Communicatiodnated20June1995fknntheEanbasso yf Egypt,ogether
withWritteSiaiemen tftheGovemmen tfEgypt The rmtassy of the Arab Eepublic of Egypt presents it
comilimentc to the International Court of Justice and has the
honour to inforrn :No honoüra3le Court that. rith reference ~o its
lotter ciated 8 Febfüary 1095 and in conncction aith the oïdar of
Ane r t a Cour: of Justice O: 1 Fetiruarr 1Q95. the
i mbÿ ,: -.- cf ?ho .:reb Rcpühlic of ES?~: hiis the honcur :O p~.eseni .
hor?.riih enrlnnei. th? rrrit:en stotemer.: of th? .Irai.Xeptiblic of
E5::3: rr. the I-egalit? of the threot cr 12s' of Siiclear Keapi'n's.
TL= Frnbsr;sy oi :ho .l.rz:, !i?;>ü:'..:.ic O! Es?-?: axails i tsel:' of
.L=..- c.iicrtunit>- ts :i.?ew :Q th? In:ern:i:iî.ral C.?ur: of J~iztice
.Y_ ~~;ure:sec if its ~l.iest considerotionOmER OF 1 FERRUARY 1995 IHTRODUCTION
1. Terns of the Reguest and Stsnding of EgYPt
1. Bi resolution 48/?51( of 15 Decenber 1994, the General
A%sox;ki~ of tke Unitra Sationr decided, ?u.rsunnt to Article 96,
parsfirarh 1, of the Cnarter of the United Nations. CO request the
1:~t~rnai.ional Ç3~1rt oi .?ustice urgcntiy to render its advisery
r,pini.!in on ihc fu1lovi:ig 9uesticn:
...
s a or e QEnuclear vespcnsin a77 cir~nsta-ice permittcd
2nd~: i;i:.e::.:~:.i~~..:? ;;,u..?''
.<O. T):e Court, hy irs Orde? cf 1 February 1095, fixed 20 Jsnr
. ..
i935 as thc tiae-linit ~itnzn nic ch written statements reïrtin~
Co :ne zu~sticn msy bc süazitteû to t.he Ccürt by Keshor St-tes
ïhr. crc rintitlct ta ri=??z.- Le-fore the CGC:=, in accords-ce with
Ariiclr ES, ps:*a.5iapk 2, of its Ststute. ?:?et Cider cf the Cocrt
u?.s ::rtf.?itÇ t.1 ,na,. G?vo?nme>r cf the xrnb RepïSli- of fgy~t.
2. ...i.. :': el.:orisinx: %i.n;ùpr of the tiiiitei !<stior,s, an0 by virtue
cf- @.rt.i-;e $3 of thc Y~it*d Nations Vbhrîcr ipso Faccn a prrty to
::h: s'-k":;%e of "cÿ;:. It is in these cirr!2xs?.ances a St-te to
. ... . pe ..-:..'. '.c c>rn :::ter Art:.cle 35 cf the Statute of :lie
-- #. L -,.2 ..'--:lei tc sp;>etir beforc :;7e Cour:.
II. Bgypt's lntcrest in tne Question
-
5. SEypt Is a ncn-nurissr S:atc. rgypt bas s definite intcrest
ii~ airoiding 3r1y use c.? ::::le-: wcsPuns. As a peaceful. and peace-
iovinz Ststt, Sb~;t hss rr,:e:-2 the Tresty on the Non-prolifera- . .
tior: of Nucle~r Xeapons of 1866.1 She has, aloo, acceded tt the
1.A.E.A. safeguard agreements. Furthernore, she is s leading
zoüntry in the efforts for disarnancnt, and in. particuiar nuclear
dLs?.rnaacnt, through regional end' universal neans. Egy;,t, inter
.?.?la,has launched a campaign in 1074 to establish a Xuclear
h'co2ons Fretr Zone in the Hiddle East. ~urthermore, she ha= nade
na initistive in 1980 to creato an area frer of weapons of nsss
--struction in the Middle East. Egj~pt believes thrit the xost
cYficSent way to elininate thn nuclear threat is by absolutelr
~rchibiting and elininating nuclear weapons.
-
zqually, àpgpt is concerned Sy the throat or use of nuclear
rczpons Lw reasons of hsnan rights and humanitarian consider-
atj.0-s, as ~611 a= fron the econcnic, cocial and environmental
ierspectives. Bgypt entirely depends on river waters for irzigs-
...n. snd diinking. She also iargely nepencs on sea vatcrs for
rj.s?.:.ng ss well as on xiàe croaj of agïicul.tura1 land for sübsis-
;ence. The use of nucieer wcepons Is surelv to nnuse lnns-term
.?na severs dacage to thoso zesourc-es ii&l:ing life slncst irnpcxsi-
>-o.
-
Far these rsasms, Inter eiis, ;gj7pt ha5 voted in fa-.-cur of
2-r.c-al Assezibly resolution <9/7SX, nnd has r- special inceresf in
th edvisory opinion 3f the Court. Frnz this perspe-tivc, Egypr
is zzkizg its Fritken s:a:nson:.
4. lais written statenezt is divide6 into tuo Parts. Part 1
2.a-ortsins the cozpetence of th? Genezaï Assembly to request sn
alvisory opinion f-on the Court on the subject-natter of the
.t-~cst. It aiso establishes that .the Coutt is cdnpetcnt to give..
rinC shûuld give,.an aCvisary opinion on tho question subnitted.
II denonstrates thrt the thrent or use of nuclear vcspons in
finy -ircumstance is illegal unaer international lau. 111. The General Assenbly of the Un3 ted Nations ia
Coupeterit t;o Request an Advisory Opinion
on tlic Present Question
5. !.cco:-aine t.o parsgraph 1 of Article 06 of tho Charter of 'the
Uzizecl Na.tinns "[t;he Generi.1 Assenbly ... msy .requcSt the
Incrrnstion%l Court of Zustice to kive an xsvisory opinion on any'
ic'6.q.i yuestion."' '!he Gcnrral Asaesb1.y noï requests an ndvizory
c.::i::iorifrsm the Court on a legs2 question. Tne sdvisory opininri
:,c;rs~~c5 :ela:cs to the iagaiity of the threst or use of nucie~r
..-
C S ii: azy circ~r,ste.nce under internwt.iona1 lsw. %hich
S r , .. s!!d oy Szfir.iticn, is a "legal -,uestion". It cor>-
. .
.....:. -ne f. t,?>ri)2f;o;;~> 2egsl espccts 2: n;:-;rar vespons; i. S.
.?.. the :hrea:. or ÿse ~f ng-iea: uesp~ns Fc: cc=patih!e with
.-::?r2;cs cf i:;ïernsLional :ov. AnJ" th-is, if there i-oujd be 2
.-,c.s..!, cf 3DliZs:ior:c zî.2-7 i;:ernp:iorial lai. whe;, tti~ra . is R
..........Q? csr of rs:>=:-,r:e~..~v;.s. .,)ilquestio~i invol\~es thn int~r-
+..,>'..--. ,..2:' ir.~.ernaYiînaj. .?orais :,nieh nipht te applicsble to the
. .
C e s?. u-6 ::r' i:~!cieer ;.es=-ns ïlii-n is a iepsl process.
-:r!i!'!cc. Lnc Hses~iL-?).'~ reqsez: Zcr an adv5nory pini ion satisfjes
* <
ci!? co:ibiric.ns OF n::irlr CS(] j both ~.s.tionc perzo7sc (it bting
~.ütii~::i.;e5 LU z~zkt- 3 re;scst : .t:d ratio:>e asterise (the request
L>z~:c -2 2 !e~?.l q9estio::j. i'nr General Assenb!?. thersfore. is
L'n3>C:%nL 20 re-,.iss= Zn n~visoii. opinion Qn the present question,
aiid iiss rhür; il,:;* vi;.ei. C. The Ser.cr~.l ~seerùb'ly has a special Fzterest that the Court
answer the question put to it in the affitnative. The question
FR~~F squ8rely within the snSFt cf tne kssembly for it includcz,
ris it does, bozh :he jus ad beZlvm question of the threst or use
of force (Articles 2(4), 10, li. 12 =rici 14 of the Cha-ter), as
%,:.: -&- thaL cf the jus in beilc relating to certain weapons of
ZI~ZS destrcction. Azsuering the request by the Court would
enlightcn the General ksserbly on the legs1 assects involved.
IV. The Court is Compotent to Rsnder its Advisory
Opinion on the Present Question
7. Arric:e 65 of th: Statüte of the C~grt stipclstes that:
..-.
1.i~Cxrt xi3yEivs e? &*viscry opinion on ms legal question at tte
re-wsl 3. xhst.cvcr $&y asj' DE xùthcrizçr? by D: Y. acco,*d6nze with the
C:i:arLer 5f tse iJnif4. tis:ionc to mie SLC? 9 recluest."
.. .
i.z.:crnir.giy, Csgrf, kas t5e Bis.--e" ",on to rcnder edvisory
-.:..GI?s on "legal qusstinns" 7-t 'r i; 5y cü11. "~uthozizeo"
342?.1.rS ~f the :i:>i:ed Cla:iz:is O: izt-rnarionai. urganizstions. In
4.'
Ln= pres*r,: :.eqiius: the :ro zondi:i;.ns [Y:.:. 9. iegsl question and
?.n eutt!o:izec: body! ere filfi!:r5. I..lthoush it is not duty-bound
,. . CI- il
..-<LI-5 t:?is iega! - -- ,,le ?sn,qusge cl' Article 65 is
seri~issivr ra:ker than ~sndatory, 2 L-ke Cozr: nss summarized its
~rc,cLice in the grsnting 3f i:ivisc:y opinioi7s as follows:
"The Court has repea*;eûis stttd %nt. a r4?ly to s reguost for an
;~d-~isor~opinion sfiould 1;0t, i C E , ùe refused andthat only
3 Intaryetatio~: of *$cc Îrestic-ç {Fi se Advisary einim of
30 ,Y.vcl?1.959 :.5.C.,i. iiemC--ts ~g,'û, p. 65 at pp. 71 L. ; and Kastem S'cva,
S C O O 1 Cc 1975.. 1.C.2. Rwcrts 1975.P. 12, psra. at p.
71.. ln '.ho present case there srr no "conpe2.linr reasons" in the
senre that the advisory opli':icn does nct relate to a dispute in
hi ch one of th? pelfi-s %as r.ot reco~nized :Be cornpetence of the
Cocrt t.o decide its dispute vhich is refrrreti ta the Court in khe
gcise cf S.;! .%di-isory o>inioz.S As no compelling reasons for its
refusa! rxis:., Lhere is 20 reason ~hy the Ceurt mus: no? renàer
ils alvisorr opinion.
5. The aorr fs.ct thst the ouesticc nay have been politically
zntivsted csrinot prevent. th- Court from renoering its ativisory
. .
sy::s:on. Ii is the Court thst hss afflrned that:
.: .
di ~1;s:itutions in chich ~oliticsl consideration= are prominent it msy
5e Jarticularly ~s.=e_+ss:)~ Fzr sn in ter::a.tio;ialorémizstion to obtain an
%+:iscry upinj~ri froz c~e Ccüit as to th) legs1 prin:iples spplicsble
wi:;! ,espect te th? nztt$r --der debste ..."6
-...rtL.--
- .fk...iore, çiie Court saio that:
,.
'Tt hs becn ara& that. :.ho quesr::?3-1 tc: tho Ccurt iz ir.%crtwined
...,. political questions, .-d 5s: ?r;r this reazcrn iho Court snould
rrfilre tn gi-re sr, c~iiz:~?. It :a ~r-e zhüt nostintcrpretations of the
Charter uf the Unit& S~tic?;'.-xi11 hav- politicai si-siiiicsnce. freat or
smsll. II? '-55 iiat5:~: sf ',hi=-. it ccgiE 235 'ce ctherwise. The Court..
!:Y;%EL. -a~.'?nzÇsttri.k:zts a politirai. znatzzts to a request vhich
i...A.-- ïi tc: ü~=e:\ai:e s? essrnti2.11~ -~u?:cIP~ t95k ..." 7
a c i for Pe~-iei. ~?f .Tudsl;wnt %o. 158 or' the llnited Nations
Ad.vi/iis?~..q:ive Trifii:f;ai,I.C. Li..?e~>or? s07::. p. 15S, pais. 40 at p. 183.
" Ii?:et.pre:.a!.io~rof th: Ag~.eo3~7t of 25 #are-ch -105 betwt?et) th u.0 and
: 1.2.J. fiepzts :Sin, >. 73' pzra. 33 3.tp. 87.5. Tho advisors* opinicn of the Court vil1 be of nreat practical
value. RY virtue of the exercise of its advise:y roie, the Court
ccntributcs to the effective fonctioning of the United Naticns.
Ln fact, the Court ha8 aSüzcantlr reiterated that its advisory
füi~cf iriz rsnot itutrs its pazticipstj.cn in the ackivities of the
United Nztions of wSch it is the piincipslj~dicis1 0:gan.B The
greserit. reauest pertsins tel a questior: that 'lies within the core
mandate of the U::ite3 Nations snd psrticularl~ the General
Ar:sfrit>lg, viz. t'ne zaintenarice of infernational peace and securi-
%Y, ~zd Cisarnament and arns control sfforts. The advisory
opirii.cri of the Court iz, slso, ver:? likely to contribute to s
gr?a:sr understrndir8 and a3preciation of the principles of.
i;zr.!ai~itr-.?ian ;?.W. A szr'exe:it by the Court on the legality of the
te' ,23e D: 2liclesr wedpons cnder internations1 :su vil1
st~r?:: have z pctitive effec: on the i~ne-stanaing negotiations
in the United Hatior;~ and e2seïf;era. ar,d uould rcsolve any-
:onfrnvrrsp ovcr the issue. Th- lcurt itself has declarcd thst:
.:no :i:n.;:i::ncf ti:e C-,r=t is to givr E: c;-inic:! bss~d $a 1s. once it
iissceci* tu :kc ccnslÿslor: ::a:. the ~~estixis pü: f.3 i!:arc rclwant and
!lave . pr3cticül an3 .;oz'ie:~gcrrry eE?c:t 3.25' =cxsequently, =e not
zic-voidcT nbjnct s21d purpose ."(!
1. the lisht its $,--..- -..-.- Court should enteitsin the
-acres: nîdé iy :ne Gen?ra.1 >.saennly for ifs advisory opinion
L.
tlsc.aii::;:n q i ~u.~ L= it in reso!utio> 49/73K is relevant
enl >as ~zactic~l ?.7e -~:jt$~p-rn:-y P:~cc~.
--. .-.-- - -- ---. -
11tewre tatic.q of itxzre Trsz ti9s fis p h Mvisory Opinion,
1. CS. .?ep~zrts 1950. at p. 71. : 3nd i?eserer.ïatini,sto the Cw~ventia? on th
Clov~~ticv~ :wd Pur~is/x)~ll?to.= :ho Crine of Cenocide., 1.. Reports 1951, p. 15
Pi. 2. 3.9.
a I.C.J. Reports i971. 7. 12, ?==a. 73 st P. 37. CONCLUSION :
iü. By virtzc of Articles ES(:: O: the Charter and E5 cf the
Stkiatr tlie of Cocrt azc! ci their combined effezt, and for the
rras3r;s se: 3-: above, It is sÿbmitted tha.t the Genetal Assrnbly
of the Vnltcd Nstions is coapctenl to request sn adviscry opinien
?r4a Lne Ccurr =n the scbjzct-natter of the request; and that the
,- .....-is co:Jpe:.en'_ ts givc, and should nive? its advisory opi~ion
on :l:e qunrtinn z.ddreçse5 Ls jt.
2.~. Suc1e3.r car bas 5rcn ":12f0312~tl7. ~nc3~Ci~ic~a~i~end Cnr
211 tir.:e concisznCrcj .. . 3s 3eii.g co?t;s?y :O !~umnn consciezce
:?nti ::esson. ns ti:o !!;or: z;.c:is-.r~:s crin* -geins: ??oples 2nd an s
~~i~~~tiül.~ O;' :hc fc=:;cr;: 5ÿms.q -;fil-,= - rignt to iifo". '0
zuiviurl civZlias+ -;~~. 1: Ge--::x> kçsrrnbly resolution no.
lG 7,. ( of 24 };o. ..e-:ber, ISE;: entitled "~rclar~tion or! th9
p ...;.':. of ~ile USE 5: N..i--sir sna Thoras-nuclear Weapcns"
%ben Us 2--'~:'7: ;: -... de iegc lsc~ of nilclesr weso-
...-".!.' I'i drclo;.c- ah'.'
. ; use of noclesr ïespons ïould be
--.- ---....--. ..-----
1" General Assfmbiy rosolstis- -2. 33/73 5 of 15 Deccnber. 1983.
Il -. .
Ss:sgr-ll 47 of th= :r::s.; Sc=;r,cnt cf th- First. Special Seszion un
Cissrn=:snt of the Genrra; ;s-=r.=l>. r~X19E.oorlLrary t3 the spirit, letter and ains of the United Nations
p.?d, as such, "z direct violation of tne Chsrter of the United
Natjhns". Sesides beinE S. violation of th- Chartor of the Pzitcd
Ntticns, the resolrtion st9.ted that it "would be contrsry to the
rries of interns.tisna1 las and the laus of kuoanity and a crime
against nianlind and civilizaticn."
12. Ecjuallv. resolutiori 2336 <XXVII> of 29 Noveaber, 1972 on the
Ncn-Use of Force ir: Ic+ernational ReLatioils sad Ferrianent Prohi-
: O cf :!la lise of Nuclenr Wespons. declrircd "the permanent
prohibition or the use of nuclea: weapons". BS the inherent
qualitative and quantita:ive oharacteristics of their effect,
nüclear 'r.esp~ri s ?ecessxriLy hîve indiscriminate effects and are
thus hsr~:füi tu Kan and Iiiz environaent. The international-
consensus on t heir lllegslity lezves no zoom for ccnvictions to
t!:? -nztua:y.
..., ,.,
--. inc s'bho:zc::zr, of nsclrî? seapons kzs diiveri the interna-
tional ccm=u?ity tn take ze.ssu;es to eli3iaate then. The first
..
cerit-e,? hssembly res~lutionl-a sststilishej the .o c Fneray
Cor.z;is%i~!i vit:?th.? vies :c "cor,tr~l;>izs] . .. atomic energy to
. .
:he çr::ctc!?tiie.ce@=sry ',O CRSU-? 2:s =se o~,i.v for p~acefut CUCYOS-
a;'.14 E'ürthersor.e tli* ~rca,:y c~ ?:inciples Gover~ine the
- - -
A?t:'~il=es sf ùcstes i- th- za2,czaLLo? and Use of Outer Space,
...r,. .. :cll:i:?3c~)
'2-;.-use of iieapcns cf zss Cestruction. caüsiM unnecessery human
suffering. lias in the psst pronibiten, as Ùed czjntrsry to the laws of
1.iuniwity and tn the yrinclpies: of internstional Lou. by international
Cec;erstions snd bilSin~ s,y:ea-tents. such as the Declmation of St.
?.ttrrsù~lrt r.E lSE, the Se-lzrericn of theArussels ConLerence of 1874.
tb:5 C~nvrntirliis of the !kgdi hace Co.-iTcrences of 1899 and 1807,and the
Csixvs. Frotocol of 1325, to uhich the m8jority of nations ere still
partie.5".
Reso2utinn no. I(I) cl' 24..ja.s:>azy.la6 incluoing the Hocn snd 9ther Celestisl Bodies;" prohibited the
placine in orbit around the esrth of any objects cnrrying nuclear
t;eri.pxs er a.np other ktn5s of reapons of mass destruction. the
installatlm -f sïc!: ueapons on celestisl bodies. or their
ststioning in outer space in -any other manner.ls Also, the
p:.ezmble O? the Treaty cn the Non-proliferation of Nuclear
%eacc:!s of IESe1? expressed the desire of the -internationa?.
cortmuriity for the "cessation of the manufacture of nuclear
ueapons, the liquidation of e.11 their existing stockpiles,and
ttie elinination £son national arsensls of nuclear ueapons".
Horeovsr, nacica: ïeapons have been bnnned from uholc regions in
the vorld. Nuclrer Wespon È:ee Zones have been establiehed in
Lp.%ir, Americs and the Czriblear. and in the Southern Pacifie. A
simiLzr frar zone si11 sr>cn Sc established in Africs. EpYpt, ss'
nlztaoy nicntioned, 3%~ takan two universallv supported initia-
tives that wou!d bs:? nuclear reapons in the Hiddle East.*e
V. The Threat or Uso of Nuclear Weapons Violates
Humanitarian Law
4. iirticlo 2(<) .f th? C>=:t.er ar' United Xations pzohibi:~ "the
'. c? use c.5 fo-ce agaii~st the Cerrctsriai iategrity or
=liLirz? inciepr:>*e;i-e cf any statc. or in anv other nanner
fnconsislsnt ui:h the purposes sE the Unitea Nations." Further-
-- ....-- .---.. ...
l5 Srne3 st Lundo:~, 3=s=% 2.~2 iisshingtun on 27 Js~u~ry, 1967
A?!.icl= IV.
..' 7 I.L.M. 6j.i (3958).
18 r- F3.re. 2 .nore, para8:aph 7 of the: ~reanble of. the charter states thst
"araed force shall not be used, save in the common interest".
Thus. the threat or the "f iray use". -of f'orce, includine nuclear
ueapcns, is illegal,. Thi. bain& a principlo ef international lar
does nct need any further argument.
15. As for the legality of the "second use" of nuclear uespons,
it mlrst be deterciined in the light of legal considerations of the
exceptions to the principle of non-use of force taking into
ccnsiieîation the charactcristics of suoh veapons. These excep-
tions sre Security Councll enforcenent actions under Chapter ifII
of the Chzrtor of the United Nations. and self-dofence under
Article 51 sf the Charte-. In both cases the use of nuclear
xcs;oris lould b~ illegal. It is not imaginable thst the Council
uould 2eszrt to the uce of nuclaar veapons uith al1 Lheir indis-
criainate and imaense dissstrous effects vhich vould sarely
, snd not naintain. i;2ternationai pesce and secüri'c~.
..
:uzcT.=racce, the use of nüclear xes?ons ïould na:. respect, in
pa.rticüier, the rule of ~ro?czticnality which is sn important
:on5iticii for the exerrlsa oi t:?n right cf self-dele-ce.
. -
Y . Ccnse:zently, the use rt nï:lesr n-eapûzs, even xhcn the üse
r;: - zcrce becsaes perzissisir:, is ille~sl uscause süch use 35
-5-ce kes tr> corzes-c-d i= Eh- =equlrene;iis O the jus in ceiio.
B. The jus in beZ1o:
37. Ïhc prohibitior; of Ir;c'isc:i~~i~ste atteck against civilizns
snd Ci>eir propezty: As e zul- of .internetional lsw. "itlhe
çivilisr, population .'.. es çell 3s ifidividual iziuiliens. shsll not be t cbject uf attack. "16 It i= especially forbidden
"[tlo lesiroy ... the enemy's property, aniess such destruction
... be imprrativoiy oenanded by the necessities of varW.zo The
attsck or bonbardment, by whatever naens, of toïns, villages.
dw=llinps, or buildings xnich ere zndefended is ~rohibited.21
Equai?:?, in "bombardments ali necesssrv steps must be taken to
spare ... buildings dediceted to religion. art. science, or
ci?arits.ble purposes, histzric nonuaents, hospitals, and places
vhere the eick and wou~ded axe ocllected ..." 22 Furthermore, it
is els:~ ~zohibited 20 atteck civiliim hospitals, convoys O?
vchi-lcs, hospi tsl trsins, specially provided vessels on sea,
girsrsft exclusively enployed for the removal of wounded and sick
civilisns, the infirr an6 xaternity cases, or the transport of
medical personnel and eq'sA-crit.za In o.der t~ ensure respect
fsr and pr=tection oc tke civilisn population and civilian
r5jec:â. ... is >=FS::~& ,nat thc parties to the conflict at al1
riaes "12is:ingoisi betxten the civilisn population und cosbatants
ai.c S$twea;: ci-?il ian cCjec:s ana cilitarr cb>eztives and accozd-
i::g?y ... ii-ozt f nei: ooorations on:? sgsizst silitary objoc-
:ivn~. ""+ y:.~~, inaiscririinake z:t=-;:s are prohioited .zB
--- Article 52(2) of tnc Iirst ?;ct;.cr: .Xditicnal to the Gmeva
c e .. . 2 A 1%$, .md He1atir.g :- :ne =rctectio;.i cf Vi-ths cf
iriterrtstic:ia! Arn& Con?lictsof 1977.
Artacle 23 (g) of the Hm- Xcc~laticz Rsemecting the Laus of srici
CL~S;C;:S cf fsr on Laqd ùjnexed to Convon: ir.:!?o. 1';OF 1907.
'2 Article 27 of the Ïirst Protocoi ol 1977
*" hr:icl"s 19,21 ~77d 22 cf the Genevs Convention Relative to the
?r:Lr2.;i33 of Civilix ?=rsons iz Tixe of War,of 12 Aact 1849. United
Ns.tions, Ersty Sericç, Vol. 75, 2. 325. hls~, Articles 12, 22 and 23 of thc
First Prvtncolcf 1477.
2" Ibid., Articles 48 and 51(2).Therefore, the laa Aas provided that scrh piotected objects shall
t?e xrkrd with a distinctive enblen to nake Chez obvious for the
enemy. Hence. the law doec no: lesve room for the uze of weapbns
which mieht have sn incidonta1 etfect on civilisn snd protected
t.erErtt;.
15. xberess. by Che iznerent ¶ualitative and quantit8.tive
cfizr.sc?e-is:irs of their effect, nuclear vespcns necess~lrily have
catsclysmic anc iadiscriminate erfects and îannot distinguish
'octween c~r;,ùatan'.s Dn6 ?.on-cocbat~nts and Setaee3 pr3tec:ed snd
ün?i.:~:c=te3 oijects, ana are expected to cause incidenthl 10s~ of
c i if inju~y to cir.ilia.ns, dsnage to civilisn objectg,
nr s. cnmbi:,ation tnereof, whicn would re excessive in relation to
the coricretr and direct rni1ita.r~ ao'vantsze anticipated, their use
c?.nr.ot nr al1 be itgal.
19. Th- prohikitio;: û~s:iiist ~;7.5y.~e cf U~SPOIIS hvhich rellder
----., inevi,t,sl?le or cacsc ~-,';:,acesrsr:, ez.lng: "The r ieht of
L-~elli~erarits tc the crnf lirt tz âerpt zrôns of injuring the enemY
1.. ...
cj those whiri eü;-ic:; a inethd or ncms of czbat the eifsets of
v5icI: caynot jo Limite as requirei bu thia ?=otricol;
o^nd c~nsmiicnt:~ ... a-r cf a.;ia.turc iost-ike ri!iÇ,arv objsctives snd
civi:.i.a~?sor civilisn ob.<ects vithout d.istinctio!>.
5. hsng oth~s. tne follswing types of attecks are to be considered as
,.t.As:ïin:knt.::
a) an e.tsack by bozbatdnent Sy ";iyarthuis or mesns which treats
as a sinsle miiitsry ob.iective a nïa~er of clearly c;o?srated aild
distinct zilitary ~bjectj.ves lorsted in a city, tom, villege or
other arra containina a siriilsr concentration of civilians or
civiliw ob.jecEs; znij
8) an e\tt?.c.ck which oiay be ee-~cted to cause incidental loss of
civilian life? LI~GP :a civilia~s, dûmse to civilian objects, or
a combination tkereo:. whichvould be excczsive in relation to the
concrcte sn3 direct 3ilits:y advantee snticipated."
-12- is nct unlieitei. "2E This rule .imposes cn the beiligerents the
2bligation to refrain from cruel or treachcrous behxvior. As Dar
as cea.pons are concerned, since the. nineteenth century this
huna!:itariîr: principle hss been embodied in tuo ruies: one
fc>rzids the uso cf poisons, <hile the other prohibits the use of
x~ap3ns casable of caasina superfluous injuries. Huclear weapons
Zal? iri rhc lntter category.
20. Tho Laws of the tisguez? and GenevszB provide thst it is
especizlly foibitiden to cnpioy ueapons, projectiles azd xaterial
and methods or wûrfarf of s nature to cause superfluous injury or
iinnecesssfy süffering. It goes without ssying tbat the encrmous
I,l.ast uaves, zir biasts, rires, :esiuual nuclear radiation or
radioactive ial?3üt, electromagnetiz impllses and thermal radia-
Lacn, whick are arirn8.r~ effects O? use of nuclesr ueapans, cause
extensive "unnecesssrv suffrrin~".2e
21. njc oi72igscion.s tn respect principleç of p=cpo.-tionelity and
liun!~~?i;..i,rlc=c;.ding tcz :he Eirst and Secûnd Ge-cve Csnventions of
1. j is Fr--i~.:~e~ ,c; $.ttack esist?ish;:cnts anci labile
."- . G- <.
,.-- ... .., ,s cf the Zeaichl Ser.ii=r. i-.s?i-Li.l sh'_;>s33 nilitary
nosnitr1 shipç 3.n~ estsbli~r~nenks ashozo" '2 ,xp ci:cuest~nce.
-- .... ..-.-----. - -.....
..- ..
L :-- -- Artiaie 22 cf :'ceXe~dlstions cf 1337; rze rres~bls of the ùezlsra-
- 2 , Peters!x:,: 2: ;ZGH ewresses tho sw.\e ~CS.
-.
"" Article 35(,?) of tne :~rst Proto-O: of 1377
2a klst: cf. Gtrieral Assembly resolctioi: no. 1653 OTJI) of 24 Norember,
15E1
30 Articles 1s ZG of the Ge~eva Csnvs;:Eion :or the Amciioration of
the Crzcition cf: t,.',i;ocniej md irr Arz& Forces in the Field. of 12
Aug;st 13CiS. i'rit& Faticns, Tresty Sezies, Vol. 75, p. 62.
31 Articles 22 md 23 cf the Genevs Convcnticïi for the Anelioratiori of
the Condition of Woünded, Sick and Shipw-ieckd Ho-+ers of Armd Porces at Sea.
of 12 iiuzust 194s. . cit., Vol. 75, p. 111.Houever, by rasson of the inhcront nature of the cffects of
nuc1ea.r wespons such protected oojects vil1 neverthelens be
indisrrieina:ely attac%cd.
22. : ~rchibi t ion egalnst ceusi~?g uidcspresd, long- tern end
severts dma-r L.0 t:!:e environment: It is prohibited to use "meth-
cds Dr no'lrrs of rarfsie rhicf? srs intended or nay be expected to
cz-st dnnage tc the aatursl env5ronment". It 'is esually forbidden
to csrry out "Cajttecks sssinst the naturai environnent hp uay of
rep:js,.al.s".~Z This nîkes the use of nuclear ueapons, even in
reprisa?, unlaïfu? because its use, cven if it uere nlt used uith
the ii:%e-.t *;c stta-k t!~e envizonnent, i<:v.il1 dof initsly bars 'the
eavl;..:>;::::c:.:
23. i7 nbliz'ûtic?r: tiot t3 prejudice the heelth or sorvival of
the .~-~l=fi:n: Be?ligereri:s are prchibiteti fron the use of
. C: :i*sns nf :.arPsreU which zsy br expected t0 cause
wicsspre.aci: 1x3-tcra and severe denaec ta tne nstu-al environ-
;izn:, s:;~ there~y prejudicizg th5 hee!tn or s~rvival of the
popi:1~.tinn."" Sincc auclec.:. 2-2-0::s aie sure to csuse such
ze~qtl...~ i..e ezvirr2~:ont and the hcaLth O? survival of
.,%..... i,:ri:::s the? 8.r~ ~3-;e:e? cf th&t ?roi~iSi:.lori.
54. . c i i tn dïsti-g2lsi: tc teen conbatsiit~ and non-
co,~~i~i~fiits: T11e c;stj.nzti3:1 bet-~~e?. cîr.4.?,tsn',s and non-combatants
i one of t.he nost import.snt -;icroriesend sccomplishnients of
int.ni.nù:ional lau since :ne eerly oegiznings of the nineteenth
,-,a<...-
.-..,..S.Y. ,?;)y SU';?;~:-ization s: naclesr weapons vil1 def initely
Csïsf Ckis p:ir;ciple to colia.ase.
37, A....: -.
.--cie 55 of thc rirst ?rotcc01 cf 1977.
5.3 ' . .
A><:. Ci?. 25. The Declaration uf St. Petersbürg of 18B834 sticulated
thet "the only legitimate 0bj.e~: uhich States should endeavour to
~cco~;>::'s~ during no= is Co weaken the mi2itary forces of the
enemy", 3" thus, ordering. .be.lli&eren~s to rilws~s distinguish
betïeen combatsnts and non-rcnbatazts. By virtue of the custlntarv$
=::le contsined i?. the ùeclnration, the use of nuciear veapons
aE9:715t =:villazc :s iiieésl
VI. The Threst or Use of Force Violates.
Hodern Intcrnations1 Law
A. ïhc inu of Hunan Rights:
%G. Kodern intcrristiorre: 1a.w hr,c iz:rrzati=~aiized humsn riehts
2:: s fo:?-bl-xn scsle. ?he veil being snâ weifare of the husan
n.,,... : ec:isi6c:ea ti:e ceiitre 3f ';5e .~iliverse, is the nain
cci~cir;-. ri: xvs: i:.terilativnsl or~s>iz.=iici~s incluking the United
143~ioi-1%. I.n:ernstisria; 1ax 2 aiïei1 grest attention to the
dev%lopnent cf indi-,-i=ï~1 an< bis rights. Human hoalth.
,.<.,:.
-. -2. ~allLics:, ncoz>;:ic,and s.32i2.1 zights. etc., being the
srkject -5 33zy ccnyentional ss :.>e;i zs cuctonsry rules, forn an
i-'
..Ls~ral psz~ cf ;ioàern ir~ternatiznal >au. The threat or use 05
ncclenr wsxpons, or evoz tnc les:: spproval of them, would
ïiestrcsy tke wholi a::uctu:e of tnis aoaern design of internaticn-
2 i3ï L-3sed o:.i the zss>e-..l Icr the humsn Ferson. rendering that
l2.u dovcir! O? co:?esicz.
ri. Tjlr rlgnf to Ilfer "S..-ery i:~ir.:.beir,g has the ihherent right
Singed at St. Petersbure 29 Hpveni~sr - 11 Gecenber 1868.
3c. -:.%lics a3cj2~3
-15.-to life. "313 Althoueh it is expected t.hst in times of var humnn
Seings, whether milita-y or civilians, niEht perish, the killina
cf hlriar' bciazs sheüld not oxceed the limits of lk~fui acts of
var. It snos:d br rrcalled that Art.icle 40 of the Fourth Geneva
Convention stipulates that "[ilt is p~ohibited to order that
t-here ohall 3e no scrvivors". Aithough sn order to use nuciear
voaporis dlos zot have ta state that "there shall be no survi-
vois", ~r. is an indirect ordcr to do sc bs virtue of the immense
dcvîststina s::C killing cspabiliti?~ of such ueapons. It i~
submittcd thnt the use of nuclear ïeapons necessa~ily cause wide-
srale dea.ths. thus depriving hilasr, bein~s of the ridht to life.
iB. Tl?e right Co enjoy the higi?est stteinabie st~ndsrd of
ph?-s:cs~ - s.rdne:~t,sl he~lth: Evervone hss a right te "the enjoy-
aient of the highest attsinz11e standard of physical and mental
hcaltn."37 It is nesdleçs CG say that tlie adverse effects of
nucles- *x~l~sions oc the h-nan Sealth zro in~essura~le and
-.--r-,"....t.le. Two generrtic-.~ continue tz sufZor froa the :-ii:oshi-
-.
1 . 2 SagasaR1 borSs. ;I :s norencrthy thet existing modern
!.. XCS';.:~:~ r;zy se hz-drecls cf ::=,es x=re pouerful snd
dznagirig +-ha: ti.=se t;7~cnn over Japer. in 1545. ïne ose of nuclear
..
q.P-?onâ is ~~sD;E-;L izr~cincnt. ta th$ "_njoyzent of the
;.-S....... atL?.inab?s ctz?Sa:d of pbysicel e.nd 3enta? health" SY
. .
.-SC;;a:; e:::,C.$,
B. The prohib-tion sgninst genocide or crimec agninst hunanity:
29. Scc~rding ;o Articlo il cf the ConvezCicn on the ï'revention
"" P.rticle fi(!).of the Internsti"ns1 C-sena~t ?n Civil and Folitical
KiBhts. United Iqaliions, Tresti. Se.-Ies, liol. 393, p. 171.
37 A,..;Acle 12 of the Intern~.ticnsl Cgvensnt on Economic, Social and
Cultural2i~kts. &id., . 3. and P=riishment of the rie of Genocide cf- lS493W anv actr
"committed vith the intent tc dcstror. in unnie or in part, a
n3tic:ia.f~ ethnical, racial or relipi3cs grorp" is ccnsidered
grnocide. Therrfore, any use of nuclear weapons, ahich are
capable of destroying ia.rge psrts of s populakion, 'aasinst
civilian population uo3ld cons',itute a czime sgsinst huannity,
h11d thus is illrgn!
C. The Irrterristional Lau of Environnent:
30. Ive=' 3tatc has, i- eccordance vith the Charter of the
..
r~ited Natians sad the prinziples O? intrrnational law, the
raspui;sibility tu onsli-e t53.t activities uithin their iurisdic-
:.joli Jr cr>r.trcl cc not CPYSC ds3sze ta the envircnrnent of otner
S;n:;rs. JR Hore emphatiaslly, rr~nzipie 26 oi the Çtcckholn
Esci ors:is;> of 1976-.5c:?aze$. ints~ eliz, th:?.:
1 Zqunlly, Article T o: *"..; Con-~entior: on thc ?:0h.~?.1i:~;:.. of
y,:-it3-.., 3r Any 0:l;er tosti?~ Use of Environ~eniy.; :ior?l,':i.=ation
Techniq:.~~~ (XNHOC) cf 157740 provi=er thzt it is pr::?;bited "to
engags in military or any othcr nsstiie use of er:vircnnental
sudiFiz:.tic.n tschniques novln) :.ioes?read, lori$-1astir.z or severe
.-.==eC".
,-.as ths .xerrs of oestruction, dono.Ee or injxry to any
uLnoz State Party." It slso p:ahi>its States from asçisting,
enccuïa€ir;g or induciria Stste, uro;ip of States :>? interna-
.-- -- - .-.--.---, - .
United Natioris, Tresij. Series. Vs:. 7e, p. 278.
"" Principle 21 of-the ffî=kholc Dcclaraticn of the United Nations
c ri the z izvirennent of 1572. 21 I.L.ii. :41Ô (1972); and
?-inci~lo 2 of the Z;io Dcclaration. 31 1.L.H. 851 (1532).
QO United Nstions, Trrsty Series. Vol. 1108, P. 151.tionai îrganiration to engage in activities contrary to the
provisions of aaragraph 1 of Article 1. Thus, the Conventisn
2rohibits the use of nuclear eeapons which are weapono the üse of
which has "widesgread, long-lastinp or severe ef fects" on the
rnvirrnnent..
D. Use of nuclear weapona violates territorialsovereignty:
32. S:a:es have, in ûccorcian~e with the Charter of the United
Ni3ti~n,c anci the principles of international leu, the responsibil-
ity :s ensura that ~ctivities uithin their Surisdiction or
cori:roi is not cause da.nage to the e:~vironment of the othef
Ststes or OP S'.CSS hcyond the 1iruits of nationai Yurisdie-
i Hawever, electronagnetic impulses resulting from a
ni?cLear expl3sicn at an altituae ci 100 k.n. ;car t-avel to u? to
Ij.C.6 k.3. *> Radicsctive contamination may also reach the
noighbcuring îountries of tne State in which the explosion
occïrre~. Thls being srs, the use of nt;clear respons violates the
territorial srverignty o. other States which is a fundamental
i..;,c:pie 3f internatior.al !au and the ?rinciple g00d
neighboi:rlineçs ;irovi5eC for in A-ticle 74 of, the Charter of the
Uni-~e~ 1Jntions. in the Nurlszr Tests Case, Australia maintained
t'.a: b:i carrying out atacisyheric nÿclesr tests France vas, inter
ûlia. i- ~io1a:ion or the territorial sovereianty of Australia.
It -.:rs c?aia:d th3.t "fsl?-out had been recorded on Australian
~*:=j.!-~:...>,43
1 Princip15 71 ci the Stockhrln D~claratio~i OP 1972 and Ptincipie 2 O?
the Rio 2ecizratioii of 1992.
9-2 1987 WHO Rwort, psra. 13 a: p. il (Fr--h).
as fixleer Tests Cas: (A~tstrsiia V. Frmcel, Jcctmuent of 20 Decambor
1974, I.C.J. Resorts 1974. p. 253, para. 19 at p. 258. VI1 . Submissions
A. Cornpetence snd adnissibility:
- the General Assembly of the United Nations is conpetent to
request an advisory opinion fron the Court on the subject-
zatter of the request; and
- the. Court is competent to givs, and should give, its
sdvisory opinicn on the question aadressed to it.
B. The illegality of the threat or ose of nuciesr weapons:
34. It. is submii:tsd tkat the threzt O: use of nuclear ueapons
anàetcine the whsle o'osign of dissrmartent measures directed 8.t
~ichit~iting thelr aevrlopnent, acpsisition and use since 1945.
A. The threa:. O: ïse of riuclear wsapons is contrary to
prinsipies and yules of genersl internstional lav, and
cnnstitÿtes a direct violatisr: of the Charter of the United
Nstions. In particÿler it violâtes the following basic
principles:
1. Tho prohibition of threat or use of force in in-
ternational reiationç;
2. The obligstioa ta respect the requirement of pro-
portioiiality in cases of legitimate use of miLi-
tary force:
S. The prohibition agsinst genocide or crines egainst
humanity ; 4. The oSlipstion :c respect the territorial sover-
eigntv cf vther States.
3. The use of nuclesr weapons is contrary to prineiples
and rules of thé:international lau of arsed conflicts. In
psrticular it violstes the t'olloning basic principles:
1. The prohibition to attack civilians;
2. The prohihition against disproportionate harm to
civilian popuiacion;
3. The ob1iga.tions to rsspect p:inciplefi of propor-
tionality and husanity:
4. The obligation to dintingoish between coabatants
aad noncozbatants;
. The.prohibi%ion sgsinst the use of ueapons uhich
rcnder desth inevitsble or cause UnneCeSSsrY suf-
ferinf;
6. The prailijititiz agzinst csilzing widespread, long-
trrm ilend soveFe damage to the e:~virun.?ent;
m
7. i1ie ojLi$atic.n O tc prejïdice te heE:th or
survival of tne ~opülstion.
-. The use of nuzlear weûpnns is rontrsry to principles
and rales of tne 8z:er:iaticnal 15% of huasa rights. In
Parti c:ülar it violstes the follouing basic principles:
1. The tignt :.O 2if9:
2. Tho right to enjoy tne highest attainable standard
of physical and mental health;
3. The rigit to s clpan and safe environnent.
Communication dated 20 June 1995 from the Ambassador of Egypt, together with Written Statement of the Government of Egypt