INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
CASE CONCERNING
MARITIME DISPUTE
(PERU v. CHILE)
JUDGMENT OF 27 JANUARY 2014
2014
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
AFFAIRE
DU DIFFÉREND MARITIME
(PÉROU c. CHILI)
ARRÊT DU 27 JANVIER 2014
5 CIJ1057.indb 1 1/12/14 08:59 Official citation :
Maritime Dispute (Peru v. Chile), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2014, p. 3
Mode officiel de citation :
Différend maritime (Pérou c. Chili), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2014, p. 3
Sales number
ISSN 0074-4441 N ode vente: 1057
ISBN 978-92-1-071173-9
5 CIJ1057.indb 2 1/12/14 08:59 27 JANUARY 2014
JUDGMENT
MARITIME DISPUTE
(PERU v. CHILE)
DIFFÉREND MARITIME
(PÉROU c. CHILI)
27 JANVIER 2014
ARRÊT
5 CIJ1057.indb 3 1/12/14 08:59 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraphs
Chronology of the Procéedure 1-15
I. Geography 16
II. Historical Backgroundé 17-21
III. Positions of the Partiées 22-23
IV. Whether There Is an Agreéed Maritime Boundary 24-151
1. The 1947 Proclamations of Chile and Peru 25-44
2. The 1952 Santiago Declaration 45-70
3. The various 1954 Agreements 71-95
A. The Complementary Convention to the 1952 Santiago
Declaration 74-77
B. The Agreement relating to Measures of Supervision
and Control of the Maritime Zones of the Signatory
Countries 78-79
C. The Agreement relating to a Special Maritime Frontier
Zone 80-95
4. The 1968-1969 lighthouse arrangements 96-99
5. The nature of the agreed maritime boundary 100-102
6. The extent of the agreed maritime boundary 103-151
A. Fishing potential and activity 104-111
B. Contemporaneous developments in the law of the sea 112-118
C. Legislative practice 119-122
D. The 1955 Protocol of Accession 123-125
E. Enforcement activities 126-129
F. The 1968-1969 lighthouse arrangements 130
G. Negotiations with Bolivia (1975-1976) 131-133
H. Positions of the Parties at the Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea 134-135
I. The 1986 Bákula Memorandum 136-142
J. Practice after 1986 143-148
K. The extent of the agreed maritime boundary: conclusion 149-151
V. The Starting-Point of thée Agreed Maritime Boundéary 152-176
VI. The Course of the Maritiéme Boundary from Point A 177-195
VII. Conclusion 196-197
Operative Clause 198
4
5 CIJ1057.indb 4 1/12/14 08:59 4
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
2014 YEAR 2014
27 January
General List 27 January 2014
No. 137
MARITIME DISPUTE
(PERU v. CHILE)
Geography — Historical background — 1929 Treaty of Lima between Chile
and Peru — 1947 Proclamations of Chile and Peru — Twelve instruments negoti
ated by Chile, Ecuador and Peru.
*
No international maritime boundary established by 1947 Proclamations — No
shared understanding of the Parties concerning maritime delimitation — Necessity
of establishing the lateral limits of their maritime zones in the future▯.
1952 Santiago Declaration is an international treaty — Rules of interpreta
tion — No express reference to delimitation of maritime boundaries — Certain
elements relevant however to maritime delimitation — Ordinary meaning of para
graph IV — Maritime zones of island territories — Scope of 1952 Santiago Dec
laration restricted to agreement on limits between certain insular marit▯ime zones
and zones generated by continental coasts — Object and purpose — Supplemen
tary means of interpretation confirm that no general maritime delimitation was
effected by 1952 Santiago Declaration — Suggestion of existence of some sort of
a shared understanding of a more general nature concerning maritime boun▯dar
ies — 1952 Santiago Declaration did not establish a lateral maritime boundary ▯
between Chile and Peru along the parallel.
1954 Agreements — Complementary Convention to 1952 Santiago Declara
tion — Primary purpose to assert signatory States’ claims to sovereignty
and jurisdiction made in 1952 — Agreement relating to Measures of Super
vision and Control of Maritime Zones — No indication as to location or
nature of maritime boundaries — Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement —
Not limited to the EcuadorPeru maritime boundary — Delay in ratifi
cation without bearing on scope and effect of Agreement — Acknowledgment
of existence of an agreed maritime boundary — Tacit agreement — Tacit
agreement cemented by 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement — No
indication of nature and extent of maritime boundary — 1964 Bazán
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Opinion — Conclusion of the Court as to the existence of an agreed maritime
boundary not altered.
19681969 lighthouse arrangements — Limited purpose and geographical
scope — No reference to a preexistent delimitation agreement — Arrangements
based on presumed existence of a maritime boundary extending along paral▯lel
beyond 12 nautical miles — No indication of extent and nature of maritime bound
ary.
Nature of agreed maritime boundary — Allpurpose maritime boundary.
Extent of agreed maritime boundary — Assessment of relevant practice of the
Parties pre1954 — Fishing potential and activity — Species taken in the early
1950s were generally to be found within a range of 60 nautical miles fro▯m the coast
— Orientation of the coast — Location of main ports in the region — Zone of
tolerance along the parallel for small fishing boats — Principal fishing activity
carried out by small boats — Fisheries activity, in itself, not determinative of
extent of the boundary — Parties however unlikely to have considered the agreed
maritime boundary to extend to 200nauticalmile limit — Contemporaneous
developments in the law of the sea — State practice — Work of the International
Law Commission — Claim made in 1952 Santiago Declaration did not correspond
to the international law of that time — No evidence to conclude that the agreed
maritime boundary along parallel extended beyond 80 nautical miles.
Assessment of relevant practice of the Parties post1954 — Legislative practice
of the Parties — 1955 Protocol of Accession to 1952 Santiago Declaration —
Enforcement activities — 19681969 lighthouse arrangements — Negotiations
with Bolivia (19751976) — Positions of the Parties at Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea — 1986 Bákula Memorandum — Practice after
1986 — No basis to put into question the Court’s earlier conclusion.
In view of entirety of relevant evidence presented to the Court, agreed maritime
boundary between the Parties extends to a distance of 80 nautical miles along the
parallel.
*
Startingpoint of the agreed maritime boundary — 1929 Treaty of Lima — The
Court not asked to determine location of startingpoint of land boundary identified
as “Concordia” — Boundary Marker No. 1 — 19681969 lighthouse arrange
ments serve as compelling evidence that the agreed maritime boundary follows the
parallel that passes through Boundary Marker No. 1 — Point Concordia may not
coincide with startingpoint of maritime boundary — Startingpoint of maritime
boundary identified as the intersection of the parallel of latitude pass▯ing through
Boundary Marker No. 1 with the lowwater line.
*
Delimitation to be effected beginning at endpoint of agreed maritime bou▯ndary
(Point A) — Method of delimitation — Threestage procedure.
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First stage — Construction of a provisional equidistance line starting at
Point A — Determination of base points — Provisional equidistance line runs until
intersection with the 200nauticalmile limit measured from Chilean baselines
(Point B).
Peru’s second final submission moot — No need for the Court to rule thereon.
Course of the maritime boundary from Point B — Boundary runs along the
200nauticalmile limit measured from the Chilean baselines until intersection of
the 200nauticalmile limits of the Parties (Point C).
Second stage — Relevant circumstances calling for an adjustment of the provi
sional equidistance line — No basis for adjusting the provisional equidistance line.
Third stage — Disproportionality test — Calculation does not purport to be
precise — No evidence of significant disproportion calling into question equitable▯
nature of provisional equidistance line.
*
Course of the maritime boundary — Geographical coordinates to be deter
mined by the Parties in accordance with the Judgment.
JUDGMENT
Present : President Tomka ; VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges Owada,
Abraham, Keith, Bennounaé, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindéade,
Yusuf, Xue, Donoghue, Gajaé, Sebutinde, Bhandari ;Judges ad hoc
Guillaume, Orrego Vicuñéa ;Registrar Couvreur.
In the case concerning the maritime dispute,
between
the Republic of Peru,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Allan Wagner, Ambassador of Peru to the Kingdom of the Nether -
lands, former Minister for Foreign Affairs, former Minister of Defenceé,
former Secretary-General of the Andean Community,
as Agent ;
H.E. Mr. Rafael Roncagliolo, Minister for Foreign Affairs,
as Special Envoy ;
H.E. Mr. José Antonio García Belaunde, Ambassador, former Minister for
Foreign Affairs,
H.E. Mr. Jorge Chávez Soto, Ambassador, member of the Peruvian Delega -
tion to the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, for -
mer Adviser of the Minister for Foreign Affairs on Law of the Sea Mattéers,
7
5 CIJ1057.indb 10 1/12/14 08:59 7 maritime dispute (judégment)
as Co-Agents ;
Mr. Rodman Bundy, avocat à la Cour d’appel de Paris, member of the Newé
York Bar, Eversheds LLP, Paris,
Mr. Vaughan Lowe, Q.C., member of the English Bar, Emeritus Professor of
International Law, Oxford University, associate member of the Institut dée
droit international,
Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La
Défense, former Member and former Chairman of the International Law
Commission, associate member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. Tullio Treves, Professor at the Faculty of Law, State University of Milaén,
former judge of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Senioér
Consultant, Curtis, Mallet-Prevost, Colt and Mosle, Milan, member of the
Institut de droit international,
Sir Michael Wood, K.C.M.G., member of the English Bar, Member of the
International Law Commission,
as Counsel and Advocates ;
Mr. Eduardo Ferrero, Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, for -
mer Minister for Foreign Affairs, member of the Peruvian Delegation toé
the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,
Mr. Vicente Ugarte del Pino, former President of the Supreme Court of Jus -
tice, former President of the Court of Justice of the Andean Community, é
former Dean of the Lima Bar Association,
Mr. Roberto MacLean, former judge of the Supreme Court of Justice, former
Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
H.E. Mr. Manuel Rodríguez Cuadros, Ambassador of Peru to UNESCO,
former Minister for Foreign Affairs,
as State Advocates ;
Ms Marisol Agüero Colunga, Minister-Counsellor, LL.M., former Adviser of
the Minister for Foreign Affairs on Law of the Sea Matters, Co-ordinator
of the Peruvian Delegation,
H.E. Mr. Gustavo Meza-Cuadra, MIPP, Ambassador, Adviser of the Minis -
try of Foreign Affairs on Law of the Sea Matters,
Mr. Juan José Ruda, Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, Legal
Adviser of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
as Counsel ;
Mr. Benjamin Samson, Researcher, Centre de droit international de Nanterre
(CEDIN), University of Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense,
Mr. Eran Sthoeger, LL.M., New York University School of Law,
as Assistant Counsel ;
Mr. Carlos Enrique Gamarra, Vice Admiral (retired), Hydrographer, Adviéser
to the Office for Law of the Sea of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
as Special Adviser ;
Mr. Ramón Bahamonde, M.A., Advisory Office for the Law of the Sea of theé
Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Alejandro Deustua, M.A., Advisory Office for the Law of the Sea of the é
Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Pablo Moscoso de la Cuba, LL.M., Advisory Office for the Law of the
Sea of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
8
5 CIJ1057.indb 12 1/12/14 08:59 8 maritime dispute (judégment)
as Legal Advisers ;
Mr. Scott Edmonds, Cartographer, International Mapping,
Mr. Jaime Valdez, Lieutenant Commander (retired), National Cartographer
of the Peruvian Delegation,
Mr. Aquiles Carcovich, Captain (retired), Cartographer,
Mr. Thomas Frogh, Cartographer, International Mapping,
as Technical Advisers ;
Mr. Paul Duclos, Minister-Counsellor, LL.M., M.A., Advisory Office for the
Law of the Sea of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Alfredo Fortes, Counsellor, LL.M., Embassy of Peru in the Kingdom of
the Netherlands,
Mr. José Antonio Torrico, Counsellor, M.A., Embassy of Peru in the King -
dom of the Netherlands,
Mr. César Talavera, First Secretary, M.Sc., Embassy of Peru in the Kingdoém
of the Netherlands,
as Advisers ;
Ms Evelyn Campos Sánchez, Embassy of Peru in the Kingdom of the Neth -
erlands, Ph.D. candidate, Amsterdam Center for International Law, Uni -
versity of Amsterdam,
Ms Charis Tan, Advocate and Solicitor, Singapore, member of the New York
Bar, Solicitor, England and Wales, Eversheds LLP,
Mr. Raymundo Tullio Treves, Ph.D. candidate, Max Planck Research School
for Successful Disputes Settlement, Heidelberg,
as Assistants,
and
the Republic of Chile,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Albert van Klaveren Stork, Ambassador, former Vice-Minister for
Foreign Affairs, Professor at the University of Chile,
as Agent ;
H.E. Mr. Alfredo Moreno Charme, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Chile,
as National Authority ;
H.E. Mr. Juan Martabit Scaff, Ambassador of Chile to the Kingdom of the
Netherlands,
H.E. Ms María Teresa Infante Caffi, National Director of Frontiers aénd
Limits, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Professor at the University of Chéile,
member of the Institut de droit international,
as Co-Agents ;
Mr. Pierre-Marie Dupuy, Professor at the Graduate Institute of International
Studies and Development, Geneva, and at the University of Paris II (Pan -
théon-Assas), associate member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. James R. Crawford, S.C., LL.D., F.B.A., Whewell Professor of Interna -
tional Law, University of Cambridge, member of the Institut de droit intée-r
national, Barrister, Matrix Chambers,
9
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Mr. Jan Paulsson, President of the International Council for Commercial é
Arbitration, President of the Administrative Tribunal of the OECD, Freshé -
fields Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
Mr. David A. Colson, Attorney-at-Law, Patton Boggs LLP, Washington
D.C., member of the Bars of California and the District of Columbia,
Mr. Luigi Condorelli, Professor of International Law, University of Floréence,
Mr. Georgios Petrochilos, Avocat à la Cour and Advocate at the Greek é
Supreme Court, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
Mr. Samuel Wordsworth, Q.C., member of the English Bar, member of the
Paris Bar, Essex Court Chambers,
Mr. Claudio Grossman, Dean, R. Geraldson Professor of International Law,
American University, Washington College of Law,
as Counsel and Advocates ;
H.E. Mr. Hernan Salinas, Ambassador, Legal Adviser, Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, Professor, Catholic University of Chile,
H.E. Mr. Luis Winter, Ambassador, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Enrique Barros Bourie, Professor, University of Chile,
Mr. Julio Faúndez, Professor, University of Warwick,
Ms Ximena Fuentes Torrijo, Professor, University of Chile,
Mr. Claudio Troncoso Repetto, Professor, University of Chile,
Mr. Andres Jana, Professor, University of Chile,
Ms Mariana Durney, Legal Officer, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. John Ranson, Legal Officer, Professor of International Law, Chileané
Navy,
Mr. Ben Juratowitch, Solicitor admitted in England and Wales, Freshfieélds
Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
Mr. Motohiro Maeda, Solicitor admitted in England and Wales, Freshfieléds
Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
Mr. Coalter G. Lathrop, Special Adviser, Sovereign Geographic, member of
the North Carolina Bar,
H.E. Mr. Luis Goycoolea, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Antonio Correa Olbrich, Counsellor, Embassy of Chile in the Kingdom é
of the Netherlands,
Mr. Javier Gorostegui Obanoz, Second Secretary, Embassy of Chile in the é
Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Ms Kate Parlett, Solicitor admitted in England and Wales and in Queens -
land, Australia,
Ms Nienke Grossman, Assistant Professor, University of Baltimore, Mary -
land, member of the Bars of Virginia and the District of Columbia,
Ms Alexandra van der Meulen, Avocat à la Cour and member of the Bar oéf
the State of New York,
Mr. Francisco Abriani, member of the Buenos Aires Bar,
Mr. Paolo Palchetti, Professor of International Law, University of Maceréata,
as Advisers ;
Mr. Julio Poblete, National Division of Frontiers and Limits, Ministry oéf
Foreign Affairs,
Ms Fiona Bloor, United Kingdom Hydrographic Office,
Mr. Dick Gent, Marine Delimitation Ltd.,
as Technical Advisers,
10
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The Court,
composed as above,
after deliberation,
delivers the following Judgment :
1. On 16 January 2008, the Republic of Peru (hereinafter “Peru”) filed éin the
Registry of the Court an Application instituting proceedings against theé Repub -
lic of Chile (hereinafter “Chile”) in respect of a dispute conceérning, on the one
hand, “the delimitation of the boundary between the maritime zones ofé the two
States in the Pacific Ocean, beginning at a point on the coast called éConcor -
dia . . . the terminal point of the land boundary established pursuant to the
Treaty . . . of 3 June 1929” and, on the other, the recognition in favour of Peru
of a “maritime zone lying within 200 nautical miles of Peru’s coast” and which
should thus appertain to it, “but which Chile considers to be part ofé the high
seas”.
In its Application, Peru seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court oné Arti -
cle XXXI of the American Treaty on Pacific Settlement signed on 30 April 1948,
officially designated, according to Article LX thereof, as the “Pact of Bogotá”
(hereinafter referred to as such).
2. In accordance with Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court,
the Registrar immediately communicated the Application to the Governmenté of
Chile; and, under paragraph 3 of that Article, all other States entitled to appear
before the Court were notified of the Application.
3. Pursuant to the instructions of the Court under Article 43 of the Rules of
Court, the Registrar addressed to States parties to the Pact of Bogotá the noti -
fications provided for in Article 63, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court. In
accordance with the provisions of Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court,
the Registrar moreover addressed to the Organization of American States é(here -
inafter the “OAS”) the notification provided for in Article 34, paragraph 3, of
the Statute of the Court. As provided for in Article 69, paragraph 3, of the
Rules of Court, the Registry transmitted the written pleadings to the OAéS and
asked that organization whether or not it intended to furnish observatioéns in
writing within the meaning of that Article ; the OAS indicated that it did not
intend to submit any such observations.
4. On the instructions of the Court, in accordance with the provisions of
Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the Registrar addressed to the
Permanent Commission for the South Pacific (hereinafter the “CPPS”é, from the
Spanish acronym for “Comisión Permanente del Pacífico Sur”é) the notification
provided for in Article 34, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court with regard
to the Declaration on the Maritime Zone, signed by Chile, Ecuador and Peru, in
Santiago on 18 August 1952 (hereinafter the “1952 Santiago Declaration”), and
to the Agreement relating to a Special Maritime Frontier Zone, signed byé the
same three States in Lima on 4 December 1954 (hereinafter the “1954 Special
Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement”). In response, the CPPS indicated éthat it
did not intend to submit any observations in writing within the meaning of Arti -
cle 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court.
5. On the instructions of the Court under Article 43 of the Rules of Court,
the Registrar addressed to Ecuador, as a State party to the 1952 Santiago Dec -
laration and to the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, the néotifi-
cation provided for in Article 63, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court.
11
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6. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferéred upon
it by Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the
case. Peru chose Mr.Gilbert Guillaume and Chile Mr. FranciscoOrrego Vicuña.
7. By an Order dated 31 March 2008, the Court fixed 20 March 2009 as the
time-limit for the filing of the Memorial of Peru and 9 March 2010 as the
time-limit for the filing of the Counter-Memorial of Chile. Those pleadings were
duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed.
8. By an Order of 27 April 2010, the Court authorized the submission of a
Reply by Peru and a Rejoinder by Chile, and fixed 9 November 2010 and
11 July 2011 as the respective time-limits for the filing of those pleadings. The
Reply and the Rejoinder were duly filed within the time-limits thus fixed.
9. Referring to Article 53, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Govern -
ments of Colombia, Ecuador and Bolivia asked to be furnished with copiesé of
the pleadings and documents annexed in the case. Having ascertained the éviews
of the Parties pursuant to that same provision, the Court decided to graént each
of these requests. The Registrar duly communicated these decisions to thée said
Governments and to the Parties.
10. In accordance with Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the
Court, after having ascertained the views of the Parties, decided that céopies of
the pleadings and documents annexed would be made accessible to the publéic on
the opening of the oral proceedings.
11. Public hearings were held between 3 and 14 December 2012, at which the
Court heard the oral arguments and replies of :
For Peru : H.E. Mr. Allan Wagner,
Mr. Alain Pellet,
Mr. Rodman Bundy,
Mr. Tullio Treves,
Sir Michael Wood,
Mr. Vaughan Lowe.
For Chile : H.E. Mr. Albert van Klaveren Stork,
Mr. Pierre-Marie Dupuy,
Mr. David Colson,
Mr. James Crawford,
Mr. Jan Paulsson,
Mr. Georgios Petrochilos,
Mr. Luigi Condorelli,
Mr. Samuel Wordsworth.
12. At the hearings, a Member of the Court put a question to the Parties, toé
which replies were given orally in accordance with Article 61, paragraph 4, of
the Rules of Court.
*
13. In its Application, the following requests were made by Peru :
“Peru requests the Court to determine the course of the boundary betwéeen
the maritime zones of the two States in accordance with international laéw . . .
12
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and to adjudge and declare that Peru possesses exclusive sovereign rights in
the maritime area situated within the limit of 200nautical miles from its coast
but outside Chile’s exclusive economic zone or continental shelf.
The Government of Peru, further, reserves its right to supplement, amendé
or modify the present Application in the course of the proceedings.”
14. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by é
the Parties :
On behalf of the Government of Peru,
in the Memorial and in the Reply :
“For the reasons set out [in Peru’s Memorial and Reply], the Republic
of Peru requests the Court to adjudge and declare that :
(1) The delimitation between the respective maritime zones between the
Republic of Peru and the Republic of Chile, is a line starting at ‘Poéint
Concordia’ (defined as the intersection with the low-water mark of a
10-kilometre radius arc, having as its centre the first bridge over the Réiver
Lluta of the Arica-La Paz railway) and equidistant from the baselines of
both Parties, up to a point situated at a distance of 200 nautical miles
from those baselines, and
(2) Beyond the point where the common maritime border ends, Peru is
entitled to exercise exclusive sovereign rights over a maritime area lyiéng
out to a distance of 200 nautical miles from its baselines.
The Republic of Peru reserves its right to amend these submissions as the
case may be in the course of the present proceedings.”
On behalf of the Government of Chile,
in the Counter-Memorial and in the Rejoinder :
“Chile respectfully requests the Court to :
(a) dismiss Peru’s claims in their entirety ;
(b) adjudge and declare that :
(i) the respective maritime zone entitlements of Chile and Peru have
been fully delimited by agreement ;
(ii) those maritime zone entitlements are delimited by a boundary
following the parallel of latitude passing through the most sea -
ward boundary marker of the land boundary between Chile and
Peru, known as Hito No. 1, having a latitude of 18° 21´ 00˝ S under
WGS 84 Datum ; and
(iii) Peru has no entitlement to any maritime zone extending to the
south of that parallel.”
15. At the oral proceedings, the Parties presented the same submissions as
those contained in their written pleadings.
* * *
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I. Geography
16. Peru and Chile are situated in the western part of South America ;
their mainland coasts face the Pacific Ocean. Peru shares a land boundéary
with Ecuador to its north and with Chile to its south. In the area with é
which these proceedings are concerned, Peru’s coast runs in a north-west
direction from the starting-point of the land boundary between the Par -
ties on the Pacific coast and Chile’s generally follows a north-south orien-
tation. The coasts of both Peru and Chile in that area are mostly
uncomplicated and relatively smooth, with no distinct promontories or
other distinguishing features. (See sketch-map No. 1 : Geographical con -
text, p. 14.)
II. Historical Backgroundé
17. Chile gained its independence from Spain in 1818 and Peru did so
in 1821. At the time of independence, Peru and Chile were not neighbour -
ing States. Situated between the two countries was the Spanish colonial é
territory of Charcas which, as from 1825, became the Republic of Boliviaé.
In 1879 Chile declared war on Peru and Bolivia, in what is known his -
torically as the War of the Pacific. In 1883 hostilities between Chile and
Peru formally came to an end under the Treaty of Ancón. Under its
terms, Peru ceded to Chile the coastal province of Tarapacá ; in addition,
Chile gained possession of the Peruvian provinces of Tacna and Arica foré
a period of ten years on the basis of an agreement that after that perioéd
of time there would be a plebiscite to determine sovereignty over these é
provinces. After the signing of the truce between Bolivia and Chile in
1884 and of the 1904 Treaty of Peace and Friendship between them, the
entire Bolivian coast became Chilean.
18. Chile and Peru failed to agree on the terms of the above-mentioned
plebiscite. Finally, on 3 June 1929, following mediation attempts by the
President of the United States of America, the two countries signed the é
Treaty for the Settlement of the Dispute regarding Tacna and Arica
(hereinafter the “1929 Treaty of Lima”) and its Additional Protoécol,
whereby they agreed that Tacna would be returned to Peru while Chile
would retain Arica. The 1929 Treaty of Lima also fixed the land bound -
ary between the two countries. Under Article 3 of that Treaty, the Parties
agreed that a Mixed Commission of Limits should be constituted in order é
to determine and mark the agreed boundary using a series of markers
(“hitos” in Spanish). In its 1930 Final Act, the 1929-1930 Mixed Commis -
sion recorded the precise locations of the 80 markers that it had placed on
the ground to demarcate the land boundary.
19. In 1947 both Parties unilaterally proclaimed certain maritime rights
extending 200 nautical miles from their coasts (hereinafter collectively the
“1947 Proclamations”). The President of Chile issued a Declaration con -
cerning his country’s claim on 23 June 1947 (hereinafter the “1947 Declar-
14
5 CIJ1057.indb 24 1/12/14 08:59 - 14 -
14 maritime dispute (judégment)
QUITO
COLOMBIA
ECUADOR
Sketch-map No. 1:
Geographical context
This sketch-map has been prepared
for illustrative purposes only. BRAZIL
Mercator Projection (20° S)
WGS 84 PERU
LIMA
BOLIVIA
IloTacna
Arica
Iquique
CHILE
PACIFIC
OCEAN
SANTIAGO
ARGENTINA
15
5 CIJ1057.indb 26 1/12/14 08:59 15 maritime dispute (judégment)
ation” or “Chile’s 1947 Declaration”, reproduced at paragraph 37 below).
The President of Peru issued Supreme Decree No. 781, claiming the rights
of his country, on 1 August 1947 (hereinafter the “1947 Decree” or
“Peru’s 1947 Decree”, reproduced at paragraph 38 below).
20. In 1952, 1954 and 1967, Chile, Ecuador and Peru negotiated
twelve instruments to which the Parties in this case make reference. Four
were adopted in Santiago in August 1952 during the Conference on the
Exploitation and Conservation of the Marine Resources of the South
Pacific (the Regulations for Maritime Hunting Operations in the Waters
of the South Pacific ; the Joint Declaration concerning Fishing Problems
in the South Pacific ; the Santiago Declaration ; and the Agreement relat -
ing to the Organization of the Permanent Commission of the Conference
on the Exploitation and Conservation of the Marine Resources of the
South Pacific). Six others were adopted in Lima in December 1954
(the Complementary Convention to the Declaration of Sovereignty on
the Two-Hundred-Mile Maritime Zone ; the Convention on the System
of Sanctions ; the Agreement relating to Measures of Supervision and
Control in the Maritime Zones of the Signatory Countries ; the Conven -
tion on the Granting of Permits for the Exploitation of the Resources of
the South Pacific ; the Convention on the Ordinary Annual Meeting of
the Permanent Commission for the South Pacific ; and the Agreement
relating to a Special Maritime Frontier Zone). And, finally, two agreée -
ments relating to the functioning of the CPPS were signed in Quito in
May 1967.
21. On 3 December 1973, the very day the Third United Nations Con -
ference on the Law of the Sea began, the twelve instruments were submit -
ted by the three signatory States to the United Nations Secretariat for é
registration under Article 102 of the Charter. The four 1952 instruments
(including the Santiago Declaration) were registered on 12 May 1976
(United Nations Treaty Series (UNTS), Vol. 1006, pp. 301, 315, 323 and
331, Registration Nos. I-14756 to I-14759). The United Nations Treaty
Series specifies that the four 1952 treaties came into force on
18 August 1952 upon signature. The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier
Zone Agreement was registered with the United Nations Secretariat on
24 August 2004 (UNTS, Vol. 2274, p. 527, Registration No. I-40521). The
United Nations Treaty Series indicates that the 1954 Special Maritime
Frontier Zone Agreement entered into force on 21 September 1967 by the
exchange of instruments of ratification. With regard to the two 1967 agree -
ments, the Secretariat was informed in 1976 that the signatory States haéd
agreed not to insist upon the registration of these instruments, as theyé
related to matters of purely internal organization.
Representatives of the three States also signed in 1955 and later ratifiéed
the Agreement for the Regulation of Permits for the Exploitation of the é
Resources of the South Pacific. That treaty was not, however, submitteéd
16
5 CIJ1057.indb 28 1/12/14 08:59 16 maritime dispute (judégment)
to the United Nations for registration along with the other twelve instru -
ments in 1973 or at any other time.
III. Positions of the Partiées
22. Peru and Chile have adopted fundamentally different positions in
this case. Peru argues that no agreed maritime boundary exists between
the two countries and asks the Court to plot a boundary line using the
equidistance method in order to achieve an equitable result. Chile con -
tends that the 1952 Santiago Declaration established an international
maritime boundary along the parallel of latitude passing through the
starting-point of the Peru-Chile land boundary and extending to a mini -
mum of 200 nautical miles. It further relies on several agreements and
subsequent practice as evidence of that boundary. Chile asks the Court to
confirm the boundary line accordingly. (See sketch-map No. 2 : The mari-
time boundary lines claimed by Peru and Chile respectively, p. 17.)
Peru also argues that, beyond the point where the common maritime
boundary ends, it is entitled to exercise exclusive sovereign rights oveér a
maritime area lying out to a distance of 200 nautical miles from its base -
lines. (This maritime area is depicted on sketch-map No. 2 in a darker
shade of blue.) Chile responds that Peru has no entitlement to any marié -
time zone extending to the south of the parallel of latitude along whiché,
as Chile maintains, the international maritime boundary runs.
23. Chile contends that the principle of pacta sunt servanda and the
principle of stability of boundaries prevent any attempt to invite the
Court to redraw a boundary that has already been agreed. Chile adds
that there have been significant benefits to both Parties as a resulét of the
stability of their long-standing maritime boundary. Peru argues that the
delimitation line advocated by Chile is totally inequitable as it accords
Chile a full 200-nautical-mile maritime extension, whereas Peru, in con -
trast, suffers a severe cut-off effect. Peru states that it is extraordinary for
Chile to seek to characterize a boundary line, which accords Chile more é
than twice as much maritime area as it would Peru, as a stable frontier é
which is beneficial to Peru.
IV. Whether There Is
an Agreed Maritime Bounédary
24. In order to settle the dispute before it, the Court must first ascer -
tain whether an agreed maritime boundary exists, as Chile claims. In
addressing this question, the Parties considered the significance of téhe
1947 Proclamations, the 1952 Santiago Declaration and various agree -
ments concluded in 1952 and 1954. They also referred to the practice of é
17
5 CIJ1057.indb 30 1/12/14 08:59 17 maritime dispute (judégment)
BOLIVIA
CHILE
Arica
Tacna
e
PERU n
il
ec
n
Ilo a
ts
i
di
u ur
q e
e P
y
g b
no
l d
a e
y mi
r a
a l
d c
n s
u a
b
e
m
t
as claimed by Chile ir
a
M
Maritime boundary along parallel
WGS 84 200 nautical milesoast
Sketch-map No. 2: OCEAN
for illustrative purposes only. PACIFIC
Mercator Projection (18° 20' S)
This sketch-map has been prepared
The maritime boundary lines
200 nautical milesoast
claimed by Peru and Chile respectively
18
5 CIJ1057.indb 32 1/12/14 08:59 18 maritime dispute (judégment)
the Parties subsequent to the 1952 Santiago Declaration. The Court will
deal with each of these matters in turn.
1. The 1947 Proclamations of Chile and Peru
25. As noted above (see paragraph 19), in their 1947 Proclamations,
Chile and Peru unilaterally proclaimed certain maritime rights extendingé
200 nautical miles from their respective coasts.
26. The Parties agree that the relevant historical background to these
Proclamations involves a number of comparable proclamations by other
States, namely the United States of America’s two Proclamations of ités
policy with respect to both the natural resources of the subsoil and
sea-bed of the continental shelf, and coastal fisheries in certain areas of
the high seas, both dated 28 September 1945, the Mexican Declaration
with Respect to Continental Shelf dated 29 October 1945 and the Argen -
tinean Declaration Proclaiming Sovereignty over the Epicontinental Sea
and the Continental Shelf dated 11 October 1946. Both Parties agree on
the importance of fish and whale resources to their economies, submittéing
that the above-mentioned Proclamations by the United States of America
placed increased pressure on the commercial exploitation of fisheries éoff
the coast of the Pacific States of Latin America, thus motivating theiér
1947 Proclamations.
27. Beyond this background, the Parties present differing interpreta -
tions of both the content and legal significance of the 1947 Proclama -
tions.
28. According to Peru, Chile’s 1947 Declaration was an initial and
innovative step, whereby it asserted an alterable claim to jurisdiction,é
dependent on the adoption of further measures ; nothing in this Declara -
tion indicated any intention, on the part of Chile, to address the questéion
of lateral maritime boundaries with neighbouring States. Peru argues thaét
its own 1947 Decree is similarly provisional, representing an initial step
and not purporting to fix definitive limits of Peruvian jurisdictioné.
Peru contends that although its 1947 Decree refers to the Peruvian
zone of control and protection as “the area covered between the coasté
and an imaginary parallel line to it at a distance of two hundred (200) naut-
ical miles measured following the line of the geographical parallelsӎ,
such reference simply described the manner in which the seaward limits of
the maritime zone would be drawn, with there being no intention to set
any lateral boundaries with neighbouring States. Peru further considers é
that, according to terminology at the relevant time, the language of “ésov -
ereignty” in its 1947 Decree referred simply to rights over resources.
29. By contrast, Chile understands the Parties’ 1947 Proclamations as
more relevant, considering them to be “concordant unilateral proclama -
19
5 CIJ1057.indb 34 1/12/14 08:59 19 maritime dispute (judégment)
tions, each claiming sovereignty to a distance of 200 nautical milesӎ,
being “substantially similar in form, content and effect”. Chileé observes
that each of the Parties proclaims national sovereignty over its adjacenét
continental shelf, as well as in respect of the water column, indicatingé also
a right to extend the outer limit of its respective maritime zone.
30. Peru contests Chile’s description of the 1947 Proclamations as
“concordant”, emphasizing that, although Chile’s 1947 Declaration and
Peru’s 1947 Decree were closely related in time and object, they were not
co-ordinated or agreed between the Parties.
31. Chile further argues that the 1947 Proclamations set clear bound -
aries of the maritime zones referred to therein. Chile contends that theé
method in Peru’s 1947 Decree of using a geographical parallel to measure
the outward limit of the maritime zone also necessarily determines the
northern and southern lateral limits of such zone along such line of geoé -
graphical parallel. According to Chile, its own references to a “periémeter”
and to the “mathematical parallel” in its 1947 Declaration could be simi -
larly understood as indicating that a tracé parallèle method was used to
indicate the perimeter of the claimed Chilean zone.
32. Chile adds that parallels of latitude were also used in the practice
of American States. Peru responds that the use of parallels of latitude éby
other American States described by Chile are not instances of the use ofé
parallels of latitude as international maritime boundaries.
33. For Chile, the primary significance of the 1947 Proclamations is as
antecedents to the 1952 Santiago Declaration. Chile also refers to the
1947 Proclamations as circumstances of the conclusion of the 1952 San -
tiago Declaration and the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agree -
ment, in accordance with Article 32 of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties. Chile maintains that the 1947 Proclamations, in particu -
lar Peru’s use of a “line of the geographic parallels” to measuére its mari -
time projection, rendered the boundary delimitation uncontroversial in
1952, as there could be no less controversial boundary delimitation than
when the claimed maritime zones of two adjacent States abut perfectly
but do not overlap. However, Chile further clarifies that it does not écon -
sider that the 1947 Proclamations themselves established a maritime
boundary between the Parties.
34. Peru questions the Chilean claim that the adjacent maritime zones
abut perfectly by pointing out that the 1947 Proclamations do not stipu -
late co-ordinates or refer to international boundaries. Peru’s view oén the
connection between the 1947 Proclamations and the 1952 Santiago Dec -
laration is that the 1947 Proclamations cannot constitute circumstances
of the 1952 Santiago Declaration’s conclusion in the sense of Article 32
20
5 CIJ1057.indb 36 1/12/14 08:59 20 maritime dispute (judégment)
of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties as they pre-date the
conclusion of the 1952 Santiago Declaration by five years. Peru also
questions Chile’s assertion that the 1947 Proclamations constitute
circumstances of the conclusion of the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier
Zone Agreement.
35. The Parties further disagree on the legal nature of the 1947 Procla -
mations, particularly Chile’s 1947 Declaration. Chile contends that the
1947 Proclamations each had immediate effect, without the need for fur -
ther formality or enacting legislation. Peru denies this, contending ratéher
that Chile’s 1947 Declaration did not have the nature of a legal act. It
points to the fact that the 1947 Declaration was published only in a daily
newspaper and not in the Official Gazette of Chile.
36. Chile’s response to these arguments is that the status of its
1947 Declaration under domestic law is not determinative of its status
under international law, emphasizing that it was an international claim é
made by the President of Chile and addressed to the international com -
munity. Chile points out that the Parties exchanged formal notificatioéns
of their 1947 Proclamations, arguing that the lack of protest thereto dem -
onstrates acceptance of the validity of the other’s claim to sovereigénty,
including in relation to the perimeter. This was challenged by Peru.
*
37. The relevant paragraphs of Chile’s 1947 Declaration provide as
follows :
“Considering :
1. That the Governments of the United States of America, of Mex -
ico and of the Argentine Republic, by presidential declarations
made on 28 September 1945, 29 October 1945, and 11 Octo -
ber 1946, respectively,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. That they have explicitly proclaimed the rights of their States to
protect, preserve, control and inspect fishing enterprises, with the
object of preventing illicit activities threatening to damage or
destroy the considerable natural riches of this kind contained in
the seas adjacent to their coasts, and which are indispensable to
the welfare and progress of their respective peoples ; and that the
justice of such claims is indisputable ;
3. That it is manifestly convenient, in the case of the Chilean Republic,
to issue a similar proclamation of sovereignty, not only by the fact
of possessing and having already under exploitation natural riches
essential to the life of the nation and contained in the continental
shelf, such as the coal-mines, which are exploited both on the main -
land and under the sea, but further because, in view of its topogra -
21
5 CIJ1057.indb 38 1/12/14 08:59 21 maritime dispute (judégment)
phy and the narrowness of its boundaries, the life of the country is
linked to the sea and to all present and future natural riches con -
tained within it, more so than in the case of any other country;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(1) The Government of Chile confirms and proclaims its national
sovereignty over all the continental shelf adjacent to the continen -
tal and island coasts of its national territory, whatever may be
their depth below the sea, and claims by consequence all the nat -
ural riches which exist on the said shelf, both in and under it,
known or to be discovered.
(2) The Government of Chile confirms and proclaims its national
sovereignty over the seas adjacent to its coasts whatever may be
their depths, and within those limits necessary in order to reserve,
protect, preserve and exploit the natural resources of whatever
nature found on, within and below the said seas, placing within
the control of the Government especially all fisheries and whaling
activities with the object of preventing the exploitation of natural
riches of this kind to the detriment of the inhabitants of Chile and
to prevent the spoiling or destruction of the said riches to the
detriment of the country and the American continent.
(3) The demarcation of the protection zones for whaling and deep
sea fishery in the continental and island seas under the control of
the Government of Chile will be made in accordance with this
declaration of sovereignty at any moment which the Government
may consider convenient, such demarcation to be ratified, ampli -
fied, or modified in any way to conform with the knowledge, dis -
coveries, studies and interests of Chile as required in the future.
Protection and control is hereby declared immediately over all the
seas contained within the perimeter formed by the coast and the
mathematical parallel projected into the sea at a distance of
200 nautical miles from the coasts of Chilean territory. This
demarcation will be calculated to include the Chilean islands,
indicating a maritime zone contiguous to the coasts of the said
islands, projected parallel to these islands at a distance of 200 naut-
ical miles around their coasts.
(4) The present declaration of sovereignty does not disregard the
similar legitimate rights of other States on a basis of reciprocity,
nor does it affect the rights of free navigation on the high seas.ӎ
38. The relevant paragraphs of Peru’s 1947 Decree provide as follows :
“The President of the Republic,
Considering :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
That the shelf contains certain natural resources which must be
proclaimed as our national heritage ;
22
5 CIJ1057.indb 40 1/12/14 08:59 22 maritime dispute (judégment)
That it is deemed equally necessary that the State protect, maintain
and establish a control of fisheries and other natural resources found
in the continental waters which cover the submerged shelf and the
adjacent continental seas in order that these resources which are so
essential to our national life may continue to be exploited now and
in the future in such a way as to cause no detriment to the country’sé
economy or to its food production ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
That the right to proclaim sovereignty and national jurisdiction
over the entire extension of the submerged shelf as well as over the
continental waters which cover it and the adjacent seas in the area
required for the maintenance and vigilance of the resources therein
contained, has been claimed by other countries and practically admit -
ted in international law (Declaration of the President of the United
States of 28 September 1945 ; Declaration of the President of Mexico
of 29 October 1945 ; Decree of the President of the Argentine
Nation of 11 October 1946 ; Declaration of the President of Chile
of 23 June 1947) ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
With the advisory vote of the Cabinet,
Decrees :
1. To declare that national sovereignty and jurisdiction are extended
to the submerged continental or insular shelf adjacent to the con -
tinental or insular shores of national territory, whatever the depth
and extension of this shelf may be.
2. National sovereignty and jurisdiction are exercised as well over
the sea adjoining the shores of national territory whatever its
depth and in the extension necessary to reserve, protect, maintain
and utilize natural resources and wealth of any kind which may
be found in or below those waters.
3. As a result of previous declarations the State reserves the right to
establish the limits of the zones of control and protection of nat-
ural resources in continental or insular seas which are controlled
by the Peruvian Government and to modify such limits in accord -
ance with supervening circumstances which may originate as a
result of further discoveries, studies or national interests which may
become apparent in the future and at the same time declares that
it will exercise the same control and protection on the seas adjacent
to the Peruvian coast over the area covered between the coast and
an imaginary parallel line to it at a distance of two hundred (200)
nautical miles measured following the line of the geographical par -
allels. As regards islands pertaining to the nation, this demarcation
will be traced to include the sea area adjacent to the shores of these
islands to a distance of two hundred (200) nautical miles, measured
from all points on the contour of these islands.
23
5 CIJ1057.indb 42 1/12/14 08:59 23 maritime dispute (judégment)
4. The present declaration does not affect the right to free navigation
of ships of all nations according to international law.”
39. The Court notes that the Parties are in agreement that the
1947 Proclamations do not themselves establish an international mari -
time boundary. The Court therefore will consider the 1947 Proclamations
only for the purpose of ascertaining whether the texts evidence the Par -
ties’ understanding as far as the establishment of a future maritime é
boundary between them is concerned.
40. The Court observes that paragraph 3 of Chile’s 1947 Declaration
referred to a “mathematical parallel” projected into the sea to a édistance
of 200 nautical miles from the Chilean coast. Such a mathematical paral -
lel limited the seaward extent of the projection, but did not fix its élateral
limits. The 1947 Declaration nonetheless stated that it concerned the coén-
tinental shelf and the seas “adjacent” to the Chilean coasts. It iémplied the
need to fix, in the future, the lateral limits of the jurisdiction thaét it was
seeking to establish within a specified perimeter. The Court further notes
that Peru’s 1947 Decree, in paragraph 3, referred to “geographical paral -
lels” in identifying its maritime zone. The description of the relevaént mar-
itime zones in the 1947 Proclamations appears to use a tracé parallèle
method. However, the utilization of such method is not sufficient to evi -
dence a clear intention of the Parties that their eventual maritime bounéd-
ary would be a parallel.
41. The Court recalls that paragraph 3 of Chile’s 1947 Declaration
provides for the establishment of protective zones for whaling and deep é
sea fishery, considering that these may be modified in any way “téo con -
form with the knowledge, discoveries, studies and interests of Chile as é
required in the future”. This conditional language cannot be seen as écom-
mitting Chile to a particular method of delimiting a future lateral bounéd-
ary with its neighbouring States ; rather, Chile’s concern relates to the
establishment of a zone of protection and control so as to ensure the
exploitation and preservation of natural resources.
42. The language of Peru’s 1947 Decree is equally conditional. In para-
graph 3, Peru reserves the right to modify its “zones of control and pro -
tection” as a result of “national interests which may become apparéent in
the future”.
43. In view of the above, the language of the 1947 Proclamations, as
well as their provisional nature, precludes an interpretation of them asé
reflecting a shared understanding of the Parties concerning maritime
delimitation. At the same time, the Court observes that the Parties’ é
1947 Proclamations contain similar claims concerning their rights and
jurisdiction in the maritime zones, giving rise to the necessity of estaéblish-
ing the lateral limits of these zones in the future.
24
5 CIJ1057.indb 44 1/12/14 08:59 24 maritime dispute (judégment)
44. Having reached this conclusion, the Court does not need to address
Chile’s argument concerning the relevance of the communication of theé
1947 Proclamations inter se and Peru’s response to that argument. The
Court notes, however, that both Peru and Chile simply acknowledged
receipt of each other’s notification without making any reference téo the pos-
sible establishment of an international maritime boundary between them.
2. The 1952 Santiago Declaration
45. As noted above (see paragraph 20), the Santiago Declaration was
signed by Chile, Ecuador and Peru during the 1952 Conference held in
Santiago de Chile on the Exploitation and Conservation of the Marine
Resources of the South Pacific.
46. According to Chile, the 1952 Santiago Declaration has been a
treaty from its inception and was always intended by its signatories to ébe
legally binding. Chile further notes that the United Nations Treaty Series
indicates that the 1952 Santiago Declaration entered into force upon sig -
nature on 18 August 1952, with there being no record of any objection by
Peru to such indication.
47. Peru considers that the 1952 Santiago Declaration was not con -
ceived as a treaty, but rather as a proclamation of the international maéri-
time policy of the three States. Peru claims that it was thus “declaréative”
in character, but accepts that it later acquired the status of a treaty éafter
being ratified by each signatory (Chile in 1954, Ecuador and Peru in é1955)
and registered as such with the United Nations Secretariat on 12 May 1976,
pursuant to Article 102, paragraph 1, of the Charter of the United
Nations.
*
48. In view of the above, the Court observes that it is no longer con -
tested that the 1952 Santiago Declaration is an international treaty. The
Court’s task now is to ascertain whether it established a maritime boéund-
ary between the Parties.
49. The 1952 Santiago Declaration provides as follows :
“1. Governments have the obligation to ensure for their peoples the
necessary conditions of subsistence, and to provide them with the
resources for their economic development.
2. Consequently, they are responsible for the conservation and pro-
tection of their natural resources and for the regulation of the
development of these resources in order to secure the best possible
advantages for their respective countries.
3. Thus, it is also their duty to prevent any exploitation of these
resources, beyond the scope of their jurisdiction, which endangers
the existence, integrity and conservation of these resources to the
25
5 CIJ1057.indb 46 1/12/14 08:59 25 maritime dispute (judégment)
detriment of the peoples who, because of their geographical situ -
ation, possess irreplaceable means of subsistence and vital eco -
nomic resources in their seas.
In view of the foregoing considerations, the Governments of Chile,
Ecuador and Peru, determined to conserve and safeguard for their
respective peoples the natural resources of the maritime zones adja -
cent to their coasts, formulate the following Declaration :
I. The geological and biological factors which determine the exist -
ence, conservation and development of marine fauna and flora in
the waters along the coasts of the countries making the Declar-
ation are such that the former extension of the territorial sea and
the contiguous zone are inadequate for the purposes of the con -
servation, development and exploitation of these resources, to
which the coastal countries are entitled.
II. In the light of these circumstances, the Governments of Chile,
Ecuador and Peru proclaim as a norm of their international mari-
time policy that they each possess exclusive sovereignty and juris -
diction over the sea along the coasts of their respective countries
to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles from these coasts.
III. The exclusive jurisdiction and sovereignty over this maritime zone
shall also encompass exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction over
the sea-bed and the subsoil thereof.
IV. In the case of island territories, the zone of 200 nautical miles shall
apply to the entire coast of the island or group of islands. If an
island or group of islands belonging to one of the countries mak -
ing the declaration is situated less than 200 nautical miles from
the general maritime zone belonging to another of those coun -
tries, the maritime zone of the island or group of islands shall be
limited by the parallel at the point at which the land frontier of
the States concerned reaches the sea.
V. This declaration shall be without prejudice to the necessary limi -
tations to the exercise of sovereignty and jurisdiction established
under international law to allow innocent and inoffensive passage
through the area indicated for ships of all nations.
VI. For the application of the principles contained in this Declar-
ation, the Governments of Chile, Ecuador and Peru hereby
announce their intention to sign agreements or conventions which
shall establish general norms to regulate and protect hunting and
fishing within the maritime zone belonging to them, and to regu -
late and co-ordinate the exploitation and development of all other
kinds of products or natural resources existing in these waters
which are of common interest.”
*
26
5 CIJ1057.indb 48 1/12/14 08:59 26 maritime dispute (judégment)
50. Peru asserts that the 1952 Santiago Declaration lacks characteris -
tics which might be expected of a boundary agreement, namely, an appro-
priate format, a definition or description of a boundary, cartographic
material and a requirement for ratification. Chile disagrees with Peru’s
arguments concerning the characteristics of boundary agreements, point -
ing out that a treaty effecting a boundary delimitation can take any féorm.
51. According to Chile, it follows from paragraph IV of the 1952 San -
tiago Declaration that the maritime boundary between neighbouring
States parties is the parallel of latitude passing through the point at éwhich
the land boundary between them reaches the sea. Chile contends that
paragraph IV delimits both the general and insular maritime zones of the
States parties, arguing that the reference to islands in this provision is a
specific application of a generally agreed rule, the specification oéf which is
explained by the particular importance of islands to Ecuador’s geograéph -
ical circumstances. In support of this claim, Chile relies upon the minuétes
of the 1952 Conference dated 11 August 1952, asserting that the Ecuador -
ean delegate requested clarification that the boundary line of the juréisdic-
tional zone of each country be the respective parallel from the point até
which the border of the countries touches or reaches the sea and that alél
States expressed their mutual consent to such an understanding. Chile
argues that such an understanding, as recorded in the minutes, constitutées
an agreement relating to the conclusion of the 1952 Santiago Declaration,
within the meaning of Article 31, paragraph 2 (a), of the Vienna Conven -
tion on the Law of Treaties. Although Chile recognizes that the issue of
islands was of particular concern to Ecuador, it also stresses that therée
are relevant islands in the vicinity of the Peru-Chile border.
52. Chile maintains that the relationship between general and insular
maritime zones must be understood in light of the fact that the delimitaé -
tion of insular zones along a line of parallel is only coherent and efféective
if there is also a general maritime delimitation along such parallel. Fuér -
ther, Chile points out that, in order to determine if an island is situaéted
less than 200 nautical miles from the general maritime zone of another
State party to the 1952 Santiago Declaration, the perimeter of such gen -
eral maritime zone must have already been defined.
53. Peru argues that in so far as the continental coasts of the States
parties are concerned, the 1952 Santiago Declaration simply claims a
maritime zone extending to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles,
addressing only seaward and not lateral boundaries. In Peru’s view, péara -
graph IV of the 1952 Santiago Declaration refers only to the entitlement
generated by certain islands and not to the entitlement generated by coné -
tinental coasts, with the issue of islands being relevant only between
Ecuador and Peru, not between Peru and Chile. Peru contends that even
if some very small islands exist in the vicinity of the Peru-Chile border
these are immediately adjacent to the coast and do not have any effecté on
maritime entitlements distinct from the coast itself, nor were they of céon -
cern during the 1952 Conference.
27
5 CIJ1057.indb 50 1/12/14 08:59 27 maritime dispute (judégment)
54. Peru rejects Chile’s argument that a general maritime delimitation
must be assumed in paragraph IV so as to make the reference to insular
delimitation effective. It also questions that a maritime boundary couéld
result from an alleged practice implying or presupposing its existence. é
Peru argues that, if it were true that parallels had been established asé
international maritime boundaries prior to 1952, there would have been
no need to include paragraph IV as such boundaries would have already
settled the question of the extent of the maritime entitlements of islanéds.
Peru further claims that the purpose of paragraph IV is to provide a pro -
tective zone for insular maritime entitlements so that even if an eventuéal
maritime delimitation occurred in a manner otherwise detrimental to suché
insular entitlements, it could only do so as far as the line of parallelé
referred to therein. Finally, Peru contests Chile’s interpretation ofé the
minutes of the 1952 Conference, arguing also that these do not constitute
any form of “recorded agreement” but could only amount to travaux
préparatoires.
55. According to Chile, the object and purpose of the 1952 Santiago
Declaration can be stated at varying levels of specificity. Its most géener -
ally stated object and purpose is “to conserve and safeguard for theiér
respective peoples the natural resources of the maritime zones adjacent éto
[the parties’] coasts”. It also has a more specific object and péurpose,
namely to set forth zones of “exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction”é. This
object and purpose is naturally concerned with identifying the physical é
perimeter of each State’s maritime zone within which such sovereigntyé
and jurisdiction would be exercised. Chile further emphasizes that,
although the 1952 Santiago Declaration constitutes a joint proclamation
of sovereignty, it is made by each of the three States parties, each claéim -
ing sovereignty over a maritime zone which is distinct from that claimedé
by the other two.
56. Peru agrees with Chile to the extent that the 1952 Santiago Decla -
ration involves joint action to declare the maritime rights of States paérties
to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles from their coasts so as to
protect and preserve the natural resources adjacent to their territoriesé.
Yet, Peru focuses on the 1952 Conference’s purpose as being to address
collectively the problem of whaling in South Pacific waters, arguing téhat,
in order to do so, it was necessary that “between them” the Statesé parties
police the 200-nautical-mile zone effectively. According to Peru, the object
and purpose of the 1952 Santiago Declaration was not the division of
fishing grounds between its States parties, but to create a zone functéion -
ing “as a single biological unit” — an exercise of regional solidarity —
designed to address the threat posed by foreign whaling. Thus, Peru
stresses that the 1952 Santiago Declaration does not include any stipula -
tion as to how the States parties’ maritime zones are delimited from éeach
other.
*
28
5 CIJ1057.indb 52 1/12/14 08:59 28 maritime dispute (judégment)
57. The Court is required to analyse the terms of the 1952 Santiago
Declaration in accordance with the customary international law of treaty
interpretation, as reflected in Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention
on the Law of Treaties (see Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v.
United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 812, para. 23 ; Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/
Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, pp. 21-22, para. 41). The Court
applied these rules to the interpretation of treaties which pre-date the
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Dispute regarding Naviga
tional and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 237, para. 47 ; Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and
Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002,
pp. 645-646, paras. 37-38 ; Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Botswana/Namibia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1059, para. 18).
58. The Court commences by considering the ordinary meaning to be
given to the terms of the 1952 Santiago Declaration in their context, in
accordance with Article 31, paragraph 1, of the Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties. The 1952 Santiago Declaration does not make
express reference to the delimitation of maritime boundaries of the zoneés
generated by the continental coasts of its States parties. This is com -
pounded by the lack of such information which might be expected in an
agreement determining maritime boundaries, namely, specific co-ordi -
nates or cartographic material. Nevertheless, the 1952 Santiago Declara -
tion contains certain elements (in its paragraph IV) which are relevant to
the issue of maritime delimitation (see paragraph 60 below).
59. The Court notes that in paragraph II, the States parties “proclaim
as a norm of their international maritime policy that they each possess
exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction over the sea along the coasts of
their respective countries to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles
from these coasts”. This provision establishes only a seaward claim aénd
makes no reference to the need to distinguish the lateral limits of the émar -
itime zones of each State party. Paragraph III states that “[t]he exclusive
jurisdiction and sovereignty over this maritime zone shall also encompasés
exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction over the sea-bed and the subsoil é
thereof”. Such a reference to jurisdiction and sovereignty does not néeces -
sarily require any delimitation to have already occurred. Paragraph VI
expresses the intention of the States parties to establish by agreement éin
the future general norms of regulation and protection to be applied in
their respective maritime zones. Accordingly, although a description of
the distance of maritime zones and reference to the exercise of jurisdicétion
and sovereignty might indicate that the States parties were not unaware
of issues of general delimitation, the Court concludes that neither paraé -
graph II nor paragraph III refers explicitly to any lateral boundaries of
the proclaimed 200-nautical-mile maritime zones, nor can the need for
such boundaries be implied by the references to jurisdiction and sover -
eignty.
29
5 CIJ1057.indb 54 1/12/14 08:59 29 maritime dispute (judégment)
60. The Court turns now to paragraph IV of the 1952 Santiago Dec-
laration. The first sentence of paragraph IV specifies that the proclaimed
200-nautical-mile maritime zones apply also in the case of island territo -
ries. The second sentence of that paragraph addresses the situation where
an island or group of islands of one State party is located less than
200 nautical miles from the general maritime zone of another State party.
In this situation, the limit of the respective zones shall be the paralléel at
the point at which the land frontier of the State concerned reaches the
sea. The Court observes that this provision, the only one in the 1952 San -
tiago Declaration making any reference to the limits of the States parties’
maritime zones, is silent regarding the lateral limits of the maritime zéones
which are not derived from island territories and which do not abut themé.
61. The Court is not convinced by Chile’s argument that paragraph IV
can be understood solely if it is considered to delimit not only insularé
maritime zones but also the entirety of the general maritime zones of thée
States parties. The ordinary meaning of paragraph IV reveals a particular
interest in the maritime zones of islands which may be relevant even if éa
general maritime zone has not yet been established. In effect, it appeéars
that the States parties intended to resolve a specific issue which couéld
obviously create possible future tension between them by agreeing that
the parallel would limit insular zones.
62. In light of the foregoing, the Court concludes that the ordinary
meaning of paragraph IV, read in its context, goes no further than estab -
lishing the Parties’ agreement concerning the limits between certain éinsu-
lar maritime zones and those zones generated by the continental coasts
which abut such insular maritime zones.
63. The Court now turns to consider the object and purpose of the
1952 Santiago Declaration. It recalls that both Parties state such object
and purpose narrowly: Peru argues that the Declaration is primarily con -
cerned with addressing issues of large-scale whaling, whereas Chile argues
that it can be most specifically understood as concerned with identifying
the perimeters of the maritime zone of each State party. The Court
observes that the Preamble of the 1952 Santiago Declaration focuses on
the conservation and protection of the necessary natural resources for téhe
subsistence and economic development of the peoples of Chile, Ecuador
and Peru, through the extension of the maritime zones adjacent to their
coasts.
64. The Court further considers that it is not necessary for it to address
the existence of small islands located close to the coast in the region éof the
Peru-Chile land boundary. The case file demonstrates that the issue of
insular zones in the context of the 1952 Santiago Declaration arose from
a concern expressed by Ecuador. It is equally clear from the case fileé that
the small islands do not appear to have been of concern to the Parties. éAs
stated by Chile in its Rejoinder, referring to these small islands, “é[n]one of
30
5 CIJ1057.indb 56 1/12/14 08:59 30 maritime dispute (judégment)
them was mentioned in the negotiating record related to the 1952 San-
tiago Declaration . . . The only islands that were mentioned in the con -
text of the Santiago Declaration were Ecuador’s Galápagos Islands.” éPeru
did not contest this.
65. The Court recalls Chile’s argument, based on Article 31, para -
graph 2 (a), of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, that the
minutes of the 1952 Conference constitute an “agreement relating to the
treaty which was made between all the parties in connection with the coné -
clusion of the treaty”. The Court considers that the minutes of the
1952 Conference summarize the discussions leading to the adoption of
the 1952 Santiago Declaration, rather than record an agreement of the
negotiating States. Thus, they are more appropriately characterized as
travaux préparatoires which constitute supplementary means of interpre -
tation within the meaning of Article 32 of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties.
66. In light of the above, the Court does not need, in principle, to
resort to supplementary means of interpretation, such as the travaux
préparatoires of the 1952 Santiago Declaration and the circumstances of
its conclusion, to determine the meaning of that Declaration. However, aés
in other cases (see, for example, Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau
Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 653,
para. 53 ; Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar
and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 21, para. 40 ; Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 27, para. 55), the
Court has considered the relevant material, which confirms the above
interpretation of the 1952 Santiago Declaration.
67. Chile’s original proposal presented to the 1952 Conference pro -
vided as follows :
“The zone indicated comprises all waters within the perimeter
formed by the coasts of each country and a mathematical parallel
projected into the sea to 200 nautical miles away from the mainland,
along the coastal fringe.
In the case of island territories, the zone of 200 nautical miles will
apply all around the island or island group.
If an island or group of islands belonging to one of the countries
making the declaration is situated less than 200 nautical miles from
the general maritime zone belonging to another of those countries,
according to what has been established in the first paragraph of this
article, the maritime zone of the said island or group of islands shall é
be limited, in the corresponding part, to the distance that separates it
from the maritime zone of the other State or country.”
The Court notes that this original Chilean proposal appears intended to é
effect a general delimitation of the maritime zones along lateral lineés.
However, this proposal was not adopted.
31
5 CIJ1057.indb 58 1/12/14 08:59 31 maritime dispute (judégment)
68. Further, the minutes of the 1952 Conference indicate that the dele-
gate for Ecuador :
“observed that it would be advisable to provide more clarity to Arti -
cle 3 [which became paragraph IV of the final text of the 1952 San-
tiago Declaration], in order to avoid any error in the interpretation
of the interference zone in the case of islands, and suggested that the é
declaration be drafted on the basis that the boundary line of the juris -
dictional zone of each country be the respective parallel from the
point at which the frontier of the countries touches or reaches the
sea”.
According to the minutes, this proposition met with the agreement of allé
of the delegates.
Ecuador’s intervention, with which the Parties agreed, is limited in éits
concern to clarification “in the case of islands”. Thus the Courét is of the
view that it can be understood as saying no more than that which is
already stated in the final text of paragraph IV. The Court considers from
the foregoing that the travaux préparatoires confirm its conclusion that
the 1952 Santiago Declaration did not effect a general maritime delimita -
tion.
69. Nevertheless, various factors mentioned in the preceding para -
graphs, such as the original Chilean proposal and the use of the paralleél
as the limit of the maritime zone of an island of one State party locateéd
less than 200 nautical miles from the general maritime zone of another
State party, suggest that there might have been some sort of shared
understanding among the States parties of a more general nature con -
cerning their maritime boundaries. The Court will return to this matter
later.
70. The Court has concluded, contrary to Chile’s submissions, that
Chile and Peru did not, by adopting the 1952 Santiago Declaration, agree
to the establishment of a lateral maritime boundary between them along
the line of latitude running into the Pacific Ocean from the seaward ter -
minus of their land boundary. However, in support of its claim that thaté
line constitutes the maritime boundary, Chile also invokes agreements
and arrangements which it signed later with Ecuador and Peru, and with
Peru alone.
3. The Various 1954 Agreements
71. Among the agreements adopted in 1954, Chile emphasizes, in par -
ticular, the Complementary Convention to the 1952 Santiago Declaration
and the Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement. It puts the meetings
that led to those agreements and the agreements themselves in the contexét
of the challenges which six maritime powers had made to the 1952 San -
tiago Declaration in the period running from August to late October 1954
and of the planned whale hunting by a fleet operating under the Panamaé -
nian flag.
32
5 CIJ1057.indb 60 1/12/14 08:59 32 maritime dispute (judégment)
72. The meeting of the CPPS, preparatory to the Inter-State confer -
ence of December 1954, was held between 4 and 8 October 1954. The pro-
visional agenda items correspond to five of the six agreements which wéere
drafted and adopted at the December Inter-State Conference : the Com -
plementary Convention to the 1952 Santiago Declaration, the Conven -
tion on the System of Sanctions, the Agreement on the Annual Meeting
of the CPPS, the Convention on Supervision and Control, and the Con -
vention on the Granting of Permits for the Exploitation of the Resourcesé
of the South Pacific.
73. The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement also resulted
from the meetings that took place in 1954. In addition to considering thée
matters listed on the provisional agenda described above, the October 1954
meeting of the CPPS also considered a proposal by the Delegations of Ecuéa -
dor and Peru to establish a “neutral zone . . . on either side of the parallel
which passes through the point of the coast that signals the boundary
between the two countries”. The Permanent Commission approved the proé -
posal unanimously “and, consequently, entrusted its Secretariat-General to
transmit this recommendation to the signatory countries so that they puté
into practice this norm of tolerance on fishing activities”. As a céonsequence,
at the inaugural session of “The Second Conference on the Exploitatioén and
Conservation of the Marine Resources of the South Pacific”, the proposed
Agreement appeared in the agenda as the last of the six agreements to be
considered and signed in December 1954. The draft text relating to the pro -
posal to establish a “neutral zone” along the parallel was then améended in
certain respects. The term “neutral zone” was replaced with the teérm “spe -
cial maritime frontier zone” and the reference to “the parallel whéich passes
through the point of the coast that signals the boundary between the twoé
countries” was replaced with “the parallel which constitutes the méaritime
boundary between the two countries”. This is the language that appearés in
the first paragraph of the final text of the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier
Zone Agreement, which was adopted along with the other five agreementsé
referred to in the preceding paragraph. All of the agreements included aé
standard clause, added late in the drafting process without any explanation
recorded in the minutes. According to this clause, the provisions contaiéned
in the agreements were “deemed to be an integral and supplementary paért”
of the resolutions and agreements adopted in 1952 and were “not in anéy way
to abrogate” them. Of these six agreements only the 1954 Complementary
Convention and the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement were
given any real attention by the Parties in the course of these proceedinégs,
except for brief references by Chile to the Supervision and Control Convéen -
tion (see paragraph 78 below). The Court notes that the 1954 Special Mar-i
time Frontier Zone Agreement is still in force.
A. The Complementary Convention to the 1952 Santiago Declaration
74. According to Chile, “the main instrument” prepared at the
1954 Inter-State Conference was the Complementary Convention, “[t]he
33
5 CIJ1057.indb 62 1/12/14 08:59 33 maritime dispute (judégment)
primary purpose [of which] was to reassert the claim of sovereignty and é
jurisdiction that had been made two years earlier in Santiago and to
defend jointly the claim against protests by third States”. It quotes its
Foreign Minister speaking at the inaugural session of the 1954 CPPS
Meeting :
“The right to proclaim our sovereignty over the sea zone that
extends to two hundred miles from the coast is thus undeniable and
inalienable. We gather now to reaffirm our decision to defend, what -
ever the cost, this sovereignty and to exercise it in accordance with
the high national interests of the signatory countries to the Declara -
tion.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
We strongly believe that, little by little, the legal statement that hasé
been formulated by our countries into the 1952 Agreement [the San -
tiago Declaration] will find its place in international law until it is
accepted by all Governments that wish to preserve, for mankind,
resources that today are ruthlessly destroyed by the unregulated exer -
cise of exploitative activities that pursue diminished individual inter -
ests and not collective needs.”
75. Peru similarly contends that the purpose of the 1954 Complemen -
tary Convention was to reinforce regional solidarity in the face of oppoés- i
tion from third States to the 200-nautical-mile claim. It observes that in
1954, as in 1952, the primary focus of the three States was on maintainiéng
a united front towards third States, “rather than upon the development of
an internal legal régime defining their rights inter se”. It also contends
that the 1954 instruments were adopted in the context of regional solidar -
ity vis-à-vis third States and that they were essentially an integral part of
the agreements and resolutions adopted in 1952. The Inter-State Confer -
ence was in fact held less than a month after the Peruvian Navy, with thée
co-operation of its air force, had seized vessels of the Onassis whaling
fleet, under the Panamanian flag, more than 100 nautical miles off shore
(for extracts from the Peruvian judgment imposing fines see American
Journal of International Law, 1955, Vol. 49, p. 575). Peru notes that when
it rejected a United Kingdom protest against the seizure of the Onassis é
vessels, the Chilean Foreign Minister sent a congratulatory message to his
Peruvian counterpart — according to Peru this was “an indication of the
regional solidarity which the zone embodied”. In its Reply, Peru recaélls
Chile’s characterization in its Counter-Memorial of the 1954 Com-
plementary Convention as “the main instrument” prepared at the
1954 Inter-State Conference.
76. The Parties also refer to the agreed responses which they made,
after careful preparation in the first part of 1955, to the protests méade by
maritime powers against the 1952 Santiago Declaration. Those responses
were made in accordance with the spirit of the Complementary Conven -
34
5 CIJ1057.indb 64 1/12/14 08:59 34 maritime dispute (judégment)
tion even though Chile was not then or later a party to it. Similar co-
ordinated action was taken in May 1955 in response to related proposals
made by the United States of America.
*
77. The Court observes that it is common ground that the proposed
Complementary Convention was the main instrument addressed by Chile,
Ecuador and Peru as they prepared for the CPPS meeting and the
Inter-State Conference in Lima in the final months of 1954. Given the
challenges being made by several States to the 1952 Santiago Declaration,
the primary purpose of that Convention was to assert, particularly againést
the major maritime powers, their claim of sovereignty and jurisdiction
made jointly in 1952. It was also designed to help prepare their common é
defence of the claim against the protests by those States, which was theé
subject-matter of the second agenda item of the 1954 Inter-State Confer -
ence. It does not follow, however, that the “primary purpose” was éthe
sole purpose or even less that the primary purpose determined the sole
outcome of the 1954 meetings and the Inter-State Conference.
B. The Agreement relating to Measures of Supervision and Control
of the Maritime Zones of the Signatory Countries
78. Chile seeks support from another of the 1954 Agreements, the
Agreement relating to Measures of Supervision and Control of the Mari -
time Zones of the Signatory Countries. It quotes the first and second é
articles :
“First,
It shall be the function of each signatory country to supervise and
control the exploitation of the resources in its Maritime Zone by the
use of such organs and means as it considers necessary.
Second,
The supervision and control referred to in Article one shall be exer -
cised by each country exclusively in the waters of its jurisdiction.”
(Emphasis added by Chile.)
Chile contends that the second article proceeds on the basis that each
State’s maritime zone had been delimited. Peru made no reference to
the substance of this Agreement. Chile also referred in this context to the é
1955 Agreement for the Regulation of Permits for Exploitation of
the Resources of the South Pacific (see paragraph 21 above) and to its
1959 Decree providing for that regulation.
79. The Court considers that at this early stage there were at least in
practice distinct maritime zones in which each of the three States mighté,
in terms of the 1952 Santiago Declaration, take action as indeed was
35
5 CIJ1057.indb 66 1/12/14 08:59 35 maritime dispute (judégment)
exemplified by the action taken by Peru against the Onassis whaling fléeet
shortly before the Lima Conference ; other instances of enforcement by
the two Parties are discussed later. However the Agreements on Supervi -
sion and Control and on the Regulation of Permits give no indication
about the location or nature of boundaries of the zones. On the matter oéf
boundaries, the Court now turns to the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier
Zone Agreement.
C. The Agreement relating to a Special Maritime Frontier Zone
80. The Preamble to the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agree -
ment reads as follows :
“Experience has shown that innocent and inadvertent violations of
the maritime frontier [la frontera marítima] between adjacent States
occur frequently because small vessels manned by crews with insuffi -
cient knowledge of navigation or not equipped with the necessary
instruments have difficulty in determining accurately their position oné
the high seas ;
The application of penalties in such cases always produces ill- feeling
in the fishermen and friction between the countries concerned, which
may affect adversely the spirit of co-operation and unity which should
at all times prevail among the countries signatories to the instruments é
signed at Santiago ; and
It is desirable to avoid the occurrence of such unintentional infringe-
ments, the consequences of which affect principally the fishermen.ӎ
81. The substantive provisions of the Agreement read as follows :
“1. A special zone is hereby established, at a distance of [a partir
de] 12 nautical miles from the coast, extending to a breadth of
10 nautical miles on either side of the parallel which constitutes the
maritime boundary [el límite marítimo] between the two countries.
2. The accidental presence in the said zone of a vessel of either of
the adjacent countries, which is a vessel of the nature described in the
paragraph beginning with the words ‘Experience has shown’ in the
Preamble hereto, shall not be considered to be a violation of the
waters of the maritime zone, though this provision shall not be con -
strued as recognizing any right to engage, with deliberate intent, in
hunting or fishing in the said special zone.
3. Fishing or hunting within the zone of 12 nautical miles from the
coast shall be reserved exclusively to the nationals of each country.ӎ
Article 4 is the standard provision, included in all six of the 1954 Agree -
ments, deeming it to be “an integral and supplementary part” of thée
1952 instruments which it was not in any way to abrogate (see para -
graph 73 above).
36
5 CIJ1057.indb 68 1/12/14 08:59 36 maritime dispute (judégment)
82. According to Chile, the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone
Agreement was “the most relevant instrument adopted at the Decem -
ber 1954 Conference”. Its “basic predicate” was that the three Statées
“already had lateral boundaries, or ‘frontiers’, in place betweéen them”.
Chile continues, citing the Judgment in the case concerning Territorial
Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), that in the 1954 Special Mari -
time Frontier Zone Agreement “the existence of a determined frontier é
was accepted and acted upon” (I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 35, para. 66). It
points out that Article 1 uses the present tense, referring to a maritime
boundary already in existence, and the first recital indicates that ité was
violations of that existing boundary that prompted the Agreement.
83. Peru contends (1) that the Agreement was applicable only to Peru’s
northern maritime border, that is, with Ecuador, and not also to the
southern one, with Chile ; (2) that Chile’s delay in ratifying (in 1967) and
registering (in 2004) the Agreement shows that it did not regard it ofé
major importance in establishing a maritime boundary ; and (3) that the
Agreement had a very special and temporary purpose and that the Parties é
were claiming a limited functional jurisdiction. Peru in its written plead -
ings, in support of its contention that the 1954 Special Maritime Frontiéer
Zone Agreement applied only to its boundary with Ecuador and not to
that with Chile, said that the “rather opaque formula” — the reference to
the parallel in Article 1, introduced on the proposal of Ecuador —
referred to only one parallel between two countries ; it seems clear, Peru
says, that the focus was on the waters between Peru and Ecuador.
84. With regard to Peru’s first argument, Chile in reply points out that
the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement has three States par -
ties and that the ordinary meaning of “the two countries” in Articéle 1 is a
reference to the States on either side of their shared maritime boundaryé.
Chile notes that there is no qualification of the “maritime frontieér” (in the
Preamble), nor is there any suggestion that the term “adjacent States”
refers only to Ecuador and Peru. Chile also points out that in 1962 Perué
complained to Chile about “the frequency with which Chilean fishingé ves -
sels have trespassed into Peruvian waters”, stating that “the Goveérnment
of Peru, taking strongly into account the sense and provisions of ‘thée
Agreement’” wished that the Government of Chile take certain steps par -
ticularly through the competent authorities at the port of Arica. As Chiéle
noted, Peru did not at that stage make any reference to the argument thaét
the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement applied only to its
northern maritime boundary.
85. In the view of the Court, there is nothing at all in the terms of the
1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement which would limit it
37
5 CIJ1057.indb 70 1/12/14 08:59 37 maritime dispute (judégment)
only to the Ecuador-Peru maritime boundary. Moreover Peru did not in
practice accord it that limited meaning which would preclude its applicaé-
tion to Peru’s southern maritime boundary with Chile. The Court furthéer
notes that the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement was nego -
tiated and signed by the representatives of all three States, both in thée
Commission and at the Inter-State Conference. All three States then pro -
ceeded to ratify it. They included it among the twelve treaties which they
jointly submitted to the United Nations Secretariat for registration in é
1973 (see paragraph 21 above).
*
86. With regard to Peru’s second argument, Chile responds by point -
ing out that delay in ratification is common and contends that of itseélf the
delay in ratification has no consequence for the legal effect of a téreaty
once it has entered into force. Further, it submits that the fact that réegis -
tration of an Agreement is delayed is of no relevance.
87. The Court is of the view that Chile’s delay in ratifying the 1954 Spe-
cial Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement and submitting it for registrationé
does not support Peru’s argument that Chile considered that the Agree -
ment lacked major importance. In any event, this delay has no bearing oné
the scope and effect of the Agreement. Once ratified by Chile the Agéree -
ment became binding on it. In terms of the argument about Chile’s deléay
in submitting the Agreement for registration, the Court recalls that, iné
1973, all three States signatory to the 1952 and 1954 treaties, including
the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, simultaneously sub -
mitted all of them for registration (see paragraphs 20 to 21 above).
88. With regard to Peru’s third argument that the 1954 Special Mari -
time Frontier Zone Agreement had a special and temporary purpose and
that the Parties were claiming a limited functional jurisdiction, Chile’és
central contention is that the “basic predicate” of the Agreement éwas that
the three States “already had lateral boundaries, or ‘frontiers’é, in place
between them” (see paragraph 82 above). The reference in the title of the
Agreement to a Special Maritime Frontier Zone and in the recitals to
violations of the maritime frontier between adjacent States demonstratesé,
Chile contends, that a maritime frontier or boundary already existed
when the three States concluded the Agreement in December 1954. The
granting to small vessels of the benefit of a zone of tolerance was, in terms
of the Preamble, intended to avoid “friction between the countries coén -
cerned, which may affect adversely the spirit of co-operation and unity
which should at all times prevail among the countries signatories to theé
instruments signed at Santiago”. According to Chile, this was an
inter-State problem and “not a problem relating to itinerant fishermen”é.
The States wished to eliminate obstacles to their complete co-operation in
defence of their maritime claims. Chile emphasizes that Article 1, the pri -
38
5 CIJ1057.indb 72 1/12/14 08:59 38 maritime dispute (judégment)
mary substantive provision, is in the present tense : the ten-nautical-mile
zones are being created to the north and south of a maritime boundary
which already exists. Article 2, it says, also supports its position. The
“accidental presence” in that zone of the vessels referred to in téhe Agree-
ment is not considered a “violation” of the adjacent State’s maritime
zone. Chile claims that although its ratification of the 1954 Special Mari -
time Frontier Zone Agreement came some time after its signature, the
boundary whose existence was acknowledged and acted upon was already
in place throughout the period leading to its ratification.
89. According to Peru, the aim of the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier
Zone Agreement “was narrow and specific”, establishing a “zonée of toler -
ance” for small and ill-equipped fishing vessels. Defining that zone by
reference to a parallel of latitude was a practical approach for the creéw of
such vessels. The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement did
not have a larger purpose, such as establishing a comprehensive régimée
for the exploitation of fisheries or adding to the content of the 200-nauti -
cal-mile zones or setting out their limits and borders. Peru also maintains
that “the 1954 Agreement was a practical arrangement, of a technical
nature, and of limited geographical scope, not one dealing in any sense é
with political matters”.
90. In the view of the Court, the operative terms and purpose of the
1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement are indeed narrow and
specific. That is not however the matter under consideration by the Coéurt
at this stage. Rather, its focus is on one central issue, namely, the exéis -
tence of a maritime boundary. On that issue the terms of the 1954 Special
Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, especially Article 1 read with the
preambular paragraphs, are clear. They acknowledge in a binding inter -
national agreement that a maritime boundary already exists. The Parties é
did not see any difference in this context between the expression “límite
marítimo” in Article 1 and the expression “frontera marítima” in the Pre -
amble, nor does the Court.
91. The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement does not
indicate when and by what means that boundary was agreed upon. The
Parties’ express acknowledgment of its existence can only reflect a tacit
agreement which they had reached earlier. In this connection, the Court é
has already mentioned that certain elements of the 1947 Proclamations
and the 1952 Santiago Declaration suggested an evolving understanding
between the Parties concerning their maritime boundary (see para -
graphs 43 and 69 above). In an earlier case, the Court, recognizing that
“[t]he establishment of a permanent maritime boundary is a matter of é
grave importance”, underlined that “[e]vidence of a tacit legal agreement
must be compelling” (Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua
and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment,
39
5 CIJ1057.indb 74 1/12/14 08:59 39 maritime dispute (judégment)
I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 735, para. 253). In this case, the Court has
before it an Agreement which makes clear that the maritime boundary
along a parallel already existed between the Parties. The 1954 Agreement
is decisive in this respect. That Agreement cements the tacit agreement.é
92. The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement gives no
indication of the nature of the maritime boundary. Nor does it indicate é
its extent, except that its provisions make it clear that the maritime
boundary extends beyond 12 nautical miles from the coast.
*
93. In this context, the Parties referred to an opinion prepared in 1964
by Mr. Raúl Bazán Dávila, Head of the Legal Advisory Office of the
Chilean Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in response to a request from theé
Chilean Boundaries Directorate regarding “the delimitation of the fron -
tier between the Chilean and Peruvian territorial seas”. Having recaléled
the relevant rules of international law, Mr. Bazán examined the question
whether some specific agreement on maritime delimitation existed betweéen
the two States. He believed that it did, but was not able to determine
“when and how this agreement was reached”. Paragraph IV of the
1952 Santiago Declaration was not “an express pact” on the boundary,
but it “assum[ed] that this boundary coincides with the parallel
that passes through the point at which the land frontier reaches the sea”.
It was possible to presume, he continued, that the agreement on the
boundary preceded and conditioned the signing of the 1952 Santiago
Declaration.
94. According to Peru, the fact that such a request was addressed to
the Head of the Legal Advisory Office illustrates that the Chilean Gov -
ernment was unsure about whether there was a pre-existing boundary.
Chile emphasizes Mr. Bazán’s conclusion that the maritime boundary
between the Parties is the parallel which passes through the point whereé
the land boundary reaches the sea. Chile also notes that this was a pub -
licly available document and that Peru would have responded if it had
disagreed with the conclusion the document stated, but did not do so.
95. Nothing in the opinion prepared by Mr. Bazán, or the fact that
such an opinion was requested in the first place, leads the Court to aélter
the conclusion it reached above (see paragraphs 90 to 91), namely, that by
1954 the Parties acknowledged that there existed an agreed maritime
boundary.
4. The 19681969 Lighthouse Arrangements
96. In 1968-1969, the Parties entered into arrangements to build one
lighthouse each, “at the point at which the common border reaches theé
sea, near boundary marker number one”. At this point, the Court
40
5 CIJ1057.indb 76 1/12/14 08:59 40 maritime dispute (judégment)
observes that on 26 April 1968, following communication between the
Peruvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Chilean chargé d’afféaires
earlier that year, delegates of both Parties signed a document whereby
they undertook the task of carrying out “an on-site study for the installa -
tion of leading marks visible from the sea to materialise the parallel oéf the
maritime frontier originating at Boundary Marker number one (No. 1)”.
That document concluded as follows :
“Finally, given that the parallel which it is intended to materialise is
that which corresponds to the geographical location indicated in the Act
signed in Lima on 1 August 1930 for Boundary Marker No. 1, the Rep -
resentatives suggest that the positions of this pyramid be verified byé a
Joint Commission before the execution of the recommended works.”
97. Chile sees the Parties, in taking this action, as explicitly recording
their understanding that there was a “maritime frontier” between the two
States and that it followed the line of latitude passing through Boundaréy
Marker No. 1 (referred to in Spanish as “Hito No. 1”). Chile states that
the Parties’ delegates “recorded their joint understanding that théeir task
was to signal the existing maritime boundary”. Chile quotes the termsé of
the approval in August 1968 by the Secretary-General of the Peruvian
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the minutes of an earlier meeting that éthe
signalling marks were to materialize (materializar) the parallel of the mar -
itime frontier. Chile further relies on an August 1969 Peruvian Note,
according to which the Mixed Commission entrusted with demarcation
was to verify the position of Boundary Marker No. 1 and to “fix the
definitive location of the two alignment towers that were to signal thée
maritime boundary”. The Joint Report of the Commission recorded its
task in the same terms.
98. In Peru’s view, the beacons erected under these arrangements were
evidently a pragmatic device intended to address the practical problems é
arising from the coastal fishing incidents in the 1960s. It calls atteéntion to
the beacons’ limited range — not more than 15 nautical miles offshore.
Peru argues that they were plainly not intended to establish a maritime é
boundary. Throughout the process, according to Peru, there is no indica -
tion whatsoever that the two States were engaged in the drawing of a
definitive and permanent international boundary, nor did any of the cor -
respondence refer to any pre-existent delimitation agreement. The focus
was consistently, and exclusively, upon the practical task of keeping Peéru -
vian and Chilean fishermen apart and solving a very specific problemé
within the 15-nautical-mile range of the lights.
*
99. The Court is of the opinion that the purpose and geographical
scope of the arrangements were limited, as indeed the Parties recognize.é
41
5 CIJ1057.indb 78 1/12/14 08:59 41 maritime dispute (judégment)
The Court also observes that the record of the process leading to the
arrangements and the building of the lighthouses does not refer to any
pre-existent delimitation agreement. What is important in the Court’s
view, however, is that the arrangements proceed on the basis that a marié-
time boundary extending along the parallel beyond 12 nautical miles
already exists. Along with the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agree -
ment, the arrangements acknowledge that fact. Also, like that Agreement,é
they do not indicate the extent and nature of that maritime boundary. The
arrangements seek to give effect to it for a specific purpose.
5. The Nature of the Agreed Maritime Boundary
100. As the Court has just said, it is the case that the 1954 Special
Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement refers to the existing boundary for a
particular purpose ; that is also true of the 1968-1969 arrangements for
the lighthouses. The Court must now determine the nature of the mari -
time boundary, the existence of which was acknowledged in the
1954 Agreement, that is, whether it is a single maritime boundary appli -
cable to the water column, the sea-bed and its subsoil, or a boundary
applicable only to the water column.
101. Chile contends that the boundary is an all-purpose one, applying
to the sea-bed and subsoil as well as to the waters above them with rights
to their resources in accordance with customary law as reflected in thée
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Peru sub -
mits that the line to which the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone
Agreement refers is related only to aspects of the policing of coastal fiésh -
eries and facilitating safe shipping and fishing in near-shore areas.
102. The Court is concerned at this stage with the 1954 Special Mari-
time Frontier Zone Agreement only to the extent that it acknowledged
the existence of a maritime boundary. The tacit agreement, acknowledged é
in the 1954 Agreement, must be understood in the context of the
1947 Proclamations and the 1952 Santiago Declaration. These instru -
ments expressed claims to the sea-bed and to waters above the sea-bed
and their resources. In this regard the Parties drew no distinction, at éthat
time or subsequently, between these spaces. The Court concludes that theé
boundary is an all-purpose one.
6. The Extent of the Agreed Maritime Boundary
103. The Court now turns to consider the extent of the agreed mari -
time boundary. It recalls that the purpose of the 1954 Agreement was
narrow and specific (see paragraph 90 above) : it refers to the existing
maritime boundary for a particular purpose, namely to establish a zone
of tolerance for fishing activity operated by small vessels. Consequenétly,
it must be considered that the maritime boundary whose existence it rec -
42
5 CIJ1057.indb 80 1/12/14 08:59 42 maritime dispute (judégment)
ognizes, along a parallel, necessarily extends at least to the distance éup to
which, at the time considered, such activity took place. That activity iés
one element of the Parties’ relevant practice which the Court will coén -
sider, but it is not the only element warranting consideration. The Courét
will examine other relevant practice of the Parties in the early and
mid-1950s, as well as the wider context including developments in the law
of the sea at that time. It will also assess the practice of the two Paréties
subsequent to 1954. This analysis could contribute to the determination é
of the content of the tacit agreement which the Parties reached concern -
ing the extent of their maritime boundary.
A. Fishing potential and activity
104. The Court will begin with the geography and biology in the area
of the maritime boundary. Peru described Ilo as its principal port alongé
this part of the coast. It is about 120 km north-west of the land bound -
ary. On the Chilean side, the port city of Arica lies 15 km to the south
of the land boundary and Iquique about 200 km further south (see
sketch-map No. 1 : Geographical context, p. 14).
105. Peru, in submissions not challenged by Chile, emphasizes that the
areas lying off the coasts of Peru and Chile are rich in marine resouréces,
pointing out that the area in dispute is located in the Humboldt Current
Large Maritime Ecosystem. That current, according to Peru, supports an
abundance of marine life, with approximately 18 to 20 per cent of the
world’s fish catch coming from this ecosystem. The Peruvian represeénta -
tive at the 1958 United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (para -
graph 106 below) referred to the opinion of a Peruvian expert (writing
in a book published in 1947), according to which the “biological liméit” of
the current was to be found at a distance of 80 to 100 nautical miles from
the shore in the summer, and 200 to 250 nautical miles in the winter.
Peru recalls that it was the “enormous whaling and fishing potentiaél”
of the areas situated off their coasts which led the three States to péroclaim
200-nautical-mile zones in 1952. Industrial fishing is carried out now-
adays at significant levels in southern areas of Peru, notably from thée
ports of Ilo and Matarani: the former is “one of Peru’s main fishing ports
and the most important fishing centre in southern Peru”.
106. Chilean and Peruvian representatives emphasized the richness and
value of the fish stocks as preparations were being made for the first
United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea and at that Conference
itself. In 1956 the Chilean delegate in the Sixth (Legal) Committee ofé the
United Nations General Assembly, declaring that it was tragic to see
large foreign fishing fleets exhausting resources necessary for the éliveli -
hood of coastal populations and expressing the hope that the rules estabé-
lished by the three States, including Ecuador, would be endorsed by
43
5 CIJ1057.indb 82 1/12/14 08:59 43 maritime dispute (judégment)
international law, observed that “[t]he distance of 200 miles was explained
by the need to protect all the marine flora and fauna living in the Hum -
boldt Current, as all the various species depended on one another for théeir
existence and have constituted a biological unit which had to be pre -
served”. At the 1958 Conference, the Peruvian representative (who was
the foreign minister at the time of the 1947 Declaration), in supporting
the 200-nautical-mile limit, stated that what the countries had proclaimed
was a biological limit :
“Species such as tunny and barrilete were mostly caught 20 to
80 miles from the coast ; the same anchovetas of the coastal waters
sometimes went 60 or more miles away ; and the cachalot and whales
were usually to be found more than 100 miles off.”
He then continued :
“The requests formulated by Peru met the conditions necessary for
their recognition as legally binding and applicable since first, they
were the expression of principles recognized by law ; secondly, they
had a scientific basis ; and thirdly, they responded to national vital
necessities.”
107. Chile referred the Court to statistics produced by the Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) to demonstrate
the extent of the fishery activities of Chile and Peru in the early 1950s and
later years for the purpose of showing, as Chile saw the matter, the benée-
fits of the 1952 Santiago Declaration to Peru. Those statistics reveal two
facts which the Court sees as helpful in identifying the maritime areas é
with which the Parties were concerned in the period when they acknow-
ledged the existence of their maritime boundary. The first is the relaétively
limited fishing activity by both Chile and Peru in the early 1950s. Iné 1950,
Chile’s catch at about 90,000 tonnes was slightly larger than Peru’s at
74,000 tonnes. In the early 1950s, the Parties’ catches of anchovy were
exceeded by the catch of other species. In 1950, for instance, Peru’sé take
of anchovy was 500 tonnes, while its catch of tuna and bonito was
44,600 tonnes; Chile caught 600 tonnes of anchovy that year, and
3,300 tonnes of tuna and bonito.
Second, in the years leading up to 1954, the Parties’ respective catcéhes
in the Pacific Ocean included large amounts of bonito/barrilete and tuéna.
While it is true that through the 1950s the take of anchovy, especially éby
Peru, increased very rapidly, the catch of the other species continued aét a
high and increasing level. In 1954 the Peruvian catch of tuna and bonitoé
was 65,900 tonnes and of anchovy 43,100 tonnes while Chile caught 5,200
and 1,300 tonnes of those species, respectively.
44
5 CIJ1057.indb 84 1/12/14 08:59 44 maritime dispute (judégment)
The Parties also referred to the hunting of whales by their fleets andé by
foreign fleets as one of the factors leading to the adoption of the 19é47 and
1952 instruments. The FAO statistics provide some information about
the extent of whale catches by the Parties ; there is no indication of where
those catches occurred.
108. The above information shows that the species which were being
taken in the early 1950s were generally to be found within a range of
60 nautical miles from the coast. In that context, the Court takes note of é
the orientation of the coast in this region, and the location of the mosét
important relevant ports of the Parties at the time. Ilo, situated abouté
120 km north-west of the seaward terminus of the land boundary, is
described by Peru as “one of [its] main fishing ports and the most éimpor -
tant fishing centre in Southern Peru”. On the Chilean side, the porét of
Arica lies just 15 km to the south of the seaward terminus of the land
boundary. According to Chile, “[a] significant proportion of the coéuntry’s
small and medium-sized fishing vessels, of crucial importance to the econ -
omy of the region, are registered at Arica”, while the next signifiécant port
is at Iquique, 200 km further south.
The purpose of the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement
was to establish a zone of tolerance along the parallel for small fishéing
boats, which were not sufficiently equipped (see paragraphs 88 to 90 and
103). Boats departing from Arica to catch the above-mentioned species, é
in a west-north-west direction, in the range of 60 nautical miles from téhe
coast, which runs essentially from north to south at this point, would not
cross the parallel beyond a point approximately 57 nautical miles from
the starting-point of the maritime boundary. The orientation of the coasét
turns sharply to the north-west in this region (see sketch-maps Nos. 1
and 2, pp. 14 and 17), such that, on the Peruvian side, fishing boats
departing seaward from Ilo, in a south-west direction, to the range of
those same species would cross the parallel of latitude at a point up to
approximately 100 nautical miles from the starting-point of the maritime
boundary.
109. The Court, in assessing the extent of the lateral maritime bound -
ary which the Parties acknowledged existed in 1954, is aware of the
importance that fishing has had for the coastal populations of both Paér -
ties. It does not see as of great significance their knowledge of the élikely
or possible extent of the resources out to 200 nautical miles nor the extent
of their fishing in later years. The catch figures indicate that the principal
maritime activity in the early 1950s was fishing undertaken by small vées -
sels, such as those specifically mentioned in the 1954 Special Maritime
Frontier Zone Agreement and which were also to benefit from the
1968-1969 arrangements relating to the lighthouses.
45
5 CIJ1057.indb 86 1/12/14 08:59 45 maritime dispute (judégment)
110. A central concern of the three States in the early 1950s was with
long-distance foreign fishing, which they wanted to bring to an end. That
concern, and the Parties’ growing understanding of the extent of the fish
stocks in the Humboldt Current off their coasts, were major factors in the
decisions made by Chile and Peru to declare, unilaterally, their 200-nau -
tical-mile zones in 1947, and, with Ecuador, to adopt the 1952 Santiago
Declaration and other texts in 1952 and to take the further measures in
1954 and 1955. To repeat, the emphasis in this period, especially in resépect
of the more distant waters, was, as Chile asserts, on “[t]he exclusioén of
unauthorized foreign fleets . . . to facilitate the development of the fishing
industries of [the three States]”.
111. The Court recalls that the all-purpose nature of the maritime
boundary (see paragraph 102 above) means that evidence concerning fish -
eries activity, in itself, cannot be determinative of the extent of thaté
boundary. Nevertheless, the fisheries activity provides some support féor
the view that the Parties, at the time when they acknowledged the exis -
tence of an agreed maritime boundary between them, were unlikely to
have considered that it extended all the way to the 200-nautical-mile limit.
B. Contemporaneous developments in the law of the sea
112. The Court now moves from the specific, regional context to the
broader context as it existed in the 1950s, at the time of the acknowledég -
ment by the Parties of the existence of the maritime boundary. That con -
text is provided by the State practice and related studies in, and propoésals
coming from, the International Law Commission and reactions by States
or groups of States to those proposals concerning the establishment of
maritime zones beyond the territorial sea and the delimitation of those é
zones. By the 1950s that practice included several unilateral State decléara -
tions.
113. Those declarations, all adopted between 1945 and 1956, may be
divided into two categories. The first category is limited to claims in
respect of the sea-bed and its subsoil, the continental shelf, and their
resources. They include declarations made by the United States (28 Sep -
tember 1945), Mexico (29 October 1945), Argentina (11 October 1946),
Saudi Arabia (28 May 1949), Philippines (18 June 1949), Pakistan
(9 March 1950), Brazil (8 November 1950), Israel (3 August 1952), Aus -
tralia (11 September 1953), India (30 August 1955), Portugal
(21 March 1956) and those made in respect of several territories then
under United Kingdom authority : Jamaica (26 November 1948), Baha -
mas (26 November 1948), British Honduras (9 October 1950), North Bor-
neo (1953), British Guiana (1954), Brunei (1954) and Sarawak (195é4), as
well as nine Arab States then under the protection of the United King -
dom (Abu Dhabi (10 June 1949), Ajman (20 June 1949), Bahrain
46
5 CIJ1057.indb 88 1/12/14 08:59 46 maritime dispute (judégment)
(5 June 1949), Dubai (14 June 1949), Kuwait (12 June 1949), Qatar
(8 June 1949), Ras al Khaimah (17 June 1949), Sharjah (16 June 1949),
and Umm al Qaiwain (20 June 1949)). Other declarations, the second cat-
egory, also claim the waters above the shelf or sea-bed or make claims in
respect of the resources of those waters. In addition to the three claims in
issue in this case, those claims include those made by the United Statesé of
America (28 September 1945), Panama (17 December 1946), Iceland
(5 April 1948), Costa Rica (5 November 1949), Honduras (7 March 1950),
El Salvador (7 September 1950) and Nicaragua (1 November 1950). The
above-mentioned acts are reproduced in the United Nations collection,
Laws and Regulations on the High Seas, Vol. I, 1951, Part 1, Chap. 1, and
Supplement, 1959, Part 1, Chap. 1, and in the Parties’ Pleadings.
114. Some of the declarations did address the issue of establishing
maritime boundaries. The first was the continental shelf declaration oéf
the United States, which provided that, whenever the continental shelf
extends to the shores of another State, or is shared with an adjacent Stéate,
the boundary shall be determined by the United States and the State con -
cerned in accordance with equitable principles. Those of Mexico and
Costa Rica (like that of Chile, see paragraph 37 above) stated that the
particular declaration each had made did not mean that that Government
sought to disregard the lawful rights of other States, based on reciprocéity.
The wording in the Argentinean decree accorded conditional recognition
to the right of each nation to the same entitlements as it claimed. Procéla -
mations made by the Arab States then under United Kingdom protection
all provided in similar terms that their exclusive jurisdiction and contérol
of the sea-bed and subsoil extended to boundaries to be determined more
precisely, as occasion arises, on equitable or, in one case, just princiéples,
after consultation with the neighbouring States.
115. Those declarations were part of the background against which the
International Law Commission worked in preparing its 1956 draft arti -
cles for the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, held in
1958. On the basis, among other things, of the material summarized
above, the report of a committee of experts, and comments by a signifié -
cant range of States, the Commission proposed that, in the absence of an
agreement or special circumstances, an equidistance line be used for
delimitation of both the territorial sea and the continental shelf. The é
Commission in particular rejected, in the absence of an agreement, as a é
basis for the line the geographical parallel passing through the point aét
which the land frontier meets the coast. Chile and Ecuador in their obser -
vations submitted to the Commission contended that the rights of the
coastal State over its continental shelf went beyond just “control”é and
47
5 CIJ1057.indb 90 1/12/14 08:59 47 maritime dispute (judégment)
“jurisdiction”; Chile, in addition, called for “sovereignty” over both the
continental shelf and superjacent waters. However, neither State made
any comment on the matter of delimitation. Peru made no comment of
any kind. This further supports the view that the chief concern of the
three States in this period was defending their 200-nautical-mile claims as
against third States. The Commission’s proposals were adopted by the é
1958 Conference and incorporated, with drafting amendments, in the
Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone (Art. 12) and the
Convention on the Continental Shelf (Art. 6). The territorial sea was not
seen by the International Law Commission, and would not have been
seen at that time by most nations, as extending beyond 6 nautical miles
and the continental shelf line was for the sea-bed and subsoil, extending
to a 200-metre depth or beyond to the limit of exploitability, and not for
the resources of the water above the shelf.
116. The Court observes that, during the period under consideration,
the proposal in respect of the rights of a State over its waters which céame
nearest to general international acceptance was for a 6-nautical-mile ter -
ritorial sea with a further fishing zone of 6 nautical miles and some reser -
vation of established fishing rights. As the Court has noted previousléy, in
this period the concept of an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical
miles was “still some long years away” (Maritime Delimitation in the
Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 87,
para. 70), while its general acceptance in practice and in the 1982 United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was about 30 years into the
future. In answering a question from a Member of the Court, both Par -
ties recognized that their claim made in the 1952 Santiago Declaration
did not correspond to the international law of that time and was not
enforceable against third parties, at least not initially.
117. On the basis of the fishing activities of the Parties at that time,
which were conducted up to a distance of some 60 nautical miles from the
main ports in the area, the relevant practice of other States and the woérk
of the International Law Commission on the Law of the Sea, the Court
considers that the evidence at its disposal does not allow it to conclude
that the agreed maritime boundary along the parallel extended beyond
80 nautical miles from its starting-point.
*
118. In light of this tentative conclusion, the Court now considers fur -
ther elements of practice, for the most part subsequent to 1954, which
may be of relevance to the issue of the extent of the agreed maritime
boundary.
48
5 CIJ1057.indb 92 1/12/14 08:59 48 maritime dispute (judégment)
C. Legislative practice
119. In examining the legislative practice, the Court first turns to the
adoption by Peru in 1955 of a Supreme Resolution on the Maritime Zone
of 200 Miles. Its Preamble recites the need to specify, in cartographic and
geodesic work, the manner of determining the Peruvian maritime zone of
200 nautical miles referred to in the 1947 Decree and the 1952 Santiago
Declaration. Its first article states that the line was to be limited éat sea by
a line parallel to the Peruvian coast and at a constant distance of 200naut-
ical miles from it. Article 2 provides :
“In accordance with clause IV [el inciso IV] of the Declaration of
Santiago, the said line may not extend beyond that of the correspond -
ing parallel at the point where the frontier of Peru [la frontera del
Perú] reaches the sea.”
Peru contends that Article 1 employs an arc of circles method, as, it says,
was also the case with its 1952 Petroleum Law. Chile rejects that interpre -
tation of both instruments and submits that both use the tracé parallèle
method, supporting the use of the parallel of latitude for the maritime é
boundary. Chile also places considerable weight on the reference in the é
resolution to paragraph IV of the 1952 Santiago Declaration.
120. In this regard, the Court has already concluded that paragraph IV
of the 1952 Santiago Declaration does not determine the maritime bound -
ary separating the general maritime zones of Peru and Chile. It need noté
consider that matter further in the present context. The Court does not é
see the requirement in Article 1 of the 1955 Supreme Resolution that the
line be “at a constant distance of 200 nautical miles from [the coast]” and
parallel to it as using the tracé parallèle method in the sense that Chile
appears to understand it. Some points on a line drawn on that basis
(using the parallel lines of latitude) would in certain areas of Peruvéian
coastal waters, especially near the land boundary of the two States, be é
barely 100 nautical miles from the closest point on the coast. That would
not be in conformity with the plain words of the 1955 Supreme Resolu -
tion. Hence, the Peruvian 1955 Supreme Resolution is of no assistance
when it comes to determining the extent of the maritime frontier whose
existence the Parties acknowledged in 1954.
121. In respect of Chilean legislation, Peru highlights the absence of
references to a lateral maritime boundary in five Chilean texts : a 25 July
1953 Decree which defined the maritime jurisdiction of the Directorate
General of Maritime Territory and Merchant Marine ; a 26 July 1954
Message from the Chilean Executive to the Congress for the Approval of
the 1952 Agreements ; a 23 September 1954 Supreme Decree by which
Chile approved the 1952 Santiago Declaration ; an 11 February 1959
49
5 CIJ1057.indb 94 1/12/14 08:59 49 maritime dispute (judégment)
Decree on Permits for Fishing by Foreign Vessels in Chilean Territorial é
Waters; and a 4 June 1963 Decree on the Appointment of the Authority
which Grants Fishing Permits to Foreign Flag Vessels in Chilean Juris -
dictional Waters. In response, Chile contends that the 1952 Santiago Dec-
laration became part of Chilean law upon ratification and so there was no
need to reaffirm the existence of the maritime boundary in subsequent
legislation.
122. The Court finds that these five Chilean instruments are of no
assistance as to the extent of the maritime frontier whose existence theé
Parties acknowledged in 1954, for the following reasons. The 1953 Decree
relates to the territorial sea out to 12 nautical miles. The 1954 Message
recalls the 200-nautical-mile claim made by the three States in 1952 but
makes no mention of boundaries between those States. The 1954 Supreme
Decree simply reproduces the text of the instruments adopted at the Limaé
Conference without commenting on their effect. The 1959 Decree refers
repeatedly to “Chilean territorial waters” without defining the élimits —
lateral or seaward — of these waters. Finally, the 1963 Decree speaks of
the 200-nautical-mile zone established under the 1952 Santiago Declara -
tion but makes no reference to a lateral boundary within that zone.
D. The 1955 Protocol of Accession
123. In 1955 the three States adopted a Protocol of Accession to the
1952 Santiago Declaration. In that Protocol they agree “to open the
accession of Latin American States to [the 1952 Santiago Declaration]
with regard to its fundamental principles” contained in the paragraphés of
the Preamble. The three States then reproduce substantive paragraphs I,
II, III and V, but not paragraph IV. On the matter of boundaries they
declare that
“[T]he adhesion to the principle stating that the coastal States haveé
the right and duty to protect, conserve and use the resources of the
sea along their coasts, shall not be constrained by the assertion of theé
right of every State to determine the extension and boundaries of its
Maritime Zone. Therefore, at the moment of accession, every State
shall be able to determine the extension and form of delimitation of
its respective zone whether opposite to one part or to the entirety of
its coastline, according to the peculiar geographic conditions, the
extension of each sea and the geological and biological factors that
condition the existence, conservation and development of the mari -
time fauna and flora in its waters.”
The only other provision of the 1952 Santiago Declaration which was the
subject of an express exclusion from the 1955 Protocol was paragraph VI
which concerns the possibility of future agreements in application of théese
principles. This provision was excluded on the basis that it was “detéer -
mined by the geographic and biological similarity of the coastal maritime
50
5 CIJ1057.indb 96 1/12/14 08:59 50 maritime dispute (judégment)
zones of the signatory countries” to the Declaration. It is common gréound
that no State in fact ever took advantage of the 1955 Protocol.
124. Peru sees the affirmation of the power of an acceding State to
determine the extension and limits of its zone as confirming that the é
1952 Santiago Declaration had not settled the question of the maritime
boundaries between the States parties. Chile reads the positions of the é
two Parties on paragraph IV in the contrary sense : by that exclusion they
indicated their understanding that their maritime boundary was already
determined.
125. Given the conclusion that the Court has already reached on para -
graph IV, its exclusion from the text of the 1955 Protocol, and the fact
that no State has taken advantage of the Protocol, the Court does not seée
the Protocol as having any real significance. It may however be seen aés
providing some support to Peru’s position that the use of lateral maréitime
boundaries depended on the particular circumstances of the States wish -
ing to accede to the 1952 Santiago Declaration. More significantly, the
1955 Protocol may also be seen as an attempt to reinforce solidarity for
the reasons given by Peru, Chile and Ecuador in their own national legalé
measures and in the 1952 Santiago Declaration, and as manifested in
their other actions in 1955, in response to the protests of maritime powéers
(see paragraphs 76 to 77 above).
E. Enforcement activities
126. Much of the enforcement practice relevant to the maritime bound-
ary can be divided between that concerning vessels of third States and
that involving Peru and Chile, and by reference to time. In respect of téhe
second distinction the Court recalls that its primary, but not exclusive,
interest is with practice in the early 1950s when the Parties acknowledgéed
the existence of their maritime boundary.
127. In respect of vessels of third States, Chile draws on a 1972 report
of the CPPS Secretary-General on Infractions in the Maritime Zone
between 1951 and 1971. The data, the report says, are incomplete for the
first ten years. According to the report, in the course of the 20 years it
covers, Peru arrested 53 vessels, Chile five and Ecuador 122, the final fig -
ure explained by the fact that the interest of foreign fishing fleets had
focused, especially in more recent years, on tuna, the catch of which waés
greater in Ecuadorean waters. All but six of the 53 vessels arrested in
Peruvian waters carried the United States flag ; five (in the Onassis fleet)
carried the Panamanian ; and one the Japanese. In the case of 20 of the
53 arrests, the report records or indicates the place at which the arrests é
took place and all of those places are far to the north of the parallel éof
latitude extending from the land boundary between Peru and Chile, and
51
5 CIJ1057.indb 98 1/12/14 08:59 51 maritime dispute (judégment)
closer to the boundary between Peru and Ecuador. For 36, the distance
from the coast is indicated. They include the Onassis fleet which on oéne
account was arrested 126 nautical miles offshore (see paragraph 75
above). Of the other arrests, only one (in 1965) was beyond 60 nautical
miles of the coast of Peru and only two others (in 1965 and 1968) wereé
beyond 35 nautical miles ; all three of these arrests occurred more than
500 nautical miles to the north of that latitudinal parallel.
128. Until the mid-1980s, all the practice involving incidents between
the two Parties was within about 60 nautical miles of the coasts and usu -
ally much closer. In 1954 and 1961, Chile proposed that fishing vessels of
the Parties be permitted to fish in certain areas of the maritime zoneé of
the other State, up to 50 nautical miles north/south of the parallel, but the
exchanges between the Parties do not indicate how far seaward such
arrangements would have operated ; in any event Chile’s proposals were
not accepted by Peru. In December 1962, Peru complained about “the
frequency with which Chilean fishing vessels have trespassed into Perué -
vian waters, at times up to 300 metres from the beach”. In March 1966,
the Peruvian patrol ship Diez Canseco was reported to have intercepted
two Chilean fishing vessels and fired warning shots at them, but theé entire
incident took place within 2 nautical miles of the coast. Two incidents in
September 1967 — the sighting by Peru of several Chilean trawlers “north
of the jurisdictional boundary” and the sighting by Chile of a Peruviéan
patrol boat “south of the Chile-Peru boundary parallel” — both occurred
within 10 nautical miles of Point Concordia. Following a third incident
that month, Peru complained about a Chilean fishing net found 2 naut-
ical miles west of Point Concordia. In respect of these incidents, the Court
recalls that the zone of tolerance established under the 1954 Agreement
starts at a distance of 12 nautical miles from the coast along the parallel
of latitude.
129. The practice just reviewed does not provide any basis for putting
into question the tentative conclusion that the Court expressed earlier.é
That conclusion was based on the fishing activity of the Parties and céon -
temporaneous developments in the law of the sea in the early and mid-
1950s.
F. The 19681969 lighthouse arrangements
130. The Court recalls its discussion of the 1968-1969 lighthouse
arrangements (see paragraphs 96 to 99 above). The record before the
Court indicates that the lights would have been visible from a maximum
distance of approximately 15 nautical miles ; as Chile acknowledges, the
Parties were particularly concerned with visibility within the first 1é2 naut-
52
5 CIJ1057.indb 100 1/12/14 08:59 52 maritime dispute (judégment)
ical miles from the coast, up to the point where the zone of tolerance
under the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement commenced,
and where many of the incursions were reported. There are indications iné
the case file that the towers had radar reflectors but there is no iénforma -
tion at all of their effective range or their use in practice. The Couért does
not see these arrangements as having any significance for the issue ofé the
extent of the maritime boundary.
G. Negotiations with Bolivia (19751976)
131. In 1975-1976, Chile entered into negotiations with Bolivia regard -
ing a proposed exchange of territory that would provide Bolivia with a
“corridor to the sea” and an adjacent maritime zone. The record beéfore
the Court comprises the Chilean proposal to Bolivia of December 1975,
Peru’s reply of January 1976, Chile’s record (but not Peru’s) of discus -
sions between the Parties in July 1976 and Peru’s counter-proposal of
November 1976. Chile’s proposal of December 1975 stated that the ces -
sion would include, in addition to a strip of land between Arica and theé
Chile-Peru land boundary, “the maritime territory between the parallels
of the extreme points of the coast that will be ceded (territorial sea,é eco -
nomic zone and continental shelf)”. This proposal was conditional,
among other things, on Bolivia ceding to Chile an area of territory as
compensation. The record before the Court does not include the Bolivian-
Chilean exchanges of December 1975. As required under Article 1 of
the Supplementary Protocol to the 1929 Treaty of Lima, Peru was for -
mally consulted on these negotiations. In January 1976, Peru acknow-
ledged receipt of documents from Chile regarding the proposed cession.
Peru’s response was cautious, noting a number of “substantial eleméents”
arising, including the consequences of “the fundamental alteration ofé the
legal status, the territorial distribution, and the socio-economic structure
of an entire region”. According to Chile’s record of discussions béetween
the Parties, in July 1976 Chile informed Peru that it would seek assur -
ances from Bolivia that the latter would comply with the 1954 Special
Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, while Peru confirmed that it had noté
identified in Chile’s proposal any “major problems with respect to the
sea”. On 18 November 1976, Peru made a counter-proposal to Chile
which contemplated a different territorial régime : cession by Chile to
Bolivia of a sovereign corridor to the north of Arica ; an area of shared
Chilean-Peruvian-Bolivian sovereignty over territory between that corri -
dor and the sea ; and exclusive Bolivian sovereignty over the sea adjacent
to the shared territory.
132. According to Chile, its negotiations with Bolivia proceeded on the
explicit basis that the existing maritime boundary, following the latitué-
53
5 CIJ1057.indb 102 1/12/14 08:59 53 maritime dispute (judégment)
dinal parallel, would delimit the envisaged maritime zone of Bolivia
vis-à-vis Peru. Chile submits that Peru was specifically consulted on this
matter, and expressed no objection or reservation, but rather “acknowé-
ledged the existence and course of the Chile-Peru maritime boundary” at
one of the sessions between the Parties in 1976. For its part, Peru streésses
that neither its Note of January 1976 nor its alternative proposal of
November 1976 mentioned a parallel of latitude or suggested any method
of maritime delimitation for Bolivia’s prospective maritime zone. Peréu
further contends that Chile’s records of the 1976 discussions are unreli -
able and incomplete, and that its own position at the time was clearly téhat
the territorial divisions in the area were still to be negotiated.
133. The Court does not find these negotiations significant for the issue
of the extent of the maritime boundary between the Parties. While Chile’és
proposal referred to the territorial sea, economic zone and continental é
shelf, Peru did not accept this proposal. Peru’s January 1976 acknowledg -
ment did not mention any existing maritime boundary between the Par -
ties, while its counter-proposal from November of that year did not
indicate the extent or nature of the maritime area proposed to be accorded
to Bolivia.
H. Positions of the Parties at the Third United Nations Conference on the
Law of the Sea
134. The Parties also directed the Court to certain statements made by
their representatives during the Third United Nations Conference on the é
Law of the Sea. First, both referred to a joint declaration on 28 April 1982
made by Chile, Ecuador and Peru, together with Colombia, which had
joined the CPPS in 1979, wherein those States pointed out that :
“the universal recognition of the rights of sovereignty and jurisdictéion
of the coastal State within the 200-mile limit provided for in the draft
Convention is a fundamental achievement of the countries members
of the Permanent Commission of the South Pacific, in accordance
with its basic objectives stated in the Santiago Declaration of 1952ӎ.
The Court notes that this statement did not mention delimitation, nor
refer to any existing maritime boundaries between those States.
135. A second matter raised by the Parties is Peru’s involvement in the
negotiations relating to maritime delimitation of States with adjacent oér
opposite coasts. The Peruvian position on that matter was expressed at
various points during the negotiations ; on 27 August 1980, the Head of
the Peruvian Delegation stated it as follows :
“Where a specific agreement on the delimitation of the territorial é
sea, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf between States
with opposite or adjacent coasts did not exist or where there were no
special circumstances or historic rights recognized by the Parties, the é
54
5 CIJ1057.indb 104 1/12/14 08:59 54 maritime dispute (judégment)
median line should as a general rule be used . . . since it was the most
likely method of achieving an equitable solution.”
Peru contends that its “active participation” in the negotiations éon this
matter illustrates that it had yet to resolve its own delimitation issueés.
Given the conclusions reached above, however, the Court need not con -
sider that matter. The statements by Peruvian representatives at the Thiérd
United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea relate to prospective
maritime boundary agreements between States (and provisional arrange -
ments to be made pending such agreements) ; they do not shed light on
the extent of the existing maritime boundary between Peru and Chile.
I. The 1986 Bákula Memorandum
136. It is convenient to consider at this point a memorandum sent by
Peruvian Ambassador Bákula to the Chilean Ministry of Foreign Affairs
on 23 May 1986, following his audience with the Chilean Foreign Minis -
ter earlier that day (“the Bákula Memorandum”). Peru contendsé that in
that Memorandum it “invites Chile to agree an international maritime é
boundary”. Chile, to the contrary, submits that the Bákula Memorané -
dum was an attempt to renegotiate the existing maritime boundary.
137. According to the Memorandum, Ambassador Bákula had handed
the Chilean Minister a personal message from his Peruvian counterpart.
The strengthening of the ties of friendship between the two countries
“must be complemented by the timely and direct solution of problems
which are the result of new circumstances, with a view to enhancing
the climate of reciprocal confidence which underlies every construc -
tive policy.
One of the cases that merits immediate attention is the formal and
definitive delimitation of the marine spaces, which complement the
geographical vicinity of Peru and Chile and have served as scenario
of a long and fruitful joint action.”
At that time, the Memorandum continued, the special zone established by é
the 1954 Agreement
“is not adequate to satisfy the requirements of safety nor for the beétter
attention to the administration of marine resources, with the aggra -
vating circumstance that an extensive interpretation could generate a
notorious situation of inequity and risk, to the detriment of the legit -
imate interests of Peru, that would come forth as seriously damaged”.é
It referred to the various zones recognized in UNCLOS and said this :
“The current ‘200-mile maritime zone’ — as defined at the Meeting
of the Permanent Commission for the South Pacific in 1954 — is,
55
5 CIJ1057.indb 106 1/12/14 08:59 55 maritime dispute (judégment)
without doubt, a space which is different from any of the abovemen -
tioned ones in respect of which domestic legislation is practically
non-existent as regards international delimitation. The one exception
might be, in the case of Peru, the Petroleum Law (No. 11780 of
12 March 1952), which established as an external limit for the exercise
of the competences of the State over the continental shelf ‘an imaginé-
ary line drawn seaward at a constant distance of 200 miles’. This law
is in force and it should be noted that it was issued five months prioér
to the Declaration of Santiago.
There is no need to underline the convenience of preventing the
difficulties which would arise in the absence of an express and appro -
priate maritime demarcation, or as the result of some deficiency
therein which could affect the amicable conduct of relations between
Chile and Peru.”
138. On 13 June 1986, in an official communiqué, the Chilean Foreign
Ministry said that :
“Ambassador Bákula expressed the interest of the Peruvian Gov -
ernment to start future conversations between the two countries on
their points of view regarding maritime delimitation.
The Minister of Foreign Affairs, taking into consideration the good
relations existing between both countries, took note of the above stat -
ing that studies on this matter shall be carried out in due time.”
139. Peru contends that the Bákula Memorandum is perfectly clear. In
it Peru spelled out the need for “the formal and definitive delimitéation” of
their maritime spaces, distinguishing it from the ad hoc arrangements for
specific purposes, such as the 1954 fisheries policing tolerance zone. It
called for negotiations, not “renegotiations”. And, Peru continuesé, Chile
did not respond by saying that there was no need for such a delimitationé
because there was already such a boundary in existence. Rather “stud -
ies . . . are to be carried out”. Peru, based on the Memorandum and this
response, also contends that the practice after that date which Chile
invokes cannot be significant.
140. Chile, in addition to submitting that the Bákula Memorandum
called for a renegotiation of an existing boundary, said that it did thaét on
the (wrong) assumption that the maritime zones newly recognized in
UNCLOS called for the existing delimitation to be revisited. As well,
Peru did not renew its request to negotiate. Chile submits that the facté
that Peru was seeking a renegotiation was reflected in contemporaneousé
comments by the Peruvian Foreign Minister, reported in the Chilean and
Peruvian press.
*
141. The Court does not read the Bákula Memorandum as a request
for a renegotiation of an existing maritime boundary. Rather, it calls féor
56
5 CIJ1057.indb 108 1/12/14 08:59 56 maritime dispute (judégment)
“the formal and definitive delimitation of the marine spaces”. While Peru
does recognize the existence of the special zone, in its view that zone édid
not satisfy the requirements of safety nor did it allow an appropriate
administration of marine resources ; further, an extensive interpretation
of the Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement would negatively affecét
Peru’s legitimate interests. In the Court’s view, the terms used ién that
Memorandum do acknowledge that there is a maritime boundary, with -
out giving precise information about its extent. The Court does not see é
the newspaper accounts as helpful. They do not purport to report the
speech of the Peruvian Minister in full.
142. There is force in the Chilean contention about Peru’s failure to
follow up on the issues raised in the Bákula Memorandum in a timely
manner: according to the record before the Court, Peru did not take the
matter up with Chile at the diplomatic level again until 20 October 2000,
before repeating its position in a Note to the United Nations Secretary-é
General in January 2001 and to Chile again in July 2004. However, the
Court considers that the visit by Ambassador Bákula and his Memo-
randum do reduce in a major way the significance of the practice of thée
Parties after that date. The Court recalls as well that its primary concéern
is with the practice of an earlier time, that of the 1950s, as indicatinég the
extent of the maritime boundary at the time the Parties acknowledged
that it existed.
J. Practice after 1986
143. The Court has already considered the Parties’ legislative practice
from the 1950s and 1960s (see paragraphs 119 to 122 above). Chile also
relies on two pieces of legislation from 1987 : a Peruvian Supreme Decree
adopted on 11 June 1987 and a Chilean Supreme Decree adopted on
26 October of that year. Chile sees these instruments as evidence that, in é
defining the areas of sovereign control by their navies, the Parties
respected the maritime boundary.
144. The Court notes that these Decrees define the limits of the Parties’é
internal maritime districts. However, as Peru points out in respect of iéts
own Decree, while these instruments define the northern and southern
limits of districts with some specificity (by reference to parallels éof lati -
tude), that is not the case for those limits abutting international bouénd-
aries between Ecuador and Peru, Peru and Chile, or Chile and Argentina. é
These Decrees define the internal limits of the jurisdiction of certaién
domestic authorities within Chile and within Peru; they do not purport to
define the international limits of either State. In view also of the téemporal
considerations mentioned above, the Court does not see these Decrees as é
significant.
145. Peru in addition referred the Court to a Chilean Decree of 1998
defining benthonic areas of the Chilean coast ; the northern limit ran to
57
5 CIJ1057.indb 110 1/12/14 08:59 57 maritime dispute (judégment)
the south-west. But, as Chile says, the Decree was concerned only with
the harvesting of living resources on and under the sea-bed within its “ter-
ritorial seas”. The Court does not see this Decree as significant féor pres -
ent purposes.
146. The Court returns to evidence of enforcement measures between
the Parties. The next capture recorded in the case file after May 1986 is
from 1989 : the Peruvian interception and capture of two Chilean fishing
vessels within Peruvian waters, 9.5 nautical miles from land and 1.5 naut-
ical miles north of the parallel.
147. Chile also provided information, plotted on a chart, of Peruvian
vessels captured in 1984 and from 1994 in the waters which, in Chile’és
view, are on its side of the maritime boundary. The information relatingé
to 1984 records 14 vessels but all were captured within 20 nautical miles
of the coast ; in 1994 and 1995, 15, all within 40 nautical miles ; and it is
only starting in 1996 that arrests frequently occurred beyond 60 nautical
miles. Those incidents all occurred long after the 1950s and even after
1986. The Court notes, however, that Chile’s arrests of Peruvian vesséels
south of the parallel, whether they took place within the special zone oér
further south, provide some support to Chile’s position, although onléy to
the extent that such arrests were met without protest by Peru. This is téhe
case even with respect to arrests taking place after 1986.
148. Given its date, the Court does not consider as significant a
sketch-map said to be part of the Chilean Navy’s Rules of Engagement in
the early 1990s and which depicts a Special Maritime Frontier Zone
stretching out to the 200-nautical-mile limit, or information provided by
Chile in respect of reports to the Peruvian authorities by foreign commeér -
cial vessels between 2005 and 2010 and to the Chilean authorities by
Peruvian fishing vessels across the parallel.
K. The extent of the agreed maritime boundary : conclusion
149. The tentative conclusion that the Court reached above was that
the evidence at its disposal does not allow it to conclude that the mariétime
boundary, the existence of which the Parties acknowledged at that time, é
extended beyond 80 nautical miles along the parallel from its start -
ing-point. The later practice which it has reviewed does not lead the Court é
to change that position. The Court has also had regard to the consider -
ation that the acknowledgment, without more, in 1954 that a “maritimeé
boundary” exists is too weak a basis for holding that it extended faré
beyond the Parties’ extractive and enforcement capacity at that time.é
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5 CIJ1057.indb 112 1/12/14 08:59 58 maritime dispute (judégment)
150. Broader considerations relating to the positions of the three States
parties to the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, particu -
larly the two Parties in this case, in the early 1950s demonstrates thaté the
primary concern of the States parties regarding the more distant waters,é
demonstrated in 1947, in 1952, in 1954 (in their enforcement activitiesé at
sea as well as in their own negotiations), in 1955 and throughout the
United Nations process which led to the 1958 Conventions on the Law of
the Sea, was with presenting a position of solidarity, in particular, iné
respect of the major third countries involved in long distance fisheriées.
The States parties were concerned, as they greatly increased their fiséhing
capacity, that the stock was not depleted by those foreign fleets.
The seizure of the Onassis whaling fleet, undertaken by Peru in defence
of the claims made by the three signatories to the 1952 Santiago Declara -
tion (see paragraph 75 above), was indicative of these concerns. This
action occurred 126 nautical miles off of the Peruvian coast. Prior to its
seizure, the fleet unsuccessfully sought permission from Peru that it ébe
allowed to hunt between 15 and 100 nautical miles from the Peruvian
coast.
151. The material before the Court concerning the Parties’ focus on
solidarity in respect of long distance fisheries does not provide it wéith
precise information as to the exact extent of the maritime boundary which
existed between the Parties. This issue could be expected to have been
resolved by the Parties in the context of their tacit agreement and refléected
in the treaty which acknowledges that tacit agreement, namely the
1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement. This did not happen.
This left some uncertainty as to the precise length of the agreed maritiéme
boundary. However, based on an assessment of the entirety of the rele -
vant evidence presented to it, the Court concludes that the agreed mari -
time boundary between the Parties extended to a distance of
80 nautical miles along the parallel from its starting-point.
V. The Starting-Point of the Agreed Mariétime Boundary
152. Having concluded that there exists a maritime boundary between
the Parties, the Court must now identify the location of the starting-point
of that boundary.
153. Both Parties agree that the land boundary between them was set -
tled and delimited more than 80 years ago in accordance with Article 2 of
the 1929 Treaty of Lima (see paragraph 18) which specifies that “the fron -
tier between the territories of Chile and Peru . . . shall start from a point
on the coast to be named ‘Concordia’, ten kilometres to the north of the
bridge over the river Lluta”. Article 3 of the 1929 Treaty of Lima stipu -
lates that the frontier is subject to demarcation by a Mixed Commission é
consisting of one member appointed by each Party.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 114 1/12/14 08:59 59 maritime dispute (judégment)
154. According to Peru, the delegates of the Parties to the Mixed Com-
mission could not agree on the exact location of Point Concordia. Peru
recalls that this was resolved through instructions issued by the Ministéers
of Foreign Affairs of each State to their delegates in April 1930 (herein-
after the “Joint Instructions”), specifying to the delegates thaté Point Con -
cordia was to be the point of intersection between the Pacific Ocean aénd
an arc with a radius of 10 km having its centre on the bridge over the
River Lluta, with the land frontier thus approaching the sea as an arc
tending southward. Peru notes that the Joint Instructions also provided
that “[a] boundary marker shall be placed at any point of the arc, asé close
to the sea as allows preventing it from being destroyed by the ocean
waters”.
155. Peru recalls that the Final Act of the Commission of Limits Con -
taining the Description of Placed Boundary Markers dated 21 July 1930
(hereinafter the “Final Act”), agreed by the Parties, records that “[t]he
demarcated boundary line starts from the Pacific Ocean at a point on the
seashore ten kilometres north-west from the first bridge over the Riveér
Lluta of the Arica-La Paz railway” (emphasis added). Peru argues that
the Final Act then indicates that the first marker along the physical é
demarcation of the land boundary is Boundary Marker No. 1 (Hito
No. 1), located some distance from the low-water line so as to prevent its
destruction by ocean waters at 18° 21´ 03˝ S, 70° 22´ 56˝ W. Peru thus
considers that the Final Act distinguishes between a “point” as ané abstract
concept representing the geographical location of the starting-point of the
land boundary (i.e., Point Concordia) and “markers” which are actual
physical structures along the land boundary. In Peru’s view, as the Féinal
Act refers to both the point derived from Article 2 of the 1929 Treaty of
Lima and Boundary Marker No. 1, these two locations must be distinct.
Thus, relying on both the Joint Instructions and the Final Act, Peru
maintains that Boundary Marker No. 1 was not intended to mark the
start of the agreed land boundary but was simply intended to mark, in a é
practical way, a point on the arc constituting such boundary. Peru more -
over refers to contemporaneous sketch-maps which are said to clearly
demonstrate that the land boundary does not start at Boundary Marker
No. 1. Peru further contends that the reference in the Final Act to Bound -
ary Marker No. 1 as being located on the “seashore” is a mere general
description, with this being consistent with the general manner in whiché
other boundary markers are described in the same document. Finally,
Peru clarifies that the Final Act agrees to give Boundary Marker No. 9,
located near the railway line, the name of “Concordia” for symboliéc rea -
sons, an explanation with which Chile agrees.
156. In Chile’s view, the outcome of the 1929 Treaty of Lima and 1930
demarcation process was that the Parties agreed that Boundary Marker
No. 1 was placed on the seashore with astronomical co-ordinates
18° 21´ 03˝ S, 70° 22´ 56˝ W and that the land boundary started from this
Marker. Chile characterizes the Joint Instructions as indicating that théere
would be a starting-point on the coast of the land boundary, instructing
60
5 CIJ1057.indb 116 1/12/14 08:59 60 maritime dispute (judégment)
the delegates to ensure the placement of a marker to indicate such startéing-
point. Chile relies on an Act of Plenipotentiaries dated 5 August 1930
signed by the Ambassador of Chile to Peru and the Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Peru, claiming that it records the “definitive locatioén and
characteristics” of each boundary marker and acknowledges that the
boundary markers, beginning in order from the Pacific Ocean, demarcateé
the Peruvian-Chilean land boundary.
157. Peru considers that Chile’s claim that Boundary Marker No. 1 is
the starting-point of the land boundary faces two insurmountable prob -
lems. For Peru, the first such problem is that it means that an area oéf the
land boundary of approximately 200 metres in length has not been delim -
ited, which is not the intention of the 1929 Treaty of Lima and the Finaél
Act. The second problem, according to Peru, is that a maritime boundary é
cannot start on dry land some 200 metres inland from the coast, referring
to what it claims to be a “cardinal principle” of maritime entitleément that
the “land dominates the sea”. Alternatively, Peru notes that Chile’s inter -
pretation requires that the maritime boundary starts where the parallel
passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 reaches the sea, with this being
inconsistent with the 1929 Treaty of Lima and the Joint Instructions
which clearly refer to the land boundary as following an arc southward
from Boundary Marker No. 1. Peru argues that, at least until the 1990s,
Chile’s own cartographic and other practice clearly acknowledges the é
starting-point of the land boundary as being Point Concordia, a point
recognized as distinct from Boundary Marker No. 1.
158. Chile argues that the lighthouse arrangements of 1968-1969 are
also relevant in that they involved a joint verification of the exact éphysical
location of Boundary Marker No. 1. According to Chile, the 1952 Santi -
ago Declaration did not identify the parallel running through the point
where the land frontier reaches the sea. The observance and identificaétion
of such parallel by mariners gave rise to practical difficulties between the
Parties, as a result of which they agreed to signal such parallel with téwo
lighthouses aligned through Boundary Marker No. 1. Chile refers to a
document dated 26 April 1968, signed by both Parties, which it claims
represents an agreement that it is the parallel of the maritime frontieré
which would be marked by the lighthouses. Thus, Chile claims that “[t]he
1968-1969 arrangements and the signalling process as a whole confirmed
Hito No. 1 as the reference point for the parallel of latitude constituting
the maritime boundary between the Parties”, further contending that téhe
Parties have also used the parallel passing through this point as the maéri -
time boundary for the capture and prosecution of foreign vessels. Chile é
further argues that there is corresponding Peruvian practice between 198é2
and 2001 treating the parallel running through Boundary Marker No. 1
as the southernmost point of Peruvian territory.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 118 1/12/14 08:59 61 maritime dispute (judégment)
159. Peru recalls that when it proposed to Chile, in 1968, to conclude
the lighthouse arrangements, it suggested that it could be “convenient, for
both countries, to proceed to build posts or signs of considerable dimené-
sions and visible at a great distance, at the point at which the common é
border reaches the sea, near boundary marker number one”, with Peru
submitting that the language of “near Boundary Marker No. 1” clearly
indicates that this point was distinct from the seaward terminus of the é
land boundary at Point Concordia. Peru then continues to explain that
the placement of the Peruvian lighthouse at Boundary Marker No. 1 was
motivated by practical purposes, arguing that as the purpose of the
arrangement was to provide general orientation to artisanal fishermen é
operating near the coast, not to delimit a maritime boundary, aligning téhe
lights along Boundary Marker No. 1 proved sufficient.
160. The Peruvian Maritime Domain Baselines Law, Law No. 28621
dated 3 November 2005, identifies the co-ordinates of Point Concordia as
18° 21´ 08˝ S, 70° 22´ 39˝ W, as measured on the WGS 84 datum. The law
sets out 266 geographical co-ordinates used to measure Peru’s baselines,
culminating in so-called “Point 266”, which Peru claims coincides with
Point Concordia.
161. Peru contends that Chile has sought, in recent years, to unsettle
what it claims to be the Parties’ previous agreement that the startinég-point
of the land boundary is Point Concordia, referring in this regard to an
incident in early 2001 in which Chile is alleged to have placed a surveiél -
lance booth between Boundary Marker No. 1 and the seashore, an action
which elicited an immediate protest from Peru, with this booth being sub -
sequently removed. Chile claims that its decision to remove this booth
was motivated by the proposals of the armies of both Parties that no
surveillance patrols occur within 100 metres of the international land
boundary, with Chile claiming that it duly reserved its position regardiéng
the course of the land boundary. Peru refers also in this regard to Chiléean
attempts to pass internal legislation in 2006-2007 referring to the starting-
point of the land boundary as the intersection with the seashore of the é
parallel passing through Boundary Marker No. 1, rather than Point Con -
cordia. Chile considers that its failure to pass the relevant legislatioén in its
originally proposed form was not connected to the substance of the aforeé -
mentioned reference.
*
162. The Court notes that on 20 October 2000, Peru communicated to
Chile that the Parties disagreed concerning the status of the parallel péass-
ing through Boundary Marker No. 1 as a maritime boundary. On 9 Janu-
ary 2001, Peru informed the Secretary-General of the United Nations
that it did not agree with Chile’s understanding that a parallel constituted
the maritime boundary between them at 18° 21´ 00˝ S. On 19 July 2004,
62
5 CIJ1057.indb 120 1/12/14 08:59 62 maritime dispute (judégment)
Peru described the situation as being one in which exchanges between theé
Parties had revealed “totally dissenting and opposed juridical positiéons
about the maritime delimitation which, in accordance with international é
law, evidence a juridical dispute”. In such circumstances, the Court will
not consider the arguments of the Parties concerning an incident involv -
ing a surveillance booth in 2001, the Peruvian Maritime Domain Base -
lines Law dated 3 November 2005 or the Chilean legislative initiatives in
2006-2007, as such events occurred after it had become evident that a
dispute concerning this issue had arisen and thus these actions could beé
perceived as motivated by the Parties’ positions in relation thereto.é
163. The Court observes that a considerable number of the arguments
presented by the Parties concern an issue which is clearly not before it,
namely, the location of the starting-point of the land boundary identified
as “Concordia” in Article 2 of the 1929 Treaty of Lima. The Court’s task
is to ascertain whether the Parties have agreed to any starting-point of
their maritime boundary. The jurisdiction of the Court to deal with the é
issue of the maritime boundary is not contested.
164. The Court notes that during the early preparations for the light -
house arrangements in April 1968 (discussed at paragraph 96 above)
delegates of both Parties understood that they were preparing for the
materialization of the parallel running through Boundary Marker No. 1,
which the delegates understood to be the maritime frontier, and that theé
delegates communicated such understanding to their respective Govern -
ments.
165. The Governments of both Parties then confirmed this understand -
ing. The Note of 5 August 1968 from the Secretary-General of Foreign
Affairs of Peru to the chargé d’affaires of Chile states :
“I am pleased to inform Your Honour that the Government of Peru
approves in their entirety the terms of the document signed on the
Peruvian-Chilean border on 26 April 1968 by the representatives
of both countries in relation to the installation of leading marks to
materialise the parallel of the maritime frontier.
As soon as Your Honour informs me that the Government of Chile
is in agreement, we will be pleased to enter into the necessary discus -
sions in order to determine the date on which the Joint Commission
may meet in order to verify the position of Boundary Marker No. 1
and indicate the definitive location of the towers or leading marks . . . .”
The Court notes Peru’s approval of the entirety of the document datedé
26 April 1968.
166. The Chilean response of 29 August 1968 from the Embassy
of Chile to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Peru is in the following
terms :
63
5 CIJ1057.indb 122 1/12/14 08:59 63 maritime dispute (judégment)
“The Embassy of Chile presents its compliments to the Honourable
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and has the honour to refer to the Meet -
ing of the Joint Chilean-Peruvian Commission held on 25 and 26 April
1968 in relation to the study of the installation of the leading marks
visible from the sea to materialise the parallel of the maritime frontieér
originating at Boundary Marker No. 1.
On this point, the Embassy of Chile is pleased to accept on behalf
of the Government of Chile the proposals which the technical repre -
sentatives of both countries included in the Act which they signed on
28 [sic] April 1968 with a view to taking the measures for the above -
mentioned signalling in order to act as a warning to fishing vessels
that normally navigate in the maritime frontier zone.
Given that the parallel which it is intended to materialise is the one
which corresponds to the geographical situation indicated by Bound -
ary Marker No. 1 as referred to in the Act signed in Lima on
1 August 1930, the Chilean Government agrees that an ad hoc Joint
Commission should be constituted as soon as possible for the purpose
of verifying the position of this pyramid and that, in addition, the saiéd
Commission should determine the position of the sites where the lead -
ing marks are to be installed.”
167. The Act of the Chile-Peru Mixed Commission in Charge of Veri -
fying the Location of Boundary Marker No. 1 and Signalling the Mari -
time Boundary of 22 August 1969 (hereinafter the “1969 Act”), signed by
the delegates of both Parties, introduces its task using the following léan -
guage :
“The undersigned Representatives of Chile and of Peru, appointed
by their respective Governments for the purposes of verifying the
original geographical position of the concrete-made Boundary Marker
number one (No. 1) of the common frontier and for determining the
points of location of the Alignment Marks that both countries have
agreed to installin order to signal the maritime boundary and physically
to give effect to the parallel that passes through the aforementioned
Boundary Marker number one . . . .” (Emphasis added.)
168. The 1969 Act recommends the rebuilding of the damaged Bound -
ary Marker No. 1 on its original location, which remained visible. The
1969 Act also includes a section entitled Joint Report signed by the Heads
of each Party’s Delegation, describing their task as follows :
“The undersigned Heads of Delegations of Chile and of Peru sub -
mit to their respective Governments the present Report on the state
of repair of the boundary markers in the section of the Chile-Peru
frontier which they have had the opportunity to inspect on the occa -
sion of the works which they have been instructed to conduct in order
to verify the location of Boundary Marker number one and to signal
the maritime boundary.”
64
5 CIJ1057.indb 124 1/12/14 08:59 64 maritime dispute (judégment)
169. The Court observes that both Parties thus clearly refer to their
understanding that the task which they are jointly undertaking involves é
the materialization of the parallel of the existing maritime frontier, wéith
such parallel understood to run through Boundary Marker No. 1.
170. In order to determine the starting-point of the maritime bound -
ary, the Court has considered certain cartographic evidence presented byé
the Parties. The Court observes that Peru presents a number of official
maps of Arica, dated 1965 and 1966, and of Chile, dated 1955, 1961 and
1963, published by the Instituto Geográfico Militar de Chile, as weéll as an
excerpt from Chilean Nautical Chart 101 of 1989. However, these mater-
ials largely focus on the location of the point “Concordia” on theé coast
and do not purport to depict any maritime boundary.
171. The Court similarly notes that a number of instances of Peruvian
practice subsequent to 1968 relied upon by Chile are not relevant as theéy
address the issue of the location of the Peru-Chile land boundary.
172. The only Chilean map referred to by Peru which appears to depict
the maritime boundary along a parallel passing through Boundary
Marker No. 1 is an excerpt from Chilean Nautical Chart 1111 of 1998.
This map, however, confirms the agreement between the Parties of
1968-1969. The Court considers that it is unable to draw any inference
from the 30-year delay in such cartographic depiction by Chile.
173. The evidence presented in relation to fishing and other maritime
practice in the region does not contain sufficient detail to be useful éin the
present circumstances where the starting-points of the maritime boundary
claimed by each of the Parties are separated by a mere eight seconds of
latitude, nor is this evidence legally significant.
174. The Court considers that the maritime boundary which the Parties
intended to signal with the lighthouse arrangements was constituted by téhe
parallel passing through Boundary Marker No. 1. Both Parties subse -
quently implemented the recommendations of the 1969 Act by building
the lighthouses as agreed, thus signalling the parallel passing through
Boundary Marker No. 1. The 1968-1969 lighthouse arrangements there -
fore serve as compelling evidence that the agreed maritime boundary fol -
lows the parallel that passes through Boundary Marker No. 1.
175. The Court is not called upon to take a position as to the location
of Point Concordia, where the land frontier between the Parties starts. It
notes that it could be possible for the aforementioned point not to coiné -
cide with the starting-point of the maritime boundary, as it was just
defined. The Court observes, however, that such a situation would be téhe
consequence of the agreements reached between the Parties.
176. The Court thus concludes that the starting-point of the maritime
boundary between the Parties is the intersection of the parallel of latiétude
passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low-water line.
65
5 CIJ1057.indb 126 1/12/14 08:59 65 maritime dispute (judégment)
VI. The Course of the Maritiéme Boundary from Point A
177. Having concluded that an agreed single maritime boundary exists
between the Parties, and that that boundary starts at the intersection oéf the
parallel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low-
water line, and continues for 80nautical miles along that parallel, the Court
will now determine the course of the maritime boundary from that point on.
178. While Chile has signed and ratified UNCLOS, Peru is not a party
to this instrument. Both Parties claim 200-nautical-mile maritime entitle -
ments. Neither Party claims an extended continental shelf in the area wiéth
which this case is concerned. Chile’s claim consists of a 12-nautical-mile
territorial sea and an exclusive economic zone and continental shelf
extending to 200 nautical miles from the coast. Peru claims a 200-nautical-
mile “maritime domain”. Peru’s Agent formally declared on behaléf of
his Government that “[t]he term ‘maritime domain’ used in [Peru’és] Con -
stitution is applied in a manner consistent with the maritime zones set éout
in the 1982 Convention”. The Court takes note of this declaration which
expresses a formal undertaking by Peru.
179. The Court proceeds on the basis of the provisions of Articles 74,
paragraph 1, and 83, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS which, as the Court has
recognized, reflect customary international law (Maritime Delimitation
and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 91, para. 167 ; Territorial and
Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2012 (II), p. 674, para. 139). The texts of these provisions are identical,
the only difference being that Article 74 refers to the exclusive economic
zone and Article 83 to the continental shelf. They read as follows :
“The delimitation of the exclusive economic zone [continental shelf] é
between States with opposite or adjacent coasts shall be effected by
agreement on the basis of international law, as referred to in Arti -
cle 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in order to
achieve an equitable solution.”
180. The methodology which the Court usually employs in seeking an
equitable solution involves three stages. In the first, it constructs éa provi-
sional equidistance line unless there are compelling reasons preventing that.
At the second stage, it considers whether there are relevant circumstancées
which may call for an adjustment of that line to achieve an equitable reésult.
At the third stage, the Court conducts a disproportionality test in whicéh it
assesses whether the effect of the line, as adjusted, is such that theé Parties’
respective shares of the relevant area are markedly disproportionate to éthe
lengths of their relevant coasts (Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea
(Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 101-103,
paras. 115-122 ;Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), pp. 695-696, paras. 190-193).
181. In the present case, Peru proposed that the three-step approach be
followed in the delimitation of the maritime boundary between the two
66
5 CIJ1057.indb 128 1/12/14 08:59 66 maritime dispute (judégment)
States. Peru makes the three following points. First, the relevant coasts
and the relevant area within which the delimitation is to be effected are
circumscribed by the coasts of each Party lying within 200 nautical miles
of the starting-point of their land boundary. The construction of a provéi-
sional equidistance line within that area is a straightforward exercise.é Sec -
ondly, there are no special circumstances calling for an adjustment of téhe
provisional equidistance line and it therefore represents an equitable méari -
time delimitation : the resulting line effects an equal division of the Par -
ties’ overlapping maritime entitlements and does not result in any unédue
encroachment on the projections of their respective coasts or any cut-off
effect. Thirdly, the application of the element of proportionality as éan ex
post facto test confirms the equitable nature of the equidistance line.
182. Chile advanced no arguments on this matter. Its position through-
out the proceedings was that the Parties had already delimited the wholeé
maritime area in dispute, by agreement, in 1952, and that, accordingly, éno
maritime delimitation should be performed by the Court.
183. In the present case, the delimitation of the maritime area must
begin at the endpoint of the agreed maritime boundary which the Court
has determined is 80 nautical miles long (Point A). In practice, a number
of delimitations begin not at the low-water line but at a point further sea -
ward, as a result of a pre-existing agreement between the parties (Delimita
tion of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United
States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 332-333, para. 212;
Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Camer
oon v. Nigeria : Equatorial Guinea intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2002, pp. 431-432, paras. 268-269; Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea
(Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 130, para. 218).
The situation the Court faces is, however, unusual in that the starting-point
for the delimitation in this case is much further from the coast: 80 nautical
miles from the closest point on the Chilean coast and about 45 nautical
miles from the closest point on the Peruvian coast.
184. The usual methodology applied by the Court has the aim of
achieving an equitable solution. In terms of that methodology, the Courté
now proceeds to the construction of a provisional equidistance line whicéh
starts at the endpoint of the existing maritime boundary (Point A).
185. In order to construct such a line, the Court first selects appropriateé
base points. In view of the location of Point A at a distance of 80 nautical
miles from the coast along the parallel, the nearest initial base point on the
Chilean coast will be situated near the starting-point of the maritime
boundary between Chile and Peru, and on the Peruvian coast at a point
where the arc of a circle with an 80-nautical-mile radius from Point A
intersects with the Peruvian coast. For the purpose of constructing a préo -
visional equidistance line, only those points on the Peruvian coast whicéh
are more than 80 nautical miles from Point A can be matched with points
at an equivalent distance on the Chilean coast. The arc of a circle indiécated
67
5 CIJ1057.indb 130 1/12/14 08:59 67 maritime dispute (judégment)
on sketch-map No. 3 is used to identify the first Peruvian base point. Fur-
ther base points for the construction of the provisional equidistance line
have been selected as the most seaward coastal points “situated neareést to
the area to be delimited” (Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Roma
nia v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 101, para. 117). These
base points are situated to the north-west of the initial base point on the
Peruvian coast and south of the initial base point on the Chilean coast.é No
points on the Peruvian coast which lie to the south-east of that initial point
on that coast can be matched with points on the Chilean coast, as they are
all situated less than 80 nautical miles from Point A (see sketch-map
No. 3: Construction of the provisional equidistance line, p. 68).
186. The provisional equidistance line thus constructed runs in a gen -
eral south-west direction, almost in a straight line, reflecting the smooth
character of the two coasts, until it reaches the 200-nautical-mile limit
measured from the Chilean baselines (Point B). Seaward of this point the
200-nautical-mile projections of the Parties’ coasts no longer overlap.
187. Before continuing the application of the usual methodology, the
Court recalls that, in its second submission, Peru requested the Court téo
adjudge and declare that, beyond the point where the common maritime
boundary ends, Peru is entitled to exercise sovereign rights over a mari -
time area lying out to a distance of 200 nautical miles from its baselines
(see paragraphs 14 to 15 above). This claim is in relation to the area in a
darker shade of blue in sketch-map No. 2 (see paragraph 22 above).
188. Peru contends that, in the maritime area beyond 200 nautical
miles from the Chilean coast but within 200 nautical miles of its own
coast, it has the rights which are accorded to a coastal State by generaél
international law and that Chile has no such rights.
Chile in response contends that the 1952 Santiago Declaration estab -
lishes a single lateral limit for all maritime areas of its States partiées
whether actual or prospective, invoking the reference in paragraph II of
the Declaration to “a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles”.
189. Since the Court has already concluded that the agreed boundary
line along the parallel of latitude ends at 80 nautical miles from the coast,
the foundation for the Chilean argument does not exist. Moreover, since
the Court has decided that it will proceed with the delimitation of the
overlapping maritime entitlements of the Parties by drawing an equidis -
tance line, Peru’s second submission has become moot and the Court neéed
not rule on it.
190. After Point B (see paragraph 186 above), the 200-nautical-mile
limits of the Parties’ maritime entitlements delimited on the basis of equi -
distance no longer overlap. The Court observes that, from Point B, the
200-nautical-mile limit of Chile’s maritime entitlement runs in a generally
southward direction. The final segment of the maritime boundary there -
fore proceeds from Point B to Point C, where the 200-nautical-mile limits
of the Parties’ maritime entitlements intersect.
68
5 CIJ1057.indb 132 1/12/14 08:59 68 maritime dispute (judégment)
BOLIVIA
CHILE
Arica
Tacna
PERU
Ilo
A
B C
200 nautical milesst
WGS 84 PACIFICCEAN
Ar80 nautical miles from Point A
SketConstrucfor illustrative purposes only. from Peru's coast
This sketch-map has been prepared S)0 nautical miles
provisional equidistance line
69
5 CIJ1057.indb 134 1/12/14 08:59 69 maritime dispute (judégment)
191. The Court must now determine whether there are any relevant
circumstances calling for an adjustment of the provisional equidistance é
line, with the purpose, it must always be recalled, of achieving an equiéta-
ble result. In this case, the equidistance line avoids any excessive ampéuta-
tion of either State’s maritime projections. No relevant circumstanceés
appear in the record before the Court. There is accordingly no basis foré
adjusting the provisional equidistance line.
192. The next step is to determine whether the provisional equidistance
line drawn from Point A produces a result which is significantly dispropor -
tionate in terms of the lengths of the relevant coasts and the division éof the
relevant area. The purpose is to assess the equitable nature of the resuélt.
193. As the Court has already noted (see paragraph 183 above), the exis -
tence of an agreed line running for 80 nautical miles along the parallel of
latitude presents it with an unusual situation. The existence of that liéne
would make difficult, if not impossible, the calculation of the length éof the
relevant coasts and of the extent of the relevant area, were the usual math -
ematical calculation of the proportions to be undertaken. The Court recaélls
that in some instances in the past, because of the practical difficulties aris -
ing from the particular circumstances of the case, it has not undertakené
that calculation. Having made that point in the case concerning the Conti
nental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta) ( Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1985, p. 53, para. 74), it continued in these terms:
“if the Court turns its attention to the extent of the areas of shelfé lying
on each side of the line, it is possible for it to make a broad assessmeént
of the equitableness of the result, without seeking to define the equiéties
in arithmetical terms” (ibid., p. 55, para. 75).
More recently, the Court observed that, in this final phase of the delimita -
tion process, the calculation does not purport to be precise and is appréoxi-
mate; “[t]he object of delimitation is to achieve a delimitation that
is equitable, not an equal apportionment of maritime areas” (Maritime
Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2009, p. 100, para. 111 ; see similarly Maritime Delimitation in the
Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v. Norway), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1993, pp. 66-67, para. 64, and p. 68, para. 67, referring to
difficulties, as in the Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta)
case, in defining with sufficient precision which coasts and which areas
were to be treated as relevant ; and Land and Maritime Boundary between
Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea interven
ing), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, pp. 433-448, paras. 272-307, where
although the Court referred to the relevant coastlines and the relevant
area, it made no precise calculation of them). In such cases, the Court
engages in a broad assessment of disproportionality.
194. Given the unusual circumstances of this case, the Court follows
the same approach here and concludes that no significant disproportion is
70
5 CIJ1057.indb 136 1/12/14 08:59 70 maritime dispute (judégment)
BOLIVIA
CHILE
Arica
Tacna
PERU
Ilo
A
B C
200 nautical milesst
WGS 84
PACIFICEAN
Sketch-map No. 4:
for illustrative purposes only.
This sketch-map has been prepared S) from Peru's coast the equidistance linemile limits of the Parties)
200 nautical miles A:B: eC: endpoint of the maritime boundary (intersection of
Course of the maritime boundary
71
5 CIJ1057.indb 138 1/12/14 08:59 71 maritime dispute (judégment)
evident, such as would call into question the equitable nature of the préo -
visional equidistance line.
195. The Court accordingly concludes that the maritime boundary
between the two Parties from Point A runs along the equidistance line to
Point B, and then along the 200-nautical-mile limit measured from the
Chilean baselines to Point C (see sketch-map No. 4 : Course of the mari -
time boundary, p. 70).
VII. Conclusion
196. The Court concludes that the maritime boundary between the
Parties starts at the intersection of the parallel of latitude passing through
Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low-water line, and extends for 80 naiuctal
miles along that parallel of latitude to Point A. From this point, the maritime
boundary runs along the equidistance line to Point B, and then along the
200-nautical-mile limit measured from the Chilean baselines to PoinC t .
*
197. In view of the circumstances of the present case, the Court has
defined the course of the maritime boundary between the Parties withouét
determining the precise geographical co-ordinates. Moreover, the Court
has not been asked to do so in the Parties’ final submissions. The éCourt
expects that the Parties will determine these co-ordinates in accordance
with the present Judgment, in the spirit of good neighbourliness.
* * *
198. For these reasons,
The Court,
(1) By fifteen votes to one,
Decides that the starting-point of the single maritime boundary delimit -
ing the respective maritime areas between the Republic of Peru and the
Republic of Chile is the intersection of the parallel of latitude passinég
through Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low-water line ;
in favour : President Tomka ; VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges
Owada, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade,
Yusuf, Xue, Donoghue, Sebutinde, Bhandari ; Judges ad hoc Guillaume,
Orrego Vicuña ;
against : Judge Gaja ;
(2) By fifteen votes to one,
Decides that the initial segment of the single maritime boundary fol -
lows the parallel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker No. 1
westward ;
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5 CIJ1057.indb 140 1/12/14 08:59 72 maritime dispute (judégment)
in favour : President Tomka ; VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges
Owada, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade,
Yusuf, Xue, Donoghue, Gaja, Bhandari; Judges ad hoc Guillaume, Orrego
Vicuña ;
against : Judge Sebutinde ;
(3) By ten votes to six,
Decides that this initial segment runs up to a point (Point A) situated at
a distance of 80 nautical miles from the starting-point of the single mari -
time boundary ;
in favour : VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges Owada, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Donoghue; Judge
ad hoc Guillaume ;
against : President Tomka ; Judges Xue, Gaja, Sebutinde, Bhandari ; Judge
ad hoc Orrego Vicuña ;
(4) By ten votes to six,
Decides that from Point A, the single maritime boundary shall continue
south-westward along the line equidistant from the coasts of the Republic
of Peru and the Republic of Chile, as measured from that point, until ités
intersection (at Point B) with the 200-nautical-mile limit measured from
the baselines from which the territorial sea of the Republic of Chile isé
measured. From Point B, the single maritime boundary shall continue
southward along that limit until it reaches the point of intersection
(Point C) of the 200-nautical-mile limits measured from the
baselines from which the territorial seas of the Republic of Peru and thée
Republic of Chile, respectively, are measured ;
in favour : VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges Owada, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Donoghue; Judge
ad hoc Guillaume ;
against : President Tomka ; Judges Xue, Gaja, Sebutinde, Bhandari ; Judge
ad hoc Orrego Vicuña ;
(5) By fifteen votes to one,
Decides that, for the reasons given in paragraph 189 above, it does not
need to rule on the second final submission of the Republic of Peru.
in favour : President Tomka ; VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges
Owada, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade,
Yusuf, Xue, Donoghue, Gaja, Sebutinde, Bhandari ; Judge ad hoc
Guillaume ;
against : Judge ad hoc Orrego Vicuña.
Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at é
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-seventh day of January, two
thousand and fourteen, in three copies, one of which will be placed in téhe
73
5 CIJ1057.indb 142 1/12/14 08:59 73 maritime dispute (judégment)
archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of
the Republic of Peru and the Government of the Republic of Chile,
respectively.
(Signed) Peter Tomka,
President.
(Signed) Philippe Couvreur,
Registrar.
President Tomka and Vice-President Sepúlveda-Amor append declar-
ations to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge Owada appends a separate
opinion to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge Skotnikov appends a dec -
laration to the Judgment of the Court ; Judges Xue, Gaja, Bhandari and
Judge ad hoc Orrego Vicuña append a joint dissenting opinion to the
Judgment of the Court ; Judges Donoghue and Gaja append declar-
ations to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge Sebutinde appends a dissent -
ing opinion to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge ad hoc Guillaume
appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge ad hoc
Orrego Vicuña appends a separate, partly concurring and partly dis -
senting, opinion to the Judgment of the Court.
(Initialled) P.T.
(Initialled) Ph.C.
74
5 CIJ1057.indb 144 1/12/14 08:59
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS
CASE CONCERNING
MARITIME DISPUTE
(PERU v. CHILE)
JUDGMENT OF 27 JANUARY 2014
2014
COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES
AFFAIRE
DU DIFFÉREND MARITIME
(PÉROU c. CHILI)
ARRÊT DU 27 JANVIER 2014
5 CIJ1057.indb 1 1/12/14 08:59 Official citation :
Maritime Dispute (Peru v. Chile), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2014, p. 3
Mode officiel de citation :
Différend maritime (Pérou c. Chili), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2014, p. 3
Sales number
ISSN 0074-4441 N ode vente: 1057
ISBN 978-92-1-071173-9
5 CIJ1057.indb 2 1/12/14 08:59 27 JANUARY 2014
JUDGMENT
MARITIME DISPUTE
(PERU v. CHILE)
DIFFÉREND MARITIME
(PÉROU c. CHILI)
27 JANVIER 2014
ARRÊT
5 CIJ1057.indb 3 1/12/14 08:59 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraphs
Chronology of the Procéedure 1-15
I. Geography 16
II. Historical Backgroundé 17-21
III. Positions of the Partiées 22-23
IV. Whether There Is an Agreéed Maritime Boundary 24-151
1. The 1947 Proclamations of Chile and Peru 25-44
2. The 1952 Santiago Declaration 45-70
3. The various 1954 Agreements 71-95
A. The Complementary Convention to the 1952 Santiago
Declaration 74-77
B. The Agreement relating to Measures of Supervision
and Control of the Maritime Zones of the Signatory
Countries 78-79
C. The Agreement relating to a Special Maritime Frontier
Zone 80-95
4. The 1968-1969 lighthouse arrangements 96-99
5. The nature of the agreed maritime boundary 100-102
6. The extent of the agreed maritime boundary 103-151
A. Fishing potential and activity 104-111
B. Contemporaneous developments in the law of the sea 112-118
C. Legislative practice 119-122
D. The 1955 Protocol of Accession 123-125
E. Enforcement activities 126-129
F. The 1968-1969 lighthouse arrangements 130
G. Negotiations with Bolivia (1975-1976) 131-133
H. Positions of the Parties at the Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea 134-135
I. The 1986 Bákula Memorandum 136-142
J. Practice after 1986 143-148
K. The extent of the agreed maritime boundary: conclusion 149-151
V. The Starting-Point of thée Agreed Maritime Boundéary 152-176
VI. The Course of the Maritiéme Boundary from Point A 177-195
VII. Conclusion 196-197
Operative Clause 198
4
5 CIJ1057.indb 4 1/12/14 08:59 3
TABLE DES MATIÈRES
Paragraphes
Qualités 1-15
I. Géographie 16
II. Contexte historique 17-21
III. Positions respectiveés des Parties 22-23
IV. Question de savoir s’éil existe une frontièére maritime convenue24-151
1. Les proclamations chilienne et péruvienne de 1947 25-44
2. La déclaration de Santiago de 1952 45-70
3. Les divers accords de 1954 71-95
A. La convention complémentaire à la déclaration de
Santiago de 1952 74-77
B. La convention relative aux mesures de surveillance
et de contrôle dans les espaces maritimes des pays
signataires 78-79
C. L’accord relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale 80-95
4. Les arrangements de 1968-1969 relatifs aux phares 96-99
5. La nature de la frontière maritime convenue 100-102
6. L’étendue de la frontière maritime convenue 103-151
A. Le potentiel et l’activité halieutiques 104-111
B. L’évolution du droit de la mer à l’époque considéréée 112-118
C. La pratique législative 119-122
D. Le protocole d’adhésion de 1955 123-125
E. Les mesures d’exécution 126-129
F. Les arrangements de 1968-1969 relatifs aux phares 130
G. Les négociations avec la Bolivie (1975-1976) 131-133
H. Les positions des Parties au cours de la troisième
conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer 134-135
I. Le mémorandum Bákula de 1986 136-142
J. La pratique postérieure à 1986 143-148
K. L’étendue de la frontière maritime convenue: conclusion 149-151
V. Le point de départ de léa frontière maritime céonvenue 152-176
VI. Le tracé de la frontièrée maritime à partir dué point A 177-195
VII. Conclusion 196-197
Dispositif 198
4
5 CIJ1057.indb 5 1/12/14 08:59 4
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
2014 YEAR 2014
27 January
General List 27 January 2014
No. 137
MARITIME DISPUTE
(PERU v. CHILE)
Geography — Historical background — 1929 Treaty of Lima between Chile
and Peru — 1947 Proclamations of Chile and Peru — Twelve instruments negoti
ated by Chile, Ecuador and Peru.
*
No international maritime boundary established by 1947 Proclamations — No
shared understanding of the Parties concerning maritime delimitation — Necessity
of establishing the lateral limits of their maritime zones in the future▯.
1952 Santiago Declaration is an international treaty — Rules of interpreta
tion — No express reference to delimitation of maritime boundaries — Certain
elements relevant however to maritime delimitation — Ordinary meaning of para
graph IV — Maritime zones of island territories — Scope of 1952 Santiago Dec
laration restricted to agreement on limits between certain insular marit▯ime zones
and zones generated by continental coasts — Object and purpose — Supplemen
tary means of interpretation confirm that no general maritime delimitation was
effected by 1952 Santiago Declaration — Suggestion of existence of some sort of
a shared understanding of a more general nature concerning maritime boun▯dar
ies — 1952 Santiago Declaration did not establish a lateral maritime boundary ▯
between Chile and Peru along the parallel.
1954 Agreements — Complementary Convention to 1952 Santiago Declara
tion — Primary purpose to assert signatory States’ claims to sovereignty
and jurisdiction made in 1952 — Agreement relating to Measures of Super
vision and Control of Maritime Zones — No indication as to location or
nature of maritime boundaries — Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement —
Not limited to the EcuadorPeru maritime boundary — Delay in ratifi
cation without bearing on scope and effect of Agreement — Acknowledgment
of existence of an agreed maritime boundary — Tacit agreement — Tacit
agreement cemented by 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement — No
indication of nature and extent of maritime boundary — 1964 Bazán
5
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COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE
ANNÉE 2014 2014
27 janvier
27 janvier 2014 Rôleogénéral
n 137
DIFFÉREND MARITIME
(PÉROU c. CHILI)
Géographie — Contexte historique — Traité de Lima de 1929 entre le Chili et
le Pérou — Proclamations chilienne et péruvienne de 1947 — Douze instruments
négociés par le Chili, l’Equateur et le Pérou.
*
Nulle frontière maritime internationale établie par les proclamati▯ons de 1947 —
Absence de manière commune, de la part des Parties, d’envisager la▯ délimitation
maritime — Nécessité pour les Parties d’établir à l’avenir les l▯imites latérales de
leurs zones maritimes.
Déclaration de Santiago de 1952 constituant un traité international — Règles
d’interprétation — Absence de référence expresse à la délimitation des frontières
maritimes — Certains éléments toutefois pertinents pour la délimitation ma▯ri
time — Sens ordinaire du paragraphe IV — Zones maritimes générées par des
territoires insulaires — Portée de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 réduite à un
accord concernant les limites entre certaines zones maritimes géné▯rées par des îles
et celles générées par les côtes continentales — Objet et but — Moyens complé
mentaires d’interprétation confirmant que la déclaration de San▯tiago de 1952 n’a
opéré aucune délimitation maritime générale — Manière commune et plus générale
d’envisager la question des frontières maritimes ayant pu exister,▯ dans une certaine
mesure, entre les Parties — Déclaration de Santiago de 1952 n’ayant pas établi de
frontière maritime latérale suivant le parallèle entre le Chili▯ et le Pérou.
Accords de 1954 — Convention complémentaire à la déclaration de Santiago
de 1952 — Objectif principal consistant à réaffirmer les revendications de ▯souve
raineté et de juridiction formulées par les Etats signataires en 1952 — Convention
relative aux mesures de surveillance et de contrôle dans les espaces ▯maritimes —
Nulle indication quant à l’emplacement et à la nature des limit▯es maritimes —
Accord relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale — Application non limitée à
la frontière maritime entre l’Equateur et le Pérou — Ratification tardive sans inci
dence sur la portée et les effets de l’accord — Reconnaissance de l’existence d’une
frontière maritime convenue — Accord tacite — Accord tacite consacré par l’ac
cord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale — Nulle indication
5
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Opinion — Conclusion of the Court as to the existence of an agreed maritime
boundary not altered.
19681969 lighthouse arrangements — Limited purpose and geographical
scope — No reference to a preexistent delimitation agreement — Arrangements
based on presumed existence of a maritime boundary extending along paral▯lel
beyond 12 nautical miles — No indication of extent and nature of maritime bound
ary.
Nature of agreed maritime boundary — Allpurpose maritime boundary.
Extent of agreed maritime boundary — Assessment of relevant practice of the
Parties pre1954 — Fishing potential and activity — Species taken in the early
1950s were generally to be found within a range of 60 nautical miles fro▯m the coast
— Orientation of the coast — Location of main ports in the region — Zone of
tolerance along the parallel for small fishing boats — Principal fishing activity
carried out by small boats — Fisheries activity, in itself, not determinative of
extent of the boundary — Parties however unlikely to have considered the agreed
maritime boundary to extend to 200nauticalmile limit — Contemporaneous
developments in the law of the sea — State practice — Work of the International
Law Commission — Claim made in 1952 Santiago Declaration did not correspond
to the international law of that time — No evidence to conclude that the agreed
maritime boundary along parallel extended beyond 80 nautical miles.
Assessment of relevant practice of the Parties post1954 — Legislative practice
of the Parties — 1955 Protocol of Accession to 1952 Santiago Declaration —
Enforcement activities — 19681969 lighthouse arrangements — Negotiations
with Bolivia (19751976) — Positions of the Parties at Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea — 1986 Bákula Memorandum — Practice after
1986 — No basis to put into question the Court’s earlier conclusion.
In view of entirety of relevant evidence presented to the Court, agreed maritime
boundary between the Parties extends to a distance of 80 nautical miles along the
parallel.
*
Startingpoint of the agreed maritime boundary — 1929 Treaty of Lima — The
Court not asked to determine location of startingpoint of land boundary identified
as “Concordia” — Boundary Marker No. 1 — 19681969 lighthouse arrange
ments serve as compelling evidence that the agreed maritime boundary follows the
parallel that passes through Boundary Marker No. 1 — Point Concordia may not
coincide with startingpoint of maritime boundary — Startingpoint of maritime
boundary identified as the intersection of the parallel of latitude pass▯ing through
Boundary Marker No. 1 with the lowwater line.
*
Delimitation to be effected beginning at endpoint of agreed maritime bou▯ndary
(Point A) — Method of delimitation — Threestage procedure.
6
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quant à la nature et à l’étendue de la frontière maritime — Avis Bazán de 1964 —
Conclusion de la Cour s’agissant de l’existence d’une frontiè▯re maritime convenue
demeurant inchangée.
Arrangements de 19681969 relatifs aux phares — Objectif et portée géogra
phique limités — Absence de référence à un traité de limites préexistant — Arran
gements fondés sur la préexistence d’une frontière maritime ▯suivant le parallèle
audelà de 12 milles marins — Nulle indication quant à l’étendue et à la nature de
la frontière maritime.
Nature de la frontière maritime convenue — Frontière maritime à vocation
générale.
Etendue de la frontière maritime convenue — Examen de la pratique des Parties
antérieure à 1954 — Potentiel et activités halieutiques — Espèces pêchées au
début des années 1950 se trouvant généralement dans un rayon de 60 milles marins
de la côte — Orientation de la côte — Emplacement des principaux ports de la
région — Zone de tolérance le long du parallèle pour les bateaux de pêc▯he de petite
taille — Activités halieutiques principalement menées au moyen de navires ▯de
petite taille — Activités halieutiques en ellesmêmes non décisives en ce qui
concerne l’étendue de la frontière — Parties n’ayant vraisemblablement pas
envisagé la frontière maritime convenue comme s’étendant jus▯qu’à la limite
des 200 milles marins — Evolution du droit de la mer à l’époque considérée —
Pratique des Etats — Travaux de la Commission du droit international —
Nonconformité au droit international de l’époque de la revendicati▯on formulée
dans la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 — Absence d’élément de preuve permet
tant de conclure que la frontière maritime convenue suivant le parall▯èle s’étendait
audelà de 80 milles marins.
Analyse de la pratique pertinente des Parties postérieure à 1954 — Pratique
législative des Parties — Protocole d’adhésion de 1955 à la déclaration de San
tiago de 1952 — Mesures d’exécution — Arrangements de 19681969 relatifs aux
phares — Négociations avec la Bolivie (19751976) — Positions des Parties au
cours de la troisième conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer — Mémo
randum Bákula de 1986 — Pratique postérieure à 1986 — Absence de raison per
mettant de remettre en cause la conclusion antérieure de la Cour.
Au vu de l’ensemble des éléments de preuve pertinents présen▯tés à la Cour, fron
tière maritime convenue entre les Parties s’étendant sur une di▯stance de 80 milles
marins le long du parallèle.
*
Point de départ de la frontière maritime convenue — Traité de Lima de 1929 —
Cour n’étant pas appelée à déterminer l’emplacement du▯ point de départ de la fron
o
tière terrestre appelé « Concordia» — Borne frontière n 1 — Arrangements de
19681969 relatifs aux phares attestant de manière convaincante que la frontière
maritime convenue suit le parallèle passant par la borne frontière▯ n o1 —
Point Concordia pouvant ne pas coïncider avec le point de départ de la fr▯ ontière
maritime — Point de départ de la frontière maritime défini comme l’inte ▯ rsection du
o
parallèle de latitude passant par la borne frontière n 1 avec la laisse de basse mer.
*
Délimitation à effectuer commençant au point terminal de la frontière maritime
convenue (point A) — Méthode de délimitation — Démarche en trois étapes.
6
5 CIJ1057.indb 9 1/12/14 08:59 6 maritime dispute (judégment)
First stage — Construction of a provisional equidistance line starting at
Point A — Determination of base points — Provisional equidistance line runs until
intersection with the 200nauticalmile limit measured from Chilean baselines
(Point B).
Peru’s second final submission moot — No need for the Court to rule thereon.
Course of the maritime boundary from Point B — Boundary runs along the
200nauticalmile limit measured from the Chilean baselines until intersection of
the 200nauticalmile limits of the Parties (Point C).
Second stage — Relevant circumstances calling for an adjustment of the provi
sional equidistance line — No basis for adjusting the provisional equidistance line.
Third stage — Disproportionality test — Calculation does not purport to be
precise — No evidence of significant disproportion calling into question equitable▯
nature of provisional equidistance line.
*
Course of the maritime boundary — Geographical coordinates to be deter
mined by the Parties in accordance with the Judgment.
JUDGMENT
Present : President Tomka ; VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges Owada,
Abraham, Keith, Bennounaé, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindéade,
Yusuf, Xue, Donoghue, Gajaé, Sebutinde, Bhandari ;Judges ad hoc
Guillaume, Orrego Vicuñéa ;Registrar Couvreur.
In the case concerning the maritime dispute,
between
the Republic of Peru,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Allan Wagner, Ambassador of Peru to the Kingdom of the Nether -
lands, former Minister for Foreign Affairs, former Minister of Defenceé,
former Secretary-General of the Andean Community,
as Agent ;
H.E. Mr. Rafael Roncagliolo, Minister for Foreign Affairs,
as Special Envoy ;
H.E. Mr. José Antonio García Belaunde, Ambassador, former Minister for
Foreign Affairs,
H.E. Mr. Jorge Chávez Soto, Ambassador, member of the Peruvian Delega -
tion to the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, for -
mer Adviser of the Minister for Foreign Affairs on Law of the Sea Mattéers,
7
5 CIJ1057.indb 10 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 6
Première étape — Construction d’une ligne d’équidistance provisoire à partir▯ du
point A — Détermination des points de base — Ligne d’équidistance provisoire
s’étendant jusqu’à la limite des 200milles marins mesurée à partir des lignes de
base chiliennes (point B).
Second point des conclusions finales du Pérou sans objet — Nul besoin pour la
Cour d’y statuer.
Tracé de la frontière maritime à partir du point B — Frontière longeant la
limite des 200 milles marins mesurée à partir des lignes de base du Chili jusqu’au
point d’intersection des limites des 200 milles marins des Parties (point C).
Deuxième étape — Circonstances pertinentes appelant l’ajustement de la ligne
d’équidistance provisoire — Absence de raison justifiant l’ajustement de la ligne
d’équidistance provisoire.
Troisième étape — Critère de proportionnalité — Calcul ne visant pas à la pré
cision — Absence de preuve d’une disproportion marquée remettant en questi▯on le
caractère équitable de la ligne d’équidistance provisoire.
*
Tracé de la frontière maritime — Coordonnées géographiques à déterminer par
les Parties conformément à l’arrêt.
ARRÊT
Présents : MT. omka, président ; M.Sepúlveda-Amor, viceprésident ;
MM. Owada, Abraham, Keith, Bennounaé, Skotnikov, Cançado
Trindade, Yusuf, M mesXue, Donoghue, M. Gaja, M me Sebutinde,
M. Bhandari, juges ; MM.Guillaume, Orrego Vicuña, juges ad
hoc ; M.Couvreur, greffier.
En l’affaire du différend maritime,
entre
la République du Pérou,
représentée par
S. Exc. M. Allan Wagner, ambassadeur du Pérou auprès du Royaume des
Pays-Bas, ancien ministre des relations extérieures, ancien ministre éde la
défense, ancien secrétaire général de la Communauté andinée,
comme agent ;
S. Exc. M. Rafael Roncagliolo, ministre des relations extérieures,
comme envoyé spécial ;
S. Exc. M. José Antonio García Belaunde, ambassadeur, ancien ministre des
relations extérieures,
S. Exc. M. Jorge Chávez Soto, ambassadeur, membre de la délégation péru -
vienne à la troisième conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer,
ancien conseiller du ministre des relations extérieures sur les questéions rela
tives au droit de la mer,
7
5 CIJ1057.indb 11 1/12/14 08:59 7 maritime dispute (judégment)
as Co-Agents ;
Mr. Rodman Bundy, avocat à la Cour d’appel de Paris, member of the Newé
York Bar, Eversheds LLP, Paris,
Mr. Vaughan Lowe, Q.C., member of the English Bar, Emeritus Professor of
International Law, Oxford University, associate member of the Institut dée
droit international,
Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor at the University Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La
Défense, former Member and former Chairman of the International Law
Commission, associate member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. Tullio Treves, Professor at the Faculty of Law, State University of Milaén,
former judge of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, Senioér
Consultant, Curtis, Mallet-Prevost, Colt and Mosle, Milan, member of the
Institut de droit international,
Sir Michael Wood, K.C.M.G., member of the English Bar, Member of the
International Law Commission,
as Counsel and Advocates ;
Mr. Eduardo Ferrero, Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, for -
mer Minister for Foreign Affairs, member of the Peruvian Delegation toé
the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,
Mr. Vicente Ugarte del Pino, former President of the Supreme Court of Jus -
tice, former President of the Court of Justice of the Andean Community, é
former Dean of the Lima Bar Association,
Mr. Roberto MacLean, former judge of the Supreme Court of Justice, former
Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
H.E. Mr. Manuel Rodríguez Cuadros, Ambassador of Peru to UNESCO,
former Minister for Foreign Affairs,
as State Advocates ;
Ms Marisol Agüero Colunga, Minister-Counsellor, LL.M., former Adviser of
the Minister for Foreign Affairs on Law of the Sea Matters, Co-ordinator
of the Peruvian Delegation,
H.E. Mr. Gustavo Meza-Cuadra, MIPP, Ambassador, Adviser of the Minis -
try of Foreign Affairs on Law of the Sea Matters,
Mr. Juan José Ruda, Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, Legal
Adviser of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
as Counsel ;
Mr. Benjamin Samson, Researcher, Centre de droit international de Nanterre
(CEDIN), University of Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense,
Mr. Eran Sthoeger, LL.M., New York University School of Law,
as Assistant Counsel ;
Mr. Carlos Enrique Gamarra, Vice Admiral (retired), Hydrographer, Adviéser
to the Office for Law of the Sea of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
as Special Adviser ;
Mr. Ramón Bahamonde, M.A., Advisory Office for the Law of the Sea of theé
Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Alejandro Deustua, M.A., Advisory Office for the Law of the Sea of the é
Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Pablo Moscoso de la Cuba, LL.M., Advisory Office for the Law of the
Sea of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
8
5 CIJ1057.indb 12 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 7
comme coagents ;
M. Rodman Bundy, avocat à la Cour d’appel de Paris, membre du barreau
de New York, cabinet Eversheds LLP, Paris,
M. Vaughan Lowe, Q.C., membre du barreau d’Angleterre, professeur émé -
rite de droit international à l’Université d’Oxford, membre éassocié de l’Ins-
titut de droit international,
M. Alain Pellet, professeur à l’Université Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Dééfense,
ancien membre et ancien président de la Commission du droit internatiéo -
nal, membre associé de l’Institut de droit international,
M. Tullio Treves, professeur à la faculté de droit de l’Université de éMilan,
ancien juge du Tribunal international du droit de la mer, conseiller priénci-
pal, cabinet Curtis, Mallet-Prevost, Colt et Mosle, Milan, membre de l’éIns-
titut de droit international,
sir Michael Wood, K.C.M.G, membre du barreau d’Angleterre, membre de
la Commission du droit international,
comme conseils et avocats ;
M. Eduardo Ferrero, membre de la Cour permanente d’arbitrage, ancien
ministre des relations extérieures, membre de la délégation pééruvienne à la
troisième conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer,
M. Vicente Ugarte del Pino, ancien président de la Cour suprême de juéstice,
ancien président de la Cour de justice de la Communauté andine, anécien
bâtonnier, barreau de Lima,
M. Roberto MacLean, ancien juge de la Cour suprême de justice, ancien
membre de la Cour permanente d’arbitrage,
S. Exc. M. Manuel Rodríguez Cuadros, ambassadeur du Pérou auprès de
l’UNESCO, ancien ministre des relations extérieures,
comme avocats de l’Etat ;
M meMarisol Agüero Colunga, LL.M., ministre-conseiller et ancien conseiller
du ministre des relations extérieures sur les questions relatives au édroit de
la mer, coordonnateur de la délégation péruvienne,
S. Exc. M. Gustavo Meza-Cuadra, MIPP, ambassadeur, conseiller du minis -
tère des relations extérieures sur les questions relatives au droiét de la mer,
M. Juan José Ruda, membre de la Cour permanente d’arbitrage, conseiller
juridique du ministère des relations extérieures,
comme conseils ;
M. Benjamin Samson, chercheur au Centre de droit international de Nanterre
(CEDIN), Université Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense,
M. Eran Sthoeger, LL.M., faculté de droit de l’Université de New York,
comme conseils adjoints ;
le vice-amiral (en retraite) Carlos Enrique Gamarra, hydrographe, conséeiller
auprès du bureau du droit de la mer du ministère des relations extéérieures,
comme conseiller spécial ;
M. Ramón Bahamonde, M.A., bureau du droit de la mer du ministère des é
relations extérieures,
M. Alejandro Deustua, M.A., bureau du droit de la mer du ministère des
relations extérieures,
M. Pablo Moscoso de la Cuba, LL.M., bureau du droit de la mer du minis -
tère des relations extérieures,
8
5 CIJ1057.indb 13 1/12/14 08:59 8 maritime dispute (judégment)
as Legal Advisers ;
Mr. Scott Edmonds, Cartographer, International Mapping,
Mr. Jaime Valdez, Lieutenant Commander (retired), National Cartographer
of the Peruvian Delegation,
Mr. Aquiles Carcovich, Captain (retired), Cartographer,
Mr. Thomas Frogh, Cartographer, International Mapping,
as Technical Advisers ;
Mr. Paul Duclos, Minister-Counsellor, LL.M., M.A., Advisory Office for the
Law of the Sea of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Alfredo Fortes, Counsellor, LL.M., Embassy of Peru in the Kingdom of
the Netherlands,
Mr. José Antonio Torrico, Counsellor, M.A., Embassy of Peru in the King -
dom of the Netherlands,
Mr. César Talavera, First Secretary, M.Sc., Embassy of Peru in the Kingdoém
of the Netherlands,
as Advisers ;
Ms Evelyn Campos Sánchez, Embassy of Peru in the Kingdom of the Neth -
erlands, Ph.D. candidate, Amsterdam Center for International Law, Uni -
versity of Amsterdam,
Ms Charis Tan, Advocate and Solicitor, Singapore, member of the New York
Bar, Solicitor, England and Wales, Eversheds LLP,
Mr. Raymundo Tullio Treves, Ph.D. candidate, Max Planck Research School
for Successful Disputes Settlement, Heidelberg,
as Assistants,
and
the Republic of Chile,
represented by
H.E. Mr. Albert van Klaveren Stork, Ambassador, former Vice-Minister for
Foreign Affairs, Professor at the University of Chile,
as Agent ;
H.E. Mr. Alfredo Moreno Charme, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Chile,
as National Authority ;
H.E. Mr. Juan Martabit Scaff, Ambassador of Chile to the Kingdom of the
Netherlands,
H.E. Ms María Teresa Infante Caffi, National Director of Frontiers aénd
Limits, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Professor at the University of Chéile,
member of the Institut de droit international,
as Co-Agents ;
Mr. Pierre-Marie Dupuy, Professor at the Graduate Institute of International
Studies and Development, Geneva, and at the University of Paris II (Pan -
théon-Assas), associate member of the Institut de droit international,
Mr. James R. Crawford, S.C., LL.D., F.B.A., Whewell Professor of Interna -
tional Law, University of Cambridge, member of the Institut de droit intée-r
national, Barrister, Matrix Chambers,
9
5 CIJ1057.indb 14 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 8
comme conseillers juridiques ;
M. Scott Edmonds, cartographe, International Mapping,
le capitaine de corvette (en retraite) Jaime Valdez, cartographe de la dél-ga
tion péruvienne,
le capitaine de vaisseau (en retraite) Aquiles Carcovich, cartographe,
M. Thomas Frogh, cartographe, International Mapping,
comme conseillers techniques ;
M. Paul Duclos, ministre-conseiller, LL.M., M.A., bureau du droit de la mer
du ministère des relations extérieures,
M. Alfredo Fortes, conseiller, LL.M., ambassade du Pérou au Royaume des é
Pays-Bas,
M. José Antonio Torrico, conseiller, M.A., ambassade du Pérou au Royaéume
des Pays-Bas,
M. César Talavera, premier secrétaire, M.Sc., ambassade du Pérou aéu
Royaume des Pays-Bas,
comme conseillers ;
me
M Evelyn Campos Sánchez, ambassade du Pérou au Royaume des Pays-
Bas, doctorante à l’Amsterdam Center for International Law, Univerésité
d’Amsterdam,
me
M Charis Tan, avocat et solicitor (Singapour), membre du barreau de New
York, solicitor (Angleterre et pays de Galles), cabinet Eversheds LLP,
M. Raymundo Tullio Treves, doctorant à l’International Max Planck
Research School, section spécialisée dans le règlement des difféérends inter-
nationaux, Heidelberg,
comme assistants,
et
la République du Chili,
représentée par
S. Exc. M. Albert van Klaveren Stork, ambassadeur, ancien vice-ministre des
relations extérieures, professeur à l’Université du Chili,
comme agent ;
S. Exc. M. Alfredo Moreno Charme, ministre des relations extérieures du Chili,
comme membre du Gouvernement ;
S. Exc. M. Juan Martabit Scaff, ambassadeur du Chili auprès du Royaume
des Paysmeas,
S. Exc. M María Teresa Infante Caffi, directeur national, frontières et
limites, ministère des relations extérieures, professeur à l’Université du
Chili, membre de l’Institut de droit international,
comme coagents ;
M. Pierre-Marie Dupuy, professeur à l’Institut de hautes études inter-
nationales et du développement de Genève et à l’Université Paris II
(Panthéon-Assas), membre associé de l’Institut de droit interénational,
M. James R. Crawford, S.C., LL.D., F.B.A., professeur de droit international
à l’Université de Cambridge, titulaire de la chaire Whewell, meémbre de
l’Institut de droit international, avocat, Matrix Chambers,
9
5 CIJ1057.indb 15 1/12/14 08:59 9 maritime dispute (judégment)
Mr. Jan Paulsson, President of the International Council for Commercial é
Arbitration, President of the Administrative Tribunal of the OECD, Freshé -
fields Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
Mr. David A. Colson, Attorney-at-Law, Patton Boggs LLP, Washington
D.C., member of the Bars of California and the District of Columbia,
Mr. Luigi Condorelli, Professor of International Law, University of Floréence,
Mr. Georgios Petrochilos, Avocat à la Cour and Advocate at the Greek é
Supreme Court, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
Mr. Samuel Wordsworth, Q.C., member of the English Bar, member of the
Paris Bar, Essex Court Chambers,
Mr. Claudio Grossman, Dean, R. Geraldson Professor of International Law,
American University, Washington College of Law,
as Counsel and Advocates ;
H.E. Mr. Hernan Salinas, Ambassador, Legal Adviser, Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, Professor, Catholic University of Chile,
H.E. Mr. Luis Winter, Ambassador, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Enrique Barros Bourie, Professor, University of Chile,
Mr. Julio Faúndez, Professor, University of Warwick,
Ms Ximena Fuentes Torrijo, Professor, University of Chile,
Mr. Claudio Troncoso Repetto, Professor, University of Chile,
Mr. Andres Jana, Professor, University of Chile,
Ms Mariana Durney, Legal Officer, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. John Ranson, Legal Officer, Professor of International Law, Chileané
Navy,
Mr. Ben Juratowitch, Solicitor admitted in England and Wales, Freshfieélds
Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
Mr. Motohiro Maeda, Solicitor admitted in England and Wales, Freshfieléds
Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
Mr. Coalter G. Lathrop, Special Adviser, Sovereign Geographic, member of
the North Carolina Bar,
H.E. Mr. Luis Goycoolea, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Antonio Correa Olbrich, Counsellor, Embassy of Chile in the Kingdom é
of the Netherlands,
Mr. Javier Gorostegui Obanoz, Second Secretary, Embassy of Chile in the é
Kingdom of the Netherlands,
Ms Kate Parlett, Solicitor admitted in England and Wales and in Queens -
land, Australia,
Ms Nienke Grossman, Assistant Professor, University of Baltimore, Mary -
land, member of the Bars of Virginia and the District of Columbia,
Ms Alexandra van der Meulen, Avocat à la Cour and member of the Bar oéf
the State of New York,
Mr. Francisco Abriani, member of the Buenos Aires Bar,
Mr. Paolo Palchetti, Professor of International Law, University of Maceréata,
as Advisers ;
Mr. Julio Poblete, National Division of Frontiers and Limits, Ministry oéf
Foreign Affairs,
Ms Fiona Bloor, United Kingdom Hydrographic Office,
Mr. Dick Gent, Marine Delimitation Ltd.,
as Technical Advisers,
10
5 CIJ1057.indb 16 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 9
M. Jan Paulsson, président du Conseil international pour l’arbitrage écomme-r
cial, président du Tribunal administratif de l’OCDE, cabinet Freshéfields
Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
M. David A. Colson, avocat, cabinet Patton Boggs LLP, Washington (D.C.),
membre des barreaux de l’Etat de Californie et du district de Columbiéa,
M. Luigi Condorelli, professeur de droit international à l’Universitéé de Flo
rence,
M. Georgios Petrochilos, avocat à la Cour et à la Cour suprême greécque,
cabinet Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
M. Samuel Wordsworth, Q.C., membre des barreaux d’Angleterre et de Paris,
Essex Court Chambers,
M. Claudio Grossman, doyen, professeur titulaire de la chaire R. Geraldson,
American University, faculté de droit de Washington,
comme conseils et avocats ;
S. Exc. M. Hernan Salinas, ambassadeur, conseiller juridique au ministère des
relations extérieures, professeur à l’Université catholique édu Chili,
S. Exc. M. Luis Winter, ambassadeur, ministère des relations extérieures,
M. Enrique Barros Bourie, professeur à l’Université du Chili,
M. Julio Faúndez, professeur à l’Université de Warwick,
M me Ximena Fuentes Torrijo, professeur à l’Université du Chili,
M. Claudio Troncoso Repetto, professeur à l’Université du Chilié,
M. Andres Jana, professeur à l’Université du Chili,
M me Mariana Durney, conseiller juridique au ministère des relations extéérieures,
M. John Ranson, conseiller juridique, professeur de droit international,
marine chilienne,
M. Ben Juratowitch, solicitor (Angleterre et pays de Galles), cabinet Fresh
fields Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
M. Motohiro Maeda, solicitor (Angleterre et pays de Galles), cabinet Fresh
fields Bruckhaus Deringer LLP,
M. Coalter G. Lathrop, conseiller spécial, Sovereign Geographic, membre du
barreau de Caroline du Nord,
S. Exc. M. Luis Goycoolea, ministère des relations extérieures,
M. Antonio Correa Olbrich, conseiller à l’ambassade du Chili au Roéyaume
des Pays-Bas,
M. Javier Gorostegui Obanoz, deuxième secrétaire de l’ambassadeé du Chili
au Royaume des Pays-Bas,
M me Kate Parlett, solicitor (Angleterre et pays de Galles, et Queensland (Aus-
tralie)),
M me Nienke Grossman, professeur adjoint à l’Université de Baltimoreé (-ary
land), membre des barreaux de l’Etat de Virginie et du district de Céolumbia,
M me Alexandra van der Meulen, avocat à la Cour et membre du barreau de
l’Etat de New York,
M. Francisco Abriani, membre du barreau de Buenos Aires,
M. Paolo Palchetti, professeur de droit international à l’Universiété de Macerata,
comme conseillers ;
M. Julio Poblete, division nationale des frontières et des limites, ministèére des
relations extérieures,
M me Fiona Bloor, services hydrographiques du Royaume-Uni,
M. Dick Gent, Marine Delimitation Ltd.,
comme conseillers techniques,
10
5 CIJ1057.indb 17 1/12/14 08:59 10 maritime dispute (judégment)
The Court,
composed as above,
after deliberation,
delivers the following Judgment :
1. On 16 January 2008, the Republic of Peru (hereinafter “Peru”) filed éin the
Registry of the Court an Application instituting proceedings against theé Repub -
lic of Chile (hereinafter “Chile”) in respect of a dispute conceérning, on the one
hand, “the delimitation of the boundary between the maritime zones ofé the two
States in the Pacific Ocean, beginning at a point on the coast called éConcor -
dia . . . the terminal point of the land boundary established pursuant to the
Treaty . . . of 3 June 1929” and, on the other, the recognition in favour of Peru
of a “maritime zone lying within 200 nautical miles of Peru’s coast” and which
should thus appertain to it, “but which Chile considers to be part ofé the high
seas”.
In its Application, Peru seeks to found the jurisdiction of the Court oné Arti -
cle XXXI of the American Treaty on Pacific Settlement signed on 30 April 1948,
officially designated, according to Article LX thereof, as the “Pact of Bogotá”
(hereinafter referred to as such).
2. In accordance with Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court,
the Registrar immediately communicated the Application to the Governmenté of
Chile; and, under paragraph 3 of that Article, all other States entitled to appear
before the Court were notified of the Application.
3. Pursuant to the instructions of the Court under Article 43 of the Rules of
Court, the Registrar addressed to States parties to the Pact of Bogotá the noti -
fications provided for in Article 63, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court. In
accordance with the provisions of Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court,
the Registrar moreover addressed to the Organization of American States é(here -
inafter the “OAS”) the notification provided for in Article 34, paragraph 3, of
the Statute of the Court. As provided for in Article 69, paragraph 3, of the
Rules of Court, the Registry transmitted the written pleadings to the OAéS and
asked that organization whether or not it intended to furnish observatioéns in
writing within the meaning of that Article ; the OAS indicated that it did not
intend to submit any such observations.
4. On the instructions of the Court, in accordance with the provisions of
Article 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court, the Registrar addressed to the
Permanent Commission for the South Pacific (hereinafter the “CPPS”é, from the
Spanish acronym for “Comisión Permanente del Pacífico Sur”é) the notification
provided for in Article 34, paragraph 3, of the Statute of the Court with regard
to the Declaration on the Maritime Zone, signed by Chile, Ecuador and Peru, in
Santiago on 18 August 1952 (hereinafter the “1952 Santiago Declaration”), and
to the Agreement relating to a Special Maritime Frontier Zone, signed byé the
same three States in Lima on 4 December 1954 (hereinafter the “1954 Special
Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement”). In response, the CPPS indicated éthat it
did not intend to submit any observations in writing within the meaning of Arti -
cle 69, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court.
5. On the instructions of the Court under Article 43 of the Rules of Court,
the Registrar addressed to Ecuador, as a State party to the 1952 Santiago Dec -
laration and to the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, the néotifi-
cation provided for in Article 63, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court.
11
5 CIJ1057.indb 18 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 10
La Cour,
ainsi composée,
après délibéré en chambre du conseil,
rend l’arrêt suivant :
1. Le 16 janvier 2008, la République du Pérou (dénommée ci-après le
«Pérou») a déposé au Greffe de la Cour une requête introductive d’instance
contre la République du Chili (dénommée ci-après le « Chili») au sujet d’un dif -
férend portant, d’une part, sur « la délimitation de la frontière entre les zones
maritimes des deux Etats dans l’océan Pacifique, à partir d’éun point situé sur la
côte [et] appelé Concordia, … point terminal de la frontière terrestre telle qu’éta -
blie conformément au traité … du 3 juin 1929 », et, d’autre part, sur la recon -
naissance de l’appartenance au Pérou d’une « zone maritime qui, située dans la
limite de 200 milles marins de la côte du Pérou », devrait donc lui revenir, « mais
que le Chili considère comme faisant partie de la haute mer ».
Dans sa requête, le Pérou entend fonder la compétence de la Couér sur l’ar -
ticle XXXI du traité américain de règlement pacifique, signé le é30 avril 1948 et
dénommé officiellement, aux termes de son article LX, « pacte de Bogotá »
(ci-après ainsi désigné).
2. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 40 du Statut de la Cour, le
greffier a immédiatement communiqué la requête au Gouvernementé du Chili ;
conformément au paragraphe 3 du même article, il en a également informé tous
les autres Etats admis à ester devant la Cour.
3. Conformément aux instructions données par la Cour en vertu de l’éar -
ticle 43 de son Règlement, le greffier a adressé les notifications préévues au para-
graphe 1 de l’article 63 du Statut aux Etats parties au pacte de Bogotá. En appli-
cation des dispositions du paragraphe 3 de l’article 69 du Règlement, le greffier
a en outre adressé la notification prévue au paragraphe 3 de l’article 34 du Sta -
tut à l’Organisation des Etats américains (dénommée ci-après l’« OEA»).
Conformément au paragraphe 3 de l’article 69 du Règlement, le Greffe a com -
muniqué les pièces de procédure écrite à l’OEA et lui éa demandé de lui faire
savoir si elle entendait présenter des observations écrites au senés de cette dispo -
sition. L’OEA a déclaré qu’elle n’avait pas l’intentioén de présenter de telles
observations.
4. Conformément aux instructions données par la Cour en vertu du paraé -
graphe 3 de l’article 69 de son Règlement, le greffier a adressé à la Commission
permanente du Pacifique Sud (dénommée ci-après la « CPPS», selon l’acronyme
espagnol de « Comisión Permanente del Pacífico Sur ») la notification prévue au
paragraphe 3 de l’article 34 du Statut en ce qui concerne la déclaration sur la
zone maritime, signée à Santiago le 18 août 1952 par le Chili, l’Equateur et le
Pérou (dénommée ci-après la « déclaration de Santiago de 1952 »), et l’accord
relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale, signé par les mêmes Etats à Lima
le 4 décembre 1954 (dénommé ci-après l’«accord de 1954 relatif à une zone fron -
tière maritime spéciale »). La CPPS a répondu qu’elle n’entendait pas présenter
d’observations écrites au sens du paragraphe 3 de l’article 69 du Règlement de
la Cour.
5. Conformément aux instructions données par la Cour en vertu de l’éarticle 43
de son Règlement, le greffier a adressé la notification prévéue au paragraphe 1 de
l’article 63 du Statut à l’Equateur, en sa qualité d’Etat partie à éla déclaration de
Santiago de1952 et à l’accord de1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale.
11
5 CIJ1057.indb 19 1/12/14 08:59 11 maritime dispute (judégment)
6. Since the Court included upon the Bench no judge of the nationality of
either of the Parties, each Party proceeded to exercise the right conferéred upon
it by Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute to choose a judge ad hoc to sit in the
case. Peru chose Mr.Gilbert Guillaume and Chile Mr. FranciscoOrrego Vicuña.
7. By an Order dated 31 March 2008, the Court fixed 20 March 2009 as the
time-limit for the filing of the Memorial of Peru and 9 March 2010 as the
time-limit for the filing of the Counter-Memorial of Chile. Those pleadings were
duly filed within the time-limits so prescribed.
8. By an Order of 27 April 2010, the Court authorized the submission of a
Reply by Peru and a Rejoinder by Chile, and fixed 9 November 2010 and
11 July 2011 as the respective time-limits for the filing of those pleadings. The
Reply and the Rejoinder were duly filed within the time-limits thus fixed.
9. Referring to Article 53, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, the Govern -
ments of Colombia, Ecuador and Bolivia asked to be furnished with copiesé of
the pleadings and documents annexed in the case. Having ascertained the éviews
of the Parties pursuant to that same provision, the Court decided to graént each
of these requests. The Registrar duly communicated these decisions to thée said
Governments and to the Parties.
10. In accordance with Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, the
Court, after having ascertained the views of the Parties, decided that céopies of
the pleadings and documents annexed would be made accessible to the publéic on
the opening of the oral proceedings.
11. Public hearings were held between 3 and 14 December 2012, at which the
Court heard the oral arguments and replies of :
For Peru : H.E. Mr. Allan Wagner,
Mr. Alain Pellet,
Mr. Rodman Bundy,
Mr. Tullio Treves,
Sir Michael Wood,
Mr. Vaughan Lowe.
For Chile : H.E. Mr. Albert van Klaveren Stork,
Mr. Pierre-Marie Dupuy,
Mr. David Colson,
Mr. James Crawford,
Mr. Jan Paulsson,
Mr. Georgios Petrochilos,
Mr. Luigi Condorelli,
Mr. Samuel Wordsworth.
12. At the hearings, a Member of the Court put a question to the Parties, toé
which replies were given orally in accordance with Article 61, paragraph 4, of
the Rules of Court.
*
13. In its Application, the following requests were made by Peru :
“Peru requests the Court to determine the course of the boundary betwéeen
the maritime zones of the two States in accordance with international laéw . . .
12
5 CIJ1057.indb 20 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 11
6. La Cour ne comptant sur le siège aucun juge de la nationalité des éParties,
chacune d’elles s’est prévalue du droit que lui confère le péaragraphe 3 de l’article 31
du Statut de procéder à la désignation d’un juge ad hoc pour siéger en l’affaire. Le
Pérou a désigné M. Gilbert Guillaume et le Chili, M. Francisco Orrego Vicuña.
7. Par une ordonnance en date du 31 mars 2008, la Cour a fixé au 20 mars 2009
la date d’expiration du délai pour le dépôt du mémoire du Pérou et au
9 mars 2010 la date d’expiration du délai pour le dépôt du contre-méémoire du
Chili. Ces pièces ont été dûment déposées dans les déélais ainsi prescrits.
8. Par une ordonnance en date du 27 avril 2010, la Cour a autorisé la présen -
tation d’une réplique par le Pérou et d’une duplique par le éChili, et fixé au
9 novembre 2010 et au 11 juillet 2011, respectivement, les dates d’expiration des
délais pour le dépôt de ces pièces. La réplique et la dupélique ont été dûment
déposées dans les délais ainsi prescrits.
9. Les Gouvernements de la Colombie, de l’Equateur et de la Bolivie, s’ap -
puyant sur le paragraphe 1 de l’article 53 du Règlement, ont demandé à recevoir
communication des pièces de procédure et documents y annexés, péroduits en
l’espèce. La Cour, s’étant renseignée auprès des Parties conformément à cette
même disposition, a décidé de faire droit à la demande de chéacun de ces Etats.
Le greffier a dûment communiqué les décisions de la Cour auxdiéts gouverne -
ments et aux Parties.
10. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 de son Règlement, la
Cour, après s’être renseignée auprès des Parties, a déécidé que des exemplaires
des pièces de procédure et documents annexés seraient rendus accessibles au
public à l’ouverture de la procédure orale.
11. Des audiences publiques ont été tenues entre le 3 et le 14 décembre 2012,
au cours desquelles ont été entendus en leurs plaidoiries et rééponses:
Pour le Pérou : S. Exc. M. Allan Wagner,
M. Alain Pellet,
M. Rodman Bundy,
M. Tullio Treves,
sir Michael Wood,
M. Vaughan Lowe.
Pour le Chili : S. Exc. M. Albert van Klaveren Stork,
M. Pierre-Marie Dupuy,
M. David Colson,
M. James Crawford,
M. Jan Paulsson,
M. Georgios Petrochilos,
M. Luigi Condorelli,
M. Samuel Wordsworth.
12. A l’audience, un membre de la Cour a posé aux Parties une questioné, à
laquelle celles-ci ont répondu oralement, conformément au paragrapéhe 4 de l’ar -
ticle 61 du Règlement de la Cour.
*
13. Dans la requête, les demandes ci-après ont été formulées épar le Pérou:
«Le Pérou prie la Cour de déterminer le tracé de la frontière entre les
zones maritimes des deux Etats conformément au droit international … et
12
5 CIJ1057.indb 21 1/12/14 08:59 12 maritime dispute (judégment)
and to adjudge and declare that Peru possesses exclusive sovereign rights in
the maritime area situated within the limit of 200nautical miles from its coast
but outside Chile’s exclusive economic zone or continental shelf.
The Government of Peru, further, reserves its right to supplement, amendé
or modify the present Application in the course of the proceedings.”
14. In the written proceedings, the following submissions were presented by é
the Parties :
On behalf of the Government of Peru,
in the Memorial and in the Reply :
“For the reasons set out [in Peru’s Memorial and Reply], the Republic
of Peru requests the Court to adjudge and declare that :
(1) The delimitation between the respective maritime zones between the
Republic of Peru and the Republic of Chile, is a line starting at ‘Poéint
Concordia’ (defined as the intersection with the low-water mark of a
10-kilometre radius arc, having as its centre the first bridge over the Réiver
Lluta of the Arica-La Paz railway) and equidistant from the baselines of
both Parties, up to a point situated at a distance of 200 nautical miles
from those baselines, and
(2) Beyond the point where the common maritime border ends, Peru is
entitled to exercise exclusive sovereign rights over a maritime area lyiéng
out to a distance of 200 nautical miles from its baselines.
The Republic of Peru reserves its right to amend these submissions as the
case may be in the course of the present proceedings.”
On behalf of the Government of Chile,
in the Counter-Memorial and in the Rejoinder :
“Chile respectfully requests the Court to :
(a) dismiss Peru’s claims in their entirety ;
(b) adjudge and declare that :
(i) the respective maritime zone entitlements of Chile and Peru have
been fully delimited by agreement ;
(ii) those maritime zone entitlements are delimited by a boundary
following the parallel of latitude passing through the most sea -
ward boundary marker of the land boundary between Chile and
Peru, known as Hito No. 1, having a latitude of 18° 21´ 00˝ S under
WGS 84 Datum ; and
(iii) Peru has no entitlement to any maritime zone extending to the
south of that parallel.”
15. At the oral proceedings, the Parties presented the same submissions as
those contained in their written pleadings.
* * *
13
5 CIJ1057.indb 22 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 12
de dire et juger qu’il possède des droits souverains exclusifs danés la
zone maritime située dans la limite de 200 milles marins de sa côte, mais
en dehors de la zone économique exclusive ou du plateau continental du
Chili.
Le Gouvernement du Pérou se réserve en outre le droit de complééter ou
de modifier la présente requête au cours de la procédure. »
14. Au cours de la procédure écrite, les conclusions ci-après ont éété présen -
tées par les Parties :
Au nom du Gouvernement du Pérou,
dans le mémoire et la réplique :
«Pour les motifs exposés [dans son mémoire et sa réplique], la Réépu -
blique du Pérou prie la Cour de dire et juger :
1) que la ligne délimitant les espaces maritimes entre les Parties commeénce
au « point Concordia» (défini comme l’intersection avec la laisse de
basse mer d’un arc de cercle de 10 kilomètres de rayon ayant pour centre
le premier pont du chemin de fer Arica-La Paz enjambant la rivière Lluta),
est équidistante des lignes de base des Parties et s’étend jusqéu’à un point
situé à 200 milles marins de ces lignes de base ; et
2) que, au-delà du point terminal de la frontière maritime commune,
elle peut prétendre à l’exercice de droits souverains exclusifs sur él’es-
pace maritime s’étendant jusqu’à 200 milles marins depuis ses lignes de
base.
La République du Pérou se réserve le droit de modifier ces coénclusions
selon le cas au cours de la présente procédure. »
Au nom du Gouvernement du Chili,
dans le contre-mémoire et la duplique :
«Le Chili prie respectueusement la Cour :
a) de rejeter l’intégralité des conclusions du Pérou ;
b) de dire et juger :
i) que les espaces maritimes respectifs des Parties ont été intégralement
délimités par voie d’accord ;
ii) que la frontière délimitant ces espaces maritimes suit le parallèéle de
latitude passant par la borne marquant la frontière terrestre entre
o
les Parties la plus proche de la mer, connue sous le nom de borne n 1
et située par 18° 21´ 00˝ de latitude sud selon le système de réfé -
rence WGS 84 ; et
iii) que le Pérou ne peut prétendre à aucun espace maritime au sud dée
ce parallèle. »
15. Lors de la procédure orale, les Parties ont présenté les mêmées conclusions
que celles qui figuraient dans leurs pièces de procédure écriéte.
* * *
13
5 CIJ1057.indb 23 1/12/14 08:59 13 maritime dispute (judégment)
I. Geography
16. Peru and Chile are situated in the western part of South America ;
their mainland coasts face the Pacific Ocean. Peru shares a land boundéary
with Ecuador to its north and with Chile to its south. In the area with é
which these proceedings are concerned, Peru’s coast runs in a north-west
direction from the starting-point of the land boundary between the Par -
ties on the Pacific coast and Chile’s generally follows a north-south orien-
tation. The coasts of both Peru and Chile in that area are mostly
uncomplicated and relatively smooth, with no distinct promontories or
other distinguishing features. (See sketch-map No. 1 : Geographical con -
text, p. 14.)
II. Historical Backgroundé
17. Chile gained its independence from Spain in 1818 and Peru did so
in 1821. At the time of independence, Peru and Chile were not neighbour -
ing States. Situated between the two countries was the Spanish colonial é
territory of Charcas which, as from 1825, became the Republic of Boliviaé.
In 1879 Chile declared war on Peru and Bolivia, in what is known his -
torically as the War of the Pacific. In 1883 hostilities between Chile and
Peru formally came to an end under the Treaty of Ancón. Under its
terms, Peru ceded to Chile the coastal province of Tarapacá ; in addition,
Chile gained possession of the Peruvian provinces of Tacna and Arica foré
a period of ten years on the basis of an agreement that after that perioéd
of time there would be a plebiscite to determine sovereignty over these é
provinces. After the signing of the truce between Bolivia and Chile in
1884 and of the 1904 Treaty of Peace and Friendship between them, the
entire Bolivian coast became Chilean.
18. Chile and Peru failed to agree on the terms of the above-mentioned
plebiscite. Finally, on 3 June 1929, following mediation attempts by the
President of the United States of America, the two countries signed the é
Treaty for the Settlement of the Dispute regarding Tacna and Arica
(hereinafter the “1929 Treaty of Lima”) and its Additional Protoécol,
whereby they agreed that Tacna would be returned to Peru while Chile
would retain Arica. The 1929 Treaty of Lima also fixed the land bound -
ary between the two countries. Under Article 3 of that Treaty, the Parties
agreed that a Mixed Commission of Limits should be constituted in order é
to determine and mark the agreed boundary using a series of markers
(“hitos” in Spanish). In its 1930 Final Act, the 1929-1930 Mixed Commis -
sion recorded the precise locations of the 80 markers that it had placed on
the ground to demarcate the land boundary.
19. In 1947 both Parties unilaterally proclaimed certain maritime rights
extending 200 nautical miles from their coasts (hereinafter collectively the
“1947 Proclamations”). The President of Chile issued a Declaration con -
cerning his country’s claim on 23 June 1947 (hereinafter the “1947 Declar-
14
5 CIJ1057.indb 24 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 13
I. Géographie
16. Le Pérou et le Chili sont situés sur la façade occidentale de l’Amé -
rique du Sud, et leurs côtes continentales font face à l’océéan Pacifique. Le
Pérou partage une frontière terrestre avec l’Equateur au nord eét avec le
Chili au sud. Dans la zone faisant l’objet de la présente instanceé, à partir
du point de départ, sur la côte pacifique, de la frontière teérrestre entre les
Parties, la côte péruvienne prend la direction du nord-ouest, tandéis que la
côte chilienne suit généralement une orientation nord-sud. Pouré l’essen -
tiel, les côtes des deux Etats n’y présentent aucune complicatiéon et sont
relativement régulières, n’étant marquées par aucun promoéntoire ni
o
aucune autre caractéristique particulière. (Voir croquis n 1 : Contexte
géographique, p. 14.)
II. Contexte historique
17. Le Chili obtint son indépendance de l’Espagne en 1818 et le Pérou,
en 1821. Il ne s’agissait pas à l’époque d’Etats voisins,é puisqu’ils étaient
séparés par le Charcas, colonie espagnole qui devint en 1825 la Répu -
blique de Bolivie. En 1879, le Chili déclara la guerre au Pérou et à la
Bolivie, déclenchant ainsi ce que l’histoire a appelé la guerreé du Pacifique.
En 1883, le traité d’Ancón mit officiellement fin aux hostilitéés entre le
Chili et le Pérou, le second cédant au premier la province côtiéère de Tara -
pacá. Le Chili se vit également attribuer les provinces péruvieénnes de
Tacna et Arica pour une durée de dix ans, les parties étant convenues que,
au terme de cette période, un plébiscite serait organisé pour dééterminer la
souveraineté sur ces provinces. Après la signature, par la Bolivieé et le
Chili, de l’accord de trêve de 1884 ainsi que du traité de paix et d’amitié
de 1904, l’intégralité de la côte bolivienne revint au Chili.
18. Le Chili et le Pérou ne parvinrent toutefois pas à s’entendre séur les
conditions du plébiscite susmentionné et, à la suite des effoérts de média -
tion déployés par le président des Etats-Unis d’Amérique,é finirent par
signer, le 3 juin 1929, le traité réglant le différend relatif à Tacna et Aréica
(ci-après le « traité de Lima de 1929 ») et son protocole complémentaire,
aux termes desquels Tacna devait être rétrocédée au Péroué, tandis que le
Chili conserverait Arica. Le traité de Lima de 1929 fixait également la
frontière terrestre entre les deux pays et, en son article 3, prévoyait la
constitution d’une commission mixte de démarcation chargée de déétermi -
ner et de marquer la frontière convenue au moyen de bornes (« hitos» en
espagnol). Dans son rapport final de 1930, la commission mixte de 1929-
1930 consigna les emplacements précis des 80 bornes qu’elle avait placées
sur le terrain afin de marquer la frontière terrestre.
19. En 1947, chacune des Parties proclama unilatéralement certains droits
en mer sur une distance de 200milles marins depuis ses côtes (les deux pro -
clamations seront ci-après dénommées les «proclamations de 1947»). Ainsi,
le 23 juin 1947, le président du Chili fit une déclaration concernant la reéven -
14
5 CIJ1057.indb 25 1/12/14 08:59 - 14 -
14 maritime dispute (judégment)
QUITO
COLOMBIA
ECUADOR
Sketch-map No. 1:
Geographical context
This sketch-map has been prepared
for illustrative purposes only. BRAZIL
Mercator Projection (20° S)
WGS 84 PERU
LIMA
BOLIVIA
IloTacna
Arica
Iquique
CHILE
PACIFIC
OCEAN
SANTIAGO
ARGENTINA
15
5 CIJ1057.indb 26 1/12/14 08:59 - 13 -
différend maritime (arérêt) 14
QUITO
COLOMBIE
ÉQUATEUR
Croquis n° 1:
Contexte géographique
Ce croquis a été établi
à seule fin d'illustration. BRÉSIL
Projection de Mercator (20° S)
WGS 84 PÉROU
LIMA
BOLIVIE
Iloacna
Arica
Iquique
CHILI
OCÉAN
PACIFIQUE
SANTIAGO
ARGENTINE
15
5 CIJ1057.indb 27 1/12/14 08:59 15 maritime dispute (judégment)
ation” or “Chile’s 1947 Declaration”, reproduced at paragraph 37 below).
The President of Peru issued Supreme Decree No. 781, claiming the rights
of his country, on 1 August 1947 (hereinafter the “1947 Decree” or
“Peru’s 1947 Decree”, reproduced at paragraph 38 below).
20. In 1952, 1954 and 1967, Chile, Ecuador and Peru negotiated
twelve instruments to which the Parties in this case make reference. Four
were adopted in Santiago in August 1952 during the Conference on the
Exploitation and Conservation of the Marine Resources of the South
Pacific (the Regulations for Maritime Hunting Operations in the Waters
of the South Pacific ; the Joint Declaration concerning Fishing Problems
in the South Pacific ; the Santiago Declaration ; and the Agreement relat -
ing to the Organization of the Permanent Commission of the Conference
on the Exploitation and Conservation of the Marine Resources of the
South Pacific). Six others were adopted in Lima in December 1954
(the Complementary Convention to the Declaration of Sovereignty on
the Two-Hundred-Mile Maritime Zone ; the Convention on the System
of Sanctions ; the Agreement relating to Measures of Supervision and
Control in the Maritime Zones of the Signatory Countries ; the Conven -
tion on the Granting of Permits for the Exploitation of the Resources of
the South Pacific ; the Convention on the Ordinary Annual Meeting of
the Permanent Commission for the South Pacific ; and the Agreement
relating to a Special Maritime Frontier Zone). And, finally, two agreée -
ments relating to the functioning of the CPPS were signed in Quito in
May 1967.
21. On 3 December 1973, the very day the Third United Nations Con -
ference on the Law of the Sea began, the twelve instruments were submit -
ted by the three signatory States to the United Nations Secretariat for é
registration under Article 102 of the Charter. The four 1952 instruments
(including the Santiago Declaration) were registered on 12 May 1976
(United Nations Treaty Series (UNTS), Vol. 1006, pp. 301, 315, 323 and
331, Registration Nos. I-14756 to I-14759). The United Nations Treaty
Series specifies that the four 1952 treaties came into force on
18 August 1952 upon signature. The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier
Zone Agreement was registered with the United Nations Secretariat on
24 August 2004 (UNTS, Vol. 2274, p. 527, Registration No. I-40521). The
United Nations Treaty Series indicates that the 1954 Special Maritime
Frontier Zone Agreement entered into force on 21 September 1967 by the
exchange of instruments of ratification. With regard to the two 1967 agree -
ments, the Secretariat was informed in 1976 that the signatory States haéd
agreed not to insist upon the registration of these instruments, as theyé
related to matters of purely internal organization.
Representatives of the three States also signed in 1955 and later ratifiéed
the Agreement for the Regulation of Permits for the Exploitation of the é
Resources of the South Pacific. That treaty was not, however, submitteéd
16
5 CIJ1057.indb 28 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 15
dication de son pays (ci-après la « déclaration de 1947» ou la « déeraration
chilienne de 1947», reproduite au paragraphe 37 ci-dessous). Le 1août 1947,
le président du Pérou prit à son tour le décret suprême né o 781, par lequel il
revendiquait les droits de son pays (ci-après led «écret de 1947» ou le «décret
péruvien de 1947», reproduit au paragraphe 38 ci-dessous).
20. Au cours des années 1952, 1954 et 1967, le Chili, l’Equateur et le
Pérou négocièrent douze instruments auxquels les Parties ont fait réfé -
rence en l’espèce. Quatre d’entre eux furent adoptés à Saéntiago en
août 1952 au cours de la conférence sur l’exploitation et la conservatiéon
des ressources maritimes du Pacifique Sud (la réglementation de la pêche
dans les eaux du Pacifique Sud, la déclaration conjointe relative aux pro -
blèmes de la pêche dans le Pacifique Sud, la déclaration de Santiago et
l’accord relatif à l’organisation de la commission permanente dée la confé -
rence sur l’exploitation et la conservation des ressources maritimes édu
Pacifique Sud). Six autres furent adoptés à Lima en décembre 1954 (la
convention complémentaire à la déclaration de souveraineté séur la zone
maritime de deux cents milles marins, la convention sur le système deé
sanctions, la convention relative aux mesures de surveillance et de contérôle
dans les espaces maritimes des pays signataires, la convention sur l’éoctroi
de permis pour l’exploitation des ressources du Pacifique Sud, la céonven -
tion sur l’assemblée annuelle de la Commission permanente du Pacifiéque
Sud et l’accord relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciaéle). Enfin, deux
accords portant sur le fonctionnement de la CPPS furent signés à Quito
en mai 1967.
21. Le 3 décembre 1973, le jour même de l’ouverture de la troisième
conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, les trois Etats signa -
taires présentèrent les douze instruments au Secrétariat de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies pour enregistrement au titre de l’article 102 de la
Charte. Les quatre instruments de 1952 (y compris la déclaration de
Santiago) furent enregistrés le 12 mai 1976 (Recueil des traités des
Nations Unies (RTNU), vol. 1006, p. 301, 315, 323 et 331, n osI-14756 à
I-14759). Le Recueil des traités des Nations Unies précise que les quatre
accords de 1952 sont entrés en vigueur au moment de leur signature,
le 18 août 1952. L’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime
spéciale fut enregistré par le Secrétariat de l’Organisationé des
Nations Unies le 24 août 2004 (RTNU, vol. 2274, p. 527, n o I-40521).
Le Recueil des traités des Nations Unies indique en outre que ce même
accord est entré en vigueur le 21 septembre 1967, lors de l’échange des ins -
truments de ratification. En ce qui concerne les deux accords de 1967,
le Secrétariat fut informé en 1976 que les Etats signataires s’étaient
mis d’accord pour ne pas insister sur l’enregistrement de ces textes, édu
fait que ceux-ci traitaient exclusivement de questions d’organisation
interne.
Les représentants des trois Etats signèrent également, en 1955, l’accord
concernant la réglementation des permis d’exploitation des ressources du
Pacifique Sud, qu’ils ratifièrent ultérieurement. Ce traité ne fut téoutefois
16
5 CIJ1057.indb 29 1/12/14 08:59 16 maritime dispute (judégment)
to the United Nations for registration along with the other twelve instru -
ments in 1973 or at any other time.
III. Positions of the Partiées
22. Peru and Chile have adopted fundamentally different positions in
this case. Peru argues that no agreed maritime boundary exists between
the two countries and asks the Court to plot a boundary line using the
equidistance method in order to achieve an equitable result. Chile con -
tends that the 1952 Santiago Declaration established an international
maritime boundary along the parallel of latitude passing through the
starting-point of the Peru-Chile land boundary and extending to a mini -
mum of 200 nautical miles. It further relies on several agreements and
subsequent practice as evidence of that boundary. Chile asks the Court to
confirm the boundary line accordingly. (See sketch-map No. 2 : The mari-
time boundary lines claimed by Peru and Chile respectively, p. 17.)
Peru also argues that, beyond the point where the common maritime
boundary ends, it is entitled to exercise exclusive sovereign rights oveér a
maritime area lying out to a distance of 200 nautical miles from its base -
lines. (This maritime area is depicted on sketch-map No. 2 in a darker
shade of blue.) Chile responds that Peru has no entitlement to any marié -
time zone extending to the south of the parallel of latitude along whiché,
as Chile maintains, the international maritime boundary runs.
23. Chile contends that the principle of pacta sunt servanda and the
principle of stability of boundaries prevent any attempt to invite the
Court to redraw a boundary that has already been agreed. Chile adds
that there have been significant benefits to both Parties as a resulét of the
stability of their long-standing maritime boundary. Peru argues that the
delimitation line advocated by Chile is totally inequitable as it accords
Chile a full 200-nautical-mile maritime extension, whereas Peru, in con -
trast, suffers a severe cut-off effect. Peru states that it is extraordinary for
Chile to seek to characterize a boundary line, which accords Chile more é
than twice as much maritime area as it would Peru, as a stable frontier é
which is beneficial to Peru.
IV. Whether There Is
an Agreed Maritime Bounédary
24. In order to settle the dispute before it, the Court must first ascer -
tain whether an agreed maritime boundary exists, as Chile claims. In
addressing this question, the Parties considered the significance of téhe
1947 Proclamations, the 1952 Santiago Declaration and various agree -
ments concluded in 1952 and 1954. They also referred to the practice of é
17
5 CIJ1057.indb 30 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 16
présenté pour enregistrement à l’Organisation des Nations Unies ni
en 1973 avec les douze instruments ni à aucun autre moment.
III. Positions respectiveés des Parties
22. Dans la présente affaire, le Pérou et le Chili ont adopté desé posi -
tions diamétralement opposées. Le Pérou soutient qu’il n’éexiste pas de
frontière maritime convenue entre eux et prie la Cour de procéder à la
délimitation en utilisant la méthode de l’équidistance afién de parvenir à
un résultat équitable. Le Chili fait valoir quant à lui que la déclaration de
Santiago de 1952 a établi une frontière maritime internationale suivant
sur une distance d’au moins 200 milles marins le parallèle de latitude pas -
sant par le point de départ de la frontière terrestre le séparaént du Pérou.
Il invoque également plusieurs accords et la pratique subséquente écomme
preuve de l’existence de cette frontière, frontière qu’il préie en conséquence
o
la Cour de confirmer. (Voir croquis n 2 : Frontières maritimes revendi -
quées respectivement par le Pérou et le Chili, p. 17.)
Le Pérou soutient par ailleurs que, au-delà du point terminal de léa
frontière maritime commune, il peut prétendre à l’exercice dée droits sou -
verains exclusifs sur un espace maritime s’étendant jusqu’à 200 milles
marins depuio ses lignes de base. (Cet espace maritime est représentéé sur
le croquis n 2 en bleu plus foncé.) Le Chili répond que le Pérou n’a droéit
à aucun espace maritime au sud du parallèle de latitude que suit, éselon le
Chili, la frontière maritime internationale.
23. Le Chili avance que la règle pacta sunt servanda et le principe de
stabilité des frontières s’opposent à ce qu’il puisse êétre demandé à la Cour
de revoir le tracé d’une frontière déjà convenue. Il ajouéte que les Parties
ont grandement tiré profit de la stabilité de la frontière maéritime établie
de longue date entre elles. Le Pérou soutient pour sa part que la ligne de
délimitation défendue par le Chili revêt un caractère tout àé fait inéqui -
table en ce qu’elle attribue à celui-ci le plein bénéfice éd’une projection
maritime de 200 milles marins, tandis que lui subit un important effet
d’amputation. Il est à son avis assez singulier que le Chili chercéhe à qua -
lifier de stable et avantageuse pour le Pérou une ligne frontière qui accor -
derait au Chili un espace maritime plus de deux fois supérieur à celui qui
serait attribué au Pérou.
IV. Question de savoir s’éil existe une frontièére
maritime convenue
24. Afin de résoudre le différend qui lui est soumis, la Cour doité tout
d’abord rechercher si, comme le soutient le Chili, il existe déjàé une fron -
tière maritime convenue. Lorsqu’elles ont abordé cette questioné, les Par -
ties ont analysé la portée des proclamations de 1947, de la déclaration de
Santiago de 1952 et de divers accords conclus en 1952 et en 1954, pour
17
5 CIJ1057.indb 31 1/12/14 08:59 17 maritime dispute (judégment)
BOLIVIA
CHILE
Arica
Tacna
e
PERU n
il
ec
n
Ilo a
ts
i
di
u ur
q e
e P
y
g b
no
l d
a e
y mi
r a
a l
d c
n s
u a
b
e
m
t
as claimed by Chile ir
a
M
Maritime boundary along parallel
WGS 84 200 nautical milesoast
Sketch-map No. 2: OCEAN
for illustrative purposes only. PACIFIC
Mercator Projection (18° 20' S)
This sketch-map has been prepared
The maritime boundary lines
200 nautical milesoast
claimed by Peru and Chile respectively
18
5 CIJ1057.indb 32 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 17
BOLIVIE
CHILI
Arica
Tacna
,
e
c
n
t
s
PÉROU i u
i r
u é
q
é P
Ilo ' e
d l
e r
n a
g p
i e
l é
a u
l q
t i
n d
a n
i e
u v
s e
r
e e
m u
it q
i
r l
a l
m t
er
è
t
n
or
F
telle que revendiquée par le Chili
Frontière maritime suivant le parallèle,
WGS 84
depuis la côte du Chili
Croquis n° 2:
Ce croquis a été établi Limite des 200 milles marins
à seule fin d'illustration.
OCÉAN
PACIFIQUE
Projection de Mercator (18° 20' S)
Frontières maritimes revendiquées
respectivement par le Pérou et le Chili depuis la côte du Pérou
Limite des 200 milles marins
18
5 CIJ1057.indb 33 1/12/14 08:59 18 maritime dispute (judégment)
the Parties subsequent to the 1952 Santiago Declaration. The Court will
deal with each of these matters in turn.
1. The 1947 Proclamations of Chile and Peru
25. As noted above (see paragraph 19), in their 1947 Proclamations,
Chile and Peru unilaterally proclaimed certain maritime rights extendingé
200 nautical miles from their respective coasts.
26. The Parties agree that the relevant historical background to these
Proclamations involves a number of comparable proclamations by other
States, namely the United States of America’s two Proclamations of ités
policy with respect to both the natural resources of the subsoil and
sea-bed of the continental shelf, and coastal fisheries in certain areas of
the high seas, both dated 28 September 1945, the Mexican Declaration
with Respect to Continental Shelf dated 29 October 1945 and the Argen -
tinean Declaration Proclaiming Sovereignty over the Epicontinental Sea
and the Continental Shelf dated 11 October 1946. Both Parties agree on
the importance of fish and whale resources to their economies, submittéing
that the above-mentioned Proclamations by the United States of America
placed increased pressure on the commercial exploitation of fisheries éoff
the coast of the Pacific States of Latin America, thus motivating theiér
1947 Proclamations.
27. Beyond this background, the Parties present differing interpreta -
tions of both the content and legal significance of the 1947 Proclama -
tions.
28. According to Peru, Chile’s 1947 Declaration was an initial and
innovative step, whereby it asserted an alterable claim to jurisdiction,é
dependent on the adoption of further measures ; nothing in this Declara -
tion indicated any intention, on the part of Chile, to address the questéion
of lateral maritime boundaries with neighbouring States. Peru argues thaét
its own 1947 Decree is similarly provisional, representing an initial step
and not purporting to fix definitive limits of Peruvian jurisdictioné.
Peru contends that although its 1947 Decree refers to the Peruvian
zone of control and protection as “the area covered between the coasté
and an imaginary parallel line to it at a distance of two hundred (200) naut-
ical miles measured following the line of the geographical parallelsӎ,
such reference simply described the manner in which the seaward limits of
the maritime zone would be drawn, with there being no intention to set
any lateral boundaries with neighbouring States. Peru further considers é
that, according to terminology at the relevant time, the language of “ésov -
ereignty” in its 1947 Decree referred simply to rights over resources.
29. By contrast, Chile understands the Parties’ 1947 Proclamations as
more relevant, considering them to be “concordant unilateral proclama -
19
5 CIJ1057.indb 34 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 18
ensuite faire état de la pratique qu’elles ont suivie postérieuérement à la
déclaration de Santiago de 1952. La Cour examinera tour à tour ces dif -
férents points.
1. Les proclamations chilienne et péruvienne de 1947
25. Comme il a été mentionné ci-dessus (voir le paragraphe 19), le Chili
et le Pérou ont, par les proclamations de 1947, revendiqué unilatérale -
ment certains droits en mer sur une distance de 200 milles marins depuis
leurs côtes respectives.
26. Les Parties sont en accord sur le contexte historique ayant entouré
ces proclamations, lequel comprend un certain nombre de proclamations
comparables, dont deux des Etats-Unis d’Amérique en date du 28 sep -
tembre 1945, exposant la politique américaine concernant à la fois les
ressources naturelles du fond et du sous-sol du plateau continental et la
pêche côtière dans certaines parties de la haute mer, une des Etats-Unis
du Mexique sur le plateau continental en date du 29 octobre 1945 et une
de la République argentine affirmant la souveraineté de celle-ci sur la mer
épicontinentale et le plateau continental en date du 11 octobre 1946. Les
Parties sont en accord sur l’importance que revêtent pour leur économie
les ressources halieutiques et baleinières. Elles exposent que, à la suite des
proclamations émanant des Etats-Unis d’Amérique, des pressions éaccrues
s’étaient exercées sur l’exploitation commerciale des zones éde pêche
situées au large de la côte pacifique des pays d’Amérique élatine, ce qui a
conduit à l’adoption des proclamations de 1947.
27. Au-delà de ce contexte, les Parties sont en désaccord sur le conteénu
et la portée juridique des proclamations de 1947.
28. D’après le Pérou, la déclaration chilienne de 1947 était l’énoncé
initial et novateur d’une revendication appelée à évoluer eté concernant
une juridiction dont l’exercice dépendait de l’adoption de mesuéres ulté -
rieures; rien n’y indiquait l’intention, de la part du Chili, d’abordeér la
question des frontières maritimes latérales avec les Etats voisinsé. Le Pérou
présente son propre décret de 1947 comme tout aussi provisoire, affir -
mant qu’il constituait un premier pas et n’était pas destinéé à fixer définiti-
vement les limites de la juridiction péruvienne.
Le Pérou soutient que, même si la zone péruvienne de contrôlée et de pro -
tection y est décrite comme celle «comprise entre [la] côte et une ligne ima-
ginaire parallèle à celle-ci et située en mer à une distanceé de deux cents
(200) milles marins mesurée le long des parallèles géographique»s, il s’agit là
d’une simple référence à la méthode servant à tracer léa limite vers le large de
l’espace maritime revendiqué, sans la moindre intention d’établir des limites
latérales par rapport aux Etats voisins. Il fait par ailleurs valoir que, selon le
sens qui lui était donné à l’époque, la «souveraineté» dont il était question
dans son décret de 1947 ne visait que l’exercice de droits sur les ressources.
29. De son côté, le Chili perçoit les proclamations de 1947 comme beau -
coup plus significatives et les considère comme des « déclarations unilaté-
19
5 CIJ1057.indb 35 1/12/14 08:59 19 maritime dispute (judégment)
tions, each claiming sovereignty to a distance of 200 nautical milesӎ,
being “substantially similar in form, content and effect”. Chileé observes
that each of the Parties proclaims national sovereignty over its adjacenét
continental shelf, as well as in respect of the water column, indicatingé also
a right to extend the outer limit of its respective maritime zone.
30. Peru contests Chile’s description of the 1947 Proclamations as
“concordant”, emphasizing that, although Chile’s 1947 Declaration and
Peru’s 1947 Decree were closely related in time and object, they were not
co-ordinated or agreed between the Parties.
31. Chile further argues that the 1947 Proclamations set clear bound -
aries of the maritime zones referred to therein. Chile contends that theé
method in Peru’s 1947 Decree of using a geographical parallel to measure
the outward limit of the maritime zone also necessarily determines the
northern and southern lateral limits of such zone along such line of geoé -
graphical parallel. According to Chile, its own references to a “periémeter”
and to the “mathematical parallel” in its 1947 Declaration could be simi -
larly understood as indicating that a tracé parallèle method was used to
indicate the perimeter of the claimed Chilean zone.
32. Chile adds that parallels of latitude were also used in the practice
of American States. Peru responds that the use of parallels of latitude éby
other American States described by Chile are not instances of the use ofé
parallels of latitude as international maritime boundaries.
33. For Chile, the primary significance of the 1947 Proclamations is as
antecedents to the 1952 Santiago Declaration. Chile also refers to the
1947 Proclamations as circumstances of the conclusion of the 1952 San -
tiago Declaration and the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agree -
ment, in accordance with Article 32 of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties. Chile maintains that the 1947 Proclamations, in particu -
lar Peru’s use of a “line of the geographic parallels” to measuére its mari -
time projection, rendered the boundary delimitation uncontroversial in
1952, as there could be no less controversial boundary delimitation than
when the claimed maritime zones of two adjacent States abut perfectly
but do not overlap. However, Chile further clarifies that it does not écon -
sider that the 1947 Proclamations themselves established a maritime
boundary between the Parties.
34. Peru questions the Chilean claim that the adjacent maritime zones
abut perfectly by pointing out that the 1947 Proclamations do not stipu -
late co-ordinates or refer to international boundaries. Peru’s view oén the
connection between the 1947 Proclamations and the 1952 Santiago Dec -
laration is that the 1947 Proclamations cannot constitute circumstances
of the 1952 Santiago Declaration’s conclusion in the sense of Article 32
20
5 CIJ1057.indb 36 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 19
rales concordantes, chacune portant revendication de souveraineté suré une
zone s’étendant jusqu’à 200 milles marins», et comme étant, « dans leurs
forme, contenu et portée, … largement similaires». Il fait observer que cha-
cune des Parties a ainsi proclamé sa souveraineté sur le plateau céontinental
adjacent à ses côtes, ainsi que sur la colonne d’eau, se réséervant en outre le
droit de repousser la limite extérieure de son espace maritime.
30. Le Pérou conteste le caractère « concordant» que le Chili attribue
aux proclamations de 1947, soulignant que, si la déclaration chilienne
de 1947 et le décret péruvien de 1947 étaient étroitement liés par leur
concomitance et leur communauté d’objet, ils n’étaient le fréuit ni d’une
coordination ni d’un accord entre les Parties.
31. Le Chili soutient en outre que les proclamations de 1947 ont claire -
ment délimité les espaces maritimes dont il y est question. Il avaénce que la
méthode utilisée dans le décret péruvien de 1947, consistant à recourir à
un parallèle géographique pour mesurer la limite vers le large de l’espace
maritime, devait aussi nécessairement présider à l’établissement des limites
latérales septentrionale et méridionale des espaces en question, le long des
mêmes parallèles géographiques. D’après le Chili, la rééférence que
contient sa propre déclaration de 1947 au « périmètre» et à la « parallèle
mathématique» pourrait également être interprétée comme indiquant le é
recours à la méthode du tracé parallèle pour déterminer le périmètre de
l’espace qu’il revendique.
32. Le Chili ajoute qu’il était courant pour les Etats américains dé’avoir
recours aux parallèles géographiques. Le Pérou répond que, déans les
exemples évoqués par le Chili de recours aux parallèles géogéraphiques par
d’autres Etats américains, il ne s’agissait pas d’établiré des frontières mari-
times internationales.
33. Pour le Chili, l’importance première des proclamations de 1947
tient à ce qu’elles ont ouvert la voie à la déclaration de Séantiago de 1952.
Il les présente également en tant que circonstances dans lesquelles la
déclaration de Santiago de 1952 et l’accord de 1954 relatif à uéne zone
frontière maritime spéciale ont été conclus, au sens de l’article 32 de la
convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités. Il soutient que les préoclama -
tions de 1947, en particulier le fait que le Pérou ait précisé que l’éétendue
de sa projection serait mesurée « le long d’un parallèle géographique »,
excluaient, en 1952, toute controverse concernant la délimitation mari -
time, puisque aucune délimitation ne pouvait être moins sujette àé contro-
verse que celle qui donnait lieu, entre deux Etats adjacents, à des espaces
maritimes parfaitement contigus, mais ne se chevauchant pas. Le Chili
précise toutefois qu’il ne considère pas que les proclamations de 1947
aient en elles-mêmes établi une frontière maritime entre les Paérties.
34. Le Pérou met en doute l’argument du Chili selon lequel les espacesé
maritimes adjacents seraient parfaitement contigus, faisant observer queé les
proclamations de 1947 ne contiennent aucune coordonnée ni aucune réfé -
rence à des frontières internationales. S’agissant de la relation entre la
déclaration de Santiago de 1952 et les proclamations de 1947, le Pérou fait
valoir que celles-ci ne sauraient être considérées, au sens de él’article 32 de la
20
5 CIJ1057.indb 37 1/12/14 08:59 20 maritime dispute (judégment)
of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties as they pre-date the
conclusion of the 1952 Santiago Declaration by five years. Peru also
questions Chile’s assertion that the 1947 Proclamations constitute
circumstances of the conclusion of the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier
Zone Agreement.
35. The Parties further disagree on the legal nature of the 1947 Procla -
mations, particularly Chile’s 1947 Declaration. Chile contends that the
1947 Proclamations each had immediate effect, without the need for fur -
ther formality or enacting legislation. Peru denies this, contending ratéher
that Chile’s 1947 Declaration did not have the nature of a legal act. It
points to the fact that the 1947 Declaration was published only in a daily
newspaper and not in the Official Gazette of Chile.
36. Chile’s response to these arguments is that the status of its
1947 Declaration under domestic law is not determinative of its status
under international law, emphasizing that it was an international claim é
made by the President of Chile and addressed to the international com -
munity. Chile points out that the Parties exchanged formal notificatioéns
of their 1947 Proclamations, arguing that the lack of protest thereto dem -
onstrates acceptance of the validity of the other’s claim to sovereigénty,
including in relation to the perimeter. This was challenged by Peru.
*
37. The relevant paragraphs of Chile’s 1947 Declaration provide as
follows :
“Considering :
1. That the Governments of the United States of America, of Mex -
ico and of the Argentine Republic, by presidential declarations
made on 28 September 1945, 29 October 1945, and 11 Octo -
ber 1946, respectively,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. That they have explicitly proclaimed the rights of their States to
protect, preserve, control and inspect fishing enterprises, with the
object of preventing illicit activities threatening to damage or
destroy the considerable natural riches of this kind contained in
the seas adjacent to their coasts, and which are indispensable to
the welfare and progress of their respective peoples ; and that the
justice of such claims is indisputable ;
3. That it is manifestly convenient, in the case of the Chilean Republic,
to issue a similar proclamation of sovereignty, not only by the fact
of possessing and having already under exploitation natural riches
essential to the life of the nation and contained in the continental
shelf, such as the coal-mines, which are exploited both on the main -
land and under the sea, but further because, in view of its topogra -
21
5 CIJ1057.indb 38 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 20
convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités, comme des circonstances dans
lesquelles a été conclue la déclaration, puisqu’elles la préécèdent d’environ
cinq ans. Il met également en doute l’affirmation du Chili selon laqueélle les
proclamations de 1947 constituent des circonstances dans lesquelles l’ac -
cord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale a éété conclu.
35. Les vues des Parties divergent également en ce qui concerne la
nature juridique des proclamations de 1947, en particulier celle de la
déclaration chilienne. Le Chili affirme que chacune des proclamations
de 1947 a immédiatement produit ses effets, sans qu’il ait étéé besoin d’au -
cune mesure législative ou autre formalité. Le Pérou conteste céette affir -
mation et avance que la déclaration chilienne de 1947 n’avait aucune
valeur juridique. A cet égard, il signale que celle-ci était seuleément parue
dans un quotidien et n’avait pas été publiée au journal offiéciel chilien.
36. En réponse à ces arguments, le Chili soutient que la valeur de la é
déclaration de 1947 en droit interne n’est pas concluante en ce qui
concerne sa valeur en droit international, et souligne qu’il s’agiéssait d’une
revendication internationale émanant du président chilien et adresésée à la
communauté internationale. Il signale que les Parties s’étaienté à l’époque
mutuellement notifié les proclamations de 1947, et argue de l’absence de
protestation de part et d’autre pour conclure que chacune reconnaissaéit la
souveraineté revendiquée par l’autre, notamment quant au péréimètre de
l’espace visé. Ce que conteste le Pérou.
*
37. Les paragraphes pertinents de la déclaration chilienne de 1947 sont
ainsi libellés :
« Considérant :
1. Que les Gouvernements des Etats-Unis d’Amérique, des Etats-
Unis du Mexique et de la République argentine, au moyen de
déclarations présidentielles datant respectivement des 28 sep -
tembre 1945, 29 octobre 1945 et 11 octobre 1946,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Ont proclamé expressément, en ce qui les concerne, les droits de
l’Etat de protéger, préserver, réglementer et contrôler lées entre -
prises de pêche, afin d’empêcher l’exercice d’activitéés illicites sus-
ceptibles d’entamer ou de détruire les ressources naturelles
considérables que renferment les eaux baignant leurs côtes et qui é
sont indispensables au bien-être et au développement de la popu -
lation; et que ces prétentions sont indiscutablement justes ;
3. Qu’il est manifestement opportun, pour la République du Chili, de
faire une proclamation de souveraineté analogue, non seulement
parce qu’elle possède et exploite déjà des ressources natureélles qui
sont essentielles à la vie de la nation et que renferme le plateau
continental, comme les houillères exploitées sur le continent et séous
la mer, mais également parce que, compte tenu de sa topographie
21
5 CIJ1057.indb 39 1/12/14 08:59 21 maritime dispute (judégment)
phy and the narrowness of its boundaries, the life of the country is
linked to the sea and to all present and future natural riches con -
tained within it, more so than in the case of any other country;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(1) The Government of Chile confirms and proclaims its national
sovereignty over all the continental shelf adjacent to the continen -
tal and island coasts of its national territory, whatever may be
their depth below the sea, and claims by consequence all the nat -
ural riches which exist on the said shelf, both in and under it,
known or to be discovered.
(2) The Government of Chile confirms and proclaims its national
sovereignty over the seas adjacent to its coasts whatever may be
their depths, and within those limits necessary in order to reserve,
protect, preserve and exploit the natural resources of whatever
nature found on, within and below the said seas, placing within
the control of the Government especially all fisheries and whaling
activities with the object of preventing the exploitation of natural
riches of this kind to the detriment of the inhabitants of Chile and
to prevent the spoiling or destruction of the said riches to the
detriment of the country and the American continent.
(3) The demarcation of the protection zones for whaling and deep
sea fishery in the continental and island seas under the control of
the Government of Chile will be made in accordance with this
declaration of sovereignty at any moment which the Government
may consider convenient, such demarcation to be ratified, ampli -
fied, or modified in any way to conform with the knowledge, dis -
coveries, studies and interests of Chile as required in the future.
Protection and control is hereby declared immediately over all the
seas contained within the perimeter formed by the coast and the
mathematical parallel projected into the sea at a distance of
200 nautical miles from the coasts of Chilean territory. This
demarcation will be calculated to include the Chilean islands,
indicating a maritime zone contiguous to the coasts of the said
islands, projected parallel to these islands at a distance of 200 naut-
ical miles around their coasts.
(4) The present declaration of sovereignty does not disregard the
similar legitimate rights of other States on a basis of reciprocity,
nor does it affect the rights of free navigation on the high seas.ӎ
38. The relevant paragraphs of Peru’s 1947 Decree provide as follows :
“The President of the Republic,
Considering :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
That the shelf contains certain natural resources which must be
proclaimed as our national heritage ;
22
5 CIJ1057.indb 40 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 21
et de l’étroitesse de son territoire continental, la vie du pays eést
tributaire de la mer et de toutes les richesses présentes et à venéir de
celle-ci, et ce, davantage que ne l’est celle de tout autre pays ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1) L’Etat chilien confirme et proclame sa souveraineté sur tout le é
plateau continental adjacent aux côtes continentales et insulaires
du territoire national, quelle que soit la profondeur à laquelle il sée
trouve, et revendique en conséquence toutes les ressources natu -
relles qui se trouvent sur ledit plateau, sur son sol ou dans son
sous-sol, actuellement connues ou à découvrir.
2) L’Etat chilien confirme et proclame sa souveraineté sur les eaux
adjacentes à ses côtes, quelle qu’en soit la profondeur, sur toéute
l’étendue nécessaire pour sauvegarder, protéger, conserver eét
exploiter les ressources naturelles de toute nature qui se trouvent
à la surface de ces eaux, dans celles-ci ou dans le sous-sol corres -
pondant, et assujettit spécifiquement à son autorité la pêéche sous
toutes ses formes et la chasse à la baleine, en vue d’empêcher que
ces richesses ne soient exploitées de façon préjudiciable aux héabi -
tants du Chili, ou ne soient entamées ou détruites au détrimenté du
pays et du continent américain.
3) La démarcation des zones protégées pour la chasse à la baleiéne et
la pêche en eaux profondes dans les espaces maritimes continen -
taux et insulaires qui sont sous l’autorité de l’Etat chilien séera
effectuée conformément à la présente déclaration de souéveraineté,
lorsque le Gouvernement le jugera opportun, cette démarcation
pouvant à l’avenir être confirmée, étendue ou modifiéée de toute
manière jugée nécessaire en fonction des connaissances, des déécou -
vertes, des études et des intérêts du Chili. Sont d’ores et déjà pla -
cées sous lesdites autorité et protection les eaux situées à l’intérieur
du périmètre délimité par les côtes chiliennes et par uneé parallèle
mathématique projetée en mer à une distance de 200milles marins
de ces côtes. Il sera tenu compte des îles chiliennes dans cette
démarcation, l’espace maritime contigu auxdites îles étant établi
par projection de ladite parallèle à une distance de 200 milles
marins de leurs côtes.
4) La présente déclaration de souveraineté ne porte pas atteinte aéux
droits légitimes de même nature des autres Etats, à charge de réci -
procité, ni aux droits de libre navigation en haute mer. »
38. Les paragraphes pertinents du décret péruvien de 1947 sont ainsi
rédigés :
«Le président de la République,
Considérant :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Que le plateau renferme certaines ressources naturelles qui doivent
être revendiquées comme constituant notre patrimoine national ;
22
5 CIJ1057.indb 41 1/12/14 08:59 22 maritime dispute (judégment)
That it is deemed equally necessary that the State protect, maintain
and establish a control of fisheries and other natural resources found
in the continental waters which cover the submerged shelf and the
adjacent continental seas in order that these resources which are so
essential to our national life may continue to be exploited now and
in the future in such a way as to cause no detriment to the country’sé
economy or to its food production ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
That the right to proclaim sovereignty and national jurisdiction
over the entire extension of the submerged shelf as well as over the
continental waters which cover it and the adjacent seas in the area
required for the maintenance and vigilance of the resources therein
contained, has been claimed by other countries and practically admit -
ted in international law (Declaration of the President of the United
States of 28 September 1945 ; Declaration of the President of Mexico
of 29 October 1945 ; Decree of the President of the Argentine
Nation of 11 October 1946 ; Declaration of the President of Chile
of 23 June 1947) ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
With the advisory vote of the Cabinet,
Decrees :
1. To declare that national sovereignty and jurisdiction are extended
to the submerged continental or insular shelf adjacent to the con -
tinental or insular shores of national territory, whatever the depth
and extension of this shelf may be.
2. National sovereignty and jurisdiction are exercised as well over
the sea adjoining the shores of national territory whatever its
depth and in the extension necessary to reserve, protect, maintain
and utilize natural resources and wealth of any kind which may
be found in or below those waters.
3. As a result of previous declarations the State reserves the right to
establish the limits of the zones of control and protection of nat-
ural resources in continental or insular seas which are controlled
by the Peruvian Government and to modify such limits in accord -
ance with supervening circumstances which may originate as a
result of further discoveries, studies or national interests which may
become apparent in the future and at the same time declares that
it will exercise the same control and protection on the seas adjacent
to the Peruvian coast over the area covered between the coast and
an imaginary parallel line to it at a distance of two hundred (200)
nautical miles measured following the line of the geographical par -
allels. As regards islands pertaining to the nation, this demarcation
will be traced to include the sea area adjacent to the shores of these
islands to a distance of two hundred (200) nautical miles, measured
from all points on the contour of these islands.
23
5 CIJ1057.indb 42 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 22
Qu’il est également jugé nécessaire que l’Etat veille àé la protection, à
la conservation et au contrôle des ressources naturelles, notamment
halieutiques, contenues dans les eaux épicontinentales qui couvrent lée
plateau immergé et dans les eaux continentales adjacentes, afin queé ces
ressources, si indispensables pour la vie de notre nation, puissent contéi -
nuer d’être exploitées à l’avenir de telle manière que l’économie de
notre pays et sa production alimentaire ne subissent aucun préjudice ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Que le droit de proclamer la souveraineté et la juridiction natio -
nales sur l’intégralité du plateau immergé ainsi que sur lesé eaux épi -
continentales qui le recouvrent et les eaux qui leur sont adjacentes,
sur toute la superficie nécessaire à la conservation et à la ésurveillance
des ressources qui y sont contenues, a été revendiqué par d’éautres
pays et admis de fait en droit international (déclaration du préséident
des Etats-Unis d’Amérique en date du 28 septembre 1945 ; déclara -
tion du président du Mexique en date du 29 octobre 1945 ; décret du
président de l’Argentine en date du 11 octobre 1946 ; déclaration du
président du Chili en date du 23 juin 1947) ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sur l’avis du conseil des ministres,
Décrète ce qui suit :
1. Il est déclaré que la souveraineté et la juridiction nationalesé
s’étendent au plateau continental et insulaire immergé qui est é
adjacent aux côtes continentales et insulaires du territoire natio -
nal, quelles que soient la profondeur et l’étendue dudit plateau.
2. La souveraineté et la juridiction nationales s’exercent égalemeént
sur les eaux adjacentes aux côtes du territoire national, quelle que
soit leur profondeur et dans les limites nécessaires pour sauvegar -
der, protéger, conserver et exploiter les ressources et richesses naté -u
relles de toute nature qui se trouvent dans ces eaux ou au-dessous.
3. En conséquence des déclarations antérieures, l’Etat se rééserve le
droit de délimiter les zones de contrôle et de protection des richéesses
nationales dans les espaces maritimes continentaux et insulaires
assujettis à son autorité, et de modifier cette délimitation éen fonc -
tion des circonstances découlant des nouvelles découvertes, de
l’évolution de la recherche et des intérêts nationaux qui poéurraient
se faire jour à l’avenir. Il déclare en outre qu’il exercera cette auto -
rité et cette protection sur les eaux adjacentes à la côte pééruvienne
dans la zone comprise entre cette côte et une ligne imaginaire paral -
lèle à celle-ci et située en mer à une distance de deux cents (200)
milles marins mesurée le long des parallèles géographiques. En éce
qui concerne les îles appartenant au territoire national, il sera tenu
compte dans cette délimitation des espaces maritimes adjacents à
leurs côtes jusqu’à une distance de deux cents (200) milles marins
calculée depuis chaque point de leur pourtour.
23
5 CIJ1057.indb 43 1/12/14 08:59 23 maritime dispute (judégment)
4. The present declaration does not affect the right to free navigation
of ships of all nations according to international law.”
39. The Court notes that the Parties are in agreement that the
1947 Proclamations do not themselves establish an international mari -
time boundary. The Court therefore will consider the 1947 Proclamations
only for the purpose of ascertaining whether the texts evidence the Par -
ties’ understanding as far as the establishment of a future maritime é
boundary between them is concerned.
40. The Court observes that paragraph 3 of Chile’s 1947 Declaration
referred to a “mathematical parallel” projected into the sea to a édistance
of 200 nautical miles from the Chilean coast. Such a mathematical paral -
lel limited the seaward extent of the projection, but did not fix its élateral
limits. The 1947 Declaration nonetheless stated that it concerned the coén-
tinental shelf and the seas “adjacent” to the Chilean coasts. It iémplied the
need to fix, in the future, the lateral limits of the jurisdiction thaét it was
seeking to establish within a specified perimeter. The Court further notes
that Peru’s 1947 Decree, in paragraph 3, referred to “geographical paral -
lels” in identifying its maritime zone. The description of the relevaént mar-
itime zones in the 1947 Proclamations appears to use a tracé parallèle
method. However, the utilization of such method is not sufficient to evi -
dence a clear intention of the Parties that their eventual maritime bounéd-
ary would be a parallel.
41. The Court recalls that paragraph 3 of Chile’s 1947 Declaration
provides for the establishment of protective zones for whaling and deep é
sea fishery, considering that these may be modified in any way “téo con -
form with the knowledge, discoveries, studies and interests of Chile as é
required in the future”. This conditional language cannot be seen as écom-
mitting Chile to a particular method of delimiting a future lateral bounéd-
ary with its neighbouring States ; rather, Chile’s concern relates to the
establishment of a zone of protection and control so as to ensure the
exploitation and preservation of natural resources.
42. The language of Peru’s 1947 Decree is equally conditional. In para-
graph 3, Peru reserves the right to modify its “zones of control and pro -
tection” as a result of “national interests which may become apparéent in
the future”.
43. In view of the above, the language of the 1947 Proclamations, as
well as their provisional nature, precludes an interpretation of them asé
reflecting a shared understanding of the Parties concerning maritime
delimitation. At the same time, the Court observes that the Parties’ é
1947 Proclamations contain similar claims concerning their rights and
jurisdiction in the maritime zones, giving rise to the necessity of estaéblish-
ing the lateral limits of these zones in the future.
24
5 CIJ1057.indb 44 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 23
4. La présente déclaration est sans effet sur le droit de libre navéiga -
tion des navires, quel que soit leur pavillon, conformément au
droit international. »
39. La Cour constate que les Parties sont d’accord pour considérer queé
les proclamations de 1947 n’établissent pas, en elles-mêmes, de frontière
maritime internationale. Elle ne s’y intéressera donc que pour recéhercher
si elles permettent de déterminer si et comment les Parties envisageaient la
délimitation d’une future frontière maritime entre elles.
40. La Cour remarque que le paragraphe 3 de la déclaration chilienne
de 1947 faisait référence à une « parallèle mathématique» projetée en mer
à une distance de 200 milles marins depuis la côte chilienne. Cette paral -
lèle mathématique limitait l’étendue de la projection vers lée large, mais
n’en fixait pas les limites latérales. La déclaration de 1947é précisait cepen-
dant qu’elle portait sur le plateau continental et sur les eaux « adjacentes»
aux côtes chiliennes. Cela impliquait que soient fixées, à l’avenir, les
limites latérales de la juridiction que le Chili cherchait à étéablir dans le
périmètre spécifié. La Cour constate par ailleurs que le Péérou, au para -
graphe 3 de son décret de 1947, a eu recours pour sa part aux « parallèles
géographiques» pour définir son espace maritime. La description des
espaces maritimes visés dans les proclamations de 1947 semble s’appuyer
sur la méthode du tracé parallèle. Toutefois, l’utilisation de cette méthode
ne suffit pas à démontrer l’intention claire, de la part des Péarties, de faire
correspondre leur frontière maritime future à un parallèle.
41. La Cour rappelle que le paragraphe 3 de la déclaration chilienne
de 1947 prévoyait l’établissement de zones de protection pour la céhasse à
la baleine et la pêche en eaux profondes, ces zones pouvant « à l’avenir
être … modifiée[s] de toute manière jugée nécessaire en foncétion des
connaissances, des découvertes, des études et des intérêts déu Chili». Cette
formulation conditionnelle ne saurait être regardée comme constituant un
engagement de la part du Chili en faveur de telle ou telle méthode poéur
délimiter sa frontière latérale avec les Etats voisins; elle marque plutôt son
intention de procéder à la création d’une zone de protectioné et de contrôle
en vue de l’exploitation et de la préservation des ressources natuérelles.
42. Les termes employés dans le décret péruvien de 1947 sont tout
aussi conditionnels. Au paragraphe 3, le Pérou se réserve le droit de
modifier les limites de ses « zones de contrôle et de protection » en fonc -
tion des « intérêts nationaux qui pourraient se faire jour à l’avenir ».
43. A la lumière de ce qui précède, le libellé des proclamationsé de 1947
ainsi que leur caractère provisoire ne permettent pas de les interprééter
comme reflétant une manière commune, de la part des Parties, d’éenvisa -
ger la délimitation maritime. La Cour observe également que les
proclamations de 1947 entretiennent certaines similitudes quant aux
droits et à la juridiction respectivement revendiqués par les deuxé Etats
dans les zones maritimes, ce qui rendait nécessaire d’établir, éà l’avenir, les
limites latérales de ces zones.
24
5 CIJ1057.indb 45 1/12/14 08:59 24 maritime dispute (judégment)
44. Having reached this conclusion, the Court does not need to address
Chile’s argument concerning the relevance of the communication of theé
1947 Proclamations inter se and Peru’s response to that argument. The
Court notes, however, that both Peru and Chile simply acknowledged
receipt of each other’s notification without making any reference téo the pos-
sible establishment of an international maritime boundary between them.
2. The 1952 Santiago Declaration
45. As noted above (see paragraph 20), the Santiago Declaration was
signed by Chile, Ecuador and Peru during the 1952 Conference held in
Santiago de Chile on the Exploitation and Conservation of the Marine
Resources of the South Pacific.
46. According to Chile, the 1952 Santiago Declaration has been a
treaty from its inception and was always intended by its signatories to ébe
legally binding. Chile further notes that the United Nations Treaty Series
indicates that the 1952 Santiago Declaration entered into force upon sig -
nature on 18 August 1952, with there being no record of any objection by
Peru to such indication.
47. Peru considers that the 1952 Santiago Declaration was not con -
ceived as a treaty, but rather as a proclamation of the international maéri-
time policy of the three States. Peru claims that it was thus “declaréative”
in character, but accepts that it later acquired the status of a treaty éafter
being ratified by each signatory (Chile in 1954, Ecuador and Peru in é1955)
and registered as such with the United Nations Secretariat on 12 May 1976,
pursuant to Article 102, paragraph 1, of the Charter of the United
Nations.
*
48. In view of the above, the Court observes that it is no longer con -
tested that the 1952 Santiago Declaration is an international treaty. The
Court’s task now is to ascertain whether it established a maritime boéund-
ary between the Parties.
49. The 1952 Santiago Declaration provides as follows :
“1. Governments have the obligation to ensure for their peoples the
necessary conditions of subsistence, and to provide them with the
resources for their economic development.
2. Consequently, they are responsible for the conservation and pro-
tection of their natural resources and for the regulation of the
development of these resources in order to secure the best possible
advantages for their respective countries.
3. Thus, it is also their duty to prevent any exploitation of these
resources, beyond the scope of their jurisdiction, which endangers
the existence, integrity and conservation of these resources to the
25
5 CIJ1057.indb 46 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 24
44. Etant parvenue à cette conclusion, la Cour n’a pas à examiner l’ar -
gument avancé par le Chili concernant la pertinence de la communication
inter se des proclamations de 1947, ni la réponse du Pérou à cet argument.
Elle constate néanmoins que chacune des Parties n’a fait qu’accéuser
réception de l’envoi de l’autre, sans aborder la question de laé délimitation
d’une éventuelle frontière maritime internationale entre elles.é
2. La déclaration de Santiago de 1952
45. Comme la Cour l’a mentionné précédemment (voir le paragraph2 e0),
la déclaration de Santiago a été signée par le Chili, l’Eéquateur et le Pérou -en
dant la conférence sur l’exploitation et la conservation des ressources mar-i
times du Pacifique Sud, qui s’est tenue en 1952 à Santiago du Chili.
46. Selon le Chili, la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 a toujours été un
traité et les Etats signataires l’ont toujours envisagée comme étant juridi -
quement contraignante. Il signale en outre que, selon ce qu’indique lée
Recueil des traités des Nations Unies, la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 est
entrée en vigueur à la date de sa signature, soit le 18août 1952, et qu’il n’est
fait aucune mention d’une quelconque opposition du Pérou à cet éégard.
47. Le Pérou considère que la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 n’a pas
été conçue comme un traité, mais bien comme une proclamation de la
politique maritime internationale des trois Etats. Il soutient qu’elle n’était
donc que de nature « déclaratoire», mais reconnaît qu’elle a, par la suite,
acquis valeur de traité après avoir été ratifiée par chéacun des Etats signa-
taires (à savoir par le Chili en 1954, et par l’Equateur et le Pérou en 1955)
et enregistrée comme telle au Secrétariat de l’Organisation desé Nations
Unies le 12 mai 1976, conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 102 de
la Charte des Nations Unies.
*
48. A la lumière de qui précède, la Cour relève qu’il n’est plus contesté
que la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 constitue un traité international. Il
lui incombe à présent de rechercher si ladite déclaration a éétabli une fron-
tière maritime entre les Parties.
49. La déclaration de Santiago de 1952 est ainsi libellée :
«1. Chaque gouvernement a l’obligation d’assurer à son peuple les
conditions de subsistance qui lui sont nécessaires et de lui donner
les moyens de se développer économiquement.
2. En conséquence, il lui incombe de veiller à la conservation et àé la
protection de ses ressources naturelles et d’en réglementer l’uétili-
sation afin que le pays en tire le meilleur parti.
3. Cela étant, il est également de son devoir d’empêcher qu’éune
exploitation desdits biens en dehors de sa juridiction ne mette en
péril l’existence, l’intégrité et la conservation de ces éressources au
25
5 CIJ1057.indb 47 1/12/14 08:59 25 maritime dispute (judégment)
detriment of the peoples who, because of their geographical situ -
ation, possess irreplaceable means of subsistence and vital eco -
nomic resources in their seas.
In view of the foregoing considerations, the Governments of Chile,
Ecuador and Peru, determined to conserve and safeguard for their
respective peoples the natural resources of the maritime zones adja -
cent to their coasts, formulate the following Declaration :
I. The geological and biological factors which determine the exist -
ence, conservation and development of marine fauna and flora in
the waters along the coasts of the countries making the Declar-
ation are such that the former extension of the territorial sea and
the contiguous zone are inadequate for the purposes of the con -
servation, development and exploitation of these resources, to
which the coastal countries are entitled.
II. In the light of these circumstances, the Governments of Chile,
Ecuador and Peru proclaim as a norm of their international mari-
time policy that they each possess exclusive sovereignty and juris -
diction over the sea along the coasts of their respective countries
to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles from these coasts.
III. The exclusive jurisdiction and sovereignty over this maritime zone
shall also encompass exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction over
the sea-bed and the subsoil thereof.
IV. In the case of island territories, the zone of 200 nautical miles shall
apply to the entire coast of the island or group of islands. If an
island or group of islands belonging to one of the countries mak -
ing the declaration is situated less than 200 nautical miles from
the general maritime zone belonging to another of those coun -
tries, the maritime zone of the island or group of islands shall be
limited by the parallel at the point at which the land frontier of
the States concerned reaches the sea.
V. This declaration shall be without prejudice to the necessary limi -
tations to the exercise of sovereignty and jurisdiction established
under international law to allow innocent and inoffensive passage
through the area indicated for ships of all nations.
VI. For the application of the principles contained in this Declar-
ation, the Governments of Chile, Ecuador and Peru hereby
announce their intention to sign agreements or conventions which
shall establish general norms to regulate and protect hunting and
fishing within the maritime zone belonging to them, and to regu -
late and co-ordinate the exploitation and development of all other
kinds of products or natural resources existing in these waters
which are of common interest.”
*
26
5 CIJ1057.indb 48 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 25
détriment des peuples qui, par leur situation géographique, pos -
sèdent dans leurs mers des moyens de subsistance irremplaçables
et des ressources économiques qui leur sont vitales.
C’est pourquoi les Gouvernements du Chili, de l’Equateur et du
Pérou, résolus à conserver et à assurer à leurs peuples réespectifs les
ressources naturelles des zones maritimes qui baignent leurs côtes,
formulent la déclaration suivante :
I. Les facteurs géologiques et biologiques qui conditionnent l’exis -
tence, la conservation et le développement de la faune et de la
flore maritimes dans les eaux qui baignent les côtes des pays
signataires de la présente Déclaration sont tels que l’étendéue pre -
mière des eaux territoriales et la zone contiguë ne suffisent pasé à
la conservation, au développement et à l’utilisation de ces resé -
sources, auxquelles les pays côtiers ont droit.
II. En conséquence, les Gouvernements du Chili, de l’Equateur et du
Pérou fondent leur politique internationale maritime sur la sou -
veraineté et la juridiction exclusives qu’a chacun d’eux sur la mer
qui baigne les côtes de son pays jusqu’à 200 milles marins au
moins à partir desdites côtes.
III. La juridiction et la souveraineté exclusives sur la zone maritime
indiquée entraînent également souveraineté et juridiction exclu -
sives sur le sol et le sous-sol de ladite zone.
IV. S’agissant d’un territoire insulaire, la zone de 200 milles marins
s’étendra autour de l’île ou du groupe d’îles. Si une éîle ou un
groupe d’îles appartenant à l’un des pays signataires de la pré -
sente Déclaration se trouve à moins de 200 milles marins de la
zone maritime générale qui se trouve sous la juridiction d’un autre
d’entre eux, la zone maritime de l’île ou du groupe d’îleés en ques -
tion sera limitée par le parallèle passant par le point où aboutit
en mer la frontière terrestre des Etats en cause.
V. La présente Déclaration ne signifie pas que les Etats signataireés
méconnaissent les limitations nécessaires à l’exercice de laé souve -
raineté et de la juridiction établies par le droit international eén
faveur du passage inoffensif des navires de toutes les nations dans
la zone spécifiée.
VI. Les Gouvernements du Chili, de l’Equateur et du Pérou se pro -
posent de conclure, en vue de l’application des principes spécifiéés
dans la présente Déclaration, des accords ou des conventions
dans lesquels seront établies les normes générales qui servironét à
réglementer et à protéger la chasse et la pêche à l’inétérieur de leur
propre zone maritime, ainsi qu’à régler et à coordonner l’éexploi -
tation et l’utilisation de tout autre type de produit ou ressource
naturelle existant dans lesdites eaux et présentant un intérêt écom -
mun pour les pays signataires. »
*
26
5 CIJ1057.indb 49 1/12/14 08:59 26 maritime dispute (judégment)
50. Peru asserts that the 1952 Santiago Declaration lacks characteris -
tics which might be expected of a boundary agreement, namely, an appro-
priate format, a definition or description of a boundary, cartographic
material and a requirement for ratification. Chile disagrees with Peru’s
arguments concerning the characteristics of boundary agreements, point -
ing out that a treaty effecting a boundary delimitation can take any féorm.
51. According to Chile, it follows from paragraph IV of the 1952 San -
tiago Declaration that the maritime boundary between neighbouring
States parties is the parallel of latitude passing through the point at éwhich
the land boundary between them reaches the sea. Chile contends that
paragraph IV delimits both the general and insular maritime zones of the
States parties, arguing that the reference to islands in this provision is a
specific application of a generally agreed rule, the specification oéf which is
explained by the particular importance of islands to Ecuador’s geograéph -
ical circumstances. In support of this claim, Chile relies upon the minuétes
of the 1952 Conference dated 11 August 1952, asserting that the Ecuador -
ean delegate requested clarification that the boundary line of the juréisdic-
tional zone of each country be the respective parallel from the point até
which the border of the countries touches or reaches the sea and that alél
States expressed their mutual consent to such an understanding. Chile
argues that such an understanding, as recorded in the minutes, constitutées
an agreement relating to the conclusion of the 1952 Santiago Declaration,
within the meaning of Article 31, paragraph 2 (a), of the Vienna Conven -
tion on the Law of Treaties. Although Chile recognizes that the issue of
islands was of particular concern to Ecuador, it also stresses that therée
are relevant islands in the vicinity of the Peru-Chile border.
52. Chile maintains that the relationship between general and insular
maritime zones must be understood in light of the fact that the delimitaé -
tion of insular zones along a line of parallel is only coherent and efféective
if there is also a general maritime delimitation along such parallel. Fuér -
ther, Chile points out that, in order to determine if an island is situaéted
less than 200 nautical miles from the general maritime zone of another
State party to the 1952 Santiago Declaration, the perimeter of such gen -
eral maritime zone must have already been defined.
53. Peru argues that in so far as the continental coasts of the States
parties are concerned, the 1952 Santiago Declaration simply claims a
maritime zone extending to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles,
addressing only seaward and not lateral boundaries. In Peru’s view, péara -
graph IV of the 1952 Santiago Declaration refers only to the entitlement
generated by certain islands and not to the entitlement generated by coné -
tinental coasts, with the issue of islands being relevant only between
Ecuador and Peru, not between Peru and Chile. Peru contends that even
if some very small islands exist in the vicinity of the Peru-Chile border
these are immediately adjacent to the coast and do not have any effecté on
maritime entitlements distinct from the coast itself, nor were they of céon -
cern during the 1952 Conference.
27
5 CIJ1057.indb 50 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 26
50. Le Pérou affirme que la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 ne préésente
pas les caractéristiques que revêt habituellement un traité de élimites,
puisqu’elle n’en a pas la forme, ne contient aucune définitioén ou description
de frontière ni aucun document cartographique, et ne prévoit aucuné méca -
nisme de ratification. Le Chili conteste l’argumentation du Péroéu concer-
nant les caractéristiques des traités de limites et fait observer équ’un traité
opérant délimitation d’une frontière peut revêtir n’iméporte quelle forme.
51. Selon le Chili, il découle du paragraphe IV de la déclaration de San -
tiago de 1952 que la frontière maritime entre Etats parties voisins est
constituée par le parallèle de latitude passant par le point oùé leur frontière
terrestre aboutit en mer. Il affirme que le paragraphe IV délimite à la fois
les zones maritimes générales et insulaires des Etats parties, arguant que la
référence aux îles qui figure dans cette disposition résuléte de l’application
spécifique d’une règle généralement acceptée et s’éexplique par l’importance
particulière des îles dans la géographie de l’Equateur. A l’éappui de cet
argument, il invoque le procès-verbal de la conférence de 1952, en date du
11 août 1952. Le représentant de l’Equateur avait alors, selon le Chili,
demandé qu’il soit précisé que la ligne frontière délimitant l’espace mari -
time de chacun des pays corresponde au parallèle passant par le pointé où
la frontière le séparant du pays voisin rencontre ou atteint la meér, ce à
quoi tous les Etats auraient souscrit. Il avance que cette manière d’éenvisa -
ger ladite frontière, telle qu’elle ressort du procès-verbal, céonstitue, au sens
de l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 2 de l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne
sur le droit des traités, un accord intervenu à l’occasion de léa conclusion de
la déclaration de Santiago de 1952. Même s’il reconnaît que la question
des îles intéressait particulièrement l’Equateur, le Chili séouligne qu’il existe
des îles à considérer aux alentours de la frontière le sééparant du Pérou.
52. Le Chili soutient qu’il faut interpréter le rapport entre les zoneés
maritimes générales et insulaires à la lumière du fait que léa délimitation
d’une zone maritime insulaire à l’aide d’un parallèle n’éest cohérente et
utile que si la zone maritime générale correspondante est égaleément déli -
mitée au moyen d’un tel parallèle. Il relève en outre que, pour savoir si
une île se trouve à moins de 200 milles marins de la zone maritime géné -
rale d’un autre Etat partie à la déclaration de Santiago de 1952, encore
faut-il que le périmètre de cette zone maritime générale aité déjà été défini.
53. Le Pérou avance que, s’agissant des côtes continentales des Etaéts
parties, la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 n’a fait qu’exprimer la revendi -
cation d’une zone maritime s’étendant sur une distance minimaleé de
200 milles marins, dont elle n’envisageait que les limites vers le large et non
les limites latérales. Selon lui, le paragraphe IV de la déclaration ne traite
que des droits générés par certaines îles et non de ceux géénérés par les côtes
continentales; la question des îles ne présente pour lui d’intérêt queé dans les
rapports entre l’Equateur et le Pérou et non dans ceux entre le Péérou et le
Chili. Le Pérou soutient que, même s’il se trouve quelques îélots dans la zone
frontalière, ceux-ci sont à proximité immédiate de la côtée, n’ouvrent droit à
aucun espace maritime distinct de ceux que génère la côte elle-émême, et
n’étaient pas source de préoccupation lors de la conférence éde 1952.
27
5 CIJ1057.indb 51 1/12/14 08:59 27 maritime dispute (judégment)
54. Peru rejects Chile’s argument that a general maritime delimitation
must be assumed in paragraph IV so as to make the reference to insular
delimitation effective. It also questions that a maritime boundary couéld
result from an alleged practice implying or presupposing its existence. é
Peru argues that, if it were true that parallels had been established asé
international maritime boundaries prior to 1952, there would have been
no need to include paragraph IV as such boundaries would have already
settled the question of the extent of the maritime entitlements of islanéds.
Peru further claims that the purpose of paragraph IV is to provide a pro -
tective zone for insular maritime entitlements so that even if an eventuéal
maritime delimitation occurred in a manner otherwise detrimental to suché
insular entitlements, it could only do so as far as the line of parallelé
referred to therein. Finally, Peru contests Chile’s interpretation ofé the
minutes of the 1952 Conference, arguing also that these do not constitute
any form of “recorded agreement” but could only amount to travaux
préparatoires.
55. According to Chile, the object and purpose of the 1952 Santiago
Declaration can be stated at varying levels of specificity. Its most géener -
ally stated object and purpose is “to conserve and safeguard for theiér
respective peoples the natural resources of the maritime zones adjacent éto
[the parties’] coasts”. It also has a more specific object and péurpose,
namely to set forth zones of “exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction”é. This
object and purpose is naturally concerned with identifying the physical é
perimeter of each State’s maritime zone within which such sovereigntyé
and jurisdiction would be exercised. Chile further emphasizes that,
although the 1952 Santiago Declaration constitutes a joint proclamation
of sovereignty, it is made by each of the three States parties, each claéim -
ing sovereignty over a maritime zone which is distinct from that claimedé
by the other two.
56. Peru agrees with Chile to the extent that the 1952 Santiago Decla -
ration involves joint action to declare the maritime rights of States paérties
to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles from their coasts so as to
protect and preserve the natural resources adjacent to their territoriesé.
Yet, Peru focuses on the 1952 Conference’s purpose as being to address
collectively the problem of whaling in South Pacific waters, arguing téhat,
in order to do so, it was necessary that “between them” the Statesé parties
police the 200-nautical-mile zone effectively. According to Peru, the object
and purpose of the 1952 Santiago Declaration was not the division of
fishing grounds between its States parties, but to create a zone functéion -
ing “as a single biological unit” — an exercise of regional solidarity —
designed to address the threat posed by foreign whaling. Thus, Peru
stresses that the 1952 Santiago Declaration does not include any stipula -
tion as to how the States parties’ maritime zones are delimited from éeach
other.
*
28
5 CIJ1057.indb 52 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 27
54. Le Pérou rejette l’argument du Chili selon lequel il faut présuémer
une délimitation maritime générale au paragraphe IV pour que la réfé -
rence à une délimitation insulaire ait un sens. Il met égalemenét en doute
qu’une frontière maritime puisse tirer son origine d’une préétendue pra -
tique qui en sous-entendrait ou présupposerait l’existence. Il avaénce que,
si des parallèles avaient été retenus comme frontières maritéimes interna -
tionales avant 1952, il n’aurait pas été nécessaire d’inclure le para -
graphe IV dans la déclaration, car ces frontières auraient déjà rééglé la
question de l’étendue des espaces maritimes générés par lées îles. Il ajoute
que le paragraphe IV visait à préserver les droits à des espaces maritimes
générés par les îles de sorte que toute délimitation mariétime ultérieure ne
puisse empiéter sur ces droits tels que garantis par le parallèle émentionné
au texte. Enfin, il conteste l’interprétation que donne le Chilié du procès-
verbal de la conférence de 1952, arguant en outre que celui-ci ne saurait
être considéré comme ayant de quelque façon constaté un aéccord et pour -
rait tout au plus s’apparenter à des travaux préparatoires.
55. Selon le Chili, l’objet et le but de la déclaration de Santiago deé 1952
peuvent être exprimés avec divers degrés de précision. Au niéveau le plus
général, il s’agissait pour les Etats parties de « conserver et [d’]assurer à
leurs peuples respectifs les ressources naturelles des zones maritimes qéui
baignent leurs côtes »; à un niveau plus spécifique, d’établir des zones de
«souveraineté et juridiction exclusives ». Cet objet et ce but impliquaient
naturellement la détermination du périmètre de l’espace mariétime à l’inté -
rieur duquel sont appelées à s’exercer la souveraineté et laé juridiction de
chaque Etat. Le Chili souligne en outre que, même si la déclaratioén de
Santiago de 1952 constituait une proclamation conjointe de souveraineté,
elle n’en émanait pas moins de chacun des trois Etats parties, empéortant
pour lui revendication de souveraineté sur un espace maritime distincét de
ceux auxquels prétendaient les deux autres.
56. Le Pérou est d’accord avec le Chili pour considérer que la dééclaration
de Santiago de 1952 constituait une action conjointe consistant, pour les
Etats parties, à revendiquer des droits en mer sur une distance minimale deé
200 milles marins à partir de leurs côtes, afin de protéger et deé préserver les
ressources naturelles adjacentes à leurs territoires. Il insiste nééanmoins sur le
fait que le but de la conférence de 1952 était d’aborder collectivement le pro -
blème de la chasse à la baleine dans les eaux du Pacifique Sud et soutient que,
pour cela, il était nécessaire que les Etats participant à la conférence assurent,
«entre eux », le maintien de l’ordre dans l’ensemble de leurs zones de
200 milles marins. Selon le Pérou, l’objet et le but de la déclaratéion de San -
tiago de 1952 n’étaient pas le partage des lieux de pêche entre les Etatés parties
d’une zone constituant «une seule et même unité biologique», conçue pour
faire face à la menace que posait la chasse à la baleine pratiquéée par des
navires étrangers. Il rappelle à cet égard que la déclaratioén de Santiago
de 1952 ne contient aucune disposition quant à la manière dont les esépaces
maritimes des Etatsparties sont délimités les uns par rapport aux autres.
*
28
5 CIJ1057.indb 53 1/12/14 08:59 28 maritime dispute (judégment)
57. The Court is required to analyse the terms of the 1952 Santiago
Declaration in accordance with the customary international law of treaty
interpretation, as reflected in Articles 31 and 32 of the Vienna Convention
on the Law of Treaties (see Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v.
United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 812, para. 23 ; Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/
Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, pp. 21-22, para. 41). The Court
applied these rules to the interpretation of treaties which pre-date the
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Dispute regarding Naviga
tional and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 237, para. 47 ; Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and
Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002,
pp. 645-646, paras. 37-38 ; Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Botswana/Namibia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1059, para. 18).
58. The Court commences by considering the ordinary meaning to be
given to the terms of the 1952 Santiago Declaration in their context, in
accordance with Article 31, paragraph 1, of the Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties. The 1952 Santiago Declaration does not make
express reference to the delimitation of maritime boundaries of the zoneés
generated by the continental coasts of its States parties. This is com -
pounded by the lack of such information which might be expected in an
agreement determining maritime boundaries, namely, specific co-ordi -
nates or cartographic material. Nevertheless, the 1952 Santiago Declara -
tion contains certain elements (in its paragraph IV) which are relevant to
the issue of maritime delimitation (see paragraph 60 below).
59. The Court notes that in paragraph II, the States parties “proclaim
as a norm of their international maritime policy that they each possess
exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction over the sea along the coasts of
their respective countries to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles
from these coasts”. This provision establishes only a seaward claim aénd
makes no reference to the need to distinguish the lateral limits of the émar -
itime zones of each State party. Paragraph III states that “[t]he exclusive
jurisdiction and sovereignty over this maritime zone shall also encompasés
exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction over the sea-bed and the subsoil é
thereof”. Such a reference to jurisdiction and sovereignty does not néeces -
sarily require any delimitation to have already occurred. Paragraph VI
expresses the intention of the States parties to establish by agreement éin
the future general norms of regulation and protection to be applied in
their respective maritime zones. Accordingly, although a description of
the distance of maritime zones and reference to the exercise of jurisdicétion
and sovereignty might indicate that the States parties were not unaware
of issues of general delimitation, the Court concludes that neither paraé -
graph II nor paragraph III refers explicitly to any lateral boundaries of
the proclaimed 200-nautical-mile maritime zones, nor can the need for
such boundaries be implied by the references to jurisdiction and sover -
eignty.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 54 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 28
57. La tâche qui s’impose à la Cour consiste à analyser le texteé de la
déclaration de Santiago de 1952 conformément au droit international
coutumier relatif à l’interprétation des traités, tel que reéflété aux articles 31
et 32 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités (voir Platesformes
pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. EtatsUnis d’Amérique), excep
tion préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 812, par. 23 ; Différend
territorial (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Tchad), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1994,
p. 21-22, par. 41). La Cour a appliqué ces règles à l’interprétation deé trai -
tés antérieurs à la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traitéés (Différend
relatif à des droits de navigation et des droits connexes (Costa Rica c. Nica
ragua), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 237, par. 47 ; Souveraineté sur
Pulau Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan (Indonésie/Malaisie), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2002, p. 645-646, par. 37-38; Ile de Kasikili/Sedudu (Botswana/
Namibie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 1059, par. 18).
58. La Cour examinera tout d’abord le sens ordinaire à attribuer aux
termes de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 dans leur contexte, confor -
mément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne sur le
droit des traités. Le texte de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 éne contient
aucune référence expresse à la délimitation des frontièreés maritimes entre
les espaces générés par les côtes continentales des Etats paérties. A cela
vient s’ajouter l’absence d’informations que l’on pourrait sé’attendre à
trouver dans un traité délimitant une frontière maritime, à ésavoir des
coordonnées précises ou des documents cartographiques. La déclaration
de Santiago de 1952 contient néanmoins (en son paragraphe IV) certains
éléments pertinents pour la question de la délimitation maritimée (voir
le paragraphe 60 ci-dessous).
59. La Cour note que, au paragraphe II, les Etats parties déclarent
«fonde[r] leur politique internationale maritime sur la souveraineté eét la
juridiction exclusives qu’a chacun d’eux sur la mer qui baigne lesé côtes de
son pays jusqu’à 200 milles marins au moins à partir desdites côtes». Cette
disposition ne fait qu’exprimer une revendication vers le large, sansé réfé -
rence aucune à la nécessité de déterminer les limites latéérales des espaces
maritimes de chacun des Etats parties. Le paragraphe III stipule que « [l]a
juridiction et la souveraineté exclusives sur la zone maritime indiquéée
entraînent également souveraineté et juridiction exclusives sur le sol et le
sous-sol de ladite zone ». Cette référence à la juridiction et à la souverai -
neté n’exige pas nécessairement que la délimitation ait dééjà été effectuée.
Le paragraphe VI exprime l’intention des Etats parties d’établir à l’avéenir,
par voie d’accord, les normes générales de réglementation et de proteéction
applicables dans leurs zones maritimes respectives. En conséquence, méême
si la mention de l’étendue des zones revendiquées et de l’exéercice de la
juridiction et de la souveraineté semble indiquer que les Etats parties
n’ignoraient pas l’existence de questions de délimitation géénérale, la Cour
conclut que ni le paragraphe II ni le paragraphe III ne font expressément
référence aux limites latérales des zones maritimes de 200 milles marins
proclamées et que l’emploi des termes de juridiction et de souveraéineté ne
supposait pas nécessairement l’établissement de telles limites.é
29
5 CIJ1057.indb 55 1/12/14 08:59 29 maritime dispute (judégment)
60. The Court turns now to paragraph IV of the 1952 Santiago Dec-
laration. The first sentence of paragraph IV specifies that the proclaimed
200-nautical-mile maritime zones apply also in the case of island territo -
ries. The second sentence of that paragraph addresses the situation where
an island or group of islands of one State party is located less than
200 nautical miles from the general maritime zone of another State party.
In this situation, the limit of the respective zones shall be the paralléel at
the point at which the land frontier of the State concerned reaches the
sea. The Court observes that this provision, the only one in the 1952 San -
tiago Declaration making any reference to the limits of the States parties’
maritime zones, is silent regarding the lateral limits of the maritime zéones
which are not derived from island territories and which do not abut themé.
61. The Court is not convinced by Chile’s argument that paragraph IV
can be understood solely if it is considered to delimit not only insularé
maritime zones but also the entirety of the general maritime zones of thée
States parties. The ordinary meaning of paragraph IV reveals a particular
interest in the maritime zones of islands which may be relevant even if éa
general maritime zone has not yet been established. In effect, it appeéars
that the States parties intended to resolve a specific issue which couéld
obviously create possible future tension between them by agreeing that
the parallel would limit insular zones.
62. In light of the foregoing, the Court concludes that the ordinary
meaning of paragraph IV, read in its context, goes no further than estab -
lishing the Parties’ agreement concerning the limits between certain éinsu-
lar maritime zones and those zones generated by the continental coasts
which abut such insular maritime zones.
63. The Court now turns to consider the object and purpose of the
1952 Santiago Declaration. It recalls that both Parties state such object
and purpose narrowly: Peru argues that the Declaration is primarily con -
cerned with addressing issues of large-scale whaling, whereas Chile argues
that it can be most specifically understood as concerned with identifying
the perimeters of the maritime zone of each State party. The Court
observes that the Preamble of the 1952 Santiago Declaration focuses on
the conservation and protection of the necessary natural resources for téhe
subsistence and economic development of the peoples of Chile, Ecuador
and Peru, through the extension of the maritime zones adjacent to their
coasts.
64. The Court further considers that it is not necessary for it to address
the existence of small islands located close to the coast in the region éof the
Peru-Chile land boundary. The case file demonstrates that the issue of
insular zones in the context of the 1952 Santiago Declaration arose from
a concern expressed by Ecuador. It is equally clear from the case fileé that
the small islands do not appear to have been of concern to the Parties. éAs
stated by Chile in its Rejoinder, referring to these small islands, “é[n]one of
30
5 CIJ1057.indb 56 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 29
60. La Cour examinera à présent le paragraphe IV de la déclaration de
Santiago de 1952. La première phrase de ce paragraphe précise que les
zones de 200 milles marins revendiquées s’étendent également autour des
territoires insulaires. La seconde traite de la situation où une îéle ou un
groupe d’îles appartenant à l’un des Etats parties sont situéés à moins de
200 milles marins de la zone maritime générale d’un autre Etat partéie. En
pareil cas, la limite séparant les zones maritimes des Etats en cause est
constituée par le parallèle passant par le point où aboutit en émer leur
frontière terrestre. La Cour observe que cette disposition, la seule éde la
déclaration de Santiago de 1952 où il soit question des limites des zones
maritimes des Etats parties, est muette en ce qui concerne les limites léaté -
rales de celles qui ne sont pas générées par des territoires inésulaires et qui
ne leur sont pas contiguës.
61. La Cour n’est pas convaincue par l’argument du Chili selon lequel é
le paragraphe IV ne peut être compris que s’il est considéré comme délié -
mitant non seulement les zones maritimes générées par les îlées, mais éga -
lement l’intégralité de la zone maritime générale des Etaéts parties. Le sens
ordinaire du paragraphe IV révèle une préoccupation particulière relative
aux zones maritimes générées par les îles, préoccupation éà prendre en
compte même si la zone maritime générale n’a pas encore éété déterminée.
Il semble donc bien que les Etats parties aient entendu résoudre une diffi -
culté spécifique manifestement susceptible de créer, à l’éavenir, des ten -
sions entre eux, en convenant à cette fin que le parallèle limitéerait les
zones générées par les îles.
62. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut que le para -
graphe IV, lu selon son sens ordinaire et dans son contexte, ne fait qu’ééta -
blir l’accord des Parties concernant les limites entre certaines zoneés
maritimes générées par des îles et celles générées épar les côtes continen -
tales qui sont contiguës à ces zones maritimes insulaires.
63. La Cour examinera à présent l’objet et le but de la déclaratéion de
Santiago de 1952. Elle rappelle à cet égard que les deux Parties les défi -
nissent de manière restrictive. Le Pérou avance que la déclaratéion visait
essentiellement à faire face aux problèmes engendrés par la chaésse à la
baleine à grande échelle, tandis que le Chili soutient qu’elle épeut être plus
précisément comprise comme portant sur la détermination du péérimètre de
la zone maritime revendiquée par chacun des Etats parties. La Cour reélève
que le préambule de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 est axé sur la conser -
vation et la protection des ressources naturelles nécessaires à la subsistance
et au développement économique des peuples du Chili, de l’Equatéeur et du
Pérou, par l’extension des espaces maritimes adjacents à leurs écôtes.
64. La Cour considère en outre qu’il n’est pas nécessaire qu’éelle s’at -
tarde sur la présence d’îlots à proximité de la côte, édans la région de la
frontière terrestre entre le Pérou et le Chili. Le dossier démontre que la
question des zones insulaires, dans le contexte de la déclaration de éSan -
tiago de 1952, est née des inquiétudes exprimées par l’Equatéeur. Il ressort
également du dossier que le Pérou et le Chili ne semblent pas s’être préoc -
cupés de ces îlots. Comme le Chili l’a indiqué dans sa dupliéque, faisant
30
5 CIJ1057.indb 57 1/12/14 08:59 30 maritime dispute (judégment)
them was mentioned in the negotiating record related to the 1952 San-
tiago Declaration . . . The only islands that were mentioned in the con -
text of the Santiago Declaration were Ecuador’s Galápagos Islands.” éPeru
did not contest this.
65. The Court recalls Chile’s argument, based on Article 31, para -
graph 2 (a), of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, that the
minutes of the 1952 Conference constitute an “agreement relating to the
treaty which was made between all the parties in connection with the coné -
clusion of the treaty”. The Court considers that the minutes of the
1952 Conference summarize the discussions leading to the adoption of
the 1952 Santiago Declaration, rather than record an agreement of the
negotiating States. Thus, they are more appropriately characterized as
travaux préparatoires which constitute supplementary means of interpre -
tation within the meaning of Article 32 of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties.
66. In light of the above, the Court does not need, in principle, to
resort to supplementary means of interpretation, such as the travaux
préparatoires of the 1952 Santiago Declaration and the circumstances of
its conclusion, to determine the meaning of that Declaration. However, aés
in other cases (see, for example, Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau
Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 653,
para. 53 ; Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar
and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 21, para. 40 ; Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 27, para. 55), the
Court has considered the relevant material, which confirms the above
interpretation of the 1952 Santiago Declaration.
67. Chile’s original proposal presented to the 1952 Conference pro -
vided as follows :
“The zone indicated comprises all waters within the perimeter
formed by the coasts of each country and a mathematical parallel
projected into the sea to 200 nautical miles away from the mainland,
along the coastal fringe.
In the case of island territories, the zone of 200 nautical miles will
apply all around the island or island group.
If an island or group of islands belonging to one of the countries
making the declaration is situated less than 200 nautical miles from
the general maritime zone belonging to another of those countries,
according to what has been established in the first paragraph of this
article, the maritime zone of the said island or group of islands shall é
be limited, in the corresponding part, to the distance that separates it
from the maritime zone of the other State or country.”
The Court notes that this original Chilean proposal appears intended to é
effect a general delimitation of the maritime zones along lateral lineés.
However, this proposal was not adopted.
31
5 CIJ1057.indb 58 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 30
référence à ces îlots: «[a]ucun d’entre eux n’a été évoqué dans les comptes
rendus des négociations ayant abouti à la déclaration de Santiaégo
de 1952 … Les seules îles mentionnées dans le contexte de cette décléara -
tion sont les îles équatoriennes des Galápagos.» Le Pérou n’a pas contesté
ce point.
65. La Cour rappelle que, selon le Chili, le procès-verbal de la conféé -
rence de 1952 constitue, aux termes de l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 2 de
l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités, un « accord
ayant rapport au traité et … intervenu entre toutes les parties à l’occasion
de la conclusion du traité». La Cour estime que ledit procès-verbal résume
les discussions ayant abouti à l’adoption de la déclaration de éSantiago de
1952, davantage qu’il ne constate un accord intervenu entre les Etats
ayant participé à la négociation. Par conséquent, il convienét de le regar -
der comme relevant des travaux préparatoires, qui constituent des moyéens
complémentaires d’interprétation au sens de l’article 32 de la convention
de Vienne sur le droit des traités.
66. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, la Cour n’a pas, en principe, beésoin
de recourir à des moyens complémentaires d’interprétation, téels que les
travaux préparatoires de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 et les circons -
tances dans lesquelles elle a été conclue, pour en déterminer le sens.
Cependant, comme dans d’autres affaires (voir, par exemple, Souveraineté
sur Pulau Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan (Indonésie/Malaisie), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2002, p. 653, par. 53; Délimitation maritime et questions territoriales
entre Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahreïn), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 21, par. 40 ; Différend territorial (Jamahiriya arabe
libyenne/Tchad), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1994, p. 27, par. 55), la Cour a exa -
miné les éléments en question, qui confirment l’interprétation qu’elle a don -
née ci-dessus de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952.
67. La proposition initialement présentée par le Chili lors de la conféé -
rence de 1952 était libellée comme suit :
«La zone indiquée comprend l’ensemble des eaux se trouvant à
l’intérieur du périmètre formé par la côte de chacun dées pays et une
parallèle mathématique projetée en mer à 200 milles marins du conti -
nent, le long de la frange côtière.
S’agissant d’un territoire insulaire, la zone de 200 milles marins
s’étendra autour de l’île ou du groupe d’îles.
Si une île ou un groupe d’îles appartenant à l’un des payés signa -
taires de la présente Déclaration se trouve à moins de 200 milles
marins de la zone maritime générale relevant, en conformité aveéc le
premier paragraphe du présent article, de la juridiction d’un autrée
d’entre eux, la zone maritime engendrée par l’île ou le grouépe d’îles
en question sera limitée, dans la portion en cause, à la distance qui la
sépare de la zone maritime de l’autre Etat ou pays. »
La Cour remarque que cette proposition initiale du Chili semblait desti -
née à opérer une délimitation générale des zones maritéimes suivant des
limites latérales. Toutefois, cette proposition ne fut pas adoptéeé.
31
5 CIJ1057.indb 59 1/12/14 08:59 31 maritime dispute (judégment)
68. Further, the minutes of the 1952 Conference indicate that the dele-
gate for Ecuador :
“observed that it would be advisable to provide more clarity to Arti -
cle 3 [which became paragraph IV of the final text of the 1952 San-
tiago Declaration], in order to avoid any error in the interpretation
of the interference zone in the case of islands, and suggested that the é
declaration be drafted on the basis that the boundary line of the juris -
dictional zone of each country be the respective parallel from the
point at which the frontier of the countries touches or reaches the
sea”.
According to the minutes, this proposition met with the agreement of allé
of the delegates.
Ecuador’s intervention, with which the Parties agreed, is limited in éits
concern to clarification “in the case of islands”. Thus the Courét is of the
view that it can be understood as saying no more than that which is
already stated in the final text of paragraph IV. The Court considers from
the foregoing that the travaux préparatoires confirm its conclusion that
the 1952 Santiago Declaration did not effect a general maritime delimita -
tion.
69. Nevertheless, various factors mentioned in the preceding para -
graphs, such as the original Chilean proposal and the use of the paralleél
as the limit of the maritime zone of an island of one State party locateéd
less than 200 nautical miles from the general maritime zone of another
State party, suggest that there might have been some sort of shared
understanding among the States parties of a more general nature con -
cerning their maritime boundaries. The Court will return to this matter
later.
70. The Court has concluded, contrary to Chile’s submissions, that
Chile and Peru did not, by adopting the 1952 Santiago Declaration, agree
to the establishment of a lateral maritime boundary between them along
the line of latitude running into the Pacific Ocean from the seaward ter -
minus of their land boundary. However, in support of its claim that thaté
line constitutes the maritime boundary, Chile also invokes agreements
and arrangements which it signed later with Ecuador and Peru, and with
Peru alone.
3. The Various 1954 Agreements
71. Among the agreements adopted in 1954, Chile emphasizes, in par -
ticular, the Complementary Convention to the 1952 Santiago Declaration
and the Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement. It puts the meetings
that led to those agreements and the agreements themselves in the contexét
of the challenges which six maritime powers had made to the 1952 San -
tiago Declaration in the period running from August to late October 1954
and of the planned whale hunting by a fleet operating under the Panamaé -
nian flag.
32
5 CIJ1057.indb 60 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 31
68. En outre, le procès-verbal de la conférence de 1952 indique que le
délégué de l’Equateur avait alors fait observer ce qui suit :
«[I]l serait souhaitable de clarifier l’article 3 [devenu le para -
graphe IV du texte final de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952] afin
d’éviter toute erreur d’interprétation concernant la zone deé chevau -
chement en présence d’îles, et [il est proposé] que la dééclaration pose
en principe que la ligne frontière délimitant l’espace maritimeé de cha -
cun des pays corresponde au parallèle passant par le point où abouétit
en mer la frontière terrestre le séparant des autres. »
Le procès-verbal ajoute que cette proposition a recueilli l’assentéiment de
tous les délégués.
Le souci de clarification exprimé par l’Equateur, auquel les Paréties se
sont ralliées, étant limité à la « présence d’îles », la Cour considère que
cette intervention peut être interprétée comme n’indiquant rien de plus
que ce qui figure déjà dans le texte final du paragraphe IV. Au vu de ce
qui précède, elle estime que les travaux préparatoires confirément la
conclusion selon laquelle la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 n’a pas opéré
de délimitation maritime générale.
69. Cela dit, divers facteurs mentionnés aux paragraphes précédentsé,
comme la proposition initiale du Chili et l’utilisation du parallèéle comme
limite de la zone maritime générée par une île appartenant àé l’un des Etats
parties et située à moins de 200 milles marins de la zone maritime géné -
rale d’un autre Etat partie, laissent supposer que les Etats parties éont pu,
dans une certaine mesure, partager une manière commune et plus généé -
rale d’envisager la question de leurs frontières maritimes. La Couér revien-
dra sur cette question plus loin.
70. La Cour a conclu que, contrairement à ce que soutient le Chili, ce
dernier et le Pérou n’étaient pas convenus, en signant la dééclaration de
Santiago de 1952, d’établir entre eux une frontière maritime latérale suéi -
vant vers le large le parallèle passant par le point terminal de leur fron -
tière terrestre. Toutefois, pour soutenir que cette ligne constitue léa
frontière maritime, le Chili invoque également les accords et les éarrange -
ments qu’il a signés ultérieurement avec, d’une part, l’Equateur et le
Pérou, et, d’autre part, le seul Pérou.
3. Les divers accords de 1954
71. Parmi les accords adoptés en 1954, le Chili signale en particulier la
convention complémentaire à la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 éet l’accord
relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale. Il replace les rencontres qui y
ont donné lieu, ainsi que les accords eux-mêmes, dans le contexte édes contes -
tations que six puissances maritimes avaient élevées à l’encontre de la dééc -la
ration de Santiago de 1952 au cours de la période allant du mois d’août à la
fin du mois d’octobre 1954, ainsi que d’un projet de chasse à la baleine dont
l’exécution avait été confiée à une flotte opéréant sous pavillon panaméen.
32
5 CIJ1057.indb 61 1/12/14 08:59 32 maritime dispute (judégment)
72. The meeting of the CPPS, preparatory to the Inter-State confer -
ence of December 1954, was held between 4 and 8 October 1954. The pro-
visional agenda items correspond to five of the six agreements which wéere
drafted and adopted at the December Inter-State Conference : the Com -
plementary Convention to the 1952 Santiago Declaration, the Conven -
tion on the System of Sanctions, the Agreement on the Annual Meeting
of the CPPS, the Convention on Supervision and Control, and the Con -
vention on the Granting of Permits for the Exploitation of the Resourcesé
of the South Pacific.
73. The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement also resulted
from the meetings that took place in 1954. In addition to considering thée
matters listed on the provisional agenda described above, the October 1954
meeting of the CPPS also considered a proposal by the Delegations of Ecuéa -
dor and Peru to establish a “neutral zone . . . on either side of the parallel
which passes through the point of the coast that signals the boundary
between the two countries”. The Permanent Commission approved the proé -
posal unanimously “and, consequently, entrusted its Secretariat-General to
transmit this recommendation to the signatory countries so that they puté
into practice this norm of tolerance on fishing activities”. As a céonsequence,
at the inaugural session of “The Second Conference on the Exploitatioén and
Conservation of the Marine Resources of the South Pacific”, the proposed
Agreement appeared in the agenda as the last of the six agreements to be
considered and signed in December 1954. The draft text relating to the pro -
posal to establish a “neutral zone” along the parallel was then améended in
certain respects. The term “neutral zone” was replaced with the teérm “spe -
cial maritime frontier zone” and the reference to “the parallel whéich passes
through the point of the coast that signals the boundary between the twoé
countries” was replaced with “the parallel which constitutes the méaritime
boundary between the two countries”. This is the language that appearés in
the first paragraph of the final text of the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier
Zone Agreement, which was adopted along with the other five agreementsé
referred to in the preceding paragraph. All of the agreements included aé
standard clause, added late in the drafting process without any explanation
recorded in the minutes. According to this clause, the provisions contaiéned
in the agreements were “deemed to be an integral and supplementary paért”
of the resolutions and agreements adopted in 1952 and were “not in anéy way
to abrogate” them. Of these six agreements only the 1954 Complementary
Convention and the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement were
given any real attention by the Parties in the course of these proceedinégs,
except for brief references by Chile to the Supervision and Control Convéen -
tion (see paragraph 78 below). The Court notes that the 1954 Special Mar-i
time Frontier Zone Agreement is still in force.
A. The Complementary Convention to the 1952 Santiago Declaration
74. According to Chile, “the main instrument” prepared at the
1954 Inter-State Conference was the Complementary Convention, “[t]he
33
5 CIJ1057.indb 62 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 32
72. Préalablement à la conférence interétatique de décembre 1954, la
CPPS a tenu une session du 4 au 8 octobre 1954. Aux points figurant à
l’ordre du jour provisoire de celle-ci correspondent cinq des six accéords
qui ont été rédigés et adoptés à la conférence inteérétatique: la convention
complémentaire à la déclaration de Santiago de 1952, la conventéion sur le
système de sanctions, la convention sur l’assemblée annuelle de la CPPS,
la convention relative aux mesures de surveillance et de contrôle, eté la
convention sur l’octroi de permis pour l’exploitation des ressources du
Pacifique Sud.
73. L’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale est
lui aussi le fruit des réunions de 1954. Outre les points mentionnés plus
haut qui figuraient à l’ordre du jour, a également été examiénée à la réu -
nion de la CPPS d’octobre 1954 une proposition présentée par les déléga -
tions de l’Equateur et du Pérou en vue d’établir une « zone neutre... de
part et d’autre du parallèle passant par le point sur la côte qéui marque la
frontière entre les deux pays ». La Commission permanente a approuvé la
proposition à l’unanimité et a, « en conséquence, confié à son secrétaire
général le soin de transmettre sa recommandation aux Etats signataéires
de sorte qu’ils mettent en pratique cette norme de tolérance conceérnant
les activités de pêche ». Lors de la séance inaugurale de « la deuxième
conférence sur l’exploitation et la conservation des ressources maéritimes
du Pacifique Sud », le projet figurait donc à l’ordre du jour, au dernier
rang des six accords soumis à examen et à signature en décembreé 1954. Le
texte proposant l’établissement de cette « zone neutre » le long du paral -
lèle a été amendé à certains égards. Ainsi, l’expreéssion « zone neutre » a
été remplacée par «zone frontière maritime spéciale», et la formule «paral -
lèle passant par le point sur la côte qui marque la frontière entre lesé deux
pays», par « parallèle qui constitue la frontière maritime entre les deux
pays». C’est ainsi qu’est libellé le premier paragraphe du texte définitif de
l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale, qui a éété
adopté avec les cinq autres accords mentionnés au paragraphe précédent.
Tous les accords contenaient une clause type, ajoutée tardivement au é
cours du processus de rédaction et sans autre explication consignéée au
procès-verbal, qui stipulait que leurs dispositions étaient « réputées faire
partie intégrante et complémentaire » des résolutions et accords adoptés
en 1952 et ne les « abroger en aucun cas ». Parmi ces six accords, seuls la
convention complémentaire et l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone spéciale
ont, au cours de la présente procédure, véritablement retenu l’éattention
des Parties, à l’exception de brèves références faites paér le Chili à la
convention relative aux mesures de surveillance et de contrôle (voiré le
paragraphe 78 ci-dessous). La Cour note que l’accord de 1954 relatif à
une zone frontière maritime spéciale est encore en vigueur.
A. La convention complémentaire à la déclaration de Santiago de 19▯52
74. Selon le Chili, « le principal instrument » élaboré lors de la confé -
rence interétatique de 1954 était la convention complémentaire, « qui
33
5 CIJ1057.indb 63 1/12/14 08:59 33 maritime dispute (judégment)
primary purpose [of which] was to reassert the claim of sovereignty and é
jurisdiction that had been made two years earlier in Santiago and to
defend jointly the claim against protests by third States”. It quotes its
Foreign Minister speaking at the inaugural session of the 1954 CPPS
Meeting :
“The right to proclaim our sovereignty over the sea zone that
extends to two hundred miles from the coast is thus undeniable and
inalienable. We gather now to reaffirm our decision to defend, what -
ever the cost, this sovereignty and to exercise it in accordance with
the high national interests of the signatory countries to the Declara -
tion.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
We strongly believe that, little by little, the legal statement that hasé
been formulated by our countries into the 1952 Agreement [the San -
tiago Declaration] will find its place in international law until it is
accepted by all Governments that wish to preserve, for mankind,
resources that today are ruthlessly destroyed by the unregulated exer -
cise of exploitative activities that pursue diminished individual inter -
ests and not collective needs.”
75. Peru similarly contends that the purpose of the 1954 Complemen -
tary Convention was to reinforce regional solidarity in the face of oppoés- i
tion from third States to the 200-nautical-mile claim. It observes that in
1954, as in 1952, the primary focus of the three States was on maintainiéng
a united front towards third States, “rather than upon the development of
an internal legal régime defining their rights inter se”. It also contends
that the 1954 instruments were adopted in the context of regional solidar -
ity vis-à-vis third States and that they were essentially an integral part of
the agreements and resolutions adopted in 1952. The Inter-State Confer -
ence was in fact held less than a month after the Peruvian Navy, with thée
co-operation of its air force, had seized vessels of the Onassis whaling
fleet, under the Panamanian flag, more than 100 nautical miles off shore
(for extracts from the Peruvian judgment imposing fines see American
Journal of International Law, 1955, Vol. 49, p. 575). Peru notes that when
it rejected a United Kingdom protest against the seizure of the Onassis é
vessels, the Chilean Foreign Minister sent a congratulatory message to his
Peruvian counterpart — according to Peru this was “an indication of the
regional solidarity which the zone embodied”. In its Reply, Peru recaélls
Chile’s characterization in its Counter-Memorial of the 1954 Com-
plementary Convention as “the main instrument” prepared at the
1954 Inter-State Conference.
76. The Parties also refer to the agreed responses which they made,
after careful preparation in the first part of 1955, to the protests méade by
maritime powers against the 1952 Santiago Declaration. Those responses
were made in accordance with the spirit of the Complementary Conven -
34
5 CIJ1057.indb 64 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 33
avait pour principal objectif de réaffirmer la revendication de souvéerai -
neté et de juridiction formulée deux ans auparavant à Santiago éet d’en
assurer la défense conjointe contre les protestations d’Etats tierés ». Il cite
son ministre des relations extérieures, prenant la parole à la sééance inau -
gurale de la session de 1954 de la CPPS :
«Le droit de proclamer notre souveraineté sur la zone maritime
qui s’étend sur une distance de deux cents milles marins à partir de la
côte est donc indéniable et inaliénable. Si nous sommes ici rééunis,
c’est pour réaffirmer notre décision de défendre à tout prix cette sou -
veraineté et de l’exercer conformément aux intérêts natioénaux supé -
rieurs des pays signataires de la déclaration.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nous sommes fermement convaincus que le principe de droit que
nous avons énoncé dans l’accord de 1952 [la déclaration de Santiago]
trouvera progressivement sa place en droit international et finira paré
être accepté par tous les gouvernements qui souhaitent préserveér,
pour l’humanité, les ressources qui sont aujourd’hui impitoyablement
détruites par des activités d’exploitation sauvage répondanté à des
intérêts individuels de portée limitée et non à ceux de léa collectivité.»
75. Le Pérou affirme lui aussi que l’objectif de la convention compléé -
mentaire de 1954 était de renforcer la solidarité régionale face à l’éopposi-
tion exprimée par des Etats tiers à l’égard de la revendicatéion de la zone
de 200 milles marins. Il fait remarquer que, en 1954, comme en 1952, les
trois Etats tenaient avant tout à faire front commun à l’endroiét des autres
Etats, « et non à mettre au point entre eux un régime définissant leurés
droits réciproques ». Il avance en outre que les textes adoptés en 1954
l’ont été dans le cadre de la solidarité régionale face aéux Etats tiers et
qu’ils faisaient pour l’essentiel partie intégrante des accords et résolutions
adoptés en 1952. La conférence interétatique s’est en fait tenue moins
d’un mois après que la marine péruvienne, avec l’aide de sesé forces
aériennes, eut immobilisé des navires de la flotte baleinièreé Onassis, qui
battait pavillon panaméen, à plus de 100 milles marins des côtes (pour
des extraits en anglais du jugement péruvien imposant des amendes, voéir
American Journal of International Law, 1955, vol. 49, p. 575). Le Pérou
fait observer que, lorsqu’il a rejeté la protestation du Royaume-Uéni
contre l’immobilisation des navires Onassis, le ministre chilien des érela -
tions extérieures a adressé un message de félicitations à son homologue
péruvien, ce qui, selon le Pérou, constituait un « témoignage de la solida -
rité régionale dont la zone était l’incarnation ». Dans sa réplique, le Pérou
rappelle par ailleurs que le Chili, dans son contre-mémoire, préseénte la
convention complémentaire de 1954 comme « le principal instrument »
élaboré lors de la conférence interétatique de 1954.
76. Les Parties font également référence aux réponses que, aprèés une
longue préparation dans les premiers mois de 1955, elles ont décidé d’un
commun accord de faire aux protestations élevées par certaines puiés -
sances maritimes contre la déclaration de Santiago de 1952. Ces réactions
34
5 CIJ1057.indb 65 1/12/14 08:59 34 maritime dispute (judégment)
tion even though Chile was not then or later a party to it. Similar co-
ordinated action was taken in May 1955 in response to related proposals
made by the United States of America.
*
77. The Court observes that it is common ground that the proposed
Complementary Convention was the main instrument addressed by Chile,
Ecuador and Peru as they prepared for the CPPS meeting and the
Inter-State Conference in Lima in the final months of 1954. Given the
challenges being made by several States to the 1952 Santiago Declaration,
the primary purpose of that Convention was to assert, particularly againést
the major maritime powers, their claim of sovereignty and jurisdiction
made jointly in 1952. It was also designed to help prepare their common é
defence of the claim against the protests by those States, which was theé
subject-matter of the second agenda item of the 1954 Inter-State Confer -
ence. It does not follow, however, that the “primary purpose” was éthe
sole purpose or even less that the primary purpose determined the sole
outcome of the 1954 meetings and the Inter-State Conference.
B. The Agreement relating to Measures of Supervision and Control
of the Maritime Zones of the Signatory Countries
78. Chile seeks support from another of the 1954 Agreements, the
Agreement relating to Measures of Supervision and Control of the Mari -
time Zones of the Signatory Countries. It quotes the first and second é
articles :
“First,
It shall be the function of each signatory country to supervise and
control the exploitation of the resources in its Maritime Zone by the
use of such organs and means as it considers necessary.
Second,
The supervision and control referred to in Article one shall be exer -
cised by each country exclusively in the waters of its jurisdiction.”
(Emphasis added by Chile.)
Chile contends that the second article proceeds on the basis that each
State’s maritime zone had been delimited. Peru made no reference to
the substance of this Agreement. Chile also referred in this context to the é
1955 Agreement for the Regulation of Permits for Exploitation of
the Resources of the South Pacific (see paragraph 21 above) and to its
1959 Decree providing for that regulation.
79. The Court considers that at this early stage there were at least in
practice distinct maritime zones in which each of the three States mighté,
in terms of the 1952 Santiago Declaration, take action as indeed was
35
5 CIJ1057.indb 66 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 34
s’inspiraient de la convention complémentaire de 1954, même si le Chili
n’y était pas partie à l’époque et ne devait jamais le deévenir. De même,
une réaction commune a été adoptée en mai 1955 à la suite de éproposi -
tions connexes émanant des Etats-Unis d’Amérique.
*
77. De l’avis de la Cour, il est bien établi que le projet de conventiéon
complémentaire était le principal texte auquel s’intéressaieént le Chili,
l’Equateur et le Pérou à la veille de la session de la CPPS et éde la confé -
rence interétatique de Lima, dans les derniers mois de 1954. Etant donné
les protestations élevées par plusieurs Etats à l’encontre de la déclaration
de Santiago de 1952, l’objectif premier de cette convention consistaiét à
affirmer, en particulier à l’endroit des principales puissances méaritimes, la
revendication de souveraineté et de juridiction faite conjointement
en 1952. Elle visait également à aider à la préparation d’unée défense com -
mune de cette revendication à l’encontre des protestations de ces éEtats, ce
qui constituait l’objet du deuxième point à l’ordre du jour de la confé -
rence interétatique de 1954. Il ne s’ensuit pas, toutefois, que l’é« objectif
premier» était le seul, et encore moins qu’il ait déterminé le seul résultat
des réunions et de la conférence interétatique de 1954.
B. La convention relative aux mesures de surveillance et de contrôle
dans les espaces maritimes des pays signataires
78. Le Chili tente de s’appuyer sur un autre des accords de 1954, à
savoir la convention relative aux mesures de surveillance et de contrôle
dans les espaces maritimes des pays signataires, dont il cite les deux pére -
miers articles :
«En premier lieu,
Il incombe à chaque pays signataire de surveiller et de contrôler é
l’exploitation des ressources dans son espace maritime au moyen des
organes et des ressources qu’il estimera nécessaires.
En deuxième lieu,
La surveillance et le contrôle visés à l’article premier sont exercés
par chaque pays exclusivement dans les eaux relevant de sa juridic
tion.» (Les italiques sont du Chili.)
Selon le Chili, le deuxième article repose sur le postulat selon lequéel la
zone maritime de chaque Etat avait été délimitée. Le Péroéu, quant à lui,
n’a fait aucune référence au contenu de cet accord. Le Chili reénvoie éga -
lement, à cet égard, à la convention de 1955 sur la réglementation des
permis d’exploitation des ressources du Pacifique Sud (voir paragraphe 21
ci-dessus) et au décret de 1959 relatif à cette réglementation.
79. La Cour considère qu’à cette étape initiale il existait pouré chaque
Etat, du moins en pratique, un espace maritime dans lequel il pouvait, eén
vertu de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952, agir comme l’avait notam -
35
5 CIJ1057.indb 67 1/12/14 08:59 35 maritime dispute (judégment)
exemplified by the action taken by Peru against the Onassis whaling fléeet
shortly before the Lima Conference ; other instances of enforcement by
the two Parties are discussed later. However the Agreements on Supervi -
sion and Control and on the Regulation of Permits give no indication
about the location or nature of boundaries of the zones. On the matter oéf
boundaries, the Court now turns to the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier
Zone Agreement.
C. The Agreement relating to a Special Maritime Frontier Zone
80. The Preamble to the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agree -
ment reads as follows :
“Experience has shown that innocent and inadvertent violations of
the maritime frontier [la frontera marítima] between adjacent States
occur frequently because small vessels manned by crews with insuffi -
cient knowledge of navigation or not equipped with the necessary
instruments have difficulty in determining accurately their position oné
the high seas ;
The application of penalties in such cases always produces ill- feeling
in the fishermen and friction between the countries concerned, which
may affect adversely the spirit of co-operation and unity which should
at all times prevail among the countries signatories to the instruments é
signed at Santiago ; and
It is desirable to avoid the occurrence of such unintentional infringe-
ments, the consequences of which affect principally the fishermen.ӎ
81. The substantive provisions of the Agreement read as follows :
“1. A special zone is hereby established, at a distance of [a partir
de] 12 nautical miles from the coast, extending to a breadth of
10 nautical miles on either side of the parallel which constitutes the
maritime boundary [el límite marítimo] between the two countries.
2. The accidental presence in the said zone of a vessel of either of
the adjacent countries, which is a vessel of the nature described in the
paragraph beginning with the words ‘Experience has shown’ in the
Preamble hereto, shall not be considered to be a violation of the
waters of the maritime zone, though this provision shall not be con -
strued as recognizing any right to engage, with deliberate intent, in
hunting or fishing in the said special zone.
3. Fishing or hunting within the zone of 12 nautical miles from the
coast shall be reserved exclusively to the nationals of each country.ӎ
Article 4 is the standard provision, included in all six of the 1954 Agree -
ments, deeming it to be “an integral and supplementary part” of thée
1952 instruments which it was not in any way to abrogate (see para -
graph 73 above).
36
5 CIJ1057.indb 68 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 35
ment fait le Pérou, peu avant la conférence de Lima, contre la fléotte balei-
nière Onassis ; d’autres exemples de mesures d’exécution prises par les
Parties seront examinés plus loin. Toutefois, la convention relative aux
mesures de surveillance et de contrôle et celle sur la réglementation des
permis ne fournissent aucune indication quant à l’emplacement ou àé la
nature des limites de ces espaces. Sur la question des frontières, laé Cour
examinera à présent l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime
spéciale.
C. L’accord relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale
80. Le préambule de l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière mari -
time spéciale est libellé comme suit :
«Considérant que l’expérience a montré que la frontière maritime
[la frontera marítima] entre des Etats adjacents était fréquemment
violée de manière innocente et par inadvertance parce que les naviéres
de petite taille dont l’équipage ne connaît pas suffisamment léa navi -
gation ou qui ne sont pas équipés des instruments nécessaires oént du
mal à déterminer précisément leur position en haute mer ;
Considérant que l’application de peines en pareils cas crée toué -
jours un malaise chez les pêcheurs et des frictions entre les pays inté -
ressés, ce qui peut nuire à l’esprit de coopération et d’éunité qui
devrait en tout temps régner entre les pays signataires des instru -
ments signés à Santiago ;
Considérant qu’il est souhaitable d’éviter que ne se produiséent de
telles violations involontaires dont les conséquences sont principaleé -
ment ressenties par les pêcheurs. »
81. Les dispositions substantielles de l’accord se lisent comme suit :
«1. Une zone spéciale est créée par le présent accord à une déis -
tance de [a partir de] 12 milles marins de la côte et avec une largeur
de 10 milles marins de part et d’autre du parallèle qui constitue la
frontière maritime [el límite marítimo] entre les deux pays.
2. La présence accidentelle dans cette zone d’un navire [de l’un oéu
l’autre des] pays adjacent[s], du type décrit à l’alinéa édu préambule
du présent accord commençant par les mots « Considérant que l’ex -
périence a montré », ne sera pas considérée comme une violation des
eaux de la zone maritime, cette disposition ne devant toutefois pas
être interprétée comme reconnaissant un droit quelconque de s’éadon -
ner délibérément à la chasse ou à la pêche dans cette ézone spéciale.
3. La pêche et la chasse dans la zone de 12 milles marins à partir de
la côte sont réservées exclusivement aux ressortissants de chaqéue pa» ys.
L’article 4 renferme la clause type, présente dans chacun des six accords
de 1954, aux termes de laquelle les dispositions de l’accord sont répéutées
«faire partie intégrante et complémentaire » des textes de 1952 et ne les
abroger en aucun cas (voir le paragraphe 73 ci-dessus).
36
5 CIJ1057.indb 69 1/12/14 08:59 36 maritime dispute (judégment)
82. According to Chile, the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone
Agreement was “the most relevant instrument adopted at the Decem -
ber 1954 Conference”. Its “basic predicate” was that the three Statées
“already had lateral boundaries, or ‘frontiers’, in place betweéen them”.
Chile continues, citing the Judgment in the case concerning Territorial
Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), that in the 1954 Special Mari -
time Frontier Zone Agreement “the existence of a determined frontier é
was accepted and acted upon” (I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 35, para. 66). It
points out that Article 1 uses the present tense, referring to a maritime
boundary already in existence, and the first recital indicates that ité was
violations of that existing boundary that prompted the Agreement.
83. Peru contends (1) that the Agreement was applicable only to Peru’s
northern maritime border, that is, with Ecuador, and not also to the
southern one, with Chile ; (2) that Chile’s delay in ratifying (in 1967) and
registering (in 2004) the Agreement shows that it did not regard it ofé
major importance in establishing a maritime boundary ; and (3) that the
Agreement had a very special and temporary purpose and that the Parties é
were claiming a limited functional jurisdiction. Peru in its written plead -
ings, in support of its contention that the 1954 Special Maritime Frontiéer
Zone Agreement applied only to its boundary with Ecuador and not to
that with Chile, said that the “rather opaque formula” — the reference to
the parallel in Article 1, introduced on the proposal of Ecuador —
referred to only one parallel between two countries ; it seems clear, Peru
says, that the focus was on the waters between Peru and Ecuador.
84. With regard to Peru’s first argument, Chile in reply points out that
the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement has three States par -
ties and that the ordinary meaning of “the two countries” in Articéle 1 is a
reference to the States on either side of their shared maritime boundaryé.
Chile notes that there is no qualification of the “maritime frontieér” (in the
Preamble), nor is there any suggestion that the term “adjacent States”
refers only to Ecuador and Peru. Chile also points out that in 1962 Perué
complained to Chile about “the frequency with which Chilean fishingé ves -
sels have trespassed into Peruvian waters”, stating that “the Goveérnment
of Peru, taking strongly into account the sense and provisions of ‘thée
Agreement’” wished that the Government of Chile take certain steps par -
ticularly through the competent authorities at the port of Arica. As Chiéle
noted, Peru did not at that stage make any reference to the argument thaét
the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement applied only to its
northern maritime boundary.
85. In the view of the Court, there is nothing at all in the terms of the
1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement which would limit it
37
5 CIJ1057.indb 70 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 36
82. Selon le Chili, l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière mari -
time spéciale est « le plus important des textes adoptés à la conférence de
décembre 1954». Il partait du « postulat» selon lequel il « existait déjà des
limites maritimes latérales ou « frontières» entre les trois Etats ». Le Chili
poursuit en citant l’arrêt rendu par la Cour dans l’affaire déu Différend
territorial (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Tchad) et en exposant que, dans
l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale, les Partieés
«ont reconnu l’existence d’une frontière déterminée et onté agi en consé -
quence » (C.I.J. Recueil 1994, p. 35, par. 66). Il souligne que l’article pre -
mier, rédigé au présent, fait ainsi référence à une fréontière maritime qui
existe déjà et que le premier considérant indique que ce sont dées viola -
tions de cette frontière existante qui sont à l’origine de l’éaccord.
83. Le Pérou soutient : 1) que l’accord n’était applicable qu’à sa fron -
tière maritime septentrionale, c’est-à-dire celle le séparant de l’Equateur,
et non à sa frontière méridionale, c’est-à-dire celle avec le Chili ; 2) que la
ratification (en 1967) et l’enregistrement (en 2004) tardifs de l’accord par
le Chili montrent que celui-ci ne le considérait pas comme particulièére -
ment important, ainsi que l’aurait été un traité établisséant une frontière
maritime; et 3) que l’accord avait un objectif très spécifique et tempo -
raire, les Parties y revendiquant une compétence fonctionnelle limitéée.
Dans ses écritures, le Pérou fait valoir, à l’appui de son aéffirmation selon
laquelle l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale ne
s’appliquait qu’à sa frontière avec l’Equateur et non àé celle avec le Chili,
que la «formule assez opaque» — c’est-à-dire la mention du parallèle que
contient l’article premier, introduite sur la proposition de l’Equateur —
ne faisait référence qu’à un parallèle entre deux pays. Il apparaît claire -
ment, selon le Pérou, que l’accent portait sur les eaux entre lui-émême et
l’Equateur.
84. En ce qui concerne le premier argument du Pérou, le Chili répond
que l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale a étéé
conclu entre trois Etats et que l’expression « les deux pays » employée à
l’article premier visait, dans son sens ordinaire, les deux Etats situés de
part et d’autre de la frontière maritime qu’ils partagent. Il féait valoir que
le sens de l’expression « frontière maritime» (dans le préambule) n’est pas
précisé et que rien ne permet de penser que l’expression «Etats adjacents»
ne devait s’entendre que de l’Equateur et du Pérou. Le Chili faéit égale -
ment observer que, en 1962, le Pérou lui avait fait part de « la fréquence à
laquelle les bateaux de pêche chiliens pénétraient dans les eauéx péru -
viennes», déclarant que « le Gouvernement péruvien, tenant pleinement
compte de l’esprit et de la lettre de « l’accord»», souhaitait que le Gou -
vernement chilien prenne certaines mesures, notamment par l’interméé -
diaire des autorités compétentes du port d’Arica. Comme le Chiléi l’a
signalé, le Pérou n’avait fait, à ce stade, aucune allusion éà l’argument
selon lequel l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière mariétime spéciale
ne s’appliquait qu’à sa frontière maritime septentrionale.
85. Selon la Cour, il n’y a rien dans l’accord de 1954 relatif à unée zone
frontière maritime spéciale qui pourrait limiter la portée de céelui-ci à la
37
5 CIJ1057.indb 71 1/12/14 08:59 37 maritime dispute (judégment)
only to the Ecuador-Peru maritime boundary. Moreover Peru did not in
practice accord it that limited meaning which would preclude its applicaé-
tion to Peru’s southern maritime boundary with Chile. The Court furthéer
notes that the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement was nego -
tiated and signed by the representatives of all three States, both in thée
Commission and at the Inter-State Conference. All three States then pro -
ceeded to ratify it. They included it among the twelve treaties which they
jointly submitted to the United Nations Secretariat for registration in é
1973 (see paragraph 21 above).
*
86. With regard to Peru’s second argument, Chile responds by point -
ing out that delay in ratification is common and contends that of itseélf the
delay in ratification has no consequence for the legal effect of a téreaty
once it has entered into force. Further, it submits that the fact that réegis -
tration of an Agreement is delayed is of no relevance.
87. The Court is of the view that Chile’s delay in ratifying the 1954 Spe-
cial Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement and submitting it for registrationé
does not support Peru’s argument that Chile considered that the Agree -
ment lacked major importance. In any event, this delay has no bearing oné
the scope and effect of the Agreement. Once ratified by Chile the Agéree -
ment became binding on it. In terms of the argument about Chile’s deléay
in submitting the Agreement for registration, the Court recalls that, iné
1973, all three States signatory to the 1952 and 1954 treaties, including
the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, simultaneously sub -
mitted all of them for registration (see paragraphs 20 to 21 above).
88. With regard to Peru’s third argument that the 1954 Special Mari -
time Frontier Zone Agreement had a special and temporary purpose and
that the Parties were claiming a limited functional jurisdiction, Chile’és
central contention is that the “basic predicate” of the Agreement éwas that
the three States “already had lateral boundaries, or ‘frontiers’é, in place
between them” (see paragraph 82 above). The reference in the title of the
Agreement to a Special Maritime Frontier Zone and in the recitals to
violations of the maritime frontier between adjacent States demonstratesé,
Chile contends, that a maritime frontier or boundary already existed
when the three States concluded the Agreement in December 1954. The
granting to small vessels of the benefit of a zone of tolerance was, in terms
of the Preamble, intended to avoid “friction between the countries coén -
cerned, which may affect adversely the spirit of co-operation and unity
which should at all times prevail among the countries signatories to theé
instruments signed at Santiago”. According to Chile, this was an
inter-State problem and “not a problem relating to itinerant fishermen”é.
The States wished to eliminate obstacles to their complete co-operation in
defence of their maritime claims. Chile emphasizes that Article 1, the pri -
38
5 CIJ1057.indb 72 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 37
seule frontière maritime entre l’Equateur et le Pérou. Par ailléeurs, le Pérou
lui-même n’a pas donné à cet accord, en pratique, une signification qui le
rendrait inapplicable à sa frontière maritime méridionale avec éle Chili. La
Cour relève en outre que cet accord a été négocié et signéé par les représen -
tants des trois Etats, que ce soit au sein de la commission ou lors de la
conférence interétatique. Les trois Etats l’ont ensuite ratifié et mis au
nombre des douze traités qu’ils ont soumis conjointement au Secrétariat
de l’Organisation des Nations Unies pour enregistrement en 1973 (voir
le paragraphe 21 ci-dessus).
*
86. En ce qui concerne le deuxième argument du Pérou, le Chili répond
en faisant observer que les retards sont fréquents en matière de réatifica -
tion et affirme que, en lui-même, un tel retard n’a pas d’inciédence sur la
valeur juridique du traité en cause, une fois qu’il est entré eén vigueur. Il
avance en outre que le retard dans l’enregistrement d’un accord esét sans
importance.
87. La Cour est d’avis que le temps mis par le Chili à ratifier l’accord de
1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale puis à le présenter pour
enregistrement ne saurait étayer l’argument du Pérou, selon leqéuel le Chili
considérait cet accord comme présentant peu d’importance. En toéut état
de cause, ce retard est sans incidence sur la portée et les effets de l’accord.
Une fois ratifié par le Chili, l’accord est devenu obligatoire àé son égard.
S’agissant de l’argument lié au retard dans la présentation éde l’accord, par
le Chili, en vue de son enregistrement, la Cour rappelle qu’en 1973 lées
trois Etats ayant signé les traités de 1952 et de 1954, y compris l’accord de
1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale, les ont toéus présentés
simultanément pour enregistrement (voir les paragraphes 20-21 ci-dessus).
88. En ce qui concerne le troisième argument du Pérou, selon lequel,
d’une part, l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale
avait un objectif spécifique et temporaire et, d’autre part, lesé Parties y
revendiquaient une juridiction fonctionnelle limitée, la thèse centrale du
Chili est que l’accord part du « postulat» selon lequel il « existait déjà des
limites maritimes latérales ou « frontières» entre les trois Etats » (voir le
paragraphe 82 ci-dessus). La mention d’une zone frontière maritime spé -
ciale, dans le titre de l’accord, et de violations de la frontièreé maritime
entre Etats adjacents, dans les considérants, démontre selon le Chéili
qu’une frontière maritime existait déjà lorsque les trois Etéats ont conclu
l’accord en décembre 1954. La zone de tolérance dont le bénéfice avait
été, aux termes du préambule, accordé aux navires de petite étaille visait à
éviter les «frictions entre les pays intéressés, lesquelles p[ouvai]ent nuire éà
l’esprit de coopération et d’unité qui dev[ait] en tout tempés régner entre
les pays signataires des instruments signés à Santiago ». Il s’agissait donc,
selon lui, d’un problème concernant « non pas les pêcheurs itinérants »
mais les relations entre les Etats, qui souhaitaient éliminer les obsétacles
susceptibles de les empêcher de coopérer pleinement à la défense de leurs
38
5 CIJ1057.indb 73 1/12/14 08:59 38 maritime dispute (judégment)
mary substantive provision, is in the present tense : the ten-nautical-mile
zones are being created to the north and south of a maritime boundary
which already exists. Article 2, it says, also supports its position. The
“accidental presence” in that zone of the vessels referred to in téhe Agree-
ment is not considered a “violation” of the adjacent State’s maritime
zone. Chile claims that although its ratification of the 1954 Special Mari -
time Frontier Zone Agreement came some time after its signature, the
boundary whose existence was acknowledged and acted upon was already
in place throughout the period leading to its ratification.
89. According to Peru, the aim of the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier
Zone Agreement “was narrow and specific”, establishing a “zonée of toler -
ance” for small and ill-equipped fishing vessels. Defining that zone by
reference to a parallel of latitude was a practical approach for the creéw of
such vessels. The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement did
not have a larger purpose, such as establishing a comprehensive régimée
for the exploitation of fisheries or adding to the content of the 200-nauti -
cal-mile zones or setting out their limits and borders. Peru also maintains
that “the 1954 Agreement was a practical arrangement, of a technical
nature, and of limited geographical scope, not one dealing in any sense é
with political matters”.
90. In the view of the Court, the operative terms and purpose of the
1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement are indeed narrow and
specific. That is not however the matter under consideration by the Coéurt
at this stage. Rather, its focus is on one central issue, namely, the exéis -
tence of a maritime boundary. On that issue the terms of the 1954 Special
Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, especially Article 1 read with the
preambular paragraphs, are clear. They acknowledge in a binding inter -
national agreement that a maritime boundary already exists. The Parties é
did not see any difference in this context between the expression “límite
marítimo” in Article 1 and the expression “frontera marítima” in the Pre -
amble, nor does the Court.
91. The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement does not
indicate when and by what means that boundary was agreed upon. The
Parties’ express acknowledgment of its existence can only reflect a tacit
agreement which they had reached earlier. In this connection, the Court é
has already mentioned that certain elements of the 1947 Proclamations
and the 1952 Santiago Declaration suggested an evolving understanding
between the Parties concerning their maritime boundary (see para -
graphs 43 and 69 above). In an earlier case, the Court, recognizing that
“[t]he establishment of a permanent maritime boundary is a matter of é
grave importance”, underlined that “[e]vidence of a tacit legal agreement
must be compelling” (Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua
and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment,
39
5 CIJ1057.indb 74 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 38
revendications maritimes. Le Chili souligne que l’article premier, qui est
la principale disposition, avait été rédigé au présent eté prévoyait la créa -
tion de zones de dix milles marins au nord et au sud d’une frontière mari -
time existante. Il considère par ailleurs que l’article 2 étaye également
cette position. La « présence accidentelle», dans cette zone, des embarca -
tions visées par l’accord n’était plus à considérer coémme une «violation»
de l’espace maritime de l’Etat adjacent. Le Chili soutient que, si lui-même
n’a ratifié l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontièére maritime spéciale
que quelque temps après sa signature, la frontière dont les Partieés avaient
reconnu l’existence et à laquelle elles ont donné effet étéait déjà en place
pendant toute la période qui a précédé cette ratification.é
89. Selon le Pérou, l’objectif de l’accord de 1954 relatif à uneé zone
frontière maritime spéciale « était étroit et spécifique », et consistait à éta -
blir une « zone de tolérance » pour des bateaux de pêche de petite taille et
mal équipés. Définir cette zone par rapport à un parallèéle de latitude
constituait une solution pratique à l’intention des équipages dée ces navires.
L’accord n’avait pas de but plus ambitieux, comme celui d’étéablir un
régime général pour l’exploitation des pêcheries, de prééciser les attributs
des zones de 200 milles marins ou encore d’en fixer les limites ou les fron -
tières. Le Pérou soutient également que « [l]’accord de 1954 relatif à une
zone frontière maritime spéciale se résumait à un arrangemenét pratique,
de nature technique et de portée géographique limitée, et sans éaucune
incidence politique ».
90. De l’avis de la Cour, les dispositions et l’objectif de l’accoréd de 1954
relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale étaient effectivement étroits
et spécifiques. Telle n’est cependant pas la question que la Couér doit exa -
miner à ce stade; celle-ci doit plutôt s’attacher à un point essentiel, à saévoir
l’existence d’une frontière maritime. Et, sur ce point, la forméulation de
l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale, en particué -
lier celle de l’article premier, considéré à la lumière du préambule, est
claire: elle reconnaît, dans le cadre d’un accord international contraigénant,
qu’une frontière maritime existe déjà. Les Parties n’ayanét pas fait de dis -
tinction dans ce contexte entre l’expression « límite marítimo », qui figure à
l’article premier, d’une part, et, d’autre part, l’expressioén « frontera marí
tima », qui figure au préambule, la Cour n’en fera pas non plus.
91. L’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale
n’indique pas quand ni par quels moyens cette frontière a étéé agréée. La
reconnaissance expresse de son existence par les Parties repose nécesésaire -
ment sur un accord tacite intervenu entre elles auparavant. A cet égaérd, la
Cour a indiqué précédemment que certains éléments des proéclamations
de 1947 et de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 laissent supposer que la
manière dont les Parties envisageaient leur frontière maritime avaéit évo -
lué (voir les paragraphes 43 et 69 ci-dessus). Dans une affaire précédente,
lorsqu’elle a reconnu que « [l]’établissement d’une frontière maritime per -
manente est une question de grande importance », la Cour a souligné que
«[l]es éléments de preuve attestant l’existence d’un accord tacite doivent
être convaincants» (Différend territorial et maritime entre le Nicaragua et
39
5 CIJ1057.indb 75 1/12/14 08:59 39 maritime dispute (judégment)
I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 735, para. 253). In this case, the Court has
before it an Agreement which makes clear that the maritime boundary
along a parallel already existed between the Parties. The 1954 Agreement
is decisive in this respect. That Agreement cements the tacit agreement.é
92. The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement gives no
indication of the nature of the maritime boundary. Nor does it indicate é
its extent, except that its provisions make it clear that the maritime
boundary extends beyond 12 nautical miles from the coast.
*
93. In this context, the Parties referred to an opinion prepared in 1964
by Mr. Raúl Bazán Dávila, Head of the Legal Advisory Office of the
Chilean Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in response to a request from theé
Chilean Boundaries Directorate regarding “the delimitation of the fron -
tier between the Chilean and Peruvian territorial seas”. Having recaléled
the relevant rules of international law, Mr. Bazán examined the question
whether some specific agreement on maritime delimitation existed betweéen
the two States. He believed that it did, but was not able to determine
“when and how this agreement was reached”. Paragraph IV of the
1952 Santiago Declaration was not “an express pact” on the boundary,
but it “assum[ed] that this boundary coincides with the parallel
that passes through the point at which the land frontier reaches the sea”.
It was possible to presume, he continued, that the agreement on the
boundary preceded and conditioned the signing of the 1952 Santiago
Declaration.
94. According to Peru, the fact that such a request was addressed to
the Head of the Legal Advisory Office illustrates that the Chilean Gov -
ernment was unsure about whether there was a pre-existing boundary.
Chile emphasizes Mr. Bazán’s conclusion that the maritime boundary
between the Parties is the parallel which passes through the point whereé
the land boundary reaches the sea. Chile also notes that this was a pub -
licly available document and that Peru would have responded if it had
disagreed with the conclusion the document stated, but did not do so.
95. Nothing in the opinion prepared by Mr. Bazán, or the fact that
such an opinion was requested in the first place, leads the Court to aélter
the conclusion it reached above (see paragraphs 90 to 91), namely, that by
1954 the Parties acknowledged that there existed an agreed maritime
boundary.
4. The 19681969 Lighthouse Arrangements
96. In 1968-1969, the Parties entered into arrangements to build one
lighthouse each, “at the point at which the common border reaches theé
sea, near boundary marker number one”. At this point, the Court
40
5 CIJ1057.indb 76 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 39
le Honduras dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Honduras), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II), p. 735, par. 253). En l’espèce, la Cour a devant
elle un accord qui montre clairement qu’il existait déjà entre éles Parties
une frontière maritime suivant un parallèle. L’accord de 1954 est un élé -
ment décisif à cet égard. Il a pour effet de consacrer l’aéccord tacite en
question.
92. L’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale ne
donne aucune indication de la nature de la frontière maritime. Il n’éen
précise pas davantage l’étendue, mais ses dispositions montrenté claire -
ment qu’elle se poursuit au-delà de 12 milles marins depuis la côte.
*
93. Dans ce contexte, les Parties se sont référées à l’avis réédigé en 1964
par Raúl Bazán Dávila, chef du service juridique du ministère chilien des
relations extérieures, en réponse à une demande de la directioné de la déli -
mitation concernant «la délimitation de la frontière entre les mers territo-
riales respectives du Chili et du Pérou ». Après avoir rappelé les règles de
droit international applicables, M. Bazán abordait la question de savoir
s’il existait un accord spécifique sur la délimitation maritiéme entre les
deux Etats. Il estimait que tel était le cas, sans toutefois être éen mesure de
déterminer « quand et comment cet accord était intervenu ». Il exposait
que le paragraphe IV de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 ne constituait
pas « un pacte exprès » concernant la frontière, mais « suppos[ait] que
cette frontière coïncid[ait] avec le parallèle passant par le péoint où la fron
tière terrestre aboutit en mer ». Il était selon lui permis de présumer que
cet accord sur la frontière avait précédé et conditionné éla signature de la
déclaration de Santiago de 1952.
94. Selon le Pérou, le fait qu’une telle demande d’avis ait étéé adressée
au chef du service juridique montre que le Gouvernement chilien n’éétait
pas convaincu que la frontière maritime existait déjà. Le Chilié souligne la
conclusion formulée par M. Bazán, selon laquelle la frontière maritime
séparant les Parties correspondait au parallèle passant par le poiént où la
frontière terrestre aboutit en mer. Il note également que l’aviés en question
était un document public et que le Pérou y aurait répondu s’éil avait été en
désaccord avec la conclusion qu’il énonçait, ce qu’il n’éa pas fait.
95. La Cour ne trouve rien, que ce soit dans l’avis rédigé par M. Bazán
ou dans le fait qu’un tel avis ait été demandé, qui l’incéite à revenir sur la
conclusion à laquelle elle est parvenue ci-dessus (voir les paragrapéhes 90-91),
à savoir qu’en 1954 les Parties reconnaissaient qu’il existait une frontière
maritime convenue.
4. Les arrangements de 19681969 relatifs aux phares
96. En 1968-1969, les Parties ont conclu des arrangements prévoyant la
construction d’un phare par chacune d’elles, « au point où la frontière
commune aboutit en mer, près de la borne numéro un ». La Cour observe
40
5 CIJ1057.indb 77 1/12/14 08:59 40 maritime dispute (judégment)
observes that on 26 April 1968, following communication between the
Peruvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Chilean chargé d’afféaires
earlier that year, delegates of both Parties signed a document whereby
they undertook the task of carrying out “an on-site study for the installa -
tion of leading marks visible from the sea to materialise the parallel oéf the
maritime frontier originating at Boundary Marker number one (No. 1)”.
That document concluded as follows :
“Finally, given that the parallel which it is intended to materialise is
that which corresponds to the geographical location indicated in the Act
signed in Lima on 1 August 1930 for Boundary Marker No. 1, the Rep -
resentatives suggest that the positions of this pyramid be verified byé a
Joint Commission before the execution of the recommended works.”
97. Chile sees the Parties, in taking this action, as explicitly recording
their understanding that there was a “maritime frontier” between the two
States and that it followed the line of latitude passing through Boundaréy
Marker No. 1 (referred to in Spanish as “Hito No. 1”). Chile states that
the Parties’ delegates “recorded their joint understanding that théeir task
was to signal the existing maritime boundary”. Chile quotes the termsé of
the approval in August 1968 by the Secretary-General of the Peruvian
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the minutes of an earlier meeting that éthe
signalling marks were to materialize (materializar) the parallel of the mar -
itime frontier. Chile further relies on an August 1969 Peruvian Note,
according to which the Mixed Commission entrusted with demarcation
was to verify the position of Boundary Marker No. 1 and to “fix the
definitive location of the two alignment towers that were to signal thée
maritime boundary”. The Joint Report of the Commission recorded its
task in the same terms.
98. In Peru’s view, the beacons erected under these arrangements were
evidently a pragmatic device intended to address the practical problems é
arising from the coastal fishing incidents in the 1960s. It calls atteéntion to
the beacons’ limited range — not more than 15 nautical miles offshore.
Peru argues that they were plainly not intended to establish a maritime é
boundary. Throughout the process, according to Peru, there is no indica -
tion whatsoever that the two States were engaged in the drawing of a
definitive and permanent international boundary, nor did any of the cor -
respondence refer to any pre-existent delimitation agreement. The focus
was consistently, and exclusively, upon the practical task of keeping Peéru -
vian and Chilean fishermen apart and solving a very specific problemé
within the 15-nautical-mile range of the lights.
*
99. The Court is of the opinion that the purpose and geographical
scope of the arrangements were limited, as indeed the Parties recognize.é
41
5 CIJ1057.indb 78 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 40
à ce stade que, le 26 avril 1968, à l’issue d’échanges intervenus plus tôt la
même année entre le ministère péruvien des relations extéérieures et le
chargé d’affaires chilien, les représentants des deux Partiesé ont signé un
document par lequel ils s’engageaient à effectuer «une étude de site en vue
de l’installation de marques d’alignement visibles depuis la mer péour
matérialiser le parallèle constituant la frontière maritime àé partir de la
borne numéro un (n o 1) ».
Le même document s’achevait par cette conclusion :
«Enfin, puisque le parallèle devant être matérialisé est ceélui corres -
pondant à la position géographique mentionnée pour la borne n o 1
er
dans l’acte signé à Lima le 1 août 1930, les représentants suggèrent
qu’une commission mixte vérifie la position de cette pyramide préé-
alablement à l’exécution des travaux qu’ils recommandent. »
97. Selon le Chili, les Parties ont, ce faisant, expressément consigné
qu’elles estimaient qu’une « frontière maritime» existait entre elles et que
celle-ci suivait le parallèle passant par la borne frontière n o 1 (désignée en
o
espagnol par le terme « Hito n 1 »). Il ajoute que les représentants des
Parties ont « consigné qu’ils s’accordaient à penser que leur mission
consistait à signaler la frontière maritime existante ». Il cite les termes que
le secrétaire général du ministère péruvien des relationsé extérieures a
employés en août 1968 lorsqu’il a approuvé le procès-verbal d’une précéé -
dente réunion, selon lequel les repères de signalisation devaient ématériali-
ser (materializar) le parallèle constituant la frontière maritime. Il s’appuie
en outre sur une note péruvienne datant d’août 1969, selon laquelle la
commission mixte chargée de la démarcation allait devoir vérifiéer la posi -
o
tion de la borne n 1 et « fixer l’emplacement définitif des deux phares
devant signaler la frontière maritime ». La mission de la commission est
exposée en termes identiques dans le rapport conjoint de celle-ci.
98. Selon le Pérou, les phares érigés au titre de ces arrangements éconsti -
tuaient manifestement un dispositif pragmatique visant à régler leés difficu -l
tés pratiques associées aux incidents survenus dans les années 1960 en
matière de pêche côtière. Il signale la portée limitéeé de ces phares, laquelle
ne dépassait pas 15 milles marins vers le large, ce qui laisse selon lui suppo -
ser qu’ils ne visaient manifestement pas à établir une frontièére maritime. Il
ajoute que rien dans le déroulement de l’opération n’indiqueé que, à quelque
moment que ce soit, les deux Etats auraient entrepris de délimiter unée fron -
tière internationale définitive et permanente, et la correspondaénce ne fait
état d’aucun traité de limites préexistant. L’accent avaiét été mis de façon
constante et exclusive sur la tâche pratique consistant à éviteér les accro -
chages entre pêcheurs péruviens et chiliens, et à résoudre uén problème très
spécifique dans la limite des 15 milles marins qu’avait la portée des phares.
*
99. La Cour estime que l’objectif et la portée géographique des arréange -
ments étaient limités, comme le reconnaissent d’ailleurs les Paérties. Elle
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5 CIJ1057.indb 79 1/12/14 08:59 41 maritime dispute (judégment)
The Court also observes that the record of the process leading to the
arrangements and the building of the lighthouses does not refer to any
pre-existent delimitation agreement. What is important in the Court’s
view, however, is that the arrangements proceed on the basis that a marié-
time boundary extending along the parallel beyond 12 nautical miles
already exists. Along with the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agree -
ment, the arrangements acknowledge that fact. Also, like that Agreement,é
they do not indicate the extent and nature of that maritime boundary. The
arrangements seek to give effect to it for a specific purpose.
5. The Nature of the Agreed Maritime Boundary
100. As the Court has just said, it is the case that the 1954 Special
Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement refers to the existing boundary for a
particular purpose ; that is also true of the 1968-1969 arrangements for
the lighthouses. The Court must now determine the nature of the mari -
time boundary, the existence of which was acknowledged in the
1954 Agreement, that is, whether it is a single maritime boundary appli -
cable to the water column, the sea-bed and its subsoil, or a boundary
applicable only to the water column.
101. Chile contends that the boundary is an all-purpose one, applying
to the sea-bed and subsoil as well as to the waters above them with rights
to their resources in accordance with customary law as reflected in thée
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Peru sub -
mits that the line to which the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone
Agreement refers is related only to aspects of the policing of coastal fiésh -
eries and facilitating safe shipping and fishing in near-shore areas.
102. The Court is concerned at this stage with the 1954 Special Mari-
time Frontier Zone Agreement only to the extent that it acknowledged
the existence of a maritime boundary. The tacit agreement, acknowledged é
in the 1954 Agreement, must be understood in the context of the
1947 Proclamations and the 1952 Santiago Declaration. These instru -
ments expressed claims to the sea-bed and to waters above the sea-bed
and their resources. In this regard the Parties drew no distinction, at éthat
time or subsequently, between these spaces. The Court concludes that theé
boundary is an all-purpose one.
6. The Extent of the Agreed Maritime Boundary
103. The Court now turns to consider the extent of the agreed mari -
time boundary. It recalls that the purpose of the 1954 Agreement was
narrow and specific (see paragraph 90 above) : it refers to the existing
maritime boundary for a particular purpose, namely to establish a zone
of tolerance for fishing activity operated by small vessels. Consequenétly,
it must be considered that the maritime boundary whose existence it rec -
42
5 CIJ1057.indb 80 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 41
observe également que la documentation relative au processus ayant
conduit à la conclusion des arrangements et à la construction des éphares ne
contient aucune référence à un quelconque traité de limites épréexistant. Ce
que la Cour juge important, toutefois, c’est que les arrangements sont fon-
dés sur la préexistence d’une frontière maritime suivant le éparallèle au-delà
de 12 milles marins. A l’instar de l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone fron -
tière maritime spéciale, ils confirment l’existence d’une ételle frontière mar -i
time, mais, pas plus que cet accord, ils n’en indiquent l’étendéue ou la nature.
Ces arrangements visaient à lui donner effet à une fin spécéifique.
5. La nature de la frontière maritime convenue
100. Comme la Cour vient de le dire, le fait est que l’accord de 1954
relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale mentionne la froéntière exis-
tante à une fin particulière ; il en va de même des arrangements de 1968-
1969 relatifs aux phares. La Cour doit maintenant déterminer la naturée
de la frontière maritime dont l’existence a été reconnue danés l’accord
de 1954, à savoir s’il s’agit d’une frontière maritime uniquée valant pour la
colonne d’eau comme pour les fonds marins et leur sous-sol, ou si ellée
vaut seulement pour la colonne d’eau.
101. Le Chili affirme que la frontière a vocation générale, c’esét-à-dire
qu’elle vaut pour les fonds marins, leur sous-sol et les eaux surjacentes,
ainsi que l’exploitation des ressources y contenues, conformément au
droit coutumier, ainsi qu’il est reflété dans la convention dées Nations Unies
sur le droit de la mer (CNUDM). Le Pérou soutient pour sa part que éla
limite à laquelle l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime
spéciale fait référence ne concerne que certains aspects du maiéntien de
l’ordre dans les zones de pêche côtières, et sert à faciléiter la sécurité du
transport maritime et de la pêche dans les eaux côtières.
102. A ce stade, la Cour ne s’intéressera à l’accord de 1954 relaétif à une
zone frontière maritime spéciale qu’en ce qu’il a reconnu l’existence d’une
frontière maritime. L’accord tacite constaté par l’accord deé 1954 doit être
compris dans le contexte des proclamations de 1947 et de la déclaration
de Santiago de 1952, qui portaient revendication des fonds marins, ainsi
que des eaux surjacentes et de leurs ressources. A cet égard, aucune édis -
tinction n’était faite par les Parties, à l’époque ou paré la suite, entre ces
espaces. La Cour conclut que la frontière maritime a vocation généérale.
6. L’étendue de la frontière maritime convenue
103. La Cour en vient maintenant à la question de l’étendue de la fréon -
tière maritime convenue. Elle rappelle que l’accord de 1954 avait éun
objectif étroit et spécifique (voir le paragraphe 90 ci-dessus) : la frontière
maritime existante y est mentionnée à une fin particulière, àé savoir l’éta -
blissement d’une zone de tolérance pour les activités de pêcéhe pratiquées
au moyen de navires de petite taille. En conséquence, il faut considéérer
42
5 CIJ1057.indb 81 1/12/14 08:59 42 maritime dispute (judégment)
ognizes, along a parallel, necessarily extends at least to the distance éup to
which, at the time considered, such activity took place. That activity iés
one element of the Parties’ relevant practice which the Court will coén -
sider, but it is not the only element warranting consideration. The Courét
will examine other relevant practice of the Parties in the early and
mid-1950s, as well as the wider context including developments in the law
of the sea at that time. It will also assess the practice of the two Paréties
subsequent to 1954. This analysis could contribute to the determination é
of the content of the tacit agreement which the Parties reached concern -
ing the extent of their maritime boundary.
A. Fishing potential and activity
104. The Court will begin with the geography and biology in the area
of the maritime boundary. Peru described Ilo as its principal port alongé
this part of the coast. It is about 120 km north-west of the land bound -
ary. On the Chilean side, the port city of Arica lies 15 km to the south
of the land boundary and Iquique about 200 km further south (see
sketch-map No. 1 : Geographical context, p. 14).
105. Peru, in submissions not challenged by Chile, emphasizes that the
areas lying off the coasts of Peru and Chile are rich in marine resouréces,
pointing out that the area in dispute is located in the Humboldt Current
Large Maritime Ecosystem. That current, according to Peru, supports an
abundance of marine life, with approximately 18 to 20 per cent of the
world’s fish catch coming from this ecosystem. The Peruvian represeénta -
tive at the 1958 United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (para -
graph 106 below) referred to the opinion of a Peruvian expert (writing
in a book published in 1947), according to which the “biological liméit” of
the current was to be found at a distance of 80 to 100 nautical miles from
the shore in the summer, and 200 to 250 nautical miles in the winter.
Peru recalls that it was the “enormous whaling and fishing potentiaél”
of the areas situated off their coasts which led the three States to péroclaim
200-nautical-mile zones in 1952. Industrial fishing is carried out now-
adays at significant levels in southern areas of Peru, notably from thée
ports of Ilo and Matarani: the former is “one of Peru’s main fishing ports
and the most important fishing centre in southern Peru”.
106. Chilean and Peruvian representatives emphasized the richness and
value of the fish stocks as preparations were being made for the first
United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea and at that Conference
itself. In 1956 the Chilean delegate in the Sixth (Legal) Committee ofé the
United Nations General Assembly, declaring that it was tragic to see
large foreign fishing fleets exhausting resources necessary for the éliveli -
hood of coastal populations and expressing the hope that the rules estabé-
lished by the three States, including Ecuador, would be endorsed by
43
5 CIJ1057.indb 82 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 42
que la frontière maritime dont il reconnaît l’existence, suivanét un paral -
lèle, s’étend nécessairement au moins jusqu’à la distaénce de la côte corres-
pondant, à l’époque considérée, aux activités en questéion. Ces activités
constituent l’un des éléments de la pratique des Parties dont léa Cour tien -
dra compte, mais ce n’est pas le seul à devoir être pris en conésidération.
La Cour s’intéressera à d’autres éléments de la pratiqéue suivie par les
Parties au début et au milieu des années 1950, ainsi qu’au contexte plus
large, en particulier l’évolution du droit de la mer à cette éépoque. Elle
examinera également la pratique des Parties après 1954. Cette analéyse
pourrait aider à déterminer la teneur de l’accord tacite intervéenu entre
elles en ce qui concerne l’étendue de leur frontière maritime.
A. Le potentiel et l’activité halieutiques
104. La Cour commencera par examiner les caractéristiques géogra -
phiques et biologiques du secteur de la frontière maritime. Le Pérou
considère Ilo, qui est situé à environ 120 kilomètres au nord-ouest de la
frontière terrestre, comme le port principal de cette portion de la céôte. Du
côté chilien, la ville portuaire d’Arica se trouve à 15 kilomètres au sud de
la frontière terrestre, et Iquique, à quelque 200 kilomètres plus au sud
(voir croquis n o 1: Contexte géographique, p. 14).
105. Le Pérou souligne que les eaux qui baignent les côtes respectives
des Parties sont riches en ressources marines et que la zone litigieuse éfait
partie du vaste écosystème marin du courant de Humboldt, ce que le Chili
ne conteste pas. D’après le Pérou, grâce à ce courant quié permet le déve -
loppement d’une vie marine abondante, cet écosystème fournit enétre 18
et 20 % des prises de poisson mondiales. Le représentant du Pérou à léa
conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer de 1958 (voir le para -
graphe 106 ci-dessous) s’est référé à l’opinion d’un expeért péruvien (tirée
d’un ouvrage publié en 1947), selon laquelle la «limite biologique» du cou -
rant se trouvait à une distance allant, depuis le littoral, de 80 à 100 milles
marins durant l’été, et de 200 à 250 milles marins durant l’hiver.
Le Pérou rappelle que c’est le «potentiel baleinier et halieutique considé -
rable» que présentaient leurs espaces maritimes côtiers qui a amenéé les
trois Etats à revendiquer chacun une zone de 200milles marins en 1952. La
pêche industrielle se pratique de nos jours à une échelle imporétante dans les
régions méridionales du pays, notamment depuis les ports d’Ilo éet de Mata -
rani, le premier étant «l’un des principaux ports de pêche du Pérou … et le
centre d’activité halieutique le plus important du sud du pays».
106. Au cours des préparatifs de la première conférence des Nations Unies
sur le droit de la mer et lors de la conférence elle-même, les repérésentants
chiliens et péruviens ont mis l’accent sur la richesse et la valeuér des stocks
de poissons. En 1956, le représentant chilien à la Sixième Commission
(affaires juridiques) de l’Assemblée générale des Nationés Unies, après avoir
déclaré qu’il était tragique de voir de grandes flottes deé pêche étrangères
épuiser des ressources nécessaires à la subsistance des habitanéts des régions
côtières et exprimé l’espoir que le droit international en véienne à consacrer
43
5 CIJ1057.indb 83 1/12/14 08:59 43 maritime dispute (judégment)
international law, observed that “[t]he distance of 200 miles was explained
by the need to protect all the marine flora and fauna living in the Hum -
boldt Current, as all the various species depended on one another for théeir
existence and have constituted a biological unit which had to be pre -
served”. At the 1958 Conference, the Peruvian representative (who was
the foreign minister at the time of the 1947 Declaration), in supporting
the 200-nautical-mile limit, stated that what the countries had proclaimed
was a biological limit :
“Species such as tunny and barrilete were mostly caught 20 to
80 miles from the coast ; the same anchovetas of the coastal waters
sometimes went 60 or more miles away ; and the cachalot and whales
were usually to be found more than 100 miles off.”
He then continued :
“The requests formulated by Peru met the conditions necessary for
their recognition as legally binding and applicable since first, they
were the expression of principles recognized by law ; secondly, they
had a scientific basis ; and thirdly, they responded to national vital
necessities.”
107. Chile referred the Court to statistics produced by the Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) to demonstrate
the extent of the fishery activities of Chile and Peru in the early 1950s and
later years for the purpose of showing, as Chile saw the matter, the benée-
fits of the 1952 Santiago Declaration to Peru. Those statistics reveal two
facts which the Court sees as helpful in identifying the maritime areas é
with which the Parties were concerned in the period when they acknow-
ledged the existence of their maritime boundary. The first is the relaétively
limited fishing activity by both Chile and Peru in the early 1950s. Iné 1950,
Chile’s catch at about 90,000 tonnes was slightly larger than Peru’s at
74,000 tonnes. In the early 1950s, the Parties’ catches of anchovy were
exceeded by the catch of other species. In 1950, for instance, Peru’sé take
of anchovy was 500 tonnes, while its catch of tuna and bonito was
44,600 tonnes; Chile caught 600 tonnes of anchovy that year, and
3,300 tonnes of tuna and bonito.
Second, in the years leading up to 1954, the Parties’ respective catcéhes
in the Pacific Ocean included large amounts of bonito/barrilete and tuéna.
While it is true that through the 1950s the take of anchovy, especially éby
Peru, increased very rapidly, the catch of the other species continued aét a
high and increasing level. In 1954 the Peruvian catch of tuna and bonitoé
was 65,900 tonnes and of anchovy 43,100 tonnes while Chile caught 5,200
and 1,300 tonnes of those species, respectively.
44
5 CIJ1057.indb 84 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 43
les règles établies par les trois Etats, dont l’Equateur, a fait remarquer que:
«[l]a distance de 200 milles s’explique par la nécessité de protéger l’en -
semble de la flore et de la faune marines qui vivent dans le courant dée
Humboldt, car toutes les espèces dépendent les unes des autres pouér leur
existence et constituent une unité biologique à préserver». A la conférence
de 1958, le représentant péruvien (qui était ministre des relatioéns extérieures
à l’époque de la déclaration de 1947) a déclaré, à l’appui de la revendication
de la zone des 200 milles marins, que la limite proclamée en l’occurrence
par les pays était de nature biologique:
«Les espèces telles que le thon et le barrilete se trouvent à une
distance située entre 20 et 80 milles de la côte ; les mêmes anchovetas
qui vivent à proximité de celle-ci s’en écartent parfois de é60milles ou
davantage, et le cachalot et la baleine ont coutume [de migrer]
au-delà de 100 milles. »
Il ajouta ce qui suit :
«[L]es demandes formulées par le Pérou remplissent les conditions
nécessaires pour qu’elles soient reconnues valables en droit et suéscep -
tibles d’application car : 1) elles sont l’expression de principes admis
en droit ; 2) elles sont fondées scientifiquement ; 3) elles répondent à
des nécessités vitales de la nation. »
107. Le Chili a renvoyé la Cour aux statistiques émanant de l’Organisa -
tion des Nations Unies pour l’alimentation et l’agriculture (FAO), afin
d’établir l’étendue des activités halieutiques auxquellesé lui et le Pérou
s’adonnaient au début des années 1950 et durant les années qui ont suivi,
en vue de démontrer les avantages que, de son point de vue, le Péréou
aurait tirés de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952. Ces statistiques révèlent
deux éléments factuels que la Cour considère comme utiles pour déétermi -
ner l’étendue des espaces maritimes dont les Parties se préoccuépaient au
cours de la période où elles ont reconnu l’existence de leur fréontière mari -
time. Le premier est l’activité relativement limitée des deux péays en matière
de pêche au début des années 1950. En 1950, les prises du Chili s’élevaient
à environ 90 000 tonnes, soit un peu plus que celles du Pérou, qui étaient
de 74 000 tonnes. Au début des années 1950, le volume des captures d’an -
chois par les Parties était inférieur à celui d’autres espèéces. En 1950, par
exemple, les prises du Pérou s’élevaient à 500 tonnes pour l’anchois et à
44 600 tonnes pour le thon et la bonite ; les prises chiliennes se chiffraient
à 600 tonnes pour l’anchois et à 3300 tonnes pour le thon et la bonite.
Deuxièmement, jusqu’en 1954, les captures respectives des Parties dans
l’océan Pacifique étaient en grande partie composées de bonite/barrilete et
de thon. S’il est vrai que, au cours des années 1950, les prises d’anchois
ont augmenté très rapidement, en particulier pour le Pérou, lesé captures
d’autres espèces sont restées élevées et n’ont pas cesésé de croître. En 1954,
les prises péruviennes s’élevaient à 65 900 tonnes pour le thon et la bonite,
et à 43 100 tonnes pour l’anchois, tandis que le Chili réalisait des prises deé
5200 et 1300 tonnes, respectivement, pour les mêmes espèces.
44
5 CIJ1057.indb 85 1/12/14 08:59 44 maritime dispute (judégment)
The Parties also referred to the hunting of whales by their fleets andé by
foreign fleets as one of the factors leading to the adoption of the 19é47 and
1952 instruments. The FAO statistics provide some information about
the extent of whale catches by the Parties ; there is no indication of where
those catches occurred.
108. The above information shows that the species which were being
taken in the early 1950s were generally to be found within a range of
60 nautical miles from the coast. In that context, the Court takes note of é
the orientation of the coast in this region, and the location of the mosét
important relevant ports of the Parties at the time. Ilo, situated abouté
120 km north-west of the seaward terminus of the land boundary, is
described by Peru as “one of [its] main fishing ports and the most éimpor -
tant fishing centre in Southern Peru”. On the Chilean side, the porét of
Arica lies just 15 km to the south of the seaward terminus of the land
boundary. According to Chile, “[a] significant proportion of the coéuntry’s
small and medium-sized fishing vessels, of crucial importance to the econ -
omy of the region, are registered at Arica”, while the next signifiécant port
is at Iquique, 200 km further south.
The purpose of the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement
was to establish a zone of tolerance along the parallel for small fishéing
boats, which were not sufficiently equipped (see paragraphs 88 to 90 and
103). Boats departing from Arica to catch the above-mentioned species, é
in a west-north-west direction, in the range of 60 nautical miles from téhe
coast, which runs essentially from north to south at this point, would not
cross the parallel beyond a point approximately 57 nautical miles from
the starting-point of the maritime boundary. The orientation of the coasét
turns sharply to the north-west in this region (see sketch-maps Nos. 1
and 2, pp. 14 and 17), such that, on the Peruvian side, fishing boats
departing seaward from Ilo, in a south-west direction, to the range of
those same species would cross the parallel of latitude at a point up to
approximately 100 nautical miles from the starting-point of the maritime
boundary.
109. The Court, in assessing the extent of the lateral maritime bound -
ary which the Parties acknowledged existed in 1954, is aware of the
importance that fishing has had for the coastal populations of both Paér -
ties. It does not see as of great significance their knowledge of the élikely
or possible extent of the resources out to 200 nautical miles nor the extent
of their fishing in later years. The catch figures indicate that the principal
maritime activity in the early 1950s was fishing undertaken by small vées -
sels, such as those specifically mentioned in the 1954 Special Maritime
Frontier Zone Agreement and which were also to benefit from the
1968-1969 arrangements relating to the lighthouses.
45
5 CIJ1057.indb 86 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 44
Les Parties ont également fait mention, parmi les facteurs ayant condéuit
à l’adoption des instruments de 1947 et de 1952, des activités de chasse à
la baleine auxquelles se livraient leurs flottes et les flottes éétrangères. Les
statistiques de la FAO fournissent certaines informations concernant le é
volume des captures de baleines réalisées par les Parties, sans toutefois
indiquer où ces captures ont été effectuées.
108. Il ressort des éléments susmentionnés que les espèces pêcéhées au
début des années 1950 se trouvaient généralement dans un rayéon de
60 milles marins de la côte. Dans ce contexte, la Cour prend note de
l’orientation de la côte dans cette région et de l’emplacement des princi -
paux ports des Parties à l’époque. Le port d’Ilo, qui est situé à environ
120 kilomètres au nord-ouest du point terminal de la frontière terrestére,
est considéré par le Pérou comme étant « l’un de [ses] principaux ports de
pêche … et le centre d’activité halieutique le plus important du sud du
pays». Sur la côte chilienne, le port d’Arica est situé à 15 ékilomètres seu -
lement au sud du point terminal de la frontière terrestre. Selon le Céhili,
«une part importante des bateaux de pêche de petite ou moyenne taille édu
pays, lesquels revêtent une importance cruciale pour l’économieé de la
région, sont immatriculés à Arica », tandis que le deuxième port d’impor -
tance est celui d’Iquique, situé à 200 kilomètres plus au sud.
L’objet de l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maréitime spé -
ciale était d’établir une zone de tolérance le long du paralélèle pour les
petites embarcations de pêche ne disposant que d’équipements inésuffi -
sants (voir les paragraphes 88-90 et 103). Les bateaux partant d’Arica
dans une direction ouest-nord-ouest afin de pêcher les espèces séusmen -
tionnées dans un rayon de 60 milles marins de la côte, laquelle suit essen -
tiellement une direction nord-sud en cet endroit, franchiraient le paralélèle
de latitude en un point situé à une distance maximale d’environé 57 milles
marins du point de départ de la frontière maritime. Dans cette réégion, la
côte s’infléchit nettement vers le nord-ouest (voir croquis én os 1 et 2, p. 14
et 17), de sorte que, du côté péruvien, les bateaux de pêchée quittant Ilo et
se dirigeant vers le sud-ouest dans le rayon où se trouvent lesdites éespèces
franchiraient pour leur part le parallèle de latitude en un point situé à une
distance maximale d’environ 100 milles marins du point de départ de la
frontière maritime.
109. La Cour a conscience, aux fins de déterminer l’étendue de la fron -
tière maritime latérale dont l’existence a été reconnue par les Parties
en 1954, de l’importance que la pêche a revêtue pour les populations
côtières des deux Parties. Elle n’attache que peu d’importanéce à la
connaissance que celles-ci avaient de l’étendue probable ou éveéntuelle des
ressources jusqu’à 200 milles ou à l’ampleur qu’allait prendre pour elles
l’industrie de la pêche au cours des années à venir. Les données précitées
montrent que les activités halieutiques menées au début des années 1950
se résumaient principalement à la pêche pratiquée au moyen dée navires de
petite taille tels que les embarcations spécifiquement mentionnées dans
l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale et censéées
bénéficier des arrangements de 1968-1969 sur les phares.
45
5 CIJ1057.indb 87 1/12/14 08:59 45 maritime dispute (judégment)
110. A central concern of the three States in the early 1950s was with
long-distance foreign fishing, which they wanted to bring to an end. That
concern, and the Parties’ growing understanding of the extent of the fish
stocks in the Humboldt Current off their coasts, were major factors in the
decisions made by Chile and Peru to declare, unilaterally, their 200-nau -
tical-mile zones in 1947, and, with Ecuador, to adopt the 1952 Santiago
Declaration and other texts in 1952 and to take the further measures in
1954 and 1955. To repeat, the emphasis in this period, especially in resépect
of the more distant waters, was, as Chile asserts, on “[t]he exclusioén of
unauthorized foreign fleets . . . to facilitate the development of the fishing
industries of [the three States]”.
111. The Court recalls that the all-purpose nature of the maritime
boundary (see paragraph 102 above) means that evidence concerning fish -
eries activity, in itself, cannot be determinative of the extent of thaté
boundary. Nevertheless, the fisheries activity provides some support féor
the view that the Parties, at the time when they acknowledged the exis -
tence of an agreed maritime boundary between them, were unlikely to
have considered that it extended all the way to the 200-nautical-mile limit.
B. Contemporaneous developments in the law of the sea
112. The Court now moves from the specific, regional context to the
broader context as it existed in the 1950s, at the time of the acknowledég -
ment by the Parties of the existence of the maritime boundary. That con -
text is provided by the State practice and related studies in, and propoésals
coming from, the International Law Commission and reactions by States
or groups of States to those proposals concerning the establishment of
maritime zones beyond the territorial sea and the delimitation of those é
zones. By the 1950s that practice included several unilateral State decléara -
tions.
113. Those declarations, all adopted between 1945 and 1956, may be
divided into two categories. The first category is limited to claims in
respect of the sea-bed and its subsoil, the continental shelf, and their
resources. They include declarations made by the United States (28 Sep -
tember 1945), Mexico (29 October 1945), Argentina (11 October 1946),
Saudi Arabia (28 May 1949), Philippines (18 June 1949), Pakistan
(9 March 1950), Brazil (8 November 1950), Israel (3 August 1952), Aus -
tralia (11 September 1953), India (30 August 1955), Portugal
(21 March 1956) and those made in respect of several territories then
under United Kingdom authority : Jamaica (26 November 1948), Baha -
mas (26 November 1948), British Honduras (9 October 1950), North Bor-
neo (1953), British Guiana (1954), Brunei (1954) and Sarawak (195é4), as
well as nine Arab States then under the protection of the United King -
dom (Abu Dhabi (10 June 1949), Ajman (20 June 1949), Bahrain
46
5 CIJ1057.indb 88 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 45
110. Au début des années 1950, les trois Etats se préoccupaient princi -
palement de la pêche lointaine pratiquée par les navires étrangéers, à
laquelle ils souhaitaient mettre fin. C’est cette préoccupation,é conjuguée à
la prise de conscience, par les Parties, de la richesse des stocks que réecelait
le courant de Humboldt au large de leurs côtes, qui a motivé au premier
chef la décision prise par le Chili et le Pérou de proclamer unilatéralement
leur zone de 200 milles marins en 1947 puis, avec l’Equateur, d’adopter la
déclaration de Santiago et d’autres textes en 1952, et de prendre les
mesures qui suivirent en 1954 et en 1955. Il convient de rappeler que, à
cette époque, et surtout à l’égard des eaux les plus éloiégnées, l’accent était,
comme l’affirme le Chili, mis sur « [l]’exclusion des navires étrangers non
autorisés [en vue de] favoriser l’essor des industries de la pêche [des trois
Etats] ».
111. La Cour rappelle que, étant donné la vocation générale de laé fron -
tière maritime (voir le paragraphe 102 ci-dessus), les éléments de preuve
relatifs aux activités halieutiques ne sauraient, en eux-mêmes, êétre décisifs
en ce qui concerne l’étendue de cette frontière. Ce nonobstant,é ces activi -
tés semblent indiquer qu’il est peu probable que les Parties, à l’époque où
elles ont reconnu l’existence d’une frontière maritime convenueé entre
elles, envisageaient celle-ci comme s’étendant jusqu’à la liémite des
200 milles marins.
B. L’évolution du droit de la mer à l’époque considéré▯e
112. Après avoir examiné ce contexte spécifique régional, la Coéur
abordera le contexte plus large des années 1950, à l’époque de la recon -
naissance par les Parties de l’existence de la frontière maritime.é Ce
contexte est formé de la pratique des Etats, des études réaliséées par la
Commission du droit international et des réactions des Etats ou groupes
d’Etats aux propositions formulées par celle-ci concernant l’inéstauration
d’espaces maritimes au-delà de la mer territoriale et la délimiétation de ces
espaces. S’agissant de la pratique des années 1950, il y a lieu de signaler
plusieurs proclamations unilatérales.
113. Ces proclamations, qui ont toutes été faites entre 1945 et 1956,
peuvent être réparties en deux catégories. Font partie de la préemière
catégorie les proclamations limitées à la revendication des fonéds marins,
de leur sous-sol, du plateau continental et des ressources s’y trouvant.
Tel était le cas de celles émanant des Etats-Unis d’Amérique (2é8 sep -
tembre 1945), du Mexique (29 octobre 1945), de l’Argentine (11 oc -
tobre 1946), de l’Arabie saoudite (28 mai 1949), des Philippines (18 juin
1949), du Pakistan (9 mars 1950), du Brésil (8 novembre 1950), d’Israël
(3 août 1952), de l’Australie (11 septembre 1953), de l’Inde (30 août
1955), du Portugal (21 mars 1956), ainsi que de celles faites en ce qui
concerne plusieurs territoires relevant alors de l’autorité du Royéaume-
Uni: Jamaïque (26 novembre 1948), Bahamas (26 novembre 1948), Hon -
duras britannique (9 octobre 1950), Bornéo du Nord (1953),
Guyane britannique (1954), Brunei (1954) et Sarawak (1954), de même
46
5 CIJ1057.indb 89 1/12/14 08:59 46 maritime dispute (judégment)
(5 June 1949), Dubai (14 June 1949), Kuwait (12 June 1949), Qatar
(8 June 1949), Ras al Khaimah (17 June 1949), Sharjah (16 June 1949),
and Umm al Qaiwain (20 June 1949)). Other declarations, the second cat-
egory, also claim the waters above the shelf or sea-bed or make claims in
respect of the resources of those waters. In addition to the three claims in
issue in this case, those claims include those made by the United Statesé of
America (28 September 1945), Panama (17 December 1946), Iceland
(5 April 1948), Costa Rica (5 November 1949), Honduras (7 March 1950),
El Salvador (7 September 1950) and Nicaragua (1 November 1950). The
above-mentioned acts are reproduced in the United Nations collection,
Laws and Regulations on the High Seas, Vol. I, 1951, Part 1, Chap. 1, and
Supplement, 1959, Part 1, Chap. 1, and in the Parties’ Pleadings.
114. Some of the declarations did address the issue of establishing
maritime boundaries. The first was the continental shelf declaration oéf
the United States, which provided that, whenever the continental shelf
extends to the shores of another State, or is shared with an adjacent Stéate,
the boundary shall be determined by the United States and the State con -
cerned in accordance with equitable principles. Those of Mexico and
Costa Rica (like that of Chile, see paragraph 37 above) stated that the
particular declaration each had made did not mean that that Government
sought to disregard the lawful rights of other States, based on reciprocéity.
The wording in the Argentinean decree accorded conditional recognition
to the right of each nation to the same entitlements as it claimed. Procéla -
mations made by the Arab States then under United Kingdom protection
all provided in similar terms that their exclusive jurisdiction and contérol
of the sea-bed and subsoil extended to boundaries to be determined more
precisely, as occasion arises, on equitable or, in one case, just princiéples,
after consultation with the neighbouring States.
115. Those declarations were part of the background against which the
International Law Commission worked in preparing its 1956 draft arti -
cles for the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, held in
1958. On the basis, among other things, of the material summarized
above, the report of a committee of experts, and comments by a signifié -
cant range of States, the Commission proposed that, in the absence of an
agreement or special circumstances, an equidistance line be used for
delimitation of both the territorial sea and the continental shelf. The é
Commission in particular rejected, in the absence of an agreement, as a é
basis for the line the geographical parallel passing through the point aét
which the land frontier meets the coast. Chile and Ecuador in their obser -
vations submitted to the Commission contended that the rights of the
coastal State over its continental shelf went beyond just “control”é and
47
5 CIJ1057.indb 90 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 46
que neuf Emirats arabes alors placés sous protectorat britannique
(Abou Dhabi (10 juin 1949), Adjman (20 juin 1949), Bahreïn (5 juin 1949),
Doubaï (14 juin 1949), Koweït (12 juin 1949), Qatar (8 juin 1949), Ras
al-Khaïmah (17 juin 1949), Chardjah (16 juin 1949) et Oumm al-Qaïwaïn
(20 juin 1949)). Les proclamations de la seconde catégorie visaient en éoutre
les eaux surplombant le plateau continental ou les fonds marins, ou encoére
les ressources qu’elles contenaient. Outre les trois proclamations quéi sont
en cause dans la présente affaire, il y a lieu de mentionner cellesé qui ont été
faites par les Etats-Unis d’Amérique (28 septembre 1945), le Panama
(17 décembre 1946), l’Islande (5 avril 1948), le Costa Rican (ovembre 1949),
le Honduras (7 mars 1950), El Salvador (7 septembre 1950) et le Nicara -
er
gua (1 novembre 1950). Les textes en question sont reproduits dans la
collection des Nations Unies intitulée Laws and Regulations on the High
Seas, vol. I (1951), partie I, chap. 1, et son supplément (1959), partie I,
chap. 1, ainsi que dans les pièces de procédure des Parties.
114. Certaines proclamations abordaient la question de l’établissement é
de frontières maritimes. La première est la déclaration des Etaéts-Unis
d’Amérique relative au plateau continental, qui disposait que, danés les cas
où le plateau continental s’étendait jusqu’au rivage d’uné autre Etat ou
était partagé avec un Etat adjacent, la frontière serait détéerminée par les
Etats-Unis et l’Etat concerné, sur le fondement des principes d’équité.
Celles du Mexique et du Costa Rica (comme celle du Chili, voir le para -
graphe 37 ci-dessus) précisaient qu’elles ne devaient pas être interpérétées
comme exprimant, de la part du gouvernement dont elles émanaient, l’éin -
tention d’empiéter sur les droits légitimes des autres Etats, àé charge de
réciprocité. Le libellé du décret argentin reconnaissait pouér sa part à cha -
cune des autres nations, à titre conditionnel, les mêmes droits quée ceux
revendiqués par l’Argentine. Toutes les proclamations émanant dées Etats
arabes alors placés sous protectorat britannique prévoyaient en deés termes
analogues que la juridiction et le contrôle exclusifs de l’Etat suér les fonds
marins et leur sous-sol s’étendaient jusqu’à des limites àé déterminer plus
précisément, lorsque l’occasion s’en présenterait, aprèés consultation des
Etats voisins, sur la base des principes d’équité ou, dans un céas, des prin -
cipes de justice.
115. Ces déclarations font partie du contexte dans lequel la Commis -
sion du droit international a élaboré, en 1956, le projet d’articles qu’elle a
présenté à la conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer qui a eu
lieu en 1958. Sur le fondement, entre autres, des textes dont il est fait étaét
ci-dessus, du rapport d’une commission d’experts et des observatioéns
reçues d’un vaste éventail d’Etats, la Commission a proposé que, en l’ab -
sence d’accord ou de circonstances spéciales, il soit fait usage d’une ligne
d’équidistance pour délimiter à la fois la mer territoriale éet le plateau
continental. La Commission a notamment rejeté l’idée que, en l’éabsence
d’accord à cet effet, le parallèle géographique passant paér le point où la
frontière terrestre atteint la côte serve de frontière. Dans les observations
qu’ils ont soumises à la Commission, le Chili et l’Equateur faiésaient valoir
que les droits de l’Etat côtier sur le plateau continental allaienét au-delà
47
5 CIJ1057.indb 91 1/12/14 08:59 47 maritime dispute (judégment)
“jurisdiction”; Chile, in addition, called for “sovereignty” over both the
continental shelf and superjacent waters. However, neither State made
any comment on the matter of delimitation. Peru made no comment of
any kind. This further supports the view that the chief concern of the
three States in this period was defending their 200-nautical-mile claims as
against third States. The Commission’s proposals were adopted by the é
1958 Conference and incorporated, with drafting amendments, in the
Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone (Art. 12) and the
Convention on the Continental Shelf (Art. 6). The territorial sea was not
seen by the International Law Commission, and would not have been
seen at that time by most nations, as extending beyond 6 nautical miles
and the continental shelf line was for the sea-bed and subsoil, extending
to a 200-metre depth or beyond to the limit of exploitability, and not for
the resources of the water above the shelf.
116. The Court observes that, during the period under consideration,
the proposal in respect of the rights of a State over its waters which céame
nearest to general international acceptance was for a 6-nautical-mile ter -
ritorial sea with a further fishing zone of 6 nautical miles and some reser -
vation of established fishing rights. As the Court has noted previousléy, in
this period the concept of an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical
miles was “still some long years away” (Maritime Delimitation in the
Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 87,
para. 70), while its general acceptance in practice and in the 1982 United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was about 30 years into the
future. In answering a question from a Member of the Court, both Par -
ties recognized that their claim made in the 1952 Santiago Declaration
did not correspond to the international law of that time and was not
enforceable against third parties, at least not initially.
117. On the basis of the fishing activities of the Parties at that time,
which were conducted up to a distance of some 60 nautical miles from the
main ports in the area, the relevant practice of other States and the woérk
of the International Law Commission on the Law of the Sea, the Court
considers that the evidence at its disposal does not allow it to conclude
that the agreed maritime boundary along the parallel extended beyond
80 nautical miles from its starting-point.
*
118. In light of this tentative conclusion, the Court now considers fur -
ther elements of practice, for the most part subsequent to 1954, which
may be of relevance to the issue of the extent of the agreed maritime
boundary.
48
5 CIJ1057.indb 92 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 47
des seuls « contrôle» et « juridiction»; le Chili défendait en outre l’idée
d’une « souveraineté» sur le plateau continental et les eaux surjacentes.
Toutefois, ni l’un ni l’autre des deux Etats n’a abordé la question de la
délimitation. Le Pérou, pour sa part, s’est abstenu de toute obéservation.
Ces éléments viennent renforcer l’hypothèse selon laquelle, éà cette époque,
la principale préoccupation des trois Etats était de défendre, contre les
Etats tiers, la revendication de zones de 200 milles marins. Les proposi -
tions de la Commission ont été adoptées à la conférence dée 1958 et inté -
grées, après certaines modifications d’ordre rédactionnel, à la convention
sur la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë (art. 12) et à la convention sur
le plateau continental (art. 6). Pour la Commission du droit international,
et sans doute aussi pour la plupart des pays à cette époque, la meér terri -
toriale ne s’étendait pas au-delà de six milles marins et la limite du pla -
teau continental ne valait que pour les fonds marins et leur sous-sol,
jusqu’à une profondeur de 200 mètres ou jusqu’à la limite d’exploitabilité,
à l’exclusion des ressources contenues dans les eaux surjacentes.
116. La Cour remarque que, pendant la période considérée, la propo -
sition relative aux droits de l’Etat sur les eaux baignant ses côtes qui a été
le plus près d’être généralement acceptée sur le plan éinternational était
celle qui prévoyait une mer territoriale de six milles marins, à laquelle
s’ajoutait une zone de pêche de six milles marins et certaines réserves
concernant les droits de pêche établis. Comme la Cour l’a fait éobserver
précédemment, la notion de zone économique exclusive de 200 milles
marins «allait encore mettre de longues années à s’imposer» (Délimitation
maritime en mer Noire (Roumanie c. Ukraine), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009,
p. 87, par. 70), et il a fallu attendre environ trente ans avant qu’elle soit
acceptée de manière générale dans la pratique et dans la conévention des
Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer de 1982. En réponse à une question
d’un membre de la Cour, les Parties ont toutes deux reconnu que la reéven -
dication qu’elles avaient formulée dans la déclaration de Santiéago de 1952
n’était pas conforme au droit international d’alors et ne pouvaéit être
opposée aux Etats tiers, du moins pas à l’époque.
117. Eu égard aux activités halieutiques des Parties à l’époquée, les -
quelles s’exerçaient jusqu’à une distance d’environ 60 milles marins à par-
tir des principaux ports de la région, ainsi qu’à la pratique dé’autres Etats
et aux travaux de la Commission du droit international en matière de é
droit de la mer, la Cour estime que les éléments dont elle disposeé sont
insuffisants pour lui permettre de conclure que la frontière maritimée
convenue, qui suivait le parallèle, s’étendait au-delà de 80é milles marins
depuis son point de départ.
*
118. A la lumière de cette conclusion provisoire, la Cour examinera
maintenant d’autres éléments de la pratique, pour l’essentieél postérieurs à
1954, qui sont susceptibles de présenter un intérêt pour la queéstion de
l’étendue de la frontière maritime convenue.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 93 1/12/14 08:59 48 maritime dispute (judégment)
C. Legislative practice
119. In examining the legislative practice, the Court first turns to the
adoption by Peru in 1955 of a Supreme Resolution on the Maritime Zone
of 200 Miles. Its Preamble recites the need to specify, in cartographic and
geodesic work, the manner of determining the Peruvian maritime zone of
200 nautical miles referred to in the 1947 Decree and the 1952 Santiago
Declaration. Its first article states that the line was to be limited éat sea by
a line parallel to the Peruvian coast and at a constant distance of 200naut-
ical miles from it. Article 2 provides :
“In accordance with clause IV [el inciso IV] of the Declaration of
Santiago, the said line may not extend beyond that of the correspond -
ing parallel at the point where the frontier of Peru [la frontera del
Perú] reaches the sea.”
Peru contends that Article 1 employs an arc of circles method, as, it says,
was also the case with its 1952 Petroleum Law. Chile rejects that interpre -
tation of both instruments and submits that both use the tracé parallèle
method, supporting the use of the parallel of latitude for the maritime é
boundary. Chile also places considerable weight on the reference in the é
resolution to paragraph IV of the 1952 Santiago Declaration.
120. In this regard, the Court has already concluded that paragraph IV
of the 1952 Santiago Declaration does not determine the maritime bound -
ary separating the general maritime zones of Peru and Chile. It need noté
consider that matter further in the present context. The Court does not é
see the requirement in Article 1 of the 1955 Supreme Resolution that the
line be “at a constant distance of 200 nautical miles from [the coast]” and
parallel to it as using the tracé parallèle method in the sense that Chile
appears to understand it. Some points on a line drawn on that basis
(using the parallel lines of latitude) would in certain areas of Peruvéian
coastal waters, especially near the land boundary of the two States, be é
barely 100 nautical miles from the closest point on the coast. That would
not be in conformity with the plain words of the 1955 Supreme Resolu -
tion. Hence, the Peruvian 1955 Supreme Resolution is of no assistance
when it comes to determining the extent of the maritime frontier whose
existence the Parties acknowledged in 1954.
121. In respect of Chilean legislation, Peru highlights the absence of
references to a lateral maritime boundary in five Chilean texts : a 25 July
1953 Decree which defined the maritime jurisdiction of the Directorate
General of Maritime Territory and Merchant Marine ; a 26 July 1954
Message from the Chilean Executive to the Congress for the Approval of
the 1952 Agreements ; a 23 September 1954 Supreme Decree by which
Chile approved the 1952 Santiago Declaration ; an 11 February 1959
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5 CIJ1057.indb 94 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 48
C. La pratique législative
119. Dans le cadre de son examen de la pratique législative, la Cour se
penchera tout d’abord sur la résolution suprême relative à léa zone maritime
de 200 milles marins, adoptée par le Pérou en 1955, dont le préambule
évoque la nécessité de préciser, dans les travaux cartographéiques et géo-
désiques, la méthode de détermination de la zone maritime pééruvienne de
200 milles marins visée par le décret de 1947 et la déclaration de Santiago
de 1952. Aux termes de l’article premier, ladite zone devait être limitée en
mer par une ligne parallèle à la côte péruvienne et situéée à une distance
constante de 200 milles marins de celle-ci. L’article 2 est ainsi libellé:
«Conformément à la clause IV [el inciso IV] de la déclaration de
Santiago, ladite ligne ne peut dépasser le parallèle de latitude péassant
par le point où aboutit en mer la frontière terrestre du Pérou é[la
frontera del Perú]. »
Le Pérou soutient que l’article premier repose sur l’utilisation de la
méthode des arcs de cercle, ce qui serait également le cas de la léoi sur le
pétrole de 1952. Le Chili conteste cette interprétation des deux textes, qui,
selon lui, appliquent la méthode du tracé parallèle, ce qui iraéit dans le
sens du recours à un parallèle géographique dans la déterminéation de la
frontière maritime. Il attache aussi beaucoup d’importance à laé référence
que fait la résolution au paragraphe IV de la déclaration de Santiago
de 1952.
120. A cet égard, la Cour a déjà conclu que le paragraphe IV de la
déclaration de Santiago de 1952 n’opérait pas la délimitation de la fron -
tière maritime séparant les zones maritimes générales du Péérou et du Chili.
Il est donc inutile qu’elle examine plus avant cette question dans leé présent
contexte. Par ailleurs, elle n’est pas convaincue que, en disposant qéue la
ligne en question serait située « à une distance constante de 200 milles
marins de [la côte]» et parallèle à celle-ci, l’article premier de la résolution
suprême de 1955 indiquait que la méthode du tracé parallèle avait étéé rete -
nue, comme semble le comprendre le Chili. Si la ligne avait été tréacée sui-
vant cette méthode (au moyen des parallèles géographiques), céertains de
ses points se trouveraient, surtout dans le secteur frontalier des eaux
côtières péruviennes, à une distance d’à peine 100milles marins du point le
plus proche sur la côte, ce qui ne serait pas conforme aux termes mêmes de
la résolution suprême de 1955. Par conséquent, la résolutioné suprême
péruvienne de 1955 n’est d’aucune utilité pour détermineré l’étendue de la
frontière maritime dont les Parties ont reconnu l’existence en 195é4.
121. En ce qui concerne la législation chilienne, le Pérou souligne l’ab -
sence de référence à une frontière maritime latérale dans cinq textes : le
décret du 25 juillet 1953 définissant le ressort de la direction générale du
territoire maritime et de la marine marchande, le message du 26 juil -
let 1954 adressé au Parlement par le pouvoir exécutif chilien aux fins de
ratification des accords de 1952, le décret suprême du 23 septembre 1954
portant ratification de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952, le décret
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5 CIJ1057.indb 95 1/12/14 08:59 49 maritime dispute (judégment)
Decree on Permits for Fishing by Foreign Vessels in Chilean Territorial é
Waters; and a 4 June 1963 Decree on the Appointment of the Authority
which Grants Fishing Permits to Foreign Flag Vessels in Chilean Juris -
dictional Waters. In response, Chile contends that the 1952 Santiago Dec-
laration became part of Chilean law upon ratification and so there was no
need to reaffirm the existence of the maritime boundary in subsequent
legislation.
122. The Court finds that these five Chilean instruments are of no
assistance as to the extent of the maritime frontier whose existence theé
Parties acknowledged in 1954, for the following reasons. The 1953 Decree
relates to the territorial sea out to 12 nautical miles. The 1954 Message
recalls the 200-nautical-mile claim made by the three States in 1952 but
makes no mention of boundaries between those States. The 1954 Supreme
Decree simply reproduces the text of the instruments adopted at the Limaé
Conference without commenting on their effect. The 1959 Decree refers
repeatedly to “Chilean territorial waters” without defining the élimits —
lateral or seaward — of these waters. Finally, the 1963 Decree speaks of
the 200-nautical-mile zone established under the 1952 Santiago Declara -
tion but makes no reference to a lateral boundary within that zone.
D. The 1955 Protocol of Accession
123. In 1955 the three States adopted a Protocol of Accession to the
1952 Santiago Declaration. In that Protocol they agree “to open the
accession of Latin American States to [the 1952 Santiago Declaration]
with regard to its fundamental principles” contained in the paragraphés of
the Preamble. The three States then reproduce substantive paragraphs I,
II, III and V, but not paragraph IV. On the matter of boundaries they
declare that
“[T]he adhesion to the principle stating that the coastal States haveé
the right and duty to protect, conserve and use the resources of the
sea along their coasts, shall not be constrained by the assertion of theé
right of every State to determine the extension and boundaries of its
Maritime Zone. Therefore, at the moment of accession, every State
shall be able to determine the extension and form of delimitation of
its respective zone whether opposite to one part or to the entirety of
its coastline, according to the peculiar geographic conditions, the
extension of each sea and the geological and biological factors that
condition the existence, conservation and development of the mari -
time fauna and flora in its waters.”
The only other provision of the 1952 Santiago Declaration which was the
subject of an express exclusion from the 1955 Protocol was paragraph VI
which concerns the possibility of future agreements in application of théese
principles. This provision was excluded on the basis that it was “detéer -
mined by the geographic and biological similarity of the coastal maritime
50
5 CIJ1057.indb 96 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 49
du 11 février 1959 relatif à la délivrance aux navires étrangers de permis deé
pêche dans les eaux territoriales chiliennes, et le décret du 4 juin 1963 rela-
tif à la nomination de l’autorité chargée de délivrer lesé permis de pêche aux
navires battant pavillon étranger dans les eaux chiliennes. Le Chili érépond
que la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 est devenue partie intégrante du
droit chilien au moment où il l’a ratifiée, et qu’il n’éétait donc pas nécessaire
de réaffirmer l’existence de la frontière maritime dans un texéte ultérieur.
122. La Cour considère que ces cinq textes chiliens ne lui sont d’au -
cune utilité pour déterminer l’étendue de la frontière maéritime dont les
Parties ont reconnu l’existence en 1954, et ce, pour les raisons suivantes.
Le décret de 1953 se rapporte à la mer territoriale de 12 milles marins. Le
message de 1954 rappelle la revendication de la zone de 200 milles marins
présentée par les trois Etats en 1952, mais ne fait allusion à aucune fron -
tière entre eux. Le décret suprême de 1954 reproduit simplementé le
contenu des textes adoptés à la conférence de Lima sans aucun commen -
taire quant à leur portée. Le décret de 1959 renvoie à plusieurs reprises
aux « eaux territoriales chiliennes » sans en définir les limites latérales ou
vers le large. Enfin, le décret de 1963 fait référence à la zone de
200 milles marins établie au titre de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952,
mais ne mentionne aucune frontière latérale à l’intérieuré de cette zone.
D. Le protocole d’adhésion de 1955
123. En 1955, les trois Etats adoptèrent un protocole à la déclaration é
de Santiago de 1952, dans lequel ils convenaient « d’ouvrir à l’adhésion
des Etats d’Amérique latine la déclaration [de] 1952, à l’égard de ses prin -
cipes fondamentaux» énoncés au préambule. Ils en reproduisaient ensuite
les paragraphes I, II, III et V, mais non le paragraphe IV. Sur la question
des frontières, ils déclaraient ce qui suit :
«L’exercice du droit de chaque Etat de déterminer l’étendue eét les
limites de son espace maritime est sans préjudice de l’adhésioné au
principe selon lequel les Etats riverains ont le droit et l’obligation de
protéger, de conserver et d’utiliser les ressources de la mer le long de
leurs côtes. Par conséquent, au moment de son adhésion, chaque é
Etat peut déterminer l’étendue et la forme de délimitation dée son
espace respectif, qu’il baigne un segment ou la totalité de ses côétes,
en tenant compte des caractéristiques géographiques particulières, de
l’étendue de chaque mer et des facteurs géologiques et biologiqéues
qui conditionnent l’existence, la conservation et le développementé de
la faune et de la flore marines dans ses eaux. »
La seule autre disposition de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 à être
expressément exclue du protocole de 1955 est le paragraphe VI, qui
concernait la signature éventuelle d’accords pour l’applicationé de ces
principes. Si cette disposition a été exclue, c’est parce qu’elle « était déter-
minée par la similitude géographique et biologique des espaces maréitimes
50
5 CIJ1057.indb 97 1/12/14 08:59 50 maritime dispute (judégment)
zones of the signatory countries” to the Declaration. It is common gréound
that no State in fact ever took advantage of the 1955 Protocol.
124. Peru sees the affirmation of the power of an acceding State to
determine the extension and limits of its zone as confirming that the é
1952 Santiago Declaration had not settled the question of the maritime
boundaries between the States parties. Chile reads the positions of the é
two Parties on paragraph IV in the contrary sense : by that exclusion they
indicated their understanding that their maritime boundary was already
determined.
125. Given the conclusion that the Court has already reached on para -
graph IV, its exclusion from the text of the 1955 Protocol, and the fact
that no State has taken advantage of the Protocol, the Court does not seée
the Protocol as having any real significance. It may however be seen aés
providing some support to Peru’s position that the use of lateral maréitime
boundaries depended on the particular circumstances of the States wish -
ing to accede to the 1952 Santiago Declaration. More significantly, the
1955 Protocol may also be seen as an attempt to reinforce solidarity for
the reasons given by Peru, Chile and Ecuador in their own national legalé
measures and in the 1952 Santiago Declaration, and as manifested in
their other actions in 1955, in response to the protests of maritime powéers
(see paragraphs 76 to 77 above).
E. Enforcement activities
126. Much of the enforcement practice relevant to the maritime bound-
ary can be divided between that concerning vessels of third States and
that involving Peru and Chile, and by reference to time. In respect of téhe
second distinction the Court recalls that its primary, but not exclusive,
interest is with practice in the early 1950s when the Parties acknowledgéed
the existence of their maritime boundary.
127. In respect of vessels of third States, Chile draws on a 1972 report
of the CPPS Secretary-General on Infractions in the Maritime Zone
between 1951 and 1971. The data, the report says, are incomplete for the
first ten years. According to the report, in the course of the 20 years it
covers, Peru arrested 53 vessels, Chile five and Ecuador 122, the final fig -
ure explained by the fact that the interest of foreign fishing fleets had
focused, especially in more recent years, on tuna, the catch of which waés
greater in Ecuadorean waters. All but six of the 53 vessels arrested in
Peruvian waters carried the United States flag ; five (in the Onassis fleet)
carried the Panamanian ; and one the Japanese. In the case of 20 of the
53 arrests, the report records or indicates the place at which the arrests é
took place and all of those places are far to the north of the parallel éof
latitude extending from the land boundary between Peru and Chile, and
51
5 CIJ1057.indb 98 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 50
côtiers des pays signataires » de la déclaration. Il est constant qu’en fait
aucun Etat ne s’est jamais prévalu du protocole d’adhésion dée 1955.
124. Le Pérou voit, dans la possibilité offerte aux Etats adhéranté à la
déclaration de Santiago de 1952 de déterminer l’étendue et lées limites de
leur espace maritime, la confirmation de ce que celle-ci n’avait pas réglé la
question des frontières maritimes entre les Etats parties, tandis queé, sur le
fondement de son interprétation des positions des deux Parties concer-
nant le paragraphe IV, le Chili arrive à la conclusion inverse, à savoir
que, si ce paragraphe a été exclu, c’est qu’il était enteéndu entre elles que
la frontière maritime avait déjà été déterminée.
125. Compte tenu de la conclusion à laquelle elle est parvenue en ce qui
concerne le paragraphe IV, de l’exclusion de cette disposition du texte du
protocole de 1955 et du fait qu’aucun Etat ne s’est prévalu de celui-ci, la
Cour ne considère pas ce protocole comme ayant un intérêt partiéculier.
L’on pourrait toutefois estimer qu’il tend à accréditer la péosition du Pérou
selon laquelle le recours à des frontières maritimes latérales édépendait des
circonstances propres aux Etats souhaitant adhérer à la déclaraétion de
Santiago de 1952. Mais le protocole de 1955 semble avant tout représenter
une tentative de renforcer la solidarité, comme en témoignent les éraisons
exposées par le Pérou, le Chili et l’Equateur dans leur propre élégislation
interne et dans la déclaration de Santiago de 1952, ainsi que d’autres
mesures prises par eux en 1955, en réaction aux protestations élevées par
certaines puissances maritimes (voir les paragraphes 76-77 ci-dessus).
E. Les mesures d’exécution
126. Pour l’essentiel, la pratique relative aux mesures d’exécution é
concernant la frontière maritime peut s’analyser en fonction de laé distinc-
tion entre celle qui concerne les navires d’Etats tiers et les situatéions
impliquant les deux Parties, mais aussi en fonction de la chronologie. En
ce qui concerne ce second aspect, la Cour rappelle qu’elle s’intééressera
essentiellement, mais non exclusivement, à la pratique ayant eu coursé au
début des années 1950, époque où les Parties ont reconnu l’existence de
leur frontière maritime.
127. S’agissant des navires d’Etats tiers, le Chili se fonde sur un rapé -
port de 1972 du secrétariat général de la CPPS concernant les infractioéns
commises dans la zone maritime entre 1951 et 1971. D’après ce rapport,
qui précise que les données sont incomplètes en ce qui concerneé les
dix premières années, le Pérou aurait intercepté 53 navires au cours de la
période de vingt ans considérée, le Chili cinq, et l’Equateur 122, ce dernier
chiffre s’expliquant par le fait que l’intérêt des flottées de pêche étrangères
s’était concentré, notamment au cours des dernières annéeés, sur le thon,
dont la capture était plus importante dans les eaux équatoriennes.é Les
53 navires arraisonnés dans les eaux péruviennes étaient immatricuélés aux
Etats-Unis d’Amérique, à six exceptions près : cinq (de la flotte Onassis)
battaient pavillon panaméen et l’autre, pavillon japonais. Dans 20é des
53 cas, le rapport indique plus ou moins précisément les lieux d’iéntercep-
51
5 CIJ1057.indb 99 1/12/14 08:59 51 maritime dispute (judégment)
closer to the boundary between Peru and Ecuador. For 36, the distance
from the coast is indicated. They include the Onassis fleet which on oéne
account was arrested 126 nautical miles offshore (see paragraph 75
above). Of the other arrests, only one (in 1965) was beyond 60 nautical
miles of the coast of Peru and only two others (in 1965 and 1968) wereé
beyond 35 nautical miles ; all three of these arrests occurred more than
500 nautical miles to the north of that latitudinal parallel.
128. Until the mid-1980s, all the practice involving incidents between
the two Parties was within about 60 nautical miles of the coasts and usu -
ally much closer. In 1954 and 1961, Chile proposed that fishing vessels of
the Parties be permitted to fish in certain areas of the maritime zoneé of
the other State, up to 50 nautical miles north/south of the parallel, but the
exchanges between the Parties do not indicate how far seaward such
arrangements would have operated ; in any event Chile’s proposals were
not accepted by Peru. In December 1962, Peru complained about “the
frequency with which Chilean fishing vessels have trespassed into Perué -
vian waters, at times up to 300 metres from the beach”. In March 1966,
the Peruvian patrol ship Diez Canseco was reported to have intercepted
two Chilean fishing vessels and fired warning shots at them, but theé entire
incident took place within 2 nautical miles of the coast. Two incidents in
September 1967 — the sighting by Peru of several Chilean trawlers “north
of the jurisdictional boundary” and the sighting by Chile of a Peruviéan
patrol boat “south of the Chile-Peru boundary parallel” — both occurred
within 10 nautical miles of Point Concordia. Following a third incident
that month, Peru complained about a Chilean fishing net found 2 naut-
ical miles west of Point Concordia. In respect of these incidents, the Court
recalls that the zone of tolerance established under the 1954 Agreement
starts at a distance of 12 nautical miles from the coast along the parallel
of latitude.
129. The practice just reviewed does not provide any basis for putting
into question the tentative conclusion that the Court expressed earlier.é
That conclusion was based on the fishing activity of the Parties and céon -
temporaneous developments in the law of the sea in the early and mid-
1950s.
F. The 19681969 lighthouse arrangements
130. The Court recalls its discussion of the 1968-1969 lighthouse
arrangements (see paragraphs 96 to 99 above). The record before the
Court indicates that the lights would have been visible from a maximum
distance of approximately 15 nautical miles ; as Chile acknowledges, the
Parties were particularly concerned with visibility within the first 1é2 naut-
52
5 CIJ1057.indb 100 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 51
tion, à chaque fois situés loin au nord du parallèle de latitudée prolongeant
la frontière terrestre entre le Pérou et le Chili, et plus prèsé de la frontière
entre le Pérou et l’Equateur. Pour 36 d’entre eux, la distance par rapport
à la côte est précisée: ainsi des navires de la flotte Onassis, dont l’intercep-
tion a eu lieu, dans un cas, à 126 milles marins de la côte (voir le para -
graphe 75 ci-dessus). Pour le reste, une seule interception a été effeéctuée
(en 1965) à plus de 60 milles marins de la côte péruvienne et deux seule -
ment (en 1965 et 1968), au-delà de 35 milles marins; les trois navires ainsi
interceptés l’ont tous été à plus de 500 milles marins au nord de ce paral -
lèle de latitude.
128. Jusqu’au milieu des années 1980, l’ensemble des incidents implié -
quant les deux Parties se sont produits à moins d’une soixantaine de
milles marins des côtes, et généralement plus près encore. En 1954 et
en 1961, le Chili a proposé que les bateaux de pêche des Etats partieés
soient autorisés à mener leurs activités dans certaines partiesé de l’espace
maritime de l’autre, jusqu’à 50 milles marins de part et d’autre du paral -
lèle. Toutefois, les échanges entre les Parties ne précisent paés la portée
vers le large de l’arrangement proposé, qui, en tout état de caéuse, a été
rejeté par le Pérou. En décembre 1962, le Pérou se plaignait des « nom -
breuses incursions de navires de pêche chiliens dans les eaux péruviennes,
parfois jusqu’à 300 mètres du rivage ». En mars 1966, il a été rapporté
qu’un patrouilleur péruvien, le Diez Canseco, avait intercepté deux navires
de pêche chiliens et tiré contre eux des coups de semonce, mais ceét inci -
dent s’était déroulé dans sa totalité à moins de 2 milles marins de la côte.
Les deux épisodes survenus en septembre 1967, lors desquels le Pérou a
constaté la présence de plusieurs chalutiers chiliens «au nord de la limite»
des eaux relevant du Chili, et ce dernier, celle d’un patrouilleur pééruvien
«au sud du parallèle frontière entre le Chili et le Pérou », se sont produits
à moins de 10 milles marins du point Concordia. A la suite d’un troisième
incident survenu le même mois, le Pérou s’est plaint d’avoiré trouvé un filet
de pêche chilien à 2 milles marins à l’ouest de ce point. En ce qui concerne
ces incidents, la Cour rappelle que la zone de tolérance établie aéu titre de
l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciéale s’étend le
long du parallèle de latitude à partir de 12 milles marins depuis la côte.
129. La pratique qui vient d’être examinée ne fournit aucun motif peér -
mettant de remettre en cause la conclusion provisoire à laquelle la Céour
est parvenue sur le fondement des activités halieutiques des Parties et de
l’évolution qu’a connue le droit de la mer au début et au miélieu des
années 1950.
F. Les arrangements de 19681969 relatifs aux phares
130. La Cour rappelle son analyse des arrangements relatifs aux
phares de 1968-1969 (voir les paragraphes 96-99 ci-dessus). Les éléments
dont elle dispose indiquent que les phares devaient être visibles àé une
distance maximale d’environ 15 milles marins. Comme le reconnaît le
Chili, les Parties se souciaient avant tout de leur portée dans un rayon
52
5 CIJ1057.indb 101 1/12/14 08:59 52 maritime dispute (judégment)
ical miles from the coast, up to the point where the zone of tolerance
under the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement commenced,
and where many of the incursions were reported. There are indications iné
the case file that the towers had radar reflectors but there is no iénforma -
tion at all of their effective range or their use in practice. The Couért does
not see these arrangements as having any significance for the issue ofé the
extent of the maritime boundary.
G. Negotiations with Bolivia (19751976)
131. In 1975-1976, Chile entered into negotiations with Bolivia regard -
ing a proposed exchange of territory that would provide Bolivia with a
“corridor to the sea” and an adjacent maritime zone. The record beéfore
the Court comprises the Chilean proposal to Bolivia of December 1975,
Peru’s reply of January 1976, Chile’s record (but not Peru’s) of discus -
sions between the Parties in July 1976 and Peru’s counter-proposal of
November 1976. Chile’s proposal of December 1975 stated that the ces -
sion would include, in addition to a strip of land between Arica and theé
Chile-Peru land boundary, “the maritime territory between the parallels
of the extreme points of the coast that will be ceded (territorial sea,é eco -
nomic zone and continental shelf)”. This proposal was conditional,
among other things, on Bolivia ceding to Chile an area of territory as
compensation. The record before the Court does not include the Bolivian-
Chilean exchanges of December 1975. As required under Article 1 of
the Supplementary Protocol to the 1929 Treaty of Lima, Peru was for -
mally consulted on these negotiations. In January 1976, Peru acknow-
ledged receipt of documents from Chile regarding the proposed cession.
Peru’s response was cautious, noting a number of “substantial eleméents”
arising, including the consequences of “the fundamental alteration ofé the
legal status, the territorial distribution, and the socio-economic structure
of an entire region”. According to Chile’s record of discussions béetween
the Parties, in July 1976 Chile informed Peru that it would seek assur -
ances from Bolivia that the latter would comply with the 1954 Special
Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, while Peru confirmed that it had noté
identified in Chile’s proposal any “major problems with respect to the
sea”. On 18 November 1976, Peru made a counter-proposal to Chile
which contemplated a different territorial régime : cession by Chile to
Bolivia of a sovereign corridor to the north of Arica ; an area of shared
Chilean-Peruvian-Bolivian sovereignty over territory between that corri -
dor and the sea ; and exclusive Bolivian sovereignty over the sea adjacent
to the shared territory.
132. According to Chile, its negotiations with Bolivia proceeded on the
explicit basis that the existing maritime boundary, following the latitué-
53
5 CIJ1057.indb 102 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 52
de 12 milles marins depuis la côte, soit jusqu’au point où commençait la é
zone de tolérance définie par l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière
maritime spéciale, dans laquelle bon nombre d’incursions avaient éété
signalées. Selon certains éléments soumis à la Cour, les touérs étaient équi -
pées de réflecteurs radars, mais aucune précision n’y fiégure quant à leur
portée réelle ou à leur usage dans la pratique. La Cour estime éque ces
arrangements ne lui sont d’aucune aide pour ce qui est de la questioné de
l’étendue de la frontière maritime.
G. Les négociations avec la Bolivie (19751976)
131. En 1975-1976, le Chili a entamé des négociations avec la Bolivie àé
propos d’un projet d’échange de territoires destiné à asséurer à celle-ci un
«accès à la mer» et un espace maritime adjacent. Ont été versés au dossier
la proposition faite par le Chili à la Bolivie en décembre 1975, la réponse
du Pérou de janvier 1976, les procès-verbaux dressés par le Chili (mais pas
ceux du Pérou) des discussions tenues par les Parties en juillet 1976 et la
contre-proposition du Pérou de novembre 1976. La proposition chilienne
de décembre 1975 indiquait que la cession visait non seulement une bande
de terre située entre Arica et la frontière terrestre péruvo-chéilienne, mais
aussi « le territoire maritime compris entre les parallèles passant par les
extrémités du segment de la côte ainsi cédée (mer territéoriale, zone écono -
mique exclusive et plateau continental)». Cette proposition était soumise à
la condition, entre autres, que la Bolivie cède au Chili un espace teérritorial
à titre de compensation. Les échanges qui ont eu lieu entre la Boléivie et le
Chili en décembre 1975 n’ont pas été versés au dossier. Comme l’exigeait
l’article premier du protocole complémentaire au traité de Limaé de 1929,
le Pérou a été officiellement consulté sur ces négociatiéons. En janvier 1976,
il a accusé réception de documents chiliens relatifs au projet de cession et
y a répondu avec prudence, soulevant un certain nombre de « points subs -
tantiels», notamment les conséquences de « la transformation radicale de
la situation juridique, de la répartition territoriale et de l’organisation
socioéconomique de toute une région ». Selon les procès-verbaux chiliens
des discussions tenues entre les Parties, le Chili aurait informé le éPérou en
juillet 1976 qu’il chercherait à obtenir de la Bolivie l’assurance que celle-ci
respecterait l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale,
et le Pérou aurait confirmé ne pas avoir décelé, dans la péroposition
chilienne, «de difficultés majeures concernant les espaces maritimes ». Le
18 novembre 1976, le Pérou a adressé au Chili une contre-proposition qui
prévoyait un aménagement territorial différent consistant danés la cession à
la Bolivie, par le Chili, d’un couloir de souveraineté situé aué nord d’Arica,
l’instauration d’une zone de souveraineté partagée entre le éChili, le Pérou
et la Bolivie sur un territoire situé entre ce couloir et la mer, et la souverai
neté exclusive de la Bolivie sur les eaux adjacentes au territoire pléacé sous
souveraineté partagée.
132. D’après le Chili, ses négociations avec la Bolivie reposaient eéxpli -
citement sur l’idée selon laquelle la frontière maritime existaénte, suivant le
53
5 CIJ1057.indb 103 1/12/14 08:59 53 maritime dispute (judégment)
dinal parallel, would delimit the envisaged maritime zone of Bolivia
vis-à-vis Peru. Chile submits that Peru was specifically consulted on this
matter, and expressed no objection or reservation, but rather “acknowé-
ledged the existence and course of the Chile-Peru maritime boundary” at
one of the sessions between the Parties in 1976. For its part, Peru streésses
that neither its Note of January 1976 nor its alternative proposal of
November 1976 mentioned a parallel of latitude or suggested any method
of maritime delimitation for Bolivia’s prospective maritime zone. Peréu
further contends that Chile’s records of the 1976 discussions are unreli -
able and incomplete, and that its own position at the time was clearly téhat
the territorial divisions in the area were still to be negotiated.
133. The Court does not find these negotiations significant for the issue
of the extent of the maritime boundary between the Parties. While Chile’és
proposal referred to the territorial sea, economic zone and continental é
shelf, Peru did not accept this proposal. Peru’s January 1976 acknowledg -
ment did not mention any existing maritime boundary between the Par -
ties, while its counter-proposal from November of that year did not
indicate the extent or nature of the maritime area proposed to be accorded
to Bolivia.
H. Positions of the Parties at the Third United Nations Conference on the
Law of the Sea
134. The Parties also directed the Court to certain statements made by
their representatives during the Third United Nations Conference on the é
Law of the Sea. First, both referred to a joint declaration on 28 April 1982
made by Chile, Ecuador and Peru, together with Colombia, which had
joined the CPPS in 1979, wherein those States pointed out that :
“the universal recognition of the rights of sovereignty and jurisdictéion
of the coastal State within the 200-mile limit provided for in the draft
Convention is a fundamental achievement of the countries members
of the Permanent Commission of the South Pacific, in accordance
with its basic objectives stated in the Santiago Declaration of 1952ӎ.
The Court notes that this statement did not mention delimitation, nor
refer to any existing maritime boundaries between those States.
135. A second matter raised by the Parties is Peru’s involvement in the
negotiations relating to maritime delimitation of States with adjacent oér
opposite coasts. The Peruvian position on that matter was expressed at
various points during the negotiations ; on 27 August 1980, the Head of
the Peruvian Delegation stated it as follows :
“Where a specific agreement on the delimitation of the territorial é
sea, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf between States
with opposite or adjacent coasts did not exist or where there were no
special circumstances or historic rights recognized by the Parties, the é
54
5 CIJ1057.indb 104 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 53
parallèle de latitude, délimiterait par rapport au Pérou l’eéspace maritime
devant revenir à la Bolivie. Il soutient que le Pérou a été expressément
consulté sur cette question et n’a formulé ni objection ni rééserve, mais a
«reconnu l’existence et le tracé de la frontière maritime péréuvo-chilienne»
lors d’une des réunions que les Parties ont tenues en 1976. Le Pérou sou -
ligne quant à lui qu’il n’a jamais fait référence au paraéllèle de latitude ou
suggéré quelque autre méthode de délimitation maritime pour l’espace
bolivien, que ce soit dans sa note de janvier 1976 ou dans sa contre-
proposition de novembre de la même année. Il ajoute que les procèés-
verbaux chiliens des discussions de1976 sont sujets à caution et incomplets,
et que, de toute évidence, il considérait à l’époque que éla répartition des
territoires dans la région devait encore faire l’objet de négocéiations.
133. De l’avis de la Cour, ces négociations sont dépourvues de pertié -
nence aux fins de déterminer l’étendue de la frontière maréitime entre les
Parties. Même si la proposition chilienne visait la mer territoriale, la zone
économique exclusive et le plateau continental, le Pérou ne l’aé pas accep -
tée. Sa réponse de janvier 1976 ne contenait aucune référence à une fron -
tière maritime existante entre les Parties, tandis que sa contre-propéosition
de novembre de la même année n’indiquait ni l’étendue ni la nature de
l’espace maritime dont il proposait l’attribution à la Bolivie.é
H. Les positions des Parties au cours de la troisième conférence des
Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer
134. Les Parties ont également porté à l’attention de la Cour certaines
déclarations faites par leurs représentants au cours de la troisièéme confé -
rence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer. Pour commencer, elles se
sont toutes deux référées à celle, faite conjointement le 28é avril 1982 par
le Chili, l’Equateur et le Pérou, ainsi que la Colombie qui avait érejoint la
CPPS en 1979, dans laquelle ces Etats faisaient observer que :
«la reconnaissance universelle de la souveraineté et de la juridictioné
de l’Etat côtier dans la limite des 200 milles marins consacrée par le
projet de convention représente un acquis essentiel des pays membres
de la Commission permanente du Pacifique Sud, conforme aux objec -
tifs fondamentaux énoncés dans la déclaration de Santiago de 1952».
La Cour remarque qu’il n’est pas question, dans cette déclaratiéon, de déli -
mitation ou de frontières maritimes existantes entre ces Etats.
135. Les Parties ont ensuite soulevé la question du rôle joué par le Pérou
dans les négociations concernant la délimitation maritime entre leés Etats
dont les côtes étaient adjacentes ou se faisaient face. La positioén péruvienne
à cet égard a été exprimée à plusieurs reprises au couérs des négociations.
Ainsi, le chef de la délégation péruvienne déclarait ce qui suit le 27 ao1 û9t80:
«A défaut d’un accord exprès portant spécifiquement sur la édéli -
mitation de la mer territoriale, de la zone économique exclusive et déu
plateau continental entre Etats dont les côtes sont adjacentes ou se é
font face et lorsqu’il n’existe pas de circonstances spéciales éou de
54
5 CIJ1057.indb 105 1/12/14 08:59 54 maritime dispute (judégment)
median line should as a general rule be used . . . since it was the most
likely method of achieving an equitable solution.”
Peru contends that its “active participation” in the negotiations éon this
matter illustrates that it had yet to resolve its own delimitation issueés.
Given the conclusions reached above, however, the Court need not con -
sider that matter. The statements by Peruvian representatives at the Thiérd
United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea relate to prospective
maritime boundary agreements between States (and provisional arrange -
ments to be made pending such agreements) ; they do not shed light on
the extent of the existing maritime boundary between Peru and Chile.
I. The 1986 Bákula Memorandum
136. It is convenient to consider at this point a memorandum sent by
Peruvian Ambassador Bákula to the Chilean Ministry of Foreign Affairs
on 23 May 1986, following his audience with the Chilean Foreign Minis -
ter earlier that day (“the Bákula Memorandum”). Peru contendsé that in
that Memorandum it “invites Chile to agree an international maritime é
boundary”. Chile, to the contrary, submits that the Bákula Memorané -
dum was an attempt to renegotiate the existing maritime boundary.
137. According to the Memorandum, Ambassador Bákula had handed
the Chilean Minister a personal message from his Peruvian counterpart.
The strengthening of the ties of friendship between the two countries
“must be complemented by the timely and direct solution of problems
which are the result of new circumstances, with a view to enhancing
the climate of reciprocal confidence which underlies every construc -
tive policy.
One of the cases that merits immediate attention is the formal and
definitive delimitation of the marine spaces, which complement the
geographical vicinity of Peru and Chile and have served as scenario
of a long and fruitful joint action.”
At that time, the Memorandum continued, the special zone established by é
the 1954 Agreement
“is not adequate to satisfy the requirements of safety nor for the beétter
attention to the administration of marine resources, with the aggra -
vating circumstance that an extensive interpretation could generate a
notorious situation of inequity and risk, to the detriment of the legit -
imate interests of Peru, that would come forth as seriously damaged”.é
It referred to the various zones recognized in UNCLOS and said this :
“The current ‘200-mile maritime zone’ — as defined at the Meeting
of the Permanent Commission for the South Pacific in 1954 — is,
55
5 CIJ1057.indb 106 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 54
droits historiques reconnus par les parties, la méthode de la ligne
médiane devrait être de règle, … car c’est la meilleure manière de
parvenir à une solution équitable. »
Le Pérou affirme que le «rôle actif» qu’il a joué dans les négociations por -
tant sur ce point montre que ses propres questions de délimitation reés -
taient encore à résoudre. Quoi qu’il en soit, à la lumièrée des conclusions
qui précèdent, la Cour ne juge pas nécessaire d’examiner ce époint. Les
déclarations faites par les représentants péruviens à la troéisième conférence
des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer se rapportent à d’éventuels traitéés
de limites maritimes entre Etats (et aux arrangements, provisoires, àé
conclure avant leur signature) ; elles n’apportent aucun éclairage quant à
l’étendue de la frontière maritime existante entre le Pérou éet le Chili.
I. Le mémorandum Bákula de 1986
136. Il convient d’examiner ici le mémorandum transmis le 23 mai 1986
au ministre chilien des relations extérieures par S. Exc. M. Bákula, ambas -
sadeur du Pérou, à l’issue de l’entretien qu’avaient eu lées deux hommes plus
tôt le même jour (le «mémorandum Bákula»). Le Pérou soutient que, dans
ce mémorandum, il «invit[ait] le Chili à convenir d’une frontière maritime
internationale». Le Chili, au contraire, avance que le mémorandum Bákula
marquait une tentative de renégocier la frontière maritime existanéte.
137. D’après le mémorandum, l’ambassadeur Bákula avait remis au
ministre chilien un message personnel de son homologue péruvien, aux é
termes duquel le renforcement des liens d’amitié entre les deux paéys devait
«être complété par le règlement direct et ponctuel de problèémes
résultant de l’évolution des circonstances, afin d’améléiorer le climat
de confiance mutuelle qui doit sous-tendre toute politique construc -
tive.
L’une des questions qui mérite une attention immédiate est cellée de
la délimitation officielle et définitive des espaces maritimes,é qui sont
à l’image de la contiguïté géographique du Pérou et dué Chili et font,
depuis longtemps, l’objet d’une fructueuse collaboration. »
Désormais, y lisait-on encore, la zone spéciale établie par l’éaccord de 1954
«ne satisfait plus aux exigences de la sécurité ni à celles de léa bonne
gestion des ressources marines, sans compter, surtout, qu’une inter -
prétation large pourrait en faire la source d’injustices et de riséques
flagrants, au détriment des intérêts légitimes du Péroué, lesquels en
sortiraient gravement lésés ».
Faisant référence aux divers espaces reconnus par la CNUDM, le mémo -
randum se poursuivait en ces termes :
«La zone maritime actuelle de 200 milles, telle qu’elle a été définie
en 1954 à la session de la Commission permanente du Pacifique Sud,
55
5 CIJ1057.indb 107 1/12/14 08:59 55 maritime dispute (judégment)
without doubt, a space which is different from any of the abovemen -
tioned ones in respect of which domestic legislation is practically
non-existent as regards international delimitation. The one exception
might be, in the case of Peru, the Petroleum Law (No. 11780 of
12 March 1952), which established as an external limit for the exercise
of the competences of the State over the continental shelf ‘an imaginé-
ary line drawn seaward at a constant distance of 200 miles’. This law
is in force and it should be noted that it was issued five months prioér
to the Declaration of Santiago.
There is no need to underline the convenience of preventing the
difficulties which would arise in the absence of an express and appro -
priate maritime demarcation, or as the result of some deficiency
therein which could affect the amicable conduct of relations between
Chile and Peru.”
138. On 13 June 1986, in an official communiqué, the Chilean Foreign
Ministry said that :
“Ambassador Bákula expressed the interest of the Peruvian Gov -
ernment to start future conversations between the two countries on
their points of view regarding maritime delimitation.
The Minister of Foreign Affairs, taking into consideration the good
relations existing between both countries, took note of the above stat -
ing that studies on this matter shall be carried out in due time.”
139. Peru contends that the Bákula Memorandum is perfectly clear. In
it Peru spelled out the need for “the formal and definitive delimitéation” of
their maritime spaces, distinguishing it from the ad hoc arrangements for
specific purposes, such as the 1954 fisheries policing tolerance zone. It
called for negotiations, not “renegotiations”. And, Peru continuesé, Chile
did not respond by saying that there was no need for such a delimitationé
because there was already such a boundary in existence. Rather “stud -
ies . . . are to be carried out”. Peru, based on the Memorandum and this
response, also contends that the practice after that date which Chile
invokes cannot be significant.
140. Chile, in addition to submitting that the Bákula Memorandum
called for a renegotiation of an existing boundary, said that it did thaét on
the (wrong) assumption that the maritime zones newly recognized in
UNCLOS called for the existing delimitation to be revisited. As well,
Peru did not renew its request to negotiate. Chile submits that the facté
that Peru was seeking a renegotiation was reflected in contemporaneousé
comments by the Peruvian Foreign Minister, reported in the Chilean and
Peruvian press.
*
141. The Court does not read the Bákula Memorandum as a request
for a renegotiation of an existing maritime boundary. Rather, it calls féor
56
5 CIJ1057.indb 108 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 55
constitue sans aucun doute un espace différent de tous ceux mentioné -
nés ci-dessus, pour lesquels la législation nationale est pratiqueément
inexistante en ce qui concerne la délimitation internationale. La seuéle
exception est peut-être, dans le cas du Pérou, la loi sur le pétrole
(no 11780 du 12 mars 1952), qui établit comme limite extérieure de
l’exercice des compétences de l’Etat sur le plateau continentalé « une
ligne imaginaire tracée en mer à une distance de 200 milles marins».
Cette loi est en vigueur et il convient de noter qu’elle fut adoptée
cinq mois avant la déclaration de Santiago.
Point n’est besoin de souligner l’avantage qu’il y a à préévenir les
difficultés qui pourraient se poser en l’absence d’une démaércation
maritime expresse et satisfaisante, ou en conséquence de quelque
insuffisance en la matière susceptible d’avoir une incidence sur éles
relations amicales entre le Chili et le Pérou. »
138. Le 13 juin 1986, le ministère chilien des relations extérieures écri -
vait, dans un communiqué officiel :
«L’ambassadeur Bákula a fait état de la volonté du Gouverne -
ment péruvien d’entreprendre de futurs échanges de vues entre lées
deux pays sur la question de la délimitation maritime.
Compte tenu des bonnes relations existant entre les deux pays, le
ministre des relations extérieures en a dûment pris note, en préécisant
que la question serait étudiée en temps utile. »
139. Le Pérou soutient que le mémorandum Bákula est parfaitement
clair: il y était expressément fait état de la nécessité de préocéder à «la déli
mitation officielle et définitive » des espaces maritimes des deux pays,
laquelle était à distinguer des arrangements ad hoc destinés à répondre à des
besoins spécifiques, tels que l’établissement, en 1954, d’une zone de tolé -
rance en matière de pêche ; c’était donc à des négociations, et non à des
«renégociations», qu’il appelait. Au surplus, affirme-t-il, le Chili n’a pas
objecté qu’une telle démarche était inutile au motif que la élimite aurait déjà
été fixée, mais il a répondu que «la question serait étudiée». Le Pérou, à la
lumière du mémorandum et de cette réponse, avance que la pratiqéue posté -
rieure à cette date, dont se réclame le Chili, se trouve ainsi priévée d’intérêt.
140. Le Chili soutient que, dans le mémorandum Bákula, le Pérou
demandait que soit renégociée une frontière qui existait déjéà, et le faisait
en partant du postulat (erroné) selon lequel la reconnaissance de néou -
veaux espaces maritimes par la CNUDM exigeait de revoir les délimita -
tions existantes. Du reste, le Pérou n’a jamais renouvelé son iénvitation.
Quant au fait qu’il cherchait à renégocier la frontière, il ressortirait, selon
le Chili, de propos tenus à l’époque par le ministre péruvieén des relations
extérieures et rapportés dans les presses chilienne et péruvienéne.
*
141. La Cour voit dans le mémorandum Bákula une demande tendant
non pas à renégocier une frontière maritime existante, mais àé procéder à
56
5 CIJ1057.indb 109 1/12/14 08:59 56 maritime dispute (judégment)
“the formal and definitive delimitation of the marine spaces”. While Peru
does recognize the existence of the special zone, in its view that zone édid
not satisfy the requirements of safety nor did it allow an appropriate
administration of marine resources ; further, an extensive interpretation
of the Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement would negatively affecét
Peru’s legitimate interests. In the Court’s view, the terms used ién that
Memorandum do acknowledge that there is a maritime boundary, with -
out giving precise information about its extent. The Court does not see é
the newspaper accounts as helpful. They do not purport to report the
speech of the Peruvian Minister in full.
142. There is force in the Chilean contention about Peru’s failure to
follow up on the issues raised in the Bákula Memorandum in a timely
manner: according to the record before the Court, Peru did not take the
matter up with Chile at the diplomatic level again until 20 October 2000,
before repeating its position in a Note to the United Nations Secretary-é
General in January 2001 and to Chile again in July 2004. However, the
Court considers that the visit by Ambassador Bákula and his Memo-
randum do reduce in a major way the significance of the practice of thée
Parties after that date. The Court recalls as well that its primary concéern
is with the practice of an earlier time, that of the 1950s, as indicatinég the
extent of the maritime boundary at the time the Parties acknowledged
that it existed.
J. Practice after 1986
143. The Court has already considered the Parties’ legislative practice
from the 1950s and 1960s (see paragraphs 119 to 122 above). Chile also
relies on two pieces of legislation from 1987 : a Peruvian Supreme Decree
adopted on 11 June 1987 and a Chilean Supreme Decree adopted on
26 October of that year. Chile sees these instruments as evidence that, in é
defining the areas of sovereign control by their navies, the Parties
respected the maritime boundary.
144. The Court notes that these Decrees define the limits of the Parties’é
internal maritime districts. However, as Peru points out in respect of iéts
own Decree, while these instruments define the northern and southern
limits of districts with some specificity (by reference to parallels éof lati -
tude), that is not the case for those limits abutting international bouénd-
aries between Ecuador and Peru, Peru and Chile, or Chile and Argentina. é
These Decrees define the internal limits of the jurisdiction of certaién
domestic authorities within Chile and within Peru; they do not purport to
define the international limits of either State. In view also of the téemporal
considerations mentioned above, the Court does not see these Decrees as é
significant.
145. Peru in addition referred the Court to a Chilean Decree of 1998
defining benthonic areas of the Chilean coast ; the northern limit ran to
57
5 CIJ1057.indb 110 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 56
«la délimitation officielle et définitive des espaces maritimes ». Le Pérou,
tout en reconnaissant l’existence de la zone spéciale, considéréait qu’elle ne
satisfaisait plus aux exigences de la sécurité et ne permettait paés une
bonne gestion des ressources marines, et qu’une interprétation larége de
l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale pouvait
nuire à ses intérêts légitimes. Pour la Cour, le libellé éde ce mémorandum
confirme l’existence d’une frontière maritime, sans donner d’éinformation
précise sur son étendue. Quant aux articles de presse, la Cour ne éconsi -
dère pas qu’ils soient utiles. Leurs auteurs ne prétendaient paés reproduire
l’intégralité des propos du ministre péruvien.
142. L’argument du Chili relatif à l’absence de suite donnée en téemps
utile, par le Pérou, aux questions soulevées dans le mémorandumé Bákula
ne manque pas de poids : selon les éléments soumis à la Cour, le Pérou
n’aurait abordé à nouveau la question avec le Chili sur le plané diploma -
tique que le 20 octobre 2000, avant de réitérer sa position dans une note
adressée en janvier 2001 au Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies et, de nouveau, dans une note à l’intention du Chili en
juillet 2004. La Cour considère néanmoins que la visite de l’ambassa -
deur Bákula et son mémorandum tendent nettement à réduire la valeéur de
la pratique ultérieure des Parties. Il y a lieu de rappeler égaleméent que la
Cour s’intéresse principalement à la pratique plus ancienne desé Parties,
celle remontant aux années 1950, en tant qu’elle témoigne de l’étendue de
la frontière maritime dont les Parties s’accordaient alors à reéconnaître
l’existence.
J. La pratique postérieure à 1986
143. La Cour a déjà examiné la pratique législative des Parties aéu cours
des années 1950 et 1960 (voir les paragraphes 119-122 ci-dessus). Le Chili
s’appuie par ailleurs sur deux textes de 1987 : un décret suprême péruvien
daté du 11 juin 1987 et un décret suprême chilien en date du 26 octobre
de la même année, qui démontrent selon lui que, lorsqu’ellesé ont défini le
ressort de leurs marines respectives, les Parties ont respecté la froéntière
maritime.
144. La Cour constate que ces textes servent à délimiter les circonscriép -
tions maritimes des Parties sur le plan interne. Toutefois, comme le faiét
observer le Pérou s’agissant de son propre décret, même si cées textes défi -
nissent assez précisément les limites septentrionale et méridionale de ces
circonscriptions (par rapport aux parallèles géographiques), telé n’est pas
le cas de celles qui bordent les frontières internationales entre luié et
l’Equateur ou le Chili, ou entre ce dernier et l’Argentine. Ils dééfinissent le
ressort de certaines autorités nationales à l’intérieur du Céhili et du Pérou,
mais n’ont pas pour objectif de déterminer les frontières interénationales
de l’un ou l’autre Etat. Compte tenu également des considérations tempo -
relles mentionnées ci-dessus, la Cour ne juge pas ces textes pertinenéts.
145. Le Pérou renvoie en outre la Cour à un décret chilien de 1998, équi
définit les zones de gestion des ressources benthiques de la côtée chilienne
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5 CIJ1057.indb 111 1/12/14 08:59 57 maritime dispute (judégment)
the south-west. But, as Chile says, the Decree was concerned only with
the harvesting of living resources on and under the sea-bed within its “ter-
ritorial seas”. The Court does not see this Decree as significant féor pres -
ent purposes.
146. The Court returns to evidence of enforcement measures between
the Parties. The next capture recorded in the case file after May 1986 is
from 1989 : the Peruvian interception and capture of two Chilean fishing
vessels within Peruvian waters, 9.5 nautical miles from land and 1.5 naut-
ical miles north of the parallel.
147. Chile also provided information, plotted on a chart, of Peruvian
vessels captured in 1984 and from 1994 in the waters which, in Chile’és
view, are on its side of the maritime boundary. The information relatingé
to 1984 records 14 vessels but all were captured within 20 nautical miles
of the coast ; in 1994 and 1995, 15, all within 40 nautical miles ; and it is
only starting in 1996 that arrests frequently occurred beyond 60 nautical
miles. Those incidents all occurred long after the 1950s and even after
1986. The Court notes, however, that Chile’s arrests of Peruvian vesséels
south of the parallel, whether they took place within the special zone oér
further south, provide some support to Chile’s position, although onléy to
the extent that such arrests were met without protest by Peru. This is téhe
case even with respect to arrests taking place after 1986.
148. Given its date, the Court does not consider as significant a
sketch-map said to be part of the Chilean Navy’s Rules of Engagement in
the early 1990s and which depicts a Special Maritime Frontier Zone
stretching out to the 200-nautical-mile limit, or information provided by
Chile in respect of reports to the Peruvian authorities by foreign commeér -
cial vessels between 2005 and 2010 and to the Chilean authorities by
Peruvian fishing vessels across the parallel.
K. The extent of the agreed maritime boundary : conclusion
149. The tentative conclusion that the Court reached above was that
the evidence at its disposal does not allow it to conclude that the mariétime
boundary, the existence of which the Parties acknowledged at that time, é
extended beyond 80 nautical miles along the parallel from its start -
ing-point. The later practice which it has reviewed does not lead the Court é
to change that position. The Court has also had regard to the consider -
ation that the acknowledgment, without more, in 1954 that a “maritimeé
boundary” exists is too weak a basis for holding that it extended faré
beyond the Parties’ extractive and enforcement capacity at that time.é
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et repose, à cet égard, sur une frontière septentrionale suivanét une direc -
tion sud-ouest. Or, comme l’affirme le Chili, le décret portait uéniquement
sur l’exploitation des ressources biologiques du fond de la mer et deé son
sous-sol, à l’intérieur de la « mer territoriale». La Cour n’accordera donc
pas de valeur à ce décret en l’espèce.
146. La Cour revient maintenant aux exemples de mesures visant à
assurer le respect de la frontière maritime entre les Parties. Le preémier
dont fasse état le dossier après mai 1986 date de 1989, lorsque le Pérou a
intercepté et arraisonné dans ses eaux deux bateaux de pêche chiliens,
à 9,5 milles marins de la côte et à 1,5 mille marin au nord du parallèle.
147. Le Chili a également fourni, sous forme de tableau, des informa -
tions sur les navires péruviens interceptés, en 1984 puis à partir de 1994,
dans les eaux qui, d’après lui, se trouvent de son côté de léa frontière mari -
time. Les navires arraisonnés en 1984 étaient au nombre de 14, mais tous
l’avaient été à moins de 20 milles marins des côtes. En 1994 et 1995, ce
nombre s’élevait à 15, mais toutes les interceptions avaient eu lieu en deçà
de 40 milles marins. Ce n’est qu’à partir de 1996 que des navires onté été
arraisonnés avec une certaine fréquence au-delà de 60 milles marins. Ces
incidents sont tous largement postérieurs aux années 1950, et même
à 1986. La Cour observe toutefois que les interceptions de navires pérué -
viens effectuées par le Chili au sud du parallèle, qu’elles aéient eu lieu dans
la zone spéciale ou plus au sud, étayent dans une certaine mesure éla posi -
tion du Chili, mais uniquement pour autant qu’elles n’ont donnéé lieu à
aucune protestation de la part du Pérou, conclusion qui vaut également
pour les interceptions intervenues après 1986.
148. Etant donné la date qu’il porte, la Cour ne juge pas pertinent le é
croquis censément tiré des règles d’engagement de la marine échilienne du
début des années 1990 et représentant la zone frontière maritime spéciale
comme s’étendant jusqu’à la limite des 200 milles marins ; il en va de
même des informations fournies par le Chili et relatives aux bâtiméents
commerciaux étrangers qui se sont signalés aux autorités péréuviennes
entre 2005 et 2010, ou aux navires de pêche péruviens qui en ont fait
autant auprès des autorités chiliennes au moment de franchir le paérallèle.
K. L’étendue de la frontière maritime convenue : conclusion
149. La Cour a constaté ci-dessus, à titre provisoire, que les élééments
dont elle dispose ne lui permettaient pas de conclure que la frontièrée
maritime, dont les Parties avaient à l’époque reconnu l’exisétence, s’éten -
dait au-delà de 80 milles marins le long du parallèle de latitude à partir de
son point de départ, et la pratique ultérieure qu’elle a examinéée ne la
conduit pas à changer de position à cet égard. La Cour a égaélement pris
en considération le fait que la simple reconnaissance, en 1954, de l’exis -
tence d’une « frontière maritime » constituerait une base trop faible pour
fonder la conclusion selon laquelle ladite frontière s’étendraiét bien au-delà
de la distance à laquelle les Parties avaient, à l’époque, léa capacité d’ex -
ploiter les ressources de la mer et de prendre des mesures d’exécuétion.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 113 1/12/14 08:59 58 maritime dispute (judégment)
150. Broader considerations relating to the positions of the three States
parties to the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, particu -
larly the two Parties in this case, in the early 1950s demonstrates thaté the
primary concern of the States parties regarding the more distant waters,é
demonstrated in 1947, in 1952, in 1954 (in their enforcement activitiesé at
sea as well as in their own negotiations), in 1955 and throughout the
United Nations process which led to the 1958 Conventions on the Law of
the Sea, was with presenting a position of solidarity, in particular, iné
respect of the major third countries involved in long distance fisheriées.
The States parties were concerned, as they greatly increased their fiséhing
capacity, that the stock was not depleted by those foreign fleets.
The seizure of the Onassis whaling fleet, undertaken by Peru in defence
of the claims made by the three signatories to the 1952 Santiago Declara -
tion (see paragraph 75 above), was indicative of these concerns. This
action occurred 126 nautical miles off of the Peruvian coast. Prior to its
seizure, the fleet unsuccessfully sought permission from Peru that it ébe
allowed to hunt between 15 and 100 nautical miles from the Peruvian
coast.
151. The material before the Court concerning the Parties’ focus on
solidarity in respect of long distance fisheries does not provide it wéith
precise information as to the exact extent of the maritime boundary which
existed between the Parties. This issue could be expected to have been
resolved by the Parties in the context of their tacit agreement and refléected
in the treaty which acknowledges that tacit agreement, namely the
1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement. This did not happen.
This left some uncertainty as to the precise length of the agreed maritiéme
boundary. However, based on an assessment of the entirety of the rele -
vant evidence presented to it, the Court concludes that the agreed mari -
time boundary between the Parties extended to a distance of
80 nautical miles along the parallel from its starting-point.
V. The Starting-Point of the Agreed Mariétime Boundary
152. Having concluded that there exists a maritime boundary between
the Parties, the Court must now identify the location of the starting-point
of that boundary.
153. Both Parties agree that the land boundary between them was set -
tled and delimited more than 80 years ago in accordance with Article 2 of
the 1929 Treaty of Lima (see paragraph 18) which specifies that “the fron -
tier between the territories of Chile and Peru . . . shall start from a point
on the coast to be named ‘Concordia’, ten kilometres to the north of the
bridge over the river Lluta”. Article 3 of the 1929 Treaty of Lima stipu -
lates that the frontier is subject to demarcation by a Mixed Commission é
consisting of one member appointed by each Party.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 114 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 58
150. Des considérations plus générales concernant les positions adopé-
tées au début des années 1950 par les trois Etats parties à l’accord de 1954
relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale, en particulier éles deux Par -
ties en l’espèce, démontrent que, s’agissant des eaux les pléus lointaines, le
souci principal des Etats parties, manifesté en 1947, en 1952, en 1954
(aussi bien dans le cadre de leurs mesures d’exécution en mer queé dans
celui de leurs négociations), en 1955 et tout au long du processus qui a
conduit aux conventions des Nations Unies de 1958 sur le droit de la mer,
était de présenter une position solidaire, notamment à l’endéroit des prin -
cipaux Etats tiers pratiquant la pêche hauturière. Alors qu’ilsé s’em -
ployaient à développer leurs capacités en matière de pêche, les Etats
parties s’inquiétaient de voir ces flottes étrangères éépuiser les ressources.
L’interception de la flotte baleinière Onassis, mesure prise paré le Pérou
pour défendre les revendications formulées par les trois Etats sigénataires
de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 (voir le paragraphe 75 ci-dessus),
était révélatrice de ces inquiétudes. L’interception a eué lieu à 126 milles
marins de la côte péruvienne, après que la flotte eut demandéé en vain au
Pérou l’autorisation de chasser dans la zone située entre 15 eté 100 milles
marins au large de la côte péruvienne.
151. Les éléments soumis à la Cour concernant l’importance qu’éatta -
chaient les Parties à la solidarité, s’agissant de la pêche éhauturière, ne lui
fournissent pas d’information précise quant à l’étendue eéxacte de la frontière
maritime qui existait entre elles. On aurait pu s’attendre à ce quée cette ques -
tion soit réglée par les Parties dans le contexte de leur accord téacite, puis
exprimée dans le traité qui reconnaît cet accord, c’est-àé-dire l’accord de 1954
relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale. Or, cela n’aé pas été le cas, ce
qui a laissé subsister quelque incertitude quant à la longueur exaécte de la
frontière maritime convenue; toutefois, après examen de l’ensemble des élé -
ments de preuve pertinents qui lui ont été présentés, la Couér conclut que la
frontière maritime convenue entre les Parties s’étendait sur unée distance de
80 milles marins le long du parallèle à partir de son point de dépéart.
V. Le point de départ de léa frontière maritime céonvenue
152. Ayant conclu à l’existence d’une frontière maritime entre leés Par -
ties, la Cour doit à présent définir l’emplacement du point de départ de
cette frontière.
153. Les deux Parties reconnaissent que la frontière terrestre qui les
sépare a été établie et délimitée il y a plus de quatrée-vingts ans, conformé -
ment à l’article 2 du traité de Lima de 1929 (voir le paragraphe 18), qui
précise que « la frontière entre les territoires du Chili et du Pérou … par -
tira[it] d’un point de la côte qui sera[it] appelé « Concordia», à une dis -
tance de dix kilomètres au nord du pont qui enjambe la Lluta». L’article 3
du traité de Lima de 1929 stipulait que la démarcation de la frontière
serait confiée à une commission mixte composée de deux membreés, cha -
cune des Parties désignant l’un d’eux.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 115 1/12/14 08:59 59 maritime dispute (judégment)
154. According to Peru, the delegates of the Parties to the Mixed Com-
mission could not agree on the exact location of Point Concordia. Peru
recalls that this was resolved through instructions issued by the Ministéers
of Foreign Affairs of each State to their delegates in April 1930 (herein-
after the “Joint Instructions”), specifying to the delegates thaté Point Con -
cordia was to be the point of intersection between the Pacific Ocean aénd
an arc with a radius of 10 km having its centre on the bridge over the
River Lluta, with the land frontier thus approaching the sea as an arc
tending southward. Peru notes that the Joint Instructions also provided
that “[a] boundary marker shall be placed at any point of the arc, asé close
to the sea as allows preventing it from being destroyed by the ocean
waters”.
155. Peru recalls that the Final Act of the Commission of Limits Con -
taining the Description of Placed Boundary Markers dated 21 July 1930
(hereinafter the “Final Act”), agreed by the Parties, records that “[t]he
demarcated boundary line starts from the Pacific Ocean at a point on the
seashore ten kilometres north-west from the first bridge over the Riveér
Lluta of the Arica-La Paz railway” (emphasis added). Peru argues that
the Final Act then indicates that the first marker along the physical é
demarcation of the land boundary is Boundary Marker No. 1 (Hito
No. 1), located some distance from the low-water line so as to prevent its
destruction by ocean waters at 18° 21´ 03˝ S, 70° 22´ 56˝ W. Peru thus
considers that the Final Act distinguishes between a “point” as ané abstract
concept representing the geographical location of the starting-point of the
land boundary (i.e., Point Concordia) and “markers” which are actual
physical structures along the land boundary. In Peru’s view, as the Féinal
Act refers to both the point derived from Article 2 of the 1929 Treaty of
Lima and Boundary Marker No. 1, these two locations must be distinct.
Thus, relying on both the Joint Instructions and the Final Act, Peru
maintains that Boundary Marker No. 1 was not intended to mark the
start of the agreed land boundary but was simply intended to mark, in a é
practical way, a point on the arc constituting such boundary. Peru more -
over refers to contemporaneous sketch-maps which are said to clearly
demonstrate that the land boundary does not start at Boundary Marker
No. 1. Peru further contends that the reference in the Final Act to Bound -
ary Marker No. 1 as being located on the “seashore” is a mere general
description, with this being consistent with the general manner in whiché
other boundary markers are described in the same document. Finally,
Peru clarifies that the Final Act agrees to give Boundary Marker No. 9,
located near the railway line, the name of “Concordia” for symboliéc rea -
sons, an explanation with which Chile agrees.
156. In Chile’s view, the outcome of the 1929 Treaty of Lima and 1930
demarcation process was that the Parties agreed that Boundary Marker
No. 1 was placed on the seashore with astronomical co-ordinates
18° 21´ 03˝ S, 70° 22´ 56˝ W and that the land boundary started from this
Marker. Chile characterizes the Joint Instructions as indicating that théere
would be a starting-point on the coast of the land boundary, instructing
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154. Selon le Pérou, les représentants des Parties au sein de la commis -
sion mixte n’ont pas pu s’entendre sur l’emplacement exact du
point Concordia; il rappelle que la question a été réglée par des directiveés
que le ministère des relations extérieures de chacun des Etats a aédressées
à son représentant en avril 1930 (ci-après les « directives conjointes»), les -
quelles précisaient que le point Concordia devait correspondre à l’inter -
section entre l’océan Pacifique et un arc d’un rayon de dix kilomètres
ayant pour centre le pont qui enjambait la Lluta. La frontière terrestre
parvenait ainsi à la mer en formant un arc incurvé vers le sud. Le Pérou
signale que les directives conjointes prévoyaient également qu’éune «borne
frontière sera[it] placée en un quelconque point de l’arc, ausséi près que
possible de la mer mais à l’abri de l’action destructrice des fléots».
155. Le Pérou rappelle que, dans le rapport final de la commission de
démarcation, daté du 21 juillet 1930 et entériné par les Parties (ci-après le
«rapport final»), où est spécifié l’emplacement des bornes frontièéres, il est
dit que « la ligne frontière abornée part de l’océan Pacifique, en un point
du littoral situé à dix kilomètres au nord-ouest du premier pont sur la
Lluta de la ligne de chemin de fer reliant Arica et La Paz » (les italiques
sont de la Cour). D’après lui, le rapport final précise ensuéite que la pre -
mière borne servant à la démarcation de la frontière terrestére était la
borne n o 1 (Hito n 1), laquelle est située par 18° 21´ 03˝ de latitude sud
et 70° 22´ 56˝ de longitude ouest, assez loin de la laisse de basse mer pour
ne pas être emportée par les flots. Le Pérou considère ainési que le rapport
final opère une distinction entre le « point» abstrait correspondant à l’ex -
trémité géographique de la frontière terrestre (c’est-à-dire le pointConcor-
dia) et les « bornes», qui sont des objets concrets servant à marquer cette
dernière. Il avance que, puisque le rapport final fait référeénce à la fois au
point établi à l’article 2 du traité de Lima de 1929 et à la borne n o 1, ces
deux emplacements sont nécessairement distincts. Ainsi, s’appuyant àé la
fois sur les directives conjointes et sur le rapport final, le Pérou soutient
o
que la borne n 1 n’était pas destinée à marquer le point de départ de laé
frontière terrestre convenue, mais simplement à indiquer concrètement un
point de l’arc constituant cette frontière. Il invoque par ailleurés des cro -
quis de l’époque qui démontrent clairement, selon lui, que la borne n 1
ne marque pas le point de départ de la frontière terrestre. Il affiérme en
outre que la référence faite, dans le rapport final, à l’eémplacement de la
borne n o 1 sur le « littoral» n’est qu’une mention générale, conforme à cet
égard à la description des autres bornes énumérées dans le même docu -
ment. Enfin, il précise que les Parties étaient convenues, dans le rapport
o
final, de baptiser symboliquement « Concordia» la borne n 9 située près
de la ligne de chemin de fer, ce que reconnaît le Chili.
156. Le Chili avance pour sa part que, par suite du traité de Lima de 1929
et du processus de démarcation de 1930, les Parties étaient d’accord pour
o
considérer que la borne n 1 avait été placée sur le littoral, en un point dont
les coordonnées astronomiques étaient de 18° 21´ 03˝ de latitude sud et de
70° 22´ 56˝ de longitude ouest, et marquait le point de départ de la frontière
terrestre. D’après lui, les directives conjointes demandaient que éla frontière
60
5 CIJ1057.indb 117 1/12/14 08:59 60 maritime dispute (judégment)
the delegates to ensure the placement of a marker to indicate such startéing-
point. Chile relies on an Act of Plenipotentiaries dated 5 August 1930
signed by the Ambassador of Chile to Peru and the Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Peru, claiming that it records the “definitive locatioén and
characteristics” of each boundary marker and acknowledges that the
boundary markers, beginning in order from the Pacific Ocean, demarcateé
the Peruvian-Chilean land boundary.
157. Peru considers that Chile’s claim that Boundary Marker No. 1 is
the starting-point of the land boundary faces two insurmountable prob -
lems. For Peru, the first such problem is that it means that an area oéf the
land boundary of approximately 200 metres in length has not been delim -
ited, which is not the intention of the 1929 Treaty of Lima and the Finaél
Act. The second problem, according to Peru, is that a maritime boundary é
cannot start on dry land some 200 metres inland from the coast, referring
to what it claims to be a “cardinal principle” of maritime entitleément that
the “land dominates the sea”. Alternatively, Peru notes that Chile’s inter -
pretation requires that the maritime boundary starts where the parallel
passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 reaches the sea, with this being
inconsistent with the 1929 Treaty of Lima and the Joint Instructions
which clearly refer to the land boundary as following an arc southward
from Boundary Marker No. 1. Peru argues that, at least until the 1990s,
Chile’s own cartographic and other practice clearly acknowledges the é
starting-point of the land boundary as being Point Concordia, a point
recognized as distinct from Boundary Marker No. 1.
158. Chile argues that the lighthouse arrangements of 1968-1969 are
also relevant in that they involved a joint verification of the exact éphysical
location of Boundary Marker No. 1. According to Chile, the 1952 Santi -
ago Declaration did not identify the parallel running through the point
where the land frontier reaches the sea. The observance and identificaétion
of such parallel by mariners gave rise to practical difficulties between the
Parties, as a result of which they agreed to signal such parallel with téwo
lighthouses aligned through Boundary Marker No. 1. Chile refers to a
document dated 26 April 1968, signed by both Parties, which it claims
represents an agreement that it is the parallel of the maritime frontieré
which would be marked by the lighthouses. Thus, Chile claims that “[t]he
1968-1969 arrangements and the signalling process as a whole confirmed
Hito No. 1 as the reference point for the parallel of latitude constituting
the maritime boundary between the Parties”, further contending that téhe
Parties have also used the parallel passing through this point as the maéri -
time boundary for the capture and prosecution of foreign vessels. Chile é
further argues that there is corresponding Peruvian practice between 198é2
and 2001 treating the parallel running through Boundary Marker No. 1
as the southernmost point of Peruvian territory.
61
5 CIJ1057.indb 118 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 60
terrestre parte d’un point sur la côte, les représentants des Péarties étant cha-
gés de veiller à l’installation d’une borne pour indiquer ceé point de départ. Il
fait valoir que, dans un procès-verbal faisant suite à une réunéion de plénipo -
tentiaires, daté du 5 août 1930 et signé par l’ambassadeur du Chili au Pérou
et par le ministre péruvien des relations extérieures, les Partiesé avaient consi
gné «l’emplacement et les caractéristiques définitif» s de chacune des bornes,
et reconnu que celles-ci marquaient, dans l’ordre de leur numérotaétion à
partir de l’océan Pacifique, la frontière terrestre les séparant.
157. oe Pérou estime que l’affirmation du Chili selon laquelle la
borne n 1 constitue le point de départ de la frontière terrestre se heurteé à
deux difficultés insurmontables. En premier lieu, cela signifierait selon lui
qu’un segment de la frontière terrestre d’approximativement 200é mètres de
long n’aurait pas été délimité, ce qui n’était préévu ni par le traité de Lima
de 1929 ni par le rapport final. En second lieu, se réclamant de ce qué’il
qualifie de «principe fondamental» en matière de droits à des espaces mari -
times, à savoir que « la terre domine la mer », le Pérou fait valoir qu’une
frontière maritime ne saurait commencer sur la terre ferme, à queléque
200 mètres de la côte. A titre subsidiaire, il signale que l’interpérétation
chilienne exigerait que la frontière maritime commence là où leé parallèle
passant par la borne n o 1 aboutit en mer, ce qui irait à l’encontre du traité
de Lima de 1929 et des directives conjointes, dans lesquelles la frontière
terrestre est clairemeot présentée comme suivant un arc incurvéé vers le sud
à partir de la borne n 1. Il avance que, au moins jusque dans les années 1990,
la propre pratique du Chili, notamment cartographique, montrait claire -
ment qu’il reconnaissait que le point de départ de la frontièreé terrestre était
le point Concordia, et que ce point était distinct de la borne n o 1.
158. Le Chili avance que les arrangements relatifs aux phares de 1968-
1969 sont aussi pertinents en ce qu’ils se sont accompagnés d’uéne vérifica -
tion conjointe de l’emplacement exact de la borne n o 1. Selon lui, la
déclaration de Santiago de 1952 ne précisait pas quel était le parallèle pas -
sant par le point où la frontière terrestre aboutissait en mer. Ilé était diffi -
cile, pour les marins, de reconnaître et de respecter le parallèleé, ce qui
occasionna des difficultés pratiques entre les Parties et les amena à conve -
nir de le signaler par deux phares alignés sur la borne n 1. Le Chili fait
référence à un document daté du 26 avril 1968 et signé par les deux Par-
ties, qui constate, selon lui, l’accord intervenu entre celles-ci suré le fait que
le parallèle à signaler par les phares était bien celui qui conéstituait la fron-
tière maritime. Ainsi, le Chili soutient que « [l]es accords de 1968-1969 et
le processus de signalisation dans son ensemble ont confirmé que laé
o
borne n 1 était le point de référence pour déterminer le parallèlée de lati -
tude devant servir de frontière maritime entre les Parties ». Il ajoute que
celles-ci ont par ailleurs eu recours au parallèle passant par ce poiént
comme frontière maritime pour décider de l’interception de naviéres étran -
gers et de l’engagement de poursuites à leur encontre. Il avance eén outre
que la pratique péruvienne entre 1982 et 2001 va dans le même sens et
confirme l’hypothèse suivant laquelle le parallèle passant paér la borne n o 1
était considéré comme la limite méridionale du territoire pééruvien.
61
5 CIJ1057.indb 119 1/12/14 08:59 61 maritime dispute (judégment)
159. Peru recalls that when it proposed to Chile, in 1968, to conclude
the lighthouse arrangements, it suggested that it could be “convenient, for
both countries, to proceed to build posts or signs of considerable dimené-
sions and visible at a great distance, at the point at which the common é
border reaches the sea, near boundary marker number one”, with Peru
submitting that the language of “near Boundary Marker No. 1” clearly
indicates that this point was distinct from the seaward terminus of the é
land boundary at Point Concordia. Peru then continues to explain that
the placement of the Peruvian lighthouse at Boundary Marker No. 1 was
motivated by practical purposes, arguing that as the purpose of the
arrangement was to provide general orientation to artisanal fishermen é
operating near the coast, not to delimit a maritime boundary, aligning téhe
lights along Boundary Marker No. 1 proved sufficient.
160. The Peruvian Maritime Domain Baselines Law, Law No. 28621
dated 3 November 2005, identifies the co-ordinates of Point Concordia as
18° 21´ 08˝ S, 70° 22´ 39˝ W, as measured on the WGS 84 datum. The law
sets out 266 geographical co-ordinates used to measure Peru’s baselines,
culminating in so-called “Point 266”, which Peru claims coincides with
Point Concordia.
161. Peru contends that Chile has sought, in recent years, to unsettle
what it claims to be the Parties’ previous agreement that the startinég-point
of the land boundary is Point Concordia, referring in this regard to an
incident in early 2001 in which Chile is alleged to have placed a surveiél -
lance booth between Boundary Marker No. 1 and the seashore, an action
which elicited an immediate protest from Peru, with this booth being sub -
sequently removed. Chile claims that its decision to remove this booth
was motivated by the proposals of the armies of both Parties that no
surveillance patrols occur within 100 metres of the international land
boundary, with Chile claiming that it duly reserved its position regardiéng
the course of the land boundary. Peru refers also in this regard to Chiléean
attempts to pass internal legislation in 2006-2007 referring to the starting-
point of the land boundary as the intersection with the seashore of the é
parallel passing through Boundary Marker No. 1, rather than Point Con -
cordia. Chile considers that its failure to pass the relevant legislatioén in its
originally proposed form was not connected to the substance of the aforeé -
mentioned reference.
*
162. The Court notes that on 20 October 2000, Peru communicated to
Chile that the Parties disagreed concerning the status of the parallel péass-
ing through Boundary Marker No. 1 as a maritime boundary. On 9 Janu-
ary 2001, Peru informed the Secretary-General of the United Nations
that it did not agree with Chile’s understanding that a parallel constituted
the maritime boundary between them at 18° 21´ 00˝ S. On 19 July 2004,
62
5 CIJ1057.indb 120 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 61
159. Le Pérou rappelle que, lorsqu’il a, en 1968, proposé au Chili de
conclure les arrangements relatifs aux phares, il a fait valoir qu’ilé pourrait
être « utile pour les deux pays d’installer, au point où la frontière com -
mune aboutit en mer, près de la borne numéro un, des poteaux ou autres
marques de taille suffisante, visibles de loin ». Il affirme que l’expression
«près de la borne numéro un » indiquait clairement que ce point était dis -
tinct du point terminal de la frontière terrestre correspondant au
point Concordia. Il ajoute que l’érection du phare péruvien à la béorne n o 1
était motivée par des finalités pratiques, avançant que leés arrangements
visaient non à délimiter une frontière maritime, mais à perméettre aux
embarcations pêchant près des côtes de s’orienter, et qu’éil suffisait pour
cela d’aligner les phares le long du parallèle passant par la bornée n o 1.
o
160. La loi péruvienne n 28621 du 3 novembre 2005 relative aux lignes
de base du domaine maritime définit le point Concordia comme étant
situé par 18° 21´ 08˝ de latitude sud et 70° 22´ 39˝ de longitude ouest, sui -
vant le système géodésique WGS 84. Elle énonce les coordonnées géogra -
phiques des 266 points utilisés pour tracer les lignes de base péruviennes,
lesquelles prennent fin au « point 266 », qui coïnciderait, selon le Pérou,
avec le point Concordia.
161. Le Pérou affirme par ailleurs que, au cours des dernières annéées,
le Chili a cherché à remettre en question ce qu’il considèreé comme ayant
été convenu entre eux, à savoir que le point Concordia constituait le point
de départ de la frontière terrestre. Il mentionne à cet égaréd un incident
survenu début 2001, à l’occasion duquel le Chili aurait installé un poste
de surveillance entre la borne n o 1 et le littoral, provoquant ainsi une
réaction immédiate du Pérou, laquelle a abouti au retrait dudité poste. Le
Chili soutient que cette décision découle en fait des recommandatiéons des
armées des deux Parties, qui proposaient qu’il n’y ait pas de patrouille de
surveillance à moins de 100 mètres de la frontière terrestre internationale,
et qu’il avait dûment réservé sa position sur le tracé deé celle-ci. Le Pérou
renvoie également à cet égard aux tentatives faites par le Chiléi en 2006-
2007 pour adopter une législation interne faisant partir la frontièére ter -
restre non pas du point Concordia, mais de l’intersection du parallèle
o
passant par la borne n 1 avec le littoral. Le Chili affirme que, si la légis -
lation envisagée ne put être adoptée dans sa forme initiale, c’est pour des
raisons qui n’avaient aucun rapport avec le point de départ de la frontière
terrestre.
*
162. La Cour observe que, le 20 octobre 2000, le Pérou a signalé au
Chili l’existence d’un désaccord entre eux concernant la vocatiéon du paral -
o
lèle passant par la borne n 1 à servir de frontière maritime. Le 9 jan -
vier 2001, il a informé le Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies de son désaccord avec l’interprétation chilienne selon
laquelle la frontière maritime séparant les deux Etats serait constituée par
62
5 CIJ1057.indb 121 1/12/14 08:59 62 maritime dispute (judégment)
Peru described the situation as being one in which exchanges between theé
Parties had revealed “totally dissenting and opposed juridical positiéons
about the maritime delimitation which, in accordance with international é
law, evidence a juridical dispute”. In such circumstances, the Court will
not consider the arguments of the Parties concerning an incident involv -
ing a surveillance booth in 2001, the Peruvian Maritime Domain Base -
lines Law dated 3 November 2005 or the Chilean legislative initiatives in
2006-2007, as such events occurred after it had become evident that a
dispute concerning this issue had arisen and thus these actions could beé
perceived as motivated by the Parties’ positions in relation thereto.é
163. The Court observes that a considerable number of the arguments
presented by the Parties concern an issue which is clearly not before it,
namely, the location of the starting-point of the land boundary identified
as “Concordia” in Article 2 of the 1929 Treaty of Lima. The Court’s task
is to ascertain whether the Parties have agreed to any starting-point of
their maritime boundary. The jurisdiction of the Court to deal with the é
issue of the maritime boundary is not contested.
164. The Court notes that during the early preparations for the light -
house arrangements in April 1968 (discussed at paragraph 96 above)
delegates of both Parties understood that they were preparing for the
materialization of the parallel running through Boundary Marker No. 1,
which the delegates understood to be the maritime frontier, and that theé
delegates communicated such understanding to their respective Govern -
ments.
165. The Governments of both Parties then confirmed this understand -
ing. The Note of 5 August 1968 from the Secretary-General of Foreign
Affairs of Peru to the chargé d’affaires of Chile states :
“I am pleased to inform Your Honour that the Government of Peru
approves in their entirety the terms of the document signed on the
Peruvian-Chilean border on 26 April 1968 by the representatives
of both countries in relation to the installation of leading marks to
materialise the parallel of the maritime frontier.
As soon as Your Honour informs me that the Government of Chile
is in agreement, we will be pleased to enter into the necessary discus -
sions in order to determine the date on which the Joint Commission
may meet in order to verify the position of Boundary Marker No. 1
and indicate the definitive location of the towers or leading marks . . . .”
The Court notes Peru’s approval of the entirety of the document datedé
26 April 1968.
166. The Chilean response of 29 August 1968 from the Embassy
of Chile to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Peru is in the following
terms :
63
5 CIJ1057.indb 122 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 62
le parallèle de 18° 21´ 00˝ de latitude sud. Le 19 juillet 2004, il a décrit la
situation comme étant de celles dans lesquelles les échanges entreé les Par-
ties avaient révélé des « positions juridiques totalement divergentes et
opposées concernant la délimitation maritime, ce qui, conforméméent au
droit international, atteste l’existence d’un différend juridéique». Dans ces
conditions, la Cour n’examinera pas les arguments des Parties relatifés à
l’incident de 2001 concernant le poste de surveillance, à la loi du
3 novembre 2005 relative aux lignes de base du domaine maritime péru -
vien et aux mesures législatives amorcées par le Chili en 2006-200é7, car, ces
faits étant postérieurs au constat de l’existence d’un difféérend concernant
la délimitation maritime, les réactions des Parties pourraient êétre considé -
rées comme une conséquence de leurs positions respectives à ceté égard.
163. La Cour fait observer que nombre des arguments présentés par les
Parties concernent une question qui ne lui est manifestement pas poséée, à
savoir celle de l’emplacement du point de départ de la frontièrée terrestre,
appelé « Concordia» à l’article 2 du traité de Lima de 1929. En effet, la
tâche qui incombe à la Cour est celle de rechercher si les Partiesé sont
convenues d’un point de départ pour leur frontière maritime. Laé compé -
tence de la Cour pour connaître de la question de la frontière maréitime
n’est pas contestée.
164. La Cour constate que, en avril 1968, à l’aube du processus ayant
abouti aux arrangements relatifs aux phares (examinés au paragraphe é96
ci-dessus), les représentants des deux Parties avaient compris qu’éils s’ap -
prêtaient à matérialiser le parallèle passant par la borne n 1, parallèle qui
constituait selon eux la frontière maritime, ce dont ils faisaient paért à
leurs gouvernements respectifs.
165. Les Gouvernements des deux Parties ont par la suite confirmé
qu’ils l’avaient ainsi envisagé. La note du 5 août 1968 adressée au chargé
d’affaires chilien par le secrétaire général aux relationsé extérieures du
Pérou est rédigée en ces termes :
«J’ai le plaisir de vous informer que le Gouvernement péruvien
approuve dans son intégralité le document signé à la frontièére entre
le Pérou et le Chili le 26 avril 1968 par les représentants de nos deux
pays en vue de l’installation de marques d’alignement destinées à
matérialiser le parallèle constituant la frontière maritime.
Nous nous réjouissons à l’idée d’entamer, dès que vousé m’aurez
communiqué l’accord du Gouvernement chilien, les discussions nééces -
saires pour déterminer la date à laquelle la Commission mixte se rééu- o
nira, afin de procéder à la vérification de la position de la borne n 1
et d’indiquer l’emplacement définitif des tours ou des repèéres…»
La Cour note que le Pérou a approuvé intégralement le document en date
du 26 avril 1968.
166. La réponse du Chili, datée du 29 août 1968 et adressée au minis -
tère des relations extérieures du Pérou par l’ambassade du Céhili, est libel-
lée comme suit :
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5 CIJ1057.indb 123 1/12/14 08:59 63 maritime dispute (judégment)
“The Embassy of Chile presents its compliments to the Honourable
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and has the honour to refer to the Meet -
ing of the Joint Chilean-Peruvian Commission held on 25 and 26 April
1968 in relation to the study of the installation of the leading marks
visible from the sea to materialise the parallel of the maritime frontieér
originating at Boundary Marker No. 1.
On this point, the Embassy of Chile is pleased to accept on behalf
of the Government of Chile the proposals which the technical repre -
sentatives of both countries included in the Act which they signed on
28 [sic] April 1968 with a view to taking the measures for the above -
mentioned signalling in order to act as a warning to fishing vessels
that normally navigate in the maritime frontier zone.
Given that the parallel which it is intended to materialise is the one
which corresponds to the geographical situation indicated by Bound -
ary Marker No. 1 as referred to in the Act signed in Lima on
1 August 1930, the Chilean Government agrees that an ad hoc Joint
Commission should be constituted as soon as possible for the purpose
of verifying the position of this pyramid and that, in addition, the saiéd
Commission should determine the position of the sites where the lead -
ing marks are to be installed.”
167. The Act of the Chile-Peru Mixed Commission in Charge of Veri -
fying the Location of Boundary Marker No. 1 and Signalling the Mari -
time Boundary of 22 August 1969 (hereinafter the “1969 Act”), signed by
the delegates of both Parties, introduces its task using the following léan -
guage :
“The undersigned Representatives of Chile and of Peru, appointed
by their respective Governments for the purposes of verifying the
original geographical position of the concrete-made Boundary Marker
number one (No. 1) of the common frontier and for determining the
points of location of the Alignment Marks that both countries have
agreed to installin order to signal the maritime boundary and physically
to give effect to the parallel that passes through the aforementioned
Boundary Marker number one . . . .” (Emphasis added.)
168. The 1969 Act recommends the rebuilding of the damaged Bound -
ary Marker No. 1 on its original location, which remained visible. The
1969 Act also includes a section entitled Joint Report signed by the Heads
of each Party’s Delegation, describing their task as follows :
“The undersigned Heads of Delegations of Chile and of Peru sub -
mit to their respective Governments the present Report on the state
of repair of the boundary markers in the section of the Chile-Peru
frontier which they have had the opportunity to inspect on the occa -
sion of the works which they have been instructed to conduct in order
to verify the location of Boundary Marker number one and to signal
the maritime boundary.”
64
5 CIJ1057.indb 124 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 63
«L’ambassade du Chili présente ses compliments au ministère des é
relations extérieures et a l’honneur de se référer à la rééunion de la
Commission mixte Chili-Pérou, tenue les 25 et 26 avril 1968, qui por-
tait sur l’étude réalisée en vue de l’installation de maréques d’aligne -
ment visibles depuis la mer pour matérialiser lo parallèle constitéuant
la frontière maritime à partir de la borne n 1.
Sur ce point, l’ambassade du Chili a le plaisir d’accepter, au nomé
du Gouvernement chilien, les propositions formulées par les représen -
tants techniques des deux pays dans le document qu’ils ont signé lée
28 [sic] avril 1968, en vue de prendre les mesures destinées à la signa -
lisation susmentionnée pour qu’elle serve de mise en garde à l’éinten-
tion des navires de pêche fréquentant la zone maritime frontalièére.
Etant donné que le parallèle devant être matérialisé est écelui qui
o
correspond à la position géographique indiquée par la borne n 1,
conformément au procès-verbal signé à Lima le 1 eraoût 1930, le
Gouvernement chilien accepte qu’une commission mixte ad hoc soit
constituée dès que possible dans le but de vérifier la position de cette
pyramide et, par ailleurs, que ladite commission détermine l’emplaé -
cement des lieux où les repères doivent être installés. »
167. Dans son rapport conjoint, daté du 22 août 1969 (ci-après le
«rapport conjoint de 1969 ») et signé par les représentants des deux Par -
ties, la commission mixte Chili-Pérou chargée de vérifier l’emplacement
o
de la borne n 1 et de signaler la frontière maritime énonçait sa mission
dans les termes suivants :
«Les soussignés, représentants du Chili et du Pérou nommés paér
leurs gouvernements respectifs aux fins de vérifier la position gééogra -
phique d’origine de la borne en béton numéro un (n o 1) marquant la
frontière commune aux deux pays et de déterminer l’emplacement é
des marques d’alignement que les deux Etats, sont convenus de pla -
cer afin de signaler la frontière maritime et de donner matériellement▯
effet au parallèle passant par ladite borne n o 1… » (Les italiques sont
de la Cour.)
168. Dans le même rapport, la commission mixte recommandait de
reconstruire en son emplacement initial, demeuré visible, la borne n o 1
endommagée. Le document contenait également une section intituléée
«rapport conjoint» et signée par les chefs des délégations de chacune des
Parties, dans laquelle leur mission était exposée comme suit :
«Les soussignés, chefs des délégations du Chili et du Pérou, épré -
sentent à leurs gouvernements respectifs le présent rapport relatiéf à
l’état des bornes frontières sur la section de la frontière éentre le Pérou
et le Chili qu’ils ont eu l’occasion d’inspecter dans le cadre édes tra -
vaux qu’ils étaient chargés d’effectuer afin de vérifiéer l’emplacement
de la borne numéro un et de signaler la frontière maritime. »
64
5 CIJ1057.indb 125 1/12/14 08:59 64 maritime dispute (judégment)
169. The Court observes that both Parties thus clearly refer to their
understanding that the task which they are jointly undertaking involves é
the materialization of the parallel of the existing maritime frontier, wéith
such parallel understood to run through Boundary Marker No. 1.
170. In order to determine the starting-point of the maritime bound -
ary, the Court has considered certain cartographic evidence presented byé
the Parties. The Court observes that Peru presents a number of official
maps of Arica, dated 1965 and 1966, and of Chile, dated 1955, 1961 and
1963, published by the Instituto Geográfico Militar de Chile, as weéll as an
excerpt from Chilean Nautical Chart 101 of 1989. However, these mater-
ials largely focus on the location of the point “Concordia” on theé coast
and do not purport to depict any maritime boundary.
171. The Court similarly notes that a number of instances of Peruvian
practice subsequent to 1968 relied upon by Chile are not relevant as theéy
address the issue of the location of the Peru-Chile land boundary.
172. The only Chilean map referred to by Peru which appears to depict
the maritime boundary along a parallel passing through Boundary
Marker No. 1 is an excerpt from Chilean Nautical Chart 1111 of 1998.
This map, however, confirms the agreement between the Parties of
1968-1969. The Court considers that it is unable to draw any inference
from the 30-year delay in such cartographic depiction by Chile.
173. The evidence presented in relation to fishing and other maritime
practice in the region does not contain sufficient detail to be useful éin the
present circumstances where the starting-points of the maritime boundary
claimed by each of the Parties are separated by a mere eight seconds of
latitude, nor is this evidence legally significant.
174. The Court considers that the maritime boundary which the Parties
intended to signal with the lighthouse arrangements was constituted by téhe
parallel passing through Boundary Marker No. 1. Both Parties subse -
quently implemented the recommendations of the 1969 Act by building
the lighthouses as agreed, thus signalling the parallel passing through
Boundary Marker No. 1. The 1968-1969 lighthouse arrangements there -
fore serve as compelling evidence that the agreed maritime boundary fol -
lows the parallel that passes through Boundary Marker No. 1.
175. The Court is not called upon to take a position as to the location
of Point Concordia, where the land frontier between the Parties starts. It
notes that it could be possible for the aforementioned point not to coiné -
cide with the starting-point of the maritime boundary, as it was just
defined. The Court observes, however, that such a situation would be téhe
consequence of the agreements reached between the Parties.
176. The Court thus concludes that the starting-point of the maritime
boundary between the Parties is the intersection of the parallel of latiétude
passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low-water line.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 126 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 64
169. La Cour fait observer que les deux Parties ont ainsi clairement
reconnu qu’elles entendaient procéder conjointement à la matéérialisation
du parallèle constituant la frontière maritime existante, étant convenues
que ce parallèle était celui qui passait par la borne n o 1.
170. Afin de déterminer le point de départ de la frontière maritimée, la
Cour a examiné certains éléments de preuve cartographiques souméis par les
Parties. Elle remarque que le Pérou présente plusieurs cartes offiécielles
d’Arica datant de 1965 et 1966, et du Chili datant de 1955, 1961 et 1963,
publiées par l’Instituto Geográfico Militar de Chile, ainsi qéu’un extrait
de la carte marine chilienne n 101 de 1989. Toutefois, ces documents
concernent dans une large mesure l’emplacement du point « Concordia»
sur la côte et ne sont pas censés représenter une quelconque frontiéère
maritime.
171. De même, la Cour constate que plusieurs des exemples sur les -
quels s’appuie le Chili pour établir la pratique péruvienne posétérieure
à 1968 manquent de pertinence en ce qu’ils concernent la question du
tracé de la frontière terrestre.
172. La seule carte chilienne mentionnée par le Pérou qui semble repréé o -
senter la frontière maritime le long du parallèle passant par la béorne n 1
est un extrait de la carte marine chilienne n o 1111 de 1998. Cette carte
confirme toutefois l’accord intervenu en 1968-1969 entre les Partieés. La
Cour estime qu’elle n’est pas en mesure de déduire quoi que ce ésoit des
trente années que le Chili a mises pour élaborer cette carte.
173. Les éléments de preuve concernant la pêche et les autres activiétés
en mer dans la région ne sont pas suffisamment détaillés pour éêtre utiles
dans une situation où, comme en l’espèce, les points de dépaért de la fron -
tière maritime revendiqués par chacune des Parties ne sont sépaérés que
par huit secondes de latitude et que ces éléments de preuve n’ont guèére de
poids.
174. La Cour considère que la frontière maritime que les Parties enten -
daient signaler au moyen des arrangements relaoifs aux phares était céons- ti
tuée par le parallèle passant par la borne n 1. Les deux Parties ont, par la
suite, mis en œuvre les recommandations contenues dans le rapport
conjoint de 1969 en érigeant les phares, comme elles en étaient convenues,
o
et ainsi signalé le parallèle passant par la borne n 1. Dès lors, les arrange-
ments de 1968-1969 relatifs aux phares attestent de manière convaincaénte
que la frontière maritime convenue suit le parallèle passant par léa borne
no 1.
175. La Cour n’est pas appelée à se prononcer sur l’emplacement déu
point Concordia, où commence la frontière terrestre. Elle relève que é
ce dernier point pourrait ne pas coïncider avec le point de départ deé la
frontière maritime, tel qu’il vient d’être défini. La Céour note cependant
qu’une telle situation serait la conséquence des accords intervenués entre
les Parties.
176. La Cour conclut donc que le point de départ de la frontière mari -
time entre les Parties est situé à l’intersection du parallèéle de latitude pas-
sant par la borne n 1 avec la laisse de basse mer.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 127 1/12/14 08:59 65 maritime dispute (judégment)
VI. The Course of the Maritiéme Boundary from Point A
177. Having concluded that an agreed single maritime boundary exists
between the Parties, and that that boundary starts at the intersection oéf the
parallel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low-
water line, and continues for 80nautical miles along that parallel, the Court
will now determine the course of the maritime boundary from that point on.
178. While Chile has signed and ratified UNCLOS, Peru is not a party
to this instrument. Both Parties claim 200-nautical-mile maritime entitle -
ments. Neither Party claims an extended continental shelf in the area wiéth
which this case is concerned. Chile’s claim consists of a 12-nautical-mile
territorial sea and an exclusive economic zone and continental shelf
extending to 200 nautical miles from the coast. Peru claims a 200-nautical-
mile “maritime domain”. Peru’s Agent formally declared on behaléf of
his Government that “[t]he term ‘maritime domain’ used in [Peru’és] Con -
stitution is applied in a manner consistent with the maritime zones set éout
in the 1982 Convention”. The Court takes note of this declaration which
expresses a formal undertaking by Peru.
179. The Court proceeds on the basis of the provisions of Articles 74,
paragraph 1, and 83, paragraph 1, of UNCLOS which, as the Court has
recognized, reflect customary international law (Maritime Delimitation
and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 91, para. 167 ; Territorial and
Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2012 (II), p. 674, para. 139). The texts of these provisions are identical,
the only difference being that Article 74 refers to the exclusive economic
zone and Article 83 to the continental shelf. They read as follows :
“The delimitation of the exclusive economic zone [continental shelf] é
between States with opposite or adjacent coasts shall be effected by
agreement on the basis of international law, as referred to in Arti -
cle 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in order to
achieve an equitable solution.”
180. The methodology which the Court usually employs in seeking an
equitable solution involves three stages. In the first, it constructs éa provi-
sional equidistance line unless there are compelling reasons preventing that.
At the second stage, it considers whether there are relevant circumstancées
which may call for an adjustment of that line to achieve an equitable reésult.
At the third stage, the Court conducts a disproportionality test in whicéh it
assesses whether the effect of the line, as adjusted, is such that theé Parties’
respective shares of the relevant area are markedly disproportionate to éthe
lengths of their relevant coasts (Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea
(Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 101-103,
paras. 115-122 ;Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), pp. 695-696, paras. 190-193).
181. In the present case, Peru proposed that the three-step approach be
followed in the delimitation of the maritime boundary between the two
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5 CIJ1057.indb 128 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 65
VI. Le tracé de la frontièrée maritime à partir dué point A
177. Ayant conclu qu’il existe entre les Parties une frontière maritimeé
unique agréée et que celle-ci part de l’intersection entre le péarallèle de
latitude passant par la borne frontière n 1 et la laisse de basse mer, pour
suivre ce parallèle sur 80 milles marins, la Cour déterminera à présent le
tracé de la frontière maritime au-delà de cette distance.
178. Si le Chili a signé et ratifié la CNUDM, le Pérou n’est paés partie à
cette convention. Les Parties revendiquent l’une et l’autre des dréoits à des
espaces maritimes s’étendant sur 200 milles marins. Aucune d’elles ne pré -
tend à un plateau continental étendu dans la zone qui est en causeé en la
présente affaire. Le Chili revendique une mer territoriale de 1m 2 illes marins,
ainsi qu’une zone économique exclusive et un plateau continental jéusqu’à une
distance de 200milles marins depuis la côte. Le Pérou prétend à und« omaine
maritime» de 200 milles marins. L’agent du Pérou a formellement déclaré,
au nom de son gouvernement, que « l’expression «domaine maritime» qui
figure dans [l]a Constitution [péruvienne] est utilisée en confoérmité avec la
définition des espaces maritimes prévus par la convention de 198 ». La Cour
prend note de cette déclaration qui exprime un engagement formel du Pérou.
179. La Cour se fondera sur les dispositions du paragraphe 1 des
articles 74 et 83 de la CNUDM, lesquels, comme elle l’a reconnu, reflètent
le droit international coutumier (Délimitation maritime et questions terri
toriales entre Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahreïn), fond, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2001, p. 91, par. 167; Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua
c. Colombie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 674, par. 139). Le libellé
de ces dispositions est identique, à cette différence près que l’article 74
concerne la zone économique exclusive et l’article 83, le plateau continen -
tal. Elles se lisent comme suit :
«La délimitation de la zone économique exclusive [du plateau
continental] entre Etats dont les côtes sont adjacentes ou se font faéce
est effectuée par voie d’accord conformément au droit internaétional
tel qu’il est visé à l’article 38 du Statut de la Cour internationale de
Justice, afin d’aboutir à une solution équitable. »
180. Pour parvenir à une solution équitable, la Cour a habituellement
recours à une méthode comportant trois étapes. Premièrement,é elle trace,
sauf raisons impératives contraires, une ligne d’équidistance pérovisoire.
Dans un deuxième temps, elle examine s’il existe des circonstancesé perti -
nentes pouvant appeler l’ajustement de cette ligne pour parvenir à un
résultat équitable. La troisième étape consiste à rechercéher si la ligne, une
fois ajustée, a pour effet de créer une disproportion marquéeé entre les
espaces maritimes attribués à chacune des parties dans la zone perétinente,
par rapport à la longueur de leurs côtes pertinentes (Délimitation mari
time en mer Noire (Roumanie c. Ukraine), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009,
p. 101-103, par. 115-122 ; Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua
c. Colombie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 695-696, par. 190-193).
181. En la présente affaire, le Pérou a proposé de suivre cette déémarche en
trois étapes pour effectuer la délimitation de la frontière méaritime entre les
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5 CIJ1057.indb 129 1/12/14 08:59 66 maritime dispute (judégment)
States. Peru makes the three following points. First, the relevant coasts
and the relevant area within which the delimitation is to be effected are
circumscribed by the coasts of each Party lying within 200 nautical miles
of the starting-point of their land boundary. The construction of a provéi-
sional equidistance line within that area is a straightforward exercise.é Sec -
ondly, there are no special circumstances calling for an adjustment of téhe
provisional equidistance line and it therefore represents an equitable méari -
time delimitation : the resulting line effects an equal division of the Par -
ties’ overlapping maritime entitlements and does not result in any unédue
encroachment on the projections of their respective coasts or any cut-off
effect. Thirdly, the application of the element of proportionality as éan ex
post facto test confirms the equitable nature of the equidistance line.
182. Chile advanced no arguments on this matter. Its position through-
out the proceedings was that the Parties had already delimited the wholeé
maritime area in dispute, by agreement, in 1952, and that, accordingly, éno
maritime delimitation should be performed by the Court.
183. In the present case, the delimitation of the maritime area must
begin at the endpoint of the agreed maritime boundary which the Court
has determined is 80 nautical miles long (Point A). In practice, a number
of delimitations begin not at the low-water line but at a point further sea -
ward, as a result of a pre-existing agreement between the parties (Delimita
tion of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United
States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 332-333, para. 212;
Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Camer
oon v. Nigeria : Equatorial Guinea intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2002, pp. 431-432, paras. 268-269; Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea
(Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 130, para. 218).
The situation the Court faces is, however, unusual in that the starting-point
for the delimitation in this case is much further from the coast: 80 nautical
miles from the closest point on the Chilean coast and about 45 nautical
miles from the closest point on the Peruvian coast.
184. The usual methodology applied by the Court has the aim of
achieving an equitable solution. In terms of that methodology, the Courté
now proceeds to the construction of a provisional equidistance line whicéh
starts at the endpoint of the existing maritime boundary (Point A).
185. In order to construct such a line, the Court first selects appropriateé
base points. In view of the location of Point A at a distance of 80 nautical
miles from the coast along the parallel, the nearest initial base point on the
Chilean coast will be situated near the starting-point of the maritime
boundary between Chile and Peru, and on the Peruvian coast at a point
where the arc of a circle with an 80-nautical-mile radius from Point A
intersects with the Peruvian coast. For the purpose of constructing a préo -
visional equidistance line, only those points on the Peruvian coast whicéh
are more than 80 nautical miles from Point A can be matched with points
at an equivalent distance on the Chilean coast. The arc of a circle indiécated
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5 CIJ1057.indb 130 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 66
deux Etats. Le Pérou formule les trois observations suivantes. Premièérement,
les côtes pertinentes, qui circonscrivent la zone pertinente dans laqéuelle la
délimitation doit être effectuée entre les Parties, sont cellées qui s’étendent sur
une distance de 200 milles marins de part et d’autre du point initial de leur
frontière terrestre. Dans cette région, la ligne d’équidistance provisoire est
facile à tracer. Deuxièmement, il n’existe aucune circonstance spéciale appe -
lant l’ajustement de la ligne d’équidistance provisoire, de sorte que celle-ci
constitue une délimitation maritime équitabl:ela ligne qui en résulte emporte,
pour les Parties, un partage égal des espaces maritimes auxquels elleés peuvent
prétendre dans la zone de chevauchement, et ne donne lieu à aucun éempiéte -
ment indu sur les projections de leurs côtes respectives et à aucuén effet
d’amputation. Troisièmement, l’application ex post facto du critère de pro -
portionnalité confirme le caractère équitable de la ligne d’équidistance.
182. Le Chili n’a quant à lui présenté aucune argumentation sur cée
point. Tout au long de la procédure, sa position a consisté à déire que,
dès 1952, les Parties avaient délimité par voie d’accord l’intéégralité de la
zone maritime en litige et que, en conséquence, la Cour ne devait opérer
aucune délimitation maritime.
183. En l’espèce, la délimitation de la zone maritime doit partir dué point
terminal de la frontière maritime convenue, laquelle s’étend, aéinsi que la
Cour l’a dit, sur 80 milles marins (point A). Dans la pratique, un certain
nombre de délimitations ont été opérées à partir d’éun point situé non pas
sur la laisse de basse mer mais au large, en raison d’un accord prééexistant
entre les parties (Délimitation de la frontière maritime dans la région du golfe
du Maine (Canada/EtatsUnis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 332-333, par. 212; Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le
Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria ; Guinée équatoriale (intervenant)), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 431-432, par. 268-269; Délimitation maritime en mer
Noire (Roumanie c. Ukraine), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 130, par. 218).
La situation qui se présente à la Cour en l’espèce est touteéfois inhabituelle
en ce que le point de départ de la délimitation est beaucoup plus ééloigné du
littoral, soit à 80 milles marins du point le plus proche sur la côte chilienne
et à environ 45milles marins du point le plus proche sur la côte péruvienne.
184. La méthode habituellement appliquée par la Cour vise à parveniré
à une solution équitable. Suivant cette méthode, la Cour procéédera main -
tenant à la construction d’une ligne d’équidistance provisoiére à partir du
point terminal de la frontière maritime existante (point A).
185. Pour construire cette ligne, la Cour doit tout d’abord choisir des
points de base appropriés. Compte tenu de l’emplacement du point A, situé
sur le parallèle à une distance de 80milles marins de la côte, le point de base
initial le plus proche sur la côte chilienne se trouve près du poiént de départ
de la frontière maritime entre le Chili et le Pérou et, sur la côéte péruvienne,
au point où un arc de cercle de 80 milles marins de rayon tracé à partir du
point A croise la côte péruvienne. Pour la construction de la ligne d’équidis -
tance provisoire, seuls les points de la côte péruvienne qui se tréouvent à plus
de 80 milles marins du point A peuvent être mis en rapport avec des points
situés à une distance équivalente sur la côte chilienne. L’éarc de cercle repré-
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5 CIJ1057.indb 131 1/12/14 08:59 67 maritime dispute (judégment)
on sketch-map No. 3 is used to identify the first Peruvian base point. Fur-
ther base points for the construction of the provisional equidistance line
have been selected as the most seaward coastal points “situated neareést to
the area to be delimited” (Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Roma
nia v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 101, para. 117). These
base points are situated to the north-west of the initial base point on the
Peruvian coast and south of the initial base point on the Chilean coast.é No
points on the Peruvian coast which lie to the south-east of that initial point
on that coast can be matched with points on the Chilean coast, as they are
all situated less than 80 nautical miles from Point A (see sketch-map
No. 3: Construction of the provisional equidistance line, p. 68).
186. The provisional equidistance line thus constructed runs in a gen -
eral south-west direction, almost in a straight line, reflecting the smooth
character of the two coasts, until it reaches the 200-nautical-mile limit
measured from the Chilean baselines (Point B). Seaward of this point the
200-nautical-mile projections of the Parties’ coasts no longer overlap.
187. Before continuing the application of the usual methodology, the
Court recalls that, in its second submission, Peru requested the Court téo
adjudge and declare that, beyond the point where the common maritime
boundary ends, Peru is entitled to exercise sovereign rights over a mari -
time area lying out to a distance of 200 nautical miles from its baselines
(see paragraphs 14 to 15 above). This claim is in relation to the area in a
darker shade of blue in sketch-map No. 2 (see paragraph 22 above).
188. Peru contends that, in the maritime area beyond 200 nautical
miles from the Chilean coast but within 200 nautical miles of its own
coast, it has the rights which are accorded to a coastal State by generaél
international law and that Chile has no such rights.
Chile in response contends that the 1952 Santiago Declaration estab -
lishes a single lateral limit for all maritime areas of its States partiées
whether actual or prospective, invoking the reference in paragraph II of
the Declaration to “a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles”.
189. Since the Court has already concluded that the agreed boundary
line along the parallel of latitude ends at 80 nautical miles from the coast,
the foundation for the Chilean argument does not exist. Moreover, since
the Court has decided that it will proceed with the delimitation of the
overlapping maritime entitlements of the Parties by drawing an equidis -
tance line, Peru’s second submission has become moot and the Court neéed
not rule on it.
190. After Point B (see paragraph 186 above), the 200-nautical-mile
limits of the Parties’ maritime entitlements delimited on the basis of equi -
distance no longer overlap. The Court observes that, from Point B, the
200-nautical-mile limit of Chile’s maritime entitlement runs in a generally
southward direction. The final segment of the maritime boundary there -
fore proceeds from Point B to Point C, where the 200-nautical-mile limits
of the Parties’ maritime entitlements intersect.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 132 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 67
senté sur le croquis n 3 sert à déterminer le premier point de base péruvien.
Les autres points de base devant servir à la construction de la ligneé d’équi -
distance provisoire sont ceux qui sont les plus avancés vers le large parmi les
points de la côte « les plus proches de la zone à délimiter » (Délimitation
maritime en mer Noire (Roumanie c. Ukraine), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009,
p. 101, par. 117). Ces points de base sont situés au nord-ouest du point de
base initial sur la côte péruvienne et au sud du point de base iniétial sur la
côte chilienne. Aucun des points de la côte péruvienne situéés au sud-est du
point initial sur celle-ci ne peut être mis en rapport avec un point sur la côte
chilienne, puisqu’ils se trouvent à moins de 80 milles marins du point A (voir
croquis n o3: Construction de la ligne d’équidistance provisoire, p.68).
186. La ligne d’équidistance provisoire ainsi construite est presque dréoite,
reflétant le caractère régulier des deux côtes, et suit unée direction générale
sud-ouest jusqu’à atteindre la limite des 200milles marins mesurée à partir
des lignes de base chiliennes (point B). Au-delà de ce point, les projections des
côtes des Parties sur une distance de 20m 0 illes marins ne se chevauchent plus.
187. Avant de poursuivre l’application de la méthode habituelle, la
Cour rappelle que, au second point de ses conclusions, le Pérou la préie de
dire et juger que, au-delà du point terminal de la frontière maritéime com -
mune, il peut prétendre à l’exercice de droits souverains sur lé’espace mar- i
time s’étendant jusqu’à 200 milles marins depuis ses lignes de base (voir les
paragraphes 14 et 15 ciodessus). Cette prétention concerne la zone repré -
sentée sur le croquis n 2 en bleu plus foncé (voir le paragraphe 22 ci-dessus).
188. Le Pérou affirme que, dans la zone maritime située au-delà de éla
limite des 200 milles marins depuis la côte chilienne, mais en deçà de cette
distance par rapport à sa propre côte, il jouit des droits reconnus aux
Etats côtiers par le droit international général et que le Chiléi n’a aucun
droit de cette nature dans cette zone.
Le Chili répond que la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 établit une fron -
tière latérale unique pour tous les espaces maritimes, existants oéu à venir,
des Etats parties, invoquant à cet égard la référence, au paéragraphe II de
ladite déclaration, à une distance de « 200 milles marins au moins».
189. La Cour ayant déjà conclu que la ligne frontière convenue qui séuit
le parallèle de latitude s’arrête à 80 milles marins des côtes, l’argument du
Chili est dépourvu de fondement. En outre, puisqu’elle a décidé qu’elle
délimiterait les espaces maritimes auxquels les Parties peuvent préétendre
dans la zone de chevauchement en traçant une ligne d’équidistanéce, le
second point des conclusions du Pérou est devenu sans objet et il n’éest pas
nécessaire pour la Cour d’y statuer.
190. Au-delà du point B (voir le paragraphe 186 ci-dessus), les limites
des 200 milles marins des espaces auxquels les Parties peuvent prétendre,
délimités sur la base de l’équidistance, ne se chevauchent plus. La Cour
observe que, à partir du point B, la limite des 200 milles marins des
espaces maritimes auxquels le Chili peut prétendre suit une directioné
générale sud. Le dernier segment de la frontière maritime s’éétend donc du
point B au point C, soit l’intersection des limites des 200 milles marins des
espaces maritimes auxquels les Parties peuvent prétendre.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 133 1/12/14 08:59 68 maritime dispute (judégment)
BOLIVIA
CHILE
Arica
Tacna
PERU
Ilo
A
B C
200 nautical milesst
WGS 84 PACIFICCEAN
Ar80 nautical miles from Point A
SketConstrucfor illustrative purposes only. from Peru's coast
This sketch-map has been prepared S)0 nautical miles
provisional equidistance line
69
5 CIJ1057.indb 134 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 68
BOLIVIE
CHILI
Arica
Tacna
PÉROU
Ilo
A
B C
depuis la côte du Chili
WGS 84 Limite des 200 milles marins
OCÉAN
Croquis n° 3: PACIFIQUE Arde rayon à partir du point A
Cà seule fin d'illustration.
Construction de la
ojection de Mercator (18° 20' S)
Pr
depuis la côte du Pérou
ligne d'équidistance provisoire Limite des 200 milles marins
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5 CIJ1057.indb 135 1/12/14 08:59 69 maritime dispute (judégment)
191. The Court must now determine whether there are any relevant
circumstances calling for an adjustment of the provisional equidistance é
line, with the purpose, it must always be recalled, of achieving an equiéta-
ble result. In this case, the equidistance line avoids any excessive ampéuta-
tion of either State’s maritime projections. No relevant circumstanceés
appear in the record before the Court. There is accordingly no basis foré
adjusting the provisional equidistance line.
192. The next step is to determine whether the provisional equidistance
line drawn from Point A produces a result which is significantly dispropor -
tionate in terms of the lengths of the relevant coasts and the division éof the
relevant area. The purpose is to assess the equitable nature of the resuélt.
193. As the Court has already noted (see paragraph 183 above), the exis -
tence of an agreed line running for 80 nautical miles along the parallel of
latitude presents it with an unusual situation. The existence of that liéne
would make difficult, if not impossible, the calculation of the length éof the
relevant coasts and of the extent of the relevant area, were the usual math -
ematical calculation of the proportions to be undertaken. The Court recaélls
that in some instances in the past, because of the practical difficulties aris -
ing from the particular circumstances of the case, it has not undertakené
that calculation. Having made that point in the case concerning the Conti
nental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta) ( Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1985, p. 53, para. 74), it continued in these terms:
“if the Court turns its attention to the extent of the areas of shelfé lying
on each side of the line, it is possible for it to make a broad assessmeént
of the equitableness of the result, without seeking to define the equiéties
in arithmetical terms” (ibid., p. 55, para. 75).
More recently, the Court observed that, in this final phase of the delimita -
tion process, the calculation does not purport to be precise and is appréoxi-
mate; “[t]he object of delimitation is to achieve a delimitation that
is equitable, not an equal apportionment of maritime areas” (Maritime
Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2009, p. 100, para. 111 ; see similarly Maritime Delimitation in the
Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v. Norway), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1993, pp. 66-67, para. 64, and p. 68, para. 67, referring to
difficulties, as in the Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta)
case, in defining with sufficient precision which coasts and which areas
were to be treated as relevant ; and Land and Maritime Boundary between
Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea interven
ing), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, pp. 433-448, paras. 272-307, where
although the Court referred to the relevant coastlines and the relevant
area, it made no precise calculation of them). In such cases, the Court
engages in a broad assessment of disproportionality.
194. Given the unusual circumstances of this case, the Court follows
the same approach here and concludes that no significant disproportion is
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5 CIJ1057.indb 136 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 69
191. Il incombe à présent à la Cour de rechercher s’il existe desé circons -
tances pertinentes exigeant l’ajustement de la ligne d’équidistance provi -
soire afin, comme il y a lieu de le rappeler, de parvenir à un réésultat
équitable. En l’espèce, la ligne d’équidistance évite toute amputation é
excessive des projections en mer de l’un ou l’autre des Etats. Le édossier
soumis à la Cour ne révèle aucune circonstance pertinente. Il né’existe
donc aucune raison d’ajuster la ligne d’équidistance provisoireé.
192. L’étape suivante consiste à rechercher si la ligne d’équiédistance
provisoire tracée à partir du point A produit une disproportion marquée
dans le partage de la zone pertinente par rapport à la longueur des côtes
pertinentes, l’objectif étant de vérifier le caractère ééquitable du résultat.
193. Comme la Cour l’a relevé précédemment (voir le paragraphe 183
ci-dessus), l’existence d’une frontière convenue suivant le paérallèle de lati -
tude sur une distance de 80 milles marins constitue une situation inhabi -
tuelle. L’existence de cette ligne rendrait difficile, voire impossiéble, le
calcul de la longueur des côtes pertinentes et de l’étendue de éla zone per -
tinente si la Cour devait, comme elle le fait habituellement, procédeér à un
calcul mathématique de proportionnalité. Elle rappelle qu’il luéi est arrivé
par le passé, en raison des difficultés pratiques posées par lées circonstances
particulières de l’affaire, de ne pas procéder à ce calculé. C’est ce qu’elle a
précisé en l’affaire du Plateau continental (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/
Malte) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1985, p. 53, par. 74), avant de poursuivre en
ces termes :
«si la Cour envisage maintenant l’étendue des zones de plateau de
part et d’autre de la ligne, il lui est possible de se faire une idéée
approximative de l’équité du résultat sans toutefois essayeré de l’ex -
primer en chiffres » (ibid., p. 55, par. 75).
Plus récemment, la Cour a observé que, à cette dernière éétape du processus
de délimitation, le calcul ne vise pas à la précision et reste éapproximatif, et
que «[l]’objet de la délimitation est — de parvenir à un résultat équitable et
non à une répartition égale des espaces maritimes » (Délimitation maritime
en mer Noire (Roumanie c. Ukraine), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 100,
par. 111; voir dans le même sens l’affaire de la Délimitation maritime dans la
région située entre le Groenland et Jan Mayen (Danemark c. Norvège), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 66-67, par. 64, et p. 68, par. 67, en ce qui concerne les
difficultés qui se sont posées, comme dans l’affaire du Plateau continental
(Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte), pour définir avec suffisamment de préci -
sion les côtes et les zones qu’il convenait de considérer comme pertinentes;
et l’affaire de la Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigé
ria (Cameroun c. Nigéria ; Guinée équatoriale (intervenant)), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 433-448, par. 272-307, dans laquelle la Cour, même si
elle a fait référence aux côtes et à la zone pertinentes, n’éa pas effectué de
calcul précis). En pareil cas, la Cour procède à une évaluaétion globale de la
proportionnalité.
194. Les circonstances inhabituelles de l’espèce conduisent la Cour àé
suivre la même voie et à conclure à l’absence de disproportiéon marquée
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5 CIJ1057.indb 137 1/12/14 08:59 70 maritime dispute (judégment)
BOLIVIA
CHILE
Arica
Tacna
PERU
Ilo
A
B C
200 nautical milesst
WGS 84
PACIFICEAN
Sketch-map No. 4:
for illustrative purposes only.
This sketch-map has been prepared S) from Peru's coast the equidistance linemile limits of the Parties)
200 nautical miles A:B: eC: endpoint of the maritime boundary (intersection of
Course of the maritime boundary
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5 CIJ1057.indb 138 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 70
BOLIVIE
CHILI
Arica
Tacna
PÉROU
Ilo
A
B C
ion
t
depuis la côte du Chili
WGS 84 Limite des 200 milles marins
OCÉAN
Croquis n° 4: PACIFIQUE
Ceà seule fin d'illustration.
la ligne d'équidistance milles marins des Parties)
Projection de Mercator (18° 20' S) A:B: pC: point terminal de la frontière maritime (intersec
Tracé de la frontière maritime depuis la côte du Pérou
Limite des 200 milles marins
71
5 CIJ1057.indb 139 1/12/14 08:59 71 maritime dispute (judégment)
evident, such as would call into question the equitable nature of the préo -
visional equidistance line.
195. The Court accordingly concludes that the maritime boundary
between the two Parties from Point A runs along the equidistance line to
Point B, and then along the 200-nautical-mile limit measured from the
Chilean baselines to Point C (see sketch-map No. 4 : Course of the mari -
time boundary, p. 70).
VII. Conclusion
196. The Court concludes that the maritime boundary between the
Parties starts at the intersection of the parallel of latitude passing through
Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low-water line, and extends for 80 naiuctal
miles along that parallel of latitude to Point A. From this point, the maritime
boundary runs along the equidistance line to Point B, and then along the
200-nautical-mile limit measured from the Chilean baselines to PoinC t .
*
197. In view of the circumstances of the present case, the Court has
defined the course of the maritime boundary between the Parties withouét
determining the precise geographical co-ordinates. Moreover, the Court
has not been asked to do so in the Parties’ final submissions. The éCourt
expects that the Parties will determine these co-ordinates in accordance
with the present Judgment, in the spirit of good neighbourliness.
* * *
198. For these reasons,
The Court,
(1) By fifteen votes to one,
Decides that the starting-point of the single maritime boundary delimit -
ing the respective maritime areas between the Republic of Peru and the
Republic of Chile is the intersection of the parallel of latitude passinég
through Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low-water line ;
in favour : President Tomka ; VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges
Owada, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade,
Yusuf, Xue, Donoghue, Sebutinde, Bhandari ; Judges ad hoc Guillaume,
Orrego Vicuña ;
against : Judge Gaja ;
(2) By fifteen votes to one,
Decides that the initial segment of the single maritime boundary fol -
lows the parallel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker No. 1
westward ;
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5 CIJ1057.indb 140 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 71
évidente qui soit susceptible de remettre en question le caractère équitable
de la ligne d’équidistance provisoire.
195. La Cour conclut en conséquence que, à partir du point A, la fron -
tière maritime entre les deux Parties suit la ligne d’équidistance jusqu’au
point B, et longe ensuite la limite des 200 milles marins mesurée à partir
des lignes de base du Chili jusqu’au point C (voir croquis n o 4 : Tracé de
la frontière maritime, p. 70).
VII. Conclusion
196. La Cour conclut que la frontière maritime entre les Parties part
du point d’intersecoion entre le parallèle de latitude passant par la
borne frontière n 1 et la laisse de basse mer, et longe ce parallèle sur une
distance de 80 milles marins jusqu’au point A. A partir de ce point, elle
suit la ligne d’équidistance jusqu’au point B, puis la limite des 200 milles
marins mesurée depuis les lignes de base du Chili, jusqu’au point C.
*
197. Etant donné les circonstances de la présente espèce, la Cour a é
déterminé le tracé de la frontière maritime entre les Partieés sans en préci -
ser les coordonnées géographiques exactes. Les Parties ne lui ont éd’ail -
leurs pas demandé de le faire dans leurs conclusions finales. La Coéur
attend d’elles qu’elles procèdent à la détermination de cées coordonnées
conformément au présent arrêt et dans un esprit de bon voisinagée.
*
* *
198. Par ces motifs,
La Cour,
1) Par quinze voix contre une,
Décide que le point de départ de la frontière maritime unique délimi -
tant les espaces maritimes respectifs de la République du Pérou eté de la
République du Chili est situé à l’intersection du parallèéle de latitude pas -
sant par la borne frontière n 1 avec la laisse de basse mer ;
pour : M.Tomka, président ; M.Sepúlveda-Amor, viceprésident ;
MM. Owada, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade,
mes
Yusuf, M Xue, Donoghue, Sebutinde, M. Bhandari, juges ; MM.Guil-
laume, Orrego Vicuña, juges ad hoc ;
contre : M.Gaja, juge ;
2) Par quinze voix contre une,
Décide que le segment initial de la frontière maritime unique suit, en
direction de l’ouest, le parallèle de latitude passant par la bornée frontière
n o1 ;
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5 CIJ1057.indb 141 1/12/14 08:59 72 maritime dispute (judégment)
in favour : President Tomka ; VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges
Owada, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade,
Yusuf, Xue, Donoghue, Gaja, Bhandari; Judges ad hoc Guillaume, Orrego
Vicuña ;
against : Judge Sebutinde ;
(3) By ten votes to six,
Decides that this initial segment runs up to a point (Point A) situated at
a distance of 80 nautical miles from the starting-point of the single mari -
time boundary ;
in favour : VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges Owada, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Donoghue; Judge
ad hoc Guillaume ;
against : President Tomka ; Judges Xue, Gaja, Sebutinde, Bhandari ; Judge
ad hoc Orrego Vicuña ;
(4) By ten votes to six,
Decides that from Point A, the single maritime boundary shall continue
south-westward along the line equidistant from the coasts of the Republic
of Peru and the Republic of Chile, as measured from that point, until ités
intersection (at Point B) with the 200-nautical-mile limit measured from
the baselines from which the territorial sea of the Republic of Chile isé
measured. From Point B, the single maritime boundary shall continue
southward along that limit until it reaches the point of intersection
(Point C) of the 200-nautical-mile limits measured from the
baselines from which the territorial seas of the Republic of Peru and thée
Republic of Chile, respectively, are measured ;
in favour : VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges Owada, Abraham,
Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Donoghue; Judge
ad hoc Guillaume ;
against : President Tomka ; Judges Xue, Gaja, Sebutinde, Bhandari ; Judge
ad hoc Orrego Vicuña ;
(5) By fifteen votes to one,
Decides that, for the reasons given in paragraph 189 above, it does not
need to rule on the second final submission of the Republic of Peru.
in favour : President Tomka ; VicePresident Sepúlveda-Amor ; Judges
Owada, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade,
Yusuf, Xue, Donoghue, Gaja, Sebutinde, Bhandari ; Judge ad hoc
Guillaume ;
against : Judge ad hoc Orrego Vicuña.
Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at é
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-seventh day of January, two
thousand and fourteen, in three copies, one of which will be placed in téhe
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5 CIJ1057.indb 142 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 72
pour : M. Tomka, président ; M.Sepúlveda-Amor, viceprésident ;
MM. Owada, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade,
Yusuf, M mesXue, Donoghue, MM. Gaja, Bhandari, juges ; MM.Guil-
laume, Orrego Vicuña, juges ad hoc ;
contre : M meSebutinde, juge ;
3) Par dix voix contre six,
Décide que ce segment initial s’étend jusqu’à un point (point A) situé à
une distance de 80 milles marins du point de départ de la frontière mari -
time unique ;
pour : M. Sepúlveda-Amor, viceprésident; MM. Owada, Abraham, Keith,
Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, M meDonoghue, juges ;
M. Guillaume, juge ad hoc;
me me
contre : M. Tomka, président ; M Xue, M. Gaja, M Sebutinde,
M. Bhandari, juges; M. Orrego Vicuña, juge ad hoc ;
4) Par dix voix contre six,
Décide que, à partir du point A, la frontière maritime unique se pour -
suit en direction du sud-ouest, le long de la ligne équidistante des écôtes de
la République du Pérou et de la République du Chili, calculéée depuis ce
point, jusqu’au point (point B) où elle rencontre la limite des 200 milles
marins calculée depuis les lignes de base à partir desquelles est émesurée la
mer territoriale de la République du Chili. A partir du point B, la fron -
tière maritime unique se poursuit en direction du sud le long de cettée
limite jusqu’au point d’intersection (point C) des limites des 200 milles
marins calculées depuis les lignes de base à partir desquelles sonét mesu -
rées les mers territoriales respectives de la République du Péréou et de la
République du Chili ;
pour : M. Sepúlveda-Amor, viceprésident; MM. Owada, Abraham, Keith,
Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, M meDonoghue, juges ;
M. Guillaume, juge adhoc ;
contre : M. Tomka, président ; Mme Xue, M. Gaja, M meSebutinde,
M. Bhandari, juges; M. Orrego Vicuña, juge ad hoc ;
5) Par quinze voix contre une,
Décide que, pour les raisons énoncées au paragraphe 189 ci-dessus, il
n’y a pas lieu qu’elle se prononce sur le second point des concluséions
finales de la République du Pérou.
pour : M. Tomka, président ; M.Sepúlveda-Amor, viceprésident ;
MM. Owada, Abraham, Keith, Bennouna, Skotnikov, Cançado Trindade,
Yusuf, M mesXue, Donoghue, M. Gaja, M me Sebutinde, M. Bhandari,
juges ; M.Guillaume, juge ad hoc ;
contre : M.Orrego Vicuña, juge ad hoc.
Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglais faisant foi, au Palaéis de la
Paix, à La Haye, le vingt-sept janvier deux mille quatorze, en trois exem -
plaires, dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et leés autres
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5 CIJ1057.indb 143 1/12/14 08:59 73 maritime dispute (judégment)
archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Government of
the Republic of Peru and the Government of the Republic of Chile,
respectively.
(Signed) Peter Tomka,
President.
(Signed) Philippe Couvreur,
Registrar.
President Tomka and Vice-President Sepúlveda-Amor append declar-
ations to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge Owada appends a separate
opinion to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge Skotnikov appends a dec -
laration to the Judgment of the Court ; Judges Xue, Gaja, Bhandari and
Judge ad hoc Orrego Vicuña append a joint dissenting opinion to the
Judgment of the Court ; Judges Donoghue and Gaja append declar-
ations to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge Sebutinde appends a dissent -
ing opinion to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge ad hoc Guillaume
appends a declaration to the Judgment of the Court ; Judge ad hoc
Orrego Vicuña appends a separate, partly concurring and partly dis -
senting, opinion to the Judgment of the Court.
(Initialled) P.T.
(Initialled) Ph.C.
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5 CIJ1057.indb 144 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (arérêt) 73
seront transmis respectivement au Gouvernement de la République du
Pérou et au Gouvernement de la République du Chili.
Le président,
(Signé) Peter Tomka.
Le greffier,
(Signé) Philippe Couvreur.
MM. les juges Tomka, président, et Sepúlveda-Amor, vice-président,
joignent des déclarations à l’arrêt ; M. le juge Owada joint à l’arrêt l’ex -
posé de son opinion individuelle ; M. le juge Skotnikov joint une décla -
ration à l’arrêt ; Me la juge Xue, MM. les juges Gaja et Bhandari ainsi
que M. le juge ad hoc Orrego Vicuña joignent à l’arrêt l’exposé de leur
opinion dissidente commune ; M me la juge Donoghue et M. le juge Gaja
me
joignent des déclarations à l’arrêt ; M la juge Sebutinde joint à l’arrêt
l’exposé de son opinion dissidente ; M. le juge ad hoc Guillaume joint
une déclaration à l’arrêt ; M. le juge ad hoc Orrego Vicuña joint à l’arrêt
l’exposé de son opinion individuelle, en partie concordante et en épartie
dissidente.
(Paraphé) P.T.
(Paraphé) Ph.C.
74
5 CIJ1057.indb 145 1/12/14 08:59
Judgment of 27 January 2014