Declaration of Judge ad hoc Kress

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178-20220722-JUD-01-02-EN
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178-20220722-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DECLARATION OF JUDGE AD HOC KRESS Representation of Myanmar  The Gambia’s standing  Point of terminology  The Gambia as a “non-injured State” or as an “injured State”  Concept of préjudice juridique  Similarity of the present case with the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal)  No need to demonstrate the existence of a separate individual legal interest in order to establish the standing of a contracting State to the Genocide Convention to invoke before the Court the collective interest underlying the relevant obligations of that Convention  Question of the adoption of countermeasures in the case of a violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes) not before the Court in the present case  Distinction between the jurisdictional requirement of State consent to jurisdiction and the admissibility requirement of standing in the case of obligations erga omnes (partes) works both ways  Inapplicability of the requirement of the nationality of claims in the case of obligations erga omnes (partes)  Bangladesh as a “specially affected State” vel non  Inability of Bangladesh in the present case to dispose completely of the collective interest protected by the Genocide Convention  No need for use of the term actio popularis  Possible need for a balance between the protection of community interests and the risk of proliferation of disputes  Need to show particular sensitivity with a view to ensuring procedural fairness for all parties to proceedings in which the protection of community interests is invoked. I. INTRODUCTION 1. I voted in favour of all the points contained in operative paragraph 115 of the Judgment. I also concur with the essence of the Court’s reasoning. In the following declaration, I shall first make a few observations regarding the change in Myanmar’s representation during these proceedings. I shall then elaborate on the Court’s reasoning with respect to The Gambia’s standing. This will be done in the spirit of contributing to the transparency of judicial reasoning regarding a legal issue which lies at the intersection of procedure and substance and which is of considerable importance1. II. MYANMAR’S REPRESENTATION IN THE PRESENT PROCEEDINGS 2. In paragraph 8 of the Judgment, the Court notes that Myanmar replaced H.E. Ms Aung San Suu Kyi as Agent and H.E. Mr. Kyaw Tint Swe as Alternate Agent. The Judgment, however, does not describe the factual background of this replacement. The change in Myanmar’s representation during these proceedings was, in fact, one of the consequences of events that took place after the declaration of the state of emergency by the armed forces of Myanmar. 3. These events caused grave concern in the international community. On 4 February 2021, the Members of the United Nations Security Council “expressed deep concern at the declaration of the state of emergency imposed in Myanmar by the military on 1 February and the arbitrary detention of members of the Government, including State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi and President Win 1 On the particular significance of the transparency of reasoning in contexts of the present kind, see A. Nollkaemper, “International Adjudication of Global Public Goods: The Intersection of Substance and Procedure”, The European Journal of International Law (EJIL), Vol. 23, 2012, p. 790. - 2 - Myint and others” and “called for the immediate release of all those detained” 2. This call was reiterated in a statement made by the President of the Security Council on 10 March 20213. In resolution 75/287, adopted on 18 June 2021, the General Assembly of the United Nations, “[e]xpressing grave concern about the declaration of the state of emergency by the Myanmar armed forces on 1 February 2021 and subsequent actions taken against the elected civilian Government, which also impact regional stability, and stressing its continued call upon Myanmar to act in accordance with the principle of adherence to the rule of law, good governance, the principles of democracy and constitutional government, respect for fundamental freedoms and the promotion and protection of human rights, as also provided for in the Charter of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [e]xpressing deep concern about the arbitrary detention and arrest of President Win Myint, State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi, and other government officials and politicians, human rights defenders, journalists, civil society members, foreign experts and others, [s]trongly condemning the use of lethal force and violence, which has led to injuries and fatalities in many cases, against peaceful demonstrators, as well as members of civil society, women, youth, children and others, expressing deep concern at restrictions on medical personnel, civil society, labour union members, journalists and media workers, and people who protect and promote human rights, and calling for the immediate release of all those detained arbitrarily, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. [c]all[ed] upon the Myanmar armed forces to respect the will of the people as freely expressed by the results of the general election of 8 November 2020, to end the state of emergency, to respect all human rights of all the people of Myanmar and to allow the sustained democratic transition of Myanmar, including the opening of the democratically elected parliament and by working towards bringing all national institutions, including the armed forces, under a fully inclusive civilian Government that is representative of the will of the people; 2. [a]lso call[ed] upon the Myanmar armed forces to immediately and unconditionally release President Win Myint, State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi and other government officials and politicians and all those who have been arbitrarily detained, charged or arrested, including to ensure their rightful access to justice, and to engage and support the Association of Southeast Asian Nations constructively with a view to realizing an inclusive and peaceful dialogue among all stakeholders through a political process led and owned by the people of Myanmar to restore democratic governance”. 4. At the opening of the oral pleadings on 21 February 2022, the President of the Court observed that “the parties to a contentious case before the Court are States, not particular governments”. She added that “[t]he Court’s judgments and its provisional measures orders bind the States that are parties to a case” (CR 2022/1, p. 11). While I take no issue with this statement, I note 2 Security Council Press Statement on Situation in Myanmar, 4 Feb. 2021, UN press release SC/14430. 3 UN doc. S/PRST/2021/5. - 3 - that it fails to explain the grounds that led the Court to act upon the replacement described in paragraph 8 of the Judgment. That lack of explanation could give the impression that the replacement was a matter of course. This, however, was not the case, as can be seen, for example, from the fact that on 1 February 2022 the “National Unity Government” announced that it had appointed H. E. U Kyaw Moe Tun, the Permanent Representative of Myanmar to the United Nations in New York, as the Agent of Myanmar in the case 4. Nor was the replacement self-explanatory from a legal perspective, as the laconic formulation of paragraph 8 of the Judgment might suggest; this is perhaps most immediately apparent from the wording of the sixth preambular paragraph and the second operative paragraph of above-mentioned General Assembly resolution 75/287. 5. In my opinion, under such circumstances, for the Court to proceed in the way that it did is less than satisfactory. On a more general level, I have been left wondering whether it might be appropriate for the Court to reflect on how it deals with factual and legal difficulties in identifying the government of a given State for the purposes of representation in proceedings before the Court, with a view to exploring possible improvements in this regard in the future. III. THE GAMBIA’S STANDING 6. In paragraphs 106 to 113 of the Judgment, the Court applies the concept of obligation erga omnes partes to the relevant obligations of the Genocide Convention in order to explain The Gambia’s standing in the case. Here too, I agree with the essence of the Court’s reasoning. However, in view of the considerable significance of this aspect of the Judgment, I wish to elaborate on it a little further. 1. A point of terminology 7. I shall begin with a point of terminology. In the present case, The Gambia alleges the violation of an obligation erga omnes partes, but it does not claim to have been specially affected by that violation. While Myanmar refers to The Gambia as a non-injured State (CR 2022/1, p. 28, paras. 7-8 (Talmon)), The Gambia describes itself as an injured (though not specially injured) State (Written Observations of The Gambia on the Preliminary Objections Raised by Myanmar (hereinafter “Written Observations of The Gambia”), paras. 3.9 and 3.52). In order to better understand the Parties’ divergent uses of the term “injured State”, it is helpful to refer to the International Law Commission’s Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (hereinafter the “ILC Articles on State Responsibility”). Articles 42 and 48 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility distinguish between an “injured State”, on the one hand, and a “State other than an injured State” which is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State resulting from that State’s violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes), on the other. 8. Myanmar’s qualification of The Gambia as a “non-injured” State is in line with the ILC’s use of that term: pursuant to the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, The Gambia is a non-injured State because the obligations whose breach it invokes do not fall under any of the cases listed in Article 42 of those Articles, and, in particular, because The Gambia is not specially affected within the meaning of Article 42 (b) (i). 9. For The Gambia, however, the violation of an obligation erga omnes partes “necessarily injures omnes partes” (Written Observations of The Gambia, para. 3.9). The Gambia thus 4 Announcement (2/2022) – Myanmar withdraws all preliminary objections to the International Court of Justice hearing on the genocide case, 1 Feb. 2022, available at https://gov.nugmyanmar.org/2022/02/01/announcement-2-2022-myanmar-withdraws-all-preliminary-objections-to-the-international-court-of-justice-hearing-on-the-genocide-case/. - 4 - understands the concept of injury as encompassing injury in a purely normative sense. This wider understanding of the concept of injury was also mentioned during the ILC’s work on State responsibility. The reasons in support of accepting the notion of préjudice juridique are perhaps most clearly articulated in a study published by Brigitte Stern soon after the adoption of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility. In a similar way to The Gambia in the present proceedings, Stern maintains the following: “Il nous paraît à tout le moins curieux que certains Etats puissent invoquer la responsabilité d’un Etat s’ils ne sont pas lésés. Si un Etat est bénéficiaire d’une obligation qui a été violée, je ne vois pas comment on pourrait considérer qu’il n’est pas un Etat lésé.”5 10. In its jurisprudence to date, the Court has not adopted the ILC’s distinction between an “injured State” and a “State other than an injured State” which is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State resulting from that State’s violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes). It has instead extended the concept of “legal interest” to instances in which the interest of the State concerned derives exclusively from the common (or collective) interest in compliance with an obligation erga omnes partes (Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 449, para. 68)6. Stern has usefully stated the following about an understanding of the term “legal interest” which extends to all instances covered by Articles 42 and 48 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility: “Simplement, l’intérêt juridique des uns n’est pas le même que l’intérêt juridique des autres : dans un cas il s’agit de l’intérêt juridique à ce que ses droits ne soient pas violés, dans l’autre de l’intérêt juridique à ce que le droit soit respecté.”7 11. In the present Judgment, the Court’s use of terms is in keeping with its previous jurisprudence: it has still not adopted the ILC’s distinction between an “injured State” and a “State other than an injured State” which is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State resulting from that State’s violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes); in fact, it has refrained from using the concept of “injured State” at all (see paragraph 106 of the Judgment). This approach is not only sensible for reasons of judicial economy. It is also welcome because the Court’s use of the term “legal interest” in a broader sense conveys the community dimension of the concept of obligation erga omnes (partes), and does so in essentially the same way as the concept of préjudice juridique. In the words of Stern, “reconnaître le préjudice juridique aurait été une avancée encore plus significative vers une vision communautaire que l’approche qui a été retenue, les Etats n’ayant pas seulement le droit d’agir au nom de la communauté internationale, mais agissant en leur nom propre comme fondamentalement concernés par le devenir de la collectivité, c’est-à-dire concernés dans leurs intérêts juridiques du fait de leur participation intime 5 B. Stern, “Et si on utilisait la notion de préjudice juridique ? Retour sur une notion délaissée à l’occasion de la fin des travaux de la C.D.I. sur la responsabilité des Etats”, Annuaire français de droit international (AFDI), Vol. 47, 2001, p. 24. 6 The ILC explicitly recognizes the difference between the Court’s use of the term “legal interest” and its own use of that term in paragraph 2 of its commentary on draft Article 48: “Although the Court [in the Barcelona Traction case] noted that ‘all States can be held to have a legal interest in’ the fulfilment of these rights, article 48 refrains from qualifying the position of the States identified in article 48, for example by referring to them as ‘interested States’. The term ‘legal interest’ would not permit a distinction between articles 42 and 48, as injured States in the sense of article 42 also have legal interests.” (Yearbook of the International Law Commission (YILC), 2001, Vol. II, Part 2, p. 126.) 7 B. Stern, op. cit., p. 24. - 5 - à la communauté internationale, par toute violation d’une norme essentielle pour cette communauté” 8. 2. A few reflections on the concept of obligation erga omnes (partes) and its application in the present case 12. I shall now turn from terminology to the substance of the matter. One argument put forward by Myanmar in order to deny The Gambia’s standing consists in attempting to make a distinction between the “common” interest in the accomplishment of the high purposes of the Genocide Convention, on the one hand, and the “individual legal interest” of every State party in compliance with the relevant obligations under the Convention, on the other (CR 2022/1, pp. 28-29, paras. 8-13 (Talmon)). The Court responds to this argument in paragraph 108 of the Judgment and, in doing so, relies on its ruling in the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 449, para. 68). 13. Indeed, Myanmar is unsuccessful in its attempts to distinguish between the present case and the one between Belgium and Senegal for the purposes of the present proceedings. While it is true, as argued by Myanmar, that the content of the obligation at issue in the Belgium v. Senegal case is different to that of the obligation in question in the present case (CR 2022/1, p. 36, para. 49 (Talmon)), this has no bearing: in their crucial respect  the structure of the legal relationship that they establish  the obligations in question do not differ in any meaningful way. Both have been established in the pursuit of a common (or collective) interest and may thus be called collective obligations. And, contrary to Myanmar’s assertions (Preliminary Objections of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar (hereinafter “Preliminary Objections of Myanmar”), para. 242), the Court’s Judgment in Belgium v. Senegal cannot be set aside because Belgium also claimed to have a special interest, as the Court recalls in paragraph 107 of the present Judgment. Indeed, the Court explicitly stated in its Judgment in the Belgium v. Senegal case that the question whether Belgium had such a special interest was immaterial to its determination (Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 450, para. 70). 14. In addition, to distinguish between “common interest” and “individual interest” in the way the Court was asked to do by Myanmar would be to fail to take due account of the fact that the international community is not fully institutionalized and that, as a result, individual States have an important function in allowing the “common interest” to be provided with judicial protection9. As Brigitte Stern has astutely observed: “Si l’on reconnaît en effet l’existence d’intérêts collectifs en l’absence de personnification de la communauté internationale, il est possible de considérer que chacun de ses éléments constitutifs de base  à savoir chacun des Etats qui composent cette communauté  est dépositaire de ces intérêts collectifs et comptable de leur respect par tous les autres Etats. Après tout, on parle d’obligations erga omnes et non d’obligations erga totum !”10 15. States may of course decide not to vest the attainment or preservation of a common interest with judicial protection when drafting a convention to one of those ends. But such a decision cannot 8 B. Stern, op. cit., p. 29; emphasis added. 9 Reference may be made here to G. Scelle’s early idea of a dédoublement fonctionnel of the State organ in charge; G. Scelle, “Règles générales du droit de la paix”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 46, 1933-IV, p. 358. 10 B. Stern, op. cit., p. 16. - 6 - be presumed. Once it has been determined that an obligation has been established in pursuit of a common interest, such as that laid down by the Genocide Convention, there is thus no need to demonstrate, on the basis of additional considerations, the existence of a separate “individual legal interest” in order to justify standing before the Court. On the contrary, the standing of each contracting State to invoke before the Court a common interest such as that established by the Genocide Convention must be presumed, unless the provisions of the relevant convention indicate otherwise. The approach to the question of standing that the Court chose to adopt in its 1966 Judgment in the South West Africa cases is understood by one learned observer to amount to a “presumption against the existence of treaty-based enforcement rights irrespective of individual injury” 11. If such an overly broad presumption is indeed the judicial message of the Court’s 1966 Judgment in the South West Africa cases, the present Judgment further consolidates the Court’s subsequent departure from the stance it adopted in 1966. 16. This is not to say  and the Court refrains from so saying in paragraph 108 of the Judgment with its use of the word “relevant”  that once it has been established that a convention was concluded to serve a common interest, it follows that each and every obligation contained therein necessarily constitutes an obligation erga omnes partes. In view of the fact that the obligations said by The Gambia to have been violated by Myanmar are central to the fulfilment of the common interest underlying the Genocide Convention, the Court was not required to consider the question whether it might be justified to deny the erga omnes partes character of an obligation that is markedly peripheral to the fulfilment of a convention’s common interest. In particular, the Court did not have to address the question raised by Myanmar (CR 2022/1, p. 30, para. 22 (Talmon)) as to whether the obligation to provide effective penalties for persons guilty of genocide enshrined in Article V of the Genocide Convention possesses an erga omnes partes character. However, it must be added here that the question as to whether any obligation enshrined in the Genocide Convention could be devoid of an erga omnes partes character should be approached with great caution. 17. In order to establish The Gambia’s standing in the present case, the Court was also not required to elaborate in more detail on what it takes for an obligation, enshrined in a convention, to “transcend the sphere of the bilateral relations of the States parties”12 so as to acquire an erga omnes partes character. More specifically, it was not necessary for the Court to look more closely at the concept of “common interest” (or collective interest) as a prerequisite for the presumption mentioned in paragraph 15 above that an obligation possesses an erga omnes partes character13. For this specific purpose, the common interest must extend beyond the shared interest that all States parties have in the preservation of the legal régime established by a multilateral treaty, because such an interest also exists in instances of what Judge Simma, writing in his scholarly capacity, has called a “multilateral treaty bilateral in application”14. The Court referred to a common interest of this kind in the case concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980, pp. 42-43, para. 92), for example15. The Court has previously made it abundantly clear that the Genocide Convention serves a much more pronounced common interest 11 C. J. Tams, Enforcing Obligations Erga Omnes in International Law, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press (CUP), 2005, p. 69. 12 International Law Commission, Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, YILC, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, pp. 126-127, commentary to Article 48, para. 7. 13 For a helpful typology, see I. Feichtner, “Community Interest”, in: R. Wolfrum (ed.), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Volume II, Oxford, Oxford University Press (OUP), 2012, pp. 479-481, paras. 13-25. 14 B. Simma, “From Bilateralism to Community Interest in International Law”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 250, 1994, p. 336, para. 92. 15 P. d’Argent, “Les obligations internationales”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 417, 2021, pp. 61-62, para. 77. - 7 - in that it recognizes and protects a fundamentally important common value 16. In particular, the Court has already affirmed that the Genocide Convention “was manifestly adopted for a purely humanitarian and civilizing purpose” and that “its object on the one hand is to safeguard the very existence of certain human groups and on the other to confirm and endorse the most elementary principles of morality” (Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 23). Moreover, the Court has already determined that the outlawing of genocide has given rise to obligations not only erga omnes partes but towards the international community as a whole, i.e. obligations erga omnes (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 32, paras. 33-34). In this connection, it may be added that the interest of the international community as a whole is of such weight that the prohibition of genocide constitutes a peremptory norm of general international law (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 32, para. 64). Beyond this, the commission of genocide directly engages the criminal responsibility of the individual concerned under customary international law17. Hence, the outlawing of genocide, in addition to establishing obligations incumbent on States towards the international community as a whole, has created obligations for individuals, compliance with which is sanctioned by virtue of a jus puniendi that serves, once again, an interest of the international community as a whole. Against this background, the Court was not required, in the present case, to consider the outer limits of the concept of “common interest” for the purpose of recognizing obligations erga omnes (partes). 18. The fact that the Genocide Convention itself opens up a number of different avenues through which to act in the pursuit of the common interest, and that international law, more broadly, envisages even more such avenues, is illustrative of the particular weight of the common interest in question rather than an argument against The Gambia’s standing in the present case. While the entitlement of a State party to invoke the responsibility of another State party for an alleged violation of an obligation erga omnes partes under the Genocide Convention is not the only way to act in the relevant common interest, a State’s entitlement to seek judicial protection before the Court significantly complements the other avenues through which it may uphold that interest. 3. The institution of judicial proceedings and the adoption of countermeasures 19. Another argument put forward by Myanmar to deny The Gambia’s standing consists in contending that the right to invoke the responsibility of another State must not be confused with the “fundamentally different” right to enforce such a responsibility “by bringing a case before the Court” (Preliminary Objections of Myanmar, para. 218). In response to this argument, the Court observes, in paragraph 108 of the Judgment, that “[r]esponsibility for alleged breach of obligations erga omnes partes under the Genocide Convention may be invoked through the institution of proceedings before the Court”. To this, it may be added that Myanmar’s attempts, for the purposes of its argument, to assimilate the institution of proceedings before the Court to the adoption of countermeasures (Preliminary Objections of Myanmar, para. 228) is misplaced in view of the clearly distinct character of these two courses of action. It is true that it is neither uncommon nor wrong to say, as Myanmar does (ibid., para. 218), that “bringing a case before the Court” constitutes a form of “enforcing” the international obligation allegedly violated by the respondent State. In the present context, however, this use of the term “enforcement” in so wide a sense as to encompass adjudication lends itself to misunderstanding, if the significant differences that exist between adjudication and coercion are not 16 In this regard, see I. Feichtner, op. cit., p. 481, para. 22. 17 See United Nations General Assembly resolution 96 (I) of 11 December 1946, entitled “The Crime of Genocide”, para. 1. - 8 - highlighted at the same time 18. In this context, it bears emphasizing that the question of the adoption of countermeasures in the event of a violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes) was not before the Court in the present case. 4. The jurisdictional requirement of consent and the admissibility requirement of standing 20. At this juncture of the analysis, it is useful to recall that, according to the Court’s earlier jurisprudence, the distinction between the jurisdictional requirement of State consent to jurisdiction and the admissibility requirement of standing also applies in the case of an obligation erga omnes (partes) (see, for example, Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 32, para. 64). This distinction works both ways: just as the existence of obligations erga omnes partes does not preclude the entering of a reservation to a compromissory clause contained in a convention, neither does the possibility to enter a reservation to a compromissory clause contained in a convention preclude the characterization of obligations contained in the same convention as applying erga omnes partes19. 21. In the latter case, the option to enter a reservation simply means that every State party to the convention concerned is in a position to prevent, by way of a reservation, its responsibility for the violation of an obligation erga omnes partes being invoked through the institution of proceedings before the Court, without this in any way contradicting the erga omnes partes nature of the obligation in question (Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), declaration of Judge Donoghue, pp. 588-589, paras. 16-17; but see Application of the Convention on Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v. Myanmar), Order of 23 January 2020, I.C.J. Reports 2020, separate opinion of Judge Xue, p. 34, para. 6). 22. In recognizing The Gambia’s standing, the Judgment does nothing to depart from this jurisprudence. Therefore, Myanmar’s reference to the Court’s previous observation that “the erga omnes character of a norm and the rule of consent to jurisdiction are two different things” (East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 102, para. 29, quoted in Preliminary Objections of Myanmar, para. 219), while being correct in and of itself, is immaterial to the question of The Gambia’s standing. 5. A few reflections on Myanmar’s reference to paragraph 91 in Barcelona Traction 23. In paragraph 109 of the Judgment, the Court rightly states that “[f]or the purpose of institut[ing] . . . proceedings before the Court, a State does not need to demonstrate that any victims of an alleged breach of obligations erga omnes partes under the Genocide Convention are its nationals”. 18 For a similarly broad use of the term “enforcement”, but with due regard for the significant differences between what he calls “public interest litigation” and “coercive responses”, see C. J. Tams, “Individual States as Guardians of Community Interests”, in: U. Fastenrath et al. (eds.), From Bilateralism to Community Interest. Essays in Honour of Judge Bruno Simma, Oxford, OUP, 2011, pp. 382-392. 19 For a useful exposition of the legal situation, see P. Urs, “Obligations erga omnes and the question of standing before the International Court of Justice”, Leiden Journal of International Law, Vol. 34 (2), 2021, pp. 518-520. - 9 - 24. In support of its argument to the contrary, Myanmar refers to the Court’s previous observation that, “on the universal level, the instruments which embody human rights do not confer on States the capacity to protect the victims of infringements of such rights irrespective of their nationality” (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 47, para. 91). 25. I do not consider this observation in Barcelona Traction to have been worded in a felicitous manner: because of its broad formulation, it could be construed as suggesting that the human rights obligations enshrined in universal instruments do not possess an erga omnes partes character. If interpreted in such a manner, it would, however, be difficult to reconcile this passage in the Barcelona Traction Judgment with the Court’s earlier pronouncement in the same Judgment that “the principles and rules concerning the basic rights of the human person” are obligations erga omnes (ibid., p. 32, paras. 33-34)20. Moreover, if interpreted in such a manner, the observation in paragraph 91 of the Barcelona Traction Judgment would be contrary to the position adopted by the Human Rights Committee of the United Nations in General Comment No. 31, which is worded in the following terms: “While article 2 is couched in terms of the obligations of State Parties towards individuals as the right-holders under the Covenant, every State Party has a legal interest in the performance by every other State Party of its obligations. This follows from the fact that the ‘rules concerning the basic rights of the human person’ are erga omnes obligations and that, as indicated in the fourth preambular paragraph of the Covenant, there is a United Nations Charter obligation to promote universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms. Furthermore, the contractual dimension of the treaty involves any State Party to a treaty being obligated to every other State Party to comply with its undertakings under the treaty. In this connection, the Committee reminds States Parties of the desirability of making the declaration contemplated in article 41. It further reminds those States Parties already having made the declaration of the potential value of availing themselves of the procedure under that article. However, the mere fact that a formal interstate mechanism for complaints to the Human Rights Committee exists in respect of States Parties that have made the declaration under article 41 does not mean that this procedure is the only method by which States Parties can assert their interest in the performance of other States Parties. On the contrary, the article 41 procedure should be seen as supplementary to, not diminishing of, States Parties’ interest in each others’ discharge of their obligations. Accordingly, the Committee commends to States Parties the view that violations of Covenant rights by any State Party deserve their attention. To draw attention to possible breaches of Covenant obligations by other States Parties and to call on them to comply with their Covenant obligations should, far from being regarded as an unfriendly act, be considered as a reflection of legitimate community interest.”21 Paragraph 91 of the Barcelona Traction Judgment should therefore not be interpreted so as to deny the possibility that human rights obligations enshrined in universal instruments possess an erga omnes partes character. Instead, it should be understood as an imperfectly worded reference to the limitations that exist under certain universal human rights instruments with a view to the possibility 20 B. Bollecker-Stern, Le préjudice dans la théorie de la responsabilité internationale, Paris, Editions A. Pedone, 1973, pp. 85-87. 21 General Comment No. 31 (80), The Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant, adopted on 29 March 2004, 2187th meeting, UN doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13, 26 May 2004, pp. 1-2, para. 2. - 10 - of instituting judicial proceedings for an alleged violation 22. When viewed in this way, it becomes clear that Myanmar’s reference to paragraph 91 of the Barcelona Traction Judgment fails to appreciate that the Genocide Convention is different from two of the main universal instruments to which the Court alludes  namely, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights  in at least one important respect. Article IX of the Genocide Convention provides for a compromissory clause. For this reason, the Genocide Convention is, for the purposes identified by Myanmar, much more comparable, as regards the inapplicability of the nationality of claims rule, with the regional human rights instrument explicitly mentioned by the Court in the Barcelona Traction case: “It is therefore still on the regional level that a solution to this problem has had to be sought; thus, within the Council of Europe, of which Spain is not a member, the problem of admissibility encountered by the claim in the present case has been resolved by the European Convention on Human Rights, which entitles each State which is a party to the Convention to lodge a complaint against any other contracting State for violation of the Convention, irrespective of the nationality of the victim.” (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 47, para. 91.) It should be noted in passing that, with respect to the human rights obligations enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights, Henri Rolin spoke of obligations erga omnes as early as 195623. 6. A few reflections on paragraph 113 of the Judgment (Myanmar’s argument based on Bangladesh’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention) 26. With respect to Myanmar’s argument based on Bangladesh’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention, the Court observes in paragraph 113 of the Judgment that Bangladesh has faced a large influx of refugees. The Court goes on to say the following: “However, this fact does not affect the right of all other Contracting Parties to assert the common interest in compliance with the obligations erga omnes partes under the Convention and therefore does not preclude The Gambia’s standing in the present case.” This sentence is as correct as it is condensed. 27. There are three possible explanations for this sentence. The first is that Bangladesh, despite having faced a large influx of refugees, does not have a special legal interest entitling it to invoke Myanmar’s responsibility for alleged violations of the Genocide Convention and that any question of Bangladesh’s standing taking priority over the standing of The Gambia thus does not arise. The second possible explanation is that Bangladesh does have a special legal interest but that The Gambia’s standing is not dependent on that of Bangladesh. The third possible explanation is a cumulation of the previous two, i.e. that Bangladesh does not have a special legal interest but, even if it did, The Gambia’s standing would not be dependent on that of Bangladesh. The Judgment is silent in respect of these three possible explanations. However, since I deem the legal questions concerned to be important, I wish to offer my views on them. 22 F. Voeffray, L’actio popularis ou la défense de l’intérêt collectif devant les juridictions internationales, Paris, Presses universitaires de France (PUF), 2004, pp. 77-78; in the same sense, see “Fragmentation of international law: difficulties arising from the diversification and expansion of international law”, Report of the Study Group of the International Law Commission, finalized by Mr. Martti Koskenniemi, 13 April 2006, UN doc. A/CN.4/L.682 and Add.1, YILC, 2006, Vol. II (2: Addendum), p. 82, paras. 399-400. 23 H. Rolin, “Le rôle du requérant dans la procédure prévue par la Commission européenne des droits de l’Homme”, Revue hellénique de droit international, Vol. 9, 1956, p. 8. - 11 - 28. When addressing the question as to whether Bangladesh has a special legal interest entitling it to invoke Myanmar’s responsibility for alleged violations of the Genocide Convention, it is useful to consider the concept of “specially affected State”, even though the Court does not make use of it in the present Judgment. Judge Simma, once stated in respect of Article 60, paragraph 2 (a), of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties — where this concept appears — that “the use of the term ‘a party specially affected by the breach’ gives rise to very intricate problems that were taken up again by the International Law Commission in the course of its work on State responsibility”24. Indeed, the intricacies that arise in applying the above-mentioned term in the present case reveal themselves on a closer reading of the ILC’s commentary on the concept of “specially affected State” within the meaning of Article 42 (b) (i) of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility. The ILC has the following to say about the meaning of the concept of “specially affected State”: “Like article 60, paragraph 2 (b), of the 1969 Vienna Convention, subparagraph (b) (i) does not define the nature or extent of the special impact that a State must have sustained in order to be considered ‘injured’. This will have to be assessed on a case-by-case basis, having regard to the object and purpose of the primary obligation breached and the facts of each case. For a State to be considered injured, it must be affected by the breach in a way which distinguishes it from the generality of other States to which the obligation is owed.”25 The references in this citation to the factual circumstances of the individual case are of fairly little assistance when there is no criterion guiding the identification of the relevant factual circumstances. The one criterion that the ILC does offer is that of “the object and purpose of the primary obligation breached”, and this is indeed a helpful criterion. If applied to the present case, it gives rise to the question whether the influx of refugees into Bangladesh is a consequence of the type that the prohibition of genocide is specifically intended to prevent. One can also put the same question in slightly different terms: does the flight of large numbers of human beings under genocidal attack to a particular State turn that asylum State into a direct victim of genocide? The answer is far from obvious. If the object and purpose of the prohibition of genocide is simply to prevent protected groups of human beings from being destroyed, then the answer has to be in the negative. In that event, only those groups and the human beings composing them could be direct victims of genocide26. But what if one were to go further and say that the protection of the sovereign interest of States, especially those bordering the State where genocide is being committed, not to be confronted with the humanitarian need caused by the influx of a large number of refugees is also an object and purpose of the prohibition of genocide27? In that event, Bangladesh would have to be considered a direct victim and hence a State specially affected by Myanmar’s alleged genocide. This is a step I am very reluctant to take given the Court’s previous ruling that the Genocide Convention “was adopted for a purely humanitarian and civilizing purpose” and that “[i]n such a convention the contracting States do not have any interests of their own” (Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 23; emphasis 24 B. Simma, op. cit., p. 350, para. 101. 25 YILC, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 119, para. 12. 26 For the proposition that “not every obligation in the collective interest will have a primary victim”, see J. Crawford, State Responsibility: The General Part, Cambridge, CUP, 2013, p. 546. 27 One could also ask the question, not relevant here, whether in a case where a State commits genocide to the detriment of a protected group of persons with foreign nationality, the national State of the targeted group should be considered a direct victim of the genocide, in addition to the targeted group itself and the human beings composing it. - 12 - added) 28. I therefore harbour considerable doubt as to whether Bangladesh should be considered a “specially affected State” within the meaning of Article 42 (b) (i) of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility. For the same reasons, I am doubtful as to whether Bangladesh — to use to the terminology of the Judgment — has a special legal interest in invoking Myanmar’s responsibility for an alleged genocide. 29. Yet even if Bangladesh had such a special legal interest as a consequence of the influx of refugees to that country, in my view, this would not make The Gambia’s standing in the present case dependent on that of Bangladesh, and it is ultimately on the basis of this consideration that I agree with the conclusion set out by the Court in paragraph 113 of the Judgment. In the event of a violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes), it is, in my view, generally doubtful whether a State with a special legal interest — or, to use the terminology contained in Article 42 (b) (i) of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility, a specially affected State — could ever, on its own, dispose of the relevant collective interest completely29. The present case, however, does not call for a statement of such generality. This is because there are two different categories of obligations erga omnes (partes)30. The first kind of obligations erga omnes (partes) are characterized by the fact that the collective interest at stake is mediated through the special legal interest of at least one State. The prohibition of the use of force is one example of this type of obligation erga omnes (partes)31. In the event of a breach of this obligation, the collective interest comes into play through the violation of the special legal interest of at least one direct victim State. In this case, it is not completely misplaced to raise the question whether the State with the relevant special legal interest might be in a position to dispose of the relevant common interest completely. Yet this has no bearing in the present case. Indeed, the obligation erga omnes partes at issue here is of a different kind: in the case of the prohibition of genocide, the collective interest in the existence of the protected group under genocidal attack and the human beings composing that group is not mediated through the special legal interest of any State. Thus no State is in a position to dispose of the relevant collective interest completely. For this last reason alone, The Gambia’s standing in the present case is not dependent on that of Bangladesh. 28 I should perhaps underline that the hesitation that I have just expressed concerns only the question whether one or more States facing a large influx of refugees as a result of the commission of genocide is hereby specially affected by the breach of the prohibition of genocide. It is a different question, and one not to be addressed here, whether States that face a large influx of refugees as a result of the commission of genocide by another State may be in a position to invoke that State’s responsibility for the breach of another international obligation in order to claim reparation from that State and recover the costs incurred in connection with its reception of and care for the human beings concerned. This latter question has received some useful attention in the international legal doctrine; see, for example, C. Tomuschat, “State Responsibility and the Country of Origin”, in: V. Gowlland-Debbas (ed.), The Problem of Refugees in the Light of Contemporary International Legal Issues, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1996, pp. 71-71; W. Czapliński and P. Šturma, “La responsabilité des Etats pour les flux de réfugiés provoqués par eux”, AFDI, Vol. 40, 1994, pp. 160-162; H.R. Garry, “The Right to Compensation and Refugee Flows: A Preventative Mechanism in International Law?”, International Journal of Refugee Law, Vol. 10, 1998, pp. 103-106; L. T. Lee, “The Right to Compensation: Refugees and Countries of Asylum”, The American Journal of International Law (AJIL), Vol. 80, 1986, pp. 553-560. It may be added that a similar distinction must be borne in mind with respect to the situation mentioned in the preceding footnote, where a State commits genocide to the detriment of a protected group of persons with foreign nationality. If one did not consider the national State of the targeted group to be a direct victim of the genocide, in addition to the group itself and the human beings composing it, this would not prevent the national State invoking, through the exercise of diplomatic protection, the other State’s responsibility for the mistreatment of aliens. 29 See also G. Gaja, “The Protection of General Interests in the International Community: General Course on Public International Law (2011)”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 364, 2012, p. 104; Pok Yin S. Chow, “On Obligations Erga Omnes Partes”, Georgetown Journal of International Law, Vol. 52, 2021, p. 501. 30 Not infrequently, reference is made to a third category of obligations erga omnes (partes), the relevant obligations being called “interdependent”. This type of obligation erga omnes (partes) cannot by definition give rise to the question of priority because, in the case of a violation, all States to which the obligation is owed are affected in a material sense. For a more detailed analysis of this type of international obligation, see P. d’Argent, op. cit., pp. 82-84. 31 J. Crawford, op. cit., p. 546. - 13 - 30. In light of the foregoing, the Court was right to conclude in paragraph 113 of the Judgment that it need not decide whether Bangladesh’s reservation to the Court’s jurisdiction may be assimilated to a waiver of a relevant claim, a question I would be strongly inclined to answer in the negative. There was even less need for the Court to decide whether a waiver of responsibility is even possible in the case of a violation of a rule of peremptory character32. 7. In response to Myanmar’s concerns regarding possible wider ramifications of admitting The Gambia’s standing in the present case 31. In its submissions, Myanmar also voiced concern with respect to the possible wider ramifications of granting The Gambia standing in the present case. It spoke of the danger of “a potentially unmanageable proliferation of disputes” that would result from the Court’s admission of what Myanmar has termed The Gambia’s “naked form of actio popularis” (Preliminary Objections of Myanmar, para. 214). Myanmar also pointed to possible unfortunate procedural consequences, emphasizing, in particular, the possibility, as a result of the inter partes effect of the res judicata principle pursuant to Article 59 of the Statute of the Court, of repeated applications being brought against the same State (ibid., paras. 344-347). (a) On the term actio popularis 32. As a matter of terminology, I note Myanmar’s reference to the concept of actio popularis. The Court mentioned this term in a well-known dictum contained in paragraph 88 of its Judgment in the South West Africa cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966, p. 47, para. 88) and, not infrequently, the concept is also used by academic writers in connection with the institution of judicial proceedings relating to the alleged violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes)33. Indeed, it is not far-fetched and may even be useful to consider the Roman law acquis with respect to actiones popularis34 when it comes to the question of the institution of judicial proceedings for the alleged violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes)35. It has, however, also been observed that it is difficult to identify one overarching principle governing the different actiones popularis under Roman law36 and it has been questioned whether the institution of judicial proceedings for the alleged violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes) reflects any such principle strongly enough so as to justify the use of the term in that context37. In this situation, the Court should remain cautious about using the term actio popularis in connection with the 32 On this question, see YILC, 1966, Vol. II, p. 240, para. 5; C. J. Tams, “Waiver, Acquiescence and Extinctive Prescription”, in: J. Crawford, A. Pellet and S. Olleson (eds.), The Law of International Responsibility, Oxford, OUP, 2010, p. 1042. 33 For just a few examples, see F. Ahmadov, The Right of Actio Popularis before International Courts and Tribunals, Leiden/Boston, Brill/Nijhoff, 2018, pp. 199-201; G. Gaja, op. cit., pp. 110-112; C. J. Tams, “Individual States as Guardians of Community Interests”, in: U. Fastenrath et al. (eds.), op. cit., pp. 384 and 387; G. Abi-Saab, “Que reste-t-il du ‘crime international’ ?”, in: N. Angelet et al. (eds.), Droit du pouvoir, pouvoir du droit. Mélanges offerts à Jean Salmon, Brussels, Bruylant, 2007, p. 83 (observing that the concept of actio popularis bears a resemblance to the concept of da’awa al hisbah in Islamic law); W. J. Aceves, “Actio Popularis? The Class Action in International Law”, The University of Chicago Legal Forum, Vol. 2003, p. 357. 34 For this acquis, see A. Halfmeier, Popularklagen im Privatrecht, Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck, 2006, pp. 29-42; F. Voeffray, op. cit., pp. 6-12; M. Wlassak, “Actio”, in: G. Wissowa (ed.), Pauly’s Real-Encyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Neue Bearbeitung, Stuttgart, J. B. Metzlerscher Verlag, 1894, columns 318-320. 35 F. Voeffray, op. cit., p. 5. 36 A. Halfmeier, op. cit., p. 43. It is also not readily apparent that the legal evolution which has taken place at the level of national jurisdictions subsequent to Roman times, could have given rise to a sufficiently clear common understanding of actio popularis as a legal concept; see F. Voeffray, op. cit., p. 384. 37 For a negative answer, see A. Vermeer-Kunzli, “A Matter of Interest: Diplomatic Protection and State Responsibility Erga Omnes”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 56 (3), 2007, p. 571; for a more positive view, see F. Voeffray, op. cit., p. 386. - 14 - institution of judicial proceedings for the alleged violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes). As this latter concept is now well entrenched in the Court’s jurisprudence, there is also no need to recognize the term actio popularis as a term of art in that context 38. A very similar sentiment seems to underlie the following statement which was made by Judge Jessup in his powerful dissenting opinion to the Court’s 1966 Judgment in the South West Africa cases: “I agree that there is no generally established actio popularis in international law. But international law has accepted and established situations in which States are given a right of action without any showing of individual prejudice or individual substantive interest as distinguished from the general interest.” ((Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966, dissenting opinion of Judge Jessup, pp. 387-388.) It is thus with good reason that the Court has refrained from calling The Gambia’s course of action an actio popularis. (b) On a potential proliferation of disputes 33. Myanmar’s concern regarding “a potentially unmanageable proliferation of disputes” is too abstract and speculative to lend itself well to judicial treatment. Nevertheless, I wish to offer a few observations in response. First of all, as has been noted by learned observers, States have hitherto, in the absence of a special interest of their own, been rather reluctant to institute judicial proceedings for the alleged violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes)39. In the present proceedings, Myanmar has itself submitted that “[i]n the 71 years since the Genocide Convention entered into force, no State has ever tried to bring a claim before the Court concerning a violation of the Convention that did not affect its own interests as a State or those of its nationals” (CR 2022/1, p. 31, para. 24 (Talmon)). Despite what Myanmar suggests, this is not, without further evidence, “indicative that parties do not generally consider themselves to have standing to request the Court to declare that another contracting State is responsible for violations of the Convention in the absence of any individual prejudice to themselves” (CR 2022/1, p. 31, para. 24 (Talmon)). In my view, it is likely that the sparsity of relevant State practice is, at least partly, explained by non-legal considerations of restraint. Myanmar is of course right to say that the situation might change in the future. But it would have been wrong had the Court, impressed by the concern about an increase of litigation, left the fundamental community interest at issue in the present case without the judicial protection which is due to it under the applicable law40. This does not mean closing one’s eyes to the possibility that, as stated by Judge Crawford in his scholarly capacity, it may be necessary in the future to “strike a balance between the collective interest in compliance with basic community values and the countervailing interest in not encouraging the proliferation of disputes”41. In fact, it is not impossible to see, as one learned writer has suggested42, in cases of the protection of a community value (see paragraphs 20-22 above), the consensual nature of the Court’s jurisdiction as one element of a legal architecture that aims to strike such a balance. 38 For the same conclusion, see “Troisième question : La protection des droits de l’homme et le principe de non-intervention dans les affaires intérieures des Etats, treizième séance plénière : mardi 12 septembre (après-midi)”, Institut de droit international, Yearbooks, Vol. 63 (II), 1990 Deliberations, p. 256 (Roberto Ago). 39 A. Nollkaemper, op. cit., p. 791; C. J. Tams, “Individual States as Guardians of Community Interests”, in: U. Fastenrath et al. (eds.), op. cit., pp. 387-388. 40 For a thoughtful criticism of what he calls “procedure as avoidance”, see A. Nollkaemper, op. cit., p. 789. 41 J. Crawford, op. cit., p. 553. 42 S. Villalpando, “The Legal Dimension of the International Community: How Community Interests Are Protected in International Law”, EJIL, Vol. 21 (2), 2010, p. 414. - 15 - (c) On the possible need for procedural adjustments and the need to ensure procedural fairness for all parties to the proceedings 34. Finally, Myanmar’s reference to Article 59 of the Statute of the Court, while also too far removed from the legal issue of The Gambia’s standing to require an answer in the Judgment, does usefully highlight the possibility that the integration of the protection of community interests into the Court’s procedural framework may pose certain challenges. The greater reason that such challenges may arise or may already have given rise to “teething problems”43 lies in the fact that the law governing the Court’s proceedings was formulated with a view only to the settlement of traditional bilateral disputes between States and thus reflects  to borrow a term from the title of Judge Simma’s magnificent Hague lectures44  the “bilateralism” of an earlier configuration of the international legal order45. 35. On the possible need to consider procedural adjustments in order to address problems resulting from the tension just highlighted, Judge Weeramantry, as early as 1997, offered the following memorable reflection: “We have entered an era of international law in which international law subserves not only the interests of individual States, but looks beyond them and their parochial concerns to the greater interests of humanity and planetary welfare. In addressing such problems, which transcend the individual rights and obligations of the litigating States, international law will need to look beyond procedural rules fashioned for purely inter partes litigation.” (Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, separate opinion of Vice-President Weeramantry, p. 118.) Article 59 of the Statute of the Court may be seen as a procedural rule in point46, and how best to deal with a large number of requests to intervene in proceedings for the protection of community interests is another question of potential relevance47. This is not the place to consider such issues more closely. Instead, and by way of conclusion, I wish only to make the general observation that it is important to show particular sensitivity with a view to ensuring procedural fairness for all parties to proceedings instituted for the protection of community interests. It is certainly important to provide collective interests, and in particular the core interests of the international community as a whole, with international judicial protection. Yet it is also necessary never to lose sight of the fact that the respondent State whose responsibility for the violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes) has been invoked through proceedings before the Court may not be responsible for the alleged violation. (Signed) Claus KRESS. ___________ 43 F. I. Paddeu, “Multilateral Disputes in Bilateral Settings: International Practice Lags Behind Theory”, The Cambridge Law Journal, Vol. 76 (1), 2017, p. 4. 44 B. Simma, op. cit.; for another study helpfully developing a panorama of the gradual recognition of community interests and the need for their protection in the international legal order, see S. Villalpando, op. cit., pp. 387-419. 45 A. Nollkaemper, op. cit., p. 771. 46 For some initial thoughts, P. Urs, op. cit., p. 522. It may be worth recalling that that under Roman law, it would appear that an exceptio rei iudicatae precluded a subsequent quivis ex populo bringing a second actio popularis with respect to the same subject matter; see A. Halfmeier, op. cit., p. 38. 47 For one suggestion, see G. Gaja, op. cit., pp. 121-122.

Bilingual Content

538
65
DECLARATION OF JUDGE AD HOC KRESS
Representation of Myanmar — The Gambia’s standing — Point of
terminology — The Gambia as a “non-injured
State” or as an “injured State” —
Concept of préjudice juridique — Similarity of the present case with the case
concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite
(Belgium v. Senegal) — No need to demonstrate the existence of a separate
individual legal interest in order to establish the standing of a contracting State to
the Genocide Convention to invoke before the Court the collective interest
underlying the relevant obligations of that Convention — Question of the adoption
of countermeasures in the case of a violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes)
not before the Court in the present case — Distinction between the jurisdictional
requirement of State consent to jurisdiction and the admissibility requirement of
standing in the case of obligations erga omnes (partes) works both ways —
Inapplicability of the requirement of the nationality of claims in the case of
obligations erga omnes (partes) — Bangladesh as a “specially affected State”
vel non — Inability of Bangladesh in the present case to dispose completely of the
collective interest protected by the Genocide Convention — No need for use of the
term actio popularis — Possible need for a balance between the protection of
community interests and the risk of proliferation of disputes — Need to show
particular sensitivity with a view to ensuring procedural fairness for all parties to
proceedings in which the protection of community interests is invoked.
I. Introduction
1. I voted in favour of all the points contained in operative paragraph
115 of the Judgment. I also concur with the essence of the Court’s
reasoning. In the following declaration, I shall first make a few observations
regarding the change in Myanmar’s representation during these proceedings.
I shall then elaborate on the Court’s reasoning with respect to
The Gambia’s standing. This will be done in the spirit of contributing to
the transparency of judicial reasoning regarding a legal issue which lies at
the intersection of procedure and substance and which is of considerable
importance 1.
1 On the particular significance of the transparency of reasoning in contexts of the
present kind, see A. Nollkaemper, “International Adjudication of Global Public Goods:
The Intersection of Substance and Procedure”, The European Journal of International Law
(EJIL), Vol. 23, 2012, p. 790.
538
65
DÉCLARATION DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC KRESS
[Traduction]
Représentation du Myanmar — Qualité pour agir de la Gambie — Point de
terminologie — Gambie en tant qu’« Etat non lésé » ou en tant qu’« Etat lésé » —
Notion de préjudice juridique — Similarité entre la présente espèce et l’affaire
relative à des Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader
(Belgique c. Sénégal) — Nul besoin de démontrer l’existence d’un intérêt juridique
individuel distinct pour établir qu’un Etat contractant à la convention sur le
génocide a qualité pour invoquer devant la Cour l’intérêt collectif qui sous-tend les
obligations pertinentes de cet instrument — Question de l’adoption de contre-mesures
en cas de violation d’une obligation erga omnes (partes) n’étant pas
soumise à l’examen de la Cour dans la présente instance — Distinction entre
exigence du consentement de l’Etat à la compétence et exigence de recevabilité de
la qualité pour agir dans le cas d’obligations erga omnes (partes) étant valable
dans les deux sens — Inapplicabilité de l’exigence de nationalité des réclamations
dans le cas d’obligations erga omnes (partes) — Bangladesh en tant qu’« Etat
spécialement atteint » ou non — Impossibilité pour le Bangladesh en la présente
espèce de s’affranchir complètement de l’intérêt collectif protégé par la convention
sur le génocide — Nul besoin d’employer la notion d’actio popularis — Nécessité
éventuelle de trouver un équilibre entre la protection des intérêts de la communauté
et le risque de prolifération des différends — Nécessité de faire montre d’une
sensibilité particulière pour assurer l’équité entre toutes les parties à une instance
dans laquelle la protection d’intérêts communautaires est invoquée.
I. Introduction
1. J’ai voté en faveur de tous les points énoncés dans le dispositif de
l’arrêt. Je souscris également, pour l’essentiel, au raisonnement de la
Cour. Dans la présente déclaration, je formulerai tout d’abord quelques
observations concernant le changement de représentation du Myanmar
dans la présente instance. Je reviendrai ensuite sur le raisonnement de la
Cour portant sur la qualité pour agir de la Gambie. Il s’agira, ce faisant,
de contribuer à la transparence du raisonnement judiciaire sur une question
juridique qui se situe au croisement de la procédure et du fond, et
revêt une importance considérable 1.
1 Concernant l’importance particulière que revêt la transparence du raisonnement dans
des contextes tels que celui de la présente espèce, voir A. Nollkaemper, « International
Adjudication of Global Public Goods : The Intersection of Substance and Procedure »,
The European Journal of International Law (EJIL), vol. 23, 2012, p. 790.
539 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
66
II. Myanmar’s Representation in the Present Proceedings
2. In paragraph 8 of the Judgment, the Court notes that Myanmar
replaced H.E. Ms Aung San Suu Kyi as Agent and H.E. Mr. Kyaw Tint
Swe as Alternate Agent. The Judgment, however, does not describe the
factual background of this replacement. The change in Myanmar’s representation
during these proceedings was, in fact, one of the consequences
of events that took place after the declaration of the state of emergency
by the armed forces of Myanmar.
3. These events caused grave concern in the international community.
On 4 February 2021, the Members of the United Nations Security Council
“expressed deep concern at the declaration of the state of emergency
imposed in Myanmar by the military on 1 February and the arbitrary
detention of members of the Government, including State Counsellor
Aung San Suu Kyi and President Win Myint and others” and “called for
the immediate release of all those detained” 2. This call was reiterated in a
statement made by the President of the Security Council on 10 March 2021 3.
In resolution 75/287, adopted on 18 June 2021, the General Assembly
of the United Nations,
“[e]xpressing grave concern about the declaration of the state of
emergency by the Myanmar armed forces on 1 February 2021 and
subsequent actions taken against the elected civilian Government,
which also impact regional stability, and stressing its continued call
upon Myanmar to act in accordance with the principle of adherence
to the rule of law, good governance, the principles of democracy and
constitutional government, respect for fundamental freedoms and the
promotion and protection of human rights, as also provided for in
the Charter of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations,
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
[e]xpressing deep concern about the arbitrary detention and arrest
of President Win Myint, State Counsellor Aung San Suu Kyi, and
other government officials and politicians, human rights defenders,
journalists, civil society members, foreign experts and others,
[s]trongly condemning the use of lethal force and violence,
which has led to injuries and fatalities in many cases, against peaceful
demonstrators, as well as members of civil society, women, youth,
children and others, expressing deep concern at restrictions on
medical
personnel, civil society, labour union members, journalists
and media workers, and people who protect and promote human
2 Security Council Press Statement on Situation in Myanmar, 4 February 2021,
UN press release SC/14430.
3 UN doc. S/PRST/2021/5.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 539
66
II. Représentation du Myanmar dans la présente instance
2. Au paragraphe 8 de l’arrêt, la Cour relève que le Myanmar a remplacé
S. Exc. Mme Aung San Suu Kyi en qualité d’agente et S. Exc.
M. Kyaw Tint Swe en qualité d’agent suppléant. L’arrêt ne décrit toutefois
pas le contexte factuel de ce remplacement. Le changement de représentation
du Myanmar dans la présente instance est, en fait, l’une des
conséquences des événements survenus après la déclaration de l’état
d’urgence
par les forces armées du Myanmar.
3. Ces événements ont suscité une vive inquiétude au sein de la communauté
internationale. Le 4 février 2021, les membres du Conseil de
sécurité de l’Organisation des Nations Unies « ont exprimé leur profonde
préoccupation face à l’état d’urgence déclaré au Myanmar par l’armée le
1er février et à la détention arbitraire de membres du Gouvernement,
notamment la conseillère d’Etat, Aung San Suu Kyi, et le président, Win
Myint », et « ont demandé la libération immédiate de toutes les personnes
détenues » 2. Cet appel a été réitéré dans une déclaration faite par le président
du Conseil de sécurité le 10 mars 2021 3.
Dans sa résolution 75/287, adoptée le 18 juin 2021, l’Assemblée générale
des Nations Unies,
« [v]ivement préoccupée par la déclaration de l’état d’urgence par
les forces armées du Myanmar le 1er février 2021 et par les mesures
prises par la suite contre le gouvernement civil élu, qui ont également
des répercussions sur la stabilité régionale, et soulignant qu’elle
continue de demander au Myanmar d’agir dans le respect des principes
de l’état de droit, de la bonne gouvernance, de la démocratie et
d’un gouvernement constitutionnel, des libertés fondamentales et de
la promotion et de la protection des droits humains, comme le prévoit
également la Charte de l’Association des nations de l’Asie du
Sud-Est,
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
[v]ivement préoccupée par la détention et l’arrestation arbitraires
du Président, Win Myint, de la Conseillère d’Etat, Aung San Suu
Kyi, de responsables gouvernementaux et politiques, de défenseurs
des droits humains, de journalistes, de membres de la société civile,
d’experts étrangers et d’autres personnes,
[c]ondamnant fermement la force meurtrière et la violence qui sont
exercées contre des manifestants pacifiques, des membres de la
société civile, des femmes, des jeunes et des enfants, entre autres, et
qui dans de nombreux cas ont fait des blessés et des morts, exprimant
sa profonde préoccupation face aux restrictions imposées au
personnel médical, à la société civile, aux syndicalistes, aux journa-
2 Déclaration à la presse faite par le Conseil de sécurité sur la situation au Myanmar,
4 février 2021, communiqué de presse du Conseil de sécurité (SC/14430).
3 Nations Unies, doc. S/PRST/2021/5.
540 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
67
rights, and calling for the immediate release of all those detained arbitrarily,
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
1. [c]all[ed] upon the Myanmar armed forces to respect the will of
the people as freely expressed by the results of the general election of
8 November 2020, to end the state of emergency, to respect all human
rights of all the people of Myanmar and to allow the sustained democratic
transition of Myanmar, including the opening of the democratically
elected parliament and by working towards bringing all
national institutions, including the armed forces, under a fully inclusive
civilian Government that is representative of the will of the people
;
2. [a]lso call[ed] upon the Myanmar armed forces to immediately
and unconditionally release President Win Myint, State Counsellor
Aung San Suu Kyi and other government officials and politicians and
all those who have been arbitrarily detained, charged or arrested,
including to ensure their rightful access to justice, and to engage and
support the Association of Southeast Asian Nations constructively
with a view to realizing an inclusive and peaceful dialogue among all
stakeholders through a political process led and owned by the people
of Myanmar to restore democratic governance”.
4. At the opening of the oral pleadings on 21 February 2022, the
President
of the Court observed that “the parties to a contentious case
before the Court are States, not particular governments”. She added that
“[t]he Court’s judgments and its provisional measures orders bind the
States that are parties to a case” (CR 2022/1, p. 11). While I take no issue
with this statement, I note that it fails to explain the grounds that led the
Court to act upon the replacement described in paragraph 8 of the
Judgment.
That lack of explanation could give the impression that the
replacement
was a matter of course. This, however, was not the case, as
can be seen, for example, from the fact that on 1 February 2022 the
“National Unity Government” announced that it had appointed
H. E. U Kyaw Moe Tun, the Permanent Representative of Myanmar to
the United Nations in New York, as the Agent of Myanmar in the case 4.
Nor was the replacement self-explanatory
from a legal perspective, as the
laconic formulation of paragraph 8 of the Judgment might suggest; this is
perhaps most immediately apparent from the wording of the sixth
4 Announcement (2/2022) — Myanmar withdraws all preliminary objections to the
International Court of Justice hearing on the genocide case, 1 February 2022, available at:
https://gov.nugmyanmar.org/2022/02/01/announcement-2-2022-myanmar-withdraws-
allpreliminary-
objections-to-the-international-court-of-justice-hearing-on-the-genocidecase/.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 540
67
listes et aux professionnels des médias, et aux personnes qui protègent
et défendent les droits humains, et demandant la libération
immédiate de toutes les personnes détenues arbitrairement,
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
1. [d]emande aux forces armées du Myanmar de respecter la volonté
du peuple librement exprimée par les résultats de l’élection générale du
8 novembre 2020, de mettre fin à l’état d’urgence, de respecter tous les
droits humains de l’ensemble de la population du Myanmar et de permettre
à la transition démocratique de progresser durablement au
Myanmar, y compris avec l’ouverture du parlement démocratiquement
élu et des mesures qui placeront toutes les institutions nationales, y
compris les forces armées, sous l’autorité d’un gouvernement civil pleinement
inclusif et représentatif de la volonté du peuple ;
2. [d]emande également aux forces armées du Myanmar de libérer
immédiatement et sans condition le Président, Win Myint, la Conseillère
d’Etat, Aung San Suu Kyi, et d’autres responsables gouvernementaux
et politiques, ainsi que tous ceux qui ont été arbitrairement
détenus, inculpés ou arrêtés, notamment pour qu’ils puissent accéder
à la justice ainsi qu’ils en ont le droit, de collaborer avec l’Association
des nations de l’Asie du Sud-Est et de soutenir celle-
ci de façon
constructive en vue d’entamer un dialogue inclusif et pacifique entre
toutes les parties prenantes dans le cadre d’un processus politique
dirigé et pris en main par le peuple du Myanmar afin de restaurer la
gouvernance démocratique ».
4. A l’ouverture des audiences, le 21 février 2022, la présidente de la
Cour a observé que « les parties à une affaire contentieuse portée devant
la Cour [étaie]nt des Etats, et non des gouvernements particuliers », ajoutant
que « [l]es arrêts et les ordonnances en indication de mesures conservatoires
rendus par la Cour [avaie]nt force obligatoire pour les Etats qui
sont parties à une affaire » (CR 2022/1, p. 11). Je n’ai rien à redire à cette
déclaration, mais je constate qu’elle n’explique pas les raisons qui ont
conduit la Cour à donner suite au remplacement décrit au paragraphe 8
de l’arrêt. Cette absence d’explication pourrait laisser penser que le remplacement
allait de soi. Or, tel n’était pas le cas, comme le montre, par
exemple, le fait que, le 1er février 2022, le « Gouvernement d’unité nationale
» a annoncé qu’il avait désigné S. Exc. M. U Kyaw Moe Tun, représentant
permanent du Myanmar auprès de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies à New York, en qualité d’agent du Myanmar en l’affaire 4. Le remplacement
ne se justifiait pas non plus de lui-
même d’un point de vue
juridique, comme la formulation laconique du paragraphe 8 de l’arrêt
4 Annonce (2/2022) — Myanmar withdraws all preliminary objections to the International
Court of Justice hearing on the genocide case, 1er février 2022, accessible à
l’adresse suivante : https://gov.nugmyanmar.org/2022/02/01/announcement-2-2022-myanmar-withdraws-
all-preliminary-objections-to-the-international-court-of-justice-hearing-on-
the-genocide-case/.
541 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
68
preambular
paragraph and the second operative paragraph of above-mentioned
General Assembly resolution 75/287.
5. In my opinion, under such circumstances, for the Court to proceed
in the way that it did is less than satisfactory. On a more general level, I
have been left wondering whether it might be appropriate for the Court
to reflect on how it deals with factual and legal difficulties in identifying
the government of a given State for the purposes of representation in
proceedings before the Court, with a view to exploring possible improvements
in this regard in the future.
III. The Gambia’s Standing
6. In paragraphs 106 to 113 of the Judgment, the Court applies the
concept of obligation erga omnes partes to the relevant obligations of the
Genocide Convention in order to explain The Gambia’s standing in the
case. Here too, I agree with the essence of the Court’s reasoning. However,
in view of the considerable significance of this aspect of the Judgment,
I wish to elaborate on it a little further.
1. A Point of Terminology
7. I shall begin with a point of terminology. In the present case,
The Gambia alleges the violation of an obligation erga omnes partes, but
it does not claim to have been specially affected by that violation. While
Myanmar refers to The Gambia as a non-injured
State (CR 2022/1, p. 28,
paras. 7-8 (Talmon)), The Gambia describes itself as an injured (though
not specially injured) State (Written Observations of The Gambia on the
Preliminary Objections Raised by Myanmar (hereinafter “Written Observations
of The Gambia”), paras. 3.9 and 3.52). In order to better understand
the Parties’ divergent uses of the term “injured State”, it is helpful
to refer to the International Law Commission’s Articles on Responsibility
of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (hereinafter the “ILC Articles
on State Responsibility”). Articles 42 and 48 of the ILC Articles on State
Responsibility distinguish between an “injured State”, on the one hand,
and a “State other than an injured State” which is entitled to invoke the
responsibility of another State resulting from that State’s violation of an
obligation erga omnes (partes), on the other.
8. Myanmar’s qualification of The Gambia as a “non-injured”
State is
in line with the ILC’s use of that term: pursuant to the ILC Articles on
State Responsibility, The Gambia is a non-injured
State because the obligations
whose breach it invokes do not fall under any of the cases listed
in Article 42 of those Articles, and, in particular, because The Gambia is
not specially affected within the meaning of Article 42 (b) (i).
9. For The Gambia, however, the violation of an obligation erga omnes
partes “necessarily injures omnes partes” (Written Observations of
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 541
68
pourrait le suggérer ; cela ressort sans doute assez clairement du libellé du
sixième alinéa du préambule et du deuxième paragraphe du dispositif de
la résolution 75/287 de l’Assemblée générale précitée.
5. Selon moi, en pareilles circonstances, la façon dont la Cour a procédé
est loin d’être satisfaisante. D’un point de vue plus général, j’en suis
venu à me demander s’il ne conviendrait pas que la Cour réfléchisse à la
manière de faire face aux difficultés factuelles et juridiques soulevées par
l’identification du gouvernement d’un Etat donné à des fins de représentation
dans les affaires dont elle est saisie, afin d’étudier les améliorations
qui pourraient être apportées à cet égard à l’avenir.
III. Qualité pour agir de la Gambie
6. Aux paragraphes 106 à 113 de l’arrêt, la Cour applique la notion
d’obligations erga omnes partes aux obligations pertinentes découlant de
la convention sur le génocide afin d’expliquer la qualité pour agir de la
Gambie en l’espèce. Là encore, je souscris, pour l’essentiel, à son raisonnement.
Toutefois, compte tenu de l’importance considérable que revêt
cet aspect de l’arrêt, je tiens à m’y arrêter quelque peu.
1. Point de terminologie
7. Je commencerai par un point de terminologie. En l’espèce, la Gambie
invoque la violation d’une obligation erga omnes partes, mais ne prétend
pas avoir été spécialement atteinte par cette violation. Alors que le Myanmar
la qualifie d’Etat non lésé (CR 2022/1, p. 28, par. 7-8 (Talmon)), elle
se décrit elle-même comme un Etat lésé (mais non spécialement lésé)
(exposé écrit de la République de Gambie sur les exceptions préliminaires
soulevées par la République de l’Union du Myanmar (ci-
après « exposé
écrit de la Gambie »), par. 3.9 et 3.52). Pour mieux comprendre les utilisations
divergentes de l’expression « Etat lésé » par les Parties, il est utile de
se reporter aux articles de la Commission du droit international sur la
responsabilité de l’Etat pour fait internationalement illicite (ci-
après « articles
de la CDI sur la responsabilité de l’Etat »). Les articles 42 et 48 de la
CDI sur la responsabilité de l’Etat font la distinction entre un « Etat lésé »,
d’une part, et, d’autre part, un « Etat autre qu’un Etat lésé » qui est en
droit d’invoquer la responsabilité d’un autre Etat résultant de la violation
par celui-
ci d’une obligation erga omnes (partes).
8. La qualification de la Gambie par le Myanmar d’Etat « non lésé » est
conforme à l’utilisation de ce terme par la CDI : selon les articles de la CDI
sur la responsabilité de l’Etat, la Gambie est un Etat non lésé parce que les
obligations dont elle invoque la violation ne relèvent d’aucun des cas énumérés
à l’article 42 desdits articles, et, en particulier, parce que la Gambie
n’est pas spécialement atteinte au sens de l’alinéa i) du litt. b) de l’article 42.
9. La Gambie, pour sa part, considère que la violation d’une obligation
erga omnes partes « porte nécessairement atteinte à toutes les parties
542 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
69
The Gambia, para. 3.9). The Gambia thus understands the concept of
injury as encompassing injury in a purely normative sense. This wider
understanding of the concept of injury was also mentioned during the
ILC’s work on State responsibility. The reasons in support of accepting
the notion of préjudice juridique are perhaps most clearly articulated in a
study published by Brigitte Stern soon after the adoption of the ILC Articles
on State Responsibility. In a similar way to The Gambia in the present
proceedings, Stern maintains the following:
“It seems curious, to say the least, that certain States may be able to
invoke the responsibility of another State if they have not been injured.
If a State is a beneficiary of an obligation that has been breached, I do
not see how it could be considered not to be an injured State.” 5
10. In its jurisprudence to date, the Court has not adopted the ILC’s
distinction between an “injured State” and a “State other than an injured
State” which is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State
resulting from that State’s violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes).
It has instead extended the concept of “legal interest” to instances in
which the interest of the State concerned derives exclusively from the
common (or collective) interest in compliance with an obligation erga
omnes partes (Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite
(Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 449,
para. 68) 6. Stern has usefully stated the following about an understanding
of the term “legal interest” which extends to all instances covered by Articles
42 and 48 of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility: “In simple
terms, the legal interest of some States is not the same as the legal interest
of others: for some, the legal interest is in ensuring that their rights are
not violated; for others, it is in ensuring compliance with the law.” 7
11. In the present Judgment, the Court’s use of terms is in keeping
with its previous jurisprudence: it has still not adopted the ILC’s distinction
between an “injured State” and a “State other than an injured State”
which is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State resulting
5 B. Stern, “Et si on utilisait la notion de préjudice juridique ? Retour sur une notion
délaissée à l’occasion de la fin des travaux de la CDI sur la responsabilité des Etats”,
Annuaire
français de droit international (AFDI), Vol. 47, 2001, p. 24. [This and all subsequent
quotations from the foregoing publication have been translated by the Registry.]
6 The ILC explicitly recognizes the difference between the Court’s use of the term
“legal interest” and its own use of that term in paragraph 2 of its commentary on draft
Article 48:
“Although the Court [in the Barcelona Traction case] noted that ‘all States can be
held to have a legal interest in’ the fulfilment of these rights, article 48 refrains from
qualifying the position of the States identified in article 48, for example by referring
to them as ‘interested States’. The term ‘legal interest’ would not permit a distinction
between articles 42 and 48, as injured States in the sense of article 42 also have legal
interests.” (Yearbook of the International Law Commission (YILC), 2001, Vol. II,
Part 2, p. 126.)
7 B. Stern, op. cit., p. 24.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 542
69
— omnes partes » (exposé écrit de la Gambie, par. 3.9). Elle attribue donc
également à la notion de préjudice un sens purement normatif. Cette
acception plus large a aussi été mentionnée dans les travaux de la CDI sur
la responsabilité de l’Etat, mais c’est sans doute dans une étude publiée
par Brigitte Stern peu après l’adoption des articles de la CDI que les raisons
en faveur de l’acceptation de la notion de préjudice juridique ont été
le plus clairement exposées. Comme la Gambie dans la présente instance,
Stern avance ce qui suit :
« Il nous paraît à tout le moins curieux que certains Etats puissent
invoquer la responsabilité d’un Etat s’ils ne sont pas lésés. Si un Etat
est bénéficiaire d’une obligation qui a été violée, je ne vois pas comment
on pourrait considérer qu’il n’est pas un Etat lésé. » 5
10. Dans sa jurisprudence à ce jour, la Cour n’a pas fait sienne la distinction
établie par la CDI entre un « Etat lésé » et un « Etat autre qu’un
Etat lésé » qui est en droit d’invoquer la responsabilité d’un autre Etat
résultant de la violation par celui-
ci d’une obligation erga omnes (partes).
Elle a en revanche étendu la notion d’« intérêt juridique » aux cas dans
lesquels l’intérêt de l’Etat concerné découle exclusivement de l’intérêt
commun (ou collectif) à ce qu’une obligation erga omnes partes soit respectée
(Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique
c. Sénégal), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 449, par. 68) 6. Stern
a utilement précisé ce qui suit au sujet d’une interprétation de l’expression
« intérêt juridique » englobant tous les cas couverts par les articles 42 et 48
de la CDI sur la responsabilité de l’Etat : « Simplement, l’intérêt juridique
des uns n’est pas le même que l’intérêt juridique des autres : dans un cas il
s’agit de l’intérêt juridique à ce que ses droits ne soient pas violés, dans
l’autre de l’intérêt juridique à ce que le droit soit respecté. » 7
11. Dans le présent arrêt, la Cour a employé des termes conformes à sa
jurisprudence : elle n’a toujours pas adopté la distinction établie par la
CDI entre un « Etat lésé » et un « Etat autre qu’un Etat lésé » qui est en
droit d’invoquer la responsabilité d’un autre Etat résultant de la violation
5 B. Stern, « Et si on utilisait la notion de préjudice juridique ? Retour sur une notion
délaissée à l’occasion de la fin des travaux de la CDI sur la responsabilité des Etats »,
Annuaire français de droit international (AFDI), vol. 47, 2001, p. 24.
6 La CDI reconnaît expressément la différence entre l’utilisation par la Cour de l’expression
« intérêt juridique » et sa propre utilisation de celle-
ci au paragraphe 2 de son
commentaire sur le projet d’article 48 :
« Bien que la Cour ait dit [dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction] que « tous les
Etats peuvent être considérés comme ayant un intérêt juridique » à ce que les droits en
cause soient respectés, l’article 48 s’abstient de qualifier la position des Etats qu’il vise,
et de parler, par exemple, des « Etats intéressés ». Faire référence à un « intérêt juridique
» ne permettrait pas d’établir une distinction entre les articles 42 et 48 : en effet,
les Etats lésés au sens de l’article 42 ont eux aussi un intérêt juridique. » (Annuaire de
la Commission du droit international (ACDI), 2001, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 135.)
7 B. Stern, op. cit., p. 24.
543 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
70
from that State’s violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes); in fact,
it has refrained from using the concept of “injured State” at all (see paragraph
106 of the Judgment). This approach is not only sensible for reasons
of judicial economy. It is also welcome because the Court’s use of
the term “legal interest” in a broader sense conveys the community
dimension of the concept of obligation erga omnes (partes), and does so
in essentially the same way as the concept of préjudice juridique. In the
words of Stern,
“recognizing legal injury would have been an even more meaningful
step towards a community-based vision than the approach that was
adopted, for States would not only have the right to act on behalf of
the international community, but could act on their own behalf by
virtue of the fact that they are fundamentally affected by the future of
the collective, i.e. their legal interests are concerned by any violation
of an essential norm for the international community, on account of
their intimate participation in that community” 8.
2. A Few Reflections on the Concept of Obligation Erga Omnes (Partes)
and Its Application in the Present Case
12. I shall now turn from terminology to the substance of the matter.
One argument put forward by Myanmar in order to deny The Gambia’s
standing consists in attempting to make a distinction between the “common”
interest in the accomplishment of the high purposes of the Genocide
Convention, on the one hand, and the “individual legal interest” of
every State party in compliance with the relevant obligations under the
Convention, on the other (CR 2022/1, pp. 28‑29, paras. 8‑13 (Talmon)).
The Court responds to this argument in paragraph 108 of the Judgment
and, in doing so, relies on its ruling in the case concerning Questions relating
to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal)
(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 449, para. 68).
13. Indeed, Myanmar is unsuccessful in its attempts to distinguish
between the present case and the one between Belgium and Senegal for
the purposes of the present proceedings. While it is true, as argued by
Myanmar, that the content of the obligation at issue in the Belgium v.
Senegal case is different to that of the obligation in question in the present
case (CR 2022/1, p. 36, para. 49 (Talmon)), this has no bearing: in their
crucial respect — the structure of the legal relationship that they establish
— the obligations in question do not differ in any meaningful way.
Both have been established in the pursuit of a common (or collective)
interest and may thus be called collective obligations. And, contrary to
Myanmar’s assertions (Preliminary Objections of the Republic of the
Union of Myanmar (hereinafter “Preliminary Objections of Myanmar”),
para. 242), the Court’s Judgment in Belgium v. Senegal cannot be set
8 B. Stern, op. cit., p. 29; emphasis added.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 543
70
par celui‑ci d’une obligation erga omnes (partes) ; de fait, elle s’est abstenue
d’utiliser la notion d’« Etat lésé » (voir arrêt, par. 106). Cette approche
n’est pas seulement judicieuse pour des raisons d’économie judiciaire. Elle
est également bienvenue car l’utilisation par la Cour de l’expression « intérêt
juridique » dans un sens plus large rend compte de la dimension communautaire
de la notion d’obligation erga omnes (partes), de la même
manière, pour l’essentiel, que la notion de « préjudice juridique ». Pour
reprendre les termes de Stern :
« reconnaître le préjudice juridique aurait été une avancée encore
plus significative vers une vision communautaire que l’approche qui
a été retenue, les Etats n’ayant pas seulement le droit d’agir au nom
de la communauté internationale, mais agissant en leur nom propre
comme fondamentalement concernés par le devenir de la collectivité,
c’est‑à-dire concernés dans leurs intérêts juridiques du fait de leur
participation intime à la communauté internationale, par toute violation
d’une norme essentielle pour cette communauté » 8.
2. Quelques réflexions sur la notion d’obligation erga omnes (partes)
et son application dans la présente affaire
12. Après avoir évoqué ces questions terminologiques, j’en viens à présent
au fond. L’un des arguments avancés par le Myanmar pour contester
la qualité pour agir de la Gambie consiste à tenter d’établir une distinction
entre l’intérêt « commun » à ce que soient préservées les fins supérieures de
la convention sur le génocide, d’une part, et, d’autre part, l’« intérêt juridique
individuel » de chaque Etat partie à ce que soient respectées les
obligations
pertinentes découlant de la convention (CR 2022/1, p. 28‑29,
par. 8‑13 (Talmon)). La Cour répond à cet argument au paragraphe 108
de l’arrêt et, ce faisant, se fonde sur l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu dans l’affaire
relative aux Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader
(Belgique c. Sénégal) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 449, par. 68).
13. De fait, le Myanmar tente en vain de distinguer la présente affaire
de celle qui a opposé la Belgique et le Sénégal. S’il est vrai, comme le
soutient le défendeur, que le contenu de l’obligation en cause dans l’affaire
Belgique c. Sénégal est différent de celui de l’obligation à l’examen
en la présente espèce (CR 2022/1, p. 36, par. 49 (Talmon)), cela n’a cependant
aucune incidence sur leur aspect essentiel — la structure de la relation
juridique qu’elles établissent —, lesdites obligations ne différant pas
de manière significative. Toutes deux ont été établies pour défendre un
intérêt commun (ou collectif) et peuvent donc être qualifiées d’obligations
collectives. En outre, contrairement aux affirmations du Myanmar (exceptions
préliminaires de la République de l’Union du Myanmar (ci‑après
« exceptions préliminaires du Myanmar »), par. 242), l’arrêt que la Cour
a rendu en l’affaire Belgique c. Sénégal ne peut être écarté au motif que
8 B. Stern, op. cit., p. 29 (les italiques sont de moi).
544 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
71
aside because Belgium also claimed to have a special interest, as the Court
recalls in paragraph 108 of the present Judgment. Indeed, the Court
explicitly stated in its Judgment in the Belgium v. Senegal case that the
question whether Belgium had such a special interest was immaterial to
its determination (Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or
Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II),
p. 450, para. 70).
14. In addition, to distinguish between “common interest” and “individual
interest” in the way the Court was asked to do by Myanmar would
be to fail to take due account of the fact that the international community
is not fully institutionalized and that, as a result, individual States have
an important function in allowing the “common interest” to be provided
with judicial protection 9. As Brigitte Stern has astutely observed:
“Indeed, if the existence of collective interests is recognized in the
absence of the personification of the international community, it can
be considered that each of its constituent parts — i.e. each of the
States making up the community — is a custodian of these collective
interests and is responsible for ensuring that they are respected by all
other States. After all, we speak of erga omnes obligations and not
erga totum obligations!” 10
15. States may of course decide not to vest the attainment or preservation
of a common interest with judicial protection when drafting a convention
to one of those ends. But such a decision cannot be presumed.
Once it has been determined that an obligation has been established in
pursuit of a common interest, such as that laid down by the Genocide
Convention, there is thus no need to demonstrate, on the basis of additional
considerations, the existence of a separate “individual legal interest”
in order to justify standing before the Court. On the contrary, the
standing of each contracting State to invoke before the Court a common
interest such as that established by the Genocide Convention must be
presumed, unless the provisions of the relevant convention indicate otherwise.
The approach to the question of standing that the Court chose to
adopt in its 1966 Judgment in the South West Africa cases is understood
by one learned observer to amount to a “presumption against the existence
of treaty-based enforcement rights irrespective of individual
injury” 11. If such an overly broad presumption is indeed the judicial message
of the Court’s 1966 Judgment in the South West Africa cases, the
9 Reference may be made here to G. Scelle’s early idea of a dédoublement fonctionnel
of the State organ in charge; G. Scelle, “Règles générales du droit de la paix”, Collected
Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 46, 1933-IV, p. 358.
10 B. Stern, op. cit., p. 16.
11 C. J. Tams, Enforcing Obligations Erga Omnes in International Law, Cambridge
University Press (CUP), 2005, p. 69.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 544
71
la Belgique prétendait également avoir un intérêt particulier, comme la
Cour le rappelle au paragraphe 108 de l’arrêt. En effet, la Cour a expressément
indiqué dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en l’affaire Belgique c. Sénégal
qu’il n’y avait pas lieu pour elle de se prononcer sur la question de savoir
si la Belgique avait aussi un intérêt particulier (Questions relatives à l’obligation
de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2012 (II), p. 450, par. 70).
14. En outre, le fait d’établir une distinction entre « intérêt commun »
et « intérêt individuel » de la manière dont la Cour était invitée à le faire
par le Myanmar reviendrait à ne pas tenir dûment compte de ce que la
communauté internationale n’est pas pleinement institutionnalisée et que,
partant, les Etats ont, à titre individuel, un rôle important à jouer pour
permettre à l’« intérêt commun » de bénéficier d’une protection judiciaire 9.
Comme l’a judicieusement observé Brigitte Stern,
« [s]i l’on reconnaît en effet l’existence d’intérêts collectifs en l’absence
de personnification de la communauté internationale, il est
possible de considérer que chacun de ses éléments constitutifs de base
— à savoir chacun des Etats qui composent cette communauté — est
dépositaire de ces intérêts collectifs et comptable de leur respect par
tous les autres Etats. Après tout, on parle d’obligations erga omnes et
non d’obligations erga totum ! » 10
15. Les Etats peuvent bien sûr décider de ne pas conférer de protection
judiciaire à la réalisation ou à la préservation d’un intérêt commun lorsqu’ils
rédigent une convention à l’une de ces fins. Une telle décision ne peut cependant
être présumée. Une fois qu’il a été déterminé qu’une obligation a été
établie aux fins de la protection d’un intérêt commun, tel que celui énoncé
par la convention sur le génocide, il n’est plus nécessaire de démontrer, sur
la base de considérations supplémentaires, l’existence d’un « intérêt juridique
individuel » distinct pour justifier la qualité pour agir devant la Cour. La
qualité de chaque Etat contractant pour invoquer devant la Cour un intérêt
commun tel que celui établi par la convention sur le génocide doit au
contraire être tenue pour acquise, sauf si les dispositions de l’instrument en
cause prévoient le contraire. L’approche de la question de la qualité pour
agir que la Cour a retenue dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en 1966 dans les
affaires du Sud-Ouest africain a été considérée par un observateur avisé
comme équivalant à une « présomption contre l’existence de droits d’exécution
conventionnels indépendamment d’un préjudice individuel » 11. Si cette
présomption excessivement large était effectivement le message judiciaire de
9 On peut mentionner ici l’idée initiale de G. Scelle d’un dédoublement fonctionnel de
l’organe de l’Etat concerné ; G. Scelle, « Règles générales du droit de la paix », Recueil des
cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (RCADI), vol. 46, 1933-IV, p. 358.
10 B. Stern, op. cit., p. 16.
11 C. J. Tams, Enforcing Obligations Erga Omnes in International Law, Cambridge
University Press (CUP), 2005, p. 69.
545 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
72
present Judgment further consolidates the Court’s subsequent departure
from the stance it adopted in 1966.
16. This is not to say — and the Court refrains from so saying in paragraph
108 of the Judgment with its use of the word “relevant” — that
once it has been established that a convention was concluded to serve a
common interest, it follows that each and every obligation contained
therein necessarily constitutes an obligation erga omnes partes. In view of
the fact that the obligations said by The Gambia to have been violated by
Myanmar are central to the fulfilment of the common interest underlying
the Genocide Convention, the Court was not required to consider the
question whether it might be justified to deny the erga omnes partes character
of an obligation that is markedly peripheral to the fulfilment of a
convention’s
common interest. In particular, the Court did not have to
address the question raised by Myanmar (CR 2022/1, p. 30, para. 22
(Talmon))
as to whether the obligation to provide effective penalties for
persons guilty of genocide enshrined in Article V of the Genocide Convention
possesses an erga omnes partes character. However, it must be
added here that the question as to whether any obligation enshrined in
the Genocide Convention could be devoid of an erga omnes partes character
should be approached with great caution.
17. In order to establish The Gambia’s standing in the present case,
the Court was also not required to elaborate in more detail on what it
takes for an obligation, enshrined in a convention, to “transcend the
sphere of the bilateral relations of the States parties” 12 so as to acquire
an erga omnes partes character. More specifically, it was not necessary
for the Court to look more closely at the concept of “common interest”
(or collective interest) as a prerequisite for the presumption mentioned
in paragraph 15 above that an obligation possesses an erga omnes partes
character 13. For this specific purpose, the common interest must extend
beyond the shared interest that all States parties have in the preservation
of the legal régime established by a multilateral treaty, because
such an interest also exists in instances of what Judge Simma, writing in
his scholarly capacity, has called a “multilateral treaty bilateral in
application” 14. The Court referred to a common interest of this kind in
the case concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran
(United States of America v. Iran) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980,
pp. 42‑43, para. 92), for example 15. The Court has previously made it
12 International Law Commission, “Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally
Wrongful Acts”, YILC, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, pp. 126‑127, commentary to
Article 48, para. 7.
13 For a helpful typology, see I. Feichtner, “Community Interest”, R. Wolfrum (ed.),
The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Vol. II, Oxford University
Press (OUP), 2012, pp. 479‑481, paras. 13-25.
14 B. Simma, “From Bilateralism to Community Interest in International Law”, Collected
Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 250, 1994, p. 336, para. 92.
15 P. d’Argent, “Les obligations internationales”, Collected Courses of the Hague
Academy of International Law, Vol. 417, 2021, pp. 61‑62, para. 77.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 545
72
ladite décision, l’arrêt qui a été rendu en la présente espèce confirme encore
que la Cour s’est écartée de la position qu’elle avait adoptée en 1966.
16. Cela ne signifie pas — et la Cour, en employant, au paragraphe 108
de l’arrêt, le mot « pertinentes », veille bien à ne pas le laisser accroire —
que, une fois qu’il a été établi qu’une convention a été conclue pour servir
un intérêt commun, il s’ensuit que chacune des obligations qu’elle contient
constitue nécessairement une obligation erga omnes partes. Etant donné
que les obligations qui, selon la Gambie, ont été violées par le Myanmar
sont centrales à la réalisation de l’intérêt commun qui sous-tend la
convention sur le génocide, la Cour n’était pas tenue d’examiner la question
de savoir s’il pouvait être justifié de contester le caractère erga omnes
partes d’une obligation nettement périphérique par rapport à la réalisation
de l’intérêt commun. En particulier, la Cour n’avait pas à se pencher
sur la question, soulevée par le Myanmar (CR 2022/1, p. 30, par. 22 (Talmon)),
de savoir si l’obligation de prévoir des sanctions pénales efficaces
frappant les personnes coupables de génocide, consacrée par l’article V de
la convention sur le génocide, revêtait un caractère erga omnes partes. Il
convient toutefois d’ajouter ici que le point de savoir si une obligation
consacrée par la convention sur le génocide pouvait ne pas avoir un
caractère erga omnes partes devrait être abordé avec une grande prudence.
17. Afin d’établir la qualité pour agir de la Gambie en la présente
espèce, la Cour n’était pas non plus tenue de préciser davantage les
conditions nécessaires pour qu’une obligation, consacrée par une convention,
« transcende[] la sphère des relations bilatérales des Etats parties » 12
afin d’acquérir un caractère erga omnes partes. Plus précisément, il n’était
pas nécessaire qu’elle examine de plus près la notion d’« intérêt commun
» (ou intérêt collectif) en tant que condition préalable à la présomption
mentionnée au paragraphe 15 ci-
dessus,
selon laquelle une obligation
possède un caractère erga omnes partes 13. Dans cette optique, l’intérêt
commun doit aller au-
delà de l’intérêt partagé que tous les Etats parties
ont à ce que le régime juridique établi par un traité multilatéral soit préservé,
car un tel intérêt existe également dans le cas de ce que M. le juge
Simma, dans un ouvrage de doctrine, a appelé un « traité multilatéral
d’application bilatérale » 14. La Cour a, par exemple, évoqué un intérêt
commun de ce type dans l’affaire du Personnel diplomatique et consulaire
des Etats‑Unis à Téhéran (Etats‑Unis d’Amérique c. Iran) (arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1980, p. 42‑43, par. 92) 15. Or, elle a déjà indiqué de manière
12 Commission du droit international, « Projet d’articles sur la responsabilité de l’Etat
pour fait internationalement illicite », ACDI, 2001, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 135‑136,
commentaire de l’article 48, par. 7.
13 Pour une typologie utile, voir I. Feichtner, « Community Interest », dans R. Wolfrum
(dir. publ.), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, vol. II, Oxford
University Press (OUP), 2012, p. 479‑481, par. 13‑25.
14 B. Simma, « From Bilateralism to Community Interest in International Law »,
RCADI, vol. 250, 1994, p. 336, par. 92.
15 P. d’Argent, « Les obligations internationales », RCADI, vol. 417, 2021, p. 61‑62,
par. 77.
546 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
73
abundantly clear that the Genocide Convention serves a much more
pronounced common interest in that it recognizes and protects a fundamentally
important common value 16. In particular, the Court has
already affirmed that the Genocide Convention “was manifestly adopted
for a purely humanitarian and civilizing purpose” and that “its object
on the one hand is to safeguard the very existence of certain human
groups and on the other to confirm and endorse the most elementary
principles of morality” (Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J.
Reports 1951, p. 23). Moreover, the Court has already determined that
the outlawing of genocide has given rise to obligations not only erga
omnes partes but towards the international community as a whole, i.e.
obligations erga omnes (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company,
Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 32, paras. 33‑34). In this connection,
it may be added that the interest of the international community as a
whole is of such weight that the prohibition of genocide constitutes a
peremptory norm of general international law (Armed Activities on the
Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic
of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 32, para. 64). Beyond this, the commission of
genocide directly engages the criminal responsibility of the individual
concerned under customary international law 17. Hence, the outlawing
of genocide, in addition to establishing obligations incumbent on States
towards the international community as a whole, has created obligations
for individuals, compliance with which is sanctioned by virtue of a
jus puniendi that serves, once again, an interest of the international community
as a whole. Against this background, the Court was not required,
in the present case, to consider the outer limits of the concept of “common
interest” for the purpose of recognizing obligations erga omnes
(partes).
18. The fact that the Genocide Convention itself opens up a number of
different avenues through which to act in the pursuit of the common
interest, and that international law, more broadly, envisages even more
such avenues, is illustrative of the particular weight of the common interest
in question rather than an argument against The Gambia’s standing in
the present case. While the entitlement of a State party to invoke the
responsibility of another State party for an alleged violation of an obligation
erga omnes partes under the Genocide Convention is not the only
way to act in the relevant common interest, a State’s entitlement to seek
judicial protection before the Court significantly complements the other
avenues through which it may uphold that interest.
16 In this regard, see I. Feichtner, op. cit., p. 481, para. 22.
17 See United Nations General Assembly resolution 96 (I) of 11 December 1946, entitled
“The Crime of Genocide”, para. 1.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 546
73
tout à fait claire que la convention sur le génocide servait un intérêt commun
beaucoup plus marqué en ce qu’elle reconnaissait et protégeait une
valeur commune d’une importance fondamentale 16, affirmant en particulier
que la convention sur le génocide « a[vait] été manifestement adoptée
dans un but purement humain et civilisateur » et qu’« elle vis[ait], d’une
part, à sauvegarder l’existence même de certains groupes humains et,
d’autre part, à confirmer et à sanctionner les principes de morale les plus
élémentaires » (Réserves à la convention pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 23). En
outre, la Cour a déjà déterminé que la mise hors la loi du génocide avait
donné lieu non seulement à des obligations erga omnes partes mais à des
obligations envers la communauté internationale dans son ensemble,
c’est‑à‑dire des obligations erga omnes (Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Limited (nouvelle requête : 1962) (Belgique c. Espagne),
deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 32, par. 33‑34). A cet égard,
on peut ajouter que l’intérêt de la communauté internationale dans son
ensemble est tel que l’interdiction du génocide constitue une norme
impérative du droit international général (Activités armées sur le territoire
du Congo (nouvelle requête : 2002) (République démocratique du
Congo c. Rwanda), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2006,
p. 32, par. 64). De surcroît, la commission d’un génocide engage directement
la responsabilité pénale de l’individu concerné au regard du droit
international coutumier 17. Ainsi, la mise hors la loi du génocide, en plus
d’établir des obligations incombant aux Etats envers la communauté
internationale dans son ensemble, a créé des obligations pour les individus,
dont le respect est sanctionné en vertu d’un jus puniendi qui sert, lui
aussi, l’intérêt de la communauté internationale dans son ensemble.
Dans ce contexte, la Cour n’était pas tenue, en la présente espèce, de
s’intéresser aux limites de la notion d’« intérêt commun » aux fins de la
reconnaissance d’obligations erga omnes (partes).
18. Le fait que la convention sur le génocide prévoie elle-même plusieurs
modalités d’action différentes dans la poursuite de l’intérêt commun
et que le droit international, de manière plus générale, en envisage
encore davantage, illustre le poids particulier de l’intérêt commun en
question et ne constitue pas un argument contre la qualité pour agir de la
Gambie en la présente affaire. Le droit d’un Etat partie d’invoquer la
responsabilité d’un autre Etat partie pour manquement allégué à une
obligation erga omnes partes au regard de la convention sur le génocide
n’est pas le seul moyen d’agir dans l’intérêt commun en question et, pour
défendre cet intérêt, une autre modalité d’action importante à la disposition
d’un Etat consiste à faire valoir son droit de solliciter une protection
judiciaire devant la Cour.
16 A cet égard, voir I. Feichtner, op. cit., p. 481, par. 22.
17 Voir Nations Unies, résolution 96 (I) du 11 décembre 1946 de l’Assemblée générale,
intitulée « Le crime de génocide », par. 1.
547 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
74
3. The Institution of Judicial Proceedings and the Adoption
of Countermeasures
19. Another argument put forward by Myanmar to deny The Gambia’s
standing consists in contending that the right to invoke the responsibility
of another State must not be confused with the “fundamentally
different” right to enforce such a responsibility “by bringing a case before
the Court” (Preliminary Objections of Myanmar, para. 218). In response
to this argument, the Court observes, in paragraph 108 of the Judgment,
that “[r]esponsibility for alleged breach of obligations erga omnes partes
under the Genocide Convention may be invoked through the institution
of proceedings before the Court”. To this, it may be added that Myanmar’s
attempts, for the purposes of its argument, to assimilate the institution
of proceedings before the Court to the adoption of countermeasures
(Preliminary Objections of Myanmar, para. 228) is misplaced in view of
the clearly distinct character of these two courses of action. It is true that
it is neither uncommon nor wrong to say, as Myanmar does (ibid.,
para. 218), that “bringing a case before the Court” constitutes a form of
“enforcing” the international obligation allegedly violated by the respondent
State. In the present context, however, this use of the term
“enforcement” in so wide a sense as to encompass adjudication lends
itself to misunderstanding, if the significant differences that exist between
adjudication and coercion are not highlighted at the same time 18. In this
context, it bears emphasizing that the question of the adoption of countermeasures
in the event of a violation of an obligation erga omnes
(partes) was not before the Court in the present case.
4. The Jurisdictional Requirement of Consent and the Admissibility
Requirement of Standing
20. At this juncture of the analysis, it is useful to recall that, according
to the Court’s earlier jurisprudence, the distinction between the jurisdictional
requirement of State consent to jurisdiction and the admissibility
requirement of standing also applies in the case of an obligation erga
omnes (partes) (see, for example, Armed Activities on the Territory of the
Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Rwanda), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006,
p. 32, para. 64). This distinction works both ways : just as the existence of
obligations erga omnes partes does not preclude the entering of a reservation
to a compromissory clause contained in a convention, neither does
18 For a similarly broad use of the term “enforcement”, but with due regard for the
significant differences between what he calls “public interest litigation” and “coercive
responses”, see C. J. Tams, “Individual States as Guardians of Community Interests”,
U. Fastenrath et al. (eds.), From Bilateralism to Community Interest. Essays in Honour of
Judge Bruno Simma, OUP, 2011, pp. 382‑392.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 547
74
3. Introduction d’une instance et adoption
de contre-mesures
19. Un autre argument avancé par le Myanmar pour contester la qualité
pour agir de la Gambie consistait à soutenir que le droit d’invoquer la
responsabilité d’un autre Etat ne devait pas être confondu avec le droit
« fondamentalement différent[] » de faire exécuter une telle responsabilité
« en portant une affaire devant la Cour » (exceptions préliminaires du
Myanmar, par. 218). En réponse à cet argument, la Cour observe, au
paragraphe 108 de l’arrêt, que « [l]a responsabilité à l’égard d’un manquement
allégué à des obligations erga omnes partes découlant de la convention
sur le génocide peut être invoquée par l’introduction d’une instance
devant la Cour ». On peut ajouter à cela que les tentatives du Myanmar
d’assimiler, aux fins de son argumentation, l’introduction d’une instance
devant la Cour à l’adoption de contre-mesures
(exceptions préliminaires
du Myanmar, par. 228) sont malvenues, compte tenu du caractère clairement
distinct de ces deux modalités d’action. Il est vrai qu’il n’est ni inhabituel
ni erroné de dire, comme le fait le Myanmar (ibid., par. 218), que le
fait de « porter une affaire devant la Cour » constitue une façon de « faire
exécuter » l’obligation internationale prétendument violée par l’Etat
défendeur. Dans le présent contexte, toutefois, l’utilisation de l’expression
« faire exécuter » dans un sens si large qu’il englobe le recours à la voie
juridictionnelle risque de donner lieu à des malentendus si l’on ne souligne
pas en même temps les différences importantes qui existent entre
règlement judiciaire et mesures coercitives 18. A cet égard, il convient de
souligner que la Cour n’avait pas été saisie en l’espèce de la question de
l’adoption de contre‑mesures en cas de manquement à une obligation
erga omnes (partes).
4. Exigence du consentement à la compétence et exigence
de recevabilité de la qualité pour agir
20. A ce stade de l’analyse, il est utile de rappeler que, selon la jurisprudence
de la Cour, la distinction entre l’exigence du consentement de
l’Etat à la compétence et l’exigence de recevabilité de la qualité pour agir
s’applique également dans le cas d’une obligation erga omnes (partes)
(voir, par exemple, Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle
requête : 2002) (République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda), compétence
et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2006, p. 32, par. 64). Cette distinction
est valable dans les deux sens : de même que l’existence
d’obligations erga omnes partes n’exclut pas la formulation d’une réserve
à une clause compromissoire contenue dans une convention, de même, la
18 Pour une utilisation aussi large de l’expression « faire exécuter », mais tenant dûment
compte des différences importantes entre le « contentieux d’intérêt public » et les « réponses
coercitives », voir C. J. Tams, « Individual States as Guardians of Community Interests »,
dans U. Fastenrath et al. (dir. publ.), From Bilateralism to Community Interest. Essays in
Honour of Judge Bruno Simma, OUP, 2011, p. 382‑392.
548 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
75
the possibility to enter a reservation to a compromissory clause contained
in a convention preclude the characterization of obligations contained in
the same convention as applying erga omnes partes 19.
21. In the latter case, the option to enter a reservation simply means
that every State party to the convention concerned is in a position to prevent,
by way of a reservation, its responsibility for the violation of an
obligation erga omnes partes being invoked through the institution of
proceedings before the Court, without this in any way contradicting the
erga omnes partes nature of the obligation in question (Questions relating
to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), declaration of Judge Donoghue,
pp. 588‑589, paras. 16‑17; but see Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (The Gambia v.
Myanmar), Provisional Measures, Order of 23 January 2020, I.C.J.
Reports 2020, separate opinion of Judge Xue, p. 34, para. 6).
22. In recognizing The Gambia’s standing, the Judgment does nothing
to depart from this jurisprudence. Therefore, Myanmar’s reference to the
Court’s previous observation that “the erga omnes character of a norm
and the rule of consent to jurisdiction are two different things” (East
Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 102,
para. 29, quoted in Preliminary Objections of Myanmar, para. 219), while
being correct in and of itself, is immaterial to the question of The Gambia’s
standing.
5. A Few Reflections on Myanmar’s Reference to Paragraph 91
in Barcelona Traction
23. In paragraph 109 of the Judgment, the Court rightly states that
“[f]or the purpose of institut[ing]. . . proceedings before the Court, a State
does not need to demonstrate that any victims of an alleged breach of
obligations erga omnes partes under the Genocide Convention are its
nationals”.
24. In support of its argument to the contrary, Myanmar refers to the
Court’s previous observation that, “on the universal level, the instruments
which embody human rights do not confer on States the capacity
to protect the victims of infringements of such rights irrespective of their
nationality” (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited
(New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 47, para. 91).
25. I do not consider this observation in Barcelona Traction to have
been worded in a felicitous manner: because of its broad formulation, it
could be construed as suggesting that the human rights obligations
19 For a useful exposition of the legal situation, see P. Urs, “Obligations erga omnes
and the question of standing before the International Court of Justice”, Leiden Journal of
International Law, CUP, Vol. 34 (2), 2021, pp. 518‑520.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 548
75
possibilité de formuler une telle réserve n’exclut pas que les obligations
contenues dans la même convention soient considérées comme s’appliquant
erga omnes partes 19.
21. Dans ce dernier cas, la possibilité de formuler une réserve signifie
simplement que chaque Etat partie à la convention concernée est en
mesure d’empêcher, par le biais d’une réserve, que sa responsabilité pour
manquement à une obligation erga omnes partes soit invoquée par l’introduction
d’une instance devant la Cour, sans que cela ne contredise en rien
le caractère erga omnes partes de l’obligation en question (Questions relatives
à l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), déclaration de Mme la juge Donoghue, p. 588‑589,
par. 16‑17 ; mais voir Application de la convention pour la prévention et la
répression du crime de génocide (Gambie c. Myanmar), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 23 janvier 2020, C.I.J. Recueil 2020, opinion individuelle
de Mme la juge Xue, p. 34, par. 6).
22. En reconnaissant la qualité pour agir de la Gambie, l’arrêt ne
s’écarte en rien de cette jurisprudence. Par conséquent, la référence du
Myanmar à l’observation antérieure de la Cour selon laquelle « l’opposabilité
erga omnes d’une norme et la règle du consentement à la juridiction
sont deux choses différentes » (Timor oriental (Portugal c. Australie),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 102, par. 29, citée dans les exceptions
préliminaires
du Myanmar, par. 219), bien que correcte en soi, est sans
pertinence aux fins de la question de la qualité pour agir de la
Gambie.
5. Quelques réflexions sur la référence faite par le Myanmar
au paragraphe 91 de l’arrêt rendu dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction
23. Au paragraphe 109 de l’arrêt, la Cour indique à juste titre que,
« [a]ux fins de l’introduction d’une instance devant [elle], un Etat n’est pas
tenu de démontrer que les victimes éventuelles d’une violation alléguée
d’obligations erga omnes partes découlant de la convention sur le génocide
sont ses ressortissants ».
24. Le Myanmar, qui soutenait le contraire, renvoyait à l’observation
antérieure de la Cour selon laquelle, « sur le plan universel, les instruments
qui consacrent les droits de l’homme ne reconnaissent pas qualité
aux Etats pour protéger les victimes de violations de ces droits indépendamment
de leur nationalité » (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company,
Limited (nouvelle requête : 1962) (Belgique c. Espagne), deuxième
phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 47, par. 91).
25. Selon moi, cette observation figurant dans l’affaire de la Barcelona
Traction n’était pas très heureuse : en raison de sa formulation générale,
elle pouvait donner à penser que les obligations en matière de droits de
19 Pour une présentation utile de la situation juridique, voir P. Urs, « Obligations erga
omnes and the question of standing before the International Court of Justice », Leiden
Journal of International Law, CUP, vol. 34, no 2, 2021, p. 518‑520.
549 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
76
enshrined in universal instruments do not possess an erga omnes partes
character. If interpreted in such a manner, it would, however, be difficult
to reconcile this passage in the Barcelona Traction Judgment with the
Court’s earlier pronouncement in the same Judgment that “the principles
and rules concerning the basic rights of the human person” are obligations
erga omnes (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (New
Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1970, p. 32, paras. 33‑34) 20. Moreover, if interpreted in such a
manner, the observation in paragraph 91 of the Barcelona Traction Judgment
would be contrary to the position adopted by the Human Rights
Committee of the United Nations in General Comment No. 31, which is
worded in the following terms:
“While article 2 is couched in terms of the obligations of State
Parties towards individuals as the right-holders
under the Covenant,
every State Party has a legal interest in the performance by every other
State Party of its obligations. This follows from the fact that the ‘rules
concerning the basic rights of the human person’ are erga omnes obligations
and that, as indicated in the fourth preambular paragraph of
the Covenant, there is a United Nations Charter obligation to promote
universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental
freedoms. Furthermore, the contractual dimension of the
treaty involves any State Party to a treaty being obligated to every
other State Party to comply with its undertakings under the treaty.
In this connection, the Committee reminds States Parties of the
desirability
of making the declaration contemplated in article 41. It
further reminds those States Parties already having made the declaration
of the potential value of availing themselves of the procedure
under that article. However, the mere fact that a formal interstate
mechanism for complaints to the Human Rights Committee exists in
respect of States Parties that have made the declaration under article
41 does not mean that this procedure is the only method by which
States Parties can assert their interest in the performance of other
States Parties. On the contrary, the article 41 procedure should be
seen as supplementary to, not diminishing of, States Parties’ interest
in each others’ discharge of their obligations. Accordingly, the Committee
commends to States Parties the view that violations of Covenant
rights by any State Party deserve their attention. To draw
attention to possible breaches of Covenant obligations by other States
Parties and to call on them to comply with their Covenant obligations
should, far from being regarded as an unfriendly act, be considered
as a reflection of legitimate community interest.” 21
20 B. Bollecker‑Stern, Le préjudice dans la théorie de la responsabilité internationale,
A. Pedone, 1973, pp. 85‑87.
21 General Comment No. 31 (80), The Nature of the General Legal Obligation
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 549
76
l’homme consacrées par des instruments universels ne possédaient pas un
caractère erga omnes partes. S’il était interprété de cette manière, ce passage
de l’arrêt Barcelona Traction pourrait difficilement être concilié avec
le prononcé antérieur de la Cour dans le même arrêt selon lequel « les
principes et les règles concernant les droits fondamentaux de la personne
humaine » sont des obligations erga omnes (Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Limited (nouvelle requête : 1962) (Belgique c. Espagne),
deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 32, par. 33‑34) 20. En outre,
il serait contraire à la position adoptée par le Comité des droits de
l’homme de l’Organisation des Nations Unies dans son observation générale
no 31, qui se lit comme suit :
« Si l’article 2 est formulé en termes d’obligations des Etats parties
envers les individus en tant que titulaires de droits en vertu du Pacte,
tout Etat partie a un intérêt juridique à ce que tout autre Etat partie
s’acquitte de ses obligations. Cela découle du fait que les « règles
concernant les droits fondamentaux de la personne humaine » sont des
obligations erga omnes et que, comme l’indique le quatrième alinéa du
préambule du Pacte, la Charte des Nations Unies impose l’obligation
de promouvoir le respect universel et effectif des droits de l’homme et
des libertés fondamentales. En outre, la dimension contractuelle du
traité implique que tout Etat partie à un traité est obligé envers tout
autre Etat partie de respecter ses engagements en vertu du traité. A cet
égard, le Comité rappelle aux Etats parties l’opportunité de faire la
déclaration prévue à l’article 41. Il rappelle également aux Etats parties
qui ont déjà fait cette déclaration l’intérêt qu’ils pourraient avoir à
se prévaloir de la procédure prévue par cet article. Cependant, le
simple fait qu’il existe un mécanisme interétatique formel de plaintes
auprès du Comité des droits de l’homme pour les Etats parties qui ont
fait la déclaration prévue à l’article 41 ne signifie pas que cette procédure
est la seule méthode par laquelle les Etats parties peuvent faire
valoir leur intérêt pour la performance des autres Etats parties. Au
contraire, la procédure de l’article 41 doit être considérée comme un
complément, et non comme une diminution, de l’intérêt des Etats
parties
à ce que les autres Etats parties s’acquittent de leurs obligations.
En conséquence, le Comité recommande aux Etats parties de
considérer que les violations des droits énoncés dans le Pacte par
tout Etat partie méritent leur attention. Le fait d’attirer l’attention
sur d’éventuelles violations des obligations découlant du Pacte par
d’autres Etats parties et de leur demander de s’acquitter de leurs obligations
au titre du Pacte devrait, loin d’être considéré comme un
acte inamical, être considéré comme le reflet de l’intérêt légitime de la
communauté.
» 21
20 B. Bollecker‑Stern, Le préjudice dans la théorie de la responsabilité internationale,
A. Pedone, 1973, p. 85‑87.
21 Nations Unies, Comité des droits de l’homme, quatre-vingtième
session, obser-
550 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
77
Paragraph 91 of the Barcelona Traction Judgment should therefore not be
interpreted so as to deny the possibility that human rights obligations
enshrined in universal instruments possess an erga omnes partes character.
Instead, it should be understood as an imperfectly worded reference
to the limitations that exist under certain universal human rights instruments
with a view to the possibility of instituting judicial proceedings for
an alleged violation 22. When viewed in this way, it becomes clear that
Myanmar’s reference to paragraph 91 of the Barcelona Traction Judgment
fails to appreciate that the Genocide Convention is different from
two of the main universal instruments to which the Court alludes —
namely, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights — in
at least one important respect. Article IX of the Genocide Convention
provides for a compromissory clause. For this reason, the Genocide Convention
is, for the purposes identified by Myanmar, much more comparable,
as regards the inapplicability of the nationality of claims rule, with
the regional human rights instrument explicitly mentioned by the Court
in the Barcelona Traction case :
“It is therefore still on the regional level that a solution to this
problem has had to be sought ; thus, within the Council of Europe,
of which Spain is not a member, the problem of admissibility encountered
by the claim in the present case has been resolved by the European
Convention on Human Rights, which entitles each State which
is a party to the Convention to lodge a complaint against any other
contracting State for violation of the Convention, irrespective of the
nationality of the victim.” (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company,
Limited (New Application: 1962) (Belgium v. Spain), Second
Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 47, para. 91.)
It should be noted in passing that, with respect to the human rights obligations
enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights,
Henri Rolin spoke of obligations erga omnes as early as 1956 23.
Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant, adopted on 29 March 2004, 2187th meeting,
UN doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13, 26 May 2004, pp. 1‑2, para. 2.
22 F. Voeffray, L’actio popularis ou la défense de l’intérêt collectif devant les juridictions
internationales, Presses universitaires de France (PUF), 2004, pp. 77‑78; in the same
sense, see “Fragmentation of international law: difficulties arising from the diversification
and expansion of international law”, Report of the Study Group of the International
Law Commission, finalized by Mr. Martti Koskenniemi, 13 April 2006, UN doc. A/
CN.4/L.682 and Add. 1, YILC, 2006, Vol. II (2: Addendum), p. 82, paras. 399-400.
23 H. Rolin, “Le rôle du requérant dans la procédure prévue par la Commission européenne
des droits de l’Homme”, Revue hellénique de droit international, Vol. 9, 1956, p. 8.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 550
77
Le paragraphe 91 de l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction ne
doit donc pas être interprété comme signifiant que les obligations relatives
aux droits de l’homme consacrées par des instruments universels ne
peuvent pas revêtir un caractère erga omnes partes. Il doit plutôt être
compris comme une référence imparfaitement formulée aux limites qui
existent en vertu de certains instruments universels relatifs aux droits de
l’homme concernant la possibilité d’introduire une instance pour un manquement
allégué 22. Vu sous cet angle, il apparaît clairement que la référence
faite par le Myanmar au paragraphe 91 de l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire
de la Barcelona Traction ne tient pas compte de ce que la convention sur
le génocide est différente de deux des principaux instruments universels
auxquels la Cour faisait allusion, à savoir le Pacte international relatif
aux droits économiques, sociaux et culturels et le Pacte international relatif
aux droits civils et politiques, sur au moins un point important. L’article
IX de la convention sur le génocide prévoit une clause compromissoire.
De ce fait, ladite convention est, aux fins identifiées par le Myanmar, bien
plus comparable, pour ce qui est de l’inapplicabilité de la règle de la
nationalité des réclamations, à l’instrument régional des droits de l’homme
expressément mentionné par la Cour dans l’affaire de la Barcelona
Traction
:
« C’est donc encore sur le plan régional qu’il a fallu chercher une
solution à ce problème. Ainsi, au sein du Conseil de l’Europe, dont
l’Espagne n’est pas membre, le problème de la recevabilité, auquel se
heurte la requête en la présente affaire, est résolu par la Convention
européenne des droits de l’homme qui autorise chaque Etat partie à
la convention à porter plainte contre tout autre Etat contractant à
raison d’une violation de la convention sans égard à la nationalité de
la victime. » (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited
(nouvelle requête : 1962) (Belgique c. Espagne), deuxième phase,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 47, par. 91.)
Notons au passage que, s’agissant des obligations relatives aux droits de
l’homme consacrées par la convention européenne des droits de l’homme,
Henri Rolin a parlé d’obligations erga omnes dès 1956 23.
vation générale no 31 intitulée « La nature de l’obligation juridique générale imposée
aux Etats
parties au Pacte », adoptée le 29 mars 2004, 2187e séance, doc. CCPR/C/21/
Rev.1/Add.13, 26 mai 2004, p. 1‑2, par. 2.
22 F. Voeffray, L’actio popularis ou la défense de l’intérêt collectif devant les juridictions
internationales, Presses universitaires de France (PUF), 2004, p. 77‑78 ; dans le même ordre
d’idées, voir « Fragmentation du droit international : difficultés découlant de la diversification
et de l’expansion du droit international », rapport du groupe d’étude de la CDI,
établi sous sa forme définitive par M. Martti Koskenniemi, 13 avril 2006, Nations Unies,
doc. A/CN.4/L.682 et Add. 1, ACDI, 2006, vol. II, additif 2, p. 82, par. 399‑400.
23 H. Rolin, « Le rôle du requérant dans la procédure prévue par la Commission européenne
des droits de l’Homme », Revue hellénique de droit international, vol. 9, 1956, p. 8.
551 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
78
6. A Few Reflections on Paragraph 113 of the Judgment (Myanmar’s
Argument Based on Bangladesh’s Reservation to Article IX
of the Genocide Convention)
26. With respect to Myanmar’s argument based on Bangladesh’s reservation
to Article IX of the Genocide Convention, the Court observes in
paragraph 113 of the Judgment that Bangladesh has faced a large influx
of refugees. The Court goes on to say the following: “However, this fact
does not affect the right of all other Contracting Parties to assert the common
interest in compliance with the obligations erga omnes partes under
the Convention and therefore does not preclude The Gambia’s standing
in the present case.” This sentence is as correct as it is condensed.
27. There are three possible explanations for this sentence. The first is
that Bangladesh, despite having faced a large influx of refugees, does not
have a special legal interest entitling it to invoke Myanmar’s responsibility
for alleged violations of the Genocide Convention and that any question
of Bangladesh’s standing taking priority over the standing of
The Gambia thus does not arise. The second possible explanation is that
Bangladesh does have a special legal interest but that The Gambia’s
standing is not dependent on that of Bangladesh. The third possible
explanation is a cumulation of the previous two, i.e. that Bangladesh does
not have a special legal interest but, even if it did, The Gambia’s standing
would not be dependent on that of Bangladesh. The Judgment is silent in
respect of these three possible explanations. However, since I deem the
legal questions concerned to be important, I wish to offer my views on
them.
28. When addressing the question as to whether Bangladesh has a special
legal interest entitling it to invoke Myanmar’s responsibility for
alleged violations of the Genocide Convention, it is useful to consider the
concept of “specially affected State”, even though the Court does not
make use of it in the present Judgment. Judge Simma, once stated in
respect of Article 60, paragraph 2 (a), of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties — where this concept appears — that “the use of the
term ‘a party specially affected by the breach’ gives rise to very intricate
problems that were taken up again by the International Law Commission
in the course of its work on State responsibility” 24. Indeed, the intricacies
that arise in applying the above‑mentioned term in the present case reveal
themselves on a closer reading of the ILC’s commentary on the concept
of “specially affected State” within the meaning of Article 42 (b) (i) of the
ILC Articles on State Responsibility. The ILC has the following to say
about the meaning of the concept of “specially affected State”:
“Like article 60, paragraph 2 (b), of the 1969 Vienna Convention,
subparagraph (b) (i) does not define the nature or extent of the spe-
24 B. Simma, op. cit., p. 350, para. 101.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 551
78
6. Quelques réflexions sur le paragraphe 113 de l’arrêt (argument
du Myanmar fondé sur la réserve du Bangladesh à l’article IX
de la convention sur le génocide)
26. S’agissant de l’argument du Myanmar fondé sur la réserve du Bangladesh
à l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide, la Cour relève, au paragraphe
113 de l’arrêt, que le Bangladesh a été confronté à un important afflux
de réfugiés. Elle indique également que « [c]ela ne saurait toutefois affecter le
droit de toutes les autres parties contractantes de faire valoir l’intérêt commun
à ce qu’il soit satisfait aux obligations erga omnes partes énoncées dans
la convention ni, en conséquence, exclure la qualité de la Gambie pour engager
la présente instance ». Cette phrase est aussi correcte que concise.
27. Il y a trois explications possibles à cette phrase. La première est que
le Bangladesh, bien qu’il ait été confronté à un afflux important de réfugiés,
n’a pas d’intérêt juridique particulier lui permettant d’invoquer la responsabilité
du Myanmar pour des manquements allégués à la convention sur le
génocide et que la question de la priorité de la qualité pour agir du Bangladesh
sur celle de la Gambie ne se pose donc pas. La deuxième explication
est que le Bangladesh a bien un intérêt juridique particulier, mais que la
qualité pour agir de la Gambie ne dépend pas de celle du Bangladesh. La
troisième explication englobe les deux précédentes, c’est-à-dire que le Bangladesh
n’a pas d’intérêt juridique particulier, mais que, même s’il en avait
un, la qualité pour agir de la Gambie ne dépendrait pas de celle du Bangladesh.
L’arrêt ne dit rien de ces trois explications possibles. Etant donné que
les questions juridiques sous-jacentes
sont, de mon point de vue, importantes,
je tiens cependant à présenter mes vues à leur sujet.
28. Lorsque l’on s’interroge sur le point de savoir si le Bangladesh a un
intérêt juridique particulier lui permettant d’invoquer la responsabilité du
Myanmar pour des manquements allégués à la convention sur le génocide,
il est utile d’examiner la notion d’« Etat spécialement atteint », même si la
Cour n’en fait pas usage dans le présent arrêt. M. le juge Simma a précisé
par le passé, à propos de l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 2 de l’article 60 de la
convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités — où cette notion apparaît —,
que « l’emploi de l’expression « une partie spécialement atteinte par la violation
» donn[ait] lieu à des problèmes très complexes qui [avaie]nt été de
nouveau examinés par la Commission du droit international au cours de
ses travaux sur la responsabilité de l’Etat » 24. Une lecture attentive du
commentaire de la CDI sur la notion d’« Etat spécialement atteint » au
sens du sous‑alinéa i) de l’alinéa b) de l’article 42 de ses articles sur la responsabilité
de l’Etat met en effet au jour les difficultés que soulève l’application
de l’expression susmentionnée en la présente espèce. La CDI indique
ce qui suit concernant le sens de la notion d’« Etat spécialement atteint » :
« Pas plus que l’alinéa b) du paragraphe 2 de l’article 60 de la
Convention de Vienne de 1969, le sous‑alinéa i) de l’alinéa b) ne définit
24 B. Simma, op. cit., p. 350, par. 101.
552 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
79
cial impact that a State must have sustained in order to be considered
‘injured’. This will have to be assessed on a case-by-case basis, having
regard to the object and purpose of the primary obligation breached
and the facts of each case. For a State to be considered injured, it
must be affected by the breach in a way which distinguishes it from
the generality of other States to which the obligation is owed.” 25
The references in this citation to the factual circumstances of the individual
case are of fairly little assistance when there is no criterion guiding
the identification of the relevant factual circumstances. The one criterion
that the ILC does offer is that of “the object and purpose of the primary
obligation breached”, and this is indeed a helpful criterion. If applied to
the present case, it gives rise to the question whether the influx of refugees
into Bangladesh is a consequence of the type that the prohibition of genocide
is specifically intended to prevent. One can also put the same question
in slightly different terms: does the flight of large numbers of human
beings under genocidal attack to a particular State turn that asylum State
into a direct victim of genocide? The answer is far from obvious. If the
object and purpose of the prohibition of genocide is simply to prevent
protected groups of human beings from being destroyed, then the answer
has to be in the negative. In that event, only those groups and the human
beings composing them could be direct victims of genocide 26. But what if
one were to go further and say that the protection of the sovereign interest
of States, especially those bordering the State where genocide is being
committed, not to be confronted with the humanitarian need caused by
the influx of a large number of refugees is also an object and purpose of
the prohibition of genocide 27? In that event, Bangladesh would have to be
considered a direct victim and hence a State specially affected by Myanmar’s
alleged genocide. This is a step I am very reluctant to take given the
Court’s previous ruling that the Genocide Convention “was adopted for
a purely humanitarian and civilizing purpose” and that “[i]n such a convention
the contracting States do not have any interests of their own”
(Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 23; emphasis
added) 28. I therefore harbour considerable doubt as to whether Bangla-
25 YILC, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 119, para. 12.
26 For the proposition that “not every obligation in the collective interest will have
a primary victim”, see J. Crawford, State Responsibility: The General Part, CUP, 2013,
p. 546.
27 One could also ask the question, not relevant here, whether in a case where a State
commits genocide to the detriment of a protected group of persons with foreign nationality,
the national State of the targeted group should be considered a direct victim of the
genocide, in addition to the targeted group itself and the human beings composing it.
28 I should perhaps underline that the hesitation that I have just expressed concerns
only the question whether one or more States facing a large influx of refugees as a result of
the commission of genocide is hereby specially affected by the breach of the prohibition of
genocide. It is a different question, and one not to be addressed here, whether States that
face a large influx of refugees as a result of the commission of genocide by another State may
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 552
79
la nature ou la portée du préjudice spécial que l’Etat doit avoir subi
pour être considéré comme « lésé ». Celles-
ci seront évaluées au cas par
cas, en tenant compte de l’objet et du but de l’obligation primaire violée,
ainsi que des faits de chaque espèce. Pour qu’un Etat puisse être
considéré comme lésé, il doit être atteint par la violation d’une manière
qui le distingue des autres Etats auxquels l’obligation est due. » 25
La prise en compte des circonstances factuelles de chaque espèce, préconisée
dans le passage précité, n’est guère utile en l’absence de critères permettant
de déterminer les faits pertinents. Le seul critère que la CDI propose
est celui « de l’objet et du but de l’obligation primaire violée », et il est
effectivement utile. Appliqué à la présente espèce, il soulève la question de
savoir si l’afflux de réfugiés au Bangladesh est une conséquence du type de
celles que l’interdiction du génocide vise expressément à prévenir. Cette
même question peut aussi être formulée en des termes quelque peu différents
: la fuite d’un grand nombre d’êtres humains soumis à une attaque
génocidaire vers un Etat particulier fait-elle de cet Etat d’asile une victime
directe du génocide ? La réponse est loin d’être évidente. Si l’objet et le but
de l’interdiction du génocide sont simplement d’empêcher la destruction
de groupes d’êtres humains protégés, la réponse doit être négative. Dans ce
cas, seuls ces groupes et les êtres humains qui les composent pourraient
être des victimes directes du génocide 26. Qu’en serait‑il cependant si l’on
allait plus loin en estimant que la protection de l’intérêt souverain des
Etats, en particulier ceux qui sont limitrophes de l’Etat où le génocide est
commis, à ne pas être confrontés aux besoins humanitaires causés par l’afflux
d’un grand nombre de réfugiés est également un objet et un but de
l’interdiction du génocide 27 ? Dans ce cas, le Bangladesh devrait être considéré
comme une victime directe et, partant, comme un Etat spécialement
atteint par le génocide allégué commis par le Myanmar. Je suis très réticent
à franchir ce pas, compte tenu de la décision antérieure de la Cour
selon laquelle la convention sur le génocide « a été adoptée dans un but
purement humanitaire et civilisateur » et que, « [d]ans une telle convention,
les Etats contractants n’ont pas d’intérêts propres » (Réserves à la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide, avis consultatif,
C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 23 (les italiques sont de moi)) 28. Je doute
25 ACDI, 2001, vol. II, deuxième partie, p. 127, par. 12.
26 Au sujet de la proposition selon laquelle « toutes les obligations d’intérêt collectif »
n’auront pas une victime primaire, voir J. Crawford, State Responsibility : The General
Part, CUP, 2013, p. 546.
27 On pourrait également se demander, bien que cela ne soit pas pertinent ici, si, dans
le cas où un Etat commet un génocide au détriment d’un groupe protégé de personnes de
nationalité étrangère, l’Etat national du groupe visé doit être considéré comme une victime
directe du génocide, en plus du groupe visé lui-
même et des êtres humains qui le composent.
28 Je devrais peut-être souligner que l’hésitation que je viens d’exprimer ne concerne
que la question de savoir si un ou plusieurs Etats confrontés à un afflux important de réfugiés
à la suite de la commission d’un génocide sont de ce fait spécialement atteints par le
non-respect
de l’interdiction de génocide. Même s’il s’agit d’une question différente, qui ne
sera pas abordée ici, on peut se demander si les Etats qui font face à un afflux important de
553 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
80
desh should be considered a “specially affected State” within the meaning
of Article 42 (b) (i) of the ILC Articles on State Responsibility. For the
same reasons, I am doubtful as to whether Bangladesh — to use to the
terminology of the Judgment — has a special legal interest in invoking
Myanmar’s responsibility for an alleged genocide.
29. Yet even if Bangladesh had such a special legal interest as a consequence
of the influx of refugees to that country, in my view, this would not
make The Gambia’s standing in the present case dependent on that of Bangladesh,
and it is ultimately on the basis of this consideration that I agree
with the conclusion set out by the Court in paragraph 113 of the Judgment.
In the event of a violation of an obligation erga omnes (partes), it is, in my
view, generally doubtful whether a State with a special legal interest — or,
to use the terminology contained in Article 42 (b) (i) of the ILC Articles on
State Responsibility, a specially affected State — could ever, on its own,
dispose of the relevant collective interest completely 29. The present case,
however, does not call for a statement of such generality. This is because
there are two different categories of obligations erga omnes (partes) 30. The
first kind of obligations erga omnes (partes) are characterized by the fact
that the collective interest at stake is mediated through the special legal
be in a position to invoke that State’s responsibility for the breach of another international
obligation in order to claim reparation from that State and recover the costs incurred in
connection with its reception of and care for the human beings concerned. This latter question
has received some useful attention in the international legal doctrine; see, for example,
C. Tomuschat, “State Responsibility and the Country of Origin”, in: V. Gowlland‑Debbas
(ed.), The Problem of Refugees in the Light of Contemporary International Legal Issues,
Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1996, p. 71; W. Czapliński and P. Sturma, “La responsabilité
des Etats pour les flux de réfugiés provoqués par eux”, AFDI, Vol. 40, 1994, pp. 160‑162 ;
H. R. Garry, “The Right to Compensation and Refugee Flows: A Preventative Mechanism
in International Law?”, International Journal of Refugee Law, Vol. 10, 1998, pp. 103‑106;
L. T. Lee, “The Right to Compensation: Refugees and Countries of Asylum”, The American
Journal of International Law (AJIL), Vol. 80, 1986, pp. 553‑560. It may be added
that a similar distinction must be borne in mind with respect to the situation mentioned
in the preceding footnote, where a State commits genocide to the detriment of a protected
group of persons with foreign nationality. If one did not consider the national State of the
targeted group to be a direct victim of the genocide, in addition to the group itself and the
human beings composing it, this would not prevent the national State invoking, through
the exercise of diplomatic protection, the other State’s responsibility for the mistreatment
of aliens.
29 See also G. Gaja, “The Protection of General Interests in the International Community:
General Course on Public International Law (2011)”, Collected Courses of the Hague
Academy of International Law, Vol. 364, 2012, p. 104; Pok Yin S. Chow, “On Obligations
Erga Omnes Partes”, Georgetown Journal of International Law, Vol. 52, 2021, p. 501.
30 Not infrequently, reference is made to a third category of obligations erga omnes
(partes), the relevant obligations being called “interdependent”. This type of obligation
erga omnes (partes) cannot by definition give rise to the question of priority because, in
the case of a violation, all States to which the obligation is owed are affected in a material
sense. For a more detailed analysis of this type of international obligation, see P. d’Argent,
op. cit., pp. 82‑84.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 553
80
donc fort que le Bangladesh doive être considéré comme un « Etat spécialement
atteint » au sens du sous-alinéa
i) de l’alinéa b) de l’article 42 des
articles de la CDI. Pour les mêmes raisons, je doute que le Bangladesh
— pour reprendre la terminologie de l’arrêt — ait un intérêt juridique
particulier
à invoquer la responsabilité du Myanmar pour un génocide
allégué.
29. Toutefois, même si le Bangladesh possédait un tel intérêt juridique
particulier du fait de l’afflux de réfugiés auquel il fait face, cela ne ferait pas,
de mon point de vue, dépendre la qualité pour agir de la Gambie en la
présente affaire de la sienne, et c’est finalement sur la base de cette considération
que je souscris à la conclusion énoncée par la Cour au paragraphe 113
de l’arrêt. En cas de violation d’une obligation erga omnes (partes), il est, à
mon sens, généralement peu probable qu’un Etat ayant un intérêt juridique
particulier — ou, pour utiliser la terminologie contenue au sous‑alinéa i) de
l’alinéa b) de l’article 42 des articles de la CDI, un Etat spécialement
atteint — puisse jamais, de son propre chef, s’affranchir totalement de l’intérêt
collectif pertinent 29. En l’espèce, cependant, une déclaration aussi
générale ne s’imposait pas. Il existe en effet deux catégories différentes
d’obligations erga omnes (partes) 30. La première se caractérise par le fait
que l’intérêt collectif en cause s’exerce à travers l’intérêt juridique particuréfugiés
à la suite de la commission d’un génocide par un autre Etat peuvent être en mesure
d’invoquer la responsabilité de cet Etat pour la violation d’une autre obligation internationale
afin de demander réparation à cet Etat et de recouvrer les frais encourus pour l’accueil
et la prise en charge des êtres humains concernés. Cette dernière question a fait l’objet
d’une attention bienvenue dans la doctrine juridique internationale ; voir, par exemple,
C. Tomuschat, « State Responsibility and the Country of Origin », dans V. Gowlland‑Debbas
(dir. publ.), The Problem of Refugees in the Light of Contemporary International
Legal Issues, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1996, p. 71 ; W. Czapliński et P. Sturma, « La
responsabilité des Etats pour les flux de réfugiés provoqués par eux », AFDI, vol. 40, 1994,
p. 160‑162 ; H. R. Garry, « The Right to Compensation and Refugee Flows : A Preventative
Mechanism in International Law? », International Journal of Refugee Law, vol. 10, 1998,
p. 103‑106 ; L. T. Lee, « The Right to Compensation : Refugees and Countries of Asylum »,
The American Journal of International Law (AJIL), vol. 80, 1986, p. 553‑560. On ajoutera
qu’une distinction analogue doit être gardée à l’esprit en ce qui concerne la situation
mentionnée dans la note précédente, où un Etat commet un génocide au détriment d’un
groupe protégé de personnes de nationalité étrangère. Si l’Etat national du groupe visé
n’est pas considéré comme une victime directe du génocide, en plus du groupe lui-
même et
des êtres humains qui le composent, cela ne l’empêcherait pas d’invoquer, par l’exercice de
la protection diplomatique, la responsabilité de l’autre Etat pour les mauvais traitements
infligés aux étrangers.
29 Voir également G. Gaja, « The Protection of General Interests in the International
Community : General Course on Public International Law (2011) » (cours général de droit
international public), RCADI, vol. 364, 2012, p. 104 ; Pok Yin S. Chow, « On Obligations
Erga Omnes Partes », Georgetown Journal of International Law, vol. 52, 2021, p. 501.
30 Il n’est pas rare qu’il soit aussi fait référence à une troisième catégorie d’obligations
erga omnes (partes), les obligations en question étant appelées « interdépendantes ». Ce
type d’obligations erga omnes (partes) ne peut par définition donner lieu à la question de
priorité car, dans le cas d’une violation, tous les Etats auxquels l’obligation est due sont
matériellement atteints. Pour une analyse plus détaillée de ce type d’obligation internationale,
voir P. d’Argent, op. cit., p. 82‑84.
554 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
81
interest of at least one State. The prohibition of the use of force is one example
of this type of obligation erga omnes (partes) 31. In the event of a breach
of this obligation, the collective interest comes into play through the violation
of the special legal interest of at least one direct victim State. In this
case, it is not completely misplaced to raise the question whether the State
with the relevant special legal interest might be in a position to dispose of
the relevant common interest completely. Yet this has no bearing in the
present case. Indeed, the obligation erga omnes partes at issue here is of a
different kind: in the case of the prohibition of genocide, the collective interest
in the existence of the protected group under genocidal attack and the
human beings composing that group is not mediated through the special
legal interest of any State. Thus no State is in a position to dispose of the
relevant collective interest completely. For this last reason alone, The Gambia’s
standing in the present case is not dependent on that of Bangladesh.
30. In light of the foregoing, the Court was right to conclude in paragraph
113 of the Judgment that it need not decide whether Bangladesh’s
reservation to the Court’s jurisdiction may be assimilated to a waiver of a
relevant claim, a question I would be strongly inclined to answer in the
negative. There was even less need for the Court to decide whether a
waiver of responsibility is even possible in the case of a violation of a rule
of peremptory character 32.
7. In Response to Myanmar’s Concerns regarding Possible Wider
Ramifications of Admitting The Gambia’s Standing
in the Present Case
31. In its submissions, Myanmar also voiced concern with respect to
the possible wider ramifications of granting The Gambia standing in the
present case. It spoke of the danger of “a potentially unmanageable proliferation
of disputes” that would result from the Court’s admission of
what Myanmar has termed The Gambia’s “naked form of actio popularis”
(Preliminary Objections of Myanmar, para. 214). Myanmar also
pointed to possible unfortunate procedural consequences, emphasizing, in
particular, the possibility, as a result of the inter partes effect of the res
judicata
principle pursuant to Article 59 of the Statute of the Court, of
repeated applications being brought against the same State (ibid.,
paras. 344‑347).
(a) On the term actio popularis
32. As a matter of terminology, I note Myanmar’s reference to the
31 J. Crawford, op. cit., p. 546.
32 On this question, see YILC, 1966, Vol. II, p. 240, para. 5; C. J. Tams, “Waiver,
Acquiescence and Extinctive Prescription”, in: J. Crawford, A. Pellet and S. Olleson (eds.),
The Law of International Responsibility, OUP, 2010, p. 1042.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 554
81
lier d’au moins un Etat. L’interdiction du recours à la force en est un
exemple 31. Si elle est violée, l’intérêt collectif entre en jeu du fait de la violation
de l’intérêt juridique particulier d’au moins un Etat directement victime.
Dans cette hypothèse, il n’est pas tout à fait inopportun de se
demander si l’Etat dont l’intérêt juridique particulier est en cause peut être
en mesure de s’affranchir totalement de l’intérêt collectif visé. Cela n’a
cependant aucune incidence en la présente affaire. En effet, l’obligation
erga omnes partes dont il est question ici est d’une autre nature : dans le cas
de l’interdiction du génocide, l’intérêt collectif à ce que soient protégés le
groupe faisant l’objet d’une attaque génocidaire et les êtres humains composant
ce groupe ne s’exerce pas à travers l’intérêt juridique particulier d’un
Etat. Aucun Etat n’est donc en mesure de s’affranchir totalement de l’intérêt
collectif en question. Pour cette seule raison, la qualité pour agir de la
Gambie en l’espèce ne dépend pas de celle du Bangladesh.
30. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, c’est à juste titre que la Cour a
conclu, au paragraphe 113 de l’arrêt, qu’elle n’avait pas à se prononcer
sur la question de savoir si la réserve à sa compétence émise par le Bangladesh
pouvait être assimilée à une renonciation à une réclamation pertinente,
question à laquelle je serais fortement enclin à répondre par la
négative. Il était encore moins nécessaire que la Cour détermine s’il est
seulement possible, en cas de violation d’une règle à caractère impératif,
de renoncer à invoquer la responsabilité 32.
7. En réponse aux préoccupations du Myanmar quant à d’éventuelles
incidences plus larges de la reconnaissance de la qualité pour agir
de la Gambie en la présente affaire
31. Le Myanmar s’est également dit préoccupé par les incidences plus
larges que pourrait avoir la reconnaissance de la qualité pour agir de
la Gambie en la présente affaire. Il a ainsi évoqué le danger d’« une
éventuelle
prolifération incontrôlable des différends » qui résulterait de
l’admission par la Cour de ce qu’il a appelé « une forme pure et
simple d’actio
popularis » de la Gambie (exceptions préliminaires du
Myanmar, par. 214). Le Myanmar a en outre signalé d’éventuelles
conséquences
fâcheuses du point de vue procédural, soulignant en particulier
la possibilité,
en raison de l’effet inter partes, du principe de l’autorité
de la chose jugée consacré par l’article 59 du Statut de la Cour, que
des requêtes répétées
soient introduites contre le même Etat (ibid.,
par. 344-347).
a) Au sujet de la notion d’actio popularis
32. Sur le plan terminologique, je relèverai la référence faite par le
31 J. Crawford, op. cit., p. 546.
32 Sur cette question, voir ACDI, 1966, vol. II, p. 240, par. 5 ; C. J. Tams, « Waiver,
Acquiescence and Extinctive Prescription », dans J. Crawford, A. Pellet et S. Olleson
(dir. publ), The Law of International Responsibility, OUP, 2010, p. 1042.
555 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
82
concept of actio popularis. The Court mentioned this term in a wellknown
dictum contained in paragraph 88 of its Judgment in
the South West Africa cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa ; Liberia v. South
Africa) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966, p. 47, para. 88) and, not infrequently,
the concept is also used by academic writers in connection with
the institution of judicial proceedings relating to the alleged violation of
an obligation erga omnes (partes) 33. Indeed, it is not far-fetched
and may
even be useful to consider the Roman law acquis with respect to actiones
popularis 34 when it comes to the question of the institution of judicial
proceedings for the alleged violation of an obligation erga omnes
(partes) 35. It has, however, also been observed that it is difficult to identify
one overarching principle governing the different actiones popularis
under Roman law 36 and it has been questioned whether the institution of
judicial proceedings for the alleged violation of an obligation erga omnes
(partes) reflects any such principle strongly enough so as to justify the use
of the term in that context 37. In this situation, the Court should remain
cautious about using the term actio popularis in connection with the institution
of judicial proceedings for the alleged violation of an obligation
erga omnes (partes). As this latter concept is now well entrenched in the
Court’s jurisprudence, there is also no need to recognize the term actio
popularis as a term of art in that context 38. A very similar sentiment seems
to underlie the following statement which was made by Judge Jessup in his
33 For just a few examples, see F. Ahmadov, The Right of Actio Popularis before International
Courts and Tribunals, Leiden/Boston, Brill/Nijhoff, 2018, pp. 199‑201; G. Gaja,
op. cit., pp. 110‑112; C. J. Tams, “Individual States as Guardians of Community
Interests”,
in: U. Fastenrath et al. (eds.), op. cit., pp. 384 and 387; G. Abi‑Saab, “Que restet-
il du ‘crime international’ ?”, in: N. Angelet et al. (eds.), Droit du pouvoir, pouvoir du
droit. Mélanges offerts à Jean Salmon, Bruylant, 2007, p. 83 (observing that the concept
of actio popularis bears a resemblance to the concept of da’awa al hisbah in Islamic law);
W. J. Aceves, “Actio Popularis — The Class Action in International Law”, University of
Chicago Legal Forum, Vol. 2003, p. 357.
34 For this acquis, see A. Halfmeier, Popularklagen im Privatrecht, Tübingen, Mohr
Siebeck, 2006, pp. 29‑42; F. Voeffray, op. cit., pp. 6‑12; M. Wlassak, “Actio”, in:
G. Wissowa (ed.), Pauly’s Real-Encyclopädie
der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Neue
Bearbeitung, J. B. Metzlerscher Verlag, 1894, columns 318-320.
35 F. Voeffray, op. cit., p. 5.
36 A. Halfmeier, op. cit., p. 43. It is also not readily apparent that the legal evolution
which has taken place at the level of national jurisdictions subsequent to Roman times,
could have given rise to a sufficiently clear common understanding of actio popularis as a
legal concept; see F. Voeffray, op. cit., p. 384.
37 For a negative answer, see A. Vermeer‑Kunzli, “A Matter of Interest: Diplomatic
Protection and State Responsibility Erga Omnes”, International and Comparative Law
Quarterly, Vol. 56 (3), 2007, p. 571; for a more positive view, see F. Voeffray, op. cit.,
p. 386.
38 For the same conclusion, see “Troisième question : La protection des droits de
l’homme et le principe de non‑intervention dans les affaires intérieures des Etats, treizième
séance plénière : mardi 12 septembre (après-midi)”, Institut de droit international, Yearbook,
Vol. 63 (II), 1990, Deliberations, p. 256 (Roberto Ago).
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 555
82
Myanmar à la notion d’actio popularis. La Cour a mentionné cette notion
dans un dictum bien connu figurant au paragraphe 88 de l’arrêt qu’elle a
rendu dans les affaires du Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ;
Libéria c. Afrique du Sud) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1966, p. 47, par. 88), et il
n’est pas rare que la notion soit également utilisée par certains auteurs en
relation avec l’introduction d’une instance relative au manquement allégué
à une obligation erga omnes (partes) 33. De fait, il n’est pas exagéré
— et peut même se révéler utile — de s’intéresser à l’acquis du droit
romain en matière d’actio popularis 34 lorsqu’il s’agit de l’introduction
d’une instance pour manquement allégué à une obligation erga omnes
(partes) 35. Il a cependant aussi été observé qu’il était difficile de définir un
principe général régissant les différentes actiones popularis en droit
romain 36 et l’on s’est demandé si l’introduction d’une instance pour manquement
allégué à une obligation erga omnes (partes) reflétait de manière
suffisamment fidèle un tel principe pour justifier l’utilisation de la notion
dans ce contexte 37. La Cour devrait donc rester prudente quant à l’utilisation
de la notion d’actio popularis en relation avec l’introduction d’une
instance pour manquement allégué à une obligation erga omnes (partes).
Cette dernière notion étant désormais bien ancrée dans la jurisprudence
de la Cour, il n’est pas nécessaire de faire de l’expression actio popularis
une expression consacrée 38. Une analyse très similaire semble sous‑tendre
l’observation suivante, formulée par M. le juge Jessup dans le fort
33 Pour quelques exemples, voir F. Ahmadov, The Right of Actio Popularis before
International Courts and Tribunals, Brill/Nijhoff, 2018, p. 199‑201 ; G. Gaja, op. cit.,
p. 110‑112 ; C. J. Tams, « Individual States as Guardians of Community Interests », dans
U. Fastenrath et al. (dir. publ.), op. cit., p. 384 et 387 ; G. Abi‑Saab « Que reste-t-il du
« crime international » ? », dans N. Angelet et al. (dir. publ.), Droit du pouvoir, pouvoir du
droit. Mélanges offerts à Jean Salmon, Bruylant, 2007, p. 83 (observant que le concept
d’actio popularis ressemble à celui de da’awa al hisbah en droit islamique) ; W. J. Aceves,
« Actio Popularis — The Class Action in International Law », University of Chicago Legal
Forum, vol. 2003, p. 357.
34 Au sujet de cet acquis, voir A. Halfmeier, Popularklagen im Privatrecht, Tubingue,
Mohr Siebeck, 2006, p. 29‑42 ; F. Voeffray, op. cit., p. 6‑12 ; M. Wlassak, « Actio », dans
G. Wissowa (dir. publ.), Pauly’s Real-Encyclopädie
der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft.
Neue Bearbeitung, J. B. Metzlerscher Verlag, 1894, colonnes 318-320.
35 F. Voeffray, op. cit., p. 5.
36 A. Halfmeier, op. cit., p. 43. Il n’est pas non plus évident que l’évolution juridique qui
s’est produite au niveau des juridictions nationales après la période romaine ait pu susciter
une compréhension commune suffisamment claire de l’actio popularis en tant que notion
juridique ; voir F. Voeffray, op. cit., p. 384.
37 Pour un point de vue négatif, voir A. Vermeer‑Kunzli, « A Matter of Interest : Diplomatic
Protection and State Responsibility Erga Omnes », International and Comparative
Law Quarterly, vol. 56, no 3, 2007, p. 571 ; pour un point de vue plus positif, voir F. Voeffray,
op. cit., p. 386.
38 Pour la même conclusion, voir « Troisième question : La protection des droits de
l’homme et le principe de non‑intervention dans les affaires intérieures des Etats, treizième
séance plénière : mardi 12 septembre 1989 (après-midi) », Institut de droit international,
Annuaire, vol. 63, deuxième partie, 1990, délibérations, p. 256 (Roberto Ago).
556 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
83
powerful dissenting opinion to the Court’s 1966 Judgment in the South
West Africa cases :
“I agree that there is no generally established actio popularis in
international law. But international law has accepted and established
situations in which States are given a right of action without any
showing of individual prejudice or individual substantive interest as
distinguished from the general interest.” ((Ethiopia v. South Africa ;
Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966,
dissenting opinion of Judge Jessup, pp. 387‑388.)
It is thus with good reason that the Court has refrained from calling
The Gambia’s course of action an actio popularis.
(b) On a potential proliferation of disputes
33. Myanmar’s concern regarding “a potentially unmanageable proliferation
of disputes” is too abstract and speculative to lend itself well to
judicial treatment. Nevertheless, I wish to offer a few observations in
response. First of all, as has been noted by learned observers, States have
hitherto, in the absence of a special interest of their own, been rather
reluctant to institute judicial proceedings for the alleged violation of an
obligation erga omnes (partes) 39. In the present proceedings, Myanmar
has itself submitted that “[i]n the 71 years since the Genocide Convention
entered into force, no State has ever tried to bring a claim before the
Court concerning a violation of the Convention that did not affect its
own interests as a State or those of its nationals” (CR 2022/1, p. 31,
para. 24 (Talmon)). Despite what Myanmar suggests, this is not, without
further evidence, “indicative that parties do not generally consider themselves
to have standing to request the Court to declare that another contracting
State is responsible for violations of the Convention in the
absence of any individual prejudice to themselves” (ibid.). In my view, it
is likely that the sparsity of relevant State practice is, at least partly,
explained by non-legal considerations of restraint. Myanmar is of course
right to say that the situation might change in the future. But it would
have been wrong had the Court, impressed by the concern about an
increase of litigation, left the fundamental community interest at issue in
the present case without the judicial protection which is due to it under
the applicable law 40. This does not mean closing one’s eyes to the possibility
that, as stated by Judge Crawford in his scholarly capacity, it may
be necessary in the future to “strike a balance between the collective interest
in compliance with basic community values and the countervailing
39 A. Nollkaemper, op. cit., p. 791; C. J. Tams, “Individual States as Guardians of
Community Interests”, in: U. Fastenrath et al. (eds.), op. cit., pp. 387‑388.
40 For a thoughtful criticism of what he calls “procedure as avoidance”, see
A. Nollkaemper, op. cit., p. 789.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 556
83
convaincant exposé de son opinion dissidente qui a été joint à l’arrêt
rendu par la Cour en 1966 dans les affaires du Sud‑Ouest africain :
« Il n’y a pas d’actio popularis généralement établie en droit international.
Mais le droit international a accepté et créé des situations
telles que les Etats ont un droit d’action sans avoir à prouver un
préjudice individuel ou à démontrer un intérêt individuel touchant
au fond, distinct de l’intérêt général. » ((Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ;
Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1966,
opinion dissidente de M. le juge Jessup, p. 387‑388.)
C’est donc à juste titre que la Cour s’est abstenue de qualifier la démarche
de la Gambie d’actio popularis.
b) Au sujet d’une éventuelle prolifération des différends
33. La préoccupation du Myanmar quant à « une éventuelle prolifération
incontrôlable des différends » est trop abstraite et hypothétique pour
se prêter à un véritable traitement judiciaire. Je formulerai néanmoins
quelques observations à cet égard. Tout d’abord, ainsi que l’ont relevé
d’éminents observateurs, les Etats se sont jusqu’à présent montrés plutôt
réticents à introduire une instance pour manquement allégué à une obligation
erga omnes (partes) en l’absence d’intérêt particulier 39. Dans la
présente procédure, le Myanmar a lui-
même indiqué que, « [a]u cours des
71 années qui se sont écoulées depuis que la convention sur le génocide
est entrée en vigueur, aucun Etat n’a[vait] jamais cherché à présenter à la
Cour une demande relative à une violation de la convention sans incidence
sur ses propres intérêts en tant qu’Etat ou sur ceux de ses ressortissants
» (CR 2022/1, p. 31, par. 24 (Talmon)). Contrairement à ce qu’avance
le Myanmar, cela n’indique toutefois pas, sauf plus amples éléments de
preuve, « que les parties ne considèrent généralement pas avoir qualité
pour demander à la Cour de déclarer qu’un autre Etat contractant est
responsable de violations de la convention lorsqu’aucun préjudice individuel
ne leur a été causé » (ibid.). Selon moi, il est probable que des considérations
non juridiques expliquent, au moins en partie, la retenue des
Etats à cet égard et le fait qu’ils ne saisissent que rarement la Cour. Le
Myanmar a naturellement raison de dire que la situation pourrait changer
à l’avenir. Cependant, la Cour aurait eu tort, par crainte d’une multiplication
des différends, de renoncer à assurer à l’intérêt communautaire
fondamental en cause en la présente espèce la protection judiciaire qui lui
est due au regard du droit applicable 40. Il n’en faut pas pour autant ignorer
la possibilité que, comme l’a estimé M. le juge Crawford en sa qualité
39 A. Nollkaemper, op. cit., p. 791 ; C. J. Tams, « Individual States as Guardians of
Community Interests », dans U. Fastenrath et al. (dir. publ.), op. cit., p. 387‑388.
40 Pour une critique éclairée de ce qu’il appelle « la procédure d’évitement », voir
A. Nollkaemper, op. cit., p. 789.
557 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
84
interest in not encouraging the proliferation of disputes” 41. In fact, it is
not impossible to see, as one learned writer has suggested 42, in cases of
the protection of a community value (see paragraphs 20‑22 above), the
consensual nature of the Court’s jurisdiction as one element of a legal
architecture that aims to strike such a balance.
(c) On the possible need for procedural adjustments and the need to
ensure procedural fairness for all parties to the proceedings
34. Finally, Myanmar’s reference to Article 59 of the Statute of the
Court, while also too far removed from the legal issue of The Gambia’s
standing to require an answer in the Judgment, does usefully highlight the
possibility that the integration of the protection of community interests
into the Court’s procedural framework may pose certain challenges. The
greater reason that such challenges may arise or may already have given
rise to “teething problems” 43 lies in the fact that the law governing the
Court’s proceedings was formulated with a view only to the settlement of
traditional bilateral disputes between States and thus reflects — to borrow
a term from the title of Judge Simma’s magnificent Hague lectures
44 — the “bilateralism” of an earlier configuration of the international
legal order 45.
35. On the possible need to consider procedural adjustments in order to
address problems resulting from the tension just highlighted, Judge
Weeramantry, as early as 1997, offered the following memorable reflection:
“We have entered an era of international law in which international
law subserves not only the interests of individual States, but looks
beyond them and their parochial concerns to the greater interests of
humanity and planetary welfare. In addressing such problems, which
transcend the individual rights and obligations of the litigating
States, international law will need to look beyond procedural rules
fashioned for purely inter partes litigation.” (Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros
41 J. Crawford, op. cit., p. 553.
42 S. Villalpando, “The Legal Dimension of the International Community: How
Community Interests Are Protected in International Law”, EJIL, Vol. 21 (2), 2010,
p. 414.
43 F. I. Paddeu, “Multilateral Disputes in Bilateral Settings: International Practice
Lags behind Theory”, The Cambridge Law Journal, Vol. 76 (1), 2017, p. 4.
44 B. Simma, op. cit.; for another study helpfully developing a panorama of the gradual
recognition of community interests and the need for their protection in the international
legal order, see S. Villalpando, op. cit., pp. 387‑419.
45 A. Nollkaemper, op. cit., p. 771.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 557
84
d’auteur de doctrine, il puisse se révéler nécessaire à l’avenir de « trouver
un équilibre entre l’intérêt collectif consistant à garantir le respect des
valeurs communautaires fondamentales et la volonté de ne pas encourager
la prolifération des différends » 41. De fait, il est même permis de penser,
comme l’a suggéré un éminent auteur 42, que le caractère consensuel
de la compétence de la Cour pourrait constituer l’un des éléments d’une
architecture juridique visant à établir un tel équilibre lorsqu’il s’agit de
protéger une valeur communautaire (voir par. 20‑22 ci-
dessus).
c) Au sujet de la nécessité éventuelle de procéder à des ajustements de procédure
et d’assurer l’équité procédurale de toutes les parties à l’instance
34. Enfin, la référence faite par le Myanmar à l’article 59 du Statut de
la Cour, bien qu’étant également trop éloignée de la question juridique de
la qualité pour agir de la Gambie pour justifier une réponse dans l’arrêt,
met utilement en évidence les difficultés que pourrait rencontrer la Cour
pour intégrer la protection des intérêts communautaires dans le cadre de
ses procédures. La principale raison pour laquelle de tels problèmes pourraient
se poser, ou ont déjà commencé à se manifester 43, réside dans le fait
que le droit régissant les procédures de la Cour a été formulé uniquement
en vue du règlement des différends bilatéraux traditionnels entre Etats
et reflète donc, pour emprunter un terme à l’intitulé des remarquables
cours que M. le juge Simma a dispensés à l’Académie de La Haye 44, le
« bilatéralisme » d’une configuration antérieure de l’ordre juridique
international
45.
35. Quant à la nécessité éventuelle de procéder à des ajustements procéduraux
afin de résoudre les problèmes résultant des tensions qui
viennent d’être soulignées, M. le juge Weeramantry a formulé, dès 1997,
l’intéressante réflexion suivante :
« Nous sommes entrés dans une ère du droit international où
celui-
ci ne se contente pas de servir les intérêts des Etats à titre individuel,
mais projette son regard au-
delà de ceux-
ci et de leurs querelles
de clocher pour considérer les intérêts majeurs de l’humanité et
le bien-être de la planète. Pour examiner de tels problèmes, qui
dépassent les droits et obligations propres des Etats en litige, le droit
international devra voir plus loin que les règles de procédure élabo-
41 J. Crawford, op. cit., p. 553.
42 S. Villalpando, « The Legal Dimension of the International Community: How
Community Interests Are Protected in International Law », EJIL, vol. 21, no 2, 2010,
p. 414.
43 F. I. Paddeu, « Multilateral Disputes in Bilateral Settings: International Practice
Lags behind Theory », The Cambridge Law Journal, vol. 76, no 1, 2017, p. 4.
44 B. Simma, op. cit. ; pour une autre étude offrant une utile vue d’ensemble de la reconnaissance
progressive des intérêts communautaires et de la nécessité de les protéger dans
l’ordre juridique international, voir S. Villalpando, op. cit., p. 387‑419.
45 A. Nollkaemper, op. cit., p. 771.
558 application of the genocide convention (decl. kress)
85
Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, separate
opinion of Vice‑President Weeramantry, p. 118.)
Article 59 of the Statute of the Court may be seen as a procedural rule in
point 46, and how best to deal with a large number of requests to intervene
in proceedings for the protection of community interests is another question
of potential relevance 47. This is not the place to consider such issues
more closely. Instead, and by way of conclusion, I wish only to make the
general observation that it is important to show particular sensitivity with
a view to ensuring procedural fairness for all parties to proceedings instituted
for the protection of community interests. It is certainly important
to provide collective interests, and in particular the core interests of the
international community as a whole, with international judicial protection.
Yet it is also necessary never to lose sight of the fact that the respondent
State whose responsibility for the violation of an obligation erga
omnes (partes) has been invoked through proceedings before the Court
may not be responsible for the alleged violation.
(Signed) Claus Kress.
46 For some initial thoughts, see P. Urs, op. cit., p. 522. It may be worth recalling that,
under Roman law, it would appear that an exceptio rei iudicatae precluded a subsequent
quivis ex populo bringing a second actio popularis with respect to the same subject-matter;
see A. Halfmeier, op. cit., p. 38.
47 For one suggestion, see G. Gaja, op. cit., pp. 121‑122.
application de convention génocide (décl. kress) 558
85
rées aux seules fins du contentieux inter partes. » (Projet Gabčíkovo-
Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1997, opinion
individuelle de M. le juge Weeramantry, vice-président, p. 118.)
L’article 59 du Statut de la Cour peut être considéré comme une règle de
procédure à cet égard 46, et la meilleure façon de faire face à un grand
nombre de demandes d’intervention dans des procédures de protection
des intérêts communautaires est une autre question potentiellement pertinente
47. Un examen plus approfondi de ces questions ne serait pas opportun
ici. Je conclurai donc en observant seulement de manière générale
qu’il importe de faire preuve d’une sensibilité particulière pour pouvoir
assurer l’équité procédurale à toutes les parties à une instance introduite
pour protéger des intérêts communautaires. Il est, à n’en pas douter,
important de faire en sorte que les intérêts collectifs, et en particulier les
intérêts fondamentaux de la communauté internationale dans son
ensemble, bénéficient d’une protection judiciaire internationale. Cependant,
il convient également de ne jamais perdre de vue que l’Etat défendeur,
dont la responsabilité pour manquement à une obligation erga
omnes (partes) a été invoquée dans le cadre d’une instance devant la
Cour, peut ne pas être responsable de la violation alléguée.
(Signé) Claus Kress.
46 Pour quelques premières réflexions, voir P. Urs, op. cit., p. 522. Il peut être utile de
rappeler que, en droit romain, il semblerait qu’une exceptio rei iudicatae empêche un quivis
ex populo ultérieur de lancer une deuxième actio popularis portant sur le même sujet ; voir
A. Halfmeier, op. cit., p. 38.
47 Pour une suggestion, voir G. Gaja, op. cit., p. 121‑122.

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Declaration of Judge ad hoc Kress

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