Separate Opinion of Judge Fleischhauer

Document Number
095-19960708-ADV-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
095-19960708-ADV-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE FLEISCHHAUER

1have voted in favour of al1of the Court's Conclusions as contained in
paragraph 105 of the Advisory Opinion, although these Conclusions do
not give a complete and clear-cut answer to the question asked of the
Court by the General Assembly. In their incompleteness and vagueness
the Court's Conclusions - and in particular their critical point 2E -
rather reflect the terrible dilemma that confronts persons and institutions
alike which have to deal with the question of the legality or otherwise of
the threat or use of nuclear weapons in international law. At present,
international law is still grappling with, and has not yet overcome, the
dichotomy that exists between the international law applicable in armed
conflict and, in particular, the rules and principles of humanitarian law,

on the one side, with which principles and rules the use of nuclear weap-
ons - as the Court says in paragraph 95 of its Opinion - seems scarcely
reconcilable; and, on the other side, the inherent right of self-defence
which every State possesses as a matter of sovereign equality. That basic
right would be severely curtailed if for a State, victim of an attack with
nuclear, chemical or bacteriological weapons or otherwise constituting a
deadly menace for its very survival, nuclear weapons were totally ruled
out as an ultimate legal option in collective or individual self-defence.

1. In explaining my views more in detail, 1 would like to begin by
stating that, in my view, the Court is right in its reasoning that the

humanitarian rules and principles apply to nuclear weapons (para. 86)
and in its conclusion that

"A threat or use of nuclear weapons should also be compatible
with the requirements of the international law applicable in armed
conflict particularly those of the principles and rules of international
humanitarian law . . ."(Point 2D of the Conclusions.)

This is so, because of the intrinsically humanitarian character of those
rules and principles and in spite of the fact that they essentially evolved
much before nuclear weapons were invented. This finding is also not

altered by the fact that the Geneva Conferences, which were held after
the appearance on the international scene of nuclear weapons and which
adopted the four Geneva Conventions of 12August 1949on the Protec-
tion of War Victims as well as the Protocol 1 of 8 June 1977 to those
Conventions, did not address nuclear weapons specifically. The same is
true for other principles of the law applicable in armed conflict, such asthe principle of neutrality which likewise evolved much before the advent
of nuclear weapons.
2. The rules and principles of humanitarian law applicable in armed
conflict are expression of the - as the Court puts it (para. 95) - "over-
riding consideration of humanity" which is at the basis of international
law and which international law is expected to uphold and defend. The
humanitarian rules and principles remind States that whatever the
weaponry used, notwithstanding the regrettable inevitability of civilian
losses in times of war, civiliansmight never be the object of an attack. So
far as combatants are concerned, weapons may not be used that cause
unnecessary suffering. Similarly, the respect for the neutrality of States
not participating in an armed conflict is a key element of orderly

relations between States. The nuclear weapon is, in many ways, the nega-
tion of the humanitarian considerations underlying the law applicable in
armed conflict and of the principle of neutrality. The nuclear weapon
cannot distinguish between civilian and military targets. It causes
immeasurable suffering. The radiation released by it is unable to respect
the territorial integrity of a neutral State.
1 therefore agree with the Court's finding in the first paragraph of
point 2E of the Conclusions, to the effect that

"the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to
the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, and in
particular the principles and rules of humanitarian law".
3. As the Court rightly seesit, the answer to the question asked of it by

the General Assembly does not liealone in a finding that the threat or use
of nuclear weapons would be contrary to the rules of international law
applicable in armed conflict, and in particular the principles and rules of
humanitarian law. Through the use of the word "generally" in the first
paragraph of point 2E of the Conclusions and through the addition of
the second paragraph to that point, the Court points to qualifications
that apply or may apply to its findingsregarding irreconcilability between
the use of nuclear weapons and humanitarian law. The word "generally"
limits the finding as such; and according to the second paragraph,

"in view ofthe current state of international law, and of the elements
of fact at its disposal, the Court cannot conclude definitivelywhether
the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in
an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in which the very survival
of a State would be at stake".

To end the matter with the simple statement that recourse to nuclear
weapons would be contrary to international law applicable in armed con-
flict, and in particular the principles and rules of humanitarian law,
would have meant that the law applicable in armed conflict, and in par-
ticular the humanitarian law, was given precedence over the inherent
right of individual or collective self-defence which every State possesses
as a matter of sovereign equality and which is expressly preserved inArticle 51 of the Charter. That would be so because if a State is the victim
of an all-out attack by another State, which threatens the very existence
of the victimized State, recourse to the threat or use of nuclear weapons

in individual (if the victimized State is a nuclear-weapon State) or collec-
tive (if the victim is a non-nuclear-weapon State allied to a nuclear-
weapon State) self-defencecould be for the victimized State the last and
only alternative to giving itselfup and surrender. That situation would in
particular exist if the attack is made by nuclear, bacteriological or chemi-
cal weapons. It is true that the right of self-defence as protected by
Article 51 of the Charter is not weapon-specific(paragraph 39 of the con-
siderations of the Opinion). Nevertheless, thedenial of the recourse to the
threat or use of nuclear weapons as a legal option in any circumstance
could amount to a denial of self-defence itself if such recourse was the
last available means by way of which the victimized State could exercise
its rightunder Article 51 of the Charter.

A finding that amounted to such a denial therefore would not, in my
view, have been a correct statement of the law; there is no rule in inter-
national law according to which one of the conflicting principles would
prevail over the other. The fact that the attacking State itselfwould act in

contravention of international law, would not alter the situation. Nor
would recourse to the Security Council, as mandated by Article 51, guar-
antee by itself an immediate and effective relief.
4. It is true that the qualifying elementsin point 2E of the Conclusions
have been couched by the Court in hesitating, vague and halting terms.
The first paragraph of point 2E does not explain what is to be under-
stood by "geneually . . contrary to the rules of international law appli-
cablein armed conflict" (emphasis added), and the wording of the second
paragraph of point 2E avoids taking a position when it says that,

"in viewof the current state of international law, and of the elements
of fact at its disposal, theCourt cannot conclude definitivelywhether
the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in
an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in which the very survival
of a State would be at stake".
Nor is the reasoning of the Court in the considerations of its Opinion
leading up to the qualifications of the main finding in point 2E very

clear. As far as the term "generally" in the first paragraph of point2E of
the Conclusions is concerned, the Court's explanations in paragraph 95
of its Opinion are limited to the statement
"that it[i.e.the Court] does not have sufficient elementsto enable it
to conclude with certainty that the use of nuclear weapons would
necessarily be at variance with the principles and rules of law appli-
cable in armed conflict in any circumstance".

The considerations leading to the second paragraph of point 2E are con-
tained in paragraph 96. They refer to Article 51 of the Charter, the statepractice referred to as "policy of deterrence" and the reservations which
certain nuclear-weapon States have appended to the undertakings they
have given, notably under the Protocols to the Treaties of Tlatelolco and
Rarotonga, and also under the declarations made by them in connection
with the extension of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons (paragraph 59 of the Opinion). The hesitating terms in which

the Court has couched the qualifying elements in point 2E of the Con-
clusions witness, in my view, the legal and moral difficulties of the terri-
tory into which the Court has been led by the question asked of it by the
General Assembly.
5. Nevertheless, the Court, by acknowledging in the considerations of
its Opinion as well as in point 2E of the Conclusions the possibility of
qualifyingelements,made it possible for me to vote in favour of that par-
ticularly important point of its Conclusions. The Court could however -
and in my view should - have gone further. My view on this is the fol-
lowing :

The principles and rules of the humanitarian law and the other prin-
ciplesof law applicablein armed conflict,such as the principle of neutrality
on the one side and the inherent right of self-defenceon the other, which
are through the very existenceof the nuclear weapon in sharp opposition
to each other, are al1principles and rules of law. None of these principles
and rules is above the law, they are of equal rank in law and they can be
altered by law. They are justiciable. Yet international law has so far not
developed - neither in conventional nor in customary law - a norm on
how these principles can be reconciled in the face of the nuclear weapon.
As 1stated above (paragraph 3 of this separate opinion), there is no rule
giving prevalence of one over the other of these principles and rules.

International politics has not yet produced a system of collectivesecurity
of such perfection that it could take care of the dilemma, swiftly and
efficiently.

In view of their equal ranking this means that, if the need arises, the
smallest common denominator between the conflicting principles and
rules has to be found. This means in turn that, although recourse to
nuclear weapons is scarcely reconcilable with humanitarian law appli-
cable in armed conflict as well as the principle of neutrality, recourse to
such weapons could remain a justified legal option in an extreme situa-
tion of individual or collective self-defencein which the threat or use of

nuclear weapons is the last resort against an attack with nuclear, chemi-
cal or bacteriological weapons or otherwise threateningthe very existence
of the victimized State.
The same result is reached if, in the absence of a conventional or a cus-
tomary rule for the conciliation of the conflicting legal principles and
rules, it is accepted that the third category of law which the Court has to
apply by virtue of Article 38of its Statute, that is, the general principles
of law recognized in al1legal systems, contains a principle to the effectthat no legal system is entitled to demand the self-abandonment, the
suicide, of one of its subjects.Much can be said, in my view, in favour
of the applicability of such a principle in al1modern legal systems and
consequently also in international law.

Whichever of the two lines of reasoning is followed, the result that the
smallest common denominator, as 1 see it, is the guiding factor in the
solution of the conflict created by the nuclear weapon between the law
applicable in armed conflict and the right of self-defence,is confirmed by
the important role played by the policy of deterrence during al1the years
of the Cold War in State practice of nuclear-weapon States as well as in
the practice of non-nuclear-weapon States, supporting or tolerating that
policy. Even after the end of the Cold War the policy of deterrence has
not altogether been abandoned, if only in order to maintain the balance
of power among nuclear-weapon States and in order to deter non-
nuclear-weapon States from acquiring and threatening or using nuclear
weapons. Nuclear-weapon States have found it necessary to continue
beyond the end of the Cold War the reservations they have made to the

undertakings they have given, notably to the Treaties of Tlatelolco and
Rarotonga (paragraph 59 of the Opinion), and to add similar reserva-
tions under the declarations given by them in connection with the un-
limited extension of the Non-Proliferation Treaty. These reservations are
tolerated by the non-nuclear parties concerned as well as, in the case of
the unlimited extension of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, by the Security
Council. Of course, as the Court itself has stated (North Sea Continental
ShelJ;Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 44), not every act habitually per-
formed or every attitude taken over a prolonged period of time by a
plurality of States is a practiceelevant,for the determination of the state
of the law. In the words of the Court:

"There are many international acts, e.g., in the field of ceremonial
and protocol, which are performed almost invariably, but which are
motivated only by considerations of courtesy, convenience or tradi-
tion, and not by any sense of legal duty." (Zbid.,p. 44, para. 77.)

But the practice embodied in the policy of deterrence is based specifically
on the right of individual or collective self-defence and so are the reser-
vations to the guarantees of security. The States which support or which
tolerate that policy and those reservations are aware of this. So was the
Security Council when it adopted resolution 984 (1995). Therefore, the
practice which finds expression in the policy of deterrence, in the reser-
vations to the securityguarantees and in their toleration, must be regarded
as State practice in the legalsense. 6. For a recourse to nuclear weawonsto be lawful. however. not onlv
would the situation have to be an extreme one, but the conditions on
which the lawfulness of the exercise of self-defence generally depends
would also always have to be met. These conditions comprise, as the
Opinion states expressis verbis (para. 41) that there must be proportion-
ality. The need to comply with the proportionality principle must not
a priori rule out recourse to nuclear weapons; as the Opinion states
(para. 42): "The proportionality principle may thus not in itself exclude
the use of nuclear weapons in al1circumstances." The margin that exists
for considering that a particular threat or use of nuclear weapons could

be lawful is therefore extremely narrow.
The present state of international law does not permit a more precise
drawing of the border-line between unlawfulness and lawfulness of
recourse to nuclear weapons.
7. In the long run the answer to the conflict which the invention of the
nuclear weapon entailed between highest values and most basic needs of
the community of States, can only lie in effectivereduction and control of
nuclear armaments and an improved system of collective security. This is
why 1have supported point 2F of the Conclusions of the Opinion on the
existence of a general obligation of States to pursue in good faith and
bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in al1
its aspects under strict and effectiveinternational contro- although this
pronouncement goes, strictly speaking, beyond the question asked of the

Court.

(Signed) Carl-August FLEISCHHAUER.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE FLEISCHHAUER

1have voted in favour of al1of the Court's Conclusions as contained in
paragraph 105 of the Advisory Opinion, although these Conclusions do
not give a complete and clear-cut answer to the question asked of the
Court by the General Assembly. In their incompleteness and vagueness
the Court's Conclusions - and in particular their critical point 2E -
rather reflect the terrible dilemma that confronts persons and institutions
alike which have to deal with the question of the legality or otherwise of
the threat or use of nuclear weapons in international law. At present,
international law is still grappling with, and has not yet overcome, the
dichotomy that exists between the international law applicable in armed
conflict and, in particular, the rules and principles of humanitarian law,

on the one side, with which principles and rules the use of nuclear weap-
ons - as the Court says in paragraph 95 of its Opinion - seems scarcely
reconcilable; and, on the other side, the inherent right of self-defence
which every State possesses as a matter of sovereign equality. That basic
right would be severely curtailed if for a State, victim of an attack with
nuclear, chemical or bacteriological weapons or otherwise constituting a
deadly menace for its very survival, nuclear weapons were totally ruled
out as an ultimate legal option in collective or individual self-defence.

1. In explaining my views more in detail, 1 would like to begin by
stating that, in my view, the Court is right in its reasoning that the

humanitarian rules and principles apply to nuclear weapons (para. 86)
and in its conclusion that

"A threat or use of nuclear weapons should also be compatible
with the requirements of the international law applicable in armed
conflict particularly those of the principles and rules of international
humanitarian law . . ."(Point 2D of the Conclusions.)

This is so, because of the intrinsically humanitarian character of those
rules and principles and in spite of the fact that they essentially evolved
much before nuclear weapons were invented. This finding is also not

altered by the fact that the Geneva Conferences, which were held after
the appearance on the international scene of nuclear weapons and which
adopted the four Geneva Conventions of 12August 1949on the Protec-
tion of War Victims as well as the Protocol 1 of 8 June 1977 to those
Conventions, did not address nuclear weapons specifically. The same is
true for other principles of the law applicable in armed conflict, such as OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. FLEISCHHAUER

[TraductionJ

J'ai voté pour toutes les conclusions de la Cour énoncéesau para-
graphe 105de l'avis consultatif bien qu'ellesn'apportent pas une réponse
complète et tranchée à la question posée àla Cour par l'Assembléegéné-
rale. Incomplètes et vagues comme elles le sont, les conclusions de la
Cour - et spécialementle paragraphe 2 E qui est le passage critique -
reflètentle terrible dilemme auquel sont confrontéesles personnes et les
institutions qui ontà traiter de la question de la licéiou de l'illicéitde
la menace ou de l'emploi d'armes nucléairesen droit international. A
l'heure actuelle,le droit international est toujours aux prises avec, et n'a
pas encore surmonté,la dichotomie qui existe entre, d'une part, le droit
international applicable dans les conflitsarmés,en particulier les règles et

principes du droit humanitaire avec lesquels l'utilisation des armes
nucléairesn'apparaît guère conciliable - comme la Cour le dit au para-
graphe 95 de son avis - et, d'autre part, le droit naturel de légitime
défensequechaque Etat possèdedans le cadre de l'égalité souveraine des
Etats. Il serait gravement portéatteinte à ce droit fondamental si, s'agis-
sant d'un Etat victime d'une attaque menée avecdes armes nucléaires,
chimiques et biologiques ou de toute autre manière constituant une
menace mortelle pour sa survie, les armes nucléaires étaient totalement
excluescomme moyen légal ultimedans l'exerciced'une légitime défense
individuelle ou collective.
1. Exposant maintenant mes vues de façon plus détailléej,e voudrais
tout d'abord indiquer qu'à mon sens la Cour a raison de considérerque

les règleset les principes humanitaires s'appliquent aux armes nucléaires
(par. 86)et de conclure ainsi:

«La menace ou l'emploi d'armes nucléairesdevrait aussi êtrecom-
patible avec les exigences du droit international applicable dans les
conflits armés, spécialementcelles des principes et règles du droit
international humanitaire ..» (Paragraphe 2 D du dispositif.)

S'il en estainsi, c'est enraison du caractère intrinsèquementhumanitaire
de ces règles etprincipes et en dépitdu fait qu'ellesont étpour l'essentiel
élaboréesbien avant l'invention des armes nucléaires.Cette conclusion
reste vraie bien que les Conférences de Genèvequi se sont tenues après

l'apparition des armes nucléairessur la scèneinternationale et qui ont
adoptéles quatre conventions de Genève du 12 août 1949relatives à la
protection des victimes de la guerre ainsi que le protocole additionnel1 à
ces conventions du 8juin 1977n'aient fait aucune mention spécifiquedes
armes nucléaires. Il en va de mêmepour les autres principes du droitthe principle of neutrality which likewise evolved much before the advent
of nuclear weapons.
2. The rules and principles of humanitarian law applicable in armed
conflict are expression of the - as the Court puts it (para. 95) - "over-
riding consideration of humanity" which is at the basis of international
law and which international law is expected to uphold and defend. The
humanitarian rules and principles remind States that whatever the
weaponry used, notwithstanding the regrettable inevitability of civilian
losses in times of war, civiliansmight never be the object of an attack. So
far as combatants are concerned, weapons may not be used that cause
unnecessary suffering. Similarly, the respect for the neutrality of States
not participating in an armed conflict is a key element of orderly

relations between States. The nuclear weapon is, in many ways, the nega-
tion of the humanitarian considerations underlying the law applicable in
armed conflict and of the principle of neutrality. The nuclear weapon
cannot distinguish between civilian and military targets. It causes
immeasurable suffering. The radiation released by it is unable to respect
the territorial integrity of a neutral State.
1 therefore agree with the Court's finding in the first paragraph of
point 2E of the Conclusions, to the effect that

"the threat or use of nuclear weapons would generally be contrary to
the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, and in
particular the principles and rules of humanitarian law".
3. As the Court rightly seesit, the answer to the question asked of it by

the General Assembly does not liealone in a finding that the threat or use
of nuclear weapons would be contrary to the rules of international law
applicable in armed conflict, and in particular the principles and rules of
humanitarian law. Through the use of the word "generally" in the first
paragraph of point 2E of the Conclusions and through the addition of
the second paragraph to that point, the Court points to qualifications
that apply or may apply to its findingsregarding irreconcilability between
the use of nuclear weapons and humanitarian law. The word "generally"
limits the finding as such; and according to the second paragraph,

"in view ofthe current state of international law, and of the elements
of fact at its disposal, the Court cannot conclude definitivelywhether
the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in
an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in which the very survival
of a State would be at stake".

To end the matter with the simple statement that recourse to nuclear
weapons would be contrary to international law applicable in armed con-
flict, and in particular the principles and rules of humanitarian law,
would have meant that the law applicable in armed conflict, and in par-
ticular the humanitarian law, was given precedence over the inherent
right of individual or collective self-defence which every State possesses
as a matter of sovereign equality and which is expressly preserved inapplicable dans les conflits armés commele principe de neutralité qui est
nélui aussi bien avant l'a~ûarition des armes nucléaires.
2. Les règles et princi&s du droit humanitaire applicable dans les
conflitsarméstraduisent, comme le dit la Cour (par. 9.9, le ((principepri-
mordial d'humanité)) qui est à la base du droit international et que
celui-ci est appeléà soutenir età défendre.Les règleset principes huma-
nitaires rappellent aux Etats que, quel que soit l'armement employé, et
bien que les pertes civilessoient malheureusement inévitablesen période

de guerre, les civils ne peuvent jamais faire l'objet d'une attaque. En ce
qui concerne les combattants, on ne doit pas utiliser d'armes causant des
maux superflus. De mêmele respect de la neutralitédes Etats ne partici-
pant pas a un conflit arméest un élémentclédes relations harmonieuses
entre les Etats. L'arme nucléaire est,à bien des égards, la négation des
considérations humanitaires qui inspirent le droit applicable dans les
conflits armés etle principe de neutralité. L'arme nucléairene peut faire
la distinction entre objectifs civils et objectifs militaires. Elle cause
d'immenses souffrances. Les rayonnements qu'elle émetne peuvent pas
respecter l'intégrité territorialed'un Etat neutre.
J'approuve donc la conclusion de la Cour figurant au premier alinéa

du paragraphe 2 E du dispositif,à savoir que:
«la menace ou l'emploi d'armes nucléaires serait généralement
contraireaux règlesdu droit international applicable dans lesconflits
armés,et spécialementaux principes et règlesdu droit humanitaire)).

3. La Cour a raison de considérerque la réponse à la question que
l'Assembléegénérale luia poséene consiste pas simplement a dire que la
menace ou l'emploid'armes nucléaires seraitcontraire aux règlesdu droit
international applicable dans les conflits armés,et spécialementaux prin-
cipes et règlesdu droit humanitaire. En utilisant le mot ((généralement))
au premier alinéa du paragraphe 2 E du dispositif et en ajoutant un
second alinéa, laCour indique que cequ'elledit au sujet de l'impossibilité

de concilier l'emploi d'armes nucléaireset le droit humanitaire est soumis
ou peut êtresoumis à des réserves.Le mot ((généralement)) limite la
portéede la conclusion en tant que telle et, selon le second alinéa:
«Au vu de l'état actueldu droit international, ainsi que des élé-
ments de fait dont elle dispose, la Cour ne peut cependant conclure

de façon définitive que la menace ou l'emploi d'armes nucléaires
serait licite ou illicite dans une circonstance extrême delégitime
défensedans laquelle la survie mêmed'un Etat serait en cause. ))
Si 1'01avait répondu à la question en disant simplement que le recours à
l'arme nucléaire seraitcontraire aux règlesdu droit international appli-

cable dans les conflits armés,et spécialementaux principes et règlesdu
droit humanitaire, cela aurait signifiéque le droit applicable dans les
conflitsarmés,et spécialementle droit humanitaire, l'emporte sur le droit
naturel de légitimedéfense individuelle ou collective que chaque Etat
possède dans le cadre de l'égalité souveraine desEtats, droit qui estArticle 51 of the Charter. That would be so because if a State is the victim
of an all-out attack by another State, which threatens the very existence
of the victimized State, recourse to the threat or use of nuclear weapons

in individual (if the victimized State is a nuclear-weapon State) or collec-
tive (if the victim is a non-nuclear-weapon State allied to a nuclear-
weapon State) self-defencecould be for the victimized State the last and
only alternative to giving itselfup and surrender. That situation would in
particular exist if the attack is made by nuclear, bacteriological or chemi-
cal weapons. It is true that the right of self-defence as protected by
Article 51 of the Charter is not weapon-specific(paragraph 39 of the con-
siderations of the Opinion). Nevertheless, thedenial of the recourse to the
threat or use of nuclear weapons as a legal option in any circumstance
could amount to a denial of self-defence itself if such recourse was the
last available means by way of which the victimized State could exercise
its rightunder Article 51 of the Charter.

A finding that amounted to such a denial therefore would not, in my
view, have been a correct statement of the law; there is no rule in inter-
national law according to which one of the conflicting principles would
prevail over the other. The fact that the attacking State itselfwould act in

contravention of international law, would not alter the situation. Nor
would recourse to the Security Council, as mandated by Article 51, guar-
antee by itself an immediate and effective relief.
4. It is true that the qualifying elementsin point 2E of the Conclusions
have been couched by the Court in hesitating, vague and halting terms.
The first paragraph of point 2E does not explain what is to be under-
stood by "geneually . . contrary to the rules of international law appli-
cablein armed conflict" (emphasis added), and the wording of the second
paragraph of point 2E avoids taking a position when it says that,

"in viewof the current state of international law, and of the elements
of fact at its disposal, theCourt cannot conclude definitivelywhether
the threat or use of nuclear weapons would be lawful or unlawful in
an extreme circumstance of self-defence, in which the very survival
of a State would be at stake".
Nor is the reasoning of the Court in the considerations of its Opinion
leading up to the qualifications of the main finding in point 2E very

clear. As far as the term "generally" in the first paragraph of point2E of
the Conclusions is concerned, the Court's explanations in paragraph 95
of its Opinion are limited to the statement
"that it[i.e.the Court] does not have sufficient elementsto enable it
to conclude with certainty that the use of nuclear weapons would
necessarily be at variance with the principles and rules of law appli-
cable in armed conflict in any circumstance".

The considerations leading to the second paragraph of point 2E are con-
tained in paragraph 96. They refer to Article 51 of the Charter, the state MENACE OU EMPLOI D'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (OP.IND.FLEISCHHAUER 3)7

expressémentgaranti àl'article 51 de la Charte. En effet, si un Etat est
victime de la part d'un autre Etat d'une attaque massive qui menace son
existence même,il se peut que le recours à la menace ou à l'emploi

d'armes nucléairesau titre de la légitime défense individuelle(si 1'Etat
attaqué est doté d'armes nucléaires)ou collective (si 1'Etat attaqué ne
possèdepas d'armes nucléaires maisest allié à un Etat qui en est doté)
soit pour 1'Etatattaquél'ultime et la seule solution possible en dehors de
la reddition. On se trouverait dans cette situation en particulier si l'at-
taque étaitmenéeau moyen d'armes nucléaires, bactériologiquesou chi-
miques. Certes, l'article 51 de la Charte qui consacre le droit de légitime
défensene mentionne pas d'armes particulières(paragraphe 39 de l'avis).
Néanmoins en rejetant le recours à la menace ou à l'emploi d'armes
nucléairesen tant que possibilitélégale entoute circonstance, on risque-
rait de rejeter la légitimedéfenseelle-mêmealors que ce recours serait
l'ultime moyen disponible par lequel 1'Etat attaqué pourrait exercer le

droit que lui confère l'article51.
Une conclusion qui équivaudrait à un tel rejet n'aurait pas étà,mon
avis, un juste énoncédu droit; il n'y a pas en droit international de règle
selon laquelle l'un des principes antagoniques doit l'emporter sur l'autre.
Le fait que1'Etatauteur de l'attaque contreviendrait au droit internatio-
nal ne modifierait pas la situation. Le recours au Conseil de sécurité,
qu'exige l'article 51, n'apporte non plus aucune garantie immédiate et
efficace d'yremédier.
4. Il est vrai que les élémentsrestrictifsdu paragraphe 2 E du dispositif
se présentent sousune forme hésitante, vague et incertaine. Le premier
alinéadu paragraphe 2 E n'explique pas ce que l'on doit entendre par

((généralemenctontraire aux règlesdu droit international applicable dans
les conflitsrmés))(lesitaliques sont de moi) et le second alinéadu para-
graphe 2 E évitede prendre position lorsqu'il dit:
«Au vu de l'état actueldu droit international, ainsi que des élé-
ments de fait dont elle dispose, la Cour ne peut cependant conclure
de façon définitive que la menace ou l'emploi d'armes nucléaires

serait licite ou illicite dans une circonstance extrême de légitime
défensedans laquelle la survie mêmed'un Etat serait en cause.))
Le raisonnement qu'a suivi la Cour dans l'exposédes motifs qui l'ont
amenée à restreindre la portée de sa principale conclusion au para-
graphe 2 E n'est pas très clairnon plus. Pour ce qui est du terme «géné-

ralement )>au premier alinéadu paragraphe 2 E du dispositif, les expli-
cations de la Cour au paragraphe 95 se bornent à ceci:
«elle [la Cour] ne dispose pas des éléments suffisantspour pouvoir
conclure avec certitude que l'emploi d'armes nucléaires seraitnéces-
sairement contraire aux principes et règlesdu droit applicable dans

les conflits armésen toute circonstance)).
On trouve au paragraphe 96 les motifs qui expliquent le second alinéadu
paragraphe 2 E du dispositif. Ils se réfèrànl'article 51 de la Charteàpractice referred to as "policy of deterrence" and the reservations which
certain nuclear-weapon States have appended to the undertakings they
have given, notably under the Protocols to the Treaties of Tlatelolco and
Rarotonga, and also under the declarations made by them in connection
with the extension of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
Weapons (paragraph 59 of the Opinion). The hesitating terms in which

the Court has couched the qualifying elements in point 2E of the Con-
clusions witness, in my view, the legal and moral difficulties of the terri-
tory into which the Court has been led by the question asked of it by the
General Assembly.
5. Nevertheless, the Court, by acknowledging in the considerations of
its Opinion as well as in point 2E of the Conclusions the possibility of
qualifyingelements,made it possible for me to vote in favour of that par-
ticularly important point of its Conclusions. The Court could however -
and in my view should - have gone further. My view on this is the fol-
lowing :

The principles and rules of the humanitarian law and the other prin-
ciplesof law applicablein armed conflict,such as the principle of neutrality
on the one side and the inherent right of self-defenceon the other, which
are through the very existenceof the nuclear weapon in sharp opposition
to each other, are al1principles and rules of law. None of these principles
and rules is above the law, they are of equal rank in law and they can be
altered by law. They are justiciable. Yet international law has so far not
developed - neither in conventional nor in customary law - a norm on
how these principles can be reconciled in the face of the nuclear weapon.
As 1stated above (paragraph 3 of this separate opinion), there is no rule
giving prevalence of one over the other of these principles and rules.

International politics has not yet produced a system of collectivesecurity
of such perfection that it could take care of the dilemma, swiftly and
efficiently.

In view of their equal ranking this means that, if the need arises, the
smallest common denominator between the conflicting principles and
rules has to be found. This means in turn that, although recourse to
nuclear weapons is scarcely reconcilable with humanitarian law appli-
cable in armed conflict as well as the principle of neutrality, recourse to
such weapons could remain a justified legal option in an extreme situa-
tion of individual or collective self-defencein which the threat or use of

nuclear weapons is the last resort against an attack with nuclear, chemi-
cal or bacteriological weapons or otherwise threateningthe very existence
of the victimized State.
The same result is reached if, in the absence of a conventional or a cus-
tomary rule for the conciliation of the conflicting legal principles and
rules, it is accepted that the third category of law which the Court has to
apply by virtue of Article 38of its Statute, that is, the general principles
of law recognized in al1legal systems, contains a principle to the effectla pratique des Etats dénommée«politique de dissuasion)) et aux enga-
gements qu'ilsont pris en vertu, notamment, des protocoles aux traités de
Tlatelolco et de Rarotonga, ainsi que des déclarationsfaites par eux dans
le cadre de la prorogation du traité sur la non-prolifération des armes
nucléaires(paragraphe 59 de l'avis). Lestermes hésitants utiliséspar la
Cour pour restreindre la portée du paragraphe 2 E du dispositif témoi-
gnent, selon moi, des difficultésjuridiques et morales rencontréesdans le
domaine où la Cour a étéentraînée par la question que lui a posée

l'Assemblée générale.

5. Néanmoins, en admettant la possibilitéd'introduire des éléments
restrictifs aussi bien dans l'exposé desmotifs de son avis qu'au para-
graphe 2 E du dispositif, la Cour m'a permis de voter en faveur de ce
paragraphe particulièrementimportant du dispositif. Elleauraitpu cepen-
dant et, selon moi, elle aurait dû aller plus loin. Mon opinionàcet égard
est la suivante:

Les principes et lesrèglesde droit humanitaire et les autres principes de
droit applicables dans les conflits armés, commele principe de neutralité,

d'une part, et le droit naturel de légitime défens,'autre part- qui sont
en raison mêmede l'existencede l'arme nucléaireen complète opposition
- sont tous des principes et des règlesde droit. Aucun de cesprincipes et
aucune de ces règles n'estau-dessus du droit, ils se situent sur un plan
d'égalité en droit et ils peuvent êtremodifiéspar le droit. Ils sont justi-
ciables. Pourtant le droit international ne possèdepas encore de norme,
conventionnelle ou coutumière, qui régissela manièredont ces principes
peuvent êtreconciliés face à l'arme nucléaire.Commeje l'ai dit plus haut
(paragraphe 3 de la présente opinion), il n'y a pas de règledonnant la
primauté à l'un de ces principes ouà l'une de ces règlespar rapport aux
autres. La politique internationale n'a pas encore donnénaissance à un

systèmede sécurité collective assez parfait pour résoudrele dilemme de
façon rapide et efficace.
Dès lors que les principes et les règlesantagoniques se situent sur un
plan d'égalitéi,l faut trouver entre eux, le cas échéant,le plus petit com-
mun dénominateur. Il en résultedonc que, mêmesi l'emploi d'armes
nucléaires n'est guère conciliable avec le droit humanitaire applicable
dans les conflits arméset avec le principe de neutralité, leur utilisation
peut rester une possibilité légaledans une circonstance extrêmede légi-
time défense individuelleou collective où la menace ou l'emploi d'armes
nucléaires serait l'ultime recours contre une attaque menéeau moyen
d'armes nucléaires, chimiquesou biologiques ou de toute autre manière
menaçant l'existence même de 1'Etatattaqué.

On aboutit à la mêmeconclusion si, en l'absence d'une règleconven-
tionnelle ou coutumière régissantla conciliation des principes et règles
antagoniques, on admet que la troisième catégoriede dispositionsjuridi-
ques que la Cour doit appliquer en vertu de l'article 38 de son Statut, à
savoir les principes généraux dedroit reconnus par les nations civilisées,that no legal system is entitled to demand the self-abandonment, the
suicide, of one of its subjects.Much can be said, in my view, in favour
of the applicability of such a principle in al1modern legal systems and
consequently also in international law.

Whichever of the two lines of reasoning is followed, the result that the
smallest common denominator, as 1 see it, is the guiding factor in the
solution of the conflict created by the nuclear weapon between the law
applicable in armed conflict and the right of self-defence,is confirmed by
the important role played by the policy of deterrence during al1the years
of the Cold War in State practice of nuclear-weapon States as well as in
the practice of non-nuclear-weapon States, supporting or tolerating that
policy. Even after the end of the Cold War the policy of deterrence has
not altogether been abandoned, if only in order to maintain the balance
of power among nuclear-weapon States and in order to deter non-
nuclear-weapon States from acquiring and threatening or using nuclear
weapons. Nuclear-weapon States have found it necessary to continue
beyond the end of the Cold War the reservations they have made to the

undertakings they have given, notably to the Treaties of Tlatelolco and
Rarotonga (paragraph 59 of the Opinion), and to add similar reserva-
tions under the declarations given by them in connection with the un-
limited extension of the Non-Proliferation Treaty. These reservations are
tolerated by the non-nuclear parties concerned as well as, in the case of
the unlimited extension of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, by the Security
Council. Of course, as the Court itself has stated (North Sea Continental
ShelJ;Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 44), not every act habitually per-
formed or every attitude taken over a prolonged period of time by a
plurality of States is a practiceelevant,for the determination of the state
of the law. In the words of the Court:

"There are many international acts, e.g., in the field of ceremonial
and protocol, which are performed almost invariably, but which are
motivated only by considerations of courtesy, convenience or tradi-
tion, and not by any sense of legal duty." (Zbid.,p. 44, para. 77.)

But the practice embodied in the policy of deterrence is based specifically
on the right of individual or collective self-defence and so are the reser-
vations to the guarantees of security. The States which support or which
tolerate that policy and those reservations are aware of this. So was the
Security Council when it adopted resolution 984 (1995). Therefore, the
practice which finds expression in the policy of deterrence, in the reser-
vations to the securityguarantees and in their toleration, must be regarded
as State practice in the legalsense.contient un principe selon lequel aucun systèmejuridique ne peut exiger
de l'un de ses sujets qu'il accepte de succomber ou qu'il se suicide. Nom-
breux sont, selon moi, les arguments en faveur de l'applicabilitéd'un tel
principe dans tous les systèmesjuridiques modernes et donc aussi dans le
droit international.
Que l'on suive l'un ou l'autre de ces deux raisonnements, le résultat
auquel on aboutit, à savoir que le plus petit commun dénominateur est à
mon sensl'élémend téterminant quipermet de résoudre l'oppositioncréée

par l'arme nucléaireentre le droit applicable dans les conflits arméset le
droit de légitime défenset,rouve confirmation dans le fait que la politique
de dissuasion a joué un rôle important pendant toutes les années de
guerre froide dans la pratique étatique des Etats dotés d'armesnucléaires
aussi bien que dans la pratique des Etats qui n'en possédaientpas et qui
ont appuyé ou toléré cette politique. Même après lfain de la guerre
froide, on n'a pas complètementabandonnéla politique de dissuasion, ne
serait-ce que pour maintenir un équilibre des forcesentre les Etats déten-
teurs d'armes nucléaires etpour dissuader les Etats qui n'en possédaient
pas d'acquérir, de menacer d'employerou d'employer des armes nu-
cléaires. LesEtats dotésd'armes nucléairesont jugé nécessaire de main-
tenir aprèsla guerre froide les réservesqu'ils avaient apportées auxenga-
gements pris par eux en vertu notamment des traités de Tlatelolcoet de
Rarotonga (paragraphe 59 de l'avis)et d'assortir deréservessimilairesles

déclarations faitespar eux dans lecadre de la prorogation pour une durée
indéfiniedu traité sur la non-prolifération des armes nucléaires.Ces
réserves sont toléréespar les parties intéresséesnon dotées d'armes
nucléaireset, dans le cas de la prorogation pour une duréeindéfiniedu
traitésur la non-prolifération, par le Conseil de sécurité. Certes, comme
la Cour elle-mêmel'a indiqué (Plateau continental de la mer du Nord,
arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 44), tout acte habituel accompli ou toute
attitude prise pendant une période prolongéepar un certain nombre
d'Etats ne constitue pas une pratique qui permette de déterminer l'étatdu
droit. Pour reprendre les termes de la Cour:

((11existe nombre d'actes internationaux, dans le domaine du pro-
tocole par exemple, qui sont accomplis presque invariablement mais
sont motivéspar de simples considérations de courtoisie, d'oppor-
tunitéou de tradition et non par le sentiment d'une obligation juri-
dique.» (Ibid., p. 44, par. 77.)

Mais la pratique que constitue la politique de dissuasion est expressément
fondéesur le droit de légitimedéfenseindividuelleoucollective etil en va
de mêmedes réservesportant sur les garanties de sécurité.Les Etats qui
appuient ou tolèrent cette politique et ces réserves ensont conscients. Le
Conseil de sécurité l'était également lorsqu'ailadoptésa résolution984
(1995).En conséquence,lapratique que traduisent la politique de dissua-
sion, les réservesrelatives aux garanties de sécurité et la tolérance mani-
festéeà leur égarddoit êtreconsidérée commeune pratique étatique au
sensjuridique. 6. For a recourse to nuclear weawonsto be lawful. however. not onlv
would the situation have to be an extreme one, but the conditions on
which the lawfulness of the exercise of self-defence generally depends
would also always have to be met. These conditions comprise, as the
Opinion states expressis verbis (para. 41) that there must be proportion-
ality. The need to comply with the proportionality principle must not
a priori rule out recourse to nuclear weapons; as the Opinion states
(para. 42): "The proportionality principle may thus not in itself exclude
the use of nuclear weapons in al1circumstances." The margin that exists
for considering that a particular threat or use of nuclear weapons could

be lawful is therefore extremely narrow.
The present state of international law does not permit a more precise
drawing of the border-line between unlawfulness and lawfulness of
recourse to nuclear weapons.
7. In the long run the answer to the conflict which the invention of the
nuclear weapon entailed between highest values and most basic needs of
the community of States, can only lie in effectivereduction and control of
nuclear armaments and an improved system of collective security. This is
why 1have supported point 2F of the Conclusions of the Opinion on the
existence of a general obligation of States to pursue in good faith and
bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in al1
its aspects under strict and effectiveinternational contro- although this
pronouncement goes, strictly speaking, beyond the question asked of the

Court.

(Signed) Carl-August FLEISCHHAUER. 6. Pour que le recours à l'arme nucléaire soit licite,il ne faut pas seu-
lement que la situation soit extrême,il faut aussi que soient remplies les
conditions auxquelles de façon généralel'exercice licite de la légitime
défense estsubordonné. Parmi ces conditions figure, comme le dit l'avis
expvessis vevbis (par. 41), la condition de proportionnalité. La nécessité
de respecter le principe de proportionnalité ne doit paà priori exclure le
recours aux armes nucléaires; ainsique le précise l'avis«le principe de
proportionnalité ne peut pas, par lui-même, exclure lerecours aux armes

nucléaires en légitime défense en toutes circonstances)) (par. 42). La
marge permettant de considérer une menace ou un emploi d'armes
nucléaires comme éventuellement licite estdonc extrêmementétroite.
L'étatactuel du droit international ne permet pas de tracer une fron-
tière plus préciseentre le recours licite et le recours illicite aux armes
nucléaires.
7. A longtermela réponseau conflit que l'invention de l'armenucléaire
a engendréentre les valeurs les plus élevéeest les besoins les plus fonda-
mentaux de la communautédes Etats ne peut résider qu'enune réduction
et un contrôle efficaces des armements nucléaireset en un meilleur sys-
tèmede sécurité collective.C'esp tour cette raison quej'ai appuyélepara-

graphe 2 F du dispositif de l'avis qui concerne l'existenced'une obliga-
tion générales'imposant aux Etats de poursuivre de bonne foi et de
mener à terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement nucléaire
dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict et efficace
bien qu'à proprement parler cette constatation aille au-delà de la ques-
tion posée à la Cour.

(Signé) Carl-August FLEISCHHAUER.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Judge Fleischhauer

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