Declaration of President Bedjaoui (translation)

Document Number
095-19960708-ADV-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
095-19960708-ADV-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DECLARATION OF PRESIDENT BEDJAOUI

[ Translation]

1. 1have never been much in favour of declarations and other separate
or dissenting opinions. 1 have therefore very rarely had recourse to
them. However, the adoption by the Court of operative paragraph 2 E

of this Opinion by my casting vote as President, in accordance with
Article 55 of the Statute, is in itself a sufficiently exceptional event to
prompt me to abandon my usual reticence in this matter. Moreover,
1 regard my recourse to this declaration less as the exercise of a mere
option than as the discharge of a real duty, both on account of the
responsibility which1have thus been led to assume in the normal exercise
of my functions as President and in the light of the implications of the
aforementioned paragraph.

2. With nuclear weapons, humanity is living on a kind of suspended

sentence. For half a century now these terrifying weapons of mass
destruction have formed part of the human condition. Nuclear weapons
have entered into al1 calculations, al1 scenarios, al1plans. Since Hiro-
shima, on the morning of 6 August 1945, fear has gradually become
man's first nature. His life on earth hastaken on the aspect of what the
Koran calls "a long nocturnal journey", like a nightmare whose end he
can not yet foresee.
3. However the Atlantic Charter did promise to "deliver mankind
from fear", and the San Francisco Charter to "save succeeding genera-
tions from the scourge of war". Much still remains to be done to exorcise
this new terror hanging over man, reminiscent of the terror of his ances-
tors, who feared being struck by a thunderbolt from the leaden, storm-
laden skies. But twentieth-century man's situation differs in many ways
from that of his ancestors: he is armed with knowledge; he lays himself

open to self-destruction by his own doing; and his fears are better
founded. Althoueu endowed with reason. man has never been so
unreasonable; his destiny is uncertain; his conscience is confused; his
vision is clouded and his ethical CO-ordinatesare being shed, like dead
leaves from the tree of life.
4. However, it must be acknowledged that man has made some
attempts to emerge from the darkness of his night. Mankind there-
fore seems, today at any rate, more at ease than in the 1980s, when
it subjected itself to the threat of "star wars". In those years the mortal
blast of a spacewar, a war which would be total, highly sophisticated andwould rend Our planet asunder, was more likely than ever before to
unfurl itself upon humanity. Missiles orbiting close to the Earth could
point their infernal nuclear snouts at Our globe, while military satellites
- for reconnaissance, observation, surveillance or communication -
proliferated. The lethal system was about to be established. The "univer-

sa1government of death", the "thanatocracy", as the French historian
and philosopher of scienceMichel Serres once called it, said it was ready
to set up its batteries in the furthest reaches of the planet. But luckily
détente, followedby the ending of the cold war, put a stop to these ter-
rifying preparations.
5. Nevertheless, the proliferation of nuclear firepower has still not
been brought under control, despite the existence of the Non-Prolifera-
tion Treaty. Fear and folly may still link hands at any moment to per-
form a final dance of death. Humanity is al1the more vulnerable today
for being capable of mass producing nuclear missiles.

6. Man is subjecting himself to a perverse and unremitting nuclear
blackmail. The question is how to deliver him from it. The Court had a
duty to play its part, however small, in this rescue operation for human-
ity; it did so in al1conscience and al1humility, bearing in mind the limits
imposed upon it by both its Statute and the applicable international law.

7. Indeed, the Court has probably never subjected the most complex
elements of a problem to such close scrutiny as it did when considering
the problem of nuclear weapons. In the drafting of this Opinion the

Court was guided by a sense of its own particular responsibilities and by
its wish to state the law as its, seekingneither to denigrate nor embellish
it. It sought to avoid any temptation to create new law and it certainly
did not overplay its role by urging States to legislate as quickly as pos-
sible to complete the work which they have done so far.

8. This very important question of nuclear weapons proved alas to be
an area in which the Court had to acknowledge that there is no imme-
diate and clear answer to the question put to it. It is to be hoped that the
international community willgive the Court credit for having carried out
its mission - even if its reply may seem unsatisfactory - and will

endeavour as quickly as possible to correct the imperfections of an inter-
national law which is ultimately no more than the creation of the States
themselves. The Court will at least have had the merit of pointing out
these imperfections and calling upon international society to correct
them.
9. As its Advisory Opinion shows, at no time did the Court lose sight
of the fact that nuclear weapons constitute a potential means of destruc-tion of al1mankind. Not for a moment did it fail to take into account this
eminently crucial factor for the survival of mankind. The moral dilemma
which confronted individual consciences finds many a reflection in this
Opinion. But the Court could obviously not go beyond what the law
says. 1t could not say what the law does not say.

10. Accordingly, at the end of its Opinion, the Court confined itselfto
stating the situation, finding itselfable to do any more than this. There
are some who will inevitably interpret operative paragraph 2 E as con-
templating the possibility of States using nuclear weapons in exceptional
circumstances. For my part, and in the light of the foregoing, 1 feel

obliged in al1honesty to construe that paragraph differently, a fact which
has enabled me to support the text. My reasons are set out below.

11. 1 cannot sufficiently emphasize that the Court's inability to go
beyond this statement of the situation can in no way be interpreted to
mean that it is leaving the door ajar to recognition of the legality of the
threat or use of nuclear weapons.

12. The Court's decision in the "Lotus" case, which some people will
inevitably resurrect, should be understood to be of very limited appli-
cation in the particular context of the question which is the subject of

this Advisory Opinion. It would be to exaggerate the importance of that
decision of the Permanent Court and to distort its scope were it to
be divorced from the particular context, both judicial and temporal,
in which it was taken. No doubt this decision expressed the spirit
of the times, the spirit of an international society which as yet had few
institutions and was governed by an international law of strict co-
existence, itself a reflection of the vigour of the principle of Stateover-
eignty.
13. It scarcely needs to be said that the face of contemporary interna-
tional society is markedly altered. Despite the still modest breakthrough
of "supra-nationalism", the progress made in terms of the institutionali-
zation, not to say integration and "globalization", of international
society is undeniable. Witness the proliferation of international organiza-

tions, the gradua1substitution of an international law of CO-operationfor
the traditional international law of CO-existence,the emergence of the
concept of "international community" and its sometimes successful
attempts at subjectivization. A token of al1 these developments is the
place which international law now accords to concepts such as obliga-
tions erga omnes, rules ofjus cogens, or the common heritage of man-
kind. The resolutely positivist, voluntarist approach of international law
still current at the beginning of the century - and which the PermanentCourt did not fail to endorse in the aforementioned Judgmentl - has
been replaced by an objectiveconception of international law, a law more

readily seeking to reflect a collectivejuridical conscience and respond to
the social necessities of States organized as a community. Added to the
evolution of international society itself is progress in the technological
sphere, which now makes possible the total and virtually instantaneous
eradication of the human race.

14. Furthermore, apart from the time and context factors, there is
everything to distinguish the decision of the Permanent Court from the
Advisory Opinion of the present Court: the nature of the problem posed,
the implications of the Court's pronouncement, and the underlying phi-
losophy of the submissions upheld. In 1927,the Permanent Court, when
considering a much lessimportant question, in fact concluded that behav-

iour not expresslyprohibited by international law was authorized by that
fact alone2. In the present Opinion, on the contrary, the Court does not
find the threat or use of nuclear weapons to be either legal or illegal;
from the uncertainties surrounding the law and the facts it does not infer
any freedom to take a position. Nor does it suggest that such licence
could in any way whatever be deduced therefrom. Whereas the Perma-
nent Court gave the green light of authorization, having found in inter-

national law no reason for giving the red light of prohibition, the present
Court does not feel able to give a signal either way.

15. Thus the Court, in this Opinion, is far more circumspect than its
predecessor in the "Lotus" case in asserting today that what is not
expressly prohibited by international law is not therefore authorized.

' "International law governs relations between independent States. The rules of law
ventions or by usages generally accepted as expressing principles of law and estab-
lished in order to regulate the relations between these CO-existingindependent com-
munities or with a view to the achievement of common aims." ("Lotus", Judgment
No. 9, 1927, P.C.I.J., SeviesA,No.10,p. 18.)
"The Court therefore must, in any event, ascertain whether or not there exists a rule
of international law limitingthe freedom of States to extend the criminaljurisdiction
of their courts to a situation uniting the circumstances of the present case" (ibid.,
P. 21);
and the Court concluded:

"It must therefore be heldthat there is no principle of international law, within the
meaning of Article 15of the Convention of Lausanne of July 24th, 1923,which pre-
Turkey, by instituting, in virtue of the discretion which international law leaves to
every sovereignState, theriminal proceedings in question, has not, in the absence of
such principles, acted in a mannes contrary to the principles of international law
within the meaning of the special agreement." (Ibid., p. 31.) 16. While not finding either in favour of or against the legality of the
threat or use of nuclear weapons, the Court takes note, in its Opinion, of

the existence of a very advanced process of change in the relevant inter-
national law or, in other words, of a current trend towards the replace-
ment of one rule of international law by another, where the first is
already defunct and its successor does not yet exist. Once again, if the
Court as a judicial body felt that it could do no more than register this
fact, States should not, in my view, seein this any authorization whatever
to act as they please.
17. The Court is obviously aware that, at first sight, its reply to the
General Assembly is unsatisfactory. However, while the Court may leave
some people with the impression that it has left the task assigned to it
half completed, 1am on the contrary persuaded that it has discharged its
duty by going as far, in its reply to the question put to it, as the elements
at itsdisposa1would permit.

18. In the second sentence of operative paragraph 2 E of the Advisory
Opinion, the Court indicates that it has reached a point in its reasoning
beyond which it cannot proceed without running the risk of adopting a
conclusion which would go beyond what seems to it to be legitimate.
That is the position of the Court as a judicial body. Some of the Judges
supported this position, though no doubt each with an approach and an
interpretation of their own. It will certainly have been noted that the dis-
tribution of the votes, both for and against paragraph 2 E, was in no way
consistent with any geographical split; this is a mark of the independence
of the Members of the Court which 1 am happy to emphasize. Having
thus explained the construction which 1 believe should be put on the
Court's pronouncement, 1would now like to revert brieflyto the substan-
tive reasons which prompted me to support it.

19. International humanitarian law is a particularly exacting corpus of
rules, and these rules are meant to be applied in al1circumstances. The
Court has fully recognized this fact.
20. Nuclear weapons can be expected - in the present state of scien-
tific development at least - to cause indiscriminate victims among com-
batants and non-combatants alike,as wellasunnecessary suffering among
both categories. By its very nature the nuclear weapon,a blind weapon,
therefore kas a destabilizing effect on humanitarian law, the law of dis-
crimination which regulates discernment in the use of weapons. Nuclear
weapons, the ultimate evil, destabilize humanitarian law which is the law
of the lesser evil. The existence of nuclear weaponsis therefore a major

challengeto the very existence of humanitarian law, not to mention their
long-term harmful effectson the human environment, in respecting which
the right to life may be exercised. Until scientists are able to develop a
"clean" nuclear weapon which would distinguish between combatants
and non-combatants, nuclear weapons will clearly have indiscriminateeffectsand constitute an absolute challenge to humanitarian law. Atomic
wavfaveand humanitarian law thevefove appeavto be mutually exclusive,
the existence of the one automatically implying the non-existence of the
other.

21. 1have no doubt that most of the principles and rules of humani-
tarian law and, in any event, the two principles, one of which prohibits
the use of weapons with indiscriminate effects and the other the use of
arms causing unnecessary suffering, form part of jus cogens. The Court
raised this question in the present Opinion; but it nevertheless stated that
it did not have to make a finding on the point since the question of the
nature of the humanitarian law applicable to nuclear weapons did not
fa11within the framework of the request addressed to it by the General

Assembly of the United Nations. Nonetheless, the Court expressly stated
the view that these fundamental rules constitute "intransgressible prin-
ciples of international customary law" 3.
22. A State's right to survival is also a fundamental law, similar in
many respects to a "natural" law. However, self-defence - if exercisedin
extremecircumstancesinwhichthe very survivalof a State is in question -
cannot produce a situation in which a State would exonerate itself from

compliance with the "intransgressible" norms of international humani-
tarian law. In certain circumstances, therefore, a relentless opposition can
arise, a head-on collision of fundamental principles, neither one of which
can be reduced to the other. The fact remains that the use of nuclear
weapons by a State in circumstances in which its survival is at stake risks
in its turn endangering the survival of al1mankind, precisely because of
the inextricable link between terror and escalation in the use of such

weapons. It would thus be quite foolhardy unhesitatingly to set the sur-
vival of a State above al1other considerations, in particular above the
survival of mankind itself.

23. As the Court has acknowledged, the obligation to negotiate in
good faith for nuclear disarmament concerns the 182or so States parties
to the Non-Proliferation Treaty. 1think one can go beyond that conclu-

sion and assert that there is in fact a twofold geneval obligation, oppos-

See paragraph 79 of the Advisory Opinion, which reads:
"It is undoubtedly because a great many rules of humanitarian law applicable in
armed conflict are so fundamental to the respect of then person and 'elemen-
tary considerations of humanity' as the Court put it in its Judgment of 9 April 1949
in the Corfu Channel case (..J. Reports 1949, p. 22), that the Hague and Geneva
Conventions have enjoyed a broad accession. Further these fundamental rules are to
tain them, because they constitute intransgressible principles of international custorn-
ary law." (Emphasis added.)able erga omnes, to negotiate in good faith and to achieve the desired
result. Indeed, it is not unreasonable to think that, considering the at
leastforma1unanimity in this field,this twofold obligation to negotiate in
good faith and achieve the desired result has now, 50 years on, acquired
a customary character. For the rest, 1fully share the Court's opinion as
to the legal scope of this obligation. 1would merely stress once again the

great importance of the goal to be attained, particularly in view of the
uncertainties which still persist. The Court patently had to Say this.
Owing to the, by the nature of things, very closelink between this ques-
tion and the question of the legality or illegality of the threat or use of
nuclear weapons, the Court cannot be reproached for having reached a
finding ultra petita, a notion which in any event is alien to the advisory
procedure.

24. The solution arrived at in this Advisory Opinion frankly Statesthe
legal reality, while faithfully expressing andreflectingthe hope, shared by
all, peoples and States alike, thatnucleardisarmament willalways remain
the ultimate goal of al1action in the$eld of nuclear weapons, that the
goal is no longer utopian and that it is the duty of al1to seek to attain it
more actively than ever. The destiny of man depends on the will to enter
into this commitment, for as Albert Einstein wrote, "The fate of the

world will be such as the world de serve^."^

(Signed) Mohammed BEDJAOUI.

Albert Einstein, The World aZSee Zt(trans. by Alan Harris), abridged ed., 1949,
Philosophical Library, New York, p. 63.

Bilingual Content

1. Les déclarationset autres opinions individuelles ou dissidentes n'ont
jamais bénéficié de ma part d'une grande faveur. J'y ai donc très rare-
ment recouru. Toutefois, l'adoption par la Cour du paragraphe 2 E du
dispositif du présentavis grâceàla voix prépondérantedont je dispose en

ma qualité de président, conformément à l'article 55 du Statut, est en soi
un événement suffisamment exceptionnelpour m'inciter à me départirde
ma réservehabituelle en la matière.Au demeurant, je considèrele recours
à cette déclaration moins comme l'exercice d'une simple faculté que
comme l'accomplissement d'un véritable devoir,et ce tant en raison de la
responsabilitéque j'ai ainsi étéamené à assumer dans l'exercicenormal
de mes fonctions de Président, que des enjeux du paragraphe susmen-
tionné.

2. Avec l'arme nucléaire,l'humanitéest comme en sursis. Ce terrifiant
moyen de destruction massive fait partie, depuis un demi-siècle,de la
condition humaine. L'arme nucléaire estentréedans tous les calculs, dans

tous les scénarios,dans tous les schémas.Depuis Hiroshima, un matin du
6 août 1945, la peur est peu à peu devenue la première nature de
l'homme. Le parcours terrestre de celui-ci a pris l'aspect de ce que le
Coran appelle «un long voyage nocturne)), comme un cauchemar dont
l'humaniténe parvient pas, à ce jour,à entrevoir la fin.
3. La Charte de l'Atlantique avait pourtant promis de ((délivrer
l'homme de la peur» et celle de San Francisco de ((préserverles généra-
tions futures du fléaude la guerre)). Un long chemin reste encoreà par-
courir pour exorciser cette nouvelle terreur de l'homme qui l'a fait
renouer avec celle de ses ancêtresqui craignaient jadis la chute sur leur
têted'un ciel d'orage chargé defoudre. Mais la situation de l'homme du
XXe siècle sedistingue, à bien des égards,de celle de son ancêtre:il est
arméde connaissance; il s'expose de son propre fait à l'autodestruction;

ses inquiétudessont plus fondées.Pourtant doué de raison, l'homme n'a
iamais été aussidéraisonnable: son destin se brouille: sa conscience
s'obscurcit; sa vision se trouble et ses coordonnées éthiques tombent,
comme feuilles mortes. de l'arbre de vie.
4. On reconnaîtra toutefois que l'homme a fait quelques efforts pour
sortir de sa nuit noire. Ainsi, l'humanitéparaît, aujourd'hui du moins,
plus soulagéeque dans les années quatre-vingt où elle se menaçait elle-
mêmede la ((guerre des étoiles)).Le vent mortel d'une guerre cosmique,
totale et hautement sophistiquée, qui désintégreraitnotre planète, ris- DECLARATION OF PRESIDENT BEDJAOUI

[ Translation]

1. 1have never been much in favour of declarations and other separate
or dissenting opinions. 1 have therefore very rarely had recourse to
them. However, the adoption by the Court of operative paragraph 2 E

of this Opinion by my casting vote as President, in accordance with
Article 55 of the Statute, is in itself a sufficiently exceptional event to
prompt me to abandon my usual reticence in this matter. Moreover,
1 regard my recourse to this declaration less as the exercise of a mere
option than as the discharge of a real duty, both on account of the
responsibility which1have thus been led to assume in the normal exercise
of my functions as President and in the light of the implications of the
aforementioned paragraph.

2. With nuclear weapons, humanity is living on a kind of suspended

sentence. For half a century now these terrifying weapons of mass
destruction have formed part of the human condition. Nuclear weapons
have entered into al1 calculations, al1 scenarios, al1plans. Since Hiro-
shima, on the morning of 6 August 1945, fear has gradually become
man's first nature. His life on earth hastaken on the aspect of what the
Koran calls "a long nocturnal journey", like a nightmare whose end he
can not yet foresee.
3. However the Atlantic Charter did promise to "deliver mankind
from fear", and the San Francisco Charter to "save succeeding genera-
tions from the scourge of war". Much still remains to be done to exorcise
this new terror hanging over man, reminiscent of the terror of his ances-
tors, who feared being struck by a thunderbolt from the leaden, storm-
laden skies. But twentieth-century man's situation differs in many ways
from that of his ancestors: he is armed with knowledge; he lays himself

open to self-destruction by his own doing; and his fears are better
founded. Althoueu endowed with reason. man has never been so
unreasonable; his destiny is uncertain; his conscience is confused; his
vision is clouded and his ethical CO-ordinatesare being shed, like dead
leaves from the tree of life.
4. However, it must be acknowledged that man has made some
attempts to emerge from the darkness of his night. Mankind there-
fore seems, today at any rate, more at ease than in the 1980s, when
it subjected itself to the threat of "star wars". In those years the mortal
blast of a spacewar, a war which would be total, highly sophisticated andquait plus quejamais de souffler sur l'humanitéces années-là. Des engins
en orbite dans la banlieue de la Terre pouvaient diriger leur gueule
d'enfer nucléairesur notre globe, pendant que des satellitesmilitaires, de
reconnaissance, d'observation, de surveillanceou de communication pou-
vaient se multiplier. Le système mortijëre allait se mettre en place. Le
((gouvernement universel de la mort)), la «thanatocratie)), comme l'avait
appelée un spécialistede l'histoire et de la philosophie des sciences, le
Français Michel Serres, se disait prêtà installer ses batterieà toutes les

périphéries de la planète. Mais heureusement la détente, puis lafin de la
guerre froide, mirent un terme à ces préparatifs terrifiants.
5. Néanmoins, la proliférationdu feu nucléaire n'estpas pour autant
maîtrisée, etce malgrél'existencedu traitéde non-prolifération. La peur
et la folie peuvent encore à tout moment s'enlacer pour exécuter une
danse macabre finale. L'humanité est d'autant plus vulnérable de nos
jours, qu'elle est capable de produire des missiles nucléairesen grande
quantité.

6. L'homme se fait à lui-même unchantage nucléaire pervers et per-
manent. Il faut savoir l'en délivrer.La Cour avait le devoir de prendre sa
part, siminime soit-elle,de cette Œuvre salvatrice pour l'humanité;ellel'a
fait en toute conscienceet en toute humilité, comptetenu des limites que
lui imposent d'une part son Statut et d'autre part le droit international
applicable.
7. Jamais, en effet, la Cour n'aura sans doute autant scruté les élé-
ments les plus complexes d'un problème qu'à l'occasion de l'examen de
celui des armes nucléaires. Dans l'élaboration du présent avis, la Cour
a été guidée par le sens des responsabilités particulières qui sont les
siennes et par sa volontéde dire le droit tel qu'il est, en ne cherchant ni

à le noircir ni à l'embellir. Elle a entendu évitertoute tentation de le
créeret elle n'est assurémentpas sortie de son rôle en pressant les Etats
de légiférerau plus vite pour parachever l'Œuvre entreprise par eux jus-
qu'ici.
8. Cette très importante question des armes nucléaires s'est malheu-
reusement révélée êtreun domaine où la Cour a dû constater qu'il
n'existe pas de réponse immédiate et claire à la question qui lui était
posée. Il faut espérer que la communauté internationale saura rendre
justiceà la Cour d'avoir rempli sa mission - mêmesi sa réponse peut
paraître insatisfaisante- et qu'elle s'attache au plus viteà corriger les
imperfections d'un droit international qui n'est en définitiveque la créa-
tion des Etats eux-mêmes. Cesimperfections, la Cour aura eu au moins le

mérite deles signaler et d'appeler la sociétéinternationale ày remédier.

9. Comme son avis consultatif l'atteste, la Cour n'a à aucun moment
perdu de vue que l'arme nucléaire constitue un moyen potentiel de des-would rend Our planet asunder, was more likely than ever before to
unfurl itself upon humanity. Missiles orbiting close to the Earth could
point their infernal nuclear snouts at Our globe, while military satellites
- for reconnaissance, observation, surveillance or communication -
proliferated. The lethal system was about to be established. The "univer-

sa1government of death", the "thanatocracy", as the French historian
and philosopher of scienceMichel Serres once called it, said it was ready
to set up its batteries in the furthest reaches of the planet. But luckily
détente, followedby the ending of the cold war, put a stop to these ter-
rifying preparations.
5. Nevertheless, the proliferation of nuclear firepower has still not
been brought under control, despite the existence of the Non-Prolifera-
tion Treaty. Fear and folly may still link hands at any moment to per-
form a final dance of death. Humanity is al1the more vulnerable today
for being capable of mass producing nuclear missiles.

6. Man is subjecting himself to a perverse and unremitting nuclear
blackmail. The question is how to deliver him from it. The Court had a
duty to play its part, however small, in this rescue operation for human-
ity; it did so in al1conscience and al1humility, bearing in mind the limits
imposed upon it by both its Statute and the applicable international law.

7. Indeed, the Court has probably never subjected the most complex
elements of a problem to such close scrutiny as it did when considering
the problem of nuclear weapons. In the drafting of this Opinion the

Court was guided by a sense of its own particular responsibilities and by
its wish to state the law as its, seekingneither to denigrate nor embellish
it. It sought to avoid any temptation to create new law and it certainly
did not overplay its role by urging States to legislate as quickly as pos-
sible to complete the work which they have done so far.

8. This very important question of nuclear weapons proved alas to be
an area in which the Court had to acknowledge that there is no imme-
diate and clear answer to the question put to it. It is to be hoped that the
international community willgive the Court credit for having carried out
its mission - even if its reply may seem unsatisfactory - and will

endeavour as quickly as possible to correct the imperfections of an inter-
national law which is ultimately no more than the creation of the States
themselves. The Court will at least have had the merit of pointing out
these imperfections and calling upon international society to correct
them.
9. As its Advisory Opinion shows, at no time did the Court lose sight
of the fact that nuclear weapons constitute a potential means of destruc-truction de l'humanitétout entière. Pas un instant, elle n'a omis de pren-
dre en compte cet enjeu éminemmentvital pour la survie de l'humanité.
Le drame de conscience auquel les uns et les autres ont étéconfrontésse
reflèteà bien des égardsdans le présentavis. Mais la Cour ne pouvait à
l'évidencepas aller au-delà de ce que dit le droit. Elle ne pouvait pas dire
ce que celui-ci ne dit pas.
10. Au terme de son avis, la Cour s'est ainsi bornéeà un constat, tout
en se trouvant dans l'incapacitéd'aller au-delà. Certains ne manqueront
pas d'interpréter le paragraphe 2 E du dispositif comme envisageant la
possibilitépour les Etats de recourirà l'arme nucléairedans des circons-
tances exceptionnelles. Pour ma part, et eu égard à ce qui précède,je me
sens en conscience obligé de faire une lecturedifférentede ce paragraphe,

qui m'a permis d'apporter mon soutien à ce texte. Je m'en explique ci-
après.

11. Je ne saurais assez insister sur le fait que l'incapacité dela Cour
de dépasser le constat auquel elle est parvenue ne peut en aucune
manière être interprétée comme une porte entrouverte par celle-ci à la
reconnaissance de la licéitéde la menace ou de l'emploi d'armes nu-
cléaires.
12. Lajurisprudence de l'affaire du Lotus, que certains ne manqueront
pas de ressusciter, mérite d'être très fortemenrtelativiséedans le contexte
particulier de la question faisant l'objet du présent avis consultatif. On

exagéreraitl'importance et on déformerait la portéede cette décisionde
la Cour permanente si on l'isolait du contexte particulier, à la fois judi-
ciaire et temporel, dans lequel elleest intervenue. La décisionen question
exprimait sans aucun doute l'airdu temps, celui d'une sociétéinternatio-
nale encore trèspeu institutionnalisée et régiepar un droit international
de stricte coexistence, lui-mêmereflet de la vigueur du principe de la sou-
veraineté de I'Etat.

13. Il esà peine besoin de souligner que la physionomie de la société
internationale contemporaine est sensiblement différente.En dépitde la
percéeencore limitéedu ((supranationalisme)), on ne saurait nier les pro-
grès enregistrésau niveau de l'institutionnalisation, voire de l'intégration
et de la ((mondialisation)), de la sociéinternationale. On en verra pour

preuve la multiplication des organisations internationales, la substitution
progressive d'un droit international de coopération au droit international
classique de la coexistence, l'émergencedu concept de ((communauté
internationale)) et les tentatives parfois couronnées de succèsdesubjecti-
visation de cette dernière. De tout cela, on peut trouver le témoignage
dans la place que le droit international accorde désormais à des concepts
tels que celui d'obligations erga omnes, de règles de jus cogens ou de
patrimoine commun de l'humanité. A l'approche résolumentpositiviste,tion of al1mankind. Not for a moment did it fail to take into account this
eminently crucial factor for the survival of mankind. The moral dilemma
which confronted individual consciences finds many a reflection in this
Opinion. But the Court could obviously not go beyond what the law
says. 1t could not say what the law does not say.

10. Accordingly, at the end of its Opinion, the Court confined itselfto
stating the situation, finding itselfable to do any more than this. There
are some who will inevitably interpret operative paragraph 2 E as con-
templating the possibility of States using nuclear weapons in exceptional
circumstances. For my part, and in the light of the foregoing, 1 feel

obliged in al1honesty to construe that paragraph differently, a fact which
has enabled me to support the text. My reasons are set out below.

11. 1 cannot sufficiently emphasize that the Court's inability to go
beyond this statement of the situation can in no way be interpreted to
mean that it is leaving the door ajar to recognition of the legality of the
threat or use of nuclear weapons.

12. The Court's decision in the "Lotus" case, which some people will
inevitably resurrect, should be understood to be of very limited appli-
cation in the particular context of the question which is the subject of

this Advisory Opinion. It would be to exaggerate the importance of that
decision of the Permanent Court and to distort its scope were it to
be divorced from the particular context, both judicial and temporal,
in which it was taken. No doubt this decision expressed the spirit
of the times, the spirit of an international society which as yet had few
institutions and was governed by an international law of strict co-
existence, itself a reflection of the vigour of the principle of Stateover-
eignty.
13. It scarcely needs to be said that the face of contemporary interna-
tional society is markedly altered. Despite the still modest breakthrough
of "supra-nationalism", the progress made in terms of the institutionali-
zation, not to say integration and "globalization", of international
society is undeniable. Witness the proliferation of international organiza-

tions, the gradua1substitution of an international law of CO-operationfor
the traditional international law of CO-existence,the emergence of the
concept of "international community" and its sometimes successful
attempts at subjectivization. A token of al1 these developments is the
place which international law now accords to concepts such as obliga-
tions erga omnes, rules ofjus cogens, or the common heritage of man-
kind. The resolutely positivist, voluntarist approach of international law
still current at the beginning of the century - and which the Permanentvolontariste du droit international qui prévalait encoreau débutdu siècle
- età laquelle la Cour permanente n'a d'ailleurs pas manqué d'apporter
son soutien dans l'arrêt susmentionné l- s'estsubstituée une conception
objective du droit international, ce dernier se voulant plus volontiers le

reflet d'un état de conscience juridique collective et une réponse aux
nécessités sociales des Etats organisésen communauté. A l'évolution de
la société internationale elle-mêmei,l convient d'ajouter les progrès enre-
gistrésdans le domaine technologique, qui rendent désormaispossible
une éradication totale et pratiquement instantanée du genre humain.
14. Par ailleurs, au-delà des éléments de temps et de contexte, tout dis-

tingue la décisionde la Cour permanente de l'avisde la présenteCour: la
nature du problèmeposé, les enjeuxdu prononcé et la philosophie sous-
jacente aux conclusions retenues. En 1927,la Cour permanente, dans le
cadre de l'examen d'une question d'importance beaucoup plus modeste,
étaiten effet arrivée à la conclusion qu'un comportement non expressé-

ment interdit par le droit international se trouve autoriséde ce seul fait 2.
Dans le présentavis, au contraire, la Cour ne conclut ni à la licéité nià
l'illicéitde la menace ou de l'emploide l'arme nucléaire;des incertitudes
quant au droit et aux faits, elle n'infèreaucune libertéen la matière.Elle
ne suggèrepas davantagequ'une telle licencepourrait de quelque manière
que ce soit en être déduite. Alors quela Cour permanente avait actionné

le seul feu vert de l'autorisation, n'ayant trouvédans le droit internatio-
nal aucune raison d'actionner le feu rouge de l'interdiction, la Cour
actuelle ne s'estime en mesure de n'actionner ni l'un ni l'autre de ces
signaux.
15. Ainsi, la Cour, dans le présent avis,fait preuve de beaucoup plus

de circonspection que sa devancièredans l'affaire du Lotus, quand elle
affirmeaujourd'hui que cequi n'estpas expressémentprohibépar le droit
international n'est pas pour autant autorisé.

'«Le droit international régitles rapports entre des Etats indépendants. Les règlesde
droit liant les Etats procèdent donc de la volonté de ceux-ci,volonté manieanséd
des conventions ou dans des usages acceptés généralement comme consacrant des
principes de droit et établisen vue de régler la CO-existencedecescommunautésindé-
pendantes ou en vue de la poursuite de buts communs. (Affaire du «Lotus », arrêt
no9, 1927, C.P.J.I. sérieAno IO,p. 18.)
«La Cour doit donc, en tout étatde cause, examiner s'ilexiste,oui ou non, une règle de
droit international limitant la liberté desEtats d'étendre la juridiction pénale de leurs
tribunauxà une situation réunissantles circonstances du cas d'espèce» (ibid., p. 21);

et la Cour de conclure

«Il y a donc lieu de constater qu'aucun principe de droit international, dans le sens
l'exercicedes poursuites pénalesdont il s'agit. En conséquence, laTurquie, en inten-
tant, en vertu de la libertéque le droit internationaà tout Etat souverain, les
poursuites pénalesen question, n'a pu, en l'absence de pareils principes, agiren con-
tradiction des principes du droit international aux termes du compromis.)) (Ibid.,
p. 31.)Court did not fail to endorse in the aforementioned Judgmentl - has
been replaced by an objectiveconception of international law, a law more

readily seeking to reflect a collectivejuridical conscience and respond to
the social necessities of States organized as a community. Added to the
evolution of international society itself is progress in the technological
sphere, which now makes possible the total and virtually instantaneous
eradication of the human race.

14. Furthermore, apart from the time and context factors, there is
everything to distinguish the decision of the Permanent Court from the
Advisory Opinion of the present Court: the nature of the problem posed,
the implications of the Court's pronouncement, and the underlying phi-
losophy of the submissions upheld. In 1927,the Permanent Court, when
considering a much lessimportant question, in fact concluded that behav-

iour not expresslyprohibited by international law was authorized by that
fact alone2. In the present Opinion, on the contrary, the Court does not
find the threat or use of nuclear weapons to be either legal or illegal;
from the uncertainties surrounding the law and the facts it does not infer
any freedom to take a position. Nor does it suggest that such licence
could in any way whatever be deduced therefrom. Whereas the Perma-
nent Court gave the green light of authorization, having found in inter-

national law no reason for giving the red light of prohibition, the present
Court does not feel able to give a signal either way.

15. Thus the Court, in this Opinion, is far more circumspect than its
predecessor in the "Lotus" case in asserting today that what is not
expressly prohibited by international law is not therefore authorized.

' "International law governs relations between independent States. The rules of law
ventions or by usages generally accepted as expressing principles of law and estab-
lished in order to regulate the relations between these CO-existingindependent com-
munities or with a view to the achievement of common aims." ("Lotus", Judgment
No. 9, 1927, P.C.I.J., SeviesA,No.10,p. 18.)
"The Court therefore must, in any event, ascertain whether or not there exists a rule
of international law limitingthe freedom of States to extend the criminaljurisdiction
of their courts to a situation uniting the circumstances of the present case" (ibid.,
P. 21);
and the Court concluded:

"It must therefore be heldthat there is no principle of international law, within the
meaning of Article 15of the Convention of Lausanne of July 24th, 1923,which pre-
Turkey, by instituting, in virtue of the discretion which international law leaves to
every sovereignState, theriminal proceedings in question, has not, in the absence of
such principles, acted in a mannes contrary to the principles of international law
within the meaning of the special agreement." (Ibid., p. 31.)272 MENACE OU EMPLOID'ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (DÉCLB .EDJAOUI)

16. Tout en ne se prononçant ni pour la licéitéde la menace ou de
l'emploi de l'arme nucléaire,ni pour leur illicéité, laCour prend acte,
dans son avis, de l'existence d'un processus très avancé demutation du
droit international en la matière, ou, en d'autres termes, d'une tendance
actuelleà la substitution d'une norme de droit internationaà une autre,
la première n'existant pas encore et la seconde n'existant déjà plus.
Encore une fois, si la Cour, en tant qu'organe judiciaire, a estiméne pas
pouvoir aller au-delà d'un tel constat, les Etats ne sauraient y voir,
avis, une quelconque autorisation d'agirà leur guise.

17. La Cour est évidemment conscientedu caractère à première vue
insatisfaisant de sa réponsel'Assemblée générale C.ependant, si la Cour
peut laisser l'impression certains qu'elle s'estarrêtàemi-chemin de la
tâche qui lui a été confiéj, suis au contraire d'avis qu'ellea rempli sa
mission en allant, dans sa réponseà la question posée,jusqu'où les élé-
ments àsa disposition lui permettaient d'aller.
18. Dans la seconde phrase du paragraphe 2 E du dispositif de l'avis,
la Cour indique qu'elle est parvenue à un point de son raisonnement
qu'ellene peut dépasserqu'en s'exposant au risque d'adopter une conclu-
sion qui irait au-delà de ce qui lui paraît légitime. C'esta position de
la Cour en tant que corps judiciaire. Nombre de juges ont adhéréà cette

position mais sans doute chacun avec une approche et une interprétation
qui lui sont propres. On aura sûrement observéque la répartition des
voix, tant en faveur que contre le paragraphe E, n'a nullement obéà un
clivage géographique,ce qui est un signe d'indépendancedes membres de
la Cour, que je me plaisàsouligner. Ayant ainsi expliquéle sens qu'il y a
lieu de reconnaître selon moi au prononcé de la Cour, je voudrais main-
tenant revenir brièvement sur les raisons de fond qui m'ont amené à y
adhérer.

19. Le droit international humanitaire est un corpus de règlesparticu-

lièrement exigeant et ces dernières ont vocationà s'appliquer en toutes
circonstances. La Cour l'a pleinement reconnu.
20. Les armes nucléairesparaissent bien - du moins dans l'état actuel
de la science- de natureà faire des victimes indiscriminées,confondant
combattants et non-combattants et causant de surcroît des souffrances
inutiles auxuns comme auxautres. L'arme nucléaire,armeaveugle,désta-
bilise donc par nature le droit humanitaire, droit du discernement dans
l'utilisation des armes. L'arme nucléaire,mal absolu, déstabilise ledroit
humanitaire en tant que droit du moindre mal. Ainsi l'existence mêmede
l'arme nucléaireconstitue un grand dé$ à l'existence mêmedu droit
humanitaire, sans compter les effets à long terme dommageables pour

l'environnement humain dans le respect duquel le droità la vie peut
s'exercer.A moins quela sciencene parvienne à découvrirl'armenucléaire
((propre»quifrapperait le combattant en épargnantle non-combattant, il
est clair que l'arme nucléairea des effets indiscriminéset constitue un défi 16. While not finding either in favour of or against the legality of the
threat or use of nuclear weapons, the Court takes note, in its Opinion, of

the existence of a very advanced process of change in the relevant inter-
national law or, in other words, of a current trend towards the replace-
ment of one rule of international law by another, where the first is
already defunct and its successor does not yet exist. Once again, if the
Court as a judicial body felt that it could do no more than register this
fact, States should not, in my view, seein this any authorization whatever
to act as they please.
17. The Court is obviously aware that, at first sight, its reply to the
General Assembly is unsatisfactory. However, while the Court may leave
some people with the impression that it has left the task assigned to it
half completed, 1am on the contrary persuaded that it has discharged its
duty by going as far, in its reply to the question put to it, as the elements
at itsdisposa1would permit.

18. In the second sentence of operative paragraph 2 E of the Advisory
Opinion, the Court indicates that it has reached a point in its reasoning
beyond which it cannot proceed without running the risk of adopting a
conclusion which would go beyond what seems to it to be legitimate.
That is the position of the Court as a judicial body. Some of the Judges
supported this position, though no doubt each with an approach and an
interpretation of their own. It will certainly have been noted that the dis-
tribution of the votes, both for and against paragraph 2 E, was in no way
consistent with any geographical split; this is a mark of the independence
of the Members of the Court which 1 am happy to emphasize. Having
thus explained the construction which 1 believe should be put on the
Court's pronouncement, 1would now like to revert brieflyto the substan-
tive reasons which prompted me to support it.

19. International humanitarian law is a particularly exacting corpus of
rules, and these rules are meant to be applied in al1circumstances. The
Court has fully recognized this fact.
20. Nuclear weapons can be expected - in the present state of scien-
tific development at least - to cause indiscriminate victims among com-
batants and non-combatants alike,as wellasunnecessary suffering among
both categories. By its very nature the nuclear weapon,a blind weapon,
therefore kas a destabilizing effect on humanitarian law, the law of dis-
crimination which regulates discernment in the use of weapons. Nuclear
weapons, the ultimate evil, destabilize humanitarian law which is the law
of the lesser evil. The existence of nuclear weaponsis therefore a major

challengeto the very existence of humanitarian law, not to mention their
long-term harmful effectson the human environment, in respecting which
the right to life may be exercised. Until scientists are able to develop a
"clean" nuclear weapon which would distinguish between combatants
and non-combatants, nuclear weapons will clearly have indiscriminate273 MENACE OU EMPLOI D'ARMESNUCLÉAIRES (DÉCL .EDJAOUI)

absolu au droit humanitaire. Guerrenucléaireet droit humanitaireparais-
sent par conséquentdeux antithèses qui s'excluent radicalement, l'exis-
tence de l'un supposant nécessairement l'inexistence de l'autre.

21. 11ne fait pas de doute pour moi que la plupart des principes et
règlesdu droit humanitaire et, en tout cas, les deux principes interdisant

l'un I'emploi des armes à effets indiscriminés etl'autre celui des armes
causant des maux superflus font partie du jus cogens. La Cour a évoqué
cette question dans le présentavis; mais elle a toutefois déclaré qu'elle
n'avait pas à se prononcer sur ce point dans la mesure où la question de
la nature du droit humanitaire applicable aux armes nucléairesne ren-
trait pas dans lecadre de la demande que lui a adresséel'Assemblée géné-
rale des Nations Unies. La Cour n'en a pas moins expressément consi-
déréces règles fondamentales comme «des règles intransgressibles du
droit international coutumier » 3.

22. Le droit à la survie de 1'Etatest lui aussi un droit fondamental et
s'apparente, à maints égards, à un droit «naturel». Cependant, la Iégi-
time défense - fût-elle exercéedans des conditions extrêmesmettant en
cause la survie mêmed'un Etat - ne peut engendrer une situation dans
laquelle un Etat s'exonéreraitlui-mêmedu respect des normes ((intrans-
gressibles» du droit international humanitaire. Il peut donc se produire,
dans certaines circonstances, une opposition irréductible, une collision
frontale de principes fondamentaux dont l'un ne saurait se réduire à

l'autre. Il reste que l'emploi de l'arme nucléairepar un Etat dans des cir-
constances où sa survie est enjeu risque à son tour de mettre en danger la
surviede l'humanitétout entière, précisémend tu fait de l'engrenage de la
terreur et de l'escalade dans I'emploide telles armes. On manquerait par
conséquent de la plus élémentaire prudencesi on plaçait sans hésitation
la survie d'un Etat au-dessus de toutes autres considérations, et enpar-
ticulier au-dessus de la survie de l'humanité elle-même.

23. Comme la Cour l'a reconnu, l'obligation de négocier debonne foi

un désarmement nucléaire concerneles quelque cent quatre-vingt-deux
Etats parties au traité de non-prolifération. 11me paraît pour ma part
possible d'aller au-delà de cette conclusion et d'affirmer qu'il existe en

Voir le paragraphe 79 de l'avis ainsi libellé:
«C'est sans doute Dar1eau'-n grand nombre -e règlesdu droit human..aire
cable dans les conflits arméssont si fondamentales pour le respect de la personne
humaine et vour des «considérations élémentairesd'humanité)).selon l'exuression
utiliséepara Cour dans son arrêtdu 9 avril 1949 rendu en l'affaétroitde
Co-fou(C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 22), que la convention IV de La Haye et les conven-
tales s'imposent d'ailàetous les Etats, qu'ils aient ou non ratifiéles instruments
conventionnels qui les expriment, parce qu'elles constituent des principes
gressibles du droit international coutumier.» (Les italiques sont de moi.)effectsand constitute an absolute challenge to humanitarian law. Atomic
wavfaveand humanitarian law thevefove appeavto be mutually exclusive,
the existence of the one automatically implying the non-existence of the
other.

21. 1have no doubt that most of the principles and rules of humani-
tarian law and, in any event, the two principles, one of which prohibits
the use of weapons with indiscriminate effects and the other the use of
arms causing unnecessary suffering, form part of jus cogens. The Court
raised this question in the present Opinion; but it nevertheless stated that
it did not have to make a finding on the point since the question of the
nature of the humanitarian law applicable to nuclear weapons did not
fa11within the framework of the request addressed to it by the General

Assembly of the United Nations. Nonetheless, the Court expressly stated
the view that these fundamental rules constitute "intransgressible prin-
ciples of international customary law" 3.
22. A State's right to survival is also a fundamental law, similar in
many respects to a "natural" law. However, self-defence - if exercisedin
extremecircumstancesinwhichthe very survivalof a State is in question -
cannot produce a situation in which a State would exonerate itself from

compliance with the "intransgressible" norms of international humani-
tarian law. In certain circumstances, therefore, a relentless opposition can
arise, a head-on collision of fundamental principles, neither one of which
can be reduced to the other. The fact remains that the use of nuclear
weapons by a State in circumstances in which its survival is at stake risks
in its turn endangering the survival of al1mankind, precisely because of
the inextricable link between terror and escalation in the use of such

weapons. It would thus be quite foolhardy unhesitatingly to set the sur-
vival of a State above al1other considerations, in particular above the
survival of mankind itself.

23. As the Court has acknowledged, the obligation to negotiate in
good faith for nuclear disarmament concerns the 182or so States parties
to the Non-Proliferation Treaty. 1think one can go beyond that conclu-

sion and assert that there is in fact a twofold geneval obligation, oppos-

See paragraph 79 of the Advisory Opinion, which reads:
"It is undoubtedly because a great many rules of humanitarian law applicable in
armed conflict are so fundamental to the respect of then person and 'elemen-
tary considerations of humanity' as the Court put it in its Judgment of 9 April 1949
in the Corfu Channel case (..J. Reports 1949, p. 22), that the Hague and Geneva
Conventions have enjoyed a broad accession. Further these fundamental rules are to
tain them, because they constitute intransgressible principles of international custorn-
ary law." (Emphasis added.)réalité unedouble obligationgénéraleo ,pposable erga omnes, de négocier
de bonne foi et de parvenir au résultat recherché. 11n'est en effet pas
déraisonnable de penser qu'eu égard à l'unanimité,au moins formelle,
qui prévaut en ce domaine cette double obligation de négocier debonne
foi et de parvenir au résultatprévua désormais revêtua ,près cinquante
ans, un caractère coutumier.Pour le reste, je partage entièrement l'opi-
nion de la Cour quant a la portéejuridique de cette obligation. Je me

contenterai seulement de souligner une fois encore toute l'importance du
but à atteindre compte tenu en particulier des incertitudes qui subsistent
encore. La Cour devait àl'évidencele dire. Eu égardau lien très étroit
que cette question entretient, par le fait des choses, avec cellede la licéité
ou de l'illicéide la menace ou de l'emploi d'armes nucléaires,on ne sau-
rait reprocherà la Cour d'avoir statuéultrapetita. Cette dernièrenotion
est en tout état de cause étrangèreà la procédure consultative.

24. La solution dégagéepar le présent avis consultatif fait le constat
sans complaisance de la réalitéjuridique,tout en exprimant et traduisant
fidèlementl'espoir,partagépar tous, peuples et Etats, quelebut ultime de
toute action dans le domaine desarmes nucléaires resteratoujours le
désarmementnucléaire, quece but n'est plus utopique et qu'il est du
devoir detous de le rechercher plusactivement quejamais. De l'existence
de cette volonté d'engagement dépend le destin de l'homme car, comme
l'écrivait Albert Einstein,«le sort de l'humanitésera celui qu'elleméri-
tera»4.

(Signé) Mohammed BEDJAOUI.

marion, p. 84.tein, Comment je vois le monde (traduction du colonel Cros), Paris, Flam-

52able erga omnes, to negotiate in good faith and to achieve the desired
result. Indeed, it is not unreasonable to think that, considering the at
leastforma1unanimity in this field,this twofold obligation to negotiate in
good faith and achieve the desired result has now, 50 years on, acquired
a customary character. For the rest, 1fully share the Court's opinion as
to the legal scope of this obligation. 1would merely stress once again the

great importance of the goal to be attained, particularly in view of the
uncertainties which still persist. The Court patently had to Say this.
Owing to the, by the nature of things, very closelink between this ques-
tion and the question of the legality or illegality of the threat or use of
nuclear weapons, the Court cannot be reproached for having reached a
finding ultra petita, a notion which in any event is alien to the advisory
procedure.

24. The solution arrived at in this Advisory Opinion frankly Statesthe
legal reality, while faithfully expressing andreflectingthe hope, shared by
all, peoples and States alike, thatnucleardisarmament willalways remain
the ultimate goal of al1action in the$eld of nuclear weapons, that the
goal is no longer utopian and that it is the duty of al1to seek to attain it
more actively than ever. The destiny of man depends on the will to enter
into this commitment, for as Albert Einstein wrote, "The fate of the

world will be such as the world de serve^."^

(Signed) Mohammed BEDJAOUI.

Albert Einstein, The World aZSee Zt(trans. by Alan Harris), abridged ed., 1949,
Philosophical Library, New York, p. 63.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Declaration of President Bedjaoui (translation)

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