385
123
6. It is understood that those provisions, which in substance reproduce
those of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, do not allow
a State to institute contentious proceedings against another State after the
date on which the treaty — the Pact of Bogotá — ceased to be in force
between them, whether the “fact” alleged to “constitute the breach of an
international obligation” itself occurred before or after that date. But that
does not answer our question, since in this case Nicaragua instituted proceedings
the day before the treaty ceased to be in force between itself and
Colombia.
7. In my view, it is hard to reconcile the aforementioned provisions,
which circumscribe the consent given by Colombia to the Court’s jurisdiction,
with the idea that the Court is competent to examine the facts
attributed to the Respondent and to decide whether they constitute a
breach of an international obligation, when those facts occurred after the
date on which Colombia ceased to be a party to the Pact of Bogotá and
its consent to the jurisdiction of the Court thus came to an end.
That those facts were brought to the attention of the Court and submitted
for its examination as part of a case which was already pending,
rather than through the institution of new proceedings by Nicaragua
(which would obviously be impossible), does not appear to me to require
a fundamentally different answer to the question of jurisdiction ratione
temporis.
8. To justify the solution it adopts, the Court refers in paragraph 44 of
the present Judgment to precedents which are, in my view, irrelevant.
Most of them concern the question of whether and to what extent a
party can file a new claim in the course of proceedings. The Court has
found such an additional claim to be possible, on condition that either it
is implicit in the application instituting proceedings or it arises directly
out of the question which is the subject-matter
of the application
(Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the
Congo), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 657, para. 41,
referring to Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992).
Yet this line of jurisprudence, which must be considered well established,
is irrelevant in the present case, for several reasons.
First, it does not concern the jurisdiction of the Court, but is intended
to settle what is purely a question of admissibility: that is, whether an
applicant can add a claim during proceedings or whether they must file
that claim in the form of a new application instituting proceedings instead.
In all those precedents, the title of jurisdiction had not lapsed. That is
why that jurisprudence applies irrespective of whether the new claim
relates to facts which occurred before the application was made (as happened
in the Diallo case) or afterwards. The date of the facts is immaterial,
since the title of jurisdiction continues to exist.
There is no doubt, in my view, that the Court should have referred to
that jurisprudence, and that it would have been entirely relevant, had
386 droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. abraham)
124
ragua avait introduit en cours d’instance, postérieurement à la requête et
même postérieurement à l’expiration du titre de compétence, une ou plusieurs
demandes nouvelles se rapportant à des actions de la Colombie
antérieures au 27 novembre 2013. Mais telle n’est pas la question qui se
pose en l’espèce.
Ensuite, la solution relativement souple (mais dont la souplesse n’est
pas sans limite : dans l’affaire Diallo, la demande nouvelle a été déclarée
irrecevable) adoptée par la Cour dans le cadre de la jurisprudence précitée
s’explique aisément par des considérations tenant à la volonté d’éviter
tout formalisme excessif et à des préoccupations d’efficacité et d’économie
procédurale.
Ces considérations n’ont aucun rôle à jouer dans la présente affaire,
puisque la question posée à la Cour est d’une tout autre nature : la question
touche à la compétence de la Cour — ce qui appelle une certaine
rigueur — et non au déroulement de la procédure — ce qui justifie une
certaine souplesse.
9. L’arrêt se réfère aussi à l’affaire Djibouti c. France, dans laquelle la
Cour a examiné sous l’angle de la compétence et non de la recevabilité la
question de savoir si elle pouvait se prononcer sur les demandes présentées
en cours d’instance par la requérante. Mais cette question se posait
dans des conditions tout à fait particulières, puisque la compétence de la
Cour était fondée sur le consentement donné par la défenderesse postérieurement
à l’introduction de la requête, en vertu de l’article 38, paragraphe
5, du Règlement, et qu’il s’agissait d’interpréter les termes et de
déterminer l’étendue de ce consentement.
Le consentement de la France ayant été donné « pour le différend qui
fait l’objet de la requête », il s’agissait pour la Cour de savoir ce que
recouvrait cette formule, et il n’est pas surprenant qu’elle se soit référée à
cette fin à sa jurisprudence sur les demandes nouvelles (Certaines questions
concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale (Djibouti c. France),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 211‑212, par. 87‑88). Mais le titre de compétence
n’avait pas disparu, et ce que la Cour était appelée à trancher était
une question de compétence ratione materiae et non de compétence
ratione temporis. On ne peut à mon avis rien déduire de cet arrêt pour la
question telle qu’elle se posait à la Cour dans la présente affaire.
10. En définitive, je n’aperçois pas d’argument convaincant pour étendre
la compétence de la Cour à des faits postérieurs au 27 novembre 2013.
Certes, j’admettrais sans difficulté qu’il faille prendre en considération des
faits ou comportements postérieurs à la date à laquelle le titre de compétence
a expiré, s’il existait entre ces faits et ceux qui sont antérieurs à cette
date un lien tel que les uns et les autres constituent un ensemble indivisible.
En pareil cas, on ne pourrait apprécier la portée des faits antérieurs à la
date critique, et juger de leur licéité, qu’en prenant en considération certains
éléments postérieurs dont ils seraient indissociables.
Mais il n’y a rien de tel en l’espèce. Les faits allégués par le Nicaragua
et qui se seraient produits après le 27 novembre 2013 sont parfaitement
dissociables des faits antérieurs (car il ne suffit pas selon moi qu’ils soient
sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. abraham) 386
124
Nicaragua introduced in the course of the proceedings, after the filing of
the Application or even after the lapse of the jurisdictional title, one or
more new claims relating to actions carried out by Colombia before
27 November 2013. Yet that is not the question which arises in this case.
Furthermore, the relatively flexible approach adopted by the Court in
the context of the jurisprudence cited above (whose flexibility is not
boundless, however: in the Diallo case, the new claim was declared inadmissible)
can easily be explained by a desire to avoid excessive formalism
and concerns of procedural economy and efficiency.
Such considerations have no role to play in the present case, since the
question put to the Court is of an entirely different nature: the question
pertains to the Court’s jurisdiction — which calls for a degree of rigour —
and not to the conduct of proceedings — which would justify a degree of
flexibility.
9. The Judgment also refers to the Djibouti v. France case, in which the
Court explored whether it could adjudicate the claims made by the Applicant
in the course of the proceedings from the standpoint of jurisdiction
rather than admissibility. However, the question arose in very particular
circumstances, since the Court’s jurisdiction was founded on the consent
given by the Respondent after the filing of the Application, under Article
38, paragraph 5, of the Rules of Court, and it was a matter of interpreting
the terms and determining the scope of that consent.
Since France had given its consent “for the dispute forming the subject
of the Application”, the Court had to establish what that wording covered,
and it is not surprising that, to do so, it referred to its jurisprudence
on new claims (Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters
(Djibouti v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 211‑212,
paras. 87-88). However, the title of jurisdiction had not lapsed, and the
question that the Court had to decide was one of jurisdiction ratione
materiae, not jurisdiction ratione temporis. In my opinion, no conclusion
can be drawn from that Judgment that is of relevance to the question
before the Court in the present case.
10. In short, I fail to see any convincing argument for extending the
Court’s jurisdiction to cover facts occurring after 27 November 2013. I
would certainly have no difficulty in accepting that account must be taken
of facts or conduct that occurred after the date on which the jurisdictional
title lapsed, if there were a link between those facts and the ones occurring
before that date, causing them to form an indivisible whole. In such a case,
it would only be possible to assess the scope of the facts occurring before
the critical date, and to judge their lawfulness, by taking into consideration
certain later developments from which they were indissociable.
Yet nothing of the sort applies in the present case. The facts alleged by
Nicaragua to have occurred after 27 November 2013 are entirely dissociable
from the earlier facts (because to my mind it does not suffice for
387 droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. abraham)
125
plus ou moins de même nature), et chacun d’entre eux appelle un examen
séparé, auquel procède l’arrêt.
11. C’est pour les raisons qui précèdent que j’ai dû voter contre le
point 1 du dispositif, et par voie de conséquence contre les points 2, 3
et 4.
12. En effet, en ce qui concerne les incidents qui seraient survenus en
mer et à l’occasion desquels la marine colombienne aurait, selon le Nicaragua,
fait obstacle à l’exercice de ses droits par le demandeur, le seul qui
soit antérieur au 27 novembre 2013 n’est pas étayé selon moi par des éléments
de preuve suffisants.
Et en ce qui concerne les prétendues autorisations par la Colombie de
certaines activités de pêche dans la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua,
outre que je doute de leur existence même, les éléments que retient
l’arrêt pour retenir ce grief sont pour l’essentiel postérieurs au 27 novembre
2013.
II. La question de la « zone contiguë unique »
13. Je suis aussi en désaccord avec la manière dont l’arrêt aborde la
question de la « zone contiguë unique » créée par le décret colombien
no 1946 du 9 septembre 2013.
14. En bref, la Cour a procédé à un contrôle abstrait de la conformité
du décret en cause (ou de la zone contiguë telle qu’elle est prévue par le
décret, ce qui revient au même) au « droit international ». A cette fin, l’arrêt
commence par définir le contenu du droit international coutumier
applicable à la création de zones contiguës par les Etats (aux paragraphes
147 à 155), puis il examine le décret no 1946 afin d’identifier celles
de ses dispositions qui seraient incompatibles avec le droit international
(aux paragraphes 164 à 187), avant de se demander si, par sa seule promulgation,
le décret — dont la Cour a préalablement constaté qu’il était
sur plusieurs points contraire au droit applicable — était de nature à engager
la responsabilité internationale de la Colombie (aux paragraphes 188
à 194). Cela conduit la Cour vers un dispositif par lequel, d’une part, elle
déclare que la zone contiguë « n’est pas conforme au droit international
coutumier » (point 5 du dispositif), et, d’autre part, elle décide que la
Colombie doit mettre le décret en conformité avec ce droit (point 6).
15. A mon avis, il s’agit là d’une approche trop abstraite de la question,
qui ne correspond pas à l’examen auquel la Cour était appelée à
procéder en l’espèce. Le Nicaragua se plaignait de ce que, en créant cette
« zone contiguë unique », la Colombie avait méconnu les droits qui appartiennent
au demandeur dans les espaces maritimes qui lui ont été attribués
en vertu de l’arrêt de 2012, en tant que ce dernier a fixé la frontière
maritime qui sépare les zones économiques exclusives du Nicaragua et de
la Colombie. Plutôt que de rechercher in abstracto si le décret no 1946 (ou
la zone contiguë établie par le décret, ce qui revient au même) était
conforme au droit international, la Cour aurait dû se demander si et dans
sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. abraham) 387
125
them to be more or less of the same nature), and each of them requires
separate examination, which is what the Judgment undertakes.
11. It is for the above reasons that I have had to vote against subparagraph
1 of the operative clause and, consequently, against subparagraphs
2, 3 and 4 as well.
12. Indeed, with regard to the incidents alleged to have occurred at sea
and during which, according to Nicaragua, the Colombian Navy prevented
the Applicant from exercising its rights, the only one to have
occurred before 27 November 2013 is not, in my view, supported by sufficient
evidence.
As for Colombia’s alleged authorizations of certain fishing activities in
Nicaragua’s exclusive economic zone, besides the fact that I doubt their
very existence, most of the evidence identified in the Judgment to uphold
that complaint dates from after 27 November 2013.
II. The Question of the “Integral Contiguous Zone”
13. I also disagree with the way in which the Judgment addresses the
question of the “integral contiguous zone” established by Colombia’s
Decree 1946 of 9 September 2013.
14. In brief, the Court carried out an abstract examination of whether
the Decree at issue (or the contiguous zone as provided for by the Decree,
which amounts to the same thing) complies with “international law”. To
that end, the Judgment begins by defining the content of the customary
international law applicable to the creation of contiguous zones by States
(paragraphs 147 to 155); it then examines Decree 1946 in order to identify
which of its provisions are incompatible with international law (paragraphs
164 to 187), before considering whether, by its very promulgation,
the Decree — several provisions of which the Court has already found to
be contrary to the applicable law — could engage Colombia’s international
responsibility (paragraphs 188 to 194). That leads the Court
towards an operative clause in which, first, it finds that the contiguous
zone “is not in conformity with customary international law” (subparagraph
5 of the operative clause) and, secondly, it rules that Colombia
must bring the Decree into conformity with that law (subparagraph 6).
15. To my mind, this is too abstract an approach to the issue, which
does not correspond to the examination that the Court was called upon
to carry out in this case. Nicaragua’s complaint was that, by creating this
“integral contiguous zone”, Colombia had violated the rights of
the Applicant
in the maritime areas adjudged by the 2012 Judgment to
appertain to the latter, inasmuch as that Judgment fixed the maritime
boundary separating the exclusive economic zones of Nicaragua and
Colombia. Rather than examining in abstracto whether Decree 1946 (or the
contiguous zone established by it, which amounts to the same thing) was in
conformity with international law, the Court should have asked whether
388 droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. abraham)
126
quelle mesure la zone contiguë méconnaissait — ou était susceptible de
méconnaître, au stade de la mise en oeuvre du décret — les droits dont se
prévalait le Nicaragua, ceux dont le demandeur prétendait qu’ils n’étaient
pas respectés par la Colombie au mépris de l’arrêt de 2012. Une telle
approche — la seule correcte selon moi — n’aurait pas conduit la Cour
aux mêmes conclusions.
16. En règle générale, lorsqu’un Etat vient devant la Cour pour mettre
en jeu la responsabilité internationale d’un autre Etat, il n’agit non pas
pour la défense de la légalité internationale, mais pour la protection des
droits qui lui appartiennent et qui ont été selon lui méconnus par le défendeur
en raison de l’inexécution par celui-
ci d’une obligation qui était due
au demandeur. Il n’en va autrement que lorsque sont en cause des obligations
erga omnes ou erga omnes partes : en pareil cas, le demandeur agit
pour la protection de l’intérêt collectif que ces obligations ont précisément
pour objet de garantir.
17. Il peut se produire, et il se produit souvent, que la question de la
conformité au droit international d’un acte déterminé du défendeur et
celle du respect, par le même acte, des droits du demandeur coïncident
pratiquement, même si elles demeurent distinctes théoriquement. Ainsi,
en l’espèce, si le décret nicaraguayen du 27 août 2013 établissant un système
de lignes de base droites pour mesurer la largeur de la mer territoriale
est contraire au droit international (ce que retient l’arrêt, et je
l’approuve sur ce point), il en résulte nécessairement une violation des
droits de la Colombie, une fois admis que ce dernier Etat est spécialement
atteint par les effets d’une telle illicéité. C’est pourquoi j’ai voté en faveur
du point 7 du dispositif, sans m’arrêter à une formulation qui, à mes
yeux, n’est pas la meilleure.
18. Il en va autrement en ce qui concerne la question de la conformité
au droit international de la zone contiguë colombienne et celle du respect
des droits invoqués par le Nicaragua, questions qui ne coïncident pas parfaitement.
19. Le Nicaragua ne demandait pas à la Cour de procéder à un contrôle
abstrait du décret no 1946 au regard du droit international, mais de dire
que ce décret — et la zone contiguë telle qu’elle s’y trouvait définie —
méconnaissait ses droits dans sa zone économique exclusive. Bien entendu,
pour répondre à la question qui lui était ainsi soumise, la Cour devait se
pencher sur la question du droit applicable, et rechercher — dans une
certaine mesure — si les dispositions du décret no 1946 étaient compatibles
avec ce droit. Mais elle n’aurait pas dû perdre de vue, ce qu’elle a eu
tendance à faire selon moi, que cet examen n’était pertinent que dans la
mesure où il permettait de décider si les droits du Nicaragua avaient été
méconnus, non si le droit international en tant que tel avait été respecté
par la Colombie.
20. Les droits dont le Nicaragua alléguait qu’ils avaient été méconnus
sont ceux dont le demandeur peut se prévaloir dans sa zone économique
exclusive en tant qu’Etat côtier. Ces droits ne résultent pas directement,
mais sont dérivés, de l’arrêt de 2012, puisque c’est ce dernier qui a fixé les
sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. abraham) 388
126
and to what extent the contiguous zone violated — or was capable of
violating, when the Decree was implemented — the rights claimed by
Nicaragua,
the rights that the Applicant alleged Colombia failed to
respect, in breach of the 2012 Judgment. Such an approach — the only
correct one, in my view — would not have led the Court to the same
conclusions.
16. As a general rule, when a State comes before the Court to invoke
the international responsibility of another State, it is not acting in defence
of international law but to protect its own rights which, in its view, have
been violated by the respondent as a result of the latter’s failure to comply
with an obligation owed to the applicant. The only exception is when
there are erga omnes or erga omnes partes obligations at issue: in such
cases, the applicant acts to ensure protection of the collective interest
which those obligations are specifically intended to guarantee.
17. It may happen, and often happens, that the question of whether a
given act of the respondent is in conformity with international law and
the question of whether that same act respects the applicant’s rights coincide
in practice, even if they remain distinct in theory. Thus, in this case,
if Nicaragua’s Decree of 27 August 2013 establishing a system of straight
baselines to measure the breadth of the territorial sea is contrary to
international
law (as the Judgment finds, and I agree on this point), the
result must be a violation of Colombia’s rights, once it is accepted that
the latter is specially affected by the consequences of this wrongful act.
That is why I voted in favour of subparagraph 7 of the operative clause,
without dwelling on the wording, which, in my view, is not the most felicitous.
18. The situation is different as regards the question of whether Colombia’s
contiguous zone is in conformity with international law and that of
whether the rights invoked by Nicaragua have been respected, questions
which do not fully coincide.
19. Nicaragua did not ask the Court to conduct an abstract examination
of Decree 1946 in the light of international law, but to find that the
Decree — and the contiguous zone defined therein —violated its rights in
its exclusive economic zone. Of course, in order to answer the question
thus submitted to it, the Court had to address the issue of the applicable
law and examine — to some extent — whether the provisions of
Decree 1946 were compatible with that law. But it should not have lost
sight — which, in my opinion, it tended to do — of the fact that such an
examination was only relevant in so far as it enabled the Court to decide
whether Nicaragua’s rights had been violated, rather than whether
Colombia had complied with international law as such.
20. The rights alleged by Nicaragua to have been violated are those
which the Applicant, as a coastal State, can claim in its exclusive economic
zone. Those rights are not a direct result of the 2012 Judgment but
are derived from it, since that Judgment fixed the limits of the exclusive
389 droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. abraham)
127
limites de la zone économique exclusive. En somme, le Nicaragua alléguait
que la Colombie ne respectait pas la frontière maritime telle que
tracée par la Cour en 2012 en prétendant exercer, du côté nicaraguayen
de la frontière, des pouvoirs incompatibles avec les droits appartenant au
demandeur dans sa zone économique exclusive. Les droits en question
sont les « droits souverains » et la « juridiction » que l’article 56 de la convention
des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer (ci-
après la « CNUDM »), qui
reflète le droit international coutumier, confère à l’Etat côtier dans sa
zone économique exclusive ; ils sont énumérés au paragraphe 1, a) et b),
de l’article 56 de ladite convention. Remarquons que le Nicaragua n’a pas
invoqué devant la Cour, parmi les droits dont il alléguait la violation, la
liberté de navigation, droit qu’il possède incontestablement dans sa zone
économique exclusive (aussi bien que les Etats tiers), mais qui n’a été
d’aucune manière affecté, pas plus dans son étendue que dans son existence,
par la frontière maritime fixée par l’arrêt de 2012.
Ce sont donc, selon moi, les dispositions de l’article 56, paragraphe 1 a)
et b), de la CNUDM qui auraient dû servir de référence au contrôle
exercé par la Cour sur le décret no 1946, plutôt que celles du paragraphe 1
de l’article 33 de la même convention, qui définit les pouvoirs que l’Etat
côtier peut exercer dans sa zone contiguë.
21. Je pense, en conséquence, que la Cour aurait dû se poser deux
questions. Elle aurait dû d’abord se demander si les dispositions du décret
no 1946 méconnaissent — ou sont susceptibles de méconnaître — les
droits souverains et la juridiction du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique
exclusive, tels qu’ils sont définis par l’article 56, paragraphe 1 a) et b), de
la CNUDM. En cas de réponse affirmative, ou partiellement affirmative,
à la question précédente, la Cour aurait dû ensuite se demander si par sa
seule existence le décret en question constitue un fait internationalement
illicite engageant la responsabilité internationale de la Colombie.
22. En ce qui concerne la première question, je constate que l’arrêt
accorde une assez large place à un point qui, selon mon approche, ne
possède qu’une pertinence assez limitée, à savoir la largeur de la zone
contiguë. Ayant conclu que la règle, énoncée au paragraphe 2 de l’article
33 de la CNUDM, selon laquelle la zone contiguë ne doit pas excéder
une largeur de 24 milles marins reflétait le droit coutumier, la Cour
déclare que le décret no 1946 ne respecte pas le droit applicable en ce qu’il
élargit la zone contiguë qu’il crée, à certains endroits, au-
delà de
24 milles marins. C’est peut‑être exact, mais sans grande pertinence en
l’espèce. De deux choses l’une : ou bien les pouvoirs que le décret no 1946
confère aux autorités colombiennes sont compatibles avec les « droits souverains
» et la « juridiction » du Nicaragua tels qu’ils sont définis à l’article
56, paragraphe 1 a) et b), de la CNUDM, et dans ce cas le fait que
la zone contiguë colombienne excède une largeur de 24 milles marins ne
viole pas par lui-
même les droits du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique
exclusive ; ou bien les pouvoirs en cause sont incompatibles avec les droits
du Nicaragua, et dans ce cas il y aurait eu violation de ces droits même si
les limites de la zone contiguë avaient respecté la règle des 24 milles marins,
sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. abraham) 389
127
economic zone. In short, Nicaragua alleged that Colombia failed to
respect the maritime boundary as drawn by the Court in 2012, by seeking
to exercise, on Nicaragua’s side of the boundary, powers incompatible
with the rights belonging to the Applicant in its exclusive economic zone.
The rights in question are the “sovereign rights” and “jurisdiction” conferred
on the coastal State in its exclusive economic zone by Article 56 of
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (hereinafter
“UNCLOS”), which reflects customary international law; they are enumerated
in Article 56, paragraph 1 (a) and (b), of that Convention. Note
that Nicaragua did not include among the rights whose violation it alleged
before the Court its right of freedom of navigation, which it (together
with third States) unquestionably possesses in its exclusive economic
zone, but which was in no way affected, either in its scope or in its existence,
by the maritime boundary fixed by the 2012 Judgment.
In my view, it is thus the provisions of Article 56, paragraph 1 (a) and
(b), of UNCLOS which should have served as a reference point for the
Court’s examination of Decree 1946, rather than the provisions of Article
33, paragraph 1, of the same Convention, which defines the powers
that the coastal State may exercise in its contiguous zone.
21. I am therefore of the opinion that the Court should have addressed
two questions. It should first have considered whether the provisions of
Decree 1946 violate — or are capable of violating — the sovereign rights
and jurisdiction of Nicaragua in its exclusive economic zone, as defined
by Article 56, paragraph 1 (a) and (b), of UNCLOS. If the answer to
that question were in the affirmative, or partially in the affirmative, the
Court should then have considered whether, by its mere existence, the
Decree at issue constituted an internationally wrongful act engaging
Colombia’s international responsibility.
22. As regards the first question, I note that the Judgment deals at
quite considerable length with a point which, under my approach, is of
rather limited relevance, namely the breadth of the contiguous zone. Having
found that the rule set out in Article 33, paragraph 2, of UNCLOS —
which states that the breadth of the contiguous zone may not exceed
24 nautical miles — reflected customary law, the Court declares that
Decree 1946 fails to comply with the applicable law because it extends the
contiguous zone that it establishes beyond 24 nautical miles in some
areas. That may be so, but it is hardly relevant in the present case. There
are two possibilities here: either the powers conferred on the Colombian
authorities by Decree 1946 are compatible with the “sovereign rights”
and “jurisdiction” of Nicaragua, as defined in Article 56, paragraph 1 (a)
and (b), of UNCLOS, in which case the fact that the Colombian contiguous
zone is wider than 24 nautical miles does not per se violate Nicaragua’s
rights in its exclusive economic zone; or, the powers in question are
incompatible with Nicaragua’s rights, in which case there would have
been a violation of those rights even if the limits of the contiguous zone
had complied with the 24-nautical-mile rule, since, in any event, part of
390 droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. abraham)
128
puisqu’en tout état de cause la zone contiguë était destinée, pour une partie
de son étendue, à chevaucher la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua.
Tout au plus pourrait-on considérer qu’en cas de méconnaissance
des droits souverains et de la juridiction du Nicaragua, le fait que la zone
contiguë colombienne s’étende au-
delà de 24 milles marins constitue une
circonstance aggravante, puisque cette méconnaissance produit des effets
géographiquement plus étendus.
23. La question déterminante, en réalité, est celle de savoir si les pouvoirs
que le décret no 1946 confère aux autorités colombiennes sont
incompatibles avec les « droits souverains » et la « juridiction » du Nicaragua,
en tant qu’Etat côtier, dans sa zone économique exclusive.
24. A cet égard, la Cour identifie plusieurs dispositions du décret qui
lui paraissent aller au‑delà des pouvoirs que le droit international, c’est-àdire
le paragraphe 1 de l’article 33 de la CNUDM en tant qu’il reflète le
droit coutumier, permet à un Etat d’exercer dans sa zone contiguë. Tel est
le cas des dispositions de l’article 5 du décret qui visent la prévention des
infractions et le contrôle du respect des lois et règlements touchant à « la
sûreté de l’Etat, notamment la piraterie et le trafic de stupéfiants et les
substances psychotropes, ainsi que les comportements qui attentent à la
sûreté en mer ». Tel est aussi le cas de la disposition qui vise « la préservation
de l’environnement maritime ».
25. En ce qui concerne les dispositions de la première catégorie, il est
bien possible qu’il soit « contraire à la règle coutumière pertinente d’inclure
la sécurité dans le champ d’application matériel des pouvoirs reconnus
à la Colombie dans la « zone contiguë unique » », comme l’écrit la
Cour au paragraphe 177, et que par suite le décret soit sur ce point
contraire au droit international. Mais, comme je l’ai expliqué plus haut,
telle n’était pas la question qui était soumise à la Cour. La question était
de savoir si les pouvoirs prévus par le décret, au bénéfice des autorités
colombiennes, méconnaissaient les « droits souverains » et la « juridiction
» du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique exclusive. Aucune démonstration
n’a été faite que tel soit le cas en ce qui concerne les dispositions
du décret relatives à la sécurité, ce qui supposerait d’identifier celles des
dispositions de l’article 56 paragraphe 1 a) et b), qui seraient méconnues
— ou risqueraient de l’être — par les dispositions ainsi critiquées.
26. En ce qui concerne la disposition du décret visant « la préservation
de l’environnement maritime », j’admets parfaitement qu’elle soulève une
difficulté sérieuse au regard des « droits souverains » et de la « juridiction
» du Nicaragua dans sa zone économique exclusive. Le droit coutumier,
en effet, attribue à l’Etat dont relève la zone économique exclusive
« juridiction … en ce qui concerne la protection et la préservation du
milieu marin » (article 56, paragraphe 1, b), iii), reflétant le droit coutumier).
Cette juridiction est exclusive pour ce qui est de l’adoption des lois
et règlements en matière de conservation des ressources biologiques et de
préservation du milieu marin. En revanche, pour ce qui concerne l’application
de ces lois et règlements, la compétence de l’Etat côtier n’est pas
exclusive : les Etats tiers ont ainsi le pouvoir de prendre les mesures
sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. abraham) 390
128
the contiguous zone would inevitably overlap with Nicaragua’s exclusive
economic zone. If there were a violation of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights
and jurisdiction, the fact that the Colombian contiguous zone extends
beyond 24 nautical miles could, at the very most, be considered an aggravating
circumstance, since that violation would produce geographically
more extensive effects.
23. The crucial question, in fact, is whether the powers which
Decree 1946 confers on the Colombian authorities are incompatible with
the “sovereign rights” and “jurisdiction” of Nicaragua, as a coastal State,
in its exclusive economic zone.
24. In this regard, the Court identifies several provisions in the Decree
which it deems to go beyond the powers that international law — namely
Article 33, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS, inasmuch as it reflects customary
law — allows a State to exercise in its contiguous zone. This is the case
for the provisions of Article 5 of the Decree which cover the prevention
of infringements and control over compliance with laws and regulations
regarding the “security of the State, including piracy, trafficking of drugs
and psychotropic substances, as well as conduct contrary to the security
in the sea”. It is also the case for the provision covering “the preservation
of the maritime environment”.
25. As regards the first category of provisions, it is quite possible that
“[t]he inclusion of security in the material scope of Colombia’s powers
within the ‘integral contiguous zone’ is . . . not in conformity with the
relevant customary rule”, as the Court states in paragraph 177, and that
the Decree is therefore contrary to international law in this respect. But,
as I explained earlier, that was not the question submitted to the Court.
The question was whether the powers conferred on the Colombian
authorities by the Decree violated the “sovereign rights” and “jurisdiction”
of Nicaragua in its exclusive economic zone. No evidence has been
provided to show that this is the case as far as the provisions of the Decree
relating to security are concerned; doing so would involve identifying the
provisions of Article 56, paragraph 1 (a) and (b), which had been — or
might be — violated by the provisions so criticized.
26. As for the provision in the Decree referring to “the preservation of
the maritime environment”, I fully accept that it raises a serious difficulty
in respect of the “sovereign rights” and “jurisdiction” of Nicaragua in its
exclusive economic zone. Customary law does indeed grant the State to
which the exclusive economic zone belongs “jurisdiction . . . with regard
to . . . the protection and preservation of the marine environment” (Article
56, paragraph 1 (b) (iii), reflecting customary law). That jurisdiction
is exclusive as regards the adoption of laws and regulations pertaining to
the conservation of biological resources and preservation of the marine
environment. However, when it comes to the application of those laws
and regulations, the jurisdiction of the coastal State is not exclusive: third
States thus have the power to take the necessary measures to ensure that
391 droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. abraham)
129
nécessaires pour faire respecter les lois et règlements adoptés par l’Etat
côtier par les navires battant leur pavillon, comme l’indique l’arrêt (au
paragraphe 179, se référant à un avis consultatif du Tribunal international
du droit de la mer : Demande d’avis consultatif soumise par la Commission
sous-régionale
des pêches, avis consultatif, 2 avril 2015, TIDM
Recueil 2015, p. 37, par. 120). Il y aurait donc violation de la juridiction
du Nicaragua si cette disposition particulière de l’article 5 du décret
no 1946 était appliquée de telle sorte qu’elle conférerait compétence aux
autorités colombiennes pour adopter des règles en matière de « préservation
de l’environnement maritime » dans la partie de la zone contiguë qui
chevauche la zone économique exclusive du Nicaragua, ou pour exercer
des mesures de contrainte à l’égard de navires battant pavillon d’Etats
tiers.
27. Reste à déterminer si par sa seule existence — c’est-à-dire en l’absence
de toute mesure concrète d’application de la disposition litigieuse —
le décret no 1946, en tant qu’il confère compétence à la Colombie en
matière de « préservation de l’environnement maritime », engage la responsabilité
internationale de la Colombie à l’égard du Nicaragua.
28. Je ne crois pas nécessaire de prendre parti sur la question générale
de savoir si un Etat engage sa responsabilité internationale par la seule
adoption de dispositions législatives nationales, question à laquelle la
Commission du droit international a indiqué à juste titre qu’il n’existait
pas une réponse générale et univoque.
Il me semble que, au moins, pour qu’une loi ou un règlement, par sa
seule adoption ou sa seule promulgation, constitue un fait internationalement
illicite, il faut qu’une condition soit remplie, qui est nécessaire mais
pas forcément suffisante. C’est que la loi ou le règlement soit tel, par son
contenu, que son application ne puisse pas manquer d’aboutir à la violation
d’une obligation internationale. Si le texte en cause est susceptible de
recevoir plusieurs interprétations, dont l’une ou certaines seraient compatibles
avec les obligations internationales de l’Etat, il me paraît difficile de
le considérer comme constituant en lui-
même un fait illicite, avant même
que sa mise en oeuvre concrète fasse apparaître, le cas échéant, la violation
d’une obligation internationale.
29. Je ne suis pas convaincu que cette condition soit remplie en l’espèce.
Il serait possible que le décret no 1946 soit interprété par les autorités
colombiennes (au besoin par les autorités judiciaires) de manière
restrictive, de telle sorte que la disposition se référant à « la préservation
de l’environnement maritime » ne soit pas appliquée comme permettant
l’exercice d’un pouvoir législatif par la Colombie dans la zone économique
exclusive du Nicaragua. C’est encore plus évident en ce qui
concerne la disposition du décret visant la protection des « intérêts maritimes
nationaux », dont la Cour relève que « du simple fait de son libellé
général, [elle] semble porter atteinte aux droits souverains et à la juridiction
du Nicaragua tels que définis au paragraphe 1 de l’article 56 de la
CNUDM » (par. 178). Elle aussi pourrait faire l’objet d’une interprétation
restrictive visant à la rendre compatible avec les droits du Nicaragua.
sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. abraham) 391
129
vessels flying their flag comply with the laws and regulations enacted by
the coastal State, as mentioned in the Judgment (paragraph 179, referring
to an Advisory Opinion of the International Tribunal for the Law of the
Sea: Request for an Advisory Opinion submitted by the Sub‑Regional Fisheries
Commission, Advisory Opinion, 2 April 2015, ITLOS Reports 2015,
p. 37, para. 120). Consequently, there would be a violation of Nicaragua’s
jurisdiction if that particular provision of Article 5 of Decree 1946
was applied in such a way as to empower the Colombian authorities to
enact rules on the “preservation of the maritime environment” in the part
of the contiguous zone overlapping with Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone, or to exercise measures of constraint against vessels flying the flag
of a third State.
27. It remains to be determined whether by its mere existence — that is
to say, in the absence of any specific measure implementing the provision
at issue — Decree 1946, inasmuch as it gives Colombia jurisdiction in
relation to the “preservation of the maritime environment”, engages
Colombia’s responsibility vis-
à-vis Nicaragua.
28. I do not think it necessary to adopt a position on the general question
of whether a State engages its international responsibility simply by
adopting national legislation, a question in respect of which the International
Law Commission rightly stated that there was no general and
unequivocal answer.
It seems to me that, at the very least, for a law or regulation, by its
mere adoption or its mere promulgation, to constitute an internationally
wrongful act, one condition must be met, which is necessary but may not
be sufficient. The condition is that the law or regulation, by virtue of
its content, is such that its application cannot fail to lead to the violation
of an international obligation. If the text in question is open to a number
of interpretations, one or more of which would be compatible with
the State’s international obligations, I find it hard to regard it as
constituting
a wrongful act per se, even before its practical implementation
brings to light a violation of an international obligation, if such
there be.
29. I am not convinced that the above condition is met in the present
case. It would be possible for Decree 1946 to be interpreted by the Colombian
authorities (if need be, by the judicial authorities) in a restrictive
fashion, precluding the provision referring to “the preservation of the
maritime environment” from being implemented in such a way as to
allow Colombia to exercise legislative power in Nicaragua’s exclusive economic
zone. This is even more apparent in respect of the provision of the
Decree referring to the protection of “national maritime interests”, which,
the Court notes, “through its broad wording alone, appears to encroach
on the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Nicaragua as set forth in Article
56, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS” (para. 178). It too could be interpreted
in a restrictive fashion so as to render it compatible with Nicaragua’s
rights.
392 droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. abraham)
130
30. Ce qui m’importe n’est pas qu’une telle interprétation corresponde
ou non aux intentions des rédacteurs du décret (question fort douteuse).
Je ne suis pas non plus influencé outre mesure par la présence dans l’article
5 du décret de la clause, ajoutée en 2014, selon laquelle « [l]e présent
article sera appliqué conformément au droit international ». Un Etat est
toujours tenu d’appliquer sa législation conformément au droit international
pour autant que ce soit possible, et, si cela ne l’est pas, de la modifier.
La clause précitée n’ajoute donc rien du point de vue des obligations
internationales de l’Etat. Ce qui est déterminant, c’est que, dès lors que la
Cour aurait indiqué dans son arrêt la manière dont les dispositions du
décret no 1946 doivent recevoir application (et les limites dans lesquelles
elles peuvent être appliquées) afin que la zone contiguë soit compatible
avec les droits du Nicaragua, la Colombie serait tenue de se conformer à
ces indications dans la mise en oeuvre du décret. C’est ainsi, selon moi,
que la Cour aurait dû procéder, plutôt que de déclarer la zone contiguë
contraire au droit international et d’ordonner à la Colombie de mettre le
décret en conformité avec ce droit, ce qui suppose de le modifier.
31. Pour les raisons qui précèdent, j’ai été conduit à voter contre les
points 5 et 6 du dispositif. Cela ne signifie pas que je considère la « zone
contiguë unique » de la Colombie comme ne soulevant pas de sérieuses
difficultés au regard des droits du Nicaragua. Mais j’aborde la question
sous un angle différent de celui qui a été choisi par la majorité de mes
collègues, et je regrette de ne pas pouvoir aboutir aux mêmes conclusions.
(Signé) Ronny Abraham.
sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. abraham) 392
130
30. The important point, to my mind, is not whether such an interpretation
reflects the intentions of the Decree’s drafters (which is highly
debatable). Nor am I unduly influenced by the presence in Article 5 of the
Decree of the clause added in 2014, according to which “[t]he Application
of this article will be carried out in conformity with international law”. A
State is always bound to apply its legislation in conformity with international
law in so far as this is possible and, if it is not, to amend it. The
aforementioned clause therefore adds nothing, in terms of the international
obligations of the State. The decisive point is that if, in its Judgment,
the Court had provided guidance on how the provisions of
Decree 1946 should be applied (and the limits within which they may be
applied) in order to ensure the compatibility of the contiguous zone with
Nicaragua’s rights, Colombia would have been obliged to comply with
that guidance when implementing the Decree. That is how, in my opinion,
the Court should have proceeded, rather than finding the contiguous
zone contrary to international law and ordering Colombia to bring the
Decree into conformity with that law, which requires it to be amended.
31. For the foregoing reasons, I have been compelled to vote against
subparagraphs 5 and 6 of the operative clause. This does not mean that I
consider that Colombia’s “integral contiguous zone” does not give rise to
serious difficulties in respect of Nicaragua’s rights. But I address the question
from a different perspective than that chosen by most of my colleagues,
and I regret that I cannot reach the same conclusions as they do.
(Signed) Ronny Abraham.
Dissenting opinion of Judge Abraham