Dissenting Opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen

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095-19960708-ADV-01-11-EN
Parent Document Number
095-19960708-ADV-01-00-EN
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DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SHAHABUDDEEN

The Charter was signed on 26June 1945.A less troubled world was its
promise. But the clash of arms could still be heard. A new weapon was
yet to come. It must first be tested. The date was 12July 1945; the place

Alamogordo. The countdown began. The moment came: "The radiance
of a thousand suns. " That was the line which came to the mind of the
leader of the scientificteam. He remembered also the end of the ancient
verse: "1am become death, The Shatterer of Worlds" l.

By'later standards, it was a small explosion. Bigger bombs have since
been made. Five declared nuclear-weapon States possess them. The pros-
pect of mankind being destroyed through a nuclear war exists. The books
of some early peoples taught that the use of a super weapon which might
lead to excessively destructive results was not allowed. What does con-
temporary international law have to say on the point?

That, in substance, is the General Assembly's question. The question
raises the difficult issue as to whether, in the special circumstances of the
use of nuclear weapons, it is possible to reconcile the imperative need of
a State to defend itself with the no less imperative need to ensure that, in
doing so, it does not imperil the survival of the human species. If a
reconciliation is not possible, which side should give way? 1s the prob-
lem thus posed one of law? If so, what lines of legal enquiry suggest
themselves?

Overruling preliminary arguments, the Court, with near unanimity,
decided to comply with the General Assembly's request for an advisory
opinion on the question whether "the threat or use of nuclear weapons
[is] in any circumstance permitted under international law". By a bare
majority, it then proceeded to reply to the General Assembly's question
by taking the position, on its own showing, that it cannot answer the sub-
stance of the question. 1fear that the contradiction between promise and
performance cannot, really, be concealed. With respect, 1am of the view

'Peter Michelmore, Tlze Swift Years, Tlze Robert OppenheimerStory, 1969, p. 110.
Oppenheimer could read the verse in the original Sanskrit of the-Gita.

153that the Court should and could have answered the General Assembly's
question - one way or another.

From the point of view of the basic legal principles involved, the reply
of the Court, such as it is, is set out in the first part of subparagraph E of
paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph of its Advisory Opinion. Subject
to a reservation about the use of the word "generally", 1 agree with the
Court

"that the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be con-
trary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict,
and in particular the principles and rules of humanitarian law".

My difficulty is with the second part of subparagraph E of paragraph 2
of the operative paragraph of the Court's Advisory Opinion. If the use of
nuclear weapons is lawful, the nature of the weapon, combined with
the requirements of necessity and proportionality which condition the
exercise of the inherent right of self-defence, would suggest that such
weapons could only be lawfully used "in an extreme circumstance of
self-defence, in which the very survival of a State would be at stake";
and this, 1 think, notwithstanding variations in formulation and flexible
references to "vital security interests", is the generaleme underlying the

position taken by the nuclear-weapon States. That in turn must be the
main issue presented for consideration by the Court. But this is exactly
the issue that the Court says it cannot decide, with the result that the
General Assembly has not received an answer to the substance of its
question.
1 have the misfortune to be unable to subscribe to the conclusion so
reached by the Court, and the inore so for the reason that, when that
conclusion is assessed by reference to the received view of the "Lotus"
case, the inference could be that the Court is saying that there is a pos-
sibility that the use of nuclear weapons could be lawful in certain circum-
stances and that it is up to States to decide whether that possibility exists
in particular circumstances, a result which would give me difficulty. In
my respectful view, "the current state of international law, and . . .the

elements of fact at its disposal" permitted the Court to answer one way
or another.
As the two parts of subparagraph E cannot be separated for the pur-
pose of voting, 1 have been regretfully constrained to withhold support
from this subparagraph.Further, as the point of disagreement goes to the
heart of the case, 1 have elected to use the style "dissenting opinion",
even though voting for most of the remaining items of the operative para-
graph. A second holding which 1am unable to support is subparagraph B of

paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph. The specificity conveyedby the
words "as such" enables me to recognize that "[tlhere is in neither cus-
tomary nor conventional international law any comprehensive and uni-
versa1prohibition of the threat or use of nuclear weapons as such". But
the words "as such" do not outweigh a general suggestion that there is no
prohibition at al1of the use of nuclear weapons. The circumstance that
there is no "comprehensive and universal prohibition of the threat or use
of nuclear weapons as such" in customary or conventional international
law does not conclude the question whether the threat or use of such
weapons is lawful;more general principles have to be consulted. Further,
for reasons to be given later, the test of prohibition does not suffice to
determine whether there is a right to do an act with the magnitude of
global implications which would be involved in such use. Finally, the
holding in this subparagraph is a step in the reasoning; itdoes not prop-
erly form part of the Court's reply to the General Assembly's question.

As remarked above, 1have voted for the remaining items of the opera-
tive paragraph of the Court's Advisory Opinion. However, a word of
explanation is appropriate. The Court's voting practice does not always
allow for a precise statement of a judge's position on the elements of a
dispositif to be indicated through his vote; how he votes would depend
on his perception of the general direction taken by such an element and
of any risk of his basic position being misunderstood. A declaration,
separate opinion or dissenting opinion provides needed opportunity for
explanation of subsidiary difficulties.This1now give below in respect of
those parts of the operative paragraph for which 1have voted.
As to subparagraph A of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph,
1take the view, to some extent implicit inthis subparagraph,that, at any
rate in a case of this kind, the action of a Stateis unlawful unless it is
authorized under international law; the mere absence of prohibition is
not enough. In the case of nuclear weapons, there is no authorization,
whether specificor otherwise. However, subparagraph A is also a step in

the reasoning; it is not properly part of the Court's reply to the General
Assembly'squestion.

As to subparagraph C of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph,
there is an implication here that a "threat or use of force by means of
nuclear weapons that is contrary to Article 2, paragraph 4, of the United
Nations Charter" may nevertheless be capable of complying with some
or al1of the requirements of Article 51and would in that event be lawful.
1 should have thought that something which was "contrary" to the
former was ipsofacto illegaland not capable of being redeemed bymeet-ing any of the requirements of the latter. Thus, an act of aggressioil,

being contrary to Article 2, paragraph 4, is wholly outside of the frame-
work of Article 51: even if carried out with antiquated rifles and in strict
conformity with humanitarian law. Further, it is difficult to see how the
Court can allow itself to be suggesting here that there are circumstances
in which the threat or use of nuclear weapons is lawful in view of the fact
that in subparagraph E of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph it has
not been able to come to a definitive conclusion on the main issue as to
whether the threat or use of such weapons is lawful or unlawf~~lin the
circumstances stated there.
As to subparagraph D of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph, the
statement that a "threat or use of nuclear weapons should also be com-
patible witli the requirements of the international law applicable in
armed conflict . . .suggests the possibility of cases of compatibility and
consequently of legality. As mentioned above, it is difficult to seehow the
Court can take this position in view of its inability to decide the real issue
of legality. The word "should" is also out of place in a finding as to what
is the true position in law.

As to subparagraph F of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph,
1have voted for this as a general propositioii having regard to the char-
acter of nuclear weapons. The particular question as to the legal impli-
cations of Article VI of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons ("NPT") is not before the Court; it does not form part of the
General Assembly's question. It could well be the subject of a separate
question as to the effect of that Article of the NPT, were the General
Assembly minded to present one.
Going beyond the operative paragraph, 1 have hesitations on certain
aspects of the cor?sideralzckbrut do not regard it as convenient to list thein
all. 1 should however mention paragraph 104 of the Advisory Opinion.
To the extent that this reproduces the standing jurisprudence of the
Court, 1do not seethe point of the paragraph. If it ventures beyond, 1do
not agree. The operative paragraph of the Court's Advisory Opinion has
to be left to be interpreted in accordance with the settled jurisprudence
on the point.

Returning to subparagraph E of paragraph 2 of the operative para-
graph of the Court's Advisory Opinion, 1 propose to set out below my
reasons for agreeing with this holding in so far as 1agree with it and for
disagreeing with it in so far as 1disagree. The limited objective will be to
show that, contrary to the Court's major conclusion, "the current state of
international law, and . ..the elements of fact at its disposal" were suf-
ficient to enable it to "conclude definitively whether the threat or use of
nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in an extrenle circumstance
of self-defence, in which the very survival of a State would be at stake".With this end in view, 1 propose, after noticing some introductory and
miscellaneous matters in Part 1, to deal, in Part II, with the question
whether States have a right to use nuclear weapons having regard to the
general principles which determine when States are to be considered as
having a power, and, in Part III, with the position under international
humanitarian law. In Part IV, 1consider whether a prohibitory rule, if it
existed at the commencement of the nuclear age, was modified or
rescinded by the emergence of a subsequent rule of customary interna-
tional law. 1pass on in Part V to consider denuclearization treaties and
the NPT. The conclusion is reached in Part VI.

1. The Main Issue

The commencement of the nuclear age represents a legal benchmark for
the case in hand. One argument was that, at that point of time, the use of
nuclear weapons was not prohibited under international law, but that a
prohibitory rule later emerged, the necessary opiniojuris developing under
the twin influences ofthe general prohibition of the use of force laid down
in Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter and of growing appreciation of
and sensitivity to the power of nuclear weapons. In view of the position
taken by the proponents of the legality of the use of nuclear weapons
("proponents of legality") over the past five decades, it will bedifficult to
establish that the necessary opiniojuvis later crystallized, if none existed
earlier. That argument was not followed by most of the proponents of the
illegality of the use of nuclear weapons ("proponents of illegality").

The position generally taken by the proponents of illegality was that a
prohibitory rule existed at the commencement of the nuclear age, and
that subsequent developments merely evidenced the continuing existence
of that rule. For their part, the proponents of legality took the position
that such a prohibitory rule never existed, and that what subsequent
developments did was to evidence the continuing non-existence of any
such rule and a corresponding right to use nuclear weapons. There was
no issue as to whether, supposing that a prohibitory rule existed at the
commencement of the nuclear age, it might have been reversed or modi-
fied by the development of a later rule in the opposite direction2; sup-
posing that that had been argued, the position taken by the proponents

For the possibility of a rule of customary international law being modified by later
inconsistent State practice, see Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nica-
ragua, Merits, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 109,para. 207.of illegality would bar the development of the opirzioj~11.in~ecessary for

the subsequent emergence of any such permissive rule, and more particu-
larly so if the earlier prohibitory rule had the quality ofj~rscogerzs.This
would have been the case if any humanitarian principles on which the
earlier prohibitory rule was based themselves had the quality of jus
cogens, a possibility left open by paragraph 83 of the Court's Advisory
Opinion.
State practice is important. But it has to be considered within the
framework of the issues raised. Within the framework of the issues raised
in this case, State practice subsequent to the cominencemeilt of the
nuclear age does not have the decisiveimportance suggested by the focus
directed to it during the proceedings: it is not necessary to consider it in
any detail beyond and above what is reasonably clear, namely, that the
opposition shown by the proponents of legality would have prevented the
development of a prohibitory rule if none previously existed, andthat the
opposition shown by the proponents of illegality would have prevented
the development of a rescinding rule if a prohibitory rule previously
existed. In either case, the legal situation as it existed at the commence-
ment of the nuclear age would continue in force. The question is, what

was that legal situation?
The real issue, then, is whether at the commencement of the nuclear
age there was in existence a rule of international law which prohibited a
State from creating effects of the kind which could later be pi-oduced by
the use of nuclear weapons. If no such rule then existed: none has since
come into being, and the case of the proponents of legality succeeds; if
such a rule then existed, it has not since been rescinded. and the case of
the proponents of illegality succeeds.

2. The Clzaiter Assu~~zes Tl~atMclnkir~dand Its Civilizatior?
Will Corztirz~ie

International law iilcludes the principles of the law of armed conflict.
These principles, with roots reaching into the past of different civiliza-
tions, were constructed on the unspoken premise that weapons, however
destructive, would be limited in impact, both in space and in time. That
assumption held good throughout the ages. New and deadlier weapons
continued to appear, but none had the power to wage war on future gen-

erations or to threaten the survival of the human species. Until now.

1s a legal problem presented? 1think there is; and this for the reasoil
that, whatever may be the legal position of the individual in international
law, if mankind in the broad is annihilated, States disappear and, with
them, the basis on which rights aiid obligations exist within the interna-
tional cominunity. How might the problein be approached?

Courts, whetlier international or national, have not had to deal with
the legal implications of actions which could annihilate mankind. Yet inneither system should there be difficulty in finding an answer; both sys-
tems must look to the juridical foundations on which they rest. What do
these suggest?
In his critical study of history, Ibn Khaldûn referred to "the explana-
tion that laws have their reason in the purposes they are to serve". Con-

tinuing, he noted that "the jurists mention that . . .injustice invites the
destruction of civilization with the necessary consequence that the species
will be destroyed", and that the laws "are based upon the effort to pre-
serve civilization" 3.Thus, the preservation of the human species and of
civilization constitutes the ultimate purpose of a legal system. In my
opinion, that purpose also belongs to international law, as this is under-
stood today.
This conclusion is not at variance with the Charter of the United
Nations and the Statute of the Court, by which the Court is bound. The
first preambular paragraph of the Charter recorded that "the Peoples of
the United Nations" were "[dletermined to Save succeeding generations
from the scourge of war, which twice in Ourlifetime has brought untold

sorrow to mankind . . .". A world free of conflict was not guaranteed;
but, read in the light of that and other statements in the Charter,
Article 9 of the Statute shows that the Court was intended to serve a
civilized society. A civilized society is not one that knowingly destroys
itself, or knowingly allows itself to be destroyed. A world without people
is a world without States. The Charter did not sti~ulate that mankind
would continue, but it at least assumed that it wouldi and the assumption
was not the less fundamental for being implicit.

3. The Use of Nuclear Weapons Is Unacceptable
to the International Community

It is necessary to consider the character of nuclear weapons. It was said
on the part of the proponents of legality that there are "tactical", "battle-
field", "theatre" or "clean" nuclear weapons which are no more destruc-
tive than certain conventional weapons. Supposing that this is so, then ex
hvuothesi the use of nuclear weaDons of this kind would be as lawful as
2L
the use of conventional weapons. It was in issue, however, whether the
material before the Court justified that hypothesis, the argument of the
proponents of illegality being that the use of any nuclear weapon, even if
directed against a lone nuclear submarine at sea or against an isolated
military target in the desert, results in the emission of radiation and
nuclear fall-out and carries the risk of triggering a chain of events which
could lead to the annihilation of the human species. The eleventh pre-
ambular paragraph of the 1968NPT, which was extended "indefinitely" in
1995,records that the States parties desired "the liquidation of al1their

Ibn Khaldûn, The Muqaddimah, An Introduction to History, trans. Franz Rosenthal,
edited and abridged by. J. Dawood, 1981,p. 40.existing stockpiles, and the elimination from national arsenals of iiuclear
weapons . . .".Presumably tlie elimination so foreshadowed compre-
hended al1 "nuclear weapons" and. therefore, "tactical", "battlefield",
"theatre" or "clean" nuclear weapons also. Tlie parties to the NPT drew
no distinction. On the material before it, the Court could feel lessthan

satisfied that the suggested exceptions exist.

The basic facts underlyiiig the resolutions of the General Assenibly as
to the nature of a iiuclear war, at least a full-scale one, are difficult to
controvert. Since 1983 the technology has advanced, but tlie position
even at that stage was put thus by the Secretary-General of the United
Nations. Mr. Javier Pérezde Cuéllar:

"The world's stockpile of nuclear weapons today is equivalent to

16billion tons of TNT. As against this, the entire devastation of the
Second World War was caused by the expenditure of no more than
3 inillion tons of munitions. IIIotlier words, we possess a destructive
capacity of niore than 5,000 times what caused 40 to 50 millio~~
deaths not too long ago. It should suffice to kill every nian. woman
and child 10 tiines ove^."^

Thus. nuclear weapons are not just anotlier type of explosiveweapons,
only occupying a liigher position on the sanie scale: tlieir destructive
power is exponentially greater. Apart from blast and heat, the radiation
effects over time are devastating. To classify these effects as being nierely

a by-product is not to the point: they can be just as extensive as, if not
niore so than, those inimediately produced by blast and heat. They cause
unspeakable sickness followed by painful death. affect the genetic code,
damage the unborn, and can rendes the eartli uninhabitable. These
extended effects inay not have military value for the user, but this does
not lessen their gravity or the fact that they result from the use of nuclear
weapons. This beiiig tlie case, it is not relevant for present purposes to
consider whetlier the injury produced is a by-product or secondary effect
of such use.

Nor is it always a case of the effects being inimediately iiiflicted but
nianifesting their consequeilces in later ailnients; nuclear fallout may
exert an impact on people long after the explosion, causing fresli injury to
them in the course of tin~e,including injury to future generations. Tlie

Javier Pérezde Cuéllar.Staterilent at the Uriiversityof Penrisylvania.74 March 1953.
inDis(ri.r71triVz.l. VI. No1, p.91.weapon continues to strike for years after the initial blow, thus presenting
the disturbing and unique portrait of war being waged by a present gen-
eration on future ones - on future ones with which its successors could
well be at peace.

The first and only military use of nuclear weapons which has so far
been made took place at Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 and at Nagasaki
on 9 August 1945. A month later, the International Committee of the
Red Cross ("ICRC") considered the implications of the use of newly
developed weapons. In a circular letter to national Red Cross commit-
tees, dated 5 September 1945 and signed by Mr. Max Huber as acting
President, the ICRC wrote this:

"Totalitarian war has brought new technics into being. Does this
mean that we must accept that the individual will no longer be pro-
tected by the law and willhenceforth only be seenas a mere element of
collectivities involved in a conflict? This would imply the collapse of
the principles underlying international law, which aims to promote
the physical and spiritual protection of the individual. Even in time
of war, a law of a strictly egotistical and utilitarian nature, only
inspired by fortuitous interests, couldnever offer lasting security. If
warfare fails to accept the value and dignity of the human being, it
will proceed irresistibly to destructions without limit, as the spirit of
mankind, which is taking possession of the forces of the universe,
seems by its creations to be accelerating that devastating impetus."
[Translation by the Registry.]

Do the rules stand set aside? Or do they still apply to protect the indi-
vidual? If they do not, the seizure by man of the forces of the universe
propels war irresistibly and progressively in the direction of destruction
without limit, including the extinction of the human species. In time, the
nuclear-weapon States ("NWS") and most of the non-nuclear-weapon
States ("NNWS") would subscribe to statements acknowledging the sub-
stance of this result.
The concerns raised by the ICRC did not go unechoed. As was pointed

out by several States, four months later the General Assembly unani-
mously adopted a resolution by which it established a commission charged
with the responsibility ofmaking "specificproposals ... (c) for the elimi-
nation from national armaments of atomic weapons and of al1other major
weapons adaptable to mass destruction" (General Assemblyresolution 1(1),
para. 5, of 24 January 1946). It is too limited a view to restrict the sig-
nificance of the resolution to the mere establishment of the commission;
the bases on which the commission was established are also important.
In line with this, on 20 September 1961an agreement, known as "The
McCloy-Zorin Accords", was signed by representatives of the United
States of America and the Soviet Union, the two leading NWS. The
Accords recommended eight principles as guidance for disarmament
negotiations. The fifth principle read: "Elimination of al1 stockpiles ofnuclear, chemical, bacteriological, and other weapons of mass destruc-
tion, and cessation of the production of such weapons." On 20 Decem-
ber 1961 that agreement was unanimously welcomed by the General
Assembly on the joint proposition of those two States(General Assembly
resolution 1722 (XVI) of 20 Deceinber 1961).

The first preamble to the 1968 NPT refers to "the devastation that
would be visited upon al1mankind by a nuclear war . . ."The preamble
to the NPT (inclusive of that statement) was reaffirmed in the first para-
graph of the preamble to Decision No. 2 adopted by the 1995 Review
and Extension Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Pro-
liferation of Nuclear Weapons. The overwhelming majority of States are
parties to these instruments.
The Final Document adopted by consensus in 1978by the Tenth Spe-
cial Session of the General Assembly (on the subject of disarinament)
opened with these words: "Alarmed by the threat to the very survival of
mankind posed by the existence of nuclear weapons and the continuing

arins race .. .".Paragraph 11 stated:
"Mankind today is confronted with an unprecedented threat of
self-extinction arising from the massive and competitive accumula-
tion of the most destructive weapons ever produced. Existing
arsenals of nuclear weapons alone are more than sufficientto destroy

al1life on earth . . ."
Paragraph 47 of the Final Document noted that "[n]uclear weapons pose
the greatest danger to mankind and to the survival of civilization".All of
these words, having been adopted by consensus, may be regarded as
having been uttered with the united voice of the international commu-

nity.
Important regional agreements also testify to the character of nuclear
weapons. See the Agreement of Paris of 23 October 1954on the entry of
the Federal Republic of Germanyinto the North Atlantic Treaty Organi-
zation, Article 1 (a) of Annex II to Protocol No. III on the Control of
Armaments, indicating that nuclear weapons are weapons of mass
destruction. The preamble to the 1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco, Additional
Protocol II of which was signed and ratified by the five NWS, declared
that the Parties were convinced

"That the incalculable destructive power of nuclear weapons has
made it imperative that the legal prohibition of war should be
strictly observed in practice if the survival of civilization and of
kind itself is to be assured.
That nuclear weapons, whose terrible effects are suffered, indis-
criminately and inexorably, by military forces and civilian popula-
tion alike, constitute, through the persistence of the radioactivity
they release, an attack on the integrity of theman speciesand ulti-
mately may even rendes the whole earth uninhabitable." The first two preambular paragraphs of the 1985South PacificNuclear
Free Zone Treaty (the Treaty of Rarotonga), Protocol 2 of which has
been signed and ratified by two of the five NWS and signed by the
remaining three, likewiserecorded that the parties were
"Gravely concerned that the continuing nuclear arms race presents
the risk of nuclear war which would have devastating consequences
for al1people;

Convinced that al1 countries have an obligation to make every
effort to achieve the goal of eliminating nuclear weapons, the terror
which they hold for humankind and the threat which they pose to
life on earth."
The Court has also referred to the more recently signed treaties on
nuclear-free zones relating to South-East Asia and Africa.

A position similar in principle tothose mentioned above was taken in
agreements between two of the NWS. In the preamble to a 1971Agree-
ment on Measures to Reduce the Risk of Outbreak of Nuclear War, the
United States of America and the Soviet Union stated that they were
"[tlaking into account the devastating consequences that nuclear war
would have for al1 mankind". The substance of that statement was
repeated in later agreements between those States, namely, in the 1972
Anti-Ballistic MissileTreaty, in a 1973Agreement on the Prevention of
Nuclear War, in a 1979Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive
Arms, and in the 1987 Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles
Treaty.

It was argued by some States that the purpose of possessing nuclear
weapons is, paradoxically, to ensure that they are never used, and that
this is shown by the circumstance that it has been possible to keep the

peace, as among the NWS, during the last 50 years through policies of
nuclear deterrence. Other States doubted the existence of the su""ested
link of causation, attributing that result to luck or chance, pointing to
occasions when such weapons were nearly used, and adverting to a
number of wars and other situations of armed conflict which have infact
occurred outside of the territories of the NWS. Assuming, however, that
such a link of causation can be shown. a auestion which remains is whv
should policies of nuclear deterrence havekept the peace as among th;:
NWS. A reasonable answer is that each NWS itself recognized that it
faced the risk of national destruction. The record before the Court indi-
cates that that destruction willnot stop at the frontiers of warring States,
but can extend to encompass the obliteration of the human species. Other weapons are also members of the category of weapons of mass
destruction to which nuclear weapons belong. However, nuclear weapons
are distinguishable in important ways from al1other weapons, including
other members of that category. In the words of the Court:

"[Nluclear weapons are explosive devices whose energy results
from the fusion or fission of the atom. By its very nature, that pro-
cess, innuclear weapons as they existtoday, releasesnot only immense
quantities of heat and energy, but also powerful and prolonged
radiation. According to the material before the Court, the first two
causes of damage are vastly more powerful than the damage caused
by other weapons, while the phenomenon of radiation is said to be
peculiar to nuclear weapons. These characteristics render the nuclear
weapon potentially catastrophic. The destructive power of nuclear
weapons cannot be contained in either space or time. They have the
potential to destroy al1civilization and the entire ecosystem of the
planet." (Advisory Opinion, para. 35.)

And a little later:
"[Ilt is imperative for the Court to take account of the unique

characteristics of nuclear weapons, and in particular their destruc-
tive capacity, their capacity to cause untold human suffering, and
their ability to cause damage to generations to come." (Ibid.,
para. 36.)
Even if it is possible that, scientifically considered, other weapons of
mass destruction, such as biological and chemical weapons, can also
annihilatemankind, the question is not merely whether a weapon can do
so, but whether the evidence shows that the international community
considers that it can. The evidence was not specifically directed to this

purpose in the case of other weapons; in the case nuclear weapons, it
was, however, directed to that purpose and, the Court could find, suc-
cessfully so directed. Similar remarks would apply to other weapons,
such as flame-throwers and napalm, which, though not capable of anni-
hilating mankind, can undoubtedly cause shocking harm. Unlike the case
of nuclear weapons, there was no material before the Court to suggest
that, however appalling may be the effects produced by the use of such
other weapons, the international community was on record as consider-
ing their use to be repugnant to its conscience.

It may be added that, once it is shown that the use of a weapon could
annihilatemankind, its repugnance to the conscience of the international
community is not materially diminished by showing that it need not have
that result in every case; it is not reasonable to expect that the conscience
of the international community will, both strangely and impossibly,waiton the event to see if the result of any particular use is the destruction of
the human species. The operative consideration is the risk of annihila-
tion. That result may not ensue in al1cases,but the risk that it can inheres
in every case. The risk may be greater in some cases, less in others; but
it is always present in sufficient measure to render the use of nuclear
weapons unacceptable to the international community in al1cases. In my
view, the answer to the question of repugnance to the conscience of the
international community governs throughout.

In sum, the Court could conclude, in accordance with its findings in
paragraph 35 of its Advisory Opinion, that the international community
as a whole considers that nuclear weapons are not merely weapons of
mass destruction, but that there is a clear and palpable risk that their use
could accomplish the destruction of mankind, with the result that any
such use would be repugnant to the conscience of the community. What
legal consequences followwill be examined later.

4. Neutvality

A question was raised as to whether damage resulting to a neutral
State from use of nuclear weapons in the territory of a belligerent State
is a violation of the former's neutrality. 1 accept the affirmative answer
suggested in Nauru's statement in the parallel case brought by the
World Health Organization, as set out in paragraph 88 of the Court's
Advisory Opinion. A number of incidents collected in the books does not
persuade me to take a different view5.

The principle, as stated in Article 1 of Hague Convention No. 5 of
1907 Respecting the Rights and Duties of Neutra1 Powers and Persons
in Case of War on Land, is that "[tlhe territory of neutral powers is
inviolable". The principle has not been understood to guarantee neutral
States absolute immunity from the effects of armed conflict; the original
purpose, it is said, was to preclude military invasion or bombardment
of neutral territory, and otherwise to define complementary rights and
obligations of neutrals and belligerents.

It is difficult, however, to appreciate how these considerations can
operate to justify the use of nuclear weapons where the radiation effects
which they emit extend to the inhabitants of neutral States and cause

damage to them, their offspring, their natural resources, and possibly put
them under the necessity to leave their traditional homelands. The state-

See, for example, Roberto Ago, Addendum to the Eighth Report on State Responsi-
bility, Yearbook of the International LawCommission, 1980,Vol. II, Part 1,pp. 35-36,
para. 50.ment of an inhabitant of the Marshall Islands left little to be imagined.
Considered in relation to the more dramatic catastrophe immediately
produced and the military value to the user State, these effects may be
spoken of as by-products of the main event; but, as argued above, that
classification is without legal pertinence. The "by-products" are not
remote economic or social consequences. Whether direct or indirect
effects, they result from the use of nuclear weapons, for itis a property of

such weapons that they emit radiation; their destructive effect on the
enemy is largely due to their radiation effects. Such radiation has a high
probability of transboundary penetration.

To say that these and other transboundary effects of the use of nuclear
weavons do not violate the neutralitv of third States in the absence of
bell;gerent incursion or transboundar; bombardment is to cast too heavy
a burden on the proposition that neutrality is not an absolute guarantee
of immunity to third States against al1possible effects of the conduct of
hostilities. The Fifth Hague Convention of 1907 does not define inviol-
ability; nor does it say that the territory of a neutral State is violated only
by belligerent incursion or bombardment. Accepting nevertheless that the
object of the architects of the provision was to preclude military incur-
sion or bombardment of neutral territory, it seems to me that that pur-

Dose.2hich was related to the then state of warfare. does not conclude
the question whether, in terms of the principle, "the territory of neutral
powers" is violated where that territory and its inhabitants are physically
harmed by the effects of the use elsewhereof nuclear weapons in the ways
in which it is possible for such harm to occur. The causes of the conse-
quential suffering and the suffering itself are the same as those occurring
in the zone of battle.

It wassaid, no doubt correctly, that no case was known in which a bel-
ligerent State had been held responsible for collateral damage in neutral
territory for lawful acts of war committed outside of that territory. It
may be recalled, however, that the possibilities ofdamage by nuclear fall-
out did not previously exist; because of technological limitations, damage

on neutral territory, as a practical matter, could only be committed by
incursion or bombardment, in which cases there would be acts of war
committed on the neutral territory itself. To the extent that the Trail
Smelter type of situation was likely to be a significant consequence of
acts of war, the occurrence of concrete situations in the pre-nuclear
period has not been shown to the Court. Thus, while no case may have
occurred in which a belligerent State has been held responsible for col-
lateral damage in neutral territory for lawful acts of war committed out-
side of that territory, that is decisive of the present case only if it can be
shown that there is no responsibility even where substantial physical
effects of acts of war carried out elsewhere demonstrably extend to
neutral territory. That cannot be persuasively shown; principle is againstit. The causative act of war would have had the consequence of physically
violating the territory of the neutral State. The 1907Hague principle that
the territory of a neutral State is inviolable would lose much of its mean-
ing if in such a case it was not considered to be breached.

5. Belligerent Reprisal

The question was argued whether, assuming that the use of nuclear
weapons was otherwise unlawful, such use might nevertheless be lawful
for the exceptional purposes of belligerent reprisa1(i.e., as distinguished
from reprisals in situations other than those of armed conflict). It seems
to me, however, that there is not any necessity to examine this aspect in
an opinion devoted to showing that "the current state of international

law, and .. . the elements of fact at its disposal" did not prevent the
Court from concluding
"definitively whether the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be
lawful or unlawful in an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in
which the very survival of a State would be at stake" (Advisory
Opinion, para. 105 (2) E).

The use of nuclear weapons in belligerent reprisal, if lawful, would be
equally open to an aggressor State and to a State acting in self-defence.
This being so, an enquiry into the lawfulness of the use of such weapons
in belligerentreprisa1would not materially promote analysis of the ques-
tion whether they may be lawfully used in self-defence, this being the
question presented by the Court's holding.

6. There Is No Non Liquet

The commentators suggest that some decisions of the Court could be
understood as implying a non liquet. It is possible that the second part of
subparagraph E of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph of the Court's
Advisory Opinion will be similarly interpreted. If that is the correct inter-
pretation, 1respectfully differ from the position taken by the Court.

To attract the idea of a non liquet in this case, it would have to be
shown that there is a gap in the applicability of whatever may be the cor-
rect principles regulating the question as to the circumstances in which a
State may be considered as having or as not having a right to act.
If, as it isaid, international law has nothing to Sayon the subject of
the legality of the use of nuclear weapons, this necessarily means thatinternational law does not include a rule prohibiting such use. On the
received view of the "Lotus" decision, absent such a prohibitory rule,
States have a right to use nuclear weapons.

On the other hand, if that viewof "Lotus" is incorrect or inadequate in
the light of subsequent changes in the international legal structure, then
the position is that Stateshave no right to use such weapons unless inter-
national law authorizes such use. If international law has nothing to say
on the subject of the use of nuclear weapons, this necessarily means that
international law does not include a rule authorizing such use. Absent
such authorization, States do not have a right to use nuclear weapons.

It follows that, sofar as this case at any rate is concerned, the principle
on which the Court acts, be it one of prohibition or one of authorization,

leaves no room unoccupied by law and consequently no space available
to be filled by theon liquet doctrine or by arguments traceable to it. The
fact that these are advisory proceedings and not contentious ones makes
no difference; the law to be applied is the same in both cases.

7. The GeneralAssernbly's Cal1for a Convention

Putting aside the question of the possible law-making effect or influ-
ence of General Assembly resolutions, did its resolutions on this matter
really take the position that the use of nuclear weapons was contrary to
existing law? Arguing that that was not the position taken, some States
point to the fact that the resolutions also called for the conclusion of a
convention on the subject.

However, as the case of the Genocide Convention shows, the General
Assembly could well consider that certain conduct would be a crime
under existing law and yet cal1for the conclusion of a convention on the
subject. Its resolution 96 (1) of 11 December 1946,which called for the
preparation of "a draft convention on the crime of genocide", also

affirmed "that genocide is a crime under international law . . .It was
likewisethat, in its resolution of14 December 1978,the General Assem-
bly declared
"that

(a) the use of nuclear weapons willbe a violation of the Charter of
the United Nations and a crime against humanity;
(b) the use of nuclear weapons should therefore be prohibited,
pending nuclear disarmament".
It was on this basis that the resolution then passed on to mention the
future discussion of an international convention on the subject. A convention may be useful in focusing the attention of national
bodies on the subject, particularly in respect of any action which may
have to betaken by them; it may also be helpful in clarifyingand settling
details required to implement the main principle, or more generally for
the purpose of laying down a régimefor dealing with the illegality in
question. A cal1for a convention to prohibit a particular kind of conduct

does not necessarily imply that the conduct was not already forbidden.

A further argumentis that some of the later General Assembly reso-
lutions adopted a more qualified formulation than that of earlier ones
(seeparagraph 71 of the Advisory Opinion). 1do not assign much weight
to this as indicative of a resiling from the position taken in earlier Gen-
eral Assembly resolutions to the effect that such use was contrary to
existing international law. Theer resolutions proceeded on the basis
that that position had already and sufficientlybeen taken; they therefore
contented themselves with simply recallingthe primary resolution on the

subject,amely, resolution 1653(XVI) of 1961.Thus, while the language
employed in the resolutions has varied from time to time, itto be
observed that in resolution 47153of 9 December 1992the General Assem-
bly reaffirmed "that the use of nuclear weapons would be a violation of
the Charter of the United Nations and a crime against humanity, as
declared in its resolutions 1653(XVI) of 24 November 1961n,and other
cited resolutions.

The General Assembly's resolutions may reasonably be interpreted as
taking the position that the threat or use of nuclear weapons was forbid-
den under pre-existing international law. The question is whether there is
a sufficiency of fact and law to enable the Court to decide whether the
position soaken by the General Assembly was correct. To the giving of
an answer 1proceed below.

PARTII. WHETHER THE COURTCOULDHOLD THATSTATES HAVE A
RIGHT TO USENUCLEAR WEAPONS HAVINGREGARD TO THE GENERAL
PRINCIPLE WSHICHDETERMINW EHEN A STATE 1sTO BE CONSIDERE AS
HAVING A POWER

The General Assembly's question presents the Court, as a World
Court, with a dilemma: to hold that States have a right to use nuclear
weapons is to affirm that they have a right to embark on a course of con-
duct which could result in the extinction of civilization, and indeed in the
dissolution ofl1forms of lifeon the planet, both flora and fauna. On the

other hand, to deny the existence of that right may seemto contradict the
"Lotus" principle, relied on by some States, to the effect that States have
a sovereign right to do whatever is not prohibited under internationallaw, in this respect it being said that there is no principle of international
law which prohibits the use of such weapons. The dilemma6 was the sub-
ject of closedebate. In my view,it was open to the Court to consider four
possible solutions.

The first possible solution proceeds on the basis of the "Lotus" prin-
ciple that a State has a right to do whatever is not prohibited, but it
argues that an act which could lead to the extinction of mankind would
necessarily involve the destruction of neutral States. This being so, the act
cannot be justified under the rubric of self-defence. Therefore, even if,

quodnon, it is otherwise admissible under the jus inbello, the Court could
hold that it is not covered by the jus ad bellurnand is prohibited under
Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter. The question of neutrality is dealt
with in Part 1, Section 4, above.

The second possible solution also proceeds on the basis of the "Lotus"
principle. However, it argues that, due effect being givento the Charter
and the Statute of the Court thereto annexed, by both of which the Court
is bound, these instruments arenot consistent with a State having a right
to doan act which would defeat their fundamental assumption that civi-
lization and mankind would continue: the Court could hold that, by
operation of law, any such inconsistent act stands prohibited by the
Charter.

The third possible solution also proceeds on the basis of the "Lotus"
principle that a State has a right to do whatever is not prohibited under
international law, but (as anticipated in Part 1,Section 2, above) it argues
that, even in the absence of a prohibition, that residual right does not
extend to the doing of things which, by reason of their essential nature,
cannot form the subject of a right, such as actions which could destroy

mankind and civilization and thus bring to an end the basis on which

by King Cambyses whether he could marry hissister, they made prudent answer "thatsked
though they coulddiscover no law which allowed brother to marry sister, there was un-
doubtedly a law which permitted the king of Persia to do what he pleased". See Herodo-
tus, TlzeHistories, trans. Aubrey de Sélincourt,Penguin Books, 1959,p. 187.So here, an
affirmative answer to the General Assembly'squestion would mean that, while the Court
could discover no law allowing a State to put the planet to death, there is undoubtedly
a law which permits the State to accomplish theme result through an exercise of its
sovereign powers.States exist and in turn the basis on which rights and obligations exist
within the international community.
There is not any convincing ground for the view that the "Lotus"
Court moved off on a supposition that States have an absolute sover-
eignty whichwould entitle them to do anything however horrid or repug-

nant to the sense of the international community, provided that the doing
of it could not be shown to be prohibited under international law. The
idea of interna1 supremacy associated with the concept of sovereignty in
municipal law is not neatly applicable when that concept is transposed to
the international plane. The existence of a number of sovereignties side
by side places limits on the freedom of each State to act as if the others
did not exist. These limits define an obiective structural framework
within which sovereigntymust necessarily exist7; the framework, and its

defining limits, are implicit in the reference in "Lotus" to "CO-existing
independent communities" (P.C.I.J., Sevies A, No. IO, p. 18), an idea
subsequently improved on by the Charter, a noticeable emphasis on co-
operation having been added.

Thus, however far-reaching may be the rights conferred by sover-
eignty, those rights cannot extend beyond the framework within which
sovereignty itself exists; in particular, they cannot violate the framework.

The framework shuts out the right of a State to embark on a course of
action which would dismantle the basis of the framework by putting an
end to civilization and annihilating mankind. It is not that a State is pro-
hibited from exercising a right which, but for the prohibition, it would
have; a State can have no such right to begin with.
So a prior question in this case is this: even if there is no prohibition,
is there anything in the sovereignty of a State which would entitle it to
embark on a course of action which could effectively wipeout the exis-
tence of al1States by ending civilization and annihilating mankind? An

affirmative answer is not reasonable; that sovereignty could not include
such a right is suggested bythe fact that the acting State would be one of
what the Permanent Court of International Justice, in the language of the
times, referred to as "CO-existingindependent communities", with a con-
sequential duty to respect the sovereignty of other States. It is difficultfor
the Court to uphold a proposition that, absent a prohibition, a State has

The idea is evoked by the following remark of one writer:
"For some authors, the existenceof a corpusjuris governing a decentralized, 'class-
less'society partakes of a miracle.d rather say that it partakes of necessity. It
is not in spite of, but on account of the heterogeneity of States in a society ofjuxta-
position that international law was brought into being and has developed. If inter-
national law did not exist, it would have to be invented."ranslation by the
Registry.] Prosper Weil, "Le droit international en quête de sonidentité. Cours
national de La Haye, Vol. 237 (1992-VI), p. 36.ours del'Académiede droit inter-a right in law to act in ways which could deprive the sovereignty of al1
other States of meaning.

The fourth possible solution is this: if the "Lotus" principle leaves a

State free to embark on any action whatsoever provided it is not prohib-
ited - a proposition strongly supported by some States and as strenu-
ously opposed by others - then, for the purposes of these proceedings at
any rate, that case may be distinguished. The case did not relate to any
act which could bring civilization to an end and annihilate mankind. It
does not preclude a holding that there is no right to do such an act unless
the act is one which is authorized under international law.
This fourth solution calls for fuller consideration than the others. It
will be necessary to take account of three developments which bear on
the extent to which modes of legal thought originating in an earlier age
are applicable in today's world.
First, as set out in Article paragraph 4, of theCharter,and following
on earlier developments, the right of recourse to force has come under a
major restriction. This is a significant movement away from the heavy

emphasis on individual sovereignty which marked international society
as it earlier existed. The point was stressed by the Philippines and Samoa.

Second, there have been important developments concerning the char-
acter of the international community and of inter-State relations. While
the number of States has increased, international relations have thickened;
the world has grown closer. In the process, there has been a discern-
ible movement from a select society of States to a universal interna-
tional community. Thus it was that in 1984 a Chamber of the Court
could speak of "the CO-existenceand vital CO-operationof the members
of the international community" (Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary
in the Gulf of Maine Aveu, I,C.J. Reports 1984, p. 299, para. 111). The
earlier legalutlook has not lost al1relevance. It is reasonably clear, how-
ever, that the previous stress on the individual sovereignty of each State
considered as hortus conclusushas been incliningbefore a new awareness

of the responsibility of each State as a member of a more cohesive and
comprehensive system based on CO-operationand interdependence.

These new developments have in part been consecrated by the Charter,
in part set in motion by it. Their effect and direction were noticed by
Judge Alvarez (Conditions of Admission of a State to Membership in the
United Nations (Article 4 of Charter), 1948, 1.C.J. Reports 1947-1948,
p. 68, separate opinion). Doubts about his plea for a new international
law did not obscure the fact that he was not alone in his central theme.
Other judges observed that it was

"an undeniable fact that the tendency of al1international activitiesin recent times has been towards the promotion of the common welfare
of the international community with a corresponding restriction of
the sovereign power of individual States" (Reservations to the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishmerztof the Crirneof Genocide,
I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 46, joint dissenting opinion of Judges Guer-
rero, Sir Arnold McNair, Read and Hsu Mo).

Though elsewhere critical of "the theory which reduces the rights of
States to competences assigned and portioned by international lawU8,
Judge De Visscher, for his part, observed that "[tlhe Charter has created
an international system", and added:

"[Iln the interpretation of a great international constitutional
instrument, like the United Nations Charter, the individualistic con-
cepts which are generally adequate in the iriterpretation of ordinary
treaties, do not suffice."(International Status of South West Africa,
I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 189, dissenting opinion.)
The Charter did not, of course, establish anything like world govern-
ment; but it did organize international relations on the basis of an "inter-

national system"; and fundamental to that system was an assumption
that the human species and its civilization would continue.

But, third, there have been developments working in the opposite
direction, in the sense that it now, and for the first time, lies within
the power of some States to destroy the entire system, and al1mankind
with it.
What lesson is to be drawn from these developments, the third being
opposed to the first and the second?
The notions of sovereignty and independence which the "Lotus" Court
had in mind did not evolve in a context which visualized the possibility
that a single State could possess the capability of wiping out the practical

existence both of itself and of al1 other States. The Court was dealing
with a case of collision at sea and the criminal jurisdiction of States in
relation thereto - scarcely an earth-shaking issue. Had its mind been
directed to the possibility of theplanet being destroyed by a minority of
warring States, it is not likely that it would have left the position which it
took without qualification. No more than this Court would have done
when in 1986it said that

"in international law there are no rules, other than such rules as may
be accepted by the State concerned, by treaty or otherwise, whereby
the level of armaments of a sovereign State can be limited, and this
principle is valid for al1 States without exception7' (Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 135, para. 269).

Charles De Visscher, Theoïy and Reality in Public International Law, revised edition,
trans.. E.Corbett, 1968,p. 104.

173The situation did not relate to the use of nuclear weapons; the Court's
statement was directed to the right of a State to possess a level of arma-
ments about the use of which no issue of legality had been raised.
Caution needs to be exercised in extending the meaning of a judicial
dictum to a field which was not in contemplation. The fact that he was
dissenting does not diminish the value of Judge Badawi Pasha's reminder
of problems which could arise

"when a rule is removed from the framework in whichit was formed,
to another of different dimensions, to which it cannot adapt itself as
easily as it did to its proper setting" (Reparationfor InjuriesSuffered
in the Service of the United Nations I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 215).

It isworth remembering, too, that, in his dissenting opinion in "Lotus",
Judge Finlay understood the compromis to present an issue not as to
whether there was "a rule forbidding" the prosecution, but as to "whether
the principles of international law authorize" it (P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 10, p. 52). In the early post-Charter period, Judge Alvarez specifi-
cally challenged the principle that States have "the right . . .to do
everything which is not expressly forbidden by international law". In his
view, "This principle, formerly correct, in the days of absolute sover-
eignty, is no longer so at the present day." (Fisheries, I.C.J. Reports
1951, p. 152, separate opinion.)

1do not consider now whether so general a challenge is maintainable.
This is because it appears to me that there is a particular area in which
"Lotus" is distinguishable. On what point does this limited distinction

turn? It is this. Whichever way the issue in "Lotus" was determined, the
Court's determination could be accommodated within the framework of
an international society consisting of"CO-existingindependent communi-
ties". Not so as regards the issue whether there is a right to use nuclear
weapons. Were the Court to uphold such a right, it would be upholding
a right which could be used to destroy that framework and which could
not therefore be accommodated within it. However extensive might be
the powers available to a State, there is not any basis for supposing that
the Permanent Court of International Justice considered that, in the
absence of a prohibition, they included powers the exercise of which
could extinguishcivilization and annihilate mankind and thus destroy the
framework of the international community; powers of this kind were not
in issue. To the extent that a course of action could be followed by so
apocalyptic a consequence, the case is distinguishable; it does not stand

in the way of this Court holding that States do not have a right to
embark on such a course of action unless, which is improbable, it can be
shown that the action is authorized under international law.
It is the case that theformulations (and in particular the title)employed
in various draft conventions appended to a number of General Assembly
resolutions on the subject of nuclear weapons were cast in the termino-
logy of prohibition. However, assuming that the correct theory is thatauthorization under international law has to be shown for the use of
nuclear weapons, this would not prevent States from concluding ama1
prohibitory treaty; the fact that the draft conventions were directed to
achieving a prohibitiondoes not invalidate the view that authorization
has to be shown.

The terminology of prohibition is also to be found in the reasoning of
the Tokyo District Court in Shimoda v. The State9. 1 do not consider
that much can be made of this. The Tokyo District Court, being satisfied
that the dropping of the bombs was prohibitedunder international law,
was not called upon toconsider whether, if there was no prohibition, it
was necessary for an authorization to be shown; the received statement
of the law being, in its view, sufficient for a holding of unlawfulness, a
sense of judicial economy could make it unnecessary for the Court to
enquire whether the same holding could be sustained on another basis.

Can the required authorization be shown in this case? It seems not.

The Court is a creature of the Charter and the Statute. If it finds, as it
should, that both the Charter and the Statute posit the continued exis-
tence of civilization and of mankind, it is difficult to seehow itd
a holding that international lawes not authorize a State to embark on
a course of action which couldnsue in the destruction of civilization and
the annihilation of mankind.

PARTIII. WHETHER THE COURT COULDHOLDTHAT THE USE OF
NUCLEAR WEAPON1 SsPROHIBITE DY HUMANITARIA LAW

1 propose now to consider the question of the legality of the use of
nuclear weapons from the standpoint of some of the leading principles of
humanitarian law (a term now generallyused) which were in force at the
commencement of the nuclear age. These principles relate to the right to
choose means of warfare, the unnecessary suffering principle, and the
Martens Clause.

1. The Methods or Means of Warfave
Thiscustomary international lawprinciple isrestated inArticle 35,para-

graph 1, of Additional ProtocolI of 1977to the Geneva Conventions of
1949 as follows: "In any armed conflict, the right of the Parties to the
conflict to choose methods ormeans of warfare is not unlimited." The
principle hascome under pressure from the continuing emergence of
weapons with increasing destructive power, the tendency being to accept
higher levels of destructiveness with growing powers of destruction. Its
value would be further eroded if, as it is sometimes argued,t does is
to leave open the possibility that a weapon may be banned under some

The Japanese Annual of International Law, No. 8, 1964,p. 235.law other than that setting out the principle itself; but that argument can-
not be right since, if it is, the principle would not be laying down a norm
of State conduct and could not therefore be called a principle of interna-
tional law. Paragraph 77of the Court's Advisory Opinion recognizes that
the principle is one of international law; it is not meaningless. Nor is it
spent; its continuing existence wasattested to by General Assembly reso-
lution 2444 (XXIII), adopted unanimously on 19 December 1968. By
that resolution the General Assembly affirmed

"resolution XXVIII of the XXth International Conference of the
Red Cross held at Vienna in 1965, which laid down, inter alia, the
following principles for observance by al1governmental and other
authorities responsible for action in armed conflicts:

(a) that the right of the parties to a conflict to adopt means of
injuring the enemy is not unlimited;
(6) that it is prohibited to launch attacks against the civilian popu-
lations as such;
(c) that distinction must be made at al1 times between persons
taking part in the hostilities and members of the civilian

population to the effect that the latter be spared as much as
possible."
As is suggested by subparagraph (a), the principle limiting the right to
choose means of warfare subsists. Notwithstanding an impression of
non-use, it is capable of operation. In what way? The principle may be
interpreted as intended to exclude the right to choose some weapons.
What these might be was not specified,and understandably so. Yet, if, as
it seems, the principle can apply to bar the use of some weapons, it is
difficult to imagine how it could fail to bar the use of nuclear weapons;
difficulties whichmay exist in applying the rule in less obvious cases dis-
appear as more manifest ones appear. But, of course, imagination is not

enough; a juridical course of reasoning has to be shown. How?

A useful beginning is to note that what isin issue is not the existence of
the principle, but its application in a particular case. Its applications
not require proof of the coming into being of an opiniojuris prohibiting
the use of the particular weapon; if that were so, one would be in the
strange presence of a principle which could not be applied without proof
of an opiniojuris to support each application.

But how can the principle apply in the absence of a stated criterion? If
the principle can operate to prohibit the use of some means of warfare, it
necessarily impliesthat there is a criterion on the basis of which it can be
determined whether a particular means is prohibited. What can that
implied criterion be? As seems to be recognized by the Court, humani-tarian considerations are admissible in the interpretation of the law of
armed conflict (see paragraphs 86 and 92 of the Court's Advisory Opin-
ion). Drawing on those considerations, and taking an approach based
on the principle of effectiveness, it is reasonable to conclude that the cri-
terion implied by the principle iri question is set by considering whether
the use of the particular weapon is acceptable to the sense of the inter-
national community; it is difficult to see how there could be a right to
choose a means of warfare the use of which is repugnant to the sense of
the international community.
In relation to some weapons, it may be difficult to establish, with evi-
dential completeness, what is the sense of the international community.
But the use of nuclear weapons falls, as it were, at the broad end of a
range of possibilities,where difficulties ofthat kind evaporate. Unlike the
case of conventional weapons, the use of nuclear weapons can result in
the annihilation of mankind and of civilization. As it has been remarked,
ifal1the explosive devicesused throughout the world since the invention
of gunpowder were to detonate at the same time, they could not result in

the destruction of civilization; this could happen if recourse weremade to
the use of nuclear weapons, and with many to spare. The principle limit-
ing the right to choose means of warfare assumed that, whatever might
be the means of warfare lawfully used, it would continue to be possible
for war to be waged on a civilized basis in future. Thus, however free a
State may be in its choice of means, that freedom encounters a limiting
factor when the use of a particular type of weapon could ensue in the
destruction of civilization.

It may be added that, in judging of the admissibility of a particular
means of warfare, it is necessary, in my opinion, to consider what the
means can do in the ordinary course of warfare, even if it may not do it
in al1circumstances. A conclusion as to what nuclear weapons can do in
the ordinary course of warfare is not speculative; it is a finding of fact. In
advisory proceedings, the Court can make necessary determinations of
fact (Legal Consequencesfor States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council
Resolution 276 (19701, I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 27). For the reasons

given, there is no difficulty inmaking one in this case.

In making a finding as to what is the sense of the international com-
munity, it is of course essential for the Court to consider the views held
by States, provided that, for the reasons given above, there is no slippage
into an assumption that, so far as concerns the particular principle in
question, it is necessary to establish an opinio juris supportive of the
existence of a specificrule prohibiting the use of nuclear weapons.
The views of States are available. The first General Assembly resolu-
tion, which was unanimously adopted on 24 January 1946, bears the
interpretation that the General Assembly considered that the use ofnuclear weapons is unacceptable to the international community; it is
referred to above. Also there are the 1968NPT and associated arrange-

ments, dealt with more fully below. The Court may interpret these as
amounting to a statement made both by the NWS and the NNWS to the
effect that the actual use of nuclear weapons would be unacceptable to
the international community, and that it is for this reason that efforts
should be made to contain their spread under arrangements which com-
mitted al1parties to work, in good faith, towards their final elimination.
If the actual use of nuclear weapons is acceptable to the international
community, it is difficult to perceive any credible basis for an arrange-
ment which would limit the right to use them to some States, and more
particularly if the latter could in some circumstances exercise that right
against States not enjoying that exclusiveright.

In the year following the conclusion of the NPT, the Institute of Inter-
national Law, at its 1969session in Edinburgh, had occasion to note that
"existing international law prohibits the use of al1 weapons" (nuclear
weapons being understood to be included) "which, by their nature, affect

indiscriminately both military objectives and non-military objects, or
both armed forces and civilian population". Whatever may be said of
other such weapons, that view, expressed with near unanimity, is helpful
not only for its high professional value, but also for its independent
assessment of the unacceptability to the international community of the
use of nuclear weapons. That assessmentaccurately reflectedthe basis on
which the NPT arrangements had been concluded in the preceding year.

Other weapons share with nuclear weapons membership of the cat-
egory of weapons of mass destruction. As mentioned above, however, it
is open to the Court to take the view that the juridical criterion is not
simply how destructive a weapon is, but whether its destructiveness is
such as to cause the weapon to be considered by the international com-
munity to be unacceptable to it. The material before the Court (some of
which was examined in Part 1,Section 3, above) is sufficientto enable the
Court to conclude that, in the case of nuclear weapons, the revulsion of
the international community is an established fact. Thus, the legal con-

sequences in the specific case of nuclear weapons need not be the same
for other weapons of mass destruction not already banned by treaty.

In Shimoda v. The State the plaintiffs' claims were dismissed on
grounds not now material; the case remains the only judicial decision,
national or international, in the field. It was decided by the Tokyo Dis-
trict Court on 7 December 1963.Though not of course binding, it ranks
as ajudicial decision under Article 38, paragraph 1 (d), of the Statute of
the Court; it qualifies for consideration. A judicial conclusion differentfrom that reached by the Tokyo District Court would need to explain
why the reasoning of that Court was not acceptable.

The Tokyo District Court was deliberating over the proposition (based
on expert legal opinion) "that the means which give unnecessary pain in

war and inhumane means are ~rohibited as means of iniurine the J "
enemy" Io.The proposition reflectédtwo grounds invoked by Japan in its
Note of protest of 10August 1945,in which it said:

"It is a fundamental principle of international law in time of war
that a belligerenthas not an unlimited right in choosing the means of
injuring the enemy, and should not use such weapons, projectiles,
and other material as cause unnecessary pain; and these are each

expressly stipulated in the annex of the Convention respecting the
Laws and Customs of War on Land and articles 22 and 23 (e) of the
Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land." l1

Article 22 of those Regulations concerned the right to adopt means of
injuring the enemy, while Article 23 (e) concerned the unnecessary suf-
fering principle.
The Tokyo District Court's reasoning dealt with both branches of the
proposition before it, on an interrelated basis. It accepted that

"international law respectingwar is not formed only by humane feel-
ings, but it has as its basis both military necessity and efficiencyand
humane feelings, and is formed by weighing these two factors" 12.

Consequently,

"however great the inhumane result of a weapon may be, the use of
the weapon is not prohibited by international law, if it has a great
military efficiency" 13.

Nevertheless, the Tokyo District Court thought that it could

"safely seethat besides poison, poison gas and bacterium the use of
the means of injuring the enemy which causes at least the same or
more injury is prohibited by international law" 14.

The Tokyo District Court confined itself to the issue whether the par-
ticular use of atomic weapons at Hiroshima and Nagasaki was lawful,

'O The Japanese Annual of International Law, No. 8, 1964,p. 240.
" Zbid.,p. 252.
l2Zbid.,p. 240.
l3Zbid.,p. 241.
l4Zbid.noticing but not deciding "an important and very difficult question",
namely, "whether or not an atomic bomb having such a character and
effect is a weapon which is permitted in international law as a so-called
nuclear weapon . . .15.Nevertheless, it is clear that in decidingthe former
issue, relating to the particular use, the Court's reasoning flowed from

its consideration of the latter issue, relating to the legal status of such
weapons. Thus, although the Tokyo District Court did not so decide,
it followed from its reasoning that nuclear weapons would not be an
admissible means of warfare. It is the reasoning of the Tokyo District
Court that this Court is concerned with.

The material before this Court is sufficient to enable it to make a find-
ing of fact that the actual use of nuclear weapons is not acceptable to the
sense of the international community; on the basis of such a finding of

fact, it would lie within itsjudicial mission to hold thatsuch weapons are
not admissible "means of warfareUwithin the meaning of the law.

2.Unnecessar Suyffering

Then as to the customary international law prohibition of superfluous
and unnecessary suffering. As restated in Article 35, paragraph 2, of the
1977 Additional Protocol 1 to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, the prin-
ciple reads:

"It is prohibited to employ weapons, projectiles and material and
methods of warfare of a nature to cause superfluous injury or un-
necessary suffering."

The case of a weapon, such as the "dum-dum" bullet 16,which is deliber-
ately crafted so as to cause unnecessary suffering, does not exhaust the
interpretation and application of the prohibition. That may be regarded
as a particular instance of the working of a broader underlying idea that
suffering is superfluous or unnecessary if it is materially in excess of the
degree of suffering which isjustified by the military advantage sought to
be achieved. A mechanical or absolute test is excluded: a balance has to

be struck between the degree of suffering inflicted and the military advan-
tage in view. The greater the military advantage, the greater will be the
willingness to tolerate higher levels of suffering. And, of course, the bal-
ance has to be struck by States. The Court cannot usurp their judgment;
but, in this case, it has a duty to find what that judgment is. In appreci-
ating what is the judgment of States as to where the balance is to be

l5The Japanese Annual of International Law, No. 8, 1964,p. 234.
l6"[Tlhe projectile known under the name of 'dum-dum' was made in the arsenal of
that name near Calcutta." See The Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences, The
Conference of 1899, 1920,p. 277,per General Sir John Ardagh.struck, the Court may properly consider that, in striking the balance,

States themselves are guided by the public conscience. TheCourt has cor-
rectly held that "the intrinsically humanitarian character of the legal
principles in question ... permeates the entire law of armed conflict and
applies to al1forms of warfare and to al1kinds of weapons . . .(Advi-
sory Opinion, para. 86). It is not possible to ascertain the humanitarian
character of those principles without taking account of the public con-
science.
It was thus open to the Court to take the view that the public con-
science could consider that no conceivable military advantage could jus-
tify the degree of suffering caused by a particular type of weapon. Poison
gas was, arguably, a more efficient way of deactivating the enemy in cer-
tain circumstances than other means in use during the First World War.
That did not suffice to legitimize its use; the prohibition rested on an
appreciation,as set out in the first preamble to the 1925Geneva Gas Pro-
tocol, that "the use in war of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases has
been justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilizedworld". In
effect, the use of a weapon which caused the kind of suffering that poison

gas caused was simply repugnant to the public conscience, and so un-
acceptable to States whatever might be the military advantage sought to
be achieved. That reasoning has not given birth to a comprehensive and
universal prohibitory treaty provision in this case; it is nonetheless helpful
in estimating the acceptability to the public conscience of the suffering
that could be inflicted by the use of nuclear weapons on both combatants
and civilians, on distant peoples, and on generations yet unborn.

On the material before it, the Court could reasonably find that the
public conscience considers that the use of nuclear weapons causes suf-
fering which is unacceptable whatever might be the military advantage
derivable from such use. On the basis of such a finding, the Court would
be entitled, in determining what in turn is the judgment of States on the
point, to proceed on the basis of a presumption that the judgment of
States would not differ from that made by the public conscience.

The "unnecessary suffering" principle falls within the framework of
principles designed for the protection of combatants. If the use of nuclear
weapons would violate the principle in relation to them, that is sufficient
to establish the illegality ofch use. However, is it possible that the prin-
ciple, when construed in the light of developing military technology and
newer methods of waging war, has now come to be regarded as capable
of providing protection for civilians also?
In the "expanding" bullet phase in which the principle made its appear-
ance in the second half of the nineteenth century, it was no doubt visu-
alized that "unnecessary suffering" would only be inflicted on soldiers in
the battlefield; the effects of the use of weapons which could then cause
such suffering would not extend to civilians. But the framework of mili-tary operations is now different: if nuclear weapons can cause unneces-
sary suffering to soldiers, they can obviously have the same effect on
civilianswithin their reach. The preamble to the Treaty of Tlatelolco cor-
rectly declared that the "terrible effects [ofnuclear weapons] are suffered,
indiscriminately and inexorably, by military forces and civilian popula-
tion alike . ..".

It may be said that the substance of the principle of unnecessary suf-

fering operates for the benefit of civilians through the medium of other
principles, such as that which prohibits indiscriminate attacks, but that
the principle itself does not operate in relation to them. What, however,
is the position where it is contended that an apparently indiscriminate
attack on civilians is validated by recourse to the collateral damage argu-
ment? In a case in which the collateral damage principle (whatever its
true scope) would justify injury to civilians, the contradictory result of
confining the unnecessary suffering principle to combatants would be
that such injury may be prohibited by that principle in respect of com-
batants but not in respect of civilianswho are equally affected; thus, an
act which causes injury to combatants and non-combatants equally may

be unlawful in relation to the former but lawful in relation to the latter.
If combatants and non-combatants are both victims of the same act, it is
difficult to see why the act should be unlawful in the former case but law-
ful in the latter.

In Shimoda, the Tokyo District Court said,

"[Ilt is not too much to Say that the pain brought by the atomic
bombs is severer than that from poison and poison-gas, and .. .that
the act of dropping such a cruel bomb is contrary to the fundamen-
ta1 principle of the laws of war that unnecessary pain must not be
given." l7

So, in this part of its reasoning, the Tokyo District Court relied on the
"fundamental principle" of "unnecessary pain"; it did so in relation to
injuries caused to civilians. Assisted by three experts who were professors
of international law, as well as by a full team of advocates for the parties
in a closely contested case, the Court did not seem to be aware of a view
that the principle of unnecessary suffering was restricted to injuries
caused to combatants. And yet that view, if correct, should have been

central to a case which concerned injury to civilians.

However, even if the unnecessary suffering principle is restricted to
combatants, the question remains whether the principle is breached in so

l7The Japanese Annual of international Law, No. 8, 1964,pp. 241-242.far as combatants are affected by the use of nuclear weapons. For the
reasons given above, the Court could hold that it is.

3. The Martens Clause

Some States argued that the Martens Clause depends on proof of the
separate existence of a rule of customary international law prohibiting

the use of a particular weapon, andthat there is no such prohibitory rule
in the case of nuclear weapons. The proposition is attractive.
However, an initial difficulty is this. As is recognized in paragraphs 78
and 84 of the Court's Advisory Opinion, it is accepted that the Martens
Clause is a rule of customary international law. That means that it has a
normative character - that it lays down some norm of State conduct. It
is difficult to see what norm of State conduct it lays down if al1it does is
to remind States of norms of conduct which exist wholly dehors the
Clause. The argument in question would be directed not to ascertaining
the field of application of an acknowledged rule, but to denying the exis-
tence of any rule. Would an argument which produces this infirmity be
right?
As set out in the 1899 Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and
Customs of War on Land, the Martens Clause came at the end of a pre-

ambular passage reading as follows :
"According to the view of the High Contracting Parties, these
provisions, the wording of which has been inspired by the desire to
diminish the evils of war, so far as military requirements permit, are
intended to serve as a general rule of conduct for the belligerents in
their mutual relations and in their relations with the inhabitants.

It has not, however, been found possible at present to concert
regulations covering al1the circumstances which arise in practice.

On the other hand, the High Contracting Parties clearly do not
intend that unforeseen cases should, in the absence of a written
undertaking, be left to the arbitrary judgment of military com-
mander~.
Until a more complete code of the laws of war has been issued, the
High Contracting Parties deem it expedient to declare that, in cases
not included in the Regulations adopted by them, the inhabitants
and the belligerents remain under the protection and the rule of the
principles of the law of nations, as they result from the usages estab-
lished among civilized peoples, from the laws of humanity, and the
dictates of the public conscience."

These statements support an impression that the Martens Clause was
intended to fil1gaps left by conventionalinternational law and to do so in
a practical way. How?
The Martens Clause bears the marks of its period; it is not easy ofinterpretation. One acknowledges the distinction between usages and
law lx.However, as the word "remain" shows, the provision implied that
there were already in existence certain principles of the law of nations

which operated to provide practical protection to "the inhabitants and
the belligerents" in the event of protection not being available under con-
ventional texts. In vie~ of the implications of that word, the Clause could
not be confined to principles of the law of nations waiting, uncertainly, to
be born in future. The reference to the principles of the law of nations
derived from the mentioned sources was descriptive of the character of
existing principles of the law of nations and not merely a condition of the
future emergence of such principles. It may be added that, in its 1977for-
mulation, the relevant phrase now reads, "derived from established cus-

tom, from the principles of humanity and from the dictates of public
conscience". Since "established custom" alone would sufficeto identify a
rule ,of customary international law, a cumulative reading is not prob-
able. It should follow that "the principles of international law" (the new
wording) could also be sufficientlyderived "from the principles of human-
ity and from the dictates of public conscience"; as mentioned above,
those "principles of international law" could be regarded as including
principles of international law already derived "from the principles of

humanity and from the dictates of public conscience".
In effect, the Martens Clause provided authority for treating the prin-
ciples of humanity and the dictates of public conscience as principles of
international law, leaving the precise content of the standard implied by
these principles of international law to be ascertained in the light of
changing conditions, inclusive of changes in the means and methods of
warfare and the outlook and tolerance levels of the international com-
munity. The principles would remain constant, but their practical effect

would Varyfrom time to time: they could justify a method of warfare in
one age and prohibit it in another. In this respect, M. Jean Pictet was
right in emphasizing, according to Mr. Sean McBride,

"that the Declarations in the Hague Conventions . . by virtue of the
de Martens Clause, imported into humanitarian law principles that
went much further than the written convention; it thus gave them a
dynamic dimension that was not limited by time" 19.

Nor should this be strange. Dealing with the subject of "Considera-
tions of Humanity" as a source of law, Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice remarked
that

l8For "usages of war" maturing into rules of customary international law, see L.
Oppenheim, International Law, A Treatise, Vol. II, 7th ed. by H. Lauterpacht, 1952,
p. 226, para. 67, and p. 231, para. 69.
l9Sean McBride, "The Legality of Weapons for Societal Destruction", in Christophe
Swinarski (ed.),tudies and Essays on International Humanitarian Law and Red Cross
Principles in Honour of Jean Pictet, 1984,p. 402. "al1 the implications of this view - i.e., in exactly what circum-
stances and to what extent considerations of humanity give rise in
themselvesto obligations of a legalcharacter - remain to be worked
out" 20.

The reservation does not neutralize the main proposition that "consid-
erations of humanity giverise in themselvesto obligations of a legal char-
acter". The substance of the proposition seems present in the judgment
given in 1948in Krupp'scase, in which the United States Military Tribu-
nal sitting at Nuremberg said:

"The Preamble [of Hague Convention No. IV of 19071is much
more than a pious declaration. It is a general clause, making the
usages established among civilized nations, the laws of humanity

and the dictates of public conscience into the legal yardstick to be
applied if and when the specificprovisions of the Convention and
the Regulations annexed to it do not cover specificcasesoccurring in
warfare, or concomitant to ~arfare."~'

A similar viewof the role of considerations of humanity appears in the
Corfu Channelcase. There Judge Alvarez stated that the "characteristics
of an international delinquency are that it is an act contrary to the senti-
ments of humanity" (I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 45, separate opinion); and
the Court itself said that Albania's

"obligations are based, not on the Hague Convention of 1907,
No. VIII, which is applicable in time of war, but on certain general
and well-recognized principles, namely: elementary considerations
of humanity, even more exacting in peace than in war; . . ."(I.C.J.
Reports 1949, p. 22).

Thus, Albania's obligations were "based .. .on . . .elementary consid-
erations of humanity ...", with the necessary implication that those con-
siderations can themselves exert legalforce. In 1986the Court considered
that "the conduct of the United States may be judged according to the
fundamental general principles of humanitarian law"; and it expressed

the viewthat certain rules stated in common Article 3 of the 1949Geneva
Conventions were "rules which, in the Court's opinion, reflect what the
Court in 1949 called 'elementary considerations of humanity' (Corfu
Channel,Merits, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22)" (Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), Merits, I.C.J. Reports 1986, pp. 113-114,para. 218). Consis-
tent with the foregoing is the earlier observation by the Naulilaa Tribunal

20Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, The Law and Pvoceduve of the International Court of Jus-
tice, Vol. 1, 1986,p. 17, note 4, emphasis as in the original; and see ibid., p. 4.

21Annual Digest and Reports of Public International Law Cases, 1p.8622.

185that the right of reprisals "is limited by the experiences of mankind . . ."
[translation by the Registry ]22.
1 am not persuaded that the purpose of the Martens Clause was con-
fined to supplying a humanitarian standard by which to interpret sepa-

rately existing rules of conventional or customary international law on
the subject of the conduct of hostilities; the Clause was not needed for
that purpose, for considerations of humanity, which underlie humanitar-
ian law, would in any event have supplied that service (seeparagraph 86
of the Court's Advisory Opinion). It is also difficultto accept that al1that
the Martens Clause did was to remind States of their obli"rations under
separately existing rules of customary international law. No doubt, the
focus of the Clause in the particular form in which it was reproduced in
the 1949 Geneva Conventions was on reminding States parties that

denunciation of these humanitarian treaties would not relievethem of the
obligations visualized by the Clause; but the Clause in its more usual
form was not intended to be a mere reminderZ3.The basic function of the
Clause was to put beyond challenge the existence of principles of inter-
national law which residually served, with current effect, to govern mili-
tary conduct by reference to "the principles of humanity and . . .the
dictates of public conscience". It was in this sense that

"civilians and combatants (would) remain under the protection and
authority of the principles of international law derived . . from the
principles of humanity and from the dictates of public conscience".

The word "remain" would be inappropriate in relation to "the principles
of humanity and . . .the dictates of public conscience" unless these were
conceived of as presently capable of exerting normative force to control
military conduct.
Thus, the Martens Clause provided its own self-sufficientand conclu-
sive authority for the proposition that there were already in existence

principles of international law under which considerations of humanity
could themselves exert legalforce to govern military conduct in cases in
which no relevant rule was provided by conventional law. Accordingly, it
was not necessary to locate elsewhere the independent existence of such
principles of international law; the source of the principles lay in the
Clause itself.
This was probably how the matter was understood at the Hague Peace
Conference of 1899. After Mr. Martens's famous declaration was
adopted, the "senior delegatefrom Belgium,Mr. Beernaert, who had pre-
viously objected to the adoption of Articles 9 and 10(1 and 2 of the new

22Reports of International Arbitral Awards,Vol. 2, p. 1026.
23For differences between the 1949 Martens Clause and its classicalformulation, see
Georges Abi-Saab, "The Specificitiesof Humanitarian Law", in Christophe Swinarski
(ed.),tudies and Essays on International Humanitarian Law and Red Cross Principlesin
Honour of Jean Pictet, 1984,p. 275. draft), immediately announced that he could because of this declaration
vote for themmZ4.The senior Belgian delegate, as were other delegates,
was not satisfied with the protection guaranteed by the particular provi-
sions of thedraft25.Eventually, he found himself able to vote for the pro-
visions. Why? Not because the required additional protection was avail-
able under independently existing customary international law; such

protection would be available in any case. The reason he was able to vote
for the provisions was because he took the view, not dissented from by
other delegates, that the Martens Clause would itself be capable of exert-
ing normative force to provide the required additional protection by
appropriately controlling military behaviour.
"One is entitled to test the soundness of a principle by the conse-
quences which would flow from its application." (Barcelona Traction,
Light and Power Company, Limited, Second Phase, I.C.J. Reports 1970,
p. 220, para. 106,Judge Jessup, separate opinion.) Hence, it is useful to

consider the implications of the view that the Martens Clause is not by
itself relevant to the issue of legality of the use of nuclear weapons. It is
clear that the use of nuclear weapons could result, even in the case of
neutral countries, in destruction of the living, in sickness and forced
migration of survivors, and in injury to future generations to the point of
causing serious illness, deformities and death, with the possible extinction
ofal1life. If nothing in conventional or customary international law for-
bids that, on the view taken by the proponents of legality of the meaning
of the "Lotus" case, States would be legally entitled to bring about such
cataclysmic consequences. It is at least conceivable that the public con-

science may think otherwise. But the "dictates of public conscience"
could not translate themselves into a normative prohibition unless this
was possible through the Martens Clause.

It is not, 1think, a question of the Court essaying to transform public
opinion into law: that would lead to "government by judges", which, as
Judge Gros rightly observed, "no State would easily accept" (Delimita-
tion of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulfof Maine Area, I.C.J. Reports
1984, p. 385,para. 41, dissenting opinion)26. Existing international law,

in the form of the Martens Clause, has already established the necessary
legal norm. The Court does not have to find whether there is an opinio
juris. Its task is that of evaluating a standard embodied in an existing
principle by way of making a finding as to what it is that the "principles
of humanity and ... the dictates of public conscience" require of military
conduct in a given situation. In the last analysis, the answer will depend

24 The Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences, The Conference of 1899, 1920,
pp. 54 and 419.
25 See the Krupp case, supra, p. 622.
26 But seeI.C.J. Pleadings, Northern Cameroons,p. 352,M. Weil, "to exorcisedemons,
it is sometimes a good idea to cal1them by name", i.e. "the spectre of government by
judges". [Translation by the Registry.]on what are the views of States themselves; but, so far as the Martens
Clause is concerned. the views ofStates are relevant onlv for their value
in indicating the state of the public conscience, not for the purpose of
determining whether an opinio juvis exists as to the legality of the use of
a particular weapon.
The task of determining the effect of a standard rnay be difficult,but it

is not impossible of performance; nor is it one which a court of justice
rnay flinch from undertaking where necessary. The law is familiar with
instances in which a court has to do exactly that, namely, to apply a rule
of law which embodies a standard through which the rule exerts its force
in uarticular circum~tances~~.
Some appreciation of a factual nature rnay be required. The standard
being one which is set by the public conscience, a number of pertinent
matters in the public domain rnay be judicially noticed. This is apart
from the fact that the Court is not bound by the technical rules of evi-

dence found in municipal systems; it employs a flexibleprocedure. That,
of course, does not mean that it rnay go on a roving expedition; it must
confineits attention to sources which speak with authority. Among these
there is the General Assembly. Reference has already been made to its
very first resolution of 24 January 1946. That resolution, unanimously
adopted, may fairly be construed by the Court as expressive of the con-
science of the international community as to the unacceptability of the
use of nuclear weapons. So too with the Final Document adopted by
consensus in 1978by the Tenth SpecialSession of the General Assembly
on the subject of disarmament. A number of related General Assembly
resolutions preceded and followed that Final Document. In one, adopted

in 1983,the General Assembly stated that it "[r]esolutely,unconditionally
and for al1time condemns nuclear war as being contrary to human con-
scienceand reason ..." (General Assembly resolution 38/75of 15Decem-
ber 1983).Though not unanimously adopted, the resolution was validly
passed by the General Assembly, acting within its proper province in the
field of disarmament. Whatever rnay be the position as regards the pos-
sible law-making effects or influence of General Assembly resolutions,
the Court would be correct in giving weight to the Assembly'sfinding on
the point of fact asto the state of "human conscience and reason" on the
subject of the acceptability of the use of nuclear weapons, and more par-

ticularly in view of the fact that that finding accords with the general ten-
dency of other material before the Court.

27SeeI.C.J. Pleadings,South West Africa, Vol. VIII, p. 258, argument of Mr. Gross;
Fisheries Jurisdiction, I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 56-57, footnote 1, separate opinion of
Judge Dillard; andulius Stone, Legal System and Lawyevs'Reasonings, 1964,pp. 59, 68,
263-264,299, 305-306, 320nd 346. The Court may look to another source of evidence of the state of the
public conscience on the question of the acceptability of the use of
nuclear weapons. It may interpret the NPT to mean that the public con-
science, as demonstrated in the positions taken by al1 parties to that
treaty, considers that the use of nuclear weapons would involve grave
risks, and that these risks would make such use unacceptable in al1cir-
cumstances. The better view, 1 think, is that the Court cannot correctly
interpret the treaty to mean that it was agreed by al1parties that those
risks may be both effectivelyand responsibly managed by five States but
not by others. Nor could it be the case that the public conscience, as
manifested in the positions taken by the parties to that treaty, now says
that, after final elimination has been achieved, nuclear weapons could not
be used, while now also saying that they could be acceptably used until
final elimination has been achieved. On a matter touching the survival of
mankind, the public conscience could not at one and the same time be
content to apply one standard of acceptability as of now and another as
of a later time. That would involve a contradiction in its views as to the

fundamental unacceptability of the weapon as a means of warfare which
could destroy civilization. No basis appears for ascribing such a contra-
diction to the public conscience; there is not much merit in prohibiting
civilization from being destroyed in the future, while at the same time
accepting that it may, with impeccable legality, be destroyed now.

If theabove is correct, the Martens Clause helps to meet the objection,
raised by the proponents of legality, that the General Assembly's ques-
tion would require the Court to speculate on a number of matters. The
Court could not say in advance what would be the exact effect of any
particular use of nuclear weapons. Examples of possible situations relate
to proportionality, the duty to discriminate between combatants and
civilians, escalation of conflict, neutrality, genocide and the environment.
The Court could however find, and find as a fact, that the use of nuclear
weapons involves real risks in each of these areas. It could then look to
the public conscience for its viewas to whether, in the light ofhose risks,
the use of such weapons is acceptable in any circumstances; the view of
the public conscience could in turn be found to be that, in the light of

those risks, such use is unacceptable in al1circumstances. The public con-
science thus has a mediating role through which it enjoys a latitude of
evaluation not available to the Court.

In the result, on the basis of what the Court finds to be the state of the
public conscience, it will be able to say whether the Martens Clause oper-
ates to prohibit the use of nuclear weapons in al1circumstances. On the
available material, it would be open to the Court to hold that the Clause
operates to impose such a prohibition.PARTIV. WHETHER A PRIORPROHIBITOR YULE, IF IT EXISTEDW , AS
MODIFIED OR RESCINDE DY THE EMERGENC OF A SUBSEQUEN RULE

1. The Position as ut the Commencement of the Nucleav Age

Underlying the Court's holding in the second part of subparagraph E
of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph of its Advisory Opinion that it
"cannot conclude definitively" on the issue there referred to, is a conten-
tion by some States that the Court was being invited by the General
Assembly's question to speculate on possible "scenarios". If thatns
that the Court could not decide on the basis of conjectures,1 would
uphold the contention. But1would not feel able to go the further step of

accepting (if this other proposition was also intended) that there are no
circumstances in which the Court may properly have recourse to the use
of hypotheses. It would not,think, be correct to Say,as it is sometimes
said, that the interpretation and application of the law always abjures
hypotheses. Within reasonable limits, a hypothesis, as in other fields of
intellectual endeavour, may be essential to test the limits of a theory or to
bring out the true meaning of a rule. When, in a famous statement, it was
said "hypothesesnonjngo ",that only excludedpropositions goingbeyond

actual data28.The actual data may themselves suggest possibilities which
need to be explored if the correct inference isto be drawn from the data.

The position as it stood immediately before the commencement of the
nuclear age was that, since nuclear weapons did not exist, ex hypothesi
there was, and could have been, no rule in conventional or customary
international law which prohibited the use of nuclear weapons "as such".

But it cannot be a serious contention that the effectsproduced by the use
of nuclear weapons, when they were later invented, were beyond the
reach of the pre-existing law of armed conflict (see paragraphs 85-86 of
the Advisory Opinion and Shimoda, supua,pp. 235-236); the "novelty of
a weapon does not by itself conveywith it a legitimate claim to a change
in the existing rules of ~ar"~~.

Thus, if, immediately before the commencement of the nuclear age, the
question was asked whether effects of the kind that would beter pro-
duced by the use ofnuclear weapons would constitute a breach of the law
of armed conflict, the Court could well hold that the answer would inevi-

28"For whatever is not deduc'd from the phaenomena, is to be called an hypothesis."
See Sir Isaac Newton, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, Book III,
Vol. II, trans. Andrew Motte, 1968,p. 392; and Derek Gjertsen, The Newton Handbook,
1986,p. 266.
29L. Oppenheim, International Law, A Treatise, Vol. IH. Lauterpacht,
p. 469, para. 181a.tably have been in the affirmative. If the effects so produced would have
been forbidden by that law, it follows that nuclear weapons, when they
later materialized, could not be used without violating that law - not,
that is to say, unless that law was modified by the subsequent evolution
of a law operating in the opposite direction, a point considered below.

2. The Position Subsequent to the Commencement of the Nuclear Age

A "froward retention of custom is as turbulent a thing as an innova-
tion", says Bacon30.SO,on the assumption that a prohibitory rule existed
at the commencement of the nuclear age, it would remain to consider
whether that rule was later modified or reversed by the emergence of a
new rule operating in the opposite direction: would the "froward reten-
tion" of the previous prohibition of the use of nuclear weapons have been

judged a "turbulent" thing?
Itis necessary to have regard to the structure of the debate. The argu-
ment of some States is that there is not and never was a rule prohibitory
of the use of nuclear weapons. In determiningthe issue so raised, a useful
benchmark is the commencement of the nuclear age. The position as at
that time has to be determined by reference to the law as it then stood.
Subsequent developments do not form part of any process creative of any
rule on the subject as at that time. If a correct finding is that, on the law
as it existed at the commencement of the nuclear age, a prohibitory rule
then existed, evidence of subsequent State practice cannot serve to con-
tradict that finding by showing that, contrary to that finding, no prohibi-

tory rule then existed. What subsequent State practice can do is to create
an opinio juris supportive of the emergence of a new rule modifying or
reversing the old rule. But it has not been suggested that, if a prohibitory
rule existed at the commencement of the nuclear age, it was modified or
reversed by the emergence of a later rule operating in the opposite direc-
tion. This being the case, it follows that if a prohibitoryrule existed at the
commencement of the nuclear age, that rule continues in force.

The same conclusion is reached even if it were in fact argued that any
prior prohibitory rule was reversed by the emergence of a later rule oper-
ating in the opposite direction. The substantial and long-standing opposi-

tion within the ranks of the NNWS to the proposition that there is a right
in law to use nuclear weapons would have sufficed to prevent the evolu-
tion of the opiniojuris required to support the birth of any such new rule,
and more particularly so if the earlier rule had the status ofjus cogens.
This would have been the case if the humanitarian principles on which
the earlierrule was based had that status, a possibility left open by para-
graph 83 of the Advisory Opinion.

30"Of Innovations", in J. Spedding, R. L. Ellis and D. D. Heath (eds.), The Works of
Francis Bacon, 1890,Vol. VI, p. 433.

191 One last oint.Ar~"ment was made that the NWS were "States whose
interests are specially affected" within the meaning of the principle relat-
ing to the creation of customary international law, as enunciated by the
Court in 1969 (North Sea Continental ShelJ;I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 43,
para. 74), and that, indeed, "in the present case, a practice involving the
threat or use of nuclear weapons could proceed only from States recog-
nized as possessing the status of nuclear-weapon States" (CR 95/24,p. 3).
The argument is interesting, but not persuasive. Where what is in issue is
the lawfulness of the use of a weapon which could annihilate mankind

and so destroy al1States, the test of which States are specially affected
turns not on the ownership of the weapon, but on the consequences of its
use. From this point of view,al1States are equally affected, for, like the
people who inhabit them, they al1have an equal right to exist.

For these reasons, granted the prior existence of a prohibitory rule, it
was open to the Court to hold that the position taken by a considerable
number of the NNWS, if not the majority, would have operated to bar
the development of the opiniojuris necessary to support the creation of a
new rule rescinding the old. The old prohibitory rule would therefore
have continued up to the present time.

PARTV. THEDENUCLEARIZATT IREATIE SND THE NPT

Some States rely on regional denuclearization treaties and on the NPT
and associated arrangements as State practice evidencing the non-exis-
tence of a prohibitory rule. Those arrangements, they argue, are only
explicable on the assumption that the use of nuclear weapons was
regarded by the negotiating States as lawful. They emphasize that for
50 years the NWS have been openly possessing and deploying nuclear
weapons under one form or another of a policy of nuclear deterrence;
that itis well known that several NNWS have been sheltering under the
nuclear umbrella of a NWS; that the NWS and other States sheltering
under a nuclear umbrella constitute a substantial and important part of

the international community; that elements of the negative and positive
security assurances given by the NWS necessarily imply recognition by
the NNWS that nuclear weapons may be lawfully used; that Security
Council resolution 984 (1995) expressedthe Council's appreciation of the
statements through which the NWS gave those assurances; and that no
NNWS protested against those assurances or with the appreciation thus
expressed. How should these matters be evaluated? The position as at the beginning of the nuclear age was either that
there was no rule prohibiting States from producing effects of the kind
which could later be produced by nuclear weapons, or that there was
such a prohibitory rule. If there was no such prohibitory rule, it is not
necessary to consider in detail whether subsequent State practice intro-
duced one, for the known position of the NWS and those of the NNWS
sheltering under a nuclear umbrella, representing a substantial and impor-
tant part of the international community, would have prevented the crys-
tallization of the opinio juris required to create such a rule: the non-
existence of a prohibitory rule would continue to this day, and the case of
the proponents of legality succeeds.

On the opposite view that there was a prior prohibitory rule, there is
equally no need to consider subsequent State practice in any detail. As
has been argued, if, on the basis of the law as it stood at the commence-
ment of the nuclear age, it is found that there then existed a prohibitory
rule, that finding as to what was the then state of the law cannot be con-

tradicted by later developments. Later developmentsmay only be consid-
ered for the purpose of determining whether they represented a State
practice which brought into being a new rule modifying or rescinding the
prior prohibitory rule. But then the known position of the majority of the
NNWS, also representing a substantial and important part of the inter-
national community, would have barred the development of the opinio
juris required for the creation of a modifying or rescinding rule :the prior
prohibitory rule would thus continue to this day, and the case of the pro-
ponents of illegality succeeds.

On either view, it is accordingly not necessary to consider later devel-
opments in any detail. As there has been much debate over regional
denuclearization treaties and the NPT, I shall nevertheless say something
about these. In my opinion, the Court could hold that they do not show
that the proponents of illegality accepted the legality of the use of nuclear
weapons.

First, as to theregional denuclearization treaties. It will be convenient
to deal with one only, namely, the Treaty of Tlatelolco of 1967.The pre-
amble to this treaty stated that "the proliferation of nuclear weapons"
seemed "inevitable unless States, in the exercise of their sovereign rights,
impose restrictions on themselves in order to prevent it". The treaty being
concerned with both possession and use, there is force in the argument
that that statement recognized that there was a sovereign right in law to
use such weapons. That inference does not however necessarily follow
when regard is had to the fact that the preamble also said that the use of
such a weapon could result in "an attack on the integrity of the human
species and ultimately may even render the whole earth uninhabitable".The better interpretation of the treaty is that it was, objectively, directed
to the establishment of a régimeto ensure that Latin America would be

nuclear-free, giventhat nuclear weapons in fact existed and might in fact
be used; the treaty did not rest on an assumption that there existed a
right in law to use weapons which could "render the whole earth unin-
habitable". Reservations or declarations made by the NWS on signing or
ratifying Protocol II to the treaty did rest on an assumption that there
was a right of use; but itis risky to infer that, by remaining silent, States
parties to the treaty acquiesced in that assumption in the light of the fact
that, both before and after the conclusion of the treaty, many of them
were on record as affirming through the General Assembly and otherwise
that the use of such weapons would be a crime.

Next as to the NPT. This calls for fuller discussion; the arguments
were more intense. Some States, or one or another of them, argued that
a right to use nuclear weapons formed part of the inherent right of self-
defence; that the inherent right of self-defence was inalienable; that it
had a fundamental and overriding character; that it was the most funda-

mental right of all; but that it could be restricted by express treaty pro-
visions. It followed that some States could retain their right to use
nuclear weapons, while others could competently agree to forego it. The
argument adds that acceptance of a right to possess such weapons under
the NPT implies acknowledgment of a right of use.

These arguments are weighty; they demand careful consideration. A
difficulty lies, however, in the characterization of a right to use nuclear
weapons as being a part of the right of self-defence. If the characteriza-
tion is correct, it is not easy to appreciate how the proponents of illegal-
ity, which were parties to the NPT, would have intended voluntarily to
forego an important part of their inherent right of self-defence whilst
agreeing that the right would be retained in full by the NWS. The
third preambular paragraph of the NPT showed that the treaty was con-
cluded in

"conformity with resolutions of the United Nations General Assem-
bly calling for the conclusion of an agreement on the prevention of
wider dissemination of nuclear weapons".Those resolutions would include General Assembly resolution 2028 (XX)
of 19November 1965,paragraph 2 (b) of which laid it down that a non-
proliferation treaty "should embody an acceptable balance of mutual
responsibilities and obligations of the nuclear and non-nuclear Powers".
It is hard to see how that prescription could find an acceptable reflection
in an asymmetrical enjoyment of so fundamental a right as the inherent
right of self-defence.
There would be difficulty also in following how it is that what is inal-

ienable for some States is alienable for others. It is an attribute of sov-
ereignty that a State may by agreement restrain the exercise of its com-
petence; yet how far it may do so without losing its status as a State is
another question31.Sincethe right of self-defenceis "inherent" in a State,
it is not possible toconceive of statehood which lacks that characteristic.
See the illustration in General Assembly resolution 49110of 3 November
1994,

"[rleaffirming ... that as the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina is
a sovereign,independent State and a Member of the United Nations,
it is entitled toal1rights provided for in the Charter of the United
Nations, including the right to self-defenceunder Article 51thereof".

Arrangements for the exercise of the right of self-defenceare a different
matter. But, so far as the right itself is concerned, if the right includes a
right to use nuclear weapons, the latter is not a small part of the former.
It was no doubt for this reason that, in the parallel case brought by the

World Health Organization, it was argued that to "deny the victim of
aggression the right to use the only weapons which might Saveit would
be to make a mockery of the inherent right of self-defence" 32.The argu-
ment is understandable, granted the premise that the right to use nuclear
weapons is part of the inherent right of self-defence. The question is
whether the premise is correct. For, if it is correct, then, by the same
token, there is difficulty in seeing how the NNWS which were parties to
the NPT could have wished to part with so crucially important a part of
their inherent right of self-defence.

Itis possible to see the NNWS agreeing that, because of the dangers
represented by nuclear weapons, they would not acquire such weapons,
on the basis that the NWS, which already had such weapons, would take
steps to eliminate them. It is less easy to see how the NNWS would, on
the ground of such dangers, agree to deprive themselves of the opportu-

3'See argument of M. Yasseen in C.J. Pleadings, Interpretation of the Agreement of
25 March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, pp.298-299.
32Statement of the Government of the United Kingdom (para24),in the case con-
cerning Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict (Request
for Advisory Opinion).nity of using such weapons in exercise of their inherent right of self-
defence whilst neverthelessagreeing that such weapons, notwithstanding

the same dangers, could be legally used by the NWS in exercise of their
own inherent right of self-defenceand used in some circumstances against
the NNWS. The Court could not uphold so unbalanced a view of the
scheme of the NPT without endorsingthe controversial thesis that its real
thrust was not so much to prevent the spread of a dangerous weapon, as
to ensure that enjoyment of its use was limited to a minority of States.
The differencein perceived objectives is material to the correctness of the
interpretation to be placed on the treaty.

A further area of nuclear weapon discrepancy could arise as between
non-NPT States and the NNWS which are parties to the NPT. On the
argument for legality, the former would have a right in law to use nuclear
weapons in self-defence,whereas the latter would have foregone the exer-
cise of that right even in relation to the former. For, since a NNWS,
which is a party to the NPT, cannot possess nuclear weapons without

breaching the treaty, it follows that it cannot threaten or use nuclear
weapons even in relation to non-parties to the treaty, although the latter,
not being bound by the treaty, may have gone on to develop, acquire and
possess such weapons. In the result, a NNWS which is a party to the
NPT would be prevented by the treaty from exercisingthe fullmeasure of
its inherent right of self-defencender Article 51 of the Charter, notwith-
standing that the non-party to the treaty would be entitled to use such
weapons in exercise of its own inherent right of self-defence under that
Article.

These difficulties suggest that it is necessary to distinguish between the
inherent right of self-defence and the means by which the right is exer-

cisable. A State using force in self-defence is acting legally under the jus
ad bellum. But, whether a State is acting legally or illegallyunder thejus
ad bellum, if it is in fact using force it must always do so in the manner
prescribed by the jus inbello. It is the jus inbello which lays down
whether or not a particular means of warfare is permissible. Thus, where
the use of a particular weapon is proscribed by the jus inbello, the denial
of the use of that weapon is not a denial of the right of self-defence of the
attacked State: the inherent right of self-defence spoken of in Article 51
of the Charter simply does not comprehend the use of the weapon inquestion. The legal answer to the possible plight of the victim State is
given by the principle, as enunciated by the United States Military Tri-
bunal at Nuremberg on 19February 1948,that "the rules of international
law must be followed even if it results in the loss of a battle or even a war.
Expediency or necessity cannot warrant their violation . .."33.

A reasonable view is that the proponents of illegality which were
parties to the NPT did not consider that they were contracting away an
important part of their inherent right of self-defence,but that they acted
on the view that a State's inherent right of self-defencedid not include a
right to use nuclear weapons. If they considered that a right to use

nuclear weapons was an integral part of so fundamental a right as the
inherent right of self-defence, it is difficult to see why they should have
intended to agree that such weapons could be used only by some, and not
by all. On the other hand, if they acted on the basis that a right to use
such weapons was not part of the inherent right of self-defence,this gov-
erns, or at any rate qualifies and explains, the NPT arrangements, inclu-
sive of the 1995 extension, the positive and negative assurances, and the
Security Council statements set out in its resolution 984 (1995). As was
pointed out by Solomon Islands, al1of these arrangements formed part
of a declared process for eliminating nuclear weapons; it is not persuasive
to interpret them as implying acceptance by the NNWS of the legality of

the use of such weapons. Answering an argument that, through the NPT,
the "nuclear-weapon States were being given a legal basis for the main-
tenance of their nuclear arsenals", New Zealand submitted, correctly in
my view, that

"the very raison d'êtreof the Treaty . ..is based on a recognition
that nuclear weapons are different. The judgrnent made was that, in
view of the uniquely destructive potential of such weapons, and
human nature being what it is, the only option for humanity was to
rid itself of these weapons entirely. The threat that the weapons rep-
resent hangs over the security of the whole international community.
They also constitute a threat, and a challenge, to the international
legal order." (CR 95128,p. 36.)

In the light of the foregoing, the Court could read the NPT this way.
As stated in the preamble, al1parties, both the NWS and the NNWS,

33The List case, Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals
under Control CouncilLaw No. 10, VolXI, 1950,p. 1272; and see, ibid.,pp. 1236and
1254. See also the remarks of the United States Military Tribunal at Nuremberg in
Krupp's case,Annual Digest andReports of PublicInternational Law Cases,1948,p. 628.recognized "the devastation that would be visited upon al1mankind by a
nuclear war . . .".The spread of nuclear weapons should therefore be
halted, and States which, by their own declarations, already possessed

them should eliminate them. As this would take time. the NWS would of
necessity continue in possession until final elimination. This was recogni-
tion of a fact which could not suddenly be wished away, and tolerance of
that fact transitionall;it was not acquiescencein a right of use. Such an
acknowledgment would have been at variance with the repeated affirma-
tion by many NNWS, through General Assembly resolutions and other-
wise, and made both before and after the conclusion of the NPT, that the
use of such weapons would be contrary to the Charter, to the rules of
international law and the laws of humanity, and a crime against mankind
and civilization.

It remains to consider whether this conclusion is impaired by the secu-
rity assurances given by the NWS to the NNWS. In contrast with the

reservations made by four of the fiveNWS in their negative assurances of
a right to use nuclear weapons against the NNWS in certain circum-
stances, the positive assurances did not include a commitment to use
nuclear weapons in defence of a NNWS attacked with nuclear weapons
and therefore did not imply a claim to a right to use nuclear weapons. A
claim to a right to use nuclear weapons is however clearly implied in the
negative assurances; that need not be discussed. The question is whether
the claim to such a right has been accepted by the international
community.

It willbe convenient to take, first, the reaction of the Security Council.
Paragraph 1of its resolution 984 (1995),adopted unanimously, recorded
that the Council

"[tlakes note with appreciation of the statements made by each
of the nuclear-weapon States (Sl19951261,S119951262,Sl19951263,
Sl19951264, S/1995/265), in which they give security assurances
against the use of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear-weapon States
that are Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons".

It is argued that the "appreciation" with which the Security Council
noted the statementsmade by each of the NWS implied an acknowledg-
ment by it of a right in law to use nuclear weapons, and more particularly
in the light of a reaffirmation in paragraph 9 of the resolution of the
inherent right of self-defenceunder Article 51 of the Charter. The argu-ment, which is a forceful one, makes it necessary to consider what it was
that the Council's "appreciation" referred to.
Viewed in context and in particular in the light of the preamble to the
resolution, the focus of paragraph 1 of the resolution was directed to the
objective fact that negative security assurances had been given in the
cited statements; the paragraph referred to the statements of the NWS as
statements "in which they give security assurances against the use of

nuclear weapons to non-nuclear-weapon States . ..". The resolution did
not refer to the statements as statements in which the NWS "reserved a
right to use nuclear weapons against the NNWS in certain circum-
stances", as it could have done had the Council intended to indicate that
its expression of appreciation extended thus far. The Council could not
say so in respect of al1five of the NWS because one of them, namely,
China, did not reserve such a right (see paragraph 59 (c) of the Court's
Advisory Opinion). On the contrary, in paragraph 2 of its statement,
China said, "China undertakes not to use or threaten to use nuclear
weapons against non-nuclear-weapon States or nuclear weapon-free zones
at any time or under any circumstances"; this was the opposite of the
reservation of such a right. It may be argued that the statement nonethe-
lessimplied the existence of a right to use nuclear weapons. The question,
however, is how was the Security Council's expression of "appreciation"

to be understood. The Court could not reasonably say that the Council's
"appreciation" was to be understood as extending to the reservations
made by four of the fiveNWS of a right to use nuclear weapons against
the NNWS without also saying that it extended to China's undertaking,
to the opposite effect, not to use nuclear weapons against the NNWS "at
any time or under any circumstances".

In the result, the proponents of illegality, reading the text of the resolu-
tion, would not have thought that the "appreciation" expressed by the

Security Council extended to those aspects of the statements in which
four of the fiveNWS reserved a right to use nuclear weapons against the
NNWS in certain circumstances, which included a situation in which
there was no prior use of nuclear weapons against the NWS reserving
and exercising such a right. On its part, the Court could not understand
the "appreciation" expressed by the Security Council as intended to
affirm the existence of such a right without also understanding it to be
affirming that, in the view of the Security Council, there were two groups
of States legally differentiated in the importantsense that one group was
entitled in law to use nuclear weapons against the other in certain cir-
cumstances, without the latter being correspondingly entitled in law to
use such weapons against the former in any circumstances. The Courtwould need to pause before imputing such a viewto the Security Council.
In circumstances in which it was known that the existence of a right to
use nuclear weapons was in contest, the "appreciation" expressed by the
SecurityCouncilin its resolution can reasonably beunderstood as directed
to the fact that the NWS had given "security assurances against the use
of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear-weapon States . ..", as stated in the
resolution itself, without being intended to give recognition to the exis-
tence of a legal right of use by indirectly passing on the debated issue as
to whether there was such a right.

An argument of some strength is based on the fact that, in paragraph 9
of its resolution, the Security Council reaffirmed

"the inherent right, recognized under Article 51 of the Charter, of
individual and collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs
against a member of the United Nations, until the Security Council
has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and
security".

Although this statement did not refer to a right to use nuclear weapons,
the argument is that, in the context in which it was made, it implied that,
in the view of the Security Council, the inherent right of self-defence
included a right to use nuclear weapons. It would not appear, however,
that the correctness of any such implication of paragraph 9 of the resolu-
tion was accepted by those of the NNWS who spoke before the Security
Council. What Malaysia said was that that "paragraph sidesteps the
question of the legality of the use of nuclear weapons because it justifies
the use or threat of nuclear weapons in casesof 'self-defence' (SlPV.3514,
11 April 1995,p. 15). Thus, however much paragraph 9 may be under-
stood as seekingto justify the threat or use of nuclear weapons in cases of
self-defence, in the view of Malaysia the paragraph did not succeed in
doing so but only side-stepped the question. Egypt associated itself with
Indonesia as "speaking . . .on behalf of the non-aligned States"; the
statement made by Indonesia does not suggest an intention to abandon

the known position of that group of States on the subject of legality.
India specificallyrecalled that at

"the forty-ninth session of the General Assembly, the international
community decided to seek an advisory opinion from the Inter-
national Court of Justice on whether the threat or use of nuclear
weapons is permissible under international law in any circum-
stances" (ibid p. 6).

India added:
"One would hope that by offering a draft resolution of this kind,
the nuclear-weapon States are not telling the non-members of the
NPT that they, the nuclear-weapon States, are free to use nuclear weapons against them, because this would have implications which
are too frightening to contemplate." (SlPV.3514, p. 6.)
Hence, even if the resolution of the SecurityCouncil contained any impli-
cation that the Council considered the use of nuclear weapons to be law-
ful, the argument that the proponents of illegality accepted the correct-
ness of that implication is not well founded.
Next, the matter may be looked at from the more general standpoint of

the conduct of the proponents of illegality in relation to the security
assurances. Did that conduct manifest acquiescence in the claim by the
NWS to the existence of a right in law to use of nuclear weapons? In
particular, was such an acquiescence demonstrated by the fact that the
NNWS thought it necessary to obtain such assurances?

A reasonable appreciation of the position seems to be the following.
The continuing, if temporary, possession of nuclear weapons by the
NWS obviously presented risks to the NNWS. The sensiblething would be
to obtain assurances against any threat or use. Malaysia and Zimbabwe
submitted that, in like manner, non-aggression pacts "were the com-
mon currency of international relations well after the illegality of aggres-
sion had entered the body of customary law" (joint answers by Malaysia
and Zimbabwe to questions asked by Vice-President Schwebel on
3 November 1995, response to the second question). Realities may need
to be dealt with in a practical way; but not every arrangement designed
to deal with them accepts their legality. Especially is this so in interna-
tional relations. When regard is also had to the power of the weapons
concerned, the Court could find that there is not any contradiction

between the position taken by the NNWS in the General Assembly that
the use of nuclear weapons is a crime, and the assurances which they
accepted from States which nevertheless possessed such weapons that
these would not be used against them. It is useful to remember Judge
Alvarez's observation that "[rleason, pushed to extremes, may easily
result in absurdity"(Anglo-Ivanian Oil Co., Pveliminary Objection, I.C. J.
Reports 1952, p. 126,dissenting opinion). The practice of putting aside a
legal problem in order to make progress towards a desirable goal is a
familiar one in international relations. My understanding of the position
taken by some of the NWS is that it was on this basis that they partici-
pated in certain negotiations in the field of humanitarian law.

It is also important to have in mind that bare proof of acts or omis-
sions allegedly constituting State practice does not remove the need to
interpretsuch acts or omissions. The fact that States may feel that reali-
ties leave them no choice but to do what they do does not suffice toexclude what they do from being classifiedas part of State practice, pro-
vided, however, that what they do is done in the belief that they were
acting out of a sense of legal obligation. "The need for such a belief, Le.,
the existence of a subjective element, is implicit in the very notion of the
opiniojuris sive necessitatis."(North Sea Continental ShelJ;I.C.J. Reports
1969, p. 44.) Speaking of actions which could evidence an opinio neces-

sitatis juris, Lauterpacht excepts conduct which "was not accompanied
by any such intention" 34.SOintention is material. Whether it exists is to
be determined not on a microscopic inspection of disjointed features of a
large and shiftingpicture, but by looking at the picture as a whole. When
the whole of the picture is regarded in the circumstances of this case, the
Court could find that the matters relied on to evidence an acknowledg-
ment by the proponents of illegality that there is a right in law to use
nuclear weapons fa11short of demonstrating an intention to make that
acknowledgment.

1should add that 1am not persuaded that Security Council resolution
255 (1968)of 19June 1968,to which reference is made in paragraphs 59

and 61 of the Court's Advisory Opinion, takes the matter any further.
The question remains whether the resolution was dealing with the objec-
tive fact that nuclear weapons existed and could in fact be used, or
whether it was affirming, directly or indirectly, the existence of a legal
right of use.

To sum up, putting at the highest al1of the matters relied on by the
proponents of legality, the Court could find that those matters do not
sufficeto cancel out the continuing assertion of the proponents of illegal-
ity that the threat or use of nuclear weapons is illegal. It would follow
that the basic difficultiesnoticedabove would remain. If, as 1consider, a
correct finding is that, on the law as it stood at the commencement of the
nuclear age, a prohibitory rule then existed, that finding, as to what was
the then law, cannot be contradicted by subsequent inconsistent State

practice; the most that subsequent inconsistent State practice could do
would be to generate a new rule rescinding or modifying the old rule. But
the position taken by most of the NNWS would make it impossible to
establish that the necessary opiniojuris emerged to support the creation
of a new rule having the effect of reversing the old, andmore particularly
if the latter had the status ofjus cogens. The prior prohibitory rule would
thus continue to the present time.

34Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, The Developmentof International Law by the International
Court, 1958,p. 380.

202 PARTVI. CONCLUSION

A holding that there is a right in law to use nuclear weapons would
bear a difficult relationship to the Court's finding that the

"destructive power of nuclear weapons cannot be contained in either
space or time. They have the potential to destroy al1civilization and
the entire ecosystem of the planet." (Advisory Opinion, para. 35.)

The affirmation of the existence of a right the exercise of which could
yield such grim results would come as near as might be to a literal.appli-
cation of the maximfiat justitia ruat coelum. Judge Carneiro's view was
"that no judge nowadays can blindly follow the obsolete rulefiat justitia,
pereat mundus" (Minquiers and Ecrehos, I.C.J. Reports 1953, p. 109,
separate opinion). It would, at any rate, seemcurious that a World Court
should consider itself com~elledbv the law to reach the conclusion that a
State has the legal right, even in limited circumstances, to put the planet
to death. May it be that the maxim more properly attracted by its high
mission is fiat justitia ne pereat mundus?
The danger of the maxim last referred to is that it could seduce the
Court into acting as a legislator. In the course of the proceedings, the

Court was rightly reminded that it cannot do that. To use the words of
the United States Militarv Tribunal in the List case. "it is not OurDrov-
ince to write international law as we would have it; we must apply it as
we find it"35.And thus, as Judge Lauterpacht remarked, "Reluctance to
encroach upon the province of the legislature is a proper manifestation of
judicial caution." However, as he added,

"If exaggerated, it may amount to unwillingness to fulfil a task
which is within the orbit of the functions of the Court as defined by
its Statute." (Admissibility of Hearings of Petitioners by the Com-
mittee on South West Africa, I.C.J. Reports 1956, p. 57, separate
opinion.)

The danger of legislating arises not only where a court essays to make
law where there is none, but also where it fails to apply such law as exists;
the failure may well be regarded as amounting to judicial legislation
directed to repealing the existing law.

International law does indeed concern relations between sovereign
States. However, as it has been remarked, sovereignty does not mean that
those relations are between billiard balls which collide but do not co-
operate. There is at work a process of cohesion-building. It is not, and
possibly never will be, sufficiently advanced to attract the full force of
Cicero's observation that "the solidity of a State is very largely bound up

35List casesupra,footnote 33, p. 1249.426 THREAT OR USE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS (DISSO. P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

with itsjudicial decisions" 36.Nevertheless, the broad import of the state-
ment is not altogether amiss: the role of the Court need not be over-
estimated; neither should its responsibility be misunderstood. There is
disciplined room for recalling the obligations of international lawyers.
As it was put by Jenks, "We arenot dealing with the routine of the estab-
lished certainties of life but must frequently come to grips with the great
unsettled issues on which the future of the world de pend^."^^The case at
bar is the supreme illustration of this truth.

To recall what was said at the beginning of this opinion, the great un-

settled issue on which the future of the world depends is how to reconcile
the imperative need of a State to defend itself with the no less imperative
need to ensure that, in doing so, it does not imperil the survival of the
human species. Humanitarian law, it is said, must be read as being sub-
ject to an exception which allows a State to use nuclear weapons in self-
defence when its survival is at stake, that is to Say,even if such use would
otherwise breach that law, and this for the reason that no system of law
obliges those subject to it to commit suicide. That is the argument which
underlies the second part of subparagraph E of paragraph 2 of the opera-
tive paragraph of the Court's Advisory Opinion.

The implication of that part of the Court's holding is that, in the view
of the Court, it is possible that the use of nuclear weapons could be law-
ful "in an extreme circumstance of self-defence,in which the very survival
of a State would be at stake", and hence even if humanitarian law would
othenvise be violated. What the Court so sought to leave on the basis of
a possibility takes on a firmer aspect in the light of the "Lotus" case, as
generally understood. In saying that it cannot definitively decide, the
Court is saying that it cannot definitively say whether or not a prohibi-
tory rule exists. If the Court is in a position in which it cannot definitively
say whether or not a prohibitory rule exists, the argument can be made
that, on the basis of that case, the presumption is in favour of the right of
States to act unrestrained by any such rule. Accordingly, the meaning of

the Court's position would be that States have a right in law to use
nuclear weapons. If this was not the intended result, the Court's holding
was not well conceived.

Thus, however gross or excessive the suffering, the presence of the
stated circumstances could create an exception to the application of

3GCicero, Selected Works, trans. Michael Grant, 1960,p. 36.
37C. W. Jenks, The Common Law of Mankind, 1958,p. 416.humanitarian law, as indeed is visualized by the word "generally" in the
first part of that subparagraph of the Court's holding. A law may, of
course, provide for exceptions to its application. At the moment, how-
ever, there is nothing to suggest that humanitarian law provides for an
exception to accommodate the circumstances visualized by the Court. It
seems to me that to take the position that humanitarian law can be set
aside in the stated circumstances would sit oddly with the repeated and
correct submissions on the part of both sides to the argument that the
Court should apply the law and not make new law.

One further point. Despite variations in formulation and references to
the concept of "vital securityinterests", an "extreme circumstance of self-
defence, in which the very survival of a State would be at stake", as
defined by the Court, is the main circumstance in which the proponents

of legalityadvance a claim to a right to use nuclear weapons. This is so
for the reason that, assuming that the use of nuclear weapons is lawful,
the nature of the weapons, combined with the limitations imposed by the
requirements of necessity and proportionality which condition the exer-
cise of the right of self-defence, will serve to confine their lawful use to
that "extreme circumstance". It follows that to hold that humanitarian
law does not apply to the use of nuclear weapons in the main circum-
stance in which a claim to a right of use is advanced is to uphold the
substance of the thesis that humanitarian law does not apply at al1to the
use of nuclear weapons. That view has long been discarded; as the Court
itself recalls,the NWS themselves do not advocate it. 1am not persuaded
that that disfavoured thesis can be brought back through an exception
based on self-defence.

And thus 1return to the real meaning of the General Assembly'sques-
tion. The essence of the question is whether the exercise of the right of
self-defencecan be taken to the point of endangering the survival of man-
kind. To this the Court responds that
"in view of the current state of international law, and of the elements
of fact at its disposal, the Court cannotonclude definitivelywhether
the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in
an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in which the very survival
of a State would be at stake" (Advisory Opinion, para. 105 (2) E).

That is the material holding on which this opinion hinges. In so far as
that holding suggests that there is a deficiencyin the law, 1do not think
there is; in so far as it suggests that the facts are not sufficient to attractan application of the law, 1 am not able to agree. In my opinion, there
was a sufficient legal and factual basis on which the Court could have
proceeded to answer the General Assembly's question - one way or
another. And hence my respectful dissent from its conclusion that it can-
not.

(Signed) Mohamed SHAHABUDDEEN.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SHAHABUDDEEN

The Charter was signed on 26June 1945.A less troubled world was its
promise. But the clash of arms could still be heard. A new weapon was
yet to come. It must first be tested. The date was 12July 1945; the place

Alamogordo. The countdown began. The moment came: "The radiance
of a thousand suns. " That was the line which came to the mind of the
leader of the scientificteam. He remembered also the end of the ancient
verse: "1am become death, The Shatterer of Worlds" l.

By'later standards, it was a small explosion. Bigger bombs have since
been made. Five declared nuclear-weapon States possess them. The pros-
pect of mankind being destroyed through a nuclear war exists. The books
of some early peoples taught that the use of a super weapon which might
lead to excessively destructive results was not allowed. What does con-
temporary international law have to say on the point?

That, in substance, is the General Assembly's question. The question
raises the difficult issue as to whether, in the special circumstances of the
use of nuclear weapons, it is possible to reconcile the imperative need of
a State to defend itself with the no less imperative need to ensure that, in
doing so, it does not imperil the survival of the human species. If a
reconciliation is not possible, which side should give way? 1s the prob-
lem thus posed one of law? If so, what lines of legal enquiry suggest
themselves?

Overruling preliminary arguments, the Court, with near unanimity,
decided to comply with the General Assembly's request for an advisory
opinion on the question whether "the threat or use of nuclear weapons
[is] in any circumstance permitted under international law". By a bare
majority, it then proceeded to reply to the General Assembly's question
by taking the position, on its own showing, that it cannot answer the sub-
stance of the question. 1fear that the contradiction between promise and
performance cannot, really, be concealed. With respect, 1am of the view

'Peter Michelmore, Tlze Swift Years, Tlze Robert OppenheimerStory, 1969, p. 110.
Oppenheimer could read the verse in the original Sanskrit of the-Gita.

153 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. SHAHABUDDEEN

[Traduct ion]

La Charte a étésignéele 26juin 1945.C'étaitla promesse d'un monde

moins troublé. Mais les armes ne s'étaient pas encore tues et une arme
nouvelle allait voir lejour. fallait encore l'expérimenter.L'essai eut lieu
le 12juillet 1945 à Alamogordo. Le compte à rebours commença. Puis
vint le moment de «l'éclatde mille soleils». Ce sont ces mots qui vinrent
à l'esprit du responsable de l'équipe scientifique,qui devait se souvenir
aussi de la fin de ce vers qui remonte un temps très ancien: «Je suis la
mort, celui qui anéantit les mondes.»'
Par comparaison avec ce qu'on verrait par la suite, ce fut une petite
explosion. On a construit depuis lors des bombes plus puissantes, et
les cinq Etats nucléaires déclarésles possèdent. La perspective de voir
l'humanité anéantie à la suite d'une guerre nucléaire existe bel et bien.
Les livres de certains peuples primitifs enseignaient que l'emploi d'une

superarme susceptible d'avoir des effets destructeurs excessifs n'était
pas autorisé. Que nous dit le droit international contemporain à ce
sujet?
Telle est, en substance, la question posée par l'Assembléegénérale.
Cette question soulève le difficileproblème de savoir si, dans le cas par-
ticulier de l'emploi d'armes nucléaires,il est possible de concilier l'impé-
rieuse nécessitépour un Etat de se défendreavec la nécessiténon moins
impérieuse de garantir que, ce faisant, cet Etat ne compromette pas la
survie de l'espècehumaine. Si une telle conciliation s'avère impossible,
qui va devoir céder?Le problème ainsi poséest-il un problème de droit?
Si c'est le cas, quelles sont les voies de recherchejuridique qui s'ouvrent

devant nous?

Après avoir rejetéles arguments préliminairesqui lui étaientprésentés,

la Cour a décidé, àla quasi-unanimité, de donner suite àla demande qui
lui a été soumisepar l'Assembléegénérale dedonner un avis consultatif
sur le point de savoir «s'il est permis en droit international de recourir
la menace ou àl'emploi d'armes nucléairesen toute circonstance)). Elle a
ensuite,à une faible majorité, réponduà la question de l'Assembléegéné-
rale en déclarant, de son propre aveu, qu'elle ne pouvait apporter de
réponse defond à la question. Il me paraît difficile de nier que ce qu'on

'Peter Michelmore, Tlze Swift Years. The Robert Oppenlzeimer Story, 1969,p. 110.
Oppenheimer a pu lire ce vers dans la version originale sanskrite du Bhagavad-Gita.that the Court should and could have answered the General Assembly's
question - one way or another.

From the point of view of the basic legal principles involved, the reply
of the Court, such as it is, is set out in the first part of subparagraph E of
paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph of its Advisory Opinion. Subject
to a reservation about the use of the word "generally", 1 agree with the
Court

"that the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be con-
trary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict,
and in particular the principles and rules of humanitarian law".

My difficulty is with the second part of subparagraph E of paragraph 2
of the operative paragraph of the Court's Advisory Opinion. If the use of
nuclear weapons is lawful, the nature of the weapon, combined with
the requirements of necessity and proportionality which condition the
exercise of the inherent right of self-defence, would suggest that such
weapons could only be lawfully used "in an extreme circumstance of
self-defence, in which the very survival of a State would be at stake";
and this, 1 think, notwithstanding variations in formulation and flexible
references to "vital security interests", is the generaleme underlying the

position taken by the nuclear-weapon States. That in turn must be the
main issue presented for consideration by the Court. But this is exactly
the issue that the Court says it cannot decide, with the result that the
General Assembly has not received an answer to the substance of its
question.
1 have the misfortune to be unable to subscribe to the conclusion so
reached by the Court, and the inore so for the reason that, when that
conclusion is assessed by reference to the received view of the "Lotus"
case, the inference could be that the Court is saying that there is a pos-
sibility that the use of nuclear weapons could be lawful in certain circum-
stances and that it is up to States to decide whether that possibility exists
in particular circumstances, a result which would give me difficulty. In
my respectful view, "the current state of international law, and . . .the

elements of fact at its disposal" permitted the Court to answer one way
or another.
As the two parts of subparagraph E cannot be separated for the pur-
pose of voting, 1 have been regretfully constrained to withhold support
from this subparagraph.Further, as the point of disagreement goes to the
heart of the case, 1 have elected to use the style "dissenting opinion",
even though voting for most of the remaining items of the operative para-
graph.trouve à l'arrivéen'est pas ce qui était annoncéau départ. Je fais valoir
respectueusement que la Cour aurait dû répondre à la question de
l'Assemblée générale et qu'elé letaiten mesure de le faire dans un sens
ou dans l'autre.

Du point de vue des principes juridiques de base pertinents, la réponse
de la Cour est énoncéedans la première partie de l'alinéaE du para-
graphe 2 du dispositif de l'avisconsultatif de la Cour. Tout en formulant
une réserve à propos du mot ((généralement)),je suis d'accord avec la

Cour pour estimer
«que la menace ou l'emploi d'armes nucléaires serait généralement
contraire aux règlesdu droit international applicable dans les con-
flits armés,et spécialementaux principes et règlesdu droit humani-
taire)).

La seconde partie de l'alinéaE du paragraphe 2 du dispositif de l'avis
consultatif de la Cour me pose un problème. Si l'emploi d'armes nu-
cléaires est licite, lanature de ces armes ainsi que les exigences en ma-
tièrede nécessité et deproportionnalité auxquelles est subordonné l'exer-
cicedu droit naturel de légitime défensdonneraient à penser que l'emploi
de tellesarmes ne pourrait êtrelicite que «dans une circonstance extrême
de légitime défensdeans laquelle la surviemêmed'un Etat serait en cause));

nous retrouvons là, je crois, sauf des nuances dans la formulation et dans
la manière dont sont invoqués ((les intérêts vitauxen matière de sécu-
rité)),l'idée généralqeui sous-tend la position adoptéepar les Etats dotés
d'armes nucléaires. C'est là, de même, laquestion essentielle qui était
soumise à l'examen de la Cour. Or, c'est précisément la question que la
Cour affirme ne pouvoir trancher, et de ce fait il n'a pas étérépondu au
fond à la question de I'Assenibléegénérale.
Je regrette de ne pouvoir souscrire à la conclusion à laquelle la Cour
est ainsi parvenue, surtout au motif que, lorsqu'on rapproche cette
conclusion de l'opinion formuléedans l'affaire du Lotus, on pourrait être
amené à conclure que, selon la Cour, il existe une possibilitéque l'emploi
d'armes nucléaires soit licitedans certaines circonstances et qu'il appar-
tient aux Etats de décidersi cette possibilité existedans des circonstances
données,et c'est là un point que je ne saurais admettre. Je fais valoir res-

pectueusement que «l'étatactuel du droit international, ainsi que [les]élé-
ments de fait dont elle dispose))permettaientà la Cour de répondredans
un sens ou dans l'autre.
Les deux parties de l'alinéa E ne pouvant êtreséparéesaux fins du
vote, j'ai étcontraint de refuser de souscrireà cet alinéa. Par ailleurs, le
point de désaccord portant sur le fond de l'affaire,j'ai choisid'utiliser la
formule de 1'«opinion dissidente)), bien que j'aie votépour la plupart des
autres points du dispositif. A second holding which 1am unable to support is subparagraph B of

paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph. The specificity conveyedby the
words "as such" enables me to recognize that "[tlhere is in neither cus-
tomary nor conventional international law any comprehensive and uni-
versa1prohibition of the threat or use of nuclear weapons as such". But
the words "as such" do not outweigh a general suggestion that there is no
prohibition at al1of the use of nuclear weapons. The circumstance that
there is no "comprehensive and universal prohibition of the threat or use
of nuclear weapons as such" in customary or conventional international
law does not conclude the question whether the threat or use of such
weapons is lawful;more general principles have to be consulted. Further,
for reasons to be given later, the test of prohibition does not suffice to
determine whether there is a right to do an act with the magnitude of
global implications which would be involved in such use. Finally, the
holding in this subparagraph is a step in the reasoning; itdoes not prop-
erly form part of the Court's reply to the General Assembly's question.

As remarked above, 1have voted for the remaining items of the opera-
tive paragraph of the Court's Advisory Opinion. However, a word of
explanation is appropriate. The Court's voting practice does not always
allow for a precise statement of a judge's position on the elements of a
dispositif to be indicated through his vote; how he votes would depend
on his perception of the general direction taken by such an element and
of any risk of his basic position being misunderstood. A declaration,
separate opinion or dissenting opinion provides needed opportunity for
explanation of subsidiary difficulties.This1now give below in respect of
those parts of the operative paragraph for which 1have voted.
As to subparagraph A of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph,
1take the view, to some extent implicit inthis subparagraph,that, at any
rate in a case of this kind, the action of a Stateis unlawful unless it is
authorized under international law; the mere absence of prohibition is
not enough. In the case of nuclear weapons, there is no authorization,
whether specificor otherwise. However, subparagraph A is also a step in

the reasoning; it is not properly part of the Court's reply to the General
Assembly'squestion.

As to subparagraph C of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph,
there is an implication here that a "threat or use of force by means of
nuclear weapons that is contrary to Article 2, paragraph 4, of the United
Nations Charter" may nevertheless be capable of complying with some
or al1of the requirements of Article 51and would in that event be lawful.
1 should have thought that something which was "contrary" to the
former was ipsofacto illegaland not capable of being redeemed bymeet- MENACEOU EMPLOID'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.HAHABUDDEEN) 377

Un second point sur lequelje suis en désaccord concernel'alinéaB du
paragraphe 2 du dispositif. La précisionqu'apportent les mots «en tant
que telles))me permet de reconnaître que «[n]i le droit international cou-
tumier ni le droit international conventionnel ne comportent d'interdic-
tion complète et universelle de la menace ou de l'emploi des armes
nucléaires entant que telles)). Mais les mots «en tant que telles» ne pri-
ment pas sur l'idée générale qu'n il'y a pas d'interdiction purement et
simplement de l'emploi d'armes nucléaires.Le fait qu'il n'y a pas d'«in-

terdiction complète et universelle de la menace ou de l'emploi desarmes
nucléaires entant que telles))en droit international coutumier ou conven-
tionnel ne tranche pas la question de savoir si la menace ou l'emploi de
telles armes est licite; il faut donc seréférer principes plus généraux.
Ensuite, pour des raisons qui seront exposées plusloin, le critère de
l'interdiction ne permet pasà lui seul de déterminersi l'on a le droit de
recourir à un acte, lorsque l'on sait l'ampleur des implications mondiales
qu'aurait un tel recours. Enfin, l'affirmation énoncédans cet alinéaest
un élémentde la motivation, mais elle ne fait pas partie à proprement
parler de la réponse dela Cour à la question de l'Assemblée générale.

Comme je l'ai dit, j'ai votépour les autres points du dispositif de l'avis
consultatif de la Cour. Je me dois cependant d'apporter quelques préci-
sions. La manière dont la Cour vote ne permet pas toujours à un juge
d'indiquer avec précision saposition sur les élémentsd'un dispositif par
le biais de son vote; la façon dont il vote dépend dela perception qu'il a
de la signification généralede ces éléments, etdu risque que sa position
fondamentale soit mal comprise. Une déclaration, une opinion indivi-
duelle ou une opinion dissidente permettent d'expliquer des difficultés
accessoires. Je m'explique donc dans les lignes qui suivent sur les diffé-

rents élémentsdu dispositif pour lesquels j'ai voté.
S'agissant de l'alinéaA du paragraphe 2 du dispositif,je suis d'avis, et
ceci est dans une certaine mesure contenu implicitement dans cet alinéa,
qu'en tout étatde cause, dans une affaire de ce type, l'action d'un Etat est
illicite moins d'être autorisée en droit international; la seule absence
d'interdiction ne suffit pas. Dans le cas des armes nucléaires,il n'y a pas
d'autorisation, qu'elle soit donnée expressémentou d'une autre façon.
Toutefois, l'alinéaA constitue égalementun élémentde la motivation et
ne fait pas partie proprement parler de la réponse dela Cour à la ques-
tion de l'Assemblée générale.
S'agissant de l'alinéC du paragraphe 2 du dispositif, on laisseentendre

que «la menace ou l'emploi de la force au moyen d'armes nucléairesqui
serait contraireà l'article 2, paragraphe 4, de la Charte des Nations
Unies)) pourrait néanmoinssatisfaire à certaines ouà toutes les prescrip-
tions de l'article 51 et serait dans ce cas licite. J'aurais cru que ce qui est
«contraire» à la première de ces dispositions serait ipsofacto illicite,
même s'il esstatisfait aux prescriptions de la seconde de ces dispositions.ing any of the requirements of the latter. Thus, an act of aggressioil,

being contrary to Article 2, paragraph 4, is wholly outside of the frame-
work of Article 51: even if carried out with antiquated rifles and in strict
conformity with humanitarian law. Further, it is difficult to see how the
Court can allow itself to be suggesting here that there are circumstances
in which the threat or use of nuclear weapons is lawful in view of the fact
that in subparagraph E of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph it has
not been able to come to a definitive conclusion on the main issue as to
whether the threat or use of such weapons is lawful or unlawf~~lin the
circumstances stated there.
As to subparagraph D of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph, the
statement that a "threat or use of nuclear weapons should also be com-
patible witli the requirements of the international law applicable in
armed conflict . . .suggests the possibility of cases of compatibility and
consequently of legality. As mentioned above, it is difficult to seehow the
Court can take this position in view of its inability to decide the real issue
of legality. The word "should" is also out of place in a finding as to what
is the true position in law.

As to subparagraph F of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph,
1have voted for this as a general propositioii having regard to the char-
acter of nuclear weapons. The particular question as to the legal impli-
cations of Article VI of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons ("NPT") is not before the Court; it does not form part of the
General Assembly's question. It could well be the subject of a separate
question as to the effect of that Article of the NPT, were the General
Assembly minded to present one.
Going beyond the operative paragraph, 1 have hesitations on certain
aspects of the cor?sideralzckbrut do not regard it as convenient to list thein
all. 1 should however mention paragraph 104 of the Advisory Opinion.
To the extent that this reproduces the standing jurisprudence of the
Court, 1do not seethe point of the paragraph. If it ventures beyond, 1do
not agree. The operative paragraph of the Court's Advisory Opinion has
to be left to be interpreted in accordance with the settled jurisprudence
on the point.

Returning to subparagraph E of paragraph 2 of the operative para-
graph of the Court's Advisory Opinion, 1 propose to set out below my
reasons for agreeing with this holding in so far as 1agree with it and for
disagreeing with it in so far as 1disagree. The limited objective will be to
show that, contrary to the Court's major conclusion, "the current state of
international law, and . ..the elements of fact at its disposal" were suf-
ficient to enable it to "conclude definitively whether the threat or use of
nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in an extrenle circumstance
of self-defence, in which the very survival of a State would be at stake".Ainsi, un acte d'agression, du fait qu'il est contraire au paragraphe 4 de
l'article2, ne peut absoluinent pas répondre aux critères de l'article 51,
inêmes'il est accoinpli avec de vieux fusils et dans le respect strict du
droit humanitaire. En outre, on a de la peine à comprendre comment la
Cour peut se permettre ici de laisser entendre qu'il existe des circons-
tances dans lesquelles la menace ou l'emploi d'armes nucléaires est licite,
alors qu'à l'alinéaE du paragraphe 2 du dispositif elle n'a pas pu arriver
à une coilclusion définitive sur la question essentielle de savoir si la
menace ou l'emploi de telles arines est licite ou illicite dans les circons-
tances en question.
S'agissant de l'alinéaD du paragraphe 2 du dispositif, l'affirmation

selon laquelle «la inellace ou l'emploi d'armes nucléairesdevrait aussi
être compatible avec les exigences du droit international applicable dans
les conflitsarinés...»laisse entendre qu'il peut exister des cas de compa-
tibilitéet donc de licéité.omrne indiquéplus haut, on voit difficilement
comment la Cour peut adopter une telle position, alors qu'elle s'avoue
incapable de se prononcer sur la question fondainentale de la licéitéP. ar
ailleurs, le inot «devrait» n'a pas sa place lorsqu'il s'agit de définir la
véritable position du droit en la matière.
S'agissant de l'alinéaF du paragraphe 2 du dispositif, j'ai votépour cet
alinéa en tant que proposition généraleeu égardau caractère des armes
nucléaires. LaCour n'a was étésaisie de la auestion warticulièretouchant
les iinplicationsjuridiques de l'articleI du traité surla non-prolifération
des armes nucléaires (TNP), celle-cine faisant pas partie de la question de

l'Assembléegénérale.Elle pourrait faire l'objet d'une question distincte
touchant les implications de cet article du traité, au cas où l'Assemblée
généraleentendrait la poser.
Cela étantdit à propos du dispositif, j'ai quelques hésitationsà propos
de certains aspects des motifs, mais il ne me paraît pas opportun de les
passer tous en revue. Je voudrais cependant signaler le paragraphe 104de
I'avisconsultatif.Dans la mesure où ce paragraphe ne fait que reprendre
la jurisprudence constante de la Cour, je ne vois pas son utilité. S'il va
au-delà de cette jurisprudence, je ne peux l'approuver. Le dispositif de
I'avisconsultatif de la Cour doit pouvoir être interprété coiiforméinent à
la jurisprudence établiesur le point.

Pour revenir à l'alinéaE du paragraphe 2 du dispositif de l'avisconsul-
tatif de la Cour, je me propose d'exposer ci-après pourquoi je suis
d'accord avec cette conclusion, dans la mesure où j'y adhère, et pourquoi
je suis en désaccord avec elle, dans la mesure où je n'y adhère pas.
L'objectif limitéqueje ine suis fixéest de montrer que, contrairement à la
conclusioil fondamentale de la Cour, ((l'étatactuel du droit international
ainsi que [Ilesélémentsde fait dont elle dispose)) étaientsuffisants pour
lui permettre de «coiiclure de façon définitiveque la menace ou l'emploi
d'armes nucléaires serait liciteou illicite dans une circonstance extrêmeWith this end in view, 1 propose, after noticing some introductory and
miscellaneous matters in Part 1, to deal, in Part II, with the question
whether States have a right to use nuclear weapons having regard to the
general principles which determine when States are to be considered as
having a power, and, in Part III, with the position under international
humanitarian law. In Part IV, 1consider whether a prohibitory rule, if it
existed at the commencement of the nuclear age, was modified or
rescinded by the emergence of a subsequent rule of customary interna-
tional law. 1pass on in Part V to consider denuclearization treaties and
the NPT. The conclusion is reached in Part VI.

1. The Main Issue

The commencement of the nuclear age represents a legal benchmark for
the case in hand. One argument was that, at that point of time, the use of
nuclear weapons was not prohibited under international law, but that a
prohibitory rule later emerged, the necessary opiniojuris developing under
the twin influences ofthe general prohibition of the use of force laid down
in Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter and of growing appreciation of
and sensitivity to the power of nuclear weapons. In view of the position
taken by the proponents of the legality of the use of nuclear weapons
("proponents of legality") over the past five decades, it will bedifficult to
establish that the necessary opiniojuvis later crystallized, if none existed
earlier. That argument was not followed by most of the proponents of the
illegality of the use of nuclear weapons ("proponents of illegality").

The position generally taken by the proponents of illegality was that a
prohibitory rule existed at the commencement of the nuclear age, and
that subsequent developments merely evidenced the continuing existence
of that rule. For their part, the proponents of legality took the position
that such a prohibitory rule never existed, and that what subsequent
developments did was to evidence the continuing non-existence of any
such rule and a corresponding right to use nuclear weapons. There was
no issue as to whether, supposing that a prohibitory rule existed at the
commencement of the nuclear age, it might have been reversed or modi-
fied by the development of a later rule in the opposite direction2; sup-
posing that that had been argued, the position taken by the proponents

For the possibility of a rule of customary international law being modified by later
inconsistent State practice, see Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nica-
ragua, Merits, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 109,para. 207.de légitime défensedans laquelle la survie mêmed'un Etat serait en
cause)).Cet objectif étantpréciséj,e me propose, aprèsavoir abordéquel-
ques questions liminaires et diversesdans la premièrepartie, d'examiner,
dans la deuxièmepartie, la question de savoir si les Etats ont le droit
d'employer des armes nucléaires,compte tenu des principes générauxen
vertu desquels les Etats sont considéréscomme disposant de certains
pouvoirs, et, dans la troisièmepartie, la position au regard du droit inter-
national humanitaire. Dans la quatrième partie,j'examine la question de
savoir si une règleénonçantune interdiction, si elle existait au débutde
l'ère nucléairea, étémodifiéeou annuléepar l'apparition d'une règle pos-
térieure dedroit international coutumier. Dans la cinquièmepartie, j'exa-

mine lestraités de dénucléarisation et le traité surla non-prolifération.La
sixièmepartie est conçue en forme de conclusion.

1. La question principale

Le débutde l'ère nucléairc eonstitue un point de référencjeuridique en
l'espèce.D'aucuns faisaient valoir qu'à cette époque-là l'emploi d'armes
nucléairesn'était pas interditndroit international, maisqu'unerègled'inter-
diction est apparuepar la suite,la nécessairepiniojuvis sedéveloppant sous
l'influenceconjuguéede l'interdictiongénérale du recours à l'emploide la
forceformuléeau paragraphe 4 de l'article2 dela Charte et de la sensibilisa-
tion et de la prise de consciencecroissantes à l'égardde la puissance des
armes nucléaires.Compte tenu de la position soutenuepar les tenants de la
licéité dle'emploi desarmes nucléaires (les((tenantsde la licéité))a)u cours
descinquante dernièresannéesi,l seradifficiled'établir quela nécessaireopi-

niojuris s'estcristalliséepar la suite, au cas où ellen'aurait pasexistéanté-
rieurement. Cet argument n'a pas été repris par la plupart des tenants de
l'illicéide l'emploides armes nucléaires(les((tenantsde l'illicéité))).
La position généralementadoptée par les tenants de l'illicéitéétait
qu'une règle d'interdiction existait au début de l'ère nucléaire et que
l'évolutionultérieuren'aurait fait qu'attester l'existenceininterrompue de
cette règle.Quant aux tenants de la licéitéi,ls soutenaient qu'une règle
d'interdiction n'avait jamais existéet que l'évolution ultérieure s'était
contentée d'attester la non-existence ininterrompue d'une quelconque
règlede ce type et, partant, le droit d'employer desarmes nucléaires.On
ne posait pas la question de savoir, si,à supposer qu'une règled'interdic-
tion aurait existéau débutde l'ère nucléairee ,lle aurait pu êtreinfirmée
ou modifiéepar l'apparition d'une règleultérieurecontraire2; à supposer

qu'on aurait soutenu cet argument, la position adoptéepar les tenants de

Concernant la possibilitéqu'une règle de droit international coutumier aurait été
modifiéeultérieurement par une pratique étatique contraire, voirés militaires et
paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci,fond, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 109,par. 207.of illegality would bar the development of the opirzioj~11.in~ecessary for

the subsequent emergence of any such permissive rule, and more particu-
larly so if the earlier prohibitory rule had the quality ofj~rscogerzs.This
would have been the case if any humanitarian principles on which the
earlier prohibitory rule was based themselves had the quality of jus
cogens, a possibility left open by paragraph 83 of the Court's Advisory
Opinion.
State practice is important. But it has to be considered within the
framework of the issues raised. Within the framework of the issues raised
in this case, State practice subsequent to the cominencemeilt of the
nuclear age does not have the decisiveimportance suggested by the focus
directed to it during the proceedings: it is not necessary to consider it in
any detail beyond and above what is reasonably clear, namely, that the
opposition shown by the proponents of legality would have prevented the
development of a prohibitory rule if none previously existed, andthat the
opposition shown by the proponents of illegality would have prevented
the development of a rescinding rule if a prohibitory rule previously
existed. In either case, the legal situation as it existed at the commence-
ment of the nuclear age would continue in force. The question is, what

was that legal situation?
The real issue, then, is whether at the commencement of the nuclear
age there was in existence a rule of international law which prohibited a
State from creating effects of the kind which could later be pi-oduced by
the use of nuclear weapons. If no such rule then existed: none has since
come into being, and the case of the proponents of legality succeeds; if
such a rule then existed, it has not since been rescinded. and the case of
the proponents of illegality succeeds.

2. The Clzaiter Assu~~zes Tl~atMclnkir~dand Its Civilizatior?
Will Corztirz~ie

International law iilcludes the principles of the law of armed conflict.
These principles, with roots reaching into the past of different civiliza-
tions, were constructed on the unspoken premise that weapons, however
destructive, would be limited in impact, both in space and in time. That
assumption held good throughout the ages. New and deadlier weapons
continued to appear, but none had the power to wage war on future gen-

erations or to threaten the survival of the human species. Until now.

1s a legal problem presented? 1think there is; and this for the reasoil
that, whatever may be the legal position of the individual in international
law, if mankind in the broad is annihilated, States disappear and, with
them, the basis on which rights aiid obligations exist within the interna-
tional cominunity. How might the problein be approached?

Courts, whetlier international or national, have not had to deal with
the legal implications of actions which could annihilate mankind. Yet in MENACE OU EMPLOI D'ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.SHAHABUDDEEN) 380

I'illicéitéempêcherait que prenne corps l'opirziojuris nécessaire pour
l'apparition ultérieured'une quelconque règleénonçant une autorisation
de ce type, surtout si la règled'interdiction antérieurefaisait partie du
cogens. Cela aurait étéle cas si, d'aventure, des principes humanitaires
sur lesquels la règled'interdiction antérieurese fondait avaient fait partie
eux-mêmesdu jw cogerzs,une possibilitéque le paragraphe 83 de l'avis
consultatif de la Cour laisse en suspens.
La pratique des Etats est importante. Mais elledoit êtreexaminéedans
le cadre des questions soulevées.S'agissant des questions soulevéesen

l'espèce,la pratique suivie par les Etats après le débutde l'èrenucléaire
n'a pas l'importance décisiveque pourrait laisser entendre l'accent mis
sur cette pratique pendant la procédure: il n'est pas nécessairede l'exa-
miner en détail par-delà ce qui est manifestement clair, à savoir que
l'opposition manifestéepar les tenants de la licéitéaurait empêché l'éla-
boration d'une règled'interdiction, si une telle règlen'existait pas précé-
demment, et que l'opposition manifestée par les tenants de l'illicéité
aurait empêché l'élaborationd'une règleabrogatoire, au cas où une règle
d'interdiction aurait existéprécédemment.Dans les deux cas, la situation
juridique telle qu'elle existait au débutde l'ère nucléaireaurait continué.
La question est de savoir ce qu'était cette situation juridique.
La véritablequestion est donc de savoir s'il existait au début de l'ère
nucléaireune règlede droit international interdisant à un Etat de créer

des effets du type de ceux que provoquerait ultérieurement l'emploi
d'armes nucléaires.Si une telle règlen'existait pas cette époque,aucune
règlen'a vu le jour depuis, et les tenants de la licéitéont raison. Si une
telle règleexistait: ellen'a pas été abrogée depui,t ce sont les tenants de
l'illicéiqui ont raison.

Le droit international inclut lesprincipes du droit des conflitsarmés.Ces
principes, qui plongent leurs racines dans le passé de différentescivili-
sations, se fondent sur la prémisse impliciteque les armes, aussi destruc-
trices soient-elles,auraient des effets limités aussibien dans le temps que

dans l'espace. Cette hypothèse s'estvérifiéeà travers les âges. Des armes
nouvelles et plus meurtrièresn'ont cesséde voir lejour, mais il ne s'en est
trouvé aucunesusceptible de compromettre l'existence desgénérations fu-
tures ou demenacerla survie del'espècehumaine. Du moinsjusqu'à cejour.
Cela pose-t-il un problème juridique? Je crois pouvoir répondre par
l'affirmative: en effet, quel que soit le statut juridique de l'individu en
droit international, si l'humanité commetelle vient à être anéantie,les
Etats disparaîtront et, avec eux, la base sur laquelle se fonde les droits et
les obligations au sein de la communauté internationale. Sous quel angle
peut-on aborder le problème?
Ni les tribunaux internationaux ni les tribunaux nationaux n'ont eu à
connaître des implications juridiques d'actes qui pourraient anéantirneither system should there be difficulty in finding an answer; both sys-
tems must look to the juridical foundations on which they rest. What do
these suggest?
In his critical study of history, Ibn Khaldûn referred to "the explana-
tion that laws have their reason in the purposes they are to serve". Con-

tinuing, he noted that "the jurists mention that . . .injustice invites the
destruction of civilization with the necessary consequence that the species
will be destroyed", and that the laws "are based upon the effort to pre-
serve civilization" 3.Thus, the preservation of the human species and of
civilization constitutes the ultimate purpose of a legal system. In my
opinion, that purpose also belongs to international law, as this is under-
stood today.
This conclusion is not at variance with the Charter of the United
Nations and the Statute of the Court, by which the Court is bound. The
first preambular paragraph of the Charter recorded that "the Peoples of
the United Nations" were "[dletermined to Save succeeding generations
from the scourge of war, which twice in Ourlifetime has brought untold

sorrow to mankind . . .". A world free of conflict was not guaranteed;
but, read in the light of that and other statements in the Charter,
Article 9 of the Statute shows that the Court was intended to serve a
civilized society. A civilized society is not one that knowingly destroys
itself, or knowingly allows itself to be destroyed. A world without people
is a world without States. The Charter did not sti~ulate that mankind
would continue, but it at least assumed that it wouldi and the assumption
was not the less fundamental for being implicit.

3. The Use of Nuclear Weapons Is Unacceptable
to the International Community

It is necessary to consider the character of nuclear weapons. It was said
on the part of the proponents of legality that there are "tactical", "battle-
field", "theatre" or "clean" nuclear weapons which are no more destruc-
tive than certain conventional weapons. Supposing that this is so, then ex
hvuothesi the use of nuclear weaDons of this kind would be as lawful as
2L
the use of conventional weapons. It was in issue, however, whether the
material before the Court justified that hypothesis, the argument of the
proponents of illegality being that the use of any nuclear weapon, even if
directed against a lone nuclear submarine at sea or against an isolated
military target in the desert, results in the emission of radiation and
nuclear fall-out and carries the risk of triggering a chain of events which
could lead to the annihilation of the human species. The eleventh pre-
ambular paragraph of the 1968NPT, which was extended "indefinitely" in
1995,records that the States parties desired "the liquidation of al1their

Ibn Khaldûn, The Muqaddimah, An Introduction to History, trans. Franz Rosenthal,
edited and abridged by. J. Dawood, 1981,p. 40. MENACE OUEMPLOID'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISSS.HAHABUDDEEN) 381

l'humanité.Pourtant, ni les uns ni les autres ne devraient êtreen mal de
trouver une réponse: il leur suffit d'examiner les fondements juridiques
sur lesquels ils reposent. Quelle conclusion peut-on tirer de cela?
Dans son étude critique de l'histoire, Ibn Khaldoun évoque la thèse
selon laquelle leslois trouvent leur raison d'êtredans les objectifsqu'elles
sont censées servir. Il note ensuite que, selon les juristes, l'injustice

appelle la destruction dela civilisationet son corollaire inévitable,l'anéan-
tissement de l'espèce,et que leslois se fondent sur les efforts visant-
vegarder la civilisation3. La préservation de l'espècehumaine et de la
civilisation constitue donc l'objectif ultime de tout systèmejuridique.
mon avis, cet objectif vaut égalementpour le droit international tel qu'on
le perçoit aujourd'hui.
Cette conclusion ne contredit ni la Charte des Nations Unies ni le Sta-
tut de laCour, qui régitcelle-ci.Dans le premier alinéade son préambule,
la Charte note que les ((peuplesdes Nations Unies)) sont ((résoluà pré-
server les générationsfutures du fléaude la guerre qui deux fois en l'es-
pace d'une vie humaine a infligéà l'humanité d'indicibles souffranc..»
La Charte ne garantissait pas un monde exempt de conflits; mais, lors-

qu'on le lit à la lumière de ce paragraphe et d'autres passages de la
Charte, l'article du Statut montre que la Cour a été conçuepour servir
une sociétécivilisée.Une sociétéciviliséen'est pas une sociétéqui se
détruitelle-mêmesciemment ou qui permet sciemment qu'on la détruise.
Un monde sans habitants est un monde sans Etats. La Charte n'a pas
décrété que l'humanité allaitcontinuer, mais elle aà tout le moins sup-
posé qu'il enserait ainsi, et, pour êtreimplicite,cette supposition n'en est
pas moins fondamentale.

3. L'emploi d'armes nucléairesest inacceptable
pour la communauté internationale

Il nous faut examiner la nature des armes nucléaires.Les tenants de la
licéitéont prétendu qu'il y avait des armes nucléaires ((tactiques)),u
champ de bataille)), «du théâtre des opérations)) ou ((propres)), qui
n'étaientpas plus destructives que certaines armes classiques. Partant de
là, ils ont soutenu que par hypothèse l'emploi d'armes nucléaires dece
type serait aussi licite que l'emploi d'armes classiques.Restait cependant

à vérifierque les éléments présentéàsla Cour étayaient cette hypothèse,
les tenants de l'illicéitésoutenant pour leur part que l'emploi de toute
arme nucléaire, mêmecontre un sous-marin nucléaire isolé enmer ou
contre une cible militaire isoléedans le désert,provoque l'émission de
rayonnements et des retombées radioactives, et comporte le risque de
déclencher des événementsen chaîne qui pourraient aboutir à l'anéan-
tissement de l'espèce humaine. Il est indiqué au onzième alinéa du
préambule du traité sur la non-prolifération de 1968, qui a étépro-

Ibn Khaldoun, The Muqaddirnah. An Zntvoduction to History, traduit par Franz
Rosenthal, édité et prééans une version abrégéepar. Dawood, 1981,p. 40.

159existing stockpiles, and the elimination from national arsenals of iiuclear
weapons . . .".Presumably tlie elimination so foreshadowed compre-
hended al1 "nuclear weapons" and. therefore, "tactical", "battlefield",
"theatre" or "clean" nuclear weapons also. Tlie parties to the NPT drew
no distinction. On the material before it, the Court could feel lessthan

satisfied that the suggested exceptions exist.

The basic facts underlyiiig the resolutions of the General Assenibly as
to the nature of a iiuclear war, at least a full-scale one, are difficult to
controvert. Since 1983 the technology has advanced, but tlie position
even at that stage was put thus by the Secretary-General of the United
Nations. Mr. Javier Pérezde Cuéllar:

"The world's stockpile of nuclear weapons today is equivalent to

16billion tons of TNT. As against this, the entire devastation of the
Second World War was caused by the expenditure of no more than
3 inillion tons of munitions. IIIotlier words, we possess a destructive
capacity of niore than 5,000 times what caused 40 to 50 millio~~
deaths not too long ago. It should suffice to kill every nian. woman
and child 10 tiines ove^."^

Thus. nuclear weapons are not just anotlier type of explosiveweapons,
only occupying a liigher position on the sanie scale: tlieir destructive
power is exponentially greater. Apart from blast and heat, the radiation
effects over time are devastating. To classify these effects as being nierely

a by-product is not to the point: they can be just as extensive as, if not
niore so than, those inimediately produced by blast and heat. They cause
unspeakable sickness followed by painful death. affect the genetic code,
damage the unborn, and can rendes the eartli uninhabitable. These
extended effects inay not have military value for the user, but this does
not lessen their gravity or the fact that they result from the use of nuclear
weapons. This beiiig tlie case, it is not relevant for present purposes to
consider whetlier the injury produced is a by-product or secondary effect
of such use.

Nor is it always a case of the effects being inimediately iiiflicted but
nianifesting their consequeilces in later ailnients; nuclear fallout may
exert an impact on people long after the explosion, causing fresli injury to
them in the course of tin~e,including injury to future generations. Tlie

Javier Pérezde Cuéllar.Staterilent at the Uriiversityof Penrisylvania.74 March 1953.
inDis(ri.r71triVz.l. VI. No1, p.91. MENACEOU EMPLOI D'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.SHAHABUDDEEN) 382

rogé«pour une duréeindéfinie)) en 1995,que lesEtats parties étaientdési-
reux de faciliter«la liquidation de tous les stocks existants [d'armes nu-
cléaires] etl'élimination des armes nucléaires..des arsenaux nationaux ..»
L'élimination ainsienvisagéevisait, selon toute vraisemblance, toutes

les carines nucléaires))et, partant, égalelnentles armes nucléairesdites
«tactiques», «du champ de bataille)), «du théâtre des opérations» ou
«propres». Les parties au traité sur la non-profilération n'ont pas éta-
bli de distinction. Au vu des éléments qui lui ont étéprésentés,la Cour
n'a guèrepu se convaincre de l'existencedes exceptions alléguées.
Les faits de base qui sous-tendent les résolutionsde l'Assemblée géiié-
sale quant à la nature d'une guerre nucléaire,à tout le nioins d'une guerre
nucléaire sur une grande échelle. sont difficilement réf~~tablesD. epuis
1983,la technique a progressé,niais, déjà à ce stade-là, voici coniineiit la
situation se présentait selon le Secrétaire généralde l'Organisatioil,

M. Javier Pérez deCuéllar:
«Les arsenaux mondiaux d'armes nucléaires équivalent aujour-

d'hui à 16milliards de tonnes de TNT. A titre de comparaison, tous
les dégâtscausésau cours de la seconde guerre mondiale n'avaient
étécausésque par 3 millions de tonnes de munitions. En d'autres
ternies,nous possédons unecapacitédestructrice plus de cinq mille
fois supérieureà celle qui a provoquéquarante àcinquante millions
de morts il n'y a pas si longtemps. Cette capacité suffirait tuer dix
fois chaque lioinine, femme et enfant.^^

Lesarmes nucléaires nesont donc pas simplement un autre type d'armes
explosives, qui se situerait seulement plus haut sur lamêmeéchelle: leur
puissance destructrice est plus grande exponentielleinent. Sans compter
l'effet de souffleet la chaleur. leseffetsdu rayonnement au cours dutenips

sont dévastateurs.C'est à tort qu'on rangerait ces effets dans la catégorie
des conséquencessecondaires, car ils peuvent êtretout aussi importants,
sinon davantage, que les effetsproduits immédiatementpar le souffleet la
chaleur. Ils causent une maladie abominable suivie d'une mort doulou-
reuse, perturbent lecode génétiquep ,rovoquent des lésions chezlesenfants
qui ne sont pas encore néset peuvent rendre la terre inhabitable. Ces
effets prolongésne présentent peut-être pas un intérê mtilitaire pour celui
qui utilise de telles armes, mais cela ne diminue pas leur gravité ouii'en-
lèverien au fait qu'ils sont la conséquencede l'emploid'armes nucléaires.
Cela étant,il est sans intérêetn l'espèce d'examinersi le dommage causé

est un sous-produit ou une conséquence secondaired'un tel einploi.
Il en va de mêmedes effets immédiats, niaisdont les conséqueiices se
manifestent dans des affections survenant plus tard; les retombées
radioactives peuvent avoir un impact sur les personnes longteiiips après
l'explosion et causer, avec le teinps, de nouvelles lésions,yoiiipris pour

Javier Pérezde Cuéllar. déclaraàiI'Uiliversitéde Pennsylvailie, le 74 mars 1983,
dans DPsrri.r77er1îl. VI, no 2, p. 91.

160weapon continues to strike for years after the initial blow, thus presenting
the disturbing and unique portrait of war being waged by a present gen-
eration on future ones - on future ones with which its successors could
well be at peace.

The first and only military use of nuclear weapons which has so far
been made took place at Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 and at Nagasaki
on 9 August 1945. A month later, the International Committee of the
Red Cross ("ICRC") considered the implications of the use of newly
developed weapons. In a circular letter to national Red Cross commit-
tees, dated 5 September 1945 and signed by Mr. Max Huber as acting
President, the ICRC wrote this:

"Totalitarian war has brought new technics into being. Does this
mean that we must accept that the individual will no longer be pro-
tected by the law and willhenceforth only be seenas a mere element of
collectivities involved in a conflict? This would imply the collapse of
the principles underlying international law, which aims to promote
the physical and spiritual protection of the individual. Even in time
of war, a law of a strictly egotistical and utilitarian nature, only
inspired by fortuitous interests, couldnever offer lasting security. If
warfare fails to accept the value and dignity of the human being, it
will proceed irresistibly to destructions without limit, as the spirit of
mankind, which is taking possession of the forces of the universe,
seems by its creations to be accelerating that devastating impetus."
[Translation by the Registry.]

Do the rules stand set aside? Or do they still apply to protect the indi-
vidual? If they do not, the seizure by man of the forces of the universe
propels war irresistibly and progressively in the direction of destruction
without limit, including the extinction of the human species. In time, the
nuclear-weapon States ("NWS") and most of the non-nuclear-weapon
States ("NNWS") would subscribe to statements acknowledging the sub-
stance of this result.
The concerns raised by the ICRC did not go unechoed. As was pointed

out by several States, four months later the General Assembly unani-
mously adopted a resolution by which it established a commission charged
with the responsibility ofmaking "specificproposals ... (c) for the elimi-
nation from national armaments of atomic weapons and of al1other major
weapons adaptable to mass destruction" (General Assemblyresolution 1(1),
para. 5, of 24 January 1946). It is too limited a view to restrict the sig-
nificance of the resolution to the mere establishment of the commission;
the bases on which the commission was established are also important.
In line with this, on 20 September 1961an agreement, known as "The
McCloy-Zorin Accords", was signed by representatives of the United
States of America and the Soviet Union, the two leading NWS. The
Accords recommended eight principles as guidance for disarmament
negotiations. The fifth principle read: "Elimination of al1 stockpiles ofles générations à venir. L'arme continue de frapper des années après
l'explosion initiale,ce qui évoquel'image atroce et unique en son genre
d'une guerre menéepar une générationactuelle contre des générations à
venir, des générations à venir avec lesquelles leurs propres successeurs

pourraient bien êtreen paix.
La première - et à ce jour la seule- utilisation militaire des armes
nucléairesa eu lieu à Hiroshima le 6 août 1945 et à Nagasaki le 9 août
1945. Un mois plus tard, le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge
(CICR) examinait les implications de l'emploi de ces armes qui venaient
d'êtremises au point. Dans une circulaire adressée à ses comitésnatio-
naux le 5 septembre 1945par M. Max Huber, présidentpar intérim,le
CICR écrivaitceci :

«La guerre totalitaire a fait naître de nouvelles techniques. Faut-il
en conséquenceadmettre que l'individu cesserad'être juridiquement
protégéet ne sera plus considéré que commeun simple élémentde
collectivités enlutte? Ce serait là l'écroulement des principessur les-
quels repose le droit international qui tendà la protection physique
et spirituelle de la personne. Mêmeen temps de guerre un droit stric-
tement égoïste etutilitaire, et qui ne s'inspirerait que d'intérêts occa-

sionnels, ne saurait jamais offrir une sécuridurable. Si ellerefuseà
la personne humaine sa valeur et sa dignité,la guerre ira irrésistible-
ment àdes destructions sans limite, puisque l'esprit des hommes,qui
s'empare des forcesde l'univers, semble,par ses créations,accélérer
cet élandévastateur. ))

Les règlessont-elles mises de côté? Oucontinuent-elles de s'appliquer
et de protéger l'individu?Dans le premier cas, l'esprit des hommes,qui
s'empare des forces de l'univers, propulse irrésistiblementet progressive-
ment la guerre vers des destructions sans limite, y compris l'anéantisse-
ment de l'espècehumaine. Avec le temps, les Etats dotés de l'arme
nucléaireet la plupart des Etats non dotés d'armes nucléairesallaient
souscrire à ce constat.
Les préoccupationsdont faisait étatle CICR n'allaient pasrester sans

écho.Comme plusieursEtats l'ont relevé,quatre mois plus tard l'Assem-
bléegénérale adoptait à l'unanimitéune résolutionpar laquelle elle créait
une commission chargéede présenter«des propositions déterminées en
vue ...c)d'éliminerd, esarmementsnationaux,lesarmesatomiqueset toutes
autres armes importantes permettant des destructions massives)) (para-
graphe 5 de la résolution1 (1)du 24janvier 1946).On ne saurait réduirele
sens decette résolutionàla seulecréationde lacommission,car les basessur
lesquellesla commissiona été créé sent importantes également.
Dans le mêmeordre d'idée, le20 septembre 1961 un accord désigné
sous le nom d'«accords McCloy-Zorine)) a étésignépar les représentants

des Etats-Unis d'Amériqueet de l'union soviétique, lesdeux principaux
Etats dotésd'armes nucléaires. Lesaccords recommandaient huit prin-
cipes directeurs pour des négociations surle désarmement,dont le cin-nuclear, chemical, bacteriological, and other weapons of mass destruc-
tion, and cessation of the production of such weapons." On 20 Decem-
ber 1961 that agreement was unanimously welcomed by the General
Assembly on the joint proposition of those two States(General Assembly
resolution 1722 (XVI) of 20 Deceinber 1961).

The first preamble to the 1968 NPT refers to "the devastation that
would be visited upon al1mankind by a nuclear war . . ."The preamble
to the NPT (inclusive of that statement) was reaffirmed in the first para-
graph of the preamble to Decision No. 2 adopted by the 1995 Review
and Extension Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Pro-
liferation of Nuclear Weapons. The overwhelming majority of States are
parties to these instruments.
The Final Document adopted by consensus in 1978by the Tenth Spe-
cial Session of the General Assembly (on the subject of disarinament)
opened with these words: "Alarmed by the threat to the very survival of
mankind posed by the existence of nuclear weapons and the continuing

arins race .. .".Paragraph 11 stated:
"Mankind today is confronted with an unprecedented threat of
self-extinction arising from the massive and competitive accumula-
tion of the most destructive weapons ever produced. Existing
arsenals of nuclear weapons alone are more than sufficientto destroy

al1life on earth . . ."
Paragraph 47 of the Final Document noted that "[n]uclear weapons pose
the greatest danger to mankind and to the survival of civilization".All of
these words, having been adopted by consensus, may be regarded as
having been uttered with the united voice of the international commu-

nity.
Important regional agreements also testify to the character of nuclear
weapons. See the Agreement of Paris of 23 October 1954on the entry of
the Federal Republic of Germanyinto the North Atlantic Treaty Organi-
zation, Article 1 (a) of Annex II to Protocol No. III on the Control of
Armaments, indicating that nuclear weapons are weapons of mass
destruction. The preamble to the 1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco, Additional
Protocol II of which was signed and ratified by the five NWS, declared
that the Parties were convinced

"That the incalculable destructive power of nuclear weapons has
made it imperative that the legal prohibition of war should be
strictly observed in practice if the survival of civilization and of
kind itself is to be assured.
That nuclear weapons, whose terrible effects are suffered, indis-
criminately and inexorably, by military forces and civilian popula-
tion alike, constitute, through the persistence of the radioactivity
they release, an attack on the integrity of theman speciesand ulti-
mately may even rendes the whole earth uninhabitable." MENACE OU EMPLOID'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OPD. ISS.HAHABUDDEE 38)

quièmeprincipe visait l'éliminationde tous les stocks d'armes nucléaires,
chimiques, bactériologiques et autres armes de destruction massive, et
l'arrêtdela production de telles armes. Le 20 décembre1961,cet accord
a été salué unanimementpar l'Assemblée généralseur la proposition
conjointe des deux Etats en question (résolution 1722(XVI) de 1'Assem-
bléegénéraleen date du 21 décembre1961).
Le premier alinéadu préambule du traité sur la non-prolifération de
1968fait mention des ((dévastationsqu'une guerre nucléaireferait subirà
l'humanité entièr e.» Le préambuledu traitéa été repris dans le premier
alinéadu préambule dela décisionno2 adoptéepar la conférencede 1995
des parties au traité sur la non-prolifération des armes nucléaires chargée

d'examiner le traité et la question de sa prorogation. L'immensemajorité
des Etats sont partiesà ces instruments.
Le document final adoptépar consensus en 1978par la dixième session
extraordinaire de l'Assemblée générale (consacré auedésarmement) com-
mence par cesmots: ((Alarméepar la menace que représententl'existence
d'armesnucléairesetlapoursuite dela course aux armements ..»Aupara-
graphe 11, il est indiquéceci:

((Aujourd'hui plus que jamais l'humanitéest menacéed'autodes-
truction, du fait de l'accumulation massive, dans un esprit de com-
pétition, des armes les plus destructrices que l'homme ait jamais
fabriquées. Les arsenaux existants d'armes nucléaires sont a eux
seuls plus que suffisants pour détruire toute vie sur la terre.

Au paragraphe 47 dudit document, on peut lire que «[l]es armes nu-
cléairessont celles qui menacent le plus gravement l'humanitéet la sur-
vie de la civilisation)).Cette déclarationayant étéadoptéepar consensus,
on peut dire que ces mots ont étéprononcésd'une seule voix par la com-
munautéinternationale.
D'importants accords régionauxattestent également lanature des armes
nucléaires. Voir l'accordde Paris du 23 octobre 1954sur l'adhésion de la
Républiquefédérale d'Allemagne à l'organisation du traitéde 1'Atlantique
Nord, notamment l'article 1a) de l'annexeII du protocole III concernant
lecontrôle des armements, selon lequellesarmes nucléairessont des armes

de destruction massive.Dans lepréambuledu traitéde Tlatelolco de 1967,
dont leprotocole additionnel II a étsignéet ratifiépar lescinq Etats dotés
d'armes nucléairesi,l est dit que les parties sont convaincues:
«Que la puissance destructrice incalculable des armes nucléaires

exige que l'interdiction juridique de la guerre soit strictement
observéedans la pratique, pour sauvegarder l'existence même de la
civilisation et de l'humanité.
Que les armes nucléaires,dont les terribles effets atteignent sans
distinction et sans merci les forces arméeset la population civile,
constituent, vu la persistance de la radioactivitéqu'ellesengendrent,
une atteintea l'intégritéde l'espècehumaine et risquent de rendre
finalement toute la terre inhabitable. The first two preambular paragraphs of the 1985South PacificNuclear
Free Zone Treaty (the Treaty of Rarotonga), Protocol 2 of which has
been signed and ratified by two of the five NWS and signed by the
remaining three, likewiserecorded that the parties were
"Gravely concerned that the continuing nuclear arms race presents
the risk of nuclear war which would have devastating consequences
for al1people;

Convinced that al1 countries have an obligation to make every
effort to achieve the goal of eliminating nuclear weapons, the terror
which they hold for humankind and the threat which they pose to
life on earth."
The Court has also referred to the more recently signed treaties on
nuclear-free zones relating to South-East Asia and Africa.

A position similar in principle tothose mentioned above was taken in
agreements between two of the NWS. In the preamble to a 1971Agree-
ment on Measures to Reduce the Risk of Outbreak of Nuclear War, the
United States of America and the Soviet Union stated that they were
"[tlaking into account the devastating consequences that nuclear war
would have for al1 mankind". The substance of that statement was
repeated in later agreements between those States, namely, in the 1972
Anti-Ballistic MissileTreaty, in a 1973Agreement on the Prevention of
Nuclear War, in a 1979Treaty on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive
Arms, and in the 1987 Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles
Treaty.

It was argued by some States that the purpose of possessing nuclear
weapons is, paradoxically, to ensure that they are never used, and that
this is shown by the circumstance that it has been possible to keep the

peace, as among the NWS, during the last 50 years through policies of
nuclear deterrence. Other States doubted the existence of the su""ested
link of causation, attributing that result to luck or chance, pointing to
occasions when such weapons were nearly used, and adverting to a
number of wars and other situations of armed conflict which have infact
occurred outside of the territories of the NWS. Assuming, however, that
such a link of causation can be shown. a auestion which remains is whv
should policies of nuclear deterrence havekept the peace as among th;:
NWS. A reasonable answer is that each NWS itself recognized that it
faced the risk of national destruction. The record before the Court indi-
cates that that destruction willnot stop at the frontiers of warring States,
but can extend to encompass the obliteration of the human species. MENACEOU EMPLOID'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OPD. ISS.HAHABUDDEEN) 385

Dans les deux premiers alinéas du préambule du traité sur la zone
dénucléariséd eu Pacifique Sud (traitéde Rarotonga), dont le protocole 2
a étésignéet ratifiépar deux des cinq Etats dotésde l'arme nucléaire et
signépar les trois autres Etats, il est dit égalementque les parties sont:

((Gravement préoccupéespar le fait que la poursuite de la course
aux armements nucléairescomporte le risque d'une guerre nucléaire
qui aurait des conséquences dévastatricespour tous les peuples;
Convaincues que tous les pays ont l'obligation de ne négliger
aucun effort pour atteindre l'objectif de l'éliminationdes armes
nucléaires,de la terreur qu'ellesprésententpour l'humanitéet de la
menace qu'elles constituent pour la vie sur la terre.))

La Cour a fait mention également des deux traitéssignésplus récemment
qui portent création de zones exemptesd'armes nucléaires respectivement
en Asie du Sud-Est et en Afrique.
Une position similaire en principe aux positions susmentionnéesa été
prise dans des accords entre deux des Etats dotés d'armes nucléaires.
Dans le préambule de l'accordde 1971relatif àcertaines mesures desti-
nées à réduire le risque de déclenchement d'une guerre nucléaire, les
Etats-Unis d'Amérique et l'Union soviétique ont déclaréprendre en
considération «les conséquences désastreusesqu'une guerre nucléaire
aurait pour l'humanitétout entière)).Cette déclarationa été reprisepour
l'essentieldans des accords conclus postérieurement entre les deux Etats,

notamment dans le traitéde 1972concernant la limitation des systèmes
antimissilesbalistiques, dans un accord de 1973concernant la prévention
de la guerre nucléaire,dans un traitéde 1979concernant la limitation des
armes stratégiques offensives et dans le traité de 1987 sur l'élimination
des missilesà portée intermédiaire etàplus courte portée.
Certains Etats ont fait valoir que la possession d'armes nucléairesvise,
paradoxalement, à garantir que celles-cine seront jamais utiliséeset que
cela est démontrépar le fait qu'il a été possible de maintenir la paix,
comme cela a été le cas entre les Etats dotésd'armes nucléaires,au cours
des cinquante années écouléep sar le biais de politiques de dissuasion
nucléaire.D'autres Etats ont mis en doute le lien de causalité alléguet
mis ce résultatsur le compte de la chance ou du hasard, en relevant que
ces armes avaient été près d'êtrmployéesdans certaines occasions et en
appelant l'attention sur un certain nombre de guerres et autres situations
de conflit arméaui s'étaient dérouléeesn dehors du territoire des Etats

dotés d'armes nucléaires. Toutefois,à supposer qu'on pourrait démon-
trer l'existenced'un tel lien de causalité,il resteraitliquer pourquoi
des politiques fondées sur la dissuasion nucléaireont maintenu la paix
comme dans le cas des Etats dotés d'armes nucléairesU . ne réponse rai-
sonnable consiste à dire que chacun de ces Etats a pris conscience qu'il
courait le risque de la destruction de sa nation. Il ressort des éléments
présentés àla Cour qu'une telle destruction ne s'arrêteraitpas aux fron-
tières des Etats belligérants, mais qu'elle pourrait s'étendre au point
d'entraîner l'anéantissement del'espècehumaine. Other weapons are also members of the category of weapons of mass
destruction to which nuclear weapons belong. However, nuclear weapons
are distinguishable in important ways from al1other weapons, including
other members of that category. In the words of the Court:

"[Nluclear weapons are explosive devices whose energy results
from the fusion or fission of the atom. By its very nature, that pro-
cess, innuclear weapons as they existtoday, releasesnot only immense
quantities of heat and energy, but also powerful and prolonged
radiation. According to the material before the Court, the first two
causes of damage are vastly more powerful than the damage caused
by other weapons, while the phenomenon of radiation is said to be
peculiar to nuclear weapons. These characteristics render the nuclear
weapon potentially catastrophic. The destructive power of nuclear
weapons cannot be contained in either space or time. They have the
potential to destroy al1civilization and the entire ecosystem of the
planet." (Advisory Opinion, para. 35.)

And a little later:
"[Ilt is imperative for the Court to take account of the unique

characteristics of nuclear weapons, and in particular their destruc-
tive capacity, their capacity to cause untold human suffering, and
their ability to cause damage to generations to come." (Ibid.,
para. 36.)
Even if it is possible that, scientifically considered, other weapons of
mass destruction, such as biological and chemical weapons, can also
annihilatemankind, the question is not merely whether a weapon can do
so, but whether the evidence shows that the international community
considers that it can. The evidence was not specifically directed to this

purpose in the case of other weapons; in the case nuclear weapons, it
was, however, directed to that purpose and, the Court could find, suc-
cessfully so directed. Similar remarks would apply to other weapons,
such as flame-throwers and napalm, which, though not capable of anni-
hilating mankind, can undoubtedly cause shocking harm. Unlike the case
of nuclear weapons, there was no material before the Court to suggest
that, however appalling may be the effects produced by the use of such
other weapons, the international community was on record as consider-
ing their use to be repugnant to its conscience.

It may be added that, once it is shown that the use of a weapon could
annihilatemankind, its repugnance to the conscience of the international
community is not materially diminished by showing that it need not have
that result in every case; it is not reasonable to expect that the conscience
of the international community will, both strangely and impossibly,wait MENACEOU EMPLOID'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.HAHABUDDEE3N 8)6

Les armes nucléaires nesont pas les seulesarmes àranger dans la caté-
gorie des armes de destruction massive, mais elles se distinguent nette-
ment de toutes les autres armes, y compris les autres armes faisant partie

de cette catégorie. Je cite la Cour:
«les armes nucléairessont des enginsexplosifs dont l'énergie procède
de la fusion ou de la fission de l'atome. Par sa nature mê,e.cAra-
cessus, dans le cas des armes nucléaires telles qu'elles existent
aujourd'hui, libèrenon seulement d'énormesquantitésde chaleur et
d'énergie, mais aussi un rayonnement puissant et prolongé. Selonles

élémentsen possession de la Cour, les deux premières sources de
dommages sont bien plus puissantes qu'elles ne le sont dans le cas
d'autres armes, cependant que le phénomènedu rayonnement est
considéré comme ~articulier aux armes nucléaires.De Darces carac-
téristiques, l'arme nucléaire est potentiellement d'unenature catas-
trophique. Le pouvoir destructeur des armes nucléaires ne peut être
endigué nidans l'espace ni dans le temps. Ces armes ont le pouvoir
de détruire toute civilisation, ainsi que l'écosysttout entier de la
planète.» (Avis consultatif, par. 35.)

Un peu plus loin, la Cour déclare:

«il est impératifque la Cour tienne compte des caractéristiques uni-
ques de l'arme nucléaire,et en particulier de sa puissance destruc-
trice, de sa capacitéd'infliger des souffrances indicibàel'homme,
ainsi que de son pouvoir de causer des dommages aux générations à
venir» (ibid p.r. 36).
Mêmes'il est possible que, d'un point de vue scientifique, d'autres

armes de destruction massive, comme les armes biologiques et chimiques,
puissent égalementanéantir l'humanité, la question n'estpas seulement
de savoir si une arme a ce pouvoir, mais si les élémentsdont on dispose
montrent que la communauté internationale considèrequ'une arme a ce
pouvoir. Les éléments présentés à la Cour ne concernaient pas précisé-
ment cet aspect dans le cas d'autres armes; toutefois, dans le cas des
armes nucléaires, c'étaitle cas et la Cour a estiméque la démonstration
avait étéconcluante. Des remarques analogues pourraient s'appliquer à
d'autres armes, comme les lance-flammeset le napalm, qui, sans allerjus-
qu'à pouvoir anéantir l'humanité, peuvent néanmoinsinfliger des dom-
mages considérables.Contrairement au cas des armes nucléaires,les élé-

ments présentés à la Cour ne permettent pas de conclure que, tout
terrifiants que puissent êtreles effets produits par l'emploi de ces autres
armes, la communauté internationale considère un tel emploi comme
inacceptable pour sa conscience.
On ajoutera que, une fois établique l'emploi d'unearme peut anéantir
l'humanité, son caractère inacceptablepour la conscience de la commu-
nauté internationale n'est pas diminué matériellementpar le fait qu'il
n'est pas nécessaireque cette arme ait ce résultatdans chaque cas; on ne
peut raisonnablement demander à la conscience de la communautéinter-on the event to see if the result of any particular use is the destruction of
the human species. The operative consideration is the risk of annihila-
tion. That result may not ensue in al1cases,but the risk that it can inheres
in every case. The risk may be greater in some cases, less in others; but
it is always present in sufficient measure to render the use of nuclear
weapons unacceptable to the international community in al1cases. In my
view, the answer to the question of repugnance to the conscience of the
international community governs throughout.

In sum, the Court could conclude, in accordance with its findings in
paragraph 35 of its Advisory Opinion, that the international community
as a whole considers that nuclear weapons are not merely weapons of
mass destruction, but that there is a clear and palpable risk that their use
could accomplish the destruction of mankind, with the result that any
such use would be repugnant to the conscience of the community. What
legal consequences followwill be examined later.

4. Neutvality

A question was raised as to whether damage resulting to a neutral
State from use of nuclear weapons in the territory of a belligerent State
is a violation of the former's neutrality. 1 accept the affirmative answer
suggested in Nauru's statement in the parallel case brought by the
World Health Organization, as set out in paragraph 88 of the Court's
Advisory Opinion. A number of incidents collected in the books does not
persuade me to take a different view5.

The principle, as stated in Article 1 of Hague Convention No. 5 of
1907 Respecting the Rights and Duties of Neutra1 Powers and Persons
in Case of War on Land, is that "[tlhe territory of neutral powers is
inviolable". The principle has not been understood to guarantee neutral
States absolute immunity from the effects of armed conflict; the original
purpose, it is said, was to preclude military invasion or bombardment
of neutral territory, and otherwise to define complementary rights and
obligations of neutrals and belligerents.

It is difficult, however, to appreciate how these considerations can
operate to justify the use of nuclear weapons where the radiation effects
which they emit extend to the inhabitants of neutral States and cause

damage to them, their offspring, their natural resources, and possibly put
them under the necessity to leave their traditional homelands. The state-

See, for example, Roberto Ago, Addendum to the Eighth Report on State Responsi-
bility, Yearbook of the International LawCommission, 1980,Vol. II, Part 1,pp. 35-36,
para. 50.nationale que, chose aussi étrange qu'impossible, elle attende que se pro-

duise l'événementpour voir si le résultat de l'emploi d'unearme donnée
cause l'anéantissement de l'espècehumaine. La considération détermi-
nante, c'est le risque d'un tel anéantissement. Ce résultat peut ne pas se
produire dans tous les cas, mais le risque est intrinsèque dans chaque
cas. Le risque peut êtreplus élevédans certains cas que dans d'autres;
mais il est toujours suffisamment présent pour rendre l'emploi d'armes
nucléaires inacceptableà la communauté internationale dans tous lescas.
Selon moi, la réponse à la question de la répulsion qu'éprouve la
conscience de la communauté internationale est toujours déterminante.
En résumé, laCour pourrait conclure, conformément à ses conclusions
énoncéesau paragraphe 35 de son avis consultatif, que la communauté
internationale dans son ensemble considère que non seulement les armes

nucléairessont des armes de destruction massive, mais également qu'il
existe un risque évident et tangible que leur emploi provoque I'anéantis-
sement de l'humanité,ce qui ferait qu'un tel emploi répugneraitàla cons-
cience de la communauté. Nous examinerons plus loin les implications
juridiques de cette affirmation.

4. La neutralité

On a posé la question de savoir si les dommages causés à un Etat
neutre par l'utilisation d'armes nucléairessur le territoire d'un Etat belli-
gérant constitue une violation de sa neutralité etje fais mienne la réponse
affirmative donnée par Nauru dans son exposé à propos de l'affaire
parallèle dont la Cour a été saisiepar l'organisation mondiale de la
Santé,telle qu'elle est énoncéeau paragraphe 88 du présentavis consul-
tatif. Un certain nombre d'incidents relatéspar la doctrine ne m'incitent
pas à adopter une vue différente5.

Le principe, tel qu'il est énoncéà l'article premier de la cinquième
convention de La Haye de 1907concernant les droits et les devoirs des
puissances et des personnes neutres en cas de guerre sur terre, est que
«[l]e territoire des puissances neutres est inviolable)). Ce principe n'a pas
été conçupour garantir aux Etats neutres une immunité absolue à l'égard
des effets d'un conflit armé;le but original, nous dit-on, était d'empêcher
une invasion militaire ou un bombardement d'un territoire neutre et, par
ailleurs, de définirles droits et obligations complémentaires des neutres et
des belligérants.
Toutefois, on voit mal comment ces considérations peuvent justifier
l'emploi d'armes nucléaires lorsqueles effets des rayonnements qu'elles

émettent s'étendentaux habitants d'Etats neutres, leur causent des dom-
mages à eux-mêmes, à leurs enfants et à leurs ressources naturelles et
risquent de les contraindre à quitter leur patrie. Il n'est pas difficile

des Etatsn, Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 1980,vol. II, premièrepar-
tie, p. 35-36, par. 50.ment of an inhabitant of the Marshall Islands left little to be imagined.
Considered in relation to the more dramatic catastrophe immediately
produced and the military value to the user State, these effects may be
spoken of as by-products of the main event; but, as argued above, that
classification is without legal pertinence. The "by-products" are not
remote economic or social consequences. Whether direct or indirect
effects, they result from the use of nuclear weapons, for itis a property of

such weapons that they emit radiation; their destructive effect on the
enemy is largely due to their radiation effects. Such radiation has a high
probability of transboundary penetration.

To say that these and other transboundary effects of the use of nuclear
weavons do not violate the neutralitv of third States in the absence of
bell;gerent incursion or transboundar; bombardment is to cast too heavy
a burden on the proposition that neutrality is not an absolute guarantee
of immunity to third States against al1possible effects of the conduct of
hostilities. The Fifth Hague Convention of 1907 does not define inviol-
ability; nor does it say that the territory of a neutral State is violated only
by belligerent incursion or bombardment. Accepting nevertheless that the
object of the architects of the provision was to preclude military incur-
sion or bombardment of neutral territory, it seems to me that that pur-

Dose.2hich was related to the then state of warfare. does not conclude
the question whether, in terms of the principle, "the territory of neutral
powers" is violated where that territory and its inhabitants are physically
harmed by the effects of the use elsewhereof nuclear weapons in the ways
in which it is possible for such harm to occur. The causes of the conse-
quential suffering and the suffering itself are the same as those occurring
in the zone of battle.

It wassaid, no doubt correctly, that no case was known in which a bel-
ligerent State had been held responsible for collateral damage in neutral
territory for lawful acts of war committed outside of that territory. It
may be recalled, however, that the possibilities ofdamage by nuclear fall-
out did not previously exist; because of technological limitations, damage

on neutral territory, as a practical matter, could only be committed by
incursion or bombardment, in which cases there would be acts of war
committed on the neutral territory itself. To the extent that the Trail
Smelter type of situation was likely to be a significant consequence of
acts of war, the occurrence of concrete situations in the pre-nuclear
period has not been shown to the Court. Thus, while no case may have
occurred in which a belligerent State has been held responsible for col-
lateral damage in neutral territory for lawful acts of war committed out-
side of that territory, that is decisive of the present case only if it can be
shown that there is no responsibility even where substantial physical
effects of acts of war carried out elsewhere demonstrably extend to
neutral territory. That cannot be persuasively shown; principle is against MENACEOU EMPLOI D'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OPD. ISS.HAHABUDDEE 3N8)

d'imaginer la réactiond'un habitant des Iles Marshall. Par rapport à la
catastrophe plus impressionnante causéedirectement et à l'avantage mili-
taire pour1'Etatqui utilise de tellesarmes, ceseffetspeuvent êtrequalifiés
de conséquences secondaires de l'événemenp trincipal; mais, comme on
l'a soutenu plus haut, ce genre de classification est sans pertinence juri-
dique. Les «conséquences secondaires)) ne sont pas des conséquences
économiquesou sociales lointaines. Qu'il s'agissed'effets directsou indi-
rects, ils résultent de l'emploi d'armes nucléairesc,ar celles-ciont la pro-
priété d'émettre dersayonnements; leur effet destructeur sur l'ennemiest

dû en grande partie aux effets des rayonnements, et il est très probable
que ces rayonnements auront des incidences transfrontières.
Dire que les effets des rayonnements et autres effets transfrontières de
l'em~loi d'armes nucléaires ne violentDas la neutralité d7Etats tiers en
l'absence d'une incursion ou d'un bombardement transfrontière par un
belligérant,c'est donner un sens qu'elle est loin d'avoir la proposition
selon laquelle la neutralité ne constitue pas pour des Etats tiers une
garantie absolue d'immunité, à l'égard detous les effets potentiels de la
conduite d'hostilités.La cinquième convention de La Haye de 1907 ne
définitpas l'inviolabilité;elle ne dit pas non plus que le territoire d'un
Etat neutre est violéuniauement du fait d'une incursion ou d'un bom-
bardement par un belligérant.Si l'on admet néanmoinsque ceux qui ont
conçu cette disposition entendaient empêcher l'invasion militaire oule
bombardement d'un territoire neutre, il me semble que cet objectif, qui
était formulédans le contexte des guerres de l'époque, nerègle pas la

question de savoir si, sur le plan du principe,leterritoire des puissances
neutres)) est violélorsque ce territoire et seshabitants subissent physique-
ment des dommages dus aux effets de l'utilisation d'armes nucléaires
ailleurs, dans des circonstances où il est possible que de tels dommages se
produisent. Les causes des souffrances qui s'ensuivent et les souffrances
elles-mêmessont identiques à cellesressenties dans la zone des combats.
On a prétendu, àjuste titre, qu'on ne connaissait pas de cas où un Etat
belligérantavait été tenu responsable de dommagesconcomitants occa-
sionnésdans un territoire neutre par des actes de guerre licites commis
hors de ce territoire. Il faut cependant rappeler que la possibilité de dom-
mages occasionnéspar des retombées radioactives n'existaientpas précé-
demment; en raison de limitations d'ordre technique, iln'était possibleen
pratique de causer des dommages sur un territoire neutre que par une
invasion ou un bombardement, et dans ces cas on se trouvait en présence

d'actes de guerre commis sur le territoire neutre lui-même.Dans la
mesure où le type de situation qui existait dans l'affaire de laeriede
Trail était vraisemblablement une conséquence importante d'actes de
guerre, la survenance de situations concrètesdans la période prénucléaire
n'a pas été démontrée à la Cour. Ainsi, s'il n'ya peut-êtrepas eu de
cas où un Etat belligéranta été tenu responsablede dommages concomi-
tants occasionnésdans un territoire neutre par des actes de guerre licites
commis en dehors de ce territoire, on ne peut en tirer argument en
l'espècequ'à condition de démontrer l'absence de toute responsabilité,it. The causative act of war would have had the consequence of physically
violating the territory of the neutral State. The 1907Hague principle that
the territory of a neutral State is inviolable would lose much of its mean-
ing if in such a case it was not considered to be breached.

5. Belligerent Reprisal

The question was argued whether, assuming that the use of nuclear
weapons was otherwise unlawful, such use might nevertheless be lawful
for the exceptional purposes of belligerent reprisa1(i.e., as distinguished
from reprisals in situations other than those of armed conflict). It seems
to me, however, that there is not any necessity to examine this aspect in
an opinion devoted to showing that "the current state of international

law, and .. . the elements of fact at its disposal" did not prevent the
Court from concluding
"definitively whether the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be
lawful or unlawful in an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in
which the very survival of a State would be at stake" (Advisory
Opinion, para. 105 (2) E).

The use of nuclear weapons in belligerent reprisal, if lawful, would be
equally open to an aggressor State and to a State acting in self-defence.
This being so, an enquiry into the lawfulness of the use of such weapons
in belligerentreprisa1would not materially promote analysis of the ques-
tion whether they may be lawfully used in self-defence, this being the
question presented by the Court's holding.

6. There Is No Non Liquet

The commentators suggest that some decisions of the Court could be
understood as implying a non liquet. It is possible that the second part of
subparagraph E of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph of the Court's
Advisory Opinion will be similarly interpreted. If that is the correct inter-
pretation, 1respectfully differ from the position taken by the Court.

To attract the idea of a non liquet in this case, it would have to be
shown that there is a gap in the applicability of whatever may be the cor-
rect principles regulating the question as to the circumstances in which a
State may be considered as having or as not having a right to act.
If, as it isaid, international law has nothing to Sayon the subject of
the legality of the use of nuclear weapons, this necessarily means thatmêmelorsqu'il est établi quedes effets physiques importants d'actes de
guerre commisailleurs sefont sentir en territoire neutre. Cela ne peut être
démontréde manière convaincante, car on se heurte au principe appli-
cable en la matière. L'acte quia causéla guerre aurait eu la conséquence
de violer matériellementle territoire de 1'Etat neutre. Le principe de la
convention de La Haye de 1907,selon lequel le territoire des puissances
neutres est inviolable, perdrait beaucoup de sa signification si, dans un tel
cas, on ne considéraitpas qu'il a étéporté atteinte à ce principe.

5. Représaillesen temps de conj?itarmé

On s'est demandési, en admettant que l'emploi d'armes nucléairesest
illicitedans d'autres circonstances, un tel emploi pourrait néanmoinsêtre
licite exceptionnellement dans le cas de représaillesen temps de conflit
armé(qu'il convientde distinguer des représaillesexercéesdans des situa-
tions autres qu'un tel conflit).11me semble cependant qu'il n'est nulle-
ment besoin d'examiner cet aspect dans un avis où l'on s'efforce d'établir
que «l'état actuel du droit international, ainsi que les éléments de fait
dont elle dispose)), n'empêchaitpas la Cour de conclure

«de façon définitiveque la menace ou l'emploi d'armes nucléaires
serait licite ou illicite dans une circonstance extrêmede légitime
défensedans laquelle la survie mêmed'un Etat serait en cause)) (avis
consultatif, dispositif, par.E).

Si l'emploi d'armes nucléaires estliciteà titre de représaillesen temps de
conflit armé,unetellepossibilité serait également ouverte àun Etat agres-
seur et à un Etat exerçant son droit de légitimedéfense.Dans ce cas,
l'examen de la licéitéde l'emploi de telles armesà titre de représaillesen
temps de conflit arméne serait pas de nature à favoriser matériellement
l'analyse de la question de savoir side tellesarmes peuvent êtreemployées
licitement dans l'exercicede la légitimedéfense,qui est la question posée
par la conclusion de la Cour.

6. Il n'y apas de non liquet

Les commentateurs laissent entendre que certaines conclusions de la
Cour pourraient êtreconsidérées implicitement commeun non liquet. Il
est possible que la seconde phrase de l'alinéaE du paragraphe 2 du dis-

positif de l'avis consultatif de la Cour soit interprétéde cette manière. Si
cette interprétation est exacte,je ne souscris pasla position adoptée par
la Cour.
Pour tirer argument d'un non liqueten l'espèce,il faudrait établir qu'il
existe une faille dans I'applicabilitédes principes corrects, quels qu'ils
soient, régissant la question des circonstances dans lesquelles un Etat
peut êtreconsidéré commeayant ou n'ayant pas le droit d'agir.
Si, comme on le prétend,le droit international n'a rien à dire au sujet
de la licéitéde l'emploi d'armes nucléaires,cela signifie nécessairementinternational law does not include a rule prohibiting such use. On the
received view of the "Lotus" decision, absent such a prohibitory rule,
States have a right to use nuclear weapons.

On the other hand, if that viewof "Lotus" is incorrect or inadequate in
the light of subsequent changes in the international legal structure, then
the position is that Stateshave no right to use such weapons unless inter-
national law authorizes such use. If international law has nothing to say
on the subject of the use of nuclear weapons, this necessarily means that
international law does not include a rule authorizing such use. Absent
such authorization, States do not have a right to use nuclear weapons.

It follows that, sofar as this case at any rate is concerned, the principle
on which the Court acts, be it one of prohibition or one of authorization,

leaves no room unoccupied by law and consequently no space available
to be filled by theon liquet doctrine or by arguments traceable to it. The
fact that these are advisory proceedings and not contentious ones makes
no difference; the law to be applied is the same in both cases.

7. The GeneralAssernbly's Cal1for a Convention

Putting aside the question of the possible law-making effect or influ-
ence of General Assembly resolutions, did its resolutions on this matter
really take the position that the use of nuclear weapons was contrary to
existing law? Arguing that that was not the position taken, some States
point to the fact that the resolutions also called for the conclusion of a
convention on the subject.

However, as the case of the Genocide Convention shows, the General
Assembly could well consider that certain conduct would be a crime
under existing law and yet cal1for the conclusion of a convention on the
subject. Its resolution 96 (1) of 11 December 1946,which called for the
preparation of "a draft convention on the crime of genocide", also

affirmed "that genocide is a crime under international law . . .It was
likewisethat, in its resolution of14 December 1978,the General Assem-
bly declared
"that

(a) the use of nuclear weapons willbe a violation of the Charter of
the United Nations and a crime against humanity;
(b) the use of nuclear weapons should therefore be prohibited,
pending nuclear disarmament".
It was on this basis that the resolution then passed on to mention the
future discussion of an international convention on the subject.que le droit international ne comporte pas une règleinterdisant un tel
emploi. Selonl'opinion généralement admise àpropos de la décisiondans
l'affaire duLotus, en l'absence d'une telle règleprohibitive, les Etats ont
le droit d'employer desarmes nucléaires.
En revanche, si cette interprétationde la décisiondans l'affaire duus
estinexacte ouinadéquate à la lumièredeschangementssurvenuspar la suite
dans la structurejuridique internationale,il s'ensuitquelesEtats n'ont aucun
droit d'employerde tellesarmes,à moins queledroit international n'autorise
un tel emploi.Si le droit international n'a rieà dire au sujet de l'emploi
d'armesnucléaires, celasignifienécessairementque le droit international ne
comporte pas une règleautorisant un tel emploi. En l'absenced'une telle

autorisation, les Etats n'ont pas le droit d'employerdes armes nucléaires.
Il s'ensuit, entout cas en l'espèce,que le principe sur lequel la Cour se
fonde, qu'il s'agissed'un principe d'interdiction ou d'un principe d'auto-
risation, ne laisse aucun espace inoccupé par le droit et donc aucun
espace qui pourrait êtrecomblépar la doctrine du non liquet ou par des
arguments qui s'en inspirent. Peu importe qu'on se trouve dans le cadre
d'une procédure consultative et non d'une procédure contentieuse: le
droit applicable est le mêmedans les deux cas.

7. L'appel lancépar l'Assembléegénérale enfaveur
de la conclusiond'une convention

Nous laisserons de côtéle point de savoir si les résolutions de1'Assem-
bléegénéralesont susceptibles d'avoir un effet ou une influencede nature
législativepour nous demander si ses résolutions à cet égardétablissent
réellementque l'emploid'armes nucléaires estcontraire au droit existant.
Certains Etats, qui soutiennent que telle n'estpas la position de 1'Assem-

blée,soulignent le fait que, dans ses résolutions,l'Assembléea demandé
égalementla conclusion d'une convention sur ce sujet.
Cependant, comme le montre l'exemple de la convention relative au
crime de génocide, l'Assemblée générale apu considérerqu'un certain
comportement constituerait un crime au regard du droit existant tout en
lançant un appel en faveur de la conclusion d'une convention sur ce sujet.
Dans sa résolution96 (1)du 11décembre1946, ellea demandéde rédiger
«un projet de Convention sur le crime de génocide)) et affirmé auss«ique
le génocide est uncrime de droit des gens ..» De même,dans sa résolu-
tion du 14décembre1978,l'Assemblée généraa ledéclaré

«que
a) le recours aux armes nucléairesconstituera une violation de la
Charte des Nations Unies et un crime contre l'humanité;
b) le recours aux armes nucléairesdoit donc être interdit,en atten-
dant le désarmement nucléaire ».

C'est sur cette base que la résolutionen est ensuite venue à mentionner
l'examen futur de la question d'une convention internationale en la
matière. A convention may be useful in focusing the attention of national
bodies on the subject, particularly in respect of any action which may
have to betaken by them; it may also be helpful in clarifyingand settling
details required to implement the main principle, or more generally for
the purpose of laying down a régimefor dealing with the illegality in
question. A cal1for a convention to prohibit a particular kind of conduct

does not necessarily imply that the conduct was not already forbidden.

A further argumentis that some of the later General Assembly reso-
lutions adopted a more qualified formulation than that of earlier ones
(seeparagraph 71 of the Advisory Opinion). 1do not assign much weight
to this as indicative of a resiling from the position taken in earlier Gen-
eral Assembly resolutions to the effect that such use was contrary to
existing international law. Theer resolutions proceeded on the basis
that that position had already and sufficientlybeen taken; they therefore
contented themselves with simply recallingthe primary resolution on the

subject,amely, resolution 1653(XVI) of 1961.Thus, while the language
employed in the resolutions has varied from time to time, itto be
observed that in resolution 47153of 9 December 1992the General Assem-
bly reaffirmed "that the use of nuclear weapons would be a violation of
the Charter of the United Nations and a crime against humanity, as
declared in its resolutions 1653(XVI) of 24 November 1961n,and other
cited resolutions.

The General Assembly's resolutions may reasonably be interpreted as
taking the position that the threat or use of nuclear weapons was forbid-
den under pre-existing international law. The question is whether there is
a sufficiency of fact and law to enable the Court to decide whether the
position soaken by the General Assembly was correct. To the giving of
an answer 1proceed below.

PARTII. WHETHER THE COURTCOULDHOLD THATSTATES HAVE A
RIGHT TO USENUCLEAR WEAPONS HAVINGREGARD TO THE GENERAL
PRINCIPLE WSHICHDETERMINW EHEN A STATE 1sTO BE CONSIDERE AS
HAVING A POWER

The General Assembly's question presents the Court, as a World
Court, with a dilemma: to hold that States have a right to use nuclear
weapons is to affirm that they have a right to embark on a course of con-
duct which could result in the extinction of civilization, and indeed in the
dissolution ofl1forms of lifeon the planet, both flora and fauna. On the

other hand, to deny the existence of that right may seemto contradict the
"Lotus" principle, relied on by some States, to the effect that States have
a sovereign right to do whatever is not prohibited under international MENACE OUEMPLOI D'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISSS.HAHABUDDEE3N 91

Une convention peut êtreutile en appelant l'attention des organes
nationaux sur le sujet, en particulier en ce qui concerne toute mesure

qu'ils pourraient devoir prendre; elle peut contribuer aussiarifier et
préciserles modalitésde mise en Œuvre des principesde base ou, plus
généralement, àconcevoir un régimepour l'examen de I'illicéien ques-
tion. Le fait de demander la conclusion d'une convention interdisant un
certain comportement n'implique pas nécessairementque le comporte-
ment en question n'étaitpas déjàinterdit.
Un autre argument consiste à dire que certaines résolutions plus ré-
centes de l'Assemblée généraolent adopté une formulation plus nuancée

que celleutiliséedans des résolutions plus anciennes (voirleparagraphe 71
de l'avisconsultatifJe n'attache pas beaucoup de poidsà cet argument
qui laisse entendre qu'il aurait là un abandon de la position adoptée
dans des résolutions antérieuresde l'Assemblée générale selon laquelle
I'emploi d'armes nucléaires estcontraire au droit international existant.
Les résolutions postérieuressont parties de l'idéeque cette position avait
déjàété priseet qu'elle l'avait étéffisance; elles se sont donc bornées

à rappeler simplement la principale résolution en la matièàesavoir la
résolution 1653 (XVI) de 1961. Les termes utilisésdans les résolutions
ont sans doute variéde tempsà autre, mais il faut noter que dans la réso-
lution 47/53 du 9 décembre 1992 l'Assemblée généra aleréaffirmé«que
l'emploi d'armes nucléairesconstituerait une violation de la Charte des
Nations Unies et un crime contre l'humanité, commeelle l'a déclaré
dans [sa]résolution 1653(XVI) du 24 novembre 1961 ))et dans d'autres

résolutionscitées.
Les résolutions del'Assemblée générap leeuvent raisonnablement être
interprétées commesignifiant que la menace ou l'emploi d'armes nu-
cléairesétaient interditsau regard du droit international préexistant.La
question est de savoir si les élémentsde fait et de droit sont suffisants
pour permettre à la Cour de décider si la position ainsi adoptée par
l'Assemblée généralé etait correcte. C'est cette question que je vais
essayerà présentde répondre.

DEUXIÈME PARTIE L.A COURPOUVAIT-EL LONCLURE QUE LES ÉTATS ONT
LE DROIT D'EMPLOYER DES ARMES NUCLEAIRE EU, EGARD AUX PRINCIPES
GÉNÉRAUX QUI DÉTERMINENT QUAND UN ETAT DOIT ÉTRE CONSIDÉRÉ
COMME DISPOSANT DE CERTAINS POUVOIRS?

La question de l'Assemblée généralpeose un dilemme à la Cour, en
tant que juridiction mondiale: conclure que les Etats ont le droit de
recourir aux armes nucléaires, c'est affirmer qont le droit d'adopter
une ligne de conduite qui pourrait aboutirl'anéantissement dela civi-
lisation et la destruction de toutes les formes de vie sur la terre, qu'il
s'agissede la flore ou de la faune. Par ailleurs, nier l'existencede ce droit
peut paraître contredire le principe du Lotus, qui est invoquépar certains
Etats, selon lequel les Etats ont le droit souverain de faire tout ce quilaw, in this respect it being said that there is no principle of international
law which prohibits the use of such weapons. The dilemma6 was the sub-
ject of closedebate. In my view,it was open to the Court to consider four
possible solutions.

The first possible solution proceeds on the basis of the "Lotus" prin-
ciple that a State has a right to do whatever is not prohibited, but it
argues that an act which could lead to the extinction of mankind would
necessarily involve the destruction of neutral States. This being so, the act
cannot be justified under the rubric of self-defence. Therefore, even if,

quodnon, it is otherwise admissible under the jus inbello, the Court could
hold that it is not covered by the jus ad bellurnand is prohibited under
Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter. The question of neutrality is dealt
with in Part 1, Section 4, above.

The second possible solution also proceeds on the basis of the "Lotus"
principle. However, it argues that, due effect being givento the Charter
and the Statute of the Court thereto annexed, by both of which the Court
is bound, these instruments arenot consistent with a State having a right
to doan act which would defeat their fundamental assumption that civi-
lization and mankind would continue: the Court could hold that, by
operation of law, any such inconsistent act stands prohibited by the
Charter.

The third possible solution also proceeds on the basis of the "Lotus"
principle that a State has a right to do whatever is not prohibited under
international law, but (as anticipated in Part 1,Section 2, above) it argues
that, even in the absence of a prohibition, that residual right does not
extend to the doing of things which, by reason of their essential nature,
cannot form the subject of a right, such as actions which could destroy

mankind and civilization and thus bring to an end the basis on which

by King Cambyses whether he could marry hissister, they made prudent answer "thatsked
though they coulddiscover no law which allowed brother to marry sister, there was un-
doubtedly a law which permitted the king of Persia to do what he pleased". See Herodo-
tus, TlzeHistories, trans. Aubrey de Sélincourt,Penguin Books, 1959,p. 187.So here, an
affirmative answer to the General Assembly'squestion would mean that, while the Court
could discover no law allowing a State to put the planet to death, there is undoubtedly
a law which permits the State to accomplish theme result through an exercise of its
sovereign powers.n'est pas interdit en droit international, et on soutient à cet égard qu'il
n'existeaucun principe dedroit international interdisant l'emploi de telles

armes. Ce dilemme6 a fait l'objet d'un intense débat. Selon moi, quatre
solutions possibles s'offraient à la Cour.

La première solution possible consiste à partir du principe du Lotus,
selon lequel un Etat a le droit de faire tout ce qui n'est pas interdit, mais
en faisant valoir qu'un acte susceptible d'aboutir à l'anéantissement de

l'humanité provoquerait nécessairement la destruction d'Etats neutres.
Cela étant,cet acte ne peut êtrejustifiéau titre de la légitimedéfense.Dès
lors, mêmesi, quod non, un tel acte est admissible à d'autres égards selon
lejus inbello, la Cour pourrait décider qu'il n'estpas couvert par lejus ad
bellum et est interdit en vertu du paragraphe 4 de l'article 2 de la Charte.
La question de la neutralité a été traitée plushaut à la section 4 de la
première partie.

La deuxième solution possible part égalementdu principe du Lotus.
Mais on fait valoir ici qu'à bien considérer deuxinstruments au respect
desquels la Cour est tenue, la Charte et le Statut de la Cour qui y est
annexé, onconstate qu'ils sont incompatibles avec le droit qu'aurait un

Etat d'entreprendre une action qui réduirait à néant leur hypothèse de
base, à savoir que la civilisation et l'humanitécontinueront d'exister. Et
la Cour pourrait conclure qu'en vertu du droit tout acte incompatible de
ce type est interdit par la Charte.

La troisième solution possible part aussi du principe du Lotus, selon

lequel un Etat a le droit de faire tout ce qui n'est pas interdit en droit
international. Mais (comme je l'ai laisséentendre plus haut à la section 2
de la première partie) on fait valoir ici que ce droit supplétif ne va pas
jusqu'à autoriser à prendre des mesures qui, de par leur nature même,ne
peuvent fairel'objet d'un droit, comme des actions quipourraient détruire
l'humanitéet la civilisation, et donc réduire à néant la base sur laquelle

Ce dilemme n'est pas sans rappeler celui qu'àutrancher les éminentsjuges de
Perse, auxquels le roi Cambyse demandait s'ilpouvait épousersa sŒur.Ils lui répondirent
sagement ((qu'ilsne voyaient aucune loi autorisant ànépousersa sŒur,mais qu'il
existait assurémentune loi permettant au roi de Perse de faire ce qui lui plaisait)). Voir
Hérodote,Histoires, traduit par Aubrey de Sélincourt,Penguin Books, 1959,p. 187.Dans
la présenteaffaire, une réponseaffirmative question de l'Assemblée générale signi-
fierait que la Cour n'a pu trouver une loi autorisantàuanéantirla planète, mais
qu'il existeassurément uneloi permettantEtat d'atteindre le mêmebut dans le cadre
de l'exercicede ses pouvoirs souverains.States exist and in turn the basis on which rights and obligations exist
within the international community.
There is not any convincing ground for the view that the "Lotus"
Court moved off on a supposition that States have an absolute sover-
eignty whichwould entitle them to do anything however horrid or repug-

nant to the sense of the international community, provided that the doing
of it could not be shown to be prohibited under international law. The
idea of interna1 supremacy associated with the concept of sovereignty in
municipal law is not neatly applicable when that concept is transposed to
the international plane. The existence of a number of sovereignties side
by side places limits on the freedom of each State to act as if the others
did not exist. These limits define an obiective structural framework
within which sovereigntymust necessarily exist7; the framework, and its

defining limits, are implicit in the reference in "Lotus" to "CO-existing
independent communities" (P.C.I.J., Sevies A, No. IO, p. 18), an idea
subsequently improved on by the Charter, a noticeable emphasis on co-
operation having been added.

Thus, however far-reaching may be the rights conferred by sover-
eignty, those rights cannot extend beyond the framework within which
sovereignty itself exists; in particular, they cannot violate the framework.

The framework shuts out the right of a State to embark on a course of
action which would dismantle the basis of the framework by putting an
end to civilization and annihilating mankind. It is not that a State is pro-
hibited from exercising a right which, but for the prohibition, it would
have; a State can have no such right to begin with.
So a prior question in this case is this: even if there is no prohibition,
is there anything in the sovereignty of a State which would entitle it to
embark on a course of action which could effectively wipeout the exis-
tence of al1States by ending civilization and annihilating mankind? An

affirmative answer is not reasonable; that sovereignty could not include
such a right is suggested bythe fact that the acting State would be one of
what the Permanent Court of International Justice, in the language of the
times, referred to as "CO-existingindependent communities", with a con-
sequential duty to respect the sovereignty of other States. It is difficultfor
the Court to uphold a proposition that, absent a prohibition, a State has

The idea is evoked by the following remark of one writer:
"For some authors, the existenceof a corpusjuris governing a decentralized, 'class-
less'society partakes of a miracle.d rather say that it partakes of necessity. It
is not in spite of, but on account of the heterogeneity of States in a society ofjuxta-
position that international law was brought into being and has developed. If inter-
national law did not exist, it would have to be invented."ranslation by the
Registry.] Prosper Weil, "Le droit international en quête de sonidentité. Cours
national de La Haye, Vol. 237 (1992-VI), p. 36.ours del'Académiede droit inter-les Etats existent et, partant, la base sur laquelle reposent les droits et
obligations régissant lacommunautéinternationale.
Aucun argument convaincant ne permet de soutenir que dans l'affaire
du Lotus la Cour serait partie de l'idéeque les Etats ont une souveraineté
absolue les habilitant à entreprendre n'importe quelle action, si horrible

et détestablepuisse-t-elleparaître aux yeux de la communauté internatio-
nale, dèslors qu'il n'estpas prouvéque cette action est interdite en droit
international. L'idéede la suprématie interneassociée à la notion de sou-
veraineté en droit interne n'est pas applicable comme telle lorsqu'on
transpose cette notion sur le plan international. La coexistence d'un cer-
tain nombre de souverainetésassigne des limites à la liberté dechaque
Etat d'agir comme si les autres Etats n'existaient pas. Ces limites défi-
nissent un cadre structurel objectif dans lequel la souverainetédoit néces-

sairement exister7; le cadre ainsi que les limites qui le définissentsont
implicites dans la référence faite dans l'affaire duotus à la ((coexistence
de ...communautésindépendantes))(C.P.J.I. sérieA no IO,p. 18), idée
qui a été précisé ultérieurementpar la Charte grâce à l'accent qu'ellea
mis spécialementsur la coopération.
Ainsi donc, si étendusque puissent êtreles droits découlant dela sou-
veraineté,ces droits ne peuvent aller au-delà du cadre dans lequel la sou-
veraineté elle-mêmeexiste; en particulier, ilsne peuvent violer ledit cadre.

Celui-ci exclut qu'un Etat puisse avoir le droit d'entreprendre une action
qui démantèlerait la base du cadre en anéantissant la civilisation et
l'humanité.Cela ne signifiepas qu'il estinterdit à un Etat d'exercer un
droit qu'il aurait, sauf en cas d'interdiction; en effet, un Etat ne saurait
avoir un tel droit d'emblée.
Il faut donc poser une question préalableen l'espèce :même en l'absence
d'interdiction, existe-t-il un élémentdans la souveraineté de 1'Etat qui
autoriserait celui-cià entreprendre une action qui mettrait fin effective-

ment à l'existence de tous les Etats en anéantissant la civilisation et
l'humanité? Il n'est pas raisonnable de répondre à cette question par
l'affirmative; la souveraineténe peut comporter un tel droit, car 1'Etat
qui commettrait cet acte serait une de ces((communautésindépendantes))
qui coexistent, selon l'expression utiliséeà l'époquepar la Cour perma-
nente de Justice internationale, et il aurait donc l'obligation de respecter
la souverainetédes autres Etats. On voit difficilement comment la Cour

L'idée est évoquépear la remarque suivante d'un auteur:
«Pour certains auteurs l'existence d'unus juris régissant une société décen-
tralisée ethorizontale relèvedu miracle. Je dirais plutôt qu'ellerelèvede la nécessité.
Ce n'est pas en dépit, maisuse de l'hétérogénéité Eetsats dans une société de
juxtaposition que le droit international a t s'estdéveloppé.Si le droit inter-
national n'existait pas, il faudrait l'inventer.Weil, «Le droit international
en quêtede son identité.Cours généralde droit international public)), Recueil des
cours de l'Académiede droit international deLa Haye, t. 237 (1992),p. 36.)a right in law to act in ways which could deprive the sovereignty of al1
other States of meaning.

The fourth possible solution is this: if the "Lotus" principle leaves a

State free to embark on any action whatsoever provided it is not prohib-
ited - a proposition strongly supported by some States and as strenu-
ously opposed by others - then, for the purposes of these proceedings at
any rate, that case may be distinguished. The case did not relate to any
act which could bring civilization to an end and annihilate mankind. It
does not preclude a holding that there is no right to do such an act unless
the act is one which is authorized under international law.
This fourth solution calls for fuller consideration than the others. It
will be necessary to take account of three developments which bear on
the extent to which modes of legal thought originating in an earlier age
are applicable in today's world.
First, as set out in Article paragraph 4, of theCharter,and following
on earlier developments, the right of recourse to force has come under a
major restriction. This is a significant movement away from the heavy

emphasis on individual sovereignty which marked international society
as it earlier existed. The point was stressed by the Philippines and Samoa.

Second, there have been important developments concerning the char-
acter of the international community and of inter-State relations. While
the number of States has increased, international relations have thickened;
the world has grown closer. In the process, there has been a discern-
ible movement from a select society of States to a universal interna-
tional community. Thus it was that in 1984 a Chamber of the Court
could speak of "the CO-existenceand vital CO-operationof the members
of the international community" (Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary
in the Gulf of Maine Aveu, I,C.J. Reports 1984, p. 299, para. 111). The
earlier legalutlook has not lost al1relevance. It is reasonably clear, how-
ever, that the previous stress on the individual sovereignty of each State
considered as hortus conclusushas been incliningbefore a new awareness

of the responsibility of each State as a member of a more cohesive and
comprehensive system based on CO-operationand interdependence.

These new developments have in part been consecrated by the Charter,
in part set in motion by it. Their effect and direction were noticed by
Judge Alvarez (Conditions of Admission of a State to Membership in the
United Nations (Article 4 of Charter), 1948, 1.C.J. Reports 1947-1948,
p. 68, separate opinion). Doubts about his plea for a new international
law did not obscure the fact that he was not alone in his central theme.
Other judges observed that it was

"an undeniable fact that the tendency of al1international activitiesinpourrait faire sienne la thèse selon laquelle, en l'absenced'une interdic-
tion, un Etat est fondéen droit à adopter un comportement qui aurait
pour effet de vider de son contenu la souveraineté de tous les autres
Etats.
*
Une quatrième solution s'offre à la Cour: si le principe énoncédans

l'affairedu Lotus permet à un Etat de faire tout cequi n'estpas interd-t
thèsequi est vigoureusement appuyéepar certains Etats et tout aussi fer-
mement rejetéepar d'autres Etats -, il faut cependant bien circonscrire
cette affaire, aux fins de celle que nous examinons. L'affaire du Lotus
n'avait traità aucun acte susceptible d'anéantir lacivilisation et l'huma-
nité.Elle n'interdit pas de conclure qu'il n'existe aucun droit de com-
mettre un tel acte, sauf s'ils'agitd'un acte autoriséen droit international.
Cette quatrième solution méritequ'on s'y arrêteplus longuement que
sur les autres.11nous faudra examiner trois faits nouveaux qui ont une
incidence sur I'applicabilitédans le monde d'aujourd'hui de modes de
penséejuridiques remontant à une époqueantérieure.
En premier lieu, comme cela ressort du paragraphe 4 de l'article2 de la
Charte et à la suite d'une évolution amorcéeplus tôt, le droit de recourir

à la force a fait l'objet d'une restriction importante. On ne met plus aussi
fortement l'accent sur la souverainetéindividuelle que le faisait autrefois
la sociétéinternationale. Ce point a été soulignépar les Philippines et le
Samoa.
En deuxième lieu,une évolution importante s'est produite en ce qui
concerne les notions de ((communauté internationale)) et de ((relations
entre Etats)). A mesure que lenombre des Etats s'accroissait,lesrelations
internationales ont gagnéen densitéet le monde s'est resserré.D'un petit
club d'Etats, on est vraiment passé à une communauté internationale
universelle. C'est ainsiqu'une chambre de la Cour a pu évoqueren 1984
«la coexistence et la coopération vitale des membres de la communauté
internationale)) (Délimitationde lafrontière maritime dans la régiondu
golfe du Maine, C.I.J. Recueil 1984,p. 299,par. 111).La conceptionjuri-
dique qui prévalait autrefois n'a pasperdu toute consistance, mais il est
indéniable que l'accent mis autrefois sur la souveraineté individuelle

de chaque Etat considéré commeun hortus conclusus a fait place àune
meilleure prise de conscience de la responsabilité dechaque Etat en tant
que membre d'un système plus cohérent et plus général,fondé sur la
coopération et l'interdépendance.
Cette évolution a étéen partie consacréepar la Charte, et en partie
amorcéepar elle. M. Alvarez a pris note des effets et du sens de cette
évolution (Conditions de l'udmission d'un Etat comme Membre des
Nations Unies (article 4 de la Charte), 1948, C.I.J. Recueil 1947-1948,
p. 68, opinion individuelle). Les doutes suscitéspar son plaidoyer pour
un nouveau droit international n'ont pas obscurci le fait qu'il n'était pas
le seulà penser, comme d'autres juges l'ont relevé,que:

«[il1est indéniableque toutes les activitésinternationales ont tendu recent times has been towards the promotion of the common welfare
of the international community with a corresponding restriction of
the sovereign power of individual States" (Reservations to the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishmerztof the Crirneof Genocide,
I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 46, joint dissenting opinion of Judges Guer-
rero, Sir Arnold McNair, Read and Hsu Mo).

Though elsewhere critical of "the theory which reduces the rights of
States to competences assigned and portioned by international lawU8,
Judge De Visscher, for his part, observed that "[tlhe Charter has created
an international system", and added:

"[Iln the interpretation of a great international constitutional
instrument, like the United Nations Charter, the individualistic con-
cepts which are generally adequate in the iriterpretation of ordinary
treaties, do not suffice."(International Status of South West Africa,
I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 189, dissenting opinion.)
The Charter did not, of course, establish anything like world govern-
ment; but it did organize international relations on the basis of an "inter-

national system"; and fundamental to that system was an assumption
that the human species and its civilization would continue.

But, third, there have been developments working in the opposite
direction, in the sense that it now, and for the first time, lies within
the power of some States to destroy the entire system, and al1mankind
with it.
What lesson is to be drawn from these developments, the third being
opposed to the first and the second?
The notions of sovereignty and independence which the "Lotus" Court
had in mind did not evolve in a context which visualized the possibility
that a single State could possess the capability of wiping out the practical

existence both of itself and of al1 other States. The Court was dealing
with a case of collision at sea and the criminal jurisdiction of States in
relation thereto - scarcely an earth-shaking issue. Had its mind been
directed to the possibility of theplanet being destroyed by a minority of
warring States, it is not likely that it would have left the position which it
took without qualification. No more than this Court would have done
when in 1986it said that

"in international law there are no rules, other than such rules as may
be accepted by the State concerned, by treaty or otherwise, whereby
the level of armaments of a sovereign State can be limited, and this
principle is valid for al1 States without exception7' (Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 135, para. 269).

Charles De Visscher, Theoïy and Reality in Public International Law, revised edition,
trans.. E.Corbett, 1968,p. 104.

173 dans la périoderécente à la réalisationdu bien-êtrecommun de la
communauté internationale, en limitant de ce fait la compétence
souveraine des Etats particuliers))(Réserves à la conventionpour la
préventionet la répressiondu crime degénocide,C.I.J. Recueil 1951,
p. 46, opinion dissidente collective de M. Guerrero, sir Arnold
McNair, MM. Read et Hsu Mo).

Bienqu'à d'autres égardsil semontre critique au sujet de la ((théoriequi
réduitles droits des Etats à des compétences assignées et répartiepsar le
droit int.ernati~nal»~,M. Charles De Visscher, pour sa part, a noté que
(([l]aCharte a donnénaissance àun régimeinternational)) et il a ajouté que

((l'interprétation d'un grand acte constitutionnel international
comme la Charte des Nations Unies ne saurait s'inspirer desconcep-
tions individualistes qui prévalent généralemend tans l'interprétation
des traités ordinaires))(Statut international du Sud-Ouest africain,
C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 189,opinion dissidente).
Bien entendu, la Charte n'a rien établiqui puisse êtreassimilé à un gou-

vernement mondial, mais elle a organiséles relations internationales sur
la base d'un ((systèmeinternational)),et un tel systèmerepose sur la pré-
missefondamentaleque l'espècehumaine et la civilisation vont continuer
d'exister.
En troisième lieu,cependant, une évolutionen sens contraire s'estpro-
duite, à savoir qu'aujourd'hui, et pour la première foisdans l'histoire,
certains Etats ont la capacité de détruire tout le systèmeet, avec lui,
l'humanitétout entière.
Quels sont les enseignements qui se dégagentde cette triple évolution,
dont la troisième va en senscontraire de la première etde la deuxième?
Les notions de souveraineté et d'indépendance quela Cour avait à
l'esprit en statuant dans l'affaire du Lotus ne s'inséraientpas dans un

contexte où l'on entrevoyait la possibilitéqu'un Etat aurait la capacitéà
lui seul de s'anéantiret d'anéantiravec lui tous les autres Etats. La Cour
avait à examiner une affaire de collision en mer et la question de la com-
pétence pénale des Etats àcet égard.On ne peut pas dire qu'il y avait là
de quoi bouleverser les esprits. Si elle avait pu imaginer la possibilité
qu'une minorité d'Etats belligérantspût anéantir la planète, elle aurait
vraisemblablement nuancé la position qu'elle a prise, tout comme elle
l'aurait fait en 1986,orsqu'elle a déclaréque:

«il n'existepas en droit international de règles,autres que cellesque
1'Etatintéressépeut accepter, par traité ou autrement, imposant la
limitation du niveau d'armement d'un Etat souverain, ce principe
étantvalable pour tous les Etats sans distinction))(Activitésmilitai-
res et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c.
Etats-Unis d'Amérique), C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 135,par. 269).

Charles De Visscher, Theo~yand Reality in Public International Law, éditionrevisée,
traduction de E. Corbett, 1968,p. 104.The situation did not relate to the use of nuclear weapons; the Court's
statement was directed to the right of a State to possess a level of arma-
ments about the use of which no issue of legality had been raised.
Caution needs to be exercised in extending the meaning of a judicial
dictum to a field which was not in contemplation. The fact that he was
dissenting does not diminish the value of Judge Badawi Pasha's reminder
of problems which could arise

"when a rule is removed from the framework in whichit was formed,
to another of different dimensions, to which it cannot adapt itself as
easily as it did to its proper setting" (Reparationfor InjuriesSuffered
in the Service of the United Nations I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 215).

It isworth remembering, too, that, in his dissenting opinion in "Lotus",
Judge Finlay understood the compromis to present an issue not as to
whether there was "a rule forbidding" the prosecution, but as to "whether
the principles of international law authorize" it (P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 10, p. 52). In the early post-Charter period, Judge Alvarez specifi-
cally challenged the principle that States have "the right . . .to do
everything which is not expressly forbidden by international law". In his
view, "This principle, formerly correct, in the days of absolute sover-
eignty, is no longer so at the present day." (Fisheries, I.C.J. Reports
1951, p. 152, separate opinion.)

1do not consider now whether so general a challenge is maintainable.
This is because it appears to me that there is a particular area in which
"Lotus" is distinguishable. On what point does this limited distinction

turn? It is this. Whichever way the issue in "Lotus" was determined, the
Court's determination could be accommodated within the framework of
an international society consisting of"CO-existingindependent communi-
ties". Not so as regards the issue whether there is a right to use nuclear
weapons. Were the Court to uphold such a right, it would be upholding
a right which could be used to destroy that framework and which could
not therefore be accommodated within it. However extensive might be
the powers available to a State, there is not any basis for supposing that
the Permanent Court of International Justice considered that, in the
absence of a prohibition, they included powers the exercise of which
could extinguishcivilization and annihilate mankind and thus destroy the
framework of the international community; powers of this kind were not
in issue. To the extent that a course of action could be followed by so
apocalyptic a consequence, the case is distinguishable; it does not stand

in the way of this Court holding that States do not have a right to
embark on such a course of action unless, which is improbable, it can be
shown that the action is authorized under international law.
It is the case that theformulations (and in particular the title)employed
in various draft conventions appended to a number of General Assembly
resolutions on the subject of nuclear weapons were cast in the termino-
logy of prohibition. However, assuming that the correct theory is thatIl n'étaitpas question en l'occurrence de l'emploi d'armes nucléaires;la
déclaration dela Cour portait sur ledroit d'un Etat de posséderun niveau
d'armement, aucune question n'ayant été soulevéaeu sujet de la licéitédu
recours à un tel armement. Il faut se garder d'étendrela significationd'un
dictum à un domaine qui n'était pasvisépar la juridiction dont elle
émane.Le fait que Badawi Pacha ait expriméson désaccord à ce sujet
n'enlèveaucune valeur à son rappel des problèmesqui pourraient seposer

«dèslors qu'on transpose une règledu cadre où elles'est forméedans
un autre cadre où, les dimensions n'étant pasles mêmes,elle ne peut
s'accommoder avec l'aisanceancienne)) (Réparationdes dommages
subis au service desNations Unies, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 215).

Il faut rappeler aussi que lord Finlay, dans son opinion dissidente à
propos de l'affaire du Lotus, considérait que la question poséedans le
compromis ne consistait pas à savoir s'ilexistait «une règleinterdisant))
l'exercicede poursuites pénales,mais si «les principes du droit interna-
tional autorisent)) un tel exerciceC.P.J.I. sérieA no10, p. 52). Dans les
premières annéesqui ont suivi l'adoption de la Charte, M. Alvarez a
contestéexpressémentle principe selon lequel lesEtats ont «le droit...de
faire tout ce qui n'est pas expressémentdéfendupar le droit internatio-
nal)). Selon lui:«Ce principe, exact autrefois, sous le régimede la sou-
verainetéabsolue, ne l'est plus aujourd'hui.)) (Pêcheries, C.IJ.. Recueil
1951, p. 152, opinion individuelle.)

Je n'examineraipas icile point de savoir s'ilest possible d'admettre une
contestation aussi généraleE. n effet, il me semble qu'il estun aspect par-
ticulierqui est proprà l'affairedu Lotus. Cette distinctionlimitéeporte sur
le point ci-après.Dans quelque sens qu'ellese prononçât dans l'affairedu
Lotus, la décision de laCour pouvait s'accommoder dans le cadre d'une
sociétéinternationale fondée sur la ((coexistence de communautés indé-
pendantes)). Il n'en vapas de mêmelorsqu'on pose la question de savoir
s'ilexisteun droit de recourir aux armes nucléaires.Sila Cour devait affir-
mer qu'un tel droit existe, elle attesterait l'existenced'un droit qui pour-
rait êtreutilisépour détruirececadre et qui ne pourrait donc trouverà s'y
accommoder. Quelque étendus quepuissent êtrelespouvoirs dont dispose
un Etat, rien ne permet de supposer que la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale considérait qu'en l'absenced'une interdiction ils englo-
baient des pouvoirs dont l'exercicepourrait provoquer l'anéantissement

de la civilisation et de l'humanitéet donc détruirele cadre de la commu-
nautéinternationale; il n'étaitpas question de pouvoirs de cette espèce.
Dès lors qu'une action risque d'avoir des conséquences aussiapocalyp-
tiques, le cas est différent etil n'empêchepas la Cour d'affirmer que les
Etats n'ont pas le droit d'entreprendre une telle action,moins d'établir,
ce qui est improbable, que celle-ciest autoriséeen droit international.
Il est de fait que le libellé (et,en particulier, le titre) des différentspro-
jets de convention annexés à un certain nombre derésolutionsde l7Assem-
bléegénéraleconcernant les armes nucléaires s'inspirede la terminologie
de l'interdiction. Toutefois, si l'on admet que la théorie correcte veutauthorization under international law has to be shown for the use of
nuclear weapons, this would not prevent States from concluding ama1
prohibitory treaty; the fact that the draft conventions were directed to
achieving a prohibitiondoes not invalidate the view that authorization
has to be shown.

The terminology of prohibition is also to be found in the reasoning of
the Tokyo District Court in Shimoda v. The State9. 1 do not consider
that much can be made of this. The Tokyo District Court, being satisfied
that the dropping of the bombs was prohibitedunder international law,
was not called upon toconsider whether, if there was no prohibition, it
was necessary for an authorization to be shown; the received statement
of the law being, in its view, sufficient for a holding of unlawfulness, a
sense of judicial economy could make it unnecessary for the Court to
enquire whether the same holding could be sustained on another basis.

Can the required authorization be shown in this case? It seems not.

The Court is a creature of the Charter and the Statute. If it finds, as it
should, that both the Charter and the Statute posit the continued exis-
tence of civilization and of mankind, it is difficult to seehow itd
a holding that international lawes not authorize a State to embark on
a course of action which couldnsue in the destruction of civilization and
the annihilation of mankind.

PARTIII. WHETHER THE COURT COULDHOLDTHAT THE USE OF
NUCLEAR WEAPON1 SsPROHIBITE DY HUMANITARIA LAW

1 propose now to consider the question of the legality of the use of
nuclear weapons from the standpoint of some of the leading principles of
humanitarian law (a term now generallyused) which were in force at the
commencement of the nuclear age. These principles relate to the right to
choose means of warfare, the unnecessary suffering principle, and the
Martens Clause.

1. The Methods or Means of Warfave
Thiscustomary international lawprinciple isrestated inArticle 35,para-

graph 1, of Additional ProtocolI of 1977to the Geneva Conventions of
1949 as follows: "In any armed conflict, the right of the Parties to the
conflict to choose methods ormeans of warfare is not unlimited." The
principle hascome under pressure from the continuing emergence of
weapons with increasing destructive power, the tendency being to accept
higher levels of destructiveness with growing powers of destruction. Its
value would be further eroded if, as it is sometimes argued,t does is
to leave open the possibility that a weapon may be banned under some

The Japanese Annual of International Law, No. 8, 1964,p. 235.qu'on établisse que l'emploides armes nucléairesest autorisé en droit
international, ce fait n'empêche pasles Etats de conclure un traitéformel
d'interdiction; le fait que les projets de convention viséstendaienta-
blir une interdiction n'infirme pas l'opinion selon laquelle l'autorisation

doit êtredémontrée.
La terminologie de l'interdiction apparaît égalementdans la motiva-
tion de la décisiondu tribunal de district de Tokyo dans l'affaireoda
c. l'Etat9. Je ne crois pas qu'on puisse tirer de cela des conclusions très
nettes. Le tribunal de district de Tokyo ayant acquis la conviction que le
largage des bombes étaitinterdit en droit international, il n'avait pas
examiner si, en l'absence d'une interdiction, il était nécessaired'établir
l'existenced'une autorisation; les arguments de droit lui paraissant suf-
fisants pour conclureà l'illicéitél,e sens de la réservejudiciaire pouvait
amener le tribunal en questionàse dispenser d'examiner s'ilétaitpossible

d'arriverà la mêmeconclusion sur une autre base.
Est-il possible d'établirl'existencede l'autorisation requise en l'espèce?
Il semble que non. La Cour a étécréée par la Charte et par le Statut. Si
elle estime, comme elle devrait le faire, que tant la Charte que le Statut
postulent la survie de la civilisation et de l'humanité, on ne voit pas très
bien comment elle pourrait éviterde conclure que le droit international
n'autorise pas un Etatà entreprendre une action qui risque de provoquer
l'anéantissement de la civilisation et de l'humanité.

TROISIÈME PARTIEL .ACOURPOUVAIT-EL LONCLURE QUE L'EMPLOI
D'ARMES NUCLEAIRES EST INTERDIT PAR LE DROIT HUMANITAIRE?

Je me propose d'examiner à présent la questionde la licéde l'emploi

d'armes nucléairesdu point de vue de certains des grands principes du
droit humanitaire (un terme utilisé généralemenatujourd'hui) qui étaient
en vigueur au débutde l'èrenucléaire.Ces principes ont trait au droit de
choisir les moyens de guerre, au principe relatif aux maux superflus, et
la clause de Martens.

1. Les méthodesou moyens de guerre

Ce principe du droit international coutumier est réaffirméau para-
graphe 1 de l'article 35 du protocole additionnel 1 de 1977 aux conven-
tions de Genève de 1949 dans les termes ci-après: «Dans tout conflit
armé,le droit des parties au conflit de choisir desméthodes ou moyens de

guerre n'est pas illimité.e principe a été quelquepeu battu en brèche
du fait de l'apparition continue d'armes dotéesd'un pouvoir de destruc-
tion sans cesse accru, la tendance étantd'accepter un seuil plus élede
capacité de destructionàmesure que cette capacité devenait plus grande.
On réduirait encore davantage la valeur de ce principe en soutenant,

The Japanese Annual of Internationano8, 1964,p. 235.law other than that setting out the principle itself; but that argument can-
not be right since, if it is, the principle would not be laying down a norm
of State conduct and could not therefore be called a principle of interna-
tional law. Paragraph 77of the Court's Advisory Opinion recognizes that
the principle is one of international law; it is not meaningless. Nor is it
spent; its continuing existence wasattested to by General Assembly reso-
lution 2444 (XXIII), adopted unanimously on 19 December 1968. By
that resolution the General Assembly affirmed

"resolution XXVIII of the XXth International Conference of the
Red Cross held at Vienna in 1965, which laid down, inter alia, the
following principles for observance by al1governmental and other
authorities responsible for action in armed conflicts:

(a) that the right of the parties to a conflict to adopt means of
injuring the enemy is not unlimited;
(6) that it is prohibited to launch attacks against the civilian popu-
lations as such;
(c) that distinction must be made at al1 times between persons
taking part in the hostilities and members of the civilian

population to the effect that the latter be spared as much as
possible."
As is suggested by subparagraph (a), the principle limiting the right to
choose means of warfare subsists. Notwithstanding an impression of
non-use, it is capable of operation. In what way? The principle may be
interpreted as intended to exclude the right to choose some weapons.
What these might be was not specified,and understandably so. Yet, if, as
it seems, the principle can apply to bar the use of some weapons, it is
difficult to imagine how it could fail to bar the use of nuclear weapons;
difficulties whichmay exist in applying the rule in less obvious cases dis-
appear as more manifest ones appear. But, of course, imagination is not

enough; a juridical course of reasoning has to be shown. How?

A useful beginning is to note that what isin issue is not the existence of
the principle, but its application in a particular case. Its applications
not require proof of the coming into being of an opiniojuris prohibiting
the use of the particular weapon; if that were so, one would be in the
strange presence of a principle which could not be applied without proof
of an opiniojuris to support each application.

But how can the principle apply in the absence of a stated criterion? If
the principle can operate to prohibit the use of some means of warfare, it
necessarily impliesthat there is a criterion on the basis of which it can be
determined whether a particular means is prohibited. What can that
implied criterion be? As seems to be recognized by the Court, humani- MENACE OU EMPLOID'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISSS.HAHABUDDEE 39)

comme on le fait parfois, qu'il se borneà ouvrir la possibilitéqu'une loi
vienne interdire une arme, sans énoncerle principe lui-même; maiscet
argument ne peut êtrefondé,car s'il l'était,le principe n'établirait pas
une norme de conduite pour les Etats et on ne pourrait donc le qualifier
de principe de droit international. Au paragraphe 77 de son avis consul-
tatif, la Cour reconnaît qu'il s'agit biend'un principe de droit internatio-
nal. Il n'est pas plus dénuéde sens qu'il n'est tombéen désuétude:son
maintien en vigueur estattestépar la résolution2444(XXIII) de 1'Assem-
bléegénérale,qui a étéadoptée à l'unanimitéle 19 décembre1968. Par

cette résolution,l'Assemblée généraa lefait sienne
«la résolutionXXVIII adoptée en 1965 àVienne par la XXe Confé-
rence internationale de la Croix-Rouge, qui a posénotamment les
principes suivants que doivent observer toutes les autorités, gouver-
nementales et autres, responsables de la conduite d'opérations en
périodede conflit armé, à savoir:

a) que le droit des partiesà un conflit armé d'adopter des moyens
de nuireà l'ennemi n'estpas illimité;
b) qu'il est interdit de lancer des attaques contre les populations
civilesen tant que telles;
c) qu'il faut en tout temps faire la distinction entre les personnes
qui prennent part aux hostilités etles membres de la population
civile,afin que ces derniers soient épargnésdans toute la mesure
du possible)).

Commelelaisseentendre l'alinéa a), leprincipelimitant ledroit de choi-
sir lesmoyens de guerre subsiste. Même sil'ona l'impression qu'il n'estpas
utilisé,il est possible delemettre en Œuvre.De quellefaçon? On peut inter-
préterleprincipe commeayantpour objet d'exclureledroit d'avoir recours
à certaines armes. Ces armes n'ont pas été précisées, et cepleut se com-
prendre. Cependant, si,comme cela sembleêtrele cas, leprincipe peut ser-
virà interdire lerecoursàcertaines armes, on voit mal comment il pourrait
ne pas interdire le recours aux armes nucléaires;les difficultésque pose
l'application de la règledans des cas moins évidents disparaissent lorsque
surviennent des cas plus patents. Bien entendu, l'imagination nesuffitpas,
et il faut présenter unraisonnement juridique. Quel peut-ilêtre?
On pourrait commencerutilement par noter que, ce qui est en cause, ce

n'est pas l'existencedu principe, mais son application dans un cas donné.
Pareille application n'exige pas qu'on apporte la preuve de l'existence
d'une opiniojuris interdisant l'utilisation d'une armeen particulier; s'ilen
étaitainsi, on se trouverait étrangementen présenced'un principe qui ne
pourrait être appliqué sans qu'on apporte la preuve que chaque applica-
tion est appuyéepar une opiniojuris.
Mais comment le principe peut-il s'appliquer en l'absence d'un critère
bien établi? Si le principe peut servirà interdire le recoursà certains
moyens de guerre, cela implique nécessairement qu'il existeun critèresur
la base duquel il est possible de déterminersi un moyen donnéest inter-
dit. Quel peut être cecritèreimplicite? Comme la Cour semble le recon-tarian considerations are admissible in the interpretation of the law of
armed conflict (see paragraphs 86 and 92 of the Court's Advisory Opin-
ion). Drawing on those considerations, and taking an approach based
on the principle of effectiveness, it is reasonable to conclude that the cri-
terion implied by the principle iri question is set by considering whether
the use of the particular weapon is acceptable to the sense of the inter-
national community; it is difficult to see how there could be a right to
choose a means of warfare the use of which is repugnant to the sense of
the international community.
In relation to some weapons, it may be difficult to establish, with evi-
dential completeness, what is the sense of the international community.
But the use of nuclear weapons falls, as it were, at the broad end of a
range of possibilities,where difficulties ofthat kind evaporate. Unlike the
case of conventional weapons, the use of nuclear weapons can result in
the annihilation of mankind and of civilization. As it has been remarked,
ifal1the explosive devicesused throughout the world since the invention
of gunpowder were to detonate at the same time, they could not result in

the destruction of civilization; this could happen if recourse weremade to
the use of nuclear weapons, and with many to spare. The principle limit-
ing the right to choose means of warfare assumed that, whatever might
be the means of warfare lawfully used, it would continue to be possible
for war to be waged on a civilized basis in future. Thus, however free a
State may be in its choice of means, that freedom encounters a limiting
factor when the use of a particular type of weapon could ensue in the
destruction of civilization.

It may be added that, in judging of the admissibility of a particular
means of warfare, it is necessary, in my opinion, to consider what the
means can do in the ordinary course of warfare, even if it may not do it
in al1circumstances. A conclusion as to what nuclear weapons can do in
the ordinary course of warfare is not speculative; it is a finding of fact. In
advisory proceedings, the Court can make necessary determinations of
fact (Legal Consequencesfor States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council
Resolution 276 (19701, I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 27). For the reasons

given, there is no difficulty inmaking one in this case.

In making a finding as to what is the sense of the international com-
munity, it is of course essential for the Court to consider the views held
by States, provided that, for the reasons given above, there is no slippage
into an assumption that, so far as concerns the particular principle in
question, it is necessary to establish an opinio juris supportive of the
existence of a specificrule prohibiting the use of nuclear weapons.
The views of States are available. The first General Assembly resolu-
tion, which was unanimously adopted on 24 January 1946, bears the
interpretation that the General Assembly considered that the use of MENACEOU EMPLOI D'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OP. ISS.HAHABUDDEE3N 9)

naître, des considérationshumanitaires sont admissibles dans l'interpré-
tation du droit des conflits armés(voir paragraphes 86 et 92 de l'avis
consultatif de la Cour). En partant de ces considérations, si on adopte
une approche fondéesur le principe de l'effet utile,on peut raisonnable-
ment conclure que le critère qui est implicite dans le principe en question
consiste à examiner si l'emploi de l'arme viséeest acceptable aux yeux
de la communauté internationale; on voit difficilement comment on

pourrait avoir le droit d'adopter un moyen de guerre dont l'utilisation
répugne à la communauté internationale.
Pour ce qui est de certaines armes, il peut s'avérerdifficile d'établir,
d'une manière parfaitementprobante, quel est le sentiment de la commu-
nautéinternationale. Mais l'emploid'armes nucléairesse situe à la pointe
extrêmed'une gamme de possibilités, là où des difficultésde ce type
n'existent plus.Contrairement aux armes classiques, lesarmes nucléaires
peuvent provoquer l'anéantissement de l'humanitéet de la civilisation.
Comme on l'a fait observer, si on faisait exploser en mêmetemps tous les
engins explosifs qui ont été utilisésans le monde entier depuis l'inven-
tion de la poudreà canon, celane pourrait provoquer la destruction de la

civilisation; mais ce résultatpourrait êtreatteint en n'employant qu'une
petite partie des armes nucléaires.Le principe qui limitait le droit de choi-
sir lesmoyens de guerre sefondait sur lepostulat que, quels que soient les
moyens de guerre utilisésde manière licite, il serait encore possible à
l'avenir de mener la guerre sur une base civilisée.Ainsi, quelque libre que
puisse êtreun Etat de choisir les moyens de guerre, cette libertése heurte
à une limite lorsque l'emploi d'un certain type d'armes peut aboutirà la
destruction de la civilisation.
On pourrait ajouter que, pour juger de l'admissibilitéd'un moyen de
guerre donné,il faut, selon moi, tenir compte du résultat quece moyen
peut permettre d'atteindre dans le cours ordinaire de la guerre, mêmesi
ce résultat n'est pas atteint dans toutes les circonstances. La réponse

cette question, s'agissant d'armes nucléaires,ne relèvepas de la spécula-
tion; elle consisteà constater les faits. Dans le cadre de la procédure
consultative, la Cour peut, lorsque c'est nécessaire,se prononcer sur les
faits(Conséquencesjuridiques pour les Etats de la présencecontinue de
l'Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain) nonobstant la résolu-
tion 276 (1970) du Conseil desécurité,C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 27). Pour
les raisons déjà données,il n'est pas difficilede se prononcer sur les faits
en l'espèce.
Pour établir quelest le sentiment de la communauté internationale, il
est évidemmentindispensable que la Cour examine les vues des Etats, à
condition que, pour les raisons évoquées plushaut, on évitetout glisse-

ment consistant à admettre l'hypothèse selon laquelle, s'agissantdu prin-
cipe en question, il faut établirune opiniojurisà l'appui de l'existence
d'une règle spécifiqueinterdisant l'emploi d'armes nucléaires.
Les vues des Etats sont connues. La première résolutionde l'Assemblée
générale,qui a étéadoptée à l'unanimitéle 24janvier 1946,doit s'inter-
préter comme signifiant qu'aux yeux de l'Assemblée générale l'emploinuclear weapons is unacceptable to the international community; it is
referred to above. Also there are the 1968NPT and associated arrange-

ments, dealt with more fully below. The Court may interpret these as
amounting to a statement made both by the NWS and the NNWS to the
effect that the actual use of nuclear weapons would be unacceptable to
the international community, and that it is for this reason that efforts
should be made to contain their spread under arrangements which com-
mitted al1parties to work, in good faith, towards their final elimination.
If the actual use of nuclear weapons is acceptable to the international
community, it is difficult to perceive any credible basis for an arrange-
ment which would limit the right to use them to some States, and more
particularly if the latter could in some circumstances exercise that right
against States not enjoying that exclusiveright.

In the year following the conclusion of the NPT, the Institute of Inter-
national Law, at its 1969session in Edinburgh, had occasion to note that
"existing international law prohibits the use of al1 weapons" (nuclear
weapons being understood to be included) "which, by their nature, affect

indiscriminately both military objectives and non-military objects, or
both armed forces and civilian population". Whatever may be said of
other such weapons, that view, expressed with near unanimity, is helpful
not only for its high professional value, but also for its independent
assessment of the unacceptability to the international community of the
use of nuclear weapons. That assessmentaccurately reflectedthe basis on
which the NPT arrangements had been concluded in the preceding year.

Other weapons share with nuclear weapons membership of the cat-
egory of weapons of mass destruction. As mentioned above, however, it
is open to the Court to take the view that the juridical criterion is not
simply how destructive a weapon is, but whether its destructiveness is
such as to cause the weapon to be considered by the international com-
munity to be unacceptable to it. The material before the Court (some of
which was examined in Part 1,Section 3, above) is sufficientto enable the
Court to conclude that, in the case of nuclear weapons, the revulsion of
the international community is an established fact. Thus, the legal con-

sequences in the specific case of nuclear weapons need not be the same
for other weapons of mass destruction not already banned by treaty.

In Shimoda v. The State the plaintiffs' claims were dismissed on
grounds not now material; the case remains the only judicial decision,
national or international, in the field. It was decided by the Tokyo Dis-
trict Court on 7 December 1963.Though not of course binding, it ranks
as ajudicial decision under Article 38, paragraph 1 (d), of the Statute of
the Court; it qualifies for consideration. A judicial conclusion different d'armes nucléaires est inacceptablepour la communautéinternationale; il
en est question plus haut. Il y a égalementle traité surla non-prolifération

de 1968et les accords annexes, sur lesquelsje reviendrai plus longuement
un peu plus loin. La Cour pourrait lesinterprétercomme représentant une
déclarationfaite par les Etats dotés d'armesnucléaireset lesEtats qui n'en
détiennent paspour indiquer que le recours effectif aux armes nucléaires
serait inacceptable pour la communauté internationale et qu'il faudrait,
pour cette raison, s'efforcer d'empêcher leup rrolifération dans le cadre
d'accordspar lesquelstoutes les parties s'engageraient Œuvrer, debonne
foi, en vue de leur éliminationdéfinitive.On voit mal, si lerecours effectif
aux armes nucléaires est acceptablepour la communauté internationale,
sur quelle base crédibleun arrangement pourrait êtreconclu pour réserver
à quelques Etats le droit d'employer ces armes, et ceà fortiori si ceux-ci
peuvent dans certaines circonstances exercerce droit contre des Etats qui
ne jouissent pas de ce droit exclusif.

L'annéequi a suivi la conclusion du traité sur la non-prolifération,
l'Institut de droit international a eu l'occasion de noteà,sa session de
1969 tenue à Edimbourg, que le droit international existant interdit
l'emploi de toutes les armes (y compris les armes nucléaires)qui, de par
leur nature, frappent sans distinction les objectifs militaires et les objectifs
non militaires, ou les forces armées etla population civile. Quoi qu'on
puisse dire des autres armes visées,cette opinion, qui a été émise à la
quasi-unanimité,est importante non seulementparce qu'elleémaned'émi-
nents spécialistes,mais aussi parce qu'elleprocèded'une évaluationindé-
pendante de l'inacceptabilité pour la communauté internationale du
recours aux armes nucléaires. Cette évaluation prenait fidèlement en
compte les élémentssur la base desquels les accords concernant le traité
sur la non-prolifération avaient été conclus l'annéperécédente.

D'autres armes font partie,à l'instar des armes nucléaires,de la caté-
gories des armes de destruction massive. Toutefois, comme indiquéplus
haut, il appartient la Cour de déciderque le critèrejuridique ne consiste
pas simplement à mesurer la capacité destructriced'une arme, maisà éta-
blir si sa capacité de destruction est telle que l'arme peut êtreconsidérée
par la communauté internationale comme inacceptable à ses yeux. Les
élémentsdont la Cour dispose (dont certains ont été examinés à la sec-
tion 3 de la premièrepartie) suffisentpour lui permettre de conclure que,
dans le cas des armes nucléaires,la répulsion qu'éprouvela communauté
internationale est un fait établi.Les conséquencesjuridiques qui s'impo-
sent dans le cas des armes nucléairesne doivent donc pas êtrenécessai-
rement identiques dans le cas d'autres armes de destruction massive qui
ne sont pas encore interdites par un traité.
Dans l'affaire Shimoda c. I'Etat, les plaignants ont étédéboutéspour

des motifs qui n'étaientpas à l'époquepatents; ce jugement reste à ce
jour la seule décision judiciaire,tant nationale qu'internationale, dans ce
domaine. Il a étérendu par le tribunal de district de Tokyo, leécembre
1963. Bien qu'il soit évidemment dépourvu de force contraignante, il
constitue une décision judiciaireau sens du paragraphe 1, alinéad), defrom that reached by the Tokyo District Court would need to explain
why the reasoning of that Court was not acceptable.

The Tokyo District Court was deliberating over the proposition (based
on expert legal opinion) "that the means which give unnecessary pain in

war and inhumane means are ~rohibited as means of iniurine the J "
enemy" Io.The proposition reflectédtwo grounds invoked by Japan in its
Note of protest of 10August 1945,in which it said:

"It is a fundamental principle of international law in time of war
that a belligerenthas not an unlimited right in choosing the means of
injuring the enemy, and should not use such weapons, projectiles,
and other material as cause unnecessary pain; and these are each

expressly stipulated in the annex of the Convention respecting the
Laws and Customs of War on Land and articles 22 and 23 (e) of the
Regulations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land." l1

Article 22 of those Regulations concerned the right to adopt means of
injuring the enemy, while Article 23 (e) concerned the unnecessary suf-
fering principle.
The Tokyo District Court's reasoning dealt with both branches of the
proposition before it, on an interrelated basis. It accepted that

"international law respectingwar is not formed only by humane feel-
ings, but it has as its basis both military necessity and efficiencyand
humane feelings, and is formed by weighing these two factors" 12.

Consequently,

"however great the inhumane result of a weapon may be, the use of
the weapon is not prohibited by international law, if it has a great
military efficiency" 13.

Nevertheless, the Tokyo District Court thought that it could

"safely seethat besides poison, poison gas and bacterium the use of
the means of injuring the enemy which causes at least the same or
more injury is prohibited by international law" 14.

The Tokyo District Court confined itself to the issue whether the par-
ticular use of atomic weapons at Hiroshima and Nagasaki was lawful,

'O The Japanese Annual of International Law, No. 8, 1964,p. 240.
" Zbid.,p. 252.
l2Zbid.,p. 240.
l3Zbid.,p. 241.
l4Zbid.l'article 38 du Statut de la Cour et doit être prisen considération. Une
décision judiciaire différentede celle à laquelle le tribunal de district de
Tokyo est parvenu devrait donc expliquer pourquoi la motivation de son

jugement n'était pas acceptable.
Le tribunal de district de Tokyo devait se prononcer sur un argument
(fondé sur l'avis juridique d'un expert), selon lequel «les moyens qui
causent des maux superflus en temps de guerre et les moyens inhumains
sont interdits comme moyens de nuire à l'ennemi)) 'O.Cette proposition
s'inspirait de deux arguments invoquéspar le Japon dans sa note de pro-
testation du 10 août 1945, où il étaitdit:

«C'est un principe fondamental du droit international en temps de
guerre que le droit d'un belligérantde choisir les moyens de nuire à
l'ennemi n'estpas illimité etqu'un belligérantne doit pas employer
des armes, projectiles et autres matières denature à causer des maux

superflus; et ceux-ci sont expressément stipulésdans l'annexe de la
convention concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre et
dans les articles 22 et 23 e) du règlementconcernant les lois et cou-
tumes de la guerre sur terre. » ''

L'article 22dudit règlementconcernait le droit d'adopter des moyens de
nuire à l'ennemi,tandis que l'article23 e) concernait leprincipe des maux
superflus.
Le tribunal de district de Tokyo a examinélesdeux éléments corrélatifs
de la proposition dont il étaitsaisi. Il a admis que

«le droit international régissantla guerre n'est pas constitué unique-
ment par des sentiments d'humanité, maisil se fonde à la fois sur les
exigenceset l'efficacité militaireset sur les sentiments d'humanité,en
mettant en balance ces deux facteurs)) 12.

C'est pourquoi,
«tout inhumain que puisse êtrele résultat del'emploi d'une arme,
cet emploi n'est pas interdit par le droit international, s'il est très

efficacesur le plan militaire»I3.
Toutefois, le tribunal a déclaré

«qu'il y a tout lieu de croire qu'outre le poison, les gaz toxiques et
les bactéries l'emploide moyens de nuire à l'ennemi qui causent au
moins des dommages identiques ou supérieursest interdit en droit
international »14.

Le tribunal de district de Tokyo s'est borné à examiner si l'emploi de
bombes atomiques à Hiroshima et à Nagasaki étaitlicite, en notant -

'OThe Japanese Annual of International Law, no 8, 1964,p. 240
" Ibid., p. 252.
lZIbid.D. 240.
l4Ibid.p. 241.noticing but not deciding "an important and very difficult question",
namely, "whether or not an atomic bomb having such a character and
effect is a weapon which is permitted in international law as a so-called
nuclear weapon . . .15.Nevertheless, it is clear that in decidingthe former
issue, relating to the particular use, the Court's reasoning flowed from

its consideration of the latter issue, relating to the legal status of such
weapons. Thus, although the Tokyo District Court did not so decide,
it followed from its reasoning that nuclear weapons would not be an
admissible means of warfare. It is the reasoning of the Tokyo District
Court that this Court is concerned with.

The material before this Court is sufficient to enable it to make a find-
ing of fact that the actual use of nuclear weapons is not acceptable to the
sense of the international community; on the basis of such a finding of

fact, it would lie within itsjudicial mission to hold thatsuch weapons are
not admissible "means of warfareUwithin the meaning of the law.

2.Unnecessar Suyffering

Then as to the customary international law prohibition of superfluous
and unnecessary suffering. As restated in Article 35, paragraph 2, of the
1977 Additional Protocol 1 to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, the prin-
ciple reads:

"It is prohibited to employ weapons, projectiles and material and
methods of warfare of a nature to cause superfluous injury or un-
necessary suffering."

The case of a weapon, such as the "dum-dum" bullet 16,which is deliber-
ately crafted so as to cause unnecessary suffering, does not exhaust the
interpretation and application of the prohibition. That may be regarded
as a particular instance of the working of a broader underlying idea that
suffering is superfluous or unnecessary if it is materially in excess of the
degree of suffering which isjustified by the military advantage sought to
be achieved. A mechanical or absolute test is excluded: a balance has to

be struck between the degree of suffering inflicted and the military advan-
tage in view. The greater the military advantage, the greater will be the
willingness to tolerate higher levels of suffering. And, of course, the bal-
ance has to be struck by States. The Court cannot usurp their judgment;
but, in this case, it has a duty to find what that judgment is. In appreci-
ating what is the judgment of States as to where the balance is to be

l5The Japanese Annual of International Law, No. 8, 1964,p. 234.
l6"[Tlhe projectile known under the name of 'dum-dum' was made in the arsenal of
that name near Calcutta." See The Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences, The
Conference of 1899, 1920,p. 277,per General Sir John Ardagh.sans toutefois se prononcer à ce sujet - que cela posait «une question

importante et des plus difficiles)),à savoir «si une bombe atomique ayant
ces caractéristiqueset ces effets est permise ou non en droit international
comme une arme qualifiéede nucléaire ..>)15.Il est clair cependant qu'en
se prononçant sur la première question, celle qui concernait l'emploi de
ces armes dans une circonstance donnée, le tribunal avait à l'esprit la
façon dont il avait examinéla deuxièmequestion,qui concernait le statut
juridique de telles armes. Ainsi, bien que le tribunal de district de Tokyo

n'ait pas statué de la sorte, il résulte dela motivation de sa décisionque
les armes nucléaires ne sont pas un moyen de guerre admissible. Les
motifs sur lesquels s'est fondéle tribunal de district de Tokyo présentent
un intérêtpour la Cour.
Les élémentsdont dispose la Cour sont suffisants pour lui permettre de
constater que l'emploi effectif d'armes nucléairesn'estpas acceptable aux
yeux de la communauté internationale; à partir d'une telle constatation,
il lui appartiendrait dans le cadre de sa missionjudiciaire de conclure que

de telles armes ne sont pas un «moyen de guerre» admissible au regard
du droit.

2. Les maux supev$us

J'en viens à l'interdiction d'infliger des maux superflus telle qu'elle
découledu droit international coutumier. le principe, tel qu'il a été réaf-

firméau paragraphe 2 de l'article 35 du protocole additionnel 1 de 1977
aux conventions de Genève de 1949,est libellécomme suit:
«Il est interdit d'employer des armes, des projectiles et des ma-
tières ainsi que des méthodes de guerre de nature à causer des maux

superflus.))
Le cas d'une arme comme la balle «dum-dum» 16,qui est délibérément
conçue de manière à causer des maux superflus, ne suffit pas à épuiser

l'interprétation et l'application de l'interdiction.Il s'agit là d'un cas par-
ticulier illustrant une idée sous-jacente plus large, à savoir qu'on se
trouve en présencede maux superflus lorsque ceux-ci excèdent matériel-
lement le degré de souffrancequejustifie l'avantage militaire recherché. Il
est exclu de recourir à un critère mécaniqueou absolu: il faut mettre en
balance le degré de souffrance infligé etl'avantage militaire recherché.
Plus cet avantage militaire sera grand, plus on sera disposé a tolérer des

niveaux de souffrance plus élevésE . t, bien entendu, c'est aux Etats qu'il
appartient de trouver le point d'équilibre.La Cour ne peut se substituer
a eux; mais elle a le devoir en l'espècede chercher àétablir quelest leur
appréciation. Pour apprécier où les Etats situent ce point d'équilibre, la

l5The Japanese Annual of international Law, no 8, 1964,p. 234.
l6«[L]e projectile connu sous le nom de «dum-dum» était fabriquédans un arsenal de
ce nom situéprès de Calcutta.Voir The Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences,
The Conference of 1899, 1920,p. 277, du géneral sirJohn Ardagh.struck, the Court may properly consider that, in striking the balance,

States themselves are guided by the public conscience. TheCourt has cor-
rectly held that "the intrinsically humanitarian character of the legal
principles in question ... permeates the entire law of armed conflict and
applies to al1forms of warfare and to al1kinds of weapons . . .(Advi-
sory Opinion, para. 86). It is not possible to ascertain the humanitarian
character of those principles without taking account of the public con-
science.
It was thus open to the Court to take the view that the public con-
science could consider that no conceivable military advantage could jus-
tify the degree of suffering caused by a particular type of weapon. Poison
gas was, arguably, a more efficient way of deactivating the enemy in cer-
tain circumstances than other means in use during the First World War.
That did not suffice to legitimize its use; the prohibition rested on an
appreciation,as set out in the first preamble to the 1925Geneva Gas Pro-
tocol, that "the use in war of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases has
been justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilizedworld". In
effect, the use of a weapon which caused the kind of suffering that poison

gas caused was simply repugnant to the public conscience, and so un-
acceptable to States whatever might be the military advantage sought to
be achieved. That reasoning has not given birth to a comprehensive and
universal prohibitory treaty provision in this case; it is nonetheless helpful
in estimating the acceptability to the public conscience of the suffering
that could be inflicted by the use of nuclear weapons on both combatants
and civilians, on distant peoples, and on generations yet unborn.

On the material before it, the Court could reasonably find that the
public conscience considers that the use of nuclear weapons causes suf-
fering which is unacceptable whatever might be the military advantage
derivable from such use. On the basis of such a finding, the Court would
be entitled, in determining what in turn is the judgment of States on the
point, to proceed on the basis of a presumption that the judgment of
States would not differ from that made by the public conscience.

The "unnecessary suffering" principle falls within the framework of
principles designed for the protection of combatants. If the use of nuclear
weapons would violate the principle in relation to them, that is sufficient
to establish the illegality ofch use. However, is it possible that the prin-
ciple, when construed in the light of developing military technology and
newer methods of waging war, has now come to be regarded as capable
of providing protection for civilians also?
In the "expanding" bullet phase in which the principle made its appear-
ance in the second half of the nineteenth century, it was no doubt visu-
alized that "unnecessary suffering" would only be inflicted on soldiers in
the battlefield; the effects of the use of weapons which could then cause
such suffering would not extend to civilians. But the framework of mili-Cour peut considérer à juste titre que les Etats eux-mêmes,lorsqu'ils
recherchent le point d'équilibre,sont guidéspar la conscience publique.
La Cour a évoqué à bon droit «la nature intrinsèquement humanitaire
des principes juridiques en jeu, qui imprègnent tout le droit des conflits
armés et s'appliquent à toutes les formes de guerre et à toutes les
armes ..» (avis consultatif, par. 86). Pour établirle caractèrehumanitaire

de ces principes, il faut nécessairementtenir compte de la conscience
wubliaue.
La Cour pouvait donc estimer que la consciencepublique considérerait
qu'aucun avantage militaire concevable ne pouvait justifier le degré de
souffrance infligépar un type donnéd'arme. On a prétendu que les gaz
toxiques étaientun moyen plus efficacedemettre hors de combat l'ennemi
dans certaines circonstances que d'autres moyens utiliséspendant la pre-
mièreguerre mondiale. Cela n'a pas suffi pour légitimerleur utilisation;
l'interdiction se fondait sur l'appréciationémisedans le premier alinéadu
préambuledu protocole concernantla prohibition d'emploi à la guerre de
gaz asphyxiants, toxiques ou similaires et de moyens bactériologiques,
signé à Genève en 1925, selon laquelle ((l'emploi à la guerre de gaz

asphyxiants, toxiques ou similaires ... a étéà juste titre condamné par
l'opinion générale du monde civilisé)).En effet, l'emploi d'une arme qui
causait le genre de souffrance infligéspar ces gaz toxiques révulsaittout
simplement la conscience publique et était, dece fait, inacceptable pour
les Etats, quel que soit l'avantage militaire recherché. Ceraisonnement ne
s'estwastraduit Darun traitéd'interdiction comwlèteet universelle:il est
cependant utile lorsqu'on s'efforced'évaluerl'acceptabilitépour la cons-
cience publique des souffrances que l'emploi d'armes nucléairespourrait
infliger aux combattants comme aux civils, à des populations vivant loin
du lieu des combats et à des générations qui nesont pas encore nées.
Sur la base des élémentsdont elle disposait, la Cour pouvait raisonna-

blement conclure qu'au regard de la consciencepublique l'emploid'armes
nucléairescause des maux qui sont inacceptables,quel que soit l'avantage
militaire qu'il puisseprocurer. A partir d'une telle constatation, la Cour
étaiten droit, pour établirquelle est l'opinion des Etats sur ce point, de
présumer que l'appréciation des Etats ne différeraitpas de celle de la
conscience publique.
Le principe «des maux superflus))fait partie de l'ensemble desprin-
cipes conçus pour assurer la protection des combattants. Il suffit, pour
établir l'illicéide l'emploi d'armes nucléaires,qu'un tel emploi viole
le principe en ce qui concerne les combattants. On peut cependant
se demander. eu égard à l'évolutiondes techniaues militaires et aux mé-
L.
thodes de guerre plus récentes,si le principe n'est pas considéréaujour-
d'hui comme susceptible d'assurer la protection des civils également.
Lorsque le principe est apparu dans la seconde moitiédu XIXe siècle,
à un moment où l'emploi des fusilsétait«en pleine expansion)), on a cer-
tainement penséque «les maux superflus))ne seraient infligésqu'aux sol-
dats du champ de bataille et que les effets de l'emploid'armes de nature
à causer alors de tels maux ne s'étendraientpas aux civils. Aujourd'hui,tary operations is now different: if nuclear weapons can cause unneces-
sary suffering to soldiers, they can obviously have the same effect on
civilianswithin their reach. The preamble to the Treaty of Tlatelolco cor-
rectly declared that the "terrible effects [ofnuclear weapons] are suffered,
indiscriminately and inexorably, by military forces and civilian popula-
tion alike . ..".

It may be said that the substance of the principle of unnecessary suf-

fering operates for the benefit of civilians through the medium of other
principles, such as that which prohibits indiscriminate attacks, but that
the principle itself does not operate in relation to them. What, however,
is the position where it is contended that an apparently indiscriminate
attack on civilians is validated by recourse to the collateral damage argu-
ment? In a case in which the collateral damage principle (whatever its
true scope) would justify injury to civilians, the contradictory result of
confining the unnecessary suffering principle to combatants would be
that such injury may be prohibited by that principle in respect of com-
batants but not in respect of civilianswho are equally affected; thus, an
act which causes injury to combatants and non-combatants equally may

be unlawful in relation to the former but lawful in relation to the latter.
If combatants and non-combatants are both victims of the same act, it is
difficult to see why the act should be unlawful in the former case but law-
ful in the latter.

In Shimoda, the Tokyo District Court said,

"[Ilt is not too much to Say that the pain brought by the atomic
bombs is severer than that from poison and poison-gas, and .. .that
the act of dropping such a cruel bomb is contrary to the fundamen-
ta1 principle of the laws of war that unnecessary pain must not be
given." l7

So, in this part of its reasoning, the Tokyo District Court relied on the
"fundamental principle" of "unnecessary pain"; it did so in relation to
injuries caused to civilians. Assisted by three experts who were professors
of international law, as well as by a full team of advocates for the parties
in a closely contested case, the Court did not seem to be aware of a view
that the principle of unnecessary suffering was restricted to injuries
caused to combatants. And yet that view, if correct, should have been

central to a case which concerned injury to civilians.

However, even if the unnecessary suffering principle is restricted to
combatants, the question remains whether the principle is breached in so

l7The Japanese Annual of international Law, No. 8, 1964,pp. 241-242.cependant, le cadre des opérations militaires n'est plusle même:si les
armes nucléairespeuvent causer des maux superflus aux soldats, elles

peuvent évidemmentavoir le même effetsur les civils setrouvant àleur
portée.Les parties au traitéde Tlatelolco ont déclaré à bon droit dans le
préambule decelui-cique «les terribles effets [desarmes nucléaires]attei-
gnent sans distinction et sans merci les forces arméeset la population
civile..»
On pourrait prétendreque la substance du principe des maux superflus
bénéficie aux civils par l'effet de l'application d'autres principes, comme
celuiqui interdit d'entreprendre des attaques sans discernement, mais que
le principe lui-même neleur est pas applicable. Toutefois, peut-on ad-

mettre la position selon laquelle une attaque menéeapparemment sans
discernement contre des civils s'explique par le principe du dommage
indirect? Cependant, siun tel principe (quelle que soit sa portéevéritable)
devait justifier des dommages infligésaux civils, lefait de limiter le prin-
cipe des maux superflus auxcombattantsaurait ce résultatcontradictoire
que les dommages en question seraient interdits par ce principe en ce qui
concerne les combattants, mais pas en ce qui concerne les civils, alors
qu'ilssont égalementatteints; ainsi donc, un acte qui cause un dommage
aux combattants comme aux non-combattants pourrait êtreillicite en ce
qui concerne les premiers, mais licite en ce qui concerne les derniers.

Lorsque des combattants et des non-combattants sont également victimes
du mêmeacte, on voit mal comment cet acte serait licite dans un cas et
illicite dans l'autre.
Dans l'affaireShimoda c. Z'Etat,le tribunal de district deTokyo ajugé
que :

«il n'est pas exagéré d'affirmerque les souffrances infligéespar les
bombes atomiques sont plus graves que celles infligéespar des subs-
tances ou des gaz toxiques, et ..que le fait de larguer une bombe
aussi cruelle est contraire au principe fondamental des lois de la
guerre selon lequel on ne peut infliger des maux superflus)) 17.

Dans cette partie de la motivation de sa décision,le tribunal de district de
Tokyo s'estdonc fondésur le ((principe fondamental)) des ((maux super-
flus)); il l'a faitropos de dommages causés à des civils.Malgréla pré-
sence de trois experts qui étaientdes professeurs de droit international et
d'une équipeimportante d'avocats dans une affaire trèscontroversée,le
tribunal ne semblepas avoir prêté attention à la conception selon laquelle

le principe desmaux superflus vise uniquement les dommages causésaux
combattants. Or, en supposant que cette conception soit exacte, elle
aurait dû êtreau centre d'une affaire qui concernait les dommages causés
à des civils.
Toutefois, mêmesi l'on n'applique le principe des maux superflus
qu'aux seuls combattants, la question reste poséede savoir s'il est porté

l7The Japanese Annual of International Law, no 8, 1964,p. 241-242.far as combatants are affected by the use of nuclear weapons. For the
reasons given above, the Court could hold that it is.

3. The Martens Clause

Some States argued that the Martens Clause depends on proof of the
separate existence of a rule of customary international law prohibiting

the use of a particular weapon, andthat there is no such prohibitory rule
in the case of nuclear weapons. The proposition is attractive.
However, an initial difficulty is this. As is recognized in paragraphs 78
and 84 of the Court's Advisory Opinion, it is accepted that the Martens
Clause is a rule of customary international law. That means that it has a
normative character - that it lays down some norm of State conduct. It
is difficult to see what norm of State conduct it lays down if al1it does is
to remind States of norms of conduct which exist wholly dehors the
Clause. The argument in question would be directed not to ascertaining
the field of application of an acknowledged rule, but to denying the exis-
tence of any rule. Would an argument which produces this infirmity be
right?
As set out in the 1899 Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and
Customs of War on Land, the Martens Clause came at the end of a pre-

ambular passage reading as follows :
"According to the view of the High Contracting Parties, these
provisions, the wording of which has been inspired by the desire to
diminish the evils of war, so far as military requirements permit, are
intended to serve as a general rule of conduct for the belligerents in
their mutual relations and in their relations with the inhabitants.

It has not, however, been found possible at present to concert
regulations covering al1the circumstances which arise in practice.

On the other hand, the High Contracting Parties clearly do not
intend that unforeseen cases should, in the absence of a written
undertaking, be left to the arbitrary judgment of military com-
mander~.
Until a more complete code of the laws of war has been issued, the
High Contracting Parties deem it expedient to declare that, in cases
not included in the Regulations adopted by them, the inhabitants
and the belligerents remain under the protection and the rule of the
principles of the law of nations, as they result from the usages estab-
lished among civilized peoples, from the laws of humanity, and the
dictates of the public conscience."

These statements support an impression that the Martens Clause was
intended to fil1gaps left by conventionalinternational law and to do so in
a practical way. How?
The Martens Clause bears the marks of its period; it is not easy ofatteinteà ce principe, dèslors que des combattants subissent les effetsde
l'emploid'armes nucléaires.Pour les raisons énoncées plushaut, la Cour
pouvait juger qu'ilen est ainsi.

3. La clause de Martens
Certains Etats ont soutenu que la clause de Martens exigela preuve de

l'existencedistincte d'une règlede droit international coutumier interdi-
sant l'emploid'une arme donnéeet qu'il n'existeaucune règleprohibitive
de ce type dans le cas des armes nucléaires.Cette thèse estséduisante.
Toutefois, voici qu'apparaît une première difficulté. omme la Cour le
reconnaît aux paragraphes 78 et 84 de son avis consultatif, il est admis
que la clause de Martens est une règlede droit international coutumier.
Cela signifie qu'ellea un caractère norinatif, qu'elle fixe une règle de
conduite pour les Etats. On ne voit pas quelle règlede conduite pour les
Etats elle fixe, si elle secontente de rappeler aux Etats les règles de
conduite qui existent tout a fait en dehors d'elle. La thèseévoquéeplus
haut viserait non pas à établirle champ d'application d'une règle recon-
nue, mais à nier l'existence d'unerèglequelconque. Une thèseaboutissant
à ce résultatserait-elle fondée?
Telle qu'elle est énoncédeans la convention de La Haye concernant les
lois etcoutumes de la guerre sur terre de907,la clause de Martens appa-

raît dans le cours du préambuleet est libelléecomme suit:
((Selonles vues des Hautes Partiescontractantes, ces dispositions,
dont la rédaction aété inspirép ear le désirde diminuer les maux de
la guerre, autant que les nécessités militaile permettent, sont des-
tinéesa servir de règle générale de conduite aux belligérants,dans
leurs rapports entre eux et avec lespopulations.
Il n'a pas été possibletoutefois de concerter dèsmaintenant des

stipulations s'étendantà toutes les circonstances qui se présentent
dans la pratique.
D'autre part, il ne pouvait entrer dans les intentions des Hautes
Parties contractantesque les cas non prévus fussent,faute de stipula-
tion écrite, laissésl'appréciationarbitraire de ceux qui dirigent les
armées.
En attendant qu'un code plus complet des lois de la guerre puisse
êtreédictél,esHautes Parties contractantes jugent opportun de cons-
tater que, dans les cas non compris dans les dispositions réglemen-
taires adoptées par elles, les populations et les belligérantsrestent
sous la sauvegarde et sous l'empire des principesdu droit des gens,
tels qu'ils résultent des usages établis entre nations civilisées,des
lois de l'humanitéet des exigencesde la conscience publique. »

Ce libellédonne à penser que la clause de Martens visait à combler des
lacunes du droit international coutumier et de le faire dans un esprit pra-
tique. Par quel moyen?
La clause de Martens porte la marque de son époque; elle n'est pasinterpretation. One acknowledges the distinction between usages and
law lx.However, as the word "remain" shows, the provision implied that
there were already in existence certain principles of the law of nations

which operated to provide practical protection to "the inhabitants and
the belligerents" in the event of protection not being available under con-
ventional texts. In vie~ of the implications of that word, the Clause could
not be confined to principles of the law of nations waiting, uncertainly, to
be born in future. The reference to the principles of the law of nations
derived from the mentioned sources was descriptive of the character of
existing principles of the law of nations and not merely a condition of the
future emergence of such principles. It may be added that, in its 1977for-
mulation, the relevant phrase now reads, "derived from established cus-

tom, from the principles of humanity and from the dictates of public
conscience". Since "established custom" alone would sufficeto identify a
rule ,of customary international law, a cumulative reading is not prob-
able. It should follow that "the principles of international law" (the new
wording) could also be sufficientlyderived "from the principles of human-
ity and from the dictates of public conscience"; as mentioned above,
those "principles of international law" could be regarded as including
principles of international law already derived "from the principles of

humanity and from the dictates of public conscience".
In effect, the Martens Clause provided authority for treating the prin-
ciples of humanity and the dictates of public conscience as principles of
international law, leaving the precise content of the standard implied by
these principles of international law to be ascertained in the light of
changing conditions, inclusive of changes in the means and methods of
warfare and the outlook and tolerance levels of the international com-
munity. The principles would remain constant, but their practical effect

would Varyfrom time to time: they could justify a method of warfare in
one age and prohibit it in another. In this respect, M. Jean Pictet was
right in emphasizing, according to Mr. Sean McBride,

"that the Declarations in the Hague Conventions . . by virtue of the
de Martens Clause, imported into humanitarian law principles that
went much further than the written convention; it thus gave them a
dynamic dimension that was not limited by time" 19.

Nor should this be strange. Dealing with the subject of "Considera-
tions of Humanity" as a source of law, Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice remarked
that

l8For "usages of war" maturing into rules of customary international law, see L.
Oppenheim, International Law, A Treatise, Vol. II, 7th ed. by H. Lauterpacht, 1952,
p. 226, para. 67, and p. 231, para. 69.
l9Sean McBride, "The Legality of Weapons for Societal Destruction", in Christophe
Swinarski (ed.),tudies and Essays on International Humanitarian Law and Red Cross
Principles in Honour of Jean Pictet, 1984,p. 402.facileà interpréter.On reconnaît la distinction entre les usageset leslois18.
Toutefois, comme le mot «restent» l'indique, cette disposition supposait

qu'il existait déjà certains principesdu droit des gens qui assuraient une
protection pratique aux «populations» et aux «belligérants))dans l'hypo-
thèse où une telle protection n'était pasgarantie par des textes convention-
nels. Compte tenu des implications de ce mot «restent», la clause ne pou-
vait se réduire à des principes du droit des gens qui attendaient, sans
aucune certitude, de voir le jour. La référenceaux principes du droit des
gens, telsqu'ils résultentdes sources mentionnées visait à préciserle carac-
tère des principes existantsdu droit des gens et ne constituait pas simple-

ment une condition de l'émergencefuture de tels principes. On peut ajouter
que, dans son libelléde 1977,le membre de phrase pertinent se lit comme
suit: «tels qu'ilsrésultent desusages établis, des principes del'humanitéet
des exigencesde la consciencepublique)). Comme «les usages établis))suf-
fisent à eux seuls à identifier une règledu droit international coutumier,
une interprétationcumulative n'est guèreprobable. Dans ce cas, «les prin-
cipes du droit des gens»pourraient également résulter à suffisance «des

principes del'humanitéet des exigencesdela consciencepublique»; comme
indiqué plushaut, ces ((principesdu droit des gens» pourraient êtreconsi-
dérés commeenglobant des principes du droit international déjà déduits
((desprincipes de l'humanitéet des exigencesde la conscience publique)).
En effet, la clause de Martens autorisait à considérerles principes de
l'humanité etles exigencesde la consciencepublique comme des principes
du droit des gens, le contenu précis de lanorme découlant de ces «prin-

cipesdu droit desgens» devant êtredéfini à la lumièrede l'évolutiony, com-
pris l'apparition de nouveaux moyens et méthodesde guerre, ainsi quedes
conceptions et des seuils de tolérance de la communauté internationale.
Lesprincipes devaient demeurer constants, mais leur effetpratique pouvait
ne pas toujours êtrele même:ils pouvaient autoriser une méthode de
guerre à une époqueet l'interdire à une autre époque.A cet égard,M. Jean
Pictet a eu raison de souligner, comme l'écritM. Sean McBride,

«que lesdéclarations contenues dans les conventionsde La Haye ont
fait entrer dans le droit humanitaire,à la faveur de la clause de Mar-
tens, des principes qui allaient beaucoup plus loin que la convention

écrite,leur donnant ainsi une dimension dynamique qui n'étaitpas
limitéepar le temps» 19.

Cela n'a pas de quoi surprendre. Traitant de la question des ((Consi-
dérations d'humanité)) entant que source de droit, sir Gerald Fitzmau-
rice a fait observer que

l8En ce qui concerne «les usages de la guerre» qui donnent naàsdes règlesde
droit international coutumier, voir L. Oppenheim,ational Law, A Treatise, vol. II,
7' éditionpar H. Lauterpacht, 1952,p. 266, par. 67, et p. 231, par. 69.
l9Sean McBride. «The Legality of Weapons for Societal Destruction)),dans Chris-
Red Cross Principles in Honour of Jean Pictet, 1984,p. 402.l Humanitarian Law and "al1 the implications of this view - i.e., in exactly what circum-
stances and to what extent considerations of humanity give rise in
themselvesto obligations of a legalcharacter - remain to be worked
out" 20.

The reservation does not neutralize the main proposition that "consid-
erations of humanity giverise in themselvesto obligations of a legal char-
acter". The substance of the proposition seems present in the judgment
given in 1948in Krupp'scase, in which the United States Military Tribu-
nal sitting at Nuremberg said:

"The Preamble [of Hague Convention No. IV of 19071is much
more than a pious declaration. It is a general clause, making the
usages established among civilized nations, the laws of humanity

and the dictates of public conscience into the legal yardstick to be
applied if and when the specificprovisions of the Convention and
the Regulations annexed to it do not cover specificcasesoccurring in
warfare, or concomitant to ~arfare."~'

A similar viewof the role of considerations of humanity appears in the
Corfu Channelcase. There Judge Alvarez stated that the "characteristics
of an international delinquency are that it is an act contrary to the senti-
ments of humanity" (I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 45, separate opinion); and
the Court itself said that Albania's

"obligations are based, not on the Hague Convention of 1907,
No. VIII, which is applicable in time of war, but on certain general
and well-recognized principles, namely: elementary considerations
of humanity, even more exacting in peace than in war; . . ."(I.C.J.
Reports 1949, p. 22).

Thus, Albania's obligations were "based .. .on . . .elementary consid-
erations of humanity ...", with the necessary implication that those con-
siderations can themselves exert legalforce. In 1986the Court considered
that "the conduct of the United States may be judged according to the
fundamental general principles of humanitarian law"; and it expressed

the viewthat certain rules stated in common Article 3 of the 1949Geneva
Conventions were "rules which, in the Court's opinion, reflect what the
Court in 1949 called 'elementary considerations of humanity' (Corfu
Channel,Merits, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22)" (Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), Merits, I.C.J. Reports 1986, pp. 113-114,para. 218). Consis-
tent with the foregoing is the earlier observation by the Naulilaa Tribunal

20Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, The Law and Pvoceduve of the International Court of Jus-
tice, Vol. 1, 1986,p. 17, note 4, emphasis as in the original; and see ibid., p. 4.

21Annual Digest and Reports of Public International Law Cases, 1p.8622.

185 ((toutes les implications de cette conception - c'est-à-dire dans
quelles circonstances précisément etdans quelle mesure des consi-
dérations d'humanitédonnent naissance par elles-mêmes à des obli-
gations de nature juridique - doivent encore êtreélaborées»20.

La réserven'atténue pas la proposition principale selon laquelle «des
considérationsd'humanité donnentnaissance par elles-mêmes à des obli-
gations de naturejuridique)). Il sembleque la substance de la proposition
se retrouve dans le jugement rendu en 1948 dans l'affaire Krupp, dans
lequel le tribunal militaire des Etats-Unis siégeantà Nuremberg a déclaré

que :
«Le préambule [de la convention de La Haye no IV de 19071est
bien plus qu'un vŒupieux. C'est une clause générale,qui érige les

usages établisentre les nations civilisées,les lois de l'humanitéet les
exigences de la conscience publique en un critère juridique devant
être appliquédans l'hypothèseoù les dispositions spécifiques dela
convention et du règlementy annexéne viseraient pas certains cas
survenant en temps de guerre ou en rapport avec des hostilités.»21

Une conception analogue du rôle jouépar les considérationsd'huma-
nitéapparaît dans l'affairedu Détroitde Corfou, où M. Alvarez a déclaré
que la ((caractéristiquedu délitinternationalest qu'il estun actecontraire
aux sentiments d'humanité)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 45, opinion indivi-
duelle); quant à la Cour elle-mêmee ,lle a déclaréque

(([Ilesobligations [de l'Albanie] sont fondéesnon pas sur la conven-
tion VI11de La Haye, de 1907,qui est applicable en temps de guerre,
mais sur certains principes générauxet bien reconnus, tels que des
considérations élémentairesd'humanité, plus absolues encore en
temps de paix qu'en temps de guerre...» (C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 22).

Ainsi, les obligations de l'Albanie étaient ((fondéessur ..des considéra-
tions élémentaires d'humanité ..»,ce qui implique nécessairementque ces
considérations peuvent avoir elles-mêmes des effets juridiques. En 1986,
la Cour a considéréque «le comportement des Etats-Unis peut être
appréciéen fonction des principes généraux de basedu droit humani-

taire)) et elle a estiméque certaines des règlesénoncées à l'article 3 com-
mun aux quatre conventions de Genève de 1949étaient «des règlesqui,
de l'avis de la Cour, correspondent à ce qu'elle a appelé en 1949 des
((considérationsélémentaires d'humanité)) (Détroitde Corfou,fond, C.I.J.
Recueil 1949, p. 22)» (Activitésmilitaires etpav~zmilitairesau Nicaragua
et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique),fond, C.I.J.
Recueil 1986,p. 113-144,par. 218).Dans le mêmeordre d'idée,on notera

'OSir Gerald Fitzmaurice, The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Jus-
tice, vol. 1, 1986,p. 17,note 4, lesitaliques figurentcomme dans l'original. Voir également
ibid., p. 4.
21Annual Digest and Reports of Public International Laiv Cases, 1948,p. 622.that the right of reprisals "is limited by the experiences of mankind . . ."
[translation by the Registry ]22.
1 am not persuaded that the purpose of the Martens Clause was con-
fined to supplying a humanitarian standard by which to interpret sepa-

rately existing rules of conventional or customary international law on
the subject of the conduct of hostilities; the Clause was not needed for
that purpose, for considerations of humanity, which underlie humanitar-
ian law, would in any event have supplied that service (seeparagraph 86
of the Court's Advisory Opinion). It is also difficultto accept that al1that
the Martens Clause did was to remind States of their obli"rations under
separately existing rules of customary international law. No doubt, the
focus of the Clause in the particular form in which it was reproduced in
the 1949 Geneva Conventions was on reminding States parties that

denunciation of these humanitarian treaties would not relievethem of the
obligations visualized by the Clause; but the Clause in its more usual
form was not intended to be a mere reminderZ3.The basic function of the
Clause was to put beyond challenge the existence of principles of inter-
national law which residually served, with current effect, to govern mili-
tary conduct by reference to "the principles of humanity and . . .the
dictates of public conscience". It was in this sense that

"civilians and combatants (would) remain under the protection and
authority of the principles of international law derived . . from the
principles of humanity and from the dictates of public conscience".

The word "remain" would be inappropriate in relation to "the principles
of humanity and . . .the dictates of public conscience" unless these were
conceived of as presently capable of exerting normative force to control
military conduct.
Thus, the Martens Clause provided its own self-sufficientand conclu-
sive authority for the proposition that there were already in existence

principles of international law under which considerations of humanity
could themselves exert legalforce to govern military conduct in cases in
which no relevant rule was provided by conventional law. Accordingly, it
was not necessary to locate elsewhere the independent existence of such
principles of international law; the source of the principles lay in the
Clause itself.
This was probably how the matter was understood at the Hague Peace
Conference of 1899. After Mr. Martens's famous declaration was
adopted, the "senior delegatefrom Belgium,Mr. Beernaert, who had pre-
viously objected to the adoption of Articles 9 and 10(1 and 2 of the new

22Reports of International Arbitral Awards,Vol. 2, p. 1026.
23For differences between the 1949 Martens Clause and its classicalformulation, see
Georges Abi-Saab, "The Specificitiesof Humanitarian Law", in Christophe Swinarski
(ed.),tudies and Essays on International Humanitarian Law and Red Cross Principlesin
Honour of Jean Pictet, 1984,p. 275.que le tribunal de Naulilaa avait déjàobservéque le droit d'exercer des
représailles«est limit par les expériencesde l'humanité ..»22
Je ne suis pas convaincu que la clause de Martens avait pour seul objet
de définirun critère humanitaire permettant d'interpréterles différentes

règlesexistantes du droit international conventionnel ou coutumier rela-
tives àla conduite deshostilités;la clause n'étaitpas nécessairepour cela,
car des considérations d'humanité,qui sous-tendent le droit humanitaire,
auraient en tout étatde cause rendu ce service (voir paragraphe 86 de
l'avisconsultatif de la Cour). Il est difficileaussi d'admettre que la clause
de Martens s'estcontentée de rappeleraux Etats les obligations que leur
imposaient les différentesrèglesexistantes du droit international coutu-
mier. Assurément,la clause, telle qu'ellea étéreprise et libelléedans les
conventions de Genève de 1949, visait essentiellement à rappeler aux

Etats parties que la dénonciationde ces traitéshumanitaires ne les déga-
gerait pas des obligations viséespar la clause; mais celle-ci, dans son
libellé usuel, n'étaitpas conçue comme un simple rappelz3. La clause
avait pour fonction essentielle d'affirmer de manière incontestable l'exis-
tence des principes du droit international appelés à titre subsidiaire, mais
avec des effets sur des situations actuelles,à régirle comportement des
militaires par rapport aux ((principes d'humanitéet aux exigences de la
conscience publique)). C'est ence sens-là que

«les populations et les belligérantsreste[raie]nt sous la sauvegarde et
sous l'empire des principesdu droit des gens, tels qu'ils résultent ...
des principes d'humanité etdes exigencesde la consciencepublique)).

Le mot ((restent » serait inappropriépar rapport aux ((principes d'huma-
nitéet [aux]exigencesde la conscience publique)), àmoins que ceux-cine
soient conçus comme pouvant actuellement exercer une force normative
à l'effet de contrôler le comportement des militaires.
Ainsi, la clause de Martens couvrait de sa propre autorité, de façon
autonome et concluante, la thèse selon 1aquelle.il existait déjàdes prin-
cipes du droit international en vertu desquels des considérations

d'humanitépouvaient avoir des effetsjuridiques par elles-mêmes et régir
le comportement des militaires dans les cas où le droit conventionnel ne
contenait pas de règle applicable. Aussi n'était-il pas nécessaire de
rechercher ailleurs la source distincte de ces principes du droit interna-
tional, car cette source, c'étaitla clause elle-même.
C'est probablement ainsi que la question a étéinterprétée à la con-
férencede la paix à La Haye en 1899. Après l'adoption de la célèbre
déclaration de M. de Martens, le principal représentant de la Belgique,
M. Beernaert, qui s'était opposéauparavant à l'adoption des articles 9

l2Recueil des sentences arbitrales internationales,vol. 2, p. 1026.
23Pour les différencesentre la clause de Martens de 1949et son libellé classique, voir
GeorgesAbi-Saab, «The Specificitiesof Humanitarian Law)), dans Christophe Swinarski
(dir.ub].), Studies and Essays on International Humanitarian Law and Red Cross Prin-
ciples in Honour of Jean Pictet, 1984,p. 275. draft), immediately announced that he could because of this declaration
vote for themmZ4.The senior Belgian delegate, as were other delegates,
was not satisfied with the protection guaranteed by the particular provi-
sions of thedraft25.Eventually, he found himself able to vote for the pro-
visions. Why? Not because the required additional protection was avail-
able under independently existing customary international law; such

protection would be available in any case. The reason he was able to vote
for the provisions was because he took the view, not dissented from by
other delegates, that the Martens Clause would itself be capable of exert-
ing normative force to provide the required additional protection by
appropriately controlling military behaviour.
"One is entitled to test the soundness of a principle by the conse-
quences which would flow from its application." (Barcelona Traction,
Light and Power Company, Limited, Second Phase, I.C.J. Reports 1970,
p. 220, para. 106,Judge Jessup, separate opinion.) Hence, it is useful to

consider the implications of the view that the Martens Clause is not by
itself relevant to the issue of legality of the use of nuclear weapons. It is
clear that the use of nuclear weapons could result, even in the case of
neutral countries, in destruction of the living, in sickness and forced
migration of survivors, and in injury to future generations to the point of
causing serious illness, deformities and death, with the possible extinction
ofal1life. If nothing in conventional or customary international law for-
bids that, on the view taken by the proponents of legality of the meaning
of the "Lotus" case, States would be legally entitled to bring about such
cataclysmic consequences. It is at least conceivable that the public con-

science may think otherwise. But the "dictates of public conscience"
could not translate themselves into a normative prohibition unless this
was possible through the Martens Clause.

It is not, 1think, a question of the Court essaying to transform public
opinion into law: that would lead to "government by judges", which, as
Judge Gros rightly observed, "no State would easily accept" (Delimita-
tion of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulfof Maine Area, I.C.J. Reports
1984, p. 385,para. 41, dissenting opinion)26. Existing international law,

in the form of the Martens Clause, has already established the necessary
legal norm. The Court does not have to find whether there is an opinio
juris. Its task is that of evaluating a standard embodied in an existing
principle by way of making a finding as to what it is that the "principles
of humanity and ... the dictates of public conscience" require of military
conduct in a given situation. In the last analysis, the answer will depend

24 The Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences, The Conference of 1899, 1920,
pp. 54 and 419.
25 See the Krupp case, supra, p. 622.
26 But seeI.C.J. Pleadings, Northern Cameroons,p. 352,M. Weil, "to exorcisedemons,
it is sometimes a good idea to cal1them by name", i.e. "the spectre of government by
judges". [Translation by the Registry.]et 10(1 et 2 du nouveau projet), annonça immédiatement qu'il nes'yop-
posait plus, à la suite de cette dé~laration~~C. omme d'autres délégués l,
représentant dela Belgiquenejugeait pas satisfaisante la protection garan-
tie par ces dispositions du projet2s. En fin de compte, il a estimépouvoir

voter pour lesdites dispositions. Pourquoi? Ce n'étaitpas parce que la
protection supplémentaire requise étaitofferte par le droit international
coutumier existant; une telle protection serait disponible en tout état de
cause. S'ila pu voter pour ces dispositions, c'est qu'ila estimé, àl'instar
d'autres délégués q,ue la clause de Martens pourrait elle-mêmeavoir une
force normative propre à fournir la protection supplémentaire requise
en exerçant un contrôle approprié sur le comportement des militaires.
«On est endroit dejuger de la valeur d'un principe d'aprèsleseffetsque

produit son application)) (Barcelona Traction, Lightand Power Company,
Limited, deuxièmephrase, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 220, par. 106, opinion
individuellede M. Jessup). Il s'ensuit qu'il serait utile d'examilesimpli-
cations de la thèse selon laquelle la clause deMartens n'est pas applicable
par elle-même à la question de la licéitéde l'emploi d'armes nucléaires1 .1
est évidentque l'utilisation des armes nucléairespourrait, mêmedans les
pays neutres, entraîner des décès, causerdes maladies et obliger les survi-
vants à se déplacer,et des dommages au sein desgénérationsfutures cau-

sant de graves maladies, des malformations et des morts, sans écarterla
possibilitéque toute forme de vie soit anéantie.Si aucune disposition du
droit international conventionnel ou coutumier n'interdit detelles consé-
quences, lorsqu'on suit les tenants de la licéité,au sens donné à cette
expression dans l'affaire du Lotus, les Etats auraient le droit de déclen-
cher un tel cataclysme. 11est à tout le moins concevableque la conscience
publique pourrait réagirautrement. Mais les ((exigencesde la conscience
publique)) ne pourraient se traduire dans une interdiction normative, à

moins que cela ne soit possiblepar le biais de la clause de Martens.
11ne s'agit pas pour la Cour, me semble-t-il, d'essayer d'érigerl'opi-
nion publique en loi: cela aboutirait au ((gouvernement des juges)), ce
que, comme M. Gros l'a fait observer àjuste titre, «aucun Etat n'accepte
facilement)) (Délimitationde lafrontière maritime dans la régiondu golfe
du Maine, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 385, par. 41, opinion dis~idente)~~L . e
droit international existant, sous la forme de la clause de Martens, a déjà
établila norme juridique nécessaire.La Cour n'a pas à se prononcer sur
le point de savoir s'il existe une opiniojuris. Son rôle est d'évaluerune

règleincorporéedans un principe existant en établissantce que «les prin-
cipes d'humanité etles exigences de la conscience publique)) requièrent
du comportement des militaires dans une situation donnée.En dernière

24The Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences. The Conference of 1899, 1920,
p.54 et 419.
25Voir ci-dessus l'affaireKrupp, p. 622.
26Voir aussi, pour une opinion contraire, C.I.J. Mémoires, Camerou~zseptentrional,
p. 352, M. Weil: «il est parfois bon, pour exorciser les démons,de les appeler par leur
nom »,c'est-à-dire «le spectre du gouvernement des juges)).on what are the views of States themselves; but, so far as the Martens
Clause is concerned. the views ofStates are relevant onlv for their value
in indicating the state of the public conscience, not for the purpose of
determining whether an opinio juvis exists as to the legality of the use of
a particular weapon.
The task of determining the effect of a standard rnay be difficult,but it

is not impossible of performance; nor is it one which a court of justice
rnay flinch from undertaking where necessary. The law is familiar with
instances in which a court has to do exactly that, namely, to apply a rule
of law which embodies a standard through which the rule exerts its force
in uarticular circum~tances~~.
Some appreciation of a factual nature rnay be required. The standard
being one which is set by the public conscience, a number of pertinent
matters in the public domain rnay be judicially noticed. This is apart
from the fact that the Court is not bound by the technical rules of evi-

dence found in municipal systems; it employs a flexibleprocedure. That,
of course, does not mean that it rnay go on a roving expedition; it must
confineits attention to sources which speak with authority. Among these
there is the General Assembly. Reference has already been made to its
very first resolution of 24 January 1946. That resolution, unanimously
adopted, may fairly be construed by the Court as expressive of the con-
science of the international community as to the unacceptability of the
use of nuclear weapons. So too with the Final Document adopted by
consensus in 1978by the Tenth SpecialSession of the General Assembly
on the subject of disarmament. A number of related General Assembly
resolutions preceded and followed that Final Document. In one, adopted

in 1983,the General Assembly stated that it "[r]esolutely,unconditionally
and for al1time condemns nuclear war as being contrary to human con-
scienceand reason ..." (General Assembly resolution 38/75of 15Decem-
ber 1983).Though not unanimously adopted, the resolution was validly
passed by the General Assembly, acting within its proper province in the
field of disarmament. Whatever rnay be the position as regards the pos-
sible law-making effects or influence of General Assembly resolutions,
the Court would be correct in giving weight to the Assembly'sfinding on
the point of fact asto the state of "human conscience and reason" on the
subject of the acceptability of the use of nuclear weapons, and more par-

ticularly in view of the fact that that finding accords with the general ten-
dency of other material before the Court.

27SeeI.C.J. Pleadings,South West Africa, Vol. VIII, p. 258, argument of Mr. Gross;
Fisheries Jurisdiction, I.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 56-57, footnote 1, separate opinion of
Judge Dillard; andulius Stone, Legal System and Lawyevs'Reasonings, 1964,pp. 59, 68,
263-264,299, 305-306, 320nd 346. MENACE OU EMPLOI D'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OP. ISSSHAHABUDDEE 41)

analyse, la réponsedépendrades vues des Etats eux-mêmes; mais,en ce
qui concerne la clause de Martens, les vues des Etats ne sont pertinentes
qu'à l'effet d'essayerde déterminer l'état la consciencepublique et non
pour déterminers'il existe une opinijouvis quant àla licéitde l'emploi
d'une arme en particulier.
11n'est pas facile mais non impossible de déterminer l'effet d'une
norme, et c'estlà une tâche à laquelle un tribunal ne peut se déroberen

cas de nécessité. Ledroit connaît bien ces situations dans lesquelles un
tribunal est appelé à faire cela précisément, c'est-à-direappliquer une
règlede droit qui incorpore une norme par le biais de laquelle la règle
exerce son effet dans des circonstancesdonnées27.
Une évaluationdes éléments de fait peut s'avérer nécessair.a norme
étantfixéepar la conscience publique, un certain nombre d'affaires per-
tinentes dans le domaine national peuvent êtreprises en considération
par l'autoritéjudiciaire. Cela ne se confond pas avec le fait que la Cour
n'est pas tenue par les règlestechniques régissantl'administration de la

preuve en droit interne; elle a recoursà une procédure souple. Cela ne
signifiepas, bien entendu, qu'elledoive entreprendre des recherches dans
tous les domaines; elle doit se limiter à examiner les sources qui font
autorité. Parmi celles-ci,il y a l'Assemblée généraIl a déjà été fait men-
tion de sa toute premièrerésolutiondu 24janvier 1946.Cette résolution,
qui a étéadoptée à l'unanimité, peut être interprétéàejuste titre par la
Cour comme l'exwession de la conscience de la communauté internatio-
nale quant à l'inacceptabilitédu recours aux armes nucléaires.Il en va de
mêmedu document final de la dixième sessionextraordinaire de 1'Assem-
bléegénérale,adopté par consensus en 1978, à propos du désarmement.

Un certain nombre de résolutionsconnexes de l'Assemblée généraloent
précédé l'adoption de ce document final ou l'ont suivi. Dans une de ces
résolutions,adoptéeen 1983,l'Assemblée généraa lecondamné((résolu-
ment, sans réserveet àjamais la guerre nucléairecomme contraire àla
conscience et à la raison humaines...)) (résolution 38/75 du 15 décembre
1983). La résolution n'a pas étéadoptée à l'unanimité, maiselle a été
votéerégulièrementpar l'Assemblée généraa lgissant dans le cadre de sa
compétence propre en matière de désarmement.Indépendamment du
point de savoir quel peut êtrel'effetlégislatif éventuel drésolutionsde
l'Assemblée générao leu leur influencedans ce domaine, c'est bon droit

que la Cour prendrait en considérationlesconstatations de fait qu'établit
l'Assembléesur l'état dela «conscience et de la raison humaines)) en ce
qui concerne l'acceptabilitéde l'emploi d'armes nucléaires,et plus parti-
culièrement euégardau fait que de telles constatations vont générale-
ment dans le sens des autres élémentsdont la Cour dispose.

27Voir C.I.J. Mémoires, Sud-Ouest africain, vol. VIII, p. 258,plaidoirie de M. Cross;
Compétence en matière depêcheries,C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 56-57, note 1, opinion indi-
viduelle de. Dillard, et Julius Stone, Legal System and Lawyers' Reasonings, 1964,
p. 59, 68, 263-264, 299, 305-306, 320et 346. The Court may look to another source of evidence of the state of the
public conscience on the question of the acceptability of the use of
nuclear weapons. It may interpret the NPT to mean that the public con-
science, as demonstrated in the positions taken by al1 parties to that
treaty, considers that the use of nuclear weapons would involve grave
risks, and that these risks would make such use unacceptable in al1cir-
cumstances. The better view, 1 think, is that the Court cannot correctly
interpret the treaty to mean that it was agreed by al1parties that those
risks may be both effectivelyand responsibly managed by five States but
not by others. Nor could it be the case that the public conscience, as
manifested in the positions taken by the parties to that treaty, now says
that, after final elimination has been achieved, nuclear weapons could not
be used, while now also saying that they could be acceptably used until
final elimination has been achieved. On a matter touching the survival of
mankind, the public conscience could not at one and the same time be
content to apply one standard of acceptability as of now and another as
of a later time. That would involve a contradiction in its views as to the

fundamental unacceptability of the weapon as a means of warfare which
could destroy civilization. No basis appears for ascribing such a contra-
diction to the public conscience; there is not much merit in prohibiting
civilization from being destroyed in the future, while at the same time
accepting that it may, with impeccable legality, be destroyed now.

If theabove is correct, the Martens Clause helps to meet the objection,
raised by the proponents of legality, that the General Assembly's ques-
tion would require the Court to speculate on a number of matters. The
Court could not say in advance what would be the exact effect of any
particular use of nuclear weapons. Examples of possible situations relate
to proportionality, the duty to discriminate between combatants and
civilians, escalation of conflict, neutrality, genocide and the environment.
The Court could however find, and find as a fact, that the use of nuclear
weapons involves real risks in each of these areas. It could then look to
the public conscience for its viewas to whether, in the light ofhose risks,
the use of such weapons is acceptable in any circumstances; the view of
the public conscience could in turn be found to be that, in the light of

those risks, such use is unacceptable in al1circumstances. The public con-
science thus has a mediating role through which it enjoys a latitude of
evaluation not available to the Court.

In the result, on the basis of what the Court finds to be the state of the
public conscience, it will be able to say whether the Martens Clause oper-
ates to prohibit the use of nuclear weapons in al1circumstances. On the
available material, it would be open to the Court to hold that the Clause
operates to impose such a prohibition. 11est une autre source aue la Cour Deutexaminer Dour établir l'étatde
la consciencepublique encequi concerne l'acceptabilité del'emploi d'armes
nucléaires.Elle peut déduiredu traitésur la non-prolifération que la cons-
cience publique, comme cela ressort des positions prises par toutes les
partiesà ce traité,considèreque l'utilisation des armes nucléairescompor-
terait des risques graves, et que ces risques rendraient une telle utilisation
inacceptable en toute circonstance. Plus exactement, selon moi, la Cour ne
saurait interpréter correctement le traitécomme signifiant que toutes les
parties ont reconnu que ces risques peuvent êtregérés de manièreefficace

et raisonnable par les cinq puissances nucléaires, etnon par les autres
Etats. Elle ne saurait non plus admettre que la conscience publique, telle
qu'elle se manifeste dans les positions adoptéespar les partiesa ce traité,
considère aujouud'huiqu'une fois réaliséeleur élimination définitiveles
armes nucléaires ne pourront pas être utilisées,tout en considérant
aujouud'lzuique l'utilisation deces armes pourrait êtreacceptable jusqu'à
ce que leur éliminationdéfinitiveait étéréaliséeS. 'agissant de la survie de
l'humanité. la conscience ~ubliaue ne saurait dans le mêmetemm se satis-
faire d'appliquer une norme d'acceptabilitéaujourd'hui et une autre norme
pour plus tard. Cela impliquerait une contradiction dans la façon dont elle
envisage 17inacceptabilitéfondamentale des armes en tant que moyen de
guerre susceptible d'anéantirla civilisation. Rien ne permet d'imputer une
telle contradictionà la consciencepublique; il ne sertà rien d'interdire de

détruirela civilisationà l'avenir, tout en acceptant dans le mêmetemps
qu'elle puisse,en toute licéité, tre détruite aujourd'hui.
Si ce qui précède est exact, la clausede Martens permet de répondre à
l'objection destenants de la licéité, selon laquellela question de l'Assem-
bléegénéraleobligerait la Cour à se livreràdes spéculationssur un cer-
tain nombre de points. La Cour ne saurait dire à l'avance l'effet exactque
produirait telle ou telle utilisation des armes nucléaires.Des situations
différentespourraient se présenteren ce qui concerne la proportionnalité,
l'obligation d'établir une distinction entre les combattants et la popula-
tion civile, l'intensification du conflit, la neutralité, le génocide et l'envi-
ronnement. La Cour pourrait cependant établir et constater comme un
fait que l'emploi d'armes nucléairescomporte des risques réelsdans cha-
cun de ces domaines. Elle pourrait ensuite examiner si la conscience

publique considèreque, eu égard àcesrisques, l'emploide telles armes est
acceptable en toute circonstance, et elle pourrait être amenéeà constater
que la conscience publique considère que, eu égard à ces risques, un tel
emploi est inacceptable en toute circonstance. La conscience publique
joue donc un rôle de médiation qui lui donne une latitude d'évaluation
que la Cour n'a pas.
En fin de compte, après avoir ainsi pris la mesure de la conscience
publique, la Cour sera à mêmede dire si la clause de Martens joue en
faveur de l'interdiction de l'emploid'armes nucléaires entoute circons-
tance. Sur la base des élémentsdont elledispose, la Cour serait en mesure
de conclure que la clause de Martens va dans le sens d'une telle interdic-
tion.PARTIV. WHETHER A PRIORPROHIBITOR YULE, IF IT EXISTEDW , AS
MODIFIED OR RESCINDE DY THE EMERGENC OF A SUBSEQUEN RULE

1. The Position as ut the Commencement of the Nucleav Age

Underlying the Court's holding in the second part of subparagraph E
of paragraph 2 of the operative paragraph of its Advisory Opinion that it
"cannot conclude definitively" on the issue there referred to, is a conten-
tion by some States that the Court was being invited by the General
Assembly's question to speculate on possible "scenarios". If thatns
that the Court could not decide on the basis of conjectures,1 would
uphold the contention. But1would not feel able to go the further step of

accepting (if this other proposition was also intended) that there are no
circumstances in which the Court may properly have recourse to the use
of hypotheses. It would not,think, be correct to Say,as it is sometimes
said, that the interpretation and application of the law always abjures
hypotheses. Within reasonable limits, a hypothesis, as in other fields of
intellectual endeavour, may be essential to test the limits of a theory or to
bring out the true meaning of a rule. When, in a famous statement, it was
said "hypothesesnonjngo ",that only excludedpropositions goingbeyond

actual data28.The actual data may themselves suggest possibilities which
need to be explored if the correct inference isto be drawn from the data.

The position as it stood immediately before the commencement of the
nuclear age was that, since nuclear weapons did not exist, ex hypothesi
there was, and could have been, no rule in conventional or customary
international law which prohibited the use of nuclear weapons "as such".

But it cannot be a serious contention that the effectsproduced by the use
of nuclear weapons, when they were later invented, were beyond the
reach of the pre-existing law of armed conflict (see paragraphs 85-86 of
the Advisory Opinion and Shimoda, supua,pp. 235-236); the "novelty of
a weapon does not by itself conveywith it a legitimate claim to a change
in the existing rules of ~ar"~~.

Thus, if, immediately before the commencement of the nuclear age, the
question was asked whether effects of the kind that would beter pro-
duced by the use ofnuclear weapons would constitute a breach of the law
of armed conflict, the Court could well hold that the answer would inevi-

28"For whatever is not deduc'd from the phaenomena, is to be called an hypothesis."
See Sir Isaac Newton, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, Book III,
Vol. II, trans. Andrew Motte, 1968,p. 392; and Derek Gjertsen, The Newton Handbook,
1986,p. 266.
29L. Oppenheim, International Law, A Treatise, Vol. IH. Lauterpacht,
p. 469, para. 181a. QUATRIÈM EARTIE.UNE ÉVENTUELLE RÈGLE PROHIBITIVE ANTÉRIEURE

A-T-ELL ÉTÉ MODIFIÉE OU ANNULÉE PAR L'APPARITION
D'UNE RÈGLE ULTÉRIEURE?

1. La position au débutde l'èrenucléaire

L'argument défendupar certains Etats selon lequel la question de
l'Assembléegénérale a amené laCour à spéculersur des ((scénarios»pos-
sibles est sous-jacentà la réponse faite par la Cour dans la deuxième
phrase de l'alinéaE du paragraphe 2 du dispositif de son avis consultatif,
à savoir qu'elle «ne peut ...conclure de façon définitive)) à propos du
point visédans ce passage. Si cela signifie que la Cour ne pouvait pas

décidersur la base de conjectures, je souscrisàcet argument. Mais je ne
peux aller plus loin et accepter (en supposant que cette autre proposition
était égalementvoulue) qu'enaucune circonstance la Cour ne saurait rai-
sonner à partir d'hypothèses. C'est à tort qu'on soutiendrait, comme
on le fait parfois, que l'interprétation et l'application du droit font tou-
jours abstraction des hypothèses. Comme dans d'autres domaines de la
recherche intellectuelle, une hypothèse peut s'avérer indispensable,dans

des limitesraisonnables, pour éprouverles limites d'une théorieou déga-
ger le vrai sens d'une règle. La fameuse expression ((hypotheses non
$fingo» signifiait uniquement le rejet des propositions qui ne tiennent
aucun compte des données réelles28.Les donnéesréellespeuvent elles-
mêmes laisserentrevoir des possibilitésqu'il faudra explorer si la conclu-
sion correcte doit êtredéduitedesdites données.
Tellequ'elleétaitfixéeimmédiatementavant le début de l'ère nucléaire,

la position étaitque, puisque les armes nucléaires n'existaient pas,il n'y
avait et il ne pouvait y avoir, par hypothèse, aucune règledu droit inter-
national conventionnel ou coutumier interdisant l'emploi d'armes nu-
cléaires«en tant que telles)). Mais on ne saurait soutenir sérieusement
que les effetsproduits par l'emploi d'armes nucléaires, lorsqu'ellesont été
inventées plustard, échapperaientau droit préexistantdes conflits armés
(voir paragraphes 85-86 de l'avis consultatif et ci-dessus l'affaire Shi-

moda, p. 235-236); on ne saurait seprévaloirautomatiquement dela nou-
veautéd'une arme pour exiger légitimement une modification des lois de
la guerre en vigueurz9.
Ainsi, si, immédiatementavant le débutde l'ère nucléaire, la question
avait étéposéede savoir sides effetscomme ceux que produirait plus tard
l'emploi d'armes nucléaires constitueraient une violation du droit des

conflits armés,la Cour pourrait bien affirmer que la réponseaurait tou-

-
((Car tout ce qui n'est pas déduitdes phénomènes doitêtreappeléune hypothèse)).
vol. II. traductionndrew Motte. 196v. 392. et Derek Giertsen. The Newton Hand-III,
book, 1986, p. 266. ,A
29L. Oppenheim, International Law, A Treatise,vol. II, 7'éditionpar H. Lauterpacht,
p. 469, par.81a.tably have been in the affirmative. If the effects so produced would have
been forbidden by that law, it follows that nuclear weapons, when they
later materialized, could not be used without violating that law - not,
that is to say, unless that law was modified by the subsequent evolution
of a law operating in the opposite direction, a point considered below.

2. The Position Subsequent to the Commencement of the Nuclear Age

A "froward retention of custom is as turbulent a thing as an innova-
tion", says Bacon30.SO,on the assumption that a prohibitory rule existed
at the commencement of the nuclear age, it would remain to consider
whether that rule was later modified or reversed by the emergence of a
new rule operating in the opposite direction: would the "froward reten-
tion" of the previous prohibition of the use of nuclear weapons have been

judged a "turbulent" thing?
Itis necessary to have regard to the structure of the debate. The argu-
ment of some States is that there is not and never was a rule prohibitory
of the use of nuclear weapons. In determiningthe issue so raised, a useful
benchmark is the commencement of the nuclear age. The position as at
that time has to be determined by reference to the law as it then stood.
Subsequent developments do not form part of any process creative of any
rule on the subject as at that time. If a correct finding is that, on the law
as it existed at the commencement of the nuclear age, a prohibitory rule
then existed, evidence of subsequent State practice cannot serve to con-
tradict that finding by showing that, contrary to that finding, no prohibi-

tory rule then existed. What subsequent State practice can do is to create
an opinio juris supportive of the emergence of a new rule modifying or
reversing the old rule. But it has not been suggested that, if a prohibitory
rule existed at the commencement of the nuclear age, it was modified or
reversed by the emergence of a later rule operating in the opposite direc-
tion. This being the case, it follows that if a prohibitoryrule existed at the
commencement of the nuclear age, that rule continues in force.

The same conclusion is reached even if it were in fact argued that any
prior prohibitory rule was reversed by the emergence of a later rule oper-
ating in the opposite direction. The substantial and long-standing opposi-

tion within the ranks of the NNWS to the proposition that there is a right
in law to use nuclear weapons would have sufficed to prevent the evolu-
tion of the opiniojuris required to support the birth of any such new rule,
and more particularly so if the earlier rule had the status ofjus cogens.
This would have been the case if the humanitarian principles on which
the earlierrule was based had that status, a possibility left open by para-
graph 83 of the Advisory Opinion.

30"Of Innovations", in J. Spedding, R. L. Ellis and D. D. Heath (eds.), The Works of
Francis Bacon, 1890,Vol. VI, p. 433.

191jours été affirmative. ileseffets ainsiproduits avaient éinterdits par ce
droit, il s'ensuit que l'emploi d'armes nucléaires,lejour où celles-cisont
devenues une réalité, nepouvait que constituer une violation de ce droit,
à moins, bien entendu, que celui-cine soit modifiépar une évolutionulté-
rieure contraire, comme nous allons le voir ci-après.

2. La position après le débutde l'ère nucléaire

Selon Bacon, le maintien obstiné d'unecoutume est aussi perturbant
qu'une innovation30. En supposant qu'une règleprohibitive existait au
débutde I'èrenucléaire,il resterait donc à examiner si cette règlea été
modifiéeou annuléepar l'apparition d'une règle nouvelle contraire: le
((maintien obstiné)) de l'interdiction antérieure de l'emploi d'armes

nucléairesaurait-il étconsidéré comme quelque chose de((perturbant »?

Il importe de tenir compte des élémentd su débat. CertainsEtats sou-
tiennent qu'il n'existe et ql'ajamais existéune règleinterdisant l'emploi
d'armes nucléairesL. ecommencement del'ère nucléairc eonstitue un repère
utile pour trancher la question ainsi soulevée.La position telle qu'elleétait
fixéeà ce moment doit être déterminé pear rapport au droit tel qu'il était
fixéà ce moment. Des événements ultérieurs nseauraient faire partie d'un
quelconque processus ayant engendré une quelconquerègle à ce sujet à
cette époque-là.S'ilest permisde conclure que, sur la base du droit tel qu'il
existait au début del'èrenucléaire,il y avait alors une règleprohibitive, on

ne saurait tirer argument d'une pratique ultérieuredes Etats pour contre-
dire cette conclusionen montrant que, contrairement à cette conclusion, il
n'y avait pas alors de règleprohibitive. Ce qu'une pratique ultérieuredes
Etats peut faire, c'estcréer uneopiniojurisàl'appui del'apparition d'une
règlenouvelle modifiant ou annulant la règleancienne. Mais il n'a pas été
soutenu que, s'ilexistait une règleprohibitive au débutde l'èrenucléaire,
celle-ci a étémodifiéeou annuléepar l'apparition d'une règleultérieure
contraire. Cela étant,il s'ensuit que, s'il existait une règleprohibitive au
débutde I'èrenucléaire, cetterèglereste en vigueur.
Cette conclusion est valable, mêmesi on devait soutenir qu'une quel-
conque règleprohibitive antérieure a étéannuléedu fait de l'apparition
d'une règleultérieurecontraire. L'opposition ferme et de longue date à

laquelle se heurte dans les rangs des Etats non dotésd'armes nucléaires
l'argument selon lequel l'emploi d'armes nucléaires estfondé en droit
aurait suffiàempêcherl'évolution del'opiniojuris requise pour appuyer
l'idéede la naissance d'une quelconque règle nouvellede ce type, et ce,à
fortiori, dans le cas où la règleantérieure feraitpartie dujus cogens. Cela
aurait été lecas si les principes humanitaires sur lesquels se fondait la
règleantérieure avaientce caractère, unepossibilitéque le paragraphe 83
de l'avis consultatif laisse en suspens.

30«Of Innovations)), dans J. Spedding, R. L. Ellis and D. D. Heath (dir. publ.), The
Wovks ofFrancis Bacon, 1980,vol. VI, p. 433.

191 One last oint.Ar~"ment was made that the NWS were "States whose
interests are specially affected" within the meaning of the principle relat-
ing to the creation of customary international law, as enunciated by the
Court in 1969 (North Sea Continental ShelJ;I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 43,
para. 74), and that, indeed, "in the present case, a practice involving the
threat or use of nuclear weapons could proceed only from States recog-
nized as possessing the status of nuclear-weapon States" (CR 95/24,p. 3).
The argument is interesting, but not persuasive. Where what is in issue is
the lawfulness of the use of a weapon which could annihilate mankind

and so destroy al1States, the test of which States are specially affected
turns not on the ownership of the weapon, but on the consequences of its
use. From this point of view,al1States are equally affected, for, like the
people who inhabit them, they al1have an equal right to exist.

For these reasons, granted the prior existence of a prohibitory rule, it
was open to the Court to hold that the position taken by a considerable
number of the NNWS, if not the majority, would have operated to bar
the development of the opiniojuris necessary to support the creation of a
new rule rescinding the old. The old prohibitory rule would therefore
have continued up to the present time.

PARTV. THEDENUCLEARIZATT IREATIE SND THE NPT

Some States rely on regional denuclearization treaties and on the NPT
and associated arrangements as State practice evidencing the non-exis-
tence of a prohibitory rule. Those arrangements, they argue, are only
explicable on the assumption that the use of nuclear weapons was
regarded by the negotiating States as lawful. They emphasize that for
50 years the NWS have been openly possessing and deploying nuclear
weapons under one form or another of a policy of nuclear deterrence;
that itis well known that several NNWS have been sheltering under the
nuclear umbrella of a NWS; that the NWS and other States sheltering
under a nuclear umbrella constitute a substantial and important part of

the international community; that elements of the negative and positive
security assurances given by the NWS necessarily imply recognition by
the NNWS that nuclear weapons may be lawfully used; that Security
Council resolution 984 (1995) expressedthe Council's appreciation of the
statements through which the NWS gave those assurances; and that no
NNWS protested against those assurances or with the appreciation thus
expressed. How should these matters be evaluated? J'ajouterai un dernier point. On a soutenu que les Etats dotésd'armes
nucléairesétaientdes ~Etats qui sont particulièrement intéressés))au sens
du principe ayant trait à la formation d'une règlede droit international
coutumier, tel qu'il a été énoncpéar la Cour en 1969(Plateau continental
de la mer du Nord, C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 43, par. 74) et que, en effet,
«en l'espèce,une pratique de la menace ou de l'emploi des armes nu-

cléairesne pourrait venir que des Etats auxquels le statut d'Etat doté
d'armes nucléairesa étéreconnu)) (CR95/24, p. 3). L'argument est inté-
ressant, mais il ne convainc pas. Lorsque, ce qui est en jeu, c'est la
licéitéde l'emploi d'une arme susceptible d'anéantir l'humanité et donc
tous les Etats, la question de savoir quels sont les Etats particulièrement
intéressésvise non la propriétéde l'arme, mais les conséquences de son
utilisation. De ce point de vue, tous les Etats sont également intéressés,
car, àl'instar de ceux qui y habitent, ils ont tous le mêmedroit d'exister.
Pour ces raisons, étantdonnél'existence antérieure d'unerègleprohi-
bitive, la Cour pouvait estimer que la position prise par un très grand
nombre, sinon la plupart des Etats non dotésd'armes nucléairesaurait eu
pour effet d'empêcher laformation de l'opirziojuris requise pour appuyer

la créationd'une règlenouvelle annulant la règleancienne. La règlepro-
hibitive ancienne se serait donc maintenue jusqu'à cejour.

CINQUIÈME PARTIE.LES TRAITÉS DE DÉNUCLÉARISATION ET LE TRAITÉ
SUR LA NON-PROLIFÉRATION

Certains Etats veulent voir dans les traités de dénucléarisation régio-
nale et dans le traité sur la non-prolifération et autres accords connexes
une pratique des Etats attestant la non-existence d'une règleprohibitive.
Selon eux, ces arrangements ne peuvent s'expliquer que si on admet que

les Etats qui les ont conclus considéraient l'emploi d'armes nucléaires
comme licite. Ils soulignent que, depuis un demi-siècle,les Etats dotés
d'armes nucléaires possèdent et déploient ouvertement des armes nu-
cléairesdans le cadre d'une ou d'une autre forme de politique de dissua-
sion nucléaire; quec'est unfait bien connu que plusieurs Etats non dotés
d'armes nucléairess'abritent sous le parapluie nucléaired'un Etat doté
d'armes nucléaires;que les Etats dotésd'armes nucléaireset les autres
Etats qui s'abritent sous un parapluie nucléaire représentent une partie
importante de la communauté internationale; que certains éléments des
garanties de sécurité négatives et positives donnéespar les Etats dotés
d'armes nucléaires impliquent nécessairement la reconnaissance par les
Etats non dotés d'armes nucléairesque celles-ci peuvent êtreemployées

licitement; que le Conseil de sécurit, ans sa résolution984 (1995),a pris
acte avec satisfaction des déclarations dans lesquelles les Etats dotés
d'armes nucléairesont donnéces assurances; et que les Etats non dotés
d'armes nucléaires n'ontpas protesté contre ces assurances ou contre la
satisfaction ainsi exprimée. Que faut-il penser de ces arguments? The position as at the beginning of the nuclear age was either that
there was no rule prohibiting States from producing effects of the kind
which could later be produced by nuclear weapons, or that there was
such a prohibitory rule. If there was no such prohibitory rule, it is not
necessary to consider in detail whether subsequent State practice intro-
duced one, for the known position of the NWS and those of the NNWS
sheltering under a nuclear umbrella, representing a substantial and impor-
tant part of the international community, would have prevented the crys-
tallization of the opinio juris required to create such a rule: the non-
existence of a prohibitory rule would continue to this day, and the case of
the proponents of legality succeeds.

On the opposite view that there was a prior prohibitory rule, there is
equally no need to consider subsequent State practice in any detail. As
has been argued, if, on the basis of the law as it stood at the commence-
ment of the nuclear age, it is found that there then existed a prohibitory
rule, that finding as to what was the then state of the law cannot be con-

tradicted by later developments. Later developmentsmay only be consid-
ered for the purpose of determining whether they represented a State
practice which brought into being a new rule modifying or rescinding the
prior prohibitory rule. But then the known position of the majority of the
NNWS, also representing a substantial and important part of the inter-
national community, would have barred the development of the opinio
juris required for the creation of a modifying or rescinding rule :the prior
prohibitory rule would thus continue to this day, and the case of the pro-
ponents of illegality succeeds.

On either view, it is accordingly not necessary to consider later devel-
opments in any detail. As there has been much debate over regional
denuclearization treaties and the NPT, I shall nevertheless say something
about these. In my opinion, the Court could hold that they do not show
that the proponents of illegality accepted the legality of the use of nuclear
weapons.

First, as to theregional denuclearization treaties. It will be convenient
to deal with one only, namely, the Treaty of Tlatelolco of 1967.The pre-
amble to this treaty stated that "the proliferation of nuclear weapons"
seemed "inevitable unless States, in the exercise of their sovereign rights,
impose restrictions on themselves in order to prevent it". The treaty being
concerned with both possession and use, there is force in the argument
that that statement recognized that there was a sovereign right in law to
use such weapons. That inference does not however necessarily follow
when regard is had to the fact that the preamble also said that the use of
such a weapon could result in "an attack on the integrity of the human
species and ultimately may even render the whole earth uninhabitable". MENACE OUEMPLOID'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OPD. ISS.HAHABUDDEE 4N1)

La position, si l'on se place au commencement de l'ère nucléaireé, tait
soit qu'il n'existaitpas de règle interdisant aux Etats de produire des
effets du type de ceux qui seraient produits plus tard par les armes
nucléaires, soit qu'il existaitune telle règleprohibitive. Dans le premier
cas, il n'est pas nécessaire d'examinerde manière approfondie si la pra-
tique ultérieuredes Etats a introduit une règleprohibitive, car la position
bien connue des Etats dotésd'armes nucléaires et desEtats non dotés
d'armes nucléairess'abritant sous un parapluie nucléaire,qui représen-
tent une partie importante de la communauté internationale, aurait
empêché la cristallisation de l'opiniovis requise pour créerune telle

règle: la non-existence d'une règle prohibitive continuerait jusqu'à ce
jour, et les tenants de la licéauraient raison.
Dans le second cas, s'ilexistait antérieurement unerègleprohibitive, il
n'est pas nécessairenon plus d'examiner en détailla pratique ultérieure
des Etats. Comme on l'a déjàdit, si, en partant du droit tel qu'ilétaitfixé
au commencement de l'ère nucléaireo , n constate qu'il existait alors une
règle prohibitive, cette constatation concernant l'état du droit à cette
époque ne peut être contredite par une évolution ultérieure.On ne peut
tenir compte d'une telle évolutionqu'à l'effetde déterminersi elle repré-
sentait une pratique des Etats ayant donnénaissance à une règle nouvelle
qui a modifiéou annuléla règle prohibitive antérieure. Mais, dans ce
cas, la position bien connue de la majoritédes Etats non dotésd'armes
nucléaires,qui représententégalementune partie importante de la com-
munauté internationale, aurait empêché la formation de I'opinio juvis
requise pour créerune règlemodifiant ou annulant la règleprohibitive

antérieure. Cette dernièreaurait donc continuéjusqu'à ce jour, et les
tenants de l'illicéiauraient raison.
Dans les deux cas, il n'est donc pas nécessaired'examiner en détail
l'évolutionultérieure. Commeles traitésde dénucléarisationrégionale et
le traité sur la non-prolifération ont donnélieuà de nombreuses discus-
sions, je dirai cependant quelques mots à ce sujet. Selon moi, la Cour
pouvait conclure qu'ils n'attestent pas que les tenants de l'illicéiont
admis la licéitéde l'emploi d'armes nucléaires.

Examinons tout d'abord les traités de dénucléarisation régionale.Pour
plus de commodité,je m'en tiendrai à un seul d'entre eux, le traité de
Tlatelolco de 1967.Dans le préambule dece traité,les Etats signataires

affirmaient que la ((proliférationdes armes nucléaires))semblait ((inévi-
table à moins que les Etats, dans l'exercicede leurs pouvoirs souverains,
ne s'imposent des restrictions pour l'empêcher)). omme le traitéconcer-
nait tant la possession que l'emploi, l'argument selon lequel cette décla-
ration reconnaissait l'existence d'un droit souverain d'employer de
telles armes semble avoir un certain poids. Ce raisonnement présente
cependant une faille, si l'on considère qu'il est dit égalementdans le
préambule queces armes ((constituent ...une atteinteà l'intégritde I'es-The better interpretation of the treaty is that it was, objectively, directed
to the establishment of a régimeto ensure that Latin America would be

nuclear-free, giventhat nuclear weapons in fact existed and might in fact
be used; the treaty did not rest on an assumption that there existed a
right in law to use weapons which could "render the whole earth unin-
habitable". Reservations or declarations made by the NWS on signing or
ratifying Protocol II to the treaty did rest on an assumption that there
was a right of use; but itis risky to infer that, by remaining silent, States
parties to the treaty acquiesced in that assumption in the light of the fact
that, both before and after the conclusion of the treaty, many of them
were on record as affirming through the General Assembly and otherwise
that the use of such weapons would be a crime.

Next as to the NPT. This calls for fuller discussion; the arguments
were more intense. Some States, or one or another of them, argued that
a right to use nuclear weapons formed part of the inherent right of self-
defence; that the inherent right of self-defence was inalienable; that it
had a fundamental and overriding character; that it was the most funda-

mental right of all; but that it could be restricted by express treaty pro-
visions. It followed that some States could retain their right to use
nuclear weapons, while others could competently agree to forego it. The
argument adds that acceptance of a right to possess such weapons under
the NPT implies acknowledgment of a right of use.

These arguments are weighty; they demand careful consideration. A
difficulty lies, however, in the characterization of a right to use nuclear
weapons as being a part of the right of self-defence. If the characteriza-
tion is correct, it is not easy to appreciate how the proponents of illegal-
ity, which were parties to the NPT, would have intended voluntarily to
forego an important part of their inherent right of self-defence whilst
agreeing that the right would be retained in full by the NWS. The
third preambular paragraph of the NPT showed that the treaty was con-
cluded in

"conformity with resolutions of the United Nations General Assem-
bly calling for the conclusion of an agreement on the prevention of
wider dissemination of nuclear weapons". MENACE OU EMPLOI D'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OPD. ISS.HAHABUDDEE 41)

pècehumaine et risquent de rendre finalement toute la terre inhabitable)).
On interpréterait mieux le traité en disant qu'il visait objectivement à
mettre en place un régime garantissant que l'Amérique latine serait
exempte d'armes nucléaires,étant donné qu'il existait effectivement de
telles armes et qu'elles pouvaient êtreeffectivement employées;le traité
ne se fondait pas sur l'hypothèse qu'il existaitun droit d'employer des
armes qui risquaient «de rendre finalement toute la terre inhabitable)).
Les réservesou déclarationsfaites par les Etats dotésd'armes nucléaires
lors de la signature ou de la ratification du protocoleII au traité repo-
saient sur l'hypothèse qu'il existait untel droit; mais il est hasardeux de
conclure que les Etats parties au traité ont, par leur silence, donnéleur
aval à cette hypothèse, eu égard au fait que, tant avant qu'après la
conclusion du traitéun grand nombre d'entre eux ont déclaré publique-
ment, devant l'Assembléegénérale ou ailleurs,que l'emploi de telles

armes serait un crime.

Le traité surla non-prolifération demande qu'on s'y attarde plus lon-
guement, car il a fait l'objet d'un débatplus intense. Certains Etats, ou
l'un ou l'autre d'entre eux, ont soutenu que le droit d'employer des armes
nucléaires faisaitpartie du droit naturel de légitimedéfense;que le droit
naturel de légitimedéfenseétaitun droit inaliénable; qu'il s'agissait d'un
droit fondamental et primordial; que c'étaitle droit le plus fondamental
de tous; mais que des restrictions pouvaient y être apportées pardes
dispositions conventionnelles expresses. En conséquence, certains Etats
pouvaient conserver leur droit d'employer des armes nucléaires,alors
que d'autres pouvaient très bien décider d'y renoncer.Toujours selon
cette thèse, l'acceptation du droit de posséder detelles armes en vertu du
traité sur la non-prolifération vaut reconnaissance du droit d'employer
celles-ci.

Ces arguments ont du poids et doivent êtreexaminés soigneusement.

Une première difficulté tientau fait que le droit d'employer des armes
nucléairesest considérécommefaisantpartie du droitde légitimedéfense.
Sicette interprétation est exacte, on voit mal comment lestenants de'illi-
céitéq,ui étaient partiesau traité surla non-prolifération, auraient pu de
leur plein gré renoncer à une partie importante de leur droit naturel de
légitimedéfensetout en acceptant que les Etats dotésd'armes nucléaires
conservent ce droit dans son intégralité. Aux termesdu troisième alinéa
du traité surla non-prolifération, celui-ci a étéconclu:

«en conformité avec les résolutions de l'Assembléegénérale de
l'organisation des Nations Unies demandant la conclusion d'un
accord sur la préventiond'une plus grande dissémination des armes
nucléairesD.Those resolutions would include General Assembly resolution 2028 (XX)
of 19November 1965,paragraph 2 (b) of which laid it down that a non-
proliferation treaty "should embody an acceptable balance of mutual
responsibilities and obligations of the nuclear and non-nuclear Powers".
It is hard to see how that prescription could find an acceptable reflection
in an asymmetrical enjoyment of so fundamental a right as the inherent
right of self-defence.
There would be difficulty also in following how it is that what is inal-

ienable for some States is alienable for others. It is an attribute of sov-
ereignty that a State may by agreement restrain the exercise of its com-
petence; yet how far it may do so without losing its status as a State is
another question31.Sincethe right of self-defenceis "inherent" in a State,
it is not possible toconceive of statehood which lacks that characteristic.
See the illustration in General Assembly resolution 49110of 3 November
1994,

"[rleaffirming ... that as the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina is
a sovereign,independent State and a Member of the United Nations,
it is entitled toal1rights provided for in the Charter of the United
Nations, including the right to self-defenceunder Article 51thereof".

Arrangements for the exercise of the right of self-defenceare a different
matter. But, so far as the right itself is concerned, if the right includes a
right to use nuclear weapons, the latter is not a small part of the former.
It was no doubt for this reason that, in the parallel case brought by the

World Health Organization, it was argued that to "deny the victim of
aggression the right to use the only weapons which might Saveit would
be to make a mockery of the inherent right of self-defence" 32.The argu-
ment is understandable, granted the premise that the right to use nuclear
weapons is part of the inherent right of self-defence. The question is
whether the premise is correct. For, if it is correct, then, by the same
token, there is difficulty in seeing how the NNWS which were parties to
the NPT could have wished to part with so crucially important a part of
their inherent right of self-defence.

Itis possible to see the NNWS agreeing that, because of the dangers
represented by nuclear weapons, they would not acquire such weapons,
on the basis that the NWS, which already had such weapons, would take
steps to eliminate them. It is less easy to see how the NNWS would, on
the ground of such dangers, agree to deprive themselves of the opportu-

3'See argument of M. Yasseen in C.J. Pleadings, Interpretation of the Agreement of
25 March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, pp.298-299.
32Statement of the Government of the United Kingdom (para24),in the case con-
cerning Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict (Request
for Advisory Opinion). MENACE OU EMPLOID'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.SHAHABUDDEE 4N1)7

Au nombre de ces résolutionsfigure la résolution2028 (XX) du 19 no-
vembre 1965,dont le paragraphe 2 b) prévoitqu'un traitéde non-pro-
lifération «devra établir un équilibre acceptable de responsabilitéset
d'obligations mutuelles entre puissances nucléaires et puissancesnon nu-

cléaires)).On voit mal comment cette prescription pourrait se traduire de
façon acceptable par un exerciceasymétriqued'un droit aussi fondamen-
tal que le droit naturel de légitimedéfense.
Il est difficileégalementd'admettre que ce qui est inaliénablepour cer-
tains Etats est aliénablepour d'autres. En vertu de sa souveraineté, un
Etat peut convenir de limiter l'exercicede sa compétence, maison peut se
demander jusqu'où il peut le faire sans perdre sa qualité d'Etat31. Le
droit de légitimedéfenseétant un droit «naturel» d'un Etat, il n'est pas

possible de concevoir une qualité d'Etat sans une telle caractéristique.
Voir, par exemple, la résolution49/10 du 3 novembre 1994dans laquelle
l'Assembléegénérale réaffirme

«que la République de Bosnie-Herzégovine,Etat souverain, indé-
pendant et Membre de l'Organisation des Nations Unies, est fondée
en droit à se prévaloir detous les droits prévusdans la Charte des
Nations Unies, y compris le droit de légitimedéfenseconformément
à l'article 51 de ladite Charte)).

Les dispositions prévuespour l'exercicedu droitde légitimedéfensecons-
tituent un problème différent. Mais,pour ce qui est du droit lui-même,
s'il comprend le droit d'employer des armes nucléaires,ce dernier droit
n'est assurémentpas une partie négligeabledu premier. C'était sans
doute pour cette raison que, dans une demande parallèle d'avis consul-

tatif présentéepar l'organisation mondiale de la Santé,il a étésoutenu
que ((dénier à la victime d'une agression le droit d'employer les seules
armes qui pourraient la sauver serait tourner en dérisionle droit naturel
de légitime défense»32.L'argument se comprend, si l'on admet la pré-
misse que le droit d'employer des armes nucléaires faitpartie du droit
naturel de légitimedéfense.La question est de savoir si cette prémisseest
exacte. Car, si c'estle cas, il devient du mêmecoup difficilede voir com-
ment les Etats non dotésd'armes nucléairesqui étaient partiesau traité

sur la non-prolifération auraient pu vouloir renoncer à un élément aussi
essentiel de leur droit naturel de légitimedéfense.
Il est possible de concevoir que les Etats non dotésd'armes nucléaires
seraient convenus, en raison du danger que constituaient les armes
nucléaires, dene pas acquérir detelles armes, en se fondant sur l'idéeque
les Etats dotésde l'arme nucléaire,qui possédaientdéjàde telles armes,
prendraient des mesures pour les éliminer. Il est plus difficilede concevoir

31Voir la thèse dM. Yasseen dans C.I.J. Mémoires, Interprétationde l'accord du
25 mars 1951 entre l'OMS et I'Egypte, p. 298-299.
32Déclarationdu Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni, par. 24, dans l'affaire de laLicéité
de l'utilisation desarmes nucléairespar un Etat dans unanné(requêtepour avis
consultatif).nity of using such weapons in exercise of their inherent right of self-
defence whilst neverthelessagreeing that such weapons, notwithstanding

the same dangers, could be legally used by the NWS in exercise of their
own inherent right of self-defenceand used in some circumstances against
the NNWS. The Court could not uphold so unbalanced a view of the
scheme of the NPT without endorsingthe controversial thesis that its real
thrust was not so much to prevent the spread of a dangerous weapon, as
to ensure that enjoyment of its use was limited to a minority of States.
The differencein perceived objectives is material to the correctness of the
interpretation to be placed on the treaty.

A further area of nuclear weapon discrepancy could arise as between
non-NPT States and the NNWS which are parties to the NPT. On the
argument for legality, the former would have a right in law to use nuclear
weapons in self-defence,whereas the latter would have foregone the exer-
cise of that right even in relation to the former. For, since a NNWS,
which is a party to the NPT, cannot possess nuclear weapons without

breaching the treaty, it follows that it cannot threaten or use nuclear
weapons even in relation to non-parties to the treaty, although the latter,
not being bound by the treaty, may have gone on to develop, acquire and
possess such weapons. In the result, a NNWS which is a party to the
NPT would be prevented by the treaty from exercisingthe fullmeasure of
its inherent right of self-defencender Article 51 of the Charter, notwith-
standing that the non-party to the treaty would be entitled to use such
weapons in exercise of its own inherent right of self-defence under that
Article.

These difficulties suggest that it is necessary to distinguish between the
inherent right of self-defence and the means by which the right is exer-

cisable. A State using force in self-defence is acting legally under the jus
ad bellum. But, whether a State is acting legally or illegallyunder thejus
ad bellum, if it is in fact using force it must always do so in the manner
prescribed by the jus inbello. It is the jus inbello which lays down
whether or not a particular means of warfare is permissible. Thus, where
the use of a particular weapon is proscribed by the jus inbello, the denial
of the use of that weapon is not a denial of the right of self-defence of the
attacked State: the inherent right of self-defence spoken of in Article 51
of the Charter simply does not comprehend the use of the weapon inque les Etats non dotés de l'arme nucléaireauraient accepté,compte tenu
du danger constituépar cesarmes, de sepriver dela possibilitéd'employer
de telles armes dans l'exercice de leur droit naturel de légitime défense,
tout en acceptant cependant que de telles armes, nonobstant le même
danger, puissent êtreemployées licitement par les Etats dotésde l'arme
nucléairedans l'exercicede leur propre droit naturel de légitimedéfense
et puissent êtreutiliséesdans certaines circonstances contre les Etats non
dotés d'armes nucléaires.La Cour ne saurait faire sienne une conception

aussi déséquilibrédeu régime du traité surla non-prolifération sans don-
ner son aval àla thèse discutable selon laquelle le traité visait moinà
empêcher la prolifération d'unearme dangereuse qu'à garantir le mono-
pole de son emploi à une minoritéd'Etats. Pour bien interpréterle traité,
il faut tenir compte de cette manière différente d'en percevoir les objec-
tifs.
Un autre domaine où il pourrait y avoir une disparitédu point de vue
de l'arme nucléaire concerneles Etats qui ne sont pas parties au traité sur
la non-prolifération et les Etats non dotésde l'arme nucléairequi sont
parties au traité.Selon les tenants de la licéitél,es premiers cités seraient
fondésen droit à employer des armes nucléaires dans le cadre de la légi-
time défense,alors que les derniers auraient renoncé à l'exercice de ce

droit même à l'égard des premiers.En effet, un Etat non dotéd'armes
nucléaires qui est partie au traité sur la non-prolifération ne pouvant
posséder d'armes nucléaires sans violerle traité, il s'ensuit qu'il ne peut
recourir àla menace ou à l'emploi d'armes nucléairesmême à l'égard des
Etats qui ne sont pas parties au traité, alors que ceux-ci n'étaient pas
tenus par le traitéou ont peut-êtreentrepris de mettre au point, d'acqué-
rir ou de posséder de telles armes. De ce fait, un Etat non dotéd'armes
nucléaires qui est partie au traité sur la non-prolifération se trouverait
empêché par le traitéd'exercer pleinement son droit naturel de légitime
défense conformément à l'article 51 de la Charte, alors qu'un Etat qui
n'est pas partie au traité serait habilitéemployer de telles armes dans
l'exercicede son propre droit naturel de légitimedéfenseconformément à

cet article.

Compte tenu de ces difficultés,il faut établir une distinction entre le
droit naturel de légitimedéfenseet les moyens qui permettent de l'exer-
cer. Un Etat qui recourt à la force dans l'exercicede la légitimedéfense
agit licitement selon leus ad bellum. Mais que cet Etat agisse licitement
ou illicitement selon lejus ad bellum, s'il a recours effectivement à la
force, il doit toujours le faire de la manière prescrite par le inbello.
C'est ce même jus in bello qui déterminesi tel moyen de guerre est ou non
autorisé. Lorsque lejus in bello interdit donc l'emploi d'une arme don-

née, cette interdiction ne constitue pas un déni du droit de légitime
défensede l'Etat attaqué: simplement, le droit naturel de légitimedéfense
énoncé à l'article 51 de la Charte n'englobe pas l'emploi de l'arme enquestion. The legal answer to the possible plight of the victim State is
given by the principle, as enunciated by the United States Military Tri-
bunal at Nuremberg on 19February 1948,that "the rules of international
law must be followed even if it results in the loss of a battle or even a war.
Expediency or necessity cannot warrant their violation . .."33.

A reasonable view is that the proponents of illegality which were
parties to the NPT did not consider that they were contracting away an
important part of their inherent right of self-defence,but that they acted
on the view that a State's inherent right of self-defencedid not include a
right to use nuclear weapons. If they considered that a right to use

nuclear weapons was an integral part of so fundamental a right as the
inherent right of self-defence, it is difficult to see why they should have
intended to agree that such weapons could be used only by some, and not
by all. On the other hand, if they acted on the basis that a right to use
such weapons was not part of the inherent right of self-defence,this gov-
erns, or at any rate qualifies and explains, the NPT arrangements, inclu-
sive of the 1995 extension, the positive and negative assurances, and the
Security Council statements set out in its resolution 984 (1995). As was
pointed out by Solomon Islands, al1of these arrangements formed part
of a declared process for eliminating nuclear weapons; it is not persuasive
to interpret them as implying acceptance by the NNWS of the legality of

the use of such weapons. Answering an argument that, through the NPT,
the "nuclear-weapon States were being given a legal basis for the main-
tenance of their nuclear arsenals", New Zealand submitted, correctly in
my view, that

"the very raison d'êtreof the Treaty . ..is based on a recognition
that nuclear weapons are different. The judgrnent made was that, in
view of the uniquely destructive potential of such weapons, and
human nature being what it is, the only option for humanity was to
rid itself of these weapons entirely. The threat that the weapons rep-
resent hangs over the security of the whole international community.
They also constitute a threat, and a challenge, to the international
legal order." (CR 95128,p. 36.)

In the light of the foregoing, the Court could read the NPT this way.
As stated in the preamble, al1parties, both the NWS and the NNWS,

33The List case, Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals
under Control CouncilLaw No. 10, VolXI, 1950,p. 1272; and see, ibid.,pp. 1236and
1254. See also the remarks of the United States Military Tribunal at Nuremberg in
Krupp's case,Annual Digest andReports of PublicInternational Law Cases,1948,p. 628.question. La réponsed'ordre juridique à la situation critique de 1'Etat
victime se trouve dans le principe énoncé,le 19 février1948,par le Tri-
bunal militaire des Etats-Unis à Nuremberg, selon lequel les règlesdu
droit international doivent êtrerespectées,mêmes'il en résulte la perte
d'une bataille, voire de la guerre. L'opportunité ou la nécessiténe peu-
vent justifier la violation de ces règles33.

On peut considérer raisonnablement que les tenants de l'illicéité qui
étaientparties au traité sur la non-prolifération n'ont pas estimé qu'ils
renonçaient à une partie importante de leur droit naturel de légitime
défense,mais qu'ils considéraient quele droit naturel de légitimedéfense
d'un Etat ne comportait pas le droit d'employer des armes nucléaires.
S'ils avaient estiméque le droit d'employer des armes nucléaires faisait
partie intégranted'un droit aussi fondamental que le droit naturel de légi-
time défense,on a du mal à comprendre pourquoi ils auraient entendu
accepter que de telles armes puissent êtreemployéespar certains Etats et

non par tous. Par ailleurs, s'ilsconsidéraientque le droit d'employer de
tellesarmes ne faisait pas partie du droit naturel de légitime défensec,ette
considération détermineou en tout cas préciseet explique les accords du
traité surla non-prolifération, y compris la prorogation décidée en 1995,)
les garanties de sécurité positiveset négatives et les déclarations faites
devant le Conseil de sécurité mentionnées dans la résolution 984 (1995)
de ce dernier. Comme le représentant des Iles Salomon l'a signalé,tous
ces arrangements s'inscrivaient dans le cadre d'un processus délibéré
d'élimination des armes nucléaires;les interpréter comme impliquant
l'acceptation par les Etats non dotésd'armes nucléaires de lalicéitéde

l'emploi de ces armes n'est pas convaincant. En réponse à un argument
selon lequel «le traité assurait aux Etats dotésde l'arme nucléaire une
base légalepour le maintien de leur armement nucléaire)),le représentant
de la Nouvelle-Zélandea déclaré, à bon droit me semble-t-il, que

«la raison d'êtredu traité ...est fondée sur la reconnaissance de
la différence intrinsèquedes armes nucléaires. On était parvenu à
la conclusion que, du fait du potentiel destructif exceptionnel de
ces armes, et la nature humaine étantce qu'elle est, la seule option
qui restait à l'humanité, c'était dese débarrasser totalement de
ces armes. Ces armes représentent une menace qui compromet la
sécurité detoute la communauté internationale. Elles représentent
égalementune menace, ainsi qu'un défipour l'ordre juridique inter-
national lui-même. ))(CR 95128,p. 36.)

Compte tenu de ce qui précède, voicicomment la Cour pourrait inter-
préterle traité surla non-prolifération. Comme indiquédans le préam-

33L'affaire List, Trials of Wav Cviminals before the Nuernbevg Militavy Tribunuls
under Control Council Law No. 10, vol. XI, 1950,p. 1272; voir aussi, ibid., p. 1236et
1254.Voir aussi les observations du Tribunal militaire des àNuremberg dans
l'affaireupp, Annual Digest and Reports on Public International Law Cases, 1948,
p. 628.recognized "the devastation that would be visited upon al1mankind by a
nuclear war . . .".The spread of nuclear weapons should therefore be
halted, and States which, by their own declarations, already possessed

them should eliminate them. As this would take time. the NWS would of
necessity continue in possession until final elimination. This was recogni-
tion of a fact which could not suddenly be wished away, and tolerance of
that fact transitionall;it was not acquiescencein a right of use. Such an
acknowledgment would have been at variance with the repeated affirma-
tion by many NNWS, through General Assembly resolutions and other-
wise, and made both before and after the conclusion of the NPT, that the
use of such weapons would be contrary to the Charter, to the rules of
international law and the laws of humanity, and a crime against mankind
and civilization.

It remains to consider whether this conclusion is impaired by the secu-
rity assurances given by the NWS to the NNWS. In contrast with the

reservations made by four of the fiveNWS in their negative assurances of
a right to use nuclear weapons against the NNWS in certain circum-
stances, the positive assurances did not include a commitment to use
nuclear weapons in defence of a NNWS attacked with nuclear weapons
and therefore did not imply a claim to a right to use nuclear weapons. A
claim to a right to use nuclear weapons is however clearly implied in the
negative assurances; that need not be discussed. The question is whether
the claim to such a right has been accepted by the international
community.

It willbe convenient to take, first, the reaction of the Security Council.
Paragraph 1of its resolution 984 (1995),adopted unanimously, recorded
that the Council

"[tlakes note with appreciation of the statements made by each
of the nuclear-weapon States (Sl19951261,S119951262,Sl19951263,
Sl19951264, S/1995/265), in which they give security assurances
against the use of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear-weapon States
that are Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons".

It is argued that the "appreciation" with which the Security Council
noted the statementsmade by each of the NWS implied an acknowledg-
ment by it of a right in law to use nuclear weapons, and more particularly
in the light of a reaffirmation in paragraph 9 of the resolution of the
inherent right of self-defenceunder Article 51 of the Charter. The argu-bule, toutes les parties, tant les Etats dotésde l'arme nucléaireque les
Etats non dotésd'armes nucléaires,ont reconnu «les dévastations qu'une
guerre nucléaire ferait subirà l'humanité entièr e.» Il fallait donc empê-
cher la prolifération des armes nucléaires,et les Etats qui, selon leurs
propres déclarations, possédaient déjà de telles armes devaient les élimi-

ner. Comme cela prendrait du temps, les Etats dotésde l'arme nucléaire
continueraient nécessairement d'en posséderjusqu'à leur élimination
finale. On prenait acte d'une situation qu'il n'étaitpas possible de chan-
ger du jour au lendemain et que 1'011admettait à titre transitoire; on ne
reconnaissait pas ledroit d'employer cesarmes, car cela aurait étéen con-
tradiction avec les affirmations réitérées faitespar de nombreux Etats
non dotésd'armes nucléaires,par le biais des résolutionsde l'Assemblée
généraleet par d'autres moyens, tant avant la conclusion du traité surla
non-prolifération qu'après celle-ci,à savoir que l'emploi de telles armes
iraità l'encontre de la Charte, des règlesdu droit international et des
lois de l'humanité. et serait un crimecontre l'humanitéet la civilisation.

Il restà examiner si cette conclusion est affaiblie par les garanties de

sécurité donnéep sar les Etats dotésd'armes nucléairesaux Etats qui n'en
détiennent pas. Contrairement aux réservesdont quatre des cinq Etats
dotésde l'arme nucléaireont assorti leurs garanties négatives, réserves
affirmant le droit d'employer les armes nucléairesdans certaines circons-
tances contre les Etats non dotés d'armes nucléaires,les garanties posi-
tives n'énonçaientpas un engagement d'employer des armes nucléaires
Dour défendre un Etat non doté d'armes nucléairesattaaué avec des
armes nucléaires et n'impliquaientdont pas une revendication d'un droit
d'employer des armes nucléaires. Toutefois,les garanties négatives impli-
quent clairement l'existencedu droit d'employer des armes nucléaires;il
n'y a pas lieu de s'attarder sur ce point. La question est de savoir si la
revendication de ce droit a été admisepar la communauté internationale.
On examinera pour commencer la réaction du Conseil de sécuritéA . u
paragraphe 1 de sa résolution984 (1995),qui a étéadoptée à l'unanimité,

il est indiqué quecelui-ci
«[plrend acte avec satisfaction des déclarationsfaites par chacun des
Etats dotésde l'arme nucléaire(Sl19951261,Sl19951262,S119951263,
Sl19951264,S/1995/265),dans lesquelles ceux-ciont donné auxEtats
non dotés d'armes nucléairesqui sont parties au traité sur la non-
prolifération des armes nucléaires des garanties de sécuritécontre

l'emploi detelles armes)).
On a soutenu que la «satisfaction» avec laquelle le Conseil de sécuritéa
pris acte des déclarations faites par chacun des Etats dotés de l'arme
nucléaire impliquait qu'il reconnaissait le droit d'employer des armes
nucléaires,et ceciplus particulièrement àla lumièrede la réaffirmationau
paragraphe 9 de la résolutiondu droit naturel de légitimedéfensegarantiment, which is a forceful one, makes it necessary to consider what it was
that the Council's "appreciation" referred to.
Viewed in context and in particular in the light of the preamble to the
resolution, the focus of paragraph 1 of the resolution was directed to the
objective fact that negative security assurances had been given in the
cited statements; the paragraph referred to the statements of the NWS as
statements "in which they give security assurances against the use of

nuclear weapons to non-nuclear-weapon States . ..". The resolution did
not refer to the statements as statements in which the NWS "reserved a
right to use nuclear weapons against the NNWS in certain circum-
stances", as it could have done had the Council intended to indicate that
its expression of appreciation extended thus far. The Council could not
say so in respect of al1five of the NWS because one of them, namely,
China, did not reserve such a right (see paragraph 59 (c) of the Court's
Advisory Opinion). On the contrary, in paragraph 2 of its statement,
China said, "China undertakes not to use or threaten to use nuclear
weapons against non-nuclear-weapon States or nuclear weapon-free zones
at any time or under any circumstances"; this was the opposite of the
reservation of such a right. It may be argued that the statement nonethe-
lessimplied the existence of a right to use nuclear weapons. The question,
however, is how was the Security Council's expression of "appreciation"

to be understood. The Court could not reasonably say that the Council's
"appreciation" was to be understood as extending to the reservations
made by four of the fiveNWS of a right to use nuclear weapons against
the NNWS without also saying that it extended to China's undertaking,
to the opposite effect, not to use nuclear weapons against the NNWS "at
any time or under any circumstances".

In the result, the proponents of illegality, reading the text of the resolu-
tion, would not have thought that the "appreciation" expressed by the

Security Council extended to those aspects of the statements in which
four of the fiveNWS reserved a right to use nuclear weapons against the
NNWS in certain circumstances, which included a situation in which
there was no prior use of nuclear weapons against the NWS reserving
and exercising such a right. On its part, the Court could not understand
the "appreciation" expressed by the Security Council as intended to
affirm the existence of such a right without also understanding it to be
affirming that, in the view of the Security Council, there were two groups
of States legally differentiated in the importantsense that one group was
entitled in law to use nuclear weapons against the other in certain cir-
cumstances, without the latter being correspondingly entitled in law to
use such weapons against the former in any circumstances. The Courtpar l'article 51de la Charte. Cet argument a du poids et doit nous amener
à rechercher ce qui suscitait la «satisfaction» du Conseil.
L'accent du paragraphe 1 de la résolution, considéré dans le contexte
et en particulierà la lumièredu préambule, étaitmis sur le fait objectif
que des garanties de sécurité négativeasvaient été donnéed sans lesdites

déclarations; il était fait mention des déclarations des Etats dotés de
I'arme nucléaireen tant que constituant des déclarations((dans lesquelles
ceux-ciont donné auxEtatsnon dotésd'armes nucléaires ..des garanties
de sécuritécontre l'emploi de telles armes..» La résolutionne se référait
pas aux déclarations en tant que constituant des déclarations dans les-
quelles les Etats dotés de l'arme nucléaire «se réservaient le droit
d'employer des armes nucléairesdans certains circonstances contre les
Etats non dotésd'armes nucléaires)),commeelle aurait pu le faire si le
Conseil avait entendu indiquer que sa satisfaction s'étendaità cet objet.
Le Conseil ne pouvait s'exprimer de la sorte à propos des cinq Etats
dotésde I'arme nucléaire, l'un d'eux, à savoir la Chine, ne s'étantpas
réservé un tel droit (voir paragraphe 59, lettre c), de l'avisconsultatif de
la Cour). Au contraire, au paragraphe 2 de sa déclaration,la Chine avait
dit qu'«[elle] s'engageà n'employer ou menacer d'employer des armes

nucléairescontre des Etats non dotés d'armes nucléairesou des zones
exemptes d'armes nucléaires à aucun moment et en aucune circons-
tance»; elle faisait donc tout, sauf se réserver un teldroit. On pourrait
soutenir que cette déclaration impliquait néanmoinsl'existencedu droit
d'employer desarmes nucléaires.Cependant, la question est de savoir
comment il faut interpréter l'expression par le Conseil de sécuritéde sa
((satisfaction.La Cour ne saurait dire raisonnablement que la satisfac-
tion» du Conseil devait s'entendre comme visant aussi les réserves faites
par quatre des cinq Etats dotésde l'arme nucléairepar lesquelles ils se
réservaientle droit d'employer des armes nucléairescontre les Etats non
dotés d'armesnucléaires,sans dire aussi que sa satisfaction visait égale-
ment l'engagement de la Chine, tout différent, den'employer desarmes
nucléairescontre lesEtatsnon dotésd'armesnucléaires, «à aucun moment
et en aucune circonstance)).

En définitive, lestenants de l'illicéité, lecture du texte de la résolu-
tion, n'auraient pas penséque la «satisfaction» expriméepar le Conseil
de sécurité visait aussi ceaspects des déclarationsdans lesquels quatre
des cinq Etats dotésde I'arme nucléairese réservaientle droit d'employer
des armes nucléairescontre les Etats non dotésd'armes nucléairesdans
certaines circonstances, dont une situation dans laquelle des armes
nucléairesn'étaientpas employées enpremier contre les Etats dotésde
I'arme nucléairequi se réservaientet exerçaient un tel droit.Pour sa part,
la Cour ne saurait interpréterla «satisfaction» expriméepar le Conseil de
sécuritécomme visant à affirmer l'existenced'un tel droit, sans I'interpré-
ter égalementcomme l'affirmation que, aux yeux du Conseil de sécurité,
il existait deux groupes d7Etatsjuridiquement distincts, en ce sens qu'un
groupeétait fondéen droit àemployer desarmes nucléairescontrel'autre
groupe dans certaines circonstances, alors que celui-cine serait fondéenwould need to pause before imputing such a viewto the Security Council.
In circumstances in which it was known that the existence of a right to
use nuclear weapons was in contest, the "appreciation" expressed by the
SecurityCouncilin its resolution can reasonably beunderstood as directed
to the fact that the NWS had given "security assurances against the use
of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear-weapon States . ..", as stated in the
resolution itself, without being intended to give recognition to the exis-
tence of a legal right of use by indirectly passing on the debated issue as
to whether there was such a right.

An argument of some strength is based on the fact that, in paragraph 9
of its resolution, the Security Council reaffirmed

"the inherent right, recognized under Article 51 of the Charter, of
individual and collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs
against a member of the United Nations, until the Security Council
has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and
security".

Although this statement did not refer to a right to use nuclear weapons,
the argument is that, in the context in which it was made, it implied that,
in the view of the Security Council, the inherent right of self-defence
included a right to use nuclear weapons. It would not appear, however,
that the correctness of any such implication of paragraph 9 of the resolu-
tion was accepted by those of the NNWS who spoke before the Security
Council. What Malaysia said was that that "paragraph sidesteps the
question of the legality of the use of nuclear weapons because it justifies
the use or threat of nuclear weapons in casesof 'self-defence' (SlPV.3514,
11 April 1995,p. 15). Thus, however much paragraph 9 may be under-
stood as seekingto justify the threat or use of nuclear weapons in cases of
self-defence, in the view of Malaysia the paragraph did not succeed in
doing so but only side-stepped the question. Egypt associated itself with
Indonesia as "speaking . . .on behalf of the non-aligned States"; the
statement made by Indonesia does not suggest an intention to abandon

the known position of that group of States on the subject of legality.
India specificallyrecalled that at

"the forty-ninth session of the General Assembly, the international
community decided to seek an advisory opinion from the Inter-
national Court of Justice on whether the threat or use of nuclear
weapons is permissible under international law in any circum-
stances" (ibid p. 6).

India added:
"One would hope that by offering a draft resolution of this kind,
the nuclear-weapon States are not telling the non-members of the
NPT that they, the nuclear-weapon States, are free to use nucleardroit à utiliser des armes contre le premier groupe en aucune circons-
tance. La Cour devrait bien réfléchiravant d'imputer une telle vue au
Conseil de sécurité.Dans des circonstances où l'on savait que l'existence
du droit d'employer des armes nucléairesétaitcontesté,la ((satisfaction))
expriméepar le Conseil de sécuritédans sa résolution peut s'interpréter
raisonnablement comme visant le fait que les Etats dotés de l'arme
nucléaire avaient «donné aux Etats non dotés d'armes nucléaires ..des
garanties de sécuritécontre l'emploi de telles armes...)), comme cela est
indiqué dans la résolution elle-même, endehors de toute intention de
reconnaître l'existencedu droit d'employer de telles armes en esquivant la
question débattue, qui étaitde savoir s'il existait un tel droit.
Un argument qui ne manque pas de poids se fonde sur le fait qu'au
paragraphe 9 de sa résolution le Conseil de sécuritéa réaffirmé

«le droit naturel de légitimedéfense, individuelle ou collective, que
l'article 51 de la Charte reconnaîtà un Membre des Nations Unies
qui est l'objet d'une agression armée, jusqu'à ce que le Conseil de
sécuritéait pris les mesures nécessairespour maintenir la paix et la
sécuritéinternationales».

Cette déclaration ne se référait pasau droit d'employer des armes nu-
cléaires,maison soutient que, dans le contexte où elle a été faite,elle im-
pliquait qu'aux yeux du Conseil de sécuritéle droit naturel de légitime
défensecomprenait le droit d'employer des armes nucléaires. Il ne semble
pas, cependant, que le bien-fondéde cette interprétation du paragraphe 9
de la résolution ait été admispar ceux des Etats non dotés d'armes
nucléaires qui ont pris la parole devant le Conseil de sécurité.Pour sa
part, la Malaisie a dit que«[c]e paragraphe écartela question de la léga-
litéde l'emploi d'armes nucléaires,car iljustifie l'emploi ou la menace de
l'emploi d'armes nucléaires en cas de légitime défense» (SlPV.3514,
11 avril 1995, p. 15). Ainsi donc, même sile paragraphe 9 pouvait être
interprétécomme une tentative de justifier la menace ou l'emploi d'armes
nucléairesen cas de légitime défense,la Malaisie a estiméque le para-
graphe n'étaitpas parvenu à ses fins, et n'avait fait qu'écarter la question.
L'Egypte s'est associée à l'Indonésie ((s'exprimant ...au nom des Etats

non alignés));la déclaration faite par l'Indonésiene donne pas à penser
qu'elleentendait abandonner la position connue de ce groupe d'Etats sur
la question de la licéité. 'un d'eux a rappelé expressémentque:
«[à] la quarante-neuvième session de l'Assembléegénérale, la com-
munauté internationale a décidéde solliciterun avis consultatifde la
Cour internationale de justice pour savoir s'il est des circonstances
où la menace ou l'emploi de l'arme nucléairesont permis par le droit
international))(ibid p..,).

Et l'Inde a ajouté:
«Il est permis d'espérer qu'en présentant un tel projet de résolu-
tion les Etats nucléaires ne disentpas aux non-membres du traitésur
la non-prolifération que les Etats nucléaires peuvent utiliser l'arme weapons against them, because this would have implications which
are too frightening to contemplate." (SlPV.3514, p. 6.)
Hence, even if the resolution of the SecurityCouncil contained any impli-
cation that the Council considered the use of nuclear weapons to be law-
ful, the argument that the proponents of illegality accepted the correct-
ness of that implication is not well founded.
Next, the matter may be looked at from the more general standpoint of

the conduct of the proponents of illegality in relation to the security
assurances. Did that conduct manifest acquiescence in the claim by the
NWS to the existence of a right in law to use of nuclear weapons? In
particular, was such an acquiescence demonstrated by the fact that the
NNWS thought it necessary to obtain such assurances?

A reasonable appreciation of the position seems to be the following.
The continuing, if temporary, possession of nuclear weapons by the
NWS obviously presented risks to the NNWS. The sensiblething would be
to obtain assurances against any threat or use. Malaysia and Zimbabwe
submitted that, in like manner, non-aggression pacts "were the com-
mon currency of international relations well after the illegality of aggres-
sion had entered the body of customary law" (joint answers by Malaysia
and Zimbabwe to questions asked by Vice-President Schwebel on
3 November 1995, response to the second question). Realities may need
to be dealt with in a practical way; but not every arrangement designed
to deal with them accepts their legality. Especially is this so in interna-
tional relations. When regard is also had to the power of the weapons
concerned, the Court could find that there is not any contradiction

between the position taken by the NNWS in the General Assembly that
the use of nuclear weapons is a crime, and the assurances which they
accepted from States which nevertheless possessed such weapons that
these would not be used against them. It is useful to remember Judge
Alvarez's observation that "[rleason, pushed to extremes, may easily
result in absurdity"(Anglo-Ivanian Oil Co., Pveliminary Objection, I.C. J.
Reports 1952, p. 126,dissenting opinion). The practice of putting aside a
legal problem in order to make progress towards a desirable goal is a
familiar one in international relations. My understanding of the position
taken by some of the NWS is that it was on this basis that they partici-
pated in certain negotiations in the field of humanitarian law.

It is also important to have in mind that bare proof of acts or omis-
sions allegedly constituting State practice does not remove the need to
interpretsuch acts or omissions. The fact that States may feel that reali-
ties leave them no choice but to do what they do does not suffice to nucléairecontre lesdits non-membres. Il y a là des implications trop
effrayantes pour qu'on les envisage.))(SlPV.3514.p. 6.)
Mêmesi la résolutiondu Conseil de sécuritécontenait la moindre impli-
cation qu'il considéraitl'emploi d'armes nucléairescomme licite, l'argu-
ment selon lequel les tenants de l'illicéitacceptaient le bien-fondé de

cette implication n'est donc pas fondé.
La question peut êtreenvisagéeensuite du point de vue plus générad le
l'attitude adoptéepar lestenants de I'illicépar rapport aux garanties de
sécurité.Ont-ils par leur attitude laisséentendre qu'ils se rangeaient à
l'avis des Etats dotés de l'arme nucléaire lorsque ceux-ci affirmaient
l'existence du droit d'employer des armes nucléaires? En particulier,
peut-on déduire un tel acquiescement du fait que les Etats non dotés
d'armes nucléairesont estimé nécessaire d'obtenir de telles assurances?
Pour bien apprécier cetteattitude, il faut tenir compte des élémentcsi-
après.La possessioncontinue, fût-ce à titre temporaire, d'armes nucléaires
par lesEtats dotés de l'arme nucléaire présentait manifestemednets risques
pour les Etats non dotés d'armes nucléaires.l s'imposait raisonnablement
pour ces derniers d'obtenir des assurances contre toute menace ou tout
emploi decesarmes. La Malaisie et leZimbabwe ont fait valoir que, muta-

tismutandis,lespactes de non-agression((étaientmonnaie courante dans les
relations internationalesbien après quel'illicde l'agressioneut intégrle
corps du droit coutumier))(((Réponsescommunesde la Malaisieetdu Zim-
babwe aux questions poséespar M. Schwebel, Vice-Président,le 3 no-
vembre 1994»,réponse à la deuxièmequestion). Il peut êtrenécessairede
faire faceàdesréalités d'une manièrperagmatique; mais tout arrangement
conçu à cet effet n'entérinepas la licéidesdites réalités.Cela est parti-
culièrementvrai sur le plan des relations internationales. Eu égardégale-
ment à la puissance des armes en question, la Cour pouvait estimer qu'il
n'ya aucune contradiction entre la position prisel'Assemblée généra per
les Etatsnon dotésd'armes nucléaires selon laquelle l'emploid'armes nu-
cléaires estun crime et le fait qu'ils ont accepté dela part des Etats qui
possédaient néanmoins dteellesarmeslesassurancesquecelles-cine seraient

pas employéescontre eux. On rappellera ici l'observation deM. Alvarez,
pour qui «[u]nraisonnement poussé à l'extrême peut facilementconduir e
des absurdités))(Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., exception préliminaire, C.I.J.
Recueil 1952,p. 126,opinion dissidente).Il n'est pasrare dans lesrelations
internationales de mettre de côté un problème juridiquepour faciliter la
réalisation d'un objectif. Selmoi, la position prisepar certains des Etats
dotés de l'arme nucléaireest que c'était sur cettebase qu'ilsont participé
certaines négociationsdans le domaine du droit humanitaire.

Il faut également avoirà l'esprit qu'il ne suffitpas de prouver des actes
ou des omissionsdont on prétend qu'ilsconstituent une pratique des Etats
mais qu'ilfaut encore lesinterpréter.Le fait que des Etats ont le sentiment
que la réalitéles contrainà agir comme ils le font ne suffit paà exclureexclude what they do from being classifiedas part of State practice, pro-
vided, however, that what they do is done in the belief that they were
acting out of a sense of legal obligation. "The need for such a belief, Le.,
the existence of a subjective element, is implicit in the very notion of the
opiniojuris sive necessitatis."(North Sea Continental ShelJ;I.C.J. Reports
1969, p. 44.) Speaking of actions which could evidence an opinio neces-

sitatis juris, Lauterpacht excepts conduct which "was not accompanied
by any such intention" 34.SOintention is material. Whether it exists is to
be determined not on a microscopic inspection of disjointed features of a
large and shiftingpicture, but by looking at the picture as a whole. When
the whole of the picture is regarded in the circumstances of this case, the
Court could find that the matters relied on to evidence an acknowledg-
ment by the proponents of illegality that there is a right in law to use
nuclear weapons fa11short of demonstrating an intention to make that
acknowledgment.

1should add that 1am not persuaded that Security Council resolution
255 (1968)of 19June 1968,to which reference is made in paragraphs 59

and 61 of the Court's Advisory Opinion, takes the matter any further.
The question remains whether the resolution was dealing with the objec-
tive fact that nuclear weapons existed and could in fact be used, or
whether it was affirming, directly or indirectly, the existence of a legal
right of use.

To sum up, putting at the highest al1of the matters relied on by the
proponents of legality, the Court could find that those matters do not
sufficeto cancel out the continuing assertion of the proponents of illegal-
ity that the threat or use of nuclear weapons is illegal. It would follow
that the basic difficultiesnoticedabove would remain. If, as 1consider, a
correct finding is that, on the law as it stood at the commencement of the
nuclear age, a prohibitory rule then existed, that finding, as to what was
the then law, cannot be contradicted by subsequent inconsistent State

practice; the most that subsequent inconsistent State practice could do
would be to generate a new rule rescinding or modifying the old rule. But
the position taken by most of the NNWS would make it impossible to
establish that the necessary opiniojuris emerged to support the creation
of a new rule having the effect of reversing the old, andmore particularly
if the latter had the status ofjus cogens. The prior prohibitory rule would
thus continue to the present time.

34Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, The Developmentof International Law by the International
Court, 1958,p. 380.

202qu'on interprèteleurs actes comme faisant partie de la pratique des Etats,
à condition toutefois qu'ils agissenten ayant la conviction de seconformer
à ce qu'ils considèrent comme une obligation juridique.«La nécessitéde
pareille conviction, c'est-à-direl'existenced'un élément subjectif, est impli-

cite dans la notion même d'opiniojuris sive necessitatis.))(Plateau conti-
nental de la nzerdu Nord, C.I.J. Recueil 1969,p. 44.) Parlant des actions
qui pourraient attester une opinio juris sive necessitatis, Lauterpacht
excepteun comportement qui n'a été accompagné d'aucune intention de la
sorte34.Ainsi, l'intention joue un rôle essentiel.On ne peut s'assurer qu'elle
existe en analysant au microscope les élémentséparsqui composent une
réalité vaste et ouvante, il faut embrasser le tableau d'un seulcoup d'Œil.
En procédantde la sorte en l'espèce, laCour pouvait seconvaincre que les
éléments dont on prétend qu'ilsattestent la reconnaissance par les tenants
de l'illicéitde l'existence d'un droit d'employer des armes nucléaires ne
démontrent pasune intention de consentir à cette reconnaissance.

J'ajouterai queje ne suis pas convaincu quela résolution255 (1968) ch
Conseil de sécurité endate du 19juin 1968, à laquelle la Cour se réfère
aux paragraphes 59 et 61 de son avis consultatif, apporte des éléments
nouveaux. La question reste de savoir sila résolutionvisait le fait objectif
de l'existence d'armes nucléaires et de la possibilité qu'elle puisseêtre
effectivement employéeou si elle affirmait, directement ou indirectement,
l'existencedu droit d'utiliser de telles armes.

En résumé, entenant le plus largement possible compte de tous les élé-
ments invoquéspar les tenants de la licéitél,a Cour pouvait conclure que
ces élémentsne suffisent pas pour écarterla thèseque continuent de sou-
tenir les tenants de l'illicéité selon laqula menace ou l'emploi d'armes
nucléaires est illicite. s'ensuivrait que les difficultésfondamentales rele-

véesplus haut subsistent. Si, comme je le pense, on peut établirqu'au vu
du droit tel qu'il étaitfixéau commencement de l'èrenucléaire il existait
alors une règle prohibitive,'ce constat de l'étatdu droitce moment-là ne
peut êtrecontredit par une pratique ultérieurecontraire des Etats; tout
au plus, une pratique ultérieurecontraire des Etats pourrait donner nais-
sance à une règle nouvelleannulant ou modifiant la règleancienne. Mais
la position adoptéepar la plupart des Etats non dotés d'armesnucléaires
rendrait impossible la formation de l'opiniojurisrequise pour appuyer la
créationd'unerègle nouvelleannulant la règleancienne, et ce, a fortiori si
celle-cifaisait partie duus cogens. La règleprohibitive antérieure reste-
rait donc en vigueur jusqu'à cejour.

34Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, The Development of International Law by the International
Court, 1958,p. 380.

202 PARTVI. CONCLUSION

A holding that there is a right in law to use nuclear weapons would
bear a difficult relationship to the Court's finding that the

"destructive power of nuclear weapons cannot be contained in either
space or time. They have the potential to destroy al1civilization and
the entire ecosystem of the planet." (Advisory Opinion, para. 35.)

The affirmation of the existence of a right the exercise of which could
yield such grim results would come as near as might be to a literal.appli-
cation of the maximfiat justitia ruat coelum. Judge Carneiro's view was
"that no judge nowadays can blindly follow the obsolete rulefiat justitia,
pereat mundus" (Minquiers and Ecrehos, I.C.J. Reports 1953, p. 109,
separate opinion). It would, at any rate, seemcurious that a World Court
should consider itself com~elledbv the law to reach the conclusion that a
State has the legal right, even in limited circumstances, to put the planet
to death. May it be that the maxim more properly attracted by its high
mission is fiat justitia ne pereat mundus?
The danger of the maxim last referred to is that it could seduce the
Court into acting as a legislator. In the course of the proceedings, the

Court was rightly reminded that it cannot do that. To use the words of
the United States Militarv Tribunal in the List case. "it is not OurDrov-
ince to write international law as we would have it; we must apply it as
we find it"35.And thus, as Judge Lauterpacht remarked, "Reluctance to
encroach upon the province of the legislature is a proper manifestation of
judicial caution." However, as he added,

"If exaggerated, it may amount to unwillingness to fulfil a task
which is within the orbit of the functions of the Court as defined by
its Statute." (Admissibility of Hearings of Petitioners by the Com-
mittee on South West Africa, I.C.J. Reports 1956, p. 57, separate
opinion.)

The danger of legislating arises not only where a court essays to make
law where there is none, but also where it fails to apply such law as exists;
the failure may well be regarded as amounting to judicial legislation
directed to repealing the existing law.

International law does indeed concern relations between sovereign
States. However, as it has been remarked, sovereignty does not mean that
those relations are between billiard balls which collide but do not co-
operate. There is at work a process of cohesion-building. It is not, and
possibly never will be, sufficiently advanced to attract the full force of
Cicero's observation that "the solidity of a State is very largely bound up

35List casesupra,footnote 33, p. 1249. Conclure qu'il existeun droit d'employer desarmes nucléairesserait
difficilement compatible avec l'observation ci-après dela Cour:

«le pouvoir destructeur des armes nucléairesne peut être endigué ni
dans l'espaceni dans le temps. Ces armes ont le pouvoir de détruire
toute civilisation, ainsi que l'écosystèmetout entier de la planète.
(Avis consultatif, par. 35.)

L'affirmation de l'existence d'un droit dont l'exerciceaurait des consé-
quences aussi catastrophiqueséquivaudraitpratiquement àappliquer àla
lettre la maxime$ut justitia ruat coelurn. M. Carneiro pensait ((qu'au-
jourd'hui aucun juge ne peut suivre aveuglémentla trop vieille règle
jîat justitia, pereat mundus» (Minquiers et Ecréhous,C.I.J. Recueil 1953,

p. 109,opinion individuelle). 11semblerait à tout le moins curieux qu'une
juridiction mondiale se considérât tenue en droit de conclure qu'un
Etat a le droit, fût-ce dans des circonstances limitées,d'anéantirla planète.
La noble mission de la Cour ne devrait-elle pas plutôt êtrequalifiée
par la maximejîat justitia ne pereat mundus?
Le danger que représente cette dernièremaxime, c'est qu'ellepourrait
entraîner la Cour à agir comme un législateur.Au cours de la procédure,
il lui a étérappelé àjuste titre que cela lui est interdit. Selon le tribunal
militaire des Etats-Unis dans l'affaireList, «il n'appartient pas aux tri-
bunaux d'écrirele droit international tel qu'ils souhaiteraient qu'il soit,
ils doivent l'appliquer tel qu'il est»35.Ainsi, comme M. Lauterpacht l'a
fait observer: «[l]e souci de ne pas empiétersur le domaine du législatif

est une manifestation légitimede prudence judiciaire)). Mais il a ajouté:
«Si on exagère[cesouci], il peut revenir à un refus de remplir une
des tâches appartenant au domaine de la Cour tel que le définitle
Statut.» (Admissibilitéde l'uudition de pétitionnairespar le Comité

du Sud-Ouest africain, C.I.J. Recueil 1956, p. 57, opinion indivi-
duelle.)
Le danger de légiférersurgit non seulement lorsqu'un tribunal essaie
d'élaborer une loialors qu'il n'en existepas une, mais aussi lorsqu'il

s'abstient d'appliquer la loi telle qu'elle existe;cette omission peut être
considéréecomme équivalant à un droit de légiférerque s'arrogerait le
juge pour abroger la loi en vigueur.
11est exact que le droit international règle lesrelations entre des Etats
souverains. Toutefois, comme on l'a fait observer, la souveraineté ne
signifiepas que ces relations sont cellesde billes de billard qui s'entrecho-
quent mais ne cherchent pas à atteindre un objectif commun. Le proces-
sus visant àrenforcer la cohésionest avancé, maisil n'est pas et il ne sera
peut-être jamais suffisamment avancépour qu'on puisse lui appliquer

35Voir ci-dessus note 33 l'aListp. 1249426 THREAT OR USE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS (DISSO. P.SHAHABUDDEEN)

with itsjudicial decisions" 36.Nevertheless, the broad import of the state-
ment is not altogether amiss: the role of the Court need not be over-
estimated; neither should its responsibility be misunderstood. There is
disciplined room for recalling the obligations of international lawyers.
As it was put by Jenks, "We arenot dealing with the routine of the estab-
lished certainties of life but must frequently come to grips with the great
unsettled issues on which the future of the world de pend^."^^The case at
bar is the supreme illustration of this truth.

To recall what was said at the beginning of this opinion, the great un-

settled issue on which the future of the world depends is how to reconcile
the imperative need of a State to defend itself with the no less imperative
need to ensure that, in doing so, it does not imperil the survival of the
human species. Humanitarian law, it is said, must be read as being sub-
ject to an exception which allows a State to use nuclear weapons in self-
defence when its survival is at stake, that is to Say,even if such use would
otherwise breach that law, and this for the reason that no system of law
obliges those subject to it to commit suicide. That is the argument which
underlies the second part of subparagraph E of paragraph 2 of the opera-
tive paragraph of the Court's Advisory Opinion.

The implication of that part of the Court's holding is that, in the view
of the Court, it is possible that the use of nuclear weapons could be law-
ful "in an extreme circumstance of self-defence,in which the very survival
of a State would be at stake", and hence even if humanitarian law would
othenvise be violated. What the Court so sought to leave on the basis of
a possibility takes on a firmer aspect in the light of the "Lotus" case, as
generally understood. In saying that it cannot definitively decide, the
Court is saying that it cannot definitively say whether or not a prohibi-
tory rule exists. If the Court is in a position in which it cannot definitively
say whether or not a prohibitory rule exists, the argument can be made
that, on the basis of that case, the presumption is in favour of the right of
States to act unrestrained by any such rule. Accordingly, the meaning of

the Court's position would be that States have a right in law to use
nuclear weapons. If this was not the intended result, the Court's holding
was not well conceived.

Thus, however gross or excessive the suffering, the presence of the
stated circumstances could create an exception to the application of

3GCicero, Selected Works, trans. Michael Grant, 1960,p. 36.
37C. W. Jenks, The Common Law of Mankind, 1958,p. 416.pleinement l'observation de Cicéronselon laquelle «la soliditéd'un Etat
dépenddans une trèsgrande mesure de ses décisionsjudiciaires »36.TOU-
tefois, le sens général e cette observation n'est pas entièrementperdu: le
rôle de la Cour ne doit pas êtresurestimé,mais il ne faut pas pour autant

méconnaître sa responsabilité.Il y a encore beaucoup à faire pour rap-
peler aux juristes internationaux leurs obligations. Selon Jenks, nous
n'avons pas affaire à la routine des certitudes établies dela vie,mais nous
nous trouvons souvent aux prises avec lesgrandes questions non résolues
dont dépendl'avenir du monde 37.L'affaire qui nous occupe illustre par-
faitement cette vérité.

Pour rappeler ce qui a étédit au début de la présente opinion, la
grande question non résoluedont dépendl'avenir du monde consiste à
concilier le besoin impérieuxd'un Etat de se défendreavec le besoin non
moins impérieuxde garantir que, cefaisant, il ne comprometpas la survie
de l'espècehumaine. Le droit humanitaire, dit-on, doit être interprété
comme admettant une exception qui permet à un Etat d'employer des

armes nucléairesdans l'exercicede la légitime défense lorsque sa survie
est en jeu, c'est-à-dire même si un tel emploi constituerait autrement une
violation de ce droit, et cela au motif qu'aucun systèmejuridique n'oblige
ceux qui y sont assujettisà se suicider. Tel est l'argument qui sous-tend la
deuxième phrase de l'alinéaE du paragraphe 2 du dispositif de l'avis
consultatif de la Cour.
L'implication decette partie de la réponse dela Cour est que, selon
elle, il est possible que l'emploi d'armes nucléairessoit licite «dans une
circonstance extrêmede légitime défensedans laquelle la survie même
d'un Etat serait en cause)),et donc mêmesi cela constituerait par ailleurs

une violation du droit humanitaire. Ceque la Cour a ainsi entendu laisser
dans le domaine du possible prend une consistance plus ferme à la
lumière de l'affaire du Lotus, telle qu'elle estgénéralement interprétée.
Lorsque la Cour dit qu'ellene peut se prononcer de façon définitive,elle
dit qu'elle ne peut se prononcer définitivementsur le point de savoir s'il
existe ou non une règleprohibitive. Si la Cour se trouve dans la position
de ne pouvoir se prononcer définitivementsur le point de savoir s'ilexiste
ou non une règleprohibitive, on peut soutenir que, sur la base de ladite
affaire, la présomption joueen faveur du droit des Etats d'agir sans être

contraints par aucune règle de cette nature. En conséquence, laCour
entendait signifier que les Etats sont fondés en droit à employer des
armes nucléaires. Sice n'est pas cela qu'elleentendait signifier, cette par-
tie de laré~onsen'a vas été bien concue.
Ainsi d&c, abstrakion faite du caractère cruel ou excessif des souf-
frances infligées,l'existence des circonstances indiquées pourrait créer

36Ciceron, Selected Works, traduction de Michael Grant, 1960,p. 36.
37C. W. Jenks, The Common Law of Mankind, 1958,p. 416.humanitarian law, as indeed is visualized by the word "generally" in the
first part of that subparagraph of the Court's holding. A law may, of
course, provide for exceptions to its application. At the moment, how-
ever, there is nothing to suggest that humanitarian law provides for an
exception to accommodate the circumstances visualized by the Court. It
seems to me that to take the position that humanitarian law can be set
aside in the stated circumstances would sit oddly with the repeated and
correct submissions on the part of both sides to the argument that the
Court should apply the law and not make new law.

One further point. Despite variations in formulation and references to
the concept of "vital securityinterests", an "extreme circumstance of self-
defence, in which the very survival of a State would be at stake", as
defined by the Court, is the main circumstance in which the proponents

of legalityadvance a claim to a right to use nuclear weapons. This is so
for the reason that, assuming that the use of nuclear weapons is lawful,
the nature of the weapons, combined with the limitations imposed by the
requirements of necessity and proportionality which condition the exer-
cise of the right of self-defence, will serve to confine their lawful use to
that "extreme circumstance". It follows that to hold that humanitarian
law does not apply to the use of nuclear weapons in the main circum-
stance in which a claim to a right of use is advanced is to uphold the
substance of the thesis that humanitarian law does not apply at al1to the
use of nuclear weapons. That view has long been discarded; as the Court
itself recalls,the NWS themselves do not advocate it. 1am not persuaded
that that disfavoured thesis can be brought back through an exception
based on self-defence.

And thus 1return to the real meaning of the General Assembly'sques-
tion. The essence of the question is whether the exercise of the right of
self-defencecan be taken to the point of endangering the survival of man-
kind. To this the Court responds that
"in view of the current state of international law, and of the elements
of fact at its disposal, the Court cannotonclude definitivelywhether
the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in
an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in which the very survival
of a State would be at stake" (Advisory Opinion, para. 105 (2) E).

That is the material holding on which this opinion hinges. In so far as
that holding suggests that there is a deficiencyin the law, 1do not think
there is; in so far as it suggests that the facts are not sufficient to attract une exception à l'application du droit humanitaire, comme semble l'indi-
quer le mot ((généralement))employé dans la première partie de cet
alinéa dela réponse dela Cour. Une loi peut certes prévoirdes exceptions
à son application. Cependant, en l'état actuel, rienne permet de dire que
le droit humanitaire prévoit une exception à l'effet de tenir compte des
circonstances envisagéespar la Cour. Selon moi, si on admettait que
le droit humanitaire peut êtremis de côtédans les circonstances indi-
quées,on setrouverait en porte àfaux avec ce qui a été alléguéplusieurs

reprises etàjuste titre, de part et d'autàesavoir que la Cour doit appli-
quer le droit et non pas élaborerun droit nouveau.
Un autre point me paraît intéressant. Sanspréjudice desnuances qu'on
trouve dans la manière dont la notion des ((intérêtsvitauxen matière de
sécurité)e)st formuléeet dont on s'yréfère,une ((circonstance extrêmede
légitime défensedans laquelle la survie mêmed'un Etat serait en cause)),
telle que l'a définiela Cour, est la circonstance principale dans laquelle les
tenants de la licéitprétendent qu'il existeun droit d'employer des armes
nucléaires. Selon eux, en effet, enpartant de l'hypothèse que l'emploi
d'armes nucléaires est licite,la nature des armes, jointe aux limitations
imposéespar les conditions de nécessité et de proportionnalité auxquelles
est subordonné l'exercice du droit de légitime défense, servira à limiter
l'emploi licite de ces armes à cette ((circonstance extrême)).Il s'ensuit

qu'affirmer que le droit humanitaire ne s'applique pasà l'emploi d'armes
nucléairesdans la circonstance principale où l'on prétend que le droit
d'employer ces armes existe, c'est confirmerla substance de la thèse selon
laquelle le droit humanitaire ne s'applique pas du tout l'emploi d'armes
nucléaires.Cette vue est abandonnée depuis longtemps; comme la Cour
elle-mêmele rappelle, mêmeles Etats dotésde l'arme nucléairene la sou-
tiennent pas. Je ne suis pas persuadé qu'on peut exhumer cette thèse
tombée en défaveurpar le biais d'une exception fondéesur la légitime
défense.

Cela me ramènedonc à la signification réellede la question de 1'Assem-
bléegénérale.La question porte essentiellement sur le point de savoir si

l'exercicedu droit de légitime défensepeut aller jusqu'à compromettre la
survie de l'humanité. Acela, la Cour répond que:
«[a]uvu de l'état actueldu droit international, ainsi que des éléments
de fait dont elle dispose, la Cour ne peut cependant conclure de
façon définitiveque la menace ou l'emploi d'armes nucléaires serait
licite ou illicite dans une circonstance extrêmede légitime défense

dans laquelle la survie mêmed'un Etat serait encause)) (avis consul-
tatif, par. 105, al. 2E).
C'est sur cette affirmation essentielleque repose l'avis.Dans la mesure où
cette affirmation donne à entendre que le droit présenteune lacune, je
crois que ce n'est pas le cas; dans la mesure où ellelaisse entendre que lesan application of the law, 1 am not able to agree. In my opinion, there
was a sufficient legal and factual basis on which the Court could have
proceeded to answer the General Assembly's question - one way or
another. And hence my respectful dissent from its conclusion that it can-
not.

(Signed) Mohamed SHAHABUDDEEN.faits ne sont pas suffisants pour susciter une application du droit, je ne
peux y souscrire. Selon moi, il existait des élémentsdedroit et de fait suf-
fisants pour permettrela Cour de répondreà la question de l'Assemblée
généraled,ans un sens ou dans l'autre. C'estpourquoi je ne peux partager
l'avis de la Cour lorsqu'elle conclut qu'ellene peut se prononcer.

(Signé) Mohamed SHAHABUDDEEN.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen

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