Separate Opinion of Judge Ranjeva (translation)

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095-19960708-ADV-01-07-EN
Parent Document Number
095-19960708-ADV-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE RANJEVA

[Translation]

1voted for the whole of the operative part, in particular the first clause
of paragraph 2 E, since this Opinion confirms the principle of the illsgal-
ity of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, although 1consider that the
second clause of paragraph 2 E raises problems of interpretation which
may impair the clarity of the rule of law.

The illegality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons will have been
affirmed, for the first time, in the international jurisprudence inaugurated
by this Advisory Opinion requested by the General Assembly of the
United Nations. If the first clause of operative paragraph 2 E had been
worded differently, it would have kept alive the doubt about thejustifica-
tion of this principle of positive law, for a superficial comparison of the
two declaratory paragraphs 2 A and 2 B could have led to error. To have
regarded the statements contained in these paragraphs as of equal weight
would presumably have excluded either an affirmative or a negative
answer to the question put in the resolution referring the matter to the
Court. The Court's true answer is given in paragraph 2 E, more accu-
rately in the first clause thereof, while paragraph 104of the reasons pro-
vides the key to the reading of the reasons and the operative part in the
sense that this paragraph 2 E cannot be detached from paragraphs 2 A,
2 C, 2 D and 2 F. In my view,the adverb "generally" means: in the major-
ity of cases and in the doctrine; its grammatical function is to determine

with emphasis the statement made in the main proposition. By using a
determinative adverb the Opinion dismisses any other interpretation
which would have resulted from the use of a dubitative adverb such as
"apparently", "perhaps" or "no doubt". Lastly, the conditional mood of
the verb "to ben used in making this statement expresses two ideas: on
the one hand a probability, i.e. a characteristic which can be more easily
characterized than some other characteristic; and on the other hand a
supposition about the future which it is hoped will never come about.
These reasons, producing the conclusion of the illegality of the threat or
use of nuclear weapons, merely confirm, in my view,the state of positive
law.
The absence of a direct and specificreference to nuclear weapons can-
not be used to justify the legality, even indirect, of the threat or use of
nuclear weapons. The wording of the first clause of operative para-
graph 2 E excludesany limitation to the general principle of illegality.Onthe assumption that the intention is to assign a dubitative value to the
adverb "generally", no conclusion implying modification of the scope of
the illegalitycould withstand legal analysis. When "generally" is taken as
an adverb of quantity, the natural meaning of the word excludes any
temptation to infer an idea of legality, which is contrary to the funda-
mental principle stated. The use of the adverb "generally" is due only to
an indirect appeal by the Court for the consequences of the analyses con-
tained in paragraphs 70,71 and 72 ofthe reasons to be drawn by those to
whom the Opinion is addressed. In other words, the current law, which
the Opinion has stated, wants consolidation. The absence of a specific
reference to nuclear weapons in fact has more to do with considerations
of diplomatic, technical or political expediency than with juridical con-

siderations. It would thus seem necessary to analyse the international
practice in terms of law, in order to confirm this interpretation.
Three facts deserve attention. Firstly, there has been no repetition of
the precedents of Hiroshima and Nagasaki since 1945 even though the
spectre of the nuclear threat has been widely debated; on the other hand,
the effects of nuclear power in general, and of nuclear weapons in par-
ticular. are such as to challenge the verv foundations of humanitarian law
and thélaw of armed conflic; secondiy, no declaration of the legality of
nuclear weapons in principle has been recorded; there is no need to
emphasize the fact that it is in the form of a justification of an exception
to a principle accepted as being established in law, in this case the ille-
gality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, that the nuclear-weapon
States seek to present the reasons for their attitude. Thirdly and lastly,

the consistently guarded and even hostile attitude of the General Assem-
bly towards nuclear weapons and the continuous development of nuclear
awareness have resulted in the steady tightening of the juridical mesh of
the régimegoverning nuclear weapons, the control of which belongs less
and less to the discretionary power of their possessors, in order to arrive
at juridical situations of prohibition.
Two observations are prompted by this account of the facts. Firstly,
the principle of the illegality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons has
taken shape gradually in positive law. An exhaustive inventory of the
relevant legal instruments and acts reveals the catalytic effect of therin-
ciple that nuclear weapons should be regarded as unlawful. The study of
the positive law cannot be limited, therefore, to stating purely and simply
the current state of the law; as the Permanent Court of International Jus-
tice stressed in the case concerning Nationality Decrees Issued in Tunis

and Morocco, the question of conformity with international law depends
on the evolution of thinking and of international relations. Legal realism
argues for acceptance of the notion that the juridical awareness of
nuclear matters depends on the evolution of attitudes and knowledge,
while one fact remains Dermanent: the final obiective - nuclear dis-
armament. The samecatalytic effectcan be seenin the evolution of the law
of the Charter of the United Nations. The examples of the law of decolo-
nization and of the law of Article 2, paragraph 4, show that, originally, to THREAT OR USE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS (SEP .P.RANJEVA) 296

regard the relevant principles as falling within the sphere ofjuridical pro-
legomena amounted to a legal heresy. Can these same arguments be
maintained today? Cannot questions also be asked about the advent of
an ecological and environmental order which would tend to superimpose
itself on the nuclear order and which is in process of being elaborated in
the order of positive law?There is no longer any permissible doubtabout
the illegality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons. But for some States
the difficulty stems from the fact that this principle has not beenconsoli-
dated in treaties, a question raised by the second observation.

Secondly, does the silence on the specificcase of nuclear weapons with
respect to a legal régimefor their use truly exclude the customary illegal-
ity of the threat or use of nuclear weapons? There can be no doubt that,
in a matter of such importance for peace and the future of mankind, the
treaty solution remains the best means of achieving general disarmament
and nuclear disarmament in particular. But the consensualism character-
istic of international law cannot be limited either to a technique of con-
tractual or conventional engineering or to the formalization by majority
vote of the rules of international law. The law of nuclear weapons is one
of the branches of international law which is inconceivable without a
minimum of ethical requirements expressing the values to which the
members of the international community as a whole subscribe. The sur-
vival of mankind and of civilization is one of these values. It is not a
question of substituting a moral order for the legal order of positive law

in the name of some higher or revealed order. The moral requirements
are not direct and positive sources of prescriptions or obligations but
they do represent a framework for the scrutiny and questioning of the
techniques and rules of conventional and consensual engineering. On the
great issues of mankind the requirements of positive law and of ethics
make common cause, and nuclear weapons, because of their destructive
effects, are onesuch issue. In these circumstances, is illegality a matter of
opinio juuis? To this question the Court gives an answer which some
would consider dubitative, whereas an answer in the affirmative, in my
view, cannot be questioned and prevails.

Traditionally, when an opiniojuuis is sought, the fact precedes the law
in the examination of the relations between the fact and the law: the

analysis of the facts determines the application of therule of law. But can
this hold good in the present advisory proceedings? The Court is in fact
requested to go back to the first principles which provide the foundation
of the normative rule (see below) before saying whether the combined
interpretation of the relevant rules results in the legality or illegality of
the threat or use of nuclear weapons. In other words, the Court is dealing
with a case in which the rule of law appears to precede the fact. The
Court is rightly very rigorous and very exacting when it is considering
sanctioning the juridical consolidation of a practice by way of an opiniojuris. But does not the Court's increasingly frequent reference to the prin-
ciples stated in the Charter and to the resolutions and legal instruments
of international organizations indicate a solution of continuity? The rec-
ognition of the customary nature of the principles set out in Article 2,
paragraph 4, of the Charter and in the case concerning Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaraguaconstitutes in fact a sig-
nificant break with earlier practice. Does not the repeated proclamation
of principles, hitherto regarded as merely moral but of such importance
that the irreversible nature of their acceptance appears definitive, consti-
tute the advent of a constant and uniform practice? It is on the basis of
these concrete considerations that such important principles as the pro-
hibition of genocide, the right to decolonization, the prohibition of the
use of force, and the theory of implicit jurisdictions have been incorpo-
rated in customary law. In the present case it is this conviction, con-
stantly affirmed and never denied in principle in the facts, which indicates
the incorporation of the principle of the illegality of the threat or use of

nuclear weapons in customary law.

The second clause of paragraph 2 E might prompt one to wonder
whether the Court did not try to evade giving a clear answer to the basic
question addressed to it by the General Assembly. Much of the argumen-
tation of the reasons for the Opinion is designed to establish that inter-
national law would not prohibit the threat or use of nuclear weapons.
Thus, the problem is to decide whether in its handling of the General
Assembly's request the Court has not based its position on a postulate:
the equality of treatment to be accorded both to the principle of legality
and to the principle of illegality. This difficulty, in my view,calls for an
examination of the essential purpose of the question put, followed by an
examination of the subject-matter of the second clause of paragraph 2 E.
The natural meaning of the words used in the General Assembly reso-

lution defines the actual subject-matter of the question: does interna-
tional law authorize the threat or use of nuclear weapons in any circum-
stance? Does the Opinion answer this question honestly when it speaks
simultaneously, and most importantly on the same footing, of "the legal-
ity or the illegality"?
In my view, the structure of the question implied a comprehensive
analysis of the law governing nuclear weapons within the framework of
the limits set by the subject-matter of the question.
Several delegations were uncomfortable with the structure of the Gen-
eral Assembly'squestion, partly because the question was unprecedented
and partly because of the scope of the matters dealt with in the first sec-
tion of the operative part of the Opinion.
Firstly, the legal character of the question amply justifies the Court's
positive reaction to the General Assembly'srequest. But the Court's judi-cialreply would appear enigmatic or even incoherent if the Court hadnot
previously provided the key to its reading. The Opinion ought to have
elaborated on the meaning of the interpretation of the notion of "legal
question" it had implicitly opted for. The travaux préparatoiresof the
San Francisco Conference are reticent on the attempts to define this
notion. Can we take it that its meaning is to be found in the data directly
available to the mind or should we viewthis silence as the expression of
the jurist's unease when he has to contemplate the notion of "question"
as such.
The context of these advisory proceedings is unique in the history of
the World Court. The General Assembly's request has nothing whatso-
ever in common with an international dispute or with a dispute born of a
difference ofinterpretation of a specificwritten rule. The Court's task is
in fact a complex one in the present case. The final conclusion, or to use
the language of the theatre, the dénouement, is for the Court to pro-

nounce on the compliance or non-compliance of an act, decision or fact
with a higher normative rule; but in order to do this the Court must first
ascertain the presence or absence of general, objective prescriptions
(paras. 2 A and 2 B of the dispositzj)and then justify the legal nature of
the principles thus identified and stated. In other words, to parody Lévi-
Strauss, the General Assembly is requesting the Court to try to answer
questions which no one asks. The inherent difficulty ofthis kind of ques-
tion lies in the scope of the reply which the Court wishes to give both in
the reasons and in the operative part (see Opinion, para. 104). In this
case, as pointed out above, the Court gave equal treatment to the differ-
ent aspects of the problem of legality and illegality, devoting particular
attention to the question of the absence of a prohibition on use.

Expressis verbis,resolution 49175does not request a legalopinion on the
illegality or prohibition of the threat or use of nuclear weapons. The
General Assembly invitesthe Court to go back to the first principles and

to the most general propositions which explain or may cal1into question
the interpretation that, in the absence of rules accepted as such which
prohibit such acts, discretionary freedom would be the norm. There was
obviously no lack of criticism of the structure of the question. The argu-
ments put forward to support the idea that the question was poorly
defined were based on two main grounds: first, the obvious or absurd
nature of the question, for the reply is not in doubt: no rule authorizesin
international law the threat or use of nuclear weapons; second, such a
question, which these criticismsregard as apparently valid, would run the
risk of leading to inadmissible conclusions in view of the judicial nature
of the Court. By seeing fit on the one hand to respond to the General
Assembly's request (last section of the operative part) and on the other
hand not to reformulate the terms of the question (seepara. 20), notwith-
standing the slight difference betweenthe English and French versions of
the text, the Court rejected the sophistry of fear of innovation. Such aquestion does not amount to a questioning of positive law or to a request
for it to be modified; nor was the Court asked to depart from itsjudicial
function, for :

"The Court . . .as an international judicial organ, is deemed to
take judicial notice of international law, and is therefore required in
a case falling under Article 53 of the Statute, as in any other case, to

consider on its own initiative al1 rules of international law which
may be relevant to the settlement of the dispute. It being the duty of
the Court itself to ascertain and apply the relevant law in the given
circumstances of the case, the burden of establishing or proving rules
of . . .law . . .lies within the judicial knowledge of the Court."
(I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 9, para. 17, and p. 181,para. 18.)

These considerations facilitate a better understanding of the meaning
of the notion of legal question and of the method followed by the Court
in replying to the General Assembly's question, which does not in fact
amount to a request or question which would restrict the Court's reply to
one alternative.
By addressing exhaustively al1the aspects of the problem, the Opinion
invests the legal question with a broad dimension. A question represents
a subject, a matter on which the knowledge of the relevant rule lacks cer-
tainty. This uncertainty results from the inflationary proliferation of con-
tradictory propositions having a link to the subject submitted to the
Court. The Court is then invited to impose order on them by identifying
the propositions clad in the sanction of juridical normativity and by
explaining, in terms of an opiniojuris, the normative status of various
propositions. It is obvious that the outcome of such a consultation can-
not avoid producing a proposition of a general character.
Secondly, the decision to accept the General Assembly'srequest for an
opinion, the subject of the first section of the operative part, confirms the

Court's liberal interpretation of the right of access of authorized interna-
tional institutions to advisory proceedings. The case of the request for
an opinion submitted by the World Health Organization willin al1proba-
bility remain unusual, if not unique. Intrinsically, the subject-matter of
WHO resolution 46/40 could not give rise to criticism, since each institu-
tion is the judge of its ownjurisdiction. But when the question establishes
a link of conditionality between the Court's reply, if any, and the per-
formance of the preventive functions of primary health care, the special-
ized agency has substituted a link of conditionality for the link of con-
nectivity envisaged by the Charter, the Statute and the relevant instru-
ments of the World Health Organization. The fact that the subject-matter
of the question can be detached from the Organization's functions did
not allow the Court, in the light of the rules of its own jurisdiction, to
perform its advisory function. This connection to today's Opinion is notwithout interest; it is evident that the same majority of States wanted to
obtain from the General Assembly confirmation of a request for an advi-
sory opinion which contained defects capable of justifying a decision by
the Court not to reply. By referring to the WHO request, the General
Assembly revivedmemories of Article 14of the Covenant of the League
of Nations. By not effecting a joinder of decisions, each request being
dealt with separately, the Court confirmed the magnitude of the potential
scope of requests for advisory opinions which is adjudged by it to belong
to the General Assemblv. Nevertheless. the limits of access to the advi-
sory procedure are conGituted by the legal nature of the subject-matter
of the question put. On the other hand, there is no effect on the settled
case-law that a request seeking to obtain by the advisory procedure the
amendment of positive law amounts to a political question.
The conditions in which the Court discharged its task expose it to the
criticism that procedural law professionals will inevitably level at the

whole of paragraph 2 of the operative part of the Opinion. The judi-
cial reply stricto sensu is found in paragraph 2 E; in fact, its purpose is to
declare com~liance or non-com~liance with a ~re-established rule. How-
ever, revolving round this judicial conclusion are a number of proposi-
tions whose purpose is to state the justification or petitio principii leading
to the actual conclusion. This circumductory structure of the operative
part combined with the wording of paragraph 2 E poses the problem of
the actual consistency of the judicial conclusion in the Advisory Opinion
of the Court. Itis regrettable that the inherent difficulties ofthe very sub-
ject of nuclear weapons were not turned to advantage by the Court to
enable it to exercise its judicial function more definitely by stating the
principle of illegalitymore clearly through a division of the two clauses of
paragraph 2 E into two separate paragraphs. A casual perusal of the
whole text of the Opinion (reasons and operative part) can give the
impression of a Court setting itself up as a legal consultation service.But
on this question the Court was not requested to carry out legal analyses
whose use would be left to the discretion of the various parties. The exer-

cise of its advisory function imposes on the Court the duty to state the
law on the question put by the author of the application; the optional
character attached to the normative scope of an opinion does not how-
ever have the consequence of changing the nature of the Court's judicial
function. Its "dictum" constitutes the interpretation of the rule of law in
question, and to violate the operative part of the dictum amounts to a
failure to fulfilthe obligation to respect the law. It is always the case that,
unlike contentious proceedings concerning a dispute over subjective
rights, the statement of the law in advisory proceedings can necessarily
not be limited to the alternatives of permittedlprohibited; although com-
plex, positive law must be stated with clarity, a quality wanting in the
second clause of paragraph 2 E. In my view, the second clause of paragraph 2 E raises difficulties of

interpretation by virtue of the problem of its intrinsic coherence in rela-
tion to the rules of the law of armed conflict themselves, although its
positive aspect must be emphasized :the principle that the exercise of self-
defence is subject to the rule of law.
Paragraph 2 E deals with the law of armed conflict and with humani-
tarian law, the second branch of law applicable to the threat or use of
nuclear weapons (see para. 34). The law of armed conflict is a matter of
written law, while the so-called Martens principle performs a residual
function.
Two consequences flow from this: firstly, this law of armed conflict
cannot be interpreted as containing lacunae of the sort likely to warrant
reserve or at least doubt; secondly,nuclear weapons cannot be used out-
side the context of the law of armed conflict. Moreover, since no State
supported the principle of a régime ofnon-law, the use of these weapons
must be in conformity, from the standpoint of the law, with the rules
governing such conflict. In these circumstances and on such an important
question, there cannot be any doubt about the validity of the principle of

illegality in the law of armed conflict.
With regard to the substance of the law of armed conflict, the second
clause of operative paragraph 2 E introduces the possibility of an excep-
tion to the rules of the law of armed conflict by introducing a notion
hitherto unknown in this branch of international law: the "extreme cir-
cumstance of self-defence,in whichthe very survivalof a State would be at
stake". Two criticisms must be offered. Firstly, the Court makes an amal-
gamation of the rules of the Charter of the United Nations on the one
hand and the law of armed conflict and specificallythe rules of humani-
tarian law on the other; whereas paragraph 2 E deals onlywith the law of
armed conflict, and the right of self-defence belongs in paragraph 2 C.
Rigorousness and clarity were necessary, failing a paragraph 2 E bis
separate from paragraph 2 E and the attachment of the notion of
"extreme circumstance of self-defence" to the more general problem of
self-defence dealt with in paragraph 2 C. Paragraph 2 C covers al1the
cases of the right to use force by reference to the provisions of the Char-
ter (Arts.2 and 4 and Art. 51). A priori nothing prohibits an interpreta-

tion giving precedence to the rules of self-defence,including nuclear self-
defence, over the rules of humanitarian law, a difficulty which leads
consequentially to the second criticism. Secondly, the criticism is
addressed to the acceptance of this concept of "extreme circumstance of
self-defence, in which the very survival of a State would be at stake".
There is no doubt that the meaning of this concept is expressed in the
normal meaning of the words, but this observation is not sufficient for
the purposes of legal qualification.
The principal difficultyofthe interpretation ofthe secondclause ofpara-
graph 2 E lies in the true nature of the exception of "extreme circum-
stance of self-defence" to the application of humanitarian law and the
law of armed conflict.Neither the case-law of the International Court orof any other court nor the doctrine offer any authority to confirm the
existence of a distinction between the general case of application of the
rules of the law of armed conflict and the exceptional case exempting a
belligerent from fulfillingthe obligations imposed by those rules.

If such a rule must exist, it can be deduced only from the intention of
the States authors of and parties to these instruments. The fact that the
case of nuclear weapons was deliberately not addressed during the nego-
tiation and conclusion of the major conventions on the law of armed con-
flict has been repeatedly stressed. Accordingly, it is difficult to see how
these plenipotentiaries could envisage exceptions of such importance to
the principles governing the law of armed conflict. These principles were
intended to be applied in al1cases of conflict without any particular con-

sideration of the status of the parties to the conflict - whether they
were victims or aggressors. If an exceptional authorization had been
envisaged, the authors of these instruments could have referred to it, for
example by incorporating limits or exceptions to their universal applica-
tion.
The distinction proposed by the Court would certainly be difficult to
apply and in the end would only render even more complicated a prob-
lem which isalready difficultto handle in law. O. Schachter has drawn up
an inventory of the cases in which, quite apart from any question of
aggression, a State has claimed the privilege of self-defence. These are:

"(1) the use of force to rescue political hostages believed to face
imminent danger of death or injury;

(2) the use of force against officials or installations in a foreign
state believed to support terrorist acts directed against nationals of
the state claiming the right of defense;

(3) the use of force against troops, planes, vesselsor installations
believed to threaten imminent attack by a state with declared hostile
intent;

(4) the use of retaliatory force against a government or military
force so as to deter renewed attacks on the state taking such action;

(5) the use of force against a government that has provided arms
or technical support to insurgents in a third state;

(6) the use of force against a government that has allowed its ter-
ritory to be used by military forces of a third state considered to be
a threat to the state claiming self-defense;

(7) the use of force in the name of collective defense (or counter-
intervention) against a government imposed by foreign forces
and faced with large-scale military resistance by many of its people." (0. Schachter, "Self-defense over the Rule of Law", AJIL,
1989,p. 271.)
The question is to decide in which category the case of an extreme cir-
cumstance of self-defence,in which the very survival of a State is at stake,
must be placed to justify recourse to the ultimate weapon and the paraly-

sis of the application of the rules of humanitarian law and the law appli-
cable in armed conflict. This question must be answered in the negative:
the obligation of each belligerent to respect the rules of humanitarian law
applicable in armed conflict is in no way liinited to the case of self-
defence; the obligation exists independently of the status of aggressor or
victim. Furthermore, no evidence of the existence of a "clean nuclear
weapon" was presented to the Court, and States merely argued that there
was indeed a problem of compatibility between the legality of the use of
nuclear weapons and the rules of humanitarian law. In my view, these
criticisms strip the exception of "extreme circumstance of self-defence" of
al1logical and juridical foundation.
However, the respect in which 1hold the Court prompts me to acknow-
ledge that the principal judicial organ of the United Nations was not un-
aware of these criticisms or of the reproaches which the professionals of
the juridical and judicial worlds would certainly offer. But 1 still believe
that the closeinterrelationship of al1the elements of this decision requires
that the second clause of paragraph 2 E should be read in the light of
paragraph 2 C. It must be acknowledged that in the final analysis the

Court does affirm that the exercise of self-defencecannot be envisaged
outside the framework of the rule of law. Paragraphs 2 C and 2 E define
the prior legal constraints on the exercise of this right under such condi-
tions that, in the light of paragraphs 2 C, 2 D and 2 E, the legality of its
exercise is more than improbable in actuality. The most important ele-
ment, however, is the ordering of the legal guarantees. Paragraph 2 E
leaves open in these extreme circumstances the question of legality or ille-
gality; it thus sets aside the possibility of creating predefined or predeter-
mined blocks of legality or illegality. A reply can be envisaged only in
concret0 in the light of the conditions of the preceding paragraphs 2 C
and 2 D. This conclusion must be emphasized, for if the Court had
addressed only one of the alterilatives, the solution of indirect legality,
the second clause would have nullified the subject-matter of the first
clause. By addressing the two branches of the question the Court opens
the way to a debate on illegalityand legality with respect to international
law, as the Nuremberg Tribunal had already stated:

"Whether action taken under the claim of self-defense was in
fact aggressive or defensive must ultimately be subject to investiga-
tion or adjudication if international law is ever to be enforced."
(O. Schachter, op. cit., p. 262.)

This complicated construction ultimately limits the unilateral exercise
of self-defence. Moreover, by reserving its definitive reply, therefore inprinciple, the Court is creating a possible sphere of competence hitherto
inconceivable owing to the effect of the combined mechanism of unilat-
eral qualification and the right of veto. The difficulty of the terms of the
problem did not, however, induce the Court to agree to assert the pri-
macy of the requirements of the survival of a State over the obligation to
respect the rules of international humanitarian law applicable in armed
conflict.
In conclusion, if the two clauses of paragraph 2 E had appeared as
separate paragraphs, 1would have voted without hesitation in favour of
the first clause and, if the provisions of the Statute and the Rules of the
Court so allowed, 1would have abstained on the second clause. The join-

der of these two propositions caused me to vote in al1 conscience in
favour of the whole, for the essence of the law is safe and the prohibition
of nuclear weapons is a question of the responsibility of al1and everyone,
the Court having made its modest contribution by questioning each sub-
ject and actor of international life on the basis of the law. 1hope that no
court will ever have to rule on the basis of the second clause of para-
graph 2 E.

(Signed) Raymond RANJEVA.

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. RANJEVA

J'ai votépour l'ensemble du dispositif, en particulier le premier alinéa
du paragraphe 2 E, dans la mesure où le présent avis confirmele principe
de l'illicéide l'emploi ou de la menace d'emploi des armes nucléaires,
bien que j'estime que le second alinéadu mêmeparagraphe 2 E soulève
des problèmes d'interprétation susceptibles de porter atteinteà la clarté
de la règlede droit.

L'illicéitde l'emploi ou de la menace d'emploi des armes nucléaires
aura étép, our la première fois, affirméedans la jurisprudence internatio-
nale inaugurée par le présent avisconsultatif, sollicitépar l'Assemblée
généralede l'Organisation des Nations Unies. Une rédaction différente
du premier alinéadu paragraphe 2 E du dispositif aurait entretenu le
doute sur le bien-fondé dece principe de droit positif, car une comparai-
son superficielle entre les deux paragraphes déclaratifs A et 2 B aurait
pu induire en erreur. Considérer comme équipollentesles constatations
énoncéesdans ces paragraphes aurait exclu, par hypothèse, une réponse
soit affirmative soit négativeà la question formulée dans la résolution
introductive d'instance. La véritable réponse dela Cour est expriméeau
paragraphe 2 E et plus précisémentau premier alinéa,tandis que le para-
graphe 104des motifs donne la clef de lecture des motifs et du dispositif
dans le sens que ce paragraphe 2 E ne peut être détachédes para-
graphes 2 A, 2 C, 2 D, 2 F. A mon avis, l'adverbe «généralement»signi-
fie: dans la majoritédes hypothèses et de la doctrine; il a pour fonction

grammaticale de déterminer avec insistance l'affirmation énoncéedans la
proposition principale. En utilisant un adverbe de détermination, l'avis
écartetoute autre interprétation qui aurait résultéde l'utilisation d'un
adverbe dubitatif tel qu7«apparemment », ((peut-être», «sans doute ».
Enfin, le mode conditionnel du verbe «être» employé pour énoncer
l'affirmation exprime deux idées: d'unepart une probabilité, c'est-à-dire
un caractère dont la qualification peut êtreaffirmée avec plusde facilité
qu'une autre; et d'autre part une supposition pour l'avenir dont on ne
souhaite nullement la survenance. Ces motifs, concluant a l'illicéitde
l'emploi ou de la menace d'utilisation des armes nucléairesne fait,mon
avis, que confirmer l'étatdu droit positif.
L'absence de référence directeet s~écifiaueaux armes nucléaires ne
peut êtreutiliséepour justifier une licéité, fûtindirecte,de l'emploi ou
de la menace d'emploi des armes nucléaires. Le libellédu premier alinéa
du paragraphe 2 E du dispositif exclut toute restriction au principe géné- SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE RANJEVA

[Translation]

1voted for the whole of the operative part, in particular the first clause
of paragraph 2 E, since this Opinion confirms the principle of the illsgal-
ity of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, although 1consider that the
second clause of paragraph 2 E raises problems of interpretation which
may impair the clarity of the rule of law.

The illegality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons will have been
affirmed, for the first time, in the international jurisprudence inaugurated
by this Advisory Opinion requested by the General Assembly of the
United Nations. If the first clause of operative paragraph 2 E had been
worded differently, it would have kept alive the doubt about thejustifica-
tion of this principle of positive law, for a superficial comparison of the
two declaratory paragraphs 2 A and 2 B could have led to error. To have
regarded the statements contained in these paragraphs as of equal weight
would presumably have excluded either an affirmative or a negative
answer to the question put in the resolution referring the matter to the
Court. The Court's true answer is given in paragraph 2 E, more accu-
rately in the first clause thereof, while paragraph 104of the reasons pro-
vides the key to the reading of the reasons and the operative part in the
sense that this paragraph 2 E cannot be detached from paragraphs 2 A,
2 C, 2 D and 2 F. In my view,the adverb "generally" means: in the major-
ity of cases and in the doctrine; its grammatical function is to determine

with emphasis the statement made in the main proposition. By using a
determinative adverb the Opinion dismisses any other interpretation
which would have resulted from the use of a dubitative adverb such as
"apparently", "perhaps" or "no doubt". Lastly, the conditional mood of
the verb "to ben used in making this statement expresses two ideas: on
the one hand a probability, i.e. a characteristic which can be more easily
characterized than some other characteristic; and on the other hand a
supposition about the future which it is hoped will never come about.
These reasons, producing the conclusion of the illegality of the threat or
use of nuclear weapons, merely confirm, in my view,the state of positive
law.
The absence of a direct and specificreference to nuclear weapons can-
not be used to justify the legality, even indirect, of the threat or use of
nuclear weapons. The wording of the first clause of operative para-
graph 2 E excludesany limitation to the general principle of illegality.Onral de l'illicéit. supposer qu'on veuille attribuer une valeur dubitative
à l'adverbe ((généralement)),uneconclusion dans le sens d'une inflexion
dela portéede l'illicéitne saurait résistàrl'analysejuridique. Lorsqu'on
prend l'adverbe ((généralement))comme un adverbe dequantité,la signi-
fication naturelle du terme exclut toute vélléité d'inférer uneidéede
licéité,qui est contraire au principe fondamental énoncé. Le recours à
l'adverbe ((généralemen »tne s'expliqueque par l'appel indirect que lance
la Cour pour que les conséquences des analyses développées aux para-
graphes 70, 71, 72 des motifs soient dégagéespar les destinataires de

l'avis.En d'autres termes,le droit actuel, que l'avisa relevé,mérite d'être
consolidé.L'absence de mention spécifiqueaux armes nucléairesrelève
en effet plus de considérationsd'opportunitédiplomatique, technique ou
politique que juridique. Aussi apparaît-il utile d'analyser, en termes de
droit, la pratique internationale pour confirmer cette interprétation.
Trois données méritent de retenirl'attention. En premier lieu, aucune
réédition des précédents de Hiroshima et dN e agasaki n'est intervenue
depuis 1945 mêmesi le spectre de la menace nucléaire a étéagité; en
revanche, les effets du nucléaire,en généralet des armes nucléaires, en
particulier, sont tels qu'ils remettent en cause les fondements mêmesdu
droit humanitaire et des conflits armés. En deuxième lieu, aucune décla-
ration favorable à la licéitéde principe de l'arme nucléaire n'a été enre-
gistrée; faut-il insister sur le fait que c'àstitre de justification d'une
exception à un principe accepté comme étant de droit, en l'occurrence
l'illicéide l'emploi ou de la menace d'emploi des armes nucléaires, que

les Etats dotésd'armes nucléairestentent d'exposer les raisons de leur
attitude. En troisièmeet dernier lieu, l'attitude constante de l'Assemblée
généraleréservéevoire hostile à l'arme nucléaireet le développement
continu de la conscience du nucléaire ont abouti à l'élaboration d'un
maillagejuridique de plus en plus serrédu régimedes armes nucléaires
dont la maîtrise relèvede moins en moins du pouvoir discrétionnairede
son détenteur pour arriver à des situations juridiques d'interdiction.
Deux observations se dégagentde ce rappel des données defait. En
premier lieu, le principe de l'illide l'emploi ou de la menace d'utilisa-
tion des armes nucléairesa pris forme de manière progressive en droit
positif. Le recensement, en fait exhaustif, des instruments juridiques et
actes pertinents révèle l'effetde catalyse qu'a exercéle principe visant
consacrer l'illicéides armes nucléaires. L'étudedu droit positif ne peut
se limiter, dèslorsà constater purement et simplement l'étatcontempo-

rain du droit; ainsi que l'a soulignéla Cour permanente internationale
de Justice dans l'affaire desécretsde nationalité promulgués en Tunisie
et au Maroc, la question de la conformité au regard du droit interna-
tional dépendde l'évolution desidéeset des rapports internationaux. Le
réalisme juridique amène à accepter que la conscience juridique des
questions nucléaires dépend de l'évolution deisdéeset des connaissances
tandis qu'une donnée restepermanente: l'objectif final,à savoir le désar-
mement nucléaire. Le même effetde catalyse peut êtreobservédans
l'évolutiondu droit de la Charte des Nations Unies. Les cas du droit dethe assumption that the intention is to assign a dubitative value to the
adverb "generally", no conclusion implying modification of the scope of
the illegalitycould withstand legal analysis. When "generally" is taken as
an adverb of quantity, the natural meaning of the word excludes any
temptation to infer an idea of legality, which is contrary to the funda-
mental principle stated. The use of the adverb "generally" is due only to
an indirect appeal by the Court for the consequences of the analyses con-
tained in paragraphs 70,71 and 72 ofthe reasons to be drawn by those to
whom the Opinion is addressed. In other words, the current law, which
the Opinion has stated, wants consolidation. The absence of a specific
reference to nuclear weapons in fact has more to do with considerations
of diplomatic, technical or political expediency than with juridical con-

siderations. It would thus seem necessary to analyse the international
practice in terms of law, in order to confirm this interpretation.
Three facts deserve attention. Firstly, there has been no repetition of
the precedents of Hiroshima and Nagasaki since 1945 even though the
spectre of the nuclear threat has been widely debated; on the other hand,
the effects of nuclear power in general, and of nuclear weapons in par-
ticular. are such as to challenge the verv foundations of humanitarian law
and thélaw of armed conflic; secondiy, no declaration of the legality of
nuclear weapons in principle has been recorded; there is no need to
emphasize the fact that it is in the form of a justification of an exception
to a principle accepted as being established in law, in this case the ille-
gality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, that the nuclear-weapon
States seek to present the reasons for their attitude. Thirdly and lastly,

the consistently guarded and even hostile attitude of the General Assem-
bly towards nuclear weapons and the continuous development of nuclear
awareness have resulted in the steady tightening of the juridical mesh of
the régimegoverning nuclear weapons, the control of which belongs less
and less to the discretionary power of their possessors, in order to arrive
at juridical situations of prohibition.
Two observations are prompted by this account of the facts. Firstly,
the principle of the illegality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons has
taken shape gradually in positive law. An exhaustive inventory of the
relevant legal instruments and acts reveals the catalytic effect of therin-
ciple that nuclear weapons should be regarded as unlawful. The study of
the positive law cannot be limited, therefore, to stating purely and simply
the current state of the law; as the Permanent Court of International Jus-
tice stressed in the case concerning Nationality Decrees Issued in Tunis

and Morocco, the question of conformity with international law depends
on the evolution of thinking and of international relations. Legal realism
argues for acceptance of the notion that the juridical awareness of
nuclear matters depends on the evolution of attitudes and knowledge,
while one fact remains Dermanent: the final obiective - nuclear dis-
armament. The samecatalytic effectcan be seenin the evolution of the law
of the Charter of the United Nations. The examples of the law of decolo-
nization and of the law of Article 2, paragraph 4, show that, originally, tola décolonisation ainsi que de celui du paragraphe 4 de l'article 2 mon-
trent qu'à l'origine considérerlesprincipesy afférents commerelevant du
domaine des prolégomènesjuridiques relevait de l'hérésie juridique, or
peut-on encore soutenir cesmêmes thèses aujourd'hui ? Ne peut-on aussi
s'interroger sur l'avènement d'un ordre écologiqueet environnemental
qui tendrait à se superposerà l'ordre nucléaireet qui est en voie d'élabo-
ration dans l'ordre du droit positif? En matière d'emploi ou de menace
d'emploi des armes nucléaires,aucun doute n'est plus permisquant à son
illicéité.Mais, pour certains Etats, la difficulté résultede l'absence de
consolidation conventionnelle de ce principe, question soulevéepar la
seconde observation.
En second lieu, le silence sur le cas spécifique desarmes nucléaires en

matière de régimejuridique de l'utilisation des armes exclut-il vraisem-
blablement l'illicéicoutumière de l'emploi ou de la menace d'emploi des
armes nucléaires ? Sans aucun doute, dans une matière aussi importante
pour la paix et l'avenir de l'humanité,la solution conventionnelle reste la
meilleure des méthodes en vue de réaliserun désarmement général en
particulier nucléaire. Mais le consensualisme caractéristique du droit
international ne saurait se limiter niune technique d'ingénieriecontrac-
tuelle ou conventionnelle, niàune formalisation par vote majoritaire des
normes de droit international. Le droit des armes nucléairesreprésente
une des branches du droit international qu'on ne saurait envisager sans
un minimum d'exigences éthiquesqui expriment des valeurs auxquelles
participent les membres de la communauté dans leur ensemble. La survie
de l'humanitéet de la civilisation est une de cesvaleurs. ne s'agitpas de
substituer l'ordre moral àl'ordre juridique de droit positif au nom d'un

ordre supérieurou révélé quelconque. Les exigencesmorales ne sont pas
des sources directes et positives de prescriptions ou d'obligations, mais
elles représentent un cadre à l'aune duquel sont scrutées et interpellées
les techniques et les règles d'ingénierieconventionnelle et consensuelle.
Dans les grandes causes de l'humanité,les exigencesdu droit positif et de
l'éthiquefont un et les armes nucléairesde par leurs effets destructeurs
en sont. Dans cesconditions, l'illicéité relève-t-el'opiniojuris?A cette
question, la Cour donne une réponseque d'aucuns considéreraient dubi-
tative alors qu'une réponseaffirmative, à mon avis, ne fait pas de doute
et prévaut.
Traditionnellement, en matière de recherche de l'opiniojuris, lorsqu'il
s'agit d'examiner les relations entre le fait et le droit, le fait précèdele
droit: de l'analyse desfaits se déterminel'application de la règlede droit.

Mais peut-il en être demêmedans la présenteprocédure consultative: en
effet il est demandé la Cour de remonter aux principes premiers qui fon-
dent la règle normative (voir ci-après) avant de dire si l'interprétation
combinée desrèglespertinentes aboutit à la licéitou non de l'emploi ou
de la menace de l'emploi des armes nucléaires.En d'autres termes, la Cour
se trouve faceà une hypothèse où la règlede droit semble précéderle fait.
La Cour semontre, ajuste titre, très rigoureuse et très exigeantesqu'elle
entend sanctionner la consolidation juridique d'une pratique au titre de THREAT OR USE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS (SEP .P.RANJEVA) 296

regard the relevant principles as falling within the sphere ofjuridical pro-
legomena amounted to a legal heresy. Can these same arguments be
maintained today? Cannot questions also be asked about the advent of
an ecological and environmental order which would tend to superimpose
itself on the nuclear order and which is in process of being elaborated in
the order of positive law?There is no longer any permissible doubtabout
the illegality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons. But for some States
the difficulty stems from the fact that this principle has not beenconsoli-
dated in treaties, a question raised by the second observation.

Secondly, does the silence on the specificcase of nuclear weapons with
respect to a legal régimefor their use truly exclude the customary illegal-
ity of the threat or use of nuclear weapons? There can be no doubt that,
in a matter of such importance for peace and the future of mankind, the
treaty solution remains the best means of achieving general disarmament
and nuclear disarmament in particular. But the consensualism character-
istic of international law cannot be limited either to a technique of con-
tractual or conventional engineering or to the formalization by majority
vote of the rules of international law. The law of nuclear weapons is one
of the branches of international law which is inconceivable without a
minimum of ethical requirements expressing the values to which the
members of the international community as a whole subscribe. The sur-
vival of mankind and of civilization is one of these values. It is not a
question of substituting a moral order for the legal order of positive law

in the name of some higher or revealed order. The moral requirements
are not direct and positive sources of prescriptions or obligations but
they do represent a framework for the scrutiny and questioning of the
techniques and rules of conventional and consensual engineering. On the
great issues of mankind the requirements of positive law and of ethics
make common cause, and nuclear weapons, because of their destructive
effects, are onesuch issue. In these circumstances, is illegality a matter of
opinio juuis? To this question the Court gives an answer which some
would consider dubitative, whereas an answer in the affirmative, in my
view, cannot be questioned and prevails.

Traditionally, when an opiniojuuis is sought, the fact precedes the law
in the examination of the relations between the fact and the law: the

analysis of the facts determines the application of therule of law. But can
this hold good in the present advisory proceedings? The Court is in fact
requested to go back to the first principles which provide the foundation
of the normative rule (see below) before saying whether the combined
interpretation of the relevant rules results in the legality or illegality of
the threat or use of nuclear weapons. In other words, the Court is dealing
with a case in which the rule of law appears to precede the fact. The
Court is rightly very rigorous and very exacting when it is considering
sanctioning the juridical consolidation of a practice by way of an opinio297 MENACE OU EMPLOID'ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP.IND.RANJEVA)

l'opiniojuris. Mais la référencde plus en plus fréquente, que faitla Cour,
aux principes énoncés dans laCharte, auxrésolutionset actes des organisa-
tions internationales, n'est-ellepas l'indice d'une solution de continuité?
La reconnaissance de la nature coutumièredes principes énoncésau para-
graphe 4 de l'article2 de la Charte,dans l'affaire desActivités militaireset
paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-cionstitue, en effet, une rup-
ture significativeavec la pratique antérieure.La proclamation répétédee
principes, considérés jusque-là comme seulementmoraux mais d'une
importance telle que le caractère irréversiblede leur acceptation apparaît
définitif, n'est-ellepas constitutive de l'avènement d'uneratique cons-
tante et uniforme? C'est sur le fondement de ces considérationsconcrètes
que s'est effectuéel'incorporation en droit coutumier de principes aussi
importants que celui de l'interdiction du génocide,du droit la décoloni-

sation, de la prohibition du recoursà la force, de la théoriedes compé-
tences implicites. En la présente espèce,la conviction affirméede manière
constante, jamais démentie dans les faits en son principe, représente
l'indice de l'incorporation en droit coutumier du principe de l'illicdeté
l'emploi ou de la menace d'emploi desarmes nucléaires.

Le second alinéadu mêmeparagraphe 2 E peut amener à se demander
si la Cour n'a pas tentéd'esquiver une réponse claire à la question fon-
damentale que lui a adressée l'Assemblée généraU l. e partie importante
des développements consacrés à la motivation de l'avis visà établir que
le droit international n'interdirait pas l'emploi ou la menace d'utilisation
des armes nucléaires. Leproblème, dèslors, se pose de savoir si dans le

traitement de la requête del'Assemblée générallea Cour ne s'est pas
fondéesur un postulat: l'égalitéde traitement àréservertant au principe
de la licéitéqu'à celui de l'illicé. ette difficulté,mon avis, amène à
examiner successivement l'objet essentielde la question posée puis l'objet
du second alinéadu paragraphe 2 E.
Le sens naturel des mots utilisésdans la résolution de l'Assemblée
générale définit l'objet mêm dee la question: le droit internationalto-
rise-t-il l'emploi ou la menace d'emploi des armes nucléaires entoute cir-
constance. En parlant simultanémentet surtout sur le mêmeplan «de la
licéitéou de l'illicéité))l,'avis répond-ilfidèlemànla question posée?

A mon avis, la structure de la question impliquait une analyse d'en-
semble du droit régissantles armes nucléairesdans le cadre des limites

formuléespar l'objet de la question.
La structure de la question de l'Assemblée généralaemis mal à l'aise
plusieurs délégationsen raison d'une part de son caractère inédit et
d'autre part de la portée de la première partie du dispositif de l'avis.

En premier lieu, le caractèrejuridique de la question justifie amplement
la suite positive que la Cour a réservéela requête del'Assembléegéné-juris. But does not the Court's increasingly frequent reference to the prin-
ciples stated in the Charter and to the resolutions and legal instruments
of international organizations indicate a solution of continuity? The rec-
ognition of the customary nature of the principles set out in Article 2,
paragraph 4, of the Charter and in the case concerning Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaraguaconstitutes in fact a sig-
nificant break with earlier practice. Does not the repeated proclamation
of principles, hitherto regarded as merely moral but of such importance
that the irreversible nature of their acceptance appears definitive, consti-
tute the advent of a constant and uniform practice? It is on the basis of
these concrete considerations that such important principles as the pro-
hibition of genocide, the right to decolonization, the prohibition of the
use of force, and the theory of implicit jurisdictions have been incorpo-
rated in customary law. In the present case it is this conviction, con-
stantly affirmed and never denied in principle in the facts, which indicates
the incorporation of the principle of the illegality of the threat or use of

nuclear weapons in customary law.

The second clause of paragraph 2 E might prompt one to wonder
whether the Court did not try to evade giving a clear answer to the basic
question addressed to it by the General Assembly. Much of the argumen-
tation of the reasons for the Opinion is designed to establish that inter-
national law would not prohibit the threat or use of nuclear weapons.
Thus, the problem is to decide whether in its handling of the General
Assembly's request the Court has not based its position on a postulate:
the equality of treatment to be accorded both to the principle of legality
and to the principle of illegality. This difficulty, in my view,calls for an
examination of the essential purpose of the question put, followed by an
examination of the subject-matter of the second clause of paragraph 2 E.
The natural meaning of the words used in the General Assembly reso-

lution defines the actual subject-matter of the question: does interna-
tional law authorize the threat or use of nuclear weapons in any circum-
stance? Does the Opinion answer this question honestly when it speaks
simultaneously, and most importantly on the same footing, of "the legal-
ity or the illegality"?
In my view, the structure of the question implied a comprehensive
analysis of the law governing nuclear weapons within the framework of
the limits set by the subject-matter of the question.
Several delegations were uncomfortable with the structure of the Gen-
eral Assembly'squestion, partly because the question was unprecedented
and partly because of the scope of the matters dealt with in the first sec-
tion of the operative part of the Opinion.
Firstly, the legal character of the question amply justifies the Court's
positive reaction to the General Assembly'srequest. But the Court's judi-298 MENACE OU EMPLOI D'ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP.IND.RANJEVA)

rale. Mais la réponse judiciaire de la Cour apparaît énigmatique voire
incohérente si au préalable la Cour n'en donne pas la clef de lecture.
L'avis aurait dû développerle sens de l'interprétation qu'ellea implicite-
ment retenue de la notion de ((question juridique)). Les travaux prépara-
toires de la conférencedeSan Francisco sont discrets sur les tentatives de
définition de cettenotion. Peut-on considérer que sa signification relève-
rait des données immédiates à la conscience ou bien envisager ce silence
comme l'expression du malaise du juriste lorsqu'il doit envisager en soi la

notion de ((question)).
Dans l'histoire de la juridiction universelle, le contexte de la présente
procédure consultative est unique. La requête del'Assembléegénérale
est dépourvue de tout lien de connexité quelconque avec un différend
international ou avec un différend né d'une divergence d'interpréta-
tion portant sur une règleécrite et déterminéeL. a mission de la Cour est
en effet complexe dans la présenteespèce.La conclusion finale, ou pour
reprendre le langage théâtral, le dénouement, consiste pour elleàse pro-
noncer sur la conformité ou non d'un acte, d'une décision,d'un fait, à
une règlenormative supérieure;mais, pour ce faire, la Cour doit, au préa-
lable, constater l'existenceou l'absence de prescriptionscaractère géné-

ral et objectif (paragraphes2 A et 2 B du dispositif) d'un côté etjustifier
la nature juridique des principes ainsi identifiés eténoncés. End'autres
termes, pour parodier Levi-Strauss, l'Assemblée générale demande à la
Cour de s'interroger sur des questions que d'aucuns ne se posent pas. La
difficultéinhérenteà ce type de question porte sur l'étendue de la réponse
que la Cour souhaite fournir tant dans le motif que dans le dispositif
(voir avis, par.104). Dans le présent cas, ainsi qu'il a été évoqué plus
haut, un traitement égalitaire a été réservé par la Cour aux différents
aspects du problème de la licéitéet de l'illicéité, avcne attention par-
ticulièreà l'égard de la question deI'absence d'interdiction de l'emploi.
Expvessis verbis,la résolution 49175ne demande pas un avisjuridique
sur l'illicéiou l'interdiction de l'utilisation ou de la menace de l'emploi

des armes nucléaires. L'Assembléegénérale invite laCour à remonter
jusqu'aux principes premiers et aux propositions les plus généralesqui
expliquent ou peuvent remettre en cause l'interprétation selon laquelle,
en l'absence de règlesacceptées commetelles et interdisant de tels actes,
la liberté discrétionnaire serait la norme. Les critiques portant sur la
structure de la question n'ont évidemment pas manqué d'êtresoulevées.
L'analyse des arguments développéspour soutenir l'idéeselon laquelle la
question serait mal posée se fonde sur deux raisons principales: tout
d'abord le caractère évidentou absurde de la question car la réponsene
fait pas de doute: aucune règlen'autorise en droit international l'utilisa-
tion ou la menace de l'emploi des armes nucléaires; ensuite une telle
question, que ces critiques considèrent comme apparemment valide, ris-

querait d'aboutir à des conclusions inadmissibles compte tenu de la
nature judiciaire de la Cour. En jugeant opportun d'une part de donner
suiteà la demande d'avis de l'Assembléegénérale (dernière partie du dis-
positif) et d'autre part de ne pas reformuler lestermes de la question (voircialreply would appear enigmatic or even incoherent if the Court hadnot
previously provided the key to its reading. The Opinion ought to have
elaborated on the meaning of the interpretation of the notion of "legal
question" it had implicitly opted for. The travaux préparatoiresof the
San Francisco Conference are reticent on the attempts to define this
notion. Can we take it that its meaning is to be found in the data directly
available to the mind or should we viewthis silence as the expression of
the jurist's unease when he has to contemplate the notion of "question"
as such.
The context of these advisory proceedings is unique in the history of
the World Court. The General Assembly's request has nothing whatso-
ever in common with an international dispute or with a dispute born of a
difference ofinterpretation of a specificwritten rule. The Court's task is
in fact a complex one in the present case. The final conclusion, or to use
the language of the theatre, the dénouement, is for the Court to pro-

nounce on the compliance or non-compliance of an act, decision or fact
with a higher normative rule; but in order to do this the Court must first
ascertain the presence or absence of general, objective prescriptions
(paras. 2 A and 2 B of the dispositzj)and then justify the legal nature of
the principles thus identified and stated. In other words, to parody Lévi-
Strauss, the General Assembly is requesting the Court to try to answer
questions which no one asks. The inherent difficulty ofthis kind of ques-
tion lies in the scope of the reply which the Court wishes to give both in
the reasons and in the operative part (see Opinion, para. 104). In this
case, as pointed out above, the Court gave equal treatment to the differ-
ent aspects of the problem of legality and illegality, devoting particular
attention to the question of the absence of a prohibition on use.

Expressis verbis,resolution 49175does not request a legalopinion on the
illegality or prohibition of the threat or use of nuclear weapons. The
General Assembly invitesthe Court to go back to the first principles and

to the most general propositions which explain or may cal1into question
the interpretation that, in the absence of rules accepted as such which
prohibit such acts, discretionary freedom would be the norm. There was
obviously no lack of criticism of the structure of the question. The argu-
ments put forward to support the idea that the question was poorly
defined were based on two main grounds: first, the obvious or absurd
nature of the question, for the reply is not in doubt: no rule authorizesin
international law the threat or use of nuclear weapons; second, such a
question, which these criticismsregard as apparently valid, would run the
risk of leading to inadmissible conclusions in view of the judicial nature
of the Court. By seeing fit on the one hand to respond to the General
Assembly's request (last section of the operative part) and on the other
hand not to reformulate the terms of the question (seepara. 20), notwith-
standing the slight difference betweenthe English and French versions of
the text, the Court rejected the sophistry of fear of innovation. Such apar. 20), nonobstant la légère différence entre les versions anglaise et
française du texte, la Cour a rejetéle sophisme de la peur de l'innovation.
Une telle question ne constitue ni une remise en cause ni une demande de
modification du droit positif; il n'est pas non plus demandéàla Cour de
se départir de sa fonction judiciaire car:

«La Cour, en tant qu'organe judiciaire international ...est ...
censéeconstater ledroit international et, dans une affaire relevant de
l'article3 du Statut comme dans toute autre, est donc tenue de
prendre en considération de sapropre initiative toutes les règlesde
droit international qui seraient pertinentes pour le règlementdu dif-
férend.La Cour ayant pour fonction de détermineret d'appliquer le
droit dans les circonstances de chaque espèce,la charge d'établirou
de prouver les règlesde droit...ressortit au domaine de la connais-
sance judiciaire de la Cour. » (C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 9, par. 17,
p. 181,par. 18.)

Ces considérations permettent demieux comprendre la significationde
la notion de questionjuridique ainsi que la méthode observéepar la Cour
pour répondre à la question de l'Assembléegénérale.La question, en
effet, ne se réduitpas une demande ou à une interrogation adresséeà la
Cour et dont la réponsese limiterait à une alternative.
En envisageant de manière exhaustive tous les aspects du problème,
l'avis donne à la question juridique une large dimension. Une question
représenteun sujet, une matière sur lesquels la connaissance de la règle
pertinente manque de certitude. L'incertitude résultedu foisonnement

inflationniste de propositions contradictoires ayant un rapport avec le
sujet soumis à la Cour. La Cour est alors invitéeày mettre de l'ordre en
identifiant les propositions revêtues de la sanction de la normativité juri-
dique et en expliquant par rapport à l'opiniojuris le statut normatif de
telle ou telle autre proposition. est évident que la réponsàla consulta-
tion ne peut éviter uneproposition à caractère général.
En second lieu, la réponse favorable à la demande d'avis de 1'Assem-
bléegénérale, objetde la première partie du dispositif, confirme l'inter-
prétation libérale que la Cour donne du droit d'accèsdes institutions
internationales autorisées à la procédure consultative. Le cas de la
demande d'avis introduite par l'organisation mondiale de la Santéres-
tera, selon toute vraisemblance, singulier, sinon unique. Intrinsèquement,
l'objet de la résolution6140de l'OMS ne pouvait donner lieu à critique,
chaque institution étantjuge de sa propre compétence. Mais lorsque la

question établitun lien de conditionnalité entre la réponse,alors éven-
tuelle, de la Cour, et l'exercicedes fonctions de prévention des soins de
santéprimaires, l'institution spécialisa substitué unlien de condition-
nalitéau lien de connexitévisépar la Charte, le Statut et les actes perti-
nents de l'organisation mondiale de la Santé.Le caractère détachable de
l'objet de la question par rapport aux fonctions de l'Organisation n'avait
pas permis à la Cour, au regard des règles de sa propre compétence,
d'exercer sa fonction consultative. Cette référenceà l'avis de ce mêmequestion does not amount to a questioning of positive law or to a request
for it to be modified; nor was the Court asked to depart from itsjudicial
function, for :

"The Court . . .as an international judicial organ, is deemed to
take judicial notice of international law, and is therefore required in
a case falling under Article 53 of the Statute, as in any other case, to

consider on its own initiative al1 rules of international law which
may be relevant to the settlement of the dispute. It being the duty of
the Court itself to ascertain and apply the relevant law in the given
circumstances of the case, the burden of establishing or proving rules
of . . .law . . .lies within the judicial knowledge of the Court."
(I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 9, para. 17, and p. 181,para. 18.)

These considerations facilitate a better understanding of the meaning
of the notion of legal question and of the method followed by the Court
in replying to the General Assembly's question, which does not in fact
amount to a request or question which would restrict the Court's reply to
one alternative.
By addressing exhaustively al1the aspects of the problem, the Opinion
invests the legal question with a broad dimension. A question represents
a subject, a matter on which the knowledge of the relevant rule lacks cer-
tainty. This uncertainty results from the inflationary proliferation of con-
tradictory propositions having a link to the subject submitted to the
Court. The Court is then invited to impose order on them by identifying
the propositions clad in the sanction of juridical normativity and by
explaining, in terms of an opiniojuris, the normative status of various
propositions. It is obvious that the outcome of such a consultation can-
not avoid producing a proposition of a general character.
Secondly, the decision to accept the General Assembly'srequest for an
opinion, the subject of the first section of the operative part, confirms the

Court's liberal interpretation of the right of access of authorized interna-
tional institutions to advisory proceedings. The case of the request for
an opinion submitted by the World Health Organization willin al1proba-
bility remain unusual, if not unique. Intrinsically, the subject-matter of
WHO resolution 46/40 could not give rise to criticism, since each institu-
tion is the judge of its ownjurisdiction. But when the question establishes
a link of conditionality between the Court's reply, if any, and the per-
formance of the preventive functions of primary health care, the special-
ized agency has substituted a link of conditionality for the link of con-
nectivity envisaged by the Charter, the Statute and the relevant instru-
ments of the World Health Organization. The fact that the subject-matter
of the question can be detached from the Organization's functions did
not allow the Court, in the light of the rules of its own jurisdiction, to
perform its advisory function. This connection to today's Opinion is not300 MENACEOU EMPLOI D'ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP.IND.RANJEVA)

jour n'est pas sans intérêt;il est évidentque la mêmemajorité d'Etats a
voulu obtenir de l'Assemblée généralle a confirmation d'une demande
d'avisconsultatif qui recelait des vicesde naturejustifier une absence de
réponsede la Cour. En visant la demande de l'OMS, l'Assemblée géné-
rale a ravivéle souvenir de l'articledu Pacte de la Société des Nations.
En l'absence d'une jonction de décisionscompte tenu du traitement indi-
vidualiséde chaque requête,la Cour a confirmé l'étendueimportante du
champ possible de demande d'avis consultatif que la Cour reconnaît à
l'Assembléegénérale.Néanmoins, les limites du domaine d'accès à la

procédureconsultative sont constituéespar la nature juridique de l'objet
de la question posée.En revanche, n'est pas affectéela jurisprudence bien
établieselon laquelle représente une question politique une requête ten-
dant à obtenir par la voie consultative la modification du droit positif.
Les conditions dans lesquelles la Cour s'est acquittée desa mission
l'exposent aux critiques que les professionnels du droit judiciaire ne man-
queront pas de formuler à l'encontre de l'ensembledu paragraphe 2 de la
partie dispositive de l'avis.La réponse judiciaire,cto sensuse trouve au
paragraphe 2 E; en effet, l'objet decelui-ciest constituépar la déclaration
de conformitéou de non-conformité àune règlepréétablieA. utour de cette
conclusion judiciaire gravitent cependant un certain nombre de proposi-

tions dont l'objet est le rappel de justifications ou de pétitionsde principe
conduisant à la conclusion véritable.Cette structure en circumduction de la
partie dispositive combinée avecla rédactiondu paragraphe 2 E amènea
poser le problèmede la consistance véritable de la conclusion judiciaire de
l'avis de laCour.Il est regrettable queles difficultésinhérenàela matière
même desarmes nucléaires n'aientpas étémises àprofit par la Cour pour
assurer de manière plusnette l'accomplissement desa fonctionjudiciaire en
affirmant plus nettement le principe de l'illicgrâceà la division en deux
paragraphes distincts des deux alinéasdu paragraphe 2 E. Une lecture
rapide de l'ensemble du texte de l'avis (motifset dispositif) peut laisser
l'image d'une Cour qui s'érigeen service de consultation juridique. Or, il
n'a pas étédemandéa la Cour d'effectuer des analyses juridiques d'une

question dont l'utilisation seraitlaisséea discrétion des unset des autres.
L'exercicede la fonction consultative impose a laCour la missionde dire le
droit sur la question poséepar l'auteur de la requête;le caractère facultatif
attaché a la portée normatived'un avis n'a pas pour autant pour consé-
quence la dénaturationde la fonction judiciaire de la Cour. Son«dictum»
constitue l'interprétationde la norme de droit et en violer le dispositif est
constitutif de manquement à l'obligation de respecterle droit. Toujours
est-il qu'à la différenced'une procédure contentieuseportant sur un diffé-
rend relatif a des droits subjectifs, l'énoncédu droit dans la procédure
consultative peut ne pas nécessairementse limiter l'alternative du permis1
défendu; le droit positif tout en étant complexe doit êtreclair dans son
énoncéq , ualité qu'ilfaut décelerdans le second alinéadu paragraphe2 E.without interest; it is evident that the same majority of States wanted to
obtain from the General Assembly confirmation of a request for an advi-
sory opinion which contained defects capable of justifying a decision by
the Court not to reply. By referring to the WHO request, the General
Assembly revivedmemories of Article 14of the Covenant of the League
of Nations. By not effecting a joinder of decisions, each request being
dealt with separately, the Court confirmed the magnitude of the potential
scope of requests for advisory opinions which is adjudged by it to belong
to the General Assemblv. Nevertheless. the limits of access to the advi-
sory procedure are conGituted by the legal nature of the subject-matter
of the question put. On the other hand, there is no effect on the settled
case-law that a request seeking to obtain by the advisory procedure the
amendment of positive law amounts to a political question.
The conditions in which the Court discharged its task expose it to the
criticism that procedural law professionals will inevitably level at the

whole of paragraph 2 of the operative part of the Opinion. The judi-
cial reply stricto sensu is found in paragraph 2 E; in fact, its purpose is to
declare com~liance or non-com~liance with a ~re-established rule. How-
ever, revolving round this judicial conclusion are a number of proposi-
tions whose purpose is to state the justification or petitio principii leading
to the actual conclusion. This circumductory structure of the operative
part combined with the wording of paragraph 2 E poses the problem of
the actual consistency of the judicial conclusion in the Advisory Opinion
of the Court. Itis regrettable that the inherent difficulties ofthe very sub-
ject of nuclear weapons were not turned to advantage by the Court to
enable it to exercise its judicial function more definitely by stating the
principle of illegalitymore clearly through a division of the two clauses of
paragraph 2 E into two separate paragraphs. A casual perusal of the
whole text of the Opinion (reasons and operative part) can give the
impression of a Court setting itself up as a legal consultation service.But
on this question the Court was not requested to carry out legal analyses
whose use would be left to the discretion of the various parties. The exer-

cise of its advisory function imposes on the Court the duty to state the
law on the question put by the author of the application; the optional
character attached to the normative scope of an opinion does not how-
ever have the consequence of changing the nature of the Court's judicial
function. Its "dictum" constitutes the interpretation of the rule of law in
question, and to violate the operative part of the dictum amounts to a
failure to fulfilthe obligation to respect the law. It is always the case that,
unlike contentious proceedings concerning a dispute over subjective
rights, the statement of the law in advisory proceedings can necessarily
not be limited to the alternatives of permittedlprohibited; although com-
plex, positive law must be stated with clarity, a quality wanting in the
second clause of paragraph 2 E.301 MENACE OU EMPLOID'ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP.IND. RANJEVA)

Le second alinéa du paragraphe 2 E pose, à mon avis, des difficultés
d'interprétation compte tenu du problème de sa cohérence intrinsèque
par rapport aux règles mêmes du droit des conflits armésbien qu'il faille
insister sur sa dimension positive: le principe de la soumission la règle
de droit de l'exercicede la légitimedéfense.
Le paragraphe 2 E traite du droit des conflitsarmés et du droit huma-
nitaire, deuxième branche du droit applicable à l'emploi ou à la menace
d'emploi des armes nucléaires (voir par. 34). Le droit des conflits armés
relèvedu droit écrit,tandis que le principe dit dede Martens)) y accom-

plit une fonction résiduelle.
Deux conséquences en découlent: la première, ce droit des conflits
armés nesaurait êtreinterprété commecomportant des lacunes de nature
à iustifier une attitude de réserve ou au moins dubitative: la seconde.
l'emploi des armes nucléairesne peut pas se situer en dehors du droit des
conflits armés. Aucun Etat n'ayant d'ailleurs soutenu le principe d'un
régimede non-droit, l'utilisation de ces armes doit êtreconforme, au
regard du droit, aux règlesqui régissentces conflits. Dans ces conditions,
sur une question aussi importante, il ne peut y avoir de doute sur la vali-
ditédu principe d'illicéitdans le droit des conflits armés.
En envisageant maintenant le fond du droit des conflitsarmés,le para-

graphe 2 E du dispositif, en son second alinéa, introduit une possibilité
d'exception aux règles du droit des conflits armés en invoquant une
notion jusque-là inconnue de cette branche du droit international: la
((circonstance extrême delégitimedéfensedans laquelle la survie même
d'un Etat serait en cause)). Deux critiques ne peuvent manquer d'être
soulevées.En premier lieu, la Cour fait un amalgame entre les règlesdu
droit international et cellesde la Charte des Nations Unies d'une part, et
le droit des conflitsarméset spécialementdesrèglesdu droit humanitaire
d'autre part; alors que le paragraphe 2 E ne traite que du droit des
conflits armés, le droit de la légitimedéfenserelèvedu paragraphe 2 C.
La rigueur et la clarté imposaient, défautd'un paragraphe 2 E bis auto-
nome par rapport au paragraphe 2 E, le rattachement de la notion de

((circonstance extrême delégitimedéfense))au problème plus général de
la légitime défense,objet du paragraphe 2 C. Le paragraphe 2 C couvre
l'ensemble des hypothèses du droit de l'emploi de la force par référence
aux dispositions de la Charte (art. et 4 et art. 51). A priori, rien n'inter-
dit une interprétation faisant prévaloirles règlesde la légitime défense,
commis nucléaire.sur les rè"lesdu droit humanitaire. difficultésoulevant
en conséquence la seconde critique. En second lieu, la critique porte sur
l'acception de ce concept de ((circonstance extrême de légitime défense
mettait en cause la survie même del'Etat». Sans aucun doute, sa signi-
fication relève de l'expression usuelle, mais cette observation n'est pas
suffisante pour servira la qualificationjuridique.

La principale difficultéliée l'interprétation du second alinéadu para-
graphe 2 E tientà la nature véritable de l'exception de l'«extrêlégitime
défense» à l'application du droit humanitaire et de celui des conflits
armés.On ne voit ni dans la jurisprudence de la Cour ou de toute autre In my view, the second clause of paragraph 2 E raises difficulties of

interpretation by virtue of the problem of its intrinsic coherence in rela-
tion to the rules of the law of armed conflict themselves, although its
positive aspect must be emphasized :the principle that the exercise of self-
defence is subject to the rule of law.
Paragraph 2 E deals with the law of armed conflict and with humani-
tarian law, the second branch of law applicable to the threat or use of
nuclear weapons (see para. 34). The law of armed conflict is a matter of
written law, while the so-called Martens principle performs a residual
function.
Two consequences flow from this: firstly, this law of armed conflict
cannot be interpreted as containing lacunae of the sort likely to warrant
reserve or at least doubt; secondly,nuclear weapons cannot be used out-
side the context of the law of armed conflict. Moreover, since no State
supported the principle of a régime ofnon-law, the use of these weapons
must be in conformity, from the standpoint of the law, with the rules
governing such conflict. In these circumstances and on such an important
question, there cannot be any doubt about the validity of the principle of

illegality in the law of armed conflict.
With regard to the substance of the law of armed conflict, the second
clause of operative paragraph 2 E introduces the possibility of an excep-
tion to the rules of the law of armed conflict by introducing a notion
hitherto unknown in this branch of international law: the "extreme cir-
cumstance of self-defence,in whichthe very survivalof a State would be at
stake". Two criticisms must be offered. Firstly, the Court makes an amal-
gamation of the rules of the Charter of the United Nations on the one
hand and the law of armed conflict and specificallythe rules of humani-
tarian law on the other; whereas paragraph 2 E deals onlywith the law of
armed conflict, and the right of self-defence belongs in paragraph 2 C.
Rigorousness and clarity were necessary, failing a paragraph 2 E bis
separate from paragraph 2 E and the attachment of the notion of
"extreme circumstance of self-defence" to the more general problem of
self-defence dealt with in paragraph 2 C. Paragraph 2 C covers al1the
cases of the right to use force by reference to the provisions of the Char-
ter (Arts.2 and 4 and Art. 51). A priori nothing prohibits an interpreta-

tion giving precedence to the rules of self-defence,including nuclear self-
defence, over the rules of humanitarian law, a difficulty which leads
consequentially to the second criticism. Secondly, the criticism is
addressed to the acceptance of this concept of "extreme circumstance of
self-defence, in which the very survival of a State would be at stake".
There is no doubt that the meaning of this concept is expressed in the
normal meaning of the words, but this observation is not sufficient for
the purposes of legal qualification.
The principal difficultyofthe interpretation ofthe secondclause ofpara-
graph 2 E lies in the true nature of the exception of "extreme circum-
stance of self-defence" to the application of humanitarian law and the
law of armed conflict.Neither the case-law of the International Court orjuridiction, ni dans la doctrine, aucune autorité qui vienne confirmer
l'existence d'une distinction entre le cas général d'application desrègles
du droit des conflitsarméset le cas exceptionnelaffranchissant une partie
belligérante du respect des obligations liées aux règles du droit des
conflits armés.
Siune telle règledoit exister, elle nepeut êtredéduiteque de l'intention
des Etats auteurs et partiesà ces instruments. A plusieurs reprises a été
affirméle fait que n'était pas délibérément envisaglé e cas des armes
nucléaires lors des négociations et de la conclusion des grandes conven-
tions du droit des conflits armés. Il est, dans ces conditions, difficile

d'entrevoir comment cesplénipotentiaires pouvaient envisager des excep-
tions de cette importance aux principes régissant le droit des conflits
armés.Ces principes avaient vocation à s'appliquer dans tous les cas de
conflits sans considération particulière du statut des parties en cause,
qu'ellessoient victimes ou agresseurs. Siune exception avait étéenvisagée
pour êtreautorisée, les auteurs de ces instruments auraient pu y faire
allusion,à savoir par l'insertion des limites ou des exceptioàsl'intégrité
de l'application de ces instruments.
La distinction proposée par la Cour, en fait, ne pourra êtreque difficile
à appliquer et à terme ne fera que rendre encore plus complexe un pro-
blèmedéjà délicat à maîtriser en droit. M. O. Schachter a établi unrecen-

sement des hypothèses dans lesquelles, en dehors de toute agression, un
Etat a réclaméle bénéfice du privilègede la légitimedéfense. Il s'agit de:

«1. Le recours à la force pour sauver des otages politiques dont il
y a lieu de penser qu'ils sont exposésà un danger imminent d'être
tués oublessés :
2. Le recour; à la force contre des agents ou des installations dans
un pays étranger dont il y a lieu de penser qu'il soutient des actes
terroristes dirigés contre des ressortissants de1'Etat invoquant le
droit de se défendre;
3. Le recours à la force contre des formations militaires terrestres,
des aéronefs,des navires ou des installations dont il a lieu de pen-

ser qu'ils sont destinés lancer une attaque imminente par un Etat
ayant une intention hostile déclarée;
4. Le recours à la forceà titre de représaillescontre un gouverne-
ment ou des forces militaires en vue d'empêcherle renouvellement
d'attaques contre 1'Etatayant entrepris une telle action;
5. Le recours à la force contre un gouvernement qui a fourni des
armes ou un soutien technique à des insurgésdans un Etat tiers.
6. Le recours à la force contre un gouvernement qui a permis que
son territoire soit utilisépar lesforcesmilitaires d'un Etat tiers consi-
déréescomme constituant une menace pour 1'Etatinvoquant la légi-
time défense;
7. Le recours à la force au nom de la défensecollective (ou de

la contre-intervention) contre un gouvernement imposé par des
forces étrangères etfaisant faceà une résistance militaire de grandeof any other court nor the doctrine offer any authority to confirm the
existence of a distinction between the general case of application of the
rules of the law of armed conflict and the exceptional case exempting a
belligerent from fulfillingthe obligations imposed by those rules.

If such a rule must exist, it can be deduced only from the intention of
the States authors of and parties to these instruments. The fact that the
case of nuclear weapons was deliberately not addressed during the nego-
tiation and conclusion of the major conventions on the law of armed con-
flict has been repeatedly stressed. Accordingly, it is difficult to see how
these plenipotentiaries could envisage exceptions of such importance to
the principles governing the law of armed conflict. These principles were
intended to be applied in al1cases of conflict without any particular con-

sideration of the status of the parties to the conflict - whether they
were victims or aggressors. If an exceptional authorization had been
envisaged, the authors of these instruments could have referred to it, for
example by incorporating limits or exceptions to their universal applica-
tion.
The distinction proposed by the Court would certainly be difficult to
apply and in the end would only render even more complicated a prob-
lem which isalready difficultto handle in law. O. Schachter has drawn up
an inventory of the cases in which, quite apart from any question of
aggression, a State has claimed the privilege of self-defence. These are:

"(1) the use of force to rescue political hostages believed to face
imminent danger of death or injury;

(2) the use of force against officials or installations in a foreign
state believed to support terrorist acts directed against nationals of
the state claiming the right of defense;

(3) the use of force against troops, planes, vesselsor installations
believed to threaten imminent attack by a state with declared hostile
intent;

(4) the use of retaliatory force against a government or military
force so as to deter renewed attacks on the state taking such action;

(5) the use of force against a government that has provided arms
or technical support to insurgents in a third state;

(6) the use of force against a government that has allowed its ter-
ritory to be used by military forces of a third state considered to be
a threat to the state claiming self-defense;

(7) the use of force in the name of collective defense (or counter-
intervention) against a government imposed by foreign forces
and faced with large-scale military resistance by many of its ampleur d'une partie importante de son peuple.»(0. Schachter, «Self-
Defense over the Rule of Law», AJIL, 1989,p. 271.)
La question se pose de savoiràquel type d'hypothèsepeut se rattacher
le cas de l'extrême légitime défens meettant en cause la survie mêmede

17Etat,pouvant justifier le recoursà l'arme suprêmeet la paralysie de
l'application des règlesde droit humanitaireet applicables dans lesconflits
armés. A cette question, une réponse négatives'impose: l'obligation qu'a
chaque partie belligérante de respecter les règles du droit humanitaire
applicables dans les conflits armésn'est nullement limitéeau cas de légi-
time défense; l'obligation existe indépendamment de la qualité d'agres-
seur ou de victime. Par ailleurs, aucune preuve attestant l'existenced'une
«arme nucléairepropre» n'a été présenté deevant la Cour, les Etats se
contentant d'affirmer qu'ily avait effectivement problème de compatibi-
litéentre la licéitéde l'emploi desarmes nucléaireset les règlesdu droit
humanitaire. Ces critiques,à mon avis, privent de fondements logique et
juridique l'exception de((légitimedéfense extrêm» e.
Le respect queje porteà la Cour m'amène cependant àreconnaître que

l'organejudiciaire principal des Nations Unies n'ignorait pas cescritiques
ainsi que les griefs que ne manqueront pas de formuler les professionnels
du monde juridique et judiciaire. Toujours est-il que,mon avis, l'étroite
interrelation qui existe entre tous les élémentsde la présente décision
implique une lecture de ce second alinéadu paragraphe 2 E à la lumière
du paragraphe 2 C du dispositif. Force est alors de constater qu'en der-
nière analysela Cour affirme que l'exercicede la légitime défense nepeut
êtreenvisagé endehors de la règlede droit. Les paragraphes 2 C et 2 E
définissentles contraintes juridiques préalablesà l'exercice de ce droit
dans des conditions telles, au regard des paragraphes 2 C, 2 D, 2 E, que la
licéitde sa mise en Œuvre est plusqu'improbable dans lesfaits. L'élément
leplus important, cependant, résidedans l'aménagement desgarantiesjuri-
diques. Le paragraphe 2 E laisse ouverte, dans ces circonstances extrêmes,
la question de la licéitéou de l'illicéité;il écarteainsi la possibilité de

création deblocs prédéfinisou prédéterminéd se licéitou d'illicéité. ne
réponsene peut êtreenvisagée qu'in concret0 à la lumière desconditions
des paragraphes 2 C et 2 D précédents.Cette conclusion mérite d'être sou-
lignéecar si la Cour n'avait envisagéqu'une seulebranche de l'alternative,
la solution de la licéité indirecte,le second alinéaaurait réduit néant
l'objet du premier. Le maintien des deux branches de la question ouvre la
voie à un débat sur l'illicéet la licéiau regard du droit international,
ainsi que le Tribunal de Nuremberg l'a déjàaffirmé:

«Si le droit international doit jamais devenir une réalité,la ques-
tion de savoir si l'action entreprise sous le prétexte de la légitime
défense était de caractère agressif ou défensif devra faire l'objet
d'une enquêteou d'un arbitrage. » (0. Schachter, op. cit., p. 262.)

Cette construction compliquée limite en définitive l'exerciceunilatéral
de la légitime défense.De surcroît, en réservant sa réponse définitive, people." (0. Schachter, "Self-defense over the Rule of Law", AJIL,
1989,p. 271.)
The question is to decide in which category the case of an extreme cir-
cumstance of self-defence,in which the very survival of a State is at stake,
must be placed to justify recourse to the ultimate weapon and the paraly-

sis of the application of the rules of humanitarian law and the law appli-
cable in armed conflict. This question must be answered in the negative:
the obligation of each belligerent to respect the rules of humanitarian law
applicable in armed conflict is in no way liinited to the case of self-
defence; the obligation exists independently of the status of aggressor or
victim. Furthermore, no evidence of the existence of a "clean nuclear
weapon" was presented to the Court, and States merely argued that there
was indeed a problem of compatibility between the legality of the use of
nuclear weapons and the rules of humanitarian law. In my view, these
criticisms strip the exception of "extreme circumstance of self-defence" of
al1logical and juridical foundation.
However, the respect in which 1hold the Court prompts me to acknow-
ledge that the principal judicial organ of the United Nations was not un-
aware of these criticisms or of the reproaches which the professionals of
the juridical and judicial worlds would certainly offer. But 1 still believe
that the closeinterrelationship of al1the elements of this decision requires
that the second clause of paragraph 2 E should be read in the light of
paragraph 2 C. It must be acknowledged that in the final analysis the

Court does affirm that the exercise of self-defencecannot be envisaged
outside the framework of the rule of law. Paragraphs 2 C and 2 E define
the prior legal constraints on the exercise of this right under such condi-
tions that, in the light of paragraphs 2 C, 2 D and 2 E, the legality of its
exercise is more than improbable in actuality. The most important ele-
ment, however, is the ordering of the legal guarantees. Paragraph 2 E
leaves open in these extreme circumstances the question of legality or ille-
gality; it thus sets aside the possibility of creating predefined or predeter-
mined blocks of legality or illegality. A reply can be envisaged only in
concret0 in the light of the conditions of the preceding paragraphs 2 C
and 2 D. This conclusion must be emphasized, for if the Court had
addressed only one of the alterilatives, the solution of indirect legality,
the second clause would have nullified the subject-matter of the first
clause. By addressing the two branches of the question the Court opens
the way to a debate on illegalityand legality with respect to international
law, as the Nuremberg Tribunal had already stated:

"Whether action taken under the claim of self-defense was in
fact aggressive or defensive must ultimately be subject to investiga-
tion or adjudication if international law is ever to be enforced."
(O. Schachter, op. cit., p. 262.)

This complicated construction ultimately limits the unilateral exercise
of self-defence. Moreover, by reserving its definitive reply, therefore in304 MENACE OU EMPLOI D'ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP. INDRANJEVA)

donc de principe, la Cour s'aménageun domaine de compétencepossible
jusque-là inconcevableà cause du jeu du mécanismecombiné dela qua-
lification unilatéraleet du droit de veto. L'acuitédes termes de la problé-
matique n'a pas, pour autant, amenéla Cour jusqu'à accepter de consa-
crer la primauté des exigences de la survie de 1'Etat sur l'obligation de
respecter les règlesdu droit international humanitaire applicables dans
les conflits armés
En conclusion, si les deux alinéasdu paragraphe 2 E avaient fait l'ob-
jet de paragraphes distincts, j'aurais voté sans hésitationen faveur du
premier alinéaet me serais abstenu, si les dispositions du Statut et du
Règlementle permettaient, sur le second alinéa.La jonction de ces deux
propositions m'amenait en conscience à voter en faveur de l'ensemble
car l'essentieldu droit est sauf, et parce que la prohibition des armes nu-

cléaires relèvede la responsabilité detous et de tout un chacun, la Cour
ayant apporté sa modeste contribution en interpellant chaque sujet et
acteur de la vieinternationale sur la base du droit. Je forme le souhait que
jamais une juridiction n'aitdevoir statuer dans les termes du second ali-
néadu paragraphe 2 E.

(SignéR )aymond RANJEVA.principle, the Court is creating a possible sphere of competence hitherto
inconceivable owing to the effect of the combined mechanism of unilat-
eral qualification and the right of veto. The difficulty of the terms of the
problem did not, however, induce the Court to agree to assert the pri-
macy of the requirements of the survival of a State over the obligation to
respect the rules of international humanitarian law applicable in armed
conflict.
In conclusion, if the two clauses of paragraph 2 E had appeared as
separate paragraphs, 1would have voted without hesitation in favour of
the first clause and, if the provisions of the Statute and the Rules of the
Court so allowed, 1would have abstained on the second clause. The join-

der of these two propositions caused me to vote in al1 conscience in
favour of the whole, for the essence of the law is safe and the prohibition
of nuclear weapons is a question of the responsibility of al1and everyone,
the Court having made its modest contribution by questioning each sub-
ject and actor of international life on the basis of the law. 1hope that no
court will ever have to rule on the basis of the second clause of para-
graph 2 E.

(Signed) Raymond RANJEVA.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Judge Ranjeva (translation)

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