Separate opinion of Judge Yusuf

Document Number
141-20100722-ADV-01-09-EN
Parent Document Number
141-20100722-ADV-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE YUSUF

The Court overly restricted the scope of the question put to it by the Gen-

eral Assembly — Declarations of independence per se are not regulated by
international law — It is the claims they express and the processes they trigger
that may be of interest to international law — The Court could have used this
opportunity to clarify the scope and normative contents of the right to self-
determination, in its post-colonial conception — International law disfavours the
fragmentation of existing States but also confers certain rights to peoples,
groups and individuals including the right of self-determination — The right of
self-determination, in its post-colonial conception, is reflected in important acts
and conventions — Self-determination is to be exercised mainly inside the
boundaries of existing States — International law may support a claim to exter-
nal self-determination in certain exceptional circumstances — The Court should
have assessed whether the specific situation in Kosovo may qualify as excep-
tional circumstances — Other fora have not shied away from analysing the con-

ditions to be met by claims of external self-determination — The criteria to be
considered include the existence of discrimination, persecution, and the denial of
autonomous political structures — These acts must be directed against a
racially or ethnically distinctive group — A decision by the Security Council to
intervene could be an additional criterion — All possible remedies for the reali-
zation of internal self-determination must be exhausted before external self-
determination can be exercised.

The legislative powers vested in the SRSG are not for the enactment of inter-
national legal rules and principles — UNMIK’s regulations remain part of a
territorially-based legislation enacted solely for the administration of that ter-
ritory — The Constitutional Framework is not part of international law — A

declaration of independence by the PISG could only be considered as ultra vires
in respect of the domestic law of Kosovo.

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Although I am in general agreement with the Court’s Opinion and
have voted in favour of all the paragraphs of the operative clause, I have
serious reservations with regard to the Court’s reasoning on certain
important aspects of the Opinion.
2. First, in interpreting the question put to it by the United Nations

General Assembly, the Court states that “[t]he answer to that question
turns on whether or not the applicable international law prohibited the
declaration of independence” (para. 56). This constitutes, in my view, an

219overly restrictive and narrow reading of the question of the General

Assembly. The declaration of independence of Kosovo is the expression
of a claim to separate statehood and part of a process to create a new
State. The question put to the Court by the General Assembly concerns
the accordance with international law of the action undertaken by the
representatives of the people of Kosovo with the aim of establishing such

a new State without the consent of the parent State. In other words, the
Court was asked to assess whether or not the process by which the people
of Kosovo were seeking to establish their own State involved a violation
of international law, or whether that process could be considered consist-

ent with international law in view of the possible existence of a positive
right of the people of Kosovo in the specific circumstances which pre-
vailed in that territory. Thus, the restriction of the scope of the question
to whether international law prohibited the declaration of independence

as such voids it of much of its substance. I will elaborate on these issues
in Section II below.
3. My second reservation relates to the inclusion by the Court of the
Constitutional Framework established under the auspices of the United

Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) in the
category of the applicable international legal instruments under which
the legality of the declaration of independence of Kosovo of 17 Feb-
ruary 2008 is to be assessed. It is my view that the Constitutional

Framework for the Interim Administration of Kosovo is not part of
international law. In enacting legislation for the provisional adminis-
tration of Kosovo, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General
(SRSG) may have derived his authority from resolution 1244 of
the United Nations Security Council, but he was primarily acting as a sur-

rogate territorial administrator laying down regulations that concerned
exclusively the territory of Kosovo and produced legal effects at the dom-
estic level. I will examine these issues further in Section III below.

II. THE SCOPE AND M EANING OF THE Q UESTION PUT TO THE COURT

4. The Court has interpreted the question posed by the General Assem-
bly as not requiring it

“to take a position on whether international law conferred a positive
entitlement on Kosovo unilaterally to declare its independence or, a
fortiori, on whether international law generally confers an entitle-
ment on entities situated within a State unilaterally to break away

from it” (Advisory Opinion, para. 56).

Surely, the Court was not asked to pronounce itself on the second point,
which is of a general character; but it is regrettable, for the reasons indi-
cated below, that the Court decided not to address the first point, par-

220ticularly in the sense of assessing the possible existence of a right to self-
determination in the specific situation of Kosovo.

5. Firstly, since a declaration of independence is not per se regulated
by international law, there is no point assessing its legality, as such, under
international law. It is what the declaration of independence implies and
the claim it expresses to establish a new State which is of relevance to the
law. If such a claim meets the conditions prescribed by international law,

particularly in situations of decolonization or of peoples subject to alien
subjugation, domination and exploitation, the law may encourage it; but
if it violates international law, the latter can discourage it or even declare
it illegal, as was the case in Southern Rhodesia and Katanga in the 1960s.

Secondly, an assessment by the Court of the existence of an entitlement
could have brought clarity to the scope and legal content of the right of
self-determination, in its post-colonial conception, and its applicability to
the specific case of Kosovo. The Court has in the past contributed to a
better understanding of the field of application of the right of self-deter-

mination with respect to situations of decolonization or alien subjugation
and foreign occupation. It could have likewise used this opportunity to
define the scope and normative content of the post-colonial right of self-
determination, thereby contributing, inter alia, to the prevention of the
misuse of this important right by groups promoting ethnic and tribal

divisions within existing States.

6. Thirdly, claims to separate statehood by ethnic groups or other enti-
ties within a State can create situations of armed conflict and may pose a

threat not only to regional stability but also to international peace and
security. The fact that the Court decided to restrict its opinion to whether
the declaration of independence, as such, is prohibited by international
law, without assessing the underlying claim to external self-determina-
tion, may be misinterpreted as legitimizing such declarations under inter-

national law, by all kinds of separatist groups or entities that have either
made or are planning to make declarations of independence. Fourthly,
the Court itself admits that “the declaration of independence is an
attempt to determine finally the status of Kosovo” (para. 114), but fails
to examine whether such a unilateral determination of the final status

of Kosovo and its separation from the parent State is in accordance
with international law, as clearly implied in the question put to it by the
General Assembly.

7. Turning now to the issue of self-determination itself, it should be

observed at the outset that international law disfavours the fragmenta-
tion of existing States and seeks to protect their boundaries from foreign
aggression and intervention. It also promotes stability within the borders
of States, although, in view of its growing emphasis on human rights and

the welfare of peoples within State borders, it pays close attention to acts
involving atrocities, persecution, discrimination and crimes against

221humanity committed inside a State. To this end, it pierces the veil of sov-
ereignty and confers certain internationally protected rights to peoples,

groups and individuals who may be subjected to such acts, and imposes
obligations on their own State as well as other States. The right of self-
determination, particularly in its post-colonial conception, is one of those
rights.
8. It is worth recalling, in this context, that the right of self-determina-

tion has neither become a legal notion of mere historical interest nor has
it exhausted its role in international law following the end of colonialism.
It has indeed acquired renewed significance following its consecration
in the two covenants on human rights of 1966, the 1970 Declaration

on Friendly Relations (Declaration on Principles of International Law
Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in
Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, General Assembly
resolution 2625, Annex, 25 United Nations GAOR, Supp. (No. 28),
United Nations doc. A/5217 at 121 (1970)), the OSCE Helsinki Final

Act (the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in
Europe, 1 August 1975, 14 ILM 1292 (Helsinki Declaration), the African
Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the Vienna Declaration and
Programme of Action Adopted by the World Conference on Human
Rights (Vienna Declaration, World Conference on Human Rights, Vienna,

14-25 June 1993, United Nations doc. A/CONF.157/24 (Part I) at 20 (1993)).
It is a right which is exercisable continuously, particularly within the frame-
work of a relationship between peoples and their own State.

9. In this post-colonial conception, the right of self-determination
chiefly operates inside the boundaries of existing States in various forms
and guises, particularly as a right of the entire population of the State to
determine its own political, economic and social destiny and to choose a
representative government; and, equally, as a right of a defined part of

the population, which has distinctive characteristics on the basis of race
or ethnicity, to participate in the political life of the State, to be repre-
sented in its government and not to be discriminated against. These
rights are to be exercised within the State in which the population or the
ethnic group live, and thus constitute internal rights of self-determina-

tion. They offer a variety of entitlements to the concerned peoples within
the borders of the State without threatening its sovereignty.

10. In contrast, claims to external self-determination by such ethni-

cally or racially distinct groups pose a challenge to international law as
well as to their own State, and most often to the wider community of
States. Surely, there is no general positive right under international law
which entitles all ethnically or racially distinct groups within existing

States to claim separate statehood, as opposed to the specific right of
external self-determination which is recognized by international law in

222favour of the peoples of non-self-governing territories and peoples under
alien subjugation, domination and exploitation. Thus, a racially or eth-

nically distinct group within a State, even if it qualifies as a people for the
purposes of self-determination, does not have the right to unilateral
secession simply because it wishes to create its own separate State,
though this might be the wish of the entire group. The availability of such
a general right in international law would reduce to naught the territorial

sovereignty and integrity of States and would lead to interminable con-
flicts and chaos in international relations.

11. This does not, however, mean that international law turns a blind
eye to the plight of such groups, particularly in those cases where
the State not only denies them the exercise of their internal right of self-
determination (as described above), but also subjects them to discrim-
ination, persecution and egregious violations of human rights or human-

itarian law. Under such exceptional circumstances, the right of peoples
to self-determination may support a claim to separate statehood provided
it meets the conditions prescribed by international law, in a specific
situation, taking into account the historical context. Such conditions
may be gleaned from various instruments, including the Declaration on

Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-op-
eration among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations,
which, as stated by the Court in paragraph 80 of the Advisory Opinion,
reflects customary international law. The Declaration contains, under the
principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, the following

saving clause:

“Nothing in the foregoing paragraphs shall be construed as author-
izing or encouraging any action which would dismember or impair,
totally or in part, the territorial integrity or political unity of sov-
ereign and independent States conducting themselves in compliance
with the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples

as described above and thus possessed of a government representing
the whole people belonging to the territory without distinction as to
race, creed or colour.”

12. This provision makes it clear that so long as a sovereign and inde-
pendent State complies with the principle of equal rights and self-deter-
mination of peoples, its territorial integrity and national unity should

neither be impaired nor infringed upon. It therefore primarily protects,
and gives priority to, the territorial preservation of States and seeks
to avoid their fragmentation or disintegration due to separatist forces.
However, the saving clause in its latter part implies that if a State fails to

comport itself in accordance with the principle of equal rights and self-
determination of peoples, an exceptional situation may arise whereby

223the ethnically or racially distinct group denied internal self-determination
may claim a right of external self-determination or separation from the

State which could effectively put into question the State’s territorial unity
and sovereignty.

13. Admittedly, the Kosovo situation is special in many ways. It is in
the context of its distinctive character and history that the question posed

by the General Assembly should have been analysed. The violent break-up
of Yugoslavia, the removal of the autonomy of Kosovo by the Serbian
authorities, the history of ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity
in Kosovo described in the Milutinovic ´ judgment of the ICTY (Prosecu-

tor v. Milan Milutinovic´ et al., Judgement of 26 February 2009) , and the
extended period of United Nations administration of Kosovo which de
facto separated it from Serbia to protect its population and provide it
with institutions of self-government, are specific features that may not be
found elsewhere. The Court itself had occasion, in June 1999, to refer to

the “human tragedy, the loss of life, and the enormous suffering in
Kosovo . . .” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) , p. 131,
para. 16). Given this specific context there was, in my view, sufficient
material before the Court to allow it to assess whether the situation in

Kosovo reflected the type of exceptional circumstances that may trans-
form an entitlement to internal self-determination into a right to claim
separate statehood from the parent State.

14. This question has been considered in other fora. For example, the

absence of such exceptional circumstances in the case of Katanga (DRC)
was described by the African Commission of Human and Peoples’ Rights
as follows in the Katangese Peoples’ Congress v. Zaire:

“In the absence of concrete evidence of violations of human rights
to the point that the territorial integrity of Zaire should be called to
question and in the absence of evidence that the people of Katanga
are denied the right to participate in government as guaranteed by

Article 13 (1) of the African Charter, the Commission holds the view
that Katanga is obliged to exercise a variant of self-determination
that is compatible with the sovereignty and territorial integrity of
Zaire.” (Case 75/92, Katangese Peoples’ Congress v. Zaire,p.1.)

In other words, the Commission held that the Katangese people should
exercise their right to self-determination internally unless it could be

clearly demonstrated that their human rights were egregiously violated
by the Government of Zaire and that they were denied the right to par-
ticipate in government.

15. Similarly, the Canadian Supreme Court in the Reference re. Seces-
sion of Quebec, while admitting that there may be a right to external self-

224determination where a people is denied any meaningful exercise of its
right to self-determination internally, concluded as follows:

“A State whose government represents the whole of the people or

peoples resident within its territory, on a basis of equality and with-
out discrimination, and respects the principles of self-determination
in its internal arrangements, is entitled to maintain its territorial
integrity recognized by other States. Quebec does not meet the
threshold of a colonial people or an oppressed people, nor can it be

suggested that Quebecers have been denied meaningful access to
government to pursue their political, economic, cultural and social
development.” (Reference by the Governor in Council concerning
Certain Questions relating to the Secession of Quebec from Canada ,

([1998] 2 SCR 217; 161 DLR (4th) 385; 115 ILR 536), para. 154.)

16. To determine whether a specific situation constitutes an excep-
tional case which may legitimize a claim to external self-determination,
certain criteria have to be considered, such as the existence of discrim-
ination against a people, its persecution due to its racial or ethnic

characteristics, and the denial of autonomous political structures and
access to government. A decision by the Security Council to intervene
could also be an additional criterion for assessing the exceptional cir-
cumstances which might confer legitimacy on demands for external self-
determination by a people denied the exercise of its right to internal self-

determination. Nevertheless, even where such exceptional circumstances
exist, it does not necessarily follow that the concerned people has an
automatic right to separate statehood. All possible remedies for the reali-
zation of internal self-determination must be exhausted before the issue is
removed from the domestic jurisdiction of the State which had hitherto

exercised sovereignty over the territory inhabited by the people making the
claim. In this context, the role of the international community, and in
particular of the Security Council and the General Assembly, is of para-
mount importance.

17. In the specific case of Kosovo, the General Assembly has sought
the advisory opinion of the Court to shed light on the accordance of the
declaration of independence with international law which implied, in my
view, the need for an assessment of whether the special situation of this
territory, in view of its history and of the recent events that led to the

United Nations interim administration and to its declaration of inde-
pendence, could possibly entitle its people to a claim for separate state-
hood without the consent of its parent State. The Court had a unique
opportunity to assess, in a specific and concrete situation, the legal con-

ditions to be met for such a right of self-determination to materialize and
give legitimacy to a claim of separation. It has unfortunately failed to

225seize this opportunity, which would have allowed it to clarify the scope

and normative content of the right to external self-determination, in its
post-colonial conception, and thus to contribute, inter alia, to the pre-
vention of unjustified claims to independence which may lead to instabil-
ity and conflict in various parts of the world.

III. THE LEGAL NATURE OF UNMIK R EGULATIONS

18. In paragraph 88 of the Advisory Opinion, the Court observes that:
“[t]he Constitutional Framework derives its binding force from the bind-
ing character of resolution 1244 (1999) and thus from international law.
In that sense it therefore possesses an international legal character”. This

statement confuses the source of the authority for the promulgation of
the Kosovo regulations and the nature of the regulations themselves.
International administrations have to act in a dual capacity when exer-
cising regulatory authority. Although they act under the authority of

international institutions such as the United Nations, the regulations they
adopt belong to the domestic legal order of the territory under interna-
tional administration. The legislative powers vested in the SRSG in Kos-
ovo under resolution 1244 are not for the enactment of international

legal rules and principles, but to legislate for Kosovo and establish laws
and regulations which are exclusively applicable at the domestic level.
The fact that the exercise of legislative functions by the SRSG may be
subject to the control of international law, or that they may have been
derived from the authority conferred upon him by a resolution of the

Security Council does not qualify these regulations as rules of interna-
tional law for the purposes of the question put to the Court by the General
Assembly.

19. The Constitutional Framework enacted by the SRSG operated as
the Constitution of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of
Kosovo (PISG) and was part of the internal laws of Kosovo which, as
specifically provided in UNMIK regulation 1999/24, consisted of: “(a)

the regulations promulgated by the Special Representative of the Secretary-
General and subsidiary instruments thereunder; and (b) the law in force
in Kosovo on 22 March 1989”. There are no differences in the legal effects
or binding force of the laws existing in Kosovo, irrespective of whether

they were issued by UNMIK or by Yugoslavia/Serbia before 1989.
The Constitutional Framework as well as all other regulations
enacted by the SRSG are part of a domestic legal system established
on the basis of authority derived from an international legal source.
The existence of this authority does not however qualify them as part of

international law. Rather, they belong to the legal system which governs
Kosovo during the interim period and beyond. They are part of a terri-
torially-based legislation which was enacted solely and exclusively for

226the administration of that territory. This is made clear by the interface with
pre-existing Yugoslav/Serbian legislation enacted before 1989 which is

also still in force in Kosovo.

20. The question put to the Court by the General Assembly concerns

the accordance of the declaration of independence of Kosovo with inter-
national law. The Constitutional Framework enacted by the SRSG is not
part of international law. Even if the declaration of independence was
adopted by the PISG in violation of the Constitutional Framework, such
action could only be considered as ultra vires in respect of the domestic

law of Kosovo, and would have to be dealt with by the SRSG, in his
quality as administrator of the territory, or by the Supreme Court of
Kosovo. Thus, there was no need for the Court to state that the

“authors of the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 did

not act as one of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government
within the Constitutional Framework, but rather as persons who
acted together in their capacity as representatives of the people of
Kosovo outside the framework of the interim administration”

(para. 109).
It is also a very unpersuasive argument.

21. The question on which the General Assembly requested the Advi-
sory Opinion explicitly referred to the “Declaration of Independence by
the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo”. Moreover,
the Court was not requested to give an advisory opinion on the compat-
ibility of the declaration of independence with the Constitutional Frame-

work which, in my view, is not part of international law, and should not
have therefore been taken into account in assessing the accordance of the
declaration of independence of Kosovo with international law.

(Signed) Abdulqawi A. Y USUF .

227

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE YUSUF

The Court overly restricted the scope of the question put to it by the Gen-

eral Assembly — Declarations of independence per se are not regulated by
international law — It is the claims they express and the processes they trigger
that may be of interest to international law — The Court could have used this
opportunity to clarify the scope and normative contents of the right to self-
determination, in its post-colonial conception — International law disfavours the
fragmentation of existing States but also confers certain rights to peoples,
groups and individuals including the right of self-determination — The right of
self-determination, in its post-colonial conception, is reflected in important acts
and conventions — Self-determination is to be exercised mainly inside the
boundaries of existing States — International law may support a claim to exter-
nal self-determination in certain exceptional circumstances — The Court should
have assessed whether the specific situation in Kosovo may qualify as excep-
tional circumstances — Other fora have not shied away from analysing the con-

ditions to be met by claims of external self-determination — The criteria to be
considered include the existence of discrimination, persecution, and the denial of
autonomous political structures — These acts must be directed against a
racially or ethnically distinctive group — A decision by the Security Council to
intervene could be an additional criterion — All possible remedies for the reali-
zation of internal self-determination must be exhausted before external self-
determination can be exercised.

The legislative powers vested in the SRSG are not for the enactment of inter-
national legal rules and principles — UNMIK’s regulations remain part of a
territorially-based legislation enacted solely for the administration of that ter-
ritory — The Constitutional Framework is not part of international law — A

declaration of independence by the PISG could only be considered as ultra vires
in respect of the domestic law of Kosovo.

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Although I am in general agreement with the Court’s Opinion and
have voted in favour of all the paragraphs of the operative clause, I have
serious reservations with regard to the Court’s reasoning on certain
important aspects of the Opinion.
2. First, in interpreting the question put to it by the United Nations

General Assembly, the Court states that “[t]he answer to that question
turns on whether or not the applicable international law prohibited the
declaration of independence” (para. 56). This constitutes, in my view, an

219 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE YUSUF

[Traduction]

La Cour a par trop limité la portée de la question posée par l’Assemblée géné-

rale — En elles-mêmes, les déclarations d’indépendance ne sont pas régies par le
droit international — Ce sont les revendications qu’elles expriment et les pro-
cessus qu’elles déclenchent qui peuvent relever de ce droit — La Cour aurait pu
saisir l’occasion qui lui était donnée de préciser la portée et le contenu normatif
du droit à l’autodétermination dans sa conception postcoloniale — Le droit
international désapprouve la fragmentation des Etats existants mais confère
certains droits aux peuples, groupes et individus, notamment le droit à disposer
d’eux-mêmes — Le droit à l’autodétermination, dans sa conception postcolo-
niale, est consacré dans des conventions et instruments importants — L’autodé-
termination doit le plus souvent être exercée à l’intérieur des frontières des Etats
existants — Le droit international peut, dans certaines circonstances exception-
nelles, fonder une revendication d’autodétermination externe — La Cour aurait
dû déterminer si la situation particulière du Kosovo était assimilable à des cir-

constances exceptionnelles — D’autres instances n’ont pas craint d’analyser les
conditions auxquelles devaient satisfaire les revendications d’autodétermination
externe — Les critères à prendre en considération comprennent l’existence
d’une discrimination et de persécutions, et le déni de structures politiques auto-
nomes — Ces pratiques doivent être dirigées contre un groupe racialement ou
ethniquement distinct — Une décision d’intervention du Conseil de sécurité peut
constituer un critère supplémentaire — Tous les recours permettant de réaliser
l’autodétermination au plan interne doivent avoir été épuisés pour que l’autodé-
termination puisse être exercée au plan externe.
Les pouvoirs législatifs dont est investi le représentant spécial du Secrétaire
général ne lui ont pas été conférés pour qu’il promulgue des règles et principes
de droit international — Les règlements de la MINUK demeurent partie d’une
législation territoriale adoptée uniquement pour l’administration du territoire

considéré — Le cadre constitutionnel ne fait pas partie du droit international
— Une déclaration d’indépendance émanant des institutions provisoires d’admi-
nistration autonome ne pouvait être considérée comme ultra vires qu’au regard
du droit interne du Kosovo.

I. NTRODUCTION

1. Bien que je souscrive globalement à l’avis de la Cour, et que j’aie
voté en faveur de tous les paragraphes du dispositif, j’ai de graves réser-
ves quant au raisonnement de la Cour sur d’importants aspects de l’avis.

2. Tout d’abord, en interprétant la question que lui a posée l’Assem-

blée générale, la Cour dit qu’il «s’agit … de savoir si le droit international
applicable interdisait ou non la déclaration d’indépendance» (par. 56).
Cette lecture de la question posée est, selon moi, par trop étroite et res-

219overly restrictive and narrow reading of the question of the General

Assembly. The declaration of independence of Kosovo is the expression
of a claim to separate statehood and part of a process to create a new
State. The question put to the Court by the General Assembly concerns
the accordance with international law of the action undertaken by the
representatives of the people of Kosovo with the aim of establishing such

a new State without the consent of the parent State. In other words, the
Court was asked to assess whether or not the process by which the people
of Kosovo were seeking to establish their own State involved a violation
of international law, or whether that process could be considered consist-

ent with international law in view of the possible existence of a positive
right of the people of Kosovo in the specific circumstances which pre-
vailed in that territory. Thus, the restriction of the scope of the question
to whether international law prohibited the declaration of independence

as such voids it of much of its substance. I will elaborate on these issues
in Section II below.
3. My second reservation relates to the inclusion by the Court of the
Constitutional Framework established under the auspices of the United

Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) in the
category of the applicable international legal instruments under which
the legality of the declaration of independence of Kosovo of 17 Feb-
ruary 2008 is to be assessed. It is my view that the Constitutional

Framework for the Interim Administration of Kosovo is not part of
international law. In enacting legislation for the provisional adminis-
tration of Kosovo, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General
(SRSG) may have derived his authority from resolution 1244 of
the United Nations Security Council, but he was primarily acting as a sur-

rogate territorial administrator laying down regulations that concerned
exclusively the territory of Kosovo and produced legal effects at the dom-
estic level. I will examine these issues further in Section III below.

II. THE SCOPE AND M EANING OF THE Q UESTION PUT TO THE COURT

4. The Court has interpreted the question posed by the General Assem-
bly as not requiring it

“to take a position on whether international law conferred a positive
entitlement on Kosovo unilaterally to declare its independence or, a
fortiori, on whether international law generally confers an entitle-
ment on entities situated within a State unilaterally to break away

from it” (Advisory Opinion, para. 56).

Surely, the Court was not asked to pronounce itself on the second point,
which is of a general character; but it is regrettable, for the reasons indi-
cated below, that the Court decided not to address the first point, par-

220trictive. La déclaration d’indépendance du Kosovo est l’expression d’une
revendication de la qualité d’Etat distinct, et fait partie du processus de

création d’un nouvel Etat. L’Assemblée générale a demandé à la Cour de
se prononcer sur la conformité au droit international de l’acte accompli
par les représentants du peuple du Kosovo en vue de créer ce nouvel Etat
sans le consentement de l’Etat parent. En d’autres termes, la Cour était

priée de dire si le processus par lequel le peuple du Kosovo cherchait à
créer son propre Etat violait le droit international ou s’il pouvait être
considéré comme conforme à celui-ci parce que le peuple du Kosovo,
compte tenu des circonstances particulières propres à ce territoire, aurait
été titulaire d’un droit positif. Ainsi, en limitant la portée de la question

au point de savoir si le droit international interdisait la déclaration
d’indépendance en tant que telle, la Cour a vidé cette question d’une
bonne partie de sa substance. Je développerai ces points dans la section II
ci-après.

3. Ma deuxième réserve concerne l’inclusion par la Cour du cadre
constitutionnel pour une administration intérimaire du Kosovo établi
sous les auspices de la Mission d’administration intérimaire des
Nations Unies au Kosovo (MINUK) parmi les instruments juridiques

applicables au regard desquels apprécier la licéité de la déclaration d’indé-
pendance du 17 février 2008. Selon moi, ce cadre constitutionnel ne fait
pas partie du droit international. Lorsqu’il adoptait des lois relatives à
l’administration intérimaire du Kosovo, le représentant spécial du Secré-

taire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies (RSSG) tirait peut-être
ses pouvoirs de la résolution 1244 du Conseil de sécurité des
Nations Unies, mais il agissait avant tout en qualité d’administrateur ter-
ritorial de substitution, promulguant des règlements qui concernaient
exclusivement le territoire du Kosovo et ne produisaient d’effets juridi-

ques qu’au plan interne. Tels sont les points que je développerai dans la
section III.

II. SENS ET PORTÉE DE LA QUESTION POSÉE À LA C OUR

4. Selon son interprétation de la question posée par l’Assemblée géné-
rale, la Cour ne s’est pas estimée tenue

«de prendre parti sur le point de savoir si le droit international
conf[érait] au Kosovo un droit positif de déclarer unilatéralement

son indépendance, ni, a fortiori, sur le point de savoir si le droit
international confère en général à des entités situées à l’intérieur
d’un Etat existant le droit de s’en séparer unilatéralement» (avis
consultatif, par. 56).

Assurément, la Cour n’a pas été invitée à se prononcer sur le second
point, qui est d’ordre général, mais je juge regrettable, pour les raisons
que je vais indiquer, qu’elle ait décidé de ne pas examiner le premier,

220ticularly in the sense of assessing the possible existence of a right to self-
determination in the specific situation of Kosovo.

5. Firstly, since a declaration of independence is not per se regulated
by international law, there is no point assessing its legality, as such, under
international law. It is what the declaration of independence implies and
the claim it expresses to establish a new State which is of relevance to the
law. If such a claim meets the conditions prescribed by international law,

particularly in situations of decolonization or of peoples subject to alien
subjugation, domination and exploitation, the law may encourage it; but
if it violates international law, the latter can discourage it or even declare
it illegal, as was the case in Southern Rhodesia and Katanga in the 1960s.

Secondly, an assessment by the Court of the existence of an entitlement
could have brought clarity to the scope and legal content of the right of
self-determination, in its post-colonial conception, and its applicability to
the specific case of Kosovo. The Court has in the past contributed to a
better understanding of the field of application of the right of self-deter-

mination with respect to situations of decolonization or alien subjugation
and foreign occupation. It could have likewise used this opportunity to
define the scope and normative content of the post-colonial right of self-
determination, thereby contributing, inter alia, to the prevention of the
misuse of this important right by groups promoting ethnic and tribal

divisions within existing States.

6. Thirdly, claims to separate statehood by ethnic groups or other enti-
ties within a State can create situations of armed conflict and may pose a

threat not only to regional stability but also to international peace and
security. The fact that the Court decided to restrict its opinion to whether
the declaration of independence, as such, is prohibited by international
law, without assessing the underlying claim to external self-determina-
tion, may be misinterpreted as legitimizing such declarations under inter-

national law, by all kinds of separatist groups or entities that have either
made or are planning to make declarations of independence. Fourthly,
the Court itself admits that “the declaration of independence is an
attempt to determine finally the status of Kosovo” (para. 114), but fails
to examine whether such a unilateral determination of the final status

of Kosovo and its separation from the parent State is in accordance
with international law, as clearly implied in the question put to it by the
General Assembly.

7. Turning now to the issue of self-determination itself, it should be

observed at the outset that international law disfavours the fragmenta-
tion of existing States and seeks to protect their boundaries from foreign
aggression and intervention. It also promotes stability within the borders
of States, although, in view of its growing emphasis on human rights and

the welfare of peoples within State borders, it pays close attention to acts
involving atrocities, persecution, discrimination and crimes against

221notamment en vue de déterminer si un droit à l’autodétermination pou-
vait exister dans le cas particulier du Kosovo.

5. Premièrement, une déclaration d’indépendance n’étant pas en soi
régie par le droit international, point n’est besoin d’en évaluer la licéité,
en tant que telle, au regard de celui-ci. Ce sont les conséquences de cette
déclaration, et la prétention de créer un nouvel Etat qu’elle exprime, qui
relèvent du droit. Si cette prétention satisfait aux conditions prescrites

par le droit international, en particulier dans les situations de décoloni-
sation ou dans le cas de peuples soumis à la sujétion, la domination et
l’exploitation étrangères, celui-ci peut l’encourager, mais, si elle est
contraire au droit international, il peut la désapprouver, voire la déclarer

illicite, comme ce fut le cas avec la Rhodésie du Sud et le Katanga dans
les années soixante du siècle dernier. Deuxièmement, en cherchant à éta-
blir l’existence d’un droit, la Cour aurait pu contribuer à préciser la por-
tée et le contenu juridique du droit à l’autodétermination dans sa concep-
tion postcoloniale, et son applicabilité au cas précis du Kosovo. Par le

passé, la Cour a Œuvré à une meilleure compréhension du champ d’appli-
cation du droit à l’autodétermination dans les situations de décolonisa-
tion ou dans les cas de sujétion ou d’occupation étrangères. Elle aurait pu
également saisir l’occasion qui lui était offerte de définir la portée et le
contenu normatif du droit à l’autodétermination à l’ère postcoloniale, et

contribuer ainsi, notamment, à prévenir les abus de ce droit important
par des groupes cherchant à promouvoir les divisions ethniques et triba-
les au sein d’Etats existants.
6. Troisièmement, les revendications visant à obtenir la qualité d’Etat
distinct formulées par des groupes ethniques ou d’autres entités à l’inté-

rieur d’un Etat peuvent donner naissance à des situations de conflit armé
et menacer non seulement la stabilité régionale, mais aussi la paix et la
sécurité internationales. Le fait que la Cour ait décidé de limiter son avis
à la question de savoir si la déclaration d’indépendance était en tant que
telle interdite par le droit international, sans se prononcer sur la préten-

tion à l’autodétermination externe qui la sous-tend, peut être interprété à
tort, par tous les groupes ou entités séparatistes qui ont fait ou projettent
de faire des déclarations d’indépendance, comme légitimant ces déclara-
tions en droit international. Quatrièmement, la Cour elle-même reconnaît
que «la déclaration d’indépendance constitue une tentative de déterminer

définitivement le statut du Kosovo» (par. 114), mais ne se demande pas si
cette détermination unilatérale du statut final du Kosovo et la séparation
de celui-ci de l’Etat parent sont conformes au droit international, ques-
tions implicitement posées par l’Assemblée générale dans sa demande.
7. Quant à la question de l’autodétermination proprement dite, il

convient d’emblée de relever que le droit international désapprouve la
fragmentation des Etats existants et s’efforce de protéger leurs frontières
contre les agressions et interventions étrangères. Il favorise également la
stabilité à l’intérieur des frontières étatiques, même si, eu égard à l’impor-

tance croissante qu’il accorde aux droits de l’homme et au bien-être des
peuples, il s’intéresse de près aux atrocités, persécutions, actes de discri-

221humanity committed inside a State. To this end, it pierces the veil of sov-
ereignty and confers certain internationally protected rights to peoples,

groups and individuals who may be subjected to such acts, and imposes
obligations on their own State as well as other States. The right of self-
determination, particularly in its post-colonial conception, is one of those
rights.
8. It is worth recalling, in this context, that the right of self-determina-

tion has neither become a legal notion of mere historical interest nor has
it exhausted its role in international law following the end of colonialism.
It has indeed acquired renewed significance following its consecration
in the two covenants on human rights of 1966, the 1970 Declaration

on Friendly Relations (Declaration on Principles of International Law
Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in
Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, General Assembly
resolution 2625, Annex, 25 United Nations GAOR, Supp. (No. 28),
United Nations doc. A/5217 at 121 (1970)), the OSCE Helsinki Final

Act (the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in
Europe, 1 August 1975, 14 ILM 1292 (Helsinki Declaration), the African
Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the Vienna Declaration and
Programme of Action Adopted by the World Conference on Human
Rights (Vienna Declaration, World Conference on Human Rights, Vienna,

14-25 June 1993, United Nations doc. A/CONF.157/24 (Part I) at 20 (1993)).
It is a right which is exercisable continuously, particularly within the frame-
work of a relationship between peoples and their own State.

9. In this post-colonial conception, the right of self-determination
chiefly operates inside the boundaries of existing States in various forms
and guises, particularly as a right of the entire population of the State to
determine its own political, economic and social destiny and to choose a
representative government; and, equally, as a right of a defined part of

the population, which has distinctive characteristics on the basis of race
or ethnicity, to participate in the political life of the State, to be repre-
sented in its government and not to be discriminated against. These
rights are to be exercised within the State in which the population or the
ethnic group live, and thus constitute internal rights of self-determina-

tion. They offer a variety of entitlements to the concerned peoples within
the borders of the State without threatening its sovereignty.

10. In contrast, claims to external self-determination by such ethni-

cally or racially distinct groups pose a challenge to international law as
well as to their own State, and most often to the wider community of
States. Surely, there is no general positive right under international law
which entitles all ethnically or racially distinct groups within existing

States to claim separate statehood, as opposed to the specific right of
external self-determination which is recognized by international law in

222mination et crimes contre l’humanité pouvant y être commis. Il soulève
alors quelque peu le voile de la souveraineté pour conférer aux peuples,

groupes et individus exposés à de tels actes certains droits internationa-
lement protégés, et imposer des obligations aux Etats dont ils sont les res-
sortissants ainsi qu’aux autres Etats. Le droit à l’autodétermination, en
particulier dans sa conception postcoloniale, est l’un de ces droits.

8. Il n’est pas, dans ce contexte, inutile de rappeler que, avec la fin du
colonialisme, le droit à l’autodétermination n’est pas devenu une notion
juridique d’intérêt simplement historique, pas davantage qu’il n’a épuisé
son rôle en droit international. Il a de fait acquis un regain d’importance
pour avoir été consacré dans les deux pactes relatifs aux droits de

l’homme de 1966, dans la déclaration de 1970 sur les relations amicales
(déclaration relative aux principes du droit international touchant les
relations amicales et la coopération entre les Etats conformément à la
Charte des Nations Unies, résolution 2625 (XXV) de l’Assemblée géné-

rale des Nations Unies, annexe, Documents officoels de l’Assemblée géné-
rale, vingt-cinquième session, supplément n 28, Nations Unies, doc. A/
5217, p. 121 (1970)), l’acte final d’Helsinki (acte final de la conférence sur
la sécurité et la coopération en Europe, 1 er août 1975, ILM, vol. 14,
p. 1292 (déclaration d’Helsinki), la charte africaine des droits de l’homme

et des peuples et la déclaration et le programme d’action de Vienne adop-
tés par la conférence mondiale sur les droits de l’homme (déclaration de
Vienne, conférence mondiale sur les droits de l’homme, Vienne, 14-25 juin
1993, Nations Unies, doc. A/CONF.157/24 (première partie), p. 20

(1993)). C’est un droit qui peut être exercé continûment, en particulier
dans le cadre d’une relation entre les peuples et leur propre Etat.
9. Selon cette conception postcoloniale, le droit à l’autodétermination
trouve principalement à s’exercer sous diverses formes et manifestations à
l’intérieur des frontières des Etats existants, en particulier en tant que

droit de l’ensemble de la population d’un Etat à déterminer son destin
politique, économique et social et à choisir un gouvernement représenta-
tif, mais aussi en tant que droit d’une partie définie de la population, que
distinguent certaines caractéristiques raciales ou ethniques, à participer à

la vie politique de l’Etat, à être représentée dans la gestion des affaires
publiques et à ne pas faire l’objet de discrimination. Ces droits, qui doi-
vent être exercés à l’intérieur de l’Etat dans lequel vit la population ou le
groupe ethnique considéré et constituent ainsi des droits à l’autodétermi-
nation interne, offrent aux peuples concernés diverses possibilités à l’inté-

rieur des frontières de l’Etat, sans pour autant menacer la souveraineté de
celui-ci.
10. En revanche, les revendications d’autodétermination externe for-
mulées par des groupes ethniquement ou racialement distincts constituent

un défi pour le droit international ainsi que pour l’Etat visé, et le plus
souvent pour l’ensemble de la communauté des Etats. Le droit interna-
tional — celui-ci ne saurait être nié — ne prévoit pas de droit positif
général qui habiliterait tous les groupes ethniquement ou racialement dis-
tincts vivant à l’intérieur d’Etats existants à se constituer un Etat à part,

222favour of the peoples of non-self-governing territories and peoples under
alien subjugation, domination and exploitation. Thus, a racially or eth-

nically distinct group within a State, even if it qualifies as a people for the
purposes of self-determination, does not have the right to unilateral
secession simply because it wishes to create its own separate State,
though this might be the wish of the entire group. The availability of such
a general right in international law would reduce to naught the territorial

sovereignty and integrity of States and would lead to interminable con-
flicts and chaos in international relations.

11. This does not, however, mean that international law turns a blind
eye to the plight of such groups, particularly in those cases where
the State not only denies them the exercise of their internal right of self-
determination (as described above), but also subjects them to discrim-
ination, persecution and egregious violations of human rights or human-

itarian law. Under such exceptional circumstances, the right of peoples
to self-determination may support a claim to separate statehood provided
it meets the conditions prescribed by international law, in a specific
situation, taking into account the historical context. Such conditions
may be gleaned from various instruments, including the Declaration on

Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-op-
eration among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations,
which, as stated by the Court in paragraph 80 of the Advisory Opinion,
reflects customary international law. The Declaration contains, under the
principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, the following

saving clause:

“Nothing in the foregoing paragraphs shall be construed as author-
izing or encouraging any action which would dismember or impair,
totally or in part, the territorial integrity or political unity of sov-
ereign and independent States conducting themselves in compliance
with the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples

as described above and thus possessed of a government representing
the whole people belonging to the territory without distinction as to
race, creed or colour.”

12. This provision makes it clear that so long as a sovereign and inde-
pendent State complies with the principle of equal rights and self-deter-
mination of peoples, its territorial integrity and national unity should

neither be impaired nor infringed upon. It therefore primarily protects,
and gives priority to, the territorial preservation of States and seeks
to avoid their fragmentation or disintegration due to separatist forces.
However, the saving clause in its latter part implies that if a State fails to

comport itself in accordance with the principle of equal rights and self-
determination of peoples, an exceptional situation may arise whereby

223par opposition au droit spécifique d’autodétermination externe qu’il
reconnaît aux peuples de territoires non autonomes et aux peuples sou-

mis à la sujétion, la domination et l’exploitation étrangères. Ainsi, un
groupe racialement ou ethniquement distinct qui vit à l’intérieur d’un
Etat, même s’il peut être qualifié de peuple aux fins de l’autodétermina-
tion, ne bénéficie pas d’un droit de sécession unilatéral pour la seule rai-
son qu’il souhaite créer son propre Etat, quand bien même ce souhait

serait celui de tous les membres du groupe. L’existence d’un tel droit
général en droit international réduirait à néant la souveraineté et l’inté-
grité territoriales des Etats et entraînerait des conflits sans fin ainsi que le
chaos dans les relations internationales.

11. Cela ne signifie toutefois pas que le droit international refuse de
tenir compte de la situation critique de ces groupes, en particulier dans les
cas où l’Etat non seulement leur dénie l’exercice de leur droit à l’autodé-
termination interne (tel qu’exposé ci-dessus), mais les soumet à des dis-
criminations, des persécutions et des violations flagrantes des droits de

l’homme ou du droit humanitaire. Dans ces circonstances exceptionnel-
les, le droit des peuples à l’autodétermination peut fonder une prétention
à constituer un Etat distinct dès lors que cette prétention satisfait aux
conditions prescrites par le droit international, dans une situation donnée
et compte tenu du contexte historique. Ces conditions peuvent être dédui-

tes de divers instruments, notamment la déclaration relative aux principes
du droit international touchant les relations amicales et la coopération
entre les Etats conformément à la Charte des Nations Unies, qui, comme
le déclare la Cour au paragraphe 80 de son avis consultatif, reflète le droit
international coutumier. La déclaration énonce, corollairement au prin-

cipe de l’égalité de droits des peuples et de leur droit à disposer d’eux-
mêmes, la clause de sauvegarde suivante:

«Rien dans les paragraphes précédents ne sera interprété comme
autorisant ou encourageant une action, quelle qu’elle soit, qui
démembrerait ou menacerait, totalement ou partiellement, l’intégrité
territoriale ou l’unité politique de tout Etat souverain et indépendant
se conduisant conformément au principe de l’égalité de droits et du

droit des peuples à disposer d’eux-mêmes énoncé ci-dessus et doté
ainsi d’un gouvernement représentant l’ensemble du peuple apparte-
nant au territoire sans distinction de race, de croyance ou de cou-
leur.»

12. Cette disposition indique clairement que, aussi longtemps qu’un
Etat souverain et indépendant respecte le principe de l’égalité de droits et
le droit des peuples à disposer d’eux-mêmes, son intégrité territoriale et

son unité nationale ne doivent faire l’objet d’aucune menace ni atteinte.
Elle protège donc d’abord, en lui donnant la priorité, l’intégrité territo-
riale des Etats et vise à éviter la fragmentation ou la désintégration de
ceux-ci sous l’action de forces séparatistes. Toutefois, in fine, cette clause

de sauvegarde donne à penser que, si un Etat ne se comporte pas confor-
mément au principe de l’égalité de droits et du droit des peuples à dispo-

223the ethnically or racially distinct group denied internal self-determination
may claim a right of external self-determination or separation from the

State which could effectively put into question the State’s territorial unity
and sovereignty.

13. Admittedly, the Kosovo situation is special in many ways. It is in
the context of its distinctive character and history that the question posed

by the General Assembly should have been analysed. The violent break-up
of Yugoslavia, the removal of the autonomy of Kosovo by the Serbian
authorities, the history of ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity
in Kosovo described in the Milutinovic ´ judgment of the ICTY (Prosecu-

tor v. Milan Milutinovic´ et al., Judgement of 26 February 2009) , and the
extended period of United Nations administration of Kosovo which de
facto separated it from Serbia to protect its population and provide it
with institutions of self-government, are specific features that may not be
found elsewhere. The Court itself had occasion, in June 1999, to refer to

the “human tragedy, the loss of life, and the enormous suffering in
Kosovo . . .” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) , p. 131,
para. 16). Given this specific context there was, in my view, sufficient
material before the Court to allow it to assess whether the situation in

Kosovo reflected the type of exceptional circumstances that may trans-
form an entitlement to internal self-determination into a right to claim
separate statehood from the parent State.

14. This question has been considered in other fora. For example, the

absence of such exceptional circumstances in the case of Katanga (DRC)
was described by the African Commission of Human and Peoples’ Rights
as follows in the Katangese Peoples’ Congress v. Zaire:

“In the absence of concrete evidence of violations of human rights
to the point that the territorial integrity of Zaire should be called to
question and in the absence of evidence that the people of Katanga
are denied the right to participate in government as guaranteed by

Article 13 (1) of the African Charter, the Commission holds the view
that Katanga is obliged to exercise a variant of self-determination
that is compatible with the sovereignty and territorial integrity of
Zaire.” (Case 75/92, Katangese Peoples’ Congress v. Zaire,p.1.)

In other words, the Commission held that the Katangese people should
exercise their right to self-determination internally unless it could be

clearly demonstrated that their human rights were egregiously violated
by the Government of Zaire and that they were denied the right to par-
ticipate in government.

15. Similarly, the Canadian Supreme Court in the Reference re. Seces-
sion of Quebec, while admitting that there may be a right to external self-

224ser d’eux-mêmes, une situation exceptionnelle peut se faire jour, dans le
cadre de laquelle un groupe ethniquement ou racialement distinct, auquel

l’autodétermination interne est déniée, peut revendiquer un droit d’auto-
détermination externe ou de sécession pouvant effectivement mettre en
question l’unité territoriale et la souveraineté de l’Etat.
13. Certes, la situation du Kosovo est particulière à de nombreux
égards. C’est dans le contexte de son histoire et de son caractère particu-

liers que la question posée par l’Assemblée générale aurait dû être traitée.
La dissolution violente de la Yougoslavie, le retrait de son autonomie au
Kosovo par les autorités serbes, le nettoyage ethnique et les crimes contre
l’humanité au Kosovo exposés dans le jugement Milutinovic ´ du TPIY (Le

procureur c. Milan Milutinovic ´ et consorts, jugement du 26 février 2009 ),
ainsi que la longue période pendant laquelle les Nations Unies ont admi-
nistré le Kosovo, le séparant de facto de la Serbie pour protéger sa popu-
lation et le doter d’institutions d’administration autonome, sont des
caractéristiques particulières qui peuvent ne pas exister ailleurs. La Cour

elle-même a eu l’occasion, en juin 1999, d’évoquer «le drame humain, les
pertes en vies humaines et les terribles souffrances que connaît le
Kosovo…» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Belgique),
mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil
1999 (I), p. 131, par. 16). Etant donné le contexte particulier, la Cour

avait à mon avis suffisamment d’éléments pour rechercher si la situation
au Kosovo constituait le type de circonstances exceptionnelles de nature
à transformer un droit à l’autodétermination interne en un droit de se
constituer en Etat distinct de l’Etat parent.
14. Cette question a été examinée dans d’autres instances. C’est ainsi

que la commission africaine des droits de l’homme et des peuples a analysé
comme suit l’absence de telles circonstances exceptionnelles dans le cas du
Katanga (RDC), dans l’affaireCongrès du peuple katangais c. Zaïre :

«En l’absence de preuve tangible à l’appui des violations des
droits de l’homme à tel point qu’il faille mettre en cause l’intégrité
territoriale du Zaïre et en l’absence de toute preuve attestant le refus
au peuple katangais du droit de participer à la direction des affaires

publiques conformément à l’article 13 1) de la Charte africaine, la
Commission maintient que le Katanga est tenu d’user d’une forme
d’autodétermination qui soit compatible avec la souveraineté et
l’intégrité territoriale du Zaïre.» (Affaire 75/92, Congrès du peuple
katangais c. Zaïre,p.1.)

En d’autres termes, la commission a estimé que le peuple katangais devait
exercer son droit à l’autodétermination à l’intérieur de l’Etat dans lequel

il vivait, sauf s’il pouvait être clairement établi qu’il était victime de gra-
ves violations des droits de l’homme de la part du Gouvernement du
Zaïre et que son droit de participer à la direction des affaires publiques
lui était dénié.

15. De même, la Cour suprême du Canada, dans l’affaire du Renvoi
relatif à la sécession du Québec , tout en admettant qu’un droit à l’auto-

224determination where a people is denied any meaningful exercise of its
right to self-determination internally, concluded as follows:

“A State whose government represents the whole of the people or

peoples resident within its territory, on a basis of equality and with-
out discrimination, and respects the principles of self-determination
in its internal arrangements, is entitled to maintain its territorial
integrity recognized by other States. Quebec does not meet the
threshold of a colonial people or an oppressed people, nor can it be

suggested that Quebecers have been denied meaningful access to
government to pursue their political, economic, cultural and social
development.” (Reference by the Governor in Council concerning
Certain Questions relating to the Secession of Quebec from Canada ,

([1998] 2 SCR 217; 161 DLR (4th) 385; 115 ILR 536), para. 154.)

16. To determine whether a specific situation constitutes an excep-
tional case which may legitimize a claim to external self-determination,
certain criteria have to be considered, such as the existence of discrim-
ination against a people, its persecution due to its racial or ethnic

characteristics, and the denial of autonomous political structures and
access to government. A decision by the Security Council to intervene
could also be an additional criterion for assessing the exceptional cir-
cumstances which might confer legitimacy on demands for external self-
determination by a people denied the exercise of its right to internal self-

determination. Nevertheless, even where such exceptional circumstances
exist, it does not necessarily follow that the concerned people has an
automatic right to separate statehood. All possible remedies for the reali-
zation of internal self-determination must be exhausted before the issue is
removed from the domestic jurisdiction of the State which had hitherto

exercised sovereignty over the territory inhabited by the people making the
claim. In this context, the role of the international community, and in
particular of the Security Council and the General Assembly, is of para-
mount importance.

17. In the specific case of Kosovo, the General Assembly has sought
the advisory opinion of the Court to shed light on the accordance of the
declaration of independence with international law which implied, in my
view, the need for an assessment of whether the special situation of this
territory, in view of its history and of the recent events that led to the

United Nations interim administration and to its declaration of inde-
pendence, could possibly entitle its people to a claim for separate state-
hood without the consent of its parent State. The Court had a unique
opportunity to assess, in a specific and concrete situation, the legal con-

ditions to be met for such a right of self-determination to materialize and
give legitimacy to a claim of separation. It has unfortunately failed to

225détermination externe pouvait exister lorsqu’un peuple était empêché
d’exercer utilement son droit à l’autodétermination à l’intérieur de l’Etat

dont il faisait partie, a conclu comme suit:

«Un Etat dont le gouvernement représente l’ensemble du peuple
ou des peuples résidant sur son territoire, dans l’égalité et sans dis-
crimination, et qui respecte les principes de l’autodétermination dans
ses arrangements internes, a droit au maintien de son intégrité terri-
toriale en vertu du droit international et à la reconnaissance de cette

intégrité territoriale par les autres Etats. Le Québec ne constitue pas
un peuple colonisé ou opprimé, et on ne peut pas prétendre non plus
que les Québécois se voient refuser un accès réel au gouvernement
pour assurer leur développement politique, économique, culturel et

social.» (Renvoi par le Gouverneur en conseil au sujet de certaines
questions ayant trait à la sécession du Québec du reste du Canada ,
[1998] 2 R.C.S. 217; 161 D.L.R. (4 ) 385; 115 Int. Law Reps. 536),
par. 154.)

16. Pour déterminer si une situation particulière constitue un cas excep-
tionnel pouvant légitimer une revendication d’autodétermination externe,
certains critères doivent être pris en considération, comme l’existence de

discriminations à l’encontre d’un peuple, la persécution de celui-ci en rai-
son de ses caractéristiques raciales ou ethniques, ou le déni de structures
politiques autonomes et d’accès à la gestion des affaires publiques. Une
décision d’intervenir prise par le Conseil de sécurité peut aussi être un

critère lorsqu’il s’agit de chercher s’il existe des circonstances exception-
nelles de nature à légitimer les revendications d’autodétermination externe
émanant de peuples auxquels est refusé l’exercice du droit à l’autodéter-
mination à l’intérieur de l’Etat dans lequel ils vivent. Néanmoins, même
dans de telles circonstances exceptionnelles, le peuple concerné n’a pas

automatiquement le droit de se constituer un Etat distinct. Tous les
recours internes permettant la réalisation de l’autodétermination à l’inté-
rieur de l’Etat doivent avoir été épuisés pour que la question puisse être
soustraite à la juridiction interne de l’Etat qui exerçait jusque-là sa sou-

veraineté sur le territoire où ce peuple vit. Le rôle de la communauté
internationale, et en particulier du Conseil de sécurité et de l’Assemblée
générale, est à cet égard d’une importance capitale.
17. Dans le cas particulier du Kosovo, l’Assemblée générale avait sol-
licité l’avis consultatif de la Cour sur la conformité au droit international

de la déclaration d’indépendance, ce qui impliquait à mon avis qu’il y
avait lieu de déterminer si la situation particulière de ce territoire, compte
tenu de son histoire et des événements récents ayant abouti à son admi-
nistration intérimaire par l’Organisation des Nations Unies et à sa décla-

ration d’indépendance, pouvait habiliter son peuple à prétendre se cons-
tituer en Etat distinct sans le consentement de l’Etat parent. La Cour
avait ainsi une occasion unique d’apprécier, dans une situation particu-
lière et concrète, les conditions juridiques qui doivent être remplies pour
que naisse un tel droit à l’autodétermination et qu’une revendication de

225seize this opportunity, which would have allowed it to clarify the scope

and normative content of the right to external self-determination, in its
post-colonial conception, and thus to contribute, inter alia, to the pre-
vention of unjustified claims to independence which may lead to instabil-
ity and conflict in various parts of the world.

III. THE LEGAL NATURE OF UNMIK R EGULATIONS

18. In paragraph 88 of the Advisory Opinion, the Court observes that:
“[t]he Constitutional Framework derives its binding force from the bind-
ing character of resolution 1244 (1999) and thus from international law.
In that sense it therefore possesses an international legal character”. This

statement confuses the source of the authority for the promulgation of
the Kosovo regulations and the nature of the regulations themselves.
International administrations have to act in a dual capacity when exer-
cising regulatory authority. Although they act under the authority of

international institutions such as the United Nations, the regulations they
adopt belong to the domestic legal order of the territory under interna-
tional administration. The legislative powers vested in the SRSG in Kos-
ovo under resolution 1244 are not for the enactment of international

legal rules and principles, but to legislate for Kosovo and establish laws
and regulations which are exclusively applicable at the domestic level.
The fact that the exercise of legislative functions by the SRSG may be
subject to the control of international law, or that they may have been
derived from the authority conferred upon him by a resolution of the

Security Council does not qualify these regulations as rules of interna-
tional law for the purposes of the question put to the Court by the General
Assembly.

19. The Constitutional Framework enacted by the SRSG operated as
the Constitution of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of
Kosovo (PISG) and was part of the internal laws of Kosovo which, as
specifically provided in UNMIK regulation 1999/24, consisted of: “(a)

the regulations promulgated by the Special Representative of the Secretary-
General and subsidiary instruments thereunder; and (b) the law in force
in Kosovo on 22 March 1989”. There are no differences in the legal effects
or binding force of the laws existing in Kosovo, irrespective of whether

they were issued by UNMIK or by Yugoslavia/Serbia before 1989.
The Constitutional Framework as well as all other regulations
enacted by the SRSG are part of a domestic legal system established
on the basis of authority derived from an international legal source.
The existence of this authority does not however qualify them as part of

international law. Rather, they belong to the legal system which governs
Kosovo during the interim period and beyond. They are part of a terri-
torially-based legislation which was enacted solely and exclusively for

226séparation soit légitimée. Elle n’a malheureusement pas saisi cette occa-
sion, qui lui aurait permis de préciser la portée et le contenu normatif du

droit à l’autodétermination externe dans sa conception postcoloniale, et
de contribuer ainsi, entre autres, à prévenir des revendications d’indépen-
dance injustifiées qui peuvent être des facteurs d’instabilité et de conflit
dans diverses régions du monde.

III. LE CARACTÈRE JURIDIQUE DES RÈGLEMENTS DE LA MINUK

18. Au paragraphe 88 de son avis consultatif, la Cour fait observer

que: «[l]e cadre constitutionnel tient sa force obligatoire du caractère
contraignant de la résolution 1244 (1999) et, partant, du droit internatio-
nal. En ce sens, il revêt donc un caractère juridique international.» Par
cette affirmation, elle confond la source du pouvoir de promulguer des

règlements au Kosovo et la nature de ces règlements. Les administrations
internationales sont appelées à agir à un double titre lorsqu’elles exercent
leur pouvoir réglementaire. Bien qu’elles agissent sous l’autorité d’insti-
tutions internationales comme l’Organisation des Nations Unies, les règle-
ments qu’elles adoptent relèvent de l’ordre juridique interne du territoire

sous administration internationale. Les pouvoirs législatifs dont le repré-
sentant spécial du Secrétaire général au Kosovo est investi par la résolu-
tion 1244 ne lui sont pas conférés pour promulguer des règles et principes
juridiques internationaux, mais pour légiférer au Kosovo et adopter des

lois et règlements applicables exclusivement au plan interne. Que l’exer-
cice de ses fonctions législatives par le représentant spécial du Secrétaire
général puisse être soumis au contrôle du droit international, ou que ces
fonctions puissent découler de pouvoirs qui lui sont conférés par une
résolution du Conseil de sécurité, ne fait pas de ces règlements des règles

de droit international aux fins de la question posée à la Cour par
l’Assemblée générale.
19. Le cadre constitutionnel promulgué par le représentant spécial du
Secrétaire général faisait office de Constitution des institutions provisoi-

res d’administration autonome du Kosovo et faisait partie de la législa-
tion interne du Kosovo, qui, comme l’indique expressément le règle-
ment 1999/24 de la MINUK, est constituée par: «a) les règlements
promulgués par le représentant spécial du Secrétaire général et les textes
subsidiaires publiés en vertu de ceux-ci; et b) la législation en vigueur au

Kosovo le 22 mars 1989». Il n’existe aucune différence, du point de vue
de leurs effets juridiques ou de leur force obligatoire, entre les lois en
vigueur au Kosovo selon qu’elles ont été promulguées par la MINUK ou
par la Yougoslavie/Serbie avant 1989. Le cadre constitutionnel et les

autres règlements adoptés par le représentant spécial du Secrétaire géné-
ral font partie d’un système de droit interne établi en vertu d’une autorité
découlant d’une source juridique internationale. L’existence de cette auto-
rité ne fait toutefois pas de ces règlements des instruments de droit inter-
national. Ils appartiennent simplement à l’ordre juridique régissant le

226the administration of that territory. This is made clear by the interface with
pre-existing Yugoslav/Serbian legislation enacted before 1989 which is

also still in force in Kosovo.

20. The question put to the Court by the General Assembly concerns

the accordance of the declaration of independence of Kosovo with inter-
national law. The Constitutional Framework enacted by the SRSG is not
part of international law. Even if the declaration of independence was
adopted by the PISG in violation of the Constitutional Framework, such
action could only be considered as ultra vires in respect of the domestic

law of Kosovo, and would have to be dealt with by the SRSG, in his
quality as administrator of the territory, or by the Supreme Court of
Kosovo. Thus, there was no need for the Court to state that the

“authors of the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 did

not act as one of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government
within the Constitutional Framework, but rather as persons who
acted together in their capacity as representatives of the people of
Kosovo outside the framework of the interim administration”

(para. 109).
It is also a very unpersuasive argument.

21. The question on which the General Assembly requested the Advi-
sory Opinion explicitly referred to the “Declaration of Independence by
the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo”. Moreover,
the Court was not requested to give an advisory opinion on the compat-
ibility of the declaration of independence with the Constitutional Frame-

work which, in my view, is not part of international law, and should not
have therefore been taken into account in assessing the accordance of the
declaration of independence of Kosovo with international law.

(Signed) Abdulqawi A. Y USUF .

227Kosovo durant la période intérimaire et au-delà. Ils font partie d’une

législation applicable sur un territoire, adoptée aux seules fins d’adminis-
trer ce territoire. C’est ce qu’atteste leur relation avec la législation you-
goslave/serbe préexistante, adoptée avant 1989, qui est aussi en vigueur
au Kosovo.
20. La question posée à la Cour par l’Assemblée générale concernait la

conformité au droit international de la déclaration d’indépendance du
Kosovo. Le cadre constitutionnel adopté par le représentant spécial du
Secrétaire général ne fait pas partie du droit international. Même si la
déclaration d’indépendance a été adoptée par les institutions provisoires

d’administration autonome du Kosovo en violation du cadre constitu-
tionnel, cette adoption ne peut être considérée comme ultra vires qu’au
regard du droit interne du Kosovo, et c’est au représentant spécial du
Secrétaire général, en sa qualité d’administrateur du territoire, ou à la

Cour suprême du Kosovo qu’il reviendrait d’en connaître. Ainsi, la Cour
n’avait nul besoin d’affirmer que

«la déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février 2008 n’est pas le fait de
l’Assemblée du Kosovo en tant qu’institution provisoire d’adminis-
tration autonome agissant dans les limites du cadre constitutionnel,
mais est celui de personnes ayant agi de concert en leur qualité de

représentants du peuple du Kosovo, en dehors du cadre de l’admi-
nistration intérimaire» (par. 109).

Il s’agit en outre d’un argument peu convaincant.
21. La question par laquelle l’Assemblée générale a sollicité l’avis
consultatif visait expressément la «Déclaration d’indépendance des insti-
tutions provisoires d’administration autonome du Kosovo». De plus, il

n’était pas demandé à la Cour de donner un avis consultatif sur la com-
patibilité de la déclaration d’indépendance avec le cadre constitutionnel,
qui, selon moi, ne fait pas partie du droit international, et qu’il ne fallait
donc pas prendre en considération pour apprécier la conformité de la

déclaration d’indépendance du Kosovo au droit international.

(Signé) Abdulqawi A. Y USUF .

227

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Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Yusuf

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