Separate opinion of Judge Owada

Document Number
154-20160317-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
154-20160317-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

163
67
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE OWADA
table of contents
Paragraphs
I. Res Judicata 1-32
A. The definition and scope of res judicata 1‑9
B. The background of the Court’s decision in its 2012 Judgment
on the reformulated claim of Nicaragua 10‑16
C. What the Court has decided in fact in its 2012 Judgment 17‑31
(i) The reasoning contained in Part IV of the Judgment 18‑24
(ii) The structure of the 2012 Judgment 25‑29
(iii) The burden of proof 30‑31
D. Conclusion 32
II. The Opposability of UNCLOS by Colombia to Nicaragua 33‑39
I. Res Judicata
A. The Definition and Scope of Res Judicata
1. I concur with the conclusions that the Court has reached in this case
as contained in the operative clause (dispositif). However, I wish to
append to the Judgment my own separate opinion in order to clarify my
own reasoning on the issue of res judicata and supplement a few salient
points of law, which in my view have not been adequately addressed in
the Judgment.
2. The present Judgment correctly points out that “the principle of res
judicata . . . is a general principle of law which protects, at the same time,
the judicial function of a court or tribunal and the parties to a case which
has led to a judgment that is final and without appeal” (Judgment,
para. 58). Needless to say, the prerequisite for the application of this principle
of res judicata is, as defined in the famous dictum of Judge Anzilotti,
the existence of three traditional elements, namely the identity of “persona,
petitum [and] causa petendi” (Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7
and 8 (Factory at Chorzów), Judgment No. 11, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 13, dissenting opinion of Judge Anzilotti, p. 23). In the present case,
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it is accepted that the existence of these essentially formal criteria has
been satisfied, to the extent that the presence of these essential elements
has not been questioned by the Parties and is therefore not at issue.
3. In my view, the more intrinsically important issue in the present case
is whether the decision reached in the 2012 Judgment contains a “final
and definitive determination by the Court” to which the effect of res judicata
should attach. In other words, the issue is with the scope of the res
judicata. It is generally accepted in the jurisprudence of national and
international courts and tribunals that the effect of res judicata would
accrue only to a final judgment of the Court. A final Judgment should
refer to “a Court’s final determination of the rights and obligations of the
parties in a case” through which “an issue has been definitely settled by
judicial decision” (Black’s Law Dictionary, 9th ed., pp. 918, 1425). In the
same vein, this Court has held that
“[the] principle [of res judicata] signifies that the decisions of the Court
are not only binding on the parties, but are final, in the sense that
they cannot be reopened by the parties as regards the issues that have
been determined ” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia
and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 90,
para. 115 ; emphasis added).
The necessary corollary of this is that “[i]f a matter has not in fact been
determined, expressly or by necessary implication, then no force of res
judicata attaches to it” (ibid., p. 95, para. 126).
4. The Court has previously been faced with a situation somewhat
similar to the present one when a question arose as to the proper scope of
the res judicata of a particular judgment. In the Asylum (Colombia/Peru)
case before the Court in 1950, the Colombian Government granted diplomatic
asylum to a political refugee, Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, in its
Embassy in Lima over the objections of the Peruvian Government. In its
1950 Judgment, the Court decided the general legal questions relating to
the legality of this asylum raised by the Parties, while noting that “the
question of the possible surrender of the refugee . . . was not raised either
in the diplomatic correspondence submitted by the Parties or at any
moment in the proceedings before the Court” (Asylum (Colombia/Peru),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 280). Immediately thereafter, Colombia
filed a request for interpretation under Article 60 of the Statute asking
whether the Judgment required the surrender of the political refugee by
the Government of Colombia. The Court in response to this request for
interpretation of the previous Judgment did not provide an answer to this
question, stating instead that “[t]he Court can only refer to what it
declared in its Judgment in perfectly definite terms : this question was
completely left outside the submissions of the Parties. The Judgment in
no way decided it, nor could it do so.” (Request for Interpretation of the
Judgment of 20 November 1950 in the Asylum Case (Colombia v. Peru),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 403.) Subsequently, Colombia insti‑
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tuted new proceedings in the Haya de la Torre case so as to resolve this
issue. In the 1951 Judgment on this new case, the Court affirmed that:
“the question of the surrender of the refugee was not decided by the Judgment
[of 1950, and]. . . [t]here is consequently no res judicata upon the
question of surrender” (Haya de la Torre (Colombia v. Peru), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 80). According to the analysis by one learned
writer, the 1950 Judgment exemplifies a situation in which “the problem
was not that of the existence of a final judgment, but of the scope of the
binding force of the decision. This judgment did not settle the dispute, for
the simple reason that the submissions of the parties were insufficient for
this purpose.” (Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International
Court: 1920‑2005, 2006, Vol. III, 1603.) It could be argued that
a fine distinction exists between this case and the present one, to the extent
that the specific point at issue was “left outside” in the 1950 proceedings,
but the essential point is that the submissions of the parties were insufficient
in both cases to allow the Court to determine the dispute and the
decision did not constitute res judicata.
5. The scope of the res judicata was also at issue in the merits phase of
the Genocide Convention (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro)
case, though with a markedly different outcome, which is also
worthy
of note here. In its 1996 Judgment on preliminary objections in that
case, the Court rejected all of the preliminary objections on jurisdiction
by the Respondent Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) and found the
Application of the Applicant (Bosnia and Herzegovina) admissible,
declaring that “the Court may now proceed to consider the merits of the
case on that basis” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 622,
para. 46). At the merits phase, however, the Respondent argued that its
own lack of jus standi had not been adjudicated and that this precluded
the Court from reaching a decision on the merits. The essence of this
claim was that the Respondent was not a continuator of the Socialist
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and was therefore not a party to the
Genocide Convention or the Statute of the Court when the proceedings
were instituted — the position taken by the Court in its Judgment of 2004
in the Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium et al.)
cases. In the 2007 Judgment on the merits, the issue was whether that
question had been disposed of in the 1996 Judgment. Styled as such, this
issue related to the scope of the res judicata of the 1996 Judgment (Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 101, para. 140).
6. Although the issue of jus standi had not been explicitly raised as an
issue by the parties at the time of the 1996 Judgment, the Court in the
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2007 Judgment took the position that it had been decided by the Court
because such a determination on the standing of the Respondent was a
necessary prerequisite to the Court’s decision to reject the preliminary
objections of the Respondent on jurisdiction ratione personae, ratione
materiae, and ratione temporis (see for details, I.C.J. Reports 2007(I),
separate opinion of Judge Owada, p. 296, para. 33).
7. I refer to this case here because it presented a unique situation in
which the Court apparently took the position that an issue that had not
been raised by the parties nor expressly addressed in its previous Judgment
had in fact been decided by the Court, despite a seemingly contradictory
decision of the Court in the 2004 Legality of Use of Force cases. (It
is clear that this precedent did not constitute res judicata for the 2007 case,
though it could have had stare decisis implications for the 2007 issue
(Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (III), p. 1337,
para. 76).) The issue of the jus standi of the Respondent in the Genocide
Convention case was thus determined to fall within the scope of res judicata.
However, this finding should be regarded as a unique exception
based on the specific structure of jurisdictional decisions.
8. These cases illustrate the complexity involved in determining what
falls within the scope of res judicata in a preceding judgment. In the present
case, the crucial issue for the Court in ruling upon the third preliminary
objection of Colombia is therefore to determine whether or not there
was a final and conclusive decision binding upon the Parties in the operative
part of the 2012 Judgment read in the complex context surrounding
this issue, to the extent that it relates to the claim of the Republic of
Nicaragua concerning an extended continental shelf. In analysing this
issue, the Court may take into account, if necessary, the reasoning of the
motif as far as it is indispensable in understanding the dispositif. As the
Court has declared: “[I]f any question arises as to the scope of res judicata
attaching to a judgment, it must be determined in each case having regard
to the context in which the judgment was given”. (Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia
and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), p. 95, para. 125). It is thus my view that in order to answer this
question, one must first delve into the context in which this newly reformulated
claim of Nicaragua emerged in 2007, against which the relevant
statement in the operative part in question came to be adopted. Only then
can one correctly understand the relevant decision of the 2012 Judgment
in its operative part (para. 251 (3)) and the reasoning of the Court underlying
this decision on Nicaragua’s maritime entitlement claim.
9. It is thus my conclusion on this methodological issue that only by
examining the context in which the operative part of the 2012 Judgment
was developed, as well as the reasoning of the Court and the overall
structure of the Judgment, can one clarify the precise scope and the meaning
of the 2012 Judgment and thus determine whether the claim presented
167 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
71
by Nicaragua in the present case is admissible or whether it is barred by
the principle of res judicata.
B. The Background of the Court’s Decision in Its 2012 Judgment
on the Reformulated Claim of Nicaragua
10. In order to clarify this situation, it seems necessary in my view to
recall the genesis of the present problem, which emanated from the evolving
claim of Nicaragua. Nicaragua introduced a reformulated claim on
the continental shelf after the Court’s 2007 Judgment on preliminary
objections, which now forms the basis of the third preliminary objection
of Colombia.
11. In its original Application of 6 December 2001 in the case concerning
the Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Nicaragua
as Applicant stated that :
“Accordingly, the Court is asked to adjudge and declare :
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Second, in the light of the determinations concerning title requested
above, the Court is asked further to determine the course of the single
maritime boundary between the areas of continental shelf and exclusive
economic zone appertaining respectively to Nicaragua and
Colombia, in accordance with equitable principles and relevant circumstances
recognized by general international law as applicable to
such a delimitation of a single maritime boundary.” (Territorial and
Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application of the
Republic of Nicaragua, p. 8, para. 8.)
Nicaragua maintained the same formulation in its Memorial submitted
on 28 April 2003 (ibid., Memorial of the Republic of Nicaragua,
pp. 265‑267, para. 3.39).
12. However, Nicaragua suddenly changed its submissions in its Reply
of 18 September 2009 to what came to be known as submission I (3). The
final submissions of the Applicant, as presented orally at the conclusion
of the oral proceedings held on 1 May 2012, thus expressed Nicaragua’s
claim as follows :
“I. May it please the Court to adjudge and declare that :
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
(3) The appropriate form of delimitation, within the geographical
and legal framework constituted by the mainland coasts of Nicaragua
and Colombia, is a continental shelf boundary dividing by
equal parts the overlapping entitlements to a continental shelf of
both Parties.” (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v.
Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 636, para. 17.)
13. Colombia as Respondent lodged an objection to this, charging that
this newly reformulated claim of Nicaragua “fundamentally changed the
168 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
72
subject‑matter of the dispute which Nicaragua originally asked the Court
to decide” and asserted that this claim was inadmissible (CR 2012/12,
p. 44, para. 2 (Bundy)). It was contended, notably, that this radical
change in the Applicant’s position took its concrete form only in late 2007,
more than six years after the original dispute had been submitted, ostensibly
in connection with the 2007 Judgment of the Court on preliminary
objections, and that this change radically transformed the nature of the
claim (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia) Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II)).
14. In its 2012 Judgment, however, the Court decided to find admissible
“the Republic of Nicaragua’s claim contained in its final submission
I (3) requesting the Court to adjudge and to declare that ‘[t]he
appropriate form of delimitation, within the geographical and legal
framework constituted by the mainland coasts of Nicaragua and
Colombia, is a continental shelf boundary dividing by equal parts the
overlapping entitlements to a continental shelf of both Parties’”
(I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 719, para. 251 (2)).
15. As a participating judge in this Judgment, I voted against this finding
of the Court. As I stated in my dissenting opinion, my position was that
“[t]he essence of the situation in the present case is that the Applicant
attempted to replace [rather than reformulate] the original formulation
of the claim submitted to the Court in its Application by a newly
formulated, ostensibly different, claim relating to the existing dispute”
(ibid., dissenting opinion of Judge Owada, p. 722, para. 6).
16. The significant element of the Judgment of the Court on this point is
that the Court decided that “[t]he new submission thus still concerns the
delimitation of the continental shelf, although on different legal grounds”
(ibid., p. 665, para. 111). The logical conclusion stemming from this decision
of the Court is therefore that, by accepting the position that Nicaragua’s
submission was admissible, the Court must be regarded as having
taken the position that all of the issues contained in the newly reformulated
claim would have to be squarely addressed on their merits in the Judgment.
C. What the Court Has Decided in Fact in Its 2012 Judgment
17. The Court can thus be seen to have accepted the newly reformulated
claim of the Applicant as procedurally admissible in the 2012 Judgment,
with its legal implication that the substance of the newly
reformulated claim of Nicaragua should fall within the purview of its
Judgment on the merits. The Court, however, could not, and did not in
fact, examine the substance of Nicaragua’s claim for an extended continental
shelf on its merits. Indeed, the final text of the 2012 Judgment
clearly reveals that the Court ultimately concluded that “it was not in a
169 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
73
position” at that stage of the proceedings to examine the substance of the
merits of the claim (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 669, para. 129). I wish to
raise and examine several reasons why it could not and did not in fact
come to a final decision on the merits on this issue.
(i) The reasoning contained in Part IV of the Judgment
18. The position of the Court is apparent first of all in the reasoning contained
in Part IV of the Judgment. The Court, having concluded in Part III
that Nicaragua’s claim for the delimitation of a continental shelf beyond
200 nautical miles was admissible, proceeded on this basis to its “[c]onsideration”
of this claim (ibid., p. 665). It is significant to note, however, that in
embarking upon its “consideration” of this claim on the merits, the Court
immediately proceeded to declare that it was turning “to the question
whether it is in a position to determine” the continental shelf boundary proposed
by Nicaragua (ibid., p. 665, para. 113 ; emphasis added).
19. These introductory remarks would seem to signal that the Court
was not necessarily prepared to enter into a thorough examination of the
issues required in order to reach a final determination on the substantive
merits. It is true that the Judgment introduced and laid out the arguments
advanced by the Parties. However, it is clear that it did not engage in an
independent analysis of these arguments. The Judgment recounted certain
areas of agreement between the Parties as well as the principal arguments
of Nicaragua related to the substance of the claim for an extended
continental shelf (ibid., pp. 666‑667, paras. 119‑121) and the arguments of
Colombia in rebuttal (ibid., pp. 667‑668, paras. 122‑124). Specifically, the
Judgment recalled the claims asserted by the Parties with respect to:
(a) the existence, as a matter of fact, of the extended continental shelf as
a natural prolongation of the Nicaraguan mainland into the Caribbean
Sea; (b) the applicability of the procedures of Article 76 of the Law of the
Sea Convention ; and (c) the methodology to be applied for the delimitation
of the overlapping area of the continental shelf, with one based on
the natural prolongation criterion and the other based on the distance
criterion. However, the Court did not engage in an examination and analysis
of these claims in order to reach its own conclusion on these concrete
issues arising out of the argument of the Parties.
20. It is interesting to note that the Court’s treatment of the claim of
Nicaragua in the 2012 Judgment was not confined to a simple recitation
of the arguments advanced by the Parties. Thus, the Judgment, based on
the submission of Nicaragua in support of its claim for the delimitation
of a continental shelf extending beyond 200 nautical miles, confined itself
to confirming that there had not been any “case in which a court or a
tribunal was requested to determine the outer limits of the continental
shelf beyond 200 nautical miles”, noting in particular that Nicaragua had
itself failed to establish that any such precedents existed (ibid., p. 668,
para. 125).
170 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
74
21. It is obvious that for a claim such as the one at issue in this case,
namely a claim concerning an entitlement to a continental shelf extending
beyond 200 nautical miles, a number of complex facts and intricate legal
standards must be examined and addressed in order to conclusively
resolve the rights and duties at issue. A typical examination in this respect
should entail, inter alia: (a) a detailed inspection of the geological and
geomorphological features of the disputed area to establish the existence
of overlapping entitlements of Nicaragua and Colombia; (b) the verification
of the existence and delineation of the continental margin as claimed
by Nicaragua; (c) the acceptability of a median line as the criterion for
delimitation between Nicaragua (based on the natural prolongation principle)
and Colombia (based on the distance principle) such as the one
proposed by Nicaragua for the delimitation of the overlapping entitlements;
(d) the applicability or non-applicability
of Article 76 of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea as a whole, covering
the provisions contained in its paragraphs (4) to (9) ; and finally (e) the
requirement vel non of the review by the Commission on the Limits of the
Continental Shelf (CLCS) of such a claim preceding the delimitation by
the Court.
22. However, in the 2012 Judgment, following a discussion of the arguments
advanced by the Parties, and without further analysis of these
points, the Court curtly concluded that it was “not in a position to delimit
the continental shelf boundary between Nicaragua and Colombia, as
requested by Nicaragua, even using the general formulation proposed by
it” (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 669, para. 129). This pronouncement was
made in the absence of any substantive analysis of the factual and legal
issues that would have been necessary for resolving the claim of an entitlement.
There exists only a brief reference to a factual element that
“Nicaragua, in the present proceedings, has not established that it has a
continental margin that extends [beyond two hundred nautical miles]”,
without any indication of the legal implication of this statement in the
context of the burden of proof (ibid.).
23. Seen in this way, the Court’s reference to Nicaragua’s obligation
under Article 76 of UNCLOS should not, in my view, be seen as merely
a procedural requirement. The reasoning of the Court instead makes
clear that the condition of the submission of information to CLCS
imposed by Article 76 is instead a substantive element that is fundamentally
necessary in order for the Court to decide on the issues raised by the
Parties. A delimitation cannot be effected in the absence of the existence
of overlapping entitlements, which in this case requires the establishment
by Nicaragua of its entitlement to a continental shelf extending beyond
200 nautical miles. This can and must be achieved by the submission of
detailed information to the CLCS, which is not — as some might suggest
— a mere procedural requirement.
24. In this situation, it is in my view impossible to draw from Part IV of
the 2012 Judgment a far‑reaching conclusion that the Court made a final
171 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
75
and binding decision on the merits that can be said to constitute res judicata.
On the contrary, the Judgment proceeded to expressly declare that
“In view of the above, the Court need not address any other arguments
developed by the Parties, including the argument as to whether
a delimitation of overlapping entitlements which involves an extended
continental shelf of one party can affect a 200‑nautical‑mile entitlement
to the continental shelf of another party.” (I.C.J. Reports
2012 (II), pp. 669‑670, para. 130.)
It was on the basis of this reasoning that the Court stated in the operative
part of the 2012 Judgment that “it cannot uphold the Republic of Nicaragua’s
claim contained in its final submission I (3)” reformulating the
same conclusion as was made at the end of Part IV of the Judgment (ibid.,
p. 719, para. 251 (3)).
(ii) The structure of the 2012 Judgment
25. Second, the position of the Court is apparent in the distinction that
the Judgment makes between the Court’s treatment of (a) Nicaragua’s
request for the delimitation of its continental shelf extending beyond two
hundred nautical miles of its coast (Part IV), and (b) the delimitation of
the maritime boundary between the overlapping entitlements emanating
from Nicaragua’s mainland and Colombia’s islands (Part V) in the
2012 Judgment.
26. The structure of the 2012 Judgment — and particularly the separation
and juxtaposition of the analysis and decisions contained in Parts IV
and V — demonstrates that the Court did not make a final and definitive
determination of the merits as far as Nicaragua’s submission I (3) is concerned.
As discussed above, in Part IV of the Judgment, the Court deliberately
limited its examination of the issue to an analysis of the legal
argumentation advanced by the Parties. In doing so, the Court not only
avoided a substantive examination on its own of the claim on the merits,
but also formally separated this part of its analysis from the more extensive
examination of the claim relating to the delimitation of the relevant
maritime area lying between the two opposing States contained in Part V
of the Judgment.
27. This demonstrates a stark contrast in the treatment of the Court
between the two distinctive categories of claims concerning the continental
shelf covered in Parts IV and V of the Judgment. Part V, aptly entitled
“Maritime Boundary”, contains a comprehensive discussion of the delimitation
of entitlements on the merits. It would seem that rather than
addressing submission I (3) on its merits, which involved a delimitation of
a maritime boundary in the form of a median line between the mainland
coasts of the two Parties, the Court instead concerned itself only with the
delimitation of a boundary between the overlapping entitlements of Nicaragua
based on its mainland coast and of Colombia based on its islands
172 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
76
off the coast of Nicaragua. It has to be stressed that these two parallel
claims of Nicaragua, classified as claims (a) and (b) above (para. 25),
entail totally distinct geological and geomorphological features and
required the Court to apply entirely different rules of customary international
law.
28. In Part V, the Court did scrutinize the evidence presented by the
Parties and drew the maritime boundary in accordance with the well‑established
jurisprudence of the Court relating to the delimitation of the
continental shelf between States with overlapping entitlements, namely
the three‑step approach articulated in the case concerning the Maritime
Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine) (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 89, para. 78). It is clear that the conclusion that
the Court stated in operative paragraph 251 (4) of the 2012 Judgment is a
final and binding decision of the Court, thus constituting res judicata. It
seems equally clear that the statement of the Court in operative paragraph
251 (3), read together with the reasoning contained in Part IV, is
not a conclusive determination of the subject‑matter requested by Nicaragua
in its submission I (3) and cannot be regarded as constituting res
judicata (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 719, para. 251 (3)).
29. In light of all of these considerations, one is bound to come to the
conclusion that the Court deliberately divided these issues between
Parts IV and V because it did not wish to engage in a substantive examination
of the merits on Nicaragua’s submission I (3) at that time.
(iii) The burden of proof
30. Finally, it might be suggested by some that the Court did decide on
submission I (3) on the merits in the 2012 Judgment and that, in doing so,
it rejected the claim on the ground that the Applicant failed to meet its
burden of proof. It cannot be denied that in the strictly adversarial framework
of litigation traditionally accepted by the Court — whether this is a
commendable approach for the proceedings of the International Court of
Justice is a different matter — the burden of proof, and thus the burden
of risk, falls heavily on the shoulders of the Applicant (onus probandi
incumbit actori) (Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), p. 71, para. 162). It can be
accepted on this basis that the principle exists that it is the responsibility
of the Applicant to substantiate its claim, such that the burden of proof
plays an extremely important role, with the result that the failure of the
Applicant to establish a single, crucial point can prove fatal under certain
173 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
77
circumstances to its cause of action. The question is whether, when examined
in this complex context that I have tried to depict, the present case
falls within the framework of this reasoning.
31. It is submitted that it is wrong to regard the issue of the burden of
proof as such an essential element in the present case, when, as a matter
of fact, the Court in the 2012 Judgment went no further than to observe
that “Nicaragua, in the present proceedings, has not established that it
has a continental margin that extends far enough to overlap with Colombia’s
200‑nautical‑mile entitlement to the continental shelf” (Territorial
and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2012 (II), p. 669, para. 129). To conclude, on the basis of such a curt
statement of facts, that Nicaragua had failed in law to meet its heavy
burden of proof is to my mind tantamount to “reading too much” into
this dictum of the Judgment — particularly when this remark could legitimately
be interpreted as support for the Court’s view that it was, at that
time, “not in a position” to proceed further to the merits of the claim in
the absence of complete submissions to the CLCS. It would seem clear
from this context that much more than the insufficiency or absence of
evidence was at issue in the 2012 Judgment of the Court. It is for this
reason that I take the view that the third preliminary objection of Colombia
must be rejected.
D. Conclusion
32. In conclusion, when presented with a question about the binding
force of a previous Judgment, the Court must
“distinguish between, first, the issues which have been decided with
the force of res judicata, or which are necessarily entailed in the decision
of those issues ; secondly any peripheral or subsidiary matters,
or obiter dicta ; and finally matters which have not been ruled upon
at all” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and
Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 95, para. 126).
Although the 2012 Judgment of the Court may have created some confusion
in the language it used in the dispositif, the context in which Nicaragua
originally requested the delimitation of a continental shelf extending
beyond 200 nautical miles, as well as the manner in which this claim was
treated by the Court in the 2012 Judgment, leads me to the conclusion
that the Court did not reach a final and definitive determination that
would bind the Parties as res judicata. In light of this contextual background,
it is my view that it is wrong to conclude in an automatic and
facile manner that the Court disposed of Nicaraguan submission I (3) in
the 2012 Judgment simply because of the statement in the dispositif that
“[the Court] cannot uphold the Republic of Nicaragua’s claim contained
in its final submission I (3)”, whether for the reason that Nicaragua failed
174 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
78
to provide sufficient evidence to substantiate its claim or for any other
reason (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 719, para. 251 (3)). The Court did not
reject the claim on the merits.
II. The Opposability of UNCLOS
by Colombia to Nicaragua
33. In addition to these points, I wish to touch upon an issue relating
to the approach of the Court to the role of CLCS, which is especially
relevant to the fifth preliminary objection of Colombia. Since I agree with
the reasoning expressed by the Court in the present Judgment, this point
may be somewhat otiose, but it is important to review this point as a matter
of principle with respect to the applicable law in the present case.
In its fifth preliminary objection, Colombia argues that Nicaragua’s
request for a delimitation on the basis of its entitlement to an extended
continental shelf is inadmissible because Nicaragua has failed to secure
the recommendations of the CLCS required by Article 76 of UNCLOS.
The question is whether the obligations contained in Article 76 are opposable
to Nicaragua on the part of Colombia, which is not a party to
UNCLOS.
34. It is well established that, pursuant to Article 26 of the Vienna Convention
on the Law of Treaties, “[e]very treaty in force is binding upon the
parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith”. A necessary
corollary to this pronouncement, contained in Article 34 of the Vienna
Convention, is the rule that “[a] treaty does not create either obligations or
rights for a third State without its consent”, or the principle of res inter
alios acta. Even before the adoption of the Vienna Convention, this rule
found expression in the jurisprudence of the Court. The Permanent Court
of International Justice held that “[a] treaty only creates law as between
the States which are parties to it ; in case of doubt, no rights can be deduced
from it in favour of third States” (Certain German Interests in Polish Upper
Silesia, Merits, Judgment No. 7, 1926, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7, p. 29). In
the case concerning the North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of
Germany/Denmark ; Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands), the Court
was faced with the question as to whether Article 6 of the Geneva Convention
on the Continental Shelf — and specifically the rules on delimitation
of the continental shelf between the adjacent States — was opposable to
the Federal Republic of Germany, which was not a party to the Convention.
The Court observed that, because Germany had signed but not ratified
the Geneva Convention, Article 6 “is not, as such, applicable to the
delimitations involved in the present proceedings” and that the Convention
“is not opposable to the Federal Republic [of Germany]” (North Sea
Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark ; Federal Republic
of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 27, para. 34
175 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
79
and p. 46, para. 83). In other words, a convention ratified by one State is
not opposable to a third State.
35. In the present context, the Court is faced with a situation in which
Colombia, a non‑party to the Convention, seeks to invoke the provisions of
Article 76 of UNCLOS on Nicaragua, which is a State party. Colombia
appears to be claiming, without being a party to the Convention, that Nicaragua,
a State party, is under the obligation to carry out the provisions of
UNCLOS without being subject to its many obligations. Although Nicaragua
is not a party to the Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties, and
though this Court has not previously affirmed the status of Article 34 of
the Vienna Convention as reflecting a customary rule of international
law, its previous jurisprudence supports the view that Colombia cannot
invoke Article 76 as an argument opposable to Nicaragua.
36. Of course, there are other means by which a rule codified by an
international agreement can be opposable to a State which has not ratified
that agreement. That is to say that such a rule may be applied to and
bind a third State when the rule at issue is a rule of customary international
law. Thus the important question for the purpose of this case is
whether the provisions of UNCLOS relied on by Colombia in its fifth
preliminary objection, i.e., Article 76 in its entirety, could be opposable to
Nicaragua.
37. Legally, it would be a totally different situation for the Court to
prescribe as it did in its 2012 Judgment that Nicaragua as a party to the
Convention has to carry out its obligation under these provisions of Article
76, in order for Nicaragua to establish that it indeed has an extended
continental shelf which goes beyond 200 miles of its mainland coast and
which may create overlapping entitlements to the continental shelf with
Colombia, and ask Nicaragua to comply with its obligation before the
Court can proceed further. In the 2012 Judgment, the Court identified
this issue and stated that “since Colombia is not a party to UNCLOS,
only customary international law may apply in respect to the maritime
delimitation requested by Nicaragua”, but did not go further than stating
that “the definition of the continental shelf set out in Article 76, paragraph
1, of UNCLOS forms part of customary international law”. It
categorically
stated that “it does not need to decide whether other provisions
of Article 76 of UNCLOS form part of customary international
law” (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 666, paras. 114, 118).
38. On the basis of this logic, the present Judgment of the Court, which
in my view represents an accurate assessment of the 2012 Judgment, proceeds
to state that the Court in the 2012 Judgment did not reject Nicaragua’s
claim to an extended continental shelf on the merits, but instead
found that it was “not in a position” to definitively decide this claim
because of Nicaragua’s failure to submit adequate information to the
CLCS pursuant to Article 76, paragraph 8, of UNCLOS. In doing so, the
Court in 2012 did not affirm that this provision stood as a customary rule
176 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
80
of international law, even though it had decided earlier in the 2012 Judgment
that the applicable law was customary international law. While the
Court referred to its dictum in the case concerning the Territorial and
Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Honduras), it involved a dispute between two States parties
to UNCLOS and thus entailed the application of the treaty law. It is a
different proposition for the Court to state that Nicaragua is bound by
Article 76 of UNCLOS, as a party to the Convention, irrespective of
whether Colombia is also a party. The Court, emphasizing that the Convention
“is intended to establish ‘a legal order for the seas and oceans’”,
did this and concluded that “[g]iven the object and purpose of UNCLOS,
as stipulated in its Preamble, the fact that Colombia is not a party thereto
does not relieve Nicaragua of its obligations under Article 76 of that Convention”
(I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 669, para. 126).
39. This can be accepted a correct statement of the law, as far as Nicaragua
is concerned in its relationship with the Court. But when it comes
to the question as to whether Colombia, as a State not a party to the
Convention, can oppose Nicaragua in terms of the latter’s non-compliance
with the provisions of Article 76, this becomes an entirely different issue
of applicable law. In any event, the important point is that, at the present
stage of the proceedings, the Court is answering this question neither in
an affirmative way nor in a negative way. While I concur with the reasoning
of the Court in rejecting the fifth preliminary objection of Colombia,
it appears to me there is yet another reason to reject this objection : the
relevant provisions of Article 76 of UNCLOS are not opposable by
Colombia to Nicaragua, unless Colombia can establish that the rules contained
in Article 76 are rules of customary international law.
(Signed) Hisashi Owada.

Bilingual Content

163
67
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE OWADA
table of contents
Paragraphs
I. Res Judicata 1-32
A. The definition and scope of res judicata 1‑9
B. The background of the Court’s decision in its 2012 Judgment
on the reformulated claim of Nicaragua 10‑16
C. What the Court has decided in fact in its 2012 Judgment 17‑31
(i) The reasoning contained in Part IV of the Judgment 18‑24
(ii) The structure of the 2012 Judgment 25‑29
(iii) The burden of proof 30‑31
D. Conclusion 32
II. The Opposability of UNCLOS by Colombia to Nicaragua 33‑39
I. Res Judicata
A. The Definition and Scope of Res Judicata
1. I concur with the conclusions that the Court has reached in this case
as contained in the operative clause (dispositif). However, I wish to
append to the Judgment my own separate opinion in order to clarify my
own reasoning on the issue of res judicata and supplement a few salient
points of law, which in my view have not been adequately addressed in
the Judgment.
2. The present Judgment correctly points out that “the principle of res
judicata . . . is a general principle of law which protects, at the same time,
the judicial function of a court or tribunal and the parties to a case which
has led to a judgment that is final and without appeal” (Judgment,
para. 58). Needless to say, the prerequisite for the application of this principle
of res judicata is, as defined in the famous dictum of Judge Anzilotti,
the existence of three traditional elements, namely the identity of “persona,
petitum [and] causa petendi” (Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7
and 8 (Factory at Chorzów), Judgment No. 11, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 13, dissenting opinion of Judge Anzilotti, p. 23). In the present case,
163
67
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE OWADA
[Traduction]
table des matières
Paragraphes
I. L’autorité de la chose jugée 1-32
A. Définition et portée de la chose jugée 1-9
B. Eléments de contexte motivant la décision à laquelle la Cour
est parvenue dans son arrêt de 2012 10-16
C. Ce que la Cour a en fait tranché dans son arrêt de 2012 17-31
i) Le raisonnement développé dans la partie IV de l’arrêt 18-24
ii) L’économie de l’arrêt de 2012 25-29
iii) La charge de la preuve 30-31
D. Conclusion 32
II. Question de savoir si la Colombie peut se prévaloir de la
CNUDM à l’égard du Nicaragua 33-39
I. L’autorité de la chose jugée
A. Définition et portée de la chose jugée
1. Je fais miennes les conclusions auxquelles la Cour est parvenue en
l’espèce, telles qu’énoncées dans le dispositif de l’arrêt. Je tiens néanmoins
à joindre à celui‑ci l’exposé de mon opinion individuelle, afin d’expliciter
mon propre raisonnement sur la question de l’autorité de la chose jugée,
et de revenir sur certains points de droit importants qui me semblent
avoir été insuffisamment développés dans l’arrêt.
2. La Cour, dans ce dernier, relève à bon droit que « le principe de
l’autorité de la chose jugée … est un principe général de droit qui protège
en même temps la fonction judiciaire d’une cour ou d’un tribunal et les
parties à une affaire qui a donné lieu à un jugement définitif et sans
recours » (arrêt, par. 58). Rappelons, même si la précision est superfétatoire,
que la condition préalable à l’application de ce principe, ainsi que
définie par le juge Anzilotti dans son célèbre dictum, est celle de l’identité
de trois éléments traditionnels : « persona, petitum [et] causa petendi »
(Interprétation des arrêts nos 7 et 8 (usine de Chorzów), arrêt no 11, 1927,
C.P.J.I. série A no 13, opinion dissidente du juge Anzilotti, p. 23). Il est
164 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
68
it is accepted that the existence of these essentially formal criteria has
been satisfied, to the extent that the presence of these essential elements
has not been questioned by the Parties and is therefore not at issue.
3. In my view, the more intrinsically important issue in the present case
is whether the decision reached in the 2012 Judgment contains a “final
and definitive determination by the Court” to which the effect of res judicata
should attach. In other words, the issue is with the scope of the res
judicata. It is generally accepted in the jurisprudence of national and
international courts and tribunals that the effect of res judicata would
accrue only to a final judgment of the Court. A final Judgment should
refer to “a Court’s final determination of the rights and obligations of the
parties in a case” through which “an issue has been definitely settled by
judicial decision” (Black’s Law Dictionary, 9th ed., pp. 918, 1425). In the
same vein, this Court has held that
“[the] principle [of res judicata] signifies that the decisions of the Court
are not only binding on the parties, but are final, in the sense that
they cannot be reopened by the parties as regards the issues that have
been determined ” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia
and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 90,
para. 115 ; emphasis added).
The necessary corollary of this is that “[i]f a matter has not in fact been
determined, expressly or by necessary implication, then no force of res
judicata attaches to it” (ibid., p. 95, para. 126).
4. The Court has previously been faced with a situation somewhat
similar to the present one when a question arose as to the proper scope of
the res judicata of a particular judgment. In the Asylum (Colombia/Peru)
case before the Court in 1950, the Colombian Government granted diplomatic
asylum to a political refugee, Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, in its
Embassy in Lima over the objections of the Peruvian Government. In its
1950 Judgment, the Court decided the general legal questions relating to
the legality of this asylum raised by the Parties, while noting that “the
question of the possible surrender of the refugee . . . was not raised either
in the diplomatic correspondence submitted by the Parties or at any
moment in the proceedings before the Court” (Asylum (Colombia/Peru),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 280). Immediately thereafter, Colombia
filed a request for interpretation under Article 60 of the Statute asking
whether the Judgment required the surrender of the political refugee by
the Government of Colombia. The Court in response to this request for
interpretation of the previous Judgment did not provide an answer to this
question, stating instead that “[t]he Court can only refer to what it
declared in its Judgment in perfectly definite terms : this question was
completely left outside the submissions of the Parties. The Judgment in
no way decided it, nor could it do so.” (Request for Interpretation of the
Judgment of 20 November 1950 in the Asylum Case (Colombia v. Peru),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 403.) Subsequently, Colombia insti‑
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 164
68
admis, en l’espèce, que cette condition essentiellement formelle est bien
remplie, dans la mesure où l’identité de ces éléments indispensables n’a
pas été mise en doute par les Parties et n’est dès lors pas en cause.
3. La question plus fondamentale que soulève selon moi la présente
espèce est celle de savoir si la décision à laquelle la Cour a abouti dans son
arrêt de 2012 est constitutive d’un « prononcé final et définitif » auquel il
faudrait attribuer l’effet de chose jugée. En d’autres termes, ce qui est en
cause, c’est la portée de la chose jugée. Il est généralement admis, dans la
jurisprudence des juridictions nationales et internationales, que l’effet de la
chose jugée ne s’attache qu’à un jugement définitif, dans lequel « une instance
judiciaire détermine une fois pour toutes les droits et obligations des
parties à une affaire », et par l’effet duquel une « question est définitivement
réglée par voie de décision judiciaire » (Black’s Law Dictionary, 9e éd.,
p. 918, 1425) [traduction du Greffe]). Dans le même esprit, la Cour a écrit :
« Selon ce principe [de l’autorité de la chose jugée], les décisions de la
Cour sont non seulement obligatoires pour les parties, mais elles sont
définitives, en ce sens qu’elles ne peuvent être remises en cause par les
parties pour ce qui est des questions que ces décisions ont tranchées… »
(Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime
de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 90, par. 115 ; les italiques sont de moi.)
Corollaire obligé de cette règle, « [s]i un point n’a en fait pas été tranché,
ni expressément ni par implication logique, l’arrêt n’a pas force de chose
jugée sur celui‑ci » (ibid., p. 95, par. 126).
4. La Cour a déjà eu affaire à une situation quelque peu semblable à
celle qui nous occupe ici, où s’est trouvée posée la question de la portée
de l’autorité de la chose jugée qu’il convenait de reconnaître à un arrêt.
L’affaire du Droit d’asile (Colombie/Pérou), sur laquelle elle était appelée
à statuer en 1950, mettait en cause l’asile diplomatique que le Gouvernement
colombien avait accordé à un réfugié politique, Víctor
Raúl Haya de la Torre, dans son ambassade à Lima, en dépit des protestations
du Gouvernement péruvien. Dans son arrêt de 1950, la Cour a
tranché les questions juridiques générales liées à la licéité de cet asile, qui
avaient été soulevées par les parties, tout en notant qu’il n’avait été « question
de la remise éventuelle du réfugié … ni dans la correspondance diplomatique
produite par [celles‑ci], ni à un moment quelconque de la présente
instance » (Droit d’asile (Colombie/Pérou), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1950,
p. 280). Sitôt après le prononcé de cet arrêt, la Colombie en a demandé
l’interprétation au titre de l’article 60 du Statut, aux fins de savoir si la
remise du réfugié politique était requise de son gouvernement. La Cour
s’est gardée de répondre sur ce point, indiquant qu’elle ne pouvait « que
se référer à ce qu’elle a[vait] déclaré en termes absolument précis dans son
[précédent] arrêt[, à savoir que] cette question [était] restée entièrement en
dehors des demandes des Parties. L’arrêt n’a aucunement statué sur elle et
ne pouvait le faire. » (Demande d’interprétation de l’arrêt du 20 novembre
1950 en l’affaire du droit d’asile (Colombie c. Pérou), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
165 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
69
tuted new proceedings in the Haya de la Torre case so as to resolve this
issue. In the 1951 Judgment on this new case, the Court affirmed that:
“the question of the surrender of the refugee was not decided by the Judgment
[of 1950, and]. . . [t]here is consequently no res judicata upon the
question of surrender” (Haya de la Torre (Colombia v. Peru), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 80). According to the analysis by one learned
writer, the 1950 Judgment exemplifies a situation in which “the problem
was not that of the existence of a final judgment, but of the scope of the
binding force of the decision. This judgment did not settle the dispute, for
the simple reason that the submissions of the parties were insufficient for
this purpose.” (Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International
Court: 1920‑2005, 2006, Vol. III, 1603.) It could be argued that
a fine distinction exists between this case and the present one, to the extent
that the specific point at issue was “left outside” in the 1950 proceedings,
but the essential point is that the submissions of the parties were insufficient
in both cases to allow the Court to determine the dispute and the
decision did not constitute res judicata.
5. The scope of the res judicata was also at issue in the merits phase of
the Genocide Convention (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro)
case, though with a markedly different outcome, which is also
worthy
of note here. In its 1996 Judgment on preliminary objections in that
case, the Court rejected all of the preliminary objections on jurisdiction
by the Respondent Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) and found the
Application of the Applicant (Bosnia and Herzegovina) admissible,
declaring that “the Court may now proceed to consider the merits of the
case on that basis” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 622,
para. 46). At the merits phase, however, the Respondent argued that its
own lack of jus standi had not been adjudicated and that this precluded
the Court from reaching a decision on the merits. The essence of this
claim was that the Respondent was not a continuator of the Socialist
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and was therefore not a party to the
Genocide Convention or the Statute of the Court when the proceedings
were instituted — the position taken by the Court in its Judgment of 2004
in the Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium et al.)
cases. In the 2007 Judgment on the merits, the issue was whether that
question had been disposed of in the 1996 Judgment. Styled as such, this
issue related to the scope of the res judicata of the 1996 Judgment (Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 101, para. 140).
6. Although the issue of jus standi had not been explicitly raised as an
issue by the parties at the time of the 1996 Judgment, the Court in the
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 165
69
1950, p. 403.) La Colombie a alors introduit une nouvelle instance pour
éclaircir cette question. Dans l’arrêt rendu en 1951 en l’affaire Haya de la
Torre, la Cour a indiqué que « l’arrêt d[e 1950] n’a[vait] pas statué sur la
question de la remise du réfugié [et que, p]ar conséquent, il n’y a[vait] pas
chose jugée en ce qui concern[ait] la question de la remise » (Haya de la
Torre (Colombie c. Pérou), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 80). D’après
l’analyse d’un éminent commentateur, l’arrêt de 1950 illustre une situation
où « le problème n’était pas celui de l’existence d’un arrêt définitif,
mais celui de la portée de la force contraignante s’attachant à une décision.
La Cour, dans cet arrêt, n’a pas réglé le différend, pour la simple
raison que les moyens présentés par les parties étaient insuffisants à cet
effet. » (Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International
Court : 1920‑2005, 2006, vol. III, p. 1603.) Il pourrait être argué qu’une
subtile distinction existe entre cette affaire et la présente espèce, dans la
mesure où la question spécifique en cause était « restée en dehors » de la
procédure de 1950. Toutefois, l’élément déterminant réside en ceci que la
Cour n’ayant pu, dans les deux cas, trouver dans les moyens des parties
des éléments suffisants pour lui permettre de trancher, sa décision n’avait
pas force de chose jugée.
5. La question de la portée de l’autorité de la chose jugée s’est également
trouvée posée dans le cadre de la phase de l’affaire de la Convention
sur le génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro) consacrée
au fond, quoiqu’elle ait donné lieu à une réponse fort différente, qui
mérite également d’être relevée ici. Dans l’arrêt rendu en 1996 au stade
préliminaire, la Cour, ayant rejeté l’ensemble des exceptions préliminaires
d’incompétence soulevées par le défendeur, la Yougoslavie (Serbie‑et‑Monténégro),
et jugé recevable la requête du demandeur (la Bosnie‑Herzégovine),
avait estimé qu’elle « p[ouvait] désormais procéder à
l’examen du fond de l’affaire sur cette base » (Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II),
p. 622, par. 46). Dans la suite de la procédure, toutefois, le défendeur a
fait valoir que, faute de s’être prononcée sur le défaut de jus standi dont il
se prévalait, la Cour était empêchée de statuer au fond : il affirmait en
substance qu’il n’avait pas assuré la continuité de la République fédérative
socialiste de Yougoslavie, et n’était dès lors pas partie à la Convention
sur le génocide ni au Statut de la Cour à la date de l’introduction de
l’instance — position qui avait été celle de la Cour dans ses arrêts de 2004
sur la Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Serbie‑et‑Monténégro c. Belgique et
al.). Dans l’arrêt de 2007 sur le fond, la question qui s’est trouvée posée
était celle de savoir si ce point avait été tranché dans l’arrêt de 1996. Ainsi
formulée, elle mettait en cause la portée de la chose jugée s’attachant à
l’arrêt de 1996 (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 101, par. 140).
6. Or, bien que la question du jus standi n’eût pas expressément été
soulevée en tant que telle par les parties dans le cadre de la procédure
166 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
70
2007 Judgment took the position that it had been decided by the Court
because such a determination on the standing of the Respondent was a
necessary prerequisite to the Court’s decision to reject the preliminary
objections of the Respondent on jurisdiction ratione personae, ratione
materiae, and ratione temporis (see for details, I.C.J. Reports 2007(I),
separate opinion of Judge Owada, p. 296, para. 33).
7. I refer to this case here because it presented a unique situation in
which the Court apparently took the position that an issue that had not
been raised by the parties nor expressly addressed in its previous Judgment
had in fact been decided by the Court, despite a seemingly contradictory
decision of the Court in the 2004 Legality of Use of Force cases. (It
is clear that this precedent did not constitute res judicata for the 2007 case,
though it could have had stare decisis implications for the 2007 issue
(Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (III), p. 1337,
para. 76).) The issue of the jus standi of the Respondent in the Genocide
Convention case was thus determined to fall within the scope of res judicata.
However, this finding should be regarded as a unique exception
based on the specific structure of jurisdictional decisions.
8. These cases illustrate the complexity involved in determining what
falls within the scope of res judicata in a preceding judgment. In the present
case, the crucial issue for the Court in ruling upon the third preliminary
objection of Colombia is therefore to determine whether or not there
was a final and conclusive decision binding upon the Parties in the operative
part of the 2012 Judgment read in the complex context surrounding
this issue, to the extent that it relates to the claim of the Republic of
Nicaragua concerning an extended continental shelf. In analysing this
issue, the Court may take into account, if necessary, the reasoning of the
motif as far as it is indispensable in understanding the dispositif. As the
Court has declared: “[I]f any question arises as to the scope of res judicata
attaching to a judgment, it must be determined in each case having regard
to the context in which the judgment was given”. (Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia
and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), p. 95, para. 125). It is thus my view that in order to answer this
question, one must first delve into the context in which this newly reformulated
claim of Nicaragua emerged in 2007, against which the relevant
statement in the operative part in question came to be adopted. Only then
can one correctly understand the relevant decision of the 2012 Judgment
in its operative part (para. 251 (3)) and the reasoning of the Court underlying
this decision on Nicaragua’s maritime entitlement claim.
9. It is thus my conclusion on this methodological issue that only by
examining the context in which the operative part of the 2012 Judgment
was developed, as well as the reasoning of the Court and the overall
structure of the Judgment, can one clarify the precise scope and the meaning
of the 2012 Judgment and thus determine whether the claim presented
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 166
70
ayant abouti à l’arrêt de 1996, la Cour, dans son arrêt de 2007, a estimé
qu’elle l’avait tranchée, puisqu’elle n’aurait pu décider de rejeter les exceptions
préliminaires du défendeur sur la compétence ratione personae,
ratione materiae et ratione temporis sans avoir au préalable établi la qualité
pour agir du défendeur (voir, pour plus de précisions, C.I.J. Recueil
2007 (I), opinion individuelle de M. le juge Owada, p. 296, par. 33).
7. Si je fais référence à cette affaire, c’est parce qu’elle a donné lieu à
une situation singulière, où la Cour a, semble‑t‑il, estimé qu’une question
qui n’avait pas été soulevée par les parties, ni expressément traitée dans
son précédent arrêt, avait de fait été tranchée par elle, en dépit de la décision
apparemment contradictoire à laquelle elle était parvenue dans les
affaires de 2004 relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force. (Il est clair que
ce précédent n’avait pas force de chose jugée pour l’affaire tranchée
en 2007, bien qu’il eût pu avoir des implications stare decisis pour la question
à l’examen en 2007 (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2004 (III), p. 1337, par. 76).) La Cour a donc estimé que la question du
jus standi du défendeur en l’affaire de la Convention sur le génocide tombait
sous le coup de la chose jugée. Ce prononcé doit toutefois être considéré
comme une exception, se justifiant par l’économie spécifique de
décisions relatives à la compétence.
8. Ces affaires illustrent la difficulté qu’il y a à apprécier ce qui, dans
un arrêt antérieur, relève de l’autorité de la chose jugée. En la présente
espèce, la Cour devait donc essentiellement, pour se prononcer sur la troisième
exception préliminaire de la Colombie, déterminer si elle avait, dans
le point du dispositif de son arrêt de 2012 relatif à la demande de plateau
continental étendu soumise par la République du Nicaragua, tel qu’interprété
à la lumière du contexte complexe dans lequel celle‑ci s’inscrivait,
formulé une décision concluante et finale opposable aux Parties. Pour ce
faire, elle pouvait prendre en compte le raisonnement développé dans les
motifs, pour autant qu’il soit indispensable à la compréhension du dispositif,
étant entendu que, « si une question se pose quant à la portée de
l’autorité de la chose jugée qui s’attache à un arrêt, elle doit être tranchée
compte tenu du contexte dans lequel l’arrêt a été rendu » (Application de
la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2007 (I), p. 95, par. 125). Pour pouvoir répondre à la question ici posée,
il faut donc, me semble‑t‑il, commencer par examiner le contexte dans
lequel le Nicaragua a reformulé sa demande en 2007, et eu égard auquel
le point du dispositif en cause a été adopté. C’est à cette seule condition
que l’on pourra dûment appréhender la décision de la Cour sur les
prétentions
maritimes du Nicaragua qui se trouve exposée dans ce point
du dispositif (par. 251 3)) et le raisonnement qui la sous‑tend.
9. Sur cette question d’ordre méthodologique, j’en viens donc à la
conclusion que l’on ne peut cerner avec certitude la signification et la portée
précises de l’arrêt de 2012, et, partant, déterminer si la demande soumise
par le Nicaragua en la présente espèce est recevable ou si elle tombe
sous le coup de la chose jugée, qu’en examinant le contexte dans lequel le
167 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
71
by Nicaragua in the present case is admissible or whether it is barred by
the principle of res judicata.
B. The Background of the Court’s Decision in Its 2012 Judgment
on the Reformulated Claim of Nicaragua
10. In order to clarify this situation, it seems necessary in my view to
recall the genesis of the present problem, which emanated from the evolving
claim of Nicaragua. Nicaragua introduced a reformulated claim on
the continental shelf after the Court’s 2007 Judgment on preliminary
objections, which now forms the basis of the third preliminary objection
of Colombia.
11. In its original Application of 6 December 2001 in the case concerning
the Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Nicaragua
as Applicant stated that :
“Accordingly, the Court is asked to adjudge and declare :
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Second, in the light of the determinations concerning title requested
above, the Court is asked further to determine the course of the single
maritime boundary between the areas of continental shelf and exclusive
economic zone appertaining respectively to Nicaragua and
Colombia, in accordance with equitable principles and relevant circumstances
recognized by general international law as applicable to
such a delimitation of a single maritime boundary.” (Territorial and
Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application of the
Republic of Nicaragua, p. 8, para. 8.)
Nicaragua maintained the same formulation in its Memorial submitted
on 28 April 2003 (ibid., Memorial of the Republic of Nicaragua,
pp. 265‑267, para. 3.39).
12. However, Nicaragua suddenly changed its submissions in its Reply
of 18 September 2009 to what came to be known as submission I (3). The
final submissions of the Applicant, as presented orally at the conclusion
of the oral proceedings held on 1 May 2012, thus expressed Nicaragua’s
claim as follows :
“I. May it please the Court to adjudge and declare that :
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
(3) The appropriate form of delimitation, within the geographical
and legal framework constituted by the mainland coasts of Nicaragua
and Colombia, is a continental shelf boundary dividing by
equal parts the overlapping entitlements to a continental shelf of
both Parties.” (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v.
Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 636, para. 17.)
13. Colombia as Respondent lodged an objection to this, charging that
this newly reformulated claim of Nicaragua “fundamentally changed the
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 167
71
dispositif a été conçu, ainsi que le raisonnement suivi par la Cour et l’économie
générale de l’arrêt.
B. Eléments de contexte motivant la décision à laquelle la Cour
est parvenue dans son arrêt de 2012
10. Pour éclaircir cette situation, il me semble nécessaire de revenir sur
l’origine du présent problème, qui réside dans l’évolution de la demande
du Nicaragua. Celui‑ci a en effet reformulé sa prétention sur le plateau
continental après le prononcé de l’arrêt de 2007 sur les exceptions préliminaires,
et c’est à cette demande reformulée que se rapporte maintenant la
troisième exception de la Colombie.
11. Dans sa requête initiale du 6 décembre 2001 en l’affaire du Différend
territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie), le Nicaragua, Etat
demandeur, avait formulé une conclusion en ces termes :
« En conséquence, la Cour est priée :
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Deuxièmement, à la lumière des conclusions auxquelles elle sera
parvenue concernant le titre revendiqué [ci‑dessus], de déterminer le
tracé d’une frontière maritime unique entre les portions de plateau
continental et les zones économiques exclusives relevant respectivement
du Nicaragua et de la Colombie, conformément aux principes
équitables et aux circonstances pertinentes que le droit international
général reconnaît comme s’appliquant à une délimitation de cet
ordre. » (Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie),
requête de la République du Nicaragua, p. 9, par. 8.)
Le Nicaragua a conservé cette formulation dans son mémoire du
28 avril 2003 (ibid., mémoire de la République du Nicaragua, p. 265‑267,
par. 3.39).
12. Toutefois, le Nicaragua a brusquement modifié ses conclusions
dans sa réplique du 18 septembre 2009, en y introduisant le point désormais
dit I 3). Dans les conclusions finales dont il a donné lecture au terme
de l’audience du 1er mai 2012, il formulait ainsi sa demande :
« I. [La République du Nicaragua p]rie la Cour de dire et juger :
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
3) que, dans le cadre géographique et juridique constitué par les côtes
continentales du Nicaragua et de la Colombie, la méthode de délimitation
à retenir consiste à tracer une limite opérant une division
par parts égales de la zone du plateau continental où les droits des
deux Parties sur celui‑ci se chevauchent. » (Différend territorial et
maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II),
p. 636, par. 17.)
13. La Colombie, Etat défendeur, a excipé à cet égard que cette nouvelle
formulation avait « transformé du tout au tout l’objet du différend
168 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
72
subject‑matter of the dispute which Nicaragua originally asked the Court
to decide” and asserted that this claim was inadmissible (CR 2012/12,
p. 44, para. 2 (Bundy)). It was contended, notably, that this radical
change in the Applicant’s position took its concrete form only in late 2007,
more than six years after the original dispute had been submitted, ostensibly
in connection with the 2007 Judgment of the Court on preliminary
objections, and that this change radically transformed the nature of the
claim (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia) Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II)).
14. In its 2012 Judgment, however, the Court decided to find admissible
“the Republic of Nicaragua’s claim contained in its final submission
I (3) requesting the Court to adjudge and to declare that ‘[t]he
appropriate form of delimitation, within the geographical and legal
framework constituted by the mainland coasts of Nicaragua and
Colombia, is a continental shelf boundary dividing by equal parts the
overlapping entitlements to a continental shelf of both Parties’”
(I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 719, para. 251 (2)).
15. As a participating judge in this Judgment, I voted against this finding
of the Court. As I stated in my dissenting opinion, my position was that
“[t]he essence of the situation in the present case is that the Applicant
attempted to replace [rather than reformulate] the original formulation
of the claim submitted to the Court in its Application by a newly
formulated, ostensibly different, claim relating to the existing dispute”
(ibid., dissenting opinion of Judge Owada, p. 722, para. 6).
16. The significant element of the Judgment of the Court on this point is
that the Court decided that “[t]he new submission thus still concerns the
delimitation of the continental shelf, although on different legal grounds”
(ibid., p. 665, para. 111). The logical conclusion stemming from this decision
of the Court is therefore that, by accepting the position that Nicaragua’s
submission was admissible, the Court must be regarded as having
taken the position that all of the issues contained in the newly reformulated
claim would have to be squarely addressed on their merits in the Judgment.
C. What the Court Has Decided in Fact in Its 2012 Judgment
17. The Court can thus be seen to have accepted the newly reformulated
claim of the Applicant as procedurally admissible in the 2012 Judgment,
with its legal implication that the substance of the newly
reformulated claim of Nicaragua should fall within the purview of its
Judgment on the merits. The Court, however, could not, and did not in
fact, examine the substance of Nicaragua’s claim for an extended continental
shelf on its merits. Indeed, the final text of the 2012 Judgment
clearly reveals that the Court ultimately concluded that “it was not in a
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 168
72
que le Nicaragua a[vait initialement] demandé à la Cour de trancher », et
plaidé l’irrecevabilité de cette nouvelle demande (CR 2012/12, p. 44,
par. 2 (Bundy)). Il a notamment été avancé que ce changement radical de
la position du demandeur ne s’était concrétisé qu’en fin d’année 2007,
plus de six ans après l’introduction de l’affaire initiale, apparemment à la
suite de l’arrêt rendu cette année‑là au stade des exceptions préliminaires,
et que la nature de la demande s’en était trouvée radicalement modifiée
(Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II)).
14. Dans son arrêt de 2012, la Cour a toutefois décidé de déclarer
« recevable la demande formulée par la République du Nicaragua au
point I. 3) de ses conclusions finales, par laquelle celle‑ci la prie de
dire et juger que, « dans le cadre géographique et juridique constitué
par les côtes continentales du Nicaragua et de la Colombie, la
méthode de délimitation à retenir consiste à tracer une limite opérant
une division par parts égales de la zone du plateau continental où les
droits des deux Parties sur celui‑ci se chevauchent » » (C.I.J. Recueil
2012 (II), p. 719, par. 251 2)).
15. J’ai quant à moi voté contre cette conclusion de la Cour, ayant
estimé, comme je l’ai indiqué alors dans mon opinion dissidente, que la
« spécificité d[e l’affaire à l’examen] résid[ait] en ceci que le demandeur
a[vait] tenté [non pas de reformuler la demande qu’il avait soumise
à la Cour dans sa requête, mais] de substituer à la formulation
initiale de [cette] demande [originelle] le libellé, nouveau et manifestement
distinct, d’une demande en rapport avec le différend existant »
(ibid., opinion dissidente de M. le juge Owada, p. 722, par. 6).
16. L’élément déterminant de l’arrêt sur ce point réside en ceci que la
Cour a estimé que, « bien qu’elle repos[ât] sur des fondements juridiques
différents, la nouvelle demande se rapport[ait] toujours à la délimitation
du plateau continental » (ibid., p. 665, par. 111). Il est donc logique de
penser que la Cour, en admettant la recevabilité de la conclusion du Nicaragua,
estimait qu’il lui faudrait dûment traiter au fond, dans son arrêt,
l’ensemble des questions soulevées par la demande reformulée.
C. Ce que la Cour a en fait tranché dans son arrêt de 2012
17. L’on peut ainsi considérer que la Cour, en 2012, a jugé recevable,
du point de vue de la procédure, la nouvelle formulation de la conclusion
énoncée par le demandeur, avec pour implication juridique qu’il lui faudrait
en examiner la substance dans le cadre de l’arrêt au fond. Toutefois,
la Cour n’était pas alors à même de se livrer à un tel examen, et elle s’en
est de fait abstenue. Comme le révèle clairement le texte final de l’arrêt
de 2012, elle a en définitive estimé qu’elle n’était pas, au stade où elle se
trouvait, « en mesure » d’examiner du point de vue du fond la demande du
169 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
73
position” at that stage of the proceedings to examine the substance of the
merits of the claim (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 669, para. 129). I wish to
raise and examine several reasons why it could not and did not in fact
come to a final decision on the merits on this issue.
(i) The reasoning contained in Part IV of the Judgment
18. The position of the Court is apparent first of all in the reasoning contained
in Part IV of the Judgment. The Court, having concluded in Part III
that Nicaragua’s claim for the delimitation of a continental shelf beyond
200 nautical miles was admissible, proceeded on this basis to its “[c]onsideration”
of this claim (ibid., p. 665). It is significant to note, however, that in
embarking upon its “consideration” of this claim on the merits, the Court
immediately proceeded to declare that it was turning “to the question
whether it is in a position to determine” the continental shelf boundary proposed
by Nicaragua (ibid., p. 665, para. 113 ; emphasis added).
19. These introductory remarks would seem to signal that the Court
was not necessarily prepared to enter into a thorough examination of the
issues required in order to reach a final determination on the substantive
merits. It is true that the Judgment introduced and laid out the arguments
advanced by the Parties. However, it is clear that it did not engage in an
independent analysis of these arguments. The Judgment recounted certain
areas of agreement between the Parties as well as the principal arguments
of Nicaragua related to the substance of the claim for an extended
continental shelf (ibid., pp. 666‑667, paras. 119‑121) and the arguments of
Colombia in rebuttal (ibid., pp. 667‑668, paras. 122‑124). Specifically, the
Judgment recalled the claims asserted by the Parties with respect to:
(a) the existence, as a matter of fact, of the extended continental shelf as
a natural prolongation of the Nicaraguan mainland into the Caribbean
Sea; (b) the applicability of the procedures of Article 76 of the Law of the
Sea Convention ; and (c) the methodology to be applied for the delimitation
of the overlapping area of the continental shelf, with one based on
the natural prolongation criterion and the other based on the distance
criterion. However, the Court did not engage in an examination and analysis
of these claims in order to reach its own conclusion on these concrete
issues arising out of the argument of the Parties.
20. It is interesting to note that the Court’s treatment of the claim of
Nicaragua in the 2012 Judgment was not confined to a simple recitation
of the arguments advanced by the Parties. Thus, the Judgment, based on
the submission of Nicaragua in support of its claim for the delimitation
of a continental shelf extending beyond 200 nautical miles, confined itself
to confirming that there had not been any “case in which a court or a
tribunal was requested to determine the outer limits of the continental
shelf beyond 200 nautical miles”, noting in particular that Nicaragua had
itself failed to establish that any such precedents existed (ibid., p. 668,
para. 125).
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 169
73
Nicaragua tendant à la délimitation d’un plateau continental étendu
(C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 669, par. 129). Je souhaiterais revenir sur plusieurs
raisons qui lui interdisaient nécessairement de se prononcer définitivement
au fond sur cette demande.
i) Le raisonnement développé dans la partie IV de l’arrêt
18. La position de la Cour se dégage en premier lieu clairement du
raisonnement exposé dans la partie IV de l’arrêt. Ayant conclu, dans la
partie précédente, à la recevabilité de la demande du Nicaragua tendant à
la délimitation d’un plateau continental au‑delà de 200 milles marins, la
Cour passe à l’« examen » de cette demande (ibid., p. 665). Toutefois, au
moment d’entamer cet examen, elle prend soin de préciser dès l’abord que
c’est à la « question de savoir si elle est en mesure de tracer » la délimitation
du plateau continental proposée par le Nicaragua qu’elle va s’intéresser
(ibid., p. 665, par. 113 ; les italiques sont de moi).
19. Cette précision liminaire donnerait à penser que la Cour n’était pas
nécessairement prête à se livrer à l’examen rigoureux des questions en jeu
auquel il lui eût fallu procéder pour pouvoir se prononcer au fond de
manière définitive sur la substance de la demande. Elle reproduit certes
dans son arrêt les arguments avancés de part et d’autre, mais s’abstient
clairement de les soumettre à une analyse indépendante. Elle fait état de
certains points d’accord entre les Parties, des principaux arguments du
Nicaragua quant au fond de sa demande de plateau continental étendu
(ibid., p. 666‑667, par. 119‑121), et de ceux que la Colombie lui oppose
(ibid., p. 667‑668, par. 122‑124), et, plus précisément, rappelle les allégations
de chacune des Parties en ce qui concerne : a) l’existence, d’un point
de vue factuel, d’un plateau continental étendu en tant que prolongement
naturel du continent nicaraguayen dans la mer des Caraïbes ; b) la question
de savoir si les procédures prévues à l’article 76 de la convention des
Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer (ci‑après la « CNUDM ») trouvent à
s’appliquer ; c) la méthode à appliquer pour délimiter la zone de chevauchement
de portions de plateau continental, l’une des méthodes préconisées
étant fondée sur le critère du prolongement naturel et l’autre, sur
celui de la distance. En revanche, elle n’entreprend pas d’analyser ou
d’examiner ces allégations pour se forger sa propre opinion sur les questions
ainsi soulevées concrètement.
20. Il est intéressant de relever que la Cour, dans son arrêt de 2012, ne
s’est pas, en ce qui concerne la demande du Nicaragua, contentée de
reproduire les arguments avancés par chacune des Parties. Mais elle s’est
bornée, à propos des moyens invoqués par le Nicaragua à l’appui de sa
demande visant la délimitation d’un plateau continental s’étendant
au‑delà de 200 milles marins, à confirmer que, dans la jurisprudence, il
n’avait jamais été « question de déterminer les limites extérieures d’un plateau
continental au‑delà de 200 milles marins », en relevant que le Nicaragua
lui‑même avait manqué d’établir l’existence d’un quelconque
précédent où cette question se fût posée (ibid., p. 668, par. 125).
170 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
74
21. It is obvious that for a claim such as the one at issue in this case,
namely a claim concerning an entitlement to a continental shelf extending
beyond 200 nautical miles, a number of complex facts and intricate legal
standards must be examined and addressed in order to conclusively
resolve the rights and duties at issue. A typical examination in this respect
should entail, inter alia: (a) a detailed inspection of the geological and
geomorphological features of the disputed area to establish the existence
of overlapping entitlements of Nicaragua and Colombia; (b) the verification
of the existence and delineation of the continental margin as claimed
by Nicaragua; (c) the acceptability of a median line as the criterion for
delimitation between Nicaragua (based on the natural prolongation principle)
and Colombia (based on the distance principle) such as the one
proposed by Nicaragua for the delimitation of the overlapping entitlements;
(d) the applicability or non-applicability
of Article 76 of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea as a whole, covering
the provisions contained in its paragraphs (4) to (9) ; and finally (e) the
requirement vel non of the review by the Commission on the Limits of the
Continental Shelf (CLCS) of such a claim preceding the delimitation by
the Court.
22. However, in the 2012 Judgment, following a discussion of the arguments
advanced by the Parties, and without further analysis of these
points, the Court curtly concluded that it was “not in a position to delimit
the continental shelf boundary between Nicaragua and Colombia, as
requested by Nicaragua, even using the general formulation proposed by
it” (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 669, para. 129). This pronouncement was
made in the absence of any substantive analysis of the factual and legal
issues that would have been necessary for resolving the claim of an entitlement.
There exists only a brief reference to a factual element that
“Nicaragua, in the present proceedings, has not established that it has a
continental margin that extends [beyond two hundred nautical miles]”,
without any indication of the legal implication of this statement in the
context of the burden of proof (ibid.).
23. Seen in this way, the Court’s reference to Nicaragua’s obligation
under Article 76 of UNCLOS should not, in my view, be seen as merely
a procedural requirement. The reasoning of the Court instead makes
clear that the condition of the submission of information to CLCS
imposed by Article 76 is instead a substantive element that is fundamentally
necessary in order for the Court to decide on the issues raised by the
Parties. A delimitation cannot be effected in the absence of the existence
of overlapping entitlements, which in this case requires the establishment
by Nicaragua of its entitlement to a continental shelf extending beyond
200 nautical miles. This can and must be achieved by the submission of
detailed information to the CLCS, which is not — as some might suggest
— a mere procedural requirement.
24. In this situation, it is in my view impossible to draw from Part IV of
the 2012 Judgment a far‑reaching conclusion that the Court made a final
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 170
74
21. Il est certain que, s’agissant d’une demande telle que celle qui se
trouve ici en cause, relative à un droit à un plateau continental s’étendant
au‑delà de 200 milles marins, force est d’examiner et de prendre en compte
nombre de faits et d’éléments juridiques complexes pour pouvoir se prononcer
de manière concluante sur les droits et devoirs mis en jeu. Typiquement,
pareil examen suppose notamment de procéder : a) à une
inspection rigoureuse des formations géologiques et géomorphologiques
de la zone en litige, en vue d’établir le cas échéant l’existence de droits
concurrents entre le Nicaragua et la Colombie, et b) à une vérification de
l’exactitude des prétentions du Nicaragua quant à l’existence de la marge
continentale et à ses limites ; ainsi que de déterminer c) si la Cour peut
retenir une ligne médiane comme méthode de délimitation des zones de
chevauchement des prétentions de la Colombie (fondées sur le principe de
la distance) et du Nicaragua (fondées sur le principe du prolongement
naturel), comme le propose celui-
ci ; d) si l’article 76 de la CNUDM, et
notamment les dispositions de ses paragraphes 4‑9, est applicable dans
son ensemble ; et enfin e) si la Commission des limites du plateau continental
doit avoir examiné la demande avant que la Cour ne puisse procéder
à la délimitation.
22. Toutefois, dans l’arrêt de 2012, après avoir évoqué les arguments
avancés de part et d’autre, et sans les analyser plus avant, la Cour écrit
simplement qu’elle « n’est pas en mesure de délimiter les portions du plateau
continental relevant de chacune des Parties, comme le lui demande le
Nicaragua, même en utilisant la formulation générale proposée par ce
dernier » (C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 669, par. 129). Elle en décide ainsi
sans avoir soumis les questions factuelles et juridiques à l’examen au fond
qu’il lui eût fallu mener à bien pour pouvoir se prononcer sur le droit
revendiqué. Elle ne fait qu’une brève référence au fait que « le Nicaragua
n’a … pas, dans [l’]instance [en question], apporté la preuve que sa marge
continentale s’étend[ait au‑delà de] 200 milles marins », sans du tout préciser
quelles en sont les implications du point de vue de la charge de la
preuve (ibid.).
23. Dans ces circonstances, l’obligation imposée au Nicaragua par l’article
76 de la CNUDM à laquelle la Cour fait référence ne doit pas, selon
moi, être considérée comme étant de nature purement procédurale. Le
raisonnement montre au contraire clairement que la condition consistant
à soumettre des informations à la Commission des limites du plateau
continental prévue à l’article 76 est un élément déterminant, indispensable
pour permettre à la Cour de trancher les questions soulevées par les Parties.
Il ne peut être procédé à une délimitation en l’absence de chevauchement
de droits, et le Nicaragua doit donc établir l’existence de son droit à
un plateau continental s’étendant au‑delà de 200 milles marins. Pour ce
faire, il peut, et il lui faut, soumettre des informations détaillées à la Commission
des limites du plateau continental, exigence qui — quoique d’aucuns
puissent en penser — n’est pas une simple exigence procédurale.
24. Dans ces circonstances, il me paraît impossible de tirer de la partie
IV de l’arrêt de 2012 la conclusion très générale que la Cour aurait
171 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
75
and binding decision on the merits that can be said to constitute res judicata.
On the contrary, the Judgment proceeded to expressly declare that
“In view of the above, the Court need not address any other arguments
developed by the Parties, including the argument as to whether
a delimitation of overlapping entitlements which involves an extended
continental shelf of one party can affect a 200‑nautical‑mile entitlement
to the continental shelf of another party.” (I.C.J. Reports
2012 (II), pp. 669‑670, para. 130.)
It was on the basis of this reasoning that the Court stated in the operative
part of the 2012 Judgment that “it cannot uphold the Republic of Nicaragua’s
claim contained in its final submission I (3)” reformulating the
same conclusion as was made at the end of Part IV of the Judgment (ibid.,
p. 719, para. 251 (3)).
(ii) The structure of the 2012 Judgment
25. Second, the position of the Court is apparent in the distinction that
the Judgment makes between the Court’s treatment of (a) Nicaragua’s
request for the delimitation of its continental shelf extending beyond two
hundred nautical miles of its coast (Part IV), and (b) the delimitation of
the maritime boundary between the overlapping entitlements emanating
from Nicaragua’s mainland and Colombia’s islands (Part V) in the
2012 Judgment.
26. The structure of the 2012 Judgment — and particularly the separation
and juxtaposition of the analysis and decisions contained in Parts IV
and V — demonstrates that the Court did not make a final and definitive
determination of the merits as far as Nicaragua’s submission I (3) is concerned.
As discussed above, in Part IV of the Judgment, the Court deliberately
limited its examination of the issue to an analysis of the legal
argumentation advanced by the Parties. In doing so, the Court not only
avoided a substantive examination on its own of the claim on the merits,
but also formally separated this part of its analysis from the more extensive
examination of the claim relating to the delimitation of the relevant
maritime area lying between the two opposing States contained in Part V
of the Judgment.
27. This demonstrates a stark contrast in the treatment of the Court
between the two distinctive categories of claims concerning the continental
shelf covered in Parts IV and V of the Judgment. Part V, aptly entitled
“Maritime Boundary”, contains a comprehensive discussion of the delimitation
of entitlements on the merits. It would seem that rather than
addressing submission I (3) on its merits, which involved a delimitation of
a maritime boundary in the form of a median line between the mainland
coasts of the two Parties, the Court instead concerned itself only with the
delimitation of a boundary between the overlapping entitlements of Nicaragua
based on its mainland coast and of Colombia based on its islands
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 171
75
rendu une décision définitive et contraignante au fond qui pourrait être
tenue pour chose jugée. Au contraire, voici ce qu’elle a dit :
« Compte tenu de ce qui précède, il n’y a pas lieu pour la Cour
d’examiner l’un quelconque des autres arguments avancés par les Parties,
comme celui de savoir si la délimitation d’une zone de chevauchement
de droits dans laquelle l’une des parties revendique un plateau
continental étendu est susceptible de porter atteinte au droit à un plateau
continental dont l’autre partie peut se prévaloir sur une distance
de 200 milles marins. » (C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 669‑670, par. 130.)
C’est au terme de ce raisonnement que la Cour reprend dans le dispositif
de l’arrêt de 2012 la conclusion à laquelle elle était déjà parvenue à la fin
de la partie IV de cet arrêt, à savoir « qu’elle ne peut accueillir la demande
formulée par la République du Nicaragua au point I. 3) de ses conclusions
finales » (ibid., p. 719, par. 251 3)).
ii) L’économie de l’arrêt de 2012
25. En second lieu, la position de la Cour ressort clairement de la différence
de traitement que celle‑ci réserve dans son arrêt de 2012 a) à la
demande du Nicaragua tendant à la délimitation de son plateau continental
au‑delà de 200 milles marins de sa côte (partie IV), d’une part, et b) à
la délimitation de la frontière maritime entre les espaces auxquels son
continent donne droit au Nicaragua, et ses îles, à la Colombie (partie V),
d’autre part.
26. La structure de l’arrêt de 2012 — et, en particulier, la séparation et
la juxtaposition des raisonnements et décisions qui figurent dans les parties
IV et V — atteste que la Cour ne s’est pas définitivement prononcée
au fond sur la demande formulée par le Nicaragua au point I. 3) de ses
conclusions finales. Comme il a été indiqué ci‑dessus, dans la partie IV, la
Cour s’en tient à dessein à l’analyse des arguments juridiques avancés de
part et d’autre. Elle se garde ainsi de procéder à l’examen au fond de la
demande matérielle elle-même ; en même temps, elle dissocie formellement
cette partie de son raisonnement et l’analyse autrement plus détaillée
qu’elle consacre, dans la partie V, à la demande relative à la délimitation
de la zone maritime pertinente entre les deux Etats en présence.
27. Il en résulte un net contraste dans le traitement que la Cour réserve
aux deux catégories distinctes de demandes relatives au plateau continental,
dans les parties IV et V de l’arrêt respectivement. Dans la seconde,
justement intitulée « La frontière maritime », la Cour examine du point de
vue du fond toutes les questions que soulève la répartition des espaces
maritimes dont chacune des Parties pouvait se prévaloir. Il semblerait
que, au lieu d’en faire autant pour la demande formulée par le Nicaragua
au point I. 3) de ses conclusions finales, qui impliquait de déterminer le
tracé d’une frontière maritime suivant une ligne médiane entre les côtes
continentales des deux Parties, la Cour se soit uniquement focalisée sur la
172 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
76
off the coast of Nicaragua. It has to be stressed that these two parallel
claims of Nicaragua, classified as claims (a) and (b) above (para. 25),
entail totally distinct geological and geomorphological features and
required the Court to apply entirely different rules of customary international
law.
28. In Part V, the Court did scrutinize the evidence presented by the
Parties and drew the maritime boundary in accordance with the well‑established
jurisprudence of the Court relating to the delimitation of the
continental shelf between States with overlapping entitlements, namely
the three‑step approach articulated in the case concerning the Maritime
Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine) (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 89, para. 78). It is clear that the conclusion that
the Court stated in operative paragraph 251 (4) of the 2012 Judgment is a
final and binding decision of the Court, thus constituting res judicata. It
seems equally clear that the statement of the Court in operative paragraph
251 (3), read together with the reasoning contained in Part IV, is
not a conclusive determination of the subject‑matter requested by Nicaragua
in its submission I (3) and cannot be regarded as constituting res
judicata (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 719, para. 251 (3)).
29. In light of all of these considerations, one is bound to come to the
conclusion that the Court deliberately divided these issues between
Parts IV and V because it did not wish to engage in a substantive examination
of the merits on Nicaragua’s submission I (3) at that time.
(iii) The burden of proof
30. Finally, it might be suggested by some that the Court did decide on
submission I (3) on the merits in the 2012 Judgment and that, in doing so,
it rejected the claim on the ground that the Applicant failed to meet its
burden of proof. It cannot be denied that in the strictly adversarial framework
of litigation traditionally accepted by the Court — whether this is a
commendable approach for the proceedings of the International Court of
Justice is a different matter — the burden of proof, and thus the burden
of risk, falls heavily on the shoulders of the Applicant (onus probandi
incumbit actori) (Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), p. 71, para. 162). It can be
accepted on this basis that the principle exists that it is the responsibility
of the Applicant to substantiate its claim, such that the burden of proof
plays an extremely important role, with the result that the failure of the
Applicant to establish a single, crucial point can prove fatal under certain
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 172
76
délimitation dans la zone de chevauchement des espaces maritimes auxquels
donnent droit, dans le cas du Nicaragua, sa côte continentale et,
dans celui de la Colombie, les îles que celle‑ci possède au large de la côte
nicaraguayenne. Rappelons que ces deux demandes parallèles du Nicaragua,
dites a) et b) au paragraphe 25 ci‑dessus, recouvrent des formations
géologiques et géomorphologiques totalement distinctes, de sorte que la
Cour s’est trouvée contrainte d’appliquer des règles de droit international
coutumier entièrement différentes.
28. Dans la partie V, la Cour ne s’est pas fait faute d’examiner les éléments
de preuve présentés par les Parties, avant de tracer la frontière
maritime conformément à une jurisprudence bien établie en matière de
délimitation du plateau continental dans les cas où des Etats peuvent se
prévaloir sur celui-
ci de droits maritimes concurrents, c’est-à-dire suivant
la démarche en trois étapes précisée en l’affaire de la Délimitation maritime
en mer Noire (Roumanie c. Ukraine) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009,
p. 89, par. 78). Il est clair que la conclusion formulée au point 4) du dispositif
de l’arrêt de 2012 est une décision définitive et contraignante de la
Cour et, partant, qu’elle est chose jugée. Il semble non moins clair que,
lue à la lumière du raisonnement exposé dans la partie IV, la déclaration
qui figure au point 3) du dispositif n’est pas un prononcé par lequel la
Cour aurait tranché de manière concluante la question mise en cause par
le Nicaragua au point I. 3) de ses conclusions finales et, partant, qu’elle ne
peut être considérée comme revêtue de cette même autorité (Différend territorial
et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II),
p. 719, par. 251 3)).
29. A la lumière de l’ensemble de ces considérations, force est de
conclure que c’est délibérément que la Cour a consacré aux deux questions
deux parties distinctes (IV et V), et ce, parce qu’elle ne souhaitait
pas à ce stade se livrer à un examen substantiel du fond de la demande
formulée par le Nicaragua au point I. 3) de ses conclusions finales.
iii) La charge de la preuve
30. Enfin, d’aucuns pourraient penser que la Cour, dans l’arrêt de
2012, s’est bel et bien prononcée au fond sur la demande formulée par le
Nicaragua au point I. 3) de ses conclusions finales, rejetant celle‑ci au
motif que le demandeur ne s’était pas acquitté de la charge de la preuve
qui lui incombait à cet égard. Il est incontestable que, dans le cadre strictement
contentieux de la procédure généralement admise par la Cour —
et abstraction faite de la question de l’opportunité d’une telle approche
s’agissant d’instances soumises à cette institution —, la charge de la
preuve, et donc le poids du risque, pèse lourdement sur les épaules du
demandeur (onus probandi incumbit actori) (Usines de pâte à papier sur le
fleuve Uruguay (Argentine c. Uruguay), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I),
p. 71, par. 162). Peut dès lors être tenu pour admis le principe voulant que
la responsabilité incombant à celui‑ci d’établir le bien‑fondé de sa prétention
est telle qu’un manquement de sa part à établir un seul point déter‑
173 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
77
circumstances to its cause of action. The question is whether, when examined
in this complex context that I have tried to depict, the present case
falls within the framework of this reasoning.
31. It is submitted that it is wrong to regard the issue of the burden of
proof as such an essential element in the present case, when, as a matter
of fact, the Court in the 2012 Judgment went no further than to observe
that “Nicaragua, in the present proceedings, has not established that it
has a continental margin that extends far enough to overlap with Colombia’s
200‑nautical‑mile entitlement to the continental shelf” (Territorial
and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2012 (II), p. 669, para. 129). To conclude, on the basis of such a curt
statement of facts, that Nicaragua had failed in law to meet its heavy
burden of proof is to my mind tantamount to “reading too much” into
this dictum of the Judgment — particularly when this remark could legitimately
be interpreted as support for the Court’s view that it was, at that
time, “not in a position” to proceed further to the merits of the claim in
the absence of complete submissions to the CLCS. It would seem clear
from this context that much more than the insufficiency or absence of
evidence was at issue in the 2012 Judgment of the Court. It is for this
reason that I take the view that the third preliminary objection of Colombia
must be rejected.
D. Conclusion
32. In conclusion, when presented with a question about the binding
force of a previous Judgment, the Court must
“distinguish between, first, the issues which have been decided with
the force of res judicata, or which are necessarily entailed in the decision
of those issues ; secondly any peripheral or subsidiary matters,
or obiter dicta ; and finally matters which have not been ruled upon
at all” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and
Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 95, para. 126).
Although the 2012 Judgment of the Court may have created some confusion
in the language it used in the dispositif, the context in which Nicaragua
originally requested the delimitation of a continental shelf extending
beyond 200 nautical miles, as well as the manner in which this claim was
treated by the Court in the 2012 Judgment, leads me to the conclusion
that the Court did not reach a final and definitive determination that
would bind the Parties as res judicata. In light of this contextual background,
it is my view that it is wrong to conclude in an automatic and
facile manner that the Court disposed of Nicaraguan submission I (3) in
the 2012 Judgment simply because of the statement in the dispositif that
“[the Court] cannot uphold the Republic of Nicaragua’s claim contained
in its final submission I (3)”, whether for the reason that Nicaragua failed
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 173
77
minant pourra, dans certains cas, vouer à l’échec sa demande tout entière.
La question se pose alors de savoir si, eu égard aux circonstances complexes
que j’ai tenté de dépeindre ici, tel est le cas en l’espèce.
31. Il semblerait malavisé de conférer à la charge de la preuve un poids
aussi déterminant en la présente espèce, quand, pour ce qui est des faits,
la Cour, dans son arrêt de 2012, s’est contentée de dire que « le Nicaragua
n’a[vait] pas, dans [l’]instance [en question], apporté la preuve que sa
marge continentale s’étend[ait] suffisamment loin pour chevaucher le
plateau
continental dont la Colombie p[ouvait] se prévaloir sur
200 milles marins à partir de sa côte continentale » (Différend territorial et
maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 669,
par. 129). Conclure, sur la base d’un exposé des faits aussi succinct, que
le Nicaragua a manqué en droit de s’acquitter de la lourde charge de la
preuve lui incombant me semble revenir à « solliciter » à l’excès ce dictum
— d’autant que celui‑ci pourrait légitimement être interprété comme
étayant le point de vue de la Cour selon lequel elle n’était pas alors « en
mesure » de procéder à l’examen au fond de la demande, la Commission
des limites du plateau continental n’ayant pas reçu les informations complètes
requises. Il semble clair, d’après ce contexte, que ce n’étaient pas
simplement l’insuffisance ou l’absence de preuves qui étaient en cause
dans l’arrêt de 2012. C’est la raison pour laquelle je considère que la troisième
exception préliminaire de la Colombie devait être rejetée.
D. Conclusion
32. En conclusion, lorsqu’elle est saisie d’une question relative à la
force obligatoire s’attachant à l’un de ses précédents arrêts, la Cour doit
« opérer une distinction entre, premièrement, les questions qui ont
été tranchées, le cas échéant implicitement, avec force de chose jugée ;
deuxièmement, les questions accessoires ou subsidiaires, ou obiter
dicta ; troisièmement, celles qui n’ont pas été tranchées du tout »
(Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 95, par. 126).
Bien que, en raison des termes employés dans le dispositif, l’arrêt de
2012 ait pu quelque peu prêter à confusion, le contexte dans lequel le
Nicaragua avait initialement demandé la délimitation d’un plateau continental
au‑delà de 200 milles marins, ainsi que le traitement réservé à cette
demande, m’amène à penser que la Cour n’est pas parvenue à une conclusion
finale et définitive qui lierait les Parties en tant que chose jugée. A la
lumière de ces éléments de contexte, il est selon moi erroné d’inférer de
manière automatique et quelque peu facile que la Cour a, dans son arrêt
de 2012, tranché la demande formulée par le Nicaragua au point I. 3) de
ses conclusions finales du seul fait qu’elle a, dans le dispositif, estimé « ne
p[ouvoir] accueillir la[dite] demande », que ce soit parce que le Nicaragua
n’avait pas fourni d’éléments de preuve suffisants à l’appui de sa demande
174 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
78
to provide sufficient evidence to substantiate its claim or for any other
reason (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 719, para. 251 (3)). The Court did not
reject the claim on the merits.
II. The Opposability of UNCLOS
by Colombia to Nicaragua
33. In addition to these points, I wish to touch upon an issue relating
to the approach of the Court to the role of CLCS, which is especially
relevant to the fifth preliminary objection of Colombia. Since I agree with
the reasoning expressed by the Court in the present Judgment, this point
may be somewhat otiose, but it is important to review this point as a matter
of principle with respect to the applicable law in the present case.
In its fifth preliminary objection, Colombia argues that Nicaragua’s
request for a delimitation on the basis of its entitlement to an extended
continental shelf is inadmissible because Nicaragua has failed to secure
the recommendations of the CLCS required by Article 76 of UNCLOS.
The question is whether the obligations contained in Article 76 are opposable
to Nicaragua on the part of Colombia, which is not a party to
UNCLOS.
34. It is well established that, pursuant to Article 26 of the Vienna Convention
on the Law of Treaties, “[e]very treaty in force is binding upon the
parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith”. A necessary
corollary to this pronouncement, contained in Article 34 of the Vienna
Convention, is the rule that “[a] treaty does not create either obligations or
rights for a third State without its consent”, or the principle of res inter
alios acta. Even before the adoption of the Vienna Convention, this rule
found expression in the jurisprudence of the Court. The Permanent Court
of International Justice held that “[a] treaty only creates law as between
the States which are parties to it ; in case of doubt, no rights can be deduced
from it in favour of third States” (Certain German Interests in Polish Upper
Silesia, Merits, Judgment No. 7, 1926, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7, p. 29). In
the case concerning the North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of
Germany/Denmark ; Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands), the Court
was faced with the question as to whether Article 6 of the Geneva Convention
on the Continental Shelf — and specifically the rules on delimitation
of the continental shelf between the adjacent States — was opposable to
the Federal Republic of Germany, which was not a party to the Convention.
The Court observed that, because Germany had signed but not ratified
the Geneva Convention, Article 6 “is not, as such, applicable to the
delimitations involved in the present proceedings” and that the Convention
“is not opposable to the Federal Republic [of Germany]” (North Sea
Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark ; Federal Republic
of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 27, para. 34
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 174
78
ou pour toute autre raison (Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua
c. Colombie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 719, par. 251 3)). La Cour
n’a pas rejeté la demande au fond.
II. Question de savoir si la Colombie peut se prévaloir
de la CNUDM à l’égard du Nicaragua
33. Je voudrais par ailleurs revenir sur un point concernant la manière
dont la Cour appréhende le rôle de la Commission des limites du plateau
continental, qui se trouve être particulièrement pertinent aux fins de la
cinquième exception préliminaire de la Colombie. Etant donné que je
souscris au raisonnement développé par la Cour dans l’arrêt, ce propos
pourrait paraître quelque peu oiseux, mais il est important de l’examiner
sur le plan des principes, s’agissant du droit applicable en la présente
espèce. Dans sa cinquième exception préliminaire, la Colombie soutient
que la demande de délimitation que le Nicaragua fonde sur son droit à un
plateau continental étendu est irrecevable parce que le Nicaragua n’a pas
obtenu la recommandation de la Commission des limites du plateau
continental requise par l’article 76 de la CNUDM. La question qui se
pose est celle de savoir si la Colombie, qui n’est pas partie à la CNUDM,
peut se prévaloir de celle‑ci à l’égard du Nicaragua, qui, lui, l’est.
34. Il est constant que, conformément à l’article 26 de la convention de
Vienne sur le droit des traités, « [t]out traité en vigueur lie les parties et
doit être exécuté par elles de bonne foi », règle dont le corollaire obligé,
énoncé à l’article 34 de la même convention, est qu’« [u]n traité ne crée ni
obligations ni droits pour un Etat tiers sans son consentement » — soit le
principe de res inter alios acta. Même avant l’adoption de la convention
de Vienne, cette règle avait été consacrée dans la jurisprudence de la
Cour. La Cour permanente de Justice internationale avait ainsi jugé
qu’« [u]n traité ne fai[sait] droit qu’entre les Etats qui y [étaient] parties ;
dans le doute, des droits n’en découl[aient] pas en faveur d’autres Etats »
(Certains intérêts allemands en Haute‑Silésie polonaise, fond, arrêt no 7,
1926, C.P.I.J. série A no 7, p. 29). Dans l’affaire du Plateau continental de
la mer du Nord (République fédérale d’Allemagne/Danemark ; République
fédérale d’Allemagne/Pays‑Bas), la Cour était appelée à examiner la question
de savoir si l’article 6 de la convention de Genève sur le plateau
continental — et, plus particulièrement, les règles régissant la délimitation
du plateau continental entre Etats limitrophes — était opposable à la
République fédérale d’Allemagne, qui n’était pas partie à la convention.
Elle a relevé que, dès lors que l’Allemagne avait signé mais non ratifié
cette dernière, l’article 6 n’était « pas applicable en tant que tel aux délimitations
visées » dans l’affaire en question, et la convention, « pas opposable
à la République fédérale [d’Allemagne] » (Plateau continental de la
mer du Nord (République fédérale d’Allemagne/Danemark ; République
fédérale d’Allemagne/Pays‑Bas), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 27, par. 34 ;
175 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
79
and p. 46, para. 83). In other words, a convention ratified by one State is
not opposable to a third State.
35. In the present context, the Court is faced with a situation in which
Colombia, a non‑party to the Convention, seeks to invoke the provisions of
Article 76 of UNCLOS on Nicaragua, which is a State party. Colombia
appears to be claiming, without being a party to the Convention, that Nicaragua,
a State party, is under the obligation to carry out the provisions of
UNCLOS without being subject to its many obligations. Although Nicaragua
is not a party to the Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties, and
though this Court has not previously affirmed the status of Article 34 of
the Vienna Convention as reflecting a customary rule of international
law, its previous jurisprudence supports the view that Colombia cannot
invoke Article 76 as an argument opposable to Nicaragua.
36. Of course, there are other means by which a rule codified by an
international agreement can be opposable to a State which has not ratified
that agreement. That is to say that such a rule may be applied to and
bind a third State when the rule at issue is a rule of customary international
law. Thus the important question for the purpose of this case is
whether the provisions of UNCLOS relied on by Colombia in its fifth
preliminary objection, i.e., Article 76 in its entirety, could be opposable to
Nicaragua.
37. Legally, it would be a totally different situation for the Court to
prescribe as it did in its 2012 Judgment that Nicaragua as a party to the
Convention has to carry out its obligation under these provisions of Article
76, in order for Nicaragua to establish that it indeed has an extended
continental shelf which goes beyond 200 miles of its mainland coast and
which may create overlapping entitlements to the continental shelf with
Colombia, and ask Nicaragua to comply with its obligation before the
Court can proceed further. In the 2012 Judgment, the Court identified
this issue and stated that “since Colombia is not a party to UNCLOS,
only customary international law may apply in respect to the maritime
delimitation requested by Nicaragua”, but did not go further than stating
that “the definition of the continental shelf set out in Article 76, paragraph
1, of UNCLOS forms part of customary international law”. It
categorically
stated that “it does not need to decide whether other provisions
of Article 76 of UNCLOS form part of customary international
law” (Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 666, paras. 114, 118).
38. On the basis of this logic, the present Judgment of the Court, which
in my view represents an accurate assessment of the 2012 Judgment, proceeds
to state that the Court in the 2012 Judgment did not reject Nicaragua’s
claim to an extended continental shelf on the merits, but instead
found that it was “not in a position” to definitively decide this claim
because of Nicaragua’s failure to submit adequate information to the
CLCS pursuant to Article 76, paragraph 8, of UNCLOS. In doing so, the
Court in 2012 did not affirm that this provision stood as a customary rule
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 175
79
p. 46, par. 83). En d’autres termes, une convention ratifiée par un Etat
n’est pas opposable à un Etat tiers.
35. Dans le présent contexte, la Cour se trouve dans une situation où
la Colombie, qui n’est pas partie à la convention, tente d’invoquer les
dispositions de son article 76 à l’encontre du Nicaragua, qui, lui, l’est. La
Colombie semble affirmer, sans être partie à la convention, que le Nicaragua,
qui y est partie, est tenu d’en exécuter les dispositions sans qu’il y ait
obligation de sa part à se soumettre à ses nombreuses prescriptions. Bien
que le Nicaragua ne soit pas partie à la convention de Vienne sur le droit
des traités, et que la Cour n’ait jamais affirmé que l’article 34 de cette
convention refléterait une règle coutumière de droit international, sa
jurisprudence permet de soutenir que la Colombie ne saurait se prévaloir
de l’article 76 à l’égard du Nicaragua.
36. Bien sûr, une règle codifiée par un accord international peut lier un
Etat qui n’a pas ratifié celui‑ci à d’autres titres. Une telle règle peut ainsi
être appliquée et opposable à un Etat tiers, lorsqu’il s’agit d’une règle de
droit international coutumier. Aux fins de la présente espèce, la question
clef est donc celle de savoir si les dispositions de la CNUDM sur lesquelles
fait fond la Colombie dans sa cinquième exception préliminaire
— à savoir l’article 76 dans sa totalité — pourraient être opposables au
Nicaragua.
37. La situation serait, d’un point de vue juridique, très différente si la
Cour devait affirmer, comme elle l’a fait dans son arrêt de 2012, que le
Nicaragua, en tant que partie à la convention, et pour établir qu’il possède
en effet un plateau continental s’étendant au‑delà de 200 milles
marins de sa côte continentale et susceptible de générer des droits entrant
en concurrence avec ceux de la Colombie, est tenu d’exécuter l’obligation
lui incombant en vertu des dispositions de l’article 76, et le prier de ce
faire en préalable à l’accomplissement de sa propre tâche. Dans son arrêt
de 2012, la Cour a mis en lumière cette question, indiquant que, « la
Colombie n’étant pas partie à la CNUDM, seul le droit international
coutumier p[ouvait] s’appliquer à l’égard de la délimitation maritime sollicitée
par le Nicaragua », mais sans aller au‑delà de ce constat : « [L]a
définition du plateau continental énoncée au paragraphe 1 de l’article 76
de la CNUDM fait partie du droit international coutumier. » Selon elle, il
était clair que « point n’[était] besoin pour elle de déterminer si d’autres
dispositions de l’article 76 de la CNUDM f[aisaient] partie du droit international
coutumier » (Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua
c. Colombie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 666, par. 114, 118).
38. Selon cette logique, la Cour, dans le présent arrêt, qui, selon moi,
procède d’une juste interprétation de l’arrêt de 2012, affirme qu’elle n’a
pas alors rejeté au fond la demande relative au plateau continental étendu,
mais simplement indiqué qu’elle n’était « pas en mesure » de se prononcer
définitivement sur cette demande, le Nicaragua n’ayant pas soumis à la
Commission des limites du plateau continental les informations requises
en vertu du paragraphe 8 de l’article 76 de la CNUDM. Pour parvenir à
ce constat, la Cour, dans son arrêt de 2012, n’a pas dit que cette disposi‑
176 delimitation of the continental shelf (sep. op. owada)
80
of international law, even though it had decided earlier in the 2012 Judgment
that the applicable law was customary international law. While the
Court referred to its dictum in the case concerning the Territorial and
Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Honduras), it involved a dispute between two States parties
to UNCLOS and thus entailed the application of the treaty law. It is a
different proposition for the Court to state that Nicaragua is bound by
Article 76 of UNCLOS, as a party to the Convention, irrespective of
whether Colombia is also a party. The Court, emphasizing that the Convention
“is intended to establish ‘a legal order for the seas and oceans’”,
did this and concluded that “[g]iven the object and purpose of UNCLOS,
as stipulated in its Preamble, the fact that Colombia is not a party thereto
does not relieve Nicaragua of its obligations under Article 76 of that Convention”
(I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 669, para. 126).
39. This can be accepted a correct statement of the law, as far as Nicaragua
is concerned in its relationship with the Court. But when it comes
to the question as to whether Colombia, as a State not a party to the
Convention, can oppose Nicaragua in terms of the latter’s non-compliance
with the provisions of Article 76, this becomes an entirely different issue
of applicable law. In any event, the important point is that, at the present
stage of the proceedings, the Court is answering this question neither in
an affirmative way nor in a negative way. While I concur with the reasoning
of the Court in rejecting the fifth preliminary objection of Colombia,
it appears to me there is yet another reason to reject this objection : the
relevant provisions of Article 76 of UNCLOS are not opposable by
Colombia to Nicaragua, unless Colombia can establish that the rules contained
in Article 76 are rules of customary international law.
(Signed) Hisashi Owada.
délimitation du plateau continental (op. ind. owada) 176
80
tion avait valeur de règle coutumière de droit international, bien qu’elle
eût indiqué plus en amont que le droit applicable était le droit international
coutumier. Elle a certes renvoyé au dictum qu’elle avait formulé dans
l’affaire du Différend territorial et maritime entre le Nicaragua et le Honduras
dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Honduras), mais celui‑ci
impliquait un différend entre deux Etats parties à la CNUDM et, partant,
l’application du droit conventionnel. C’est autre chose pour la Cour que
d’affirmer que le Nicaragua, en tant que partie à la CNUDM, est lié par
l’article 76 de celle-
ci indépendamment de la question de savoir si la
Colombie y est également partie. Or, la Cour, soulignant que la convention
avait « pour objet d’établir « un ordre juridique pour les mers et les
océans » », a fait précisément cela, concluant que, « [e]u égard à l’objet et
au but de la CNUDM, tels qu’exposés dans son préambule, le fait que la
Colombie n’y soit pas partie n’exon[érait] pas le Nicaragua des obligations
qu’il tient de l’article 76 de cet instrument » (C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II),
p. 669, par. 126).
39. Ce prononcé peut être admis comme fondé en droit, pour ce qui est
de la relation entre le Nicaragua et la Cour. Mais la question devient tout
autre en termes de droit applicable dès lors qu’il s’agit de savoir si la
Colombie, en tant qu’Etat non partie à la convention, peut faire grief au
Nicaragua de ne s’être pas conformé aux dispositions de l’article 76.
En tout état de cause, l’important est que, au présent stade de la procédure,
la Cour n’y répond ni par l’affirmative ni par la négative. Si je souscris
au raisonnement qui la conduit à rejeter la cinquième exception
préliminaire de la Colombie, j’estime qu’il existe une raison supplémentaire
de ce faire : les dispositions pertinentes de l’article 76 de la CNUDM
ne peuvent être invoquées à l’égard du Nicaragua par la Colombie, à
moins que celle‑ci ne puisse établir qu’il s’agit de règles de droit international
coutumier.
(Signé) Hisashi Owada.

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Separate opinion of Judge Owada

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