Dissenting Opinion of Judge Weeramantry

Document Number
093-19960708-ADV-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
093-19960708-ADV-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE WEERAMANTRY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1
1. PRELIMINARY
1. The genesis of WHO's request

2. The Court's advisory jurisdiction
3. The requisites to beulfilled
4. The question posed by WHO, compared with the question
posed by the General Assembly
5. WHO's presentation of its request before the Court
6. Two levels of WHO's involvement
7. WHO's constitutional responsibilities in regard to public
health in general

II.EFFECT SF NUCLEAW R EAPON SN HEALTH
1. Overview of the effects of nuclear weapons on health
2. Health problems in the short term

3. Intermediate and long-term health effects
4. The appearance of devastating epidemics
5. The relevance of the medical material placed before the Court
6. The experience of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
III. MATTERR SELATIN GO WHO'S COMPETENCE

1. The objections to WHO's competence
2. The importance of the enquiry relating to WHO's Constitution
3. The constitutional functions of WHO
(i) Co-ordination of international health work (Art. 2))

(ii) Collaboration with the United Nations, specialized agen-
cies, etc. (Art. 2 (b)) 130
(iii) Emergencies (Art. 2 (d)) 131
(iv) Provision, upon the request of the United Nations, of
health services and facilities to special groups (Art. 131e))
(v) To propose conventions, agreements and regulations
(Art.2 (k)) 131

(vi) Research (Art. (n)) 132
(vii) Improved standards of teaching and training (Art. 2) 132

(viii) Public education (Art. 2 (q) and 2 (v)) 132
4. The work and concerns of WHO 133
5. The analogy with chemical and biological weapons 134
6. The importance of prevention 135

7. The argument relating to abuse of the Court's advisory func-
tions 138 IV. STATE OBLIGATIONS
1. State obligations in regard to the environment

(a) The progress of environmental law
(b) The growth of the notion of State obligations
(c) Active and passive State obligations
(d) The juristic nature of State obligations
je) Multilateral treaty obligations

2. State obligations in regard to health
(a) The human right to health
(b) State obligations in relation to health
(c) Global implementation measures involving State obli-

gations in regard to health
(d) The clash between State obligations and the health-related
effects of nuclear weapons
3. The duties of States under the WHO Constitution

1. Principles of interpretation applicable to WHO's Constitution
2. The principle of speciality
VI. WHO's PRIOREFFORTS

1. WHO's efforts in the nuclear field
2. WHO's past practice in matters relating to peace

3. Lack of objection of prior WHO actions

VII. ADMISSIBILI TND JURISDICTION
1. The Court's discretion

2. The Court's duty to act judicially

3. The objections
(a) The requested opinion would enter the political sphere

(b) Nuclear weapons are being addressed in other contexts in
the United Nations

(c) An opinion would be devoid of object or purpose
(ci) An opinion would have no effect on the conduct of States

(e) An opinion could adversely affect important disarmament
negotiations
(f) The question referred is purely abstract and theoretical
(g) The question is too general
(h) An opinion rendered in this matter would be damaging
to the prestige of the Court

(i) The Court would be involved in a law-making exercise if
it rendered an opinion
(j) The case falls outside the categories of cases in which an
opinion ought to be given (k) An opinion would trespass into areas of State policy 165

4. The Court's responsibilities

(a) As a judicial institution
(b) As a principal organ of the United Nations
5. The refusa1for want of jurisdiction

VIII. CONCLUSION It has been argued that the question asked by the World Health
Organization (WHO) travels outside its legitimate concerns. The Court
has accepted that argument. 1 respectfully dissent.
The question on which WHO seeks the Court's opinion is as follows:

"In view of the health and environmental effects, would the use of

nuclear weapons by a State in war or other armed conflict be a
breach of its obligations under international law including the WHO
Constitution?"

1read this question as containing an enquiry in relation to State obli-
gations in three particular areas :

(a) State obligations in regard to health;
(b) State obligations in regard to the environment; and
(c) State obligations under the WHO Constitution.

This opinion will endeavour to show that the question asked is directly
within WHO'Slegitimate and mandated area of concern. It relates to an
issue fundamental to global health. It relates to the integrity of the
human environment which is fundamental to global health. It relates to
the fundamental constitutional objective of WHO, which is the attain-
ment by al1peoples of the highest possible level of health.

Global health is central to the question, just as global health is central to
the concerns of WHO. Health issuesmay have political or legal overtones,
as they often do, but such overtones do not lift them out of the category of
health issues: and health issues are the central concerns of WHO.

Moreover, the Court's ruling has significance for other specialized
agencies as well, who may in the future desire to invoke the Court's advi-

sory jurisdiction on matters of importance to them in the discharge of
their functions.
It will be noted that the International Court of Justice has not thus far
refused to render an advisory opinion requested of it by any organ or
agency of the United Nations which has been given authority to seek an
opinion from the Court. It is important therefore that when such a
request is declined for the firsttime in the Court's jurisprudence, the rea-
sons for so declining must be compelling. The consistentjurisprudence of
this Court to this effect is reflected in a stream of decisions ', which the
Court cites with approval in its Opinion responding to the General
Assembly's request concerning the legality of nuclear weapons.

'Jzrdgi~zeisj the Admiizistiative Tribunal of tlzeIL0 upon Coinplr~intsMade ngainst
U~zesco,Advisoiy Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1956, p. 86; Certain Expenses of the United

42 1. The Genesisof WHO'SRequest

It appears from the report of the Director-General of the World
Health Organization (doc. A46130of 25 April 1993)entitled "Health and

Environmental Effects of Nuclear Weapons", which has been furnished
to the Court, that the reference to the Court was proposed by Vanuatu,
Ecuador, Panama and Mexico for the agenda of the Forty-sixth World
Health Assembly.

Vanuatu explained its CO-sponsorshipof the resolution in terms of
its commitment to the health of the international community, in the
context of its own health-related experiences of nuclear weapons. As

one of many thousands of small islands scattered in the Pacific, it
claimed it had suffered as a result of nuclear activity in the Pacific com-
mencing in the 1950s, in that its people were facing many complicated
health issues which they did not have the expertise to diagnose, or the
resources to treat. According to its representative, increases in leukaemia,
in cancer, in fish poisoning, and in skin diseases were common; the
food chain, the water and the ecosystem had been contaminated; mis-

carriages were common, and grotesquely deformed babies were being
born2.

Tonga, another supporting member, referred to Article 1 of the WHO
Constitution and related the enquiry to the constitutional functions of
WHO as listed in various parts of Article 2 of its Constitution3. Other

members also addressed the Assembly. The matter had been debated
earlier in Committee B of the Assembly, where it had been fully dis-
cussed, with over a hundred delegates taking part.

At the Assembly, strong objections were raised to the reference by,
among others, the United Kingdom, whose representative asserted that
this action was not within the competence of WHO, and characterized it
as a "pointless and expensive, and a disruptive exercisen4;by the United

States, whose representative stressed that "This resolution would inject

Nations (Article 17,paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports 1962,
p. 155; Legal Consequencesfor States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in
Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolu276n(1970),
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 27; Application for Revieiv of Judgement
No. 158 of the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports
1973,p. 183;Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports 1975, ;Applicability
of Article VI, Section 22, of the Conventionon the Privileges andImmunities of the United
Nations, Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports 1989, p. 191.
'Record of 13th Plenary Meeting of the World Health Assembly, 14 May 1993,
doc. A46lVRl13, p. 11.
Ibid., p. 9..the World Health Organization into debates about arms control and dis-
armament that are the responsibility of other organizations in the United
Nations system . .."5;by France, whose representative thought that the
Assembly was not the appropriate forumto deal with a subject with
purely political connotations6; and by Russia, whose representative stated
that the resolution went beyond the competence of WHO, and would
lead to politicization and involvement of the organization in the problem
of disarmament, without its having a proper perspective on the matter7.

WHO'Slegal counsel then took the floor to advise the Assembly. His
advice was as follows :
"The question of health and health-related environmental effects
of nuclear weapons falls squarely within the mandate of WHO as a
technical agency. The question of whether the use of nuclear weap-

ons by a State would be contrary to the spirit and objective of WHO
and, as such, a violation of the Constitution of WHO, is also within
the mandate and competence of this World Health Assembly. It is
not within the normal competence or mandate of WHOto deal with
the lawfulness or illegality of the use of nuclear weapons. In conse-
quence, it is also not within the normal competence or mandate of
WHO to refer the lawfulness or illegality question to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice."*

As already observed, the WHO question was not framed in terms of
lawfulness or illegality in general, but in terms of State obligations in
relation to health, the environment and the WHO Constitution.
The matter turned out to be so sensitive that it was proposed that the
voting be by secret ballot. 75 votes were received in favour of a secret
ballot, 33 against and there were 5 abstentions. The matter was then

voted upon by secret ballot, with the following result:
"Members entitled to vote, 164; absent, 41 ; abstentions, 10;papers
nul1 and void, 0; number of Members present and voting, 113;
number required for a simple majority, 57; number of votes in
favour, 73; number of votes against, 40."9

Thereafterthe General Assembly, inits resolution 49175K of 15Decem-
ber 1994(by which the Assembly itself requested an opinion of the ques-
tion of the legality of nuclear weapons), welcomed the resolution of the
Assembly of the World Health Organization to seek an advisory opinion
from the Court.

Record of 13th Plenary Meeting of the World Health Assembly,14 May 1993,
doc. A46iVRi13, p. 9.
Ibid., p. 12.
Ibid ..,15.
Ibid p. 13.
Ibid ..,17. This brief recital of facts shows a clear division of opinion within
WHO, notwithstanding which a decision was taken by a substantial
majority to refer the matter to the Court.

2. The Court's Advisory Jurisdiction

The entitlement of specialized agencies,who have been admitted to this
privilege to seek an advisory opinion from the Court in relation to
matters arising within the scope of their activities, is an important con-
stitutional right which they enjoy.
Advisory jurisdiction was an iimovation in international adjudication,
adopted not without difficulty 'Oafter World War 1.The right to seek an
opinion was initially given only to the Council and the Assembly of the
League of Nations. After World War II, the San Francisco Conference
approved the patterns of advisory practice as they had evolved, but the

circle ofthose entitled to seek it was extended. The United Nations fam-
ily of organizations today is widely expanded, closely knit, and works
together, in developing areas of international activity, within the frame-
work of the international rule of law. While each of these organizations
has its specificfunctions, they al1interlock in the common service of the
ideals of the United Nations and they al1 operate under the common
aegis of international law. Though each of them is given a particular
sphere of activity, they do not necessarily function in closed compart-
ments, for the complex nature of United Nations activities may often
result in overlapping areas of interest. The work of one organization may
interweave with that of other organizations, and hence would have
repercussions on the work of other members of the United Nations

family .

An important role assigned to the Court in this network of interrelated
activity,under the aegis of international law, is the grant of advisory
opinions on matters of law to assist authorized organizations in the
United Nations system who may need it. This represents an important
part of the contribution the Court can make as a member of the United
Nations family of organizations, al1pursuing the common objectives of
the United Nations, each in its different ways. It is, inter alia, a means of
ensuring a clearer understanding of the principles of international law

relating to their work.
The right of such organizations to seek an opinion from the Court is a
hard-won right and is valuable, both to each organization in particular,
and to the United Nations system in general. This right therefore needs
to be carefully conserved from the standpoint of assisting these organi-

IoSee Shabtai Rosenne, The World Court: Wlzat Zt 1s and HoZt Works, 5th ed.,
1995,p. 107.zations in the discharge of their duties, from the standpoint of the devel-
opment of international law, and from the standpoint of ensuring the
smooth interrelationship of these organizations within the family of
United Nations organizations.
The Court's consciousness of its role in assisting the United Nations in
this respect through the Court's advisoryjurisdiction has been manifested
in its prior jurisprudence. For example, in the case concerning Interpveta-
tion of Peace Treaties, the Court observed that:

"the reply of the Court, itself an 'organ of the United Nations', rep-
resents its participation in the activities of the Organization, and, in
principle, should not be refused" (1.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 71).

A refusa1by the Court to grant an opinion at the request of a special-
ized agency authorized to request one is therefore fraught with far-
ranging implications. The first such refusa1 in the history of this Court
could well affect the readiness of other specialized agencies to approach
the Court, even on a matter relating to their own Constitutions.

This becomes particularly important when decisions are involved which
may have political overtones, or else different organizations may, in case
of doubt, tend to go their different ways on the basis of the dominant
political influences playing upon them rather than on the basis of inter-
national law. As this Court observed in a previous Advisory Opinion
sought by WHO:

"Indeed, in situations in which political considerations are proini-
nent it may be particularly necessary for an international organiza-
tion to obtain an advisory opinion from the Court as to the legal
principles applicable with respect to the matter under debate, espe-
cially when these may include the interpvetation of its constitution."
(Interpvetation of tlze Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the
WHO and Egypt, I.C.J. Reports 1980:p. 87; emphasis added.)

The reference already made to the history of this request indicates the
deep divisions of opinion that operated within WHO, on a politically
sensitive issue. It is precisely onuch matters that great value attaches to
the right to seek an independent opinion based on international law,
rather than on the varying political perceptions of parties.

The Court is of course entitled to refuse a request for an advisory
opinion for cogent reasons - and indeed should so refuse if cogent
reasons be present. However, in their absence, there is created a climate
of uncertainty in the relevant area, which can result in a diversity of inter-
pretations on the same legal question. This does not augur well for the
concept of their al1functioning harmoniously under a common mantle of
international law. WHO seeks this opinion to assist it in the discharge of one of its
weightiest responsibilities. Itis the organ responsible for the planning of
the worldwide medical serviceswhich can be offered to the world's popu-
lation in relation to the various health hazards that will confront it from
time to time. A nuclear attack is one such health hazard and perhaps the
most awful of them all; and WHO will be called upon to bear the brunt
of the international responsibility for organizing medical assistance to
stricken populations after a nuclear attack - not only in the belligerent
countries, but also in the neutral countries (al1 Member States of the
United Nations) who would suffer dire consequences in a war to which

they are not parties. In view of the health and environmental effects of
nuclear weapons, WHO seeks information from the Court regarding
State obligations under international law in relation to health, in relation
to the environment, and in relation to the WHO Constitution.

1 believe that the Court's refusa1 to grant an opinion is based upon
restricted principles of treaty interpretation. The present application
requires, rather, a construction of WHO's statute in the light of its object
and purpose. Its overall purpose is "to promote and protect the health of
al1 peoples" - an objective which al1 the nations subscribing to the
WHO Charter have recognized in the opening words of that Constitu-
tion to be basic to the security of al1peoples. A literal construction of
WHO's Constitution, so as to deprive it of an advisory opinion on the
legality of a serious threat to global health, is not in accordance with the

spirit of WHO's Constitution, or the purposes of the Court's advisory
jurisdiction.

3. TlzeRequisites to Be Fulfilled

1begin by stating my agreement with the Court in regard to the three
conditions to be fulfilledto enable a specialized agency to make a request
for an advisory opinion. They are that the agency must be authorized to
request advisory opinions, that the request must be in respect of a legal
question, and that this question must arise within the scope of its activi-
ties.
1 believe that in the present case al1 three conditions are satisfied.

1 agree in principle with the Court's treatment of the first and second
requisites, which it is therefore not necessary to consider in this opinion.
1 agree in particular with its observations that the presence of political
aspects in the question referred to the Court cannot sufficeto deprive it
of its character as a legal question (Advisory Opinion, para. 16),and that
the political implications are of no relevance in this respect (ibid.,
para. 17).
1respectfully disagree, however, with the Court's finding in regard to
the third requisite and this opinion will centre mainly on an examination
of this aspect. 4. The Question Posed by WHO, Compaved with the Question
Posed by the GenevalAssembly

There is a substantial difference between the question posed by WHO
and that posed by the General Assembly. Both organizations raise issues
of vital importance and both equally cal1for the most careful considera-
tion, but it would not be correct to treat the questions posed by the two
bodies as though they raise the identical issues.
The WHO question, as already noted, is as follows:
"In view of the health and environmental effects, would the use of

nuclear weapons by a State in war or other armed conflict be a
breach of its obligationsunder international law including the WHO
Constitution?"

The General Assembly question reads :

"1s the threat or use of nuclear weapons in any circumstance per-
mitted under international law?"
The following differences appear at once in the phraseology of the two
questions :

(a) the WHO request relates to use only;
(b) the WHO request is cast in terms of State responsibility;

(c) the WHO request concentrates on health and environmental effects;
(d) the WHO request is limited to use in war or other armed conflict;

(e) the WHO question is cast also in terms of obligations under the
WHO Constitution ;

(f) the WHO question raises the issue of specificState obligations vis-
à-vis health and the environment, and of any conflict between these
and the use of nuclear weapons.

It will be seen that the WHO question is carefully drafted, in confor-
mity with the health concerns of WHO as contrasted with the broader
concerns of the General Assembly. The question concerns itself with
actual use (and not threat of use), with State responsibility (rather than

the broader question of illegality under international law), with health
and environmental effects (which are the proper sphere of concern of
WHO), with use in war or other armed conflict (and not, again, with the
status of nuclear weapons generally), and with obligations under the
WHO Constitution (which is manifestly a matter of concern to WHO).

WHO'S question shows awareness of the need to confine its attention
to questions arising within the scope of its activities, as required by
Article 96 (2) of the United Nations Charter, and to questions "arising
within the competence of the Organization", as specified in Article 76 ofthe WHO Constitution. In conformity with these provisions, it did not
traverse the whole ground of illegality, but made a very specificenquiry.
The question was set in the framework of actual use, which produces
medical consequences, and did not enter the theoretical area of threats. It
homed in on health and environmental effects. which are its undoubted
areas of concern. It sought a legal opinion on the interpretation of its
own Constitution which, in my view, it cannot in any event be denied.
Unless there are compelling reasons to take an opposite view, an enquiry
by WHO, set within the framework of health and environment and of its
own Constitution, seems directly related to its mandate and its functions
and seems eminently to be a question on which, in the event of uncer-

tainty, WHO is entitled to seek an opinion from the Court.

As already observed, there are three specific segments of WHO's
enquiry which cal1for particular attention - State obligations in regard
to health, in regard to the environment, and in terms of WHO's
Constitution.

These require the Court to enquire with some degree of particularity
into the effects of nuclear weapons on health and on the environment.
The general awareness that nuclear weapons damage both health and the
environment is insufficient for thispurpose. A more precise examination
is required of the facts.
The next stage of the enquiry is to consider current international law

relating to each of the three heads of obligation set out above.

With the factual and legal material thus placed in juxtaposition with
each other, a clear picture will be obtained as to whether there are con-
flicts between state obligations and the results produced by the use of the
weapon. The ensuing discussion will proceed on this basis.
The Opinion of the Court nowhere examines the nature of State obli-
gations in regard to health and the environment under international law
in general, nor does it examine those obligations in terms of the WHO
Constitution. In my view, it was necessary for the Court to undertake this
examination in order to decide whether or not this enquiry falls within
WHO's legitimate areas of concern.
Moreover, the Court does not focus its attention precisely on the terms
of WHO's question, but addresses, rather, the question of general legality

or illegality of the use of nuclear weapons. This takes the discussion
furtlier away from the immediate concerns of WHO, as reflected in its
carefully worded question, and nearly equates it to the question of general
illegality asked by the General Assembly. Had the Court proceeded on
the basis of an examination of State obligations regarding health and the
environment under international law and under the WHO Constitution,
it would have been more apparent how closely these were related to the
work of WHO. 5. WHO'S Presentation of its Request before tlze Cour1

1must confess to some unease at the manner in which WHO presented
its submissions to the Court.
WHO's presentation was extremely detached and objective. This
approach reflected the division of opinion within WHO. WHO's presen-
tation indeed prompted two questions from a Member of the Court who
asked whether resolution WHA46140was "validly adopted" and

"If so, is it now open to any State which was then a member of the
World Health Organization to challenge the competence of the
World Health Organization to request the Court to give an advi-
sory opinion in terms of the question set out in that resolution?"
(CR95123, p. 51.)

The reply to the first question was in the affirmative, and the reply to
the second reflected this divided attitude within WHO".
There is no requirement now, as there was in the days of the League of
Nations, that a request for an advisory opinion should be based upon a
unanimous vote. That requirement was left behind after World War II
and, as Rosenne observes, "In the United Nations, the unanimity rule
has been completely abandoned .. .12.What we have here is a deliberate
decision democratically taken by a large majority in WHO to seek an

opinion. That must be taken to be the decision of WHO and acted upon
as such. The different view held by a minority, whoever they may be,
does not make the request to the Court any the less a request by WHO,
considered as a whole.

Speaking for myself, 1 would have appreciated a fuller and ampler
presentation, based upon the rich material which was formally placed
before the Court by WHO.
WHO's representative observed that WHO's attitude in its presenta-
tion :

"has never prevented it - and will never prevent it - from being
profoundly concerned by the sufferings of people, nor from
doing everything within its power to improve their 'levelof health'"
(CR 95122,p. 32).

He submitted further that:
"Neutrality does not signify indifference. Neutrality here is the
neutrality of Henri Dunant on the evening of the battle of Solferino,

l1It stated that

"thelegal nature of this type of resolution, and the absence of a specificprovision in
Statefrom challenging before the Court the competence of WHO to request an advi-ber
sory opinion in terms of the question set out in that resolution".

''Op. cit., p. 109. who, regardless of the merits of the belligerents' dispute, was over-

whelmed by the suffering and devastation that the fighting had
caused." (CR95122, p. 22.)
The Organization's neutrality did not therefore mean that it took no
interest in the health-related effects of the use of weapons. The compari-
son with Dunant scarcely matches the situation of WHO. The neutrality
of Dunant was a neutrality between two warring States. That geat
humanitarian was concerned only with the sufferings of the victims and
not with the merits of the dispute.There are no hostile parties involved in

this request for an opinion - only member States of WHO, al1of thein
equally committed to the pursuit of global health - a cause to which
they have al1without distinction committed themselves by being parties
to WHO's Constitution.
Unlike the warring nations at Solferino, the member States of WHO
are at peace with each other, genuinely pursuing through their common
organization their common objective of global health. Those nations, by
a large majority, have decided to seek an advisory opinion from this
Court. That decision needed, in my view, to be implemented in the spirit
as well as the letter, and not in a spirit of neutrality.

6. Two Levels of WHOS Involvement
There are two broad positions that can be taken regarding WHO's
interest in the matters on which the Court's opinion is sought.
One position is that nuclear weapons are so devastating that thereafter

al1medical treatment is meaningless. The preventive ethic, which is part
of the medical enterprise, then comes into play and one needs to examine
WHO's interest in prevention.
Those who argue in terms of limited nuclear war tend however to deny
the proposition of total devastation, for they seek to equate the use of
nuclear weapons as far as possible to the use of conventional weapons. In
that event, one must go further and ask what servicesWHO can prepare
itself toprovide after a nuclear attack.
The utility to WHO of an opinion from the Court must therefore be
examined at both levels, if proper consideration is to be given to both
points of view:

(a) the futility of medical services after a nuclear attack, in which case
the emphasis must be on prevention; and
(b) preparedness to deliver medical services after a nuclear attack, in
which case WHO must direct its attention to such matters as plan-
ning, medical equipment, and research and training in radiation
injuries.

Another factor to be borne in mind in this regard is that even on the
supposition that both parties to the nuclear exchange are completely
destroyed, the question will still remain of damage to non-combatantStates. Urgent medical serviceswill be required on the peripheries of the
nuclear devastation - perhaps in countries hundreds or thousands of
miles away from the belligerents. WHO has a constitutional responsibil-
ity towards them no lessthan to the belligerents and must be prepared to
render what assistance it can.

7. WHO'S Constitutional Responsibilities in Regard to Public Health
in General

It is well accepted that public health concerns itself not merely with
cure, but also with prevention and planning and the provision of techni-
cal assistance and aid in emergencies(videArt. 2 (d) of WHO Constitu-
tion). No one would deny that WHO must warn of the medical dangers
of foreseeable emergencies (Art. 2 (r)), or that it should concern itself
with regulations (Art. 2 (k)) governing activities that spread disease,
such as travel from the infected area or transport of infected foodstuffs.
It must CO-ordinatearrangements for the necessary nutrition and sanita-
tion (Art. 2 (i)) when an epidemic occurs. It must evaluate the probabili-

ties of an outbreak and must plan for them (Art. 2 (p)). These obliga-
tions of planning and prevention (see Art. 2 (p)) become al1the more
compelling when the disease is incurable. These general obligations apply
to WHO'Sactivities, whatever the source of danger to health - whether
resulting from sanitational, nutritional, epidemiological or military
sources.

It may be noted in this connection that the Court itself observes, in
paragraph 21 of its Opinion, that:

"the provisions of its Article 2 may be read as authorizing the
Organization to deal with the effects on health of the use of nuclear
weapons, or of any other hazardous activity, and to take preventive
measures aimed at protecting the health of populations in the event
of such weapons being used or such activities engaged in".

1 would agree, respectfully, with this view, and many of the areas of
relevance to the WHO Constitution outlined in this opinion proceed on
that basis. However, the preventive function of WHO is not limited to
providing assistance after the event.
Each of the details set out in the next Part of this opinion, on health
problems caused by the nuclear weapon, has a bearing upon the consti-
tutional responsibilities of WHO in such areas as materna1 and child

health (Art. 2 (1)); improving standards of teaching and training (Art. 2
(O)); studying and reporting on public health from preventive and cura-
tive points of view (Art. 2 (p)); providing information (Art. 2 (q));
developing an informed public opinion (Art. 2 (Y)); promoting co-opera-
tion among scientific and professional groups (Art. 2 (j)); making rec-
ommendations with regard to international health matters (Art. 2 (k));and furnishing practical assistance in emergencies (Art. 2(d)). This list is
by no means complete.

Health services perform only half of their function if they concern

themselves only with curative procedures after disease has struck. They
need also to explore two other areas - prevention before the disease
strikes and advance planning against the eventuality of a sudden and per-
haps massive outbreak. This is al1the more so when the threatened dam-
age to health is of an incurable or irreversible nature.

1. Prevention. There can be no argument concerning the wisdom of the
ages that prevention is better than cure. This was so since the incep-
tion of medical scienceand must be so whatever the agency that dam-
ages health - be it a microbe which can kill tens of thousands or a
nuclear weapon which can kill tens of millions. The topic of preven-
tion is more fully dealt with in Section 111.6below.

2. Plunniizg. There inust be planning in advance for handling the medi-

cal emergency, if prevention is not possible. WHO can sumhon global
medical resources as no other organization can. How many nurses
and doctors should be available, what stock of painkilling and dam-
age-limiting drugs should be kept in readiness, how inany hospital
beds and how much equipment? How should the populace be
informed and educated regarding immediate precautionary measures
that can lessen the chances of agonizing suffering, of the formation of
cancers and keloids, and even help in prolonging life? A domestic
medical service that fails to provide prevention and planning would
fail dismally in the discharge of its responsibilities. An international

medical service that focuses its attention only on cure after the event
and neglects prevention and preparation, would be a no less dismal
failure. Indeed, the responsibility for prevention and planning would
rank even higher, with a service thatcarries global responsibilit- a
service of last resort so to speak, for the world has no higheredical
service to turn to when domestic systeins fail. The copious inedical
material placed before the Court provides the background to the
WHO request.

II. EFFECTS OF NUCLEAW REAPONS ON HEALTH

1. Ovevvieivof the Effectos f Nuclenr Weupons orzHealtl?

This survey commences with a brief overview, and follows with a more
detailed examination of the material placed before the Court by WHO.
The legal counsel of WHO has given the Court an overview of the
health-related effects of the use of nuclear weapons. In a presentation notdisputed by any States appearing before the Court, he drew attention to
the threefold immediate effects of nuclear explosions - mechanical,
thermal and radioactive. While the first two differ quantitatively froin
those resulting from the explosion of conventional bombs, the third is
peculiar to nuclear weapoils. In addition to instantaneous radiation,
there is also radioactive fallout. Further, the explosion generates an
electromagnetic pulse which disrupts electronic devices, including those
needed for health services. Over and above this, there are longer-term
effects caused by ionizing radiation acting on human beings and on the
environinent.

WHO has collected a large aniount of data from the 1945 bombings
and also from an analysis of tests and mathematical models. It has also
taken into account information obtained after nuclear accidents, such as
those at Kyshtym, Rocky Flats and Chernobyl.

This information reveals inter aliuthat radiation overexposure sup-
presses the body's immune systems and increases victims'vulnerability to
infection and cancers (CR 95122,pp. 23-24).
Other effects upon health which were referred to by the WHO repre-
sentative are the increase in genetic defects, the psychological traumas
which continue to be noted among the survivors of Hiroshima and Naga-
saki, and the effects of ionizing radiation on the crops, the food chain,
livestock and the marine ecosystem.

As observed by the WHO representative:
"Obviously a specialized agency whose purpose, as laid down in
Article 1 of its Constitution, is the 'attainment by al1peoples of the
highest possible level of health' could not ignore such a topic, and
this was the case well before the request for an advisory opinion was
transmitted to the Court in 1993." (CR95122, p. 24.)

An international group of experts was set up to investigate the effect of
nuclear war on healtli and health services.After their report was received,
the Director-General set up a management group to consider the impli-
catioiis of the report. When the management group's report was pre-
sented, the Chairman of the group observed that, while long-term effects
were worrying, "the immediate effects were utterly staggering" (CR951
22, p. 28).

Reference should also be made to the testimony of the Mayor of Hiro-
shima to the effect thatmedical treatment after Hiroshima was a matter
of groping in the dark, with hospitals in ruins, medical staff dead and a
lack of drugs and medicines, al1of which caused an incredible number of
victims to die without sufficient treatment.
WHO has analysed the effects of nuclear weapons on health in its
Report, Effecto sfNucleur War onHealth undHealtk Servicesr un3,er

l3World Health Organization, Gene2nd ed., 1987two heads - "Health Problems in the Short Term" (Ann. 6) and "Inter-
mediate and Long-Term Health Effects" (Ann. 7). A perusal of these
annexes demonstrates very clearly WHO'Sgrave concerns and legitimate
interests in the aspects of prevention and planning.

It is necessary to outline these facts and findings briefly, as that is the
setting in which the WHO request has been brought to this Court. To
consider the functions of WHO in the abstract, on the basis of forma1
constitutional provisions read apart from their medical and factual con-

text, would be an academic exercise not sufficiently related to the dire
medical realities which WHO must face, as the only organization which is
under a duty to CO-ordinateglobal medical assistance in this fearsome
eventuality. As this Court observed in Bavcelona Traction, it is important
not to "lose touch with reality" in considering a legal questionBavcelonu
Traction, Light and Powev Company, Lirnited, Second Phase, 1.C.J.
Reports 1970, p. 37).

A short summary followsof the medicalmaterial placed before the Court.

2. Health Pvoblemsin the Short Term
(i) Heat. The enormous thermal energy released by thermonuclear

explosions, rather than blast, will be the major cause of casualties.
The direct thermal pulse or thermal wave would cause immediate
charring of exposed parts of the body in the direct line of the thermal
rays. Flash burns would occur within fractions of a second and
reach their maximum within a few seconds. Indirect burns would
result in many more casualties.

The danger of irnmediate burn injuries becomes apparent when
one considers that a single one-megaton air burst could ignite com-
bustiblematerial within a radius of 5-15km depending on the clarity
of the atmosphere. With usual weather conditions this radius would
be around 12 km. Simultaneous fires breaking out within this
area would probably coalesce into a superfire over an area of some
450 square kilometres. Air temperatures within the fire zone will
exceed that of boiling water. The effect of such heat on the human

body would be devastating.

(ii)Blast will cause shock waves, collapsing buildings and flying debris
and individuals will be hurled into the air like projectiles. On contact
with immovable objects, there would be head injuries, fractures,
crush injuries and penetrating abdominal and thoracic wounds. A
one-megaton air burst is capable of killing everyone within a radius
of 7 km from the hypocentre.

(iii)Radiation effects, such as whole body irradiation, result from two sources - the immediate burst of gamma and neutron radiations or

the radiation from fall-out of radioactive particles. Resulting injuries
would be :

(a) gastrointestinal effects, including anorexia, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea, intestinal cramps, dehydration;
(b) neuvomuscular effects producing fatigue, fever, headache, hyper-
tension and hypotensive shock.

In peacetime conditions some such cases would be survivable,with
treatment which would include antibiotics, white blood ce11or whole
blood transfusions and 8 to 12weeks of hospitalization. The WHO
Report14 states that following a nuclear war, such conditions of
medical care would not be available. Even in cases where there are
few or no symptoms, a late increase in cancers, particularly leukae-

mias, will occur.
As stated by a professor of radiology at the Sixth World Congress
of the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War,
radiation injuries include anorexia, cessation of production of new
blood cells, diarrhoea, haemorrhage, damage to the bone marrow,
convulsions, vascular damage and cardiovascular collapse 15.

(iv) Inlzalation of radioactive dust could cause acute effects leading to
death and long-term effects such as fibrosis and cancer, permeability
of the membranes of the alveoli (air sacs) with symptoms of
coughing, shortness of breath and feelings of drowning - leading to
death by hypoxia, pneumonia and sepsis. There is no means of pre-
vention of this source of infection except wholesale relocation of

populations.

(v) Ingestion. Among the radionuclides present in the fall-out, iodine-131
presents a special risk, especiallyto cancer of the thyroid. The effects
of radioactive strontium and caesium will be apparent only later.
These are dealt with under the long-term effects.

The WHO Report l6 points out that "the casualties incurred even in a
so-called 'limited'nuclear exchange would be truly overwhelming".

It states that the kinds of injuries cited are most demanding of medical
resources. Burns of second or third degree involving 20 per cent of the

l4Op. cil., Ann. 6, p. 157.
'jHerbert Abrams, "Chernobyl and the Short-Term Medical Effects of Nuclear War",
in Proceedings of Sixtli Woild Corzgressof Inter~zutionulPhysiciclnsfor. tlzePrevention of'
Eurtli!. 1987pp. 122-125.ologne, 1986, published under the title Maintcrin L$eor1
l6 Op. cit., Ann. 6, p. 158.body surface are generally regarded asfatal unless givenintensive therapy

with massive fluid replacement, sterile management, antibiotics, surgical
care and general nursing, dietary and supportive care for periods of
weeks in hospital, followed by lengthy rehabilitation. Even with today's
sophisticated medical care, there would be considerable mortality 17.

In these circumstances, WHO, as a body of experts, has no alternative
but to direct its thoughts to prevention and planning for the minimiza-
tion of injury and suffering when cure is impossible.
It is pointed out further that up to 80per cent of physicians could well

be casualties. With reference to a single megaton air explosion over a
metropolitan area such as Boston with a population of 2,844,000, refer-
ence is made to a 1979 United States Arms Control and Disarmament
Agency estimate of 695,000direct fatalities and 735,000surviving injured.
Of the 12,816hospital beds in Boston, at the date of that investigation,
around 83 per cent were expected to be destroyed, leaving 2,135 beds

and a heavily depleted force of doctors and nurses for the care of 735,000
seriously injured survivors 18.
According to another study, burn injuries, which are particularly pain-
ful, present special medical problems and require careful and specialized
treatmentI9. Montreal, a city of 2 million people, had facilities (in 1983)
for sixsevereburn cases. In the whole of North America, it was estimated
that there were only 2,500 beds for serious burn cases. Yet a one megaton

bomb exploding over Montreal would result in asmany as 10,000people
requiring such facilities. Moreover, whatever facilities there are tend to be
concentrated on the cities, and will themselves be destroyed.

Indeed, in al1branches of medicine, the bulk of practising doctors tend

to be within a few miles of the city - as in Quebec with 50per cent of al1
practising physicians being within 5 miles20.

The total inadequacy of medical facilities to cope with nuclear war is
graphically indicated in a study already referred to2'. It reveals that after
a major nuclear attack, even if medical resources remain substantially

intact :

l8 Ibid.it., Ann. 6, pp. 159-160.
l9 Don G. Bates, "Medical and Ecolo~icalEffects of Nuclear War". McGill Law Jour-
nal, 1983,Vol. 28, pp. 722-724.
'OIbid.,p. 724.
21 ~erb&t Abrams, "Chernobyl and the Short-Term Medical Effects of Nuclear War",
op. cit., p. 127. "The disparities are great : 273,000 available hospital beds com-
pared to the 17.6 million needed; few burn beds, with 5.3 million
needed; 15,000intensive care beds, with 6.7million required. Among
essential personnel, 48,000 physicians may be confronted with the
work of 1.3million ; or 150,000registered nurses with that of 6.7 mil-
lion; or 17,000 medical technologists with that of 450,000. If there
are 14,000units of whole blood available, for example, and 64 mil-
lion units required, the problem of developing a credible medical
response for the millions of surviving injured can readily be

grasped." 22

Even years before the WHO Report, many detailed studies had been
made on the effects of nuclear war on health. For example, the Japanese
Association of Doctors Against the A- and H-Bombs appointed an inter-
national commission of medical specialists to examine the biological
effects of the radioactive fallout produced by United States nuclear tests
in the Pacific in 1954. The Japanese fishing boat Fukuryu Muru was
found to be contaminated while 80 miles outside the estimated danger
zone. Al123 members of the crew showed symptoms of radiation disease
and were found to have fissionable material in their organs. One of the
crew died. The vesse1was rendered radioactive, dust from it producing
radiation sickness in animals and genetic effects in plants.

Fish caught in various parts of the Pacific, even eight months after the
explosion, were found to be contaminated and unfit for human consump-
tion. Crops in different parts of Japan were affected by radioactive rain
The medical experts, who arrived unanimously at these conclusions, were
drawn, inter dia, from Paris, East Africa, Berlin, Santiago, Czechoslo-
vakia, Moscow and M~kden~~.
It is little wonder that WHO seeks information on a question funda-
mental to prevention and planning - the question of State obligations

under international law. 1s this a lawful weapon of war? 1s the use of
such a weapon by a State a violation of the State's obligations under
international law or under the WHO Constitution? As the global co-
ordinating authority for health work, it must plan for the nuclear con-
tingency as part of its statutory duty. Itis entitled to know the answer to
this question. If it is to be held to its duties in terms of its Constitution,
it must know the reciprocal duties of States in terms of that same Con-

" Herbert Abrams, "Chernobyl and the Short-Term Medical Effects of Nuclear War",
op.cit., p. 127,quoting Abrams, "Medical Resources after Nuclear War: Availv.ility
Need", JOLI~IIoIfIthe A~neiiccinMediecilAssociation, 1984,pp. 252, 653-658.
" Singli and McWhinney, N~lclenr.Wecrponstrnd ConternporrrryInter~zationcrlLai!.,
1989,p. 124.stitution. 1 cannot agree that they can be denied this basic information
and, even more so, their very entitlement to seek it.

Itis difficultto conclude that this is not their business. Rather, 1would

consider WHO to be neglectful of its responsibilities if it did not address
this question.
Indeed, as is only to be expected,it has for years been turning its atten-
tion to this problem, and the reference to this Court for an opinion on
the legal aspects is only a part, and a necessary part, of theuch broader
investigation it has engaged in for the purpose of discharging this aspect
of its responsibilities. Theres no material before this Court showing that
any exception was ever taken to such investigations relating to nuclear
weapons, which WHO has been conducting ever since 1966.
weap-
By way of analogy, in the field of chemical and bacteriological
ons, WHO has been pressing for prohibition "as a necessary measure in
the fight forhuman health" (WHA resolution 23.53 of 1970).No objec-
tion was raised relating to any alleged "intrusion" into the sphere of
actual regulation. The current enquiry relates not to an attempt at regula-
tion, but only to an enquiry for information. If WHO was not seen to be
intermeddling outside its province when it asked for the actual prohibi-
tion of chemical and bacteriological weapons, it is difficult to see how it
could be seen to be intermeddling when it merely asks for information
regarding nuclear weapons.

3. Intermediate and Long-Term Health Effects
These conclusions, reached upon an analysis of the short-term effects,

are strengthened even further upon an examination of the intermediate
and long-term effects 24.
Iodine-131, we are told, constitutes the greatest potential long-term
hazard. Iodine-131 enters the body primarily by ingestion of milk. The
route from bomb, to atmosphere, to grass, to cow, to milk, to man is
described as surprisingly rapid, and milk with high concentrations of
iodine-131 has been detected thousands of miles away from test explosion
sites. The radioactive iodine concentrates in the thyroid gland, destroying
thyroid tissue and producing late thyroid cancer25.

While iodine-131 has a half-life of only 8 days, strontium-90 and cae-
sium-137 are nuclides with half-lives of 29 and 30 years respectively. The
long delayed descent of global fallout does not therefore effectively
reduce their potency. When they do descend, they are trapped in the

24SeeWHO Report, op.cit., Ann. 7.
" Ibid ..,165.

59superficial layers of the soil. They are taken up from there by plants
which are eaten by animals. Through vegetables and meats, they are
ingested by humans, both elements increasing the incidence of cancers.

Once ingested, there is no rapid means of ridding the body of these
carcinogenic elements26.

Strontium mimics calcium in the body and is deposited in bones and
teeth, thus placing its radiation close to the highly sensitivebone marrow.
Caesium accumulates in cells in closejuxtaposition to nuclear DNA2'.

Ionizing radiation impairs the function of the immune system, and vir-
tually al1 elements of the immune system are affected by irradiation.
Hard ultraviolet radiation also has an immuno-suppressive effect.

The long-term effects add to the pressure on WHO to turn its attention
to prevention and planning to minimize human s~ffering~~,even if no
cure is possible.

The long-term effects range from after-effects of the injuries sustained
to long-term effects of radiation exposure, and health problems resulting
from the disruption and destruction of health services. They are conven-
iently surnmarized in the Report by the Director-General of WHO to the
Forty-sixth World Health Assembly (doc. A46130of 26 April 1993).Sur-
vivors of nuclear explosions will be confronted with protracted non-heal-
ing wounds, suppurating extensive burns, skin infestations, gastrointesti-

na1infections, and psychic trauma (ibid., para. 20).

A recognized consequence of radiation overexposure is the suppression
of the body's immune system. Ionizing radiation, according to this
Report, reduces the helper T-lymphocytes and increases the suppressor
T-lymphocytes, thus increasing the victims'vulnerability to infection and
cancers (ibid., para. 21).

Survivors of the nuclear explosion and the populations of contami-
nated areas will be at risk of cancer induction and genetic damage, the
risk varying with the dose received (ibid, para. 23)29.

WHO Report, op. cit., pp. 165-166.
27Ibid, p. 165.
28On the long-term effects, see also Z. Dienstbier, "Long-Term Medical Effects of
Nuclear War", in IPPNW Congress Pioceedings, op. cit., pp. 130 ff.
29At an exposure of 1 Gray whole body irradiation, there will be an estimated lifetime
survivors. A Gray is the "International System unit of absorbed dose, equal to the energy
imparted by ionizing radiation to a mass of matter corresponding to 1joule per kilogram"
(McGrai4:-HillDictionnry of Scielztij5carzdTeckr~icnlTerrns, 2nd ed., p. 696). Exposure to plutonium alpha particles produces chromosomal insta-
bility which can be transmitted to progeny, thus causing cancer in future
generations (doc. A46130of 26 April 1993,para. 24). Also the effects of
interna1 exposure from the inhalation or ingestion of radioactive materi-

als is much greater than was originally thought (ibid.).

Further, with special reference to public health and sanitary facilities,
it was pointed out that a nuclear explosion would destroy these, thus
opening the way for the spread of disease. Water supplies would be con-
taminated not only by radioactivity, but also by pathogenic bacteria and
viruses. Sewagetreatment and waste disposa1facilitieswould have almost
completely disappeared (ibid., para. 29).

In addition
"Great numbers of putrefying human bodies and animal carcasses
as well as untreated waste and sewage would provide easy breeding

ground for flies and other insects. Diseases like salmonellosis, shig-
ellosis, infectious hepatitis, amoebic dysentery, malaria, typhus,
streptococcal and staphylococcal infections, respiratory infections
and tuberculosis would occur in epidemic form over vast areas."
(Ibid., para. 30.)

These are areas par excellence of WHO'S constitutional concern and
medical expertise.
Long-term effects on health through the disruption of the food supply
on a regional or a global scale, resulting from environmental damage, is
another important factor, impairing health and lowering resistance to
disease. A multiple nuclear exchange could result in a nuclear winter,
causing famine situations on a global scale.

4. The Appearance of Devastating Epidemics

The various glands and organs of the body that provide natural immu-
nity against infection are, according to the writings on this topic, particu-
larly sensitive to radiation. "When combined with social disintegration,
this would invite the rapid spread of communicable diseases in unusually
severe forms. " 30

Diseases such as plague, smallpox, cholera and typhoid fever, now
largely relegated to the history books, which have been kept at bay by
nutrition, sanitation and immunization programmes would reappear.

30Abrams and Von Kaenel, "Medical Problems of Survivors of Nuclear Wa: Infec-
tion and the Spread of Communicable Disease",w England Journal of Medicine, 1981,
op. citp. 726.26,cited in Bates, "The Medical and Ecological Effects of Nuclear War",Nuclear war would compromise those defences severely3', and in addi-
tion would lower the body's organic and glandular resistance to them.

The World Health Report 1996, issued by WHO on 20 May 1996,
warns that there is currently a devastating upsurge in infectious diseases
caused inter alia by the weakening of people's immune ~ystems~~T . he
Report warns that, "We are standing on the brink of a global crisis in
infectious diseases", with 17 n~illiondeaths every year. Up to half of the
5.72 billion people on earth are at risk of many endemic diseases - old
diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria which are resurgent, and deadly
new diseases such as ebola, for which no cure is known. Diarrhoeal dis-
eases such as cholera, typhoid and dysentery, caused by contaminated
water or food kill millions every year. If this is so in the comparatively

organized societies of today, the danger of uncontrollable epidemics after
the social disintegration, the breakdown of sanitation systems, especially
in cities, and the weakening of the immune system caused by nuclear war
must be self-evident, and must surely be an important constitutional con-
Cernof WHO.

5. TlzeRelevance of the Medical Material Placed beJOrethe Court

This brief summary of the material placed before the Court demon-
strates :

(a) the futility of awaiting a nuclear catastrophe to move into action in
relation to medical services;
(b) the incurability of most of the medical afflictions resulting from the
bomb ;
(c) the prospect of worldwide famine in the event of nuclear war, with
its resultant disastrous effect on human health;

(d) the need to plan in advance for rapid emergency services and sup-

plies in such an eventuality ;

je) the need to plan in advance for public education, medical research,
medical education ;
(f) the need to understand what precisely are the obligations of States
under international law in relation to the health effects of use of
nuclear weapons ;

" Bates,op. cit.
3'Reported in Iizternation~~IHei,crldTribune, 21 May 19p.10, and The Gucirdinrz
~eekly; 26 May 1996. According to the Report, ''1; the contest for supremacy the
microbes are sprinting ahead." (g) the need to understand what precisely are the obligations of States
under international law in relation to the environmental effects of
use of nuclear weapons;
(h) the need to understand what precisely are the obligations of States
under the WHO Constitution in relation to the use of nuclear
weapons ;
(i) the deep constitutional concerns of WHO with the medical conse-
quences of nuclear war.

The relevance of the medical material placed before the Court can be
more pointedly illustrated by taking just one effect - the cancer-indu-
cing qualities of the bomb, for the nuclear weapon can well be described
as the greatest cancer-inducing instrumentality yet devised. The legality
of cancer-inducing agencies, whatever their scale, are already concerns of
WHO. Thus the legality of the sale of a drug that increases the risk of

cancer, for example cervical or womb cancer, is clearly a matter that con-
cerns WHO, for it would have to adopt different strategies to deal with
the problem depending on whether the drug is legal (and thus freely
available) or illegal (and thus less likely to be freely available).

It may be argued that the legality of the nuclear weapon is different
from the legality of a drug, in that the weapon will in any event be used
by those who desire to use it, irrespective of legality. However, this is a
difference with which this Court cannot concern itself, as the Court oper-
ates on the assumption of a community ruled by law, and can only act on
the assumption that member States of that community will abide by that

law. If a particular weapon is a legal weapon of war, it stands on a very
different footing froin a weapon whose use is banned by law, and WHO
is entitled to know in which category the weapon falls.
It isthus difficult to see a logical distinction between WHO'Sconcern
with the legality of a cancer-inducing drug and the legality of a cancer-
inducing weapon. If the first concern is legitimate - which no one would
doubt - it is difficult to see how the other is not. The concern of other
organs of the United Nations with the political aspects of the problem
cannot negative or override WHO'Sconcern with the medical aspects of
the same problem.

This background of medical information reveals numerous areas of

obvious concern to WHO in the discharge of its constitutional responsi-
bilities. It also provides the essential factual background to the various
applicable principles of international law - particularly of international
humanitarian law. If humanitarian concerns are the criterion which trig-
gers into action the principles of humanitarian law, it must be self-evident
that the preceding resuméof the medical effects of nuclear war must acti-
vate those principles and bring them into play. 6. The Experience of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

As is well known, even a comparatively minor catastrophe such as
Chernobyl imposes on domestic health services a burden greater than

they can bear. There would be no other entity to which a nation stricken
by a nuclear attack could turn, for its medical services, however rich the
country, would be virtually non-existent. Even a comparatively "small"
nuclear attack such as occurred in Hiroshima and Nagasaki crippled and
destroyed the health services of a well-organized nation. As Dr. Henry
Kissinger observed in his work on Nuclear Weaponsand ForeignPolicy :

"Under normal conditions, a hospital requires five persons to care
for one patient. It has been estimated that at Nagasaki, under the most
primitive medical conditions, each survivor required two persons to
care for him. The whole surviving population of an affected area

would therefore either be injured or engaged in caring for the injured.
Even then, adequate medical assistance for the injured will be
impossible, for most hospitals and most medical personnel are them-
selveswithin the target area." 33

One has only to peruse medical accounts of the aftermath of Hiro-
shima and Nagasaki to understand how futile medical servicescan be after
the nuclear event, especially if they are caught unprepared. Hiroslzima
Diary: The Journal of a JapanesePhysicianAugust 6-September30, 1945,
by Michihiko Hachiya, M.D.34,is one such.

The multitude of descriptions available on the position of a society

which has been the victim of a nuclear attack heavily underscore this
aspect of the breakdown of al1health services, in which we have the gro-
tesque situation of human beings with shreds of fleshhanging upon them,
their eyeballs melted away, and their sensesdazed by blast and radiation,
wandering around in their thousands in search of assistance, and helpless
in the midst of a prevailing de~pair~~.Such scenes, the sad realities of the
aftermath of a "small" nuclear attack, are amply documented as having
occurred in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. They will occur again whenever

and wherever nuclear weapons are used. They are the health administra-
tor's worst nightmare, and any institution concerned with world health
needs to know whether the only agency capable of causing such a

331957, p. 70
34University of North Carolina Press, 1955.
35Here is a quote from HiroslzirnaDiuv:
"And they had no faces! Their eyes, noses and mouths had been burned away, and
it looked like their ears had been melted off. It was hard to tell front from back. One
soldier, whose features had been destroyed and was left with his white teeth sticking
out, asked me for some water anddidn't have any. 1clasped my hands and prayed
for him. He didn't Say anything more. His plea for water must have been his last
words." (P. 15.)scenario stands within or without the international legal system, and
whether therefore it is permitted or banned.

III.MATTERR SELATING TO WHO'SCOMPETENCE
1. The Objections to WHO'S Competence

Of the 189member States of WHO as at 19May 1994,only nine have
raised objections before this Court on grounds that WHO does not have
the competence to make this request, namely, Australia,Finland, France,
Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Russia, the United Kingdom and the
United States. It will be noted that one nuclear power, China, is not
among those who have objected to WHO's competence.

The objections to WHO's competence centre around two broad propo-
sitions:
(a) that the legality of the use of nuclear weapons is not a matter for
WHO, whose competence is limited to the effect of nuclear weapons
on human health and environment; and
(b) that WHO has no special interest in the matter and a recognition of
its competence would, in effect, expand the scope of its activities.

Thus France has urged before the Court that:
"WHO has no more competence to put this question than it
would have, itself, todeclare that the use of a particular kind of
weapon was unlawful or to rule on the international legality of a
particular conflict; it has not the slightest competence in this area."
(CR95123, p. 56.)

France has submitted further that WHO's action "seems nothing less
than an abuse of the Court's advisory functions and, to say the least, a
somewhat alarming trend" (ibid., pp. 56-57).
With their deep implications, both for the advisory jurisdiction of the
Court and for the scope of the legitimate activities of specialized agencies,
such submissions need careful consideration.

WHO has no means at its disposa1to prevent nuclear war and in no
way does its enquiry amount to any act of intermeddling in the causes
of nuclear war. It only seeks information and that information could

well berelevant in drawing attention to the need to prevent nuclear war.
Alternatively, on the supposition that there is room for medical action
after a nuclear attack, it is relevant to its state of preparedness. As
already noted, even if an entire nation should be destroyed, medical
services would be urgently required by neighbouring States. Relevant
to its duties in this situation are Article (d) and (e) of the WHO
Constitution which cast upon WHO the express duty of furnishing aid
in emergencies and providing health services and facilities to special
groups. It is therefore a mistake to read into WHO's enquiry an attempt at
dabbling in the political question of prevention of nuclear war. It keeps

well within its mandate in seeking information which it considers neces-
sary for discharging its constitutional obligation of preparation to render
assistance in the event of nuclear war. Here again the analogy of bac-
teriological or chemical warfare comes to mind. If these are legitimate
weapons of war, WHO's state of readiness to cope with the inedical prob-
lems they raise must surely be different from the situation where the law
of nations accepts that they are illegal and should not be used in any
circumstances.

2. The Importance of tlzeEnquiry Relating to WHO'S
Constitution

Elsewhere in itsjurisprudence, this Court has stressed the importance
of rendering an opinion to a specialized agency when it relates to that
agency's Constitution and, indeed, it has made this observation in rela-
tion to the constitution of WHO itself (Interpretationof tlzeAgreement of

25 Murch 1951betvveenthe WHO and Egypt, I.C.J. Reports 1980,p. 87.
See p. 108,supra.)
As the Court has observed in its reply to the General Assembly's
request for an opinion on the legality of nuclear weapons:

"Whatever its political aspects, the Court cannot refuse to admit
the legal character of a question which invites it to discharge an
essentiallyjudicial task, namely, an assessment of the legality of the

possible conduct of States with regard to the obligations imposed
upon them by international law." (I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 234,
para. 13.)
This principle assumes particular importance in regard to a request for
interpretation of an organ's Constitution, for not only is that manifestly
a question of law, but it is one of the most practical forms of assistance
the Court can give to the members of the United Nations family of
organizations. It is a question anchored to the law and, at the same time,

lying at the heart of an organization's work. In short, it is the sort of
question which in my viewthe Court would be under a special obligation
to address.
With much respect, 1must therefore disagree with the Court's conclu-
sion that "WHO is not empowered to seek an opinion on the interpreta-
tion of its Constitution in relation to matters outside the scope of its
functions" (Advisory Opinion, para. 28). The finding that the matter is
"outside the scope of its functions" is itself an interpretation of WHO's
Constitution and, in reaching this conclusion, the Court is in effect inter-
preting WHO's Constitution in response to WHO's request. I find it dif-
ficult also to accept that an organ of the United Nations, empowered toseek an advisory opinion on a question of law, has no competence to seek

an interpretation of its own Constitution.

3. The Constitutional Functions of WHO

There are a number of constitutional functions of WHO which have a
bearing on the question referred to the Court. Some of them have been
referred to earlier in this opinion. Among these functions, which are
specifiedin Article 2 of its Constitution, are the following, shown against
the respective subsections of Article 2:

(1) to act as the directing and CO-ordinatingauthority on international
health work (Art. 2 (a));
(2) to establish and maintain effective collaboration with the United
Nations, specialized agencies, governmental health administrations,
professional groups and such other organizations as may be deemed
appropriate (Art. 2 (b));
(3) to furnish appropriate technical assistance and, in einergencies,
necessary aid upon the request or acceptance of Governments
(Art. 2 (d));

(4) to provide or assist in providing, upon the request of the United
Nations, health servicesand facilities to special groups (Art. 2 (e));

(5) to propose conventions, agreements and regulations, and make
recommendations with respect to international health matters and to
perform such duties as may be assigned thereby to the Organization
and are consistent with its objective (Art. 2 (k));
(6) to promote and conduct research in the field of health (Art. 2 (n));
(7) to promote improved standards of teaching and training in the
health, medical and related professions (Art. 2 (O));
(8) to provide information, counsel and assistance in the field of health
(Art. 2 (q));
(9) to assist in developing an informed public opinion among al1peoples
on matters of health (Art 2 (r));

(10) generally to take al1necessary action to attain the objective of the
Organization (Art. 2 (v)).
These will be referred to in the course of the ensuing discussion. It will
be sufficient to draw attention at the present stage to the following areas
relevant to nuclear weapons in which these constitutional provisions
become pertinent :

(i) Co-ordination of international health ivork (Art. 2 (a))

WHO's obligations under Article 2 may be summarized in terms that :
"WHO's first constitutional function is to act as the directing and co-ordinating authority on international health work" 36.Part of this task is
stated to be to "devise strategies, principles and programmes to give
effect tothese policies".

WHO cannot act as the directing and CO-ordinatingauthority on inter-

national health work if it has to act behind a veil of ignorance regarding
the legality or otherwise of the greatest of man-made threats to human
health.

Moreover this provision highlights the fact that WHO is concerned
with "health work". The expression "health work" clearly refers, as
already observed, not merely to the curative, but also to the preventive
and planning aspects of health services, which are an integral part of
modern medical services.

The consideration, already referred to, that planning for any contin-

gency requires a knowledge of the legal structure within which a particu-
lar hazard takes place acquires even greater significance in a world wheïe
many violent conflicts are raging concurrently. The possibility is ever
present of an escalation of any of these conflicts and, if the nuclear
weapon is a legal weapon of war, any one of one of them could quite
"legally" flare into a nuclear war.

(ii)Collaboration with the United Nations, specialized agencies, etc.
(Art. 2 (b))

WHO is part of the United Nations system, dedicated to the aims and
objectives of the United Nations. It is the agent par excellence for co-
ordination with other specialized agencies and professional bodies in
relation to the medical hazards of nuclear weapons. For example, the
effects on crops and the world famine situation resulting from nuclear
weapons constitute an obvious area for collaboration with organizations

such as the Food and Agriculture Organization. Professional groups of
doctors, worldwide, need to be alerted regarding the medical effects of
nuclear weapons. WHO must liaise with medical organizations world-
wide and share information with them, alert them to the medical dangers
and promote readiness to deal with the medical hazards. It must cur-
rently do so in the dark, unaware whether these weapons are legal or
not.

36A compendium of UnitedNations Action inthe Field of Human Riglzts, 1988,p. 29.
para. 234.

68(iii) Emergencies (Art. 2 (d))

The inadequacy of national health services to cope with the after
effects of a nuclear attack have already been discussed at some length.
The practical situation that existed in Hiroshima and Nagasaki has also
been described. Such realities, nowhere discussed in the Court's Opinion,
make WHO the obvious authority for national Governments to turn to
for assistance, in the emergency created by a nuclear attack. If the
nuclear weapon is a legal weapon of war, the responsibility lies al1the
more heavily on WHOto plan for this. It would quite clearly be the only
international authority to whom the stricken nation could turn for assis-

tance. Al1this is consistent with WHO'S responsibilities for promoting
"the rationalization and mobilization of resources for health"".

WHO'S constitutional mandate is to be ready with medical services
needed for emergencies.

(iv) Provision, upon the request of the United Nations, of l~eulthser-
vices und fucilities to speciul groups (Art. 2 (e))

The radiation victims of a nuclear attack would be a special group
within the meaning of this clause. People far froin the source of the

explosion - hundreds or thousands of miles away - will be affected.
Non-belligerent States, far distant from the scene, will need assistance.
WHO is the only organization they could turn to. The dire event of a
nuclear attack, whatever the nation that is struck, would raise health
problems of such proportions that WHO would be the only entity to
which the United Nations itself could turn for special services. WHO
cannot be unprepared for such an eventuality, especiallyif it is one which
is permitted by the law.

(v) To propose conventions,ugreement,çand regulutions (Art. 2 (k))

If the use of nuclear weapons is a legal form of warfare, WHO will
need to take the initiative in relation to conventions, agreements and
regulations regarding such matters as the exchange of knowledge and
facilities1-elatingto the treatinent of radiation victims. Grailted the
iinpossibility of any onecouiltry being able by itself to treat al1radiation
victims. there will need to be a consideration of mutual medical assis-
tance in the event of such a catastrophe. WHO'Sconstitutional fi~nctions
in regard to conventions, agi-eeinents and regulations then come into
play. If an internationalmedical convention is the best means for arrang-
ing emergency inedical servicesto a country stricken by a nuclear attack,
who but the World Health Organization could take the initiative in this?(vi) Reseurclz (Art 2 (n))

In the words of the United Nations study already cited:
"The Organization brings together the world's experts in health

matters and serves as a neutral ground for absorbing, distilling, syn-
thesizing and widely disseminating information which has practical
value for countries in solving their health problems." 38
Medical knowledge regarding radiation injuries and their treatment is

still the subject of ongoiilg research. There needs to be CO-operationin
this field.Thistask devolves heavily on the shoulders of WHO. Especially
if the nuclear weapon is a legal weapon of war, WHO would have little
excuse for not planning for the CO-ordinationand spread of such scien-
tific knowledge.
Contemporary accounts of Hiroshima or Nagasaki show 11owil1
equipped medical practitioners were to deal with radiation injuries39.

(vii) Inzproved standards of teaching and training (Art. 2 (O))
The promotion of improved standards of teaching and training are
also activities falling within this field. The medical response to nuclear

war, especially if the nuclear weapon is legal, calls for special teaching
and training.

(viii)Public education (Art. 2 (q) and 2 (r))

These functions, dealt with in Article 2 (q) and 2 (r) of WHO's Con-
stitution, are discussed elsewhere inthis opinion. It is sufficient to note at
this point that the WHO Report stresses WHO's role in "systematically
distributing information on the health consequences of nuclear war-
fareX4OA . s the radiation injuries resulting from the Chernobyl accident
continue to manifest themselves, eventen years after the event, the world
is offered repeated confirmation of the importance of prior public know-

ledge of how best to react to exposure to radiation. Most people in Cher-
nobyl, unaware of the dangers of radiation, were, from al1 medical
reports now emerging, unable to react in a manner that would minimize
the health damage caused to them. In terms of human health, an enor-
mous price is being paid for this lack of knowledge. Spreading such
knowledge is clearly within WHO's constitutional functions.

Op. cit. footnote 36, supra.
3"ee HiroslzinzaDinrii;: Tlie JournLJcrpcrnesePlzysicitrnAz~gust6-Septernber 30,
1945, op. cit. footnote 34, supra.
40011.cit. footnote 13,supra, p. 5, para. 9. 4. The Work and Concerns of WHO

It has been said in argument that nuclear weapons are matters exclu-
sively within the area of peace and security - matters which are within
the exclusivejurisdiction of other agencies such as the Security Council -
and that therefore WHO can have no concern with them. WHO's func-
tion is confined to health,pure and simple, and it strays into unauthorized
fieldswhen it enters the area of peace and security. The cobbler to his last.
The work of WHO cannot be said to be unrelated to peace and secu-
rity. In fact, the very Constitution of WHO draws attention in the pre-
amble itself to the interrelatedness of health and security when it states

that the health of al1peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace
and security and is dependent upon the fullest CO-operationof individuals
and States. WHO is also empowered by Article 2 (v) of its Constitution
"generally to take al1 necessary action to attain the objective of the
Organization". The objective of the Organization is set out in Article 1to
be "the attainment by al1peoples of the highest possible level of health".
The highest possible levels ofhealth must obviously be achieved both by
curative and preventive processes, there being no restriction to the former.

There are clearly some areas where WHO's concern with health over-
laps with concerns of peace and security. One of the dangers of nuclear
war, as pointed out in Section 11.4above, is the appearance of devastat-
ing epidemics. The decimation of populations caused by severe epidemics

can reduce thriving societies to total helplessness. Such an event would
quite obviously be a matter affecting global peace and security, for law
and order, both domestic and international, would in those circum-
stances tend to break down. The linkage in its own Constitution (to
which al1 Member States of the United Nations have agreed) between
health on the one hand, and peace and security on the other, renders the
argument unavailable that the two concerns are incompatible with each
other. Indeed the greater the threat to global health, the greater would be
the overlap with peace and security.
The argument that concern with peace and security removes a matter
from WHO concerns is analogous to the argument that, although a mat-
ter clearlyinvolves a legal issue, this Court should not enter into it if the
matter is also political. Such an argument, as repeatedly held in the juris-
is unsustainable. The Court is the pre-eminent
prudence of the Court,
authority on questions of law and must attend to matters properly within
itsjurisdiction, irrespectiveof whether they alsoinvolvepolitical considera-
tions. Likewise,WHO is the pre-eminent authority on questions of health
and must be permitted to attend to matters properly within its sphere, irre-
spective of whether they are also within the sphere of peace and security.
This case is concerned not with a natural threat, but with a man-made
threat to human health so great as to dwarf al1 other threats, whether
man-made or natural. The agency of damage is fully within human con-trol. WHO desires to know what the law is regarding such potentially
damaging activity, which occurs not accidentally, but in consequence of
deliberate State action.

Itis difficult to subscribe to the view that WHO can be told that this is
none of its concern - that its legitimate business is curing the sick after
the disaster occurs and that it has no right to knowledge which has a
bearing on how it is caused. That is the implication of the Court's Opin-
ion and with that 1 cannot agree. The state of the law, relating to any
form of activity hazardous to human health, is WHO's legitimate con-
Cern,and though WHO may not have the power to alter the law, it has at
least the right to know what the law is. The greater the hazard, the
greater is WHO's right to information. If the hazard can be created

legally, the duty of preparedness for that eventuality becomes al1 the
greater.
The lawfulness of deliberate Stateconduct which damages public health
on a global scale cannot, in my view, be excluded from the area of
WHO's concerns without serious damage to the authority and mission of
WHO in relation to the health of the world's population, and without a
restricting effect also upon other United Nations agencies who may be
guided by this narrow view of the area of their legitimate concerns.
The causes of damage to world health do not have to be medical causes
in the sense in which they are commonly understood. The causes may be
natural disasters,such as forest fires or earthquakes, or man-made disas-
ters, such as occur in war. Whatever the sources of danger to human
health, WHO needs to study them, understand their causes, anticipate
them, and plan to meet these emergencies. It has a global mandate to do

so and every organ of the United Nations system must CO-operatewith it
in the discharge of that global mandate.

5. TlzeAnalogy witlz Clzemiculand Biological Weapons

If chemical and biological weapons were accepted as legal weapons of
war, WHO would no doubt have had to take that factor into account in
its global planning. The knowledge that these weapons are outlawed is a
factor relevant to WHO's consideration of that problem. No doubt it was
for such reasons that WHO, before the Convention relating to these
weapons, emphasized the need for their prohibition, by resolution 23.53
of 1970.

The same reasoning must apply to nuclear weapons. Legality or ille-
gality makes a major difference to the authority charged with responsi-
bility for global health, particularly when the health hazards are so far
flung and long-enduring as those caused by the nuclear weapon.

If WHO, before the chemical and biological weapons treaty, had made
an enquiry as to whether the use of those weapons was a violation ofState obligations under the WHO Constitution, it is difficult to imagine
that any objections would have been taken to that enquiry. The intimate

concern of nuclear weapons with geopolitics and military strategy does
not alter the principle involved. WHO needs to know, no less than it
needs to know in the case of chemical and bacteriological weapons,
whether nuclear weapons, like chemical and bacteriological weapons, are
banned by international law.

This Court cannot say in what precise ways the information sought by
WHO will help it in its planning. What it does know is that WHO has
considered such knowledge to be useful to it and, on this matter, the
Court will naturally be guided by the professional judgment of WHO in
regard to its usefulness.
WHO, be it noted, is not pressing one view or the other in relation to
State obligations. It only seeks information.

6. The Importance of Prevention

It has been stressed already that medical services are quite obviously
not confined to matters of cure. Prevention looms large, even if not larger
than cure, in the planning of modern medicine.

A standard modern text-book on public health medicine observes in its
chapter on the "Promotion of Health":
"Drawing on the great success of preventive medicine in the past,
the United States Surgeon General, in his 1979 report Healthy

People, set in context the need for a modern impetus for health pro-
motion and disease prevention:

'Not to find and employ those [preventive] strategies would be
irresponsible - as irresponsible as it would have been for Our
predecessors merely to alleviate the ravages of smallpox and polio
and cholera, without attempting to eradicate them.'

Health services should have as their major aims to reduce the
amount of illness, disease, disability and premature death in the
population ... Health servicesdo not have direct control over al1the
factors which can influence these aspects of the health of the popula-
tion but the design and implementation of health promotion stra-
tegies is one of their major function~."~'

In the arguments before the Court, the term "primary prevention" has
been frequently used. The meaning of this term appearsfrom the follow-
ing passage in the same work:

41R. J. and L. J. Donaldson, Essential Public Medicine, 1993,p. 107.

73 "Traditionally, prevention has been classified into three types:
(a) Primary prevention

This approach seeks activelyto prevent the onset of a disease.
The ultimate goal of preventive medicine is to alter some factor
in the environment, . . or to change behaviour so that disease
is prevented from developing . ..

(b) Secondary prevention
This level of prevention aims to halt the progression of a dis-
ease once it is established. The crux, here, is early detection or
early diagnosis followed by prompt, effective treatinent . . .

lc) Tertiary prevention
This level is concerned with rehabilitation of people with an
established disease to minimize i-esidualdisabilities and compli-
cations." 42

It is little wonder that the pre-eininent health organization in the world
concerns itself with al1aspects of prevention. If it did not, it would not be
true to the first principles of its vocation.
With prevention comes advance planning. Both prevention and advance
planning, enabling WHO to deal with a possible medical situation which
can be anticipated, are thus part of WHO's essential duties. It is not sur-
prising therefore to observe WHO's practice in this regard which indi-
cates quite clearly its concern with the legal and regulatory aspect of

matters under its charge.
The WHO Report puts its concerns and its legitiinate interests in this
area very succinctly when it observes that:
"When treatment is ineffective, the only solution available to the
health professions is prevention. Prevention is obviously the only

possibility in case of a nuclear ~ar."~~
The world's leadingjudicial authority would show little recognition of
this undeniable truth if it were to Say to the world's leading health
authority, on a matter intimately concerning the world's health, "Your
function is care after disaster strikes. Prevention is the exclusive concern

of other authorities properly vested with jurisdiction in that regard."
Such a position seems not only highly legalistic and abstruse, but also
irreconcilable with the known facts. Medical responsibilities at the higli-
est possible level and involving the health of the entire global population
need to be viewed in the context of the basic facts surrounding those
responsibilities and not as thougli tliere somehow exists a watertight legal
division of responsibilities whichmust be preserved whatever the cost.

4'R. J. and L. J. Donaldson, EsseizrialPzrhlicMerlicirze,1993,pp. 120-121
43 017cit. foot~lote SLIPI.p. 33, para. 84.

74 1 regret that 1 cannot subscribe to a conclusion that a body charged
with the highest responsibilities inregard to the health of the globalom-
munity should sit passively by, until the catastrophe occurs in which its
servicesare required, for the technical reason that it would be trespassing
upon the exclusive preserve ofthe Security Council, who arethe sole cus-
todians of peace and security. The Constitution of WHO, a body designed
for humanitarian service, cannot be so encased in rigidity as to require it
not to move into action in relation to nuclear weapons except in a night-
marish world of ghastly suffering which it is wholly unable to handle.
Surely the more reasonable viewis that WHO must, by the very nature of
its functions and responsibilities, be empowered to warn of medical
dangers, seek clarification of legal issues, and prepare itself as best it can
in the light of the applicable law.

In this instance, WHO is by no means seeking to lay down a regulatory
framework, in regard to the use of nuclear weapons, which of course
would be beyond its competence, but is only making an enquiry for the
clarification of a matter which is crucial to its proper discharge of its
responsibilities.
As the Report of the WHO'SCommittee of Experts concluded:

"As doctors and scientists, the members of the Committee feel
that they have both the right and the duty to draw attention in the
strongest possible terms to the catastrophic results that would follow
from any use of nuclear weapons. The immediate and the delayed
loss ofhuman and animal life would be enormous, and the effect on
the fabvic of civilization would be either to impede its vecovery or
make vecovery impossible. The plight of the survivors would be
physically and psychologically appalling. The partial or complete
disruption of the health serviceswould deprive survivors of effective
help.
The Committee is convinced that there is a sound professional
basis for its conclusions that nuclear weapons constitute the greatest
immediate threat to the health and welfare of mankind."44

According to a summary of the 1986Report on the Medical Implica-
tions of Nuclear War, published by the Institute of Medicine of the
United States National Academy of Science:

"Each successive study of the possible human destruction that
would result from a nuclear war draws a grimmer conclusion about
what the human cost would be. Instead of speculating that the casu-
alties might amount to only a few tens of millions, recent studies

44Effects of Nuclear Wciron Healtlz and Health Services, WHO, Geneva, 1984,p. 6;
emphasis added.

75 have indicated that the casualties are more likely to number a billion
or more, and even the survival of human beings on earth has been
questioned." (CR 95/27, p. 77.)
The relevance of WHO's concern appears further from the following
statement in the WHO Report which has been placed before the Court:

"Historically medicine has played an important part in military
campaigns. This has been particularly the case in recent wars in
which the effectiveness of a prompt medical response did much to
maintain morale among combat troops. Following a nuclear war,
however, al1the evidence indicates that medicine will have nothing
to offer the injured survivors; the number of casualties will be too

great and the remaining medical resources grossly in~ufficient."~~
In nuclear war, physicians and health professionals will themselves be
killed in large numbers and the depleted ranks of the survivors will have
to cope with a situation where the hospitals themselves are destroyed.
The WHO studies thus show that treatment after the event is at best a
forlorn hope.

The view that WHO's role is limited to such assistance as it can give
after the devastation of a nuclear attack was well answered in homely
terms by the Marshall Islands - that it is not "merely a charlady, a
femme de nzénagecalled in to clean up after the event is over and al1the
participants have gone home" (CR95132, p. 86, Professor Crawford).

7. The Argument Relating to Abuse of tlze Court's
Advisory Functions

For the various reasons set out above, the argument is untenable that
WHO has no special interest in this matter. WHO's constitutional man-
date relating to global health is concerned with al1aspects of health -
preventive, curative, educational, precautionary, research, regulatory,
planning, emergency assistance, international CO-operation.The nuclear

weapon touches al1of these and the measure in which it touches them will
Vary,depending on whether it is or is not a lawful weapon of war.

The deliberate act of spreading lethal disease, be it by chemicals or
germs or poisons or noxious fumes, has, even in ancient times been con-
sidered to be contrary to the laws of war. 1 have dealt in my dissenting
opinion in the General Assembly request with various cultural traditions
on this matter, and do not need to cover the same ground here (see Sec-
tion 111.2).Nowhere in the age-old history of the laws of war - ancient
or modern - is there found a principle which permits the poisoning of
the enemy forces, leave alone the poisoning of the enemy population en

masse. This is what nuclear weapons do (see my dissent in the General

" Op. ci?ootilote 13s~i/~Ann. 6, p. 158Assembly request, Section II) - apart, that is, from poisoning the popu-
lations of non-combatant countries.

To Varythe factor that damages health, 1take the following hypotheti-
cal illustration. Before any bacteriological weapons convention had been
entered into, a country has rockets on its launching pads, fitted, not with
a nuclear warhead but with a warhead containing a fatal virus such as
ebola, for which no cure is known. Since the spreading of this virus has
not been specificallyprohibited by any treaty, WHO makes an enquiry
from this Court as to the legality of deliberately infecting enemy popula-
tions with such an incurable virus. In such a situation. it seems incon-
ceivable that it could have been submitted that this wag an abuse of the
Court's advisory functions. Any objection that because it concerned

peace and security, it was not therefore amatter for WHO, would attract
incredulity and disbelief. It might indeed have been asked what necessity
there was for WHO to ask a question, the answer to which was so obvi-
ous according to the principles of humanitarian law. The nuclear war-
head causes no less a danger to global health than the warhead in the
hypothetical illustrationabove, the difference being that it is not packed
with germs, but with an agency that causes cancers, keloids, and deformi-
ties with equal irreversibility, but on an infinitely larger scale than that
hypothetical warhead.
The nuclear weapon is not so powerful that it can sail above the law.

Further, the argument that WHO has no more competence to put this
question than it would have, itself, to declare the use of a particular
weapon illegal, is one which, with al1respect, 1 have some difficulty in
following. It is for the very reason that WHO manifestly does not have

power to make declarations on the law that it has approached this Court,
which manifestly has that power.
Finally, arguments that the World Health Organization has been
goaded or influenced into taking this action by interested parties are not
considered in this opinion. The WHO is a United Nations agency of high
standing and repute and the argument suggests that this high body is per-
mitting itself to be made use of in some way to satisfy the ulterior motives
of others.1do not think this submission calls for any attention from this
Court.

IV. STATE OBLIGATIONS

1. State Obligations in Regard to the Environment

The Court is asked whether the use of nuclear weapons is a breach of
State obligations in relation to the environment. The Court has not con-
sidered this question. The Court's Opinion (para. 16)states that "the Court rnust identify the obligations of States under the rules of
law invoked, and assess whether the behaviour in question conforms
to those obligations, thus giving an answer to the question posed

based on law",
but does not proceed to identify and examine those obligations in order
to answer the question. 1consider that it needs more attention. It is more-
over an area very much within the legitiinate concerns of WHO.

The question asked by WHO affords the Court an opportunity for
contributing to an important aspect of this development, foi-it focuses
attention on the vital question of the duties of States in regard to the
environment. 1regret this opportunity has not been taken by the Court.

(a) Tlzeprogress of environwzentallaiv

From rather hesitant and tentative beginnings, environmental law has
progressed rapidly under the combined stimulus of ever inore powerf~~l
means of inflicting irreversibleenvironmental damage and an ever increas-

ing awareness of the fragility of the global environment. Together these
have brought about a universal concern with activities that may damage
the global environment, which is the common inheritance of al1nations,
great and small. To use the words of a well-ltnown text on international
environmental law :

"The global environment constitutes a huge, intricate, delicate and
interconnected web in which a touch here or palpitation there sends
tremors throughout the whole system. Obligations erga omnes, rules
jus cogerzs,and international criines respond to this state of affairs
by permitting environmental wrongs to be guarded against by al1
nations." 46

Such compelling facts do not admit of any exceptions, however
powerful the actor or compelling the purpose, for it is increasingly clear
that what is at stake can well be the very survival of humanity. Nuclear
weapons bring us to such a limit situation, and therefore attract the
principles of environmental law. As was observed in the preamble of the
Treaty of Tlatelolco :

"nuclear weapons, whose terrible effects are suffered, indiscrimi-
nately and inexorably, by military forces and civilian population
alike, constitute, through the persistence of the radioactivity they

release, an attack on the integrity of the hunlan species and ulti-
mately rnay even render the whole earth uninhabitable".

46Inte/.lztltionrilEn1'1iorzrcritrnciWoild Order, Guruswamy, Palmer and Wes-
ton, 1994,p. 344.(b) The growth of the notion of State obligations
The Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment (Stockholm), adopted on 16 June 1972, was designed to

"inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and
enhancement of the human environment". Principle 1of that Declaration
states that:
"Man hasthefundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate
conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life
of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to
protect and improve the environment for present and future genera-
tions . .."

Principle 21 has a direct relevance to WHO'Senquiry, for it deals spe-
cificallywith the obligation of States not to damage or endanger signifi-
cantly the environment beyond their jurisdiction. Principle 2 of the Rio
Declaration gives expression to the same principle. Both may be said to
be articulations, in the context of the environment, of general principles
of customary law. In the words of Corfu Clzalznel,there is a "general and
well-recognized" principle that every State is under an "obligation not to
allow knowingly its territory to be used for acts contrary to the rights of
other States" (I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22).

Principle 24 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
(1992),whereby States are called upon to "respect international law pro-
viding protection for the environment in times of armed conflict and

cooperate in its further development, as necessary", is a further expres-
sion of this general principle. It cannot therefore begainsaid that the con-
cept of state responsibility in regard to the environment is today an
established part of international law.

(c) Active and passive State obligations

There is a State obligation lying upon every member State of the com-
munity of nations to protect the environment, not merely in the negative
sense of refraining from causing harm, but in the positive sense of con-
tributing affirmatively to the improvement of the environment. A wide
recognition of this principle was evidenced when, in 1971, the General
Assembly affirmed "the responsibility of the international community to
take action to preserve and enhance the environment" (General Assem-
bly resolution 2849 (XXVI); emphasis added).

For the purposes of the present case, however, it is not necessary to
enter the area of active State responsibility to conserve the environment
- an aspect now receiving increasing attention. The passive responsibil-
ity not to damage the environment is sufficient for the purposes of thiscase, for it is patently clear that any State action which damages the envi-
ronment in the way that nuclear weapons do is a violation of the obliga-
tion of environmental protection which modern international law places
upon States. A contrary view would negative the basic logic of environ-

mental law and send a tremor through the foundations of this vital sub-
discipline of modern international law.

(d) Thejuristic nature of State obligations

In relation to environmental obligations, the notion is evolving of
duties owed ergu omnes and of rights assertible erga omnes, irrespective
of thecompartmentalization of theplanetary population into nation States.
The concept of an erga omnes right is not new. In 1915,the eminent

American jurist, Elihu Root, who later became a member of the Com-
mittee which drafted the Statute of the Permanent Court, stated, in a
paper on "The Outlook for International Law":
"Wherever in the world the laws which should protect the inde-

pendence of nations, the inviolability of their territory, the lives and
property of their citizens, are violated,al1other nations have a right
to protest against the breaking down of the la^."^^
Such thinking is the background against which the damage caused to
the environment must be considered, for the purpose of ascertaining

whether the use of a nuclear weapon by a State is in conflict with State
obligations under international law.
The concept of obligations ergaomnes has, of course, received recogni-
tion in the Court's jurisprudence, though in a different context, in Bur-
celona Traction, Light and Poiver Company, Linzited Second Plzase
(I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 3).
Indeed, in some areas, modern discussio~isof State responsibility take
the matter even further, to elevate serious breach of State duty in regard
to the environment to the level of an international crime when they state

that :
"a serious breach of an international obligation of essential impor-
tance for the safeguarding and preservation of the human environ-
ment, such as those prohibiting massive pollution of the atmosphere
or of the seas"

may result in an international crime4x.
It is not necessary for present purposes to examine the various levelsof
State obligations in respect of the environment, which may range from

47Proceedings of the Anzericun Society of International Law, 1915, Vol. 2, pp. 7-9,
cited in Guruswamy, Palmer and Weston,p. cit., p. 345.
4XInternational Law Commission, Draft Article 19 (3) jd) on State Responsibility,
Yecirbook of tlzeInterncrtioncilLoti) Cornmission, 1976,Vol. II, Part II, p. 96.obligations erga omnes, through obligations which are in the nature of
jus cogens, al1the way up to the level of international crime.

(e) Multilateral treaty obligations

There have been, since the Stockholm Declaration of the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972), over one hun-
dred multilateral environmentalinstruments which are in force. A United
Nations Environment Programme is in force, major instruments have

been signed regarding the law of the sea, transboundary pollution, haz-
ardous waste, nuclear accidents, the ozone layer, endangered species -
to name but a few.The United Nations Environment Programme register
of multilateral treaties affecting the environment revealed as many as 152
treaties in May 1991 49.

The multifarious international instruments relating to the environ-

ment, to which reference has been made, build up the rising tide of inter-
national acceptance which creates in its totality a universal acceptance of
State obligation which in turn translates itself into law. Al1of the areas
they deal with are areas affected by the nuclear weapon to an extent
which is impermissible under these instruments, had the damage been
caused by any other agency.

The areas named are a small sample of the areas of State obligations
under international law which are affected by the nuclear weapon. What
WHO wants to know, in view of the close linkage of a pure environment
with human health, is whether there is a breach of such State obligations
when a State uses a nuclear weapon. It cannot, in my view, be denied this
information, which lies at the very heart of its constitutional mandate of
safeguarding global health.

2. State Obligations in Regard to Heulth

The next question to be addressed is whether there are State obliga-
tions in regard to health, and whether these are violated by the use of the
nuclear weapon.

(a) The lzumarzriglzt to lzealtlz

An examination of the various international developments in regard to

health shows that State duties in regard to health have now passed beyond
the field of good intentions into the realm of binding international law.

4y See Geoffrey Palmer, "New Ways to Make International Environmental Law",
Ai??er.icJzOUI.IZoII~zternntionLriii1992,Vol. 86, p. 262.

81 Even before the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Constitu-
tion of WHO (1946) recognized the enjoyment of the highest attainable
standard of health as one of the fundamental rights of every human
being. This will be dealt with more fully in the section on the WHO Con-
stitution.
Article 25 (1) of the Universal Declaration recogilizes the right of
everyone to health and well-being, through its stress on the right to a
standard of living adequate for health and well-being.

(b) State obligations in relation to health

A more specific recognition of the right to health is contained in Ar-
ticle 12of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights of 1966. Article 12 states that the "States Parties to the present
Covenant recognize the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest
attainable standard of physical and mental health". It will be noted here
that the recognition by States of the right to health is in the general terms
that they recognize the right of "everyone" and not merely of their own
subjects. Consequently each State is under an obligation to respect the
right to health of al1meinbers of the international community.
It is to be noted also that the formulation contained in the Covenant

is not restricted to mere recognition or to statements of good intention.
Article 2 (1) provides that:
"Each State party to the present Covenant undertakes to take
steps, individually and through international assistance and co-
operation, especially econoinic and technical, to the maximum of
its available resources, with a view to achieving progressively the full

realization of the rights recognized in the present Covenant by al1
appropriate means, including particularly the adoption of legislative
measures." (Emphasis added.)
Further, Article 2 (2) contains a guarantee by States that "the rights
enunciated in the present Covenant will be exercised without discrimina-

tion of any kind as to race, . .. national or social origin, . . or other
status". Quite clearly this is a reinforcement of the obligation erga omnes
towards the entire global population which is contained in Article 12and
a further obligation to take active steps towards guaranteeing this right
to health of the global population.

(c) Global implernentation nzeasures involving State obligations in
regard to health

On 22May 1981,the World Health Assembly,by resolution WHA34.36,
unanimously adopted a "Global Strategy for health for al1by the year2000", which was noted with approval by the General Assembly. In that
resolution, the Assembly urged al1member States to assure its implemen-
tation and requested al1 appropriate organizations and bodies of the

United Nations system to collaborate with the World Health Organiza-
tion in carrying it out.
In particular, there has been much action on the regulation of products
harmful to health and the environment. A consolidated list has been
issued ofproducts whichhave been banned, withdrawn, severelyrestricted
or not approved. At its thirty-ninth session, the General Assembly
received a report from the Secretary-General on products harmful to
health and the environment, and decided that an updated consolidated
list should be issued annually, and urged Member States to avail them-
selvesof this information, and to supplement the data in the consolidated
list.

Thus, not only has the right to health been recognized as a human
right, but specificimplementation measures have been urged on al1States
in measures which have been universally accepted by States,without any
demurrer on the ground that health is not an area of State responsibility.
Special action programmes have been worked out in relation to agencies
likely todamage health and the environment.

(d) The clash between State obligations and the health-velated efiects of
nucleav weapons

How does the use of the nuclear weapon accord with this obligation
which States under binding treaty obligation, and by general agreement,
have recognized as binding, and have in fact agreed by treaty to imple-
ment? The nuclear weapon produces the various effects upon health
which have been outlined in this opinion. They include the inducement of
radiation sickness, leukaemia, cancer, keloids, genetic deformities, and
the like. They do so on a massive scale,not limiting their effects to the
target population of the countries at war. Even within the countries at
war, they promote these sources of destruction of human health among
civilian and combatant alike.
It appears evident that there is here a clear contradiction between State
obligations under international law in relation to health and the use of
the nuclear weapon. There can be no doubt that if a State by deliberate
action of any other kind should foster this sort of danger to human

health, it would clearly be seen as a contradiction between that act and
the State's obligations in regard to health. Even if that act should have
been performed in conditions of war, there would still be a breach of
State obligations under humanitarian law in relation to human health, as
is clear with chemical, bacteriological or asphyxiating weapons. By what
title of exemption does the nuclear weapon fa11clear of this principle?
1know of none. 3. Tlze Duties of States under the WHO Constitution

WHO asks whether, in viewof their health and environmental effects,
the use of a nuclear weapon by a State would be a breach of its obliga-
tions under the WHO Constitution. Knowledge of the legal reach of its
constitution is vital to the proper functioning of any agency. The Court is
the pre-eminent authority under the United Nations system to advise a
United Nations agency on such a matter which is unquestionably a mat-
ter of law, and which is unquestionably a matter of legitimate concern to
the agency. WHO turns naturally to the Court for advice on precisely
such a matter. The Court denies this advice on what seems to me to be a
technicality.

Quite apart from their responsibilities under customary international
law and any other conventions to which they are parties, the States that
are parties to the WHO Constitution, which is itself an international
treaty, accepted certain principles and obligations. The Constitution was
signed by 61 States on 22 July 1946 and entered into force on 7 April
1948.Appendix 1to the WHO volume of Basic Documents shows that, at

31 October 1992, 182States had become party to the Constitution.

What are the obligations of States under the WHO Constitution?

In the first place, the States Parties to the Constitution declare inter
alia that "The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is
one of the fundamental rights of every human being . . .";that "The
health of al1peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace and secu-
rity and is dependent upon the fullest CO-operationof individuals and
States"; and that "Governments have a responsibility for the health of
their peoples . . .".
They proceed to accept these principles and they establish the World
Health Organization "for the purpose of CO-operationamong themselves
and with others to promote and protect the health of al1peoples . ..".
This Organization's objective, as stated in Article 1is "the attainment
by al1peoples of the highest possible level of health".
There is thus a commitment to the attainment by al1 people to the
highest possible level of health, to regarding the achievement of the high-

est achievable standard of health as a fundamental right of every person
onthe planet, a recognition of health asfundamental to peace, and of the
dutv of State CO-o~erationto achieve this ideal. More such commitments
wokd appear frok a scrutiny of other articles of the Constitution, but
the foregoing sufficesfor purposes of present discussion.

The Constitution is a multilateral treaty, and each participating State
holds out to al1others its adherence to these principles, on the basis of
which al1 others make a similar commitment. Al1 participating Stateshave committed themselves, to the extent of their respective abilities, to
pursue this objective, consistently with the underlying assumption that
the health of al1peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace and
security.
As stated in the next section, the WHO Constitution and its object and
purpose must be interpreted in accordance with the principle of broad
interpretation approved by the Court in its Opinion in the present case. It
is in thissense that the commitments of the participating nations under
the WHO Constitution must be construed. It seems to be clearly incon-
sistent with this objective that any of these nations, even for purposes of
war, should consciously spread a means by which global health is under-
mined. In fact, it is a contradiction in terms to commit oneself to the
attainment by al1peoples of the highest possible levels of health and at
the same time to launch into the midst of the global population a lethal
instrumentality for spreading il1health on an unprecedented scale.

The use of conventional weapons in war does not spread disease. It

does not cause genetic deformities. It does not imperil crops. It does
not cause intergenerational climatic effects which imperil the global food
supply. The use of nuclear weapons does. The user of the weapon now
knows, in the present state of scientificknowledge, that al1these dangers
to health will be caused.

There is thus a clear breach of State obligations undertaken in the
treaty which forms the WHO Constitution, when States resort to the use
of nuclear weapons. This is the crux of the WHO enquiry regarding the
interpretation of its Constitution.

Such a result would be achieved evenwithout the application of broad
principles of interpretation, discussed in the next section, for it follows
naturally from a consideration of these declarations and commitments
collectively.
The Constitution also accepts the promotion of child health and wel-
fare as one of the mandatory functions of the Organization (Art. 2 (1)).

This principle has been accepted by every participating State. Nuclear
weapons surely violate this principle, if for no other reason than the
genetic damage they cause. The position is no different in regard to
materna1 health and welfare dealt with in the same Article (2 (1)).

1. Pvinciples of Intevpretation Applicable to WHOS Constitution

An important aspect of the question referred to the Court is the legal
interpretation of State obligationsunder the WHO Constitution, which isa multilateral treaty. As the Court has observed in its Advisory Opinion
(at para. 19),the principles of treaty interpretation are thus brought into
play and Article 31 of the Vienna Convention "makes it possible to give
quite broad consideration to the particularities of the constitutional

instruments of international organizations", for the terms of a treaty
must be interpreted "in their context and in the light of its object and
purpose". The Court's jurisprudence has given effect to this principle on
numerous occasions, as the Court has observedSO.
In the interpretation of a multilateral convention of this type, particu-
larly one which sets before itself certain sociological or humanitarian
goals, the task of interpretation should be guided by the object and pur-
pose which the Convention sets before itself. A literal interpretation,

using strict methods of anchoring interpretation to the letter rather than
the spirit of theconvention, would be inappropriate. Fitzmaurice observes
of interpretation by reference to objects, principles and purposes (the
teleological method) that :

"This is a method of interpretation more especially connected
with the general multilateral convention of the 'normative', and,
particularly, of the sociological or humanitarian type. The charac-
ters or constitutive instruments of international organizations may

also be placed in this ~ategory."~'

The interpretation of a multilateral, sociological or humanitarian
treaty, such as the WHO Constitution, cannot be permitted to diverge
from its objects, purposes and principles. 1 am of the view that the
approach of the Court has in effect taken it far from these objects, pur-
poses and principles, through a narrow and literal construction, which
seesthe Organization as being precluded from enquiring, interalia, about
the conformity of a certain item of State conduct with the terms of its

own Constitution.
There are numerous specific provisions within the treaty, several of
which have already been referred to. These need to be interpreted in
accordance with the treaty's overall object and purpose as stated in its
preamble. This is not to state that in the treaty in question there is any
conflict between the natural meaning of the words used and its overall
purpose, but merely to state that its various specificprovisions should not
be interpreted narrowly, but always with the end in viewwhich the treaty

seeks to achieve - the attainment of the highest standards of health on a
global scale.
The object and purpose of the Constitution - the attainment by al1
peoples of the highest possible levelof health - is clearly defeated by the

Seereferencesto the relevant cases inparagraph 19of the Court's Advisory Opinion.

51Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, TlzeLaw and Procedure of tlzeZnterncitionalCourt of Jus-
tice,1986,Vol. 1, p. 341.infliction upon the global population of multiple health dangers on a
massive scale, as follows from the use of a nuclear weapon.

There is no ambiguity about the expression "highest possible level of
health". States declare thev will CO-o~erateto achieve this. others make
similar declarations on this basis, and a commitment to achieve this
obiective has emerrred.
"
The governing principle as to whether the nuclear weapon violates
State obligations under the Constitution is to be found in the object and
purpose of the WHO Constitution. When so regarded,the answer emerges
beyond any possibility of doubt or obscurity. State actions which nega-
tive the State declarations and commitments to health outlined earlier are
clearly a violation of the WHO Statute. To interpret the statutory provi-
sions outlined earlier, so as to enable a State to inflict health damage to
present and future generations without violating its constitutional duties,
does violence to this principle of interpretation, and to the Statute itself.

The maxim ut res magis valeat quam pereat may also be invoked in
this regard52. The central purpose of the Statute is health. The Statute
must be interpreted so as to promote that purpose, rather than endanger
it. A statutory construction of the WHO Constitution which sees State
use of the nuclear weapon as not being in conflict with State obligations
thereunder is a construction that endangers rather than promotes the
central purpose of the Statute.
In view of the clear and incontrovertible contradiction between the
obligations assumed by States under the Constitution, and the use of
nuclear weapons, it is scarcely necessary to examine other elements in the
Constitution which are confirmatory of these conclusions. For example,

the provisions that "the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of
health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being", or that
the organization is established "for the purpose of CO-operation . . .to
promote and protect the health of al1peoples" are just a few of the many
provisions scattered throughout the Statute which confirm its dominant
and incontrovertible purpose, to which al1 participating nations have
subscribed without reservation.

2. The Principle of Speciality

The Court has attached much importance to the principle of speciality
in dealing with the question whether the present request falls within the

tion of Texts in Open International Organizations", British Year Book of Internationcdeta-
Law, 1994,Vol. 65,pp. 189ff.; H. W. A. Thirlway, "The Law and Procedure of the Inter-
national Court of Justice, 1960-1989", British Year Book of International Law, 1991,
Vol. 62,pp.20 ff.ArL.ers~here of activities of WHO. The Court is of course anxious to
ensure that there should not be an unnecessaryconfusion or overlapping of
functions between the different organs and agencies ofthe United Nations.
However, the principle of speciality does not mean that there can be no

overlap. It is in the nature of a complex organization like the United
Nations that there will be, owing to the multiplicity and complexity of its
functions, some areas of overlap between the legitimate spheres of author-
ity of its constituent entities. As observed earlier, at the highest levels of
the United Nations Organization, this Court itself has an area of overlap
with the Securitv Council. Although"the Securitv Council has basic
responsibility for matters pertinent to peace and security, the same mat-
ters can also present legal problems properly within the sphere of adju-

dication, which is the Court's particular responsibility. The inextricable
interlinkage between the legal aspects of a matter and its political impli-
cations has never been seen as depriving the Court of its right and its
duty to act in its proper legal sphere.

As so well observed by the Court in its Opinion in the present case
(para. 16), the fact that a matter has political implications does not
deprive a legal question of its quality of being a legal question. The same
concerns should apply in regard to medical questions. In Military and

Paramilitary Activities in andagainst Nicaragua, the Court gave expres-
sion to what rnay be described as the principle of complementarity at the
highest levels of the United Nations Organization in the clearest terms
when it observed :

"The [Security]Council has functions of a political nature assigned
to it, whereas the Court exercises purely judicial functions. Both
organs can therefore perform their separate but complementary
functions with respect to the same events." (I.C.J. Reports 1984,
p. 435, para. 95.)

Likewise, a medical question rnay involve also some other ramifica-
tions which make it an appropriate matter for another specialized
agency. For example, ventilation requirements on aircraft could
equally well concern the World Health Organization and the Interna-
tional Civil Aviation Organization; safety regulations relating to the

carriage of noxious waste rnay equally concern WHO and the Interna-
tional Maritime Organization; questions relating to patent rights in
pharmaceuticals rnay equally concern WHO and the World Intellectual
Property Organization; questions regarding the disposa1 of nuclear
waste rnay equally concern WHO and the International Atomic Energy
Agency; questions relating to herbicides rnay equally concern WHO
and the Food and Agriculture Organization; unhealthy working condi-
tions in the paint and chemical industry rnay equally concern WHO and

the International Labour 0reunisation.The familv of United Nations
organizations was not set up in a fretwork pattern of neatly dovetailingcomponents, each with a precisely carved outline of its own. These
organizations deal with human activities and human interrelationships,

and it is of their very nature that they should have overlapping areas of
concern. Their broad contours are of course defined, but different
aspects of the self-same question may well fa11within the ambit of two
or more organizations. The particularities of various international
organizations were never meant to exclude areas of overlap, so long as
these lay within the legitimate sphere of concern of the respective
agencies involved. Specialized agencies with specialized interests can
home in on specialized implications of some activity, which might
otherwise pass unnoticed in other reactions to other aspects of the same
problem. Complex problems have ramifications in many specialized
directions to which the specialists alone are most competent to draw
attention. Such a view contributes to the richness of the United Nations
system. To expect otherwise would be contrary to the essence and ratio-
nale of a complex organization which straddles al1 facets of human
activity.

VI. WHO's PRIOREFFORTS

1. WHO'S Efforts in the Nucleav Field

WHO's representative has outlined three phases of WHO activity in
the field of nuclear radiation going back to the 1950s. At that stage,
WHO was concerned with the harmful effects of ionizing radiation of al1
kinds. In 1960it directed its attention, inter alia, to the effects of radio-
active fallout from experimental nuclear explosions in the atmosphere. In
1966it adopted a resolution particularly referring to nuclear weapons. In
1979 it specifically concerned itself with nuclear war which was men-
tioned in WHA resolution 32.24.

In this phase, the Assembly began to concern itself with the "effects of
nuclear war on health and health services". It produced a detailed report

on the subject which took two years in preparation. This has been depos-
ited with the Court and has already been cited.
That Report dealt with the explosion of a single bomb, a limited war
and a total war. The dead in each of these scenarios ranged from one
million to one billion, with a similar number of injured people in addi-
tion.
The next phase of WHO activity in this regard commenced in 1992
when a possible request to this Court for an advisory opinion was taken
up, though not without opposition from some members, as noted earlier
in this opinion. 2. WHOS Past Practice in Mutters Relating to Peace

WHO has in the past asserted its "interest in the consolidation of peace
as an inalienable prerequisite for preservation and improvement of the
health of al1 nations" (WHA resolution 20.54, referring to resolutions
11.31 and 15.51), and it has called upon al1 WHO member States to
implement United Nations General Assembly resolution 2162 (XXI). In
1969WHO, in resolution 22.58, referred to "the necessity of achieving a
rapid international agreement for the complete prohibition and disposa1
of al1types of chemical and bacteriological (biological) weapons".

WHO has thus in its practice very clearly indicated its concern with the

legal status of weapons that could have damaging effects on health and
the environment. Health and the purity of the environment, without
which health cannot be fostered, are undoubtedly within its purview and,
indeed, constitute the very rationale for its existence. The suggestion that
WHO should concern itself with the practicalities of attention to matters
of health and the environment without any concern with the legal frame-
work within which health and environment are affected has not been the
basis on which WHO has conducted its activities thus far. It has viewed
a concern for health and environment as including a concern for the legal
framework within which damage to health and environment may be
caused. WHO would indeed be lacking in due attention to its duties in
this regard if it did not, where possible, draw attention to the need for
clarification or correction of a legal framework within which such dam-
ane could occur.
"
If the legality of chemical and bacteriological weapons was a proper
subject for WHO'S concern, having regard to their effect on health and
the environment, then afortiori nuclear weapons would be.

If WHO did not concern itself with international legislation in regard
to such matters as plague prevention, smallpox inoculation, or noxious
waste disposal, this would be universally regarded as a grave omission. It
could similarly concern itself with legislation in regard to the level of a
toxic or carcinogenic substance that can be carried in a product offered
for public consumption, or with the need for legislation regarding the
advertising on product labels of the carcinogenic or other effects of the
product. A WHO division, the International Agency for Research on
Cancer puts out reports from time to time on such matters. Recent out-

breaks of the deadly ebola virus have highlighted the imperative need for
stringent regulations, be they on a global scale, for containment of the
virus. Questions of legality - whether they be in regard to transport,
food certification, quarantine and indeed any means of spread of disease
- are very much the concern of WHO, whatever the agency that spreads
it among the global population. The nuclear weapon may concern mat-
ters of high national policy, but it is also a global health hazard of thefirst order, thus bringing its legality clearly within WHO's legitimate
sphere of interest, no less than any of the other legal questions outlined
above.

3. Lack of Objection to Prior WHO Actions
Furthermore, in taking such action as it has in the past, there has been,
as far as may be gathered from material placed before the Court, no

opposition to WHO action, on the basis of a transgression beyond the
bounds of its mandate. There has been no suggestion that WHO should
confine itself purely to thedical/epidemiologic levelof prevention, and
not enter the legal and political areas of prevention of activitiesdamaging
to health. If, indeed, it was outside WHO's province to dabble in these
questions of the illegality of weapons and, if such action was viewed by
the international community as such, one would have expected some
exception to be taken to WHO venturing into this area.
It is only necessary to refer to resolution WHA23.53 of 1970,in which
WHO emphasizes :

"the need for the rapid prohibition of the development, production
and stockpiling of chemical and bacteriological (biological)weapons
and the destruction of stocks ofuch weapons as a necessary meas-
ure in the fight for human health" (emphasis added).

An illustration of WHO's actions protecting its areas of concern, even
in relation to the legality of the use of force, is its appeal in resolution
WHA42.24 of 1989to al1member States: "to abstain from aggression
and the use of threats in their international relations, including threats
against medical centres and medical production plants".

Another factor bearing upon this aspect is the General Assembly's own
understanding of the practice relating to this matter, as reflected in its
resolution 49175K, welcoming the WHO resolution to seek this opinion
from the Court. Without being authoritative in itself on the legal ques-

tion involved, this is a recognition by the General Assemblyitself that the
issues raised in the request were not seen as taking WHO outside its
proper sphere of competence.

VII. ADMISSIBILI ATYD JURISDICTION

1. The Court's Discretion

The precedential implications of this Court's first refusa1of a special-
ized agency'srequest for an advisory opinion prompt me to set out spe-cificallysome reasons why 1consider that the objections to admissibility
and jurisdiction should fail.

The refusa1of the Permanent Court in Status of Eastern Carelia - the
only instance in the jurisprudence of this Court's predecessor where an
opinioil was declined - is distinguishable from the present, for in that
case the refusa1 was based on the principle that an existing dispute to
which a State was a party could not be indirectly brought to the Court in
the form of an advisory opinion. No such situation exists in relation to
the WHO request.

Many objections, mainly based on policy considerations, have been

urged by those opposing the grant of this opinion. Several of those policy
objections were raised also in regard to the opinion requested by the
General Assembly, and the Court has, in its Advisory Opinion on that
request, dismissed those objections. 1agree with the Court's reasoning in
dismissing those objections.

However, it is necessary to make soine observations on those objec-
tions, in the context of the WHO request, for those objections must like-
wise be overcome in regard to this request as well.
To a large extent, the objections were common. For example, the
United Kingdom observed :

"The United Kingdom submits that the Court should exercise its
discretion not to respond to the request from the General Assembly.
Similarly, if, contrary to my earlier submission, the Court were to
consider that WHO was competent to put its question to the Court,
the United Kingdom submits that the Court should none the less
decline to answer that question also. The reason is that both ques-
tions are too abstract and speculative for a meaningful response. A
response would serve no useful purpose and may, in fact, actually do
harm." (CR 95/34, p. 28, Sir Nicholas Lyell; emphasis added.)

In my view, these objections constitute no impediment to the grant of
the advisory opinion sought by WHO, and in this section 1 set out my
reasons for so concluding.

2. The Court'sDuty to Act Judicially

The power of the Court to grant an advisory opinion is discretionary,
in terms of the permissive rather than compulsory language (Statute,
Art. 65 (1)) which States that the Court:

"may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at the request
of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance with the
Charter of the United Nations to make such a request" (emphasis
added) .Yet the principle holds good that that discretion is not an absolute and
overriding discretion, but is circumscribed by the overriding principle of
the Court's duty, whether in contentious or in advisory jurisdictions,
always to act judicially.

As the Permanent Court observed in Status of Eastern Carelia:

"The Court, being a Court of Justice, cannot, even in giving advi-

sory opinions, depart from the essential rules guiding their activity
as a Court." (P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 5, p. 29.)
In Novthern Cameroons this Court emphasized the correspondence

between the principles governingits contentious and advisory jurisdiction
when it observed :
"Both Courts have had occasion to make pronouncements con-
cerning requests for advisory opinions, which are equally applicable

to the proper role of the Court in disposing of contested cases; in
both situations, the Court is exercising a judicial function." (I.C.J.
Reports 1963, p. 30.)
So, also, in Certain Expenses of the United Nations, the Court stressed

that its task in rendering advisory opinions is "an essentially judicial
task" (Z.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 155).
The essential rules guiding the Court's activity as a Court have not been
comprehensively spelt out in any decision. An important guideline has
however been spelt out in the jurisprudence of the Court - namely, that
the Court willrender an opinion in cases when it is so requested by a com-
petent body, in the absence of "compelling reasons to the contrary" 53.
Do such compelling reasons exist?

3. The Objections

Among the reasons adduced by those opposing a request for an advi-
sory opinion on nuclear weapons are the following:

(a) the requested opinion would enter into the sphere of politics, State
policy and State security ;
(b) nuclear weapons are being addressed in other contexts in the United
Nations ;
(c) an advisory opinion would be devoid of object or purpose;
(d) the opinion would have no effect on the conduct of States;

(e) atant disarmament negotiations;stion could adversely affect impor-

(f) the question referred is purely abstract and theoretical;

53For numerous decisions on this matter, see footnosupra(g) the question is too general;
(hl an opinion rendered in this matter would be damaging to the pres-
tige of the Court;
(i) the Court would be involved in a law-making exercise, were it to
render an opinion;
(j) this case falls outside the categories of cases in which an opinion
ought to be given;
(k) the opinion would trespass into areas of State policy.

(a) The requested opinionwould enter the political sphere

The submissions under this head take a variety of forms.
In the first place, it was argued that the request is only a search for
means of support of a political objective and that, despite the "legal cam-
ouflage" (France, Written Statement, p. 7), the question is not a legal
one. France indeed argued that "the questions are of a purely political
nature" and that they "have obviously been put for exclusively political
purposes" (CR 95/23, p. 66).
It was further submitted that the ruling sought from this Court goes
beyond the will of the States concerned into areas they have carefully
refrained from entering. In developing this point, it was argued that the
topic of legality or illegalitys one which States have deliberately chosen
not to broach directly or indirectly. The method deliberately chosen by
States on this matter is, we are told, "by elaborating and developing a
body of very complex and highly technical international treaty law"

(CR95124, p. 41, Germany). Despite this, the request seeks, according to
some submissions, to draw the Court into a purely political debate in a
realm not pertaining to itsjudicial function. For such reasons, the request
is said to be one which is not amenable to judicial enquiry.

These objections have been effectivelyanswered by the Court, sofar as
concerns the General Assembly request. The same reasoning would apply
in regard to WHO'S request. Stronger objections have been taken to the
WHO request than were taken in regard to the General Assembly request;
but the same reasoning on which the Court has overruled the objections
to the General Assembly request would apply equally to the WHO
request. The fact that the legal question is inextricably interlinked with
political considerations, that political motives are alleged to lie behind

the request, that political consequences would ensue from a ruling of the
Court - these are matters exganeous to the consideration whether a
given matter is a legal one. In fact, in the international world there are
fewissuesindeed which do not havepolitical overtones in varying degrees.
The weightier the issue, the heavier its likely political overtones. The
heavier its political overtones, the more necessary it may be to seek a
legal opinion. Whether the question be raised by the General Assemblyor by WHO, if it is a legal issue it is a proper matter for the Court, and
there this particular objection ends. As this Court has observed:

"in situations in which political considerations are prominent it may
be particularly necessary for an international organization to obtain
an advisory opinion from the Court as to the legal principles appli-
cable with respect to the matter under debate" (Interpretation oftize

Agreement of 25 Mavch 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, I.C.J.
Reports 1980, p. 87, para. 33).
The delicate nuances of diplomatic activity on the subject of nuclear
weapons are matters for the appropriate political authorities to pursue.

This Court cannot thereby be deterred from addressing its proper func-
tion - givingits considered opinion on the purely legal question referred
to it, irrespective of the political implications of the subject.
Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, in referring to the prior jurisprudence of the
observed that, "if the question put [to the Court] is in itself a
legal question, .. .the fact that it has a political element isirrelevant" 55.

Thejoint dissenting opinion of Judges Onyeama, Dillard, de Aréchaga

and Waldock is also worthy of note in this connection:
"'Few indeed would be the cases justiciable before the Court if a
legal dispute were to be regarded as deprived of its legal character by
reason of one or both parties being also influenced by political

considerations. Neither in contentious casesnor in requests for advi-
sory opinions has the Permanent Court or this Court ever at any
time admitted the idea that an intrinsically legal issue could lose
its legal character by reason of political considerations surrounding
it.' (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), I.C.J. Reports 1974,
p. 518 .)" (CR95/27, p. 61.)

The statement referred to earlier that the questions are "of a purely
political nature" does not stand the test of these considerations. More-
over, the suggested motivation of the questions is quite obviously not a
matter for speculation on the part of the Court.

(b) Nuclear weaponsave being addressedin other contexts in the United
Nations
The argument that matters relating to nuclear weapons are the

preserve of other organs of the United Nations has been used for two
purposes in the present application :

54 Conditions of Admission of a State to Membership in tlze United Nations (Article 4
of Clzarter), Advisory Opinion, 1948,I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948,p. 57, Competence of the
GeneralAssembly for the Admissiotz of a State to the United Nations, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 4, and Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary
an55RThe Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice, op. cit., p. 116. (a) so far as concerns the capacity of WHO to make this application; and
(6) so far as concernsthe capacity of this Court to considerthe application.
The first has been dealt with in the section of this opinion dealing with
the Principle of Speciality (Sec. V.2).
The second has been dealt with by the Court in answering the General
Assembly's request. 1 associate myself with the Court's answer to that
objection as contained in its Opinion regarding the General Assembly
reauest.

The mere circumstance that a matter is pending in other forumscannot
deprive a legal question of the quality of being legal, nor can it deprive
the Court of a jurisdiction expressly vested in it by the Charter. Nor can
the circumstance that it relates to international peace and security pre-
serve such a matter within the exclusivejurisdiction of the Security Coun-
cil and exclude it from the jurisdiction of the Court. It would be quite
impossible for the Court to function as the principal judicial organ of the
United Nations if this were the case, and the Court is required to abdi-
cate jurisdiction merely because a matter involves peace and security.

The entire jurisprudence of the Court militates against this proposi-
tion. Cases such as the Genocidecase, relating to Bosnia, and the Locker-
bie case, despite the heaviest implications attaching to them relating to
peace and security, were nevertheless entertained and handled by the
Court. Likewise, in regard to advisory jurisdiction matters, the fact that
the international status of South West Africa was a question which
threatened peace and security did not prevent the Court from giving the
opinion requested.
Just as the presence of a political elementdoes not take away the juris-

diction of the Court, so also the presence of an element relating to peace
and security does not take away from WHO its undoubted competence in
relation to medical matters.

(c) An opinion kvouldbe devoid of object oupuupose
Advisory procedure is intended to allow the body invoking it to seek a

legal opinion that will be of assistance to it in the performance of its
duties. WHO, for reasons best known to it, has decided to seek the
Court's opinion. It is an expert body charged with worldwide responsi-
bilities in relation to the health of the global population. As discussed
earlier, it has obligations not only to render assistance after a health
catastrophe, but to plan its services before the occurrence of the catas-
trophe. 1twould otherwise be denying itself the ability to be of maximum
usefulness to the global community. It seeks information in regard to the
nuclear catastrophe, the worst health catastrophe that can befall human-
ity. Provided the request is within the scope of its activities, as the earlier
part of this opinion seeks to show, the Court must respect the technical
judgment of WHO when it decides that it needs that opinion. As Egypt
put it, it would be "improper" for the Court to indulge in speculationabout the consequences of an opinion which the requesting organ, in its
collective wisdom, has referred to the Court.

(d) An opinion would have no effect on the conduct of States

Clarification of the law by an authoritative body can never be described
as having no effect upon the community bound by that law. The proposi-
tion is incontrovertible that clear law is a guide to societal conduct.uch
clarity is in the interests of the community served by that law, whether
that community be national or global. It is not for the Court to speculate
as to whether that clarification of the law will be complied with or not.

As Egypt so aptly submitted, the first Advisory Opinion given by this
Court on the status of South West Africa was a statement of the law

which was not acted upon by those who should have acted upon it. The
Court, rendering the opinion, was probably aware of the likelihood that
this opinion would not be acted upon. Yet there can be little doubt that
the clarification of the law resulting from that opinion was a factor which
helped, over the long term, in the eventual dismantling of a structure
which was anathema to the rule of law.
So,also, in regard to nuclear weapons. Whatever be the opinion of the
Court,and whether the advisory opinion clarifying the law be acted upon
or not, it must prove a valuable building block in the realization of a
world ruled by law which in the ultimate analysis is what al1members of
the world community desire.
It is axiomatic that every individual in any community living under the
rule of law is entitled to know the rules that relate to his or her protec-
tion, and the basic rules relating to the rights or duties of every member
of that community. Not for nothing were the XII Tables publicly posted
in the Roman forum. It would be strange indeed if the rule of law was
said to prevail in any society whose individual members did not know
whether, in quarrels between neighbours with which they were not con-
cerned, their neighbours had the right to indulge in conduct which could

destroy the former's lives and property. It would be stranger still if they
did not have this right of information in matters which spell the differ-
ence between the survival and the extinction of their entire family. It can-
not be any different in the international legal system.
The contention that the opinion would have no effect upon the con-
duct of States is thus not true to reality. The Court upholds the rule of
law, serves a community bound to obey the rule of law and can only
function on the supposition that a community subject to the rule of law
will rule itself by law.
One is reminded of the statement of this Court in the Western Sahara
case where the Court was greatly influenced, in deciding to respond posi-
tively to the request for an opinion, by the circumstance that its replyfulfilled "a practical and contemporary purpose" (I.C.J. Reports 1975,
p. 20). It is difficult to think of a more "practical and contemporary pur-
pose" than the clarification of the law attendant on the use or threat of

use of nuclear weapons.
There is another angle as well from which this objection can be viewed.
It is the unanimous sentiment of the international community, as evi-
denced in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (Article VI of which
commits every State to general and complete nuclear disarmament) and
numerous other international documents, that there should be a striving
towards the goal of total nuclear disarmament. The road towards this
goal is a difficult one. The Court's opinion one way or another on the
legality of nuclear weapons would clarify the steps which the interna-
tional community needs to take towards removing the obstacles along the
path to the attainment of that goal.

It is for the Court to pronounce upon what the law is. Other matters,
extraneous to the question of legality, are not factors which should deter
the Court from doing its duty.

(e) An opinion could adversely affect important disarmament nego-
tiations

It has been said in argument that a reply by the Court will adversely
affect the course of current disarmament negotiations.
In terms equally applicable to the WHO request, France observed of
the General Assembly's request :
"a reply from the Court, far from representing a positive contribution
to the functioning of the General Assembly, and the United Nations
as a whole, could but adversely affect the current negotiations to

achieve a more secure world" (France, Written Statement, p. 16).
This is said to be particularly so at a time when, with the end of the Cold
War, disarmament talks have achieved a fresh impetus.

It is not for the Court to indulge in speculation as to the likely effect
upon future negotiations of a finding by the Court one way or the other.
Nor is the Court competent to assess the subtle diplomatic nuances of

complex situations in an area outside its proper domain. It is difficult to
see how speculation as to whether an advisory opinion could adversely
affect important disarmament negotiations can affect the question of the
Court's competence to consider a legal question.

What the Court needs to consider is whether it is possessed of the
requisite jurisdiction to address theparticularmatter on which an opinion
is sought. If it has this jurisdiction it must proceed. It is difficult to see how, if the Court has the authority to give this
opinion, it should be invited to desist from using this authority merely
because some members of the community of nations prefer to proceed
upon the basis of uncertainty rather than clarity of the applicable law
and thereby to proceed on premises which may eventually turn out to be
false, one way or the other. Whether the use of the weapon would or
would not be a breach of State responsibility, the sooner the correct posi-
tion is known, the firmer will be the basis on which the negotiations will
proceed.

(f) The question referred ispurely abstract and theoretical

The question is said to be abstract and theoretical, as it is not related to
any specificthreat or imminent use of a nuclear weapon. Such opinion as
the Court may give is said therefore to be one which has little regard to
practicalities. It is submitted that the question is general, vague and
iinprecise, whereas Article 65 (2) of the Statute requires that the written
request should contain "an exact statement of the question upon which
an opinion is required". Reference is made in this connection to the Advi-

sory Opinion on Namibia where this Court observed that:

"to enable a court to pronounce on legal questions, it must also be
acquainted with, take into account and, if necessary, make findings
as to the relevant factual issues" (Legal Consequen.cesfor States of

the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West
Afvica) notwithstanding Securit,~ Council Resolution 276 (1970),
I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 27).

France similarly argued that the Court's response should not involve

speculation which, in the present case, is claimed to be inevitable in the
absence of specific facts to which the legal question is related (France,
Written Statement, p. 15).
France argued that it is:

"impossible to examine the issue of nuclear weapons irrespective of
their realpurpose, which is to avoid war. Nor can it disregard the
fact that, for decades, the policy of deterrence has helped to ward off
the risk of a new world conflict." (Ibid., p. 20.)

Finland contended that the legality of the use of nuclear weapons can
only be determined in respect of specificcircumstances, for there can be a
large number of potential situations - for example, first use, counter use,
different practices of targeting, different types of nuclear weapons - and
the Court cannot hypothesize about al1these possibilities (Written State-
ment of Finland, p. 4). This aspect was rather bluntly put by Francewhen it stated that, in the absence of factual issues, the Court would have
to discover and invent them and that the Court's "function is to state the
law, not to write scenarios" (CR95123, p. 62).

There are several reasons why this line of argument cannot succeed.
In the first place, the question posed to the Court is a very specific
question relating to State responsibility for health, State responsibility in
regard to the environment, and State responsibility under the WHO Con-
stitution. The effects of nuclear weapons are amply documented and are
well known. There is no element of abstractness about those concrete
facts. The question posed by WHO relates those questions of State
responsibility to those concrete facts.

Secondly, a distinction must be made between a question which is
abstract in the sense of being unrelated to reality, and one which is
abstract in the sense of being theoretical, though related to reality. A

question based upon invented facts, unrelated to reality or upon prob-
lems stemming from those invented facts, is clearly the sort of abstract
question which the Court cannot entertain. Self-evidently, the advisory
jurisdiction of the Court was not constructed to enable it to stage moot
courts, but to clarify legal problems on live issues in the real world. Few
issues in the real worldcan be so live and cause such universal concern as
the question whether or not the use of nuclear weapons is compatible
with basic principles of State responsibility.

Thirdly, a request for an opinion upon a pure point of law which can
clearly be of great practical importance to the community of nations can-
not be ruled out on the basis of being abstract or hypothetical. The
answer to such a question can be an invaluable source of guidance to the
international community. The purpose of a clarification of the law is to
assist individuals and entities subject to the law in guiding and control-
ling their social behaviour. Such a ruling, given in anticipation of an

actual occurrence, would serve a useful societal purpose, as pointed out
earlier.Such a ruling, given subsequent to an actual occurrence or threat,
could savour of the ridiculous, especially in the context of such a ques-
tion as the use of nuclear weapons.

In the fourth place, it seems to me that this objection is unrelated to
the basic nature of the Court's advisory function. The advisory function
was specificallytailored to deal with questions of law that have a practi-
cal connotation. For example, questions could be raised in anticipation,
so as to clear doubts which might prevent an organization from deciding
on its proper course of legal action in a foreseen eventuality. To attempt
to restrict the advisory opinion to a specificsituation which has actually 163 USE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS (DISS .P.WEERAMANTRY)

arisen is to confuse the advisory function with the judicial function in
contentious cases. The latter looks back upon a factual situation that has
already occurred. It necessarilyoperates post factum. The advisory func-
tion, on the other hand, may look back to a past event or it may look
forward to the future, seeking guidance for the resolution of an expected
practical problem. It has the flavour of the work of the Roman juriscon-
sult whose opinions, by giving guidance for the future, in relation to situ-
ations which may not already have occurred, formed one of the principal
factors in developing that monumental system of law.

It was after considerable debate that this advisory function was given

to the Permanent Court and its successor; and it was one of the means by
which this first ever international court was taken out of the narrow
mould of contentious jurisdiction which had confined international tri-
bunals in the past. The world community was thereby given the means to
seek guidance, having regard to the many matters on which the world
community would need guidance on the law in order to shape its con-
duct. The case of nuclear weapons, on the use or non-use of which al1
civilization depends, is the classic instance of such a matter. It is indeed
difficult to see a more appropriate case for the invocation of that advi-
sory jurisdiction.

To conclude the consideration of this ground of objection, reference
should be made to the Conditions of Admission case where this Court

observed :
"According to Article 96 of the Charter and Article 65 of the Stat-
ute, the Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question,
abstract or otheri.vise."(Conditionsof Admission of a State to Mem-
bership in the United Nations (Article 4 of Charter), 1948, I.C.J.
Reports 1947-1948,p. 61 ;emphasis added.)

(g) The question is too general

Some submissions were made (for example, by Australia) that the
question is too general. The analogy offered by Australia was the ques-
tion "What are the rules of customary international law?" Though such
a question is manifestly a legal question, it was submitted that this was

the sort of question that the Court should not answer.
There can be little doubt that a question as broadly framed as the ana-
logy suggested is far too general for it to be sensibly addressed. The
present question is clearly in a totally different category. It does not
traverse a considerable segment of the totality of international law as
does the comparison offered, but is indeed a limited question, confined to
State responsibility in regard to the use or threat of use of a specifictype
of weapon.(h) An opinion rendered inthis matter would be damaging tothe pres-
tige of the Court

It is submitted that if the Court should trespass outside its proper judi-
cial function, such a course would be damaging to the Court's prestige.
This case was contrasted with cases such as the Conditions of Admission
case (supra) where the Court was invited to undertake what was described
as an essentially judicial task, namely, the interpretation of a treaty pro-

vision. On the contrary, the question now before the Court is said to
require the Court to engage in speculation and to encroach upon the sov-
ereign powers of States. Were the Court to move in this direction, it is
argued that it would compromise the Court's judicial role.
It cannot be damaging to the Court to consider a legal question prop-
erly referred to it. What could be damaging to the Court is a refusa1by it
to consider such a question on grounds of political implications and like
considerations, for then the Court would (to quote the P.C.I.J.'s state-
ment in Status of Eastern Carelia,as approved by this Court in Northern
Cameroons) "depart from the essential rules guiding their activity as a
Court".

(i) The Court would be involved ina law-making exercise ifit rendered
an opinion

This objection coverswell-trodden jurisprudential ground. "Do judges,
in deciding cases, make law under cover of merely applying pre-existing
law?" It is not proposed to enter into that discussion here, except to
observe that the law has always relied for its development on the ability
of thejudiciary to apply the general principle to the specificinstance. Out
of the resulting clarification comes further development.

If the law were all-embracing, self-evident and specifically tailored to
cover every situation, the judicial function would be reduced to a merely
mechanical application of rules. By very definition, international law is
not such a system any more than any domestic system is. Its inherent
principles infuse it with vitality, enabling it to apply them to new situa-
tions as they arise and give them a specificity they lacked before. When
the nuclear weapon emerged, a hundred years after modern humanitar-
ian law had begun to evolve, no specificrule banning nuclear weapons as
such could have been contained within its repertory of specificrules. For
various reasons, which have been dealt with in the relevant literat~re~~,
the emergence of a rule dealing specifically with nuclear weapons has

been delayed for half a century. The Court is now being invited to exer-

56SeeNagendra Singh, Nuclear Weapons and International Law, 1959,p.;see, also,
Richard Falk, Lee Meyrowitz and Jack Sanderson, "Nuclear Weapons and International
Law", Indian Journal of International Law, 1980,Vol. 20, p. 542.cise its classic judicial function. It is being asked to pronounce whether
general principles already existing in the body of international law are
comprehensive enough to cover the specificinstance. To suggest that this
is to invite the Court to legislate is to lose sight of the essenceof thedi-
cial function.

(j) The case falls outside the categories of cases in whichan opinion

ought to be given
The United Kingdom, in its written statement in reply to the General

Assembly's request (p. 11, para. 2.27), submits that the present request
does not fa11within any of the categories of cases in which, as a matter of
propriety, an opinion ought to be given. It was also argued (for example
by Australia) that the facts and issues of this case raise matters different
from any previous request for an advisory opinion. It was pointed out
that previous requests have related to such matters as the constitutional
powers of a United Nations organ or specialized agency, the construction
of a constituent instrument, or the discharge of particular functions by
the requesting organ.

The Court's jurisdiction to grant advisory opinions cannot be consid-
ered in terms of categories or precedents. The express language of the
Statute enables the Court to give an advisory opinion on uny legal ques-

tion that is referred to it, and the categories of cases on which an advisory
opinion may with propriety be sought are never closed. The qualification
or limitation of such a wide enabling power cannot rest on the absence of
precedent, but must rest on considerations based on some fundamental
matter of principle.

(k) An opinion would trespass into areas of State policy

One of the submissions of Statesopposing the Court's consideration of
this question was that the question on which the Court is invited to pro-
nounce involves, inter alia, the place of the policy of deterrence in the
maintenance of world peace. It was said that such a concept involves

direct or indirect assessments of international strategic balances and of
particular defence policies of individual States. The Court was urged not
to stray intothese areas of individual State sovereignty and, more impor-
tantly, into an evaluation of military considerations.
An argument adduced in support of this contention was that the
requested opinion would render it necessary for the Court to deal with
the different types of nuclear weapons - those of limited strike capabil-
ity, for example, as distinguished from larger weapons, and that the
Court would then be pronouncing upon which types of weapon a Statewould be entitled to use, whereas such matters fa11essentially within the
province of each individual State to determine - matters of strategy and

defence policy being undeniably within the purview of each State. It was
argued also that if the Court pronounces on the illegality of one category
of weapon, the nuclear, it would then equally have jurisdiction to pio-
nounce upon other weapons of a more traditional nature, thus bringing it
again within areas of authority appertaining to the individual State.
Reliance was placed in this context upon the Court's statement, already
cited in another connection, that:

"in international law there are no rules, other than such rules as may
be accepted by the State concerned, by treaty or otherwise, whereby
the levelof armaments of a sovereign State can be limited" (Military
and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 135; CR95123,
pp. 71 and 79, France).

Such contentions are unsustainable for a variety of reasons:

- the Court's dictum in the Nicaragua case, as already observed, does
not deal with the use of weapons, which is the matter on which the
Court's opinion is sought in this case;

- it has never been argued that the rules relating to the laws of war or
international humanitarian law, which in fact regulate the conduct of
States, constitute an intrusion upon State sovereignty, or an interfer-
ence in a State's military decisions. What is sought from the Court is

no more than an opinion on the legal question whether a particular
weapon, by reason of its nature and known consequences, violates
certain well-established principles ofinternational law;

- if, in fact, a particular type of weapon - for example, chemical or
bacteriological - is contrary to international law, its prohibition may
indeed affect questions of strategy and strategic balance in the sense
that a State without those weapons would be less powerful than a

State with those weapons. One has yet to hear it argued that, for this
reason, such prohibitions trespass upon a State's sovereign rights
regarding the levelof strategic balance it wishesto maintain. It can be
no different with nuclear weapons. If international law decrees a par-
ticular weapon illegal, that can constitute no interference with ques-
tions of State strategy;

- the Court's opinion is sought on the question whether al1 nuclear

weapons, irrespective of their size or quality, offend basic principles
of international law. For this reason, it is competent to the Court to
consider the question put to it without drawing any distinctions in
regard to the category of nuclear weapons used;- the WHO request makes an enquiry regarding State obligations in the
special fields of environment and health. In the present state of inter-
national law, there can be no question that special State obligations
have evolved in these fields. No serious contention has even been set
up thus far that when international law recognizes special State obli-
gations in those fields, it is trespassing into areas of State policy.
International law has long passed the stage when it was possible to
contend that the manner in which a sovereign treated his subjects or
the territory under his control was a matter within his absolute
authority, unlimited by international norms and standards.

4. The Court's Responsibilities

(a) As ajudicial institution

As already observed (see Sec. VII.2), advisory opinion jurisdiction
vests the Court with a judicial function which must be discharged in a
judicial fashion. The Court's consistent jurisprudence reaffirming this
principle has already been cited.

This means, inter alia, that the Court confines itself to legal issues,
decides according to judicial criteria, uses judicial procedures, and exer-
cises its discretion in a judicial manner. By such means is judicial duty
discharged, and it is self-evident that political and diplomatic considera-
tions are not part of this process.

The criteria and procedures the Court applies are contained in its Stat-
ute and Rules, in the corpus of international law, in its own jurispru-
dence, and in the well-accepted universal principles relating to the nature
of the judicial process. The fact that the judicial function is exercised in
an advisory capacity does not result in any deviation regarding the prin-
ciples governing the judicial process, not the least of which is that juris-
diction can be declined only for a good judicial reason. The Court's own
jurisprudence has held that nothing short of "compelling reasons" would
constitute such a good judicial reason.

(b) As a principal organof the United Nations

Quite apart from the Court's responsibility as a judicial body, there is
also its responsibility within the United Nations family as the principal
judicial organ of the United Nations. It isnot a Court existing outside the
United Nations system, but one functioning from within. It is in a state
of harmonious CO-existenceand CO-operationwith the other organs of the
Organization in their common goal of the attainment of world peace and
the high ideals set before them al1by the United Nations Charter. As the Court observed in Intevpvetation of Peace Tveaties with Bul-
gavia, Hungavy and Romania :
"the reply of the Court, itself an 'organ of the United Nations', rep-
resents its participation in the activities of the Organization, and, in

principle, should not be refused" (I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 71).
A factor to be borne in mind additionally is the precedential effect of a
refusa1to render an opinion. This is al1the more so in regard to such a
question as one relating to the future of global peace, to the well-being of
the international community, and to the central objectives of the United
Nations.
1believethat functions such as this are among the most important with

which the Court can be entrusted and that it would not only be eminently
proper and fitting, but obligatory upon the Court to render the legal
opinion requested. Failure to render so important a decision on grounds
such as those advanced is scarcely compatible with the Court's position
as "the principal judicial organ" of the United Nations.

5. The Refusa1for Want of Jurisdiction

1 wish to note finally my disagreement with the Court's reasoning,
which couches its refusa1 to answer WHO'S request in terms of lack of
jurisdiction. 1do not think this is a case of lack of jurisdiction. The dis-
missal is based not upon any incapacity of the Court, for constitutional
reasons, to consider the request, but rather upon the Court's view that

WHO, in requesting this opinion, is traversing outside the proper area of
its legitimate authority. The Court has held that WHO has no status to
make this enquiry. It is for this reason that the application is refused.
The Court's jurisdiction to render an advisory opinion is an ample
jurisdiction, conferred on the Court after mature deliberation, to enable
it to make a vital contribution to the functioning of international society
according to law. The formula of refusa1for lack of jurisdiction tends to
suggest some deficiency in the scope of that jurisdiction when in fact
there is none.

The case is no more a case of want of Court jurisdiction than a case in
which a court refuses to entertain an application made by an applicant
who, for one reason or another - for example, minority - lacks the

capacity to make such an application. Such a request would be refused by
the court for the applicant's want of capacity and not for the court's want
of jurisdiction. It may be a case of lack of jurisdiction in the sense that a
court has no jurisdiction to make any order unless the party seeking it
has, in the first place, the right to approach the court. Yet in such an
instance the want or shortcoming is not in the powers of the court but in
the status of the applicant.

1 consider this aspect to be of some importance. It is essential to thedevelopment of the Court's advisoryjurisdiction that there should not be
an impression among those who may seek to use it of somejurisdictional
limitation which prevents the Court from taking cognizance of a matter
such as this.

VIII. CONCLUSION

For the reasons set out above, it seems clear that
1. WHO has an interest in matters of global health, even though they
also concern questions of peace and security.
2. WHO has an interest in environmental matters, even though they

also concern questions of peace and security.
3. The fact that other orgails inthe United Nations system are expressly
charged with responsibilities in the area of peace and security does
not preclude WHO from concerning itself with matters of peace and
security to the extent that they affect global health and the global
environment.
4. There are compelling medical and environmental reasons which
require WHO to take an interest in the matter on which it seeks an
opinion.
5. There are several constitutional provisions rendering the requested
opinion relevant to WHO.
6. The impossibility of curative steps forces WHO into the area of pre-
vention.
7. WHO has a legitimate interest in knowing whether the use of nuclear
weapons constitutes a violation of State obligations in relation to
health.
8. WHO has a legitimate interest in knowing whether the use of nuclear
weapons constitutes a violation of State obligations in relation to the
environment.
9. WHO has a legitimate interest in knowing whether State obligations

under its own Constitution are violated by the use of nuclear
weapons.
10. There are State obligations undev international lalv in regard to
health kvhichwould be violatedby the use of nuclear weapons.

11. There are State obligations under international law in regard to the
environment which would be violated by the use of nuclear weapons.

12. There are State obligations under international law in regard to the
WHO Constitution which wouldbe violated by the use of nuclear
weapons. With much respect, it seems to me to be a compelling conclusion that,
in the light of themedical facts surrounding the use of nuclear weapons,
WHO is well within its constitutional functions in concerning itself with
the question of the legality of nuclear weapons. It transcends no limita-
tions of power or propriety in seeking this opinion from the Court. It
does so in pursuance of its mandated constitutional functions as well as
in pursuance of its duties as a protector of global health. The futility of
medical treatment after a nuclear catastrophe is a reason that cries out
aloud for attention in the fields of planning and prevention, and it would
be an irresponsible custodian of global health that stands aloof from that
question, waiting for the medical catastrophe to occur in which it is
powerless to extend any meaningful medical assistance.

The matter assumes added importance because the increasingly com-
plex ramifications of international life in the future will perhaps oblige
the specialized agencies from time to time to seek clarifications from the
Court of the law relating to their areas of interest. International law, in
many of these new areas, will be in need of development, and this Court,
by virtue of its advisoryjurisdiction, will bein a special position to assist
in that development.

These needs of the future will require al1United Nations instrumen-
talities to work in the spirit of their respective constitutions rather than to
confine their vision within compartmentalized categories of exclusive
activity. They should in the like spirit be free to approach the Court for

assistance in the clarification of legal matters they need to know for the
due discharge of their responsibilities within their allotted sphere.

The family of United Nations agencies, in working harmoniously for
the common welfare of the global community, will need to work as a
team, each helping the other with the special expertise that lies within its
province. The Court's advisory jurisdiction is a means par excellence by
which the Court can discharge its responsibilities in this regard.

It is my opinion that the Court should answer the question WHO has
addressed to it and that it should answer WHO'Squestion in the affirma-
tive.
If this dissent sets out my viewsin some depth and detail, it is because
no less is necessary on an issue of this magnitude. An important feature
of the tradition ofjudicial responsibility is that the judges "will nothesi-

tate to speak frankly and plainly on the great issues coming before
them". This opinion may appropriately be closed with an extract fron~John
Hersey's classic narrative, Hiro~hirna~~I.t shows the total inadequacy of
medical facilities in a well-organized country after a single nuclear attack
with a comparatively small weapon :

"Patients were dying by the hundreds, but there was nobody to
carry away the corpses . . .By three o'clock in the morning, after
nineteen straight hours of his gruesome work, Dr. Sasaki was
incapable of dressing another wound. He and some other survivors
of the hospital staff got straw mats and went outdoors .. .and lay
down in hiding to catch some slee~. But within an hour wounded
people had folnd th en^;a complaiAing circle forrned around them :
'Doctors! Help us! How can you sleep?'"

In this case the custodians of health have not been asleep, and it is to
the Court that they turn for assistance. They do so on a matter which is
within their legitimate sphere of interest. They do so on a matter pecu-
liarly within the expertise of the Court. They do so in pursuance of their
constitutional right to seek a legal opinion from this Court. They do so
concerning the legality of the most profound and far-reaching man-made

threat to health in human history. International law joins with the
imperatives of global health in requiring theCourt to answer that request.

(Signed) Christopher Gregory WEERAMANTRY.

57John Hersey, Hirosl~ima,first published in TlzeNew Yorlcer,August 1946,reissued as
a Penguin Modern Classic, 1966,pp. 68-69.

109

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE WEERAMANTRY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1
1. PRELIMINARY
1. The genesis of WHO's request

2. The Court's advisory jurisdiction
3. The requisites to beulfilled
4. The question posed by WHO, compared with the question
posed by the General Assembly
5. WHO's presentation of its request before the Court
6. Two levels of WHO's involvement
7. WHO's constitutional responsibilities in regard to public
health in general

II.EFFECT SF NUCLEAW R EAPON SN HEALTH
1. Overview of the effects of nuclear weapons on health
2. Health problems in the short term

3. Intermediate and long-term health effects
4. The appearance of devastating epidemics
5. The relevance of the medical material placed before the Court
6. The experience of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
III. MATTERR SELATIN GO WHO'S COMPETENCE

1. The objections to WHO's competence
2. The importance of the enquiry relating to WHO's Constitution
3. The constitutional functions of WHO
(i) Co-ordination of international health work (Art. 2))

(ii) Collaboration with the United Nations, specialized agen-
cies, etc. (Art. 2 (b)) 130
(iii) Emergencies (Art. 2 (d)) 131
(iv) Provision, upon the request of the United Nations, of
health services and facilities to special groups (Art. 131e))
(v) To propose conventions, agreements and regulations
(Art.2 (k)) 131

(vi) Research (Art. (n)) 132
(vii) Improved standards of teaching and training (Art. 2) 132

(viii) Public education (Art. 2 (q) and 2 (v)) 132
4. The work and concerns of WHO 133
5. The analogy with chemical and biological weapons 134
6. The importance of prevention 135

7. The argument relating to abuse of the Court's advisory func-
tions 138 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. WEERAMANTRY

[Traduction]

TABLE DES MATIÈRES

t
1. CONSIDÉRATIO PNÉLIMINAIRES
1. Les origines de la demande de l'OMS

2. La compétenceconsultative de la Cour
3. Les conditions qui doivent êtreremplies
4. Analyse comparée de la question posée par I'OMS et de la
question poséepar l'Assemblée générale
5. La présentation par l'OMS de la demande soumise à la Cour
6. Les deux niveaux auxquels se situe le rôle de I'OMS
7. Les responsabilités constitutionnelles de I'OMS en matière de
santépublique en général

II. EFFETS DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES SUR LA SANTÉ
1. Aperçu des effets des armes nucléairessur la santé
2. Problèmes de santé à court terme

3. Effetsà moyen terme et à long terme sur la santé
4. L'apparition d'épidémiesdévastatrices
5. La pertinence du dossier médical soumisà la Cour
6. L'expérienced'Hiroshima et de Nagasaki
III. QUESTIONS RELATIVES À LA COMPETENCE DE L'OMS

1. Les objectionsà la compétencede I'OMS
2. L'importance del'interrogation relaàila Constitution deI'OMS
3. Les fonctions constitutionnelles de I'OMS
i) Coordination, dans le domaine de la santé, des travaux

ayant un caractère international (art. 2 a))
ii) Collaboration avec les Nations Unies, les institutions spé-
cialisées, etc.(art. 2 b))
iii) Cas d'urgence (art. 2 d))
iv) Fourniture,à la requêtedes Nations Unies, de services
sanitaires et de secours aux groupes spéciaux(art. e))
v) Initiatives normatives (conventions,accords et règlements)
(art.2 k))
vi) Recherche (art. 2 n))

vii) Amélioration des normes de l'enseignement et de la for-
mation (art.2 O))
viii) Education du public (art. 2 q) et r))
4. L'activitéet la vocation de l'OMS
5. Le parallèle avecles armes chimiques et biologiques
6. L'importance de la prévention

7. L'argument selon lequel il y aurait détournement des fonctions
consultatives de la Cour IV. STATE OBLIGATIONS
1. State obligations in regard to the environment

(a) The progress of environmental law
(b) The growth of the notion of State obligations
(c) Active and passive State obligations
(d) The juristic nature of State obligations
je) Multilateral treaty obligations

2. State obligations in regard to health
(a) The human right to health
(b) State obligations in relation to health
(c) Global implementation measures involving State obli-

gations in regard to health
(d) The clash between State obligations and the health-related
effects of nuclear weapons
3. The duties of States under the WHO Constitution

1. Principles of interpretation applicable to WHO's Constitution
2. The principle of speciality
VI. WHO's PRIOREFFORTS

1. WHO's efforts in the nuclear field
2. WHO's past practice in matters relating to peace

3. Lack of objection of prior WHO actions

VII. ADMISSIBILI TND JURISDICTION
1. The Court's discretion

2. The Court's duty to act judicially

3. The objections
(a) The requested opinion would enter the political sphere

(b) Nuclear weapons are being addressed in other contexts in
the United Nations

(c) An opinion would be devoid of object or purpose
(ci) An opinion would have no effect on the conduct of States

(e) An opinion could adversely affect important disarmament
negotiations
(f) The question referred is purely abstract and theoretical
(g) The question is too general
(h) An opinion rendered in this matter would be damaging
to the prestige of the Court

(i) The Court would be involved in a law-making exercise if
it rendered an opinion
(j) The case falls outside the categories of cases in which an
opinion ought to be given UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS. WEERAMANTRY)

IV. OBLIGATIO NSS ETATS

1. Obligations des Etats en matière d'environnement
a) Les progrès du droit de l'environnement

b) L'affirmation progressivede la notion d'obligations desEtats
c) Obligations actives et passives de 1'Etat
d) La nature juridique des obligations des Etats
e) Obligations découlant de traités multilatéraux
2. Obligations des Etats en matière desanté

a) Le droit de tout être humainà la santé
b) Obligations des Etats touchant la santé
c) Mesures de mise en Œuvre à l'échelonmondial impliquant
pour les Etats des obligations en matière desanté

d) L'incompatibilitéentre les obligations des Etats et les effets
des armes nucléairesdans le domaine de la santé
3. Les devoirs des Etats au regard de la Constitution de l'OMS

V. PRINC~PE D'INTERPRÉTATION A PRENDRE EN CONSIDÉRATION DANS LE
CAS DE LA CONSTITUTI ONL'OMS

1. Principes d'interprétatiànappliquerà la Constitution de l'OMS
2. Le principe de spécialité

VI. LES EFFORTS ANTÉRIEURS DE L'OMS
1. L'effort de l'OMS dans le domaine nucléaire
2. La pratique établie del'OMS touchant les questions relativeà

la paix
3. Absence d'objections à la ligne de conduite suiviejusqu'ici par
l'OMS

1. Le pouvoir discrétionnaire de la Cour
2. Le devoir de la Cour de se comporter comme une autoritéjudi-
ciaire

3. Les objections soulevées
a) L'avis consultatif demandé entrerait dans le domaine de la
politique
b) La question des armes nucléaires esà l'étudedans d'autres

enceintes aux Nations Unies
c) Un avis consultatif serait dépourvu d'objet et de but
d) Un avis consultatif serait sans effet sur le comportement des
Etats
e) Un avis consultatif pourrait compromettre d'importantes
négociationssur le désarmement

f) La question posée estpurement abstraite et théorique
g) La question est trop générale
12)Un avis consultatif en la matière nuirait au prestige de la
Cour
i) La Cour s'engagerait dans une tâche normative si elle don-
nait l'avis consultatif demandé
j) La présenteaffaire n'est pas du type de celles sur lesquelles
il convient de donner un avis consultatif (k) An opinion would trespass into areas of State policy 165

4. The Court's responsibilities

(a) As a judicial institution
(b) As a principal organ of the United Nations
5. The refusa1for want of jurisdiction

VIII. CONCLUSION k) Un avis consultatif s'aventurerait dans des secteurs relevant
de l'imperium étatique 165
4. Les responsabilitésde la Cour 167

a) En tant qu'institution judiciaire 167
b) En tant qu'organe principal des Nations Unies 167
5. Le refus de répondrà la demande pour défaut de compétence 168

VIII. CONCLUSIONS 169 It has been argued that the question asked by the World Health
Organization (WHO) travels outside its legitimate concerns. The Court
has accepted that argument. 1 respectfully dissent.
The question on which WHO seeks the Court's opinion is as follows:

"In view of the health and environmental effects, would the use of

nuclear weapons by a State in war or other armed conflict be a
breach of its obligations under international law including the WHO
Constitution?"

1read this question as containing an enquiry in relation to State obli-
gations in three particular areas :

(a) State obligations in regard to health;
(b) State obligations in regard to the environment; and
(c) State obligations under the WHO Constitution.

This opinion will endeavour to show that the question asked is directly
within WHO'Slegitimate and mandated area of concern. It relates to an
issue fundamental to global health. It relates to the integrity of the
human environment which is fundamental to global health. It relates to
the fundamental constitutional objective of WHO, which is the attain-
ment by al1peoples of the highest possible level of health.

Global health is central to the question, just as global health is central to
the concerns of WHO. Health issuesmay have political or legal overtones,
as they often do, but such overtones do not lift them out of the category of
health issues: and health issues are the central concerns of WHO.

Moreover, the Court's ruling has significance for other specialized
agencies as well, who may in the future desire to invoke the Court's advi-

sory jurisdiction on matters of importance to them in the discharge of
their functions.
It will be noted that the International Court of Justice has not thus far
refused to render an advisory opinion requested of it by any organ or
agency of the United Nations which has been given authority to seek an
opinion from the Court. It is important therefore that when such a
request is declined for the firsttime in the Court's jurisprudence, the rea-
sons for so declining must be compelling. The consistentjurisprudence of
this Court to this effect is reflected in a stream of decisions ', which the
Court cites with approval in its Opinion responding to the General
Assembly's request concerning the legality of nuclear weapons.

'Jzrdgi~zeisj the Admiizistiative Tribunal of tlzeIL0 upon Coinplr~intsMade ngainst
U~zesco,Advisoiy Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1956, p. 86; Certain Expenses of the United

42 On a soutenu que la question posée à l'organisation mondiale de la
Santé (OMS) se situe en dehors du champ de ses préoccupations légi-
times. La Cour a accepté cettethèse.Je me permets de différerd'opinion.
La question sur laquelle l'OMS a demandé à la Cour de donner un avis
est la suivante:

«Compte tenu des effets des armes nucléaires sur la santé et
l'environnement, leur utilisation par un Etat au cours d'une guerre
ou d'un autre conflit arméconstituerait-elle une violation de sesobli-
gations au regard du droit international, y compris la Constitution
de l'OMS?»

Je lis dans cette question une triple interrogation concernant:

a) les obligations des Etats en matière de santé;
6) les obligations des Etats en matière d'environnement;

c) les obligations des Etats au regard de la Constitution de l'OMS.
La présente opinion dissidente s'appliquera à démontrer que la ques-
tion posée relèvedirectement de la sphère de préoccupation légitimeet
statutaire de l'OMS. Elle a trait à un problème primordial de santé
mondiale. Elle a trait à l'intégritéde l'environnement humain qui est
d'une importance primordiale pour la santé mondiale; elle a trait à

l'objectif constitutionnel primordial de l'OMS qui est d'amener tous les
peuples au niveau de santéle plus élevé possible.
La santémondiale est au cŒurde la question poséetout comme elleest
au cŒur despréoccupations de l'OMS. Les problèmes de santépeuvent
avoir et ont souvent des prolongements politiques ou juridiques, mais ils
ne cessent pas pour autant d'êtredes problèmes de santé etlesproblèmes
de santé sont au cŒur despréoccupations de l'OMS.
Au surplus, la décisionde la Cour intéressed'autres institutions spécia-
liséesqui peuvent à l'avenir souhaiter faire appelà la fonction consulta-
tive de la Cour sur des questions considéréepar ellescomme importantes
pour l'accomplissement de leur mission.

On notera que la Cour internationale de Justice n'a jamais, à cejour,
refuséde donner suite àune demande d'avis consultatif présentéepar un
organe ou une institution des Nations Unies habilités. Il est donc essen-
tiel que, rejetant pour la première foisdans son histoireune telle demande,
elle ait des raisons tout fait décisivesde le faire. Sajurisprudence cons-
tante en la matière ressort d'une sériede décisions'dont elle se prévaut
dans l'avis qu'ellea donnéen réponse à la demande de l'Assemblée géné-
rale concernant la licéité desarmes nucléaires.

'Juger~ieiztsdu Tribunal adininisti-niif de l'OIT sui- requêtes contrel'Unesco, avis
corisultatif1J. Recueil 1956, p;Certaines dépenses desNations Unies (article 17,

42 1. The Genesisof WHO'SRequest

It appears from the report of the Director-General of the World
Health Organization (doc. A46130of 25 April 1993)entitled "Health and

Environmental Effects of Nuclear Weapons", which has been furnished
to the Court, that the reference to the Court was proposed by Vanuatu,
Ecuador, Panama and Mexico for the agenda of the Forty-sixth World
Health Assembly.

Vanuatu explained its CO-sponsorshipof the resolution in terms of
its commitment to the health of the international community, in the
context of its own health-related experiences of nuclear weapons. As

one of many thousands of small islands scattered in the Pacific, it
claimed it had suffered as a result of nuclear activity in the Pacific com-
mencing in the 1950s, in that its people were facing many complicated
health issues which they did not have the expertise to diagnose, or the
resources to treat. According to its representative, increases in leukaemia,
in cancer, in fish poisoning, and in skin diseases were common; the
food chain, the water and the ecosystem had been contaminated; mis-

carriages were common, and grotesquely deformed babies were being
born2.

Tonga, another supporting member, referred to Article 1 of the WHO
Constitution and related the enquiry to the constitutional functions of
WHO as listed in various parts of Article 2 of its Constitution3. Other

members also addressed the Assembly. The matter had been debated
earlier in Committee B of the Assembly, where it had been fully dis-
cussed, with over a hundred delegates taking part.

At the Assembly, strong objections were raised to the reference by,
among others, the United Kingdom, whose representative asserted that
this action was not within the competence of WHO, and characterized it
as a "pointless and expensive, and a disruptive exercisen4;by the United

States, whose representative stressed that "This resolution would inject

Nations (Article 17,paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports 1962,
p. 155; Legal Consequencesfor States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in
Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolu276n(1970),
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 27; Application for Revieiv of Judgement
No. 158 of the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports
1973,p. 183;Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports 1975, ;Applicability
of Article VI, Section 22, of the Conventionon the Privileges andImmunities of the United
Nations, Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports 1989, p. 191.
'Record of 13th Plenary Meeting of the World Health Assembly, 14 May 1993,
doc. A46lVRl13, p. 11.
Ibid., p. 9.. 1. Les origines de la demande de I'OMS

Le rapport du Directeur généralde l'organisation mondiale de la
Santé intitulé ((Effets des armes nucléaires sur la santé et l'envi-
ronnement)) (doc. A46130du 25 avril 1993),qui fait partie du dossier pré-
senté à la Cour, indique que la question du renvoi à la Cour a été

inscriteà l'ordre du jour de la quarante-sixième session de l'Assemblée
mondiale de la Santésur la proposition de Vanuatu, de l'Equateur, du
Panama et du Mexique.
Le Vanuatu a expliquéqu'en coparrainant la résolution il avait été
guidépar l'intérêt qu'p ilorteàla santéde la communautéinternationale,
eu égard à sa propre expérience des effets desarmes nucléairessur la
santé.Faisant partie des milliers de petites îles disséminéesdans le Paci-
fique, il a, au dire de sa représentante, souffert del'activité nucléaieont

cette régiona étéle théâtre à partir des annéescinquante, sa population
étant victime de phénomènes pathologiquescomplexes qu'il ne peut ni
diagnostiquer faute des connaissances nécessaires nitraiter faute de res-
sources. Suivant la représentante du Vanuatu, on observe couramment
une augmentation de l'incidencede la leucémie,du cancer, de la contami-
nation halieutique et des affections dermatologiques; la chaîne alimen-
taire, l'eau et l'écosystèmeont étécontaminés; les fausses couches sont
fréquentes etdes enfants souffrant de monstrueuses malformations vien-
nent au monde2.

Tonga, un autre membre favorable à la résolution, a invoquél'article 1
de la Constitution de l'OMS et placéla demande d'avis consultatif dans
lecontexte des fonctions statutaires de l'OMSénuméréedsans lesdiverses
parties de l'article 2 de sa Constitution3. D'autres membres ont pris la
parole devant l'Assemblée.La question avait été préalablementexaminée
dans le cadre de la commission B de l'Assembléeoù ellea fait l'objet d'un
ample débatauquel plus de cent représentants ont participé.
Au sein de l'Assemblée,le renvoi à la Cour a donné lieu à de vives

objections de la part notamment du Royaume-Uni, dont le représentant
a affirmé qu'iln'entrait pas dans la compétence de I'OMSd'entreprendre
une telle démarche,qu'il a décrite comme ((inutileet coûteuse et pertur-
batri~e))~;des Etats-Unis, dont le représentant aaffirméque «la résolu-

paragraphe 2, de la Clzarte), avis consultatif; C.I.J. Recueil ;Conséquences
Ouestiafricain) nonobstant la résolution276 (1970) du Conseilde sécurité, avis consul-
tatif;.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 27; Demande de rèfornzutiondujugement nu 158 du Tribunal
administratif des Nations Unies, avis consultatif; C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 183; Salzara
occiderztal,avis consultatif; C.I.J., Recueil 1;Applicabilitéde la section 22 de
l'urticle VI de la convention sur les privilèges et immunités des Nations Unies, avis
consultatif; C.I.J. Recueil 1989, p. 191.
' Compte rendu de la treizième séance plénièrdee l'Assembléemondiale de la Santé,
14mai 1993,doc. A46lVRl13, p. 11.
Ibid., p. 12.
Ibid., p. 9.the World Health Organization into debates about arms control and dis-
armament that are the responsibility of other organizations in the United
Nations system . .."5;by France, whose representative thought that the
Assembly was not the appropriate forumto deal with a subject with
purely political connotations6; and by Russia, whose representative stated
that the resolution went beyond the competence of WHO, and would
lead to politicization and involvement of the organization in the problem
of disarmament, without its having a proper perspective on the matter7.

WHO'Slegal counsel then took the floor to advise the Assembly. His
advice was as follows :
"The question of health and health-related environmental effects
of nuclear weapons falls squarely within the mandate of WHO as a
technical agency. The question of whether the use of nuclear weap-

ons by a State would be contrary to the spirit and objective of WHO
and, as such, a violation of the Constitution of WHO, is also within
the mandate and competence of this World Health Assembly. It is
not within the normal competence or mandate of WHOto deal with
the lawfulness or illegality of the use of nuclear weapons. In conse-
quence, it is also not within the normal competence or mandate of
WHO to refer the lawfulness or illegality question to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice."*

As already observed, the WHO question was not framed in terms of
lawfulness or illegality in general, but in terms of State obligations in
relation to health, the environment and the WHO Constitution.
The matter turned out to be so sensitive that it was proposed that the
voting be by secret ballot. 75 votes were received in favour of a secret
ballot, 33 against and there were 5 abstentions. The matter was then

voted upon by secret ballot, with the following result:
"Members entitled to vote, 164; absent, 41 ; abstentions, 10;papers
nul1 and void, 0; number of Members present and voting, 113;
number required for a simple majority, 57; number of votes in
favour, 73; number of votes against, 40."9

Thereafterthe General Assembly, inits resolution 49175K of 15Decem-
ber 1994(by which the Assembly itself requested an opinion of the ques-
tion of the legality of nuclear weapons), welcomed the resolution of the
Assembly of the World Health Organization to seek an advisory opinion
from the Court.

Record of 13th Plenary Meeting of the World Health Assembly,14 May 1993,
doc. A46iVRi13, p. 9.
Ibid., p. 12.
Ibid ..,15.
Ibid p. 13.
Ibid ..,17.tion amènerait l'Assembléemondiale de la Santé à se lancer dans des
débats sur le contrôle des armements et sur le désarmement, questions
qui relevaient d'autres organisations du système des Nations Unies...
de la France, dont le représentant a estiméque l'Assembléen'était pas
l'enceinte appropriée pour traiter d'un tel sujet aux connotations pure-
ment politiques6; et de la Russie, dont le représentant a déclaréque la

question excédait la compétence de l'OMS et risquait de politiser
l'organisation et de l'amenerà s'occuper du désarmement sans avoir une
juste vision du problème7.
Le conseillerjuridique de l'OMS a alors pris la parole pour donner un
avis à l'Assemblée.Il a déclaréce qui suit:
«La auestion des effets des armes nucléairessur la santé ou sur

l'environnement vu sous l'angle dela santérelèvetout àfait du man-
dat de l'OMS en tant qu'institution technique. Le point de savoir si
l'utilisation des armes nucléairespar un Etat iraità l'encontre de
l'esprit et de l'objectif de l'OMS et contreviendrait ce titreà la
Constitution de l'OMS entre aussi dans le mandat et la compétence
de l'Assembléemondiale de la Santé. Il n'entre pas dans la compé-
tence normale ni dans le mandat de l'OMS de s'interroger sur la
licéitéou l'illicéité del'utilisation des armes nucléaires. En consé-
quence, il n'entre pas non plus dans la compétencenormale ni dans

le mandat de l'OMS de soumettre la question de la licéitéou de
l'illicéitéa Cour internationale de Justice.»x
Comme je l'ai déjàsouligné,l'OMS n'a pas formulé soninterrogation
en termes de licéitou d'illicéimais en termes d'obligations des Etats en
matièrede santé,d'environnement etau regard de sa propre Constitution.
La question s'est révélései délicatequ'il atéproposéde la soumettre

à un vote àbulletin secret. Une proposition à cet effet a étéapprouvée
par 75 voix contre 33, avec 5 abstentions. La question elle-mêmea alors
fait l'objet d'un scrutin secret dont les résultatsont étéles suivants:
«Membres habilités à participer au scrutin : 164; absents, 41 ;
abstentions, 10; bulletins nuls, zéro;nombre de membres présentset

votants, 113; nombre de voix requises pour la majorité simple, 57;
nombre de voix pour, 73; nombre de voix contre, 40.»9
Par la suite, l'Assemblée généraled ,ans sa résolution 49175K du
15 décembre1994 (par laquelle elle a elle-mêmedemandé un avis sur la
licéité desarmes nucléaires), s'est félicdee la résolution del'Assemblée
mondiale de la Santé tendant à demander un avis consultatif à la Cour.

Compte rendu de la treizième séance plénièrdee l'Assembléemondiale de la Santé,
14mai 1993,doc. A46lVRl13, p. 9.
Ibid ,.12.
Ibid .,15.
Ibid., p. 13.
Ibid., p. 17. This brief recital of facts shows a clear division of opinion within
WHO, notwithstanding which a decision was taken by a substantial
majority to refer the matter to the Court.

2. The Court's Advisory Jurisdiction

The entitlement of specialized agencies,who have been admitted to this
privilege to seek an advisory opinion from the Court in relation to
matters arising within the scope of their activities, is an important con-
stitutional right which they enjoy.
Advisory jurisdiction was an iimovation in international adjudication,
adopted not without difficulty 'Oafter World War 1.The right to seek an
opinion was initially given only to the Council and the Assembly of the
League of Nations. After World War II, the San Francisco Conference
approved the patterns of advisory practice as they had evolved, but the

circle ofthose entitled to seek it was extended. The United Nations fam-
ily of organizations today is widely expanded, closely knit, and works
together, in developing areas of international activity, within the frame-
work of the international rule of law. While each of these organizations
has its specificfunctions, they al1interlock in the common service of the
ideals of the United Nations and they al1 operate under the common
aegis of international law. Though each of them is given a particular
sphere of activity, they do not necessarily function in closed compart-
ments, for the complex nature of United Nations activities may often
result in overlapping areas of interest. The work of one organization may
interweave with that of other organizations, and hence would have
repercussions on the work of other members of the United Nations

family .

An important role assigned to the Court in this network of interrelated
activity,under the aegis of international law, is the grant of advisory
opinions on matters of law to assist authorized organizations in the
United Nations system who may need it. This represents an important
part of the contribution the Court can make as a member of the United
Nations family of organizations, al1pursuing the common objectives of
the United Nations, each in its different ways. It is, inter alia, a means of
ensuring a clearer understanding of the principles of international law

relating to their work.
The right of such organizations to seek an opinion from the Court is a
hard-won right and is valuable, both to each organization in particular,
and to the United Nations system in general. This right therefore needs
to be carefully conserved from the standpoint of assisting these organi-

IoSee Shabtai Rosenne, The World Court: Wlzat Zt 1s and HoZt Works, 5th ed.,
1995,p. 107. Ce bref rappel des faits témoigned'une divergence de vues manifeste
au sein de l'OMS, qui n'a pas empêché l'Assemblédee décider, à une
majorité confortable, de soumettre la question à la Cour.

2. La compétence consultative dela Cour

Les institutions spécialisées auxquellesa étéreconnu le privilège de
demander un avis consultatif à la Cour sur les questions de leur ressort
bénéficientde ce fait d'un droit d'ordre constitutionnel important.

La compétence consultative a été,dans l'activité judiciaireinternatio-
nale, une innovation qui n'a pas étéadmise sans difficulté'Oaprèsla pre-
mièreguerre mondiale. Le droit de demander un avis n'a étéinitialement
conféréqu'au Conseil et à l'Assembléede la Société des Nations. Aprèsla
seconde guerre mondiale, la conférencede San Francisco a approuvé les
grandes lignes de la pratique en matière consultative qui s'étaientdéga-
géesavecle temps mais elle a élargi le cercle des entités habilitées à
demander des avis consultatifs. Le réseau d'organisations des Nations
Unies que nous connaissons aujourd'hui s'est considérablement élargi,

est étroitement interconnectéet déploie,dans le cadre de la légalitéinter-
nationale, des efforts concertésdans des secteurs d'activitéinternationale
de plus en plus étendus.Les organisations en cause ont chacune leur mis-
sion propre mais elles ont en commun le dévouement aux idéaux des
Nations Unies et l'encadrement du droit international. Bien que chacune
ait son domaine particulier, il n'y a pas nécessairementde cloisonnement
entre elles car la complexité des activités desNations Unies aboutit sou-
vent à des chevauchements entre les secteurs d'intérêt. es travaux d'une
organisation peuvent se recouper avec ceux d'autres organisations et
avoir donc des répercussions sur l'action d'autres membres du système

des Nations Unies.
Une importante fonction dévolue àla Cour dans ce réseau d'activités
qui s'interconnectent sous les auspices du droit international est de don-
ner des avis consultatifs sur des questions de droit pour épauler les
organisations habilitées du système des Nations Unies qui peuvent en
avoir besoin. C'est là un aspect important du rôle positif que la Cour,
élémentdu réseau d'institutions Œuvrant, chacune à sa manière, à la
réalisationdes objectifs des Nations Unies, peut jouer en assurant notam-
ment une meilleure compréhensiondes principes du droit international se

rapportant aux activités encause.
Le droit de ces organisations de demander un avis à la Cour est un
droit chèrement acquis et il sertà la fois les intérêts de chacune d'entre
ellesen particulier et ceux de l'ensembledu système.Il doit donc être pré-
cieusement sauvegardési l'on veut seconder les organisations intéressées

'OVoir Shabtai Rosenne, The World Court: What It Is and How It Works, 5'éd.,1995,
p. 107.zations in the discharge of their duties, from the standpoint of the devel-
opment of international law, and from the standpoint of ensuring the
smooth interrelationship of these organizations within the family of
United Nations organizations.
The Court's consciousness of its role in assisting the United Nations in
this respect through the Court's advisoryjurisdiction has been manifested
in its prior jurisprudence. For example, in the case concerning Interpveta-
tion of Peace Treaties, the Court observed that:

"the reply of the Court, itself an 'organ of the United Nations', rep-
resents its participation in the activities of the Organization, and, in
principle, should not be refused" (1.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 71).

A refusa1by the Court to grant an opinion at the request of a special-
ized agency authorized to request one is therefore fraught with far-
ranging implications. The first such refusa1 in the history of this Court
could well affect the readiness of other specialized agencies to approach
the Court, even on a matter relating to their own Constitutions.

This becomes particularly important when decisions are involved which
may have political overtones, or else different organizations may, in case
of doubt, tend to go their different ways on the basis of the dominant
political influences playing upon them rather than on the basis of inter-
national law. As this Court observed in a previous Advisory Opinion
sought by WHO:

"Indeed, in situations in which political considerations are proini-
nent it may be particularly necessary for an international organiza-
tion to obtain an advisory opinion from the Court as to the legal
principles applicable with respect to the matter under debate, espe-
cially when these may include the interpvetation of its constitution."
(Interpvetation of tlze Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the
WHO and Egypt, I.C.J. Reports 1980:p. 87; emphasis added.)

The reference already made to the history of this request indicates the
deep divisions of opinion that operated within WHO, on a politically
sensitive issue. It is precisely onuch matters that great value attaches to
the right to seek an independent opinion based on international law,
rather than on the varying political perceptions of parties.

The Court is of course entitled to refuse a request for an advisory
opinion for cogent reasons - and indeed should so refuse if cogent
reasons be present. However, in their absence, there is created a climate
of uncertainty in the relevant area, which can result in a diversity of inter-
pretations on the same legal question. This does not augur well for the
concept of their al1functioning harmoniously under a common mantle of
international law.dans l'accomplissement de leur mission, favoriser le développement du
droit international et assurer l'harmonie des relations entre ces organisa-
tions au sein du système desNations Unies.

La Cour est consciente, sa jurisprudence antérieure l'atteste, de l'aide
qu'elle peut apporter à cet égard aux Nations Unies par le biais de sa

compétence consultative. Dans l'affaire relative à l'Interprétation des
traitésdepaix, par exemple, elle a déclaré:

«la réponse constitue uneparticipation de la Cour, elle-même((organe
des Nations Unies)) àl'action de l'organisation et, en principe, elle
ne devrait pas être refusée))C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 71).

Une décision dela Cour refusant de donner un avis à la demande
d'une institution spécialiséeautorisée à présenter une telle demande a
donc des conséquencesqui vont loin. La première décisionde ce type de
toute l'histoire de la Cour risque de décourager d'autres institutions spé-
cialisées de s'adresserà elle, mêmesur une question relative à leur acte
constitutif.
Le problème revêt uneimportance particulière lorsque sont en jeu des
décisionspouvant avoir des implications politiques car lesdiversesorgani-
sations risquent, en cas de doute, de choisir des voies différentesen fonc-
tion des influences politiques qui prédominent en leur sein plutôt que sur

la base du droit international. Comme l'a souligné laCour dans un avis
consultatif antérieurement donné à la demande de l'OMS :
((En fait, lorsque des considérations politiques jouent un rôle

marquant, il peut être particulièrementnécessaire à une organisa-
tion internationale d'obtenir un avis consultatif de la Cour sur les
principes juridiques applicablesà la matière en discussion, surtout
quand ces principes peuvent mettre en jeu l'inteiyrétation de sa
constitution. (Interprétation de l'accord dz~25 mars 1951 entre
l'OMS et I'Egypte, C.I.J. Recueil 1980, p. 87; les italiques sont de
moi.)

Dans le rappel des origines de la demande à l'examen, il a déjàétéfait
mention des profondes divergences de vues qui se sont manifestéesau
sein de l'OMS sur une question politiquement délicate. C'est précisément
pour ce type de questions que le droit de demander un avis indépendant
reposant sur le droit international plutôt que sur les appréciations poli-
tiques subjectives des parties est extrêmementprécieux.

La Cour est naturellement fondée à rejeter une demande d'avis
consultatif pour des raisons sérieuses et elle est mêmetenue de le faire
si de telles raisons existent. Mais, dans le cas contraire, un rejet créerait
dans le secteur considéréun climat d'incertitude susceptible d'engendrer
un éventailde réponses différentes àla mêmequestionjuridique - ce qui
ne cadre guère avec l'idéed'une collaboration harmonieuse sous la ban-
nièrecommune du droit international. WHO seeks this opinion to assist it in the discharge of one of its
weightiest responsibilities. Itis the organ responsible for the planning of
the worldwide medical serviceswhich can be offered to the world's popu-
lation in relation to the various health hazards that will confront it from
time to time. A nuclear attack is one such health hazard and perhaps the
most awful of them all; and WHO will be called upon to bear the brunt
of the international responsibility for organizing medical assistance to
stricken populations after a nuclear attack - not only in the belligerent
countries, but also in the neutral countries (al1 Member States of the
United Nations) who would suffer dire consequences in a war to which

they are not parties. In view of the health and environmental effects of
nuclear weapons, WHO seeks information from the Court regarding
State obligations under international law in relation to health, in relation
to the environment, and in relation to the WHO Constitution.

1 believe that the Court's refusa1 to grant an opinion is based upon
restricted principles of treaty interpretation. The present application
requires, rather, a construction of WHO's statute in the light of its object
and purpose. Its overall purpose is "to promote and protect the health of
al1 peoples" - an objective which al1 the nations subscribing to the
WHO Charter have recognized in the opening words of that Constitu-
tion to be basic to the security of al1peoples. A literal construction of
WHO's Constitution, so as to deprive it of an advisory opinion on the
legality of a serious threat to global health, is not in accordance with the

spirit of WHO's Constitution, or the purposes of the Court's advisory
jurisdiction.

3. TlzeRequisites to Be Fulfilled

1begin by stating my agreement with the Court in regard to the three
conditions to be fulfilledto enable a specialized agency to make a request
for an advisory opinion. They are that the agency must be authorized to
request advisory opinions, that the request must be in respect of a legal
question, and that this question must arise within the scope of its activi-
ties.
1 believe that in the present case al1 three conditions are satisfied.

1 agree in principle with the Court's treatment of the first and second
requisites, which it is therefore not necessary to consider in this opinion.
1 agree in particular with its observations that the presence of political
aspects in the question referred to the Court cannot sufficeto deprive it
of its character as a legal question (Advisory Opinion, para. 16),and that
the political implications are of no relevance in this respect (ibid.,
para. 17).
1respectfully disagree, however, with the Court's finding in regard to
the third requisite and this opinion will centre mainly on an examination
of this aspect. En demandant cet avis, l'OMS cherche à se doter des moyens dont elle
a besoin pour s'acquitter des très lourdes responsabilités qui sont les
siennes. C'està elle qu'incombe la responsabilité de la planification glo-

bale des services médicaux qui peuvent être offerts à la population
mondiale en présencede telle ou telle menace a la santé. Une agression
nucléaire constitue une menace de cette nature, la plus terrifiante de
toutes peut-être, et c'est à l'OMS qu'il appartiendra principalement
d'organiser l'assistance médicaleaux populations victimes d'une telle
agression - non seulement dans les Etats belligérantsmais aussi dans les
Etats neutres (tous Membres des Nations Unies) dont les ressortissants
subiraient les terribles conséquences d'un conflit auquel leur pays ne
serait pas partie. Etant donnéles effets des armes nucléairessur la santé
et l'environnement, l'OMS demande à la Cour de préciser lesobligations

que le droit international met à la charge des Etats en matière de santé,
en matière d'environnement et au regard de sa Constitution.
Je crois que le refus de la Cour de donner l'avis sollicité estfondésur
des principes restrictifs d'interprétation des traités. La demande à
l'examen exige au contraire une interprétation des statuts de l'OMS
fondéesur l'objet et le but de l'institution. L'OMS a pour but général
d'<(amélioreret [de]protégerla santéde tous les peuples ))- objectif que
toutes les nations ayant adhéré à son acte constitutif ont reconnu être,
selon les termes figurant au tout débutde cet instrument, à la base de la
sécuritéde tous les peuples. Une interprétation littéraleudit instrument

ayant pour effet de priver l'OMS d'un avis consultatif sur la licéitde ce
qui constitue une menace grave à la santémondiale ne correspond ni à
l'esprit de la constitution de l'organisation en cause ni aux buts de la
compétenceconsultative de la Cour.

3. Les corzditionsquidoivent êtreremplies

Je commence par me déclarerd'accord avec la Cour sur les trois con-
ditions qui doivent êtreremplies pour qu'une institution spécialiséepuisse
soumettre une demande d'avis consultatif. Il faut que l'institution ait été

autorisée à solliciter de tels avis, que la question soulevée soitune ques-
tion juridique et qu'elle se pose dans le cadre de l'activitéde l'institution
en cause.
J'estime qu'en l'occurrence cestrois conditions sont réunies.Je souscris
d'une manièregénérale àce qu'a dit la Cour au sujet de la première etde
la deuxième condition, et je n'y reviendrai donc pas dans la présente
opinion. Je pense notamment, comme la Cour, que les aspects politiques
de la question posée ne suffisentpas à la priver de son caractère de ques-
tion juridique (avis consultatif, par.)et que les implications politiques

sont sans pertinence à cet égard(ibid., par. 17).

Je me permets toutefois de différer d'avis avec laCour en ce qui con-
cerne la troisième condition et la présente opinion sera principalement
consacrée à une réflexionsur cet aspect. 4. The Question Posed by WHO, Compaved with the Question
Posed by the GenevalAssembly

There is a substantial difference between the question posed by WHO
and that posed by the General Assembly. Both organizations raise issues
of vital importance and both equally cal1for the most careful considera-
tion, but it would not be correct to treat the questions posed by the two
bodies as though they raise the identical issues.
The WHO question, as already noted, is as follows:
"In view of the health and environmental effects, would the use of

nuclear weapons by a State in war or other armed conflict be a
breach of its obligationsunder international law including the WHO
Constitution?"

The General Assembly question reads :

"1s the threat or use of nuclear weapons in any circumstance per-
mitted under international law?"
The following differences appear at once in the phraseology of the two
questions :

(a) the WHO request relates to use only;
(b) the WHO request is cast in terms of State responsibility;

(c) the WHO request concentrates on health and environmental effects;
(d) the WHO request is limited to use in war or other armed conflict;

(e) the WHO question is cast also in terms of obligations under the
WHO Constitution ;

(f) the WHO question raises the issue of specificState obligations vis-
à-vis health and the environment, and of any conflict between these
and the use of nuclear weapons.

It will be seen that the WHO question is carefully drafted, in confor-
mity with the health concerns of WHO as contrasted with the broader
concerns of the General Assembly. The question concerns itself with
actual use (and not threat of use), with State responsibility (rather than

the broader question of illegality under international law), with health
and environmental effects (which are the proper sphere of concern of
WHO), with use in war or other armed conflict (and not, again, with the
status of nuclear weapons generally), and with obligations under the
WHO Constitution (which is manifestly a matter of concern to WHO).

WHO'S question shows awareness of the need to confine its attention
to questions arising within the scope of its activities, as required by
Article 96 (2) of the United Nations Charter, and to questions "arising
within the competence of the Organization", as specified in Article 76 of UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS.WEERAMANTRY 110

4. Analyse comparée dela questionposéepar l'OMS
et de la questionposéepar l'Assembléegénérale

Ily a une différencenotable entre l'interrogation de l'OMS et celle de
l'Assemblée généralL e.'une et l'autre sont d'une importance primordiale
et exigent un examen des plus attentifs mais ce serait une erreur de les
traiter comme si ellessoulevaient des problèmesidentiques.

La question de l'OMS, comme on l'a déjà indiquée ,st la suivante:
((Compte tenu des effets des armes nucléaires sur la santé et
l'environnement, leur utilisation par un Etat au cours d'une guerre
ou d'un autre conflit arméconstituerait-elleune violation de sesobli-
gations au regard du droit international, y compris la Constitution
de l'OMS?))

La question de l'Assemblée générale ec stnçue comme suit:
((Est-ilpermis en droit international de recourirà la menace ou à
l'emploi d'armes nucléaires entoute circonstance?))

Une comparaison entre les deux textes fait immédiatementapparaître
les différencessuivantes :

a) la demande de l'OMS ne concerne que l'utilisation;
b) la demande de l'OMS est formuléeen termes de responsabilité des
Etats ;
c) la demande de l'OMS vise la santé et l'environnement;
d) la demande de l'OMS ne concerne que l'utilisation au cours d'une
guerre ou d'un autre conflit armé;
e) la question de l'OMS englobe les obligations au regard de sa Consti-
tution;
f) la question de l'OMS soulèvele problèmedes obligations de 1'Etatse
rapportant spécifiquement à la santéeta l'environnement, ainsi que le
problèmed'un conflit éventuelentre ces obligations et l'utilisation des
armes nucléaires.

On notera que la question de l'OMS est soigneusement rédigée,en
tenant compte de la vocation propre de l'OMS - la santé-, par opposi-
tion aux préoccupationsplus larges de l'Assemblée générale. Elaletrait à
l'utilisation(àl'exclusion de la menace d'utilisation),à la responsabilité
des Etats (par opposition au problème plus vaste de l'illicéité au regard
du droit international), aux effets sur la santé et l'environnement (qui

constituent la sphère de compétencepropre de l'OMS), à l'utilisation au
cours d'une guerre ou d'un aÜtreconflit armé(et non au statut des armes
nucléaires en générae l)t aux obligations découlant dela Constitution de
l'OMS (laquelle intéressemanifestement l'Organisation).
Dans la formulation de son interrogation, l'OMS montre qu'elle est
consciente de la nécessitéde selimiter aux questions qui se posent dans le
cadre de son activité, ainsique l'exige l'article 96, paragraphe 2, de la
Charte des Nations Unies, et aux questions «du ressort de l'organisa-the WHO Constitution. In conformity with these provisions, it did not
traverse the whole ground of illegality, but made a very specificenquiry.
The question was set in the framework of actual use, which produces
medical consequences, and did not enter the theoretical area of threats. It
homed in on health and environmental effects. which are its undoubted
areas of concern. It sought a legal opinion on the interpretation of its
own Constitution which, in my view, it cannot in any event be denied.
Unless there are compelling reasons to take an opposite view, an enquiry
by WHO, set within the framework of health and environment and of its
own Constitution, seems directly related to its mandate and its functions
and seems eminently to be a question on which, in the event of uncer-

tainty, WHO is entitled to seek an opinion from the Court.

As already observed, there are three specific segments of WHO's
enquiry which cal1for particular attention - State obligations in regard
to health, in regard to the environment, and in terms of WHO's
Constitution.

These require the Court to enquire with some degree of particularity
into the effects of nuclear weapons on health and on the environment.
The general awareness that nuclear weapons damage both health and the
environment is insufficient for thispurpose. A more precise examination
is required of the facts.
The next stage of the enquiry is to consider current international law

relating to each of the three heads of obligation set out above.

With the factual and legal material thus placed in juxtaposition with
each other, a clear picture will be obtained as to whether there are con-
flicts between state obligations and the results produced by the use of the
weapon. The ensuing discussion will proceed on this basis.
The Opinion of the Court nowhere examines the nature of State obli-
gations in regard to health and the environment under international law
in general, nor does it examine those obligations in terms of the WHO
Constitution. In my view, it was necessary for the Court to undertake this
examination in order to decide whether or not this enquiry falls within
WHO's legitimate areas of concern.
Moreover, the Court does not focus its attention precisely on the terms
of WHO's question, but addresses, rather, the question of general legality

or illegality of the use of nuclear weapons. This takes the discussion
furtlier away from the immediate concerns of WHO, as reflected in its
carefully worded question, and nearly equates it to the question of general
illegality asked by the General Assembly. Had the Court proceeded on
the basis of an examination of State obligations regarding health and the
environment under international law and under the WHO Constitution,
it would have been more apparent how closely these were related to the
work of WHO.tien» comme prévua l'article 76 de sa Constitution. Se conformant à ces
dispositions, elle s'est gardée desoulever le problème de l'illicéité gé-
néralet a fait porter son interrogation sur un point bien précis. Ellea
envisagél'utilisation effective,qui a des conséquencessur le plan médical,
et ne s'est pas aventuréedans le domaine de la menace qui relève dela
spéculation.Elle a cibléleseffets sur la santéet l'environnement, qui sont
indubitablement de son ressort. Elle a sollicitéun avis juridique sur sa
propre Constitution, qui ne peut, selon moi, lui êtrerefusé enaucune cir-
constance. En l'absence de raisons imposant une conclusion contraire,

une question de l'OMS s'inscrivant dans le cadre de la santé et de
l'environnement et de sa propre Constitution peut êtreconsidéréecomme
se rapportant directement à son mandat et à ses fonctions et comme
constituant par excellence une question sur laquelle, en cas de doute,
l'OMS est en droit de demander un avis à la Cour.
Comme je l'ai déjà indiqué,il y a trois aspects particuliers de la
demande de l'OMS qui exigent une attention particulière - les obliga-
tions des Etats en matière de santé, leurs obligations en matière
d'environnement et leurs obligations au regard de la Constitution de
l'OMS.
Ces aspects obligent la Cour a s'interroger assez en détail surles effets
des armes nucléairessur la santéet l'environnement. Il ne lui suffit Dasde
savoir, d'une manièregénéraleq , ue lesarmes nucléairesportent atteinte a
la santé et à l'environnement. Une étudeplus approfondie des faits est

nécessaire.
La démarche suivante qu'exige l'interrogation de l'OMS consiste a
examiner le droit international actuel dans la perspective des trois catégo-
ries d'obligations viséesplus haut.
Une fois mis en regard les faits et le droit, il sera possible de voir s'il
a conflit entre les obligations des Etats et les coilséquencesqu'engendre
l'utilisation des armes considérées. Tel estle plan suivi dans les dévelop-
pements ci-après.
L'avis de la Cour n'analyse nulle part la nature des obligations des
Etats en matière de santéet d'environnement au regard du droit interna-
tional en général, nices mêmesobligations au regard de la Constitution
de l'OMS. Une telle analyse s'imposait à mon avis pour décidersi oui ou
non la question de l'OMS s'inscrit dans le cadre de sa sphère de préoc-
cupation légitime.
Au surplus, la Cour, au lieu de s'en tenir strictement au libelléde la

demande de l'OMS, traite d'une manière généralede la question de la
licéité oude l'illicéité dsrmes nucléaires.Elle s'éloigne ainsi des préoc-
cupations immédiatesqui ont amenél'OMS a poser sa question dans des
termes soigneusement pesés et assimilepresque cette question à cellequ'a
posée l'Assemblée généralS e.i la Cour avait procédé aun examen des
obligations qui incombent aux Etats en matière de santé et d'en-
vironnement en vertu du droit international et au regard de la Cons-
titution de l'OMS, les liens entre ces obligations et les activitésdeMS
seraient apparus plus clairement. 5. WHO'S Presentation of its Request before tlze Cour1

1must confess to some unease at the manner in which WHO presented
its submissions to the Court.
WHO's presentation was extremely detached and objective. This
approach reflected the division of opinion within WHO. WHO's presen-
tation indeed prompted two questions from a Member of the Court who
asked whether resolution WHA46140was "validly adopted" and

"If so, is it now open to any State which was then a member of the
World Health Organization to challenge the competence of the
World Health Organization to request the Court to give an advi-
sory opinion in terms of the question set out in that resolution?"
(CR95123, p. 51.)

The reply to the first question was in the affirmative, and the reply to
the second reflected this divided attitude within WHO".
There is no requirement now, as there was in the days of the League of
Nations, that a request for an advisory opinion should be based upon a
unanimous vote. That requirement was left behind after World War II
and, as Rosenne observes, "In the United Nations, the unanimity rule
has been completely abandoned .. .12.What we have here is a deliberate
decision democratically taken by a large majority in WHO to seek an

opinion. That must be taken to be the decision of WHO and acted upon
as such. The different view held by a minority, whoever they may be,
does not make the request to the Court any the less a request by WHO,
considered as a whole.

Speaking for myself, 1 would have appreciated a fuller and ampler
presentation, based upon the rich material which was formally placed
before the Court by WHO.
WHO's representative observed that WHO's attitude in its presenta-
tion :

"has never prevented it - and will never prevent it - from being
profoundly concerned by the sufferings of people, nor from
doing everything within its power to improve their 'levelof health'"
(CR 95122,p. 32).

He submitted further that:
"Neutrality does not signify indifference. Neutrality here is the
neutrality of Henri Dunant on the evening of the battle of Solferino,

l1It stated that

"thelegal nature of this type of resolution, and the absence of a specificprovision in
Statefrom challenging before the Court the competence of WHO to request an advi-ber
sory opinion in terms of the question set out in that resolution".

''Op. cit., p. 109. 5. La présentationpur I'OMS de la denzandesounztre à la Cour

Je dois avouer que I'OMS a présentésa demande d'une manière quime
laisse quelque peu perplexe.
L'OMS a optépour une présentation extrêmementneutre et objective
en raison de la divergence d'opinions qui s'est manifestéeen son sein, ce
qui a amenéun membre de la Cour à demander si larésolutionWHA46140
était«valable» et,

(([dlansl'affirmative, [s'ilest]maintenant loisiblà tout Etat qui était
alors membre de l'organisation mondiale de la Santéde contester la
compétencede l'organisation pour demander à la Cour de donner
un avis consultatif en réponse à la question poséedans cette résolu-
tion?)) (CR95/23, p. 51).

La premièreinterrogation a reçu une réponseaffirmative et la seconde
une réponsereflétant la divergencede vues au sein de I'OMS ".
Une demande d'avis consultatif n'est plus aujourd'hui, comme elle
l'étaitdu temps de la Société desNations, subordonnée à la condition de
l'unanimité. Cettecondition a disparu après la seconde guerre mondiale

et, comme l'observe Rosenne, «au sein des Nations Unies, la règle de
l'unanimité aétécoinplètement abandonnée ..>)". Ce que nous avons
devant nous c'estune décision consciente, dén~ocratiquementadoptéepar
une large majoritédans le cadre de l'OMS, à l'effet de demander un avis
juridique. Il faut voir là une décision de l'OMS, qui doit être traitée
comme telle; mêmesi une minorité,quelle qu'en soitla composition, n'y
a pas souscrit, elle n'en reste pasmoins une demande adressée à la Cour
par I'OMS prise dans son ensemble.

En ce qui me concerne, j'aurais souhaitéune présentation plus étoffée
et plus circonstanciée, fondée sur l'abondante documentation qui a été
officiellement soumise à la Cour par I'OMS.
Le représentant deI'OMSa indiqué quela ligne adoptéepar l'organisa-
tion en soumettant sa demande:

«ne l'a jamais empêchée et ne l'empêcherajamais de prendre très à
cŒur les souffrances des peuples et de faire tout son possible pour
améliorerleur ((niveau de santé» (CR95122, p. 32).

Il a ajoutéque:

((Neutralité ne signifie pas indifférence.La neutralité dont nous
parlons est celle d'Henri Dunant au soir de la bataille de Solferino

''Il a étédéclaréque:
«la nature juridique du type de résolutionen cause et le mutisme de la Constitution
sur ce point conduiseàpenser que rien n'empêcheun Etat membre de contester
devant la Cour la compétencedeOMSpour demander un avisjuridique en réponse
à la question poséedans la résolutionconsidérée)).
" Op. cit., p. 109. who, regardless of the merits of the belligerents' dispute, was over-

whelmed by the suffering and devastation that the fighting had
caused." (CR95122, p. 22.)
The Organization's neutrality did not therefore mean that it took no
interest in the health-related effects of the use of weapons. The compari-
son with Dunant scarcely matches the situation of WHO. The neutrality
of Dunant was a neutrality between two warring States. That geat
humanitarian was concerned only with the sufferings of the victims and
not with the merits of the dispute.There are no hostile parties involved in

this request for an opinion - only member States of WHO, al1of thein
equally committed to the pursuit of global health - a cause to which
they have al1without distinction committed themselves by being parties
to WHO's Constitution.
Unlike the warring nations at Solferino, the member States of WHO
are at peace with each other, genuinely pursuing through their common
organization their common objective of global health. Those nations, by
a large majority, have decided to seek an advisory opinion from this
Court. That decision needed, in my view, to be implemented in the spirit
as well as the letter, and not in a spirit of neutrality.

6. Two Levels of WHOS Involvement
There are two broad positions that can be taken regarding WHO's
interest in the matters on which the Court's opinion is sought.
One position is that nuclear weapons are so devastating that thereafter

al1medical treatment is meaningless. The preventive ethic, which is part
of the medical enterprise, then comes into play and one needs to examine
WHO's interest in prevention.
Those who argue in terms of limited nuclear war tend however to deny
the proposition of total devastation, for they seek to equate the use of
nuclear weapons as far as possible to the use of conventional weapons. In
that event, one must go further and ask what servicesWHO can prepare
itself toprovide after a nuclear attack.
The utility to WHO of an opinion from the Court must therefore be
examined at both levels, if proper consideration is to be given to both
points of view:

(a) the futility of medical services after a nuclear attack, in which case
the emphasis must be on prevention; and
(b) preparedness to deliver medical services after a nuclear attack, in
which case WHO must direct its attention to such matters as plan-
ning, medical equipment, and research and training in radiation
injuries.

Another factor to be borne in mind in this regard is that even on the
supposition that both parties to the nuclear exchange are completely
destroyed, the question will still remain of damage to non-combatant qui, sans prendre parti sur le fond du différendopposant les belli-
gérants, aétéaccablépar les souffrances et les ravages causéspar le
combat. » (CR 95122,p. 22.)

La neutralité de l'Organisation ne traduit donc pas un manque d'intérêt
pour les effets de l'utilisation des armes nucléairessur la santé.Le paral-
lèleentre Dunant et l'OMS ne tient pas. Dunant restait neutre par rap-
port à deux Etats en guerre. Ce qui souciait ce grand humaniste c'étaitles
souffrances des victimes et non le fond du différend.La demande d'avis à
l'examen ne met pas en présence desadversaires mais des Etats membres
de l'OMS, tous également soucieux de servir lacause de la santé mon-
diale - cause à laquelle ils se sont tous ralliéssans distinction en deve-
nant parties à la Constitution de l'OMS.

Au contraire des nations qui se faisaient la guerrà Solferino, les Etats
membres de l'OMS sont en paix les uns avec les autres et s'appliquent,
par le canal de l'organisation qui les rassemble,atteindre leur but com-
mun, la santé mondiale. Ces Etats ont décidé, a une large majorité, de
demander un avis consultatif à la Cour. Cette décisiondevait, selon moi,
êtreexécutée en enrespectant l'esprit et la lettre et non dans un souci de
neutralité.

6. Les deux niveaux auxquels se situe le rôle de l'OMS

L'intérêt dlea Cour pour les problèmes qui font l'objet de la demande
d'avis consultatif peut se situer, en gros,deux niveaux.
On Deut considéreraue les armes nucléairessont si dévastatrices aue
toute intervention médicale àposteriori est sans objet. La prévention,qui

fait partie de l'activité médicale, passealors au premier plan et il faut
s'interroger sur le rôle de l'OMS en cette matière.
Mais ceux qui partent de l'hypothèse d'une guerre nucléaire limitée
tendent à écarter l'idéed'une dévastation totale puisque, selon eux,
l'einploi des armes nucléaires n'estpas différent de l'emploi des armes
conventionnelles. Cette logique conduit às'interroger sur les servicesque
l'OMS peutsepréparer àdispenserpostérieurement àune attaque nucléaire.
L'utilité d'unavis de la Cour pour l'OMS doit donc êtreappréciée
dans les deux perspectives pour faire justice l'une età l'autre position:

a) inutilitédes servicesmédicauxaprèsune attaque nucléaireet,par con-
séquent,primauté de la prévention;
O) nécessité defournir des services médicaux après une attaque nu-
cléaire,et, par conséquent, obligation pour l'OMS de concentrer son
attention sur la planification, le matérielmédicalet la recherche et la
formation en matière de blessures radio-induites.

11faut en outre se rappeler que, même à supposer que les deux parties
au conflit nucléairesoient complètement anéanties, la question des dom-
mages aux Etats non belligérants ne pourra êtreéludée. DesservicesStates. Urgent medical serviceswill be required on the peripheries of the
nuclear devastation - perhaps in countries hundreds or thousands of
miles away from the belligerents. WHO has a constitutional responsibil-
ity towards them no lessthan to the belligerents and must be prepared to
render what assistance it can.

7. WHO'S Constitutional Responsibilities in Regard to Public Health
in General

It is well accepted that public health concerns itself not merely with
cure, but also with prevention and planning and the provision of techni-
cal assistance and aid in emergencies(videArt. 2 (d) of WHO Constitu-
tion). No one would deny that WHO must warn of the medical dangers
of foreseeable emergencies (Art. 2 (r)), or that it should concern itself
with regulations (Art. 2 (k)) governing activities that spread disease,
such as travel from the infected area or transport of infected foodstuffs.
It must CO-ordinatearrangements for the necessary nutrition and sanita-
tion (Art. 2 (i)) when an epidemic occurs. It must evaluate the probabili-

ties of an outbreak and must plan for them (Art. 2 (p)). These obliga-
tions of planning and prevention (see Art. 2 (p)) become al1the more
compelling when the disease is incurable. These general obligations apply
to WHO'Sactivities, whatever the source of danger to health - whether
resulting from sanitational, nutritional, epidemiological or military
sources.

It may be noted in this connection that the Court itself observes, in
paragraph 21 of its Opinion, that:

"the provisions of its Article 2 may be read as authorizing the
Organization to deal with the effects on health of the use of nuclear
weapons, or of any other hazardous activity, and to take preventive
measures aimed at protecting the health of populations in the event
of such weapons being used or such activities engaged in".

1 would agree, respectfully, with this view, and many of the areas of
relevance to the WHO Constitution outlined in this opinion proceed on
that basis. However, the preventive function of WHO is not limited to
providing assistance after the event.
Each of the details set out in the next Part of this opinion, on health
problems caused by the nuclear weapon, has a bearing upon the consti-
tutional responsibilities of WHO in such areas as materna1 and child

health (Art. 2 (1)); improving standards of teaching and training (Art. 2
(O)); studying and reporting on public health from preventive and cura-
tive points of view (Art. 2 (p)); providing information (Art. 2 (q));
developing an informed public opinion (Art. 2 (Y)); promoting co-opera-
tion among scientific and professional groups (Art. 2 (j)); making rec-
ommendations with regard to international health matters (Art. 2 (k));médicauxd'urgence devront être fournistout autour des zones ravagées
- peut-êtredans des pays situés à des centaines ou des milliers de kilo-
mètres des Etats belligérants. L'OMS a, de par sa Constitution, les
mêmesobligations vis-à-vis de tous les Etats, belligérantsou non, et doit
être prête àfournir toute l'assistance possible.

7. Les responsabilités constitutionnellesde l'OMS
en matière de santé publique en généval

Il est largement admis que la santépublique est affaire non seulement
de thérapeutique mais aussi de préventionet de planification, d'assistance
technique et d'aide en cas d'urgence (voir art. 2 d) de la Constitution
de I'OMS). Nul ne conteste que l'OMS doit, en cas de crise prévisible,
avertir le public des dangers d'ordre médical y afférents (art. 2 r)) ni
qu'elle doit élaborer des règlements (art.2 k)) touchant les activitéspar
lesquelles sepropagent lesmaladies (tellesque déplacements à partir de la
zone infectéeou transport de denréesalimentairescontaminées). Elle doit
coordonner les mesures à prendre en matière d'alimentation et d'assai-

nissement (art.2 i)) lorsque se déclare une épidémieE .lle doit évaluerles
risques à cet égardet prévoirles dispositions pour y faire face (art. 2p)).
Ces obligations de planification et de prévention (voir art. 2y)) sont par-
ticulièrement impérieuseslorsque la maladie est incurable. Elles régissent
les activitésde I'OMS, que la menace à la santé publique provienne de
l'environnement ou de la nutrition ou qu'elle ait une origineépidémiolo-
gique, militaire ou autre.
On notera à cet égard que la Cour elle-même souligneau para-
graphe 21 de son avis que

«les dispositions de l'article 2 [dela Constitution de l'OMS]peuvent
êtrelues comme habilitant l'organisation à traiter des effets sur la
santéde l'utilisation d'armes nucléaires, ou de toute autre activité
dangereuse, et à prendre des mesures préventives destinées à proté-
ger la santédes populations au cas où de telles armes seraient utili-
séesou de telles activitésenées».

Je me permets de faire mienne cette opinion, qui vaut pour bon nombre
des secteurs entrant dans le champ de la Constitution de I'OMSvisésdans
la présenteopinion. Toutefois, la mission del'OMS en matière de préven-
tion ne consiste pas seulement àfournir une assistance à postériori.
Chacun des éléments précis évoqué dasns la section suivante de la pré-
sente opinion au sujet des problèmes de santécauséspar l'arme nucléaire
touche aux responsabilités constitutionnelles de l'OMS en ce qui con-

cerne la santé de la mère et de l'enfant (art. 2 2)); l'amélioration des
normes de l'enseignement et de la formation (art. 2 O)); la préparation
d'étudeset de rapports sur la santépublique vue sous l'angle préventif et
sous l'anglecuratif (art.p)); la fourniture d'informations (art. 2 9)); la
sensibilisation de l'opinion publique (art. 2 r)); l'encouragement à la
coopération entre groupes scientifiques et professionnels (art. 2 j));and furnishing practical assistance in emergencies (Art. 2(d)). This list is
by no means complete.

Health services perform only half of their function if they concern

themselves only with curative procedures after disease has struck. They
need also to explore two other areas - prevention before the disease
strikes and advance planning against the eventuality of a sudden and per-
haps massive outbreak. This is al1the more so when the threatened dam-
age to health is of an incurable or irreversible nature.

1. Prevention. There can be no argument concerning the wisdom of the
ages that prevention is better than cure. This was so since the incep-
tion of medical scienceand must be so whatever the agency that dam-
ages health - be it a microbe which can kill tens of thousands or a
nuclear weapon which can kill tens of millions. The topic of preven-
tion is more fully dealt with in Section 111.6below.

2. Plunniizg. There inust be planning in advance for handling the medi-

cal emergency, if prevention is not possible. WHO can sumhon global
medical resources as no other organization can. How many nurses
and doctors should be available, what stock of painkilling and dam-
age-limiting drugs should be kept in readiness, how inany hospital
beds and how much equipment? How should the populace be
informed and educated regarding immediate precautionary measures
that can lessen the chances of agonizing suffering, of the formation of
cancers and keloids, and even help in prolonging life? A domestic
medical service that fails to provide prevention and planning would
fail dismally in the discharge of its responsibilities. An international

medical service that focuses its attention only on cure after the event
and neglects prevention and preparation, would be a no less dismal
failure. Indeed, the responsibility for prevention and planning would
rank even higher, with a service thatcarries global responsibilit- a
service of last resort so to speak, for the world has no higheredical
service to turn to when domestic systeins fail. The copious inedical
material placed before the Court provides the background to the
WHO request.

II. EFFECTS OF NUCLEAW REAPONS ON HEALTH

1. Ovevvieivof the Effectos f Nuclenr Weupons orzHealtl?

This survey commences with a brief overview, and follows with a more
detailed examination of the material placed before the Court by WHO.
The legal counsel of WHO has given the Court an overview of the
health-related effects of the use of nuclear weapons. In a presentation not UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.WEERAMANTRY) 115

l'élaboration de recommandations concernant les questions internatio-
nales de santé(art.2 kj); et la fourniture d'une assistance technique dans
les cas d'urgence (art. d) ),etc. La liste est loin d'être exhaustive.

Les servicesde santéne remplissent qu'à demi leur rôle s'ilsintervien-
nent à des fins exclusivement curatives, une fois le mal déclaréI.l leur faut
faire plus et agir tant dans le domaine de la prévention, préalablementà
l'installation de la maladie, que dans le domaine de la planification en
prévision d'une crise soudaine et peut-êtrede grande envergure, chose
particulièrement nécessaire lorsque les répercussions à attendre sur la
santésont irrémédiablesou irréversibles :

1) Prévention.11n'y a pas de doute que, comme le veut la sagesse des
nations, mieux vaut prévenir que guérir. L'adageest aussi ancien que
la science médicale elle-même et vaut quelle que soit l'origine de
l'atteinte la santé- que ce soit un microbe capable de tuer quelques
dizaines de milliers de personnes ou une arme nucléairequi peut en
détruire des dizaines de millions. La question de la prévention est
examinéeplus en détail ci-après à la section III, paragraphe 6.
2) Planijïcation. Il faut établir des planà l'avance en prévisiond'une

urgence médicale que la prévention ne permettrait pas d'éviter.L'OMS
est, plus qu'aucune autre organisation, à même de mobiliserles res-
sources médicales àl'échelleplanétaire.De combien d'infirmièresou de
médecinsfaut-il disposer; quelles quantités d'analgésiqueset d'anti-
dotes, combien de lits d'hôpital et quels stocks de matériel convien-
drait-il d'avoir en réserve?Par quels moyens le public peut-il êtreinitié
et formé auxmesures de premiers secours à prendre pour réduireles
risques de violentes souffrances, de cancers et de chéloïdeset, le cas
échéant,aider à prolonger la vie? Un service médicalnational qui ne
s'occuperait pas de préventionni de planification manquerait scanda-

leusement à sa mission. Un service médicalinternational aui n'inter-
viendrait qu'à posteriori, des fins curatives, et ne se soucierait pas de
prévention etde préparation serait tout aussi défaillant.Les responsa-
bilitésdans ces deux domaines sont même encore pluslourdes dans le
cas d'un serviceàvocation mondiale - qui est en quelque sorte l'ultime
recours, car le monde n'a pas d'instance médicale plusélevée laquelle
s'adresser en cas de carence des systèmesnationaux. Le volumineux
dossier médical soumis àla Cour fournit le cadre dans lequel s'inscrit la
demande de l'OMS.

II. EFFETS DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES SUR LA SANTÉ

1. Aperçu des .flets des armes nucléaires surla santé

Le présent exposé commencepar un bref aperçu, et passe ensuite à une
analyse plus détaillée,du dossier soumis à la Cour par l'OMS.
Le conseiller juridique de l'OMS a donné à la Cour un aperçu des
effets directs et indirects de l'emploi desarmes nucléairessur la santé.disputed by any States appearing before the Court, he drew attention to
the threefold immediate effects of nuclear explosions - mechanical,
thermal and radioactive. While the first two differ quantitatively froin
those resulting from the explosion of conventional bombs, the third is
peculiar to nuclear weapoils. In addition to instantaneous radiation,
there is also radioactive fallout. Further, the explosion generates an
electromagnetic pulse which disrupts electronic devices, including those
needed for health services. Over and above this, there are longer-term
effects caused by ionizing radiation acting on human beings and on the
environinent.

WHO has collected a large aniount of data from the 1945 bombings
and also from an analysis of tests and mathematical models. It has also
taken into account information obtained after nuclear accidents, such as
those at Kyshtym, Rocky Flats and Chernobyl.

This information reveals inter aliuthat radiation overexposure sup-
presses the body's immune systems and increases victims'vulnerability to
infection and cancers (CR 95122,pp. 23-24).
Other effects upon health which were referred to by the WHO repre-
sentative are the increase in genetic defects, the psychological traumas
which continue to be noted among the survivors of Hiroshima and Naga-
saki, and the effects of ionizing radiation on the crops, the food chain,
livestock and the marine ecosystem.

As observed by the WHO representative:
"Obviously a specialized agency whose purpose, as laid down in
Article 1 of its Constitution, is the 'attainment by al1peoples of the
highest possible level of health' could not ignore such a topic, and
this was the case well before the request for an advisory opinion was
transmitted to the Court in 1993." (CR95122, p. 24.)

An international group of experts was set up to investigate the effect of
nuclear war on healtli and health services.After their report was received,
the Director-General set up a management group to consider the impli-
catioiis of the report. When the management group's report was pre-
sented, the Chairman of the group observed that, while long-term effects
were worrying, "the immediate effects were utterly staggering" (CR951
22, p. 28).

Reference should also be made to the testimony of the Mayor of Hiro-
shima to the effect thatmedical treatment after Hiroshima was a matter
of groping in the dark, with hospitals in ruins, medical staff dead and a
lack of drugs and medicines, al1of which caused an incredible number of
victims to die without sufficient treatment.
WHO has analysed the effects of nuclear weapons on health in its
Report, Effecto sfNucleur War onHealth undHealtk Servicesr un3,er

l3World Health Organization, Gene2nd ed., 1987Dans une déclaration qui n'a étécontestéepar aucun des Etats qui se
sont présentésdevant la Cour, il a soulignéque les armes nucléairesont,
dans l'immédiat, untriple effet - mécanique, thermique et radioactif. Si
leurs effets mécaniques etthermiques ne diffèrent que quantitativement

de ceux qu'engendre l'explosion de bombes conventionnelles, leurs effets
radioactifs leur sont propres. A côté des radiations instantanées inter-
viennent des retombéesradioactives. Qui plus est, l'explosion génère une
impulsion électromagnétiquequi met hors service les systèmes électro-
niques, y compris ceux qui sont indispensables aux services de santé.A
cela s'ajoutent leseffets plus long terme des radiations ionisantes sur les
êtres vivants etl'environnement.
L'OMS a rassemblé une massede donnéesayant leur source soit dans
les bombardements de 1945soit dans l'analyse de tests expérimentauxet
de modèlesmathématiques. Doivent aussi être prisen compte les rensei-
gnements recueillis àla suite d'accidents nucléairescomme ceux de Kysh-
tym, Rocky Flats et Tchernobyl.

Il en résulte,notamment, que la surexposition aux radiations détruit
les systèmesimmunitaires du corps et accroît la vulnérabilitédes victimes
à l'infection etaux cancers (CR 95/22, p. 23 et 24).
Au nombre des autres effets sur la santé qu'a mentionnésle représen-
tant de l'OMS figurent l'accroissement desmalformations congénitales,
les traumatismes psychologiques que continuent de présenter lessur-
vivants d'Hiroshima et de Nagasaki et les effets des radiations ionisantes
sur les récoltes, lachaîne alimentaire, le bétail et l'écosystème arin.
Comme l'a soulignéle représentant de l'OMS:

«Il va de soi qu'une institution spécialiséedont le but, défini à
l'article 1 de sa Constitution, est d'amener «tous les peuples au
niveau de santéle plus élevépossible» s'intéresse nécessairement à
une telle question et il en étaitainsi bien avant que la demande d'avis
consultatif ne soit transmiseà la Cour en 1993.» (CR 95/22, p. 24.)

Un groupe international d'experts a été créé pour étudier les effets
d'une guerre nucléairesur la santé et les services de santé.Après avoir
reçu le rapport de ce groupe, le Directeur générala crééun groupe de
gestion chargé d'examinerles implications du rapport. En présentant le
rapport du groupe de gestion, son président a indiqué que,si les effets à
long terme étaient préoccupants, «les effets immédiats étaientpropre-
ment confondants))(CR 95/22, p. 28).
Il faut aussi rappeler que, selon le témoignagedu maire d'Hiroshima,
les soins médicauxont, après le bombardement, étéaffaire d'improvisa-

tion puisque les hôpitaux étaienten ruine, le personnel médical décimé et
les médicamentsintrouvables, de telle sorte qu'un nombre incroyable de
victimes sont mortes privéesde soins.
L'OMS a, dans son rapport intitulé EfJi-tsde la guerre nucléaire surla
santéet les services desa~zté'~a,nalyséles effets des armes nucléairessur

l3Organisatioil mondiale de la Sarité,2Céd.,1987.

54two heads - "Health Problems in the Short Term" (Ann. 6) and "Inter-
mediate and Long-Term Health Effects" (Ann. 7). A perusal of these
annexes demonstrates very clearly WHO'Sgrave concerns and legitimate
interests in the aspects of prevention and planning.

It is necessary to outline these facts and findings briefly, as that is the
setting in which the WHO request has been brought to this Court. To
consider the functions of WHO in the abstract, on the basis of forma1
constitutional provisions read apart from their medical and factual con-

text, would be an academic exercise not sufficiently related to the dire
medical realities which WHO must face, as the only organization which is
under a duty to CO-ordinateglobal medical assistance in this fearsome
eventuality. As this Court observed in Bavcelona Traction, it is important
not to "lose touch with reality" in considering a legal questionBavcelonu
Traction, Light and Powev Company, Lirnited, Second Phase, 1.C.J.
Reports 1970, p. 37).

A short summary followsof the medicalmaterial placed before the Court.

2. Health Pvoblemsin the Short Term
(i) Heat. The enormous thermal energy released by thermonuclear

explosions, rather than blast, will be the major cause of casualties.
The direct thermal pulse or thermal wave would cause immediate
charring of exposed parts of the body in the direct line of the thermal
rays. Flash burns would occur within fractions of a second and
reach their maximum within a few seconds. Indirect burns would
result in many more casualties.

The danger of irnmediate burn injuries becomes apparent when
one considers that a single one-megaton air burst could ignite com-
bustiblematerial within a radius of 5-15km depending on the clarity
of the atmosphere. With usual weather conditions this radius would
be around 12 km. Simultaneous fires breaking out within this
area would probably coalesce into a superfire over an area of some
450 square kilometres. Air temperatures within the fire zone will
exceed that of boiling water. The effect of such heat on the human

body would be devastating.

(ii)Blast will cause shock waves, collapsing buildings and flying debris
and individuals will be hurled into the air like projectiles. On contact
with immovable objects, there would be head injuries, fractures,
crush injuries and penetrating abdominal and thoracic wounds. A
one-megaton air burst is capable of killing everyone within a radius
of 7 km from the hypocentre.

(iii)Radiation effects, such as whole body irradiation, result from twola santé en deux volets dont le premier, intitulé «Problèmes de santé à
court terme», fait l'objet de l'annexe 6, et le deuxième,intitulé((Effeàs
moyen terme et àlong terme sur la santé)),l'objet de I'annexe7. Ces deux
annexes font clairement apparaître que l'OMS porte un vif et légitime
intérêtà la prévention età la planification.
Il convient de rappeler brièvement ces faits et conclusions car ils défi-
nissent le cadre dans lequel s'inscrit la demande soumise à la Cour.

Examiner le rôle de l'OMS dans l'abstrait en se basant sur la lettre de
dispositions constitutionnelles détachées de leur contexte médical et fac-
tuel serait se livrer une réflexionthéorique insuffisamment reliéeaux
âpres réalités médicales auxquellesd,ans la funeste hypothèse envisagée,
devrait faire face cette institution, seule organisation ayant mission de
coordonner l'assistance médicaleà l'échellemondiale. Comme l'a souligné
la Cour dans l'affaire de la Barcelona Traction, il importe de ne pas
perdre ((contact avec le réel»lorsqu'on examine une question juridique
(BarcelonaTraction,Light andPower Company, Limited, deuxièmeplzase,
C.I.J. Recueil 1970,p. 37).
Voici,par conséquent,un brefrésumé du dossier médical soumiàs la Cour.

2. Problèmes de santéà court terme

i) Effet thermique. C'est l'énorme énergiethermique libéréelors des
explosions nucléaires, etnon le souffle, qui ferait le plus de victimes.
L'impulsion thermique directe ou onde thermique provoquerait la
carbonisation des parties exposéesdu corps se trouvant dans la ligne
directe du rayonnement thermique. Des brûlures dues à l'éclairther-
mique se produiraient dans les fractions de seconde suivant l'explo-
sion et atteindraient leur maximum d'intensitéen quelques secondes.
Les brûlures indirectes provoqueraient beaucoup plus de victimes.
Pour mesurer le danger que représentele risque de brûlures indi-
rectes, il faut savoir que le souffle d'une bombe unique d'une méga-

tonne pourrait enflammer des matières combustibles dans un rayon
compris entre 5 et 15 kilomètres selon le degré de pureté de l'at-
mosphère. Dans des conditions climatiques normales, ce rayon serait
de 12 kilomètres. Des incendies s'allumant simultanément dans la
zone se combineraient sans doute en un incendie géantcouvrant une
superficie de quelque450 kilomètres carrés.Dans la zone incendiée,
la température de l'air dépasserait celle de l'eau bouillante. L'effet
d'une telle température sur le corps humain serait catastrophique.
ii)Le souffle provoquerait des ondes de choc, l'écroulementdes bâti-
ments et la dispersion de débris dans l'atmosphère et projetterait en
l'air les êtres humainsdont la propulsion contre des obstacles fixes

entraînerait blessuresà la tête,fractures, lésionspar écrasement et
blessures pénétrantes à l'abdomen et au thorax. L'effet de souffle
d'une bombe d'une mégatonne serait capable de tuer toutes les per-
sonnes se trouvant dans un rayon de 7 kilomètres de l'hypocentre.
iii)Les effets du rayonnement, sous forme, par exemple, d'irradiation sources - the immediate burst of gamma and neutron radiations or

the radiation from fall-out of radioactive particles. Resulting injuries
would be :

(a) gastrointestinal effects, including anorexia, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhoea, intestinal cramps, dehydration;
(b) neuvomuscular effects producing fatigue, fever, headache, hyper-
tension and hypotensive shock.

In peacetime conditions some such cases would be survivable,with
treatment which would include antibiotics, white blood ce11or whole
blood transfusions and 8 to 12weeks of hospitalization. The WHO
Report14 states that following a nuclear war, such conditions of
medical care would not be available. Even in cases where there are
few or no symptoms, a late increase in cancers, particularly leukae-

mias, will occur.
As stated by a professor of radiology at the Sixth World Congress
of the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War,
radiation injuries include anorexia, cessation of production of new
blood cells, diarrhoea, haemorrhage, damage to the bone marrow,
convulsions, vascular damage and cardiovascular collapse 15.

(iv) Inlzalation of radioactive dust could cause acute effects leading to
death and long-term effects such as fibrosis and cancer, permeability
of the membranes of the alveoli (air sacs) with symptoms of
coughing, shortness of breath and feelings of drowning - leading to
death by hypoxia, pneumonia and sepsis. There is no means of pre-
vention of this source of infection except wholesale relocation of

populations.

(v) Ingestion. Among the radionuclides present in the fall-out, iodine-131
presents a special risk, especiallyto cancer of the thyroid. The effects
of radioactive strontium and caesium will be apparent only later.
These are dealt with under the long-term effects.

The WHO Report l6 points out that "the casualties incurred even in a
so-called 'limited'nuclear exchange would be truly overwhelming".

It states that the kinds of injuries cited are most demanding of medical
resources. Burns of second or third degree involving 20 per cent of the

l4Op. cil., Ann. 6, p. 157.
'jHerbert Abrams, "Chernobyl and the Short-Term Medical Effects of Nuclear War",
in Proceedings of Sixtli Woild Corzgressof Inter~zutionulPhysiciclnsfor. tlzePrevention of'
Eurtli!. 1987pp. 122-125.ologne, 1986, published under the title Maintcrin L$eor1
l6 Op. cit., Ann. 6, p. 158. UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.WEERAMANTRY) 118

corporelle totale, sont dus, d'une part, à l'émissioninstantanée de

rayons gamma et de neutrons et, d'autre part, au rayonnement con-
sécutif àla retombée de particules radioactives émisespar la bombe.
Les atteintes à la santéqui en résulteraient consisteraient en:

a) troubles gastro-intestinaux tels qu'anorexie, nausée, vomisse-
ments, diarrhées, crampes intestinales et déshydratation;
b) tvoubles neuvomusculaires engendrant fatigue, fièvre, céphalée,
hypertension et choc neurogénique.

En temps de paix, ces syndromes pourraient êtresurmontésgrâce à
un traitement par antibiotiques et à des transfusions de leucocytes ou
de sang total et moyennant huit à douze semaines d'hospitalisation.
Le rapport de l'OMS l4 indique qu'aprèsune guerre nucléaire de tels
soins médicaux nepourront être fournis. Mêmeen l'absence ou la
quasi-absence de tels symptômes, on observera ultérieurement une

progression des cancers, notamment de la leucémie.
Comme l'a déclaréun professeur de radiologie au sixièmecongrès
mondial de l'Association internationale des médecinspour la préven-
tion de la guerre nucléaire,la liste des troubles dus au rayonnement
est la suivante: anorexie, cessation de la production de cellules san-
guines, diarrhées, hémorragies,lésions à la moelle osseuse, convul-
sions, dommages vasculaires et collapsus radiovasculaire 15.

iv) L'inhalation de poussières radioactives pourrait avoir des effets
graves entraînant une issue fatale et des effets à long terme - fi-
bromes et cancers, perméabilité des membranes des culs de sac
alvéolaires s'accompagnant de symptômes tels que toux, essouffle-
ment, sensation d'étouffement conduisant à la mort par hypoxie,
pneumopathie et septicémie. Il n'y a aucun moyen de lutter contre
cette source d'infection sinon en recourant à des transferts massifs

de populations.
v) Ingestion. Parmi lesradioélémentsprésentsdans lesretombéeslocales,
l'iode-131 présenteun risque particulier, notamment pour ce qui est
du cancer de la thyroïde. Les effets de l'ingestion de césium etde
strontium radioactifs ne se manifesteront que plus tard. Ils seront
évoqués à propos des effets à long terme.

Le rapport de l'OMS l6souligne que «mêmedans le cas de ce qu'il est
convenu d'appeler un conflit nucléaire«limité»,les victimes seraient réel-
lement innombrables)).
Il souligne que les catégories de blessurescitéessont précisémentcelles

qui exigentla participation la plus large des servicesmédicaux. Des brûlures

l401).cil., annexe 6, p. 165.
l5Herbert Abrams, ((Chernobyl and the Short-Term Medical Effects of Nuclear War)),
pour lu préventionde lu guerre nucléciire(IPPNW), Cologne, 1986, publiéssous le titrer?zideciizs
Muilztnin L$e orzEuith!, 1987,p. 122-125.
'"p. cit., annexe 6, p. 167.body surface are generally regarded asfatal unless givenintensive therapy

with massive fluid replacement, sterile management, antibiotics, surgical
care and general nursing, dietary and supportive care for periods of
weeks in hospital, followed by lengthy rehabilitation. Even with today's
sophisticated medical care, there would be considerable mortality 17.

In these circumstances, WHO, as a body of experts, has no alternative
but to direct its thoughts to prevention and planning for the minimiza-
tion of injury and suffering when cure is impossible.
It is pointed out further that up to 80per cent of physicians could well

be casualties. With reference to a single megaton air explosion over a
metropolitan area such as Boston with a population of 2,844,000, refer-
ence is made to a 1979 United States Arms Control and Disarmament
Agency estimate of 695,000direct fatalities and 735,000surviving injured.
Of the 12,816hospital beds in Boston, at the date of that investigation,
around 83 per cent were expected to be destroyed, leaving 2,135 beds

and a heavily depleted force of doctors and nurses for the care of 735,000
seriously injured survivors 18.
According to another study, burn injuries, which are particularly pain-
ful, present special medical problems and require careful and specialized
treatmentI9. Montreal, a city of 2 million people, had facilities (in 1983)
for sixsevereburn cases. In the whole of North America, it was estimated
that there were only 2,500 beds for serious burn cases. Yet a one megaton

bomb exploding over Montreal would result in asmany as 10,000people
requiring such facilities. Moreover, whatever facilities there are tend to be
concentrated on the cities, and will themselves be destroyed.

Indeed, in al1branches of medicine, the bulk of practising doctors tend

to be within a few miles of the city - as in Quebec with 50per cent of al1
practising physicians being within 5 miles20.

The total inadequacy of medical facilities to cope with nuclear war is
graphically indicated in a study already referred to2'. It reveals that after
a major nuclear attack, even if medical resources remain substantially

intact :

l8 Ibid.it., Ann. 6, pp. 159-160.
l9 Don G. Bates, "Medical and Ecolo~icalEffects of Nuclear War". McGill Law Jour-
nal, 1983,Vol. 28, pp. 722-724.
'OIbid.,p. 724.
21 ~erb&t Abrams, "Chernobyl and the Short-Term Medical Effects of Nuclear War",
op. cit., p. 127.du deuxième oudu troisième degrétouchant vingt pour cent de la surface

du corps sont généralement considérées comme mortelles, sauf application
d'une thérapieintensive comportant une réhydratationmassive, dessoins
en milieustérile,l'administration d'antibiotiques,divers actes chirurgicaux,
des soins infirmiersde caractère général ainq siu'un régimediététique et un
traitement de soutien pendant plusieurs semaines en milieu hospitalier,
suivi d'une longue période derééducation.Même avecles traitements

médicauxsophistiquésdont on disposeaujourd'hui, la mortalité seraélevée 17.
Dans ces conditions, l'OMS, organe d'experts, est tenue de s'intéresser
à la préventionet à la planification pour réduireau minimum les atteintes
à la santé etles souffrances lorsque la guérisoncomplèteest impossible.
On a estimé à quatre-vingts pour cent le nombre possible des victimes
chez lesmédecins. L'explosiond'une bombe unique d'une mégatonneau-
dessus d'une zone métropolitaine comme celle de Boston qui compte

2 844000 habitants ferait, d'aprèsles estimations de 1979de la US Arms
Control and Disarmament Agency, 695000 morts et 735000 blessés.
Environ quatre-vingt-trois pour cent des 12816 lits d'hôpital dont dispo-
sait Boston à la date de l'enquête seraient détruits,ce qui ne laisserait
pour les 735 000survivants gravement blessésque 2135lits et un corps de
médecins et d'infirmières fortement décimé 18.
Selon une autre étude,les brûlures - blessures particulièrement dou-

loureuses - posent des problèmes médicauxspéciauxet exigent des soins
minutieux et spécialisés 19.Montréal,ville de 2 millions d'habitants, avait
(en 1983) les moyens nécessairespour soigner six grands brûlés.On a
estiméque l'ensemble del'Amériquedu Nord ne disposait que de deux
mille cinq cents lits pour cette catégorie deblessés.Or, l'explosion d'une
bombe d'une mégatonne au-dessus deMontréal pourrait porter à une

dizaine de milliers le nombre des Dersonnesnécessitantles movens médi-
caux en question, moyens qui, pour aggraver les choses, sont générale-
ment concentrésdans les villeset auront donc étédétruits.
D'ailleurs, quelle que soit leur spécialisation,les praticiens exercent le
plus souvent dans un rayon de quelques kilomètres autour des villes - à
Québecpar exemple on trouve dans un rayon de 6 ou 7 kilomètres cin-
quante pour cent de l'ensemble des médecinsz0.

Que les moyens médicauxsoient tout à fait insuffisants pour faire face
à une guerre nucléaire, c'estce qu'établit de façonconcluante une étude
déjàmentionnée2'.Cetteétuderévèleque, dans l'hypothèsed'une attaque
nucléaire et enadmettant que les moyens médicaux soient largement
épargnés :

l7Oa. cit.. annexe,.. o. 169
l8Ziid.
Don G. Bates. Medical and Ecolo-ical Effects of Nuclear War)). McGilJour-
nal, 1983, vol. p.722-724.
a Herbert Abrams, ((Chernobyl and the Short-Term Medical Effects of Nuclear War)),
op. cit., p. 127. "The disparities are great : 273,000 available hospital beds com-
pared to the 17.6 million needed; few burn beds, with 5.3 million
needed; 15,000intensive care beds, with 6.7million required. Among
essential personnel, 48,000 physicians may be confronted with the
work of 1.3million ; or 150,000registered nurses with that of 6.7 mil-
lion; or 17,000 medical technologists with that of 450,000. If there
are 14,000units of whole blood available, for example, and 64 mil-
lion units required, the problem of developing a credible medical
response for the millions of surviving injured can readily be

grasped." 22

Even years before the WHO Report, many detailed studies had been
made on the effects of nuclear war on health. For example, the Japanese
Association of Doctors Against the A- and H-Bombs appointed an inter-
national commission of medical specialists to examine the biological
effects of the radioactive fallout produced by United States nuclear tests
in the Pacific in 1954. The Japanese fishing boat Fukuryu Muru was
found to be contaminated while 80 miles outside the estimated danger
zone. Al123 members of the crew showed symptoms of radiation disease
and were found to have fissionable material in their organs. One of the
crew died. The vesse1was rendered radioactive, dust from it producing
radiation sickness in animals and genetic effects in plants.

Fish caught in various parts of the Pacific, even eight months after the
explosion, were found to be contaminated and unfit for human consump-
tion. Crops in different parts of Japan were affected by radioactive rain
The medical experts, who arrived unanimously at these conclusions, were
drawn, inter dia, from Paris, East Africa, Berlin, Santiago, Czechoslo-
vakia, Moscow and M~kden~~.
It is little wonder that WHO seeks information on a question funda-
mental to prevention and planning - the question of State obligations

under international law. 1s this a lawful weapon of war? 1s the use of
such a weapon by a State a violation of the State's obligations under
international law or under the WHO Constitution? As the global co-
ordinating authority for health work, it must plan for the nuclear con-
tingency as part of its statutory duty. Itis entitled to know the answer to
this question. If it is to be held to its duties in terms of its Constitution,
it must know the reciprocal duties of States in terms of that same Con-

" Herbert Abrams, "Chernobyl and the Short-Term Medical Effects of Nuclear War",
op.cit., p. 127,quoting Abrams, "Medical Resources after Nuclear War: Availv.ility
Need", JOLI~IIoIfIthe A~neiiccinMediecilAssociation, 1984,pp. 252, 653-658.
" Singli and McWhinney, N~lclenr.Wecrponstrnd ConternporrrryInter~zationcrlLai!.,
1989,p. 124. «Les disparitéssont importantes: 273 000lits d'hôpital disponibles

contre une demande de 17,6 millions; quelques lits pour grands
brûléscontre une demande de 5,3 millions; 15000 lits pour patients
nécessitant des soins intensifscontre une demande de 6,7 millions.
S'agissant du personnel essentiel, 48 000 médecins là où il en fau-
drait 1,3 million; 150000 infirmières diplôméeslà où il en faudrait
6,7millionset 17000techniciensmédicaux là où il en faudrait 450000.
Si l'on sait par exemple que 14000 unités de sang complet sont dis-

ponibles alors que 64 millions d'unités seraientnécessaires,on peut
facilement mesurer les difficultésque présenterait la prise en charge
effective par les services médicaux des millionsde survivants ayant
besoin de soins. »22

Des années avant la publication du rapport de l'OMS, de nom-
breuses étudesdétailléesont été consacrées aux effets de la guerre nu-
cléairesur la santé.C'est ainsi que l'association japonaise des médecins

o~1Lsés à la bombe A et à la bombe H a nommé une commission inter-
nationale de spécialistes médicauxpour l'étudedes effets biologiques des
retombées radioactives généréep sar les essais nucléaires dans le Paci-
fique en 1954. Il a étéconstatéque le bateau de pêchejaponais Fukur-yu
Mur-uavait étécontaminé alors qu'il se trouvait a 80 milles de distance
de la zone présuméedangereuse. Ses vingt-trois membres d'équipage
présentaient des symptômes du mal des rayons et l'on a constatéla pré-

sence de substances fissilesdans leurs orga"es. L'un d'entre eux est mort.
Le bateau était devenu radioactif, les particules qui en provenaient don-
nant le mal des rayons aux animaux et ayant des effets génétiquessur les
plantes.
On pêchait encore en diverspoints du Pacifique,huit mois aprèsl'explo-
sion, du poisson contaminéet impropre àla consommation humaine. Des
récoltesdans plusieurs régionsdu Japon ont été touchéep sar des pluies

radioactives. Les experts médicaux qui ont unanimement formulé ces
conclusions venaient notamment de: Paris, Afrique orientale, Berlin,
Santiago, Tchécoslovaquie,Moscou et M~kden'~.
Il est normal que I'OMS s'informe sur une question d'une importance
essentiellepour la prévention et la planification - la question des obliga-
tions des Etats au regard du droit international. L'arme considérée est-elle

licite?L'utilisation d'une tellearme par un Etat constitue-t-elle une viola-
tion de ses obligations au regard du droit international ou de la Constitu-
tion de l'OMS? Etant l'instance mondiale de coordination en matière de
santé publique, I'OMS est statutairement tenue d'établirdes plans pour
faire face à l'éventualitéd'un cataclysme nucléaire. Ellea le droit de con-
naître la réponse à ces questions. Pour pouvoir s'acquitter de la mission

" Herbert Abrams, p. 127, citant Abrams, «Medical Resources after Nuclear War:
Availabilit1:Needn, Journal of [IfeAineric~lnMedical Associnfio~z,1984,p. 252, 653-
65'?Singh et McWhinney, Nucleur Wectponsand Conten2poraryIi~~enzcrtiLlaii., 1989,
p. 124.stitution. 1 cannot agree that they can be denied this basic information
and, even more so, their very entitlement to seek it.

Itis difficultto conclude that this is not their business. Rather, 1would

consider WHO to be neglectful of its responsibilities if it did not address
this question.
Indeed, as is only to be expected,it has for years been turning its atten-
tion to this problem, and the reference to this Court for an opinion on
the legal aspects is only a part, and a necessary part, of theuch broader
investigation it has engaged in for the purpose of discharging this aspect
of its responsibilities. Theres no material before this Court showing that
any exception was ever taken to such investigations relating to nuclear
weapons, which WHO has been conducting ever since 1966.
weap-
By way of analogy, in the field of chemical and bacteriological
ons, WHO has been pressing for prohibition "as a necessary measure in
the fight forhuman health" (WHA resolution 23.53 of 1970).No objec-
tion was raised relating to any alleged "intrusion" into the sphere of
actual regulation. The current enquiry relates not to an attempt at regula-
tion, but only to an enquiry for information. If WHO was not seen to be
intermeddling outside its province when it asked for the actual prohibi-
tion of chemical and bacteriological weapons, it is difficult to see how it
could be seen to be intermeddling when it merely asks for information
regarding nuclear weapons.

3. Intermediate and Long-Term Health Effects
These conclusions, reached upon an analysis of the short-term effects,

are strengthened even further upon an examination of the intermediate
and long-term effects 24.
Iodine-131, we are told, constitutes the greatest potential long-term
hazard. Iodine-131 enters the body primarily by ingestion of milk. The
route from bomb, to atmosphere, to grass, to cow, to milk, to man is
described as surprisingly rapid, and milk with high concentrations of
iodine-131 has been detected thousands of miles away from test explosion
sites. The radioactive iodine concentrates in the thyroid gland, destroying
thyroid tissue and producing late thyroid cancer25.

While iodine-131 has a half-life of only 8 days, strontium-90 and cae-
sium-137 are nuclides with half-lives of 29 and 30 years respectively. The
long delayed descent of global fallout does not therefore effectively
reduce their potency. When they do descend, they are trapped in the

24SeeWHO Report, op.cit., Ann. 7.
" Ibid ..,165.

59 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.WEERAMANTRY) 121

qui lui incombe en vertu de sa Constitution, elle doit savoir quelles sont
les obligations réciproques des Etats découlant de cette mêmeConstitu-
tion. Je ne saurais admettre aue l'OMS ~uisse se voir refuser des réc ci-
sions aussi essentielle- et plus encore le droit de les demander.
Il est difficilede rét tendreaue l'OMS n'arienà voir dans cette affaire.

Pour ma part, je lui reprocherais plutôt de manquer au sens de ses
responsabilitéssi elle sedésintéresseraitde la question.
De fait, et très logiquement, elle se préoccupe depuis des annéesdu
problèmeet la démarche quil'a amenée àdemander àla Cour un avis sur
les aspectsjuridiques n'est qu'un élément- un élément indispensable -
d'un effort de réflexion plusvaste sur la manière de s'acquitter de cette
partie de sa mission. Rien dans le dossier soumis à la Cour n'indique
qu'une protestation ait jamais été émisa eu sujet des enquêtesrelatives

aux armes nucléairesaue l'OMS mènedemis 1966.
Un rapprochement peut ici être faitavec les armes chimiques et bacté-
riologiques dont l'OMS a préconisé l'interdictionà titre de mesure indis-
pensable au succès des efforts déployés en faveurde la santéhumaine))
(rés.23.53 de l'Assembléemondiale de la Santé, adoptéeen 1970).Nul ne
s'est élevéà cette occasion contre une prétendue «intrusion» dans le
domaine de la réglementationproprement dite. La démarche faite auprès
de la Cour reflète non pas un souci de réglementation mais un désir
d'information. Si l'OMS n'a pas été considérée commtr eansgressant les

limites de sa sphère de compétence lorsqu'ellea demandé l'interdiction
même desarmes chimiques et bactériologiques,on voit mal comment elle
pourrait êtreaccuséed'une telle transgression quand elle se borne à
demander desprécisionsau sujet des armes nucléaires.

3. Effets à moyen terme et àlong terme sur la santé

Les conclusions ci-dessus, qui découlent d'une étudedes effets à court
terme, sont corroborées par l'analyse des effetsàmoyen terme et à long
terme 24.
Le plus grand risque, nous dit-on, provient de l'iode-131, qui pénètre
dans l'organisme principalement par l'intermédiairedu lait de vache. La
rapiditéavec laquelle l'iode-131 passede la bombe à l'atmosphère, puis à

l'herbe,à l'animal,à son lait et finalemenàl'êtrehumain est surprenante
et on a détectédes concentrations élevéesde cet élément à des milliers de
kilomètres du théâtre d'essais nucléaires.L'iode radioactif se concentre
dans la glande thyroïde, en détruisant le tissu et provoquant, après une
périodede latence, un cancer de la thyroïde25.
La période del'iode-131 n'estque de huit jours mais le strontium-90 et
le césium-137sont des nucléidesqui ont des périodes de vingt-neuf et
trente ans respectivement. La lenteur avec laquelle redescendent les

retombées à l'échellemondiale ne réduit donc pas appréciablement

25Ibid,165.apport de l'OMS, op. cit., annexe 7.superficial layers of the soil. They are taken up from there by plants
which are eaten by animals. Through vegetables and meats, they are
ingested by humans, both elements increasing the incidence of cancers.

Once ingested, there is no rapid means of ridding the body of these
carcinogenic elements26.

Strontium mimics calcium in the body and is deposited in bones and
teeth, thus placing its radiation close to the highly sensitivebone marrow.
Caesium accumulates in cells in closejuxtaposition to nuclear DNA2'.

Ionizing radiation impairs the function of the immune system, and vir-
tually al1 elements of the immune system are affected by irradiation.
Hard ultraviolet radiation also has an immuno-suppressive effect.

The long-term effects add to the pressure on WHO to turn its attention
to prevention and planning to minimize human s~ffering~~,even if no
cure is possible.

The long-term effects range from after-effects of the injuries sustained
to long-term effects of radiation exposure, and health problems resulting
from the disruption and destruction of health services. They are conven-
iently surnmarized in the Report by the Director-General of WHO to the
Forty-sixth World Health Assembly (doc. A46130of 26 April 1993).Sur-
vivors of nuclear explosions will be confronted with protracted non-heal-
ing wounds, suppurating extensive burns, skin infestations, gastrointesti-

na1infections, and psychic trauma (ibid., para. 20).

A recognized consequence of radiation overexposure is the suppression
of the body's immune system. Ionizing radiation, according to this
Report, reduces the helper T-lymphocytes and increases the suppressor
T-lymphocytes, thus increasing the victims'vulnerability to infection and
cancers (ibid., para. 21).

Survivors of the nuclear explosion and the populations of contami-
nated areas will be at risk of cancer induction and genetic damage, the
risk varying with the dose received (ibid, para. 23)29.

WHO Report, op. cit., pp. 165-166.
27Ibid, p. 165.
28On the long-term effects, see also Z. Dienstbier, "Long-Term Medical Effects of
Nuclear War", in IPPNW Congress Pioceedings, op. cit., pp. 130 ff.
29At an exposure of 1 Gray whole body irradiation, there will be an estimated lifetime
survivors. A Gray is the "International System unit of absorbed dose, equal to the energy
imparted by ionizing radiation to a mass of matter corresponding to 1joule per kilogram"
(McGrai4:-HillDictionnry of Scielztij5carzdTeckr~icnlTerrns, 2nd ed., p. 696). UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS.WEERAMANTRY 1)22

l'activité des nucléideesn question. Lorsqu'ils se déposent,ils sont empri-
sonnésdans les couches superficielles du sol où ils sont absorbéspar les
végétauxdont se nourrissent les animaux. Ils sont ingéréspar l'homme
quand il consomme des légumesou de la viande contaminée et con-

tribuent à l'augmentation de l'incidence du cancer. Il n'existe aucun
moyen rapide de débarrasser l'organisme de ces éléments carcinogènes
une fois qu'ils ont étéingérész6.
Le strontium se comporte comme le calcium dans l'organisme où il
s'accumule dans les os et les dents, de telle sorte qu'une source d'irradia-
tion se trouve à proximité de la moelle osseuse qui est particulièrement
sensible. Le césiums'accumule dans lescellules, à proximité immédiatede

l'ADN du noyau cellulairez7.
Les radiations ionisantes ont des effets néfastessur le systèmeimmu-
nitaire, dont pratiquement tous les élémentssont sensibles à l'irradiation.
Les rayonnements ultraviolets «durs» ont également des effetsdestruc-
teurs sur le systèmeimmunitaire.
Les effetsà long terme font à l'OMS un devoir plus impérieuxencore
de veillerà la préventionet àla planification afin de réduireau minimum

les souffrances humainesz8, même là où il n'ya pas de guérison possible.
Parmi les effets à long terme, on peut citer aussi bien les séquellesdes
blessures subieslors de l'explosionque leseffetsàlong terme de l'exposition
au rayonnement et lesproblèmes desantéprovoquéspar la désorganisation
et la destruction des servicesde soins. Ces effets sont bien résumésdans le
rapport du Directeur général de l'OMS à la quarante-sixièmeAssemblée
mondiale de la Santé (doc. A46130du 26 avril 1993).Ceuxqui survivraient
aux explosions nucléairesauraient encore à souffrir de plaies persistantes,

de brûlures étendues etsuppurantes, d'infections de la peau, d'infections
gastro-intestinales et de traumatismes psychiques (ibid.,par. 20).
On sait que la surexposition aux rayonnements entraîne l'effondre-
ment du systèmeimmunitaire de l'organisme.Les rayonnements ionisants,
selon le rapport susmentionné, réduisent lapopulation des lymphocytes-T
auxiliaires et augmentent celle des lymphocytes-T suppresseurs, ce qui
accroît la vulnérabilitédes victimes aux infections et aux cancers (ibid.,

par. 21).
Ceux qui survivront à une explosion nucléaire et lespopulations des
zones contaminées seront menacésde cancer et de lésions génétiquesl,e
risque dépendant de la dose de rayonnement reçue (ibid., par. 23)29.

" Rapport de l'OMS, op. cit., p. 175-176.
''Ibid, p.176.
'8Sur les effàtlong terme, voir aussi 2. Dienstbier, ((Long-Term Medical Effects of
Nuclear War)), dans les Actes du congrès deI'IPPNW, op. cit., p. 130et suiv.
29On estime qu'en cas d'irradiation corporelle totale par absorption d'une dose de
1 Gy, quatrà onze pour cent des survivants seraient, tout aii long de leur vie, menacés
de mourir d'une forme quelconque de cancer. Le Gy est ((l'unitéSI de dose absorbée; elle
la base d'un joule par kilogramme)) (McGruiv-Hill Dictionary oJ'ScientlJicund Techizicnl
Ter~ns2' éd.,p. 696). Exposure to plutonium alpha particles produces chromosomal insta-
bility which can be transmitted to progeny, thus causing cancer in future
generations (doc. A46130of 26 April 1993,para. 24). Also the effects of
interna1 exposure from the inhalation or ingestion of radioactive materi-

als is much greater than was originally thought (ibid.).

Further, with special reference to public health and sanitary facilities,
it was pointed out that a nuclear explosion would destroy these, thus
opening the way for the spread of disease. Water supplies would be con-
taminated not only by radioactivity, but also by pathogenic bacteria and
viruses. Sewagetreatment and waste disposa1facilitieswould have almost
completely disappeared (ibid., para. 29).

In addition
"Great numbers of putrefying human bodies and animal carcasses
as well as untreated waste and sewage would provide easy breeding

ground for flies and other insects. Diseases like salmonellosis, shig-
ellosis, infectious hepatitis, amoebic dysentery, malaria, typhus,
streptococcal and staphylococcal infections, respiratory infections
and tuberculosis would occur in epidemic form over vast areas."
(Ibid., para. 30.)

These are areas par excellence of WHO'S constitutional concern and
medical expertise.
Long-term effects on health through the disruption of the food supply
on a regional or a global scale, resulting from environmental damage, is
another important factor, impairing health and lowering resistance to
disease. A multiple nuclear exchange could result in a nuclear winter,
causing famine situations on a global scale.

4. The Appearance of Devastating Epidemics

The various glands and organs of the body that provide natural immu-
nity against infection are, according to the writings on this topic, particu-
larly sensitive to radiation. "When combined with social disintegration,
this would invite the rapid spread of communicable diseases in unusually
severe forms. " 30

Diseases such as plague, smallpox, cholera and typhoid fever, now
largely relegated to the history books, which have been kept at bay by
nutrition, sanitation and immunization programmes would reappear.

30Abrams and Von Kaenel, "Medical Problems of Survivors of Nuclear Wa: Infec-
tion and the Spread of Communicable Disease",w England Journal of Medicine, 1981,
op. citp. 726.26,cited in Bates, "The Medical and Ecological Effects of Nuclear War", L'exposition au rayonnement alpha du plutonium engendre une insta-
bilitéchromosomique qui peut se transmettre à la descendance et provo-

quer l'apparition de cancers dans les générations suivantes (doc. A46130
du 26 avril 1993, par. 24). En outre, les effets de l'irradiation interne
résultant de l'inhalation ou de l'ingestion de matériaux radioactifs sont
plus importants qu'on ne le pensait à l'origine (ibidj
Il est également ànoter que les établissementsde santépublique et les
centres de soins seraient détruits par une explosion nucléaire, la porte
étant ainsi ouverte à la propagation des maladies. Les sources
d'approvisionnement en eau seraient contaminées non seulement par la
radioactivité, maisaussi par des bactériespathogènes et par des virus. Les

installations de traitement des eaux uséeset d'élimination des déchets
seraient presque totalement détruites (ibid., par. 29).
Par surcroît:
«La présence d'un grand nombre de cadavres d'hommes et

d'animaux en putréfaction ainsi que l'accumulation des déchetsnon
traitéset des eaux uséesfavoriseraient la prolifération des mouches
et autres insectes. Des maladies comme la salmonellose et la shigel-
lose, l'hépatiteinfectieuse, la dysenterie amibienne, le paludisme, le
typhus, les infections à streptocoque et à staphylocoque, les infec-
tions respiratoires et la tuberculose prendraient des proportions épi-
démiquesdans de vastes régions.))(Ibid., par. 30.)

Tout cela relèvepar excellencede la mission constitutionnelle et des com-
pétences médicalesde l'OMS.
Non moins importants sont les effets à long terme sur la santé de la
désorganisation,consécutiveaux atteintes à l'environnement, de l'approvi-
sionnement en produits alimentaires à l'échelon régional ou mondial, qui

aboutit à une dégradationde la santéet à une diminution de la résistance
à la maladie. Un échange nucléaire multiplepourrait aboutir à un hiver
nucléaire qui causerait une famine mondiale.

4. L'apparition d'épidémied sévastatrices

Les glandes et organes du corps qui assurent une immunité naturelle
contre l'infection sont, selon les auteurs qui ont écritsur la question, par-
ticulièrement sensiblesaux radiations. «De ce fait, et compte tenu de la

désintégrationsociale, les maladies contagieuses se propageraient rapide-
ment sous des formes particulièrement graves. » 30
On assisterait au retour de maladies telles que la peste, la variole, le
choléra et la fièvre typhoïde, aujourd'hui largement disparues, dont
l'humanitéest protégéepar une bonne alimentation, l'hygièneet des pro-

30Abrams et Von Kaenel,(Medical Problems of Survivors of Nuclear:Infection
and the Spread of Communicable Diseasen New England Journal of Medicine, 1981,
vol.305,p. 1226,citédans Bates, ((The Medical and Ecological Effects ofNuclear War»,
op. cit., p. 726.

61Nuclear war would compromise those defences severely3', and in addi-
tion would lower the body's organic and glandular resistance to them.

The World Health Report 1996, issued by WHO on 20 May 1996,
warns that there is currently a devastating upsurge in infectious diseases
caused inter alia by the weakening of people's immune ~ystems~~T . he
Report warns that, "We are standing on the brink of a global crisis in
infectious diseases", with 17 n~illiondeaths every year. Up to half of the
5.72 billion people on earth are at risk of many endemic diseases - old
diseases such as tuberculosis and malaria which are resurgent, and deadly
new diseases such as ebola, for which no cure is known. Diarrhoeal dis-
eases such as cholera, typhoid and dysentery, caused by contaminated
water or food kill millions every year. If this is so in the comparatively

organized societies of today, the danger of uncontrollable epidemics after
the social disintegration, the breakdown of sanitation systems, especially
in cities, and the weakening of the immune system caused by nuclear war
must be self-evident, and must surely be an important constitutional con-
Cernof WHO.

5. TlzeRelevance of the Medical Material Placed beJOrethe Court

This brief summary of the material placed before the Court demon-
strates :

(a) the futility of awaiting a nuclear catastrophe to move into action in
relation to medical services;
(b) the incurability of most of the medical afflictions resulting from the
bomb ;
(c) the prospect of worldwide famine in the event of nuclear war, with
its resultant disastrous effect on human health;

(d) the need to plan in advance for rapid emergency services and sup-

plies in such an eventuality ;

je) the need to plan in advance for public education, medical research,
medical education ;
(f) the need to understand what precisely are the obligations of States
under international law in relation to the health effects of use of
nuclear weapons ;

" Bates,op. cit.
3'Reported in Iizternation~~IHei,crldTribune, 21 May 19p.10, and The Gucirdinrz
~eekly; 26 May 1996. According to the Report, ''1; the contest for supremacy the
microbes are sprinting ahead." grammes d'immunisation. La guerre nucléaireporterait un coup grave à
cette barrière protectrice3' et affaiblirait en outre la résistanceorganique
et glandulaire du corps aux maladies en question.
Le rapport sur la santémondiale de 1996,publiépar l'OMS le 20 mai

1996, met en garde contre une inquiétante recrudescence des maladies
infectieuses due notamment àl'affaiblissemeiltdes systèmesimmunitaires
de lap~pulation'~. Le rapport souligne que «nous sommes au bord d'une
crise mondiale en matière de maladies infectieuses)),avec dix-sept millions
de morts par an. Sur les 5,72 milliards d'individus vivant sur la planète,
jusqu'à cinquante pour cent risqueront de contracter une foule de mala-
dies endémiques - maladies anciennes comme la tuberculose et le palu-
disme qui font une réapparition ou maladies nouvelles à issue fatale

comme I'ebola qui est pour le moment inguérissable. Les maladies
diarrhéiques - choléra, typhoïde et dysenterie - qui sont causéespar
l'eau ou lesaliments contaminés tuent des millions de personnes chaque
année. Si telle est la situation dans les sociétésrelativement organisées
d'aujourd'hui, il est évidemmentfort à craindre que ne se déclarentdes
épidémies impossibles à maîtriser dans le contexte de désintégration
sociale, de désagrégationdes systèmesd'assainissement, notamment dans
les villes, et d'affaiblissement du système immunitaire engendré par la

guerre nucléaire.L'OMS a nécessairement ià un important rôle constitu-
tionnelà jouer.

5. La pertinence du dossier naidical sournisà la Cour

Ce bref résumédu dossier médicalsoumis à la Cour montre:

a) qu'il n'estpas sérieuxd'attendre qu'une catastrophe nucléairese pro-
duise pour prendre des initiatives en matière de services médicaux;
0)que la plupart des atteintes à la santé dues à la bombe sont incu-

rables ;
c) qu'une famine à l'échelleplanétaire,avec son cortègede conséquences
désastreusespour la santé humaine, est à redouter dans l'éventualité
d'une guerre nucléaire ;
d) qu'il est nécessaire defaire des plans à l'avance pour que services de
premiers secours et fournitures soient rapidement disponibles dans
une telle éventualité;

e) qu'il est nécessairede faire des plans à l'avance en vue de l'éducation
du public, de la recherche médicaleet de l'enseignement médical;
f) qu'il faut savoir quelles sont exactement les obligations des Etats au
regard du droit international s'agissant des effets sur la santé de
l'emploi desarmes nucléaires;

3' Bates, op. cit.
" Information diffuséeoar 1'InternutiorzalHerrild TriDuizedu 21 mai 1996.o. 10.et The
Guardian Weekly du 26 mai 1996.Selon le rapport, «dans cettà la suirématie, les
microbes ont une avance considérable)). (g) the need to understand what precisely are the obligations of States
under international law in relation to the environmental effects of
use of nuclear weapons;
(h) the need to understand what precisely are the obligations of States
under the WHO Constitution in relation to the use of nuclear
weapons ;
(i) the deep constitutional concerns of WHO with the medical conse-
quences of nuclear war.

The relevance of the medical material placed before the Court can be
more pointedly illustrated by taking just one effect - the cancer-indu-
cing qualities of the bomb, for the nuclear weapon can well be described
as the greatest cancer-inducing instrumentality yet devised. The legality
of cancer-inducing agencies, whatever their scale, are already concerns of
WHO. Thus the legality of the sale of a drug that increases the risk of

cancer, for example cervical or womb cancer, is clearly a matter that con-
cerns WHO, for it would have to adopt different strategies to deal with
the problem depending on whether the drug is legal (and thus freely
available) or illegal (and thus less likely to be freely available).

It may be argued that the legality of the nuclear weapon is different
from the legality of a drug, in that the weapon will in any event be used
by those who desire to use it, irrespective of legality. However, this is a
difference with which this Court cannot concern itself, as the Court oper-
ates on the assumption of a community ruled by law, and can only act on
the assumption that member States of that community will abide by that

law. If a particular weapon is a legal weapon of war, it stands on a very
different footing froin a weapon whose use is banned by law, and WHO
is entitled to know in which category the weapon falls.
It isthus difficult to see a logical distinction between WHO'Sconcern
with the legality of a cancer-inducing drug and the legality of a cancer-
inducing weapon. If the first concern is legitimate - which no one would
doubt - it is difficult to see how the other is not. The concern of other
organs of the United Nations with the political aspects of the problem
cannot negative or override WHO'Sconcern with the medical aspects of
the same problem.

This background of medical information reveals numerous areas of

obvious concern to WHO in the discharge of its constitutional responsi-
bilities. It also provides the essential factual background to the various
applicable principles of international law - particularly of international
humanitarian law. If humanitarian concerns are the criterion which trig-
gers into action the principles of humanitarian law, it must be self-evident
that the preceding resuméof the medical effects of nuclear war must acti-
vate those principles and bring them into play.g) qu'il faut savoir quelles sont exactement les obligations des Etats au
regard du droit international s'agissant des effets de l'emploi des
armes nucléairessur l'environnement ;
12) qu'il faut savoir quelles sont exactement les obligations des Etats au
regard de la Constitution de l'OMS s'agissant de l'emploi desarmes

nucléaires;
i) que l'OMS est vitalement intéressée, envertu de sa Constitution, aux
conséquences médicalesd'une guerre nucléaire.
On peut mettre en lumière de façon plus frappante la pertinence du
dossier médical enévoquantune conséquenceparticulière, à savoir l'effet

cancérigènede la bombe, car l'arme nucléairepeut indubitablement être
décritecomme l'invention la plus cancérigène de tous les temps. La ques-
tion de la licéité desagents cancérigènes,à quelque échellequ'ils opèrent,
entre déjàdans le champ des préoccupations de l'OMS. C'est ainsique la
licéitéde la commercialisation d'un médicamentaugmentant le risque de
cancer du col ou de l'utérus,par exemple, est une question qui regarde
évidemment l'OMS puisqu'elle devra adopter des stratégies différentes
selon que le médicamentest licite (et donc accessible à tous) ou illicite (et
donc d'un accèsprobablement plus difficile).
D'aucuns contesteront le parallèle ainsiétabli entre le problème de la
licéité desarmes nucléaires et celuide la licéitéd'un médicamenten fai-
sant valoir que, licite ou non, l'arme sera utiliséepar ceux qui désirent

l'employer. Mais c'estla une distinction que ne saurait faire la Cour dont
l'action présuppose une collectivité régiepar la règle de droit et cons-
tituée d7Etats résolus à respecter la règledu droit. Une arme de guerre
licite diffèregrandement dans son statut d'une arme dont l'utilisatioil est
bannie par le droit et l'OMS est en droit de savoir à quelle catégorie
appartient telle ou telle arme.
On ne voit donc guèrecomment distinguer logiquement entre l'intérêt
que l'OMS porte à la licéitd'un médicamentcancérigèneet celui qu'elle
porte à la licéitd'une arme à effets cancérigènes.Si son attitude est légi-
time dans le premier cas - et nul ne doute qu'elle le so-t pourquoi ne
le serait-elle pas dans le second? Le rôle que d'autres organes des Nations
Unies sont appelés à jouer touchant les facettes politiques du problème

ne saurait déposséderl'OMS de son rôle à l'égard des facettes médicales
de ce mêmeproblème.
Cet aperçu de la réalité médicale met en évidence d nombreux aspects
qui intéressentmanifestement l'OMS dans l'accon~plissementde sa mis-
sion constitutionnelle.Il fournit en outre les grandes lignes du cadre fac-
tuel où replacer les divers principes pertinents du droit international et
notainment du droit international humanitaire. Si les préoccupations
humanitaires sont le facteur dont dépendl'entrée enaction des principes
du droit humanitaire, il ressort à l'évidencedu résumé qui précède des
effets de la guerre nucléairesur la santé que ces principes ont un rôle à
jouer dans le présentcontexte. 6. The Experience of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

As is well known, even a comparatively minor catastrophe such as
Chernobyl imposes on domestic health services a burden greater than

they can bear. There would be no other entity to which a nation stricken
by a nuclear attack could turn, for its medical services, however rich the
country, would be virtually non-existent. Even a comparatively "small"
nuclear attack such as occurred in Hiroshima and Nagasaki crippled and
destroyed the health services of a well-organized nation. As Dr. Henry
Kissinger observed in his work on Nuclear Weaponsand ForeignPolicy :

"Under normal conditions, a hospital requires five persons to care
for one patient. It has been estimated that at Nagasaki, under the most
primitive medical conditions, each survivor required two persons to
care for him. The whole surviving population of an affected area

would therefore either be injured or engaged in caring for the injured.
Even then, adequate medical assistance for the injured will be
impossible, for most hospitals and most medical personnel are them-
selveswithin the target area." 33

One has only to peruse medical accounts of the aftermath of Hiro-
shima and Nagasaki to understand how futile medical servicescan be after
the nuclear event, especially if they are caught unprepared. Hiroslzima
Diary: The Journal of a JapanesePhysicianAugust 6-September30, 1945,
by Michihiko Hachiya, M.D.34,is one such.

The multitude of descriptions available on the position of a society

which has been the victim of a nuclear attack heavily underscore this
aspect of the breakdown of al1health services, in which we have the gro-
tesque situation of human beings with shreds of fleshhanging upon them,
their eyeballs melted away, and their sensesdazed by blast and radiation,
wandering around in their thousands in search of assistance, and helpless
in the midst of a prevailing de~pair~~.Such scenes, the sad realities of the
aftermath of a "small" nuclear attack, are amply documented as having
occurred in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. They will occur again whenever

and wherever nuclear weapons are used. They are the health administra-
tor's worst nightmare, and any institution concerned with world health
needs to know whether the only agency capable of causing such a

331957, p. 70
34University of North Carolina Press, 1955.
35Here is a quote from HiroslzirnaDiuv:
"And they had no faces! Their eyes, noses and mouths had been burned away, and
it looked like their ears had been melted off. It was hard to tell front from back. One
soldier, whose features had been destroyed and was left with his white teeth sticking
out, asked me for some water anddidn't have any. 1clasped my hands and prayed
for him. He didn't Say anything more. His plea for water must have been his last
words." (P. 15.) 6. L'expérience d'Hiroshimaet de Nagasaki

Comme chacun sait, mêmeune catastrophe de relativement faible

envergure comme celle de Tchernobyl impose aux services de santé
nationaux une charge qui dépasse leurcapacité.Une nation victime d'une
attaque nucléaire serait sans recours car, si riche soit-elle, ses services
médicaux seraient pratiquement anéantis. Une attaque nucléaire d'une
portée comparativement modeste, comme celled'Hiroshima ou de Naga-
saki, a suffià paralyser et à détruireles services de santéd'un pays bien
organisé. Commel'a soulignéHenry Kissinger dans son ouvrage intitulé
Nuclear Weapons and ForeignPolicy :

«En temps normal, un hôpital doit affecter cinq personnes au
service d'un seul malade. On a calculéqu'à Nagasaki il fallait, avec
le niveau de soins médicaux le plus rudimentaire, deux personnes
pour veiller sur chaque survivant. Les habitants d'une zone touchée

seraient tous soit blesséssoit occupés à soigner des blessés.
De toute façon, il sera impossible de dispenser aux blessés lessoins
médicaux voulus,car la plupart des hôpitaux et la grande majorité
du personnel médicalsetrouveront eux-mêmesdansla zone visée. »33

Il suffit de se reporteà ce qu'ont écrit des médecinsaprès Hiroshima
et Nagasaki pour mesurer à quel point les services médicaux peuvent se
révélerinadéquats aprèsun épisode nucléaire,surtout s'ils sont pris par
surprise. On peut évoquer ici le récit du docteur Michihiko Hachiya,
intituléHiroshima Diary: The Journal of a Japanese Plzysician,August 6-
September 30, 1945 34.
Les innombrables documents que nous possédons sur l'étatdans lequel
une attaque nucléaire laissela sociétéqui en est victime insistent tous sur

la désintégration del'ensemble des servicesde santé, débouchant sur le
spectacle affligeant d'êtreshumains errant par milliers, la chair en lam-
beaux, les prunelles désagrégéeest les sens paralyséspar le souffle et les
radiations, cherchant une aide et n'en trouvant aucune au milieu de la
désolation générale35C . e genre de scène, triste séquelled'une attaque
nucléaire «de portéemodeste)),Hiroshima et Nagasaki en ont été témoins,
de nombreux documents en font foi. On peut en escompter la répétition

partout où seront utilisées desarmes nucléaires. C'est là un cauchemar
pour ceux qui ont la responsabilité de la santépublique et toute institu-
tion s'occupant de la santé à l'échellemondiale a besoin de savoir si le

331957,p. 70.
34University of California Press, 1955.
35Voici un extrait de ce récit:
«Et ils n'avaient plus de visage. Leurs yeux, leur nez et leur bouche avaient été
calcinéset on aurait dit que leurs oreilles avaient fondu. II étaitdifficilede distinguer
la face antérieure dela face postérieurede leur corps. Un soldat dont ne restaient du
visage que les dents qui saillaient me demanda de l'eau mais je n'en avais pas. Je
joignis les mains et priai pour lui. Il ne parla plus. Ses derniers mots avaient sans
doute étépour demander de l'eau.» (P. 15.)scenario stands within or without the international legal system, and
whether therefore it is permitted or banned.

III.MATTERR SELATING TO WHO'SCOMPETENCE
1. The Objections to WHO'S Competence

Of the 189member States of WHO as at 19May 1994,only nine have
raised objections before this Court on grounds that WHO does not have
the competence to make this request, namely, Australia,Finland, France,
Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Russia, the United Kingdom and the
United States. It will be noted that one nuclear power, China, is not
among those who have objected to WHO's competence.

The objections to WHO's competence centre around two broad propo-
sitions:
(a) that the legality of the use of nuclear weapons is not a matter for
WHO, whose competence is limited to the effect of nuclear weapons
on human health and environment; and
(b) that WHO has no special interest in the matter and a recognition of
its competence would, in effect, expand the scope of its activities.

Thus France has urged before the Court that:
"WHO has no more competence to put this question than it
would have, itself, todeclare that the use of a particular kind of
weapon was unlawful or to rule on the international legality of a
particular conflict; it has not the slightest competence in this area."
(CR95123, p. 56.)

France has submitted further that WHO's action "seems nothing less
than an abuse of the Court's advisory functions and, to say the least, a
somewhat alarming trend" (ibid., pp. 56-57).
With their deep implications, both for the advisory jurisdiction of the
Court and for the scope of the legitimate activities of specialized agencies,
such submissions need careful consideration.

WHO has no means at its disposa1to prevent nuclear war and in no
way does its enquiry amount to any act of intermeddling in the causes
of nuclear war. It only seeks information and that information could

well berelevant in drawing attention to the need to prevent nuclear war.
Alternatively, on the supposition that there is room for medical action
after a nuclear attack, it is relevant to its state of preparedness. As
already noted, even if an entire nation should be destroyed, medical
services would be urgently required by neighbouring States. Relevant
to its duties in this situation are Article (d) and (e) of the WHO
Constitution which cast upon WHO the express duty of furnishing aid
in emergencies and providing health services and facilities to special
groups.seul agent capable d'engendrer de telles conséquencesa ou n'a pas sa
place dans l'ordre juridique international et est donc permis ou banni.

III. QUESTION RELATIVES À LA COMPÉTENCE DE L'OMS

1. Les objections à la compétencede l'OMS

Sur les cent quatre-vingt-neuf Etats qui étaientmembres de l'OMS au
19mai 1994,neufseulementont soutenu devant la Cour que l'OMS n'avait
pascompétencepour présentersademande, àsavoirl'Allemagne,l'Australie,
les Etats-Unis d'Amérique,la Finlande, la France, l'Italie, les Pays-Bas, la
Russie et le Royaume-Uni. On notera qu'une puissance nucléaire,la Chine,
ne figurepas au nombre des pays qui ont contesté la compétencede l'OMS.

A l'encontre de la compétencede l'OMS, deux arguments principaux
ont été avancés :
a) la question de la licéitéde l'emploi desarmes nucléairesn'est pas du
ressort del'OMS, dont la compétenceest limitéeaux effets des armes
nucléairessur la santéhumaine et l'environnement;
b) l'OMS n'a pas d'intérêtspécialen la matière et reconnaître sa com-
pétencereviendrait en faità élargirle champ de ses activités.

Ainsi, la France a soutenu devant la Cour que:
«L'OMS n'a pas davantage compétencepour poser la question
qu'elle n'enaurait elle-mêmepour déclarerillicite l'utilisation de tel
ou tel type d'armes ou pour se prononcer sur la conformitéau droit
international de tel ou tel conflit; elle n'a, dans ce domaine, pas la

moindre compétence. )>(CR 95/23, p. 56.)
La France a en outre déclaré voirdans la démarche de l'OMS «un véri-
table détournement des fonctions consultatives de la Cour et, pour tout
dire, une dérive assezpréoccupante)) (ibid., p. 56-57).
Etant lourds de conséquences,tant pour la compétence consultative de
la Cour qu'en ce qui concerne la délimitationdu champ légitime d'activité
des institutions spécialisée,es arguments méritent d'être soigneusement

examinés.
L'OMS ne dispose d'aucun moyen pour prévenir uneguerre nucléaire
et, en posant saquestion, elle ne se mêleen aucune manière des causes
d'une guerre nucléaire.Elle demande simplement des précisions. Cespré-
cisions peuvent avoir pour effet d'appeler l'attention sur la nécessité
de prévenir une guerre nucléaire. Mais, d'un autre côté, à supposer
que quelque chose puisse être fait surle plan médicalaprès une attaque
nucléaire, elles pourraient êtreutilesà l'OMS aux fins des préparatifs
nécessaires.J'ai déjàsoulignéque, mêmedans l'hypothèse où un pays
entier serait détruit,il y aurait un besoin urgent de servicesmédicauxdans
des Etats voisins. Les obligations deOMSen pareil cas sedéfiniraientpar
référenceaux alinéas d) et e) de l'article 2 de sa Constitution, qui lui

enjoignent expressément deprêterassistance dans les situations d'urgence
et de fournir des services et dispositifs médicauxaux groupes spéciaux. It is therefore a mistake to read into WHO's enquiry an attempt at
dabbling in the political question of prevention of nuclear war. It keeps

well within its mandate in seeking information which it considers neces-
sary for discharging its constitutional obligation of preparation to render
assistance in the event of nuclear war. Here again the analogy of bac-
teriological or chemical warfare comes to mind. If these are legitimate
weapons of war, WHO's state of readiness to cope with the inedical prob-
lems they raise must surely be different from the situation where the law
of nations accepts that they are illegal and should not be used in any
circumstances.

2. The Importance of tlzeEnquiry Relating to WHO'S
Constitution

Elsewhere in itsjurisprudence, this Court has stressed the importance
of rendering an opinion to a specialized agency when it relates to that
agency's Constitution and, indeed, it has made this observation in rela-
tion to the constitution of WHO itself (Interpretationof tlzeAgreement of

25 Murch 1951betvveenthe WHO and Egypt, I.C.J. Reports 1980,p. 87.
See p. 108,supra.)
As the Court has observed in its reply to the General Assembly's
request for an opinion on the legality of nuclear weapons:

"Whatever its political aspects, the Court cannot refuse to admit
the legal character of a question which invites it to discharge an
essentiallyjudicial task, namely, an assessment of the legality of the

possible conduct of States with regard to the obligations imposed
upon them by international law." (I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 234,
para. 13.)
This principle assumes particular importance in regard to a request for
interpretation of an organ's Constitution, for not only is that manifestly
a question of law, but it is one of the most practical forms of assistance
the Court can give to the members of the United Nations family of
organizations. It is a question anchored to the law and, at the same time,

lying at the heart of an organization's work. In short, it is the sort of
question which in my viewthe Court would be under a special obligation
to address.
With much respect, 1must therefore disagree with the Court's conclu-
sion that "WHO is not empowered to seek an opinion on the interpreta-
tion of its Constitution in relation to matters outside the scope of its
functions" (Advisory Opinion, para. 28). The finding that the matter is
"outside the scope of its functions" is itself an interpretation of WHO's
Constitution and, in reaching this conclusion, the Court is in effect inter-
preting WHO's Constitution in response to WHO's request. I find it dif-
ficult also to accept that an organ of the United Nations, empowered to C'est donc une erreur de voir dans la démarche de I'OMS une ma-
nŒuvrepour s'immiscerdans la problématique dela prévention dela guerre
nucléaire.L'OMS s'en tient strictement à son mandat en sollicitant les
précisionsdont elleestime avoir besoin pour s'acquitter de son obligation
constitutionnelle de se préparer à prêter assistance en cas de guerre
nucléaire.Là encore, le parallèle avec la guerre bactériologique ou chi-
mique vient à l'esprit. La stratégiequ'adopte l'OMS pour se préparer à
faire face aux problèmes médicauxqui découlent dece type de guerre est

nécessairementdifférenteselon que les armes employéessont considérées
comme licites et reconnues par le droit international ou comme illiciteset
proscrites en toutes circonstances.

2. L'iiîzportancede I'iizterrogationrelativà la Constitution
de l'OMS

La Cour a, dans le passé, souligné combienil est important de donner
un avis à une institution spécialisélorsque est en cause l'acte constitutif
de cette institution et elle d'ailleurs faàpropos de la Constitution de
I'OMS elle-même (I7zterprétationde l'uccord du 25 mars 1951 entre

I'OMS et I'Egypte, C.I.J. Recueil 1980, p. 87. Voir ci-dessus, p. 108).

Comme l'a observéla Cour dans la réponse qu'elle a donnée à la
demande d'avis consultatif de l'Assembléegénéralesur la licéité des
armes nucléaires :
«Quels que soient les aspects politiques de la question posée,la

Cour ne saurait refuser un caractère juridique à une question qui
l'invite s'acquitter d'une tâche essentielleinent judiciairà,savoir
l'appréciationde lalicéitde la conduite éventuelled'Etats au regard
des obligations que le droit international leur impose. » (C.I.J.
Recueil 1996, p. 234, par. 13.)

Il est d'autant plus important de respecter ce principe dans le cas d'une
demande d'interprétation de l'acte constitutif d'un organe que le carac-
tèrejuridique de la question enjeu est indubitable et que, par surcroît, la
Cour trouve là l'occasion de fournir aux entitésqui composent le système
des Nations Unies une assistance des plus concrètes. La question posée
est en prise directe la fois avec le droit et avec l'activité del7Organisa-
tion. Bref, c'est le type de question qu'à mon avis la Cour est tenue
d'examiner.
Je doisà mon grand regret me désolidariserde la conclusion de la Cour
selon laquelle«l'OMS n'est pas habilitée à demander un avis portant sur
l'interprétation de sa Constitution l'égard de questionsqui se situent en
dehors du cadre de ses fonctions)) (avis consultatif, par. 28). Dire que la

question «se situe en dehors du cadre de ses fonctions)) c'est déjàinter-
préter la Constitution de I'OMS et, en formulant cette conclusion, la
Cour donne en fait une interprétation de la Constitution de I'OMS en
réponse à la demande que cette dernière lui a adressée.J'ai égalementduseek an advisory opinion on a question of law, has no competence to seek

an interpretation of its own Constitution.

3. The Constitutional Functions of WHO

There are a number of constitutional functions of WHO which have a
bearing on the question referred to the Court. Some of them have been
referred to earlier in this opinion. Among these functions, which are
specifiedin Article 2 of its Constitution, are the following, shown against
the respective subsections of Article 2:

(1) to act as the directing and CO-ordinatingauthority on international
health work (Art. 2 (a));
(2) to establish and maintain effective collaboration with the United
Nations, specialized agencies, governmental health administrations,
professional groups and such other organizations as may be deemed
appropriate (Art. 2 (b));
(3) to furnish appropriate technical assistance and, in einergencies,
necessary aid upon the request or acceptance of Governments
(Art. 2 (d));

(4) to provide or assist in providing, upon the request of the United
Nations, health servicesand facilities to special groups (Art. 2 (e));

(5) to propose conventions, agreements and regulations, and make
recommendations with respect to international health matters and to
perform such duties as may be assigned thereby to the Organization
and are consistent with its objective (Art. 2 (k));
(6) to promote and conduct research in the field of health (Art. 2 (n));
(7) to promote improved standards of teaching and training in the
health, medical and related professions (Art. 2 (O));
(8) to provide information, counsel and assistance in the field of health
(Art. 2 (q));
(9) to assist in developing an informed public opinion among al1peoples
on matters of health (Art 2 (r));

(10) generally to take al1necessary action to attain the objective of the
Organization (Art. 2 (v)).
These will be referred to in the course of the ensuing discussion. It will
be sufficient to draw attention at the present stage to the following areas
relevant to nuclear weapons in which these constitutional provisions
become pertinent :

(i) Co-ordination of international health ivork (Art. 2 (a))

WHO's obligations under Article 2 may be summarized in terms that :
"WHO's first constitutional function is to act as the directing and co-mal à admettre qu'un organe des Nations Unies habilité à solliciter un
avis consultatif sur une question de droit n'ait pas compétence pour
demander une interprétation de sa propre Constitution.

3. Les fonctions constitutionnelles de l'OMS

L'OMS a un certain nombre de fonctions qui ont un lien avec la ques-
tion posée à la Cour, plusieurs ayant été évoquées plu hsaut dans la pré-
sente opinion. L'article2 de sa Constitution mentionne en particulier les
fonctions qui sont énuméréec si-après, avec indication de l'alinéa perti-
nent :

agir en tant qu'autorité directrice et coordinatrice, dans le domaine
de la santé,des travaux ayant un caractère international (art. 2 a));
établir et maintenir une collaboration effective avec les Nations
Unies, les institutions spécialiséesl,es administrations gouvernemen-
tales de la santé, les groupes professionnels ainsi que telles autres
organisations qui paraîtraient indiquées(art. 2 b));
fournir l'assistance technique appropriée et, dans les cas d'urgence,
l'aide nécessaireà la requêtedes gouvernements et sur leur accepta-
tion (art.2 d));
fournir ou aider à fournir, à la requêtedes Nations Unies, des ser-
vicessanitaires et des secoursàdes groupements spéciaux telsque les

populations des territoires sous tutelle (art.e));
proposer des conventions, accords et règlements, faire des recoin-
mandations concernant les questions internationales de santé et
exécutertelles tâches pouvant êtreassignéesde ce fait à l'Organisa-
tion et répondant à son but (art. 2 k));
stimuler et guider la recherche dans le domaine de la santé(art. 2 n));
favoriser l'amélioration des normes de l'enseignement et celles de la
formation du personnel sanitaire, médical etapparenté (art. 2 O));
fournir toutes informations, donner tous conseils et toute assistance
dans le domaine de la santé(art. 2 q));
aider à former, parmi les peuples, une opinion publique éclairée en
ce qui concerne la santé(art. 2 Y));

d'une manière générale,prendre toute mesure nécessairepour at-
teindre le but assignéà l'organisation (art. 2 v)).
Je reviendrai sur ces diverses fonctions dans la suite de la présente
opinion. A ce stade, je me bornerai à appeler l'attention sur la façon dont
jouent lesdispositions constitutionnelles susmentionnéesdans les secteurs

d'activité oùse pose la question des armes nucléaires.

i) Coordinatio7z,dans le domaine de lasunté,des travaux ayant un carac-
tèreinter7zutional(art.2 a))

Lesobligations de l'OMS aux termes del'article 2peuvent êtrerésumées
comme suit: «Aux termes de sa Constitution, la première fonction deordinating authority on international health work" 36.Part of this task is
stated to be to "devise strategies, principles and programmes to give
effect tothese policies".

WHO cannot act as the directing and CO-ordinatingauthority on inter-

national health work if it has to act behind a veil of ignorance regarding
the legality or otherwise of the greatest of man-made threats to human
health.

Moreover this provision highlights the fact that WHO is concerned
with "health work". The expression "health work" clearly refers, as
already observed, not merely to the curative, but also to the preventive
and planning aspects of health services, which are an integral part of
modern medical services.

The consideration, already referred to, that planning for any contin-

gency requires a knowledge of the legal structure within which a particu-
lar hazard takes place acquires even greater significance in a world wheïe
many violent conflicts are raging concurrently. The possibility is ever
present of an escalation of any of these conflicts and, if the nuclear
weapon is a legal weapon of war, any one of one of them could quite
"legally" flare into a nuclear war.

(ii)Collaboration with the United Nations, specialized agencies, etc.
(Art. 2 (b))

WHO is part of the United Nations system, dedicated to the aims and
objectives of the United Nations. It is the agent par excellence for co-
ordination with other specialized agencies and professional bodies in
relation to the medical hazards of nuclear weapons. For example, the
effects on crops and the world famine situation resulting from nuclear
weapons constitute an obvious area for collaboration with organizations

such as the Food and Agriculture Organization. Professional groups of
doctors, worldwide, need to be alerted regarding the medical effects of
nuclear weapons. WHO must liaise with medical organizations world-
wide and share information with them, alert them to the medical dangers
and promote readiness to deal with the medical hazards. It must cur-
rently do so in the dark, unaware whether these weapons are legal or
not.

36A compendium of UnitedNations Action inthe Field of Human Riglzts, 1988,p. 29.
para. 234.

68l'OMS est d'agir en tant qu'autoritédirectrice et coordonnatrice, dans le
domaine de la santé, des travaux ayant un caractère internati~nal.))~~

Entre dans le cadre de cette fonction le soin de (([mettre] au point des
stratégies, des principes et desprogrammes pour donner effet aux poli-
tiques [retenues]».
L'OMS ne peut pas agir en tant qu'autorité directrice et coordinatrice,
dans le domaine de la santé,des travaux ayant un caractère international
si elledoit mener son action sans êtrerenseignéesur le caractère - licite
ou non - de la plus grave des menaces d'origine humaine à la santéde
l'humanité.
La disposition considéréemet d'autre part en lumièrele fait que l'OMS
s'intéresseaux travaux «dans le domaine de la santé)).Cette expression

vise évidemment, commeje l'ai déjàsouligné,non seulement la fonction
curative des services de santémais aussi leur rôle de prévention et de
planification qui fait partie intégrante de la mission d'un service médical
moderne.
Comme je l'ai déjàsouligné,il faut, pour établirdes plans permettant
de faire face aux situations imprévues, connaître le contexte juridique
dans lequel s'inscrit telle ou telle activitédangereuse et cette considéra-
tion revêt uneimportance particulière dans un monde où de nombreux
affrontements violents font simultanément rage. Le risque d'une escalade

de l'un de ces conflits ne peut jamais être écartéet si l'arme nucléaire est
une arme de guerre licite, tel conflit pourrait, de façon tout fait «licite»,
s'embraser en une guerre nucléaire.

ii) Collaboration avec lesNations Unies,les institutions spécialiséese ,tc.
(art.2 b))

L'OMS fait partie du système des Nations Unies, qui a pour vocation
de faire triompher les buts et objectifs de celles-ci. Elle a un rôle de pre-
mier plan à jouer dans la coordination, avec les autres institutions spé-
cialisées etles groupes professionnels, de l'action concernant les consé-
quences médicales négativesque comportent les armes nucléaires. Par
exemple, les effets des armes nucléaires sur les récoltes et la famine
mondiale qui en résulterait appellent de toute évidenceune collaboration
avec des institutions comme l'organisation des Nations Unies pour
l'alimentation et l'agriculture. Les groupements professionnels de

médecinsdans le monde entier doivent être avertis des effets médicaux
des armes nucléaires.L'OMS doit assurer la liaison avec les organisations
médicalesau plan mondial, leur communiquer des renseignements, leur
signaler les dangers médicauxet les inciter à se préparer à faire faceà des
situations critiques sur le plan médical. Il lui faut pour le moment s'ac-
quitter de toutes ces tâches sans savoir si les armes en cause sont licites
OU non

36Inventaire des Activitésde l'ONU duns le dornuinedes droits de l'lzornrne,1992,p. 30,
par. 234.(iii) Emergencies (Art. 2 (d))

The inadequacy of national health services to cope with the after
effects of a nuclear attack have already been discussed at some length.
The practical situation that existed in Hiroshima and Nagasaki has also
been described. Such realities, nowhere discussed in the Court's Opinion,
make WHO the obvious authority for national Governments to turn to
for assistance, in the emergency created by a nuclear attack. If the
nuclear weapon is a legal weapon of war, the responsibility lies al1the
more heavily on WHOto plan for this. It would quite clearly be the only
international authority to whom the stricken nation could turn for assis-

tance. Al1this is consistent with WHO'S responsibilities for promoting
"the rationalization and mobilization of resources for health"".

WHO'S constitutional mandate is to be ready with medical services
needed for emergencies.

(iv) Provision, upon the request of the United Nations, of l~eulthser-
vices und fucilities to speciul groups (Art. 2 (e))

The radiation victims of a nuclear attack would be a special group
within the meaning of this clause. People far froin the source of the

explosion - hundreds or thousands of miles away - will be affected.
Non-belligerent States, far distant from the scene, will need assistance.
WHO is the only organization they could turn to. The dire event of a
nuclear attack, whatever the nation that is struck, would raise health
problems of such proportions that WHO would be the only entity to
which the United Nations itself could turn for special services. WHO
cannot be unprepared for such an eventuality, especiallyif it is one which
is permitted by the law.

(v) To propose conventions,ugreement,çand regulutions (Art. 2 (k))

If the use of nuclear weapons is a legal form of warfare, WHO will
need to take the initiative in relation to conventions, agreements and
regulations regarding such matters as the exchange of knowledge and
facilities1-elatingto the treatinent of radiation victims. Grailted the
iinpossibility of any onecouiltry being able by itself to treat al1radiation
victims. there will need to be a consideration of mutual medical assis-
tance in the event of such a catastrophe. WHO'Sconstitutional fi~nctions
in regard to conventions, agi-eeinents and regulations then come into
play. If an internationalmedical convention is the best means for arrang-
ing emergency inedical servicesto a country stricken by a nuclear attack,
who but the World Health Organization could take the initiative in this?iii) Cas d'urgence (art. 2 d))

Qu'on ne puisse s'en remettre aux services nationaux de santépour
gérerles conséquencesd'une attaque nucléaire,je l'ai déjàexpliquéen
détail.J'ai égalementdécritla situation de fait qui a existéHiroshima et
à Nagasaki. Ces réalités,dont il n'est nullepart question dans l'avisde la

Cour, font de I'OMS une source toute désignée d'assistancepour les gou-
vernements nationaux aux prises avec les circonstances de crise engen-
dréespar une attaque nucléaire.Si l'arme nucléaire estune arme licite,
l'OMS n'en est que plus impérieusementtenue de se préparer àjouer le
rôle en question. Elle serait bien évidemmentla seule instance interna-
tionale à laquelle la nation touchée pourrait demander de l'aide. Tout
cela cadre parfaitement avec la mission de l'OMS d'encourager «la
rationalisation et la mobilisation des ressources en faveur de la santé))".
Le mandat que I'OMStient de sa Constitution est d'êtreprête à fournir
les services médicauxrequis dans les situations d'urgence.

iv) Fourniture, u la requêtedes Nations Unies, de services sanitaires et
de secours aux groupes spéciaux (ut. 2 e))

Les personnes irradiéesau cours d'une attaque nucléaire constitueraient
un groupe spécialau sens de la clause susmentionnée.Il y aura des victimes
loin du théâtre de l'explosion- à des centaines ou à des milliersde kilo-
mètres de là. Des Etats non belligérantsdans un rayon très étenduauront
besoin d'assistance. L'OMSest la seuleinstitution vers laquelleilspourront
se tourner. Le cataclysme d'une attaque nucléaire susciterait, quel que soit
le pays touché,des problèmes sanitaires d'une telle ampleur que l'OMS

serait la seuleentità laquelle les Nations Unies pourraient s'adresserpour
obtenir des servicesspéciaux. L'OMSne peut se laisser surprendre par une
telle éventualité,surtout si elle se situe dans le cadre de la légalité.

v) Initiativesnormatives (corzve~ztions,ccords et règlenzents)(art. 2 k))

Sil'emploi à la guerre d'armes nucléairesest licite,l'OMSdevra prendre
l'initiative de faire élaborer des conventions, accords et règlements sur
des questions telles que l'échangede connaissances et de moyens en vue

du traitement des victimes des radiations. Comme aucun pays ne sera en
mesure de prendre seul en charge l'ensemble de ces victimes, il faudra
envisager une assistance médicale mutuelleau cas où la catastrophe se
produirait. Les responsabilitésconstitutionnelles de l'OMS en matière de
conventions, d'accords et de règlements entrent alors en jeu. Si une
convention médicaleinternationale offre le meilleur moyen de fournir les
secours médicaux d'urgence à un pays touchépar une attaque nucléaire,
à quelle institution sinonà I'OMS appartient-il d'en prendre l'initiative?

37Op cit. ci-dessus note 36(vi) Reseurclz (Art 2 (n))

In the words of the United Nations study already cited:
"The Organization brings together the world's experts in health

matters and serves as a neutral ground for absorbing, distilling, syn-
thesizing and widely disseminating information which has practical
value for countries in solving their health problems." 38
Medical knowledge regarding radiation injuries and their treatment is

still the subject of ongoiilg research. There needs to be CO-operationin
this field.Thistask devolves heavily on the shoulders of WHO. Especially
if the nuclear weapon is a legal weapon of war, WHO would have little
excuse for not planning for the CO-ordinationand spread of such scien-
tific knowledge.
Contemporary accounts of Hiroshima or Nagasaki show 11owil1
equipped medical practitioners were to deal with radiation injuries39.

(vii) Inzproved standards of teaching and training (Art. 2 (O))
The promotion of improved standards of teaching and training are
also activities falling within this field. The medical response to nuclear

war, especially if the nuclear weapon is legal, calls for special teaching
and training.

(viii)Public education (Art. 2 (q) and 2 (r))

These functions, dealt with in Article 2 (q) and 2 (r) of WHO's Con-
stitution, are discussed elsewhere inthis opinion. It is sufficient to note at
this point that the WHO Report stresses WHO's role in "systematically
distributing information on the health consequences of nuclear war-
fareX4OA . s the radiation injuries resulting from the Chernobyl accident
continue to manifest themselves, eventen years after the event, the world
is offered repeated confirmation of the importance of prior public know-

ledge of how best to react to exposure to radiation. Most people in Cher-
nobyl, unaware of the dangers of radiation, were, from al1 medical
reports now emerging, unable to react in a manner that would minimize
the health damage caused to them. In terms of human health, an enor-
mous price is being paid for this lack of knowledge. Spreading such
knowledge is clearly within WHO's constitutional functions.

Op. cit. footnote 36, supra.
3"ee HiroslzinzaDinrii;: Tlie JournLJcrpcrnesePlzysicitrnAz~gust6-Septernber 30,
1945, op. cit. footnote 34, supra.
40011.cit. footnote 13,supra, p. 5, para. 9.vi) Recherche (art. 2 n))

Coinme l'indique l'étude desNations Unies déjàcitée:

((L'Organisationréunitdes experts internationaux dans le domaine
de la santéet sert de terrain neutre pour assimiler, analyser, faire la
synthèseet largement diffuser des renseignements d'intérêtpratique
pour les pays en vue de résoudre leurs problèmesde santé. »3x

Les connaissances médicalestouchant les lésionspar rayonnement et
leur traitement ne cessent de s'enrichir grâce a la recherche. La coopéra-
tion s'impose dans ce domaine. La responsabilitéde l'organiser incombe
largement à l'OMS qui,surtout si l'arme nucléaireest une arme de guerre
licite, ne pourrait guèrese dispenser de planifier la coordination et la dif-
fusion des travaux scientifiques en la matière.

Les témoignagesque nous possédonssur Hiroshima et Nagasaki mon-
trent coinbien les médecins généralisteé staient mal préparés à traiter les
lésionspar irradiati~n~~.

vii) Aiq~éliorutiodnes ~zornzese l'eenseigrîemenett de lafolnzation (art. 2 O))

Favoriser l'amélioration des norines de l'enseignement et de la forma-
tion est une autre tâche entrant dans le cadre considéré.Pour faire face
aux conséquencesmédicales dela guerre nucléaire, un effort spécialdoit
êtrefait au niveau de l'enseignement et de la formation, surtout si l'arine
nucléaireest licite.

viii) Educution du public (urt. 2 q) et 2 r))
Cette tâche, qui est viséeaux alinéas q) et r) de l'article2 de la Constitu-
tion de I'OMS, fait l'objet de développements ailleursdans la présente

opinion. Je me bornerai à souligner dans le présentcontexte que le rapport
de I'OMS insistesur la contribution que peut apporter l'organisation «en
diffusant systématiquement desinformations sur les conséquencessani-
taires que pourrait avoir un conflit nucléaire^^^ O.n continue de constater,
dix ans aprèsl'accident deTchernobyl, des lésionspar rayonnement impu-
tables à l'accident, ce qui vient rappeler régulièrementau monde combien
il importe de renseigner le public à l'avance sur les précautions à prendre

en cas d'exposition aux rayonnements. Ignorant dans son ensemble le
danger que présentaientlesrayonnements, la population de Tchernobyl n'a
pas su, d'après les rapports médicauxqui viennent maintenant au jour,
limiter, par des mesures appropriées,le dommage causé à la santépar les
radiations. Le prix à payer en termes de santé humainepour cette igno-
rance est énorine.Assurer la diffusion des renseignements en questionentre
manifestement dans le cadre des fonctions constitutionnelles de I'OMS.

2Wj1. cit. ci-dessus note 36.
39Voir Hiroslii~Dli~l:yThe J«LI~IILoLIJCIIICII~ISz~ysieA~L,I~L6-Sej1te11li.0,
1945, 01).cit. ci-dessus note 34.
4"011.cit. ci-dessus note 13, p. 5, par. 9. 4. The Work and Concerns of WHO

It has been said in argument that nuclear weapons are matters exclu-
sively within the area of peace and security - matters which are within
the exclusivejurisdiction of other agencies such as the Security Council -
and that therefore WHO can have no concern with them. WHO's func-
tion is confined to health,pure and simple, and it strays into unauthorized
fieldswhen it enters the area of peace and security. The cobbler to his last.
The work of WHO cannot be said to be unrelated to peace and secu-
rity. In fact, the very Constitution of WHO draws attention in the pre-
amble itself to the interrelatedness of health and security when it states

that the health of al1peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace
and security and is dependent upon the fullest CO-operationof individuals
and States. WHO is also empowered by Article 2 (v) of its Constitution
"generally to take al1 necessary action to attain the objective of the
Organization". The objective of the Organization is set out in Article 1to
be "the attainment by al1peoples of the highest possible level of health".
The highest possible levels ofhealth must obviously be achieved both by
curative and preventive processes, there being no restriction to the former.

There are clearly some areas where WHO's concern with health over-
laps with concerns of peace and security. One of the dangers of nuclear
war, as pointed out in Section 11.4above, is the appearance of devastat-
ing epidemics. The decimation of populations caused by severe epidemics

can reduce thriving societies to total helplessness. Such an event would
quite obviously be a matter affecting global peace and security, for law
and order, both domestic and international, would in those circum-
stances tend to break down. The linkage in its own Constitution (to
which al1 Member States of the United Nations have agreed) between
health on the one hand, and peace and security on the other, renders the
argument unavailable that the two concerns are incompatible with each
other. Indeed the greater the threat to global health, the greater would be
the overlap with peace and security.
The argument that concern with peace and security removes a matter
from WHO concerns is analogous to the argument that, although a mat-
ter clearlyinvolves a legal issue, this Court should not enter into it if the
matter is also political. Such an argument, as repeatedly held in the juris-
is unsustainable. The Court is the pre-eminent
prudence of the Court,
authority on questions of law and must attend to matters properly within
itsjurisdiction, irrespectiveof whether they alsoinvolvepolitical considera-
tions. Likewise,WHO is the pre-eminent authority on questions of health
and must be permitted to attend to matters properly within its sphere, irre-
spective of whether they are also within the sphere of peace and security.
This case is concerned not with a natural threat, but with a man-made
threat to human health so great as to dwarf al1 other threats, whether
man-made or natural. The agency of damage is fully within human con- UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS.WEERAMANTRY 1)33

4. L'activitéetla vocationde l'OMS

On a prétendu que les armes nucléaires neconcernent que le domaine
de la paix et de la sécurité - lequel relèvede la compétenceexclusive
d'autres instancescomme le Conseil de sécurité - et que l'OMS n'a donc

pas à s'en soucier. La mission de I'OMS est limitée à la santé pure et
simple et elle s'aventure en terrain interdit si elle s'occupe de paix et de
sécurité.A chacun son métier ...
On ne peut pas dire que l'action de l'OMS soit sans rapport avec la
paix et la sécurité puisque,en fait, la Constitution mêmede l'institution
appelle l'attention dans son préambule sur les liens entre la santé et la
sécurité ensoulignant que la santéde tous les peuples est une condition
fondamentale de la paix du monde et de la sécurité etexige la coopéra-
tion la plus complète entre les individus et les Etats. L'OMS est en outre
habilitéepar l'article2, alinéa v), de sa Constitution à, «d'une manière

générale,prendre toute mesure nécessairepour atteindre le but assigné à
l'Organisation)). Ce but, tel qu'il est défànl'article 1de la Constitution,
est ((d'amener tous les peuples au niveau de santéle plus élevé possible)).
Les niveaux de santéles plus élevés possible doivent manifestement être
atteints par une action curative et par une action préventive, la première
n'étantsoumise à aucune restriction.
Ily a manifestement des chevauchements entre le domaine de la santé,
aui est du ressort de I'OMS. et celui de la ~aix et de la sécurité.L'un des
dangers inhérents àla guerre nucléaireest, comme on l'a vu ci-dessus à la
section II, paragraphe 4, l'apparition d'épidémiesdévastatrices.La déci-

mation des populations consécutive à des épidémiesmajeures peut para-
lyser entièrement des sociétés enéquilibre précaire. Un tel phénomène
intéresserait manifestement la paix et la sécuritécar l'ordre public, tant
interne qu'international, s'en trouverait compromis. Le lien établipar la
Constitution de l'OMS elle-même - et tous les Etats Membres des
Nations Unies y ont souscrit - entre la santéd'une part et la paix et la
sécuritéde l'autre réduit à néantl'argument selon lequel les deux préoc-
cupations ne vont pas ensemble. En réalité, plus la menace à la santé
mondiale est graveet plus elle relèvedudomaine de la paix et de la sécurité.
Soutenir que, lorsque la paix et la sécuritésont en cause, l'OMS n'a

plus son mot à dire revientà prétendre qu'une question comportant une
dimensionjuridique incontestable échappe à la compétence dela Cour si
ellea aussi un caractère politique. Un tel argument, maintes fois invoqué
devant la Cour, est irrecevable. La Cour est l'autorité suprêmeen matière
juridique et elle doit connaître des questions entrant dans le champ de sa
compétence,qu'ellescomportent ou non des aspectspolitiques. De même,
I'OMS est l'autorité suprêmeen matière de santé et elle doit pouvoir
connaître des questions relevant de son secteur, qu'elles aient ou non un
lien avec la paix et la sécurité.
Ce qui est enjeu, ce n'est pas une menace d'origine naturelle, mais une

menace d'origine humaine à la santé publique, d'une dimension telle
qu'elle réduit à peu de chose toutes les autres menaces, qu'elles soienttrol. WHO desires to know what the law is regarding such potentially
damaging activity, which occurs not accidentally, but in consequence of
deliberate State action.

Itis difficult to subscribe to the view that WHO can be told that this is
none of its concern - that its legitimate business is curing the sick after
the disaster occurs and that it has no right to knowledge which has a
bearing on how it is caused. That is the implication of the Court's Opin-
ion and with that 1 cannot agree. The state of the law, relating to any
form of activity hazardous to human health, is WHO's legitimate con-
Cern,and though WHO may not have the power to alter the law, it has at
least the right to know what the law is. The greater the hazard, the
greater is WHO's right to information. If the hazard can be created

legally, the duty of preparedness for that eventuality becomes al1 the
greater.
The lawfulness of deliberate Stateconduct which damages public health
on a global scale cannot, in my view, be excluded from the area of
WHO's concerns without serious damage to the authority and mission of
WHO in relation to the health of the world's population, and without a
restricting effect also upon other United Nations agencies who may be
guided by this narrow view of the area of their legitimate concerns.
The causes of damage to world health do not have to be medical causes
in the sense in which they are commonly understood. The causes may be
natural disasters,such as forest fires or earthquakes, or man-made disas-
ters, such as occur in war. Whatever the sources of danger to human
health, WHO needs to study them, understand their causes, anticipate
them, and plan to meet these emergencies. It has a global mandate to do

so and every organ of the United Nations system must CO-operatewith it
in the discharge of that global mandate.

5. TlzeAnalogy witlz Clzemiculand Biological Weapons

If chemical and biological weapons were accepted as legal weapons of
war, WHO would no doubt have had to take that factor into account in
its global planning. The knowledge that these weapons are outlawed is a
factor relevant to WHO's consideration of that problem. No doubt it was
for such reasons that WHO, before the Convention relating to these
weapons, emphasized the need for their prohibition, by resolution 23.53
of 1970.

The same reasoning must apply to nuclear weapons. Legality or ille-
gality makes a major difference to the authority charged with responsi-
bility for global health, particularly when the health hazards are so far
flung and long-enduring as those caused by the nuclear weapon.

If WHO, before the chemical and biological weapons treaty, had made
an enquiry as to whether the use of those weapons was a violation of 134
UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS.WEERAMANTRY)

d'origine naturelle ou humaine. L'agent destructeur est entièrement entre
lesmains de I'homme. L'OMS souhaite connaître l'étatdu droit en ce qui
concerneune activitécomportant des risques de cette ampleur, qui sont le
fruit non du hasard mais d'un choix délibéré de 1'Etat.
Il est difficiled'admettre que l'OMS puisse sevoir signifierqu'il n'ya là
rien qui la concerne - que sa responsabilité Iégitime estde soigner les
malades une foisle désastresurvenuet qu'elle n'apas ledroit de s'informer
sur des points se rapportant àla cause de ce désastre.C'est pourtant là la
conclusion implicite de l'avis, conclusion à laquelle je ne saurais sous-

crire. L'étatdu droit en ce qui concerne n'importe quel type d'activité
dangereuse pour la santé humaine retient légitimement l'attention de
I'OMS, laquellen'a peut-être pasle pouvoir de modifier le droit mais est
au moins habilitée à s'enquérirde son contenu. Plus le danger est grand et
plus I'OMS est en droit de s'informer. Si ce danger peut êtrelicitement
créé, l'obligation dse préparer à y faire face n'en estque plus impérieuse.
On ne peut,à mon avis, soustraireà la sphère de responsabilitéde I'OMS
la question de la licéitéd'un comportement étatique délibéré qup iorte
atteinteà la santépubliqueau niveauplanétaire sanscompromettre sérieuse-

ment l'autoritéet la mission de cette organisation dans le domaine de la
santéde l'humanitéet sans, par surcroît, inciter d'autres institutions des
Nations Unies à se faire une conception étriquée de leurmission légitime.
Les atteintesà la santémondiale n'ont pas besoin de tirer leur origine
de causes médicalesau sens où l'on entend généralementcette expression.
Elles peuvent êtrele résultat de catastrophes naturelles - incendies de
forêts, tremblements de terre - ou de désastresprovoquéspar l'homme,
telle la guerre. Quelle que soit la source du danger menaçant la santé
humaine, l'OMS doit l'étudier,en comprendre les causes, l'anticiper et
faire des plans pour répondre aux situations d'urgence. Elle a un mandat
global à cet effet et tous les rouages du système desNations Unies doi-

vent coopéreravec elle pour l'aider àremplir ce mandat global.

5.Le parallèle avec les armes chimiques et biologiques

Si les armes chimiques et biologiques étaient reconnues comme des
armes de guerre licites, I'OMSdevrait indubitablement tenir compte de ce
fait dans sa planification globale. Dès lors qu'elle sait que ceses sont
bannies, son approche du problème s'entrouve influencée. C'estcertaine-
ment ce qui explique que I'OMS, devançant la convention concernant les

armes en question, a soulignéla nécessitéde les interdire dans sa résolu-
tion 23.53 de 1970.
Le mêmeraisonnement vaut pour les armes nucléaires. Selon qu'elles
sont licites ou illicites, la situation varie du tout au tout pour l'autorité
responsable de la santémondiale, surtout s'agissant de l'arme nucléaire
dont les effets sur la santé sont ressentis dans un vaste rayon et pendant
trèslongtemps.
Si l'OMS avait, préalablement à l'adoption du traité sur les armes
chimiques et biologiques, poséla question de savoir si l'emploi de cesState obligations under the WHO Constitution, it is difficult to imagine
that any objections would have been taken to that enquiry. The intimate

concern of nuclear weapons with geopolitics and military strategy does
not alter the principle involved. WHO needs to know, no less than it
needs to know in the case of chemical and bacteriological weapons,
whether nuclear weapons, like chemical and bacteriological weapons, are
banned by international law.

This Court cannot say in what precise ways the information sought by
WHO will help it in its planning. What it does know is that WHO has
considered such knowledge to be useful to it and, on this matter, the
Court will naturally be guided by the professional judgment of WHO in
regard to its usefulness.
WHO, be it noted, is not pressing one view or the other in relation to
State obligations. It only seeks information.

6. The Importance of Prevention

It has been stressed already that medical services are quite obviously
not confined to matters of cure. Prevention looms large, even if not larger
than cure, in the planning of modern medicine.

A standard modern text-book on public health medicine observes in its
chapter on the "Promotion of Health":
"Drawing on the great success of preventive medicine in the past,
the United States Surgeon General, in his 1979 report Healthy

People, set in context the need for a modern impetus for health pro-
motion and disease prevention:

'Not to find and employ those [preventive] strategies would be
irresponsible - as irresponsible as it would have been for Our
predecessors merely to alleviate the ravages of smallpox and polio
and cholera, without attempting to eradicate them.'

Health services should have as their major aims to reduce the
amount of illness, disease, disability and premature death in the
population ... Health servicesdo not have direct control over al1the
factors which can influence these aspects of the health of the popula-
tion but the design and implementation of health promotion stra-
tegies is one of their major function~."~'

In the arguments before the Court, the term "primary prevention" has
been frequently used. The meaning of this term appearsfrom the follow-
ing passage in the same work:

41R. J. and L. J. Donaldson, Essential Public Medicine, 1993,p. 107.

73armes constituait une violation des obligations des Etats au regard de sa
propre Constitution, on voit mal quelles objections auraient pu être
élevéescontre sa démarche. Les rapports étroits qu'entretiennent les
armes nucléaires avecla géopolitiqueet la stratégiemilitaire ne remettent

pas en cause le principe considéré. L'OMS atout autant besoin de savoir
à quoi s'en tenir sur les armes nucléairesque sur les armes chimiques et
biologiques; elle doit savoir si les premières, comme les secondes, sont
bannies par le droit international.
La Cour n'est pas à mêmede dire de quelle manière précise lesinfor-
mations sollicitéespar l'OMS l'aideront dans sa planification. Mais elle
sait que ces indications sont considéréespar l'OMS comme utiles pour
elle et, s'agissant de l'appréciation de leurutilité,la Cour doit naturelle-
ment s'en remettre au jugement technique de l'institution en cause.
L'OMS, on le notera, ne prend pas parti dans un sens ou dans l'autre
en ce qui concerne les obligations des Etats. Elle se borne à se renseigner.

6. L'importance de laprévention

J'ai déjàsoulignéque les services médicauxne sont évidemment pas
cantonnés à une fonction curative. La prévention occupe une place
importante, plus importante peut-être quela thérapeutique, dans la plani-
fication de la médecined'aujourd'hui.
Un ouvrage de référencemoderne sur la médecinede santé publique
contient dans son chapitre sur la promotion de la santéle passage ci-après :

«Se basant sur les remarquables résultats de la médecine préven-
tive, leSurgeon Generaldes Etats-Unis a, dans son rapport de 1979
intitulé Healthy People, mis en relief la nécessitéd'une approche
moderne relançant la promotion de la santé et la prévention de la
maladie :

((Négligerd'identifier et d'utilisercesstratégies [préventives]serait
irresponsable - tout comme il aurait été irresponsablede la part de
nos prédécesseurs deseborner à remédier aux ravagesde la variole,
de la polio et du choléra, sans essayerd'éradiquerces maladies.))
Les services de santédoivent avoir pour but principal de réduire
l'incidence dela maladie, de la morbidité, del'infirmitéet de la mor-

talitéprécocedans la population ...Les services de santé n'ont pas
de contrôle direct sur tous les facteurs qui peuvent influer sur ces
aspects de la santé de la population, mais concevoir et mettre en
Œuvre desstratégiesdepromotion de la santéest l'une de leurs fonc-
tions principales.»41

Devant la Cour, l'expression ((préventionprimaire)) a étémaintes fois
employée. Le sens de cette expression ressort de l'extrait ci-après du
mêmeouvrage :

4'R. J. et L. J. Donaldson, Essential Public Medicine, 1993,p. 107. "Traditionally, prevention has been classified into three types:
(a) Primary prevention

This approach seeks activelyto prevent the onset of a disease.
The ultimate goal of preventive medicine is to alter some factor
in the environment, . . or to change behaviour so that disease
is prevented from developing . ..

(b) Secondary prevention
This level of prevention aims to halt the progression of a dis-
ease once it is established. The crux, here, is early detection or
early diagnosis followed by prompt, effective treatinent . . .

lc) Tertiary prevention
This level is concerned with rehabilitation of people with an
established disease to minimize i-esidualdisabilities and compli-
cations." 42

It is little wonder that the pre-eininent health organization in the world
concerns itself with al1aspects of prevention. If it did not, it would not be
true to the first principles of its vocation.
With prevention comes advance planning. Both prevention and advance
planning, enabling WHO to deal with a possible medical situation which
can be anticipated, are thus part of WHO's essential duties. It is not sur-
prising therefore to observe WHO's practice in this regard which indi-
cates quite clearly its concern with the legal and regulatory aspect of

matters under its charge.
The WHO Report puts its concerns and its legitiinate interests in this
area very succinctly when it observes that:
"When treatment is ineffective, the only solution available to the
health professions is prevention. Prevention is obviously the only

possibility in case of a nuclear ~ar."~~
The world's leadingjudicial authority would show little recognition of
this undeniable truth if it were to Say to the world's leading health
authority, on a matter intimately concerning the world's health, "Your
function is care after disaster strikes. Prevention is the exclusive concern

of other authorities properly vested with jurisdiction in that regard."
Such a position seems not only highly legalistic and abstruse, but also
irreconcilable with the known facts. Medical responsibilities at the higli-
est possible level and involving the health of the entire global population
need to be viewed in the context of the basic facts surrounding those
responsibilities and not as thougli tliere somehow exists a watertight legal
division of responsibilities whichmust be preserved whatever the cost.

4'R. J. and L. J. Donaldson, EsseizrialPzrhlicMerlicirze,1993,pp. 120-121
43 017cit. foot~lote SLIPI.p. 33, para. 84.

74 «Traditionnellement, on distingue trois formes de prévention:
a) La préventionprimaire:

Il s'agit ici de prendre des mesures pour empêcherqu'une
maladie ne s'installe. Le but ultime de la médecinepréventiveest
d'influer sur un élémentde l'environnement, ..ou de modifier le
comportement de façon que la maladie ne puisse se développer ...

O) La prévention secondaire :
L'objectifest ici d'arrêterla progression d'une maladie unefois
qu'elle s'estinstallée, l'effortportant sur la détectionprécoceou le
diagnosticprécocese doublant d'un traitement rapideet efficace ...

cl La prévention tertiaire:
Il s'agitcette foisde rééduquelrespersonnes atteintes d'une mala-
dieinstallée de manièreà réduire auminimumleshandicapsrésiduels
et lescomplications. »4"

11n'est pas étonnant que l'instance suprêmeen matière de santéqu'est
l'OMS se préoccupede tous les aspects de la prévention. Si elle ne le fai-
sait pas, elle trahirait les principes élémentairesde sa mission.
Avec la préventionvient la planification avancée.La préventionet la
planification avancée, quipermettent à l'OMS de prendre en charge une
situation médicalepossible etsusceptibled'êtreprévue,font donc partie des
tâches essentiellesde l'OMS.Rien d'étonnant,donc, à ce que la pratique de

l'organisation à cet égardrévèletrès clairement l'intérêt qu'elp lorte à
l'aspect juridique et réglementaire des questionsdont elle est responsable.
Le rapport de l'OMS résume trèsbien lespréoccupations et les intérêts
Iégitiinesde l'organisation lorsqu'il souligne que:
«En l'absence detraitement, la seule solution qui reste aux pro-

fessionnels de la santéest la prévention. La prévention est la seule
possibilitélorsqu'il s'agitde guerre nucléaire. »43
L'autoritéjudiciaire suprêmede la planète méconnaîtrait cette vérité
indiscutable si elle disaità l'autoritésuprêmede la planète en matièrede
santé, à propos d'une question concernant directement la santé mon-

diale: «Votre rôle est d'assurer les soins nécessairesune fois le désastre
survenu. La prévention relève exclusiven~entd'autres autorités qui sont
dûment habilitées à s'en occuper. >)Une telle position semble non seule-
ment faire la part belle au byzantinisme et à l'abstraction mais être,par
surcroît, incompatible avec les faits tels que nous les connaissons. Des
responsabilitésmédicalesse situant au niveau le plus élevé et concernant
la santéde l'ensemble de la population du globe doivent êtreenvisagées
dans le contexte des réalitésde base qui leur servent de cadre et non en
partant de l'idéequ'il existe une division juridique des responsabilités

sans faille età respecter à tout prix.

J.et L. J. Donaldson, Esse~zticilPublic Medicine, 1993,p. 120-121
4'Op. cit. ci-~~SSLote 13, p. 35, par. 84. 1 regret that 1 cannot subscribe to a conclusion that a body charged
with the highest responsibilities inregard to the health of the globalom-
munity should sit passively by, until the catastrophe occurs in which its
servicesare required, for the technical reason that it would be trespassing
upon the exclusive preserve ofthe Security Council, who arethe sole cus-
todians of peace and security. The Constitution of WHO, a body designed
for humanitarian service, cannot be so encased in rigidity as to require it
not to move into action in relation to nuclear weapons except in a night-
marish world of ghastly suffering which it is wholly unable to handle.
Surely the more reasonable viewis that WHO must, by the very nature of
its functions and responsibilities, be empowered to warn of medical
dangers, seek clarification of legal issues, and prepare itself as best it can
in the light of the applicable law.

In this instance, WHO is by no means seeking to lay down a regulatory
framework, in regard to the use of nuclear weapons, which of course
would be beyond its competence, but is only making an enquiry for the
clarification of a matter which is crucial to its proper discharge of its
responsibilities.
As the Report of the WHO'SCommittee of Experts concluded:

"As doctors and scientists, the members of the Committee feel
that they have both the right and the duty to draw attention in the
strongest possible terms to the catastrophic results that would follow
from any use of nuclear weapons. The immediate and the delayed
loss ofhuman and animal life would be enormous, and the effect on
the fabvic of civilization would be either to impede its vecovery or
make vecovery impossible. The plight of the survivors would be
physically and psychologically appalling. The partial or complete
disruption of the health serviceswould deprive survivors of effective
help.
The Committee is convinced that there is a sound professional
basis for its conclusions that nuclear weapons constitute the greatest
immediate threat to the health and welfare of mankind."44

According to a summary of the 1986Report on the Medical Implica-
tions of Nuclear War, published by the Institute of Medicine of the
United States National Academy of Science:

"Each successive study of the possible human destruction that
would result from a nuclear war draws a grimmer conclusion about
what the human cost would be. Instead of speculating that the casu-
alties might amount to only a few tens of millions, recent studies

44Effects of Nuclear Wciron Healtlz and Health Services, WHO, Geneva, 1984,p. 6;
emphasis added.

75 Je regrette de ne pouvoir souscrire à la conclusion qu'une instance
investie des responsabilitésles plus hautes en ce qui concerne la santéde
la communauté internationale doit attendre passivement que se produise
la catastrophe nécessitantson intervention au motif, combien technique,
qu'elle empiéterait autrement sur les compétences exclusivesdu Conseil
de sécurité,gardien exclusif de la paix et de la sécurité.La Constitution
de l'OMS, organisation investie d'une mission humanitaire, ne peut pas
êtreenferméedans un carcan si rigide que l'institution se voie dénierla

possibilitéde s'occuper activement des armes nucléaireshormis dans le
cadre d'un univers cauchemardesque de souffrances indicibles qu'elle est
tout à fait incapable de prendre en charge. Le bon sens exigeà l'évidence
qu'étant donné lanature de ses fonctions et de ses responsabilitésl'OMS
se voie reconnaître le pouvoir de signaler les dangers médicaux,d'obtenir
des précisionssur les questionsjuridiques et de se préparerde son mieux
sur la base du droit applicable.
En l'occurrence,l'OMS ne cherche en aucune manière à faire instituer
un corps de règles concernant l'utilisation des armes nucléaires,elle se
borne à poser une question afin d'éluciderun point d'une importance

cruciale pour le bon accomplissement de sa mission.

Pour citer la conclusion du comité d'experts de l'OMS
«En leur qualité demédecins etde scientifiques, les membres du

comité estimentqu'ils ont à la fois le droit et le devoir d'attirer l'at-
tention, dans les termes les plus énergiquesqui soient, sur les résul-
tats catastrophiques qu'entraînerait l'utilisation d'armes nucléaires.
Les pertes immédiateset différées envies humaines et animales se-
raient énormes et l'effet sur les structures de la civilisation serait
soit d'entraver leur redressement, soit de le rendreimpossible. Les
souffrances des survivants seraient physiquement et psychologique-
ment effroyables. La désorganisation partielle ou complète des ser-
vices de santépriverait les rescapésd'une aide efficace.
Le comitéest convaincu qu'il existede solides raisons techniques

justifiant sa conclusion,à savoir que les armes nucléairesconstituent
la plus grave menace qui pèsedans l'immédiatsur la santéet le bien-
être de l'humanité.»44
Selon un résumédu rapport de 1986 sur les conséquences médicales

d'une guerre nucléaire, publiépar l'institut de médecinede l'Académie
nationale des sciences des Etats-Unis:
((Chaque nouvelle étudebrosse un tableau plus accablant que la
précédente dece que pourrait coûter une guerre nucléaire enpertes

humaines. Les étudesrécentes n'évaluent plulse nombre des victimes
à quelques dizaines de millions seulement, elles tablent plutôt sur un

44Effects of Nuclear War on Health and Health Services, OMS, Genève, 1984,p. 6; les
italiquesnt de moi.

75 have indicated that the casualties are more likely to number a billion
or more, and even the survival of human beings on earth has been
questioned." (CR 95/27, p. 77.)
The relevance of WHO's concern appears further from the following
statement in the WHO Report which has been placed before the Court:

"Historically medicine has played an important part in military
campaigns. This has been particularly the case in recent wars in
which the effectiveness of a prompt medical response did much to
maintain morale among combat troops. Following a nuclear war,
however, al1the evidence indicates that medicine will have nothing
to offer the injured survivors; the number of casualties will be too

great and the remaining medical resources grossly in~ufficient."~~
In nuclear war, physicians and health professionals will themselves be
killed in large numbers and the depleted ranks of the survivors will have
to cope with a situation where the hospitals themselves are destroyed.
The WHO studies thus show that treatment after the event is at best a
forlorn hope.

The view that WHO's role is limited to such assistance as it can give
after the devastation of a nuclear attack was well answered in homely
terms by the Marshall Islands - that it is not "merely a charlady, a
femme de nzénagecalled in to clean up after the event is over and al1the
participants have gone home" (CR95132, p. 86, Professor Crawford).

7. The Argument Relating to Abuse of tlze Court's
Advisory Functions

For the various reasons set out above, the argument is untenable that
WHO has no special interest in this matter. WHO's constitutional man-
date relating to global health is concerned with al1aspects of health -
preventive, curative, educational, precautionary, research, regulatory,
planning, emergency assistance, international CO-operation.The nuclear

weapon touches al1of these and the measure in which it touches them will
Vary,depending on whether it is or is not a lawful weapon of war.

The deliberate act of spreading lethal disease, be it by chemicals or
germs or poisons or noxious fumes, has, even in ancient times been con-
sidered to be contrary to the laws of war. 1 have dealt in my dissenting
opinion in the General Assembly request with various cultural traditions
on this matter, and do not need to cover the same ground here (see Sec-
tion 111.2).Nowhere in the age-old history of the laws of war - ancient
or modern - is there found a principle which permits the poisoning of
the enemy forces, leave alone the poisoning of the enemy population en

masse. This is what nuclear weapons do (see my dissent in the General

" Op. ci?ootilote 13s~i/~Ann. 6, p. 158 chiffre de un milliard ou plus et il n'est pas jusqu'à la survie de
l'homme sur la Terre qui n'apparaisse problématique.))(CR 95127,
p. 77.)

Le bien-fondé despréoccupations de l'OMS ressort égalementdu pas-
sage ci-aprèsdu rapport de cette organisation qui a étésoumis à la Cour:
«La médecinea joué un rôle historique important dans les cam-

pagnes militaires. Tel a notamment été le cas lors des récents conflits,
où l'efficacitéde secours médicaux rapides a largement contribué
à maintenir le moral des combattants. Dans le cas d'une guerre nu-
cléaire,cependant, tout indique que la médecinen'aurait rien à offrir
aux survivants blessés;les victimes seraient trop nombreuses et les
moyens médicaux subsistant notoirement insuffisants. »45

Dans le cadre d'une guerre nucléaire,les médecins etle personnel de
santéseront eux-mêmes tuée sn grand nombre et les rangs clairsemés des
survivants devront travailler dans un contexte où leshôpitaux eux-mêmes
auront étédétruits.Les études del'OMS montrent donc que le traitement
à posteriori n'est guèrequ'un vŒupieux.
L'idéeque la contribution de l'OMS se réduit à l'assistance qu'elle

pourra fournir après le cataclysme d'une guerre nucléaire a étéronde-
ment réfutéepar les Iles Marshall - qui se refusent à voir dans l'OMS
«une femme de ménage chargéede nettoyer une fois la réceptionfinie et
les invitésrentréschez eux» (CR95132, p. 86, James Crawford).

7. Lhrgument selon lequel il y auruit détouvrzement
desfonctions consultutives de lu Cour

Pour les diverses raisons exposées plus haut, il est impossible de

prétendre que l'OMS n'a pas d'intérêtspécial enla matière. Le mandat
constitutionnel de l'OMS touchant la santé mondiale porte sur tous les
aspects de la santé: prévention, traitement curatif, éducation, prophy-
laxie, recherche, réglementation, planification, secours d'urgence, coopé-
ration internationale. L'arme nucléaire intéressetous ces domaines et elle
le faità des degrés variables selon qu'elle estou non une arme de guerre
licite.
Le fait de propager délibérément unm e aladie mortelle, que ce soit au

moyen d'agents chimiques,de bactéries,de poisons ou de gaz toxiques, a,
dèsles époquesles plus reculées, été considéré commecontraire aux lois
de la guerre. S'ai,dans l'opinion dissidente que j'ai jointeà l'avis donné
par la Cour à la demande de l'Assemblée générale é,voquéles diverses
traditions culturelles en la matière (voir la section III, paragraphe et je
n'ai donc pas à traiter de cette question ici. Nulle part dans l'histoire
millénaire des lois de laguerre- anciennes ou modernes - on ne trouve
trace d'un principe permettant d'empoisonner la masse de la population

"j011.cit. ci-dessus note 13, annexe 6, p. 167.Assembly request, Section II) - apart, that is, from poisoning the popu-
lations of non-combatant countries.

To Varythe factor that damages health, 1take the following hypotheti-
cal illustration. Before any bacteriological weapons convention had been
entered into, a country has rockets on its launching pads, fitted, not with
a nuclear warhead but with a warhead containing a fatal virus such as
ebola, for which no cure is known. Since the spreading of this virus has
not been specificallyprohibited by any treaty, WHO makes an enquiry
from this Court as to the legality of deliberately infecting enemy popula-
tions with such an incurable virus. In such a situation. it seems incon-
ceivable that it could have been submitted that this wag an abuse of the
Court's advisory functions. Any objection that because it concerned

peace and security, it was not therefore amatter for WHO, would attract
incredulity and disbelief. It might indeed have been asked what necessity
there was for WHO to ask a question, the answer to which was so obvi-
ous according to the principles of humanitarian law. The nuclear war-
head causes no less a danger to global health than the warhead in the
hypothetical illustrationabove, the difference being that it is not packed
with germs, but with an agency that causes cancers, keloids, and deformi-
ties with equal irreversibility, but on an infinitely larger scale than that
hypothetical warhead.
The nuclear weapon is not so powerful that it can sail above the law.

Further, the argument that WHO has no more competence to put this
question than it would have, itself, to declare the use of a particular
weapon illegal, is one which, with al1respect, 1 have some difficulty in
following. It is for the very reason that WHO manifestly does not have

power to make declarations on the law that it has approached this Court,
which manifestly has that power.
Finally, arguments that the World Health Organization has been
goaded or influenced into taking this action by interested parties are not
considered in this opinion. The WHO is a United Nations agency of high
standing and repute and the argument suggests that this high body is per-
mitting itself to be made use of in some way to satisfy the ulterior motives
of others.1do not think this submission calls for any attention from this
Court.

IV. STATE OBLIGATIONS

1. State Obligations in Regard to the Environment

The Court is asked whether the use of nuclear weapons is a breach of
State obligations in relation to the environment. The Court has not con-
sidered this question. The Court's Opinion (para. 16)states thatou mêmeles forces de l'adversaire. C'est là l'un des effets des armes
nucléaires (voir mon opinion dissidente relative à la demande de
l'Assemblée générale, sectioInI) - auquel il faut ajouter l'empoisonne-
ment des populations des pays non belligérants.
Pour prendre l'exempled'un autre agent nuisible à la santé, imaginons
que, préalablement à la conclusion d'une convention sur les armes bac-

tériologiques, unpays ait sur sesrampes de lancement des fusées équipées
non pas d'ogives nucléairesmais d'ogives contenant un virus mortel
comme celui de l'ebola, maladie pour laquelle il n'y a pas de remède
connu. Sachant que la propagation de ce virus n'a pas été expressément
interdite par traité,'OMS demande à la Cour s'il est licitede s'en servir
pour communiquer délibérémena tux populations ennemies une maladie
incurable. Qui pourrait dans une pareille hypothèse soutenir qu'il y a
détournement des fonctions consultatives? Toute objection fondéesur le
défautde compétencede l'OMS à l'égardd'une question touchant la paix
et la sécuritéserait accueillie avec effarement. On aurait en fait peine

comprendre que l'OMS ait cru devoir poser une question appelant une
réponse aussi évidente sur la base des principes du droit humanitaire.
Une ogive nucléaire n'estpas moins dangereuse pour la santémondiale
que l'ogivehypothétique queje viens d'évoquer,la différenceétantqu'elle
est remplie non de virus mais d'un agent dont les effets - cancer,
chéloïdeset malformations - sont non moins irréversiblesmais beau-
coup plus étendus.
L'arme nucléaire n'estpas si puissante qu'elle échappe à l'empire du
droit.

Au surplus, l'argument selon lequel l'OMS n'a pas davantage compé-
tence pour poser la question qu'elle n'enaurait elle-mêmepour déclarer
illicite une arme quelconque est, je regrette de le dire, un argument que
j'ai peineà suivre. C'est précisémentparce que l'OMS n'a manifestement
pas le pouvoir de dire le droit qu'elle s'est adresséea Cour qui, elle, a
indubitablement ce pouvoir.
Quant aux arguments suivant lesquels l'Organisation mondiale de la
Santéa été poussée ou incitée àagir comme elle l'a fait, il n'en sera pas
question dans la présenteopinion. L'OMS est une institution des Nations
Unies aussi prestigieuse qu'honorable et les arguments en question sem-

blent imputer à une entitérespectéela faiblesse de se laisser exploiter par
d'autres à des fins douteuses. Je ne crois pas que de tels arguments doi-
vent retenir l'attention de la Cour.

IV. OBLIGATIONS DES ETATS

1. Obligations des Etats en matière d'environnement

La Cour est invitéeàdire si l'emploi des armes nucléairesconstitue une

violation des obligations des Etats en matière d'environnement. La Courn'a
pas examiné cette question.Elle déclare dansson avis (par. 16)qu'elledoit "the Court rnust identify the obligations of States under the rules of
law invoked, and assess whether the behaviour in question conforms
to those obligations, thus giving an answer to the question posed

based on law",
but does not proceed to identify and examine those obligations in order
to answer the question. 1consider that it needs more attention. It is more-
over an area very much within the legitiinate concerns of WHO.

The question asked by WHO affords the Court an opportunity for
contributing to an important aspect of this development, foi-it focuses
attention on the vital question of the duties of States in regard to the
environment. 1regret this opportunity has not been taken by the Court.

(a) Tlzeprogress of environwzentallaiv

From rather hesitant and tentative beginnings, environmental law has
progressed rapidly under the combined stimulus of ever inore powerf~~l
means of inflicting irreversibleenvironmental damage and an ever increas-

ing awareness of the fragility of the global environment. Together these
have brought about a universal concern with activities that may damage
the global environment, which is the common inheritance of al1nations,
great and small. To use the words of a well-ltnown text on international
environmental law :

"The global environment constitutes a huge, intricate, delicate and
interconnected web in which a touch here or palpitation there sends
tremors throughout the whole system. Obligations erga omnes, rules
jus cogerzs,and international criines respond to this state of affairs
by permitting environmental wrongs to be guarded against by al1
nations." 46

Such compelling facts do not admit of any exceptions, however
powerful the actor or compelling the purpose, for it is increasingly clear
that what is at stake can well be the very survival of humanity. Nuclear
weapons bring us to such a limit situation, and therefore attract the
principles of environmental law. As was observed in the preamble of the
Treaty of Tlatelolco :

"nuclear weapons, whose terrible effects are suffered, indiscrimi-
nately and inexorably, by military forces and civilian population
alike, constitute, through the persistence of the radioactivity they

release, an attack on the integrity of the hunlan species and ulti-
mately rnay even render the whole earth uninhabitable".

46Inte/.lztltionrilEn1'1iorzrcritrnciWoild Order, Guruswamy, Palmer and Wes-
ton, 1994,p. 344. ((déterminerles obligations des Etats au regard des règlesde droit
invoquéeset apprécier la conformité auxdites obligations du coin-
portement envisagé,apportant ainsi à la question poséeune réponse
fondéeen droit »,

mais ellene s'attache pas a identifier àtexaminer ces obligations afin de
répondre à la question posée. S'estime nécessaire de prêterdavantage
d'attention à une interrogation qui s'inscrit d'ailleurs dans le droit fil des
préoccupations légitimesde l'OMS.
La question poséepar l'OMS a offert à la Cour l'occasion de dire son
mot sur un point important, à savoir le problèmeessentiel des obligations

des Etats en matière d'environnement. Se regrette que la Cour n'ait pas
saisi cette occasion.

a) Les progrès du droit de l'environrzement

Après des hésitationset des tâtonnements, le droit de l'environnement
a fait des progrès rapides du fait, d'une part, de l'apparition de moyens
de plus en plus puissants de causer des dommages irréversibles à
l'environnement et, d'autre part, de la sensibilisation croissante de
l'opinion à la fragilitéde l'environnement global. Ces deux facteurs ont
suscité une méfiance universelle à l'égard des activitésqui risquent de
porter atteinte à l'environnement global, patrimoine commun de toutes

les nations, grandes et petites. Pour citer un ouvrage bien connu sur le
droit international de l'environnement:
((L'environnement global est un vaste systèmede relations com-
plexes et délicatesqu'une chiquenaude ici, une vibration là suffisent
à ébranler.La réponse àcet étatde choses résidedans les obligations

erga ornrzes,les règles du jus cogens et l'incrimination au niveau
international, qui permettent à toutes les nations de se protéger
contre les actes illicites en matière d'environnement.6
En présence de réalitéasussi préoccupantes, aucune exception n'est to-
lérable,quelles que soient la puissance du responsable ou l'importance

du but recherché,car il est de plus en plus clair que c'est l'avenir mêee
l'humanité quipourrait êtreenjeu. Les armes nucléairesnous amènent à
ce point critique et offrent matièreà l'application des principes du droit
de l'environnement. Comme le souligne le préambuledu traité de Tlate-
lolco:

((lesarmes nucléaires, dontles terribles effets atteignent sans distinc-
tion et sans merci les forces arméeset la population civile, consti-
tuent, vu la persistance de la radioactivité qu'elles engendrent, une
atteinteà l'intégritéde l'espècehumaine et risquent de rendre fina-
lement toute la Terre inhabitable)).

46Internntionnl Environrnental Law and World Oider, Guruswamy, Palmer and Wes-
ton,1994,p. 344.

78(b) The growth of the notion of State obligations
The Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment (Stockholm), adopted on 16 June 1972, was designed to

"inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and
enhancement of the human environment". Principle 1of that Declaration
states that:
"Man hasthefundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate
conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life
of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to
protect and improve the environment for present and future genera-
tions . .."

Principle 21 has a direct relevance to WHO'Senquiry, for it deals spe-
cificallywith the obligation of States not to damage or endanger signifi-
cantly the environment beyond their jurisdiction. Principle 2 of the Rio
Declaration gives expression to the same principle. Both may be said to
be articulations, in the context of the environment, of general principles
of customary law. In the words of Corfu Clzalznel,there is a "general and
well-recognized" principle that every State is under an "obligation not to
allow knowingly its territory to be used for acts contrary to the rights of
other States" (I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22).

Principle 24 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
(1992),whereby States are called upon to "respect international law pro-
viding protection for the environment in times of armed conflict and

cooperate in its further development, as necessary", is a further expres-
sion of this general principle. It cannot therefore begainsaid that the con-
cept of state responsibility in regard to the environment is today an
established part of international law.

(c) Active and passive State obligations

There is a State obligation lying upon every member State of the com-
munity of nations to protect the environment, not merely in the negative
sense of refraining from causing harm, but in the positive sense of con-
tributing affirmatively to the improvement of the environment. A wide
recognition of this principle was evidenced when, in 1971, the General
Assembly affirmed "the responsibility of the international community to
take action to preserve and enhance the environment" (General Assem-
bly resolution 2849 (XXVI); emphasis added).

For the purposes of the present case, however, it is not necessary to
enter the area of active State responsibility to conserve the environment
- an aspect now receiving increasing attention. The passive responsibil-
ity not to damage the environment is sufficient for the purposes of this UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS. WEERAMANTRY) 141

b) L'affirmation progressive de la notion d'obligations des Etats

La déclaration de la conférencedes Nations Unies sur l'environnement
humain (Stockholm), adoptée le 16 juin 1972, s'emploie à dégagerles
principes qui ((inspireront et guideront les efforts des peuples du monde
en vue de préserveret d'améliorer I'environnemenh tumain)). Le principe 1
de cette déclarationdéclareque:

((L'homme a un droit fondamental à la libertéà l'égalitéetà des
conditions de vie satisfaisantes, dans un environnement dont la
qualité lui permette de vivre dans la dignité etle bien-être. Il a le
devoir solennel de protéger et d'améliorer l'environnementpour les
générations présentee st futures.))

Le principe 21 est directement pertinent s'agissant de la question posée
par l'OMS car il vise expressémentle devoir des Etats de ne pas causer
de dommages ou de dangers appréciables à l'environnement au-delà des
limites de leur juridiction. Le principe 2 de la déclaration de Rio énonce
le mêmedevoir. L'une et l'autre disposition peuvent êtreconsidérées
commefaisantapplication au secteurdel'environnement deprincipes géné-

raux du droit coutumier. Pour citer l'arrêt rendudans l'affaire duDetroit
de Codou, il existe, au nombre des principes ((générauxet bien recon-
nus», un principe selon lequel tout Etat a «l'obligation de ne pas laisser
utiliserson territoire aux fins d'actes contraires aux droits des autres
Etatsn (C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 22).
Le principe 24 de la déclaration de Rio sur l'environnement et le déve-
loppement (1992), selon lequel les Etats doivent ((respecter le droit inter-
national relatifà la protection de l'environnement en temps de conflit
arméet participer à son développement, selon que de besoin)), est une
autre disposition donnant expression à ce principe général.Il n'est donc

pas coiltestable que la notion de responsabilité de 1'Etat à l'égardde
l'environnement est aujourd'hui une notion bien établiedu droit interna-
tional.

Il existeà la charge de tout Etat membre de la communauté de nations
une obligation de protéger I'environnement qui comporte à la fois un
aspect négatif- s'abstenir de causer des dommages - et un aspect posi-
tif- contribuer par son action à l'améliorationde l'environnement. Que
ce principe soit largement acceptéc'est cequi est apparu en 1971lorsque
l'Assemblée généralaeaffirmé ((qu'il appartientàla communauté inter-
nationale de prendre des Inesures pour préserver et améliorer l'envi-
ronnement)) (résolution 2849 (XXVI) de l'Assembléegénérale;les ita-

liques sont de moi).
Aux fins de la présente affaire, toutefois, point n'est besoin de parler
du devoir actif des Etats de protéger l'environnement, malgré l'intérêt
croissant qu'il suscite. suffit d'insister sur le devoirpussifde ne pas por-
ter atteinteàl'environnement car il est bien clair que tout comportementcase, for it is patently clear that any State action which damages the envi-
ronment in the way that nuclear weapons do is a violation of the obliga-
tion of environmental protection which modern international law places
upon States. A contrary view would negative the basic logic of environ-

mental law and send a tremor through the foundations of this vital sub-
discipline of modern international law.

(d) Thejuristic nature of State obligations

In relation to environmental obligations, the notion is evolving of
duties owed ergu omnes and of rights assertible erga omnes, irrespective
of thecompartmentalization of theplanetary population into nation States.
The concept of an erga omnes right is not new. In 1915,the eminent

American jurist, Elihu Root, who later became a member of the Com-
mittee which drafted the Statute of the Permanent Court, stated, in a
paper on "The Outlook for International Law":
"Wherever in the world the laws which should protect the inde-

pendence of nations, the inviolability of their territory, the lives and
property of their citizens, are violated,al1other nations have a right
to protest against the breaking down of the la^."^^
Such thinking is the background against which the damage caused to
the environment must be considered, for the purpose of ascertaining

whether the use of a nuclear weapon by a State is in conflict with State
obligations under international law.
The concept of obligations ergaomnes has, of course, received recogni-
tion in the Court's jurisprudence, though in a different context, in Bur-
celona Traction, Light and Poiver Company, Linzited Second Plzase
(I.C.J. Reports 1970, p. 3).
Indeed, in some areas, modern discussio~isof State responsibility take
the matter even further, to elevate serious breach of State duty in regard
to the environment to the level of an international crime when they state

that :
"a serious breach of an international obligation of essential impor-
tance for the safeguarding and preservation of the human environ-
ment, such as those prohibiting massive pollution of the atmosphere
or of the seas"

may result in an international crime4x.
It is not necessary for present purposes to examine the various levelsof
State obligations in respect of the environment, which may range from

47Proceedings of the Anzericun Society of International Law, 1915, Vol. 2, pp. 7-9,
cited in Guruswamy, Palmer and Weston,p. cit., p. 345.
4XInternational Law Commission, Draft Article 19 (3) jd) on State Responsibility,
Yecirbook of tlzeInterncrtioncilLoti) Cornmission, 1976,Vol. II, Part II, p. 96.étatique qui nuit à I'environnement au point où le font les armes nu-
cléaires violel'obligation de protection de l'environnement que le droit
international moderne met à la charge des Etats. Prétendre le contraire,
ce serait saper le fondement logique du droit de I'environnement et
ébranlerjusqu'au tréfondsles bases de cette branche vitale du droit inter-
national moderne.

d) La naturejuridique des obligations desEtats

En matière de comportement à l'égardde I'environnement, on voit
apparaître les notions d'obligations erga omnes et de droits evga onznes,
nonobstant la division de la population du globe en Etats nations.
La notion de droit erga omnes n'est pas nouvelle. En 1915,l'éminent
juristeaméricainElihu Root, qui devait par la suite devenir membre du
comitéchargé derédigerle Statut de la Cour permanente, a écritdans un

article intituléThe Outlook for International Law»:
«Lorsque sont violéesoù que ce soit dans le monde les lois visant
à protéger l'indépendancedes nations, l'inviolabilitéde leur terri-

toire, la vie et les biens de leurs ressortissants, toutes les autres
nations ont le droit de s'élevercontre l'atteinte l'ordre juridique.»47
C'est dans cette perspective qu'il faut examiner les dommages causés à

l'environnement afin de déterminer si l'emploi d'une arme nucléairepar
un Etat va à l'encontre de ses obligations au regard du droit interna-
tional.
La notion d'obligation evga omnes a bien sûr reçu l'aval de la Cour,
encore que dans un contexte différent, à l'occasion de l'affaire de la
Bavcelona Traction,Light and PoivevCompany, Limited, deuxièmephase
(C.Z.J. Recueil 1970, p. 3).
On trouve même,dans certains cercles, une approche moderne de la

responsabilité desEtats qui va encore plus loin puisqu'elleélèvetoute vio-
lation grave des obligations d'un Etat en matière d'environnementau rang
de crime international en affirmant qu'un crime international peut résulter

«d'une violation grave d'une obligation internationale d'importance
essentielle pour la sauvegarde et la protection de I'environnement
humain, comme celles interdisant la pollution massive de I'atmo-
sphère et des mers»48.

Point n'est besoin d'examiner dans le présent contexte l'éventaildes
normes applicables aux Etats en matière d'environnement qui va des

47Proceedings of ille AmericcznSocojtInterrzcrtiolaw, 1915, vol. 2, p. 7-9, cité
dans Guruswamy, Palmer et Weston, op. cit., p. 345.
4YCommission du droit international, paragraphe 3, dl,de l'article 19du projet
sur la responsabilité des Etats, Annuclirede lu Cornmissiondu droit international, 1976,
vol. II, deuxièmepartie, p. 89.obligations erga omnes, through obligations which are in the nature of
jus cogens, al1the way up to the level of international crime.

(e) Multilateral treaty obligations

There have been, since the Stockholm Declaration of the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972), over one hun-
dred multilateral environmentalinstruments which are in force. A United
Nations Environment Programme is in force, major instruments have

been signed regarding the law of the sea, transboundary pollution, haz-
ardous waste, nuclear accidents, the ozone layer, endangered species -
to name but a few.The United Nations Environment Programme register
of multilateral treaties affecting the environment revealed as many as 152
treaties in May 1991 49.

The multifarious international instruments relating to the environ-

ment, to which reference has been made, build up the rising tide of inter-
national acceptance which creates in its totality a universal acceptance of
State obligation which in turn translates itself into law. Al1of the areas
they deal with are areas affected by the nuclear weapon to an extent
which is impermissible under these instruments, had the damage been
caused by any other agency.

The areas named are a small sample of the areas of State obligations
under international law which are affected by the nuclear weapon. What
WHO wants to know, in view of the close linkage of a pure environment
with human health, is whether there is a breach of such State obligations
when a State uses a nuclear weapon. It cannot, in my view, be denied this
information, which lies at the very heart of its constitutional mandate of
safeguarding global health.

2. State Obligations in Regard to Heulth

The next question to be addressed is whether there are State obliga-
tions in regard to health, and whether these are violated by the use of the
nuclear weapon.

(a) The lzumarzriglzt to lzealtlz

An examination of the various international developments in regard to

health shows that State duties in regard to health have now passed beyond
the field of good intentions into the realm of binding international law.

4y See Geoffrey Palmer, "New Ways to Make International Environmental Law",
Ai??er.icJzOUI.IZoII~zternntionLriii1992,Vol. 86, p. 262.

81obligations erga omnes à l'incrimination au niveau international en pas-
sant par les obligations relevant dujus cogens.

e) Obligations découlant detraitésmultilatéraux

La déclaration de Stockholm adoptée en 1982 par la conférence des
Nations Unies sur l'environnement humain a été suiviede la conclusion

de plus d'une centaine d'instruments multilatéraux sur l'environnement
qui sont en vigueur. Un programme des Nations Unies pour l'en-
vironnement est en place, des instruments majeurs ont été signée sn ce
qui concerne le droit de la mer, la pollution transfrontière, les déchets
dangereux, les accidents nucléaires,la couche d'ozone, les espècesmena-
céesde disparition, pour n'en citer que quelques-uns. Le registre des
traités multilatérauxrelatifsà l'environnement publiépar le Programme
des Nations Unies pour l'environnement comportait cent cinquante-deux
entrées enmai 1991 49.
Chacun de ces instruments internationaux intéressant l'environnement

qui viennent d'êtreévoquésmarque un pas en avant dans la voie d'une
acceptation internationale qui débouche,en fin de compte, sur une accep-
tation universelle d'un impératif étatique se concrétisant à son tour en
normes juridiques. Tous les secteurs auxquels se rapportent les instru-
ments en question sont des secteurs auxquels l'arme nucléairepeut porter
atteinte à un degréque ne tolèrent pas lesdits instruments s'agissant de
dommages attribuables à d'autres agents.
Je n'ai mentionné que quelques-uns des secteurs où existent des obli-
gations étatiques découlantdu droit international qui sont exposésaux
conséquencesdes armes nucléaires. Ce que l'OMS veut savoir, compte

tenu des liens étroitsqui existent entre l'environnement au sens strict et la
santéhumaine, c'est s'il y a violation de ces obligations lorsqu'un Etat
utilise l'arme nucléaire. Elle nepeut, mon avis, se voir refuser les infor-
mations en question car elles touchent au cŒur mêmede son mandat
constitutionnel qui porte sur la sauvegarde de la santémondiale.

2. Obligations des Etats en matière de santé

Il faut maintenant déterminer si les Etats ont des obligations en ma-
tière de santéet, dans l'affirmative, si l'emploi des armes nucléaires est
une violation de ces obligations.

a) Le droit de tout être humain à la santé

Une analyse des divers événementsinternationaux intéressant la santé
montre que les devoirs des Etats dans ce domaine ne sont plus affaire de
bonne volontéet relèventdésormaisdu droit international contraignant.

49Voir Geoffrey Palmer, «New Ways to Make International Environmental Law»,
Anteriean Journcrlof Internntionnl Law, 1992,vol. 86, p. 262.

81 Even before the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Constitu-
tion of WHO (1946) recognized the enjoyment of the highest attainable
standard of health as one of the fundamental rights of every human
being. This will be dealt with more fully in the section on the WHO Con-
stitution.
Article 25 (1) of the Universal Declaration recogilizes the right of
everyone to health and well-being, through its stress on the right to a
standard of living adequate for health and well-being.

(b) State obligations in relation to health

A more specific recognition of the right to health is contained in Ar-
ticle 12of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights of 1966. Article 12 states that the "States Parties to the present
Covenant recognize the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest
attainable standard of physical and mental health". It will be noted here
that the recognition by States of the right to health is in the general terms
that they recognize the right of "everyone" and not merely of their own
subjects. Consequently each State is under an obligation to respect the
right to health of al1meinbers of the international community.
It is to be noted also that the formulation contained in the Covenant

is not restricted to mere recognition or to statements of good intention.
Article 2 (1) provides that:
"Each State party to the present Covenant undertakes to take
steps, individually and through international assistance and co-
operation, especially econoinic and technical, to the maximum of
its available resources, with a view to achieving progressively the full

realization of the rights recognized in the present Covenant by al1
appropriate means, including particularly the adoption of legislative
measures." (Emphasis added.)
Further, Article 2 (2) contains a guarantee by States that "the rights
enunciated in the present Covenant will be exercised without discrimina-

tion of any kind as to race, . .. national or social origin, . . or other
status". Quite clearly this is a reinforcement of the obligation erga omnes
towards the entire global population which is contained in Article 12and
a further obligation to take active steps towards guaranteeing this right
to health of the global population.

(c) Global implernentation nzeasures involving State obligations in
regard to health

On 22May 1981,the World Health Assembly,by resolution WHA34.36,
unanimously adopted a "Global Strategy for health for al1by the year Mêmeavant l'adoption de la Déclaration universelle des droits de
l'homme, la Constitution de l'OMS (1946) a reconnu la possession du
meilleur étatde santéqu'il estcapable d'atteindre comme constituant l'un
des droits fondamentaux de tout êtrehumain. Cepoint sera examinéplus
en détaildans la section relativeà la Constitution de l'OMS.
L'article 25 de la déclaration universelle reconnaît dans son para-
graphe 1 le droit de toute personne à la santé et au bien-être enprocla-
mant le droit de chacun à un niveau de vie suffisant pour assurer sa santé
et son bien-être.

b) Obligations des Etats touchant la santé

Le droit à la santéest reconnu en termes plus précis à l'article 12du
Pacte international relatif aux droits économiques,sociaux et culturels de
1966.Cet article dispose que: «Les Etats parties au présent pacterecon-
naissent le droit qu'a toute personne de jouir du meilleur état de santé
physique et mental qu'elle soitcapable d'atteindre.» On remarquera que

les Etats reconnaissent le droità la santé en général ence sens qu'ils le
reconnaissent à ((toute personne)) et non pas seulement à leurs propres
ressortissants. Chaque Etat est par conséquenttenu de respecter le droit
à la santéde tous les membres de la communauté internationale.
Il està noter que le libellé dupacte va au-delà de la simple reconnais-
sance ou de la déclaration d'intention. Leparagraphe 1 de l'article 2 dis-
pose en effet que:

((Chacun des Etats parties au présent pacte s'engage à agir tant
par son effort propre que par l'assistance et la coopération interna-
tionales, notamment sur lesplans économiqueet technique, au maxi-
mum de sesressources disponibles, en vue d'assurer progressivement
le plein exercice des droits reconnus dans le présent pacte par tous
lesmoyens appropriés,ycompris en particulier l'adoption demesures
législatives.(Les italiques sont de moi.)

Au surplus, la garantie est donnéepar les Etats, au paragraphe 2 du
mêmearticle, que «les droits énoncés[dans le présent pacte] seront
exercéssans discrimination aucune fondée sur la race, ...l'origine natio-
nale ou sociale, ..ou toute autre situation)). Cette clause vient évidem-
ment renforcer l'obligation erga omnes envers l'ensemble de la popula-

tion du monde énoncée àl'article 12et y ajoute une obligation de prendre
des mesures effectives pour garantir le droit à la santé à la population
mondiale.

c) Mesures de mise en Euvre à l'échelonmondial impliquant pour les
Etats des obligations enmatière de santé

Le 22 mai 1981, l'Assembléemondiale de la Santéa, par sa résolu-
tion WHA34.36, adopté à l'unanimité une ((stratégiemondiale de lasanté2000", which was noted with approval by the General Assembly. In that
resolution, the Assembly urged al1member States to assure its implemen-
tation and requested al1 appropriate organizations and bodies of the

United Nations system to collaborate with the World Health Organiza-
tion in carrying it out.
In particular, there has been much action on the regulation of products
harmful to health and the environment. A consolidated list has been
issued ofproducts whichhave been banned, withdrawn, severelyrestricted
or not approved. At its thirty-ninth session, the General Assembly
received a report from the Secretary-General on products harmful to
health and the environment, and decided that an updated consolidated
list should be issued annually, and urged Member States to avail them-
selvesof this information, and to supplement the data in the consolidated
list.

Thus, not only has the right to health been recognized as a human
right, but specificimplementation measures have been urged on al1States
in measures which have been universally accepted by States,without any
demurrer on the ground that health is not an area of State responsibility.
Special action programmes have been worked out in relation to agencies
likely todamage health and the environment.

(d) The clash between State obligations and the health-velated efiects of
nucleav weapons

How does the use of the nuclear weapon accord with this obligation
which States under binding treaty obligation, and by general agreement,
have recognized as binding, and have in fact agreed by treaty to imple-
ment? The nuclear weapon produces the various effects upon health
which have been outlined in this opinion. They include the inducement of
radiation sickness, leukaemia, cancer, keloids, genetic deformities, and
the like. They do so on a massive scale,not limiting their effects to the
target population of the countries at war. Even within the countries at
war, they promote these sources of destruction of human health among
civilian and combatant alike.
It appears evident that there is here a clear contradiction between State
obligations under international law in relation to health and the use of
the nuclear weapon. There can be no doubt that if a State by deliberate
action of any other kind should foster this sort of danger to human

health, it would clearly be seen as a contradiction between that act and
the State's obligations in regard to health. Even if that act should have
been performed in conditions of war, there would still be a breach of
State obligations under humanitarian law in relation to human health, as
is clear with chemical, bacteriological or asphyxiating weapons. By what
title of exemption does the nuclear weapon fa11clear of this principle?
1know of none.pour tous d'ici l'an 2000», dont l'Assemblée générala e pris note avec
satisfaction. Dans cette résolution, l'Assembléea instamment invitétous
les Etats membres à mettre en Œuvre lastratégieet demandé à toutes les
institutions et entités appropriéesdu système desNations Unies de col-
laborer avec l'organisation mondiale de la Santé à cette entreprise.
Beaucoup a notamment étéfait au sujet de la réglementation des
produits nocifs pour la santé etl'environnement. Il a été publiune liste
récapitulative des produits dont la vente ou la consommation ont été
interdites ou rigoureusement réglementées,qui ont étéretirésdu marché
ou quin'ont pas été approuvés.A sa trente-neuvièmesession, l'Assemblée

généralea reçu du Secrétairegénéralun rapport sur les produits nocifs
pour la santé et l'environnement, a décidéqu'une liste récapitulative
mise à jour devrait êtrepubliée tous les ans et a instamment prié les
Etats Membres de tirer parti de ces informations et de compléter les
données figurant sur la liste récapitulative.
De ce qui précède,il ressort non seulement que le droit la santéa été
reconnu en tant que droit de l'homme mais que des mesures concrètesde
mise en Œuvre ont étérecommandées à tous les Etats dans le cadre
d'initiatives qui ont été universellement acceptéesar eux sans qu'aucun
ne prétende que la santé n'est pas un domaine relevant de la responsa-
bilité desEtats.

d) L'incompatibilité entreles obligations desEtats et les effets des armes
nucléaires dansle domaine de lasanté

Comment l'utilisation des armes nucléairesse concilie-t-elle avec cette
obligation que les Etats ont, aux termes de dispositions convention-
nelles obligatoires et par accord général,reconnuecomme contraignante
et qu'ils se sont engagéspar traitéàmettre en Œuvre? L'arme nucléaire
a sur la santé divers effets qui ont étédécritsdans la présente opinion.
Mal des rayons, leucémie,cancer, chéloïdes,malformations génétiques
sont au nombre de ces effets qui sont ressentis massivement et non pas
seulement par la population cible des pays belligérants et qui, dans les
pays en guerre, menacent la santé des civils comme celle des combat-
tants.
Une incompatibilité manifeste se révèleici entre l'obligation des Etats
au regard du droit international dans le domaine de la santé etI'utilisa-

tion de l'arme nucléaire. Il est clair que si un Etat faisait, par un acte
délibéré de n'importe quel autre type, courir ce genre de danger à la
santéhumaine, un tel acte serait à coup sûr considérécomme inconci-
liable avec les obligations de cet Etat dans le domaine de la santé et
comme contrevenant, mêmes'il étaitaccompli en temps de guerre, aux
obligations des Etats en vertu du droit humanitaire dans le domaine de
la santé, au mêmetitre que l'emploi des armes chimiques, bactério-
logiques et asphyxiantes. Quelle exception pourrait-on invoquer pour
soustraire l'arme nucléaireà l'empire du principe en cause? Je n'en vois
aucune. 3. Tlze Duties of States under the WHO Constitution

WHO asks whether, in viewof their health and environmental effects,
the use of a nuclear weapon by a State would be a breach of its obliga-
tions under the WHO Constitution. Knowledge of the legal reach of its
constitution is vital to the proper functioning of any agency. The Court is
the pre-eminent authority under the United Nations system to advise a
United Nations agency on such a matter which is unquestionably a mat-
ter of law, and which is unquestionably a matter of legitimate concern to
the agency. WHO turns naturally to the Court for advice on precisely
such a matter. The Court denies this advice on what seems to me to be a
technicality.

Quite apart from their responsibilities under customary international
law and any other conventions to which they are parties, the States that
are parties to the WHO Constitution, which is itself an international
treaty, accepted certain principles and obligations. The Constitution was
signed by 61 States on 22 July 1946 and entered into force on 7 April
1948.Appendix 1to the WHO volume of Basic Documents shows that, at

31 October 1992, 182States had become party to the Constitution.

What are the obligations of States under the WHO Constitution?

In the first place, the States Parties to the Constitution declare inter
alia that "The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is
one of the fundamental rights of every human being . . .";that "The
health of al1peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace and secu-
rity and is dependent upon the fullest CO-operationof individuals and
States"; and that "Governments have a responsibility for the health of
their peoples . . .".
They proceed to accept these principles and they establish the World
Health Organization "for the purpose of CO-operationamong themselves
and with others to promote and protect the health of al1peoples . ..".
This Organization's objective, as stated in Article 1is "the attainment
by al1peoples of the highest possible level of health".
There is thus a commitment to the attainment by al1 people to the
highest possible level of health, to regarding the achievement of the high-

est achievable standard of health as a fundamental right of every person
onthe planet, a recognition of health asfundamental to peace, and of the
dutv of State CO-o~erationto achieve this ideal. More such commitments
wokd appear frok a scrutiny of other articles of the Constitution, but
the foregoing sufficesfor purposes of present discussion.

The Constitution is a multilateral treaty, and each participating State
holds out to al1others its adherence to these principles, on the basis of
which al1 others make a similar commitment. Al1 participating States 3. Les devoirs des Etats au regard de la Constitution de l'OMS

L'OMS demande si, étant donné leurs effets sur la santé et l'envi-
ronnement, l'utilisation d'armes nucléairespar un Etat constituerait une
violation de ses obligations au regard de la Constitution de I7Organisa-
tion. Une institution doit impérativement savoirquelle est la portéedu

régimejuridique établipar sa constitution pour pouvoir fonctionner de
manière satisfaisante. La Cour est l'autorité suprême dans le cadre du
système desNations Unies pour renseigner une institution du systèmesur
une question de ce genre, qui est incontestablement de caractèrejuridique
et qui se situe incontestablement dans le cadre des préoccupations légi-
times de l'institution. L'OMS s'adressetout naturellement à la Cour pour
qu'elle luidonne un avis sur une telle question. La Cour refuse de donner
l'avisdemandé sur la base, me semble-t-il,de considérations formalistes.
Mises à part les responsabilités qui leur incombent en vertu du droit
international coutumier et des autres conventions qui peuvent les lier, les
Etats parties à la Constitution de l'OMS, qui est elle-même untraité
international, ont acceptécertains principes et obligations. La Constitu-

tion de l'OMS a étésignéepar soixante et un Etats le 22juillet 1946et elle
est entréeen vigueur le 7 avril 1948.L'appendice 1 au recueil contenant
les documents fondamentaux de l'OMS indique que, au 31 octobre 1992,
cent quatre-vingt-deux Etats y étaientdevenus parties.
Quelles sont les obligations des Etats en vertu de la Constitution de
l'OMS?
D'emblée,les Etats parties à la Constitution proclament notamment
que :«La possession du meilleur étatde santéqu'il estcapable d'atteindre
constitue l'un desdroitsfondamentaux de tout êtrehumain...)); que: «La
santéde tous les peuples est une condition fondamentale de la paix du
monde et de la sécurité [etd ]épend dela coopération la plus étroitedes
individus et des Etats»; et que: «Les Gouvernements ont la responsa-

bilitéde la santéde leurs peuples ..))
Ils déclarent ensuite acceptercesprincipes et ils établissementl7Organi-
sation mondiale de la Santé«dans le but de coopérer entre[eux]et avec
tous autres pour amélioreret protégerla santéde tous les peuples...))
Le but de l'Organisation tel qu'il est définià l'article 1 est ((d'amener
tous les peuples au niveau de santéle plus élevé possible)).
Ainsi, l'engagement estpris d'amener tous les peuples au niveau de
santéle plus élevé possible et de considérerla possession du meilleur état
de santépossible comme un droit fondamental de tous les êtres humains,
la santéest reconnue comme une condition de la paix et le devoir de tous
les Etats de coopérer pour atteindre l'idéalfixéest établi. D'autres
engagements de cette nature pourraient êtreidentifiés enanalysant le

reste des articles de la Constitution mais, aux fins des présents dévelop-
pements, on peut s'en tenir à ceux qui viennent d'être évoqués.
La Constitution est un traitémultilatéralet chacun des Etats qui y sont
parties s'obligeà l'égarddes autres à adhérer à ces principes, moyennant
quoi, tous les autres prennent un engagement similaire. Tous les Etatshave committed themselves, to the extent of their respective abilities, to
pursue this objective, consistently with the underlying assumption that
the health of al1peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace and
security.
As stated in the next section, the WHO Constitution and its object and
purpose must be interpreted in accordance with the principle of broad
interpretation approved by the Court in its Opinion in the present case. It
is in thissense that the commitments of the participating nations under
the WHO Constitution must be construed. It seems to be clearly incon-
sistent with this objective that any of these nations, even for purposes of
war, should consciously spread a means by which global health is under-
mined. In fact, it is a contradiction in terms to commit oneself to the
attainment by al1peoples of the highest possible levels of health and at
the same time to launch into the midst of the global population a lethal
instrumentality for spreading il1health on an unprecedented scale.

The use of conventional weapons in war does not spread disease. It

does not cause genetic deformities. It does not imperil crops. It does
not cause intergenerational climatic effects which imperil the global food
supply. The use of nuclear weapons does. The user of the weapon now
knows, in the present state of scientificknowledge, that al1these dangers
to health will be caused.

There is thus a clear breach of State obligations undertaken in the
treaty which forms the WHO Constitution, when States resort to the use
of nuclear weapons. This is the crux of the WHO enquiry regarding the
interpretation of its Constitution.

Such a result would be achieved evenwithout the application of broad
principles of interpretation, discussed in the next section, for it follows
naturally from a consideration of these declarations and commitments
collectively.
The Constitution also accepts the promotion of child health and wel-
fare as one of the mandatory functions of the Organization (Art. 2 (1)).

This principle has been accepted by every participating State. Nuclear
weapons surely violate this principle, if for no other reason than the
genetic damage they cause. The position is no different in regard to
materna1 health and welfare dealt with in the same Article (2 (1)).

1. Pvinciples of Intevpretation Applicable to WHOS Constitution

An important aspect of the question referred to the Court is the legal
interpretation of State obligationsunder the WHO Constitution, which isparties se sont engagés,dans la mesure de leurs possibilités respectiveà,
travaillerà cet objectif, comme les invite à le faire le postulat de base
selon lequel la santéde tous les peuples est une condition fondamentale
de la paix et de la sécurité.
Ainsi qu'on l'indiquera dans la section suivante, la Constitution de
I'OMSde mêmeque son objet et son but doivent être interprétés confor-
mémentau principe d'interprétationextensiveauquel la Cour s'estrangée
dans l'avis qu'elle a rendu dans la présente affaire. C'est dans cette

perspective que les engagements pris par les nations participantes en
vertu de la Constitution de l'OMS doivent être interprétés. Incompatible
avec l'objectifà atteindre semble êtrel'idéeque l'une quelconque de ces
nations puisse, mêmeaux fins de buts de guerre, propager délibérément
un vecteur mettant en danger la santémondiale. En fait, il est contradic-
toire de s'engager à amener tous les peuples au niveau de santéle plus
élevé possible et de lancer en même tempsau beau milieu de la popula-
tion mondiale un engin de mort capable de compromettre la santé à une
échellesans précédent.
L'emploi a la guerre d'armes conventionnelles ne propage pas de mala-
die.11ne cause pas de malformations génétiques.Il ne ruine pas les ré-
coltes.Il ne provoque pas d'effets climatiquesintergénérationsmettant en
danger l'approvisionnement mondial en vivres. Tout cela, les armes
nucléairesle font. Quiconque utilise la bombe a la certitude, dans l'état
actuel des connaissances scientifiques, que toutes ces atteintàsla santé

s'ensuivront.
Il y a donc manifestement, en cas de recours par les Etats aux armes
nucléaires,violation des obligations qu'ils ont contractées en devenant
parties au traité quereprésente laConstitution de I'OMS. Tel estle nŒud
du problèmeque soulève I'OMStouchant l'interprétation de sa Constitu-
tion.
Le mêmerésultat serait atteint mêmesans le secours des principes
d'interprétation extensive analysésdans la section qui suit car, pris en-
semble, les déclarationset engagements rappelésplus haut y conduisent
tout naturellement.
La Constitution enjoint également à l'organisation de faire progresser
l'action en faveur de la santé et du bien-être del'enfant (art.2 1)). Ce
principe a été acceptépar chacun des Etats parties. Les armes nucléaires
y contreviennent indubitablement ne serait-ce qu'en raison des dom-

mages génétiques qu'ellec sausent. La mêmeremarque vaut pour la santé
et le bien-êtrede la mère, égalementvisés à l'article 2, alinéa1).

1. Principes d'interprétationà appliquerà la Constitution de I'OMS

La question soumise à la Cour soulève l'important problème de
l'interprétationjuridique des obligations des Etatsau regard de la Consti-a multilateral treaty. As the Court has observed in its Advisory Opinion
(at para. 19),the principles of treaty interpretation are thus brought into
play and Article 31 of the Vienna Convention "makes it possible to give
quite broad consideration to the particularities of the constitutional

instruments of international organizations", for the terms of a treaty
must be interpreted "in their context and in the light of its object and
purpose". The Court's jurisprudence has given effect to this principle on
numerous occasions, as the Court has observedSO.
In the interpretation of a multilateral convention of this type, particu-
larly one which sets before itself certain sociological or humanitarian
goals, the task of interpretation should be guided by the object and pur-
pose which the Convention sets before itself. A literal interpretation,

using strict methods of anchoring interpretation to the letter rather than
the spirit of theconvention, would be inappropriate. Fitzmaurice observes
of interpretation by reference to objects, principles and purposes (the
teleological method) that :

"This is a method of interpretation more especially connected
with the general multilateral convention of the 'normative', and,
particularly, of the sociological or humanitarian type. The charac-
ters or constitutive instruments of international organizations may

also be placed in this ~ategory."~'

The interpretation of a multilateral, sociological or humanitarian
treaty, such as the WHO Constitution, cannot be permitted to diverge
from its objects, purposes and principles. 1 am of the view that the
approach of the Court has in effect taken it far from these objects, pur-
poses and principles, through a narrow and literal construction, which
seesthe Organization as being precluded from enquiring, interalia, about
the conformity of a certain item of State conduct with the terms of its

own Constitution.
There are numerous specific provisions within the treaty, several of
which have already been referred to. These need to be interpreted in
accordance with the treaty's overall object and purpose as stated in its
preamble. This is not to state that in the treaty in question there is any
conflict between the natural meaning of the words used and its overall
purpose, but merely to state that its various specificprovisions should not
be interpreted narrowly, but always with the end in viewwhich the treaty

seeks to achieve - the attainment of the highest standards of health on a
global scale.
The object and purpose of the Constitution - the attainment by al1
peoples of the highest possible levelof health - is clearly defeated by the

Seereferencesto the relevant cases inparagraph 19of the Court's Advisory Opinion.

51Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, TlzeLaw and Procedure of tlzeZnterncitionalCourt of Jus-
tice,1986,Vol. 1, p. 341.tution de l'OMS, traitémultilatéral auquel s'appliquent, commel'a sou-

lignéla Cour dans son avis consultatif (au paragraphe 19), les principes
d'interprétation des traités et l'article 31 de la convention sur le droit
des traités,lequel permet de tenir largement compte des ((caractéristiques
spéciales))des actesconstitutifs des organisations internationales, vu que
les termes d'un traitédoivent être interprétés ((dans leur contexte et à la
lumièrede son objet et de son but». La Cour a, comme ellelerappelle, eu
l'occasion d'appliquer ce principe en de nombreuses occasions50.

Dans l'interprétation d'une convention multilatérale de ce type, sur-
tout si elle visecertains objectifs sociologiques ou humanitaires, il faut se
laisser guider par l'objet et le but que sefixel'instrument. Une interpréta-
tion littérale strictement axéesur la lettre plutôt que sur l'esprit de la
convention serait inadéquate. Fitzmaurice fait observer que l'interpréta-
tion par référence à l'objet, aux principes et aux buts - la méthodedite
téléologique -

«est une méthode d'interprétationqui convient plus spécialement à
la convention multilatéralegénéralede caractère «normatif» et plus
spécialementdu type sociologique ou humanitaire. Les chartes ou
instruments constitutifs d'organisations internationales peuvent être
rangésdans cette catégorie. »51

Il n'est pas admissible d'interpréterun traité multilatéral de caractère

sociologique ou humanitaire comme la Constitution de l'OMS en s'écar-
tant de son objet, de ses buts et de sesprincipes, chose que fait à un degré
très poussé laméthodesuiviepar la Cour qui, par le biais d'une interpré-
tation étroiteet littérale,aboutit à priver l'organisation de la possibilité
de vérifiernotamment si un certain comportement étatique est conforme
aux termes de sa propre Constitution.

Il y a dans le traitéde nombreuses dispositions de caractère spécifique

dont plusieurs ont déjà été évoquées. Eld losivent être interprétées con-
formément à l'objet et au but d'ensemble de l'instrument, tels qu'ils sont
définisdans le préambule. Loin demoi de sous-entendre qu'il y a conflit
entre le sens normal des termes utilisés etle but d'ensemble du traité;ce
que je veux dire c'est que les diverses dispositions de caractère spécifique
doivent être interprétéen son pas de manière étroite maisen ayant tou-
jours présente à l'esprit la finalitédu traité- amener la population du

globe au niveau de santéle plus élevé possible.
L'objet et le but de la Constitution de l'OMS - amener tous les
peuples au niveau de santéle plus élevé possible - sont manifestement

50Voir les référencesaux affaires pertinentes au paragraphe 19 de l'avis consultatif de
la Cour.
Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice,he Law and Procedure of the International Court of Jus-
tice,1986,vol1,p. 341.

86infliction upon the global population of multiple health dangers on a
massive scale, as follows from the use of a nuclear weapon.

There is no ambiguity about the expression "highest possible level of
health". States declare thev will CO-o~erateto achieve this. others make
similar declarations on this basis, and a commitment to achieve this
obiective has emerrred.
"
The governing principle as to whether the nuclear weapon violates
State obligations under the Constitution is to be found in the object and
purpose of the WHO Constitution. When so regarded,the answer emerges
beyond any possibility of doubt or obscurity. State actions which nega-
tive the State declarations and commitments to health outlined earlier are
clearly a violation of the WHO Statute. To interpret the statutory provi-
sions outlined earlier, so as to enable a State to inflict health damage to
present and future generations without violating its constitutional duties,
does violence to this principle of interpretation, and to the Statute itself.

The maxim ut res magis valeat quam pereat may also be invoked in
this regard52. The central purpose of the Statute is health. The Statute
must be interpreted so as to promote that purpose, rather than endanger
it. A statutory construction of the WHO Constitution which sees State
use of the nuclear weapon as not being in conflict with State obligations
thereunder is a construction that endangers rather than promotes the
central purpose of the Statute.
In view of the clear and incontrovertible contradiction between the
obligations assumed by States under the Constitution, and the use of
nuclear weapons, it is scarcely necessary to examine other elements in the
Constitution which are confirmatory of these conclusions. For example,

the provisions that "the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of
health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being", or that
the organization is established "for the purpose of CO-operation . . .to
promote and protect the health of al1peoples" are just a few of the many
provisions scattered throughout the Statute which confirm its dominant
and incontrovertible purpose, to which al1 participating nations have
subscribed without reservation.

2. The Principle of Speciality

The Court has attached much importance to the principle of speciality
in dealing with the question whether the present request falls within the

tion of Texts in Open International Organizations", British Year Book of Internationcdeta-
Law, 1994,Vol. 65,pp. 189ff.; H. W. A. Thirlway, "The Law and Procedure of the Inter-
national Court of Justice, 1960-1989", British Year Book of International Law, 1991,
Vol. 62,pp.20 ff. UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS.WEERAMANTRY 1)49

battus en brèche lorsque la santéde la population mondiale est massive-
ment exposéeaux dangers multiples que lui fait courir l'utilisation d'une
arme nucléaire.

Il n'y a pas la moindre ambiguïtédans l'expression ((niveau de santéle
plus élevé possible)). LesEtats déclarent qu'ils coopéreront pour qu'un
tel niveau soit atteint, d'autres font des déclarations similaires sur cette
base et un engagement a l'effet susvisése matérialise.
Le critère de base permettant de déterminer si l'arme nucléaire con-
trevient aux obligations des Etats au regard de la Constitution de l'OMS
réside dans l'objet et le but de cet instrument. Lorsqu'on aborde les
choses sous cet angle, la réponses'impose sans la moindre équivoque ou
incertitude. Les comportements étatiques qui contredisent les déclara-
tions et engagements évoquésplus haut constituent manifestement une

violation de l'acte constitutif del'OMS. Interpréter les dispositions sta-
tutaires auxquelles il a étéfait référencecomme permettant à un Etat de
nuire à la santé des générationsprésentes et futures sans pour autant
violer ses obligations constitutionnelles c'est faire violence aux critères
susmentionnéset à l'acte constitutif lui-même.
La maxime ut Tesmugis valeat quam pereat peut aussi être invoquée
dans ce contexte52.L'acte constitutif a pour objectif essentiel la santé.Il
doit êtreinterprétéde façon a servir cet objectif non à en compromettre
la réalisation. Une interprétation officielle de la Constitution de l'OMS
selon laquelle l'emploi par un Etat de l'arme nucléairene contrevient pas
aux obligations incombant aux Etats en vertu de cet instrument dessert

son objectif essentiel au lieu d'en favoriser la réalisation.
L'existenced'une contradiction patente et indiscutable entre les obliga-
tions contractées par les Etats en vertu de la Constitution de l'OMS et
l'utilisation des armes nucléairesétant ainsi établie, point n'est besoin
d'examiner d'autres élémentsde cet instrument qui corroborent cette
conclusion. La Constitution dispose par exemple que «la possession du
meilleur étatde santéqu'il est capable d'atteindre constitue l'un desdroits
fondamentaux de tout être humain)) et que l'organisation est établie
«dans le but de coopérer ..pour améliorer etprotégerla santéde tous les
peuples)). Ces deux dispositions, parmi bien d'autres qui émaillent l'acte

constitutif de l'OMS, en confirmentle but primordial et indéniable,auquel
toutes les nations qui y sont parties ont souscrit sans réserve.

2. Le principe de spécialité

La Cour s'est beaucoup appuyée sur le principe de spécialitépour
déterminersi la requête a l'examen relève biende la sphère d'activitéde

52Voir Fitzmaurice, op. cit., p. 345et suiv. Voir, d'une maniè, . F. Amera-
singhe, ((Interpretation of Texts in Open International Organizations)), British Year Book
of Intevnutional Law, 1994,vol. 65. p. 189 et suiv.; H. W. A. Thirlway, «The Law and
Procedure of the International Court of Justice,89»,Britislî Year Book of Irzter-
national Law, 1991, vol. 62, p. 20 et suiv.ArL.ers~here of activities of WHO. The Court is of course anxious to
ensure that there should not be an unnecessaryconfusion or overlapping of
functions between the different organs and agencies ofthe United Nations.
However, the principle of speciality does not mean that there can be no

overlap. It is in the nature of a complex organization like the United
Nations that there will be, owing to the multiplicity and complexity of its
functions, some areas of overlap between the legitimate spheres of author-
ity of its constituent entities. As observed earlier, at the highest levels of
the United Nations Organization, this Court itself has an area of overlap
with the Securitv Council. Although"the Securitv Council has basic
responsibility for matters pertinent to peace and security, the same mat-
ters can also present legal problems properly within the sphere of adju-

dication, which is the Court's particular responsibility. The inextricable
interlinkage between the legal aspects of a matter and its political impli-
cations has never been seen as depriving the Court of its right and its
duty to act in its proper legal sphere.

As so well observed by the Court in its Opinion in the present case
(para. 16), the fact that a matter has political implications does not
deprive a legal question of its quality of being a legal question. The same
concerns should apply in regard to medical questions. In Military and

Paramilitary Activities in andagainst Nicaragua, the Court gave expres-
sion to what rnay be described as the principle of complementarity at the
highest levels of the United Nations Organization in the clearest terms
when it observed :

"The [Security]Council has functions of a political nature assigned
to it, whereas the Court exercises purely judicial functions. Both
organs can therefore perform their separate but complementary
functions with respect to the same events." (I.C.J. Reports 1984,
p. 435, para. 95.)

Likewise, a medical question rnay involve also some other ramifica-
tions which make it an appropriate matter for another specialized
agency. For example, ventilation requirements on aircraft could
equally well concern the World Health Organization and the Interna-
tional Civil Aviation Organization; safety regulations relating to the

carriage of noxious waste rnay equally concern WHO and the Interna-
tional Maritime Organization; questions relating to patent rights in
pharmaceuticals rnay equally concern WHO and the World Intellectual
Property Organization; questions regarding the disposa1 of nuclear
waste rnay equally concern WHO and the International Atomic Energy
Agency; questions relating to herbicides rnay equally concern WHO
and the Food and Agriculture Organization; unhealthy working condi-
tions in the paint and chemical industry rnay equally concern WHO and

the International Labour 0reunisation.The familv of United Nations
organizations was not set up in a fretwork pattern of neatly dovetailingl'OMS. Elle est naturellernent soucieuse d'éviterque ne s'introduisent des
confusions ou des chevauchements inutiles dans la définition desfonc-
tions des différentsorganes et institutions des Nations Unies.
Mais le principe de spécialitén'interdit pas les chevauchements éven-
tuels. 11est normal que les sphères de compétence légitime desentités
constitutives d'une organisation diversifiéecomme les Nations Unies,

dont les fonctions sont multiples et complexes, mordent tant soit peu les
unes sur les autres. Tel est le cas, on l'a déjàsouligné,au niveau le plus
élevéde l'organisation des Nations Unies puisque, entre la Cour elle-
même etle Conseil de sécurité, existe uncertain chevauchement. Sans
doute le Conseil a-t-il la responsabilité principale des questions de paix
et de sécuritémais ces questions peuvent aussi soulever des problèmes
juridiques relevant de l'activité judiciaire,qui est le domaine propre de la
Cour. Les liens inextricables entre lesaspectsjuridiques d'une question et
sesimplications politiques n'ont jamais été considéré comme ayant pour
effet d'éteindrele droit et l'obligation de la Cour d'agir dans sa sphère

juridique propre.
Comme l'ajustement soulignéla Cour dans l'avis qu'ellea rendu dans
la présente affaire, qu'une question juridique présente des aspects poli-
tiques ne suffit pasà la priver de son caractère de question juridique. La
même logiquedevrait s'appliquer dans le cas des questions médicales.
Dans son jugement sur les Activitésmilitaires et paramilitaires au Nica-
ragua et contre celui-ci, la Cour a formulé dela manière la plus claire ce
qu'on peut désigner sous le nom de principe de complémentaritéaux
niveaux les plus élevés de l'organisation des Nations Unies lorsqu'elle a

déclaré :
«Le Conseil [de sécurité]a des attributions politiques; la Cour
exerce des fonctions purement judiciaires. Les deux organes peuvent
donc s'acquitter de leurs fonctions distinctes mais complémentaires à
propos des mêmes événements.))(C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 435,

par. 95).
Une question médicalepeut, de la mêmemanière, avoir des prolonge-
ments qui justifient qu'une autre institution spécialisée s'en saisisse. Par
exemple, les normes de ventilation à bord des aéronefs peuvent relever

aussi bien de l'organisation mondiale de la Santé quede l'organisation de
l'aviation civile internationale; les règlements de sécurité concernant le
trans~ort des déchetstoxiau.L weuventintéresserau mêmetitre l'OMS et
l'organisation maritime internationale; les questions de brevets sur les
produits pharmaceutiques peuvent êtredu ressort tant de l'OMS que de
l'organisation mondiale de la propriété intellectuelle;les questions rela-
tivesà l'évacuationdes déchets nucléaires peuvententrer dans le champ de
l'OMScomme dans celuide l'Agenceinternationale de l'énergieatomique;
les questions soulevéespar lesherbicides peuvent relever à la fois de l'OMS
et de l'Organisation pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture; l'insalubritédes

conditions de travail dans l'industrie des peintures et produits chimiques
peut êtredu ressort tant de l'OMS que de l'organisation internationale ducomponents, each with a precisely carved outline of its own. These
organizations deal with human activities and human interrelationships,

and it is of their very nature that they should have overlapping areas of
concern. Their broad contours are of course defined, but different
aspects of the self-same question may well fa11within the ambit of two
or more organizations. The particularities of various international
organizations were never meant to exclude areas of overlap, so long as
these lay within the legitimate sphere of concern of the respective
agencies involved. Specialized agencies with specialized interests can
home in on specialized implications of some activity, which might
otherwise pass unnoticed in other reactions to other aspects of the same
problem. Complex problems have ramifications in many specialized
directions to which the specialists alone are most competent to draw
attention. Such a view contributes to the richness of the United Nations
system. To expect otherwise would be contrary to the essence and ratio-
nale of a complex organization which straddles al1 facets of human
activity.

VI. WHO's PRIOREFFORTS

1. WHO'S Efforts in the Nucleav Field

WHO's representative has outlined three phases of WHO activity in
the field of nuclear radiation going back to the 1950s. At that stage,
WHO was concerned with the harmful effects of ionizing radiation of al1
kinds. In 1960it directed its attention, inter alia, to the effects of radio-
active fallout from experimental nuclear explosions in the atmosphere. In
1966it adopted a resolution particularly referring to nuclear weapons. In
1979 it specifically concerned itself with nuclear war which was men-
tioned in WHA resolution 32.24.

In this phase, the Assembly began to concern itself with the "effects of
nuclear war on health and health services". It produced a detailed report

on the subject which took two years in preparation. This has been depos-
ited with the Court and has already been cited.
That Report dealt with the explosion of a single bomb, a limited war
and a total war. The dead in each of these scenarios ranged from one
million to one billion, with a similar number of injured people in addi-
tion.
The next phase of WHO activity in this regard commenced in 1992
when a possible request to this Court for an advisory opinion was taken
up, though not without opposition from some members, as noted earlier
in this opinion.Travail. Le systèmedesNations Unies n'a pas été conçu comme un damier
composé decases bien emboîtées et précisément délimitéL es. organisa-
tions dont il secompose s'occupent d'activités et d'interrelations humaines
et il est dans l'ordre des choses que chacune morde sur la sphère de com-
pétencesdes autres. Leur domaine est naturellement circonscrit dans ses
grandes lignes,maislesdifférents aspects dela mêmequestion peuventfort
bien êtredu ressort de deux ou plusieurs organisations. Sansdoute les

diversesorganisations internationales sont-ellesspécialisée, ais il ne leur
est pas pour autant interdit de se partager certains secteurs dès lors qu'ils
relèvent dûment de leurs sphèresde préoccupation respectives. Comme
chaque institution spécialiséea sa spécialisation,elle peut se saisir des
aspects d'une activité déterminé apparentée à sa spécialisation quipour-
raient, sans cela, passer inaperçusdans le cadre d'une autre approche axée
sur d'autres aspects de la mêmeactivité.Tout problème complexea des
ramifications dans une foule de secteursspécialiséssur lesquelsles spécia-
listes sont les mieux placéspour appeler l'attention. D'unetelle vision des
choses,le systèmedes Nations Unies sort enrichi. En attendre une réaction
différente seraitcontraire l'esprit eà la raison d'être d'unerganisation

complexe qui embrassetoutes les formes de l'activitéhumaine.

VI. LES EFFORTS ANTÉRIEURS DE L'OMS

1. L'effort de l'OMS dans le domaine nucléaire

Le représentant de l'OMS a distingué trois phasesdans l'activité menée
par l'OMS en matière deradiations nucléairesdepuis le débutdes années
cinquante. A l'époque, l'organisation s'intéressaitaux effets nocifs de
tous les types de radiations ionisantes. En 1960, elle a fait porter son
attention sur, entre autres choses, les effets des retombées radioactives

consécutivesaux explosions nucléairesexpérimentalesdans l'atmosphère.
En 1966, ellea adoptéune résolution faisant spécialement référencaeux
armes nucléaires.En 1979, elle s'est expressément intéressée à la guerre
nucléairedont il est fait mention dans la résolution32.24 de l'Assemblée
mondiale de la Santé.
A ce stade, l'Assembléea commencé à se préoccuperdes ((effetsde la
guerre nucléairesur la santé et les services de santé)).Elle a publiéun
rapport détaillésur la question qui a pris deux ans préparer.Ce rapport
fait partie du dossier soumisà la Cour et j'en ai parlé précédemment.
Y sont envisagéestrois hypothèses: explosion d'une bombe unique,
guerre limitéeet guerre totale. Le nombre des morts dans chacune de ces

hypothèsesse situe entre un million et un milliard et celui desblessésn
niveau comparable.
La phase suivante de l'action de l'OMS dans ce domaine a débuté
en 1992,date où s'est fait jour l'idé- qui n'a pas étésans susciter, j'ai
déjàeu l'occasion dele souligner, des objections de la part de certains
membres - de demander un avis consultatif à la Cour. 2. WHOS Past Practice in Mutters Relating to Peace

WHO has in the past asserted its "interest in the consolidation of peace
as an inalienable prerequisite for preservation and improvement of the
health of al1 nations" (WHA resolution 20.54, referring to resolutions
11.31 and 15.51), and it has called upon al1 WHO member States to
implement United Nations General Assembly resolution 2162 (XXI). In
1969WHO, in resolution 22.58, referred to "the necessity of achieving a
rapid international agreement for the complete prohibition and disposa1
of al1types of chemical and bacteriological (biological) weapons".

WHO has thus in its practice very clearly indicated its concern with the

legal status of weapons that could have damaging effects on health and
the environment. Health and the purity of the environment, without
which health cannot be fostered, are undoubtedly within its purview and,
indeed, constitute the very rationale for its existence. The suggestion that
WHO should concern itself with the practicalities of attention to matters
of health and the environment without any concern with the legal frame-
work within which health and environment are affected has not been the
basis on which WHO has conducted its activities thus far. It has viewed
a concern for health and environment as including a concern for the legal
framework within which damage to health and environment may be
caused. WHO would indeed be lacking in due attention to its duties in
this regard if it did not, where possible, draw attention to the need for
clarification or correction of a legal framework within which such dam-
ane could occur.
"
If the legality of chemical and bacteriological weapons was a proper
subject for WHO'S concern, having regard to their effect on health and
the environment, then afortiori nuclear weapons would be.

If WHO did not concern itself with international legislation in regard
to such matters as plague prevention, smallpox inoculation, or noxious
waste disposal, this would be universally regarded as a grave omission. It
could similarly concern itself with legislation in regard to the level of a
toxic or carcinogenic substance that can be carried in a product offered
for public consumption, or with the need for legislation regarding the
advertising on product labels of the carcinogenic or other effects of the
product. A WHO division, the International Agency for Research on
Cancer puts out reports from time to time on such matters. Recent out-

breaks of the deadly ebola virus have highlighted the imperative need for
stringent regulations, be they on a global scale, for containment of the
virus. Questions of legality - whether they be in regard to transport,
food certification, quarantine and indeed any means of spread of disease
- are very much the concern of WHO, whatever the agency that spreads
it among the global population. The nuclear weapon may concern mat-
ters of high national policy, but it is also a global health hazard of the UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS.WEERAMANTRY) 152

2. La pratique établie del'OMS touchant les questionsrelativescilapaix

L'OMS a, au long de son histoire, ((manifesté qu'elle se préoccupe
vivement de voir régnerune paix durable, condition fondamentale pour
le maintien et l'amélioration dela santéde tous les peuples du monde))
(résolution 20.54 de l'Assembléemondiale de la Santéfaisant référence
aux résolutions11.31et 15.51)et ellea demandé à tous les Etats membres
de l'OMS d'assurer l'application de la résolution2162 (XXI) de I'Assem-
blée générale deN sations Unies. En 1969,elle a souligné,dans sa résolu-

tion 22.58: «la nécessitéd'arriverà un accord international rapide pour
l'interdiction et la destruction totales des armes chimiques et bactério-
logiques (biologiques) sous toutes leurs formes)).
La pratique de l'OMS révèledonc très clairement l'intérêt qu'elplorte
au statut juridique des armes qui peuvent avoir des effets néfastessur la
santéet l'environnement. La santéet l'intégrité de l'environnement qui est
la condition de la santé entrentincontestablement dans sa sphèrede com-
pétence etont même dicté sa création. L'approche consistantàfaireporter
l'attention sur lesaspectspratiques desquestions concernant la santéet l'en-
vironnement sans se préoccuperdu cadre juridique dans lequel se situent
les atteintesà la santéet à l'environnement n'est pascelle que l'OMS a

jusqu'à présentadoptée dans la conduite de ses activités puisqu'ellea
considéré que, s'intéressant la santéetàl'environnement, elledevait aussi
s'intéresserau cadre juridique dans lequel peuvent être causés des dom-
mages à la santéet à l'environnement. L'OMS manquerait certes à son
devoir de diligence dans l'accomplissement de sa mission si elle omettait
d'appeler l'attention, chaque fois que possible, sur la nécessde clarifier
ou de rectifierun cadrejuridique où de tels dommages peuvent seproduire.
Sil'OMS a pu à bon droit s'interroger sur la licdes armes chimiques
et bactériologiques compte tenu de leurs répercussions sur la santé et
l'environnement, elle peut à fortiori s'interroger sur la licéité desarmes
nucléaires.
Si l'OMS se désintéressait de la réglementation internationale sudres

questions telles que la prévention dela lèpre,la vaccination contre la va-
riole ou l'éliminationdes déchets toxiques,elleserait universellementconsi-
dérée commecoupable d'une grave négligence.Pourraient dans le même
esprit retenir son attention lesmesures visantréglementerle taux de telle
substance toxique ou carcinogèneque peut contenir un produit offert àla
consommation humaine ou à informer le consommateur, sur les étiquettes
accompagnant le produit, de ses effets carcinogènesou autres. Une divi-
sion de l'OMS, le Centre international de recherche sur le cancer, publie
régulièrement desrapports sur ces questions. Les récentes pousséesdu
virus mortel de l'ebola ont mis en lumièrele besoin impérieuxd'une régle-
mentation rigoureuse, à l'échellemondiale, propre àen endiguer la propa-

gation. Les mesures juridiques - qu'elles concernent les transports, les
certificats de provenance des produits alimentaires, la quarantaine ou tout
autre moyen dejuguler une maladie - sont au premier plan des préoccu-
pations de l'OMS, quel que soit le vecteur qui la propage dans la popula-first order, thus bringing its legality clearly within WHO's legitimate
sphere of interest, no less than any of the other legal questions outlined
above.

3. Lack of Objection to Prior WHO Actions
Furthermore, in taking such action as it has in the past, there has been,
as far as may be gathered from material placed before the Court, no

opposition to WHO action, on the basis of a transgression beyond the
bounds of its mandate. There has been no suggestion that WHO should
confine itself purely to thedical/epidemiologic levelof prevention, and
not enter the legal and political areas of prevention of activitiesdamaging
to health. If, indeed, it was outside WHO's province to dabble in these
questions of the illegality of weapons and, if such action was viewed by
the international community as such, one would have expected some
exception to be taken to WHO venturing into this area.
It is only necessary to refer to resolution WHA23.53 of 1970,in which
WHO emphasizes :

"the need for the rapid prohibition of the development, production
and stockpiling of chemical and bacteriological (biological)weapons
and the destruction of stocks ofuch weapons as a necessary meas-
ure in the fight for human health" (emphasis added).

An illustration of WHO's actions protecting its areas of concern, even
in relation to the legality of the use of force, is its appeal in resolution
WHA42.24 of 1989to al1member States: "to abstain from aggression
and the use of threats in their international relations, including threats
against medical centres and medical production plants".

Another factor bearing upon this aspect is the General Assembly's own
understanding of the practice relating to this matter, as reflected in its
resolution 49175K, welcoming the WHO resolution to seek this opinion
from the Court. Without being authoritative in itself on the legal ques-

tion involved, this is a recognition by the General Assemblyitself that the
issues raised in the request were not seen as taking WHO outside its
proper sphere of competence.

VII. ADMISSIBILI ATYD JURISDICTION

1. The Court's Discretion

The precedential implications of this Court's first refusa1of a special-
ized agency'srequest for an advisory opinion prompt me to set out spe-tion mondiale. L'arme nucléairetouche peut-être àla haute politique au
niveau national, mais elle est aussi une menace de premièregrandeurà la
santé de tous, detelle sorte que la question de sa licéentreà coup sûr
dans le cadre de la sphèred'intérêltégitimede l'OMS, tout comme le font
les autres questions juridiques qui viennent d'êtreévoquées.

3. Absence d'objectionsà la ligne deconduite suiviejusqu'icipar l'OMS

Qui plus est, la ligne de conduite suiviepar l'OMS dans le passén'a, si
l'on en croit le dossier soumià la Cour, donnélieu à aucune opposition
pour avoir excédé les limites du mandat qui lui est conféré. ul n'a pré-
tendu que l'OMS devaits'entenir exclusivement à la prévention médicale

ou épidémiologique et laisseà d'autres lesmesuresjuridiques et politiques
de préventiondesactivités nuisibles la santé.Sil'OMSétaitvraiment mal
fondée à se mêlerdes problèmes de licéité desarmes et si la ligne de
conduite qu'ellea adoptée étaitconsidérée comme critiquable par la com-
munautéinternationale, sa témérité aurait normalement dû être sanction-
née.
Il suffit de rappeler ici la résolution WHA23.53 de 1970dans laquelle
l'OMS souligne :

«la nécessitde parvenir dans lesplus brefs délaàsl'interdictionde la
miseau point, de la fabrication et du stockage des armes chimiques et
bactériologiques (biologiques), ainsiqu'à la destruction des stocks
existantsà titre demesure indispensableau succès desefforts déployés
en faveur de la santé humaine))(lesitaliques sont de moi).

Un bon exemplede ce que fait l'OMSpour servirla cause qu'elledéfend
jusques et y compris dans ledomaine de la licéide l'emploide la forceest
fourni par l'appel qu'ellea lancétous lesEtats membresdans la résolution
WHA42.24 de 1989en lesinvitant: «à s'abstenirdans leurs relations inter-
nationales de recourir un comportement agressifou àla menace, y com-
pris contre lescentresmédicauxet deproduction de fournitures médicales)).
Mérite également d'être rappelée dans ce contexte la manière dont
l'Assemblée générale elle-mêm a einterprétéla pratique en la matière
lorsque, dans sa résolution49175K, elle s'est félicitee la résolution de
l'OMS demandant à la Cour l'avis qui nous occupe. Bien que ne tran-

chant pas d'une manière autoriséele problème juridique en cause, cette
réactionmontre que l'Assemblée,pour sa part, ne considère pas les ques-
tions soulevéesdans la demande d'avis consultatif comme entraînant
l'OMS au-delà des limites de sa compétence.

1. Le pouvoir discrétionnaire dela Cour

Etant donné qu'une décisionde la Cour refusant pour la première fois
de donner suite à une demande d'avis consultatif émanantd'une institu-cificallysome reasons why 1consider that the objections to admissibility
and jurisdiction should fail.

The refusa1of the Permanent Court in Status of Eastern Carelia - the
only instance in the jurisprudence of this Court's predecessor where an
opinioil was declined - is distinguishable from the present, for in that
case the refusa1 was based on the principle that an existing dispute to
which a State was a party could not be indirectly brought to the Court in
the form of an advisory opinion. No such situation exists in relation to
the WHO request.

Many objections, mainly based on policy considerations, have been

urged by those opposing the grant of this opinion. Several of those policy
objections were raised also in regard to the opinion requested by the
General Assembly, and the Court has, in its Advisory Opinion on that
request, dismissed those objections. 1agree with the Court's reasoning in
dismissing those objections.

However, it is necessary to make soine observations on those objec-
tions, in the context of the WHO request, for those objections must like-
wise be overcome in regard to this request as well.
To a large extent, the objections were common. For example, the
United Kingdom observed :

"The United Kingdom submits that the Court should exercise its
discretion not to respond to the request from the General Assembly.
Similarly, if, contrary to my earlier submission, the Court were to
consider that WHO was competent to put its question to the Court,
the United Kingdom submits that the Court should none the less
decline to answer that question also. The reason is that both ques-
tions are too abstract and speculative for a meaningful response. A
response would serve no useful purpose and may, in fact, actually do
harm." (CR 95/34, p. 28, Sir Nicholas Lyell; emphasis added.)

In my view, these objections constitute no impediment to the grant of
the advisory opinion sought by WHO, and in this section 1 set out my
reasons for so concluding.

2. The Court'sDuty to Act Judicially

The power of the Court to grant an advisory opinion is discretionary,
in terms of the permissive rather than compulsory language (Statute,
Art. 65 (1)) which States that the Court:

"may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at the request
of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance with the
Charter of the United Nations to make such a request" (emphasis
added) . UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.WEERAMANTRY) 154

tion spécialiséerisquede faire précédentj,e crois utile d'exposercertaines
des raisons pour lesquelles les objections soulevéescontre la recevabilité
et la compétencene me paraissent pas devoir être retenues.
Le refus de la Cour permanente dans l'affaire du Statut de la Carélie
orientale- seule occasion dans l'histoire de l'institution qui a précédé la
Cour où une demande d'avis consultatif ait reçu une suite défavorabl-
n'est pas du mêmeordre que celui qui a étéopposé à l'OMS dans la pré-
sente affaire, car il étaitfondé sur larèglequ'un différendexistant auquel

un Etat est partie ne peut êtreportéindirectement devant la Cour par le
biais du recours à la procédure consultative. La demande de l'OMS ne
soulèveaucun problème de cette nature.
De nombreuses objections reposant principalement sur des considéra-
tions d'opportunité ont été avancéep sar ceux qui ne souhaitent pas voir
aboutir la demande d'avis consultatif. Plusieurs de ces objections fondées
sur l'opportunité ont également été soulevées à propos de la demande
présentéepar l'Assemblée générale, e lt Cour, dans l'avis consultatif
qu'elle a donnéen réponse à cette demande, les a rejetées.Je fais miens
les arguments invoquéspar la Cour à l'appui de ce rejet.
Les objections en question appellent toutefois certaines observations

de ma part car ellesdoivent êtreréfutéesdans le présentcontexte comme
elles l'ont étédans le contexte de l'autre demande.
Dans une large mesure, elles ont été dirigéecsonjointement contre les
deux demandes. Ainsi, le Royaume-Uni a déclaré:
«Le Royaume-Uni est d'avisque la Cour doit user du pouvoir dis-
crétionnaire quiest le sien de nepas répondràla demandeémanant
de l'Assemblée générale.Il est également d'avisque mêmesi, non-

obstant la position quej'ai prise, la Cour considérait l'OMS comme
ayant compétence pour poser sa question, elle n'en devrait pas
moins, là encore, refuser de répondre, la raison étant que les deux
questions sont trop abstraites et théoriquespour qu'il soit possible
d'y donner une réponse quiait un sens. Une réponsene servirait à
rien et pourrait en fait se révélerdangereuse.)) (CR95134, p. 28, sir
Nicholas Lyell; les italiques sont de moi.)

A mon avis, ces objections ne font pas obstaclà ce que la Cour donne
à l'OMS l'avis consultatif qu'elle sollicite, et dans la présente sec-
tion j'expose les raisons qui m'amènentà cette conclusion.

2. Le devoir de la Cour de se conzportercomme une autoritéjudiciaire

Le pouvoir de la Cour de donner un avis consultatif est discrétionnaire
puisqu'il estprésenté comme une faculté et non comme une obligation à
l'article 65, paragraphe 1, du Statut, qui dispose que la Cour:

((peut donner un avis consultatif sur toute question juridique,à la
demande de tout organe ou institution qui aura étéautorisépar la
Charte des Nations Unies ou conformément à ses dispositionsà
demander cet avis)) (les italiques sont de moi).Yet the principle holds good that that discretion is not an absolute and
overriding discretion, but is circumscribed by the overriding principle of
the Court's duty, whether in contentious or in advisory jurisdictions,
always to act judicially.

As the Permanent Court observed in Status of Eastern Carelia:

"The Court, being a Court of Justice, cannot, even in giving advi-

sory opinions, depart from the essential rules guiding their activity
as a Court." (P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 5, p. 29.)
In Novthern Cameroons this Court emphasized the correspondence

between the principles governingits contentious and advisory jurisdiction
when it observed :
"Both Courts have had occasion to make pronouncements con-
cerning requests for advisory opinions, which are equally applicable

to the proper role of the Court in disposing of contested cases; in
both situations, the Court is exercising a judicial function." (I.C.J.
Reports 1963, p. 30.)
So, also, in Certain Expenses of the United Nations, the Court stressed

that its task in rendering advisory opinions is "an essentially judicial
task" (Z.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 155).
The essential rules guiding the Court's activity as a Court have not been
comprehensively spelt out in any decision. An important guideline has
however been spelt out in the jurisprudence of the Court - namely, that
the Court willrender an opinion in cases when it is so requested by a com-
petent body, in the absence of "compelling reasons to the contrary" 53.
Do such compelling reasons exist?

3. The Objections

Among the reasons adduced by those opposing a request for an advi-
sory opinion on nuclear weapons are the following:

(a) the requested opinion would enter into the sphere of politics, State
policy and State security ;
(b) nuclear weapons are being addressed in other contexts in the United
Nations ;
(c) an advisory opinion would be devoid of object or purpose;
(d) the opinion would have no effect on the conduct of States;

(e) atant disarmament negotiations;stion could adversely affect impor-

(f) the question referred is purely abstract and theoretical;

53For numerous decisions on this matter, see footnosupra UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.WEERAMANTRY) 155

Il reste que ce pouvoir discrétionnaire n'est pas un pouvoir absolu et
inconditionnel et qu'il trouve sa limite dans le principe supérieur selon
lequel la Cour est tenue, dans l'exercice de sa compétencetant conten-
tieuse que consultative, de se comporter comme une autorité judi-
ciaire.
Ainsi que l'a observéla Cour permanente dans l'affaire du Statut de la

Carélieorientale :
«La Cour, étant une cour de justice, ne peut pas se départir des
règles essentielles qui dirigent son activité de tribunal, même

lorsqu'elle donne des avis consultatifs.(C.P.J.I. sévieB no5, p. 29.)
Dans l'affaire du Cameroun septentrional, la Cour internationale de
Justice a soulignéque les principes régissantsa compétence contentieuse

et sa compétence consultative se recoupaient lorsqu'elle a déclaré:
«Les deux Cours ont eu l'occasion de formuler, à propos de
demandes d'avisconsultatifs, des observations qui s'appliquent égale-

ment au rôle que doit jouer la Cour en matière contentieuse; dans les
deux cas, la Cour exerce une fonction judiciaire.)) (C.I.J. Recueil
1963, p. 30.)
De même,dans l'affaire de Certaines dépenses desNations Unies, la

Cour a soulignéque sa tâche lorsqu'elle donne des avis consultatifs est
une tâche essentiellement judiciaire (C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 155).
Les règlesessentielles guidant l'activité de laCour en tant qu'organe
judiciaire n'ont étédétailléesdans aucune décision.Une directive impor-
tante a toutefois trouvé expression dans la jurisprudence de la Cour - à
savoir que la Cour donnera un avis à la demande d'un organe habilité,
sauf «raisons décisives))de nepas le faire53.
De telles raisons décisivesexistent-elles en l'espèce?

3. Les objections soulevées

Voici quelques-uns des arguments avancéspar ceux qui sont hostiles à
une demande d'avis consultatif sur les armes nucléaires:

a) l'avis consultatif demandé entrerait dans le domaine de la politique,
de l'imperium étatique et de la sécuritéde 1'Etat;
b) la question des armes nucléaires est à l'étudedans d'autres enceintes
aux Nations Unies ;
c) un avis consultatif serait dépourvud'objet et de but;

d) un avis consultatif n'aurait aucun effet sur le comportement des Etats;
e) un avis consultatif sur les questions considéréespourrait compro-
mettre d'importantes négociationssur le désarmement;
f) la question posée estpurement abstraite et théorique;

53Pour une liste des nombreuses décisionssur ce point, voir ci-dessusnote 1(g) the question is too general;
(hl an opinion rendered in this matter would be damaging to the pres-
tige of the Court;
(i) the Court would be involved in a law-making exercise, were it to
render an opinion;
(j) this case falls outside the categories of cases in which an opinion
ought to be given;
(k) the opinion would trespass into areas of State policy.

(a) The requested opinionwould enter the political sphere

The submissions under this head take a variety of forms.
In the first place, it was argued that the request is only a search for
means of support of a political objective and that, despite the "legal cam-
ouflage" (France, Written Statement, p. 7), the question is not a legal
one. France indeed argued that "the questions are of a purely political
nature" and that they "have obviously been put for exclusively political
purposes" (CR 95/23, p. 66).
It was further submitted that the ruling sought from this Court goes
beyond the will of the States concerned into areas they have carefully
refrained from entering. In developing this point, it was argued that the
topic of legality or illegalitys one which States have deliberately chosen
not to broach directly or indirectly. The method deliberately chosen by
States on this matter is, we are told, "by elaborating and developing a
body of very complex and highly technical international treaty law"

(CR95124, p. 41, Germany). Despite this, the request seeks, according to
some submissions, to draw the Court into a purely political debate in a
realm not pertaining to itsjudicial function. For such reasons, the request
is said to be one which is not amenable to judicial enquiry.

These objections have been effectivelyanswered by the Court, sofar as
concerns the General Assembly request. The same reasoning would apply
in regard to WHO'S request. Stronger objections have been taken to the
WHO request than were taken in regard to the General Assembly request;
but the same reasoning on which the Court has overruled the objections
to the General Assembly request would apply equally to the WHO
request. The fact that the legal question is inextricably interlinked with
political considerations, that political motives are alleged to lie behind

the request, that political consequences would ensue from a ruling of the
Court - these are matters exganeous to the consideration whether a
given matter is a legal one. In fact, in the international world there are
fewissuesindeed which do not havepolitical overtones in varying degrees.
The weightier the issue, the heavier its likely political overtones. The
heavier its political overtones, the more necessary it may be to seek a
legal opinion. Whether the question be raised by the General Assemblyg) la question est trop générale;
12) un avis consultatif en la matière nuirait au prestige de la Cour;

i) la Cour s'engagerait dans une tâche normative si elle donnait l'avis
consultatif demandé;
j) la présente affairen'est pas du type de celles dans lesquelles il con-
vient de donner un avis consultatif;
k) l'avis consultatif s'aventurerait dans des secteurs relevant de l'impe-

rium étatique.

a) L'avis consultatif demandéentrerait dansle domaine de lapolitique

Les arguments regroupés sousce titre sont de divers ordres.
On a tout d'abord fait valoir que la demande vise seulement à enrichir
un dossier répondant à un objectif politique et que, malgréun «camou-
flagejuridique)) (exposéécrit dela France, p.7), la question n'est pas de
caractère juridique. La France est alléejusqu'à dire que «ces questions
sont de nature purement politique)) et qu'«elles sont de toute évidence
soulevées à des fins exclusivementpolitiques)) (CR 95123,p. 66).

Il a également étésoutenu que demander àla Cour de seprononcer sur
la question à l'examen, c'étaitpasser outre à la volontédes Etats inté-
ressésen touchant à un domaine dont ils se sont soigneusement gardés
d'approcher. Développant cette thèse, d'aucuns ont prétendu que le
uroblème de la licéitéou de l'illicéiest de ceux aue les Etats ont déli-
bérémentchoisi de ne pas soulever directement ou indirectement. La
méthode pour laquelle ils ont opté en cette matière est, nous dit-on,
((d'élaboreret de développer un ensemble de règles conventionnelles
internationales très complexes et hautement techniques)) (CR95124,
p. 41, Allemagne) et la demande d'avis consultatif cherche, malgré celà,
mêlerla Cour à un débatpurement politique dans un domaine étranger à

sa fonction iudiciaire. Telles sont les raisons Dour lesauelles la demande
ne se prêteraitpas à une analyse judiciaire.
Ces obiections ont été réfutéesDar la Cour dans l'avis au'elle a rendu
suite à la demande de l'Assembléegénérale.On peut leur réserverle
mêmesort dans le contexte de la demande présentéepar l'OMS. Elles ont
étéformuléesavec plus de force à propos de la seconde demande qu'à
propos de la première,mais le raisonnement qui a conduit la Cour à les
rejeter dans le premier cas vaut égalementpour le second. Les liens inex-
tricables entre le juridique et le politique, les mobiles politiques dont
s'inspirerait la demande, les conséquencespolitiques qui découleraient
d'une décision dela Cour, tout cela est étrangerau point de savoir si la

question soulevée estou non de caractèrejuridique. En fait, il n'ya guère
de problèmes sur la scèneinternationale qui n'aient à des degrés divers
des incidences politiques. Plus le problème est important, plus il risque
d'avoir des incidences politiques; et plus il risque d'avoir des incidences
politiques plus il appelle un avisjuridique. Peu importe que la question
émane de l'OMS ou de l'Assembléegénérale:si elleest de caractèrejuri-or by WHO, if it is a legal issue it is a proper matter for the Court, and
there this particular objection ends. As this Court has observed:

"in situations in which political considerations are prominent it may
be particularly necessary for an international organization to obtain
an advisory opinion from the Court as to the legal principles appli-
cable with respect to the matter under debate" (Interpretation oftize

Agreement of 25 Mavch 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, I.C.J.
Reports 1980, p. 87, para. 33).
The delicate nuances of diplomatic activity on the subject of nuclear
weapons are matters for the appropriate political authorities to pursue.

This Court cannot thereby be deterred from addressing its proper func-
tion - givingits considered opinion on the purely legal question referred
to it, irrespective of the political implications of the subject.
Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, in referring to the prior jurisprudence of the
observed that, "if the question put [to the Court] is in itself a
legal question, .. .the fact that it has a political element isirrelevant" 55.

Thejoint dissenting opinion of Judges Onyeama, Dillard, de Aréchaga

and Waldock is also worthy of note in this connection:
"'Few indeed would be the cases justiciable before the Court if a
legal dispute were to be regarded as deprived of its legal character by
reason of one or both parties being also influenced by political

considerations. Neither in contentious casesnor in requests for advi-
sory opinions has the Permanent Court or this Court ever at any
time admitted the idea that an intrinsically legal issue could lose
its legal character by reason of political considerations surrounding
it.' (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), I.C.J. Reports 1974,
p. 518 .)" (CR95/27, p. 61.)

The statement referred to earlier that the questions are "of a purely
political nature" does not stand the test of these considerations. More-
over, the suggested motivation of the questions is quite obviously not a
matter for speculation on the part of the Court.

(b) Nuclear weaponsave being addressedin other contexts in the United
Nations
The argument that matters relating to nuclear weapons are the

preserve of other organs of the United Nations has been used for two
purposes in the present application :

54 Conditions of Admission of a State to Membership in tlze United Nations (Article 4
of Clzarter), Advisory Opinion, 1948,I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948,p. 57, Competence of the
GeneralAssembly for the Admissiotz of a State to the United Nations, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 4, and Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary
an55RThe Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice, op. cit., p. 116.dique, elle relèvede la Cour, un point, c'est tout. Comme l'a soulignéla

Cour :
((lorsque des considérations politiques jouent un rôle marquant, il
peut être particulièrementnécessaire à une organisation internatio-
nale d'obtenir un avis consultatif de la Cour sur les principes juri-
diques applicables à la matièreen discussion»(Interprétationde l'ac-

cord du 25 mars 1951 entre l'OMS et I'Egypte, C.I.J. Recueil 1980,
p. 87, par. 33).
Les finesses de l'activitédiplomatique en matière d'armes nucléaires
doivent êtrelaisséesaux autorités politiques. Elles ne peuvent retenir la

Cour de s'acquitter de sa fonction propre - donner en toute conscience
son avis sur la question juridique qui lui a été soumise, quellesqu'en
soient les implications politiques.
Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, jetant un regard rétrospectif sur la jurispru-
dence de la Cour 54,a fait observer que «si la question posée [àla Cour] est
en elle-même unequestion juridique ..le fait qu'elle comporte un élé-
ment politique est sans pertinence^^^.

L'opinion dissidente commune de MM. Onyeama, Dillard, de Aré-
chaga et Waldock mériteégalementd'êtrecitéeici:
«Bien rares seraient en effet les affaires iusticiables au regard de
la Cour s'ilfallait considérer qu'un différendjuridique perdSon ca-
ractère juridique chaque fois que l'une ou l'autre des parties ou les

deux sont influencées aussipar des considérations politiques. Ni en
matière contentieuse ni à propos d'une demande d'avis consultatif,
la Cour permanente ou la Cour actuelle n'a jamais admis qu'une
contestation de caractère intrinsèquement juridique puisse perdre ce
caractère en raison des considérations politiques qui s'y attachent. ))
(Essaisnucléaires(Nouvelle-Zélandec. France), C.I.J. Recueil 1974,
p. 518.)~ (CR95127, p. 61.)

Eu égard à ce qui précède,l'affirmation, évoquée plushaut, selon
laquelle les questions sont «de nature purement politique)) ne tient pas.
Au surplus, les mobiles qui les auraient prétendument inspirées nesau-
raient faire l'objet de conjectures de la part de la Cour.

b) La question des armes nucléaires est ù l'étudedans d'autres enceintes
aux Nations Unies

L'argument selon lequel le domaine des armes nucléaires est réservé à
d'autres organes des Nations Unies a étéavancédans la présenteaffaire:

54Conditions de I'adinissiond'un Etat comme Membre des Nations Unies (article 4 de
la Clzarre), avis consultatif; 1948, C.I.J. Recueil 1947-1948, p. 57; Compétence de
l'Assembléegénéralpour l'admissiond'un Etat aux Nations Unies, avis consultatif; C.I.J.
Recueil 1950, p. 4, et Interprétation des traités de paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la
Hongrie et la Rouinanie, premièrephase, avis consultatif; C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 65.
55Tlîe Law und Procedure of the International Court of Justice, op. cit., p. 116. (a) so far as concerns the capacity of WHO to make this application; and
(6) so far as concernsthe capacity of this Court to considerthe application.
The first has been dealt with in the section of this opinion dealing with
the Principle of Speciality (Sec. V.2).
The second has been dealt with by the Court in answering the General
Assembly's request. 1 associate myself with the Court's answer to that
objection as contained in its Opinion regarding the General Assembly
reauest.

The mere circumstance that a matter is pending in other forumscannot
deprive a legal question of the quality of being legal, nor can it deprive
the Court of a jurisdiction expressly vested in it by the Charter. Nor can
the circumstance that it relates to international peace and security pre-
serve such a matter within the exclusivejurisdiction of the Security Coun-
cil and exclude it from the jurisdiction of the Court. It would be quite
impossible for the Court to function as the principal judicial organ of the
United Nations if this were the case, and the Court is required to abdi-
cate jurisdiction merely because a matter involves peace and security.

The entire jurisprudence of the Court militates against this proposi-
tion. Cases such as the Genocidecase, relating to Bosnia, and the Locker-
bie case, despite the heaviest implications attaching to them relating to
peace and security, were nevertheless entertained and handled by the
Court. Likewise, in regard to advisory jurisdiction matters, the fact that
the international status of South West Africa was a question which
threatened peace and security did not prevent the Court from giving the
opinion requested.
Just as the presence of a political elementdoes not take away the juris-

diction of the Court, so also the presence of an element relating to peace
and security does not take away from WHO its undoubted competence in
relation to medical matters.

(c) An opinion kvouldbe devoid of object oupuupose
Advisory procedure is intended to allow the body invoking it to seek a

legal opinion that will be of assistance to it in the performance of its
duties. WHO, for reasons best known to it, has decided to seek the
Court's opinion. It is an expert body charged with worldwide responsi-
bilities in relation to the health of the global population. As discussed
earlier, it has obligations not only to render assistance after a health
catastrophe, but to plan its services before the occurrence of the catas-
trophe. 1twould otherwise be denying itself the ability to be of maximum
usefulness to the global community. It seeks information in regard to the
nuclear catastrophe, the worst health catastrophe that can befall human-
ity. Provided the request is within the scope of its activities, as the earlier
part of this opinion seeks to show, the Court must respect the technical
judgment of WHO when it decides that it needs that opinion. As Egypt
put it, it would be "improper" for the Court to indulge in speculationa) àpropos de la compétence del'OMS pour présentersa demande;
b) àpropos de la compétence dela Cour pour examiner la demande.

Sur le premier point, je renvoie à la section de la présente opinion
concernant le principe de spécialité (sect. par. 2).
Sur le second, la Cour s'est expriméedans le cadre de l'avis qu'ellea
donnéen réponse àla demande de l'Assemblée généralJee. m'associe à ce
qu'elle a ditàcet égarddans l'avis enquestion.

Un problème peut être à l'étudedans d'autres enceintes sans que dis-
paraissent pour autant son caractère juridique et le pouvoir de la Cour

d'exercer à son endroit une compétence que lui confèreexpressémentla
Charte. De même, unequestion peut toucher àla paix et à la sécurité
internationales sans pour autant êtreexclusivement réservée au Conseil
de sécurité etsoustraiteà la compétence dela Cour. S'il enétait autre-
ment et si la Cour devait renoncer à exercer sa com~étencedès lors
qu'une question touche à la paix età la sécurité,il lui serait toàtfait
impossible de s'acquitter desesfonctions d'organejudiciaire principal des
Nations Unies.
Toute lajurisprudence de la Cour va contre l'argument considéréD . es
affaires comme celles du Génocide.concernant la Bosnie. ou celle de

Lockerbie, malgréleur poids considkrable du point de vue déla paix et de
la sécuritéinternationales, ont été considérée comme recevables par la
Cour, qui a statué à leur sujet. De même,dans le domaine de la compé-
tence consultative, le fait que le statut international du Sud-Ouest afri-
cain étaitune question qui menaçait la paix et la sécuritéinternationales
n'a pas empêché la Cour de donner l'avis demandé.
Tout comme la présenced'une composante politique ne dépouillepas
la Cour de sa compétence à l'égardd'une question, la présenced'une
composante paix et sécurité internationales ne dépouillepas l'OMS desa
compétence incontestée à l'égard desquestions médicales.

c) Un avis consultatif serait dépourvud'objetet de but
La procédure consultative est destinée à permettre à l'organe qui y

recourt de solliciter un avisjuridique qui l'aidera dans l'accomplissement
de sa mission. L'OMS, pour des raisons qui la regardent, a décidé de
demander un avis àla Cour. C'estune institution technique qui a, dans le
domaine de la santémondiale, des responsabilités à l'échellede la pla-
nète. Commeje l'aiindiquéplus haut, elledoit non seulement fournir une
assistance en cas de catastrophe sanitaire, mais aussi planifier la fourni-
ture de ses servicesavant que la catastrophe ne soit là, si ellene veut pas
se priver de la possibilitéde servir avec un maximum d'efficacitéles
besoins de la communauté mondiale. Elle sollicite des informations au
sujet du cataclysme nucléaire,le pire cataclysme que puisse connaître

l'humanitédu point de vue de la santé publique. Du moment que sa
demande se situe dans les limites de sa mission et la premièrepartie de
la présente opinion s'emploie à démontrer que tel est bien le cas - laabout the consequences of an opinion which the requesting organ, in its
collective wisdom, has referred to the Court.

(d) An opinion would have no effect on the conduct of States

Clarification of the law by an authoritative body can never be described
as having no effect upon the community bound by that law. The proposi-
tion is incontrovertible that clear law is a guide to societal conduct.uch
clarity is in the interests of the community served by that law, whether
that community be national or global. It is not for the Court to speculate
as to whether that clarification of the law will be complied with or not.

As Egypt so aptly submitted, the first Advisory Opinion given by this
Court on the status of South West Africa was a statement of the law

which was not acted upon by those who should have acted upon it. The
Court, rendering the opinion, was probably aware of the likelihood that
this opinion would not be acted upon. Yet there can be little doubt that
the clarification of the law resulting from that opinion was a factor which
helped, over the long term, in the eventual dismantling of a structure
which was anathema to the rule of law.
So,also, in regard to nuclear weapons. Whatever be the opinion of the
Court,and whether the advisory opinion clarifying the law be acted upon
or not, it must prove a valuable building block in the realization of a
world ruled by law which in the ultimate analysis is what al1members of
the world community desire.
It is axiomatic that every individual in any community living under the
rule of law is entitled to know the rules that relate to his or her protec-
tion, and the basic rules relating to the rights or duties of every member
of that community. Not for nothing were the XII Tables publicly posted
in the Roman forum. It would be strange indeed if the rule of law was
said to prevail in any society whose individual members did not know
whether, in quarrels between neighbours with which they were not con-
cerned, their neighbours had the right to indulge in conduct which could

destroy the former's lives and property. It would be stranger still if they
did not have this right of information in matters which spell the differ-
ence between the survival and the extinction of their entire family. It can-
not be any different in the international legal system.
The contention that the opinion would have no effect upon the con-
duct of States is thus not true to reality. The Court upholds the rule of
law, serves a community bound to obey the rule of law and can only
function on the supposition that a community subject to the rule of law
will rule itself by law.
One is reminded of the statement of this Court in the Western Sahara
case where the Court was greatly influenced, in deciding to respond posi-
tively to the request for an opinion, by the circumstance that its replyCour doit, sil'OMSdécideque l'avisdemandélui est nécessaire, s'incliner
devant cette appréciation technique. Elle serait, comme le dit l'Egypte,
«mal venue)) à se livrerà des conjectures quant aux conséquencesd'un
avis que l'organe qui le demande a collectivement jugé sagede solliciter.

d) Un avis consultatif serait sans effet sur le comportement des Etats

L'élucidationdu contenu du droit par un organisme habiliténe peut en
aucune circonstance êtredécritecomme n'ayant aucun effet sur la collec-
tivitérégiepar ce droit.Il n'est pas contestable que des règlesjuridiques
claires guident la sociétdans ses choix. Si le droit est clair, il sert mieux
les intérêts dla collectivité qu'il régit, qu'oit nationale ou mondiale.

La Cour n'a pas à se demander si une suite positive sera donnée à son
effort d'élucidationdu droit.
Comme l'a fort justement fait observer l'Egypte, la Cour internatio-
nale de Justice a eu, dans son premier avis consultatif, à se prononcer
sur l'étatdu droit touchant le statut du Sud-Ouest africain et ceux qui
auraient dû tirer les conséquencesde cet avis ne s'ysont pas conformés.
Il n'est pourtant pas douteux qu'en élucidant l'étatdu droit, l'avis en
question a, avec le temps, contribuéau démantèlementd'un régimequi
attentaità la règlede droit.

La mêmeremarque vaut pour les armes nucléaires. Quelleque soit la
conclusion de la Cour et quel qu'en soit l'effet, un avisconsultatif préci-
sant l'étatdu droit ne peut être qu'unepiècemaîtresse dans l'édification
d'un monde régipar le droit qui est, en dernière analyse, l'idéalauquel

tous les membres de la communauté mondiale aspirent.
C'estune vérité premièrq eue tout membre d'unecollectivitévivant sous
l'empire du droit doit pouvoir connaître les règlesqui le protègent et les
règlesfondamentales relativesaux droits et obligations de chaque membre
de la collectivité. Cen'est pas pour rien que les Douze Tables étaientpla-
cardées bien envue dans le forum romain. Il serait surprenant que soit
considérée comme vivantsous l'empire du droit une sociétédont les
membres ne sauraient pas s'il est loisibleà leurs voisins,à l'occasion de
querelles mutuelles ne lesconcernant nullement, d'adopter un comporte-
ment aboutissant àla destruction de leur vieet de leurs biens.Il serait plus
surprenant encore qu'ilsn'aient pasle droit d'êtrerenseignéssur des ques-
tions décisivespour la survie ou la disparition de toute leur famille. Ce
raisonnement vaut nécessairementpour l'ordre juridique international.
L'argument selon lequel l'avis n'aurait aucun effet sur le comporte-

ment des Etats méconnaît donc la réalité.La Cour défendla règle de
droit, elle est au service d'une communautérégiepar la règlede droit et
ne peut fonctionner qu'en partant de l'idéequ'une communautéassujettie
à la règlede droit est résoluea se comporter conformémentau droit.
On est tenté d'évoquerici l'affaire du Sahara occidentaloù la Cour a
étéfortement influencée,dans sa décisionde répondrepositivement àla
demande d'avis consultatif qui lui était adressée, par le fait que safulfilled "a practical and contemporary purpose" (I.C.J. Reports 1975,
p. 20). It is difficult to think of a more "practical and contemporary pur-
pose" than the clarification of the law attendant on the use or threat of

use of nuclear weapons.
There is another angle as well from which this objection can be viewed.
It is the unanimous sentiment of the international community, as evi-
denced in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (Article VI of which
commits every State to general and complete nuclear disarmament) and
numerous other international documents, that there should be a striving
towards the goal of total nuclear disarmament. The road towards this
goal is a difficult one. The Court's opinion one way or another on the
legality of nuclear weapons would clarify the steps which the interna-
tional community needs to take towards removing the obstacles along the
path to the attainment of that goal.

It is for the Court to pronounce upon what the law is. Other matters,
extraneous to the question of legality, are not factors which should deter
the Court from doing its duty.

(e) An opinion could adversely affect important disarmament nego-
tiations

It has been said in argument that a reply by the Court will adversely
affect the course of current disarmament negotiations.
In terms equally applicable to the WHO request, France observed of
the General Assembly's request :
"a reply from the Court, far from representing a positive contribution
to the functioning of the General Assembly, and the United Nations
as a whole, could but adversely affect the current negotiations to

achieve a more secure world" (France, Written Statement, p. 16).
This is said to be particularly so at a time when, with the end of the Cold
War, disarmament talks have achieved a fresh impetus.

It is not for the Court to indulge in speculation as to the likely effect
upon future negotiations of a finding by the Court one way or the other.
Nor is the Court competent to assess the subtle diplomatic nuances of

complex situations in an area outside its proper domain. It is difficult to
see how speculation as to whether an advisory opinion could adversely
affect important disarmament negotiations can affect the question of the
Court's competence to consider a legal question.

What the Court needs to consider is whether it is possessed of the
requisite jurisdiction to address theparticularmatter on which an opinion
is sought. If it has this jurisdiction it must proceed. UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.WEERAMANTRY 1)60

réponse servait «un objectif pratique et actuel)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1975,
p. 20). Y a-t-il une question qui remplisse, mieux que celle de l'élucida-
tion du droit applicable à l'emploi ou à la menace d'emploi des armes
nucléaires,le critère de'«objectif pratique et actuel))?
L'objection considéréepeut êtreenvisagéesous un autre angle.
Il est unanimement admis au sein de la communauté internationale,
comme en témoignent tant le traité de non-prolifération nucléaire (et
l'engagement pris par chaque Etat, aux termes de son article VI, de tra-
vailler au désarmement nucléaire général ectomplet) que de nombreux
autres documents internationaux, que tous les efforts doivent être faits
pour parvenir au désarmementnucléairetotal. C'est là un but difficilà

atteindre. L'avis de la Cour, dans un sens ou dans l'autre, sur la licéité
des armes nucléairesaiderait à identifier les mesures que la communauté
internationale doit prendre pour éliminerles obstacles qui encombrent la
voie menant à ce but.
C'està la Cour qu'il appartient de dire quel est l'étatdu droit. Les élé-
ments étrangers à la question de la licéité nedoivent pas arrêter laCour
dans l'accomplissement desa tâche.

e) Un avis consultatif pourrait cornpromettred'importantes négociations
sur le désarmement

On a soutenu qu'une réponse de la Cour pourrait compromettre les
négociations sur le désarmement actuellement en cours.

Enonçant un argument quivaut égalementpour la demande de l'OMS,
la France a dit,à propos de la demande de l'Assembléegénérale:
«une réponsede la Cour, loin de constituer une contribution positive
au fonctionnement de l'Assembléegénérale, et desNations Unies
dans leur ensemble, ne pourrait que nuire aux négociationsen cours
pour instaurer un monde plus sûr» (exposé écrit de laFrance, p. 16).

Un tel résultat serait, nous dit-on, particulièrement regrettable en un
temps où, avec la fin de la guerre froide, les négociations surle désarme-
ment ont pris un nouvel essor.
Il n'appartient pas à la Cour de se livrer à des conjectures touchant
l'effet probable, sur des négociations futures, de la conclusion qu'elle
pourrait formuler dans un sens ou dans l'autre. Il n'appartient pas non
plus àla Cour d'entrer dans les arcanes de l'activitédiplomatique sur des

situations complexes relevant d'un domaine extérieur au sien. On voit
mal d'ailleurs quel rapport il pourrait y avoir entre des suppositions
concernant les éventuelles répercussions négatives d'un avis consultatif
sur d'importantes négociationsen matière de désarmementet la question
de la compétence dela Cour pour examiner une question juridique.
Ce qu'il appartient en revanche à la Cour de faire, c'est dedéterminer
si elleest investie de la compétencenécessairepour examiner telle ou telle
question sur laquelle un avis lui est demandé.Si elle a cette compétence,
elle doit aller de l'avant. It is difficult to see how, if the Court has the authority to give this
opinion, it should be invited to desist from using this authority merely
because some members of the community of nations prefer to proceed
upon the basis of uncertainty rather than clarity of the applicable law
and thereby to proceed on premises which may eventually turn out to be
false, one way or the other. Whether the use of the weapon would or
would not be a breach of State responsibility, the sooner the correct posi-
tion is known, the firmer will be the basis on which the negotiations will
proceed.

(f) The question referred ispurely abstract and theoretical

The question is said to be abstract and theoretical, as it is not related to
any specificthreat or imminent use of a nuclear weapon. Such opinion as
the Court may give is said therefore to be one which has little regard to
practicalities. It is submitted that the question is general, vague and
iinprecise, whereas Article 65 (2) of the Statute requires that the written
request should contain "an exact statement of the question upon which
an opinion is required". Reference is made in this connection to the Advi-

sory Opinion on Namibia where this Court observed that:

"to enable a court to pronounce on legal questions, it must also be
acquainted with, take into account and, if necessary, make findings
as to the relevant factual issues" (Legal Consequen.cesfor States of

the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West
Afvica) notwithstanding Securit,~ Council Resolution 276 (1970),
I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 27).

France similarly argued that the Court's response should not involve

speculation which, in the present case, is claimed to be inevitable in the
absence of specific facts to which the legal question is related (France,
Written Statement, p. 15).
France argued that it is:

"impossible to examine the issue of nuclear weapons irrespective of
their realpurpose, which is to avoid war. Nor can it disregard the
fact that, for decades, the policy of deterrence has helped to ward off
the risk of a new world conflict." (Ibid., p. 20.)

Finland contended that the legality of the use of nuclear weapons can
only be determined in respect of specificcircumstances, for there can be a
large number of potential situations - for example, first use, counter use,
different practices of targeting, different types of nuclear weapons - and
the Court cannot hypothesize about al1these possibilities (Written State-
ment of Finland, p. 4). This aspect was rather bluntly put by France On ne voit guèrecomment la Cour, si ellea le pouvoir de donner I'avis
sollicité,pourrait êtreinvitée à abdiquer ce pouvoir pour le simple motif
que certains membres de la communauté des nations préfèrenttabler sur
l'incertitude du droit applicable plutôt que sur sa clartéet donc tabler sur
des hypothèses - dans un sens ou dans l'autre - qui peuvent en fin de

compte se révélercontrouvées. Que l'utilisation des armes nucléaires soit
ou non un manquement au devoir des Etats, il est préférable de savoirau
plus tôt à quoi s'en tenir de façon que les négociationsse déroulent sur
une base plus solide.

f) La questionposéeest purement abstraite et théorique

L'argument a étéavancéque la question posée estabstraite et théo-
rique en ce sens qu'elle n'entrevoit pas d'utilisation imminente ou de
menace d'emploi d'une arme nucléaireet que l'avisconsultatif, quel qu'il
soit, que pourrait donner la Cour n'aurait pas grand lien avec les réalités
pratiques. On a prétendu que la question étaitgénérale, vague etimpré-
cise alors que l'article65, paragraphe 2, du Statut exige que la requête
écrite((formule, en termes précis, la question sur laquelle l'avis de la
Cour est demandé)).Mention a étéfaite à cet égard del'avis consultatif
sur la Namibie où la Cour a déclaréque:

«pour être à mêmede se prononcer sur des questions juridiques, un
tribunal doit ...avoir connaissance des faits correspondants, les
prendre en considération et, le cas échéant,statuer à leur sujet))
(Conséquencesjuridiques pour lesEtats de la présence continue de
l'Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest afvicain, nonobstant la

résolution 276(1970) du Conseil de sécurité,C.I.J. Recueil 1971,
p. 27).
La France a soutenu de la mêmemanièreque la réponsedela Cour ne
devait pas reposer sur des conjectures, ce qu'elle nepourrait manquer de

faire en l'occurrence faute des données de faitprécisesentourant la ques-
tion juridique (exposé écritde la France, p. 15).
La France estime:

((impossible d'examiner la question des armes nucléaires indépen-
damment de leur objectif réel,qui est d'éviterla guerre. Elle ne peut
pas non plus ignorer que, depuis des décennies,la politique de dis-
suasion a contribué à écarterlerisque d'un nouveau conflit mondial))
(ibid., p. 20).

La Finlande a fait valoir que la licéitde l'emploi desarmes nucléaires
ne peut s'apprécierque dans des circonstances précises vuqu'on peut se
trouver en présence de situations très variées - par exemple premier
emploi, riposte, emploi de telle ou telle technique de viséedes objectifs,
emploi de tel ou tel type d'armes nucléaires - et que la Cour ne peut pas
construire des hypothèses à partir d'une telle gamme de possibilitéswhen it stated that, in the absence of factual issues, the Court would have
to discover and invent them and that the Court's "function is to state the
law, not to write scenarios" (CR95123, p. 62).

There are several reasons why this line of argument cannot succeed.
In the first place, the question posed to the Court is a very specific
question relating to State responsibility for health, State responsibility in
regard to the environment, and State responsibility under the WHO Con-
stitution. The effects of nuclear weapons are amply documented and are
well known. There is no element of abstractness about those concrete
facts. The question posed by WHO relates those questions of State
responsibility to those concrete facts.

Secondly, a distinction must be made between a question which is
abstract in the sense of being unrelated to reality, and one which is
abstract in the sense of being theoretical, though related to reality. A

question based upon invented facts, unrelated to reality or upon prob-
lems stemming from those invented facts, is clearly the sort of abstract
question which the Court cannot entertain. Self-evidently, the advisory
jurisdiction of the Court was not constructed to enable it to stage moot
courts, but to clarify legal problems on live issues in the real world. Few
issues in the real worldcan be so live and cause such universal concern as
the question whether or not the use of nuclear weapons is compatible
with basic principles of State responsibility.

Thirdly, a request for an opinion upon a pure point of law which can
clearly be of great practical importance to the community of nations can-
not be ruled out on the basis of being abstract or hypothetical. The
answer to such a question can be an invaluable source of guidance to the
international community. The purpose of a clarification of the law is to
assist individuals and entities subject to the law in guiding and control-
ling their social behaviour. Such a ruling, given in anticipation of an

actual occurrence, would serve a useful societal purpose, as pointed out
earlier.Such a ruling, given subsequent to an actual occurrence or threat,
could savour of the ridiculous, especially in the context of such a ques-
tion as the use of nuclear weapons.

In the fourth place, it seems to me that this objection is unrelated to
the basic nature of the Court's advisory function. The advisory function
was specificallytailored to deal with questions of law that have a practi-
cal connotation. For example, questions could be raised in anticipation,
so as to clear doubts which might prevent an organization from deciding
on its proper course of legal action in a foreseen eventuality. To attempt
to restrict the advisory opinion to a specificsituation which has actually(exposé écrit dela Finlande, p. 4). Cette idéea été expriméseans ambages
par la France lorsqu'elle a affirméque, n'étantpas en présencede don-
néesde fait, la Cour devrait lesdécouvriret lesinventer et que la fonction
des membres de la Cour est d'être «des ((diseurs de droit)), pas des
auteurs de scénarios))(CR 95123,p. 62).
Cet argument est dépourvude valeur à plusieurs titres.
Tout d'abord, la question poséeà la Cour est une question très précise
se rapportant aux responsabilitésdes Etats dans le domaine de la santé,
aux responsabilitésdes Etats dans le domaine de l'environnement et aux
responsabilitésdes Etats au regard de la Constitution de l'OMS. Il existe
un dossier volumineux sur les effets des armes nucléaires,qui sont donc

bien connus. Sont en jeu des faits concrets qui n'ont rien d'abstrait. La
question poséepar l'OMS met en regard des questions de responsabilité
des Etats et des faits concrets.
En second lieu, une question qui est abstraite parce que dépourvuede
tout lien avec la réalité n'etas la même chosequ'une question qui est
abstraite parce que théorique, mais qui a un lien avec la réalité.Une
question inspiréepar des faits inventésn'ayant pas de lien avec la réalité
ou par des problèmes découlant deces faits inventésappartient mani-
festement à la catégoriedes questions abstraites dont la Cour ne peut se
saisir. Il va de soi que la compétence consultative n'a pas étéinstituée
pour donner à la Cour la possibilité dese prononcer sur des causes fic-
tives mais pour élucider des problèmesjuridiques relatifà des questions
se posant effectivement dans le monde réel. Peude questions se posent

effectivement dans le monde réelavec une acuitéaussi universellement
perçue que cellede savoir si lesarmes nucléairessont ou non compatibles
avec les principes fondamentaux de la responsabilitédes Etats.
En troisième lieu,une demande d'avis consultatif sur un point de droit
pur qui peut de toute évidenceêtre d'unegrande importance pratique
pour la communauté internationale n'est pas à écarterau motif qu'elle
aurait une base abstraite ou hypothétique. La réponse à une telle ques-
tion a toute chance d'apporter une aide inestimable à la communauté
internationale. Le but de l'élucidationdu droit est d'aider les personnes
et les entitésassujetties au droità définirl'orientationà donner et les
limitesà assigner à leur comportement social. Une prise de position in-
tervenant avant l'événemenr templirait, comme je l'ai déjà indiqué, une
fonction utile en termes de société.Une prise de position intervenant
au lendemain ou à la veille de l'événementaurait quelque chose d'ab-

surde, surtout s'agissant d'une question comme l'utilisation des armes
nucléaires.
En quatrième lieu, il me semble que l'objection considérée méconnaît
la caractéristique essentielle de la fonction consultative de la Cour. La
fonction consultative a étéspécialementconçue pour l'examen desques-
tions de droit ayant des connotations pratiques. Par exemple, ellepermet
de soulever un problème par anticipation pour dissiper les incertitudes
qui pourraient empêcher uneorganisation de choisir la ligne juridique
correcte dans telle ou telle circonstance prévisible. Vouloir limiter la 163 USE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS (DISS .P.WEERAMANTRY)

arisen is to confuse the advisory function with the judicial function in
contentious cases. The latter looks back upon a factual situation that has
already occurred. It necessarilyoperates post factum. The advisory func-
tion, on the other hand, may look back to a past event or it may look
forward to the future, seeking guidance for the resolution of an expected
practical problem. It has the flavour of the work of the Roman juriscon-
sult whose opinions, by giving guidance for the future, in relation to situ-
ations which may not already have occurred, formed one of the principal
factors in developing that monumental system of law.

It was after considerable debate that this advisory function was given

to the Permanent Court and its successor; and it was one of the means by
which this first ever international court was taken out of the narrow
mould of contentious jurisdiction which had confined international tri-
bunals in the past. The world community was thereby given the means to
seek guidance, having regard to the many matters on which the world
community would need guidance on the law in order to shape its con-
duct. The case of nuclear weapons, on the use or non-use of which al1
civilization depends, is the classic instance of such a matter. It is indeed
difficult to see a more appropriate case for the invocation of that advi-
sory jurisdiction.

To conclude the consideration of this ground of objection, reference
should be made to the Conditions of Admission case where this Court

observed :
"According to Article 96 of the Charter and Article 65 of the Stat-
ute, the Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question,
abstract or otheri.vise."(Conditionsof Admission of a State to Mem-
bership in the United Nations (Article 4 of Charter), 1948, I.C.J.
Reports 1947-1948,p. 61 ;emphasis added.)

(g) The question is too general

Some submissions were made (for example, by Australia) that the
question is too general. The analogy offered by Australia was the ques-
tion "What are the rules of customary international law?" Though such
a question is manifestly a legal question, it was submitted that this was

the sort of question that the Court should not answer.
There can be little doubt that a question as broadly framed as the ana-
logy suggested is far too general for it to be sensibly addressed. The
present question is clearly in a totally different category. It does not
traverse a considerable segment of the totality of international law as
does the comparison offered, but is indeed a limited question, confined to
State responsibility in regard to the use or threat of use of a specifictype
of weapon.compétence consultative aux situations concrètes qui existent effective-
ment, c'est la confondre avec la compétencejudiciaire en matière conten-

tieuse. Dans le cadre de cette dernière, la Cour s'intéresserétrospective-
ment à des situations de fait qui se sont déjàproduites mais, dans le
cadre de sa compétence consultative, elle peut se référerà un événement
passéou anticiper un événementfutur, son but étant de fournir un guide
pour la solution d'un problème pratique que l'on s'attend à voir surgir.
La fonction consultative n'est pas sans évoquer le rôle du jurisconsulte
romain dont les avis, en éclairantla route à suivreà l'avenirà l'égard de
problèmes éventuels ou réels,ont apporté une contribution majeure à
l'édificationd'un systèmejuridique imposant.
L'attributionà la Cour permanente, puis à la Cour elle-même,d'une

fonction consultative a été précédé de beaucoup de discussions. Elle a
étéun moyen parmi d'autres de faire sortir la première Cour internatio-
nale de l'histoire du carcan étroit de la compétence contentieuse dans
lequel étaient enserrés les tribunaux antérieurs. La communauté des
nations s'est ainsivu donner la possibilitéd'obtenir des avis eu égardau
nombre des questions sur lesquelles elle a besoin d'êtreéclairéesur
l'état dedroit pour déterminer sa ligne de conduite. De ces questions,
celle des armes nucléaires - dont l'utilisation ou la non-utilisation
conditionne l'avenir de la civilisation offre un exemple classique. On
n'en voit guèrequi se prêtentmieux à l'exercicede la fonction consulta-

tive.
Pour en terminer avec l'argument considéré,je voudrais évoquer
l'affaire desConditions de l'admission d'unEtat dans laquelle la Cour a
déclaré :

((Selon l'article 96 de la Charte et l'article 65du Statut, la Cour
peut donner un avis consultatif surtoute questionjuridique abstraite
ou non. ))(Conditions de l'admission d'unEtat comme Membre des
Nations Unies (article 4 de la Charte), 1948, C.I.J. Recueil 1947-
1948, p. 61; les italiques sont de moi.)

g) La question est trop générale

La question, ont prétendu certains, dont l'Australie, est trop générale.
Pour l'Australie, poser une telle question c'est comme demander quelles
sont les règlesdu droit international coutumier: il y a manifestement là
une interrogation juridique mais ce n'est pas à la Cour d'y répondre.

Une question aux contours aussi imprécis que celle qu'évoque
l'Australie pour illustrer son propos est sans conteste trop généralepour

pouvoir êtresérieusement abordée. Mais la question qui nous occupe
n'est à l'évidencepas du mêmeordre. Bien loin de couvrir un pan très
étendu sinon la totalité du droit international, elle porte sur un point
limité,à savoir la responsabilitédes Etats en matière d'emploi ou de me-
nace d'emploi d'un type d'armes déterminé.(h) An opinion rendered inthis matter would be damaging tothe pres-
tige of the Court

It is submitted that if the Court should trespass outside its proper judi-
cial function, such a course would be damaging to the Court's prestige.
This case was contrasted with cases such as the Conditions of Admission
case (supra) where the Court was invited to undertake what was described
as an essentially judicial task, namely, the interpretation of a treaty pro-

vision. On the contrary, the question now before the Court is said to
require the Court to engage in speculation and to encroach upon the sov-
ereign powers of States. Were the Court to move in this direction, it is
argued that it would compromise the Court's judicial role.
It cannot be damaging to the Court to consider a legal question prop-
erly referred to it. What could be damaging to the Court is a refusa1by it
to consider such a question on grounds of political implications and like
considerations, for then the Court would (to quote the P.C.I.J.'s state-
ment in Status of Eastern Carelia,as approved by this Court in Northern
Cameroons) "depart from the essential rules guiding their activity as a
Court".

(i) The Court would be involved ina law-making exercise ifit rendered
an opinion

This objection coverswell-trodden jurisprudential ground. "Do judges,
in deciding cases, make law under cover of merely applying pre-existing
law?" It is not proposed to enter into that discussion here, except to
observe that the law has always relied for its development on the ability
of thejudiciary to apply the general principle to the specificinstance. Out
of the resulting clarification comes further development.

If the law were all-embracing, self-evident and specifically tailored to
cover every situation, the judicial function would be reduced to a merely
mechanical application of rules. By very definition, international law is
not such a system any more than any domestic system is. Its inherent
principles infuse it with vitality, enabling it to apply them to new situa-
tions as they arise and give them a specificity they lacked before. When
the nuclear weapon emerged, a hundred years after modern humanitar-
ian law had begun to evolve, no specificrule banning nuclear weapons as
such could have been contained within its repertory of specificrules. For
various reasons, which have been dealt with in the relevant literat~re~~,
the emergence of a rule dealing specifically with nuclear weapons has

been delayed for half a century. The Court is now being invited to exer-

56SeeNagendra Singh, Nuclear Weapons and International Law, 1959,p.;see, also,
Richard Falk, Lee Meyrowitz and Jack Sanderson, "Nuclear Weapons and International
Law", Indian Journal of International Law, 1980,Vol. 20, p. 542. UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (OP. DISS.WEERAMANTRY) 164

h) Un avis consultatif en la matière nuirait au prestige de la Cour

On fait valoir que si la Cour sortait du cadre de sa fonction judiciaire
propre, son prestige en serait amoindri. On oppose à cet égardl'affaire
considérée à d'autres qui l'ont précédée. Ainsin,ous dit-on, la Cour a,

dans l'affaire des Conditions de l'admission d'un Etat (ci-dessus), été
invitée à procéder à ce qui est décrit commeune tâche essentiellement
judiciaire,à savoir l'interprétation d'unedisposition de traité,au lieu que
la question àl'étudel'amènerait à selivrerà des spéculationset à empiéter
sur les prérogatives souveraines desEtats, voie, ajoute-t-on, dans laquelle
elle ne pourrait s'aventurer sans compromettre son rôle judiciaire.
La Cour ne peut se faire aucun tort en examinant une question juri-
dique qui lui a etérégulièrement renvoyéeE .lle se ferait en revanche du
tort en refusant d'examiner une telle question en raison de ses prolonge-

ments politiques ou pour des raisons de mêmenature, car elle se départi-
rait alors (pour reprendre les termes employéspar la Cour permanente
dans l'affaire duStatut de la Carélieorientale et repris par la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice dans l'affaire duameroun septentrional)«des règles
essentiellesqui dirigent son activitéde tribunal)).

i) La Cour s'engagerait dans une tâche normative si elle donnait l'avis
consultatif demandé

Cette objection soulève un problème familieren jurisprudence. «Est-ce
que lesjuges, par leurs décisions, dégagendtes règlesde droit sous couvert

de faire simplement application du droit préexistant?))Je n'entrerai pas
dans une discussionsur ce point et me bornerai à souligner que le droit a
toujours compté,pour son développement,sur l'apport de l'autoritéjudi-
ciaire responsable de l'application du principe généralau cas particulier.
Le travail d'élucidation ainsi accomplionduit au développementdu droit.
Si le droit étaitdépourvude toute lacune et de toute incertitude et s'il
était immédiatementadaptable à toutes les situations, la fonction du juge
serait simplement d'en appliquer les règles.Mais ces caractéristiques,le
droit international ne les possède évidemmentpas, non plus que les sys-
tèmesjuridiques nationaux. Le dynamisme que lui confèrent les principes

qui lui sont inhérents lui permet d'en faire application aux situations
nouvelles au fur et àmesure qu'elles surgissentet d'en préciserla portée.
Lorsque l'arme nucléaire estapparue, un siècleaprèsque le droit huma-
nitaire eut pris son essor, il nepouvait figurer, dans le catalogue des règles
expresses du droit international, aucune règle bannissant expressément
les armes nucléaires.Pour des raisons diverses, qui ont étéexposéesdans
des ouvrages spécialisé^^l^,formation d'une règleportant précisément

56Voir Nagendra Singh, Nuclear Weapons und Inter-nationalLaw, 1959,;voir
aussi Richard Falk, Lee Meyrowitz et Jack Sanderson,ar Weapons and Interna-
tional Law)), Indian Journal ofInternational Luw, 1980,vol. 20, p. 542.cise its classic judicial function. It is being asked to pronounce whether
general principles already existing in the body of international law are
comprehensive enough to cover the specificinstance. To suggest that this
is to invite the Court to legislate is to lose sight of the essenceof thedi-
cial function.

(j) The case falls outside the categories of cases in whichan opinion

ought to be given
The United Kingdom, in its written statement in reply to the General

Assembly's request (p. 11, para. 2.27), submits that the present request
does not fa11within any of the categories of cases in which, as a matter of
propriety, an opinion ought to be given. It was also argued (for example
by Australia) that the facts and issues of this case raise matters different
from any previous request for an advisory opinion. It was pointed out
that previous requests have related to such matters as the constitutional
powers of a United Nations organ or specialized agency, the construction
of a constituent instrument, or the discharge of particular functions by
the requesting organ.

The Court's jurisdiction to grant advisory opinions cannot be consid-
ered in terms of categories or precedents. The express language of the
Statute enables the Court to give an advisory opinion on uny legal ques-

tion that is referred to it, and the categories of cases on which an advisory
opinion may with propriety be sought are never closed. The qualification
or limitation of such a wide enabling power cannot rest on the absence of
precedent, but must rest on considerations based on some fundamental
matter of principle.

(k) An opinion would trespass into areas of State policy

One of the submissions of Statesopposing the Court's consideration of
this question was that the question on which the Court is invited to pro-
nounce involves, inter alia, the place of the policy of deterrence in the
maintenance of world peace. It was said that such a concept involves

direct or indirect assessments of international strategic balances and of
particular defence policies of individual States. The Court was urged not
to stray intothese areas of individual State sovereignty and, more impor-
tantly, into an evaluation of military considerations.
An argument adduced in support of this contention was that the
requested opinion would render it necessary for the Court to deal with
the different types of nuclear weapons - those of limited strike capabil-
ity, for example, as distinguished from larger weapons, and that the
Court would then be pronouncing upon which types of weapon a Statesur les armes nucléairesa étébloquéependant cinquanteans. La Cour est
maintenant invitée à exercer sa fonction judiciaire normale. Il lui est
demandéde dire si lesprincipes générauxqui font d'ores et déjà partiedu
corpus du droit international ont une portéesuffisante pour couvrir le cas

particulier qui nous occupe. Prétendre que la Cour est invitée,par là, à
légiférerc,'est méconnaître l'essencede la fonction judiciaire.

j) La présenteaffaire n'estpas du type de celles surlesquelles il convient
de donner un avisconsultatif

Le Royaume-Uni, dans son exposé écrit relatif à la demande de
l'Assemblée général(e p. 11,par. 2.27), soutient que la présente demande
n'est pas de celles sur lesquelles il est opportun de donner un avis.
L'argument a égalementété avancé (notamment par l'Australie) que la
présente demande soulève, tant sur le plan des faits que sur celui des
questions en litige, des problèmes que ne soulevait aucune de celles qui

l'ont précédée. Oa nrappelé qu'avaientpar exempledonnélieu àl'exercice
de la compétence consultative les pouvoirs constitutionnels d'un organe
des Nations Unies ou d'une institution spécialiséel,'interprétation d'un
acte constitutif ou I'accomplissement de tel ou tel aspect de sa mission
par l'organe demandeur.
La compétence consultative de la Cour ne saurait se déterminer par
référence à des catégories ou à des précédents. Les termes exprèsdu
Statut autorisent la Cour à donner un avis consultatif sur toute question
juridique qui lui est soumise et les catégoriesde questions sur lesquelles il
est opportun de demander un avis consultatif ne sont pas exclusives. Si
on veut limiter ou assortir de réserves une facultéénoncéeen termes aussi
larges, il faut s'appuyer non sur l'absence de précédentsmais sur des

considérations dictéespar une position de principe tout àfait fondamen-
tale.

k) Un avis consultatifs'aventurerait dans des secteurs relevant deI'impe-
rium étatique

La question sur laquelle la Cour est invitéà se prononcer toucherait,
au dire des Etats opposés à son examen, au rôle de la politique de dis-
suasion dans le maintien de la paix mondiale. Ici interviennent, nousdit-
on, des appréciations directes ou indirectes des équilibres stratégiques
internationaux et des politiques de défensepropres aux divers Etats et la
Cour doit se garder de s'aventurer dans des domaines relevant de la sou-

verainetéde chacun d'eux et plus encore de porter un jugement sur des
considérationsmilitaires.
A l'appui de cet argument, on a fait valoir que l'avis demandé obli-
gerait la Cour àpasser en revue les différentstypes d'armes nucléaires-
par exemple cellesqui ont une capacité defrappe limitéepar opposition à
celles qui sont plus puissantes - et serait ainsi amenée à identifier les
types d'armes ccpermis)),et ce bien que ce genre de questions relèvewould be entitled to use, whereas such matters fa11essentially within the
province of each individual State to determine - matters of strategy and

defence policy being undeniably within the purview of each State. It was
argued also that if the Court pronounces on the illegality of one category
of weapon, the nuclear, it would then equally have jurisdiction to pio-
nounce upon other weapons of a more traditional nature, thus bringing it
again within areas of authority appertaining to the individual State.
Reliance was placed in this context upon the Court's statement, already
cited in another connection, that:

"in international law there are no rules, other than such rules as may
be accepted by the State concerned, by treaty or otherwise, whereby
the levelof armaments of a sovereign State can be limited" (Military
and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 135; CR95123,
pp. 71 and 79, France).

Such contentions are unsustainable for a variety of reasons:

- the Court's dictum in the Nicaragua case, as already observed, does
not deal with the use of weapons, which is the matter on which the
Court's opinion is sought in this case;

- it has never been argued that the rules relating to the laws of war or
international humanitarian law, which in fact regulate the conduct of
States, constitute an intrusion upon State sovereignty, or an interfer-
ence in a State's military decisions. What is sought from the Court is

no more than an opinion on the legal question whether a particular
weapon, by reason of its nature and known consequences, violates
certain well-established principles ofinternational law;

- if, in fact, a particular type of weapon - for example, chemical or
bacteriological - is contrary to international law, its prohibition may
indeed affect questions of strategy and strategic balance in the sense
that a State without those weapons would be less powerful than a

State with those weapons. One has yet to hear it argued that, for this
reason, such prohibitions trespass upon a State's sovereign rights
regarding the levelof strategic balance it wishesto maintain. It can be
no different with nuclear weapons. If international law decrees a par-
ticular weapon illegal, that can constitute no interference with ques-
tions of State strategy;

- the Court's opinion is sought on the question whether al1 nuclear

weapons, irrespective of their size or quality, offend basic principles
of international law. For this reason, it is competent to the Court to
consider the question put to it without drawing any distinctions in
regard to the category of nuclear weapons used;essentiellement du pouvoir d'appréciation des Etats puisque tout ce qui
touche aux stratégies et à la politique de défense estincontestablement du
ressort de chacun d'entre eux. On a égalementprétenduque si la Cour se

prononçait sur l'illicéité d'une catégorie d'armes - celle des armes nu-
cléaires - elle aurait ipso facto compétence pour dire ce qu'il en est
d'autres armes de caractère plus traditionnel - autre empiétement sur
l'imperium desEtats.
Mention a étéfaite à ce propos de l'affirmation de la Cour, déjàcitée
dans un autre contexte, selon laquelle:

«il n'existe pas en droit international de règles,autres que cellesque

I'Etat peut accepter, par traitéou autrement, imposant la limitation
du niveau d'armement d'un Etat souverain)) (Activitésmilitaires et
paranzilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-
Unisd'Amérique, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 135))); (CR 95123,p. 71 et
79, France).

Ces arguments sont indéfendablespour une sériede raisons.

la déclaration de la Cour dans l'affaire du Nicaragua ne porte pas,

j'ai déjà eu l'occasion de le souligner, sur l'utilisation des armes -
qui est le point précis sur lequel l'avis de la Cour est sollicitéen
l'occurrence ;
nul n'a jamais prétenduque les règlesrelatives aux lois de la guerre ou
au droit humanitaire international, qui sont, en fait, des prescriptions
adressées aux Etats, empiètent sur leur souveraineté ou entravent
leurs décisionsdans le domaine militaire. Il ne s'agit en l'espèceque
d'obtenir de la Cour un avis sur la questionjuridique de savoir si une
arme particulière contrevient, de par sa nature et les conséquences

qu'on lui connaît, à certains principes bien établisdu droit interna-
tional;
dès lors que certaines armes - chimiques ou bactériologiques par
exemple - sont contraires au droit international, leur interdiction
peut certes avoir des répercussions sur le plan de la stratégieet de
l'équilibrestratégiqueen cesens qu'un Etat qui ne peut compter sur le
secours de ces armes est moins puissant qu'un Etat qui le peut. Per-
sonne n'a jamais prétendu que, de ce fait, les interdictions en la ma-

tièreportent atteinte au droit souverain d'un Etat touchant le niveau
d'équilibrestratégiquequ'il entend maintenir. Le mêmeraisonnement
vaut pour les armes nucléaires.Si le droit international frappe d'illi-
céitéune arme déterminée,les questions de stratégie étatique n'en
sont pas affectées;
l'avis de la Cour est sollicitésur le point de savoir si les armes nu-
cléaires prises enbloc et quelles qu'en soient la puissance et les carac-
téristiques vont à l'encontre des principes de base du droit interna-
tional.Il est donc possible à la Cour d'examiner la question qui lui est

poséesans distinguer entre les catégoriesd'armes nucléairesen cause;- the WHO request makes an enquiry regarding State obligations in the
special fields of environment and health. In the present state of inter-
national law, there can be no question that special State obligations
have evolved in these fields. No serious contention has even been set
up thus far that when international law recognizes special State obli-
gations in those fields, it is trespassing into areas of State policy.
International law has long passed the stage when it was possible to
contend that the manner in which a sovereign treated his subjects or
the territory under his control was a matter within his absolute
authority, unlimited by international norms and standards.

4. The Court's Responsibilities

(a) As ajudicial institution

As already observed (see Sec. VII.2), advisory opinion jurisdiction
vests the Court with a judicial function which must be discharged in a
judicial fashion. The Court's consistent jurisprudence reaffirming this
principle has already been cited.

This means, inter alia, that the Court confines itself to legal issues,
decides according to judicial criteria, uses judicial procedures, and exer-
cises its discretion in a judicial manner. By such means is judicial duty
discharged, and it is self-evident that political and diplomatic considera-
tions are not part of this process.

The criteria and procedures the Court applies are contained in its Stat-
ute and Rules, in the corpus of international law, in its own jurispru-
dence, and in the well-accepted universal principles relating to the nature
of the judicial process. The fact that the judicial function is exercised in
an advisory capacity does not result in any deviation regarding the prin-
ciples governing the judicial process, not the least of which is that juris-
diction can be declined only for a good judicial reason. The Court's own
jurisprudence has held that nothing short of "compelling reasons" would
constitute such a good judicial reason.

(b) As a principal organof the United Nations

Quite apart from the Court's responsibility as a judicial body, there is
also its responsibility within the United Nations family as the principal
judicial organ of the United Nations. It isnot a Court existing outside the
United Nations system, but one functioning from within. It is in a state
of harmonious CO-existenceand CO-operationwith the other organs of the
Organization in their common goal of the attainment of world peace and
the high ideals set before them al1by the United Nations Charter.- la demande de l'OMS vise à faire préciserles obligations des Etats
dans les domaines spécialisés de la santé etde l'environnement. Il est
incontestable qu'au stade actuel d'évolutiondu droit international des
obligations spécialespèsentdésormaissur lesEtats dans cesdomaines.
à soutenir sérieusementque lorsque le droit
Nul ne s'estjamais risqué
international impose de telles obligations aux Etats, il empiète sur
l'imperium étatique.Le droit a depuis longtemps dépasséle stade où
il était possible de soutenir que le comportement d'un souverain à
l'égardde ses sujets ou du territoire soumis à son contrôle relèvede
son pouvoir absolu et n'est assujetti à aucune règleou norme inter-
nationale.

4. Les responsabilités dela Cour

a) En tant qu'institutionjudiciaire

Comme on l'a déjàsouligné(voir le paragraphe 2 de la présentesec-
tion), la Cour est, en vertu de sa compétenceconsultative, investie d'une
fonction judiciaire dont elledoit s'acquitter en respectant lesnormes judi-
ciaires. Ce principe est confirmé par la jurisprudence constante de la
Cour évoquée plushaut.
Il en résultenotamment que la Cour se limite aux questionsjuridiques,
qu'elle statue en se fondant sur des critères judiciaires, qu'elleapplique
une procédurejudiciaire et qu'elle exerceson pouvoir d'appréciation sur

une base judiciaire. Telles sont les conditions dans lesquelles s'exerceune
fonction judiciaire et il va de soi que les considérations politiques et
diplomatiques n'ont pas place dans un tel processus.
Les critèreset lesprocédures qu'applique la Cour ont leur origine dans
son Statut et dans son Règlement, dans le corpus du droit international,
dans sa jurisprudence et dans les principes universellement admis et bien
établis concernant la nature de la procédure judiciaire. Le fait que la
fonction judiciaire est exercéeàtitre consultatif ne signifiepas qu'il puisse
être dérogé aux principes régissant la procédure judiciaire et en par-
ticulier au principe selon lequel l'instance en cause n'est en droit de se

déclarerincompétente quepour une raison judiciaire valable - condition
qui ne peut être satisfaite,selon la jurisprudence mêmede la Cour, que
par des «raisons décisives D.

b) En tant qu'organeprincipal des Nations Unies

A côtédes responsabilités de la Cour en tant qu'organe judiciaire, il y
a ses responsabilitésen tant qu'organe judiciaire principal du système des
Nations Unies. La Cour n'est pas une institution extérieureau système,

elle en faitpartie intégrante. Elle coexiste et coopère harmonieusement
avec les autres organes de l'organisation pour que se réalise l'objectif
commun - l'instauration de la paix mondiale - et que triomphent les
idéauxgénéreuxfixéspar la Charte des Nations Unies. As the Court observed in Intevpvetation of Peace Tveaties with Bul-
gavia, Hungavy and Romania :
"the reply of the Court, itself an 'organ of the United Nations', rep-
resents its participation in the activities of the Organization, and, in

principle, should not be refused" (I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 71).
A factor to be borne in mind additionally is the precedential effect of a
refusa1to render an opinion. This is al1the more so in regard to such a
question as one relating to the future of global peace, to the well-being of
the international community, and to the central objectives of the United
Nations.
1believethat functions such as this are among the most important with

which the Court can be entrusted and that it would not only be eminently
proper and fitting, but obligatory upon the Court to render the legal
opinion requested. Failure to render so important a decision on grounds
such as those advanced is scarcely compatible with the Court's position
as "the principal judicial organ" of the United Nations.

5. The Refusa1for Want of Jurisdiction

1 wish to note finally my disagreement with the Court's reasoning,
which couches its refusa1 to answer WHO'S request in terms of lack of
jurisdiction. 1do not think this is a case of lack of jurisdiction. The dis-
missal is based not upon any incapacity of the Court, for constitutional
reasons, to consider the request, but rather upon the Court's view that

WHO, in requesting this opinion, is traversing outside the proper area of
its legitimate authority. The Court has held that WHO has no status to
make this enquiry. It is for this reason that the application is refused.
The Court's jurisdiction to render an advisory opinion is an ample
jurisdiction, conferred on the Court after mature deliberation, to enable
it to make a vital contribution to the functioning of international society
according to law. The formula of refusa1for lack of jurisdiction tends to
suggest some deficiency in the scope of that jurisdiction when in fact
there is none.

The case is no more a case of want of Court jurisdiction than a case in
which a court refuses to entertain an application made by an applicant
who, for one reason or another - for example, minority - lacks the

capacity to make such an application. Such a request would be refused by
the court for the applicant's want of capacity and not for the court's want
of jurisdiction. It may be a case of lack of jurisdiction in the sense that a
court has no jurisdiction to make any order unless the party seeking it
has, in the first place, the right to approach the court. Yet in such an
instance the want or shortcoming is not in the powers of the court but in
the status of the applicant.

1 consider this aspect to be of some importance. It is essential to the Comme l'a soulignéla Cour dans l'affaire de l'Interprétation des
Traités depaix conclusavec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie:
«la réponseconstitue une participation de laCour, elle-mêm«unique
organe desNations Unies)) àl'actionde l'organisation et, enprincipe,
elle ne devrait pas êtrerefusée))(C.Z.J.Recueil 1950, p. 71).

Il faut aussi se rappeler qu'une décisionrefusant de donner un avis a
valeur de précédent, considérationd'autant plus digne d'attention que
l'on esten présenced'une question touchant à l'avenir de la paix mon-
diale, au bien-être dela communauté internationale et aux objectifs pri-
mordiaux des Nations Unies.
Je crois que la tâche que la Cour est invitàremplir compte parmi les
plus importantes qui puissent lui êtreconfiéeset qu'il seraitnon seulement

éminemmentapproprié et opportun mais même impératif que la Cour
donne l'avis juridique demandé. Renoncer à prendre une décision aussi
cruciale pour les motifs qui ont été avancés neadre guère avecle statut
d'organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies qui est celui de la Cour.

5. Le refus de répondre àla demandepour défaut decompétence

Je dois enfin medéclareren désaccord avecle raisonnement de la Cour
lorsqu'elle fonde son refus de répondre à la demande de l'OMS sur le
défautde compétence.Je ne crois pas qu'ily ait défautde compétence.Si
la demande a étérejetée,cen'est pas parceque la Cour n'a pas lepouvoir,
pour desraisons constitutionnelles, de l'examiner,c'estparce qu'elle estime
que l'OMS a pris une initiative qui outrepasseles limites de son champ de
compétence légitimeL . a Cour a conclu que l'OMS n'est pas habilitée
à
prendre cette initiative. C'estpour cette raison que la demande rejetée.
La compétenceconsultative dela Cour est une compétenceétendue qui
lui a été conféréaprès mûre réflexionpour lui permettre d'apporter une
contribution essentielle au fonctionnement de la sociétéinternationale
conformément à la règlede droit. Lorsqu'on invoque le défautde com-
pétence pour justifier le refus de répondre à la demande, on donne
l'impression que le champ de la compétenceconsultativen'est pas ce qu'il
devrait être, alors quetel n'est pas le cas.
On ne peut pas davantage parler, en l'occurrence, de défautde compé-
tence qu'on ne peut le faire lorsqu'un tribunal refuse de déclarerrece-
vable une action intentéepar une personne qui, pour une raison ou une
autre, par exemple parce qu'elle est mineure, n'a pas la capacité de
l'intenter. L'action serait en pareil cas déclarée irrecepar le tribunal

en raison du défautde capacité de sonauteur, non en raison du défaut de
compétence delajuridiction. Il peut y avoir incompétenceen ce sens que
le tribunal n'est pas compétent pour statuer dèslors que le demandeur
n'est pas habilité se présenter devant lui. Mais,en pareil cas, il y a non
pas défautde pouvoir de la part du tribunal mais défaut de qualité dela
part du demandeur.
Ce point me paraît avoir son importance. Il faut se garder, dansdevelopment of the Court's advisoryjurisdiction that there should not be
an impression among those who may seek to use it of somejurisdictional
limitation which prevents the Court from taking cognizance of a matter
such as this.

VIII. CONCLUSION

For the reasons set out above, it seems clear that
1. WHO has an interest in matters of global health, even though they
also concern questions of peace and security.
2. WHO has an interest in environmental matters, even though they

also concern questions of peace and security.
3. The fact that other orgails inthe United Nations system are expressly
charged with responsibilities in the area of peace and security does
not preclude WHO from concerning itself with matters of peace and
security to the extent that they affect global health and the global
environment.
4. There are compelling medical and environmental reasons which
require WHO to take an interest in the matter on which it seeks an
opinion.
5. There are several constitutional provisions rendering the requested
opinion relevant to WHO.
6. The impossibility of curative steps forces WHO into the area of pre-
vention.
7. WHO has a legitimate interest in knowing whether the use of nuclear
weapons constitutes a violation of State obligations in relation to
health.
8. WHO has a legitimate interest in knowing whether the use of nuclear
weapons constitutes a violation of State obligations in relation to the
environment.
9. WHO has a legitimate interest in knowing whether State obligations

under its own Constitution are violated by the use of nuclear
weapons.
10. There are State obligations undev international lalv in regard to
health kvhichwould be violatedby the use of nuclear weapons.

11. There are State obligations under international law in regard to the
environment which would be violated by the use of nuclear weapons.

12. There are State obligations under international law in regard to the
WHO Constitution which wouldbe violated by the use of nuclear
weapons.l'intérêtu développement de la compétence consultative, de créer chez
ceux qui peuvent souhaiter y recourir l'impression que cette compétence
fait l'objet de restrictions empêchant la Cour de se saisir d'une question
comme celle qui nous occupe.

VIII. CONCLUSIONS

Pour les raisons exposées plushaut, il semble clair que:
L'OMS a un intérêd tans lesproblèmesde santémondiale mêmes'ils

touchent aussi à la paix età la sécurité.
L'OMS a un intérêd tans les problèmes d'environnement même s'ils
touchent aussi à la paix età la sécurité.
Le fait que d'autres organes du système des Nations Unies sont
expressément investisde responsabilités dans le domaine de la paix
et de la sécuritén'empêche pas l'OMS de s'intéresseraux questions
de paix et de sécuritédans la mesure où ellesont une incidence sur la
santémondiale et l'environnement planétaire.
L'OMS a des raisons impérieuses sur le plan de la santé et de
l'environnement de s'intéresser la question sur laquelle elledemande
un avis.
Il existe plusieurs textes constitutionnels sur la base desquels l'avis
demandéest pertinent pour l'OMS.
L'action curative étant impossible, l'OMS doit nécessairement

prendre des mesures dans le domaine de la prévention.
L'OMS a un intérêtlégitime à savoir si l'utilisation des armes nu-
cléairesconstitue une violation des obligations des Etats dans le do-
maine de la santé.
L'OMS a un intérêtlégitime à savoir si l'utilisation des armes nu-
cléairesconstitue une violation des obligations des Etats dans le do-
maine de l'environnement.
L'OMS a un intérêltégitime à savoir si les obligations des Etats au
regard de sa propre Constitution sont violéespar l'utilisation des
armes nucléaires.
Il y a des obligations incombant aux Etats en vertu du droit interna-
tionaldans le domainede la santé quiseraient violées en cad'utilisa-
tion des armes nucléaires.

Ily a des obligations incombantaux Etats en vertu du droit interna-
tional dans le domaine de l'environnement quiseraient violées en cas
d'utilisation des armes nucléaires.
IIy a des obligations incombant aux Etats en vertu du droit interna-
tional au regard dela Constitution de l'OMS qui seraient violéepar
l'utilisation des armes nucléaires. With much respect, it seems to me to be a compelling conclusion that,
in the light of themedical facts surrounding the use of nuclear weapons,
WHO is well within its constitutional functions in concerning itself with
the question of the legality of nuclear weapons. It transcends no limita-
tions of power or propriety in seeking this opinion from the Court. It
does so in pursuance of its mandated constitutional functions as well as
in pursuance of its duties as a protector of global health. The futility of
medical treatment after a nuclear catastrophe is a reason that cries out
aloud for attention in the fields of planning and prevention, and it would
be an irresponsible custodian of global health that stands aloof from that
question, waiting for the medical catastrophe to occur in which it is
powerless to extend any meaningful medical assistance.

The matter assumes added importance because the increasingly com-
plex ramifications of international life in the future will perhaps oblige
the specialized agencies from time to time to seek clarifications from the
Court of the law relating to their areas of interest. International law, in
many of these new areas, will be in need of development, and this Court,
by virtue of its advisoryjurisdiction, will bein a special position to assist
in that development.

These needs of the future will require al1United Nations instrumen-
talities to work in the spirit of their respective constitutions rather than to
confine their vision within compartmentalized categories of exclusive
activity. They should in the like spirit be free to approach the Court for

assistance in the clarification of legal matters they need to know for the
due discharge of their responsibilities within their allotted sphere.

The family of United Nations agencies, in working harmoniously for
the common welfare of the global community, will need to work as a
team, each helping the other with the special expertise that lies within its
province. The Court's advisory jurisdiction is a means par excellence by
which the Court can discharge its responsibilities in this regard.

It is my opinion that the Court should answer the question WHO has
addressed to it and that it should answer WHO'Squestion in the affirma-
tive.
If this dissent sets out my viewsin some depth and detail, it is because
no less is necessary on an issue of this magnitude. An important feature
of the tradition ofjudicial responsibility is that the judges "will nothesi-

tate to speak frankly and plainly on the great issues coming before
them". La conclusion me paraît s'imposer - qu'on me permette de le dire -
qu'étant donnéles réalités médicalessur lesquelles débouche l'utilisation
des armes nucléaires, l'OMS se tient entièrement dans les limites de ses
fonctions constitutionnelles en manifestant un intérêptour la question de
la licéité desarmes nucléaires. Elle necommet ni d'excèsde pouvoir ni
d'excèsde zèleen demandant à la Cour l'avis qui nous occupe. Elle agit
conformément aux fonctions qui lui incombent en vertu d'un mandat

constitutionnel et dans le respect des devoirs que lui impose la protection
de la santémondiale. Etant donné qu'il n'y a rien à attendre de soins
médicauxvenant aprèsune catastrophe nucléaire,l'attention doit impéra-
tivement se reporter sur la planification et la prévention et l'institution
qui a la responsabilité de la santémondiale ferait preuve d'une grande
légèretési elle se désintéressaitde ces domaines et attendait que se pro-
duise une catastrophe médicale qu'elle seraitau demeurant impuissante à
prendre en charge sur le plan de l'assistance médicale.
La question revêtd'autant plus d'importance que, comme les divers

domaines de la vieinternationale tendent de plus en plusà s'interpénétrer,
lesinstitutions spécialiséseront peut-êtreobligées àl'avenir dedemander
régulièrement à la Cour d'éluciderle droit applicable à leurs secteurs
d'activité respectifs. Ledroit international dans beaucoup de secteurs
nouveaux aura besoin d'êtredéveloppé etla Cour sera, grâce à sa com-
pétenceconsultative, particulièrement bien placéepour contribuer à ce
développement.
Les exigences de l'avenir contraindront toutes les institutions des
Nations Unies à orienter leurs travaux en fonction de l'esprit de leur acte
constitutif au lieu de s'enfermer dans les limites strictes d'un domaine

réservé. Il importe que, dans la ligne de cette philosophie, elles soient
libres de demander à la Cour son assistance pour l'élucidationde pro-
blèmesde droit sur lesquels elles ont besoin d'êtreéclairéepour s'acquit-
ter de leurs responsabilités dans le domaine qui leur a été confié.
Les institutions du système desNations Unies, engagéesdans une col-
laboration harmonieuse au service du bien-être collectif de lacommu-
nautémondiale, doivent travailler en équipe, chacune prêtant aux autres
le concours spécialisé qu'elle est mêmede fournir. La Cour a, dans la
compétence consultative, un moyen idéal des'acquitter de ses responsa-

bilitésà cet égard.
Je suis convaincu que la Cour doit répondre à la question que lui a
adressée l'OMS et qu'elle doit y répondre par l'affirmative.

Si la présente opinion dissidente contient un exposé approfondi et
détaillé de mes vues, c'estparce qu'un problème de cette ampleur me
paraît le justifier. La tradition de la profession judiciaire veut que-
et c'est là un élémentimportant - les juges ((n'hésitentpas à parler
franchement et sans détours sur les grandes questions dont ils sont
saisis. This opinion may appropriately be closed with an extract fron~John
Hersey's classic narrative, Hiro~hirna~~I.t shows the total inadequacy of
medical facilities in a well-organized country after a single nuclear attack
with a comparatively small weapon :

"Patients were dying by the hundreds, but there was nobody to
carry away the corpses . . .By three o'clock in the morning, after
nineteen straight hours of his gruesome work, Dr. Sasaki was
incapable of dressing another wound. He and some other survivors
of the hospital staff got straw mats and went outdoors .. .and lay
down in hiding to catch some slee~. But within an hour wounded
people had folnd th en^;a complaiAing circle forrned around them :
'Doctors! Help us! How can you sleep?'"

In this case the custodians of health have not been asleep, and it is to
the Court that they turn for assistance. They do so on a matter which is
within their legitimate sphere of interest. They do so on a matter pecu-
liarly within the expertise of the Court. They do so in pursuance of their
constitutional right to seek a legal opinion from this Court. They do so
concerning the legality of the most profound and far-reaching man-made

threat to health in human history. International law joins with the
imperatives of global health in requiring theCourt to answer that request.

(Signed) Christopher Gregory WEERAMANTRY.

57John Hersey, Hirosl~ima,first published in TlzeNew Yorlcer,August 1946,reissued as
a Penguin Modern Classic, 1966,pp. 68-69.

109 Je ne saurais mieux faire, pour conclure cette opinion, que de citer un
extrait de l'ouvrage classique de John Hersey, Hiroskima5', qui met en
lumière la désorganisation totale des services médicauxd'un pays bien
organisé,après une attaque nucléaire isolée réalisée ave ucne bombe de
puissance relativement modeste:

«Les victimes mouraient par milliers mais il n'y avait personne
pour évacuerles cadavres ..Sur le coup de trois heures du matin,
après dix-neuf heures d'affiléed'un travail effroyable, le docteur
Sasaki n'étaitplus capable de faire un seul pansement de plus. Lui et
quelques membres du personnel de l'hôpital qui avaient survécuse
munirent de nattes de paille et allèrent dehors ...Ils se retirèrenà
l'écartpour dormir un peu. Mais, au bout d'une heure, des blessés
lesavaient découverts;lesprotestations fusaient autour d'eux :«Doc-

teurs! Aidez-nous ! Comment pouvez-vous dormir? »
Dans la présenteaffaire, ceux qui ont mission de veiller sur la santéne
dorment pas et c'est à la Cour qu'ils demandent assistance. Ils le font à
propos d'une question qui entre dans leur sphère d'intérêltégitime. Ilsle
font à propos d'une question que la Cour est spécialement qualifiée pour

aborder. Ils le font en vertu de leur droit constitutionnel de demander un
avis juridique à la Cour. Ils le fontà propos de la licéitéd'une menace
d'origine humaine à la santé, quiest qualitativement et quantitativement
la plus grave que l'humanité ait jamais connue. Le droit international et
les impératifs dela santémondiale se conjuguent pour mettre la Cour en
demeure de répondre à cette question.

(Signé) Christopher Gregory WEERAMANTRY.

57John Hersey, Hiroslzin7a,initialement publié dans The New Yoïker, août 1946,
rééditdans la collection Penguinssic, 1966,p. 68-69.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Weeramantry

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