Judgment of 25 July 1974

Document Number
055-19740725-JUD-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

COUR INTERNATIONALEDE JUSTICE

RECUEILDES ARRÊTS,
AVISCONSULTATIFS

ETORDONNANCES

INTERNATIONALCOURTOFJUSTICE

REPOR.TS OFJUDGMENTS,

ADVISORYOPINIONS
AND ORDERS INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONSAND ORDERS

FISHERIES JURISDICTION CASE

(UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN
IRELAND vICELAND)

MERITS

JlUDGMENTOF 25 JULY 1974

COUR INTERNATIONADEJUSTICE

RECUEIL DESARRETS,
AVIS C'ONSULTATIFSET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIREDE LA COMPÉTENCE

EN MATIÈREDE PÊCHERIES

(ROYAUIME-UNIDE GRANDE-BRETAGNE ET
D'IR.LANDE DU NORD c. ISLANDE)

FOND

ARRÊTDU 25 JUILLET 1974 Officia1citation:
Fisheries Jurisdiction(United Kingdom v. Zeeland),
Merits, Judgment,I.C.J. Reports 1974,p. 3.

Mode officielde citation:

Compétenceen matièrede pêcheries(Royaume-Uni
c. Islande),fond, arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1974,

Salesnumber
NO de vente: 395 25 JULY 1974

JUDGMENT

FISHERIES JURISDICTION CASE

(UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN
IRELAND v.ICELAND)

MERITS

AFFAIRE DE LA COMPÉTENCE
EN MATIÈRE DE PÊCHERIES

(ROYAUME-UNI DE GRANDE-BRETAGNE ET
D'IIRLANDE DU NORD c. ISLANDE)

FOND

25 JUILLET 1974

ARRÊT INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 1974
1974
25 July
General List 25 July 1974
No. 55

FISHERIES JURISDICTION CASE

(UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND
NORTHERN IRELAND i3ICELAND)

MERITS

Failure of Party to appear-StatutArticle 53.

History of the dispute-Interpretatioof interim agreement pending settle-
ment of substantive dispute-Effecon obligation of Corrrtto give judgment.

Jurisdiction of the Court-Effecof previous finding of jrrrisdiction-lnter-
pretation of compromissory clause.
Icelandic Reglrlations of 14July 1972-Extenshy coastal State offisheries
jurisdiction to 50 milesom haselines round coast-Extensionchullenged as
contrary to internatior~al law-Laof the sea-Cetleva Conferences of' 1958
and 1960-Concepts of fishery zonend preferential rights of coastal State in
situation ofspecial dependence on coasrul fisheries-Stapractice-Excep-
tional dependence of Iceland on fisheries-Conservationeeds-Preferetztiul
rights nojustification for claim to extingirish concurrent rights of other jîshing
States-Historic rights of Urrited Kingdom-Reglrlatioof 14 Jltly 1972 not
opposable to UnitedKingdom-Reconciliation of preferential rights of coastal
State and rights of orher fishing States-Obligation to keep conserva-
tion measures of fishery resources rrnder review-Negoriariorequired for
equitablesolution-Obligation to negotiate jiowing from nature of Parties'
respective rights-ariousfactors relevarit to the negotiation.

JUDGMENT

Present: President LACHS; Jrtdges FORSTERG , ROS, BENGZON, PETRÉN,
ONYEAMA,DILLARD, IGNACIO-PINTO ,E CASTRO,MOROZOV,
JIM~NE DE ARECHAGA Si,r HurnphreyWALDOCK N,AGENDRS AINGH,
RUDA;Registrar AQUARONE. In the Fisheries Jurisdiction case,

between

the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
represented by

Mr. D. H. Anderson, Legal Counsellor in the Foreign and Commonwealth
Office,
as Agent,
assisted by

the Rt. Hon. Samuel Silkin Esq., QC, MP, Attorney-General,
Mr. G. Slynn, Junior Counsel to the Treasury,
Mr. J. L. Simpson, CMG, TD, Member of the English Bar,
Professor D. H. N. Johnson, Professor of International and Air Law in the
University of London, Member of the English Bar,
Mr. P. G. Langdon-Davies, Member of the English Bar,
Dr. D. W. Bowett, President of Queens' College, Cambridge, Member of
the English Bar,

as Counsel,
and by
Mr. J. Graham, Fisheries Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Food,
Mr. M. G. de Winton, CBE, MC, Assistant Solicitor, Law Officers'
Department,

Mr. G. W. P. Hart, Second Secretary, Foreign and Commonwealth Office,

as Advisers,

and

the Republic of Iceland,

composed as above,

delivers the following Judgment:
1. By a letter of 14 April 1972, received in the Registry of the Court the

same day, the Chargé d'Affaires of the British Embassy in the Netherlands
transmitted to the Registrar an Application instituting proceedings against
the Republic of lceland in respect of a dispute concerning the then proposed
extension by the Government of Iceland of its fisheriesjurisdiction.

2. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Application was
at once communicated to the Government of Iceland. In accordance with
paragraph 3 of that Article, al1 other States entitled to appear before the
Court were notified of the Application.
3. By a letter dated 29 May 1972from the Minister for Foreign Affairs of
Iceland, received in the Registry on 31 May 1972, the Court was informed
(interalia)that the Government of Iceland was not willing to confer jurisdic-
tion on the Court and would not appoint an Agent.5 FISHERIESJURISDICTION (JUDGMENT)

4. On 19 July 1972, the Agent of the United Kingdom filed in the Registry
of the Court a request for the indication of interim measures of protection
under Article 41 of the Statute and Article 61 of the Rules of Court adopted
on 6 May 1946. By an Order dated 17 August 1972, the Court indicated
certain interim measures of protection in the case; and by a further Order
dated 12July 1973, the Court confirmed that those measures should, subject
as therein mentioned, remain operative until the Court has given final judg-
ment in the case. By a letter of 21 November 1973, the Agent of the United
Kingdom informed theCourt, with reference to the Orders of 17August 1972
and 12July 1973, of the conclusion on 13 November 1973of an Exchange of

Notes constituting an interim agreement "relating to fisheries in the disputed
area, pending a settlement of the substantivedispute and without prejudice to
the legal position or rights of either government in relation thereto". Copies
of the Exchange of Notes were enclosed with the letter. A further copy was
communicated to the Court by the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Iceland
under cover of a letter dated 1I January 1974. The Exchange of Notes was
registered with the United Nations Secretariat under Article 102 of the
Charter of the United Nations.
5, By an Order dated 18 August 1972, the Court, considering that it was
necessary to resolve first of al1 the question of its jurisdictionin the case,
decided that the first pleadings should be addressed to the question of the
jurisdiction of the Court to entertain the dispute, and fixed time-limits for the
filing of a Memorial by the Government of the United Kingdom and a
Counter-Memorial by the Government of Iceland. The Memorial of the
Government of the United Kingdom was filed within the time-limit pre-
scribed, and was communicated to the Government of Iceland; no Counter-
Memorial was filed by the Government of Iceland. On 5 January 1973, after
due notice to the Parties, a public hearing was heldin the course of which the

Court heard the oral argument of counsel for the United Kingdom on the
question of the Court's jurisdiction; the Government of Iceland was not
represented at the hearing.
6. By a Judgment dated 2 February 1973, the Court found that it had
jurisdiction to entertain the Applicationfiled by the United Kingdom and to
deal with the ~neritsof the dispute.
7. By an Order dated 15 February 1973 the Court fixed time-limits for the
written proceedings on the merits, namely I August 1973for the Memorial of
the Government of the United Kingdom and 15January 1974 for the Count-
er-Memorial of the Government of Iceland. The Memorial of the Government
of the United Kingdom was filed within the time-limit prescribed, and was
communicated to the Government of Iceland; no Counter-Memorial was
filed by the Government of Iceland.
8. By a letter from the Registrar dated 17 August 1973 the Agent of the
United Kingdom was invited to submit to the Court any observations which
the Government of the United Kingdom might wish to present on thequestion
of the possible joinder of this case with the case instituted 5nJune 1972 by
the Federal Republic of Germany against the Republic of Iceland (General
List No. 56), and the Agent was informed that the Court had fixed 30 Sep-

tember 1973 as the time-limit within which any such observations should be
filed. By a letter dated 26 September 1973, the Agent of the United Kingdom
submitted the observations of his Government on the question of the possible
joinder of the two FisheriesJurisdiction cases. The Government of Iceland
was informed that the observations of the United Kingdom on possiblejoinder had been invited, but did not make any comments to the Court. On
17January 1974theCourt decided by nine votes to five not to join the present
proceedings to those instituted by the Federal Republic of Germany against
the Republic of Iceland. In reaching this decision the Courttook into account
the fact that while the basic legal issues in each case appeared to be identical,
there were differences between the positions of the two Applicants, and be-
tween their respective submissions, and that joinder would be contrary to the
wishes of the two Applicants. The Court decided to hold the public hearings
in the two cases immediately following each other.
9. On 25 and 29 March 1974,after due notice to the Parties, public hearings

were held in the course of which the Court heardtheoralargument of counsel
forthe United Kingdom on the merits of the case; theGovernment of Iceland
was not represented at the hearings. Various Members of theCourt addressed
questions to the Agent of the United Kingdom both during the course of the
hearings and subsequently, and replies were given either orally at the hearings
or in writing. Copies of the verbatim record of the hearings and of the written
questions and replies were transmitted to the Government of Iceland.
10. The Governments of Argentina, Australia, Ecuador, the Federal
Republic of Germany, India, New Zealand and Senegal requested that the
pleadings and annexed documents in this case should be made available to
them in accordance with Article 44, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court. The
Parties having indicated that they had no objection, it was decided to accede
to these requests. Pursuant to Article 44, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court,
the pleadings and annexed documents were, with the consent of the Parties,
made accessible to the public as from the date of the opening of the oral
proceedings.
11. ln the course of the written proceedings, the following submissions

were presented on behalf of theGovernment of the United Kingdom:

in the Application:
"The United Kingdom asks the Court to adjudge and declare:

(a) That there is no foundation in international law for the claim by
Iceland to be entitled to extend its fisheries jurisdiction by estab-
lishing a zone of exclusive fisheries jurisdiction extending to 50
nautical miles from the baselines hereinbefore referred to; and that
its claim is thereforeinvalid; and
(b) that questions concerning the conservation of fish stocks in the
waters around Iceland are not susceptible in international law to
regulation by the unilateral extension by Iceland of its exclusive
fisheries jurisdiction to 50 nautical miles from the aforesaid base-
lines but are matters that may be regulated, as betweenIceland and
the United Kingdom, by arrangements agreed between those two
countries, whether or not together with other interested countries

and whether in the form of arrangements reached in accordance
with the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Convention of 24 January
1959, or in theform of arrangements for collaboration in accordance
with the Resolution on Special Situations relating to Coastal Fish-
eries of 26 April 1958, or otherwise in the form of arrangements
agreed between them that give effect to the continuing rights and
interests of both of them in the fisheries of the waters in question."7 FISHERIESJURISDICTION (JUDGMENT)

in the Memorial on the merits:
". .. the Government of the United Kingdom submit to the Court that
the Court should adjudge and declare:

(a) that the claini by Iceland to be entitled to a zone of exclusivefisheries
jurisdiction extending 50 nautical miles froni baselines around the
Coast of lceland is without foundation in international law and is
invalid;
(b) that, as against the United Kingdom, Iceland is not entitled uni-
laterally to assert an exclusivefisheries jurisdiction beyond the limits
agreed to in the Exchange of Notes of 1961 ;
(c) that lceland is not entitled unilaterally to exclude British fishing
vessels from the area of the high seas beyond the limits agreed to in
the Exchange of Notes of 1961 or unilaterally to impose restrictions
on the activities of such vessels in that area;

(d) that activities by the Government of Iceland such as are referred to
in Part V of this Memorial, that is to say, interference by force or
the threat of force with British fishing vessels operating in the said
area of the high seas, are unlawful and that Iceland is under an
obligation to make compensation therefor to the United Kingdom
(the form and amount of such compensation to be assessed, failing
agreement between the Parties, in such manner as the Court may
indicate); and
(e) that, to the extent that a need is asserted on conservation grounds,
supported by properly attested scientific evidence, for the introduc-
tion of restrictions on fishing activities in the said area of the high
seas, lceland and the United Kingdom are under a duty to examine
together in good faith (either bilaterally or together with other
interested States and either by new arrangements or through already
existing machinery for international collaboration in these matters
such as the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission) the existence
and extent of that need and similarly to negotiate for the establish-

ment of such a régime for the fisheries of the area as, having due
regard to the interests of other States, will ensure for Iceland, in
respect of any such restrictions that are shown to be needed as
aforesaid, a preferential position consistent with its position as a
State specially dependent on those fisheries and as will also ensure
for the United Kingdom a position consistent with its traditional
interest and acquired rights in and current dependency on those
fisheries."

12. At the hearing of 25 March 1974,the Court was informed that, in view
of the conclusion of the interim agreement constituted by the Exchange of
Notes of 13 November 1973referred to above, theGovernment of the United
Kingdom had decided not to pursue submission (dl in the Memorial. At the
close of the oral proceedings, written submissions were filed in the Registry
of the Court on behalf of the Government of the United Kingdom; these sub-
missions were identical to those contained in the Memorial, and set out above,
save for the omission of submission (d) and the consequent re-lettering of
submission (e) as (d). 13. No pleadings were filed by the Government of Iceland, which wasalso
not represented at the oral proceedings, and no submissions were therefore
presented on its behalf. The attitude of that Government was however defined
in the above-mentioned letter of 29 May 1972from the Minister for Foreign
Affairs of Iceland, namely that there was on 14April 1972(the date on which
the Application was filed) no basis under the Statute for the Court to exercise

jurisdiction in the case, and that the Government of Iceland was not willingto
conferjurisdiction on the Court. After theCourt had decided, by its Judgment
of 2 February 1973, that it had jurisdiction to deal with the merits of the
dispute, the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Iceland, by letter dated II January
1974,inforined the Court that:
"With reference to the time-limit fixed by the Court for the submission
of Counter-Memorials by the Government of Iceland, 1have the honour

to inforin you that the position of the Government of Iceland with
regard to the proceedings in question remains unchanged and, conse-
quently, no Counter-Memorials will be submitted. At the same time, the
Government of lceland does not accept or acquiesce in any of the state-
ments of facts or allegations or contentions of law contained in the
Memorials filed by the Parties concerned."

14. lceland has not taken part in any phase of the present proceedings.
By the above-mentioned letter of 29 May 1972, the Government of Ice-
land informed the Court that it regarded the Exchange of Notes between
the Government of Iceland and the Government of the United Kingdom
dated 11 March 1961 as terminated ;that in its view there was no basis
under the Statute for the Court to exercise jurisdiction in the case; that,

as it considered the vital interests of the people of Iceland to be involved,
it was not willing to confer jurisdiction on the Court in any case involving
the extent of the fishery limits of Iceland; and that an agent would not
be appointed to represent the Government of Iceland. Thereafter, the
Government of Iceland did not appear before the Court at the public

hearing held on I August 1972concerning the United Kingdom's request
for the indication of interim measures of protection; nor did it file any
pleadings or appear before the Court in the subsequent proceedings
concerning the Court's jurisdiction to entertain the dispute. Notwith-
standing the Court's Judgment of 2 February 1973, in which the Court
decided that it has jurisdiction to entertain the United Kingdom's Appli-

cation and to deal with the merits of the dispute, the Government of
Iceland maintained the saine position with regard to the subsequent
proceedings. By its letter of IIJanuary 1974, it informed the Court that
no Counter-Memorial would be submitted. Nor did it in fact file any
pleading or appear before the Court at the public hearings on the merits
of the dispute. At these hearings, counsel for the United Kingdom, having

9drawn attention to the non-appearance in Court of any representative of
the Respondent, referred to Article 53 of the Statute, and concluded by
presenting the final submissions of the United Kingdom on the merits

of the dispute for adjudication by the Court.
15. The Court is thus confronted with the situation contemplated by
Article 53,paragraph 1,of the Statute, that "Whenever one of the parties
does not appear before the Court, or fails to defend its case, the other
party may cal1upon the Court to decide in favour of its claim". Paragraph
2 of that Article, however, also provides: "The Court must, before doing

so, satisfy itself, not only that it has jurisdiction in accordance with
Articles 36 and 37, but also that the claim is well founded in fact and
law."
16. The present case turns essentially on questions of international
law, and the facts requiring the Court's consideration in adjudicating
upon the Applicant's claim either are not in dispute or are attested by

documentary evidence. Such evidence emanates in part from the Govern-
ment of Iceland, and has not been specifically contested, and there does
not appear to be any reason to doubt its accuracy. The Governrnent of
Iceland, it is true, declared in its above-mentioned letter of 11 January
1974that "it did not accept or acquiesce in any of the statements of,fact
or allegations or contentions of law contained in the Memorials of the
Parties concerned" (emphasis added). But such a general declaration of

non-acceptance and non-acquiescence cannot sufice to bring into ques-
tion facts which appear to be established by documentary evidence, nor
can it change the position of the applicant Party, or of the Court, which
remains bound to apply the provisions of Article 53 of the Statute.

17. It is to be regretted that the Government of Iceland has failed to

appear in order to plead its objections or to make its observations against
the Applicant's arguments and contentions in law. The Court however,
as an international judicial organ, is deemed to take judicial notice of
international law, and is therefore required in a case falling under
Article 53 of the Statute, as in any other case, to consider on its own
initiative al1 rules of internationallaw which may be relevant to the

settlement of the dispute. It being the duty of the Court itself to ascertain
and apply the relevant law in the given circumstances of the case, the
burden of establishing or proving rules of international law cannot be
imposed upon any of the parties, for the law lies within the judicial
knowledge of the Court. In ascertainiiig the law applicable in the present
case the Court has had cognizance not only of the legal arguments
submitted to it by the Applicant but also of those contained in various

communications addressed to it by the Government of Iceland, and in
documents presented to the Court. The Court has thus taken account of
the legal position of each Party. Moreover, the Court has been assisted
by the answers given by the Applicant, both orally and in writing, to
questions asked by Members of the Court during the oral proceedings or
immediately thereafter. It should be stressed that in applying Article 53of the Statute in this case, the Court has acted with particular circum-
spection and has taken special care, being faced with the absence of the
respondent State.
18. Accordingly, for the purposes of Article 53 of the Statute, the
Court considers that it has before it the elements necessary to enable it
to determine whether the Applicant's claim is, or is not, well founded
in.fact and law, and it is now called upon to do so. However, before
proceeding further the Court considers it necessary to recapitulate

briefly the history of the present dispute.

19. In 1948 the Althing (the Parliament of Iceland) passed a law
entitled "Law concerning the Scientific Conservation of the Continental
Shelf Fisheries" containing, inter alia, the following provisions:

"Article 1
The Ministry of Fisheries shall issue regulations establishing
explicitly bounded conservation zones within the limits of the con-
tinental shelf of Iceland; wherein al1 fisheries shall be subject to
Icelandic rules and control; Provided that the conservation measures
now in effect shall in no way be reduced. The Ministry shall further

issue the necessary regulations for the protection of the fishing
grounds within the said zones ...

Article 2

The regulations promulgated under Article 1 of the present law
shall be enforced only to the extent compatible with agreements with
other countries to which Iceland is or may become a party."

20. The 1948 Law was explained by the Icelandic Government in its
exposédes motifssubmitting the Law to the Althing, in which, inter alia,
it stated:

"lt is well known that the economy of Iceland depends almost
entirely on fishing in the vicinity of its coasts. For this reason, the
population of Iceland has followed the progressive impoverishment
of fishing grounds with anxiety. Formerly, when fishing equipment
was far less efficient than it is today, the question appeared in a
different light, and the right of providing for exclusive rights of
fishing by Iceland itself in the vicinity of her coasts extendedmuch
further than is admitted by the practice generally adopted since
1900. It seems obvious, however, that measures to protect fisheries
ought to be extended in proportion to the growing efficiency of
fishingequipment. In so far as the jurisdiction of States over fishing grounds is
concerned, two methods have been adopted. Certain States have
proceeded to a determination of their territorial waters, especially
for fishing purposes. Others, on theother hand, have left the question
of the territorial waters in abeyance and have contented themselves

with asserting their exclusive right over fisheries, independently of
territorial waters. Of these two methods, the second seems to be the
more natural, having regard to the fact that certain considerations
arising from the concept of 'territorial waters' have no bearing upon
the question of an exclusive right to iîshing, and that there are
therefore serious drawbacks in considering the two questions to-

gether."

21. Commenting upon Article 2 of the 1948 Law, the expo.ri.des tnotifs
referred to the Anglo-Danish Convention of 1901, which applied to the
fisheries in the waters around Iceland and established a 3-mile limit for
the exclusive right of fishery. This Convention, which was subject to

termination by either party on giving two years' notice, was mentioned
as one of the international agreements with which any regulations issued
under the Law would have to be compatible so long as the Convention
remained in force. In the following year, on 3 October 1949,the Govern-
ment of Iceland gave notice of the denunciation of the Convention, with
the result that it ceased to be in force after the expiry of the prescribed

two-year period of notice on 3 October 1951. Furtherinore, during that
interval this Court had handed down its Judgment in the Fislicrics case
(I.C.J. Reports 19.51,p. 116) between the Uiiited Kingdotn and Norway,
in which it had endorsed the validity of the system of straight baselines
applied by Norway off the Norwegian coast. Early in 1952, lceland
informed the United Kingdom of its intention to issue new fshery regula-

tions in accordance with the 1948 Law. Then, on 19 March of that year,
Iceland issued Regulations providing for a fishery zone whose outer liinit
was to be a line drawn 4 miles to seaward of straight baselines traced
along the outermost points of the coasts, islands and rocks and across
the opening of bays, and prohibiting al1 foreign fishing activities within
that zone.
22. The 1952 Fisheries Regulations met with protests from the United

Kingdom, regarding Iceland's claim to a 4-mile limit and certain features
of its straight-baseline systein, which the United Kingdom considered to
go beyond the principles endorsed by the Court in the Fislirrirs case.After
various attempts to resolve the dispute, a nzoc/usi,i~~cndw i as reached in
1956 under which there was to be no further extension of Iceland's
fishery limits pending discussion by the United Nations General Assembly

in that year of the Report of the International Law Comtnission on the
Law of the Sea. This discussion resulted in the convening at Geneva in
1958of the first United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. 23. The 1958 Conference, having failed to reach agreement either on
the linlit of the territorial sea oron the zone of exclusive fisheries,adopted
a resolution requesting the General Assembly to study the advisability
of convening a second Law of the Sea Conference specifically to deal
with these questions.After the conclusion of the 1958Conference,lceland
made on 1 June 1958 a preliminary announcement of its intention to

reserve the right of fishing within an area of 12miles from the baselines
exclusively to Icelandic fishermen, and to extend the fishing zone also by
modification of the baselines, and then on 30 June 1958 issued new
"Regulations concerning the Fisheries Limits off Iceland". Article 1 of
these proclaimed a new 12-mile fisherylimit around Iceland drawn from
new baselines defined in that Article, and Article 2 prohibited al1fishing
activities by foreign vessels within the new fishery limit. Article7 of the
Regulations expressly stated that they were promulgated in accordance
with the Law of 1948concerning ScientificConservation of the Continen-
tal Shelf Fisheries.
24. The United Kingdom did not accept the validity of the new
Regulations, and its fishing vessels continued to fish inside the 12-mile
limit, with the result that a number of incidents occurred on the fishing
grounds. Various attempts were made to settle the dispute by negotiation
but the dispute remained unresolved. On 5 May 1959the Althing passed
a resolution on the matter in which, inter alia, it said:

". .. the Althing declares that it considers that Iceland has an in-
disputable right to fishery limits of 12 miles, that recognition should
be obtained of Iceland's right to the entire continental shelf area in
conformity with thepolicy adopted by the Law of 1948,corzcerningthe
Scientijïc Conservation of the Continental She/f Fisheries and that
fishery limits of less than 12 miles from base-lines around the
country are out of the question" (emphasisadded).

The Resolution thus stressed that the 12-mile limit asserted in the 1958
Regulations was merely a further step in Iceland's progress towards its
objective of a fishery zone extending over the whole of the continental
shelf area.
25. After the Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the
Sea, in 1960,the United Kingdom and lceland embarked on a series of
negotiations with a view to resolving their differences regarding the 12-
mile fishery limits and baselines clain~edby Iceland in its 1958 Regula-
tions. According to the records of the negotiations which were drawn
up by and have been brought to the Court's attention by the Applicant,

the Icelandic representatives in their opening statement called attention
to the proposals submitted to the 1960 Conference on the Law of the
Sea concerning preferential rights and to the widespread support these
proposals had received, and asserted that Iceland, as a country in a
special situation, "should receive preferential treatment even beyond 12miles". Fishery conservation measures outside the 12-milelimit, including
the reservation ofareas for Icelandic fishing, werediscussed, but while the
United Kingdom representatives recognized that "Iceland is a 'special
situation' country", no agreement was reached regarding fisheries outside
the 12-milelimit. In these discussions, the United Kingdom insisted upon
receiving an assurance concerning the future extension of Iceland's
fisheryjurisdiction and a compromissory clause was then included in the
Exchange of Notes which was agreed upon by the Parties on 11 March

1961.

26. The substantive provisions of the settlement, which were set out
in the principal Note addressed by the Government of Iceland to the
Government of the United Kingdom, were as follows:
(1) The United Kingdom would no longer object to a 12-mile fishery
zone around Iceland measured from the baselines accepted solely for
the purpose of the delimitation of that zone.

(2) The United Kingdom accepted for that purpose the baselines set out
in the 1958 Regulations subject to the modification of four specified
points.
(3) For a period of three years from the date of the Exchange of Notes,
Iceland would not object to United Kingdom vessels fishing within
certain specifiedareas and during certain stated months of the year.

(4) During that three-year period, however, United Kingdom vessels
would not fish within the outer 6 miles of the 12-milezone in seven
specifiedareas.
(5) Iceland "will continue to work for the implementation of the Althing
Resolution of May 5, 1959,regarding the extension of fisheries juris-
diction around Iceland, but shall give to the United Kingdom
Government six months' notice of such extension and, in case of a
dispute in relation to such extension, the matter shall, at the request
of either party, be referred to the International Court of Justice".

In its Note in reply the UnitedKingdom emphasized that:

". ..in view of the exceptional dependence of the Icelandic nation
upon coastal fisheries for their livelihood and economic develop-
ment, and without prejudice to the rights of the United Kingdom
under international law towards a third party, the contents of Your
Excellency's Note are acceptable to the United Kingdom and the
settlement of the dispute has been accomplished on the terms stated
therein".

27. On 14July 1971the Government of Iceland issued a policy state-
ment in which, intearlia ,t was said: "That the agreements on fisheries jurisdiction with the British
and the West Germans be terminated and that a decision be taken
on the exteiision of fisheries jurisdiction to 50 nautical miles from
base lines, and that this extension become effective not later than
September 1st, 1972."

This led the Government of the United Kingdom, in an aide-mémoireof
17 July 1971, to draw the attention of Iceland to the terms of the 1961

Exchange of Notes regarding the right of either Party to refer to the
Court any extension of Iceland's fishery limits. While reserving al1 its
rights, the United Kingdom emphasized that the Exchange of Notes
was not open to unilateral denunciation or termination. This prompted
discussions between the two countries in which no agreement was
reached; in an aide-mémoire of 31 August 1971 Iceland stated that it
considered the object and purpose ofthe provision for recourse tojudicial
settlement to have been fully achieved; and that it now found it essential
to extend further the zone of exclusive fisheries jurisdiction around its
coasts to include the areas of the sea covering the continental shelf.
Iceland further added that the new limits, the precise boundaries of which
would be furnished at a later date, would enter into force not later than
1September 1972;and that it was prepared to hold further meetings "for
the purpose of achieving a practical solution of the problems involved".

28. The United Kingdom replied on 27 September 1971 and placed
formally on record its view that "such an extension of the fishery zone
ar6und Iceland would have no basis in international law". It then con-

troverted Iceland's proposition that the object and purpose of the provi-
sion for recourse tojudicial settlement of disputes relating toan extension
of fisheries jurisdiction had been fully achieved, and again reserved al1
its rights under that provision. At the same time, however, the United
Kingdom expressed its willingness,without prejudice to its legal position,
to enter into further exploratory discussions. In November 1971 the
United Kingdom and Iceland held discussions. At these talks, the British
delegation stated their viewthat Iceland's objectivescould be achieved by
a catch-limitation agreement. In further talks which took piace in January
1972 the United Kingdom expressed its readiness to negotiate any
arrangements for the limitation of catches that scientific evidence might
show to be necessary, and in which any preferential requirements of the
coastal State resulting from its dependence on fisheries would be recog-
nized. It further proposed, as an interim measure pending the elaboration
of a multilateral arrangement, to limit its annual catch of demersal fish
in Icelandic waters to 185,000tons. The Icelandic Government was not,
however, prepared to negotiate further on this basis.

29. On 15February 1972the Althing adopted a Resolution reiterating
the fundamental policy of the Icelandic people that the continental shelfof Iceland and the superjacent waters were within the jurisdiction of Ice-
land. While repeating that the provisions of the Exchange of Notes of
1961 no longer constituted an obligation for Iceland, it resolved, inter
alia:

"1. That the fishery limits will beextended to 50 miles from base-lines
around the country, to become effective not later than 1September
1972.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . .

3. That efforts to reach a solution of the problems connected with
the extension be continued through discussions with the Govern-
ments of the United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of
Germany.
4. That effective supervision of the fish stocks in the Iceland area be
continued in consultation with marine biologists and that the
necessary measures be taken for the protection of the fish stocks

and specified areas in order to prevent over-fishing ..."

In an aide-mémoire of 24 February 1972 Iceland's Minister for Foreign

Affairs formally notified the United Kingdom Ambassador in Reykjavik
of his Government's intention to proceed in accordance with this Resolu-
tion.
30. On 14 March 1972,the United Kingdom in an aide-mémoire took
note of the decision of lceland to issue new Regulations, reiterated its
view that "such an extension of the fishery zone around lceland would
have no basis in international law", and rejected Iceland's contention
that the Exchange of Notes was no longer in force. Moreover, forma1

notice was also given by the United Kingdom that an application would
shortly be made to the Court in accordance with the Exchange of Notes;
the British Government was however willing to continue discussions
with Iceland "in order to agree satisfactory practical arrangements for
the period while the case is before the International Court of Justice".
On 14 April 1972,the United Kingdom filed in the Registry its Applica-
tion bringing the present case before the Court.

31. A series of negotiations between representatives of the two coun-
tries soon followed and continued throughout May, June and July 1972,
in the course of which various proposais for catch-limitation, fishing-
effort limitation. area or seasonal restrictions for United Kine"om
vessels were discussed, in the hope of arriving at practical arrangements
for an interim régimepending the settlement of the dispute. By 12 July
there was still no agreement on such an interim régime,and the Icelandic

delegation announced that new Regulations would be issued on 14 July
1972 which would exclude al1 foreign vessels from fishing within the
50-mile limit after 1 September 1972. The United Kingdom delegation
replied that, while ready to continue the discussions for an interim régime,
they reserved the United Kingdom's rights in areas outside the 12-mile16 FISHERIESJURISDICTION (JUDGMENT)

limit and would seek an Order for interim measures of protection from

the Court. The new Regulations, issued on 14 July 1972, extended Ice-
land's fisherylimits to 50 miles as from 1September 1972and, by Article
2, prohibited al1fishing activities by foreign vessels inside those limits.
Consequently, on 19July 1972,the United Kingdom filed its request for
the indication of interim measures of protection.

32. On 11 August 1972the Icelandic Foreign Ministry sent a Note to
the United Kingdom Embassy in Reykjavik, in which the Icelandic
Government renewed its interest in the recognition of its preferential
rights in the area, an issue which had already been raised in 1967by the
Icelandic delegation to the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission.
In a memorandum presented at the Fifth Meeting of that Commission,
the Icelandic delegation had drawn attention to the need for consideration
of the total problem of limiting fishing effort in Icelandic waters by, for
example, a quota system under which the priority position of Iceland

would be respected in accordance with internationally recognized prin-
ciples regarding the preferential requirements of the coastal State where
the people were overwhelmingly dependent upon the resources involved
for their livelihood. In the Note of 11August 1972it was recalled that:

"The Icelandic representatives laid main emphasis on receiving
from the British side positive replies to two fundamental points:

1. Recognition of preferential rights for Icelandic vesselsasto fishing

outside the 12-mile limit.
2. That Icelandic authorities should have full rights and be in a
position to enforce the regulations established with regard to
fishinginside the 50-milelimit."
Thus, while Iceland invoked preferential rights and the Applicant was
prepared to recognize them, basic differences remained as to the extent

and scope of those rights, and asto the methods for their implementation
and their enforcement. There can be little doubt that these divergences
of views were some of "the problems connected with the extension" in
respect of which the Althing Resolution of 15 February 1972 had in-
structed the Icelandic Government to make "efforts to reach a solution".
33. On 17 August 1972 the Court made an Order for provisional
measures in which, intea rlia, it indicated that, pending the Court's final
decision in the proceedings, Iceland should refrain from taking any
measures to enforce the Regulations of 14July 1972against United King-
dom vesselsengaged in fishing outside the 12-milefisheryzone; and that
the United Kingdom should limit the annual catch of its vessels in the
"Sea Area of Iceland" to 170,000tons. That the United Kingdom hascomplied with the terms of the catch-limitation measure indicated in the
Court's Order has not been questioned or disputed. Iceland, on the other
hand, notwithstanding the measures indicated by the Court, began to
enforce the new Regulations against United Kingdom vessels soon after
they came into effect on 1 September 1972. Moreover, when in August
1972the United Kingdom made it clear to Iceland that in its view any
settlement between the parties of an interim régimeshould be compatible
with the Court's Order, Iceland replied on 30 August that it would not
consider the Order to be binding upon it "since the Court has no juris-
diction in the matter".

34. By its Judgment of 2 February 1973,the Court found that it had

jurisdiction to entertain the Application and todeal with the merits of the
dispute. However, even after the handing down of that Judgment, Iceland
persisted in its efforts to enforce the 50-mile limit against United King-
dom vesselsand, as appears from the letter of 11January 1974addressed
to the Court by the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Iceland, mentioned
above, it has continued to deny the Court's competence to entertain the
dispute.

35. Negotiations for an interim arrangement were, however, resumed
between the two'countries, and were carried on intermittently during
1972and 1973.In the meantime incidents on the fishinggrounds involving
British and Icelandic vessels were becoming increasingly frequent, and
eventually discussions between the Prime Ministers of Iceland and the
United Kingdom in 1973led to the conclusion of an "Interim Agreement
in the Fisheries Dispute" constituted by an Exchange of Notes dated 13
November 1973.
36. The terms of the Agreement were set out in the Icelandic Note,
which began by referring to the discussions which liad taken place and
continued :

"In these discussions the following arrangements have been
worked out for an interim agreement relating to fisheries in the
disputed area, pending a settlement of the substantive dispute and
without prejudice to the legal position or rights of either Govern-
ment in relation thereto, which are based on an estimated annual
catch of about 130,000metric tons by British vessels."

The arrangements for the fishing activities of United Kingdom vesselsin
the disputed area were then set out, followed by paragraph 7 which
stipulated :

"The agreement will run for two years from the present date. Its termination will not affect the legal position of either Government
with respect to the substantive dispute."

The Note ended with the forma1 proposal, acceptance of which was
confirmed in the United Kingdom's reply, that the Exchange of Notes
should "constitute an interim agreement between our two countries".
37. The interim agreement contained no express reference to the
present proceedings before the Court nor any reference to any waiver,
whether by the United Kingdom or by Iceland, of any claims in respect
of the matters in dispute. On the contrary, it emphasized that it was an
interim agreement, that it related to fisheries in the disputed area, that
it was concluded pending a settlement of the substantivedispute, and that
it was without prejudice to the legal position or rights of eitherGovern-
ment in relation to the substantive dispute. In the light of these saving
clauses, it is clear that the dispute still continues, that its final settlement
is regarded as pending, and that the Parties meanwhile maintain their

legal rights and claims as well as their respective stands in the conflict.
The interim agreement thus cannot be described as a "phasing-out" agree-
ment, a term which refers to an arrangement whereby both parties consent
to the progressive extinction of the fishing rights of one of them over a
limited number of years. Nor could the interim agreement be interpreted
as constituting a bar to, or setting up any limitation on, the pursuit by
the Applicant of its claim before the Court. On the face of the text, it
was not intended to affect the legal position or rights of either country in
relation to the present proceedings. That this was the United Kingdom's
understanding of the interim agreement is confirmed by a statement
made by the British Prime Minister in the House of Commonson the date
of its conclusion: "Our position at the World Court remains exactly as
it is, and the agreement is without prejudice to the case of either country
in this matter." The Government of Iceland for its part, in the letter of
11 January 1974already referred to, stated that :

"This agreement is in further implementation of the policy of the
Government of Iceland to solve the practical difficulties of the
British trawling industry arising out of the application of the 1948
Law and the Althing Resolution of 14February 1972,by providing
an adjustment during the next two years. It also contributes to the
reduction of tension which has been provoked by the presence of

British armed naval vessels within the fifty-mile limit."
38. The interim agreement of 1973,unlike the 1961Exchange of Notes,
does not describe itself as a "settlement" of the dispute, and, apart from
being of limited duration, clearly possesses the character of a provisional
arrangement adopted without prejudice to the rights of the Parties, nor
does it provide for the waiver of claims by either Party in respect of the
matters in dispute. The Applicant has not sought to withdraw or dis-

continue its proceedings. The primary duty of the Court is to dischargeits judicial function and it ought not therefore to refuse to adjudicate
merely because the Parties, while maintaining their legal positions, have
entered into an agreement one of the objects of which was to prevent the
continuation of incidents. When the Court decided, by its Order of 12
July 1973, to confirm that the provisional measures in the present case
should remain operative until finaljudgment was given, it was aware that
negotiations had taken place between the Parties with a viewto reaching
an interim arrangement, and it stated specifically that "the provisional
measures indicated by the Court and confirmed by the present Order do
not exclude an interim arrangement which may be agreed upon by the
Governments concerned ..." (Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdomv.
Zeeland), ZnterimMeusures, Order of 12 July 1973, Z.C.J. Reports 1973,
p. 303, para. 7).

39. In response to questions put by a Member of the Court, counsel
for the United Kingdom expressed the viewthat the interim agreement, as
a treaty in force, regulates the relations between the two countries so far
as British fishing is concerned in the specifiedreas. The judgment of the
Court, the United Kingdom envisages, will state the rules of customary
international law between the Parties, defining their respective rights and
obligations, but will not completely replace with immediate effect the

interim agreement, which will remain a treaty in force. In so far as the
judgment may possibly deal with matters which are not covered in the
interim agreement, the judgment would, in the understanding of the
United Kingdom, have immediate effect; the Parties will in any event be
under a duty fully to regulate their relations in accordance with the terms
of the judgment as soon as the interim agreement ceases to be in force,
i.e., on 13 November 1975or such earlier date as the Parties may agree.
In the view of the United Kingdom, the Court's judgment will:

". ..constitute an authoritative statement of the rights and obliga-
tions of the partiesunder existing law and may provide a basis for
the negotiation of arrangements to follow those contained in the
Interim Agreement".

40. The Court is of the view that there is no incompatibility with its
judicial function in making a pronouncement on the rights and duties
of the Parties under existing international law which would clearly be
capable of having a forward reach; this does not mean that the Court
should declare the law between the Parties as it might be at the date of
expiration of the interim agreement, a task beyond the powers of any
tribunal. The possibility of the law changing is ever present: but that
cannot relieve the Court from its obligation to render a judgment on the

basis of the law as it exists at the time of its decision. In any event it
cannot be said that the issues now before the Court have become without
object; for there is no doubt that the case is one in which "there exists atthe time of the adjudication an actual controversy involving a conflict of
legal interests between the Parties" (Northern Cameroons, Judgment,
Z.C.J. Reports 1963,pp. 33-34).
41. Moreover, if the Court were to come to the conclusion that the
interim agreement prevented it from rendering judgment, or compelled
it todismiss the Applicant's claim as one without object, the inevitable
result would be to discourage the making of interim arrangements in
future disputes with the object of reducing friction and avoiding risk to
peace and security. This would run contrary to the purpose enshrined in

the provisions of the United Nations Charter relating to the pacific
settlement of disputes. It is because of the importance of these considera-
tions that the Court has felt it necessary to state at some length its views
on the inferences discussed above. The Court concludes that the existence
of the interim agreement ought not to lead it to refrain from pronouncing
judgment in the case.

42. The question has been raised whether the Court has jurisdiction to
pronounce upon certain matters referred to the Court in the last para-
graph of the Applicant's final submissions (paragraphs 11and 12above)
to the effect that the parties are under a duty to examine together the
existence and extent of the need for restrictions of fishing activities in
Icelandic waters on conservation grounds and to negotiate for the
establishment of such a régimeas will, inter alia,ensure for Iceland a

preferential position consistent with its position as a State specially
dependent on its fisheries.
43. In its Judgment of 2 February 1973, pronouncing on the juris-
diction of the Court in the present case, the Court found "that it has
jurisdiction to entertain the Application filed by the Government of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland on 14April 1972
and to deal with the merits of the dispute" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 22,
para. 46). The Application which the Court found it had jurisdiction to
entertain contained a submission under letter (6) (cf. paragraph 11
above) which in its second part raised the issues of conservation of
fisheryresources and of preferential fishingrights.hese questions, among
others, had previously been discussed in the negotiations between the
parties referred to in paragraphs 27 to 32above and were also extensively
examined in the pleadings and hearings on the merits.
44. The Order of the Court indicating interim measures of protection
(Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v.Iceland), ZnterimProtection,
Order of 17August 1972, I.C.J. Reports 1972,p. 12)implied that the case

before the Court involved questions of fishery conservation and of
preferential fishing rightsince, in indicating a catch-limitation figure for
the Applicant's fishing, the Court stated that this measure was based on
"the exceptional dependence of the Icelandic nation upon coastalfisheries" and "of the need for the conservation of fish stocks in the
Iceland area" (loc. cit., pp. 16-17,paras. 23 and 24).

45. In its Judgment of 2 February 1973, pronouncing on its juris-
diction in the case, the Court, after taking into account the aforesaid
contentions of the Applicant concerning fishery conservation and
preferential rights, referred again to "the exceptional dependence of
Iceland on its fisheries and the principle of conservation of fish stocks"
(I.C.J. Reports 1973,p. 20, para. 42). The judicial notice taken therein of
the recognition given by the Parties to the exceptional dependence of
Iceland on its fisheries and to the need of conservation of fish stocks in

the area clearly implies that such questions are before the Court.

46. The Order of the Court of 12 July 1973 on the continuance of
interim measures of protection referred again to catch limitation figures
and also to the question of "related restrictions concerning areas closed
to fishing, number and type of vessels allowed and forms of control of
the agreed provisions" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 303, para. 7). Thus the
Court took the view that those questions were within its competence. As
the Court stated in its Order of 17August 1972,there must be a connec-
tion "under Article 61, paragraph 1, of the Rules between a request for
interim measures of protection and the original Application filed with
the Court" (I.C.J. Reports 1972,p. 15,para. 12).
47. As to the compromissory clause in the 1961 Exchange of Notes,
this gives the Court jurisdiction with respect to "a dispute in relation to
such extension", i.e., "the extension of fisheriesjurisdiction around Ice-
land". The present dispute was occasioned by Iceland's unilateral exten-
sion of its fisheries jurisdiction. However, it would be too narrow an

interpretation of the compromissory clause to conclude that the Court's
jurisdiction is limited to giving an affirmative or a negative answer to
the question of whether the extension of fisheriesjurisdiction, as enacted
by Iceland on 14 July 1972,is in conformity with international law. In
the light of the negotiations between the Parties, both in 1960 (para-
graph 25 above) and in 1971-1972(paragraphs 28 to 32 above), in which
the questions of fishery conservation measures in the area and Iceland's
preferential fishing rights were raised and discussed, and in the light of
the proceedings before the Court, it seems evident that the dispute be-
tween the Parties includes disagreements as to the extent and scope of
their respective rights in the fishery resources and the adequacy of
measures to conserve them. It must therefore be concluded that those
disagreements are an element of the "dispute in relation to the extension
of fisheriesjurisdiction around Iceland".

48. Furthermore, the dispute before the Court must be considered in
al1 its aspects. Even if the Court's competence were understood to be
confined to the question of the conformity of Iceland's extension withthe
rules of international law, it would still be necessary for the Court todetermine in that context the role and function which those rules reserve
to the concept of preferential rights and that of conservation of fish
stocks. Thus, whatever conclusion the Court may reach in regard to
preferential rights and conservation measures, it is bound to examine
these questions with respect to this case. Consequently, the suggested
restriction on the Court's competence not only cannot be read into the
terms of the compromissory clause, but would unduly encroach upon the
power of the Court to take into consideration al1 relevant elements in
administering justice between the Parties.

49. The Applicant has challenged the Regulations promulgated by
the Government of lceland on 14July 1972,and since the Court has to
pronounce on this challenge, the ascertainment of the law applicable
becomes necessary. As the Court stated in the Fisheriescase:
"The delimitation of sea areas has always an international aspect;
it cannot be dependent merely upon the will of the coastal State as
expressed in its municipal law. Although it is true that the act of

delimitation is necessarily a unilateral act,ecause only the coastal
State is competent to undertake it, the validity of the delimitation
with regard to other States depends upon international law." (I.C.J.
Reports 1951, p. 132.)
The Court will therefore proceed to the determination of the existing
rules of international law relevant to the settlement of the present dispute.
50. The Geneva Convention on the High Seas of 1958, which was
adopted "as generally declaratory of established principles of interna-

tional law", defines in Article 1the term "high seas" as "al1 parts of the
sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in theterna1waters of a
State". Article 2 then declares that "The high seas being open to al1
nations, no State may validly purport to subject any part of them to its
soverei.gnty" and goes on to provide that the freedom of the high seas
comprises, inter dia,both for coastal and non-coastal States, freedom of
navigation and freedom of fishing. The freedoms of the high seas are
however made subject to the consideration that they "shall be exercised
by al1 States with reasonable regard to the interests of other States in
their exercise of the freedom of the high seas".

51. The breadth of the territorial sea was not defined by the 1958
Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone. It is true
that Article 24 of this Convention limits the contiguous zone to 12miles
"from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is
measured". At the 1958Conference, the main differences on the breadth23 FISHERIESJURISDICTION (JUDGMENT)

of the territorial sea were limited at the time to disagreements as to what
limit, not exceeding 12 miles, was the appropriate one. The question of
the breadth of the territorial sea and that of the extent of the coastal
State's fishery jurisdiction were left unsettled at the 1958 Conference.
These questions were referred to the Second Conference on the Law of
the Sea, held in 1960. Furthermore, the question of the extent of the
fisheriesjurisdiction of the coastal State, which had constituted a serious
obstacle to the reaching of an agreement at the 1958Conference, became
gradually separated from the notion of the teriitorialsea. This was a
development which reflected the increasing importance of fishery re-

sources for al1States.
52. The 1960Conference failed by one vote to adopt a text governing
the two questions of the breadth of the territorial sea and the extent of
fishery rights. However, after that Conference the law evolved through
the practice of States on the basis of thedebates and near-agreements at
the Conference. Two concepts have crystallized as customary law in
recent years arising out of the general consensus revealed at that Con-
ference. The first is the concept of the fishery zone, the area in which a
State may claim exclusivefisheryjurisdiction independently of its territo-
rial sea; the extension of that fishery zone up to a 12-milelimit from the
baselines appears now to be generally accepted. The second is the concept
of preferential rights of fishing in adjacent waters in favour of the coastal
State in a situation of special dependence on its coastal fisheries, this
preference operating in regard to other States concerned in the exploita-
tion of the same fisheries, and to be implemented in the way indicated in
paragraph 57 below.

53. In recent years the question of extending the coastal State's
fisheriesjurisdiction has come increasingly to the forefront. The Court is
aware that a number of States has asserted an extension of fishery limits.
The Court is also aware of present endeavours, pursued under the
auspices of the United Nations, to achieve in a third Conference on the
Law of the Sea the further codification and progressive development of
this branch of the law, asit is ofarious proposals and preparatory docu-
ments produced in this framework, which must be regarded as manifesta-
tions of the views and opinions of individual States and as vehicles of
their aspirations, ratherthan as expressing principles of existing law. The
very fact of convening the third Conference on the Law of the Sea
evidences a manifest desire on the part of al1 States to proceed to the
codification of that law on a universal basis, including the question of
fisheriesand conservation of the living resources of thesea. Such a general
desire is understandable since the rules of international maritime law
have been the product of mutual accommodation, reasonableness and
CO-operation.So it was in the past, and so it necessarily is today. In the

circumstances, the Court, as a court of law, cannot render judgment subspecie legisferendae, or anticipate the law before the legislator has laid it
down.
54. The concept of a 12-milefishery zone, referred to in paragraph 52
above, as a tertiumgenus between the territorial sea and the high seas, has
been accepted with regard to Iceland in the substantive provisions of the
1961Exchange of Notes, and the United Kingdom has also applied the
same fishery limit to its own coastal waters since 1964; therefore this
rnatter is no longer in dispute between the Parties. At the same time, the
concept of preferential rights, a notion that necessarily implies the exis-
tence of other legal rights in respect of which that preference operates,
has been admitted by the Applicant to be relevant to the solution of the
present dispute. Moreover, the Applicant has expressly recognized
Iceland's preferential rights in the disputed waters and at the same time
has invoked its own historic fishing rights in these same waters, on the
ground that reasonable regard must be had to such traditional rights by

the coastal State, in accordance with the generally recognized principles
embodied in Article 2 of the High Seas Convention. If, as the Court
pointed out in its dictum in the Fislzeriescase, cited in paragraph 49
above, any national delimitation of sea areas, to be opposable to other
States, requires evaluation in terms of the existing rules of international
law, then it becomes necessary for the Court, in its examination of the
Icelandic fisheries Regulations, to takethose elements into consideration
as well. Equally it has necessarily to take into account the provisions of
the Exchange of Notes of 1961which govern the relations between the
Parties with respect to Iceland's fishery limits. The said Exchange of
Notes, which was concluded within the framework of the existing pro-
visions of the law of the sea, was held by the Court, in its Judgment
of 2 February 1973,to be a treaty which is valid and in force.

55. The concept of preferential rights forthe coastal State in a situation
of special dependence on coastal fisheries originated in proposais sub-
mitted by Iceland at the Geneva Conference of 1958.Its delegation drew
attention to the problem which would arise when, in spite of adequate
fisheriesconservation measures, the yield ceased to be sufficientto satisfy
the requirements of al1 those who were interested in fishing in a given
area. Iceland contended that in such a case, when a catch-limitation
becomes necessary, special consideration should be given to the coastal
State whose population is overwhelmingly dependent on the fishing
resources in its adjacent waters.

56. An Icelandic proposa1 embodying these ideas failed to obtain the
majority required, but a resolution was adopted at the 1958Conferenceconcerning the situation of countries or territories whose people are
overwhelmingly dependent upon coastal fisheries for their livelihood or
economic development. This resolution, after "recognizing that such

situations cal1 for exceptional measures befitting particular needs" re-
commended that :
". ..where, for the purpose of conservation, it becomes necessary to
limit the total catch of a stock or stocks of fish in an area of the high
seas adjacent to the territorial sea of a coastal State, any other States
fishing in that area should collaborate with the coastal State to
secure just treatment of such situation, by establishing agreed
measures which shall recognize any preferential requirements of the
coastal State resulting from its dependence upon the fishery con-
cerned while having regard to the interests of the other States".

The resolution further recommended that "appropriate conciliation and
arbitral procedures shall be established for the settlement of any disagree-
ment".
57. At the Plenary Meetings of the 1960 Conference the concept of
preferential rights was embodied in a joint amendment presented by
Brazil, Cuba and Uruguay which was subsequently incorporated by a
substantial vote into ajoint United States-Canadian proposal concerning
a 6-mileterritorial sea and an additional 6-milefishingzone, thus totalling
a 12-mile exclusive fishing zone, subject to a phasing-out period. This
amendment provided, independently of the exclusive fishing zone, that

the coastal State had:

". ..the faculty of claiming preferential fishing rights in any area of
the high seasadjacent to its exclusivefishingzone when it isscientific-
ally established that a special situation or condition makes the exploi-
tation of the living resources of the high seas in that area of funda-
mental importance to the economic development of the coastal State
or the feeding of its population".

It also provided that :
"A special situation or condition may be deemed to exist when:

(a) The fisheriesand the economic development of the coastal State
or the feeding of its population are so manifestly interrelated
that, in consequence, that State is greatly dependent on the
living resources of the high seas in the area in respect of which
preferential fishingis being claimed;

(b) It becomes necessary to limit the total catch of a stock or stocks
of fish in such areas ..."
The contemporary practice of States leads to the conclusion that thepreferential rights of the coastal State in a special situation are to be
implemented by agreement between the States concerned, either bilateral
or multilateral, and, in case of disagreement, through the means for the
peaceful settlement of disputes provided for in Article 33of the Charter of
the United Nations. It was in fact an express condition of the amendment
referred to above that any other State concerned would have the right to
reqpest that a claim made by a coastal State should be tested and deter-
mined by a special commission on the basis of scientific criteria and of
evidence presented by the coastal State and other States concerned. The
commission was to be empowered to determine, for the period of time
and under the limitations that it found necessary, the preferential rights

of the coastal State, "while having regard to the interests of any other
State or States in the exploitation ofuch stock or stocks of fish".

58. State practice on the subject of fisheries reveals an increasing and
widespread acceptance of the concept of preferential rights for coastal
States, particularly in favour of countries or territories in a situation of
special dependence on coastal fisheries.Both the 1958Resolution and the
1960joint amendment concerning preferential rights were approved by a
large majority of the Conferences, thus showing overwhelming support
for the idea that in certain special situations it was fair to recognize that
the coastal State had preferential fishing rights. After these Conferences,
the preferential rights of the coastal State were recognized in various
bilateral and multilateral international agreements. The Court's attention
has been drawn to the practice in this regard of the North-West and
North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commissions, of which 19maritime States
altogether, including both Parties, are members; its attention has also
been drawn to the Arrangement Relating to Fisheries in Waters Sur-

rounding the Faroe Islands, signed at Copenhagen on 18 December 1973
on behalf of the Governments of Belgium, Denmark, France, the Federal
Republic of Germany, Norway, Poland and the United Kingdom, and to
the Agreement on the Regulation of the Fishing of North-East Arctic
(Arcto-Norwegian) Cod, signed on 15 March 1974 on behalf of the
Governments of the United Kingdom, Norway and the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics. ~oth the aforesaid agreements, in allocating the
annual shares on the basis of the past performance of the parties in the
area, assign an additional share to the coastal State on the ground of its
preferential right in the fisheries in its adjacent waters. The Faroese
agreement takes expressly into account in its preamble "the exceptional
dependence of the Faroese economy on fisheries" and recognizes "that
the Faroe Islands should enjoy preference in waters surrounding the
Faroe Islands".

59. There can be no doubt of the exceptional dependence of Iceland on
its fisheries. That exceptional dependence was explicitly recognized by

the Applicant in the Exchange of Notes of 11March 1961,and the Courthas also taken judicial notice of such recognition, by declaring that it is
"necessary to bear in mind the exceptional dependence of the Icelandic
nation upon coastal fisheries for its livelihood and economic develop-
ment" (Z.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 16, para. 23).
60. The preferential rights of the coastal State come into play only at
the moment when an intensification in the exploitation of fisheryresources
makes it imperative to introduce some system of catch-limitation and

sharing of those resources, to preserve the fish stocks in the interests of
their rational and economic exploitation. This situation appears to have
been reached in the present case. In regard to the two main demersal
species concerned+od and haddock-the Applicant has shown itself
aware of the need for a catch-limitation which has become indispensable
in view of the establishment of catch-limitations in other regions of the
North Atlantic. If a system of catch-limitation were not established in the
Icelandic area, the fishing effort displaced fromthose other regions might
well be directed towards the unprotected grounds in that area.

61. The Icelandic regulations challenged before the Court have been
issued and applied by the Icelandic authorities as a claim to exclusive
rights thus going beyond the concept of preferential rights. Article 2 of

the Icelandic Regulations of 14 July 1972States:

"Within the fishery limits al1 fishing activities by foreign vessels
shall be prohibited in accordance with the provisions of Law No. 33
of 19June 1922, conczrning Fishing inside the Fishery Limits."

Article 1 of the 1922Law provides: "Only Icelandic citizens may engage
in fishing in the territorial waters of Iceland, and only Icelandic boats or
ships may be used for such fishing." The language of the relevant
government regulations indicates that their object is to establish an
exclusive fishery zone, in which al1fishing by vessels registered in other
States, including the United Kingdom, would be prohibited. The mode
of implementation of the regulations, carried out by Icelandic govern-
mental authorities vis-à-vis United Kingdom fishing vessels, before the
1973 interim agreement, and despite the Court's interim measures,
confirms this interpretation.
62. The concept of preferential rights is not compatible with the

exclusion of al1fishingactivities of other States. A coastal State entitled to
preferential rights is not free, unilaterally and according to its own un-
controlled discretion, to determine the extent of those rights. The charac-
terization of the coastal State's rights as preferential implies a certain
priority, but cannot imply the extinction of the concurrent rights of other28 FISHERIESJURISDICTION(JUDGMENT)

States, and particularly of a State which, like the Applicant, has for many
years been engaged in fishing in the waters in question, such fishing
activity being important to the economy of the country concerned. The

coastal State has to take into account and pay regard to the position of
such other States, particularly when they have established an economic
dependence on the same fishing grounds. Accordingly, the fact that Iceland
is entitled to claim preferential rights does not suffice to justify its claim
unilaterally to exclude the Applicant's fishing vessels from al1 fishing
activity in the waters beyond the limits agreed to in the 1961Exchange of

Notes.

63. In this case, the Applicant has pointed out that its vessels have been

fishing in Icelandic waters for centuries and that they have done so in a
manner comparable with their present activities for upwards of 50 years.
Published statistics indicate that from 1920 onwards, fishing of demersal
species by United Kingdom vesselsin the disputed area has taken place on
a continuous basis from year to year, and that, except for the period of

the Second World War, the total catch of those vessels has been remark-
ably steady. Similar statistics indicate that the waters in question con-
stitutethe most important of the Applicant's distant-water fishing grounds
for demersal species.
64. The Applicant further States that in view of the present situation of
fisheries in the North Atlantic, which has demanded the establishment of

agreed catch-limitations of cod and haddock in various areas, it would
not be possible for the fishing effort of United Kingdom vessels displaced
from the Icelandic area to be diverted at economic levels to other fishing
grounds in the North Atlantic. Given the lack of alternative fishing
opportunity, it is further contended, the exclusion of British fishing
vessels from the Icelandic area would have very serious adverse con-

sequences, with immediate results for the affected vessels and with
damage extending over a wide range of supporting and related industries.
It is pointed out in particular that wide-spread unemployment would be
caused among al1sections of the British fishing industry and in ancillary
industries and that certain ports-Hull, Grimsby and Fleetwood-

specially reliant on fishing in the Icelandic area, would be seriously
affected.
65. Iceland has for its part admitted the existence of the Applicant's
historic and special interests in the fishing in the disputed waters. The
Exchange of Notes as a whole and in particular its final provision re-
quiring lceland to give advance notice to the United Kingdom of any

extension of its fishery limits impliedly acknowledged the existence of
United Kingdom fishery interests in the waters adjacent to the 12-mile
limit. The discussions which have taken place between the two countries
also imply an acknowledgement by Iceland of the existence of suchinterests. Furthermore, the Prime Minister of Iceland stated on 9Novem-
ber 1971:
"... the British have some interests to protect in this connection.
For a long time they have been fishing in Icelandic waters .. .The
well-being of specific British fishing towns may nevertheless to some
extent be connected with the fisheries in Icelandic waters..."
66. considerations similar to those which have prompted the recogni-
tion of the preferential rights of the coastal State in a special situation
apply when coastal populations in other fishing States are alsodependent
on certain fishing grounds. In both instances the economic dependence
and the livelihood of whole communities are affected. Not only do the
same considerations apply, but the same interest in conservation exists.
In this respect the Applicant has recognized that the conservation and
efficient exploitation of the fish stocks in the Iceland area are of impor-
tance not only to Iceland but also to the United Kingdom.

67. The provisions of the Icelandic Regulations of 14 July 1972 and
the manner of their implementation disregard the fishing rights of the

the principle enshrined in Article 2 of the 1958 Geneva Convention onnt of

the High Seas which requires that al1States, including coastal States, in
exercising their freedom of fishing, pay reasonable regard to the interests
of other States. It also disregards the rights of the Applicant as they result
from the Exchange of Notes of 1961.The Applicant is therefore justified
in asking the Court to give al1 necessary protection to its own rights,
while at the same time agreeing to recognize Iceland's preferential posi-
tion. Accordingly, the Court is bound to conclude that the Icelandic
Regulations of 14 July 1972 establishing a zone of exclusive fisheries
jurisdiction extending to 50nautical milesfrom baselines around the Coast
of Iceland, are not opposable to the United Kingdom, and the latter is
under no obligation to accept the unilateral termination by Iceland of
United Kingdom fishery rights in the area.
68. The findings stated by the Court in the preceding paragraphs
suffice to provide a basis for the decision of the present case, namely:
that Iceland's extension of its exclusive fishery jurisdiction beyond 12
miles is not opposable to the United Kingdom; that Iceland may on the
other hand claim preferential rights in the distribution of fishery resources
in the adjacent waters; that the United Kingdom also has established
rights with respect to the fishery resources in question; and that therin-
ciple of reasonable regard for the interests of other States enshrined in
Article 2 of the Geneva Convention on the High Seas of 1958 requires
Iceland and the United Kingdom to have due regard to each other's
interests, and to theintercsts of other States, in those resources. 69. It follows from the reasoning of the Court in this case that in
order to reach an equitable solution of the present dispute it is necessary
that the preferential fishing rights of Iceland, as a State specially depen-
dent on coastal fisheries, be reconciled with the traditional fishing rights
of the Applicant. Such a reconciliation cannot be based, however, on a
phasing-out of the Applicant's fishing,as was the case in the 1961 Ex-
change of Notes in respect of the 12-mile fishery zone. In that zone,
Iceland was to exercise exclusive fishery rights while not objecting to
continued fishing by the Applicant's vesselsduring a phasing-out period.
In adjacent waters outside that zone, however, a similar extinction of
rights of other fishing States, particularly when such rights result from a
situation of economic dependence and long-term reliance on certain
fishing grounds, would not be compatible with the notion of preferential
rights as it was recognized at the Geneva Conferences of 1958and 1960,
nor would it be equitable. At the 1960Conference, the concept of prefer-
ential rights of coastal States in a special situation was recognized in the

joint amendment referred to in paragraph 57 above, under such limita-
tions and to such extent as is found "necessary by reason of the depen-
dence of the coastal State on the stock or stocks of fish, while having
regard to the interests of any other State or States in the exploitation of
such stock or stocks of fish". The reference to the interests of other
States in the exploitation of the same stocks clearly indicates that the
preferential rights of the coastal State and the established rights of other
States were considered as, in principle, continuing to CO-exist.

70. This is not to Saythat the preferential rights of a coastal State in a
special situation are a static concept, in the sense that the degree of the
coastal State's preference is to be considered as fixed for ever at some
given moment. On the contrary, the preferential rights are a function of
the exceptional dependence of such a coastal State on the fisheries in
adjacent waters and may, therefore, Varyas the extent of that dependence
changes. Furthermore, as was expressly recognized in the 1961Exchange
of Notes, a coastal State's exceptional dependence on fisheriesmay relate
.not only to the livelihood of its people but to its economic development.
In each case, it is essentially a matter of appraising the dependence of the
coastal State on the fisheries in question in relation to that of the other
State concerned and of reconciling them in as equitable a manner as is

possible.

71. In view of the Court's finding (paragraph 67 above) that the
Icelandic Regulations of 14 July 1972are not opposable to the United
Kingdom for the reasons which have been stated, it follows that the
Government of Iceland is not in law entitled unilaterally to exclude
United Kingdom fishing vessels from sea areas to seaward of the limits
agreed to in the 1961Exchange of Notes or unilaterally to impose restric-
tions on their activities in such areas. But the matter does not end there; as the Court has indicated, Iceland is, in view of it~ special situation,
entitled to preferential rights in respect of the fish stocks of the waters
adjacent to itscoasts. Due recognition must be given to the rights of both
Parties, namely the rights of the United Kingdom to fish in the waters in
dispute, and the preferential rights of Iceland. Neither right is anabsolute
one: the preferential rights of a coastal State are limited according to the
extent of its special dependence on the fisheries and by its obligation to
take account of the rights of other States and the needs of conservation;
the established rights of other fishing States are in turn limited by reason
of the coastal State's special dependence on the fisheries and its own
obligation to take account of the rights of other States, including the
coastal State, and of the needs of conservation.

72. It follows that even if the Court holds that Iceland's extension of
its fishery limitsis not opposable to the Applicant, this does not mean
that theApplicant isunder no obligation to Iceland with respect to fishing

in the disputed waters in the 12-mileto 50-mile zone. On the contrary,
both States have an obligation to take full account of each othegs rights
and of any fishery conservation measures the necessity of which is shown
to exist inthose waters. It isone of the advances in maritime international
law, resulting from the intensification of fishing, that the former laissez-
faire treatment of the living resources of the sea in the high seas has been
replaced by a recognition of a duty to have due regard to the rights of
other States and the needs of conservation for the benefit of all. Conse-
quently, both Parties have the obligation to keep under reviewthe fishery
iesources in the disputed waters and to examine together, in the light of
scientific and other available information, the measures required for the
conservation and development, and equitable exploitation, of those
resources, taking into account any international agreement in force
between them, such as the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Convention of
24 January 1959,as well as such other agreements as may be reached in
the matter in the course of further negotiation.

73. The most appropriate method for the solution of the dispute is
clearly that of negotiation. Its objective should be the delimitation of the
rights and interests of the Parties, the preferential rights of the coastal
State on the one hand and the rights of the Applicant on the other, to
balance and regulate equitably questions such as those of catch-limita-
tion. share allocations and "related restrictions concernin~"areas closedto
fishi&, number and type of vessels allowed and forms of control of the
agreed provisions" (Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland),
Interim Measures, Order of 12 July 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 303,32 FJSHERIESJURJSDICTION(JUDGMENT)

para. 7). This necessitates detailed scientific knowledge of the fishing
grounds. It is obvious that the relevant information and expertise would
be mainly in the possession of the Parties. The Court would, for this
reason, meet with difficulties if it were itself to attempt to lay down a

precise scheme for an equitable adjustment of the rights involved. Lt is
thus obvious that both in regard to merits and to jurisdiction the Court
only pronounces on the case which is before it and not on any hypo-
thetical situation which might arise in the future.

74. It is implicit in the concept of preferential rights that negotiations
are required in order to define or delimit the extent ofthose rights, as
was already recognized in the 1958 Geneva Resolution on Special Situa-
tions relating to Coastal Fisheries, which constituted the starting point of
the law on the subject. This Resolution provides for the establishment,
through collaboration between the coastal State and any other State

fishing in the area, of agreed measures to secure just treatment of the
special situation.
75. The obligation to negotiate thus flows from the very nature of the
respective rights of the Parties; to direct them to negotiate is therefore a
proper exercise of the judicial function in this case. This also corresponds
to the Principles and provisions of the Charter of the United Nations

concerning peaceful settlement of disputes. As the Court stated in the
North Sea Continental Sl~eifcases :

". .. this obligation merely constitutes a special application of a
principle which underlies al1 international relations, and which is
moreover recognized in Article 33 of the Charter of the United
Nations as one of the methodsfor the peaceful settlement of interna-
tional disputes" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 47, para. 86).

76. In this case negotiations were initiated by the Parties from the date
when Iceland gave notice of its intention to extend its fisheries jurisdic-
tion, but these negotiations reached an early deadlock, and could not

come to any conclusion; subsequently, further negotiations were directed
to the conclusion of the interim agre"ment of 13 November 1973. The
obligation to seek a solution of the dispute by peaceful means, among
which negotiations are the most appropriate to this case, has not been
eliminated by that interim agreement. The question has been raised, how-
ever, on the basis of the deletion of a sentence which had been proposed

by the United Kingdom in the process of elaboration of the text, whether
the parties agreed to wait for the expiration of the term provided for in
the interim agreement without entering into further negotiations. The
deleted sentence, which would have appeared in paragraph 7 of the 1973
Exchange of Notes, read :"The Governments will reconsider the position
before that term expires unless they have in the meantime agreed to a

settlement of the substantive dispute."
77. The Courtcannot accept the view that the deletion of this sentence
which concerned renegotiation of the interim régime warrants the in-ference that the common intention of the Parties was to be released from
negotiating in respect of the basic dispute over Iceland's extension to a
50-mile limit throughout the whole period covered by the interim agree-
ment. Such an intention would not correspond to the attitude taken up
by the Applicant in these proceedings, in which it has asked the Court to
adjudge and declare that the Parties are under a duty to negotiate a ré-
gime for the fisheries in the area. Nor would an interpretation of this
kind, in relation to Iceland's intention, correspond to the clearly stated
policy of the Icelandic authorities to continue negotiations on the basic
problems relating to the dispute, as emphasized by paragraph 3 of the

Althing Resolution of 15February 1972,referred to earlier, which reads:
"That efforts to reach a solution of the problems connected with the
extension be continued through discussions with the Governments of the
United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany." Taking into
account that the interim agreement contains a definite date for its expira-
tion, and in the light of what has been stated in paragraph 75 above, it
would seem difficult to attribute to the Parties an intention to wait for
that date and for the reactivation of the dispute, with al1 the possible
friction it might engender, before one of them might require the other to
attempt a peaceful settlement through negotiations. At the same time,
the Court must add that its Judgment obviously cannot preclude the
Partiesfrom benefitingfromany subsequentdevelopments inthe pertinent
rules of international law.
78. In the fresh negotiations which are to take place on the basis of the
present Judgment, the Parties will have the benefit of the above appraisal
of their respective rights, and of certain guidelines defining their scope.
The task before them will be to conduct their negotiations on the basis

that each must in good faith pay reasonable regard to the legal rights of
the other in the waters around Iceland outside the 12-mile limit, thus
bringing about an equitableapportionment of the fishing resources based
on the facts of the particular situation, and having regard to the interests
of other States which have established fishing rights in the area. It is not a
matter of finding simply an equitable solution, but an equitable solution
derived from the applicable law. As the Court stated in the North Sea
Continental Slzelfcases:

". ., it is not a question of applying equity simply as a matter of
abstract justice, but of applying a rule of law which itself requires the
application of equitable principles" (Z.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 47, para.
85). 79. For these reasons,

by ten votes to four,

(1) finds that the Regulations concerning the Fishery Limits off Iceland
(Reglugeri3 urn jîskveiailandhelgi jslands) promulgated by the
Government of Iceland on 14July 1972and constituting a unilateral
extension of the exclusive fishing rights of Iceland to 50 nautical
miles from the baselines specified therein are not opposable to the
Government of the United Kingdom;
(2) finds that, in consequence, the Government of Iceland is not entitled
unilaterally to exclude United Kingdom fishing vessels from areas

between the fishery limits agreed to in the Exchange of Notes of
11 March 1961 and the limits specified in the Icelandic Regulations
of 14July 1972,or unilaterally to impose restrictions on the activities
of those vessels in such areas;

by ten votes to four,
(3) holds that the Government of Iceland and the Government of the
United Kingdom are under mutual obligations to undertake negotia-

tions in good faith for the equitable solution of their differences
concerning their respective fishery rights in the areas specified in
subparagraph 2 ;
(4) holds that in these negotiations the Parties are to take into account,
inter aiia:

(a) that in the distribution of the fishing resources in the areas
specified in subparagraph 2 Iceland is entitled to a preferential

share to the extent of the special dependence of its people upon
the fisheries in the seas around its coasts for their livelihood and
economic development ;
(b) that by reason of its fishing activities in the areas specified in
subparagraph 2, the United Kingdom also has established rights
in the fishery resources of the said areas on which elements of
its people depend for their livelihood and economic well-being;

(c) the obligation to pay due regard to the interests of other States
in theconservation and equitableexploitation of these resources;
(d) that the above-mentioned rights of Iceland and of the United
Kingdom should each be given effect to the extent compatible
with the conservation and development of the fishery resources
in the areas specified in subparagraph 2 and with the interests

of other States in their conservation and equitable exploitation;

(e) their obligation to keep under review those resources and to
examine together, in the light of scientific and other available
information, such measures as may be required for the conser- vation and development, and equitable exploitation, of those
resources, making use of the machinery established by the
North-East Atlantic Fisheries Convention or such other means
as may be agreed upon as a result of international negotiations.

Done in English, and in French, the English text being authoritative,
at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-fifth day of July, one
thousand nine hundred and seventy-four, in three copies, of which one
will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted to
the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern

Ireland and to the Government of the Republic of Iceland respectively.

(Sigt~ed) Manfred LACHS,

President.
(Signe4 S. AQUARONE,

Registrar.

President LACHSmakes the following declaration:

1am in agreement with the reasoning and conclusions of the Court, and

since the Judgment speaks for and stands by itself, 1 would not feel it
appropriate to make any gloss upon it.

Judge IGNACIO-PINTm Oakes the followingdeclaration

To my regret, 1have been obliged to vote against the Court's Judgment.
However, to my mind my negative vote does not, strictly speaking, signify
opposition, since in a different context 1 would certainly have voted in
favour of the process which the Court considered it should follow to
arrive at its decision. In my view that decision is devoted to tixing the
conditions for exercise of preferential rights, for conservation of fish

species, and historic rights, rather than to responding to the primary
clain~of the Applicant, which is for a statement of the law on a specific
point.
1would have al1the more willingly endorsed the concept of preferential
rights inasmuch as the Court has merely followed its own decision in the
Fishcrics case.

It should be observed that the Applicant has nowhere sought a decision
from the Court on a dispute between itself and lceland on the subject of
the preferential rights of the coastal State, the conservation of fish
species, or historic rights-tl-iisis apparent throughout the elaborate

36reasoning of the Judgment. It is obvious that considerations relating to
these various points, dealt with at length in the Judgment, are not subject
to any dispute between the Parties. There is no doubt that, after setting
out the facts andthe grounds relied on in support of its case, the Applicant
has asked the Court only for a decision on the dispute between itself and
Iceland, and to adjudge and declare:

". ..that there is no foundation in international law for the claim
by Iceland to be entitled to extend its fisheries jurisdiction by
establishing a zone of exclusive fisheriesjurisdiction extending to50
nautical miles from the baselines hereinbefore referred to; and that
its claim is therefore invalid" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 5,para. 8
(a)).
This is clear and precise, and al1the other points in the submissions are
only ancillary or consequential to this primary claim. But in response to
this basic claim, which was extensively argued by the Applicant both in
its Memorial and orally, and which was retained in its final submissions,
the Court, by means of a line of reasoning which it has endeavoured at

some length tojustify, has finallyfailed to give anypositive answer.

The Court has deliberately evaded the question which was placed
squarely before it in this case, namely whether Iceland's claims are in
accordance with the rules of international law. Having put this question
on one side, it constructs a whole system of reasoning in order ultimately
to declare that the Regulations issued by the Government of Iceland
on 14July 1972and "constituting a unilateral extension of the exclusive
fishing rights of Iceland to50 nautical miles from the baselines specified
therein arenot opposable to the Government of the United Kingdom".
In my view, the whole problem turns on this, since this claim is based
upon facts which, at leastunder present-day law and in the practice of the
majority of States, are flagrant violations of existing international con-
ventions. It should be noted that Iceland does not deny them. Now the
facts complained of are evident, they undoubtedly relate to the treaty
which binds the States which are Parties, for the Exchange of Notes of
11 March 1961amounts to such an instrument. For the Court to consider,
after having dealt with the Applicant's fundamental claim in relation to
international law, that account should be taken of Iceland's exceptional
situation and the vital interests of its population, with a view to drawing
inspiration from equity and to devising a solution for the dispute, would
have been the normal course to be followed, the more so since the
Applicant supports it .in its final submissions. But it cannot be admitted
that because of its special situation lceland can ipso factobe exempted
from the obligation to respect the international commitments into which

it has entered. By not giving an unequivocal answer on that principal
claim, the Court has failed to perform the act of justice requested of it.
For what is one to Sayof the actions and behaviour of Iceland which
have resulted in its being called upon to appear before the Court? Itsrefusa1to respect the commitment it accepted in the Exchange of Notes of
11 March 1961,to refer to the International Court of Justice any dispute
which might arise on an extension of its exclusive fisheries zone, which
was in fact foreseen by the Parties, beyond 12 nautical miles, is not this
unjustified refusal a breach of international law?
In the same way, when-contrary to what is generally recognized by
the majority of States in the 1958Geneva Convention, in Article 2, where
it is clearly specified that there is a zone of high seas which is res com-
munis-Iceland unilaterally decides, by means of its Regulations of 14
Jul. 1972. to extend its exclusive iurisdiction from 12to 50nautical miles
from the baselines, does it not in this way also commit a breach of inter-
national law? Thus the Court would in no way be open to criticism if it
upheld the claim as well founded.
For my part, 1believethat the Court would certainly have strengthened
its judicial authority if it had given a positive reply to the claim laid
before it by the United Kingdom, instead of embarking on the construc-
tion of a thesis on preferential rights, zones of conservation of fish
species, or historic rights, on which there has never been any dispute,
nor even the slightest shadow of a controversy on the part either of the
Applicant or of the Respondent.
Furthermore, it causes me some concern also that the majority of the

Court seemsto have adopted the position which is apparentin the present
Judgment with the intention of pointing the way for the participants in
the Conference on the Law of the Sea now sitting in Caracas.
The Court here gives the impression of being anxious to indicate the
principles on the basis of which it would be desirable that a general inter-
national regulation of rights of fishing should be adopted.
1 do not discount the value of the reasons which guided the thinking
of the majority of the Court, and the Court was right to take account of
the special situation of Iceland and its inhabitants, which is deserving of
being treated with special concern. In this connection, the same treatment
should be contemplated for al1developing countries in the same position,
which cherish the hope of seeing al1these fisheries problems settled, since
it is at present such countries which suffer from the anarchy and lack of
organization of international fishing. But that is not the question which
has been laid before the Court, and the reply given can only be described
as evasive.
In taking this viewpoint 1 am not unaware of the risk that 1may be
accused of not being in tune with the modern trend for the Court to
arrogate a creative power which does not pertain to it under either the
United Nations Charter or its Statute. Perhaps some might even say that
the classic conception of international law to which 1 declare allegiance
is out-dated; but for myself, 1 do not fear to continue to respect the
classic norms of that law. Perhaps from the Third Conference on the
Law of the Sea some positive principles accepted by al1States willemerge.
1hope that this will beso, and shall be the first to applaud-and further-
more 1 shall be pleased to see the good use to which they can be put, inparticular for the benefit of the developing countries. But since 1 am
above al1 faithful to judicial practice, 1 continue fervently to urge the
need for the Court to confine itself to its obligation to state the law as
it is at present in relation to the facts of the case brought before it.
1consider it entirely proper that, in international law as in every other
system of law, the existing law should be questioned from time to time
-this is the surest way of furthering its progressive development-but

it cannot be concluded from this that the Court should, for this reason
and on the occasion of the present dispute between Iceland and the United
Kingdom, emerge as the begetter of certain ideas which are more and
more current today, and are even shared by a respectable number of
States, with regard to the law of the sea, and which are in the minds, it
would seem, of most of those attending the Conference now Sitting in

Caracas. It is advisable, in my opinion, to avoid entering upon anything
which would anticipate a settlement of problenls of the kind implicit in
preferential and other rights.
To conclude this declaration, 1 think 1 may draw inspiration from the
conclusion expressed by the Deputy Secretary of the United Nations
Sea-Bed Committee, Mr. Jean-Pierre Lévy,in the hope that the idea it

expresses may be an inspiration to States, and to Iceland in particular
which, while refraining from following the course of law, prefers to
await from political gatherings a justification of its rights.
1 agree with Mr. Jean-Pierre Lévyin thinking that:

"it is to be hoped that States will make use of the next four or
five years to endeavour to prove to themselves and particularly to
theirnationals that the general interest of theinternational community
and the well-being of the peoples of the world can be preserved by
moderation, mutual understanding, and the spirit of compromise;

only these will enable the Third Conference on the Law of the Sea
to be held and to succeed in codifying a new legal order for the sea
and itsresources" ("La troisième Conférence sur le droit de la mer",
Annuairefrançais de droit international, 1971,p828).

In the expectation of the opening of the new era which is so much
hoped for, 1am honoured at finding myself in agreement with certain
Members of the Court like Judges Gros, Petrén and Onyeama for whom

the golden rule for the Court is that, in such a case, it should confine
itself strictly within the limits of the jurisdiction conferred on it.

Judge NAGENDR SINGHmakes the following declaration :

There are certain valid reasons which weigh with me to the extent that
they enable me to support the Judgment of the Court in this case and39 FlSHERlES JURISDICTION (DECL. NAGENDRA SINGH)

hence 1consider them of such importance as to be appropriately empha-

sized to convey the true significance of the Judgment-its extent as well
as its depth. These reasons, as well as those aspects of theJudgment which
have that importance from my viewpoint are briefly stated as follows:

While basing its findings on the bilateral law, namely the Exchange of
Notes of 1961which has primacy in this case, the Court has pronounced
upon (6) and (c) 1the second and third submissions of the Applicant's

Memorial on the merits, in terms of non-opposability to the United
Kingdom. This suffices for the purpose of that part of the Judgment and
is in accordance with the statement made by counsel2 for the Applicant
at the hearings, to the effect that the second and'third submissions are
separable from the first and it is open to the Court not to adjudicate on

the first submission (a) 1 which relates to the general law.

In the special circumstances of this case the Court has, therefore, not

proceeded to pronounce upon the first submission (a) of the Applicant,
which requests the Court to declare that Iceland's extension of its ex-
clusive fishery limit to 50 nautical miles is invalid being without foun-
dation in international law which amounts to asking the Court to find
that such extension is ipsojure, illegal and invalid erga omnes. Having re-

frained from pronouncing on that aspect it was, consequently, unneces-
sary for the Court to pronounce on the Applicant's legal contention in
support of its first submission, namely, that a customary rule of inter-
national law exists today imposing a general prohibition on extension
by States of their fisheries jurisdiction beyond 12 miles.

There is still a lingering feature of development associated with the
general law. The rules of customary maritime law relating to the limit
of fisheries jurisdiction have still been evolving and confronted by a
widely divergent and, discordant State practice, have not so far

crystallized. Again, the conventional maritime law though substantially
codified by the Geneva Conferences on the Law of the Sea of 1958 and
1960 has certain aspects admittedly left over to be settled and these now
constitute, among others, the subject of subsequent efforts at codification.
The question of the extent of fisheriesjurisdiction which is still one of the

unsettled aspects could not, therefore, be settled by the Court since it
could not "render judgment sub specie legis ferendae, or anticipate the
law before the legislator has laid it down".

--
1 See paras.1I and 12of the Judgmentfor the text of the submissions.
2 Hearing of 29 March 1974, CR 7413,p. 23.40 FISHERIES JURISDICTION (DECL. NAGENDRA SINGH)

This is of importance to me but 1do not have to elaborate this point
any further since 1 have subscribed to the views expressed by my col-
leagues in the jointseparate opinion of the fiveJudges wherein this aspect
has been more fully dealt with.

The contribution which the Judgment makes towards the development
of the Law of the Sea lies in the recognition which it gives to the concept
of preferential rights of a coastal State in the fisheries of the adjacent
waters particularly if that State is in a special situation with its population
dependent on those fisheries. Moreover, the Court proceeds further to

recognize that the law pertaining to fisheries must accept the primacy for
the need of conservation based on scientific data. This aspect has been
properly emphasized to the extent needed to establish that the exercise
of preferential rights of the coastal State as well as thehistoric rights of
other States dependent on the same fishing grounds, have al1 to be
subject to the over-riding consideration of proper conservation of the
fishery resources for the benefit ofal1concerned. This conclusion would
appear warranted if this vital source of man's nutrition is to be preserved
and developed for the community.
In addition there has always been the need for accepting clearly in
maritime matters the existence of the duty to "have reasonable regard to
the interests of other States"-a principle enshrined in Article 2 of the
Geneva Convention of the High Seas 1958 which applies even to the
four freedoms of the seas and has weighed with the Court in this case.
Thus the rights of the coastal State which must have preference over the
rights of other States in the coastal fisheries of the adjacent waters have
nevertheless to be exercised with due regard to the rights of other States

and the claims and counter-claims in this respect have to be resolved on
the basis of considerations of equity. There is, as yet, no specific con-
ventional law governing this aspect and it is the evolution of customary
law which has furnished the basis of the Court's Judgment in this case.

III

TheCourt,as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, taking
into consideration the special field in which it operates, has a distinct role
to play in the administration of justice. In that context the resolving of a
dispute brought before it by sovereign Statesconstitutes an element which
the Court ought not to ignore in its adjudicatory function. This aspect
relating to the settlement of a dispute has been emphasized in more than
one article of the Charter of the United Nations. There is Article 2,
paragraph 3, as well as Article 1,which both use words like "adjustrnentor settlement of international disputes or situations", whereas Article 33
directs Members to "seek u solution" of their disputes by peaceful means.

Furthermore, this approach is very much in accordance with the juris-
prudence of the Court. On 19 August 1929 the Permanent Court of
International Justice in its Order in the case of the Free Zones of Upper
Sai70gand the District of Gex (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 22, at p. 13) ob-
served that the judicial settlement of international disputes is simply an

alternative to the direct and friendly settlement of such disputes between
the parties. Thus if negotiations become necessary in the special circum-
stances of a particular case the Court ought not to hesitate to direct
negotiations in the best interests of resolving the dispute. Defining the
content of the obligation to negotiate, the permanent Court in its Ad-
visory Opinion of 1931 in the case of Railway Trafic between Lithuania

andPoland(P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 42, 1931,at p. 116)observed that the
obligation was "not only to enter into negotiations, but also to pursue
them as far as possible, with a view to concluding agreements" even if
"an obligation to negotiate does not imply an obligation to reach an
agreement". This does clearly imply that everything possible should be
done not only to promote but also to help to conclude successfully the

process of negotiations once directed for the settlement of a dispute. In
addition we have also the North Sea Continental Sheif cases (I.C.J.
Reports 1969) citing Article 33 of the United Nations Charterand where
the Parties were to negotiate in good faith on the basis of the Judgment to
resolve the dispute.

Though it would not only be improper but quite out of the question for
a court of law to direct negotiations in every case or even to contemplate
such a step when the circumstances did not justify the same, it would
appear that in this particular case negotiations appear necessary and flow
from the nature of the dispute, which is confined to the same fishing

grounds and relates to issues and problems which best lend themselves to
settlement by negotiation. Again, negotiations are also indicated by the
nature of the law which fiasto be applied, whether it be the treaty of 1961
with its six months' notice in the compromissory clause provided osten-
sibly for negotiations or whether it be reliance on considerations of
equity. The Court has, therefore, answered the last submission ((e) re-

lettered as (d) of the Applicant's Mernorial on the merits) in the affir-
mative and accepted that negotiations furnished the correct answer to the
problem posed by the need for equitably reconciling the historic right
of the Applicant based on traditional fishing with the preferential rights
of Iceland as a coastal State in a situation of special dependence on its
fisheries. The Judgment of the Court, in asking the Parties to negotiate a

lSee paras.11and 12of the Judgment for the text of the submissions.settlement, has thus emphasized the importance of resolving the dispute
inthe adjudication of the case.

No court of law and particularly not the International Court of Justice

could ever be said to derogate from its function when it gives due im-
portance to the settlement of a dispute which is the ultimate objective of
al1adjudication as wellas of the United Nations Charter and the Court,as
its organ, could hardly afford to ignore this aspect. A tribunal, while
discharging its function in that manner, would appear to be adjudicating
in the larger interest and ceasing to be narrow and restrictive in its
approach.
Thus, the interim agreement of 1973 entered into by the contesting
Parties with full reservations as to their respective rights andch helped
to avoid intensification of the dispute couldnever prevent the Court from
pronouncing on the United Kingdom submissions. To decide otherwise
would have meant imposing a penalty on those who negotiate an interim
agreement to avoid friction as a preliminary to the settlement of a dis-
pute.
Again, when confronted with the problem of its own competence in
dealing with that aspect of the dispute which relates to the need for con-
servation and the exercise of preferential rights with due respect forhis-

toric rights, the Court has rightly regarded those aspects to be an integral
part of the dispute. Surely, the dispute before the Court has to be con-
sidered in al1 its aspects if it is to be properly resolved and effectively
adjudicated upon. This must be so if it is not part justice but the whole
justice which a tribunal ought always to have in view. It could, therefore,
be said that it was in the overall interests of settlement of the dispute
that certain parts of it which were inseparably linked to the core of
the conflict were not separated in this case to be left unpronounced
upon. The Court has, of course, to be mindful of the limitations that
result from the principle of consent as the basis of international obli-
gations, which also governs its own competence to entertain a dispute.
However, this could hardly be taken to mean that a tribunal con-
stituted as a regular court of law when entrusted with the determination
of a dispute by the willing consent of the parties should in any way
fa11short of fully and effectively discharging its obligations. It would be
somewhat disquieting if the Court were itself to adopt either too narrow
an approach ortoo restricted an interpretation of those very words which
confer jurisdiction on the Court such as in this case "the extension of

fisheries jurisdiction around Iceland" occurring in the compromissory
clause of the Exchange of Notes of 1961.Those words could not be held
to confine the competence conferred on the Court to the sole question
of the conformity or otherwise of Iceland's extension of its fishery limits
with existing legal rules. The Court, therefore, need not lose sight of the
consideration relating to the settlement of the dispute while remaining
strictly within the framework of the 1awwhich it administers and adhering
always to the procedures which it must follow. FISHERIESJURJSDICTION (DECL. NAGENDRA SINGH)

For purposes of administering the law of the sea and for proper under-
standing of matters pertaining to fisheries as well as to appreciate the
facts of this case, it is of some importance to know the precise content of
the expression "fisheries jurisdiction" and for what it stands and means.

The concept of fisheries jurisdiction does cover aspects such as enforce-
ment of conservation measures, exercise of preferential rights and respect
for historic rights since each one may involve an element of jurisdiction
to implement them. Even the reference to "extension" in relation to
fisheries jurisdiction which occurs in the compromissory clause of the
1961 treaty could not be confined to mean merely the extension of a

geographical boundary line or limit since such an extension would be
meaningless without a jurisdictional aspect which constitutes, as it were,
itsjuridical content. It is significant, therefore, that the preamble of the
Truman Proclamation of 1945 respecting United States coastal fisheries
refers to a "jurisdictional" basis for implementing conservation measures
inthe adjacent sea since such measures have to be enforced like any other

regulations in relation to a particular area. This further supports the
Court's conclusion that it had jurisdiction todeal with aspects relating to
conservation and preferential rights since the 1961 treaty by the use of
the words "extension of fisheries jurisdiction" must be deeined to have
covered those aspects.

Another aspect of the Judgment which has importance from my
viewpoint is that it does not "preclude the Parties from benefiting from
any subsequent developments in the pertinent rules of international law"
(para. 77). The adjudicatory function of the Court must necessarily be

confined to the case before it. No tribunal could take notice of future
events, contingencies or situations that may arise consequent on the
holding or withholding of negotiations or otherwise even by way of a
further exercise of jurisdiction. Thus, a possibility or even a probability
of changes in law or situations in the future could not prevent the Court
from rendering Judgment today.44 FISHERIESJURISDICTI(DECL .AGENDRA SINGH)

Judges FORSTERB,ENGZON J,IMÉNEDEARECHAGA N,AGENDRSA INGH
and RUDAappend ajoint separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court;
Judges DILLARD, DE CASTROand Sir Humphrey WALDOCK append
separate opinions to the Judgment of the Court.

Judges GROS,PETRÉNand ONYEAMa Append dissenting opinions to the
Judgrnent of the Court.

(Znitialled) M.L.
(Znitialled) S.A.

Bilingual Content

COUR INTERNATIONALEDE JUSTICE

RECUEILDES ARRÊTS,
AVISCONSULTATIFS

ETORDONNANCES

INTERNATIONALCOURTOFJUSTICE

REPOR.TS OFJUDGMENTS,

ADVISORYOPINIONS
AND ORDERS INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONSAND ORDERS

FISHERIES JURISDICTION CASE

(UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN
IRELAND vICELAND)

MERITS

JlUDGMENTOF 25 JULY 1974

COUR INTERNATIONADEJUSTICE

RECUEIL DESARRETS,
AVIS C'ONSULTATIFSET ORDONNANCES

AFFAIREDE LA COMPÉTENCE

EN MATIÈREDE PÊCHERIES

(ROYAUIME-UNIDE GRANDE-BRETAGNE ET
D'IR.LANDE DU NORD c. ISLANDE)

FOND

ARRÊTDU 25 JUILLET 1974 Officia1citation:
Fisheries Jurisdiction(United Kingdom v. Zeeland),
Merits, Judgment,I.C.J. Reports 1974,p. 3.

Mode officielde citation:

Compétenceen matièrede pêcheries(Royaume-Uni
c. Islande),fond, arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1974,

Salesnumber
NO de vente: 395 25 JULY 1974

JUDGMENT

FISHERIES JURISDICTION CASE

(UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN
IRELAND v.ICELAND)

MERITS

AFFAIRE DE LA COMPÉTENCE
EN MATIÈRE DE PÊCHERIES

(ROYAUME-UNI DE GRANDE-BRETAGNE ET
D'IIRLANDE DU NORD c. ISLANDE)

FOND

25 JUILLET 1974

ARRÊT INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 1974
1974
25 July
General List 25 July 1974
No. 55

FISHERIES JURISDICTION CASE

(UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND
NORTHERN IRELAND i3ICELAND)

MERITS

Failure of Party to appear-StatutArticle 53.

History of the dispute-Interpretatioof interim agreement pending settle-
ment of substantive dispute-Effecon obligation of Corrrtto give judgment.

Jurisdiction of the Court-Effecof previous finding of jrrrisdiction-lnter-
pretation of compromissory clause.
Icelandic Reglrlations of 14July 1972-Extenshy coastal State offisheries
jurisdiction to 50 milesom haselines round coast-Extensionchullenged as
contrary to internatior~al law-Laof the sea-Cetleva Conferences of' 1958
and 1960-Concepts of fishery zonend preferential rights of coastal State in
situation ofspecial dependence on coasrul fisheries-Stapractice-Excep-
tional dependence of Iceland on fisheries-Conservationeeds-Preferetztiul
rights nojustification for claim to extingirish concurrent rights of other jîshing
States-Historic rights of Urrited Kingdom-Reglrlatioof 14 Jltly 1972 not
opposable to UnitedKingdom-Reconciliation of preferential rights of coastal
State and rights of orher fishing States-Obligation to keep conserva-
tion measures of fishery resources rrnder review-Negoriariorequired for
equitablesolution-Obligation to negotiate jiowing from nature of Parties'
respective rights-ariousfactors relevarit to the negotiation.

JUDGMENT

Present: President LACHS; Jrtdges FORSTERG , ROS, BENGZON, PETRÉN,
ONYEAMA,DILLARD, IGNACIO-PINTO ,E CASTRO,MOROZOV,
JIM~NE DE ARECHAGA Si,r HurnphreyWALDOCK N,AGENDRS AINGH,
RUDA;Registrar AQUARONE. COUF1INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

1974
25juillet
25 juillet1974 Rôle gknéral
no55

AFFAIREDE LA COMPÉTENCE

EN MATIÈRE DE PÊCHERIES

(ROYAUiME-UNI DE GRANDE-BRETAGNE ET
D'IRLANDE DU NORD c. ISLANDE)

FOND

Défautde comparution d'une des Parties-Article53 du Statut.
Ilistorique du difprend- Interprétation de l'accord provisoire intervenuen
attendant le règlement du différend au fond- Effet sur l'obligation qu'a la
Cour de statuer:
Compétence de la Cour - Effet de la décision antérieure surcette compétence
- Interprétation delnclause compromissoire.
Règlement islandais du 14juillet 197- Extension par I'Etat riverain de sa
compétence en matiè.rede pêcheries jusqu'à50 milleàpartir des lignes de base

entourant ses c6tes-- Cette extension est contestée comme contraire au droit
international- Le droit de la mer- ConférencesdeGenève de 1958et 1960 -
Notions de zone de peche et de droits préférentielsd'un Etat riverain spécialement
tributaire de ses pêcheriescôtières- La pratique des Etats - Dépendance
exceptionnelle de l'Islandàl'égarddes pêcheries- Besoins de conservation-
Les droits pré/ërentiels nejustifierit pas l'abolition des droits concurrents d'autres
Etats qui pratiquent'apêche - Droits historiques du Royaume- Uni- Le règle-
ment du 14juillet19;'2n'est pas opposable au Royaume-Uni - Conciliation des
droitspréfirentiels dceI'Etat riverain et des droits d'autres Etars se làvlant
pêche - Obligation de réexaminer les mesures de conservation des ressources
halieutiques- Des négociations sont nécessaires pour arriverà une solution
équitable-- L'obli~ution de négocierdécoule de la nature des droits respectifs

des Parties- Divers facteurs présentant del'intérêptour les négociations.

Présents: M. LACHS,Président; MM. FORSTERG , ROS,BENGZONP , ETRÉN,
ONYEAMA.D , ILLARD, IGNACIO-PINTO D,E CASTRO,MOROZOV,
JIMENE Z EARECHAGA si,r Humphrey WALDOCKM , M. NAGENDRA
SINGH,RUDA,juges; M. AQUARONE G,reffier. In the Fisheries Jurisdiction case,

between

the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
represented by

Mr. D. H. Anderson, Legal Counsellor in the Foreign and Commonwealth
Office,
as Agent,
assisted by

the Rt. Hon. Samuel Silkin Esq., QC, MP, Attorney-General,
Mr. G. Slynn, Junior Counsel to the Treasury,
Mr. J. L. Simpson, CMG, TD, Member of the English Bar,
Professor D. H. N. Johnson, Professor of International and Air Law in the
University of London, Member of the English Bar,
Mr. P. G. Langdon-Davies, Member of the English Bar,
Dr. D. W. Bowett, President of Queens' College, Cambridge, Member of
the English Bar,

as Counsel,
and by
Mr. J. Graham, Fisheries Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Food,
Mr. M. G. de Winton, CBE, MC, Assistant Solicitor, Law Officers'
Department,

Mr. G. W. P. Hart, Second Secretary, Foreign and Commonwealth Office,

as Advisers,

and

the Republic of Iceland,

composed as above,

delivers the following Judgment:
1. By a letter of 14 April 1972, received in the Registry of the Court the

same day, the Chargé d'Affaires of the British Embassy in the Netherlands
transmitted to the Registrar an Application instituting proceedings against
the Republic of lceland in respect of a dispute concerning the then proposed
extension by the Government of Iceland of its fisheriesjurisdiction.

2. Pursuant to Article 40, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Application was
at once communicated to the Government of Iceland. In accordance with
paragraph 3 of that Article, al1 other States entitled to appear before the
Court were notified of the Application.
3. By a letter dated 29 May 1972from the Minister for Foreign Affairs of
Iceland, received in the Registry on 31 May 1972, the Court was informed
(interalia)that the Government of Iceland was not willing to confer jurisdic-
tion on the Court and would not appoint an Agent. En l'affaire de la compétence en matière de pêcheries,

entre

le Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord,
représentépar

M. D. H. Andersoin, conseiller juridique au ministèredes Affaires étrangères
et du Commonwealth,
comme agent,

assisté par
le très honorable Samuel Silkin, QC, MP, Attorney-General,
M. G. Slynn, Junior Counsel à la Trésorerie,
M. J. L. Simpson, CMG, TD, membre du barreau d'Angleterre,
M. D. H. N. Johnson, professeur de droit international et aérienà I'Univer-
sitéde Londres, membre du barreau d'Angleterre,
M. P. G. Langdori-Davies, membre du barreau d'Angleterre,
M. D. W. Bowett, président du Queens' College de Cambridge, membre du

barreau d'Angleterre,
comme conseils,
et par

M. J. Graham, secrétaire pour la pêcheau ministère de l'Agriculture, de la
Pêcheet de l'Alimentation,
M. M. G. de Winton, CBE, MC, Solicitor adjoint au Law Oficers' Depart-
ment,
M. G. W. P. Hart, deuxième secrétaire au ministère des Affaires étrangères
et du Commonwealth,
comme conseillers;,

la République d'Isla.nde,

ainsi composée,

rend l'arrêtsuivant:
1. Par lettre du 1,4avril 1972 reçue au Greffe de la Cour le mêmejour, le
cbargé d'affaires de l'ambassade du Royaume-Uni aux Pays-Bas a transmis au
Gieffier une requête introduisant une instance contrela F."ublique d'Islande
au sujet d'un différend portant sur l'extension de lacomp6tence islandaise en
matière df pêcheries à laquelle le Gou xnement islandais se proposait de

procéder.
2. Confor..iémeni à l'article 40, paragraphe 2, du Statut, la requête a été
immédiatemerit communiquée au Gouvernement islandais. Conformément
au paragraphe 3 du mêmearticle, les autres Etats admis à ester devant la Cour
ont été informésdela requête.
3. Par lettre du25)mai 1972 reçue au Greffe le 31 mai 1972, le ministre des
Affaires étrangères d'Islande a fait notamment savoir à la Cour que le
Gouvernement islandais n'était pas disposé à lui attribuer cornpetence et ne
désignerait pas d'agent.5 FISHERIESJURISDICTION (JUDGMENT)

4. On 19 July 1972, the Agent of the United Kingdom filed in the Registry
of the Court a request for the indication of interim measures of protection
under Article 41 of the Statute and Article 61 of the Rules of Court adopted
on 6 May 1946. By an Order dated 17 August 1972, the Court indicated
certain interim measures of protection in the case; and by a further Order
dated 12July 1973, the Court confirmed that those measures should, subject
as therein mentioned, remain operative until the Court has given final judg-
ment in the case. By a letter of 21 November 1973, the Agent of the United
Kingdom informed theCourt, with reference to the Orders of 17August 1972
and 12July 1973, of the conclusion on 13 November 1973of an Exchange of

Notes constituting an interim agreement "relating to fisheries in the disputed
area, pending a settlement of the substantivedispute and without prejudice to
the legal position or rights of either government in relation thereto". Copies
of the Exchange of Notes were enclosed with the letter. A further copy was
communicated to the Court by the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Iceland
under cover of a letter dated 1I January 1974. The Exchange of Notes was
registered with the United Nations Secretariat under Article 102 of the
Charter of the United Nations.
5, By an Order dated 18 August 1972, the Court, considering that it was
necessary to resolve first of al1 the question of its jurisdictionin the case,
decided that the first pleadings should be addressed to the question of the
jurisdiction of the Court to entertain the dispute, and fixed time-limits for the
filing of a Memorial by the Government of the United Kingdom and a
Counter-Memorial by the Government of Iceland. The Memorial of the
Government of the United Kingdom was filed within the time-limit pre-
scribed, and was communicated to the Government of Iceland; no Counter-
Memorial was filed by the Government of Iceland. On 5 January 1973, after
due notice to the Parties, a public hearing was heldin the course of which the

Court heard the oral argument of counsel for the United Kingdom on the
question of the Court's jurisdiction; the Government of Iceland was not
represented at the hearing.
6. By a Judgment dated 2 February 1973, the Court found that it had
jurisdiction to entertain the Applicationfiled by the United Kingdom and to
deal with the ~neritsof the dispute.
7. By an Order dated 15 February 1973 the Court fixed time-limits for the
written proceedings on the merits, namely I August 1973for the Memorial of
the Government of the United Kingdom and 15January 1974 for the Count-
er-Memorial of the Government of Iceland. The Memorial of the Government
of the United Kingdom was filed within the time-limit prescribed, and was
communicated to the Government of Iceland; no Counter-Memorial was
filed by the Government of Iceland.
8. By a letter from the Registrar dated 17 August 1973 the Agent of the
United Kingdom was invited to submit to the Court any observations which
the Government of the United Kingdom might wish to present on thequestion
of the possible joinder of this case with the case instituted 5nJune 1972 by
the Federal Republic of Germany against the Republic of Iceland (General
List No. 56), and the Agent was informed that the Court had fixed 30 Sep-

tember 1973 as the time-limit within which any such observations should be
filed. By a letter dated 26 September 1973, the Agent of the United Kingdom
submitted the observations of his Government on the question of the possible
joinder of the two FisheriesJurisdiction cases. The Government of Iceland
was informed that the observations of the United Kingdom on possible 4. Le 19 juillet 1972, I'agent du Royaume-Uni a déposéau Greffe une
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires en vertu de l'article 41 du
Statut et de l'article '61du Règlement de la Cour adopté le 6 mai 1946. Par

ordonnance du 17 août 1972, la Cour a indiqué certaines mesures conserva-
toires en l'affaire et, par une nouvelle ordonnance du 12juillet 1973, elle a
confirmé que ces mesures, sous les réservesindiquées dans le texte, resteraient
en vigueur jusqu'à ce qu'elle ait rendu son arrêt définitif en l'affaire. Par
lettre du 21 novembre 1973, l'agent du Royaume-Uni a avisé la Cour, en se
référantaux ordonnances des 17 août 1972 et 12juillet 1973, qu'il avait été
procédéle 13 novembre 1973 a un échange de notes constituant un accord
provisoire ((sur lespêcheriesdans la zonecontestée, enattendant un règlement
du différend au fond et sans préjudice de la position juridique ni des droits de
l'un ou l'autre gouvernement à cet égard)).Copie des notes échangéesaccom-
pagnait la lettre. Le: ministre des Affaires étrangères d'Islande a lui aussi
transmis copie à la Cour sous couvert d'une lettre du II janvier 1974. Cet
échange de notes a étéenregistré au Secrétariat de l'organisation des Nations
Unies en application de l'article 102 de la Charte des Nations Unies.

5. Par ordonnance du 18 août 1972, la Cour, considérant qu'il était
nécessairede régleren premier lieu la question desa compétence en I'affaire, a
décidéque les premikres pièces écrites porteraient sur la question de la com-
pétence de la Cour pour connaitre du différend et a fixéla date d'expiration
des délais pour le dépôt du mémoire du Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni et
du contre-nîémoire clu Gouvernement islandais. Le mémoire du Gouverne-
ment du Royaume-Uni a étédéposédans le délai prescrit et il a étécommuni-
quéau Gouvernement islandais; le Gouvernement islandais n'a pas déposéde
contre-mémoire. Les Parties ayant étédûment averties, une audience pu-
blique a ététenue le: 5 janvier 1973, durant laquelle la Cour a entendu le
conseil du Royaume-Uni plaider sur la question de la compétence de la Cour;
le Gouvernement islandais n'étaitpas représenté à l'audience.

6. Par arrêtdu 2 fkvrier 1973,la Cour a dit qu'elle avait compétence pour
connaître de la requête déposéepar le Royaume-Uni et statuersur le fond du
différend.
7. Par ordonnance du 15 février 1973, la Cour a fixédes délais pour le
dépôt des pièces écritessur le fond, a savoir le le. août 1973 pour le mémoire
du Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni et le 15 janvier 1974 pour le contre-
mémoire du Gouvernement islandais. Le mémoire du Gouvernement du
Royaume-Uni a été'déposédans le délai prescrit et ila été communiquéau
Gouvernement islandais; le Gouvernement islandais n'a pas déposé de
contre-mémoire.
8. Par lettre du Greffier en date du 17 août 1973, l'agent du Royaume-Uni
a étéinvité à soumettre à la Cour toutes observations que le Gouvernement
du Royaume-Uni souhaiterait présenter sur la question d'une éventuelle
jonction de la présente instance avec celle que la République fédéraled'Alle-

magne a introduite le:5juin 1972contre la République d'Islande (rôle général
no 56); I'agent a été informéque la Cour avait fixéau 30 septembre 1973 la
date d'expiration du délai dans lequel lesdites observations devraient être
soumises. Par lettre du 26 septembre 1973, I'agent du Royaume-Uni a
présentéles observations de son gouvernement sur la question de l'éventuelle
jonction des deux affaires de la compétence en matière de pêcheries. Le
Gouvernement islandais a été informé del'invitation à présenter des observa-joinder had been invited, but did not make any comments to the Court. On
17January 1974theCourt decided by nine votes to five not to join the present
proceedings to those instituted by the Federal Republic of Germany against
the Republic of Iceland. In reaching this decision the Courttook into account
the fact that while the basic legal issues in each case appeared to be identical,
there were differences between the positions of the two Applicants, and be-
tween their respective submissions, and that joinder would be contrary to the
wishes of the two Applicants. The Court decided to hold the public hearings
in the two cases immediately following each other.
9. On 25 and 29 March 1974,after due notice to the Parties, public hearings

were held in the course of which the Court heardtheoralargument of counsel
forthe United Kingdom on the merits of the case; theGovernment of Iceland
was not represented at the hearings. Various Members of theCourt addressed
questions to the Agent of the United Kingdom both during the course of the
hearings and subsequently, and replies were given either orally at the hearings
or in writing. Copies of the verbatim record of the hearings and of the written
questions and replies were transmitted to the Government of Iceland.
10. The Governments of Argentina, Australia, Ecuador, the Federal
Republic of Germany, India, New Zealand and Senegal requested that the
pleadings and annexed documents in this case should be made available to
them in accordance with Article 44, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court. The
Parties having indicated that they had no objection, it was decided to accede
to these requests. Pursuant to Article 44, paragraph 3, of the Rules of Court,
the pleadings and annexed documents were, with the consent of the Parties,
made accessible to the public as from the date of the opening of the oral
proceedings.
11. ln the course of the written proceedings, the following submissions

were presented on behalf of theGovernment of the United Kingdom:

in the Application:
"The United Kingdom asks the Court to adjudge and declare:

(a) That there is no foundation in international law for the claim by
Iceland to be entitled to extend its fisheries jurisdiction by estab-
lishing a zone of exclusive fisheries jurisdiction extending to 50
nautical miles from the baselines hereinbefore referred to; and that
its claim is thereforeinvalid; and
(b) that questions concerning the conservation of fish stocks in the
waters around Iceland are not susceptible in international law to
regulation by the unilateral extension by Iceland of its exclusive
fisheries jurisdiction to 50 nautical miles from the aforesaid base-
lines but are matters that may be regulated, as betweenIceland and
the United Kingdom, by arrangements agreed between those two
countries, whether or not together with other interested countries

and whether in the form of arrangements reached in accordance
with the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Convention of 24 January
1959, or in theform of arrangements for collaboration in accordance
with the Resolution on Special Situations relating to Coastal Fish-
eries of 26 April 1958, or otherwise in the form of arrangements
agreed between them that give effect to the continuing rights and
interests of both of them in the fisheries of the waters in question."tions sur une éventuelle jonction adressée au Royaume-Uni, mais il n'a fait
parvenir a la Cour aucun commentaire. Le 17janvier 1974, la Cour a décidé,
par neuf voix contre cinq, de ne pas joindre la présente affaire a celle que la
République fédérale d'Allemagnea introduite contre la République d'Islande.
La Cour s'est ainsi prononcée parce qu'elle a considéréque, si les questions
juridiques essentielles semblaient identiques dans les deux affaires, il existait

des divergences quant àla position et aux conclusions des deux demandeurs
et qu'une jonction aurait étécontraire a leurs vŒux. Elle a décidéde tenir des
audiences publiquessefaisant suiteimmédiatement dans les deux affaires.
9. Les Parties ayalnt été dûment averties, des audiences publiques ont eu
lieu les 25 et 29 mars 1974, durant lesquelles la Cour a entendu les conseils du
Royaume-Uni plaider sur le fond de l'affaire; le Gouvernement islandais
n'était pas représentk aux audiences. Plusieurs membres de la Cour ont posé
des questions à l'agent du Royaume-Uni pendant et après la procédure orale
et les réponses ont étédonnées soit oralement en audience soit par écrit.
Copie des comptes rendus d'audience ainsi que des questions et des réponses
écritesa ététransmise au Gouvernement islandais.
10. Les Gouvernements de la République fédérale d'Allemagne, de
l'Argentine, de l'Australie, deI'Equateur, de l'Inde, de la Nouvelle-Zélande et
du Sénégalont demandé que les pièces de la procédure écrite en l'affaire

soient tenues à leur disposition conformément a l'article 44, paragraphe 2, du
Règlement de la Cour. Les Parties ayant indiqué qu'elles ne s'y opposaient
pas, il a étédécidécle faire droit à ces demandes. En application de I'ar-
ticle 44, paragraphe 3,du Règlenient, les pièces de la procédure écrite ont,
avec l'assentiment des Parties, été rendues accessibles au public à dater de
l'ouverture de la procédure orale.
11. Dans la procé:dureécrite, les conclusions ci-après ont étédéposéesau
nom du Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni:

dans la requête:

((Le Royaume-Uni demande qu'il plaiseàla Cour dire etjuger:
a) que la prétention de l'Islande qui se dit en droit d'élargir sa compé-

tence en matière de pêcheriesen établissant une zone de compétence
exclusive sur les pêcheriesjusqu'a 50 milles marins à partir des lignes
de base mentionnées plus haut n'est pas fondée en droit international
et n'est donc pas valable;
6) que les questions relatives à la conservation des stocks de poisson
dans les eau:<quientourent l'Islande ne sauraient êtrerégléesen droit
international par la décision que l'Islande a prise unilatéralement
d'étendre sa compétence exclusive sur les pêcheriesjusqu'à 50 milles
marins à partir desdites lignes de base mais que ces questions peuvent
êtreréglées(entre l'Islande et le Royaume-Uni par des arrangements
conclus entre ces deux pays, avec ou sans la participation des autres
pays intéressés,et soit sousforme d'arrangements réalisésconformé-
ment a la Convention du 24 janvier 1959 sur les pêcheriesde I'Atlan-
tique du nord-est, soit sous forme d'arrangements organisant leur
collaboration conformément à la résolution du 26 avril 1958 sur les

situations spéciales touchant les pêcheriescôtières, soit encore sous
forme d'arriingements qui seraient convenus entre eux et qui don-
neraient effet aux droits et intérêtsconstants des deux pays dans les
pêcheriesdes eaux en question.))7 FISHERIESJURISDICTION (JUDGMENT)

in the Memorial on the merits:
". .. the Government of the United Kingdom submit to the Court that
the Court should adjudge and declare:

(a) that the claini by Iceland to be entitled to a zone of exclusivefisheries
jurisdiction extending 50 nautical miles froni baselines around the
Coast of lceland is without foundation in international law and is
invalid;
(b) that, as against the United Kingdom, Iceland is not entitled uni-
laterally to assert an exclusivefisheries jurisdiction beyond the limits
agreed to in the Exchange of Notes of 1961 ;
(c) that lceland is not entitled unilaterally to exclude British fishing
vessels from the area of the high seas beyond the limits agreed to in
the Exchange of Notes of 1961 or unilaterally to impose restrictions
on the activities of such vessels in that area;

(d) that activities by the Government of Iceland such as are referred to
in Part V of this Memorial, that is to say, interference by force or
the threat of force with British fishing vessels operating in the said
area of the high seas, are unlawful and that Iceland is under an
obligation to make compensation therefor to the United Kingdom
(the form and amount of such compensation to be assessed, failing
agreement between the Parties, in such manner as the Court may
indicate); and
(e) that, to the extent that a need is asserted on conservation grounds,
supported by properly attested scientific evidence, for the introduc-
tion of restrictions on fishing activities in the said area of the high
seas, lceland and the United Kingdom are under a duty to examine
together in good faith (either bilaterally or together with other
interested States and either by new arrangements or through already
existing machinery for international collaboration in these matters
such as the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission) the existence
and extent of that need and similarly to negotiate for the establish-

ment of such a régime for the fisheries of the area as, having due
regard to the interests of other States, will ensure for Iceland, in
respect of any such restrictions that are shown to be needed as
aforesaid, a preferential position consistent with its position as a
State specially dependent on those fisheries and as will also ensure
for the United Kingdom a position consistent with its traditional
interest and acquired rights in and current dependency on those
fisheries."

12. At the hearing of 25 March 1974,the Court was informed that, in view
of the conclusion of the interim agreement constituted by the Exchange of
Notes of 13 November 1973referred to above, theGovernment of the United
Kingdom had decided not to pursue submission (dl in the Memorial. At the
close of the oral proceedings, written submissions were filed in the Registry
of the Court on behalf of the Government of the United Kingdom; these sub-
missions were identical to those contained in the Memorial, and set out above,
save for the omission of submission (d) and the consequent re-lettering of
submission (e) as (d).dans le mémoire sur le fond:

«Le Gouvernement du Royaume-Unidemande qu'il plaiseà la Cour
dire et juger:
a) que la prétention de l'Islande d'avoir droità une zone de compétence
exclusive sui: les pêcheriesjusqu'à 50 milles marins à partir des lignes
de base tracées autour de ses côtes est sans fondement en droit inter-
national et n'est pas valable;

b) que, vis-à-vis du Royaume-Uni, l'Islande n'est pas en droit d'établir
unilatéralerient une zone de compétence exclusive sur les pêcheries
au-delàdes limites convenues dans I'échangede notes de 1961 ;
c) que I'Islande n'est pas en droit d'exclure unilatéralement les navires
de pêchebritanniques de la région de la haute mer situéeau-delà des
limites convenues dans I'échangede note? de 1961 ni d'imposer uni-
latéralement des restrictions aux activités de ces navires dans ladite
région;
d) que les actces du Gouvernement islandais tels que ceux qui sont
évoquésdans la cinquième partie du présent mémoire, c'est-à-dire
les entraves apportées, par la force ou par la menace de l'emploi de la
force, aux activités des navires de pêchebritanniques opérant dans

ladite région de la hautemer, sont illicites et que I'lslande a I'obliga-
tion d'indemniser de ce chef le Royaume-Uni (la nature et le montant
de cette réparation devant êtreétablis, à défaut d'accord entre les
Parties, de la manière que la Cour pourra indiquer); et
e) que, dans la inesure où il est fait état,pour des motifs de conservation
corroborés par des preuves scientifiques dûment attestées, de la
nécessitéd'appliquer des restrictions aux activités de pêche dans
ladite partie de la haute mer, I'Islande et le Royaume-Uni ont
l'obligation d'examiner ensemble et de bonne foi (soit bilatéralement,
soit de concert avec d'autres Etats intéresséset en recourant soit àde
nouveaux arrangements, soit aux organes qui existent déjà pour
assurer la collaboration internationale dans ces domaines, comme la

Commission des pêcheriesde l'Atlantique du nord-est) la réalitéet
l'étendue de cette nécessité, ainsi que l'obligation d'engager des
négociations en vue d'instaurer pour les pêcheries de la région un
régime qui, compte étant dûment tenu des intérêtsdes autres Etats,
garantisse à I'lslande, relativement aux restrictions quiapparaitraient
nécessaires, ainsi qu'il est dit plus haut, une situation préférentielle
conforme ii sa pcsition d'Etat spécialement tributaire desdites
pêcheries, et qui assure également au Royaume-Uni une situation
conforme à ses intérêts traditionnels eà ses droits acquis sur lesdites
pêcheries,ainsi qu'à sa situation actuelle de dépendance à l'égard de
ces pêcheries.))

12. A l'audience 'du25 mars 1974, la Cour a été informéeque,eu égard à la
conclusion de l'accord provisoire constitué par I'échange de notes susmen-
tionnédu 13novembre 1973, le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni avait décidé
de ne pas maintenir laconclusion cl)formuléedans son mémoire. A l'issue de la
procédure orale, de:;conclusions écritesont étédéposéesau Greffe au nom du

Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni; ces conclusions étaient identiques àcelles
qui figuraient dans le mémoire et sont reproduites ci-dessus, à cela près que
la conclusion d) était omise et que la conclusion e) devenait en conséquence
la conclusion d). 13. No pleadings were filed by the Government of Iceland, which wasalso
not represented at the oral proceedings, and no submissions were therefore
presented on its behalf. The attitude of that Government was however defined
in the above-mentioned letter of 29 May 1972from the Minister for Foreign
Affairs of Iceland, namely that there was on 14April 1972(the date on which
the Application was filed) no basis under the Statute for the Court to exercise

jurisdiction in the case, and that the Government of Iceland was not willingto
conferjurisdiction on the Court. After theCourt had decided, by its Judgment
of 2 February 1973, that it had jurisdiction to deal with the merits of the
dispute, the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Iceland, by letter dated II January
1974,inforined the Court that:
"With reference to the time-limit fixed by the Court for the submission
of Counter-Memorials by the Government of Iceland, 1have the honour

to inforin you that the position of the Government of Iceland with
regard to the proceedings in question remains unchanged and, conse-
quently, no Counter-Memorials will be submitted. At the same time, the
Government of lceland does not accept or acquiesce in any of the state-
ments of facts or allegations or contentions of law contained in the
Memorials filed by the Parties concerned."

14. lceland has not taken part in any phase of the present proceedings.
By the above-mentioned letter of 29 May 1972, the Government of Ice-
land informed the Court that it regarded the Exchange of Notes between
the Government of Iceland and the Government of the United Kingdom
dated 11 March 1961 as terminated ;that in its view there was no basis
under the Statute for the Court to exercise jurisdiction in the case; that,

as it considered the vital interests of the people of Iceland to be involved,
it was not willing to confer jurisdiction on the Court in any case involving
the extent of the fishery limits of Iceland; and that an agent would not
be appointed to represent the Government of Iceland. Thereafter, the
Government of Iceland did not appear before the Court at the public

hearing held on I August 1972concerning the United Kingdom's request
for the indication of interim measures of protection; nor did it file any
pleadings or appear before the Court in the subsequent proceedings
concerning the Court's jurisdiction to entertain the dispute. Notwith-
standing the Court's Judgment of 2 February 1973, in which the Court
decided that it has jurisdiction to entertain the United Kingdom's Appli-

cation and to deal with the merits of the dispute, the Government of
Iceland maintained the saine position with regard to the subsequent
proceedings. By its letter of IIJanuary 1974, it informed the Court that
no Counter-Memorial would be submitted. Nor did it in fact file any
pleading or appear before the Court at the public hearings on the merits
of the dispute. At these hearings, counsel for the United Kingdom, having

9 13. Aucune pièceécriten'a étédéposéepar le Gouvernement islandais, qui
n'étaitpas non plus représenté à la procédureorale, et aucune conclusion n'a
donc été priseen son nom. Toutefois l'attitude du Gouvernement islandais a
étédéfiniedans la lettre précitéedu ministre des Affaires étrangèresd'Islande
en date du 29 mai 1972, a savoir que le 14 avril 1972 (date du dépôtde la
requête)la Cour ne pouvait trouver dans son Statut aucun fondement pour
I'exercice de sa compétence en l'affaire et que le Gouvernement islandais

n'étaitpas disposéa lui attribuer compétence. Aprèsque, par son arrêtdu
2 février 1973,la Cour se fut déclaréecompétente pour statuer sur le fond du
différend,le ministre des Affaires étrangères d'Islandelui a fait savoir ce qui
suit par lettre du Il janvier 1974:
((Au sujet du délaifixépar la Cour pour le dépôtdecontre-mémoires
par le Gouvernement islandais, j'ai l'honneur de porterà votre connais-
sance que la position du Gouvernement islandais en ce qui concerne les
instances reste inchangée et que, par conséquent, aucun contre-mémoire

ne sera déposé.Pour autant, le Gouvernement islandais n'accepte ni
n'admet aucun des faits énoncés,ni aucune des allégations ou thèses
juridiques présentéesdans les mémoires qu'ont déposélses Parties in-
téressées))

14. L'Islande n'a.pris part à aucune phase de la présente instance. Par

sa lettre précitéedu 29 mai 1972, le Gouvernement Islandais a informé
la Cour qu'il considérait l'échange de notes intervenu entre lui-même
et le ou verne me drit~o~aume-uni le 11 mars 1961 comme caduc;
qu'à son avis la Cour ne pouvait trouver dans son Statut aucun fonde-
ment pour l'exercice de sa compétence en l'affaire; que, considérant que
les intérêts vitauxdu peuple islandais étaient en jeu, il n'était pas disposé

à attribuer à la Cour compétence dans une affaire qui concernerait
l'étendue des pêcheriesislandaises; et qu'il ne serait pas désignéd'agent
pour représenter le Gouvernement islandais. Ultérieurement, le Gouver-
nement islandais ne s'est pas présentédevant la Cour à l'audience pu-
blique du leraoût 1972consacrée à la demande en indication de mesures
conservatoiresintroduite par le Royaume-Uni; il n'a pas non plus déposé

de pièces écrites, ni comparu devant la Cour durant la procédure posté-
rieure concernant lacompétence de la Cour pour connaître du différend.
Malgré l'arrêtdu 2 février 1973par lequel la Cour se déclarait compétente
pour connaître de la requêtedu Royaume-Uni et statuer sur le fond du
différend, le Gouvernement islandais n'a pas change d'attitude quant à
la suite de l'instance. Dans sa lettre du 11 janvier 1974 il a informé la

Cour qu'il ne déposerait pas de contre-mémoire. Iln'a pas en effet soumis
de pièceécriteet n'a pas comparu devant la Cour aux audiences publiques
consacrées au fond du différend. Ayant, lors de ces audiences, attiré
l'attention sur le fait qu'aucun représentant du défendeur ne se trouvaitdrawn attention to the non-appearance in Court of any representative of
the Respondent, referred to Article 53 of the Statute, and concluded by
presenting the final submissions of the United Kingdom on the merits

of the dispute for adjudication by the Court.
15. The Court is thus confronted with the situation contemplated by
Article 53,paragraph 1,of the Statute, that "Whenever one of the parties
does not appear before the Court, or fails to defend its case, the other
party may cal1upon the Court to decide in favour of its claim". Paragraph
2 of that Article, however, also provides: "The Court must, before doing

so, satisfy itself, not only that it has jurisdiction in accordance with
Articles 36 and 37, but also that the claim is well founded in fact and
law."
16. The present case turns essentially on questions of international
law, and the facts requiring the Court's consideration in adjudicating
upon the Applicant's claim either are not in dispute or are attested by

documentary evidence. Such evidence emanates in part from the Govern-
ment of Iceland, and has not been specifically contested, and there does
not appear to be any reason to doubt its accuracy. The Governrnent of
Iceland, it is true, declared in its above-mentioned letter of 11 January
1974that "it did not accept or acquiesce in any of the statements of,fact
or allegations or contentions of law contained in the Memorials of the
Parties concerned" (emphasis added). But such a general declaration of

non-acceptance and non-acquiescence cannot sufice to bring into ques-
tion facts which appear to be established by documentary evidence, nor
can it change the position of the applicant Party, or of the Court, which
remains bound to apply the provisions of Article 53 of the Statute.

17. It is to be regretted that the Government of Iceland has failed to

appear in order to plead its objections or to make its observations against
the Applicant's arguments and contentions in law. The Court however,
as an international judicial organ, is deemed to take judicial notice of
international law, and is therefore required in a case falling under
Article 53 of the Statute, as in any other case, to consider on its own
initiative al1 rules of internationallaw which may be relevant to the

settlement of the dispute. It being the duty of the Court itself to ascertain
and apply the relevant law in the given circumstances of the case, the
burden of establishing or proving rules of international law cannot be
imposed upon any of the parties, for the law lies within the judicial
knowledge of the Court. In ascertainiiig the law applicable in the present
case the Court has had cognizance not only of the legal arguments
submitted to it by the Applicant but also of those contained in various

communications addressed to it by the Government of Iceland, and in
documents presented to the Court. The Court has thus taken account of
the legal position of each Party. Moreover, the Court has been assisted
by the answers given by the Applicant, both orally and in writing, to
questions asked by Members of the Court during the oral proceedings or
immediately thereafter. It should be stressed that in applying Article 53of the Statute in this case, the Court has acted with particular circum-
spection and has taken special care, being faced with the absence of the
respondent State.
18. Accordingly, for the purposes of Article 53 of the Statute, the
Court considers that it has before it the elements necessary to enable it
to determine whether the Applicant's claim is, or is not, well founded
in.fact and law, and it is now called upon to do so. However, before
proceeding further the Court considers it necessary to recapitulate

briefly the history of the present dispute.

19. In 1948 the Althing (the Parliament of Iceland) passed a law
entitled "Law concerning the Scientific Conservation of the Continental
Shelf Fisheries" containing, inter alia, the following provisions:

"Article 1
The Ministry of Fisheries shall issue regulations establishing
explicitly bounded conservation zones within the limits of the con-
tinental shelf of Iceland; wherein al1 fisheries shall be subject to
Icelandic rules and control; Provided that the conservation measures
now in effect shall in no way be reduced. The Ministry shall further

issue the necessary regulations for the protection of the fishing
grounds within the said zones ...

Article 2

The regulations promulgated under Article 1 of the present law
shall be enforced only to the extent compatible with agreements with
other countries to which Iceland is or may become a party."

20. The 1948 Law was explained by the Icelandic Government in its
exposédes motifssubmitting the Law to the Althing, in which, inter alia,
it stated:

"lt is well known that the economy of Iceland depends almost
entirely on fishing in the vicinity of its coasts. For this reason, the
population of Iceland has followed the progressive impoverishment
of fishing grounds with anxiety. Formerly, when fishing equipment
was far less efficient than it is today, the question appeared in a
different light, and the right of providing for exclusive rights of
fishing by Iceland itself in the vicinity of her coasts extendedmuch
further than is admitted by the practice generally adopted since
1900. It seems obvious, however, that measures to protect fisheries
ought to be extended in proportion to the growing efficiency of
fishingequipment.Il convient de souligner qu'en appliquant l'article 53 du Statut en l'espèce

la Cour a fait preuve d'une particulière circonspection et d'une attention
toute spéciale,étani:donné l'absence de 1'Etat défendeur.
18. En conséquence, aux fins de l'article 53 du Statut, la Cour se
considère en possession des élémentsdont elle a besoin pour dire si les
conclusions du derriandeur sont bien fondéesen fait et en droit, et c'est
ce qu'elle doit faire maintenant. Cependant, avant de poursuivre, elle

croit devoir rappeler brièvement l'historique du présent différend.

19. En 1948 1'Althing (Parlement islandais) a adopté une loi intitulée
((Loi concernant la conservation scientifique des pêcheriesdu plateau
continental)) où figuraient notamment les dispositions suivantes:

(tArticle premier

Le ministère des Pêcheriesétablira par voie de règlement, dans les
limites du plateau continental islandais, des zones de conservation
définiesdans lesquelles les pêcheriesseront intégralement réglemen-
tées et contrôlées par l'Islande, étant entendu toutefois que les
mesures de conservation actuellement en vigueur ne seront en
aucune façon réduites. Le ministère prendra en outre les règlements

nécessaires afin de protéger les lieux de pêcheà l'intérieur desdites
zones...
Article 2

Les règlements pris en vertu de l'article premier de la présente loi
ne seront mis en application que dans la mesure compatible avec
les accords avec d'autres pays auxquels l'Islande est ou pourrait

devenir partie. 1)
20. Le Gouvernement islandais a expliqué la loi de 1948dans l'exposé

des motifs qui accompagnait le projet de loi soumis à I'Althing, disant
notamment :

((On sait que l'économiede l'Islande repose presque uniquement
sur la pêcheail voisinage de ses côtes. C'est la raison pour laquelle
le peuple islandais s'est vivement inquiété de l'appauvrissement
progressif des lieux de pêche.Autrefois, lorsque les engins de pêche
étaient beaucclup moins perfectionnés qu'aujourd'hui, la question
se posait sous un jour différent et le droit de réserver à I'lslande

l'exclusivitéde la pêcheau voisinage de ses côtes s'exerçait beaucoup
plus loin que ne l'admet la pratique généralementadoptée depuis
1900. 11semble cependant évident qu'ilfaudrait accroître les mesures
de protection des pêcheriesen fonction de l'efficacitégrandissante
des engins de pêche. In so far as the jurisdiction of States over fishing grounds is
concerned, two methods have been adopted. Certain States have
proceeded to a determination of their territorial waters, especially
for fishing purposes. Others, on theother hand, have left the question
of the territorial waters in abeyance and have contented themselves

with asserting their exclusive right over fisheries, independently of
territorial waters. Of these two methods, the second seems to be the
more natural, having regard to the fact that certain considerations
arising from the concept of 'territorial waters' have no bearing upon
the question of an exclusive right to iîshing, and that there are
therefore serious drawbacks in considering the two questions to-

gether."

21. Commenting upon Article 2 of the 1948 Law, the expo.ri.des tnotifs
referred to the Anglo-Danish Convention of 1901, which applied to the
fisheries in the waters around Iceland and established a 3-mile limit for
the exclusive right of fishery. This Convention, which was subject to

termination by either party on giving two years' notice, was mentioned
as one of the international agreements with which any regulations issued
under the Law would have to be compatible so long as the Convention
remained in force. In the following year, on 3 October 1949,the Govern-
ment of Iceland gave notice of the denunciation of the Convention, with
the result that it ceased to be in force after the expiry of the prescribed

two-year period of notice on 3 October 1951. Furtherinore, during that
interval this Court had handed down its Judgment in the Fislicrics case
(I.C.J. Reports 19.51,p. 116) between the Uiiited Kingdotn and Norway,
in which it had endorsed the validity of the system of straight baselines
applied by Norway off the Norwegian coast. Early in 1952, lceland
informed the United Kingdom of its intention to issue new fshery regula-

tions in accordance with the 1948 Law. Then, on 19 March of that year,
Iceland issued Regulations providing for a fishery zone whose outer liinit
was to be a line drawn 4 miles to seaward of straight baselines traced
along the outermost points of the coasts, islands and rocks and across
the opening of bays, and prohibiting al1 foreign fishing activities within
that zone.
22. The 1952 Fisheries Regulations met with protests from the United

Kingdom, regarding Iceland's claim to a 4-mile limit and certain features
of its straight-baseline systein, which the United Kingdom considered to
go beyond the principles endorsed by the Court in the Fislirrirs case.After
various attempts to resolve the dispute, a nzoc/usi,i~~cndw i as reached in
1956 under which there was to be no further extension of Iceland's
fishery limits pending discussion by the United Nations General Assembly

in that year of the Report of the International Law Comtnission on the
Law of the Sea. This discussion resulted in the convening at Geneva in
1958of the first United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. Pour ce qui est de la compétence des Etats sur les lieux de pêche,
deux méthodes ont été adoptées. Certains Etats ont procédéà la

détermination des limites de leurs eaux territoriales, en particulier du
point de vue cle la pêche.D'autres, en revanche, ont laisséouverte
la question des eaux territoriales, se contentant d'affirmer leur droit
exclusif sur les pêcheriessans se référerà la mer territoriale. De ces
deux méthode:;,c'est la seconde qui semble la plus naturelle, compte
tenu du fait que certaines considérations découlant de la notion

d'(<eaux territoriales)) n'ont aucun rapport avec la question d'un
droit de pêcheexclusif et qu'il y a donc des inconvénients sérieux à
examiner ensemble les deux questions. ))

21. A propos de l'article2 de la loi de 1948,l'exposédes motifs faisait
état de la convention anglo-danoise de 1901 qui scappliquait aux pêche-
ries dans les eaux entourant l'Islande et fixait3àmilles la limite du droit
de pêcheexclusif. 11mentionnait cet instrument qui pouvait être dénoncé
par l'une ou l'autre partie moyennant un préavis de deux ans parmi les
accords internationaux avec lesquels toute réglementation promulguée

conformément à la. loi devrait être compatible, aussi longtemps qu'il
resterait en vigueur. L'annéesuivante, le3 octobre 1949, leGouvernement
islandais a notifié son intention de dénoncer la convention, si bien que
celle-ci a cesséd'êtreen vigueur le 3 octobre 1951, à l'expiration du délai
prescrit de deux ans. En outre, la Cour avait entre-temps rendu son
arrêt dans l'affaire des Pêcheries (C.1.J. Recueil 1951. o. 116) entre le
,.
Royaume-Uni et la Norvège, où elle reconnaissait la validitéd; système
des lignes de base droites que la Norvège appliquait au large de ses côtes.
Au début de 1952, I'lslande a informé le Royaume-Uni de son intention
d'adopter une nouvelle réglementation de la pêche,conformément à la
loi de 1948. Le 19mars 1952elle a promulgué un règlement qui prévoyait
une zone de pêchedont la limite extérieure étaitconstituée par une ligne

tracée à 4 milles au large des lignes de base droites joignant les points
extrêmesdes côtes, îles et rochers et les points situés à l'ouverture des
baies, avec pour eff'etd'interdire toute pêcheaux navires étrangers dans
cette zone.
22. Le règlement de 1952 sur la pêche a soulevéles protestations du

Royaume-Uni contre la prétention do I'lslande à une limite de 4 milles et
certains aspects du système islandais de lignes de base droites, que le
Royaume-Uni considérait comme allant au-delà des principes consacrés
par la Cour dans l'affaire des PFcllr~icls.AprCs plusieurs tentatives visant
à résoudre ce différend, un nîocl~u i,ii~ratiértiréaliséen 1956, en kertu
duquel I'lslande ne devait procéder à aucun élargissement de sa zone de

pêcheavant que l'Assembléegénérale desNations Unies n'examine cette
année-là le rapport de la Commission du droit international sur le droit
de lamer. Les débatsde l'Assembléegénéraleont abouti à la convocation,
à Genève, en 1958, de la première Conférence des Nations Unies sur le
droit de la mer. 23. The 1958 Conference, having failed to reach agreement either on
the linlit of the territorial sea oron the zone of exclusive fisheries,adopted
a resolution requesting the General Assembly to study the advisability
of convening a second Law of the Sea Conference specifically to deal
with these questions.After the conclusion of the 1958Conference,lceland
made on 1 June 1958 a preliminary announcement of its intention to

reserve the right of fishing within an area of 12miles from the baselines
exclusively to Icelandic fishermen, and to extend the fishing zone also by
modification of the baselines, and then on 30 June 1958 issued new
"Regulations concerning the Fisheries Limits off Iceland". Article 1 of
these proclaimed a new 12-mile fisherylimit around Iceland drawn from
new baselines defined in that Article, and Article 2 prohibited al1fishing
activities by foreign vessels within the new fishery limit. Article7 of the
Regulations expressly stated that they were promulgated in accordance
with the Law of 1948concerning ScientificConservation of the Continen-
tal Shelf Fisheries.
24. The United Kingdom did not accept the validity of the new
Regulations, and its fishing vessels continued to fish inside the 12-mile
limit, with the result that a number of incidents occurred on the fishing
grounds. Various attempts were made to settle the dispute by negotiation
but the dispute remained unresolved. On 5 May 1959the Althing passed
a resolution on the matter in which, inter alia, it said:

". .. the Althing declares that it considers that Iceland has an in-
disputable right to fishery limits of 12 miles, that recognition should
be obtained of Iceland's right to the entire continental shelf area in
conformity with thepolicy adopted by the Law of 1948,corzcerningthe
Scientijïc Conservation of the Continental She/f Fisheries and that
fishery limits of less than 12 miles from base-lines around the
country are out of the question" (emphasisadded).

The Resolution thus stressed that the 12-mile limit asserted in the 1958
Regulations was merely a further step in Iceland's progress towards its
objective of a fishery zone extending over the whole of the continental
shelf area.
25. After the Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the
Sea, in 1960,the United Kingdom and lceland embarked on a series of
negotiations with a view to resolving their differences regarding the 12-
mile fishery limits and baselines clain~edby Iceland in its 1958 Regula-
tions. According to the records of the negotiations which were drawn
up by and have been brought to the Court's attention by the Applicant,

the Icelandic representatives in their opening statement called attention
to the proposals submitted to the 1960 Conference on the Law of the
Sea concerning preferential rights and to the widespread support these
proposals had received, and asserted that Iceland, as a country in a
special situation, "should receive preferential treatment even beyond 12 23. N'étant parvenue à un accord ni sur la limite de la mer territo-
riale, ni sur la zone de pêche exclusive,la conférence de 1958 a adopté
une résolution pri,ant l'Assemblée générale d'étudierl'opportunité de
convoquer une deuxièmeConférencesur le droit de la mer spécialement
chargée d'examiner ces questions. A la suite de la conférence de 1958,
l'Islande a annoncéle I" juin 1958son intention de réserver exclusivement

aux pêcheurs islandaisle droit de pêcherdans une zone s'étendant jusqu'à
12milles des lignes de base et d'élargir aussila zone de pêcheen modifiant
ces lignes de base, puis a promulgué le 30juin 1958un nouveau ((Règle-
ment relatif aux limites de pêcheau large de l'Islande ». L'article premier
portait la nouvelle limite de pêcheau large de l'Islandeà 12 milles à
partir de nouvelles lignes de base définiesdans ledit article et l'article 2
interdisait toute pêcheaux navires étrangersà l'intérieur de cettenouvelle
limite. L'article ditclarait expressémentque le règlementétait promulgué
conformément à la loi de 1948 concernant la conservation scientifique
des pêcheriesdu plateau continental.
24. Le Royaume:-Uni n'a pas reconnu la validitéde ce nouveau règle-
ment et ses navires ont continué à pratiquer la pêche à l'intérieur dela
limite des 12milles, ce qui a causénombre d'incidents sur les terrains de

pêche. Diverses tentatives ont étéfaites pour réglerle différendpar voie
de négociation, mais le litige est néanmoins restésans solution. Le 5 mai
1959 1'Althing a adopté une résolution en la matière, où il était dit
notamment :
(c1'Althingproclame qu'il considère que l'Islande a incontestable-

ment le droit (defixer les limites des pêcheriàsune distance de 12
milles, quele droit dcl'Islandesur toute la zone duplateaucontinental
doit êtrereconnu conformément à la politique consacréear la loi de
1948 concerna.ntla conservationscient~jquedes pêcheries du plateau
continental,et qu'il n'estpas question de fixerleslimites des pêcheries
à une distance de moins de 12milles des lignes de base tracéesautour
de l'Islande)).((Lesitaliques sont de la Cour.)

La résolution souligne donc que la limite des 12milles fixéepar le règle-
ment de 1958n'était qu'un nouveau pas dela part de l'Islande vers son
objectif qui étaitd'étendresa zone de pêche à l'ensemble de son plateau
continental.
25. Après la deilxièmeConférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de
la mer, tenue en 1960,le Royaume-Uni et l'Islande ont entaméune série
de négociations en vue de réglerleurs divergences sur la limite de pêche
des 12 milles et les lignes de base revendiquées par l'Islande dans son
règlement de 1958. Selon les comptes rendus des négociations qui ont
été établiet port& à la connaissance de la Cour par le demandeur, les
représentants deI'l[slandeont rappelé,dans leur déclaration introductive,
les propositions qiii avaient étésoumisesà la Conférencede 1960sur le
droit de la mer au sujet des droits préférentielset l'appui très large qui

leur avait été accordé,t ils ont soutenu que l'Islande, en tant que pays se
trouvant dans une situation spéciale,ccdevrait bénéficierd'un traitementmiles". Fishery conservation measures outside the 12-milelimit, including
the reservation ofareas for Icelandic fishing, werediscussed, but while the
United Kingdom representatives recognized that "Iceland is a 'special
situation' country", no agreement was reached regarding fisheries outside
the 12-milelimit. In these discussions, the United Kingdom insisted upon
receiving an assurance concerning the future extension of Iceland's
fisheryjurisdiction and a compromissory clause was then included in the
Exchange of Notes which was agreed upon by the Parties on 11 March

1961.

26. The substantive provisions of the settlement, which were set out
in the principal Note addressed by the Government of Iceland to the
Government of the United Kingdom, were as follows:
(1) The United Kingdom would no longer object to a 12-mile fishery
zone around Iceland measured from the baselines accepted solely for
the purpose of the delimitation of that zone.

(2) The United Kingdom accepted for that purpose the baselines set out
in the 1958 Regulations subject to the modification of four specified
points.
(3) For a period of three years from the date of the Exchange of Notes,
Iceland would not object to United Kingdom vessels fishing within
certain specifiedareas and during certain stated months of the year.

(4) During that three-year period, however, United Kingdom vessels
would not fish within the outer 6 miles of the 12-milezone in seven
specifiedareas.
(5) Iceland "will continue to work for the implementation of the Althing
Resolution of May 5, 1959,regarding the extension of fisheries juris-
diction around Iceland, but shall give to the United Kingdom
Government six months' notice of such extension and, in case of a
dispute in relation to such extension, the matter shall, at the request
of either party, be referred to the International Court of Justice".

In its Note in reply the UnitedKingdom emphasized that:

". ..in view of the exceptional dependence of the Icelandic nation
upon coastal fisheries for their livelihood and economic develop-
ment, and without prejudice to the rights of the United Kingdom
under international law towards a third party, the contents of Your
Excellency's Note are acceptable to the United Kingdom and the
settlement of the dispute has been accomplished on the terms stated
therein".

27. On 14July 1971the Government of Iceland issued a policy state-
ment in which, intearlia ,t was said:préférentiel mêm;eau-delà de 12 milles». Les discussions ont également
portésur des mesuiresde conservation en matière de pêcheau-delà de la
limite des 12milles, y compris la possibilitéde réservercertains secteurs
la pêche islandaise mais, bien que les représentants du Royaume-Uni
aient reconnu que rl'Islande est un pays dans une ((situation spéciale»,
aucun accord n'a ~ttéréalisésur les pêcheriesau-delà de la limite des

12 milles. Lors de ces entretiens, le Royaume-Uni a insistépour recevoir
des assurances coincernant l'élargissement futur de la juridiction de
l'Islande sur ses pêcherieset une clause compromissoire a alors été incor-
porée à l'échangedenotes dont lesParties sont convenues le 11mars 1961.
26. Les dispositi'ons de fond de l'accord, énoncéesdans la note prin-
cipale adressée par le Gouvernement islandais au Gouvernement du
Royaume-Uni, sont les suivantes:

1) Le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni n'élèvera plusd'objection contre
la zone de pêchies'étendant autour de l'Islande sur une largeur de
12 milles à partir de certaines lignes de base qui ne sont acceptées
qu'aux fins de la délimitation de cette zone.
2) A cette fin le Royaume-Uni accepte les lignes de base définiesdans le
règlementde 1958sous réservede quatre modifications.

3) Pendant trois ans àcompter de la date de I'échangede notes, l'Islande
ne s'opposera pas à ce que des navires du Royaume-Uni pêchentdans
certains secteur:; déterminéset pendant certains mois spécifiésde
l'année.
4) En revanche, pendant cette période de trois ans, les navires du
Royaume-Uni ne pêcherontpas dans sept secteurs déterminés de la

moitié extérieurt:(d'une largeur de6 milles) de la zone de 12 milles.
5) L'Islande ((continuera de s'employer à mettre en Œuvre la résolution
de I'Althing en date du 5 mai 1959 relative à l'élargissementde la
juridiction sur les pêcheriesautour de l'Islande, mais notifiera sixmois
à l'avance au Ciouvernement du Royaume-Uni toute mesure en ce
sens; au cas où surgirait un différenden la matière, la question sera
portée, à la demande de l'une ou l'autre partie, devant la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice>).

Dans la note envoyéeen réponse à ['Islande, le Royaume-Uni a souligné
que :
cétant donné quela nation islandaise est exceptionnellement tribu-
taire des pêcheries côtièrespour sa subsistanceet son développement

économique et sans préjudice desdroits du Royaume-Uni, confor-
mémentau droit international, à l'égarddes Etats tiers, les disposi-
tions de la note de Votre Excellence rencontrent l'agrément du
Royaume-Uni et ...le différend se trouve donc réglédans les
conditions indiiquéesdans ladite note ».
27. Le 14juillet 1971le Gouvernement islandais a publié une déclara-
tion de politique généraleoù il était ditnotamment: "That the agreements on fisheries jurisdiction with the British
and the West Germans be terminated and that a decision be taken
on the exteiision of fisheries jurisdiction to 50 nautical miles from
base lines, and that this extension become effective not later than
September 1st, 1972."

This led the Government of the United Kingdom, in an aide-mémoireof
17 July 1971, to draw the attention of Iceland to the terms of the 1961

Exchange of Notes regarding the right of either Party to refer to the
Court any extension of Iceland's fishery limits. While reserving al1 its
rights, the United Kingdom emphasized that the Exchange of Notes
was not open to unilateral denunciation or termination. This prompted
discussions between the two countries in which no agreement was
reached; in an aide-mémoire of 31 August 1971 Iceland stated that it
considered the object and purpose ofthe provision for recourse tojudicial
settlement to have been fully achieved; and that it now found it essential
to extend further the zone of exclusive fisheries jurisdiction around its
coasts to include the areas of the sea covering the continental shelf.
Iceland further added that the new limits, the precise boundaries of which
would be furnished at a later date, would enter into force not later than
1September 1972;and that it was prepared to hold further meetings "for
the purpose of achieving a practical solution of the problems involved".

28. The United Kingdom replied on 27 September 1971 and placed
formally on record its view that "such an extension of the fishery zone
ar6und Iceland would have no basis in international law". It then con-

troverted Iceland's proposition that the object and purpose of the provi-
sion for recourse tojudicial settlement of disputes relating toan extension
of fisheries jurisdiction had been fully achieved, and again reserved al1
its rights under that provision. At the same time, however, the United
Kingdom expressed its willingness,without prejudice to its legal position,
to enter into further exploratory discussions. In November 1971 the
United Kingdom and Iceland held discussions. At these talks, the British
delegation stated their viewthat Iceland's objectivescould be achieved by
a catch-limitation agreement. In further talks which took piace in January
1972 the United Kingdom expressed its readiness to negotiate any
arrangements for the limitation of catches that scientific evidence might
show to be necessary, and in which any preferential requirements of the
coastal State resulting from its dependence on fisheries would be recog-
nized. It further proposed, as an interim measure pending the elaboration
of a multilateral arrangement, to limit its annual catch of demersal fish
in Icelandic waters to 185,000tons. The Icelandic Government was not,
however, prepared to negotiate further on this basis.

29. On 15February 1972the Althing adopted a Resolution reiterating
the fundamental policy of the Icelandic people that the continental shelf (Que lesaccordssurla compétenceen matièredepêcheriesconclus
avec le Royaurne-Uni et la République fédérale d'Allemagne pren-
dront fin et qu'une décisionprenant effet leler septembre 1972 au
plus tard sera adoptée sur le report des limites de la zone de pêche

une distance de 50 milles marinsàpartir des lignes de base.))

Le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni a réagi enappelant l'attention de
l'Islande, dans un aide-mémoiredu 17juillet 1971,sur les dispositions de
I'échange denotes cle 1961concernant le droit de l'une ou l'autre Partie
de porter devant la(Courtoute question relative àun élargissementde la
zone de pêche islandaise.Tout en réservanttous ses droits, le Royaume-
Uni a soulignéque l'échangede notes ne saurait être dénoncé ou révoqué
unilatéralement. Des pourparlers entre les deux pays ont suivi, au cours
desquels aucun accord n'a été réalisé d;ans un aide-mémoiredu 31 août
1971, l'Islande a déclaré qu'à sonavis la disposition sur le recours au
règlement judiciaire avait entièrement atteint son but et son objet et

qu'elle considérait maintenant comme essentiel d'étendre sa zone de
compétenceexclusive sur les pêcheriesautour de ses côtes de manière à
inclure les espaces maritimes situés au-dessus du plateau continental.
L'Islande a ajoutéque la nouvelle délimitation,dont le tracéexact serait
précisé à une date ultérieure, entrerait en vigueur l1" septembre 1972
au plus tard et elle s'est déclarée disposéeoursuivre les conversations
((afin d'aboutirà urie solution pratique des problèmes en cause)).
28. Dans sa réponseen date du 27 septembre 1971,le Royaume-Uni a
tenu à noter qu'à son avis ((un tel élargissement de la zone de pêche
entourant l'Islande n'aurait aucun fondement en droit international ».Il
a contesté l'affirmation de l'Islande selon laquelle la disposition sur le

recours au règlementjudiciaire des différends relatifsl'élargissementde
la iuridiction surlei, ~êcheriesavait entièrement atteint son but et son
objet et il a une fois de plus réservétous les droits qui découlaient pour
lui de cette disposition. En mêmetemps, il s'estdéclaré prêtentamer de
nouveaux entretiens exploratoires sans préjudicede sa positionjuridique.
En novembre 1971 beRoyaume-Uni et l'Islande ont eu des conversations
au cours desquelles la délégationbritannique a exprimé l'avis qu'un
accord sur la limitation des prises permettrait l'Islande d'atteindre ses
objectifs. Pendant d'autres entretiensqui se sont déroulésenjanvier 1972,
le Royaume-Uni s'estdéclaré prêt à négociertous arrangements relatifsà
la limitation des prises dont la nécessitéserait scientifiquement prouvée,
et où seraient reconnus les besoins prioritaires résultant pour 1'Etat

riverain de sa dépendance à l'égard des pêcheriesI.l a proposé en outrà,
titre de mesure provisioire en attendant l'élaboration d'un arrangement
multilatéral, delimiterà 185 000 tonnes ses prises annuelles de poissons
démersauxdans les eaux islandaises. Le Gouvernement islandais ne s'est
cependant pas déclarédisposé à poursuivre les négociations sur cette
base.
29. Le 15 février19721'Althinga adoptéune résolutionoù il rappelait
la politique fondamentale du peuple islandais selon laquelle le plateauof Iceland and the superjacent waters were within the jurisdiction of Ice-
land. While repeating that the provisions of the Exchange of Notes of
1961 no longer constituted an obligation for Iceland, it resolved, inter
alia:

"1. That the fishery limits will beextended to 50 miles from base-lines
around the country, to become effective not later than 1September
1972.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . .

3. That efforts to reach a solution of the problems connected with
the extension be continued through discussions with the Govern-
ments of the United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of
Germany.
4. That effective supervision of the fish stocks in the Iceland area be
continued in consultation with marine biologists and that the
necessary measures be taken for the protection of the fish stocks

and specified areas in order to prevent over-fishing ..."

In an aide-mémoire of 24 February 1972 Iceland's Minister for Foreign

Affairs formally notified the United Kingdom Ambassador in Reykjavik
of his Government's intention to proceed in accordance with this Resolu-
tion.
30. On 14 March 1972,the United Kingdom in an aide-mémoire took
note of the decision of lceland to issue new Regulations, reiterated its
view that "such an extension of the fishery zone around lceland would
have no basis in international law", and rejected Iceland's contention
that the Exchange of Notes was no longer in force. Moreover, forma1

notice was also given by the United Kingdom that an application would
shortly be made to the Court in accordance with the Exchange of Notes;
the British Government was however willing to continue discussions
with Iceland "in order to agree satisfactory practical arrangements for
the period while the case is before the International Court of Justice".
On 14 April 1972,the United Kingdom filed in the Registry its Applica-
tion bringing the present case before the Court.

31. A series of negotiations between representatives of the two coun-
tries soon followed and continued throughout May, June and July 1972,
in the course of which various proposais for catch-limitation, fishing-
effort limitation. area or seasonal restrictions for United Kine"om
vessels were discussed, in the hope of arriving at practical arrangements
for an interim régimepending the settlement of the dispute. By 12 July
there was still no agreement on such an interim régime,and the Icelandic

delegation announced that new Regulations would be issued on 14 July
1972 which would exclude al1 foreign vessels from fishing within the
50-mile limit after 1 September 1972. The United Kingdom delegation
replied that, while ready to continue the discussions for an interim régime,
they reserved the United Kingdom's rights in areas outside the 12-milecontinental de I'Islaindeet les eaux surjacentes étaient sous la juridiction
de l'Islande. II réaffirmait que les dispositions de l'échange de notes de
1961 n'étaient plus obligatoires pour l'Islande et stipulait notamment ce
qui suit:

((1. Les limites des pêcheriesseront reportées à 50 milles des lignes
de base autour du pays, et prendront effet le 1 septembre 1972

au plus tard.
. . ..........................
3. Les efforts tendant à résoudre les problèmes soulevés par
I'élargissenientseront poursuivis, lors d'entretiens avec les Gou-
vernement:; du Royaume-Uni et de la République fédérale
d'Allemagrie.

4. La surveill,ance effective des stocks de poisson de la zone islan-
daise continuera d'être assurée avecle concours de spécialistes
de la biologie marine et les mesures nécessairesseront prises pour
protéger les stocks et certaines zones particulières de manière à
prévenir des prises excessives...t)

Dans un aide-mémoire du 24 février 1972, le ministre des Affaires
étrangèresd'Islande a notifié officiellementà l'ambassadeur du Royaume-
Uni à Reykjavik l'intention de son gouvernement de donner effet à cette

résolution.
30. Dans un aide-mémoire du 14 mars 1972, le Royaume-Uni a pris
note de la décision de l'Islande d'adopter une nouvelle réglementation,
réaffirméqu'à son avis ((un tel élargissementde la zone de pêcheentourant
l'Islande n'aurait aucun fondement en droit international ))et rejeté la
thèse du Gouvernernent islandais selon laquelle l'échange denotes n'était

plus en vigueur. De plus le Royaume-Uni a aussi informé officiellement
le Gouvernement islandais que la Cour internationale de Justice serait
prochainement saisiied'une requêteen application de l'échangede notes;
le Gouvernement britannique a déclaré qu'ilétait cependant disposé à
poursuivre des disci~ssionsavec l'Islande pour ((convenird'arrangements
pratiques satisfaisailts applicables pour la durée de la procédure devant

la Cour internationlale de Justice N. Le 14 avril 1972 le Royaume-Uni a
déposéau Greffe la requêteportant la présente affaire devant la Cour.
31. Dans l'espoir d'aboutir à des arrangements pratiques instaurant
un régime provisoire qui s'appliquerait tant que le différend neserait pas
réglé, desrepré~ent~ants des deux pays ont entamé peu après une sériede
négociations qui se sont poursuivies en mai, juin et juillet 1972et au cours

desquelles ont été discutées différentespropositions concernant la limita-
tion des prises, la Iiinitation de l'effort de pêche,les restrictions selon les
zones ou les saisons qui s'imposeraient aux navires britanniques. Le
12 juillet ces négociations n'avaient pas encore permis d'aboutir à un
accord sur un régimeprovisoire et la délégationislandaise a annoncé que

son gouvernement promulguerait le 14juillet 1972un nouveau règlement
interdisant à tous les navires étrangers de pêcherà l'intérieur dela limite
des 50 milles à partir du lerseptembre 1972. La délégationdu Royaume-

1616 FISHERIESJURISDICTION (JUDGMENT)

limit and would seek an Order for interim measures of protection from

the Court. The new Regulations, issued on 14 July 1972, extended Ice-
land's fisherylimits to 50 miles as from 1September 1972and, by Article
2, prohibited al1fishing activities by foreign vessels inside those limits.
Consequently, on 19July 1972,the United Kingdom filed its request for
the indication of interim measures of protection.

32. On 11 August 1972the Icelandic Foreign Ministry sent a Note to
the United Kingdom Embassy in Reykjavik, in which the Icelandic
Government renewed its interest in the recognition of its preferential
rights in the area, an issue which had already been raised in 1967by the
Icelandic delegation to the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission.
In a memorandum presented at the Fifth Meeting of that Commission,
the Icelandic delegation had drawn attention to the need for consideration
of the total problem of limiting fishing effort in Icelandic waters by, for
example, a quota system under which the priority position of Iceland

would be respected in accordance with internationally recognized prin-
ciples regarding the preferential requirements of the coastal State where
the people were overwhelmingly dependent upon the resources involved
for their livelihood. In the Note of 11August 1972it was recalled that:

"The Icelandic representatives laid main emphasis on receiving
from the British side positive replies to two fundamental points:

1. Recognition of preferential rights for Icelandic vesselsasto fishing

outside the 12-mile limit.
2. That Icelandic authorities should have full rights and be in a
position to enforce the regulations established with regard to
fishinginside the 50-milelimit."
Thus, while Iceland invoked preferential rights and the Applicant was
prepared to recognize them, basic differences remained as to the extent

and scope of those rights, and asto the methods for their implementation
and their enforcement. There can be little doubt that these divergences
of views were some of "the problems connected with the extension" in
respect of which the Althing Resolution of 15 February 1972 had in-
structed the Icelandic Government to make "efforts to reach a solution".
33. On 17 August 1972 the Court made an Order for provisional
measures in which, intea rlia, it indicated that, pending the Court's final
decision in the proceedings, Iceland should refrain from taking any
measures to enforce the Regulations of 14July 1972against United King-
dom vesselsengaged in fishing outside the 12-milefisheryzone; and that
the United Kingdom should limit the annual catch of its vessels in the
"Sea Area of Iceland" to 170,000tons. That the United Kingdom hasUni a répondu qu'elle étaitdisposée à poursuivre les négociationsrela-
tivesà un régime provisoire mais qu'elle réservait lsroits du Royaume-

Uni au-delà de la limite des 12milleset demanderait à la Cour d'indiquer
par ordonnance des mesures conservatoires. Le nouveau règlement
promulgué le 14juillet 1972 portait les limites de pêchede l'Islande à
50 milles à compte]: du 1" septembre 1972et, dans son article 2, inter-
disait toute pêcheaux navires étrangers à l'intérieurde ces limites. En
conséquence, le 19 juillet 1972, le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni a
déposé une demande en indication de mesures conservatoires.
32. Le 11 août 1972 le ministère des Affaires étrangères d'Islande a
adressé une note à.l'ambassade du Royaume-Uni à Reykjavik, où le
Gouvernement islandais réaffirmait l'intérêt qua 'ivlaàtce que des droits
préférentiels lusoietntreconnus dans la région,question que la délégation

islandaise auprès dle la Commission des pêcheriesde l'Atlantique du
nord-est avait déjà soulevéeen 1967.Dans un mémorandum présenté à
la cinquièmeréunion decette commission, la délégation islandaiseavait
souligné la nécessité d'étudier l'ensembdlu e problème de la limitation
de l'effortde pêchedans leseaux islandaises au moyen, par exemple, d'un
systèmede contingt:ntement où la situation prioritaire de l'Islande serait
respectée,conformkment aux principes reconnus sur le plan international
en ce qui concerne les besoins prioritaires des Etats riverains dont la
population est essentiellement tributaire, pour vivre, des ressources en
question. La note du 11août 1972rappelait ce qui suit:

((Les représentants de l'Islande ont souligné avant tout qu'ils
attacheraient de l'importance à recevoir, du côté britannique, des
réponses positivessur deux points fondamentaux:

1. La reconnaissance de droits préférentielsaux navires islandais
pour ce qui est de la pêcheau-delà de la limite des 12milles.
2. Le fait que les autorités islandaises devraient avoir pleinement

le droit et êtreen mesure d'appliquer le règlementpris en ce qui
concerne la pêche à l'intérieurde la limite des 50 mill1).
Ainsi, alors mêmeque l'Islande invoquait des droits préférentielset que
le demandeur était disposé à les lui reconnaître, des divergences fonda-

mentales subsistaieintsur l'étendueet la portée deces droits ainsi que sur
les méthodesde mise en Œuvreet d'application. Il ne fait guèrede doute
que ces divergences de vues constituaient certains des ((problèmes
soulevéspar l'élargissement» que la résolution de1'Althingdu 15février
1972avait chargéIr:Gouvernement islandais de s'efforcerde résoudre.
33. Le 17août 1,972la Cour a rendu une ordonnance en indication de
mesures conservatoires où elle indiquait notamment qu'en attendant
l'arrêtdéfinitifen l'affaire l'Islande devait s'abstenir de toute mesure
visantà appliquer le règlementdu 14juillet 1972aux navires immatriculés
au Royaume-Uni et pêchant au-delàde la zone de pêchede 12 milles et
que le Royaume-Uni devait limiter à 170000 tonnes les prises annuelles
de ses navires dans la zone maritime islandaise. Le fait que le Royaume-

17complied with the terms of the catch-limitation measure indicated in the
Court's Order has not been questioned or disputed. Iceland, on the other
hand, notwithstanding the measures indicated by the Court, began to
enforce the new Regulations against United Kingdom vessels soon after
they came into effect on 1 September 1972. Moreover, when in August
1972the United Kingdom made it clear to Iceland that in its view any
settlement between the parties of an interim régimeshould be compatible
with the Court's Order, Iceland replied on 30 August that it would not
consider the Order to be binding upon it "since the Court has no juris-
diction in the matter".

34. By its Judgment of 2 February 1973,the Court found that it had

jurisdiction to entertain the Application and todeal with the merits of the
dispute. However, even after the handing down of that Judgment, Iceland
persisted in its efforts to enforce the 50-mile limit against United King-
dom vesselsand, as appears from the letter of 11January 1974addressed
to the Court by the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Iceland, mentioned
above, it has continued to deny the Court's competence to entertain the
dispute.

35. Negotiations for an interim arrangement were, however, resumed
between the two'countries, and were carried on intermittently during
1972and 1973.In the meantime incidents on the fishinggrounds involving
British and Icelandic vessels were becoming increasingly frequent, and
eventually discussions between the Prime Ministers of Iceland and the
United Kingdom in 1973led to the conclusion of an "Interim Agreement
in the Fisheries Dispute" constituted by an Exchange of Notes dated 13
November 1973.
36. The terms of the Agreement were set out in the Icelandic Note,
which began by referring to the discussions which liad taken place and
continued :

"In these discussions the following arrangements have been
worked out for an interim agreement relating to fisheries in the
disputed area, pending a settlement of the substantive dispute and
without prejudice to the legal position or rights of either Govern-
ment in relation thereto, which are based on an estimated annual
catch of about 130,000metric tons by British vessels."

The arrangements for the fishing activities of United Kingdom vesselsin
the disputed area were then set out, followed by paragraph 7 which
stipulated :

"The agreement will run for two years from the present date. ItsUni s'est conformé aux mesures visant la limitation des prises indiquées

dans l'ordonnance de la Cour n'a éténi mis en doute ni contesté. En
revanche, l'Islande, contrairement aux mesures indiquéespar la Cour, a
commencé à appliquer le nouveau règlement à l'encontre des navires du
Royaume-Uni peu après le le' septembre 1972, date à laquelle ce
règlement est entré en vigueur. En outre, lorsque le Royaume-Uni a
indiqué à l'Islande i:n août 1972 qu'à son avis tout règlement qui inter-
viendrait entre les P'artiesau sujet du régime provisoire devaitêtre com-
patible avec l'ordoiinance de la Cour, l'Islande a répondu le 30 août
qu'elle neconsidérait pas l'ordonnance comme ayant un effet obligatoire
à son égard puisque ((laCour n'était pas compétente enl'espèce D.
34. Dans son arri)t du 2 février1973,la Cour s'est declaréecompétente

pour connaître de la requêteet statuer sur le fond du différend. Toutefois,
mêmeaprès que la Cour eut rendu cet arrêt,l'Islande a poursuivi ses
efforts en vue d'appliquer la limite des0 milles àl'encontre des navires
britanniques et, ainsi qu'il ressort de la lettre précitéedujanvier 1974
adressée à la Courpar le ministre des Affaires étrangèresd'Islande, elle a
continuéde nier la c:ompétencede la Cour pour connaître du différend.

35. Les négociations en vue de parvenir à un arrangement provisoire
ont cependant repris entre les deux pays et se sont poursuivies par inter-
mittence en 1972et 1973. Entre-temps les incidents entre navires britan-
niques et islandais sesont multipliéssur leslieux de pêcheet des entretiens
entre les Premiers ministres des deux pays, qui ont eu lieu en 1973,ont
finalement abouti à la conclusion d'un ((accord provisioire au sujet du

différendconcernant les pêcheries »constituépar un échangede notes en
datedu 13novembre 1973.
36. Les modalité:;de l'accord étaienténoncéesdans la note islandaise
qui, après s'êtreréfilréaux conversations qui avaient eu lieu, indiquait:

ctLors de ces conversations les arrangements suivants, qui se
fondent sur des prises annuelles de poisson par les navires britan-
niques estiméesà 130000 tonnes métriques environ, ont étémis au
point en vue d'un accord provisoire sur les pêcheriesdans la zone
contestée, en attendant un règlement du différendau fond et sans
préjudice de la. position juridique ni des droits de l'un ou l'autre
gouvernement à cet égard.))

La note spécifiait ensuite les arrangements applicables aux activitésde
pêche des naviresdu Royaume-Uni dans la zone litigieuse puis le para-
graphe 7 stipulait:
«L'accord sera valable deux ans à partir de cejour. Son expiration termination will not affect the legal position of either Government
with respect to the substantive dispute."

The Note ended with the forma1 proposal, acceptance of which was
confirmed in the United Kingdom's reply, that the Exchange of Notes
should "constitute an interim agreement between our two countries".
37. The interim agreement contained no express reference to the
present proceedings before the Court nor any reference to any waiver,
whether by the United Kingdom or by Iceland, of any claims in respect
of the matters in dispute. On the contrary, it emphasized that it was an
interim agreement, that it related to fisheries in the disputed area, that
it was concluded pending a settlement of the substantivedispute, and that
it was without prejudice to the legal position or rights of eitherGovern-
ment in relation to the substantive dispute. In the light of these saving
clauses, it is clear that the dispute still continues, that its final settlement
is regarded as pending, and that the Parties meanwhile maintain their

legal rights and claims as well as their respective stands in the conflict.
The interim agreement thus cannot be described as a "phasing-out" agree-
ment, a term which refers to an arrangement whereby both parties consent
to the progressive extinction of the fishing rights of one of them over a
limited number of years. Nor could the interim agreement be interpreted
as constituting a bar to, or setting up any limitation on, the pursuit by
the Applicant of its claim before the Court. On the face of the text, it
was not intended to affect the legal position or rights of either country in
relation to the present proceedings. That this was the United Kingdom's
understanding of the interim agreement is confirmed by a statement
made by the British Prime Minister in the House of Commonson the date
of its conclusion: "Our position at the World Court remains exactly as
it is, and the agreement is without prejudice to the case of either country
in this matter." The Government of Iceland for its part, in the letter of
11 January 1974already referred to, stated that :

"This agreement is in further implementation of the policy of the
Government of Iceland to solve the practical difficulties of the
British trawling industry arising out of the application of the 1948
Law and the Althing Resolution of 14February 1972,by providing
an adjustment during the next two years. It also contributes to the
reduction of tension which has been provoked by the presence of

British armed naval vessels within the fifty-mile limit."
38. The interim agreement of 1973,unlike the 1961Exchange of Notes,
does not describe itself as a "settlement" of the dispute, and, apart from
being of limited duration, clearly possesses the character of a provisional
arrangement adopted without prejudice to the rights of the Parties, nor
does it provide for the waiver of claims by either Party in respect of the
matters in dispute. The Applicant has not sought to withdraw or dis-

continue its proceedings. The primary duty of the Court is to discharge ne modifiera piis la position juridique de l'un ou l'autre gouverne-
ment en ce qui concerne le fond du différend.»

La note se terminait par la proposition formelle, dont l'acceptation était
confirmée dans la réponse du Royaume-Uni, que l'échange de notes
((constitue entre nos deux pays un accord provisoire)).
37. L'accord provisioire ne mentionnait pas expressément la procédure

engagéedevant la Cour et il n'y étaitpas question d'une renonciation du
Royaume-Uni ou de l'Islande à quelque prétention que ce soit portant
sur les points controversés. On y soulignait au contraire que l'accord était
provisoire, qu'il concernait les pêcheriesdans la zone litigieuse, qu'il
étaitconclu en attendant le règlement du différendau fond et sans pré-
judice de la position juridique ni des droits de l'un ou l'autre gouverne-
ment relativement iiu fond du différend.Vu ces réserves,il est clair que
le différend subsiste, que son règlement définitif estconsidérécomme
devant encore intervenir et qu'entre-temps les Parties maintiennent leurs
droits et leurs prétentionsjuridiques ainsi que leurs positions respectives.
On ne peut donc qualifier I'accord provisoire d'accord relatif à une

extinction progressive, ce qui vise un arrangement en vertu duquel les
deux Parties acceptent la disparition, échelonnéesur un nombre d'années
limité, des droits de pêchede l'une d'elles. On ne saurait interpréter
I'accord provisoire (commeinterdisant au demandeur de poursuivre son
instance devant la Cour ou comme lui imposant des limitations à cet
égard. D'aprèsson texte même,il ne visait pas à modifier la position
juridique ni les droits de l'un ou l'autre pays par rapportà la procédure
en cours. C'était bien ainsi que le Royaume-Uni l'entendait, comme
le confirme une déclaration faite par son Premier ministre devant la
Chambre des Comnlunes lejour de la conclusion de l'accord provisioire:
((Notre position devant la Cour internationale de Justice demeure
exactement la mêmequ'avant, et l'accord est sans préjudicede la cause

de l'un ou l'autre pays.)) Pour sa part, le Gouvernement islandais a
déclarédans la lettr'eprécitéedu 11janvier 1974:

((Cet accord est dans la ligne de la politique du Gouvernement
islandais quitend à résoudrelesdifficultéspratiques que l'application
de la loi de 1948et de la résolution de 1'Althingdu 14 février1972
pose à l'industrie de la pêcheau chalut britanniqueen ce qu'il prévoit
une périoded'adaptation de deux ans. L'accord en question contri-
bue aussi à réduire la tension provoquée par la présenced'unités
navales britanniques arméesen deçà de 50 milles.))

38. A la différencede l'échangede notes de 1961,l'accord provisoire
de 1973 ne se présente pas comme un (règlement ))du différend et,
indépendamment di1fait que sa duréeest limitée,il a nettement le carac-
tère d'un arrangement temporaire conclu sans préjudice desdroits des
Parties; il ne comporte non plus aucune renonciation de la part de l'une
ou de l'autre à ses prétentions portant sur les points en litige. Le deman-
deur n'a pas manifesté l'intention de retirer l'affaire ou de se désister.its judicial function and it ought not therefore to refuse to adjudicate
merely because the Parties, while maintaining their legal positions, have
entered into an agreement one of the objects of which was to prevent the
continuation of incidents. When the Court decided, by its Order of 12
July 1973, to confirm that the provisional measures in the present case
should remain operative until finaljudgment was given, it was aware that
negotiations had taken place between the Parties with a viewto reaching
an interim arrangement, and it stated specifically that "the provisional
measures indicated by the Court and confirmed by the present Order do
not exclude an interim arrangement which may be agreed upon by the
Governments concerned ..." (Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdomv.
Zeeland), ZnterimMeusures, Order of 12 July 1973, Z.C.J. Reports 1973,
p. 303, para. 7).

39. In response to questions put by a Member of the Court, counsel
for the United Kingdom expressed the viewthat the interim agreement, as
a treaty in force, regulates the relations between the two countries so far
as British fishing is concerned in the specifiedreas. The judgment of the
Court, the United Kingdom envisages, will state the rules of customary
international law between the Parties, defining their respective rights and
obligations, but will not completely replace with immediate effect the

interim agreement, which will remain a treaty in force. In so far as the
judgment may possibly deal with matters which are not covered in the
interim agreement, the judgment would, in the understanding of the
United Kingdom, have immediate effect; the Parties will in any event be
under a duty fully to regulate their relations in accordance with the terms
of the judgment as soon as the interim agreement ceases to be in force,
i.e., on 13 November 1975or such earlier date as the Parties may agree.
In the view of the United Kingdom, the Court's judgment will:

". ..constitute an authoritative statement of the rights and obliga-
tions of the partiesunder existing law and may provide a basis for
the negotiation of arrangements to follow those contained in the
Interim Agreement".

40. The Court is of the view that there is no incompatibility with its
judicial function in making a pronouncement on the rights and duties
of the Parties under existing international law which would clearly be
capable of having a forward reach; this does not mean that the Court
should declare the law between the Parties as it might be at the date of
expiration of the interim agreement, a task beyond the powers of any
tribunal. The possibility of the law changing is ever present: but that
cannot relieve the Court from its obligation to render a judgment on the

basis of the law as it exists at the time of its decision. In any event it
cannot be said that the issues now before the Court have become without
object; for there is no doubt that the case is one in which "there exists atAyant pour premieir devoir de s'acquitter de sa fonction judiciaire, la
Cour ne doit pas refuser de statuer pour la simple raison que, tout eri
maintenant leurs positions juridiques, les Parties ont conclu un accord
ayant notamment pour objet de prévenir la continuation d'incidents.
Quand, par swi ordonnance du 12 juillet 1973, la Cour a décidéde
confirmer que les mesures conservatoires indiquéesen l'affaire resteraient
en vigueur jusqu'à ce qu'elle ait rendu son arrêtdéfinitif,elle savait que
des négociations s'ktaient dérouléesentre les Parties en vue d'aboutir à
un arrangement provisoire, et elle a dit expressément que ((les mesures
provisoires indiquées par la Cour et confirméespar la présente ordon-

nance n'excluent pas que les gouvernements intéressés puissent parvenir
à un arrangement provisoire ..» (Compétenceen matière de pêcheries
(Royaume-Uni c. Isjande), mesuresconservatoires,ordonnance du 12juillet
1973, C.I.J. Recueil 1973,p. 303, par. 7).
39. En réponse aux questions d'un membre de la Cour, le conseil du
Royaume-Uni a dticlaréque l'accord provisoire, en tant que traité en
vigueur, régitles relations entre les deux pays pour ce qui est de la pêche
britannique dans le:;zones qu'il spécifie.Dans la conception du Royaume-
Uni, l'arrêt dela Cour énoncerait les règlesde droit international coutu-
mier applicables entre les Parties et définirait leurs droits et obligations
respectifs mais ne remplacerait pas complètement, ni avec effetimmédiat,
l'accord provisoire qui demeurerait un traitéen vigueur. Dans la mesure
où l'arrêtaborderait des aspects laissésen dehors de l'accord provisoire,
il aurait, selon le Royaume-Uni, effet immédiat pour ces aspects; les
Parties auraientdetoute façon l'obligation de réglerentout leurs relations
conformément aux termes de l'arrêt dès que l'accord cesserait d'êtreen
vigueur, c'est-à-diri: le 13novembre 1975,ou àtoute date antérieuredont

les Parties conviendraient. Selon le Royaume-Uni, l'arrêtdela Cour:

((constituera un énoncé autorisédes droits et obligations des Parties
en vertu du droit existant et pourra servir de base pour la négociation
d'arrangements succédant à ceux qui font l'objet de l'accord pro-
visoire».

40. La Cour est: d'avis qu'il n'est nullement incompatible avec sa
fonction judiciaire de statuer sur les droits et les devoirs des Parties au
regard du droit international existant d'une manière qui pourrait avoir
manifestement un effet dans l'avenir; cela ne signifie pas qu'elle doive
dire quel pourrait Etre le droit entre les Partiàsl'expiration de l'accord
provisoire, ce qui dépasseles pouvoirs de tout tribunal. La possibilité
d'une modification du droit existe toujours mais cela ne saurait décharger
la Cour de son obligation de statuer sur la base du droit tel qu'il existeau
moment où elle rend sa décision.En tout cas on ne peut pas soutenir que
les questions soumises à la Cour soient devenues sans objet, car il est

hors de doute qu'einl'espèce((ilexiste, au moment du jugement, un litigethe time of the adjudication an actual controversy involving a conflict of
legal interests between the Parties" (Northern Cameroons, Judgment,
Z.C.J. Reports 1963,pp. 33-34).
41. Moreover, if the Court were to come to the conclusion that the
interim agreement prevented it from rendering judgment, or compelled
it todismiss the Applicant's claim as one without object, the inevitable
result would be to discourage the making of interim arrangements in
future disputes with the object of reducing friction and avoiding risk to
peace and security. This would run contrary to the purpose enshrined in

the provisions of the United Nations Charter relating to the pacific
settlement of disputes. It is because of the importance of these considera-
tions that the Court has felt it necessary to state at some length its views
on the inferences discussed above. The Court concludes that the existence
of the interim agreement ought not to lead it to refrain from pronouncing
judgment in the case.

42. The question has been raised whether the Court has jurisdiction to
pronounce upon certain matters referred to the Court in the last para-
graph of the Applicant's final submissions (paragraphs 11and 12above)
to the effect that the parties are under a duty to examine together the
existence and extent of the need for restrictions of fishing activities in
Icelandic waters on conservation grounds and to negotiate for the
establishment of such a régimeas will, inter alia,ensure for Iceland a

preferential position consistent with its position as a State specially
dependent on its fisheries.
43. In its Judgment of 2 February 1973, pronouncing on the juris-
diction of the Court in the present case, the Court found "that it has
jurisdiction to entertain the Application filed by the Government of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland on 14April 1972
and to deal with the merits of the dispute" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 22,
para. 46). The Application which the Court found it had jurisdiction to
entertain contained a submission under letter (6) (cf. paragraph 11
above) which in its second part raised the issues of conservation of
fisheryresources and of preferential fishingrights.hese questions, among
others, had previously been discussed in the negotiations between the
parties referred to in paragraphs 27 to 32above and were also extensively
examined in the pleadings and hearings on the merits.
44. The Order of the Court indicating interim measures of protection
(Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v.Iceland), ZnterimProtection,
Order of 17August 1972, I.C.J. Reports 1972,p. 12)implied that the case

before the Court involved questions of fishery conservation and of
preferential fishing rightsince, in indicating a catch-limitation figure for
the Applicant's fishing, the Court stated that this measure was based on
"the exceptional dependence of the Icelandic nation upon coastalréelimpliquant un conflit d'intérêts juridiquesentre les Parties » (Came-
rounseptentrional,arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1963,p. 34).

41. En outre, si la Cour en venait à conclure que l'accord provisoire
l'empêchede statuer ou l'oblige à rejeter, comme manquant d'objet, la
demande du requériant,le résultat inéluctable seraitde décourager, dans
des différendsfuturs, la conclusion d'arrangements temporaires visant à
réduire les frictions eà éviterque la paix et la sécuritésoient mises en

danger. Cela serait contraire à l'objet des dispositions de la Charte des
Nations Unies relartives au règlement pacifique des différends. Etant
donné l'importance: que ces considérations présentent, la Cour a cru
nécessaire d'exposer assez longuement ses vues sur les points examinés
précédemment. LaCour conclut que l'existencede I'accord provisoire ne
devrait pas l'inciteà ne pas statuer en l'espèce.

42. La question a étéposéede savoir si la Cour a compétencepour se
prononcer sur certaines matièresqui lui sont soumisesen vertu du dernier
alinéa des conclusions finales du demandeur (paragraphes 11 et 12 ci-

dessus) tendant à faire juger que les Parties ont l'obligation d'examiner
ensemble la réalitéet l'étendue de la nécessitéd'appliquer, pour des
motifs de conservation, des restrictions aux activitésde pêchedans les
eaux islandaises et d'engager des négociations en vue d'instaurer un
régimequi garantirait notamment à l'Islande une situation préférentielle
conforme à sa situation d'Etat spécialementtributaire de ses pêcheries.
43. Dans son arrêt du 2 février 1973 par lequel elle s'est prononcée
sur sa juridiction en l'espèce laCour a dit ccqu'ellea compétence pour
connaître de la requête déposépear le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni de
Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord le 14 avril 1972et statuer sur le
fond du différend XI (C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 22, par. 46). La requêteen
question énonçaitilne conclusion 6) (paragraphe 11ci-dessus) qui, dans
sa deuxièmepartie, soulevait les problèmesdeconservation des ressources

halieutiques et de droits de pêchepréférentiels. Ces problèmes,ui avaient
étéantérieurement discutés parmi d'autres au cours des négociations
entre les Partiespaxagraphes 27 à 32ci-dessus), ont étéaussi longuement
traités dans les écritureset les plaidoiries sur le fond.

44. L'ordonnanc:e sur les mesures conservatoires (Compétence en
matière de pêcheries(Royaume-Uni c. Islande), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 17 août 1972, C.I.J. Recueil 1972, p. 12) impliquait que
l'affaire dont laCour étaitsaisie comportait des questions re1atives.à la
conservation des pi3cherieset aux droits préférentielsde pêchepuisqu'en
fixant une limite aiix prises de poisson du demandeur elle déclarait que
cette mesure étaitfgndéesur le fait que cla nation islandaise est excep-

21fisheries" and "of the need for the conservation of fish stocks in the
Iceland area" (loc. cit., pp. 16-17,paras. 23 and 24).

45. In its Judgment of 2 February 1973, pronouncing on its juris-
diction in the case, the Court, after taking into account the aforesaid
contentions of the Applicant concerning fishery conservation and
preferential rights, referred again to "the exceptional dependence of
Iceland on its fisheries and the principle of conservation of fish stocks"
(I.C.J. Reports 1973,p. 20, para. 42). The judicial notice taken therein of
the recognition given by the Parties to the exceptional dependence of
Iceland on its fisheries and to the need of conservation of fish stocks in

the area clearly implies that such questions are before the Court.

46. The Order of the Court of 12 July 1973 on the continuance of
interim measures of protection referred again to catch limitation figures
and also to the question of "related restrictions concerning areas closed
to fishing, number and type of vessels allowed and forms of control of
the agreed provisions" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 303, para. 7). Thus the
Court took the view that those questions were within its competence. As
the Court stated in its Order of 17August 1972,there must be a connec-
tion "under Article 61, paragraph 1, of the Rules between a request for
interim measures of protection and the original Application filed with
the Court" (I.C.J. Reports 1972,p. 15,para. 12).
47. As to the compromissory clause in the 1961 Exchange of Notes,
this gives the Court jurisdiction with respect to "a dispute in relation to
such extension", i.e., "the extension of fisheriesjurisdiction around Ice-
land". The present dispute was occasioned by Iceland's unilateral exten-
sion of its fisheries jurisdiction. However, it would be too narrow an

interpretation of the compromissory clause to conclude that the Court's
jurisdiction is limited to giving an affirmative or a negative answer to
the question of whether the extension of fisheriesjurisdiction, as enacted
by Iceland on 14 July 1972,is in conformity with international law. In
the light of the negotiations between the Parties, both in 1960 (para-
graph 25 above) and in 1971-1972(paragraphs 28 to 32 above), in which
the questions of fishery conservation measures in the area and Iceland's
preferential fishing rights were raised and discussed, and in the light of
the proceedings before the Court, it seems evident that the dispute be-
tween the Parties includes disagreements as to the extent and scope of
their respective rights in the fishery resources and the adequacy of
measures to conserve them. It must therefore be concluded that those
disagreements are an element of the "dispute in relation to the extension
of fisheriesjurisdiction around Iceland".

48. Furthermore, the dispute before the Court must be considered in
al1 its aspects. Even if the Court's competence were understood to be
confined to the question of the conformity of Iceland's extension withthe
rules of international law, it would still be necessary for the Court totionnellement tributaire de ses pêcheries côtières»et sur la ((nécessitéde
la conservation des stocks de poisson dans la régionde l'Islande » (ibid.,
p. 16-17,par. 23 et 24).
45. Dans son arrlêtdu 2 février1973qui statuait sur sa compétenceen
l'affaireet aprèsavoir tenu compte desassertions précitéesdu demandeur
concernant la conslervation des pêcherieset les droits préférentiels,la
Cour a rappelé ((le fait que l'Islande est exceptionnellement tributaire
de ses pêcherieset le principe de la conservation des stocks de poisson))

(C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 20, par. 42). Cette constatation judiciaire de ce
que les Parties ont reconnu la dépendance exceptionnelle de l'Islande à
l'égardde ses pêcherieset la nécessitéde la conservation des stocks de
poisson dans la régionimplique nettement que des questions de cet ordre
sont soumises à l'examen de la Cour.
46. L'ordonnance de la Cour du 12 juillet 1973 sur le maintien en
vigueur des mesures conservatoires seréférait aussiaux chiffres prévoyant
des limitations de prises ainsi qu'à la question((des restrictions connexes
concernant les zones interdites à la pêche,le nombre et le type de navires
autorisés et les modalités de contrôle des dispositions convenues »(C.I.J.
Recueil 1973,p. 303,par. 7). La Cour a donc considéréque ces problèmes

relevaient de sa compétence.Comme elle l'a dit dans son ordonnance du
17août 1972,un lien doit exister ((en vertu de l'article 61, paragraphe 1,
du Règlement, entre une demande en indication de mesures conserva-
toires et la requêteinitiale(C.I.J. Recueil1972,p. 15,par. 12).
47. La clause compromissoire de l'échangede notes de 1961 donne
compétence à la Cour en ce qui concerne un cdifférend»relatif à (l'élar-
gissement de la juridiction sur les pêcheriesautour de l'Islande». Le
présent différend résulte de l'élargissementunilatéral par l'Islande de sa
juridiction sur les pêcheries.Mais ce serait interpréter la clauseompro-
missoire trop étroitement que d'en conclure que la Cour n'a compétence
quepour répondrepar oui ou par non àla question de savoir si I'élargisse-

ment de la juridiction sur les pêcheries, telle qu'ellea étémise en Œuvre
par l'Islande le 14juillet 1972,est conforme au droit international. Si l'on
considère les négociations qui ont eu lieu entre les Parties en 1960
(paragraphe 25 ci-dessus) eten 1971-1972(paragraphes 28 à32ci-dessus),
et pendant lesquelles la question des mesures de conservation en matière
de pêcheriesdans la régionet la question des droits de pêche préférentiels
de l'Islande ont étésoulevées et discutées, si I'on considère aussi la
procédure qui s'est déroulée devant laCour, il semble évident que le
différendentre les Parties englobe des désaccords quant à l'étendueet à
la portéede leurs diroitsrespectifs sur les ressources halieutiques et quant

que ces désaccordssont des élémentsdu ((différend. On d))relatifàoncl'élar-

gissement de lajuridiction sur les pêcheriesautour de l'Islande)).
48. En outre, le différend porté devant la Cour doit être considéré
sous tous ses aspects. Mêmesi I'onestimait que la compétencede la Cour
est limitée à la question de la conformité de l'élargissementopérépar
l'Islande avec les réglesdu droit international, la Cour n'en devrait pasdetermine in that context the role and function which those rules reserve
to the concept of preferential rights and that of conservation of fish
stocks. Thus, whatever conclusion the Court may reach in regard to
preferential rights and conservation measures, it is bound to examine
these questions with respect to this case. Consequently, the suggested
restriction on the Court's competence not only cannot be read into the
terms of the compromissory clause, but would unduly encroach upon the
power of the Court to take into consideration al1 relevant elements in
administering justice between the Parties.

49. The Applicant has challenged the Regulations promulgated by
the Government of lceland on 14July 1972,and since the Court has to
pronounce on this challenge, the ascertainment of the law applicable
becomes necessary. As the Court stated in the Fisheriescase:
"The delimitation of sea areas has always an international aspect;
it cannot be dependent merely upon the will of the coastal State as
expressed in its municipal law. Although it is true that the act of

delimitation is necessarily a unilateral act,ecause only the coastal
State is competent to undertake it, the validity of the delimitation
with regard to other States depends upon international law." (I.C.J.
Reports 1951, p. 132.)
The Court will therefore proceed to the determination of the existing
rules of international law relevant to the settlement of the present dispute.
50. The Geneva Convention on the High Seas of 1958, which was
adopted "as generally declaratory of established principles of interna-

tional law", defines in Article 1the term "high seas" as "al1 parts of the
sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in theterna1waters of a
State". Article 2 then declares that "The high seas being open to al1
nations, no State may validly purport to subject any part of them to its
soverei.gnty" and goes on to provide that the freedom of the high seas
comprises, inter dia,both for coastal and non-coastal States, freedom of
navigation and freedom of fishing. The freedoms of the high seas are
however made subject to the consideration that they "shall be exercised
by al1 States with reasonable regard to the interests of other States in
their exercise of the freedom of the high seas".

51. The breadth of the territorial sea was not defined by the 1958
Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone. It is true
that Article 24 of this Convention limits the contiguous zone to 12miles
"from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is
measured". At the 1958Conference, the main differences on the breadthmoins déterminer dans ce contexte le rôle et la fonction que ces règles
réservent à la notion de droits préférentielset à celle de conservation des
stocks de poisson. Ainsi donc, quelle que soit la conclusion à laquelle

la Cour parvienne en ce qui concerne lesdroits préférentielset les mesures
de conservation, elle est tenue d'examiner ces questions par rapport à la
présente affaire. En conséquence, non seulement on ne saurait tirer
argument destermes delaclause compromissoire à l'appui de la restriction
suggéréequant à la compétencede la Cour, mais encore une telle restric-
tion empiéterait indûment sur le pouvoir qu'a la Cour de prendre en
considération tous les élémentspertinents pour rendre la justice entre les
Parties.

49. Le demandeur a attaqué le règlementpromulguépar le Gouverne-
ment islandais le 14juillet 1972et, dès lors que la Cour doit se prononcer
à ce sujet, il devient:nécessairede déterminer le droit applicable. Comme
la Cour l'a dit dans l'affaire dPêcheries:

((La délimitationdes espaces maritimes a toujours un aspect inter-
national; elle ne saurait dépendre de la seulevolontéde 1'Etatriverain
telle qu'elle s'exprime dans son droit interne. S'il est vrai que l'acte
de délimitatioinest nécessairement un acte unilatéral, parce que
1'Etatriverain a seul qualitépour y procéder,en revanche la validité
de la délimitation à l'égard desEtats tiers relèvedu droit interna-
tional.))(C.I.J. Recueil1951, p. 132.)

La Cour va donc définirles règlesactuelles du droit international qui sont
pertinentes pour le règlement du présentdifférend.
50. La Convention de Genève de 1958 sur la haute mer, dont les
dispositions ont été adoptées comme étant ((pour l'essentieldéclaratoires

de principes établisdu droit international )),définità l'article premier la
((haute mer ))comnne (toutes les parties de la mer n'appartenant pas à la
mer territoriale ou aux eaux intérieures d'un Etat )).L'article 2 stipule
ensuite que «la haute mer étantouverte à toutes les nations, aucun Etat
ne peut légitimementprétendre en soumettre une partie quelconque à sa
souveraineté )),puis il préciseque la libertéde la haute mer comprend
notamment, pour :lesEtats riverains ou non de la mer, la liberté de la
navigation et la liberté dela pêche. Il est toutefois spécifique les libertés
de la haute mer ((sont exercéespar tous les Etats en tenant raisonnable-
ment compte de l'intérêtque la libertéde la haute mer présentepour les

autres Etats ».
51. La largeur de la mer territoriale n'est pas définiedans la Conven-
tion de 1958 sur la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë. II est vrai que
l'article 24 de la convention limite cette zone à 12milles ((àpartir de la
ligne de base qui sert de point de départpour mesurer la largeur de la mer
territoriale1).A la conférencede 1958,les principales divergences sur la

2323 FISHERIESJURISDICTION (JUDGMENT)

of the territorial sea were limited at the time to disagreements as to what
limit, not exceeding 12 miles, was the appropriate one. The question of
the breadth of the territorial sea and that of the extent of the coastal
State's fishery jurisdiction were left unsettled at the 1958 Conference.
These questions were referred to the Second Conference on the Law of
the Sea, held in 1960. Furthermore, the question of the extent of the
fisheriesjurisdiction of the coastal State, which had constituted a serious
obstacle to the reaching of an agreement at the 1958Conference, became
gradually separated from the notion of the teriitorialsea. This was a
development which reflected the increasing importance of fishery re-

sources for al1States.
52. The 1960Conference failed by one vote to adopt a text governing
the two questions of the breadth of the territorial sea and the extent of
fishery rights. However, after that Conference the law evolved through
the practice of States on the basis of thedebates and near-agreements at
the Conference. Two concepts have crystallized as customary law in
recent years arising out of the general consensus revealed at that Con-
ference. The first is the concept of the fishery zone, the area in which a
State may claim exclusivefisheryjurisdiction independently of its territo-
rial sea; the extension of that fishery zone up to a 12-milelimit from the
baselines appears now to be generally accepted. The second is the concept
of preferential rights of fishing in adjacent waters in favour of the coastal
State in a situation of special dependence on its coastal fisheries, this
preference operating in regard to other States concerned in the exploita-
tion of the same fisheries, and to be implemented in the way indicated in
paragraph 57 below.

53. In recent years the question of extending the coastal State's
fisheriesjurisdiction has come increasingly to the forefront. The Court is
aware that a number of States has asserted an extension of fishery limits.
The Court is also aware of present endeavours, pursued under the
auspices of the United Nations, to achieve in a third Conference on the
Law of the Sea the further codification and progressive development of
this branch of the law, asit is ofarious proposals and preparatory docu-
ments produced in this framework, which must be regarded as manifesta-
tions of the views and opinions of individual States and as vehicles of
their aspirations, ratherthan as expressing principles of existing law. The
very fact of convening the third Conference on the Law of the Sea
evidences a manifest desire on the part of al1 States to proceed to the
codification of that law on a universal basis, including the question of
fisheriesand conservation of the living resources of thesea. Such a general
desire is understandable since the rules of international maritime law
have been the product of mutual accommodation, reasonableness and
CO-operation.So it was in the past, and so it necessarily is today. In the

circumstances, the Court, as a court of law, cannot render judgment sublargeurde la mer territoriale se bornaient à l'époque à des désaccords sur
la limite, n'excédant pas 12milles, qu'il convenait de retenir. La question
de la largeur de la Iner territoriale et celle de l'étendue de la compétence
de 1'Etat riverain en matière de pêcheries n'ont pas été régléesà la
conférence de 1958. L'une et l'autre ont étérenvoyées à la deuxième

Conférence sur le droit de la mer, tenue en 1960. De plus la question de
l'étendue dela compétence de I'Etat riverain en matière de pêcheries,qui
avait fait sérieusement obstacle à la conclusion d'un accord à la confé-
rence de 1958, s'est progressivement détachée de la notion de mer terri-
toriale. Cette évolution traduit l'importance croissante qu'ont prise les
ressources de la pêchepour tous les Etats.

52. 11s'en est fallu d'une voix que la conférence de 1960 n'adopte un
texte régissant les deux questions de la largeur de la mer territoriale et de
l'étendue de la compétence en matière de pêcheries.Cependant, après
cette conférence, l'évolution du droit s'est poursuivie par la pratique des
Etats dans la ligne clesdébats de la conférence et des accords auxquels on
avait presque abouti. Deux notions se sont cristallisées ces dernières

années en droit coiitumier par l'effet de l'assentiment généralapparu à
cette conférence. La première est la notion de zone de pêche,zone à
l'intérieur delaquelle un Etat peut prétendre à une compétence exclusive
en matière de pêcheriesindépendamment de sa mer territoriale; l'exten-
sion de cette zone de pêchejusqu'à une limite de 12 milles à partir des
lignes de base semble désormais généralementacceptée. Ladeuxième est

la notion de droit!; de pêche préférentielsdans les eaux adjacentes en
faveur de 1'Etat riverain qui se trouve dans une situation de dépendance
spécialeà l'égardde ses pêcheriescôtières,cette préférencejouant vis-à-vis
d'autres Etats intéressésà l'exploitation de ces pêcherieset devant être
mise en Œuvre de la manière indiquéeau paragraphe 57 ci-après.
53. Ces dernières années, la question d'une extension de la compétence

de I'Etat riverain en matière de pêche est passéde plus en plus au premier
plan de l'actualité. La Cour n'ignore pas qu'un certain nombre d'Etats
ont décidéd'élargirleur zone de pêche.Elle connaît les efforts poursuivis
actuellement sous les auspices des Nations Unies en vue de faire avancer,
lors d'une troisième:conférence sur le droitde la mer, la codification et le
développement progressif de cette branche du droit; elle n'ignore pas non

plus les propositions et documents préparatoires divers soumis à cette
occasion, qui doivent être considéréscomme manifestant les thèses et les
opinions d'Etats à titre individuel et comme traduisant leurs aspirations
et non comme exprimant des principes du droit existant. Le fait même
d'avoir convoqué la troisième Conférencesur le droit de la mer témoigne,
de la part de tous les Etats, d'un souci manifeste de poursuivre la codifica-

tion de ce droit sur une base universelle, notamment en ce qui concerne la
pêcheet la conservation des ressources biologiques de la mer. Ce souci
général estcompréhensible puisque les règles du droit maritime interna-
tional sont le fruit d'accommodements réciproques, d'une attitude
raisonnable et d'uri esprit de coopération. Ce fut le cas dans le passé,et
c'est encore nécessairement le cas aujourd'hui. Cela étant, la Cour, en

24specie legisferendae, or anticipate the law before the legislator has laid it
down.
54. The concept of a 12-milefishery zone, referred to in paragraph 52
above, as a tertiumgenus between the territorial sea and the high seas, has
been accepted with regard to Iceland in the substantive provisions of the
1961Exchange of Notes, and the United Kingdom has also applied the
same fishery limit to its own coastal waters since 1964; therefore this
rnatter is no longer in dispute between the Parties. At the same time, the
concept of preferential rights, a notion that necessarily implies the exis-
tence of other legal rights in respect of which that preference operates,
has been admitted by the Applicant to be relevant to the solution of the
present dispute. Moreover, the Applicant has expressly recognized
Iceland's preferential rights in the disputed waters and at the same time
has invoked its own historic fishing rights in these same waters, on the
ground that reasonable regard must be had to such traditional rights by

the coastal State, in accordance with the generally recognized principles
embodied in Article 2 of the High Seas Convention. If, as the Court
pointed out in its dictum in the Fislzeriescase, cited in paragraph 49
above, any national delimitation of sea areas, to be opposable to other
States, requires evaluation in terms of the existing rules of international
law, then it becomes necessary for the Court, in its examination of the
Icelandic fisheries Regulations, to takethose elements into consideration
as well. Equally it has necessarily to take into account the provisions of
the Exchange of Notes of 1961which govern the relations between the
Parties with respect to Iceland's fishery limits. The said Exchange of
Notes, which was concluded within the framework of the existing pro-
visions of the law of the sea, was held by the Court, in its Judgment
of 2 February 1973,to be a treaty which is valid and in force.

55. The concept of preferential rights forthe coastal State in a situation
of special dependence on coastal fisheries originated in proposais sub-
mitted by Iceland at the Geneva Conference of 1958.Its delegation drew
attention to the problem which would arise when, in spite of adequate
fisheriesconservation measures, the yield ceased to be sufficientto satisfy
the requirements of al1 those who were interested in fishing in a given
area. Iceland contended that in such a case, when a catch-limitation
becomes necessary, special consideration should be given to the coastal
State whose population is overwhelmingly dependent on the fishing
resources in its adjacent waters.

56. An Icelandic proposa1 embodying these ideas failed to obtain the
majority required, but a resolution was adopted at the 1958Conferencetant quetribunal, ne:sauraitrendre de décisionsubspecie legisferendae, ni
énoncerledroitavantque lelégislateur l'aitédicté.
54. La notion d'une zone de pêchede 12 milles mentionnée au para-
graphe 52 ci-dessus,comme une troisième catégorie entre la mer terri-
toriale et la haute mer a été accepten ce qui concerne l'Islande en vertu
des dispositions de fond de l'échangede notes de 1961,et le Royaume-Uni
applique la mêmelimite de pêche à ses propres eaux côtièresdepuis 1964;
ce point n'est donc plus en litige entre les Parties. De mêmele demandeur
a admis que la notion de droits préférentiels,notion qui suppose néces-
sairement l'existence d'autres droits par rapport auxquels la préférence
s'exerce, doit entrer en ligne de compte pour le règlement du présent
différend. Au surplus le demandeur a expressément reconnu les droits
préférentielsde l'Islande dans les eaux contestéeset il a invoqué simulta-

nément ses propres droits de pêchehistoriques dans ces mêmeseaux,
arguant que 1'Etat riverain doit tenir raisonnablement compte de droits
traditionnels de ce genre, conformément aux principes généralement
reconnus qui sont consacrés à l'article 2 de la Convention sur la haute
mer. Si, comme la Cour l'a signalédans le passage de l'arrêt renduen
l'affaire desPêcheriesqui est cité au paragraphe 49 ci-dessus, pour être
opposable à d'autres Etats, toute délimitation nationale des espaces
maritimes doit être appréciée en fonction des règles actuelles du droit
international, il faut nécessairementque, dans son examen du règlement
islandais relatif aux pêcheries, la Courprenne aussi ces élémentsen consi-
dération. Elle doit de mêmetenir nécessairement compte des disposi-
tions de l'échange de notes de 1961, qui régissent lesrelations entre les
Parties pour ce qui est des limites de pêchede l'Islande. La Cour, dans
son arrêtdu 2 févri'er1973,a considéréque cet échange de notes, conclu
dans le cadre des dispositions actuelles du droit de la mer, étaitun traité
valable et en vigueur.

55. L'idéeque 1'1:tatriverain se trouvant dans une situation de dépen-
dance spéciale à 1"égardde ses pêcheriescôtières bénéficiede droits
préférentiels a été avancépeour la première fois dans des propositions
présentéespar l'Islandeà la Conférence de Genève de 1958. La déléga-
tion islandaise a appelé l'attention sur le problème qui se poserait au
moment où, malgré l'application demesures de conservation adéquates,
le rendement ne permettrait plus de satisfaire les besoins de tous ceux qui
s'intéressent la pêchedans une régiondonnée.En pareil cas, soutenait
l'Islande, si une limitation des prises devenait nécessaire,la situation des
Etats riverains dont la population est essentiellement tributaire des
ressources halieutiques des eaux adjacentes à leur territoire devrait être
prise spécialementen considération.

56. Une proposiition islandaise concrétisant cette idée n'apas obtenu
la majoriténécessaire,mais la conférencede 1958a adoptéune résolutionconcerning the situation of countries or territories whose people are
overwhelmingly dependent upon coastal fisheries for their livelihood or
economic development. This resolution, after "recognizing that such

situations cal1 for exceptional measures befitting particular needs" re-
commended that :
". ..where, for the purpose of conservation, it becomes necessary to
limit the total catch of a stock or stocks of fish in an area of the high
seas adjacent to the territorial sea of a coastal State, any other States
fishing in that area should collaborate with the coastal State to
secure just treatment of such situation, by establishing agreed
measures which shall recognize any preferential requirements of the
coastal State resulting from its dependence upon the fishery con-
cerned while having regard to the interests of the other States".

The resolution further recommended that "appropriate conciliation and
arbitral procedures shall be established for the settlement of any disagree-
ment".
57. At the Plenary Meetings of the 1960 Conference the concept of
preferential rights was embodied in a joint amendment presented by
Brazil, Cuba and Uruguay which was subsequently incorporated by a
substantial vote into ajoint United States-Canadian proposal concerning
a 6-mileterritorial sea and an additional 6-milefishingzone, thus totalling
a 12-mile exclusive fishing zone, subject to a phasing-out period. This
amendment provided, independently of the exclusive fishing zone, that

the coastal State had:

". ..the faculty of claiming preferential fishing rights in any area of
the high seasadjacent to its exclusivefishingzone when it isscientific-
ally established that a special situation or condition makes the exploi-
tation of the living resources of the high seas in that area of funda-
mental importance to the economic development of the coastal State
or the feeding of its population".

It also provided that :
"A special situation or condition may be deemed to exist when:

(a) The fisheriesand the economic development of the coastal State
or the feeding of its population are so manifestly interrelated
that, in consequence, that State is greatly dependent on the
living resources of the high seas in the area in respect of which
preferential fishingis being claimed;

(b) It becomes necessary to limit the total catch of a stock or stocks
of fish in such areas ..."
The contemporary practice of States leads to the conclusion that thequi visait la situation des pays ou territoires dont la population est
essentiellement tributaire des pêcheries côtiores pour sa subsistance ou
son développementéconomique.Après avoir reconnuque ((cessituations
exigentdesmesuresexceptionnelles adaptéesaux nécessités particulières»,
la résolution recommandait que:

((lorsqu'il devient nécessaire,dans l'intérêtde la conservation, de
limiter la prise totale d'un ou de plusieurs stocks de poisson dans une
région de la haute mer adjacente à la mer territoriale d'un Etat
riverain, tous les autres Etats qui pratiquent la pêchedans cette
région collaborent avec 1'Etat riverain à la solution équitable de

cette situation, en établissant d'un commun accord des mesures qui
reconnaîtront tous besoins prioritaires de1'Etatriverain résultantde
sa dépendance à l'égardde la pêcherieen cause, compte tenu des
intérêts deasutres Etats».
Il étaiten outre recommandé d'établir «des procédures appropriéesde

conciliation et d'arbitrage..pour lerèglementde tout désaccord ».

57. Au cours des séances plénièred se la conférencede 1960,la notion
de droits préférentielsa trouvé son expression dans un amendement
qu'ont présentéconjointement le Brésil,Cuba et l'Uruguay, et qui a été
par la suiteincorporé à une forte majoritédans une proposition commune
des Etats-Unis et tiu Canada prévoyant une mer territoriale large de
6 milles, plus une 2:onede pêchede 6 milles, soit au total une zone de
pêche exclusivede 12 milles, sous réserve d'une périoded'adaptation
progressive. L'amendement reconnaissait à 1'Etat riverain, indépendam-
ment d'une zonede pêche exclusive

((la faculté d'invoquer des droits de pêcheprioritaires dans toute
zone de la haute mer adjacente à la zone de pêche exclusivelorsqu'il
a étéétabliscientifiquement qu'en raison d'une situation ou d'une
circonstance spéciale l'exploitation des ressources biologiquesde la
haute mer dans cette zone a une importance fondamentale pour son

développementéconomiqueoupour l'alimentation de seshabitants
Il prévoyait égalementce qui suit

((Une situation ou unecirconstanceest considéréecomme spéciale
quand :
a) L'exploitation des pêcheriesest liée de manière évidente au
développementéconomiquede 1'Etatriverain ou à l'alimentation
de seshabitants et qu'en conséquence leditEtat est dans une large
mesure tributaire des ressources biologiques de la haute mer dans
la zone à l'égardde laquelle il invoque des droits de pêchepriori-
taires;

b) Il est, en outre, nécessairede limiter la prise totale d'un stock ou
de plusieurs stocks de poisson dans cette zone..))
La pratique contemiporaine des Etats amène à conclure que les droitspreferential rights of the coastal State in a special situation are to be
implemented by agreement between the States concerned, either bilateral
or multilateral, and, in case of disagreement, through the means for the
peaceful settlement of disputes provided for in Article 33of the Charter of
the United Nations. It was in fact an express condition of the amendment
referred to above that any other State concerned would have the right to
reqpest that a claim made by a coastal State should be tested and deter-
mined by a special commission on the basis of scientific criteria and of
evidence presented by the coastal State and other States concerned. The
commission was to be empowered to determine, for the period of time
and under the limitations that it found necessary, the preferential rights

of the coastal State, "while having regard to the interests of any other
State or States in the exploitation ofuch stock or stocks of fish".

58. State practice on the subject of fisheries reveals an increasing and
widespread acceptance of the concept of preferential rights for coastal
States, particularly in favour of countries or territories in a situation of
special dependence on coastal fisheries.Both the 1958Resolution and the
1960joint amendment concerning preferential rights were approved by a
large majority of the Conferences, thus showing overwhelming support
for the idea that in certain special situations it was fair to recognize that
the coastal State had preferential fishing rights. After these Conferences,
the preferential rights of the coastal State were recognized in various
bilateral and multilateral international agreements. The Court's attention
has been drawn to the practice in this regard of the North-West and
North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commissions, of which 19maritime States
altogether, including both Parties, are members; its attention has also
been drawn to the Arrangement Relating to Fisheries in Waters Sur-

rounding the Faroe Islands, signed at Copenhagen on 18 December 1973
on behalf of the Governments of Belgium, Denmark, France, the Federal
Republic of Germany, Norway, Poland and the United Kingdom, and to
the Agreement on the Regulation of the Fishing of North-East Arctic
(Arcto-Norwegian) Cod, signed on 15 March 1974 on behalf of the
Governments of the United Kingdom, Norway and the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics. ~oth the aforesaid agreements, in allocating the
annual shares on the basis of the past performance of the parties in the
area, assign an additional share to the coastal State on the ground of its
preferential right in the fisheries in its adjacent waters. The Faroese
agreement takes expressly into account in its preamble "the exceptional
dependence of the Faroese economy on fisheries" and recognizes "that
the Faroe Islands should enjoy preference in waters surrounding the
Faroe Islands".

59. There can be no doubt of the exceptional dependence of Iceland on
its fisheries. That exceptional dependence was explicitly recognized by

the Applicant in the Exchange of Notes of 11March 1961,and the Courtpréférentielsde 1'Etat riverain se trouvant dans une situation spéciale
doivent êtremis eri Œuvre par la voie d'accords, bilatéraux ou multi-
latéraux, entre les Etats intéresséset, en cas de divergences, par l'un des

moyens de règlement pacifique des différends prévus à l'article 33 de
la Charte des Nations Unies. C'étaiten réalité unecondition expresse de
l'amendement rappelé plus haut que tout autre Etat intéresséaurait la
faculté de demander. qu'une commission spécialesoit appelée à se pronon-
cer sur toute revendication formulée par un Etat riverain, conformément

à des critères scientnfiques et aux preuves produites par 1'Etat riverain et
les autres Etats intéressés.La commission devait êtrehabilitée à fixer
pendant le temps et dans la mesure qu'elle estimerait nécessaires les
droits préférentiels de1'Etat riverain compte tenu de ((l'importance que
l'exploitation de ce stock ou de ces stocks [de poisson] présente pour un
autre Etat ou d'autres Etats D.

58. La pratique des Etats en matière de pêchemontre que la notion de
droits préférentiels des Etats riverains est de plus en plus largement
acceptée, en particulier pour les pays ou territoires se trouvant dans une
situation de dépendance spéciale à l'égard de leurs pêcheries côtières.
Aussi bien la résolution de 1958 que l'amendement conjoint de 1960

concernant les droits préférentielsont étéapprouvés par une large majo-
rité des participants aux conférences, ce qui montre que l'idéed'après
laquelle il étaitjuste, dans certaines situations spéciales, de reconnaître
des droits de pêche préférentielsà I'Etat riverain avait étéfort bien
accueillie. Après ces conférences, les droits préférentielsde 1'Etatriverain
ont été reconnusdans divers accords internationaux, bilatéraux et multi-

latéraux. La Cour a étéinformée de la pratique à cet égarddes Commis-
sions des pêcheriesde l'Atlantique du nord-ouest et de l'Atlantique du
nord-est dont sont membres au total dix-neuf Etats maritimes, parmi
lesquels les deux Parties; elle a étéinforméeaussi de l'arrangement relatif
aux pêcheriesdans les eaux qui entourent les îles Féroé,signé à Copen-

hague le 18 décembre 1973 par les Gouvernements de la Belgique, du
Danemark, de la France, de la République fédérale d'Allemagne, de la
Norvège, de la Pologne et du Royaume-Uni, ainsi que de l'accord sur la
réglementation de 1;îpêcheà la morue de l'Arctique du nord-est (morue
arcto-norvégienne), signé le 15 mars 1974 par les Gouvernements du
Royaume-Uni, de la Norvège et de l'Union des républiques socialistes

soviétiques. Ces deux accords réservent, lors de l'attribution de contin-
gents annuels sur la base de l'activité passée desparties dans la région,
une part supplémentaire à 1'Etat riverain pour tenir compte de son droit
préférentielde pêcherdans les eaux adjacentes à son territoire. L'accord
concernant les îles Féroéspécifiedans son préambule que ((l'économie
des îles Féroéest exceptionnellement tributaire des pêcheries ))et recon-

naît ((que les îles FClroédoivent bénéficierd'une préférencedans les eaux
qui les entourent n.
59. 11est hors de doute que l'Islande est exceptionnellement tributaire
de ses pêcheries.Le demandeur l'a expressément reconnu dans l'échange
de notes du 11 mars 1961 et la Cour a pris acte de cette reconnaissancehas also taken judicial notice of such recognition, by declaring that it is
"necessary to bear in mind the exceptional dependence of the Icelandic
nation upon coastal fisheries for its livelihood and economic develop-
ment" (Z.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 16, para. 23).
60. The preferential rights of the coastal State come into play only at
the moment when an intensification in the exploitation of fisheryresources
makes it imperative to introduce some system of catch-limitation and

sharing of those resources, to preserve the fish stocks in the interests of
their rational and economic exploitation. This situation appears to have
been reached in the present case. In regard to the two main demersal
species concerned+od and haddock-the Applicant has shown itself
aware of the need for a catch-limitation which has become indispensable
in view of the establishment of catch-limitations in other regions of the
North Atlantic. If a system of catch-limitation were not established in the
Icelandic area, the fishing effort displaced fromthose other regions might
well be directed towards the unprotected grounds in that area.

61. The Icelandic regulations challenged before the Court have been
issued and applied by the Icelandic authorities as a claim to exclusive
rights thus going beyond the concept of preferential rights. Article 2 of

the Icelandic Regulations of 14 July 1972States:

"Within the fishery limits al1 fishing activities by foreign vessels
shall be prohibited in accordance with the provisions of Law No. 33
of 19June 1922, conczrning Fishing inside the Fishery Limits."

Article 1 of the 1922Law provides: "Only Icelandic citizens may engage
in fishing in the territorial waters of Iceland, and only Icelandic boats or
ships may be used for such fishing." The language of the relevant
government regulations indicates that their object is to establish an
exclusive fishery zone, in which al1fishing by vessels registered in other
States, including the United Kingdom, would be prohibited. The mode
of implementation of the regulations, carried out by Icelandic govern-
mental authorities vis-à-vis United Kingdom fishing vessels, before the
1973 interim agreement, and despite the Court's interim measures,
confirms this interpretation.
62. The concept of preferential rights is not compatible with the

exclusion of al1fishingactivities of other States. A coastal State entitled to
preferential rights is not free, unilaterally and according to its own un-
controlled discretion, to determine the extent of those rights. The charac-
terization of the coastal State's rights as preferential implies a certain
priority, but cannot imply the extinction of the concurrent rights of otherquand elle a relevéqu'il faut ((ne pas oublier que la nation islandaise est
exceptionnellement tributaire de ses pêcheriescôtièrespour sa subsistance

et son développementéconomique»(C.I.J. Recueil1972,p. 16,par. 23).

60. Les droits préférentielsde 1'Etat riverain n'entrent en jeu qu'au
moment où, l'exploitation des ressources halieutiques s'étantintensifiée,
il devient essentiel d'instaurer un systèmede limitation des prises et de
répartition de ces ressources pour protéger les stocks de poisson aux
fins d'une exploitation rationnelle et économique.Tel paraît êtrele cas en
l'occurrence. En ce 'quiconcerne les deux principales espècesdémersales
en cause - la morue et l'aiglefin - le demandeur a montré qu'il est
conscient de la nécessitéd'une limitation des prises, devenue indispen-
sable à présentque llesprises sont réglementéesdans d'autres secteurs de

l'Atlantique Nord. Si un système de limitation des prises n'est pas ins-
tauré dans la régioriislandaise, il est fort possible que la pêchepratiquée
dans ces autres secteurs se réorientevers lesfondsnon protégésentourant
l'Islande.

61. Le règlementiislandaismis en cause devant la Cour a étépromulgué
et appliqué par les autorités islandaises comme une prétention à des
droits exclusifs, allant par conséquent au-delà de la notion de droits

préférentiels. L'article2 du règlementislandais du 14juillet 1972est ainsi
conçu
((A l'intérieur des limitesde pêchetoute activité de pêchesera
interdite aux navires étrangers conformément aux dispositions de la
loino 33du 19juin 1922relative à la pêche à l'intérieurdes limites de

pêche. ))
L'article premier de la loi de 1922dispose que «seuls les ressortissants
islandais peuvent se livrer à la pêchedans les eaux territoriales de 1'1s-
lande, et seuls des bateaux ou navires islandais peuvent être utilisés à
cette fin».Lestermes de la réglementation applicable montrent qu'elle a

pour objet de créer une zone exclusive de pêcheoù toute pêcheserait
interdite aux navires immatriculés dans d'autres Etats y compris le
Royaume-Uni. La manière dont les autorités gouvernementales islan-
daises ont appliqué cette réglementation aux bateaux de pêchebritan-
niques avant I'accorti provisoire de 1973,et malgré les mesuresconserva-
toires indiquéespar la Cour, confirme cette interprétation.
62. La notion de droits préférentielsn'est pas compatible avec l'élimi-
nation complète de l'activitéde pêched'autres Etats. Un Etat riverain
pouvant prétendre ii des droits préférentiels n'estpas libre de fixer, de
façon unilatérale et totalement discrétionnaire l'étendue deces droits.
Quand on qualifie de préférentielsles droits de I'Etat riverain, cela im-

plique que cesdroits ont une certaine priorité mais non pas qu'ils puissent28 FISHERIESJURISDICTION(JUDGMENT)

States, and particularly of a State which, like the Applicant, has for many
years been engaged in fishing in the waters in question, such fishing
activity being important to the economy of the country concerned. The

coastal State has to take into account and pay regard to the position of
such other States, particularly when they have established an economic
dependence on the same fishing grounds. Accordingly, the fact that Iceland
is entitled to claim preferential rights does not suffice to justify its claim
unilaterally to exclude the Applicant's fishing vessels from al1 fishing
activity in the waters beyond the limits agreed to in the 1961Exchange of

Notes.

63. In this case, the Applicant has pointed out that its vessels have been

fishing in Icelandic waters for centuries and that they have done so in a
manner comparable with their present activities for upwards of 50 years.
Published statistics indicate that from 1920 onwards, fishing of demersal
species by United Kingdom vesselsin the disputed area has taken place on
a continuous basis from year to year, and that, except for the period of

the Second World War, the total catch of those vessels has been remark-
ably steady. Similar statistics indicate that the waters in question con-
stitutethe most important of the Applicant's distant-water fishing grounds
for demersal species.
64. The Applicant further States that in view of the present situation of
fisheries in the North Atlantic, which has demanded the establishment of

agreed catch-limitations of cod and haddock in various areas, it would
not be possible for the fishing effort of United Kingdom vessels displaced
from the Icelandic area to be diverted at economic levels to other fishing
grounds in the North Atlantic. Given the lack of alternative fishing
opportunity, it is further contended, the exclusion of British fishing
vessels from the Icelandic area would have very serious adverse con-

sequences, with immediate results for the affected vessels and with
damage extending over a wide range of supporting and related industries.
It is pointed out in particular that wide-spread unemployment would be
caused among al1sections of the British fishing industry and in ancillary
industries and that certain ports-Hull, Grimsby and Fleetwood-

specially reliant on fishing in the Icelandic area, would be seriously
affected.
65. Iceland has for its part admitted the existence of the Applicant's
historic and special interests in the fishing in the disputed waters. The
Exchange of Notes as a whole and in particular its final provision re-
quiring lceland to give advance notice to the United Kingdom of any

extension of its fishery limits impliedly acknowledged the existence of
United Kingdom fishery interests in the waters adjacent to the 12-mile
limit. The discussions which have taken place between the two countries
also imply an acknowledgement by Iceland of the existence of suchabolir les droits concurrents d'autres Etats, en particulier ceux d'un
Etat qui, comme le demandeur, pêchedepuis de nombreuses années
dans les eaux en question alors que cette activité de pêcheprésentede
l'importance pour l'économiedu pays intéressé. L'Etat riverain doit tenir
compte de la positiclnde ces Etats, spécialementquand ils en sont venusà

dépendre sur le plan économique des mêmes lieuxde pêche.En consé-
quence, le fait que l'Islande soit fondéeà revendiquer des droits préfé-
rentiels ne suffit pas justifier sa prétention d'interdire unilatéralement
toute pêcheaux navires du demandeur dans les eaux situéesau-delà de la
limite convenue dacisl'échangede notes de 1961.

63. Dans la présenteespèce,le demandeur a fait valoir que ses navires
pêchentdans les eaux islandaises depuis des siècleset que, depuis plus de
cinquante ans, leur activité y est comparableà ce qu'elle estaujourd'hui.
Les statistiquespub~liéeisndiquent que depuis 1920les bâtiments britan-

niques pêchent de:; espèces démersales dans la zone contestée, sans
discontinuer, d'année en année,et que, sauf pendant la seconde guerre
mondiale, le total de leurs prises est demeuré remarquablement stable.
Des statistiquesana.loguesmontrent que les eaux en question constituent
le plus important des terrains de pêchelointaine du demandeur pour les
espècesdémersales.
64. Le demandeur ajoute qu'étant donné la situation actuelle des
pêcheriesde 1'AtlaintiqueNord, qui a obligé à instaurer d'un commun
accord une limitation des prises de morue et d'aiglefin dans diverses
zones, il ne seraitas rentable de réorienter l'effort de pêche desbateaux
britanniques de la 2:oneislandaise vers d'autres pêcheriesde l'Atlantique
Nord. Il affirme en outre que, faute d'autres possibilités, l'exclusiondes
navires de pêchebritanniques de la zone islandaise aurait des consé-

quencesextrêmementgraves, qui affecteraient immédiatementlesbateaux
intéresséset étendraient leurs effets préjudiciables toute une séried'in-
dustries complémentaires ou connexes. Il soutient en particulier qu'un
chômage généralisé en résulteraitdans tous lessecteursde l'industrie de la
pêcheau Royaume-.Uni,ainsi que dans les industries auxiliaires; certains
ports - Hull, Grimsby et Fleetwood - qui dépendentplus spécialement
de la pêchedans la zone islandaise verraient leur activité gravement com-
promise.
65. Pour sa part., l'Islande a admis l'existence desintérêts historiques
et spéciaux du demandeur en ce qui concerne la pêchedans les eaux
contestées.L'échangede notes dans son ensemble, en particulier dans sa
disposition finale, selon laquelle l'Islande doit notifier à l'avance au
Royaume-Uni toute mesure d'élargissement de ses limites de pêche,a

reconnu implicitement l'existence d'intérêtsdu Royaume-Uni à la pêche
dans les eaux adjacentes à la limite des 12milles. Les pourparlers qui se
sont déroulés entreles deux pays impliquent également que l'Islande a
29interests. Furthermore, the Prime Minister of Iceland stated on 9Novem-
ber 1971:
"... the British have some interests to protect in this connection.
For a long time they have been fishing in Icelandic waters .. .The
well-being of specific British fishing towns may nevertheless to some
extent be connected with the fisheries in Icelandic waters..."
66. considerations similar to those which have prompted the recogni-
tion of the preferential rights of the coastal State in a special situation
apply when coastal populations in other fishing States are alsodependent
on certain fishing grounds. In both instances the economic dependence
and the livelihood of whole communities are affected. Not only do the
same considerations apply, but the same interest in conservation exists.
In this respect the Applicant has recognized that the conservation and
efficient exploitation of the fish stocks in the Iceland area are of impor-
tance not only to Iceland but also to the United Kingdom.

67. The provisions of the Icelandic Regulations of 14 July 1972 and
the manner of their implementation disregard the fishing rights of the

the principle enshrined in Article 2 of the 1958 Geneva Convention onnt of

the High Seas which requires that al1States, including coastal States, in
exercising their freedom of fishing, pay reasonable regard to the interests
of other States. It also disregards the rights of the Applicant as they result
from the Exchange of Notes of 1961.The Applicant is therefore justified
in asking the Court to give al1 necessary protection to its own rights,
while at the same time agreeing to recognize Iceland's preferential posi-
tion. Accordingly, the Court is bound to conclude that the Icelandic
Regulations of 14 July 1972 establishing a zone of exclusive fisheries
jurisdiction extending to 50nautical milesfrom baselines around the Coast
of Iceland, are not opposable to the United Kingdom, and the latter is
under no obligation to accept the unilateral termination by Iceland of
United Kingdom fishery rights in the area.
68. The findings stated by the Court in the preceding paragraphs
suffice to provide a basis for the decision of the present case, namely:
that Iceland's extension of its exclusive fishery jurisdiction beyond 12
miles is not opposable to the United Kingdom; that Iceland may on the
other hand claim preferential rights in the distribution of fishery resources
in the adjacent waters; that the United Kingdom also has established
rights with respect to the fishery resources in question; and that therin-
ciple of reasonable regard for the interests of other States enshrined in
Article 2 of the Geneva Convention on the High Seas of 1958 requires
Iceland and the United Kingdom to have due regard to each other's
interests, and to theintercsts of other States, in those resources.reconnu l'existence de ces intérêts. Qui plus est,le Premier ministre
islandais a déclaréle 9 novembre 1971 :

«les Britanniques ont certains intérêts à protéger à cet égard. Ils
pêchentdepuis longtemps dans les eaux islandaises ..La prospérité
decertains ports de pêchebritanniques peut néanmoins êtreliéedans
une certaine mesure aux pêcheriesdans les eaux islandaises ...))
66. Des considérations analogues à celles qui ont amené à reconnaître
les droits préférentielsde 1'Etat riverain se trouvant dans une situation

spéciale s'appliquent lorsque des populations côtières d'autres Etats
pratiquant la pêchesont elles aussi tributaires de certains lieux de pêche.
Dans les deux cas, ce qui est en cause, c'est la dépendance économiqueet
les moyens de subsistance de collectivités entières.Non seulement les
mêmesconsidérations jouent, mais l'intérêq t ui s'attacheà la conserva-
tion est le même. A cet égard,le demandeur a reconnu que la conserva-
tion et l'exploitatiori efficacedes stocks de poisson dans la zone islandaise
revêtentde l'importance non seulement pour l'Islande mais aussi pour le
Royaume-Uni.
67. Les dispositions du règlement islandais du 14juillet 1972et l'ap-
plication qui enest faite méconnaissentlesdroitsde pêchedu demandeur.
Les mesures unilat6rales adoptées par l'Islande violent donc le principe
consacrépar l'article 2 de la Convention de Genèvede 1958sur la haute

mer, selon lequel tous les Etats, y compris les Etats riverains, doivent
exercer la liberté de pêcheren tenant raisonnablement compte de I'in-
térêt desautres Etats. Elles méconnaissent également les droits du
demandeur tels qu'ils résultentde l'échangede notes de 1961. Le deman-
deur est donc fondé à prier la Cour de protégerautant que de besoin ses
propres droitstout en s'engageant pour sa part àreconnaître la situation
préférentiellede l'Islande. Aussi la Cour ne peut-elle que conclure que le
règlement islandais du 14juillet 1972qui établitune zone de compétence
exclusive en matière de pêcheallant jusqu'à 50milles marins des lignes de
base tracéesautour des côtes islandaises n'est pas opposable au Royaume-
Uni, et que celui-ci n'est nullement tenu d'accepter l'abolition unilatérale
par l'Islande de ses droits de pêchedans la région.
68. Les constatations faites par la Cour dans les paragraphes qui

précèdentsuffisent à1fournir la base de sa décisiondans la présente espèce
et peuvent se résunier ainsi: l'extension par l'Islande de sa compétence
exclusive en matière de pêcheriesau-delà de 12milles n'est pas opposable
au Royaume-Uni; 1"Islandepeut en revanche prétendre à des droits préfé-
rentiels dans la répartition des ressources halieutiques des eaux adja-
centes; le Royaume-Uni possède également desdroits établis à l'égard des
ressources halieutiques en question; et le principe d'une prise en consi-
dération raisonnablle des intérêts desautres Etats, proclamé àl'article 2
de la Convention dt: Genèvede 1958sur la haute mer, oblige l'Islande et
le Royaume-Uni à tenir dûment compte de leurs intérêts réciproqueset
desintérêts d'autresEtats en ce qui concerne cesressources. 69. It follows from the reasoning of the Court in this case that in
order to reach an equitable solution of the present dispute it is necessary
that the preferential fishing rights of Iceland, as a State specially depen-
dent on coastal fisheries, be reconciled with the traditional fishing rights
of the Applicant. Such a reconciliation cannot be based, however, on a
phasing-out of the Applicant's fishing,as was the case in the 1961 Ex-
change of Notes in respect of the 12-mile fishery zone. In that zone,
Iceland was to exercise exclusive fishery rights while not objecting to
continued fishing by the Applicant's vesselsduring a phasing-out period.
In adjacent waters outside that zone, however, a similar extinction of
rights of other fishing States, particularly when such rights result from a
situation of economic dependence and long-term reliance on certain
fishing grounds, would not be compatible with the notion of preferential
rights as it was recognized at the Geneva Conferences of 1958and 1960,
nor would it be equitable. At the 1960Conference, the concept of prefer-
ential rights of coastal States in a special situation was recognized in the

joint amendment referred to in paragraph 57 above, under such limita-
tions and to such extent as is found "necessary by reason of the depen-
dence of the coastal State on the stock or stocks of fish, while having
regard to the interests of any other State or States in the exploitation of
such stock or stocks of fish". The reference to the interests of other
States in the exploitation of the same stocks clearly indicates that the
preferential rights of the coastal State and the established rights of other
States were considered as, in principle, continuing to CO-exist.

70. This is not to Saythat the preferential rights of a coastal State in a
special situation are a static concept, in the sense that the degree of the
coastal State's preference is to be considered as fixed for ever at some
given moment. On the contrary, the preferential rights are a function of
the exceptional dependence of such a coastal State on the fisheries in
adjacent waters and may, therefore, Varyas the extent of that dependence
changes. Furthermore, as was expressly recognized in the 1961Exchange
of Notes, a coastal State's exceptional dependence on fisheriesmay relate
.not only to the livelihood of its people but to its economic development.
In each case, it is essentially a matter of appraising the dependence of the
coastal State on the fisheries in question in relation to that of the other
State concerned and of reconciling them in as equitable a manner as is

possible.

71. In view of the Court's finding (paragraph 67 above) that the
Icelandic Regulations of 14 July 1972are not opposable to the United
Kingdom for the reasons which have been stated, it follows that the
Government of Iceland is not in law entitled unilaterally to exclude
United Kingdom fishing vessels from sea areas to seaward of the limits
agreed to in the 1961Exchange of Notes or unilaterally to impose restric-
tions on their activities in such areas. But the matter does not end there; 69. Il découle du raisonnement suivi par la Cour en l'espèce qu'un
règlement équitable du présent différend exige que soient conciliés les
droits de pêche préférentielsde l'Islande en tant qu'Etat spécialement
tributaire des pêcheriescôtières et les droits de pêchetraditionnels du

demandeur. Le moyen d'y parvenir n'est cependant pas d'éliminer
progressivement les navires de pêchedu demandeur comme le prévoyait
I'échangede notes de 196 1pour ce qui est de la zone de pêchede 12milles.
Dans cette zone, l'Islande devait exercer des droits de pêche exclu-
sifs et ne pas soulever d'objection contre la poursuite de la pêchepar

les navires du demandeur pendant une période de retrait progressif.
Dans les eaux adjacentes à cette zone, cependant, une extinction ana-
logue des droits d3a.utres Etats pratiquant la pêche, enparticulier quand
ces droits sont nésd'une situation de dépendance économique et d'une
longue habitude de compter sur certains fonds de pêche,ne serait pas
compatible avec la notion de droits préférentiels telleque les Conférences

de Genève de 1958 et de 1960 l'ont reconnue et ne serait pas non plus
équitable. En 1960 Icanotion de droits préférentiels desEtats riverains se
trouvant dans une s:ituation spécialea été accepté aux termes del'amen-
dement conjoint mentionné au paragraphe 57 dans les limites et dans la
mesure nécessaires ((compte tenu du degré de dépendance de 1'Etat
riverain à l'égarddu stock ou des stocks de poisson et de l'importance que

l'exploitation de ce stock ou de ces stocks présente pour un autre Etat ou
d'autres Etats >)Cette allusion aux intérêtsd'autres Etats à l'exploitation
des mêmesstocks montre bien qu'on considérait en principe que les droits
préférentielsde 1'Etat riverain et les droits établis d'autres Etats conti-
nuaient à coexister.

70. Il ne s'ensuit pas que les droits préférentielsd'un Etat riverain se
trouvant dans une situation spécialereprésentent une notion immuable,
en ce sens que le degré de prioritéà accorder à 1'Etatriverain devrait être
considéréà un moment déterminé comme défini une fois pour toutes.
Au contraire les droits préférentiels sont fonction de la dépendance
exceptionnelle de cet Etat riverain à I'égard des pêcheriesdans ses eaux

adjacentes et peuvent donc évoluer avec elle. D'autre part, comme
I'échange de notes de 1961 le reconnaît expressément, la dépendance
exceptionnelle d'un Etat riverain à I'égardde la pêchepeut concerner non
seulement la subsisitance de sa population mais aussi le développement
économique du pays. Dans l'un ou l'autre cas, il s'agit essentiellement

d'apprécier la dépendance de 1'Etat riverain à I'égard des pêcheries en
question, par rapport à celle de l'autre Etat intéresséet de les concilier
d'une manière aussi équitable que possible.
71. La Cour ayant conclu (paragraphe 67 ci-dessus) que le règlement
islandais du 14juill,et 1972 n'est pas opposable au Royaume-Uni pour
les motifs qui ont étéindiqués, il s'ensuit que le Gouvernement islandais

n'est pas fondéen droit à exclure unilatéralement les navires de pêchedu
Royaume-Uni des zones maritimes situéesau large des limites convenues
dans l'échangede notes de 1961, ni à imposer unilatéralement des restric-
tions à leur activité dans ces zones. Le problème n'est pas réglépour as the Court has indicated, Iceland is, in view of it~ special situation,
entitled to preferential rights in respect of the fish stocks of the waters
adjacent to itscoasts. Due recognition must be given to the rights of both
Parties, namely the rights of the United Kingdom to fish in the waters in
dispute, and the preferential rights of Iceland. Neither right is anabsolute
one: the preferential rights of a coastal State are limited according to the
extent of its special dependence on the fisheries and by its obligation to
take account of the rights of other States and the needs of conservation;
the established rights of other fishing States are in turn limited by reason
of the coastal State's special dependence on the fisheries and its own
obligation to take account of the rights of other States, including the
coastal State, and of the needs of conservation.

72. It follows that even if the Court holds that Iceland's extension of
its fishery limitsis not opposable to the Applicant, this does not mean
that theApplicant isunder no obligation to Iceland with respect to fishing

in the disputed waters in the 12-mileto 50-mile zone. On the contrary,
both States have an obligation to take full account of each othegs rights
and of any fishery conservation measures the necessity of which is shown
to exist inthose waters. It isone of the advances in maritime international
law, resulting from the intensification of fishing, that the former laissez-
faire treatment of the living resources of the sea in the high seas has been
replaced by a recognition of a duty to have due regard to the rights of
other States and the needs of conservation for the benefit of all. Conse-
quently, both Parties have the obligation to keep under reviewthe fishery
iesources in the disputed waters and to examine together, in the light of
scientific and other available information, the measures required for the
conservation and development, and equitable exploitation, of those
resources, taking into account any international agreement in force
between them, such as the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Convention of
24 January 1959,as well as such other agreements as may be reached in
the matter in the course of further negotiation.

73. The most appropriate method for the solution of the dispute is
clearly that of negotiation. Its objective should be the delimitation of the
rights and interests of the Parties, the preferential rights of the coastal
State on the one hand and the rights of the Applicant on the other, to
balance and regulate equitably questions such as those of catch-limita-
tion. share allocations and "related restrictions concernin~"areas closedto
fishi&, number and type of vessels allowed and forms of control of the
agreed provisions" (Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland),
Interim Measures, Order of 12 July 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 303,autant; comme la Cour l'a indiqué, l'Islande, en raison de sa situation
spéciale,peut prétendre à des droits préférentielssur les stocks de poisson
des eaux adjacentes à ses côtes. Les droits des deux Parties, à savoir les
droits du Royaume-Uni de pêcherdans les eaux litigieuses et les droits

préférentiels del'Islande, doivent êtredûment reconnus. Ni dans un cas,
ni dans l'autre, ilne s'agit de droits absolus: les droits préférentielsd'un
Etat riverain sont limitéspar le degré de sa dépendance spécialeà l'égard
des pècheries, ainsi que par son obligation de tenir compte des droits
d'autres Etats et des nécessitésde la conservation; les droits établis

d'autres Etats pratiquant la pêchesont à leur tour limités par la dépen-
dance spécialede 1'Etat riverain à I'égard des pêcheries et par leur propre
obligation de tenir csompte des droits d'autres Etats, y compris ceux de
1'Etat riverain, et des nécessitésde la conservation.
72. Il en résulte que la conclusion de la Cour suivant laquelle I'exten-
sion par l'Islande des limites de sa compétence en matière de pêcheries

n'est pas opposable au demandeur ne signifie pas que celui-ci n'a envers
l'Islande aucune obligation en ce qui concerne la pêchedans les eaux
litigieuses entre 12et 50 milles. Au contraire, les deux Etats ont le devoir
de tenir pleinement compte de leurs droits réciproques et des mesures de
conservation dont 'la nécessitédans ces eaux est démontrée. L'un des

progrès dont le droiit international maritime est redevable à l'intensifica-
tion de la pêche estque, à l'ancienne attitude de laisser faire à l'égard des
ressources biologiques de la haute mer, se substitue désormais la recon-
naissance qu'il existe un devoir de prêter une attention suffisante aux
droits d'autres Etats ainsi qu'aux impératifs de la conservation dans l'in-
térêt detous. Les deux Parties ont donc l'obligation de continuer à

étudier la situation ,desressources de la pêchedans les eaux litigieuses et
d'examiner ensemble, sur la base des renseignements scientifiques et
autres données disponibles, les mesures qu'imposent la conservation, le
développement et l'exploitation équitable de ces ressources, en tenant
compte de tout accord international en vigueur entre elles, comme la

Convention du 24janvier 1959 sur les pêcheriesde l'Atlantique du nord-
est, ou de tous autres accords qui pourraient être conclusen la matière
lors de nouvelles négociations.

73. La méthode la plus propre à résoudre le différend est de toute
évidence cellede la négociation. Son objectif doit être de circonscrire les
droits et les intérêtsdes Parties, les droits préférentielsde 1'Etat riverain
d'une part, les droits du demandeur d'autre part, afin d'apprécier et de
régler de façon équitable des questions comme celles de la limitation des

prises, de l'attribution des parts et des ((restrictions connexes concernant
les zones interdites à la pêche,le nombre et le type des navires autorisés
et les modalités de contrôle des dispositions convenues ))(Con7pi .tetlce en
matière ùe pi.cl~erie,r(Rojwume- Uni c. Islande), mesures cotlsrr\'atoires,32 FJSHERIESJURJSDICTION(JUDGMENT)

para. 7). This necessitates detailed scientific knowledge of the fishing
grounds. It is obvious that the relevant information and expertise would
be mainly in the possession of the Parties. The Court would, for this
reason, meet with difficulties if it were itself to attempt to lay down a

precise scheme for an equitable adjustment of the rights involved. Lt is
thus obvious that both in regard to merits and to jurisdiction the Court
only pronounces on the case which is before it and not on any hypo-
thetical situation which might arise in the future.

74. It is implicit in the concept of preferential rights that negotiations
are required in order to define or delimit the extent ofthose rights, as
was already recognized in the 1958 Geneva Resolution on Special Situa-
tions relating to Coastal Fisheries, which constituted the starting point of
the law on the subject. This Resolution provides for the establishment,
through collaboration between the coastal State and any other State

fishing in the area, of agreed measures to secure just treatment of the
special situation.
75. The obligation to negotiate thus flows from the very nature of the
respective rights of the Parties; to direct them to negotiate is therefore a
proper exercise of the judicial function in this case. This also corresponds
to the Principles and provisions of the Charter of the United Nations

concerning peaceful settlement of disputes. As the Court stated in the
North Sea Continental Sl~eifcases :

". .. this obligation merely constitutes a special application of a
principle which underlies al1 international relations, and which is
moreover recognized in Article 33 of the Charter of the United
Nations as one of the methodsfor the peaceful settlement of interna-
tional disputes" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 47, para. 86).

76. In this case negotiations were initiated by the Parties from the date
when Iceland gave notice of its intention to extend its fisheries jurisdic-
tion, but these negotiations reached an early deadlock, and could not

come to any conclusion; subsequently, further negotiations were directed
to the conclusion of the interim agre"ment of 13 November 1973. The
obligation to seek a solution of the dispute by peaceful means, among
which negotiations are the most appropriate to this case, has not been
eliminated by that interim agreement. The question has been raised, how-
ever, on the basis of the deletion of a sentence which had been proposed

by the United Kingdom in the process of elaboration of the text, whether
the parties agreed to wait for the expiration of the term provided for in
the interim agreement without entering into further negotiations. The
deleted sentence, which would have appeared in paragraph 7 of the 1973
Exchange of Notes, read :"The Governments will reconsider the position
before that term expires unless they have in the meantime agreed to a

settlement of the substantive dispute."
77. The Courtcannot accept the view that the deletion of this sentence
which concerned renegotiation of the interim régime warrants the in-ordonnance du Il juillet 1973, C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 303, par. 7). Cela
nécessiteune connaissance scientifique détaillée desterrains de pêche.Il
est évident que ce sont surtout les Parties qui possèdent les données et
l'expériencevoulues. C'est pourquoi la Cour éprouverait des difficultés à
tenter de définir elle-mêmeavec précision un système d'ajustement
équitable des droits en jeu. 11est évident aussi qu'en ce qui concerne le

fond comme la compétence la Cour ne statue que sur l'affaire portée
devant elle et non sur une situation hypothétique qui pourrait se produire
dans l'avenir.
74. 11résulte implicitement de la notion de droits préférentielsque des
négociations sont nécessairespour définir ou délimiter l'étenduede ces
droits, comme cela a déjà été reconnudans la résolutionsur les situations
spécialestouchant 11:spêcheriescôtières, adoptée à Genève en 1958, qui
est le point de départ du droit régissant la matière. Cette résolution
prévoitune collaboration entre 1'Etatriverain et tous les autres Etats qui
pratiquent la pêchedans la région,en vue d'arrêterd'un commun accord
des mesures tendant à une solution équitablede la situation spéciale.
75. L'obligation de négocierdécouledonc de la nature même desdroits
respectifs des Parties; leur ordonner de négocierest par conséquent une

manière justifiée eri l'espèce d'exercer lafonction judiciaire. Cela cor-
respond aussi aux principes et dispositions de la Charte des Nations Unies
concernant le règlernent pacifique des différends.Comme la Cour l'a dit
dans les affaires du'lateau continentalde lamer duNord:
((l'obligation de négocier...ne constitue qu'une application particu-
lièred'un princ:ipe,qui esà la base de toutes relations internationales

et qui est d'ailleurs reconnu dans l'article 33de la Charte des Nations
Unies comme l'une des méthodes de règlement pacifique des diffé-
différendsinternationaux )(C.I.J. Recueil 1969,p. 47, par. 86).
76. En l'espèce,les Parties ont entamé des négociations dès que 1'1s-
lande eut signifiéson intention d'étendre sa compétence en matière de
pêche,maiscesnégociationssesont trouvéesbientôt dans l'impasseetn'ont

produit aucun résultat; d'autres négociations engagées ultérieurement
devaient aboutir à la conclusion de l'accord provisoire du 13 novembre
1973. Cet accord n'a pas éliminél'obligation de rechercher une solution
au différendpar des moyens pacifiques, les négociationsétantparmi ceux-
ci la voie la mieux adaptéeà la présenteaffaire. Néanmoins, à cause de la
suppressiond'une phrase proposéepar le Royaume-Uni lors de I'élabora-
tion du texte, la question a étéposéede savoir si les Parties acceptaient
d'attendre l'expiration de la période prévue dans l'accord provisoire
avant de pouvoir engagerde nouvelles négociations.La phrase supprimée,
qui aurait figuréau paragraphe 7 de l'échangede notes de 1973,étaitainsi
conçue: «Les gouvernements procéderont à un nouvel examen de la
situation avant I'exlpiration de ce délaià moins que, dans l'intervalle, ils
ne se soient mis d'accord sur un règlement du fond du différend. »
77. La Cour ne saurait admettre que la suppression de cette phrase, qui

concernait une nouvelle négociation du régime provisoire, justifie la
33ference that the common intention of the Parties was to be released from
negotiating in respect of the basic dispute over Iceland's extension to a
50-mile limit throughout the whole period covered by the interim agree-
ment. Such an intention would not correspond to the attitude taken up
by the Applicant in these proceedings, in which it has asked the Court to
adjudge and declare that the Parties are under a duty to negotiate a ré-
gime for the fisheries in the area. Nor would an interpretation of this
kind, in relation to Iceland's intention, correspond to the clearly stated
policy of the Icelandic authorities to continue negotiations on the basic
problems relating to the dispute, as emphasized by paragraph 3 of the

Althing Resolution of 15February 1972,referred to earlier, which reads:
"That efforts to reach a solution of the problems connected with the
extension be continued through discussions with the Governments of the
United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany." Taking into
account that the interim agreement contains a definite date for its expira-
tion, and in the light of what has been stated in paragraph 75 above, it
would seem difficult to attribute to the Parties an intention to wait for
that date and for the reactivation of the dispute, with al1 the possible
friction it might engender, before one of them might require the other to
attempt a peaceful settlement through negotiations. At the same time,
the Court must add that its Judgment obviously cannot preclude the
Partiesfrom benefitingfromany subsequentdevelopments inthe pertinent
rules of international law.
78. In the fresh negotiations which are to take place on the basis of the
present Judgment, the Parties will have the benefit of the above appraisal
of their respective rights, and of certain guidelines defining their scope.
The task before them will be to conduct their negotiations on the basis

that each must in good faith pay reasonable regard to the legal rights of
the other in the waters around Iceland outside the 12-mile limit, thus
bringing about an equitableapportionment of the fishing resources based
on the facts of the particular situation, and having regard to the interests
of other States which have established fishing rights in the area. It is not a
matter of finding simply an equitable solution, but an equitable solution
derived from the applicable law. As the Court stated in the North Sea
Continental Slzelfcases:

". ., it is not a question of applying equity simply as a matter of
abstract justice, but of applying a rule of law which itself requires the
application of equitable principles" (Z.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 47, para.
85).conclusion d'après laquelle la commune intention des Parties était de ne
pas négociersur le différendessentiel relatif à l'élargissementde lajuridic-
tion islandaise jusqu'à 50 milles tant que l'accord provisoire resterait en
vigueur. Une telle intention ne correspondrait pas à l'attitude prise par le

demandeur en la présente instance puisqu'il a priéla Courde dire etjuger
que les Parties ont l'obligation de négocier au sujet d'un régime cles
pêcheriesdans la région.Une interprétation de ce genre, pour ce qui est de
l'intention de I'lslanide, ne correspondrait pas non plus à la politique
clairement énoncéedesautorités islandaises tendant à ce que les négocia-

tions se porsuivent sur les problèmes fondamentaux relatifs au différend,
ainsi que le souligne le paragraphe 3, cité précédemment,de la résolution
de I'Althing en date du 15février1972,où il est dit: ((Les efforts tendant à
résoudre les problèmes soulevés par l'élargissement seront poursuivis,
lors d'entretiens avec les Gouvernements du Royaume-Uni et de la

République fédérale d'Allemagne. ))Compte tenu du fait que l'accord
provisoire contient ilne date d'expiration préciseet de ce qui est indiqué
au paragraphe 75 ci-,dessus,il semble difficile d'attribuer aux Parties I'in-
tention d'attendre cette date et une reprise du différend, avec tous les
heurts que cela pourrait engendrer, avant que l'une d'elles puisse inviter
l'autre à rechercher un règlement pacifique par la voie de négociations.

La Cour doit ajouter aussi que son arrêtne peut empêcherles Parties de
tirer avantage de toute évolution ultérieure des règles pertinentes du
droit international.
78. Dans les nouvelles négociations qui doivent se tenir sur la base du
présentarrêt,les Parties bénéficierontde l'évaluationqui précèdede leurs
droits respectifs et de certains principes directeurs en définissant la

portée. Leur tâche slxa de conduire leurs négociations dans un esprit tel
que chacune doive, de bonne foi, tenir raisonnablement compte des
droits de l'autre dans les eaux entourant l'Islande au-delà de la limite des
12 milles, afin de parvenir à une répartition équitable des ressources
halieutiques, fondée sur les données de la situation locale et prenant en

considération les intérêtsd'autres Etats qui ont dans la régiondes droits
de pêchebien établis. 1.ne s'agit pas simplement d'arriver à une solution
équitable, mais d'arriver à une solution équitable qui repose sur le droit
applicable. Comme la Cour l'a dit dans les affaires du Platea~icontine~ltal
de la mer du Nord:

(cil ne s'agit par; d'appliquer l'équitésimplement comme une repré-
sentation de la justice abstraite, mais d'appliquer une règle de droit

prescrivant le recours à des principes équitables)) (C.I.J. Recueil
1969, p. 47, par. 85). 79. For these reasons,

by ten votes to four,

(1) finds that the Regulations concerning the Fishery Limits off Iceland
(Reglugeri3 urn jîskveiailandhelgi jslands) promulgated by the
Government of Iceland on 14July 1972and constituting a unilateral
extension of the exclusive fishing rights of Iceland to 50 nautical
miles from the baselines specified therein are not opposable to the
Government of the United Kingdom;
(2) finds that, in consequence, the Government of Iceland is not entitled
unilaterally to exclude United Kingdom fishing vessels from areas

between the fishery limits agreed to in the Exchange of Notes of
11 March 1961 and the limits specified in the Icelandic Regulations
of 14July 1972,or unilaterally to impose restrictions on the activities
of those vessels in such areas;

by ten votes to four,
(3) holds that the Government of Iceland and the Government of the
United Kingdom are under mutual obligations to undertake negotia-

tions in good faith for the equitable solution of their differences
concerning their respective fishery rights in the areas specified in
subparagraph 2 ;
(4) holds that in these negotiations the Parties are to take into account,
inter aiia:

(a) that in the distribution of the fishing resources in the areas
specified in subparagraph 2 Iceland is entitled to a preferential

share to the extent of the special dependence of its people upon
the fisheries in the seas around its coasts for their livelihood and
economic development ;
(b) that by reason of its fishing activities in the areas specified in
subparagraph 2, the United Kingdom also has established rights
in the fishery resources of the said areas on which elements of
its people depend for their livelihood and economic well-being;

(c) the obligation to pay due regard to the interests of other States
in theconservation and equitableexploitation of these resources;
(d) that the above-mentioned rights of Iceland and of the United
Kingdom should each be given effect to the extent compatible
with the conservation and development of the fishery resources
in the areas specified in subparagraph 2 and with the interests

of other States in their conservation and equitable exploitation;

(e) their obligation to keep under review those resources and to
examine together, in the light of scientific and other available
information, such measures as may be required for the conser- 79. Par ces motifs,
LACOUR,

par dix voix contre quatre,

1) dit que le règlement relatif aux limites de pêcheau large de l'Islande
(Reglugera umfiskveiailandhelgiIslands) promulgué par le Gouverne-
ment islandais le 14 juillet 1972 et portant extension unilatérale des
droits de pêche~cxclusifsde l'Islande jusqu'à 50 milles marins des
lignes de base spécifiéesdans ledit règlement n'est pas opposable au

Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni;
2) dit que, en conséquence, le Gouvernement islandais n'est pas en droit
d'exclure unilatéralement les navires de pêchedu Royaume-Uni des
régionssituéesentre les limites de pêcheconvenues dans l'échangede
notes du Il mars 1961et les limites spécifiées dans le règlement islan-
dais du 14 juillet 1972 ni d'imposer unilatéralement des restrictions

aux activitésde ces navires dans lesdites régions;
par dix voix contre quatre,

3) dit que le Gouvei-nement islandais et le Gouvernement du Royaume-
Uni ont l'obligation mutuelle d'engager des négociations de bonne
foi pour aboutir à la solution équitable de leurs divergences concer-
nant leurs droits de pêche respectifs dans les régions spécifiéesau
sous-paragraphe 2;

4) dit que, dans ces négociations, les Parties doivent prendre en considé-
ration notamment:

a) le fait que, dlans la répartition des ressources halieutiques des
régionsspécifiées au sous-paragraphe 2, l'Islande a droit à une part
préférentielle dans la mesure où sa population est spécialement
tributaire des pêcheries des eaux avoisinant ses côtes pour sa
subsistance et son développement économique;
b) le fait que, vu l'activitéde ses pêcheursdanlesrégions spécifiéeasu

sous-paragraphe 2, le Royaume-Uni a aussi des droits établis à
l'égarddes ressources halieutiques de ces régionsdont des éléments
de sa populaition sont tributaires pour leur subsistance et leur
prospérité économique ;
c) I'obligation de:tenir dûment compte des intérêtsd'autres Etats à la
conservation et à l'exploitation équitable de ces ressources;
d) le fait que les droits susmentionnés de l'Islande et du Royaume-
Uni devraient pouvoir s'exercer dans la mesure compatible avec la

conservation et le développement des ressources halieutiques dans
les régions spécifiéesau sous-paragraphe 2 et avec les intérêts
d'autres Etats à la conservation et à l'exploitation équitable de ces
ressources;
e) l'obligation de continuer à étudier la situation de ces ressources et
d'examiner ensemble, compte tenu des renseignements scientifiques
et autres donnéesdisponibles, les mesures qu'imposent la conserva- vation and development, and equitable exploitation, of those
resources, making use of the machinery established by the
North-East Atlantic Fisheries Convention or such other means
as may be agreed upon as a result of international negotiations.

Done in English, and in French, the English text being authoritative,
at the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-fifth day of July, one
thousand nine hundred and seventy-four, in three copies, of which one
will be placed in the archives of the Court and the others transmitted to
the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern

Ireland and to the Government of the Republic of Iceland respectively.

(Sigt~ed) Manfred LACHS,

President.
(Signe4 S. AQUARONE,

Registrar.

President LACHSmakes the following declaration:

1am in agreement with the reasoning and conclusions of the Court, and

since the Judgment speaks for and stands by itself, 1 would not feel it
appropriate to make any gloss upon it.

Judge IGNACIO-PINTm Oakes the followingdeclaration

To my regret, 1have been obliged to vote against the Court's Judgment.
However, to my mind my negative vote does not, strictly speaking, signify
opposition, since in a different context 1 would certainly have voted in
favour of the process which the Court considered it should follow to
arrive at its decision. In my view that decision is devoted to tixing the
conditions for exercise of preferential rights, for conservation of fish

species, and historic rights, rather than to responding to the primary
clain~of the Applicant, which is for a statement of the law on a specific
point.
1would have al1the more willingly endorsed the concept of preferential
rights inasmuch as the Court has merely followed its own decision in the
Fishcrics case.

It should be observed that the Applicant has nowhere sought a decision
from the Court on a dispute between itself and lceland on the subject of
the preferential rights of the coastal State, the conservation of fish
species, or historic rights-tl-iisis apparent throughout the elaborate

36 tion, le dévelol?pementet l'exploitation équitablede ces ressources,
en utilisant le inécanismeétablipar la Convention sur les pêcheries
de l'Atlantique du nord-est ou tout autre moyen qui pourrait être

acceptéà l'issue de négociations internationales.

Fait en anglais et en francais, le texte anglais faisant foi, au palais de
la Paix,à La Haye, le vingt-cinq juillet mil neuf cent soixante-quatorze,
en trois exemplaires, dont l'un restera déposéaux archives de la Cour et

dont les autres seront transmis respectivement au Gouvernement du
Royaume-Uni de Gr.ande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord et au Gouverne-
ment de la République d'Islande.

Le Président,

(Signé) Manfred LACHS.

Le Greffier,
(SignéS ). AQUARONE.

M. LACHSP , résident, fait la déclaration suivante:

Je souscris aux motifs et aux conclusions de la Cour et, comme l'arrêt
n'appelle pas d'explications et se suffit à lui-même,je n'estimerais pas
approprié de présenter des commentaires à son sujet.

M. IGNACIO-PINTO ju,ge, fait la déclaration suivante:

J'ai dû voter à regret contre l'arrêtde la Cour. Toutefois dans mon
esprit mon vote négatif netraduit pas à proprement parler une opposition
car, dans un autre contexte, j'aurais sans doute voté pour le processus que

la Cour a cru devoir suivre pour aboutirà sa décision.A mon sens celle-ci
fixe plutôt les conditions d'exercice des droits préférentiels,de la con-
servation des espèces halieutiques et des droits historiques qu'elle ne
répond à ia demande principale du demandeur qui est de dire le droit sur
un point précis.

J'aurais d'autant plus volontiers souscrit à la conception des droits
préférentielsque la Cour ne fait que se conformer à sa propre décision
dans l'affaire des P&cheric.s.
II ya lieu de noter que le demandeur n'a nulle part sollicité laCour de
trancher entre I'lslande et lui un différendqui aurait pour objet les droits
préférentielsdu riverain, la conservation des espèces halieutiques ou les

droits historiques-- cela ressort tout au long du très élaboréexposédes
36reasoning of the Judgment. It is obvious that considerations relating to
these various points, dealt with at length in the Judgment, are not subject
to any dispute between the Parties. There is no doubt that, after setting
out the facts andthe grounds relied on in support of its case, the Applicant
has asked the Court only for a decision on the dispute between itself and
Iceland, and to adjudge and declare:

". ..that there is no foundation in international law for the claim
by Iceland to be entitled to extend its fisheries jurisdiction by
establishing a zone of exclusive fisheriesjurisdiction extending to50
nautical miles from the baselines hereinbefore referred to; and that
its claim is therefore invalid" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 5,para. 8
(a)).
This is clear and precise, and al1the other points in the submissions are
only ancillary or consequential to this primary claim. But in response to
this basic claim, which was extensively argued by the Applicant both in
its Memorial and orally, and which was retained in its final submissions,
the Court, by means of a line of reasoning which it has endeavoured at

some length tojustify, has finallyfailed to give anypositive answer.

The Court has deliberately evaded the question which was placed
squarely before it in this case, namely whether Iceland's claims are in
accordance with the rules of international law. Having put this question
on one side, it constructs a whole system of reasoning in order ultimately
to declare that the Regulations issued by the Government of Iceland
on 14July 1972and "constituting a unilateral extension of the exclusive
fishing rights of Iceland to50 nautical miles from the baselines specified
therein arenot opposable to the Government of the United Kingdom".
In my view, the whole problem turns on this, since this claim is based
upon facts which, at leastunder present-day law and in the practice of the
majority of States, are flagrant violations of existing international con-
ventions. It should be noted that Iceland does not deny them. Now the
facts complained of are evident, they undoubtedly relate to the treaty
which binds the States which are Parties, for the Exchange of Notes of
11 March 1961amounts to such an instrument. For the Court to consider,
after having dealt with the Applicant's fundamental claim in relation to
international law, that account should be taken of Iceland's exceptional
situation and the vital interests of its population, with a view to drawing
inspiration from equity and to devising a solution for the dispute, would
have been the normal course to be followed, the more so since the
Applicant supports it .in its final submissions. But it cannot be admitted
that because of its special situation lceland can ipso factobe exempted
from the obligation to respect the international commitments into which

it has entered. By not giving an unequivocal answer on that principal
claim, the Court has failed to perform the act of justice requested of it.
For what is one to Sayof the actions and behaviour of Iceland which
have resulted in its being called upon to appear before the Court? Itsmotifs de I'arrêt.Il est manifeste que les considérations de ces différends
chefs abondamment développésdans l'arrêtne font l'objet d'aucune con-
testation de la part des Parties. II n'y a aucun doute qu'après avoirexposé

les faits et les motifs qu'il invoque à l'appui de sa cause le demandeur n'a
sollicité la Cour que de statuer sur le différend survenu entre lui et
l'Islande et de dire et juger:

((que la prétention de l'Islande qui se dit en droit d'élargirsa compé-
tence en matière de pêcheries enétablissant une zone de compétence
exclusive sur les pêcheriesjusqu'à 50 milles marins à partir des lignes
de base mentiorinées plus haut n'est donc pas fondée en droit inter-
national et n'est donc pasvalable )(C.1.J.Recueil 1973, p.5, par.8a)).

C'est clair et net et tous les autres points desdites conclusions ne sont
que des accessoires ou des conséquences de cette demande principale.

Or à cette demande capitale que le demandeur a longuement développée
aussi bien dans son mémoire que dans sa plaidoirie et qui a étéreprise
dans ses conclusioris finales, la Cour, par un raisonnement qu'elle a
longuement tenté de justifier, n'est finalement pas arrivée à donner une
réponse positive.
Elle a éludédélibérémentla question à elle clairement poséeen I'es-

pèce, à savoir si les prétentions de I'lslande sont conformes aux règlesde
droit international.(lette question écartée,elle élaboretout un systèmede
raisonnement pour affirmer finalement que le règlement du Gouverne-
ment islandais, prornulgué le 14 juillet 1972 et ((portant extension unila-
térale des droits de pêche exclusifsde l'Islande jusqu'à 50 milles marins
des lignes de base spécifiéesdans ledit règlement n'est pas opposable au

Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni D.
Selon moi, tout le problème est là car cette demande est fondée sur des
faits qui constituent, du moins dans le droit présent et la pratique de la
majoritédesEtats, desviolationsflagrantes de conventions internationales
actuelles. 11est à noter que I'lslande ne les nie pas. Or les faits reprochés

sont patents, ils concernentindubitablement le traitéliant les Etats parties
car l'échangede notes du 11 mars 1961a bien la valeur d'un tel acte. Que
la Cour estime, après avoir régléla demande fondamentale du demandeur
au regard du droit iriternational, qu'il yait lieu de prendreen considération
la situation exceptionnelle de l'Islande et les intérêts vitauxde ses popu-
lations pour s'inspirer des principes d'équité etpour envisager une solution

au différend,eût étéla voie normale à suivre d'autant plus que le deman-
deur lui-mêmey souscrit dans ses conclusions finales. Mais l'on ne saurait
admettre qu'en raison de sa situation particulère l'Islande puisse être
d'office dispenséede I'obligatioil de respecter les engagements internatio-
naux qu'elle a sou:;crits. En ne répondant pas sans équivoque à cette
demande principale, la Cour a manqué à l'Œuvre de justice qui lui est

demandée.
Comment peut-on en effet qualifier les actes et les comportements de
l'Islande qui lui ont valu d'êtrecitéeà comparaître devant la Cour? Sonrefusa1to respect the commitment it accepted in the Exchange of Notes of
11 March 1961,to refer to the International Court of Justice any dispute
which might arise on an extension of its exclusive fisheries zone, which
was in fact foreseen by the Parties, beyond 12 nautical miles, is not this
unjustified refusal a breach of international law?
In the same way, when-contrary to what is generally recognized by
the majority of States in the 1958Geneva Convention, in Article 2, where
it is clearly specified that there is a zone of high seas which is res com-
munis-Iceland unilaterally decides, by means of its Regulations of 14
Jul. 1972. to extend its exclusive iurisdiction from 12to 50nautical miles
from the baselines, does it not in this way also commit a breach of inter-
national law? Thus the Court would in no way be open to criticism if it
upheld the claim as well founded.
For my part, 1believethat the Court would certainly have strengthened
its judicial authority if it had given a positive reply to the claim laid
before it by the United Kingdom, instead of embarking on the construc-
tion of a thesis on preferential rights, zones of conservation of fish
species, or historic rights, on which there has never been any dispute,
nor even the slightest shadow of a controversy on the part either of the
Applicant or of the Respondent.
Furthermore, it causes me some concern also that the majority of the

Court seemsto have adopted the position which is apparentin the present
Judgment with the intention of pointing the way for the participants in
the Conference on the Law of the Sea now sitting in Caracas.
The Court here gives the impression of being anxious to indicate the
principles on the basis of which it would be desirable that a general inter-
national regulation of rights of fishing should be adopted.
1 do not discount the value of the reasons which guided the thinking
of the majority of the Court, and the Court was right to take account of
the special situation of Iceland and its inhabitants, which is deserving of
being treated with special concern. In this connection, the same treatment
should be contemplated for al1developing countries in the same position,
which cherish the hope of seeing al1these fisheries problems settled, since
it is at present such countries which suffer from the anarchy and lack of
organization of international fishing. But that is not the question which
has been laid before the Court, and the reply given can only be described
as evasive.
In taking this viewpoint 1 am not unaware of the risk that 1may be
accused of not being in tune with the modern trend for the Court to
arrogate a creative power which does not pertain to it under either the
United Nations Charter or its Statute. Perhaps some might even say that
the classic conception of international law to which 1 declare allegiance
is out-dated; but for myself, 1 do not fear to continue to respect the
classic norms of that law. Perhaps from the Third Conference on the
Law of the Sea some positive principles accepted by al1States willemerge.
1hope that this will beso, and shall be the first to applaud-and further-
more 1 shall be pleased to see the good use to which they can be put, inrefus de respecter l'engagement souscrit par elle dans l'échangede notes
du 11 mars 1961 de soumettre à la Cour internationale de Justice tout
différendqui s'élèverait l'occasion de l'extension de sa zone exclusivede
pêche,d'ailleurs prévuepar les Parties, au-delà des 12 milles marins, ce
refus injustifiéne coristitue-t-il pas une violation du droit international?
De mêmelorsque, contrairement à ce qui est généralementadmis par
la majorité des Etat.s dans la Convention de Genève de 1958, en son

article 2, ou il est clairement spécifié qu'il existezone de haute mer
qui estres <:ommunis, l'Islande décideunilatéralement par son règlement
du 14juillet 1972de porter sa compétenceexclusive de 12 milles marins
à 50 milles marins depuis les lignes de base, ne commet-elle pas là aussi
une violation du droit international? On ne saurait donc rien re~rocher
à la Cour si elle reconnaissait le bien-fondéde la demande.
Je crois pour ma part que la Cour aurait àcoup sûr renforcé sonauto-
rité juridictionnelle si elle avait répondu positivementla demande qui
lui est faite Dar leovaume-Uni.au lieu de se lancer dans l'élaboration
d'une thèsesur lesdroits préférentiels, zone de conservation des espèces
halieutiques ou les droits historiques, au sujet desquels il n'y a jamais eu
de différend, voirerriêmepas l'ombre d'une controverse ni de la part du
demandeur ni de celle du défendeur.

Par ailleurs, je ne suis pas indifférentau fait que la majorité dela Cour
semble avoir adopté la thèse qui se dégagedu présentarrêt dans le but
d'indiquer la voieà suivre aux membres de la Conférencesur le droit de
la mer siéganten ce moment àCaracas.
La Cour apparaît à cette occasion comme soucieuse d'indiquer les
principes selon lesquels il serait souhaitable qu'une réglementation inter-
nationale généralesoit adoptée en matière de droit de pêche.
Je ne méconnaispas la valeur des motifs ayant guidéla pensée de la
majoritéde la Cour et c'esà juste titre qu'elle a voulu tenir compte de la
situation spécialede: l'Islande et de ses habitants, situation qui mérite
d'êtreconsidérée co:mme digne d'être traitéeavec une sollicitude toute
particulière.l conviendraità cet égardd'envisager l'application du même
traitement à tous les pays en voie de développementse trouvant dans son

cas et qui, étantactiiellement victimes de l'inorganisation anarchique de
la pêche internationale, nourrissent l'espoir de voir régler tous ces
problèmes de pêcheries.Mais telle n'est pas laquestion posée à la Cour
et la réponsedonnéene peut êtreque qualifiée d'évasive.
En adoptant ce point de vue je n'ignore pas que je cours le risque que
l'on me reproche de ne pas êtreau diapason de la tendance actuelle de
voir la Cour s'attribuer un pouvoir créateur que ne lui reconnaît, mon
avis, ni la Charte des Nations Unies, ni son Statut. D'aucuns diraient
mêmepeut-être quela conception classique du droit international que je
professe est dépassée;pour ma part, je necrains pas de continuer respec-
ter lesnormes classiques de cedroit. Peut-être que dela troisième Confé-
rence sur le droit cle la mer se dégageront quelques principes positifs
acceptéspar tous les Etats. Je le souhaiteet y applaudirai tout le premier
et, de plus,je serai satisfait de voir la bonne application qu'on en pourraitparticular for the benefit of the developing countries. But since 1 am
above al1 faithful to judicial practice, 1 continue fervently to urge the
need for the Court to confine itself to its obligation to state the law as
it is at present in relation to the facts of the case brought before it.
1consider it entirely proper that, in international law as in every other
system of law, the existing law should be questioned from time to time
-this is the surest way of furthering its progressive development-but

it cannot be concluded from this that the Court should, for this reason
and on the occasion of the present dispute between Iceland and the United
Kingdom, emerge as the begetter of certain ideas which are more and
more current today, and are even shared by a respectable number of
States, with regard to the law of the sea, and which are in the minds, it
would seem, of most of those attending the Conference now Sitting in

Caracas. It is advisable, in my opinion, to avoid entering upon anything
which would anticipate a settlement of problenls of the kind implicit in
preferential and other rights.
To conclude this declaration, 1 think 1 may draw inspiration from the
conclusion expressed by the Deputy Secretary of the United Nations
Sea-Bed Committee, Mr. Jean-Pierre Lévy,in the hope that the idea it

expresses may be an inspiration to States, and to Iceland in particular
which, while refraining from following the course of law, prefers to
await from political gatherings a justification of its rights.
1 agree with Mr. Jean-Pierre Lévyin thinking that:

"it is to be hoped that States will make use of the next four or
five years to endeavour to prove to themselves and particularly to
theirnationals that the general interest of theinternational community
and the well-being of the peoples of the world can be preserved by
moderation, mutual understanding, and the spirit of compromise;

only these will enable the Third Conference on the Law of the Sea
to be held and to succeed in codifying a new legal order for the sea
and itsresources" ("La troisième Conférence sur le droit de la mer",
Annuairefrançais de droit international, 1971,p828).

In the expectation of the opening of the new era which is so much
hoped for, 1am honoured at finding myself in agreement with certain
Members of the Court like Judges Gros, Petrén and Onyeama for whom

the golden rule for the Court is that, in such a case, it should confine
itself strictly within the limits of the jurisdiction conferred on it.

Judge NAGENDR SINGHmakes the following declaration :

There are certain valid reasons which weigh with me to the extent that
they enable me to support the Judgment of the Court in this case andfaire, notamment ail bénéficedes pays en voie de développement. Mais
fidèleavant tout à la pratique juridictionnelle, je demeure fervent partisan
de la nécessitépour la Cour de se limiterà son obligation de dire le droit

tel qu'il existe présentement par rapport aux faits de la cause soumiseà
son appréciation.
pour le surplus, jie trouve absolument normal que, en droit interna-
tional comme en tout autre droit d'ailleurs, le droit existant puisse être
remis en cause de teimpsà autre - c'est le plus sûr moyen de promouvoir
son développement progressif - mais il n'ya pas lieu d'en conclure pour
autant que la Cour doit, pour cette raison età l'occasion du présent dif-
férend entre l'lslaride et le Royaume-Uni, paraître l'inspiratrice de
certaines idéesde plus en plus d'actualité,voire partagéespar un nombre
respectable d'Etats, en matière de droit de la mer et qui hantent, semble-
t-il, la plupart des conférenciers siégeantactuellement à Caracas. Il
convient, à mon avis, d'éviterd'entrer dans une voie d'anticipation quant
au règlement des p1:oblèmescomme ceux que les droits préférentielset
autres impliquent.
Pour terminer cette déclaration, je crois pouvoir m'inspirer de la con-

clusion que formule le secrétaireadjoint du Comitédes fonds marins des
Nations Unies, M. Jean-Pierre Lévy,en souhaitant que l'idéequi s'en
dégage puisse inspirer les Etats et plus particulièrement l'Islande qui,
négligeant de suivre la voie du droit, préfèreattendre des assemblées à
caractère politique la justification de sesdroits.
Je suis d'accord avecM. Jean-Pierre Lévypour penser que:

(cil esà espérer que les Etats mettront à profit ces quelques pro-
chaines quatre oucinq annéespour tenter de se prouver àeux-mêmes
et surtoutà leurs ressortissants, que l'intérêt générdael la commu-
nauté internationale et le bien-être des peuplesde la terre peuvent
être préservéspar la modération, la compréhension mutuelle et
l'esprit de compromis, qui seuls permettront à la troisième Confé-
rence sur le droit de la mer de se tenir et deréussir à codifier un
ordre juridiquce nouveau pour la mer et ses ressources)) (((La
troisième conference sur le droit de la mer », Annuairefrançais de
droit intern~tio~aal,1971,p. 828).

En attendant l'avènementde l'èrenouvelle tant souhaitée,je m'honore
de me trouver en accord avec quelques juges de la Cour tels que
MM. Gros, Petrén et Onyeama pour qui la règled'or pour la Cour doit
êtrede se limiter strictement, en de semblables causes,à ses attributions
juridictionnelles.

M. NAGENDRA SINGHj,uge, fait la déclarationsuivante:

Il est certains motifs dont la validité s'impàsmoi avec tant de force

qu'ils me permetterit de donner ma voix à l'arrêtque rend la Cour en la
3939 FlSHERlES JURISDICTION (DECL. NAGENDRA SINGH)

hence 1consider them of such importance as to be appropriately empha-

sized to convey the true significance of the Judgment-its extent as well
as its depth. These reasons, as well as those aspects of theJudgment which
have that importance from my viewpoint are briefly stated as follows:

While basing its findings on the bilateral law, namely the Exchange of
Notes of 1961which has primacy in this case, the Court has pronounced
upon (6) and (c) 1the second and third submissions of the Applicant's

Memorial on the merits, in terms of non-opposability to the United
Kingdom. This suffices for the purpose of that part of the Judgment and
is in accordance with the statement made by counsel2 for the Applicant
at the hearings, to the effect that the second and'third submissions are
separable from the first and it is open to the Court not to adjudicate on

the first submission (a) 1 which relates to the general law.

In the special circumstances of this case the Court has, therefore, not

proceeded to pronounce upon the first submission (a) of the Applicant,
which requests the Court to declare that Iceland's extension of its ex-
clusive fishery limit to 50 nautical miles is invalid being without foun-
dation in international law which amounts to asking the Court to find
that such extension is ipsojure, illegal and invalid erga omnes. Having re-

frained from pronouncing on that aspect it was, consequently, unneces-
sary for the Court to pronounce on the Applicant's legal contention in
support of its first submission, namely, that a customary rule of inter-
national law exists today imposing a general prohibition on extension
by States of their fisheries jurisdiction beyond 12 miles.

There is still a lingering feature of development associated with the
general law. The rules of customary maritime law relating to the limit
of fisheries jurisdiction have still been evolving and confronted by a
widely divergent and, discordant State practice, have not so far

crystallized. Again, the conventional maritime law though substantially
codified by the Geneva Conferences on the Law of the Sea of 1958 and
1960 has certain aspects admittedly left over to be settled and these now
constitute, among others, the subject of subsequent efforts at codification.
The question of the extent of fisheriesjurisdiction which is still one of the

unsettled aspects could not, therefore, be settled by the Court since it
could not "render judgment sub specie legis ferendae, or anticipate the
law before the legislator has laid it down".

--
1 See paras.1I and 12of the Judgmentfor the text of the submissions.
2 Hearing of 29 March 1974, CR 7413,p. 23.présente affaire;je leur attache une telle importance que je crois devoir les

souligner pour bien mettre en relief la valeur réellede cet arrêt,sa portée
aussi bien que son sens profond. Je voudrais les exposer brièvement ci-
après, ainsi que les aspects de l'arrêtqui revêtentà mes yeux une si grande
importance.

Fondant sa décision sur le droit résultant d'accords bilatéraux, à

savoir l'échange de notes de 1961 qui prime en l'espèce, la Cour s'est
prononcée sur les c:onclusions b) et c) 1 du demandeur, c'est-à-dire les
deuxième et troisièrne conclusions du mémoire déposépar celui-ci sur le
fond, en proclamant que les mesures prises par l'Islande ne sont pas

opposables au Royaume-Uni. Cela suffit aux fins de cette partie de l'arrêt;
c'est égalementconforme à la déclaration faite à l'audience2 par le conseil
du demandeur, lorsqu'il a dit que les deuxième et troisième conclusions
pouvaient être dissociées de la première, si bien qu'il était loisible à la
Cour de ne pas statuer sur la première conclusion, la conclusion a) 1,qui

faisait appel au droit général.
Dans les circonstances particulières de la présente affaire, la Cour ne
s'est donc pas prononcée sur la première conclusion, la conclusion a), du
demandeur qui priait la Cour de dire que l'élargissementpar l'Islande de

sa zone de compétericeexclusive sur les pêcheriesjusqu'à 50 milles marins
n'était pas valabledu fait qu'il étaitsansfondement en droit international,
ce qui équivalaitàd,emander à la Cour dedirequ'un tel élargissementétait
ipso jure contraire ;lu droit et dépourvu de validité erga omnes. S'étant

abstenue de statuer sur ce point, la Cour n'a donc pas eu à se prononcer
sur la thèsejuridique que le demandeur faisait valoir à l'appui de sa pre-
mière conclusion, à savoir qu'il existe actuellement une règle de droit in-
ternational coutumiier interdisant de façon généraleaux Etats d'étendre

au-delà de 12milles leur compétence en matière de pêcheries.
Un élémentde développement subsiste encore en ce qui concerne le
droit généra!.Les règlesde droit maritime coutumier relatives aux limites
de la compétence eri matière de pêcheriessont encore en voie d'évolution

et, face à des pratiques étatiques largement divergentes et fortement
discordantes, ne se sont pas cristallisées jusqu'ici. De même, bien
qu'on ait codifiéune grande partie du droit maritime conventionnel aux
Conférences de Genève de 1958 et de 1960 sur le droit de la mer, il est
certains élémentsde ce droit qui, tout le inonde l'admet, ont étélaissésde

côtépour êtreréglésplus tardet qui, avec d'autres matières, sont mainte-
nant l'objet de nouveaux efforts de codification. Etant donné que la
question de l'étenduede la compétence des Etats en matière de pêcheries
est au nonibre de ces élémentssur lesquels l'accord ne s'est pas encore

fait, la Cour ne pouvait pas la réglercar elle ne saurait ((rendre de décision
- --
1 On troiivera le texte de ces conclusions aux paragra11eet 12de l'arrêt.
2 11s'agit de l'audience du 29 mars 1974 (compte rendp.23).40 FISHERIES JURISDICTION (DECL. NAGENDRA SINGH)

This is of importance to me but 1do not have to elaborate this point
any further since 1 have subscribed to the views expressed by my col-
leagues in the jointseparate opinion of the fiveJudges wherein this aspect
has been more fully dealt with.

The contribution which the Judgment makes towards the development
of the Law of the Sea lies in the recognition which it gives to the concept
of preferential rights of a coastal State in the fisheries of the adjacent
waters particularly if that State is in a special situation with its population
dependent on those fisheries. Moreover, the Court proceeds further to

recognize that the law pertaining to fisheries must accept the primacy for
the need of conservation based on scientific data. This aspect has been
properly emphasized to the extent needed to establish that the exercise
of preferential rights of the coastal State as well as thehistoric rights of
other States dependent on the same fishing grounds, have al1 to be
subject to the over-riding consideration of proper conservation of the
fishery resources for the benefit ofal1concerned. This conclusion would
appear warranted if this vital source of man's nutrition is to be preserved
and developed for the community.
In addition there has always been the need for accepting clearly in
maritime matters the existence of the duty to "have reasonable regard to
the interests of other States"-a principle enshrined in Article 2 of the
Geneva Convention of the High Seas 1958 which applies even to the
four freedoms of the seas and has weighed with the Court in this case.
Thus the rights of the coastal State which must have preference over the
rights of other States in the coastal fisheries of the adjacent waters have
nevertheless to be exercised with due regard to the rights of other States

and the claims and counter-claims in this respect have to be resolved on
the basis of considerations of equity. There is, as yet, no specific con-
ventional law governing this aspect and it is the evolution of customary
law which has furnished the basis of the Court's Judgment in this case.

III

TheCourt,as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, taking
into consideration the special field in which it operates, has a distinct role
to play in the administration of justice. In that context the resolving of a
dispute brought before it by sovereign Statesconstitutes an element which
the Court ought not to ignore in its adjudicatory function. This aspect
relating to the settlement of a dispute has been emphasized in more than
one article of the Charter of the United Nations. There is Article 2,
paragraph 3, as well as Article 1,which both use words like "adjustrnentsub specie legisferendae, ni énoncerle droit avant que le législateurl'ait
édicté».
Bien que j'attache de l'importance à ce point, je ne m'y attarderai pas
davantage car je souscris aux vues exprimées par mes collègues dans
l'opinion commune ,quele groupe de cinq juges dont je fais partie a pré-
sentéeet où cet aspect du problèmeest traitéde façon plus détaillée.

La contribution que l'arrêtapporte au développement du droit de la
mer résidedans la ireconnaissance qu'il accorde à la notion des droits
préférentielsde 1'Etat riverain sur les pêcheries deseaux adjacentes,
surtout quand cet Etat se trouve dans une situation spécialeparce que
sa population est trilbutaire des pêcheriesdont il s'agit. De plus, la Cour
reconnaît ensuite que le droit en matière de pêchedoit accepter la
primauté des impératifs de la conservation sur la base de données
scientifiques. Cet éliment està juste titre mis en relief dans la mesure
nécessairepour établir que les droits préférentielsde 1'Etatriverain et les
droits historiquesd'#autresEtats tributaires des mêmes lieuxde pêche
doivent êtreexercéssous réservede la considération primordiale d'une

conservation rationnelle des ressources halieutiques dans l'intérêdte tous.
Cette conclusion se~nblejustifiéesi l'on doit protéger et développer au
profit de la collectivitécette source vitale de l'alimentation humaine.
En outre, il a toujours éténécessaired'admettre clairement, en matière
de droit maritime, l'existenced'une obligation de tenir ((raisonnablement
compte de l'intérêt [des] autres Etats)), ce principe consacréà l'article 2
de la Convention de: Genève de 1958 sur la haute mer qui s'applique
mêmeaux quatre libertésde la haute mer et que la Cour a pris en consi-
dération en l'espèce.. Enconséquence, les droits de 1'Etat riverain, qui
doivent avoir priorité sur ceux des autres Etats dans les pêcheries
côtières des eaux adjacentes, doivent néanmoins êtreexercéscompte
dûment tenu des droits des autres Etats et les prétentions opposéesqui
sont émises à ce sujet doivent êtreconciliéessur la base de considérations
d'équité. Il n'existe pas, jusqu'ici, de droit conventionnel qui régisse
expressément la question et c'est l'évolution du droit coutun~ier qui,

en l'espèce,a servi d.efondement à l'arrêtde la Cour.

III

La Cour, en tant qu'organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies et eu
égard au domaine spécialdans lequel elle exerce son activité, a un rôle
particulierà jouer dans l'administration de la justice. Dans cette optique,
la nécessitéd'apporte:r une solutionà tout différendque des Etats souve-
rains lui soumettent est un élémentque la Cour ne doit pas perdre de vue
dans l'exercice de sa. fonction judiciaire. Plus d'une disposition de la
Charte des Nations Unies met l'accent sur cet aspect de la question du
règlement des différends.On peut d'abord citer l'article 2, paragraphe 3,or settlement of international disputes or situations", whereas Article 33
directs Members to "seek u solution" of their disputes by peaceful means.

Furthermore, this approach is very much in accordance with the juris-
prudence of the Court. On 19 August 1929 the Permanent Court of
International Justice in its Order in the case of the Free Zones of Upper
Sai70gand the District of Gex (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 22, at p. 13) ob-
served that the judicial settlement of international disputes is simply an

alternative to the direct and friendly settlement of such disputes between
the parties. Thus if negotiations become necessary in the special circum-
stances of a particular case the Court ought not to hesitate to direct
negotiations in the best interests of resolving the dispute. Defining the
content of the obligation to negotiate, the permanent Court in its Ad-
visory Opinion of 1931 in the case of Railway Trafic between Lithuania

andPoland(P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 42, 1931,at p. 116)observed that the
obligation was "not only to enter into negotiations, but also to pursue
them as far as possible, with a view to concluding agreements" even if
"an obligation to negotiate does not imply an obligation to reach an
agreement". This does clearly imply that everything possible should be
done not only to promote but also to help to conclude successfully the

process of negotiations once directed for the settlement of a dispute. In
addition we have also the North Sea Continental Sheif cases (I.C.J.
Reports 1969) citing Article 33 of the United Nations Charterand where
the Parties were to negotiate in good faith on the basis of the Judgment to
resolve the dispute.

Though it would not only be improper but quite out of the question for
a court of law to direct negotiations in every case or even to contemplate
such a step when the circumstances did not justify the same, it would
appear that in this particular case negotiations appear necessary and flow
from the nature of the dispute, which is confined to the same fishing

grounds and relates to issues and problems which best lend themselves to
settlement by negotiation. Again, negotiations are also indicated by the
nature of the law which fiasto be applied, whether it be the treaty of 1961
with its six months' notice in the compromissory clause provided osten-
sibly for negotiations or whether it be reliance on considerations of
equity. The Court has, therefore, answered the last submission ((e) re-

lettered as (d) of the Applicant's Mernorial on the merits) in the affir-
mative and accepted that negotiations furnished the correct answer to the
problem posed by the need for equitably reconciling the historic right
of the Applicant based on traditional fishing with the preferential rights
of Iceland as a coastal State in a situation of special dependence on its
fisheries. The Judgment of the Court, in asking the Parties to negotiate a

lSee paras.11and 12of the Judgment for the text of the submissions.ainsi que l'article premier, où figurent des expressions telles que ((I'ajuste-
ment ou le règlement de différends ou de situations de caractère interna-

tional » ou ((règlent leurs différends internationaux )); il y a également
l'article 33 quienjointaux Etats Membres de ((rechercher la solution 1)de
leurs différendspar des moyens pacifiques.
Cette façon de voir les choses est, du reste, tout à fait conforme à la

jurisprudence de la Cour. Dans l'ordonnance qu'elle a rendue le 19 août
1929 en l'affaire des Zones franches de la Haute-Savoie et du Pays de
Gex (C.P.J.I. série,4 no 22, p. 13), la Cour permanente de Justice interna-
tionale a déclaréque le règlement judiciaire des conflits internationaux

n'était qu'un succédanéau règlement direct et amiable de ces conflits
entre les parties. Par conséquent, si la conduite de négociations paraît
nécessairidans les circonstances particulières d'un cas donné, la cour ne
doit pas hésiter à ordonner aux parties de négocier dans l'intérêtde la

solution du différend. Définissant le contenu de l'obligation de négocier,
la Cour permanente a déclaré,dans l'avis consultatif qu'elle a rendu en
1931 dans l'affaire du Trajc ferroviaire entre la Lithuanie et la Pologne
(C.P.J.I. sc;rieA/B rio42, 1931, p. 116), qu'il ne s'agissait ((pas seulement

d'entamer des négociations, mais encore de les poursuivre autant que
possible, en vue d'arriver à des accords D, mêmesi ((l'engagement de né-
gocier n'implique pas celui de s'entendre )).On doit manifestement en
déduire qu'une fois les négociations ordonnées en vue du règlement d'un

différend,tout doit être misen Œuvre non seulement pour en favoriser le
déroulement, mais aussi pour contribuer à en assurer l'heureuse issue.
Nous avons également l'arrêt rendu par la Cour dans les affaires du
Plateau continental de la mer du Nord (C.I.J. Recueil 1969) qui cite

l'article 33 de la Charte et d'après lequel les Parties devaient négocierde
bonne foi pour réglerleur différendsur la base de l'arrêt.
De toute évidence, il ne conviendrait guère et il serait mêmehors de
question qu'un tribunal ordonne des négociations dans chaque affaire

dont il est saisi, ou qu'il envisage de le faire lorsque les circonstances ne le
justifient pas; mais (enl'espèce desnégociations paraissent nécessaireseu
égard à la nature du différend,qui porte sur les mêmeslieux de pêcheet
soulève controverse!; et problèmes qui, plus que tous autres, se prêtentà

un règlement par voie de négociation. Le recours aux négociations paraît
également indiqué si I'on tient compte de la nature du droit qui doit être
appliqué, qu'il s'agisse de l'accord de 1961dont la clause compromissoire
prévoit un préavisde six mois manifestement destiné à permettre des né-

gociations ou que I'on fasse appel à des considérations d'équité.La Cour
a donc accueilli la dernière conclusion du demandeur, la conclusion e) 1,
devenue la conclusion d) dans le mémoire sur le fond, et a dit que les
négociations étaient le moyen auquel il convenait de recourir pour

résoudre le problème que pose la nécessitéde concilier de façon équitable
les droits historique:; que le demandeur tient de son activité traditionnelle
de pêche avec lesdroits préférentielsque l'Islande possède en tant qu'Etat

1On trouvera le texte de cette conclusion aux paragraphIl et 12 de l'arrêt.settlement, has thus emphasized the importance of resolving the dispute
inthe adjudication of the case.

No court of law and particularly not the International Court of Justice

could ever be said to derogate from its function when it gives due im-
portance to the settlement of a dispute which is the ultimate objective of
al1adjudication as wellas of the United Nations Charter and the Court,as
its organ, could hardly afford to ignore this aspect. A tribunal, while
discharging its function in that manner, would appear to be adjudicating
in the larger interest and ceasing to be narrow and restrictive in its
approach.
Thus, the interim agreement of 1973 entered into by the contesting
Parties with full reservations as to their respective rights andch helped
to avoid intensification of the dispute couldnever prevent the Court from
pronouncing on the United Kingdom submissions. To decide otherwise
would have meant imposing a penalty on those who negotiate an interim
agreement to avoid friction as a preliminary to the settlement of a dis-
pute.
Again, when confronted with the problem of its own competence in
dealing with that aspect of the dispute which relates to the need for con-
servation and the exercise of preferential rights with due respect forhis-

toric rights, the Court has rightly regarded those aspects to be an integral
part of the dispute. Surely, the dispute before the Court has to be con-
sidered in al1 its aspects if it is to be properly resolved and effectively
adjudicated upon. This must be so if it is not part justice but the whole
justice which a tribunal ought always to have in view. It could, therefore,
be said that it was in the overall interests of settlement of the dispute
that certain parts of it which were inseparably linked to the core of
the conflict were not separated in this case to be left unpronounced
upon. The Court has, of course, to be mindful of the limitations that
result from the principle of consent as the basis of international obli-
gations, which also governs its own competence to entertain a dispute.
However, this could hardly be taken to mean that a tribunal con-
stituted as a regular court of law when entrusted with the determination
of a dispute by the willing consent of the parties should in any way
fa11short of fully and effectively discharging its obligations. It would be
somewhat disquieting if the Court were itself to adopt either too narrow
an approach ortoo restricted an interpretation of those very words which
confer jurisdiction on the Court such as in this case "the extension of

fisheries jurisdiction around Iceland" occurring in the compromissory
clause of the Exchange of Notes of 1961.Those words could not be held
to confine the competence conferred on the Court to the sole question
of the conformity or otherwise of Iceland's extension of its fishery limits
with existing legal rules. The Court, therefore, need not lose sight of the
consideration relating to the settlement of the dispute while remaining
strictly within the framework of the 1awwhich it administers and adhering
always to the procedures which it must follow. COMPE~ENCEPÊCHERIES(DÉCL.NAGENDRASINGH) 42

riverain spécialementtributaire de sespêcheries.Dansson arrêt,la Cour a
invitéles Parties à négocierun règlement; elle a ainsi soulignécombien

elletenaità ce que :sadécisionassurela solution du différend.
On ne peut dire (d'aucuneinstance judiciaire- et d'autant moins de la
Cour international'e de Justic- qu'elle déroge à sa fonction lorsqu'elle
accorde au règ1eme:ntdu litige la place importante qu'il mérit- c'est là
l'objectif ultime de toute décision judiciaire de mêmeque celui de la
Charte, et la Cour, en tant qu'organe des Nations Unies, ne saurait guère
manquer d'en tenir compte. Touktribunal qui s'acquitterait de sa fonc-
tion decette manièirerendrait, semble-t-il, lajustice dans une optique plus
large, libre deoute:sconceptions étroites et limitées.
L'accord provisoire de 1973que les Parties au différendont conclu en
réservant pleinement leurs droits respectifs et qui a beaucoup contribué
à prévenirl'aggravation du litige ne pouvait en aucune manière empêcher
la Cour destatuersur lesconclusions du Royaume-Uni. En déciderautre-
ment aurait abouti à punir ceux qui, en attendant le règlement de leur

différend, négocientun arrangement provisoire pour prévenir les fric-
tions.
De même, lorsquiela Cour a examinéla question de savoir si elle avait
compétencepour connaître de l'aspect du litige qui avait trait aux néces-
sités de la conservation et à l'exercice de droits préférentielscompte
dûment tenu des droits historiques, elle a considéré à juste titre que cet
aspect faisait partie intégrante du di'fférenddont elle était saisie. Il est
évidentque, pour pouvoir se prononcer efficacement sur le différendqui
lui étaitsoumis etIiiitrouver la solution appropriée, la Cour devait I'exa-
miner sous tous ses asoects. Comment en irait-il autrement si l'on veut
que la justicerendue ne soit pas une justice partielle, mais cette justice
complète à laquelle un tribunal doit toujours tendre?On peut donc dire
que c'est égalementdans l'intérêt générdau l règlement du différendque

la Cour n'en a pas dissocié certains élémentsindissolublement liés à
l'essentiel du présent litige pour refuser de se prononcer à leur égard.
La Cour doit certes ne pas perdre de vue les limitations qui découlentdu
principe du consentement en tant que fondement des obligations inter-
nationales, principe qui régit également sapropre compétence pour
connaître d'un différend. Cela ne saurait cependant signifier que lorsque,
du libre consentement des parties, un organe régulièrement constitué
en cour de justice est chargé detrancher un différendil doit de quelque
manière que ce soit manquer de s'acquitter pleinement et efficacement
de ses obligations.KIserait un peu inquiétant de voir la Cour elle-même
adopter une conception trop étroite ouune interprétation trop restrictive
du libelléde la .disposition qui lui confère compétence, en l'occurence
du membre de phrase (tl'élargissement de la juridiction sur les
pêcheriesautour de l'Islande», que l'on trouve dans la clause com-

promissoire de l'échange de notes de 1961. Il serait impossible de
considérer que ce membre de phrase limite la compétence conférée à la
Cour à la seule question desavoir sil'extension par l'Islande de sazone de
pêche estou non conforme aux règlesde droit existantes. Aussi, la Cour FISHERIESJURJSDICTION (DECL. NAGENDRA SINGH)

For purposes of administering the law of the sea and for proper under-
standing of matters pertaining to fisheries as well as to appreciate the
facts of this case, it is of some importance to know the precise content of
the expression "fisheries jurisdiction" and for what it stands and means.

The concept of fisheries jurisdiction does cover aspects such as enforce-
ment of conservation measures, exercise of preferential rights and respect
for historic rights since each one may involve an element of jurisdiction
to implement them. Even the reference to "extension" in relation to
fisheries jurisdiction which occurs in the compromissory clause of the
1961 treaty could not be confined to mean merely the extension of a

geographical boundary line or limit since such an extension would be
meaningless without a jurisdictional aspect which constitutes, as it were,
itsjuridical content. It is significant, therefore, that the preamble of the
Truman Proclamation of 1945 respecting United States coastal fisheries
refers to a "jurisdictional" basis for implementing conservation measures
inthe adjacent sea since such measures have to be enforced like any other

regulations in relation to a particular area. This further supports the
Court's conclusion that it had jurisdiction todeal with aspects relating to
conservation and preferential rights since the 1961 treaty by the use of
the words "extension of fisheries jurisdiction" must be deeined to have
covered those aspects.

Another aspect of the Judgment which has importance from my
viewpoint is that it does not "preclude the Parties from benefiting from
any subsequent developments in the pertinent rules of international law"
(para. 77). The adjudicatory function of the Court must necessarily be

confined to the case before it. No tribunal could take notice of future
events, contingencies or situations that may arise consequent on the
holding or withholding of negotiations or otherwise even by way of a
further exercise of jurisdiction. Thus, a possibility or even a probability
of changes in law or situations in the future could not prevent the Court
from rendering Judgment today.ne doit-elle pas perdre de vue les considérations touchant la solution du
litige, tout en se ma.intenant rigoureusement dans le cadre du droit qu'elle

estchargéed'appliquer et en demeurant fidèleen toute occasion aux procé-
dures qu'elle doit suivre.

Aux fins de l'application du droit de la mer, de mêmeque pour bien
comprendre les questions relatives aux pêcherieset se faire unejuste idée
des faits dans la prr!sente espèce, il n'est pas sans importance de savoir ce

qu'est le contenu précisdes expressions ((compétenceen matière de pêche-
ries ))ou ((juridiction sur les pêcheries ))ce qu'elles signifientet ce qu'elles
recouvrent. La notion de compétenceen matière de pêcheriess'étend à des
domaines comme l'application de mesures de conservation, l'exercice de

droits préférentielset le respect de droits historiques, étant donné que,
dans chacun de ces domaines, la mise en Œuvre peut faire intervenir un
élémentde compéti:nce. Mêmele mot ccélargissement ))qui figure, aux
côtésdesmots ((delajuridiction sur lespêcheries »,dans la clause compro-

missoire de I'accorclde 1961, ne saurait être interprétérestrictivement de
manière à viser simplement l'élargissementd'une zonegéographique ou le
report d'une limite, car un tel élargissement ou report serait privé de
toute signification en l'absence d'un élément juridictionnel lui donnant,

en quelque sorte, son contenu juridique. Il'n'est donc pas sans intérêtde
souligner que le priiambule de la Proclamation Truman de 1945 concer-
nant les pêcheriescôtières des Etats-Unis fait mention d'une base ccjuri-
dictionnelle ))pour l'application de mesures de conservation dans les eaux

adjacentes, étant donné que de telles mesures doivent être appliquées
comme tout autre rkglement dans une zone particulière. C'est là un argu-
ment de plus à l'appui de la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle elle a
compétence pour traiter des aspects du différendqui ont trait à la conser-

vation et aux droits préférentiels,car l'expression ((l'élargissement de la
juridiction sur les plScheries ))que l'on trouve dans l'accord de 1961 doit
êtreréputée engloberlesdits aspects.

Un autre aspect de l'arrêt quirevêtde l'importance à mes yeux est qu'il
((ne peut ... empêcherles Parties de tirer avantage de toute évolution

ultérieure des règlespertinentes du droit international ))(par. 77). La Cour
ne peut connaître qlue de I'afraire dont elle est saisie; elle ne saurait en
aucun cas tenir comlpted'une situation hypothétique qui pourrait résulter,
plus tard, de la con'duite de négociations ou du refus de négocier, ou de

tout autre événement, ycompris mêmeun nouvel acte juridictionnel.
Aussi, la possibilité ou mêmela probabilité de modifications du droit ou
des situations dans l'avenir ne saurait empêcher un tribunal de rendre
actuellement sa décision.44 FISHERIESJURISDICTI(DECL .AGENDRA SINGH)

Judges FORSTERB,ENGZON J,IMÉNEDEARECHAGA N,AGENDRSA INGH
and RUDAappend ajoint separate opinion to the Judgment of the Court;
Judges DILLARD, DE CASTROand Sir Humphrey WALDOCK append
separate opinions to the Judgment of the Court.

Judges GROS,PETRÉNand ONYEAMa Append dissenting opinions to the
Judgrnent of the Court.

(Znitialled) M.L.
(Znitialled) S.A. MM. FORSTER ~, ENGZO JI,ÉNEZ DEARÉCHAGA N,AGENDRS AINGH
et RUDA,juges, joignenà l'arrt ne opinion individuelle collective;
MM. DILLARD etDECASTRO et sir HumphreyWALDOCj Ku,ges, joignent
à l'arrêltes exposés deleur opinion individuelle.

MM. GROSP , ETIINt ONYEAMjAu,ges, joignànl'arrêltes exposés
de leur opinion dissidente.

(Paraphé)M.L.
(Paraphé)S.A.

ICJ document subtitle

Merits

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Judgment of 25 July 1974

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