Separate Opinion of Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice

Document Number
049-19620720-ADV-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
049-19620720-ADV-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF

JUDGE SIR GERALD FITZMAURICE

1 have not written this separate opinion because 1 disagree with
the operative conclusion of the Opinion of the Court. 1 consider
that the expenditures referred to in the Assembly's Request are
without doubt expenses of the Organization within the meaning
of Article17,paragraph 2, of the Charter.1also agree with much of
the reasoning on which the Court's Opinion is based, although it
goes more into matters of pure detail and procedure than 1 would
have thought necessary. But as 1 shall indicate1 have reservations
on certain points of principle having wider implications, though
they do not affect the final conclusion reached in the present case.

Moreover (and this constitutes my main reason for writing a
separate opinion), it would seem that the Opinion of the Court,
while dealing elaborately with certain matters, refrains designedly
from discussing other, more general, aspects of the subject, in-
volving difficultieswhich have troubled a number of those who have
had to do with it. The Opinion, in short, ignores various points
which appear to me to be very relevant; for although the "legal
guidznce" mentioned in the preambular part of the Request is
asked forin connection with the question of "financing the United
Nations operations in the Congo and in the Middle East", 1 con-
sider that even in these contexts alone, this guidance must fa11
short of full utility if it fails to deal with certain more general
matters, and also with one or two others that the Court has not
gone into.
For instance, the Court has taken the view that it is only re-
quired to state whether certain specified expenditures are expenses

of the Organization, and is not called upon to declare what are the
financial obligations of Member States (hence the change in the
title of the case). To my mind the two questions are indissolubly
linked, for except in so far as there is an obligation to contribute
to expenditures which duly rank as "expenses", there is no point
in determining whether these expenditures are expenses or not;
and as 1shall show, it is necessary to deal with certain types of case
in which it could be contended that, although given expenditures
are expenses of the Organization, there may not necessarilÿ or
always be an obligation for every Member State to contribute to
them. A short answer to the question put in the Request could be given
on the following lines:
first, that the notion of expenses of the Organization cannot be
confined merely to its regular administrative expenses, since the
latter are not incurred as an end in themselves but as a means to
an end, namely, to enable the Organization to carry out the essen-

tial substantive functions for which it exists; therefore, to regard
the obligation of Member States as extending only to routine
administrative expenses would be as stultifying as it would be
disingenuous l;
secondly, that the notion of expenses of the Organization must
extend at least to those incurred in the discharge of the essential
functions of the Organization for which it Ras brought into exist-
ence; that peace-keeping activities constitute such a function;
and that the expenditures specified in the Request for an advisory
opinion relate to peace-keeping activities ;

thirdly, that the Charter does not exclude, and indeed (subject to
specified conditions and limitations) makes express provision for
the carrying out of certain peace-keeping activities by the Assembly
(Articles II, 14, 35, etc.); and that the activities of the Assembly
in respect of which the expenditures at issue were incurred were of
this kind, and did not exceed the conditions and limitations in
question.
Broadly speaking, though in greater detail and with moreelabora-
tion, these are some of the main considerations on which the Opinion
of the Court is in fact founded and, framed as indicated above, 1
concur in them. The Court however, in addition to these considera-

tions, and more particularly in connection with those coming
under the third of them, has alluded to the possibility that, even
if, in carrying out the activities concerned, the Assembly was not
acting in conformity with the division of functions established by
the Charter, this would not cause the resulting expenditures to
cease being expenses of the Organization, provided that the related
activities came within the functions ofthe Organization as a whole-
the irregulanty ranking merely as a matter appertaining to the
interna1 economy of the Organization. This is an idea which 1think
must not be pressed too far (nor does the Court rely on it except
incidentally). It is certainly correct in one sense, namely, that inter-

na1 irregularities would not affect liabilities definitely incurred by
or on behalf of the Organization, in relation to third parties outside

States were obliged to contribute to paying the salaries of the Secretariat, but not
to the expenses of carrying but the functions of the Organization, for the purposes
of which the Sxretariahad been engaged.the Organization or its membership Z.But what is really in question
here is the relationship of the Member States inter se, and vis-&vis
the Organization as such, and there can be no doubt that, in prin-
ciplz at least, expenditures incurred in excess of the powers of the
expending body are invalid expenditures. The question is, are they
invalid if they merely exceed the powers of the particular organ
authorizing them, but not those of the Organization as a whole?
It is true that there are cases, both in the domestic and in the inter-

national legal spheres, where al1 that matters (except on the purely
internal plane) is that a certain act has in fact been performed, or
not performed, as the case may be, and where the reasons for, or
channels through which the performance or non-performance has
taken place are immaterial. But in the present case, the question
of the financial obligations of Member States in relation to the
Organization is a question moving on the internal plane; and if an
instrument such as the Charter of the United Nations attributes
given functions in an exclusive manner to one of its organs, consti-

tuted in a certain way-other and different functions being attri-
buted to other and differently constituted organs-this can only be
because, in respect of the performance of the functions concerned,
importance was attached to the precise constitution of the organ
concerned 3.
It is not however necessary to express any final view on this
matter, for the simple reason that, as the Opinion of the Court
brings out, the Charter does not, in fact, in the matter of peace-
keeping activities, establisl-i any rigid general division of function
be'tureenthe role of the Security Council and that of the Assembly.

Enforcement or coercitive action strictosensu is of course exclusively
for the Security Council, but 1 agree with the Court that the action
of the Assembly in the Middle East and in the Congo has not been
of this character. Furthermore, and as indicated by the Court, 1
consider that this action of the Assembly has fallen within the scope
of its functions under the Charter. and has not exceeded the limi-
tations thereby imposed on the scope and exercise of those functions.
Beyond a somewhat general statement of this character, 1woilld
not wish to go for present purposes. While 1 agree with the general

trend of the Court's reasoning on what 1 will cal1 the "military"
provisions of the Charter, 1 would have to reserve my position on a
number of points of formulation if 1 thought it necessary to go into
these provisions in detail.

2 1will postulate for present purposes that the third party is prima facie, entitied
in the particulacircumstances,to assume that the liabilities have been validly
incurred.
3 Clearly an organ constituin a particular way will tend to carry out a given
function in a different way from an organ differently constiand will have
been entrusted witthat function for that reason, inter dia. III

Jluch of the Opinion of the Court is concerned with and based on
a consideration of what has been the actual practice of the United
Sations in financial matters, both generally and in relation to the
particular expenditures here involved. 1 would have preferred to
see less reliance on practice and more on ordinary reasoning. The
argument drawn from practice, if taken too far, can be question-
begging.
However, no one would deny that practice must be a very relevant
factor. According to what has become known as the "principle of
subsequent practice", the interpretation in fact given to an inter-

national instrument by the parties to it, as a matter of settled
practice, is good presumptive (and may in certain cases be virtually
conclusive) evidence of what the correct legal interpretation is-a
principle applied by the Court on several occasions4. But where
this is the case, it is so because it is possible and reasonable in the
circumstances to infer from the behaviour of the parties that they
have regarded the interpretation they have given to the instrument
in question as the legally correct one, and have tacitly recognized
that, in consequence, certain behaviour was legally incumbent
upon them. In the present context, it is necessary to take into
account the fact that any Member State can at all times, and in
any event, contribute voluntarily to the expenses of the Organi-
zation, whether or not it recognizes a legal obligation to do so;
and furthermore, that a number of the expenditures of the Organi-

zation are in fact financed partly and, in certain important cases,
even \vholly or mainly by voluntary contributions5. In these
circumstances, it is hardly possible to infer from the mere fact that
Member States pay, that they necessarily admit in al1 cases a
positive legal obligation to do so; and where, as has not infrequently
occurred, they have only paid under or after protest, the easier
inferenceis that this was because, for whatever reason (by no means
necessarily consciousness of legal obligation) they were unwilling
in the last resort to withhold a contribution.

Severtheless, while the existence of these considerations renders
it impossible to regard the practice of the United Nations as conclu-
sive in the matter-(it is indeed the validity of some part of that
practicewhichis put inissueby the present Request)-it cannot beless

than very material; and even if a majority vote cannot in the
forma1sense bind the minority, it can, if consistently exercised in a

Zranian Oil Company anU.S.iNationals in Morocco cases. Admissimts, Corfu,

-4s to these, see below at the end of the first paragraph of Section VIII.
54particular way, suffice to establish a settled practice which a tri-
bunal can usefully and properly take accoulit of.

Subject to the foregoing reservations (which however go to
reasoning only) 1 agree that the particular expenditures mentioned
in the Request rank as expenses of the Organization; but in arriving
at that conclusion the Court has failed to indicate in terms (though

it may to some extent have implied) what are the general limitations
of principle within which any given expenditure can rank as an
expense of the Organization; and this is something which 1 think
an advisory opinion on the financial obligations of Member States
ought to do, even though it is only their obligations respecting
certain particular expenditures that are actually in question.
In my opinion, two-partly overlapping but technically distinct-
conditions must be fulfilled before any given expenditure can rank
as an expense of the Organization. First, the expenditure must
belong to the genus "expense"-that is to say it must come within
the class or category of expenditure normally (and which can in the
particular circumstances reasonably be) regarded as having the
basic nature of an "expense" properly so called. A sum of money
does not become an expense merely by being expended, or by its

expenditure being authorized. Sezondly, even if the expenditure in
question belongs in principle to the genzrs"expense", it must have
been validly incurred, for apurpose which was itself valid and legiti-
mate, in order to rank as an expense within the meaning of Xr-
ticle 17, paragraph 2, involving for Member States an obligation
to contribute to it. There will remain a third question, namely, does
it follow that because a given expenditure is an "expense", every
Member State is invariably, and irr.espective of circumstances,
bound to contribute to it according to that Member's apportioned
share? 1 shallindicate in due course why, in my opinion, the ansn-er
;O this last question is not self-evident.

It will be convenient to deal first with the second of the above-
mentioned questions-that of the validity of any given expendi-

tures. This involves issues such as the powers of the authorizing
organ, whether the object of the expenditure falls within the scope
of thepurposes of the Organization, and so forth, which must depend
on the particular circumstances of each case, and to which no
general solution is possible. In the present case, an affirmative
answer on the question of the validity of the expenditures concerned
can and must be given, as indicated by the Court. But the important
practical point involved is how the validity or invalidity of any
given expenditures can be determined if controversy arises, seeing
that, as the Court points out, the Assembly is under no obligation to

55consult the Court, and, even if consulted, the Court can only render
an opinion having a purely advisory character; and moreover, that
there exists no other jurisdiction to which compulsory reference
can be made and which can also render a binding decision.

The solution propounded by the Court is a twofold one. One
aspect is indicated in the statement made in the Opinion (italics

added) that "As anticipated in 1945 ..each organ [SC.ofthe United
Nations] must, in the first filace ut least, determine its own
ju+dictionJ'-i.e. the scope of its own powers and the validity of
their exercise. The phrase which has been italicized in the above
citation makes the view which the citation puts fonvard acceptable
up to a certain point. It is no doubt true that any objection to a
given exercise of powers, or to action based on the presumed exis-
tence of certain powers, must be advanced in the first instance in the
organ concerned, and will be subject to a ruling by it, in the form
of a motion or resolution adopted by a majority vote.
The real question however, in my view (and the Court does not
deal with it), is whether such a ruling would have to be regarded as
final. In the course of the oral proceedings, the Court was in effect
invited to takethe view that this wouldbe the case. It was suggested,
for example, that the mere fact that certainexpenditures had been
actually apportioned by the Assembly, was conclusive as to their

validity. Apportionment would certainly be conclusive as to the
majority view of the Assembly, but this merely begs the question.
It amounts to saying that even if, on an objective and impartial
assessment, given expenditures had in fact been invalidly and
improperly incurred or authorized, they would nevertheless stand
automatically validated by the act of the Assembly in either
apportioning them among Member States or, in the event of a
challenge, subsequently resolving that the apportionment was good.
This is a view which 1 am unable to accept. It is too extreme.
Moreover, 1 do not read the Opinion of the Court as going so far.
The issues involved clearly transcend the merely financial problem,
and even on the financial side they go deeper; for if the Assembly
had the power automatically to validate any expenditure, as some
Governments appear to have claimed in their written or oral
statements, this would mean that, merely by deciding to spend
money, the Assembly could, in practice, do almost anything, even
something wholly outside its functions, or maybe those of the

Organization as a whole. Member States would be bound to contri-
bute, and accordingly a degree of power, if not unlimited, certainly
much greater than was ever contemplated in the framing of the
Charter, would be placed inthe hands of the Assembly. In this way,
there could well come about an actual realization of the fears
expressed in one of the written statements presented to the Court,
possibilities which, otherwise, are perhaps not very serious, solong as Member States retain at least a last resort right not to
PaY 6.

The problem is to determine what that right consists of and,
more particularly, in what conditions it can be exercised. As indi-
cated above, it can only be a right of last resort; for an unlimited
right on the part of Member States to withhold contributioils at
will, on the basis of a mere claim that in their view the expenditures

concerned had been improperly incurred, not only could speedily
cause serious disruption, but would also give those Member States
which, on the basis of the normal scales of apportionment, are
major contributors, a degree of control and veto over the affairs of
the United Nations which, equally, can never have been intended
in the framing of the Charter to be exercised by these means, or
Article 17,paragraph 2, would not be there.

This brings me to the second element in the solution propounded
by the Court, and on this aspect of the matter 1 can concuï. The
solution is not technically a final one, for as things are at present,
means continue to be lacking whereby, in the case of controversÿ,
a decision binding both on the Organization and on Member States
can be obtained. In practice the proposition involved will help
towards producing a de facto solution. To state it in my own way-
when, on the basis of an item which has been regularly placed on

the agenda, and has gone through the normal procedural stages, the
Assembly, after due discussion, adopts by the necessary two-thirds
majority, a resolution authorizing or apportioningcertain expendi-
tures incurred, or to be incurred, in the apparent furtherance of
the purposes of the Organization, there must arise at the least a
strong firima fncie preçumption that these expenditures are valid
andproper ones. Unless that is so,a potentially unworkable situation
exists; but clearly it must be so, and in consequence (subject to the
points discussed in Section VIII below), an apportionment bg- the

Assembly has, initially at least, the effect that Member States
become obliged to pay their apportioned shares. This is because, if
such a presumption arises, it must in principle continue to exist
unless and until it is rebutted and the contrary position isestablished,
by whatever means it may be practicable to have recourse to-an-
consequential financial adjustments being effected later. Only if

It is often said that there is a safeguathe fact that, under ArticIYof
the Charter, financial resolutirequire a two-thirdmajority (though even so,
a possible minority of about 35-40 States would be a serious mattBut what
Article 18 actually mentions is not "financial resolutbut "budgetary ques-
tions".Does this mean simply the ordinary budget and the expenses included in it?
If the expression did not include other expenses, then the Assembly severaln
classes of cases, by a bare majorvote, impose financial liabilon a minority
of over 50 States-whichin a few years may be one of over 60 States. the invalidity of the expenditure was apparent on the face of the
matter, or too manifest to be open to reasonable doubt, would such
a prima facie presumption not arise.

It is now necessary to consider the first ofthe questionsmentioned
in the second paragraph of the preceding Section; for the simple
fact that expenditures are valid, or anyhow not invalid, does not
necessarily, or of itself, make them "expenses" of the Organization.
Itdepends on what is properly to be understood bythe notion of an
expense. To give a quick illustration, it could be argued (1 shall
discuss the merits of the argument later) that while expenditures
incurred in the discharge of functions which the Organization has a
duty under the Charter to perform (for instance the functions of a
peace-keeping character involved in the present case) are un-

questionably in the nature of expenses, expenditures incurred inthe
performance of activities of a merely permissive kind, which the
Organization has a faculty, but no positive obligation, to cany out,
do not have that character, although they might be perfectly
proper expenditures. In cases coming under the latter head, there-
fore, it might be contended that if the Organization decides upon
such an activity, it must look to voluntary contributions from
Member States, or other sources of income available to it, in order
to finance the activities 7, and cannot claim contributions as a
matter of obligation under Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter.

Another illustration would be if, at the invitation of one or more
Member States (as can happen), the Organization engaged in some
activity, or assumed some function, quite outside the normal scope
and framework of the Charter. Such action would not be illegal if
it was carried out with the consent of all the States affected by it;

nor would the resultant expenditures be invalid. But they would,
ex hypothesi, not be expenditures contemplated or provided for by
the Charter. Despite their "non-invalidity" therefore, they could
not rank as "expenses of the Organization" within the meaning of
Article 17,paragraph 2,to which al1Member States would be obliged
to contribute, irrespective of how their votes had been cast in
relation to the resolutions authorizing the expenditures in question.
Member States cannot, in my opinion, be bound to contribute to
expenditures incurred outside the scope and framework of the
Charter (even if these are not illegal in se), except by their specific
consent given ad hoc in relation to the particular case. Article 17,
paragraph 2, does not, as such, extend to such a case. "Non-

' This is what in fact occurs in many casas indicated in footnote 5above.
58invalidity" doesnot therefore, in my view, sufficeof itself to give rise
to an obligation to contribute to given expenditure as an expense of
the Organization,irrespective ofvarious other factors which I shall
discuss in due course. The validity of the expenditure and the
obligation to contribute to it are two distinct questions. Validity

is a condition of the obligation: it is not necessarily a sufficient
condition.

Equally, if the matter is looked at in a more general way, it is
not the case that the genus "expense" can be simply equated with
"expenditure" or "disbursement", i.e. anything that is in fact
paid out. In the technical sense, and in the normal acceptation of
the term, "expenses" are expenditures of a kind which, under
private law, would be "recoverable". For instance, in contracts of
employment, it is very usual to find a clause saying that the em-
ployee will receive such and such a salary, "plus expenses"; but it
is well understood that this does not mean any and al1 disburse-
ments or expenditures the employee may choose to make in the
course of carrying out his functions, but only such as are reason-
able and necessary, and have been incurred in the normal course of
business. This is really inherent in the whole idea of an expense,
and must be read into Article 17, paragraph 2, despite the absence
of any express qualification; for after all, the Organization, by
apportioning the expenditures concerned, is, in effect, seeking to

recover them from the Member States.
Taking account of these considerations, an attempt can now be
made to ascribe some content to the notion of "expenses of the
Organization". The Court has declined to give any definition of
this term. 1 agree that a definition as such is not called for, and
would in any case be difficult. But short of a definition, 1 think it
useful to indicate the main types of expenditures which, assuming
them to be valid and legitimate, would fa11within the normal
conception of what constitutes an expense, and would therefore be
"expenses of the Organization". Such expenditures would, it
seems to me, include the following (1 will simply indicate them
without giving any reasons, as these are self-evident) :

A. Al1those expenditures, or categories of expenditures, which
have normally formed part of the regular budget of the
Organization, so that a settled practice (pratique constante)
of treating them as expenses of the Organization has become
established, and is tacitly acquiesced in by al1Member States.
B. In so fur as-mt already coveredby head A :

1. administrative expenditures;
II. expenditures arising in the course, or out of the perform-
ance by the Organization of its functions under the
Charter ; III. any payments which the Organization is legally respon-
sible for making in relation to third parties; or which it is
othenvise, as an entity, under a legal obligation to make;
or is bound to make in order to meet its extraneoçs legal
obligations.

In head B II however, the words "...arising .. out of the perform-
ance by the Organization of its functions under the Charter"
conceal a difficulty which will be discussed in the last Section of
this Opinion; and in any event these words do not include the case
noticed above, where the Organization may, by invitation, engage
in activities, or assume functions, outside the scope and framework
of the Charter, even if, by reason of such invitation, no illegality
arises. Action outside the Charter can wellnot involve any breach of
general international law; and even if it othenvise would, may be
validated in various ways. It does not thereby become Charter
action, or the expense of it a Charter expense attributable to
Member States.

1 come now to the third and last of the questions mentioned in

the second paragraph of Section IV above, which is the one that has
caused me the most difficulty in this case. It is not dealt with in
the Opinion of the Court, because the Court has proceeded on the
basis that once it is established that certain expenditures constitute
"expenses of the Organization", it follows necessarily and auto-
matically that every Member State is obliged to pay its appor-
tioned share of these expenses in al1circumstances.It can however,
or it may be argued, that there are circumstances in which this
would not be the case; and it seems to me essential to state,and to
deal with this argument, if only to indicate how far and in what
respects it is incorrect. Just as, in my view (see Section V), the
notions of "validity" and "obligation to contribute" are not neces-
sarily coincident, so also is it to me far from automatically self-
evident that the notions of "expense" and "obligation to contribute"
are ipso facto identical, though they are clearly closely related. 1
must therefore examine the matter.
Before coming to grips with this problem however, it is necessary
to notice certain peculiarities about Article 17, paragraph 2, and
to consider what is the exact role played by that provision in the
financial set-up of the United Nations.
Itis always a useful exercise when the interpretation of a given
provision in the context of a whole instrument is in question, to
consider what difference it would make if that provision did not

figure in the instrument at all. It is only necessary to ask what the
60position would have been if Article 17, paragraph 2, had not in
fact been inserted in the Charter, in order to see at once that the
obligation of Member States collectively to finance the Organization,

by one means or another-the obligation ofprinciple that is-cannot
be dependent on the existence of Article 17, paragraph 2. It must
in any case arise as a matter of inherent necessity. An Organization
such as the United Nations cannot function without funds, and
there is no other quarter from which, as a rnatterof oblieation(and
nothing short of obligation suffices) funds could come, except from
the Member States themselves. Without finance, the Organization
could not perform its duties. Therefore, even in the absence of
ArticIe 17, paragraph 2, a general obligation for Member States
collectively to.finance the Organization would have to be read into
the Charter, on the basis of the same principle as the Court applied
in the Injuries to United Natiotzs Servawtscase, namely "by neces-
sary implication as being essential to the performance of its [i.e.
the Organizatit~n's]duties"-(I.C. J.Reports 1949 ,t p. 182).Joining
the Organization, in short, means accepting the burden and the
obligation of contributing to financing it.
Clearly, the independent character of the financial obligation of
Member States-the fact that it has a basis extraneous to Article7,

pa~agraph 2-considerably strengthens the view, first, that the obli-
gation does exist, and secondly that it exists at least to the extent
necessary to make the Organization workable. So much is scarcely
open to doubt. What might however (andin my opinion, for reasons
to be indicated, would) be open to controversy, is the exact nature
and extent of that obligation, and how it is to be carried out. In
this connection, the fact that Article 17, paragraph 2, does duly
figure in the Charter is of importance; nevertheless the light in
which this provision has to be looked at may be affected by the
existence of the independent obligation of principle, and this aspect
of the matter must now be considered.

Were it not for the recbrds of the San Francisco Conference for
the drafting of the Charter (to which 1 shall refer later) the correct
interpretation of Article 17,paragraph 2, would be that it added
nothing to the already existing inherent obligation, and went solely
to the mechanics of the performance of that obligation. It is worded
so as to assume-orimply the basic obligatiori rather than to create

or express on+, as it would do if for instance it read "The expenses
of the Organization shall be borne by the Members, and shall be
borne by them as apportioned by the General Assembly". The
italicized phraseisnot however there, with the result that Article 17,
paragraph 2,is elliptical, and declaratory rather than constitutive
ofthe basic obligation. Having regard to the independent foundation
and inhèrent nature of the financial obligation of Member States, it
would seem that the only real additional substantive effect of this
provision (taken by itself and without reference to the trauartx
61PrLPpnrntoire s, is the normal initial approach to any interpretative
task) is to indicate the organ, namely the General Assembly, which
is to decide on the apportionment of the expenses as between the
Illember States, and also to make it clear that these States must
accept the apportionment so determined. This view of the effect
of Article 17, paragraph 2, if that provision is considered per se,

is further supported by the points mentioned in the footnote
hereto 8.Consequently it seems to me incorrect to Say, as has some-
times been suggested, that the exercise of the power of appor-
tionment by the Assembly creates the obligation. This is surely
putting the cart before the horse. Apportionment is merely a
condition precedent of the obligation having to be carried out.

It quantifies the content of it; but the obligation itself is an ante-
cedent one, and without it, the apportionment would lack legal
effect, or would amount merely to an invitation to contribute the
inclicated share on a voluntary basis.
It follows, in my opinion, that there is a sufficient element of
ambiguity about the exact intention and effect of Article 17, para-

graph 2, to make its interpretation on the basis of the rule of the
"natural and ordinary meaning" alone, unsatisfactory. In these
circumstances it is permissible to have recourse to the preparatofy
work of the San Francisco Conference. Reference to this source
indicates that the words "shall be borne by the Members as appor-
tioned bv the General Assembly", rather than some phrase such as

"sl~allbe allocated to the Members in such shares as the Assembly
may determine", were deliberately employed with the object of
ensuring that what was called "a clear statement of the obligations
of Members to meet the expenses of the Organization" should be
found in the Charter itself - (Document 194 inthe Dossier supplied

Whereas no express provision was necessarin order to createa general liability
of principle for MemberStates to bear the costs of the Organization, wwould
have existed in any case as a matter of inherent necessity, an express prdidsion
have to be introduced inorder to provide for the method of apportionment:and
also to oblige Members to pay the share allocated to them, and nassert a right
to pay a smaller share. Without an express provision these points there would
invested with any clear right of decision. In exactly the same way, the first para-
graph of Article 17 is also essential, in order to make it clear thatit is the Assembly,
and not some other organ,such as the Security Council, which adopts the budget
of the Organization.The lack of corresponding provisionin the Covenant of the
former League of Nations led to great difficulties in the early years of the League,
and eventually necessitatean amendment of the Covenant. A further indication
that Article17 is directly concerned with the mechanics of the obligation to con-
tribute, rather than with the obligation itself, is afforded by the fact that it figures
in Chapter IV of the Charter, which deals with the functions of theGeneral Assembly.
If the main purpose of the Article was to make clear the responsibof Member
States for bearing the costs of the Organizatioit should have figured in some
more general chapter, and not among the functions of the Assembly. Without
reference to the San Francisco records, the deduction would be that the subject
rectly) the obligations of Member States.f the Assembly ratthan (except indi-to the Court by the Secretary-General of the United Nations,
pp. 9-13, passim) 9. Ifthe language used was not in fact very apt
for the purpose of embodying such a "clear statement", the exist-
ence of the intention at any rate is clear, and for reasons which

1 shall presently give, it is important that there should be no doubt
about that intention.

1propose now to consider the difficulty 1 mentioned earlier-the
question whether, if given expenditures are duly expenses of the
Organization, an obligation for every Member State to contribute
to them as apportioned anses in al1circumstances. The core of the
difficultyis how to reconcile the obligatory character of the liability
to meet the expenses of the Organization with the non-obligatory
character of many, indeed most, of the resolutions under which
these expenses are incurred. To me, it has not seemed self-evident

that Article 17, paragraph 2, on its actual wording, necessarily or
automatically disposes of this difficulty; and unless it can be dis-
posed of satisfactorily, the affirmative reply given to the question
addressed to the Court must be less convincing than it ought to be.

There is clearly no problem in the case of decisionsof the Security
Council which, under Article 25 of the Charter, are binding on
Member States, even on those Members of the Council which voted
against them, and equally on those Members of the Assembly which,
not being Members of the Council, ex hypothesi did not vote at all.
Therefore, even in the absence of Article 17, paragraph 2, al1these
Member States would be obliged to meet the expenses of carrying

such decisions out. But many Security Council resolutions only have
a recommendatory intention and effect, and this is in principle also
the casewith most Assemblyresolutions. If however a Member State
has voted in favour of such a resolution, or, by abstaining, has not
manifested opposition to it, it is reasonable to regard either of
these attitudes, not indeed as involving any forma1 obligation for
that Member State itself to carry out the resolution, operationally,
but as indicating approval of, or at any rate tacit acquiescence in,
its being carried out by those Member States which are ready to do
so; and also (and quite apart from Article 17, paragraph 2) as im-
plying willingness to contribute to the expenses of carrying it out-
although as regards the effect of abstentions, it would be better to
put the matter on the basis that a Member State which does not

vote against a given resolution, can scarcely object if it is called
upon to pay its share of the resultant expenses.
It is also clear from the records that the inappropriaof putting the
basic financial obligaof Member States amongst the functions of the Assembly
was realized.t was apparently left there because no better place could be found
for it.
63 Similar considerations can hardly apply to the case of a vote
which does go to the length of being cast against the resolution

concerned-a resolution which is in any case purely recommen-
datory. Certainly it would seem at first sight an odd position that
a Member State which is not itself bound to carry out such a reso-
lution, and which has manifested disapproval of its being carried
out at al1 by anyone, should nevertheless be legally obliged to
contribute to the expenses of executing it. Here therefore is a case
in which, in order to justify the conclusion that a Member Statein
this position is nevertheless bound to contribute its apportioned
share, reliance on the inherent obligation of Member States to meet
the costs of the Organization might not be sufficient; for that obli-
gation is an obligation of principle only. It would not necessarily
extend to or cover every case. A Member State which had voted
against a resolution having only a recommendatory effect could,
in the absence of express language figuring, or to be deemed to
figure, in the Charter itself, very plausibly argue that the obligation
did not exist for it in the particular case, especially with refer-
ence to certain types of activities-(see Section VI11 below).

It is therefore important that the records of the San Francisco
Conference-even if the language used for the purpose was not
particularly felicitous-do indicate that the intention to impose a
definite financial obligation on Member States was there. Looking
at the matter as a whole, 1think that (with the possible exception
of the class of case considered in SectionVI11 below) this intention
must be deemed to have extended to covering the payment by
Member States of their apportioned shares, irrespective of how their
votes were cast on any given occasion, at any rate as regards al1
the essential activities of the Organization, and even if they have
no forma1 legal obligation to join in carrying out the activities to
which the given expenditures relate. (In the case of inessential
activities, the position is more complicated, and 1consider this in
the final section of this Opinion.)

In reaching this conclusion, it ismaterial to take account of the

following factor: those who framed the Charter deliberately broke
away from the fundamental voting rule of the former League of
Nations (unanimity-see Article 5, paragraph 1, of the League
Covenant), and they adopted for the United Nations a majority
voting rule. In an Organization which has never numbered much less
than 50-60 Member States, and now numbers over roo, no other
rule than a majority one would be practicable. But a majority voting
rule is meaningless unless, although the States of the minority are
not formally bound as regards their own action, they at least cannot
prevent or impede the action decided on from being carried out

64aliun.de.This they obviously could do if they had a species of veto,

the exercise of which, through the refusa1 to contribute financially,
would enable them to prevent or seriously impede the action
concerned.
The same conclusion can be reached in another way, for if there
is, on the one hand, a general position under the Charter according
to which certain resolutions have no formally obligatory character-
doubly not so for those who vote against them-there is also, on the
otherhand, a special provision, Articl17,paragraph 2,obligingMem-
ber States to contribute to the cost of carrying these resolutions out,
in so far as these costs duly rank as expenses of the Organization.
To this situation the rule generalia s@ecialibusnon derogant must
apply, so that in spite of the general element of non-obligation
under these resolutions, the special obligation to contribute to the
expenses incurred in carrying them out prevails, and applies even
to Member States voting against. There is in short no substantive
conflict.

This position was aptly compared, by one of the representatives

of Governments at the oral hearing, to that of a member of the
public who cannot be compelled physically to join in constructing
a public edifice but can, through the medium of ordinary taxation,
be made to contribute to the cost of having it constructedby others.
Another comparison, perhaps even closer, would be that of member-
ship of a club. If the Committee or governing body of a club decides
to acquire additional premises, or to extend the club's activities, or
othenvise to increase expenditure, and this necessitates raising the
annual subscription, or in some other manner involves financial
liabilities for members, and this decision is ratified by a general
meeting of the members, the latter, irrespective of how they voted,
must pay accordingly, or resign their membership.

1 have mentioned the existence of a class of case to which,

possibly, the foregoing considerations would not apply, and regard-
ing which there may be room for some real doubt whether any
financial obligation can arise, at least for Member States voting
against the resolution concerned in any given case. In the normal
case, a resolution provides for certain action to be taken by the
Organization, either through such of the Member States as are
willing to participate, or through the medium of the Secretary-
General or of some other agent or agency. In these cases, despite
the obligation to contribute to the resultant expenses, the resolution
retains its fundamentally non-obligatory character; for if the
Member States are obliged to contribute financially, they are not

65obliged to participate in the operational carrying out of the sub-
stantive activities provided for in the resolution. Where however
the "action" to be taken under the resolution consists solely of
provision for making a payment or financial contribution (e.g. for
some purpose of aid or relief), so that the making of this payment
or contribution is not merely a means to an end-viz. enabling the
resolution to be carried out-but the end itself, and the soleobject
of the resolution, it is evident that if the payment or contribution
concerned is to be treated as one to which even Member States which
voted against the resolution must contribute by reason of Article17,
paragraph 2, the resolution acquires in practice a wholly obligatory

character-since it does one thing only, and Member States are
bound, or would be bound, to do or contribute to doing that one
thing. In this connexion, it is significant that the actual practice
of the Assembly (and the Court has drawn considerable inspiration
from this source), has been to finance expenditures falling within
this class of case, mainly by calling for voluntarycontributions from
Member States. E~amples are the activities (or most of them) for
which budgetary provision is made under such heads as those of
"Trust Funds" and "Special AccountsJ'-for instance the U.X.
Special Fund, UNKRA, UNSCO, EPTA, UNRWA, UXICEF, the
U.N. Fund for the Congo, and the U.N. Congo Famine Fund.
No doubt special considerations applied in some of these cases;
still, the fact remains that contributions were not claimed as a
matter of actual obligation.

The same point arises in another way, in relation to head B II
in the list of expenditures ranking asexpenses of the Organization
given at the end of Section V above. What expenditures precisely
should this head B II be regarded as covering? There are broadly
two main classes of functions which the Organization performs under
the Charter-those which it has a duty to carry out, and those
which are more or less permissive in character. Peace-keeping,
dispute-settling and, indeed, most of the political activities of the
Organization would come under the former head; many of what
might be called its social and economic activities might come under
the latter. Expenses incurred in relation to the first set of activities
are therefore true expenses, which the Organization has no choice
but to incur in order to carry out a duty, and an essential function
which it is bound to perform. Therefore the principle enunciated
by the Court in the Injuries to United Nations Servawtscase, and

mentioned earlier, applies: the Organization "must be deemed to
have those powers which, though not expressly provided in the
Charter, are conferred upon it by necessary implication as being
essential tothe performance of its duties" (citation on p.8 above).
Even without Article 17, paragraph 2, the Organization could
require Member States to contribute to these expenses.
66 It is less clear that any similar power exists to require Member
States to meet the costs incurred in performing merely permissive
activities carried out under non-binding resolutions. There certainly
would be no such power without Article 17, paragraph 2-at least
not as regards Member States which voted against the resolution
giving rise to the expenditure concerned; and even with the assis-

tance of Article 17, the position is not entirely clear. There is.a
definite distinction, inasmuch as where the activities involved are
such asthe Organization has a duty to carry out, non-contributiori
by a Member State would be fundamentally inconsistent with thac
State's membership, as being calculated to prevent or gravely
impede the performance by the Organization of an essential func-
tion. Where the costs of permissive, or non-essential activities are
concemed, there is no correspondingly clear-cut inconsistency,

and there must remain a question whether, in this type of case,
Article 17, paragraph 2, is sufficient to give rise to a financial obli-
gation for the dissenting voter.If it is sufficient, then it would follow
that, in theory at least, the Assembly could vote enormous expen-
ditures, and thereby place a heavy financialburden even on dissent-
ing States, and as a matter of obligation even in the case of non-
essentialactivities. This would be reading a lot into such a provision
as Article 17, paragraph 2. In this connexion, it must be borne in
mind that, if a two-thirds majority is required for the adoption of

financial resolutions, the present scales of apportionment cause a
major part of the resulting contributions to fall on a comparatively
small minority of the Member States. As has already been men-
tioned, the existencehere of a genuine difficulty seems to have been
recognized in practice within the Organization, inasmuch as the
cost of a large part of these permissive activities is met from
voluntary contributions '0.

To set against these considerations, there is the fact that it would
not be easy to drawa hard and fast line between necessary, essential
and obligatory functions of the Organization, on the one hand, and
merely optional, non-essential and permissive ones on the other.
Changing concepts also are involved. Today, the humanitarian
and aid-givingfunctions of the Organization are, if less imperative,

l0 1 have already given it as my view (see Section V above) that no financial
obligation arises where the Organization acts outside the ambit of the Charter,
eStates) no illegality is involved. But in these cases, the lack of obligation derives
notço much from the casting of a contrary vote, as from the fact that, inmy opin-
ion, the expenditures involved would not properly speaking be "expenses of the
Organization"withinthe meaning of Article 17,paragr2,at all.

67hardly less important than its political functions, and may well
contribute materially, or even be essential, to the success of the
latter.

For the purposes of the present Request it is not necessary to
express any final view about these points, but 1 have thought it
useful to draw attention to them. There is moreover at least one
case of this kind as to which 1 feel no doubt about the obligation to
contribute, irrespective of how a Member State's vote has been cast.
It has been suggested by some of those who deny al1 validity to
peace-keeping activities organized by the Assembly, that (on the

analogy, as 1 suppose, of the well-known Prize Law doctrine of
"infection") even civil expenditures in the nature of technical
assistance, famine relief, etc., given to any country contempo-
raneously and in connexion with such peace-keeping activities (as
is the case under some of the resolutions now involved) become,
by a process of association, "tainted", as it were, with the same
invalidity as is alleged to exist for the peace-keeping activities
themselves. 1 take a view which is the exact antithesis of this, and
applies the doctrine of "infection" in reverse. Even if it should be
the case (and on this 1 do not express any final view) that there is
no positive obligation to contribute to the expenses of carrying out
social and economic activities of a permissive character (except for
Member States supporting or not opposing the activity concerned),
1 consider that where such an activity is closely connected with,
arises out of, and, in short, is basically part of a peace-keeping
endeavour, and necessary for, or directly contributory to the
success of that endeavour, the activity in question takes on the
nature of an essential activity, the expenses of which a.= expenses

of the Organization to which al1Member Statesare bound to contri-
bute, irrespective of their votes.

Consequently, my concurrence in the Opinion of the Court extends
no less to the civil than to the military expenditures incurred under
the Resolutions specified in the Request.

(Signed) G. G. FITZMAURICE.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF

JUDGE SIR GERALD FITZMAURICE

1 have not written this separate opinion because 1 disagree with
the operative conclusion of the Opinion of the Court. 1 consider
that the expenditures referred to in the Assembly's Request are
without doubt expenses of the Organization within the meaning
of Article17,paragraph 2, of the Charter.1also agree with much of
the reasoning on which the Court's Opinion is based, although it
goes more into matters of pure detail and procedure than 1 would
have thought necessary. But as 1 shall indicate1 have reservations
on certain points of principle having wider implications, though
they do not affect the final conclusion reached in the present case.

Moreover (and this constitutes my main reason for writing a
separate opinion), it would seem that the Opinion of the Court,
while dealing elaborately with certain matters, refrains designedly
from discussing other, more general, aspects of the subject, in-
volving difficultieswhich have troubled a number of those who have
had to do with it. The Opinion, in short, ignores various points
which appear to me to be very relevant; for although the "legal
guidznce" mentioned in the preambular part of the Request is
asked forin connection with the question of "financing the United
Nations operations in the Congo and in the Middle East", 1 con-
sider that even in these contexts alone, this guidance must fa11
short of full utility if it fails to deal with certain more general
matters, and also with one or two others that the Court has not
gone into.
For instance, the Court has taken the view that it is only re-
quired to state whether certain specified expenditures are expenses

of the Organization, and is not called upon to declare what are the
financial obligations of Member States (hence the change in the
title of the case). To my mind the two questions are indissolubly
linked, for except in so far as there is an obligation to contribute
to expenditures which duly rank as "expenses", there is no point
in determining whether these expenditures are expenses or not;
and as 1shall show, it is necessary to deal with certain types of case
in which it could be contended that, although given expenditures
are expenses of the Organization, there may not necessarilÿ or
always be an obligation for every Member State to contribute to
them. OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE

SIR GERALD FITZMAURICE

1
[Traduction]
Ce n'est pas parce que je désapprouve le dispositif de l'avis de
la Cour que j'écris la présente opinion individuelle. Je considère
que les dépenses (expenditures) dont il est question dans la requête
de l'Assemblée généralesont sans aucun doute des dépenses (ex-
penses) de l'Organisation au sens de l'article17, paragraphe 2, de
la Charte. Je suis également d'accord avec une grande partie du
raisonnement sur lequel est fondé l'avis de la Cour, bien qu'il
traite beaucoup plus de simples questions de détail et de procédure

que je ne l'aurais estimé nécessaire.Mais, comme je vais l'indiquer,
jc fais des réserves sur certains points de principe d'un caractère
plus général,bien qu'ils n'influent pas sur la conclusion finale qui
a étédonnée à la présente affaire.
De plus (et ceci est la raison principale qui m'a poussé à écrire
une opinion individuelle), il semble que l'avis de la Cour, tout en
traitant minutieusement certains points, s'abstienne intentionnel-
lement d'en aborder d'autres, d'un caractère plus généralet com-
portant des difficultés qui ont embarrassé un certain nombre de
ceux qui ont eu à connaître du sujet. En résumé,l'avis passe sous
silence certains points qui m'apparaissent des plus pertinents; en
effet,bien que 1'((avis juridique)mentionné dans le préambule de la
requêteporte sur la question du (financement des opérations des

Xations Unies au Congo et au Moyen-Orient », j'estime que, même
dans ce seul contexte, I'avis n'atteint pas sa pleine utilité s'il ne
traite pas de certaines questions plus généralesainsi que d'un ou
deux autres points que la Cour a laissésde côté.

Par exemple, la Cour a considéréqu'on lui demandait seulement
de dire si certainesexpenditures donnéesconstituaient des ex+enses
de l'Organisation et qu'elle n'était pas appelée à déclarer quelles
sont les obligations financières des États Membres (ce qui explique
le changement du titre de l'affaire). A mon avis, les deux questions
sont indissolublement liées: à quoi bon déterminer que ces expendi-
tures sont des expenses ou qu'elles ne .le sont pas, s'il n'existe pas
une obligation de contribuer aux expenditures dûment classéesdans

la catégorie (exfienses»? Et, comme je le montrerai plus loin, il est
nécessairede considérercertains cas où l'on peut dire que, bien que
des expenditures données soient des expenses de l'organisation, cela
n'implique pas nécessairement ni toujours l'obligation pour chacun
des États Membres d'y contribuer.
5= A short answer to the question put in the Request could be given
on the following lines:
first, that the notion of expenses of the Organization cannot be
confined merely to its regular administrative expenses, since the
latter are not incurred as an end in themselves but as a means to
an end, namely, to enable the Organization to carry out the essen-

tial substantive functions for which it exists; therefore, to regard
the obligation of Member States as extending only to routine
administrative expenses would be as stultifying as it would be
disingenuous l;
secondly, that the notion of expenses of the Organization must
extend at least to those incurred in the discharge of the essential
functions of the Organization for which it Ras brought into exist-
ence; that peace-keeping activities constitute such a function;
and that the expenditures specified in the Request for an advisory
opinion relate to peace-keeping activities ;

thirdly, that the Charter does not exclude, and indeed (subject to
specified conditions and limitations) makes express provision for
the carrying out of certain peace-keeping activities by the Assembly
(Articles II, 14, 35, etc.); and that the activities of the Assembly
in respect of which the expenditures at issue were incurred were of
this kind, and did not exceed the conditions and limitations in
question.
Broadly speaking, though in greater detail and with moreelabora-
tion, these are some of the main considerations on which the Opinion
of the Court is in fact founded and, framed as indicated above, 1
concur in them. The Court however, in addition to these considera-

tions, and more particularly in connection with those coming
under the third of them, has alluded to the possibility that, even
if, in carrying out the activities concerned, the Assembly was not
acting in conformity with the division of functions established by
the Charter, this would not cause the resulting expenditures to
cease being expenses of the Organization, provided that the related
activities came within the functions ofthe Organization as a whole-
the irregulanty ranking merely as a matter appertaining to the
interna1 economy of the Organization. This is an idea which 1think
must not be pressed too far (nor does the Court rely on it except
incidentally). It is certainly correct in one sense, namely, that inter-

na1 irregularities would not affect liabilities definitely incurred by
or on behalf of the Organization, in relation to third parties outside

States were obliged to contribute to paying the salaries of the Secretariat, but not
to the expenses of carrying but the functions of the Organization, for the purposes
of which the Sxretariahad been engaged. Une brève réponse à la question poséedans la requêtepourrait
êtreconçuecomme suit:
firemièrement,la notion d'exfiensesde l'organisation ne peut pas
se limiter simplement à ses exfienses administratives ordinaires
puisque ces dernières ne sont pas engagées commeune fin en elles-
mêmesmais comme un moyen de permettre à l'Organisation d'ac-

complir les fonctions essentielles pour lesquelles elle a étécréée;
par conséquent, il serait aussi vain que gratuit de considérer
l'obligation des États Membres comme ne portant que sur les
exfienses administratives courantes l;
deuxièmement,la notion d'expensesde l'organisation doit s'éten-
dre au moins aux dépenses encourues dans l'accomplissement des
fonctions essentielles pour lesquelles l'organisation a étécréée;
les activités visant au maintien de la paix représentent une de ces
fonctions; et les exfiendituresmentionnées dans la requête pouravis
consultatif se rapportent à des activités visafit au maintien de la

paix ;
troisiènzement,la Charte n'exclut pas la poursuite par 1'Assem-
bléede certaines activités visant au maintien de la paix et prend
même des dispositions précisesà ce sujet sousréservedes conditions
et des limitations indiquées(articles II, 14, 35,etc.); et les activités
de l'Assembléepour lesquelles les exfiendituresen question ont été
encourues relèvent de cette catégorie et n'outrepassent point les
conditions et limitations en question.
D'une manière générale,ces considérations sont, avec plus de
détailset de précisions,parmi les principales de celles sur lesquelles
se fonde l'avis de la Cour et, conçuescomme je l'aiindiquéplus haut,

elles ont mon assentiment. Mais, outre ces considérations et en
particulier celles qui font l'objet du troisième point, la Cour a dit
que, mêmesi dans l'accomplissement des activitésenquestion, l'As-
sembléen'a pas agi conformément à la division des fonctionsétablie
par la Charte, cela ne pourrait ne pas constituer une raison pour que
les exfienditures qui en résultent cessent d'être des exfienses de
l'organisation, à condition que les activités en cause fassent partie
des fonctions de l'organisation dans son ensemble - l'irrégularité
étant simplement considérée comme une question relevant de
l'économieinterne de l'Organisation. C'est là une idéedont j'estime

qu'elle ne devrait pas êtrepousséetrop loin (la Cour n'en a d'ail-
leurs fait état qu'en passant). Elle est certainement exacte en un
certain sens, à savoir que des irrégularitésinternes ne sauraient
affecter les engagements encourus définitivement par l'organisation

l Par exemple, il serait pour le moins curieque les États Membres soient
tenus de contribuer aux traitements Secrétariat et non auxpenses encourues
tariat a étéengagé.ent des fonctiode l'organisation, poulesquelles le Secré-the Organization or its membership Z.But what is really in question
here is the relationship of the Member States inter se, and vis-&vis
the Organization as such, and there can be no doubt that, in prin-
ciplz at least, expenditures incurred in excess of the powers of the
expending body are invalid expenditures. The question is, are they
invalid if they merely exceed the powers of the particular organ
authorizing them, but not those of the Organization as a whole?
It is true that there are cases, both in the domestic and in the inter-

national legal spheres, where al1 that matters (except on the purely
internal plane) is that a certain act has in fact been performed, or
not performed, as the case may be, and where the reasons for, or
channels through which the performance or non-performance has
taken place are immaterial. But in the present case, the question
of the financial obligations of Member States in relation to the
Organization is a question moving on the internal plane; and if an
instrument such as the Charter of the United Nations attributes
given functions in an exclusive manner to one of its organs, consti-

tuted in a certain way-other and different functions being attri-
buted to other and differently constituted organs-this can only be
because, in respect of the performance of the functions concerned,
importance was attached to the precise constitution of the organ
concerned 3.
It is not however necessary to express any final view on this
matter, for the simple reason that, as the Opinion of the Court
brings out, the Charter does not, in fact, in the matter of peace-
keeping activities, establisl-i any rigid general division of function
be'tureenthe role of the Security Council and that of the Assembly.

Enforcement or coercitive action strictosensu is of course exclusively
for the Security Council, but 1 agree with the Court that the action
of the Assembly in the Middle East and in the Congo has not been
of this character. Furthermore, and as indicated by the Court, 1
consider that this action of the Assembly has fallen within the scope
of its functions under the Charter. and has not exceeded the limi-
tations thereby imposed on the scope and exercise of those functions.
Beyond a somewhat general statement of this character, 1woilld
not wish to go for present purposes. While 1 agree with the general

trend of the Court's reasoning on what 1 will cal1 the "military"
provisions of the Charter, 1 would have to reserve my position on a
number of points of formulation if 1 thought it necessary to go into
these provisions in detail.

2 1will postulate for present purposes that the third party is prima facie, entitied
in the particulacircumstances,to assume that the liabilities have been validly
incurred.
3 Clearly an organ constituin a particular way will tend to carry out a given
function in a different way from an organ differently constiand will have
been entrusted witthat function for that reason, inter dia.ou en son nom, vis-à-vis de tiers ne faisant paspartie de l'organisa-
tion ou ne comptant pas, parmi ses Membres 2.Mais, en l'espèce, il

s'agit des relations des Etats Membres entre eux et de leurs rela-
tions avec l'organisation mêmeet il est indéniable que, tout au
moins en principe, les ex9enditure.sencouruesau-delà des pouvoirs de
l'organisme qui les a engagées sont invalides. La question est de
savoir si elles sont invalides lorsqu'elles outrepassent uniquement les
pouvoirs de l'organc qui les autorise et non ceux de l'organisation
dans son ensemble. Certes, en droit nztional comme en droit
international, il se trouve des cas où tout ce qui compte (sauf sur

le plan purement interne) est qu'un certain acte ait étéréellement
accompli ou non, selon le cas, et où les raisons pour lesquelles, ou les
moyens par lesquels, cet acte a étéaccompli ou non sont sans
conséquence. Mais, dans la présente affaire, la question des obliga-
tions financières des Etats Membres vis-à-vis de l'organisation se
pose sur le plan interne ; et, si un instrument tel que la Charte attri-
bue exclusivement des fonctions déterminées à un organe des

Xations Unies constitué d'une certaine manière - des fonctions
différentes étant attribuées à des organes différents constitués
d'une autre manière -, cela ne peut êtredû qu'au fait que, pour
l'accomplissement des fonctions en question, il a étéattaché une
certaine importance à la constitution mêmede l'organe en cause 3.
Il n'est cependant pas nécessaire d'exprimer une opinion défi-
nitive sur ce point, pour la simple raison que, comme le fait res-
sortir l'avis de la Cour, la Charte n'établit pas en fait, pour les

activités visant au maintien de la paix, une division de fonctions
générale et rigide entre le Conseil de Sécurité et l'Assemblée.
L'action coercitive stricto sensu est naturellement l'exclusivité
du Conseil de Sécurité;mais je reconnais avec la Cour que les ac-
tions de l'Assembléeau Moyen-Orient et au Congo n'ont pas été
de cette nature. Par ailleurs j'estime comme la Cour que cette
action de l'Assembléeentrait dans le cadre de ses fonctions selon

la Charte et n'a pas outrepassé les limitations imposées par la
Charte à l'étendue et à l'exercice de ses fonctions.
Aux fins de la présente opinion, je ne désirepas faire autre chose
qu'une déclaration de caractère général.Tout en étant d'accord
avec les grandes lignes du raisonnement de la Cour sur ce que je
nommerai les dispositions ccmilitaires » de la Charte, j'aurais à
réserverma ~osition sur un certain nombre de oints derédaction si
j'estimais nicessaire d'entrer dans le détail deLcesdispositions.

Je supposerai aux fins de ma démonstration que le tiers est primafenie
droit de présumer que les engagements encousont valides.

Il est évident qu'un organe constitu6 d'une certaine manière aura tendance
à ne pas accomplir une certaine fonctcomme l'aurait fait un organe constitué
autrement, et c'est pour cette raison, entre autres, quete fonction lui sera
confiée. III

Jluch of the Opinion of the Court is concerned with and based on
a consideration of what has been the actual practice of the United
Sations in financial matters, both generally and in relation to the
particular expenditures here involved. 1 would have preferred to
see less reliance on practice and more on ordinary reasoning. The
argument drawn from practice, if taken too far, can be question-
begging.
However, no one would deny that practice must be a very relevant
factor. According to what has become known as the "principle of
subsequent practice", the interpretation in fact given to an inter-

national instrument by the parties to it, as a matter of settled
practice, is good presumptive (and may in certain cases be virtually
conclusive) evidence of what the correct legal interpretation is-a
principle applied by the Court on several occasions4. But where
this is the case, it is so because it is possible and reasonable in the
circumstances to infer from the behaviour of the parties that they
have regarded the interpretation they have given to the instrument
in question as the legally correct one, and have tacitly recognized
that, in consequence, certain behaviour was legally incumbent
upon them. In the present context, it is necessary to take into
account the fact that any Member State can at all times, and in
any event, contribute voluntarily to the expenses of the Organi-
zation, whether or not it recognizes a legal obligation to do so;
and furthermore, that a number of the expenditures of the Organi-

zation are in fact financed partly and, in certain important cases,
even \vholly or mainly by voluntary contributions5. In these
circumstances, it is hardly possible to infer from the mere fact that
Member States pay, that they necessarily admit in al1 cases a
positive legal obligation to do so; and where, as has not infrequently
occurred, they have only paid under or after protest, the easier
inferenceis that this was because, for whatever reason (by no means
necessarily consciousness of legal obligation) they were unwilling
in the last resort to withhold a contribution.

Severtheless, while the existence of these considerations renders
it impossible to regard the practice of the United Nations as conclu-
sive in the matter-(it is indeed the validity of some part of that
practicewhichis put inissueby the present Request)-it cannot beless

than very material; and even if a majority vote cannot in the
forma1sense bind the minority, it can, if consistently exercised in a

Zranian Oil Company anU.S.iNationals in Morocco cases. Admissimts, Corfu,

-4s to these, see below at the end of the first paragraph of Section VIII.
54 III

Vne grande partie de l'avis de la Cour se fonde sur l'étude dece
qui a effectivement étéla pratique des Nations Unies en matière
financière, à la fois du point de vue généralet en ce qui concerne

les expenditures dont il s'agit en l'espèce. J'aurais préféré voir
donner moins d'importance à la pratique et plus de place au simple
raisonnement. S'il est poussétrop loin, l'argument tiré de la pra-
tique peut aboutir àune pétition de principe.
Cependant personne ne niera que la pratique ne soit un élément
très pertinent. Suivant ce qui est maintenant connu comme le
((principe de la pratique ultérieure », l'interprétation donnée
en fait à un instrument international par les parties intéressées
constitue en tant que pratique établie une bonne présomption (qui
peut dans certains cas être pratiquement concluante) quant à

l'interprétation juridique correcte; le principe a d'ailleurs été
appliqué par la Cour à plusieurs reprises4. Mais cela ne peut se
faire que lorsqu'il est possible et raisonnable de déduire de la
conduite des parties qu'elles considéraient leur interprétation de
l'instrument en question comme juridiquement correcte et qu'elles
se reconnaissaient tacitement comme liées en conséquence par
une certaine manière d'agir. Dans le présent contexte, il est néces-
saire de prendre en considération le fait qu'un État Membre peut,
à n'importe quel moment et dans n'importe quelles circonstances,
contribuer volontairement aux expenses de l'Organisation, qu'il

se reconnaisse ou non comme juridiquement tenu de le faire; et,
au surplus, qu'un certain nombre des expendit.uresde l'organisa-
tion sont en fait financées en partie, et mêmedans certains cas
importants en totalité ou principalement, par des contributions
volontaires Dans ces conditions, il n'est guère possible de con-
clure du simple fait que les États Membres paient, qu'ils admettent
nécessairement êtreen tout cas dans l'obligation juridique positive
de le faire; si, comme il est arrivé plus d'une fois, ils ne payent
qu'en protestant, la djduction la plus simple est qu'ils le font
parce que, pour un motif quelconque (qui n'est pas nécessairement

la conscience d'une obligation juridique), ils ne veulent pas en
fin de compte refuser leur contribution.
Cependant, tout en empêchant de juger la pratique des Nations
Unies comme concluante en la matière (c'esten fait la validitéd'une
partie de cette pratique qui fait l'objet de la question poséedans
la présente requête), ces considérations n'en sont pas moins très
importantes; même siun vote majoritaire ne peut formellement
lier la minorité, il peut, s'il se répète régulièrement d'unecertaine

Voir les affaires du Statut international du Sud-Ouest africain (1950)a.insi que
l'affaire relative Compétencede l'Assembléegénérpour l'admission d'un État
aux Nations Unieset les affaires du Détroitde Corfou, de l'dnglo-Zranian Oil CO.
et des Droits des ressortissants des gtats-unis d'Amériqueau Maroc.
Voir àce sujet la fin du premier alinéade la seVI11ci-après.particular way, suffice to establish a settled practice which a tri-
bunal can usefully and properly take accoulit of.

Subject to the foregoing reservations (which however go to
reasoning only) 1 agree that the particular expenditures mentioned
in the Request rank as expenses of the Organization; but in arriving
at that conclusion the Court has failed to indicate in terms (though

it may to some extent have implied) what are the general limitations
of principle within which any given expenditure can rank as an
expense of the Organization; and this is something which 1 think
an advisory opinion on the financial obligations of Member States
ought to do, even though it is only their obligations respecting
certain particular expenditures that are actually in question.
In my opinion, two-partly overlapping but technically distinct-
conditions must be fulfilled before any given expenditure can rank
as an expense of the Organization. First, the expenditure must
belong to the genus "expense"-that is to say it must come within
the class or category of expenditure normally (and which can in the
particular circumstances reasonably be) regarded as having the
basic nature of an "expense" properly so called. A sum of money
does not become an expense merely by being expended, or by its

expenditure being authorized. Sezondly, even if the expenditure in
question belongs in principle to the genzrs"expense", it must have
been validly incurred, for apurpose which was itself valid and legiti-
mate, in order to rank as an expense within the meaning of Xr-
ticle 17, paragraph 2, involving for Member States an obligation
to contribute to it. There will remain a third question, namely, does
it follow that because a given expenditure is an "expense", every
Member State is invariably, and irr.espective of circumstances,
bound to contribute to it according to that Member's apportioned
share? 1 shallindicate in due course why, in my opinion, the ansn-er
;O this last question is not self-evident.

It will be convenient to deal first with the second of the above-
mentioned questions-that of the validity of any given expendi-

tures. This involves issues such as the powers of the authorizing
organ, whether the object of the expenditure falls within the scope
of thepurposes of the Organization, and so forth, which must depend
on the particular circumstances of each case, and to which no
general solution is possible. In the present case, an affirmative
answer on the question of the validity of the expenditures concerned
can and must be given, as indicated by the Court. But the important
practical point involved is how the validity or invalidity of any
given expenditures can be determined if controversy arises, seeing
that, as the Court points out, the Assembly is under no obligation to

55façon, suffire à créer une pratique établie dont un tribunal peut
utilement et à bon droit tenir compte.

Sous les réserves ci-dessus (qui ne s'appliquent d'ailleurs qu'au
raisonnement), j'admets que les expenditures mentionnées dans
la requêtese classent parmi les expenses de l'organisation; mais en
arrivant à cette conclusion la Cour a omis d'indiquer (bien qu'elle

l'ait peut-êtrelaisséentendre dans une certaine mesure) sous quelles
limitations générales de principe une expenditure donnée peut
êtreconsidérée comme une expense de l'organisation; or, j'estime
que c'est ce que devrait faire un avis consultatif sur les obligations
financières des États Membres, mêmesi, en fait, il s'agit seulement
de leurs obligations relatives à certaines expenditures données.
A mon avis, il faut deux conditions - qui se chevauchent par-
tiellement mais sont techniquement distinctes - pour pouvoir
ranger une expenditure donnée dans la catégorie des expenses de

l'organisation. Premièrement, l'expenditure doit appartenir au
genre ((expense », c'est-à-dire à la classe ou à la catégorie des
expenditures normalement considérées commeétant fondamentale-
ment de la nature d'((expenses ))proprement dites, ou qu'on pourrait
considérer telles dans les circonstances dans lesquelles on se trouve.
Une somme d'argent ne devient pas une expense du simple fait
qu'elle a étédépensée ouque son déboursement a étéautorisé.
Deuxièmement, même si l'expenditure en question appartient en
principe au genre c(expense », elle doit avoir étéengagée légitime-
ment, en vue d'une fin elle-mêmevalide et légitime, pour pouvoir

êtreclasséecommeuneexpense au sens de l'article 17, paragraphe 2,
comportant pour les Etats Membres l'obligation d'y contribuer.
Il reste une troisième question: le fait qu'une expenditurz donnée
est une cexpense ))entraîne-t-il l'obligation pour tous les États
Membres d'y contribuer suivant la quote-part qui leur a étéattri-
buée,sans aucune exception et quelles que soient les circonstances?
J'indiquerai plus loin pourquoi, à mon avis, la réponse à cette
dernière question n'est pas évidente.
Il sera plus commode de traiter d'abord la seconde des questions
ci-dessus, celle de Ia validité d'une expenditure donnée. Cela com-

porte différents points, tels que définir les pouvoirs de l'organe
qui a autorisé I'expenditure, déterminer si son objet entre dans le
cadre des buts de l'Organisation et ainsi de suite, points dont les
conclusions dépendent des circonstances particulières à chaque cas
et auxquels il est impossible d'appliquer une règle générale.En
l'espèce, une réponse affirmative à la question de la validité des
expenditztres engagéespeut et doit êtredonnée, ainsi que l'a indi-
qué la Cour. Mais en pratique le point important est de savoir
comment peut êtredéterminéeen cas de controverse la validité
ou l'invalidité d'une expenditure donnée, puisque, comme le sou-

55consult the Court, and, even if consulted, the Court can only render
an opinion having a purely advisory character; and moreover, that
there exists no other jurisdiction to which compulsory reference
can be made and which can also render a binding decision.

The solution propounded by the Court is a twofold one. One
aspect is indicated in the statement made in the Opinion (italics

added) that "As anticipated in 1945 ..each organ [SC.ofthe United
Nations] must, in the first filace ut least, determine its own
ju+dictionJ'-i.e. the scope of its own powers and the validity of
their exercise. The phrase which has been italicized in the above
citation makes the view which the citation puts fonvard acceptable
up to a certain point. It is no doubt true that any objection to a
given exercise of powers, or to action based on the presumed exis-
tence of certain powers, must be advanced in the first instance in the
organ concerned, and will be subject to a ruling by it, in the form
of a motion or resolution adopted by a majority vote.
The real question however, in my view (and the Court does not
deal with it), is whether such a ruling would have to be regarded as
final. In the course of the oral proceedings, the Court was in effect
invited to takethe view that this wouldbe the case. It was suggested,
for example, that the mere fact that certainexpenditures had been
actually apportioned by the Assembly, was conclusive as to their

validity. Apportionment would certainly be conclusive as to the
majority view of the Assembly, but this merely begs the question.
It amounts to saying that even if, on an objective and impartial
assessment, given expenditures had in fact been invalidly and
improperly incurred or authorized, they would nevertheless stand
automatically validated by the act of the Assembly in either
apportioning them among Member States or, in the event of a
challenge, subsequently resolving that the apportionment was good.
This is a view which 1 am unable to accept. It is too extreme.
Moreover, 1 do not read the Opinion of the Court as going so far.
The issues involved clearly transcend the merely financial problem,
and even on the financial side they go deeper; for if the Assembly
had the power automatically to validate any expenditure, as some
Governments appear to have claimed in their written or oral
statements, this would mean that, merely by deciding to spend
money, the Assembly could, in practice, do almost anything, even
something wholly outside its functions, or maybe those of the

Organization as a whole. Member States would be bound to contri-
bute, and accordingly a degree of power, if not unlimited, certainly
much greater than was ever contemplated in the framing of the
Charter, would be placed inthe hands of the Assembly. In this way,
there could well come about an actual realization of the fears
expressed in one of the written statements presented to the Court,
possibilities which, otherwise, are perhaps not very serious, soligne la Cour, l'Assembléen'est aucunement obligéede consulter
la Cour et que, mêmesi elle est consultée, la Cour ne peut donner
qu'un avis purement consultatif; au surplus, il n'existe aucune
autre juridiction obligatoire pouvant rendre une décision obliga-
toire.

La décision dela Cour est à double effet. Un de sesaspectsressort
du passage suivant de l'avis (italiques ajoutées): «Comme il a
étéprévu en 1945, chaque organe [des Nations Unies] doit donc,
tout au moins en premier lieu, déterminer sa propre compétence »,
c'est-à-dire l'étendue de ses propres pouvoirs et la validité de leur
exercice. Les mots en italiques rendent acceptable jusqu'à un
certain point l'opinion exprimée dans ce texte. Certes, toute objec-
tion à l'exercice de certains pouvoirs, ou à une action fondée sur
l'existence présumée decertains pouvoirs, doit êtreformulée en
premier lieu au sein de l'organe intéresséet faire l'objet d'une dé-
cision de sa part sous la forme d'une motion ou d'une résolution
adoptée par un vote à la majorité.
Cependant, j'estime que la véritable question (que la Cour n'a
pas traitée) est de savoir si une telle décisionpeut êtreconsidérée
comme définitive. Au cours de la procédure orale on a en fait de-
mandé à la Cour de considérer qu'il en est ainsi. Il a étésuggéré
par exemple que le simple fait que certaines expenditures aient
étéeffectivement réparties par l'Assembléeconstitue une preuve

de leur validité. La répartition serait certainement concluante
quant à l'avis majoritaire de l'Assemblée,mais cela n'est qu'une
pétition de principe. Cela revient à dire que, mêmesi, à en juger
objectivement et impartialement, certaines expenditures ont en
fait étéencourues ou autorisées illégitimement et abusivement,
elles sont automatiquement validées lorsque l'Assemblée les ré-
partit entre les États Membres ou lorsque ensuite, en casde contes-
tation, elle décideque la répartition a étévalable.
Cette manière de voir est trop extrême pour que je puisse l'ac-
cepter. De plus, je ne donne pas à l'avis de la Cour un sens aussi
poussé. Les questions en cause dépassent nettement le simple
problème financier et, mêmede ce point de vue, elles vont plus
loin; car, si l'Assemblée possédait automatiquement le pouvoir
de valider une expenditurecomme semblent l'avoir avancé certains
Gouvernements dans leurs exposés écrits ou oraux, cela signi-
fierait que l'Assembléepourrait, en pratique, en décidant simple-
ment de dépenser de l'argent, accomplir à peu près n'importe quoi

et mêmedes actes débordant complètement du cadre de ses fonc-
tions ou, éventuellement, de celles de l'organisation dans son
ensemble. Les États Membres seraient tenus d'y contribuer et
l'Assembléedisposerait ainsi d'un pouvoir sinon illimité, du moins
d'une étendue beaucoup plus importante que les rédacteurs de la
Charte ne l'ont jamais envisagé. De cette façon, les craintes expri-
méesdans l'un des exposésécrits présentésà la Cour pourraientlong as Member States retain at least a last resort right not to
PaY 6.

The problem is to determine what that right consists of and,
more particularly, in what conditions it can be exercised. As indi-
cated above, it can only be a right of last resort; for an unlimited
right on the part of Member States to withhold contributioils at
will, on the basis of a mere claim that in their view the expenditures

concerned had been improperly incurred, not only could speedily
cause serious disruption, but would also give those Member States
which, on the basis of the normal scales of apportionment, are
major contributors, a degree of control and veto over the affairs of
the United Nations which, equally, can never have been intended
in the framing of the Charter to be exercised by these means, or
Article 17,paragraph 2, would not be there.

This brings me to the second element in the solution propounded
by the Court, and on this aspect of the matter 1 can concuï. The
solution is not technically a final one, for as things are at present,
means continue to be lacking whereby, in the case of controversÿ,
a decision binding both on the Organization and on Member States
can be obtained. In practice the proposition involved will help
towards producing a de facto solution. To state it in my own way-
when, on the basis of an item which has been regularly placed on

the agenda, and has gone through the normal procedural stages, the
Assembly, after due discussion, adopts by the necessary two-thirds
majority, a resolution authorizing or apportioningcertain expendi-
tures incurred, or to be incurred, in the apparent furtherance of
the purposes of the Organization, there must arise at the least a
strong firima fncie preçumption that these expenditures are valid
andproper ones. Unless that is so,a potentially unworkable situation
exists; but clearly it must be so, and in consequence (subject to the
points discussed in Section VIII below), an apportionment bg- the

Assembly has, initially at least, the effect that Member States
become obliged to pay their apportioned shares. This is because, if
such a presumption arises, it must in principle continue to exist
unless and until it is rebutted and the contrary position isestablished,
by whatever means it may be practicable to have recourse to-an-
consequential financial adjustments being effected later. Only if

It is often said that there is a safeguathe fact that, under ArticIYof
the Charter, financial resolutirequire a two-thirdmajority (though even so,
a possible minority of about 35-40 States would be a serious mattBut what
Article 18 actually mentions is not "financial resolutbut "budgetary ques-
tions".Does this mean simply the ordinary budget and the expenses included in it?
If the expression did not include other expenses, then the Assembly severaln
classes of cases, by a bare majorvote, impose financial liabilon a minority
of over 50 States-whichin a few years may be one of over 60 States.devenir une réalité - c'est une éventualité qui ne sera d'ail-
leurs peut-être pas très grave tant que les Etats Membres conser-

veront au moins en dernier ressort le droit de ne pas payer 6.
Le problème est de définir enquoi consiste ce droit et plus préci-
sément dans quelles conditions il peut êtreexercé.Comme il vient
d'êtreindiqué, ce ne peut êtrequ'un droit de dernier recours, car
un droit illimité des États Membres de refuser leurs contributions

selon leur bon plaisir, en soutenant simplement qu'ils considèrent
les expenditures en cause comme abusivement encourues,. pourrait
non seulement causer rapidement un grave désarroi, mais aussi de
donner aux Etats Membres qui,d'après le barème normal de répar-
tition, sont des contributeurs importants, un contrôle et un droit
de \7eto sur les affaires des Nations Unies, contrôle à droit de veto

d'une étendue qui, lors de l'élaboration de la Charte, n'avait ja-
mais étéenvisagée comme pouvant êtreexercéede cette façon -
car alors, l'article 17, paragraphe z, nefigurerait pas dans la Charte.
Cela m'amène à un second aspect de la solution proposéepar la
Cour, sur lequel je suis d'accord. La solution n'est pas technique-

ment définitive,car, au point où en sont les choses, les moyens con-
tinuent à faire défaut en vue d'obtenir en cas de coatoverse une
décisionobligatoire à la fois pour l'organisation et les Etats Mem-
bres. En pratique, la proposition en question aidera à arriver à une
solution defacto. Pour l'exprimer àma manière, lorsque, sur la base
d'une question régulièrement inscrite à l'ordre du jour et ayant
passépar les différentsstades de la procédure normale, lJAsseniblée

adopte à la majorité nécessaire des deux tiers et après discussion
formelle une résolutionautorisant ou répartissant certaines expendi-
tures effectivement faites ou devant l'être,pour ce qui semble être
l'accomplissement des buts de l'Organisation, il existe au moins une
forte présomption prima facie de validité et de régularitéen faveur

de ces expenditures. S'il n'en était pas ainsi, la situation risquerait
d'être sans issue;mais il doit évidemment en être aimi et par con-
séquent (sous réserve des points discutés dans la section VI11 ci-
dessous) une répartition faite par l'Assembléea pour effet, tout au
moins au départ, d'obliger les Etats Membres à payer leur quote-
part. Car, si la présomption existe, elle doit en principe continuer

d'exister tant qu'elle n'a pas étédétruite et que le contraire n'a pas
étéétablipar un moyen quelconque auquel on puisse avoirpratique-
ment recours - les ajustements financiers corrélatifs devant être

On voit souvent une sauvegarde dans le fait que, aux termes de l'article 18
de la Charte, les résolutions financières nécessiune majorité des deux tiers
(encore que, même dans ce cas, une minorité éventuelle d'environ trente-cinq
quarante États serait une affaire sérieuse). Mais l'article 18 mentien fait
« les questions budgétair»set non ales résolutions financièu.Cela signifie-t-il
ne comprenait bpas les autres expenses, l'Assemblée pourrait dcertaines caté-
gories d'affaires imposerpar un vote à la majorité simple, des responsabilités
fiilanciereàune minorité de plus de cinquante États -et dans queiques années
peut-être de plus de soixante États

57 the invalidity of the expenditure was apparent on the face of the
matter, or too manifest to be open to reasonable doubt, would such
a prima facie presumption not arise.

It is now necessary to consider the first ofthe questionsmentioned
in the second paragraph of the preceding Section; for the simple
fact that expenditures are valid, or anyhow not invalid, does not
necessarily, or of itself, make them "expenses" of the Organization.
Itdepends on what is properly to be understood bythe notion of an
expense. To give a quick illustration, it could be argued (1 shall
discuss the merits of the argument later) that while expenditures
incurred in the discharge of functions which the Organization has a
duty under the Charter to perform (for instance the functions of a
peace-keeping character involved in the present case) are un-

questionably in the nature of expenses, expenditures incurred inthe
performance of activities of a merely permissive kind, which the
Organization has a faculty, but no positive obligation, to cany out,
do not have that character, although they might be perfectly
proper expenditures. In cases coming under the latter head, there-
fore, it might be contended that if the Organization decides upon
such an activity, it must look to voluntary contributions from
Member States, or other sources of income available to it, in order
to finance the activities 7, and cannot claim contributions as a
matter of obligation under Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter.

Another illustration would be if, at the invitation of one or more
Member States (as can happen), the Organization engaged in some
activity, or assumed some function, quite outside the normal scope
and framework of the Charter. Such action would not be illegal if
it was carried out with the consent of all the States affected by it;

nor would the resultant expenditures be invalid. But they would,
ex hypothesi, not be expenditures contemplated or provided for by
the Charter. Despite their "non-invalidity" therefore, they could
not rank as "expenses of the Organization" within the meaning of
Article 17,paragraph 2,to which al1Member States would be obliged
to contribute, irrespective of how their votes had been cast in
relation to the resolutions authorizing the expenditures in question.
Member States cannot, in my opinion, be bound to contribute to
expenditures incurred outside the scope and framework of the
Charter (even if these are not illegal in se), except by their specific
consent given ad hoc in relation to the particular case. Article 17,
paragraph 2, does not, as such, extend to such a case. "Non-

' This is what in fact occurs in many casas indicated in footnote 5above.
58 effectuésplus tard. Ce n'est que si l'invalidité de l'expenditure est
manifeste à première vue, ou trop évidente pour qu'on puisse
raisonnablement en douter, qu'une telle présomption prima facie
ne peut pas êtreinvoquée.

Il convient maintenant d'examiner la première des questions
mentionnées au deuxième alinéa de la section précédente; car le

simple fait que des expenditures soient valides, ou en tout cas
qu'elles ne soient pas invalides,n'en faitpas nécessairement ouipso
facto des « expenses » de l'organisation. Cela dépend de la manière
dont il faut exactement entendre la notion d'expense.Pour donner
un bref exemple, on pourrait dire (jediscuterai plus loin du fond de
cet argument) que, si les exfiendituresencourues dans l'exercice de
fonctions que l'organisation a le devoir d'accomplir en vertu de la
Charte (tellesque les fonctions ayant trait au maintien de la paix
dont il s'agit dans la présente affaire) ont sans aucun doute le
caractère d'expenses,les expenditures encourues dans l'accomplisse-
ment d'activités de nature purement facultative, c'est-à-dire que
l'Organisation a la faculté d'entreprendre sans en avoir l'obligation

positive, n'ont pas ce caractère, bien qu'elles puissent être des
expenditures parfaitement légitimes. Donc, dans le second cas, on
pourrait soutenir que, si l'organisation décided'entreprendre une
activité de cette nature, elle doit avoir recours pour la financer aux
contributions volontaires des États Membres ou à d'autres sources
de recettes dont elle peut disposer l et qu'elle ne saurait imposer
des contributions obligatoiresaux termes du paragraphe 2 de l'ar-
ticle 17 de la Charte.
Pour donner un autre exemple, l'organisation pourrait, sur
l'invitation d'un ou plusieurs États Membres (comme cela peut se
produire), entreprendre une activité ou assumer des fonctions tout
àfait en dehorsdu domaine et du cadrenormal de la Charte. Si cette

action était entreprise avec le consentement de tous les États
concernés,elle ne serait pas illicite; de même,les expenditures en
résultant ne seraient pas invalides. Mais, par hypothèse, il ne
s'agirait pas d'expenditures envisagéesou prévues dans la Charte.
Donc, en dépit de leur « non-invalidité », elles ne sauraient être
considéréesau sens de l'article 17, paragraphe 2, comme des
« expenses de l'Organisation » auxquelles tous les États Membres
seraient obligésde contribuer, de quelque manière qu'ils aient voté
lors de l'adoption des résolutions autorisant lesdites expenditures.
A mon avis, les États Membres ne sauraient être tenusde contribuer
aux expenditures encourues en dehors du domaine et du cadre dela
Charte (mêmesi elles ne sont pas en soi illicites) que s'ils donnent

dans chaque cas leur consentement exprès.L'article 17,paragraphe

' Cela s'est en fait produide nombreux cas -voir ci-dessus n5.e
58invalidity" doesnot therefore, in my view, sufficeof itself to give rise
to an obligation to contribute to given expenditure as an expense of
the Organization,irrespective ofvarious other factors which I shall
discuss in due course. The validity of the expenditure and the
obligation to contribute to it are two distinct questions. Validity

is a condition of the obligation: it is not necessarily a sufficient
condition.

Equally, if the matter is looked at in a more general way, it is
not the case that the genus "expense" can be simply equated with
"expenditure" or "disbursement", i.e. anything that is in fact
paid out. In the technical sense, and in the normal acceptation of
the term, "expenses" are expenditures of a kind which, under
private law, would be "recoverable". For instance, in contracts of
employment, it is very usual to find a clause saying that the em-
ployee will receive such and such a salary, "plus expenses"; but it
is well understood that this does not mean any and al1 disburse-
ments or expenditures the employee may choose to make in the
course of carrying out his functions, but only such as are reason-
able and necessary, and have been incurred in the normal course of
business. This is really inherent in the whole idea of an expense,
and must be read into Article 17, paragraph 2, despite the absence
of any express qualification; for after all, the Organization, by
apportioning the expenditures concerned, is, in effect, seeking to

recover them from the Member States.
Taking account of these considerations, an attempt can now be
made to ascribe some content to the notion of "expenses of the
Organization". The Court has declined to give any definition of
this term. 1 agree that a definition as such is not called for, and
would in any case be difficult. But short of a definition, 1 think it
useful to indicate the main types of expenditures which, assuming
them to be valid and legitimate, would fa11within the normal
conception of what constitutes an expense, and would therefore be
"expenses of the Organization". Such expenditures would, it
seems to me, include the following (1 will simply indicate them
without giving any reasons, as these are self-evident) :

A. Al1those expenditures, or categories of expenditures, which
have normally formed part of the regular budget of the
Organization, so that a settled practice (pratique constante)
of treating them as expenses of the Organization has become
established, and is tacitly acquiesced in by al1Member States.
B. In so fur as-mt already coveredby head A :

1. administrative expenditures;
II. expenditures arising in the course, or out of the perform-
ance by the Organization of its functions under the
Charter ;2, ne couvre pas en tant que tel ce genre de cas. Par conséquentla
((non-invalidité 1ne saurait, à mon avis, suffire ipso facto à faire
naître une obligation de contribuer à une expendituredonnéeà titre
d'expense de l'organisation, indépendamment de divers autres
facteurs dont je traiterai en temps utile. La validité del'expenditure

et l'obligation d'y contribuer sont deux questions distinctes. La
validité estune condition de l'obligation; ce n'en est pas nécessaire-
ment une condition suffisante.
De même, si l'on considère le problème d'une manière plus géné-
rale, le genre ((expense )ne saurait êtreconsidéré commele simple
équivalentd'«expenditure )ou (déboursement »,qui représentetout

ce qui est en fait payé.Au sens technique et dans l'acception nor-
male du terme, les ((expenses )sont des expenditures qui seraient en
droit privé de nature ((recouvrable 1)Ainsi il est très courant de
trouver dans les contrats de travail une clause indiquant que
l'employé recevratel traitement ((pZusexpenses »; mais il est bien
entendu que cela ne signifiepas tous les déboursements ou expendi-

tures que l'employépeut décider de faire dans l'exercice de ses
fonctions, mais seulement ceux qui sont raisonnables et nécessaires
et sont encourus dans le cadre normal de son activité. Cela est
réellementinhérent à tout le concept d'expenseset cela doit êtrelu
dans le paragraphe 2 de l'article 17 en dépit de l'absence de toute
qualification expresse; car, après tout, l'organisation, en répartis-

sant les expenditures en question, cherche en fait à les recouvrer
aux dépensdes États Membres.
Tenant compte de ces considérations, nous pouvons maintenant
essayer de donner un contenu à la notion d'«expensesde l'Organisa-
tion ». La Cour s'est refuséeà donner une définitionde cette expres-
sion. Je reconnais qu'il ne lui était pas demandé d'en produire une

et que cela aurait en tout cas étédifficile. Mais, sans aller jusqu'à
donner une définition,je crois utile d'indiquer les principaux types
d'exjbendituresqui, à supposer qu'elles soient valides et légitimes,
relèveraient de la conception normale de ce qui constitue une
expenseet seraient par conséquentdes (expensesde l'Organisation ».
Il me semble que ces ex$enditures seraient les suivantes (je les

citerai simplement sans indiquer les raisons, car celles-ci sont
évidentes) :
A. Toutes les expenditures ou catégories d'expendituresqui ont

normalement fait partie du budget ordinaire de l'organisation,
de sorte qu'une pratique constante de les traiter comme des
expenses de l'Organisation s'est établie avec l'acquiescement
tacite des États Membres.

B. Pour autant qu'ellesne relèventpas de A ci-dessus:
1. les expenditures administratives ;
II. les expenditures encourues dans ou par suite de l'accom-
plissement par l'organisation des fonctions que lui

attribue la Charte;
59 III. any payments which the Organization is legally respon-
sible for making in relation to third parties; or which it is
othenvise, as an entity, under a legal obligation to make;
or is bound to make in order to meet its extraneoçs legal
obligations.

In head B II however, the words "...arising .. out of the perform-
ance by the Organization of its functions under the Charter"
conceal a difficulty which will be discussed in the last Section of
this Opinion; and in any event these words do not include the case
noticed above, where the Organization may, by invitation, engage
in activities, or assume functions, outside the scope and framework
of the Charter, even if, by reason of such invitation, no illegality
arises. Action outside the Charter can wellnot involve any breach of
general international law; and even if it othenvise would, may be
validated in various ways. It does not thereby become Charter
action, or the expense of it a Charter expense attributable to
Member States.

1 come now to the third and last of the questions mentioned in

the second paragraph of Section IV above, which is the one that has
caused me the most difficulty in this case. It is not dealt with in
the Opinion of the Court, because the Court has proceeded on the
basis that once it is established that certain expenditures constitute
"expenses of the Organization", it follows necessarily and auto-
matically that every Member State is obliged to pay its appor-
tioned share of these expenses in al1circumstances.It can however,
or it may be argued, that there are circumstances in which this
would not be the case; and it seems to me essential to state,and to
deal with this argument, if only to indicate how far and in what
respects it is incorrect. Just as, in my view (see Section V), the
notions of "validity" and "obligation to contribute" are not neces-
sarily coincident, so also is it to me far from automatically self-
evident that the notions of "expense" and "obligation to contribute"
are ipso facto identical, though they are clearly closely related. 1
must therefore examine the matter.
Before coming to grips with this problem however, it is necessary
to notice certain peculiarities about Article 17, paragraph 2, and
to consider what is the exact role played by that provision in the
financial set-up of the United Nations.
Itis always a useful exercise when the interpretation of a given
provision in the context of a whole instrument is in question, to
consider what difference it would make if that provision did not

figure in the instrument at all. It is only necessary to ask what the
60 III. tout paiement quel'Organisation est juridiquement tenue
de faireà des tiers; ou qu'elle est, à d'autres titres, dans
l'obligation juridique de faire en tant que personne
morale; ou qu'elle est tenue de faire en vue de satisfaire
à ses obligationsjuridiques extérieures.

Mais sublitt. B II, les mots((..encourues ...par suite del'accomplis-
sement par l'organisation des fonctionsque lui attribue la Charte »
dissimulent une difficultédont je traiterai dans la dernière section
de la présente opinion; en tout cas, ces mots ne s'appliquent pas au

cas que j'ai signalé ci-dessus et dans lequel l'Organisation, sur
l'invitation qui lui en serait faite, entreprendrait des activités ou
assumerait des fonctions en dehors du domaine et du cadre de la
Charte, mêmeen supposant que, du fait de l'invitation, il n'y aurait
pas d'illégalité.Une action engagéeen dehors du cadre de la Charte
peut fort bien ne pas impliquer de violation du droit international
général;et, mêmesi cela était, elle pourrait êtrevalidée de diverses
manières. Mais elle ne devient pas par là une, action entreprise en
vertu de la Charte et les dépensesy afférentesne deviennent pas des
expenses selon la Charte imputables aux États Membres.

J'en viens à la troisième et dernièredes questionsmentionnées au
second alinéade la section IV ci-dessus; c'est celle qui m'a causé le
plus de difficultésen l'espèce.Elle n'est pas abordée dans l'avis de
la Cour, car celle-ci s'est fondéesur le principe que, dèslors qu'il est
établi que certaines expenditures constituent des «expenses de
l'organisation »,il s'ensuit nécessairement et automatiquement que
tout État Membre est tenu d'en payer dans tous les casla quote-part
qui lui est assignée.Maisil est possible, ou il est permis, de dire qu'il
y a des circonstances où tel ne serait pas le cas; il me semble donc
essentiel de citer cet argument et d'en traiter, ne serait-ce que pour
indiquer dans quelle mesure et sous quel rapport il est inexact. De
mêmequ'à mon avis (voir section V) les notions de ((validité ))et

d'«obligation de contribuer ))ne coïncident pas nécessairement, il
me semble qu'il est loin d'aller de soi et d'être évident queles notions
d'<texpense » et d'«obligation de contribuer » soient ipso facto
identiques, bien qu'elles soient nettement très liées.Je dois donc
examiner cette question.
Mais avant de l'aborder, ilme faudra noter certainesparticularités
de l'article 17, paragraphe 2, et dégager son rôIe exact dans le
système financier des Nations Unies.

Il est toujours utile, lorsqu'il s'agi~d'interpréter une disposition
donnée dans le contexte de tout un acte, de se demander quelle
différence celaferait si cette disposition ne figurait pas dans l'acte.

Il suffit de se demander quelle serait la situation si l'article 17,
60position would have been if Article 17, paragraph 2, had not in
fact been inserted in the Charter, in order to see at once that the
obligation of Member States collectively to finance the Organization,

by one means or another-the obligation ofprinciple that is-cannot
be dependent on the existence of Article 17, paragraph 2. It must
in any case arise as a matter of inherent necessity. An Organization
such as the United Nations cannot function without funds, and
there is no other quarter from which, as a rnatterof oblieation(and
nothing short of obligation suffices) funds could come, except from
the Member States themselves. Without finance, the Organization
could not perform its duties. Therefore, even in the absence of
ArticIe 17, paragraph 2, a general obligation for Member States
collectively to.finance the Organization would have to be read into
the Charter, on the basis of the same principle as the Court applied
in the Injuries to United Natiotzs Servawtscase, namely "by neces-
sary implication as being essential to the performance of its [i.e.
the Organizatit~n's]duties"-(I.C. J.Reports 1949 ,t p. 182).Joining
the Organization, in short, means accepting the burden and the
obligation of contributing to financing it.
Clearly, the independent character of the financial obligation of
Member States-the fact that it has a basis extraneous to Article7,

pa~agraph 2-considerably strengthens the view, first, that the obli-
gation does exist, and secondly that it exists at least to the extent
necessary to make the Organization workable. So much is scarcely
open to doubt. What might however (andin my opinion, for reasons
to be indicated, would) be open to controversy, is the exact nature
and extent of that obligation, and how it is to be carried out. In
this connection, the fact that Article 17, paragraph 2, does duly
figure in the Charter is of importance; nevertheless the light in
which this provision has to be looked at may be affected by the
existence of the independent obligation of principle, and this aspect
of the matter must now be considered.

Were it not for the recbrds of the San Francisco Conference for
the drafting of the Charter (to which 1 shall refer later) the correct
interpretation of Article 17,paragraph 2, would be that it added
nothing to the already existing inherent obligation, and went solely
to the mechanics of the performance of that obligation. It is worded
so as to assume-orimply the basic obligatiori rather than to create

or express on+, as it would do if for instance it read "The expenses
of the Organization shall be borne by the Members, and shall be
borne by them as apportioned by the General Assembly". The
italicized phraseisnot however there, with the result that Article 17,
paragraph 2,is elliptical, and declaratory rather than constitutive
ofthe basic obligation. Having regard to the independent foundation
and inhèrent nature of the financial obligation of Member States, it
would seem that the only real additional substantive effect of this
provision (taken by itself and without reference to the trauartx
61paragraphe 2, n'avait pas étéeffectivement insérédans la Charte,
pour voir immédiatement que l'obligation des États Membres de
financer collectivement l'Organisation d'une manière ou de l'autre
- je veux dire l'obligation de principe - ne saurait dépendre de
l'existence de l'article 17, paragraphe 2. Il s'agit en tout état de
cause d'une nécessitéinhérente. Une Organisation comme celle des
Nations Unies ne saurait fonctionner sans recettes et celles-ci ne
sauraient provenir à titrc d'obligation(carrien moins qu'une obliga-

tion ne suffirait) d'une autre source que les Etats Membres eux-
mêmes.Sans fonds, l'organisation ne pourrait accomplir sa tâche.
Par conséquent, même enl'absence du paragraphe 2 de l'article17,
il aurait fallu lire dans la Charte une obligation généralepour les
États Membres de financer collectivement l'organisation, et ce sur
la base du principe que la Cour a déjà appliqué dans l'affaire
relative à la Réparation des dommagessubis a.u service des Nations
Unies,c'est-à-dire (par une conséquencenécessaireentant qu'essen-
tiel[le] à l'exercice des fonctions)de l'organisation (C.I. J. Recueil
1949 ,. 182).En bref, l'adhésionà l'organisation signifiel'accepta-
tion de la charge et de l'obligation de contribuer à son financement.

11est clair que le caractère indépendant des obligations finan-
cièresdes États Membres - le fait qu'elles se fondent sur une base
étrangèreau paragraphe 2 de l'article17 - renforce considérable-
ment l'opinion d'après laquelle l'obligation existe, et ce au moins
dans la mesure nécessaire pour que l'Organisation soit viable.
Jusque-là il n'y a guère de doute. Mais ce qui pourrait prêter à
controverse (et ce qui, à mon avis, pour les motifs que j'indiquerai,
prête à controverse) c'est la nature et la portée exacte de cette
obligation et c'est la manière dont elle doit êtreremplie. A cet
égard,le fait que le paragraphe 2 de l'article17 figure dans la Charte
est important; toutefois, l'angle sous lequel cette disposition doit

êtreconsidéréepeut être affectépar l'existence de l'obligation de
principe indépendante, et c'est cet aspect de la question qui doit
êtremaintenant examiné.
Ne seraient-ce les documents de la conférencede San Francisco
pour la rédaction de 13Charte (sur lesquels je reviendrai plus loin),
l'interprétation correcte du paragraphe 2 de l'article17 serait qu'il
n'a rien ajouté à l'obligation inhérente déjà existante et qu'il vise
uniquement le mode d'accomplissement de cette obligation. Il est
rédigéde telle manière qu'il suppose ou sous-entend l'obligation
fondamentale plutôt qu'il ne la crée oune l'exprime, ce qui aurait
étéle cas si, par exemple, il avait étéainsi conçu: ((Les dépensesde

l'organisation sont supportées par les Membres et ellessont suppor-
tées$ar ceux-ci selon la répartition fixéepar l'assemblée générale. »
Mais les mots en italiques ne figurent pas dans le paragraphe 2 de
l'article17,ce qui le rend elliptique et déclaratifplutôt que constitu-
tif de l'obligation fondamentale. Eu Sgard au fondement indépen-
dant et à la nature inhérente des obligations financières des États
Membres, il semblerait que le seul véritable effet substantiel sup-
61PrLPpnrntoire s, is the normal initial approach to any interpretative
task) is to indicate the organ, namely the General Assembly, which
is to decide on the apportionment of the expenses as between the
Illember States, and also to make it clear that these States must
accept the apportionment so determined. This view of the effect
of Article 17, paragraph 2, if that provision is considered per se,

is further supported by the points mentioned in the footnote
hereto 8.Consequently it seems to me incorrect to Say, as has some-
times been suggested, that the exercise of the power of appor-
tionment by the Assembly creates the obligation. This is surely
putting the cart before the horse. Apportionment is merely a
condition precedent of the obligation having to be carried out.

It quantifies the content of it; but the obligation itself is an ante-
cedent one, and without it, the apportionment would lack legal
effect, or would amount merely to an invitation to contribute the
inclicated share on a voluntary basis.
It follows, in my opinion, that there is a sufficient element of
ambiguity about the exact intention and effect of Article 17, para-

graph 2, to make its interpretation on the basis of the rule of the
"natural and ordinary meaning" alone, unsatisfactory. In these
circumstances it is permissible to have recourse to the preparatofy
work of the San Francisco Conference. Reference to this source
indicates that the words "shall be borne by the Members as appor-
tioned bv the General Assembly", rather than some phrase such as

"sl~allbe allocated to the Members in such shares as the Assembly
may determine", were deliberately employed with the object of
ensuring that what was called "a clear statement of the obligations
of Members to meet the expenses of the Organization" should be
found in the Charter itself - (Document 194 inthe Dossier supplied

Whereas no express provision was necessarin order to createa general liability
of principle for MemberStates to bear the costs of the Organization, wwould
have existed in any case as a matter of inherent necessity, an express prdidsion
have to be introduced inorder to provide for the method of apportionment:and
also to oblige Members to pay the share allocated to them, and nassert a right
to pay a smaller share. Without an express provision these points there would
invested with any clear right of decision. In exactly the same way, the first para-
graph of Article 17 is also essential, in order to make it clear thatit is the Assembly,
and not some other organ,such as the Security Council, which adopts the budget
of the Organization.The lack of corresponding provisionin the Covenant of the
former League of Nations led to great difficulties in the early years of the League,
and eventually necessitatean amendment of the Covenant. A further indication
that Article17 is directly concerned with the mechanics of the obligation to con-
tribute, rather than with the obligation itself, is afforded by the fact that it figures
in Chapter IV of the Charter, which deals with the functions of theGeneral Assembly.
If the main purpose of the Article was to make clear the responsibof Member
States for bearing the costs of the Organizatioit should have figured in some
more general chapter, and not among the functions of the Assembly. Without
reference to the San Francisco records, the deduction would be that the subject
rectly) the obligations of Member States.f the Assembly ratthan (except indi- plémentaire de cette disposition (considéréeen elle-mêmeet sans

.référenceaux travaux préparatoires, ce qui est la manière normale
d'entamer une interprétation) soit d'indiquer quelorgane, en l'espèce
l'Assembléegénérale,doit décider de la répartitiondes dépenses
entre les États Membres et aussi d'énoncer clairement que lesdits

États doivent accepter la répartition ainsi fixée.Cette conception
de l'effet du paragraphe 2 de l'article 17, si on le considère en soi,
est appuyée par les points mentionnés ci-dessous en note *. Il me
semble donc inexact de dire, comme cela a étéparfois suggéré,que
c'est l'exercice du pouvoir de répartition de l'Assembléegénérale

qui créel'obligation. Cela est certainement mettre la charrue avant
les bŒufs. La répartition n'est qu'une condition préalable à l'exécu-
tion de l'obligation. Elle chiffre son contenu; mais l'obligation en
soi est antérieure et, si elle n'existait pas, la répartition serait

dépourvue d'effet juridique ou reviendrait purement et simplement
à une prière de verser à titre volontaire la quote-part indiquée.
Il s'ensuit à mon avis qu'il y a suffisamment d'ambiguïtéquant à
l'intention et à l'effet exact du paragraphe 2 de l'article 17 pour
rendre insatisfaisante une interprétation faite sur la seule base de

la règle du ((sens naturel et ordinaire ». Dans ces conditions, il est
permis d'avoir recours aux travaux préparatoires de la conférence
de San Francisco. En s'y référant,on voit que les mots ((sont sup-
portées par les Membres selon la répartition fixéepar l'Assemblée

générale ))ont étédélibérémentemployés plutôt qu'une formule
telle que (sont réparties entre les Membres selon le barème fixépar
l'Assemblée 11,afin que la Charte mêmecontienne ce qui a été
appelé ((un clair exposéde l'obligation incombant aux membres de
supporter les dépenses de l'Organisation )) (doc. 194 du dossier

adressé à la Cour par le Secrétaire généraldes Nations Unies,
Bien qu'aucune disposition expressene fût nécessaire pourcréerune obligation
généralede principe pour les États Membres de supporter les frais de l'organisation,
obligation qui aurait de toute façon existéà titre de nécessitéinhérente, une dis-
position expresse devait être inséréepour prévoir une méthode de répartition; et
aussi pour obliger les États Membresàpayer la quote-part qui leur serait attribuée
sank prétendre au droit de payer une part plus réduite. En l'absence d'une dispo-
sition expresse en la matière, ilaurait eu des discussions sans fin et aucun organe
des Nations Unies n'aurait eu clairement le droit de prendre une décision. C'est
exactement dela mêmemanière que le paragraphe rer de l'article 17 est également
essentiel pour indiquer clairement que le budget de l'organisationest adopté par
l'Assemblée générale et non par un autre organe tel que le Conseil de Sécurité.
L'absence de dispositionscorrespondantes dans le Pacte de l'ancienne Société
des Nations a crééde graves difficultés dans ses premières années et a fini par
nécessiter un amendement au Pacte. Une autre preuve que l'article 17 vise directe-
ment le mécanisme de l'obligation de contribuer plutôt que l'obligation même
ressort du fait que cetarticle fait partie du chapitIV de la Charte, lequel traite
des fonctions de l'Assemblée générale. Si l'objet principde cet article était d'in-
diquer clairement la responsabilité incombant aux États Membres de supporter
les frais de l'organisationil aurait figurédansun chapitrdecaractère plus général
et non pas dans la section concernant les fonctions de l'Assemblée. Si l'on ne se
référait pas aux documents de San Francisco, on en déduirait que cet article avait
pour objet les pouvoirs financiers de l'Assemblée plutôt que les obligations des
États Membres (si ce n'est de manière indirecte).
62to the Court by the Secretary-General of the United Nations,
pp. 9-13, passim) 9. Ifthe language used was not in fact very apt
for the purpose of embodying such a "clear statement", the exist-
ence of the intention at any rate is clear, and for reasons which

1 shall presently give, it is important that there should be no doubt
about that intention.

1propose now to consider the difficulty 1 mentioned earlier-the
question whether, if given expenditures are duly expenses of the
Organization, an obligation for every Member State to contribute
to them as apportioned anses in al1circumstances. The core of the
difficultyis how to reconcile the obligatory character of the liability
to meet the expenses of the Organization with the non-obligatory
character of many, indeed most, of the resolutions under which
these expenses are incurred. To me, it has not seemed self-evident

that Article 17, paragraph 2, on its actual wording, necessarily or
automatically disposes of this difficulty; and unless it can be dis-
posed of satisfactorily, the affirmative reply given to the question
addressed to the Court must be less convincing than it ought to be.

There is clearly no problem in the case of decisionsof the Security
Council which, under Article 25 of the Charter, are binding on
Member States, even on those Members of the Council which voted
against them, and equally on those Members of the Assembly which,
not being Members of the Council, ex hypothesi did not vote at all.
Therefore, even in the absence of Article 17, paragraph 2, al1these
Member States would be obliged to meet the expenses of carrying

such decisions out. But many Security Council resolutions only have
a recommendatory intention and effect, and this is in principle also
the casewith most Assemblyresolutions. If however a Member State
has voted in favour of such a resolution, or, by abstaining, has not
manifested opposition to it, it is reasonable to regard either of
these attitudes, not indeed as involving any forma1 obligation for
that Member State itself to carry out the resolution, operationally,
but as indicating approval of, or at any rate tacit acquiescence in,
its being carried out by those Member States which are ready to do
so; and also (and quite apart from Article 17, paragraph 2) as im-
plying willingness to contribute to the expenses of carrying it out-
although as regards the effect of abstentions, it would be better to
put the matter on the basis that a Member State which does not

vote against a given resolution, can scarcely object if it is called
upon to pay its share of the resultant expenses.
It is also clear from the records that the inappropriaof putting the
basic financial obligaof Member States amongst the functions of the Assembly
was realized.t was apparently left there because no better place could be found
for it.
63pp. 9-13, passim) 9. Si la rédaction choisie n'a pas étéen fait très
adéquate au but recherché, qui était d'obtenir (un clair exposé »,
il est en tout cas clair que telle était l'intention; et, pour les motifs
que je vais maintenant indiquer, il importe qu'il n'y ait aucun
doute quant à cette intention.

Je me propose maintenant d'examiner la difficultéque j'ai men-
tionnée plus haut - la question de savoir si, dans le cas où des
expenditures données sont dûment des expenses de l'organisation,
chaque État Membre est obligéen toutes circonstances d'y contri-
buer selon sa quote-part. Le nŒud de la difficultéest de savoir com-
ment réconcilier le caractère obligatoire de la responsabilité de
subvenir aux expenses de l'organisation avec le caractère non
obligatoire de beaucoup, et mêmede la plupart, des résolutions

conformémentauxquelles ces expensesont étéfaites. Il ne me paraît
pas du tout évident que le paragraphe 2 de l'article 17, tel qu'il
est rédigéen fait, tranche nécessairement ou automatiquement
cette difficulté; et, si elle n'est pas résolue de façon satisfaisante,
la réponse affirmative donnée à la question soumise à la Cour sera
moins convaincante qu'elle ne devrait l'être.
Il est clair qu'il ne se pose aucun problème dans le cas de décisions
du Conseil de Sécuritéqui, aux termes de l'article 25 de la Charte,
sont obligatoirespour les États Membres, et mêmepour les Membres
du Conseil qui ont voté contre, ainsi que pour les Membres de l'As-

sembléequi, n'étant pas Membres du Conseil, n'ont, par hypothèse,
pas voté du tout. Ainsi, même enl'absence du paragraphe 2 de
l'article 17, tous ces États Membres seraient soumis à l'obligation
de couvrir les expenses résultant de l'exécution de ces décisions.
Mais de nombreuses résolutions du Conseil de Sécuritén'ont que
l'intention et l'effet d'une recommandation, et c'est en principe
aussi le cas de la plupart des résolutions de l'Assemblée. Sitoute-
fois un État Membre a voté en faveur d'une telle résolution ou,
en s'abstenant, n'a pas manifesté son opposition, il est raisonnable

dans les deux cas de considérer cette attitude non pas vraiment
comme entraînant une obligation formelle pour cet État Membre
d'exécuter matériellement la résolution, mais comme indiquant
qu'il approuve son exécution par les États Membres qui sont prêts
à s'en charger, ou du moins qu'il y donne son accord tacite; et
également (tout à fait indépendamment du paragraphe 2 de l'ar-
ticle 17) comme impliquant qu'il est prêtà participer aux expenses
dues à l'exécution dela résolution - bien qu'eu égardà l'effet des
abstentions il serait préférable de direqu'un État Membre qui n'a

Il rBsulte Bgalement des documents que l'on n'ignorait pas qu'il Btait inappro
pnB de placer l'obligation financihre fondamentale des États Membres parmi les
fonctions de I'AssemblBe. Eiie y est apparemmrest6e parce que l'on n'a pas
pu trouver d'emplacement meilleur.
63 Similar considerations can hardly apply to the case of a vote
which does go to the length of being cast against the resolution

concerned-a resolution which is in any case purely recommen-
datory. Certainly it would seem at first sight an odd position that
a Member State which is not itself bound to carry out such a reso-
lution, and which has manifested disapproval of its being carried
out at al1 by anyone, should nevertheless be legally obliged to
contribute to the expenses of executing it. Here therefore is a case
in which, in order to justify the conclusion that a Member Statein
this position is nevertheless bound to contribute its apportioned
share, reliance on the inherent obligation of Member States to meet
the costs of the Organization might not be sufficient; for that obli-
gation is an obligation of principle only. It would not necessarily
extend to or cover every case. A Member State which had voted
against a resolution having only a recommendatory effect could,
in the absence of express language figuring, or to be deemed to
figure, in the Charter itself, very plausibly argue that the obligation
did not exist for it in the particular case, especially with refer-
ence to certain types of activities-(see Section VI11 below).

It is therefore important that the records of the San Francisco
Conference-even if the language used for the purpose was not
particularly felicitous-do indicate that the intention to impose a
definite financial obligation on Member States was there. Looking
at the matter as a whole, 1think that (with the possible exception
of the class of case considered in SectionVI11 below) this intention
must be deemed to have extended to covering the payment by
Member States of their apportioned shares, irrespective of how their
votes were cast on any given occasion, at any rate as regards al1
the essential activities of the Organization, and even if they have
no forma1 legal obligation to join in carrying out the activities to
which the given expenditures relate. (In the case of inessential
activities, the position is more complicated, and 1consider this in
the final section of this Opinion.)

In reaching this conclusion, it ismaterial to take account of the

following factor: those who framed the Charter deliberately broke
away from the fundamental voting rule of the former League of
Nations (unanimity-see Article 5, paragraph 1, of the League
Covenant), and they adopted for the United Nations a majority
voting rule. In an Organization which has never numbered much less
than 50-60 Member States, and now numbers over roo, no other
rule than a majority one would be practicable. But a majority voting
rule is meaningless unless, although the States of the minority are
not formally bound as regards their own action, they at least cannot
prevent or impede the action decided on from being carried out

64pas voté contre une certaine résolution peut difficilement émettre
des objections lorsqu'on lui demande de payer sa part des expenses

qu'elle entraîne.
Mais ce qui précèdes'applique difficilement au cas où un vote va
effectivement jusqu'à s'opposer à la résolution en cause - résolu-
tion qui a de toute façon un caractère de pure recommandation.
Certes, il paraît à première vue étrange qu'un Etat Membre, qui
de toute façon n'est pas obligé d'exécuter la résolution et qui a
manifesté sa désapprobation de la voir exécutéepar qui que ce soit,
soit cependant juridiquement tenu de contribuer aux expenses de
son exécuticp. Nous avons donc ici un cas où, pour justifier la conclu-
sion qu'un Etat Membre se trouvant danscettesituation est cepen-
dant tenu de payer sa quote-part, il se peut qu'il ne soit pas suffi-
sant d'invoquer l'obligation inhérente à la qualité de Membre de
subvenir aux frais de l'organisation; car cette obligation n'est

qu'une obligation de principe. Elle .ne s'étend pas nécessairement
à tous les cas et ne les couvre pas tous. L'Etat Membre qui a voté
contre une résolution ayant simplement effet de recommandation
pourrait, à défaut d'une disposition expresse de la Charte ou d'une
disposition présumée y figurer, soutenir très plausiblement que
l'obligation n'existait pas pour lui dans le cas particulier, surtout
en ce qui concerne certaines catégoriesd'activités (voirsection VI11
ci-dessous). Il est donc important de constater que les documents
de la conférence de San Francisco - mêmesi Ie langage utilisé en
l'occurrence n'est pas très heureux - indiquent bien l'intention
d'imposer une obligation financière déterminéeaux Etats Membres.
En considérant la question dans son ensemble, je pense (à l'excep-
tion peut-être de la catégorie de cas examinée plus loin à la section
VIII) qu'il faut cpnsidérer cette intention comme s'étendant au

paiement par les Etats Membres de leur quote-part, indépendam-
ment de leurs votes dans chaque cas donné, du moins en ce qui
concerne toutes les activités essentielles de l'organisation, et même
si ces Etats Membres ne sont pas formellement obligés en droit
de participer à l'exécution des activités qui entraînent les dépenses
en question. (La situation est plus compliquée lorsqu'il s'agit
d'activités non essentielles, et j'examinerai ce point dans la dernière
section de cette opinion.)
Pour arriver à cette conclusion il y a lieu de tenir compte du
facteur suivant: les auteurs de la Charte ont délibérémentromDu
avec la règlefondamentale de vote de l'ancienne Société des~ati&s
(l'unanimité - voir paragraphe I de l'article 5 du Pacte) et ont
adopté pour les Nations Unies la règle du vote majoritaire. Dans

une Organisation qui n'ajamais comptémoins decinquante àsoixante
Etats Membres, et qui en compte maintenant plus de cent, aucune
règle autre que celle de la majorité n,'estpraticable. Mais une règle
de majorité n'a de sens que si les Etats de la minorité, bien que
n'étant pas formellement liés en ce qui concerne leur propre action,
sont au moins tenus de ne pas empêcher ouprévenir l'exécutionaliun.de.This they obviously could do if they had a species of veto,

the exercise of which, through the refusa1 to contribute financially,
would enable them to prevent or seriously impede the action
concerned.
The same conclusion can be reached in another way, for if there
is, on the one hand, a general position under the Charter according
to which certain resolutions have no formally obligatory character-
doubly not so for those who vote against them-there is also, on the
otherhand, a special provision, Articl17,paragraph 2,obligingMem-
ber States to contribute to the cost of carrying these resolutions out,
in so far as these costs duly rank as expenses of the Organization.
To this situation the rule generalia s@ecialibusnon derogant must
apply, so that in spite of the general element of non-obligation
under these resolutions, the special obligation to contribute to the
expenses incurred in carrying them out prevails, and applies even
to Member States voting against. There is in short no substantive
conflict.

This position was aptly compared, by one of the representatives

of Governments at the oral hearing, to that of a member of the
public who cannot be compelled physically to join in constructing
a public edifice but can, through the medium of ordinary taxation,
be made to contribute to the cost of having it constructedby others.
Another comparison, perhaps even closer, would be that of member-
ship of a club. If the Committee or governing body of a club decides
to acquire additional premises, or to extend the club's activities, or
othenvise to increase expenditure, and this necessitates raising the
annual subscription, or in some other manner involves financial
liabilities for members, and this decision is ratified by a general
meeting of the members, the latter, irrespective of how they voted,
must pay accordingly, or resign their membership.

1 have mentioned the existence of a class of case to which,

possibly, the foregoing considerations would not apply, and regard-
ing which there may be room for some real doubt whether any
financial obligation can arise, at least for Member States voting
against the resolution concerned in any given case. In the normal
case, a resolution provides for certain action to be taken by the
Organization, either through such of the Member States as are
willing to participate, or through the medium of the Secretary-
General or of some other agent or agency. In these cases, despite
the obligation to contribute to the resultant expenses, the resolution
retains its fundamentally non-obligatory character; for if the
Member States are obliged to contribute financially, they are not

65aliunde de l'action décidée.Elle pourrait évidemment le faire si
elle disposait d'une sorte de veto dont l'exercice, marquépar le refus
de contribuer financièrement,lui permettrait de prévenirou degêner

sérieusementl'action en cause.
On peut arriver à cette mêmeconclusion d'une autre façon, car,
s'il existe d'une part une position généraledans le cadredela Charte
selon laquelle certaines résolutions n'ont pas un caractère formelle-
ment obligatoire - et ce d'autant moins pour les Membres qui ont
voté contre - il existe également d'autre part une disposition
spéciale,le paragraphe 2 de l'article17, qui oblige les Etats Mem-
bres à contribuer aux frais de l'exécution de ces résolutions, pour
autant que ces frais font dûment partie des expenses de l'organi-
sation. Le principe generalia specialibus non derogant doit s'appli-
quer à cette situation, si bien qu'en dépit de l'élémentgénéral de
non-obligation caractéristique de ces résolutions, l'obligation spé-
ciale de contribuer aux depenses dues à leur exécution prédomine

et s'applique mêmeaux Etats Membres qui ont voté contre. En
bref, il n'y a pas de conflit quant au fond.
Cette situation a ététrès justement comparée, au cours de la
procédure orale, par l'un des représentants des gouvernements à
celle d'un citoyen qu'on ne peut contraindre physiquement à
participer àla construction d'un édificepublic, mais qui est contraint
au moyen des charges fiscales ordinaires de contribuer aux frais de
la construction par d'autres. Une comparaison peut-être encore
plus exacte serait celle des membres d'un club. Si le comité ou
l'organisme directeur du club décide d'agrandir les locaux, d'é-
tendre les activités du club ou d'augmenter les expenditures de
quelque autre façon, que cela nécessiteune augmentation des coti-
sations annuelles ou implique d'une façon ou d'une autre des res-

ponsabilités financières plus grandes pour les membres et que la
décision est ratifiée par l'assemblée générale des membres, ces
derniers, quel qu'ait été leur vote, doivent payer en conséquence
ou démissionner.

J'ai mentionné l'existence d'une catégorie de cas auxquels ce qui
précèdene s'applique peut-être pas et au sujet desquels on peut
vraiment se demander s'il y a obligation financière, du moins pour
les États Membres qui ont voté contre la résolution en cause dans
chaque cas particulier. Dans un cas normal, une résolution prévoit
que certaines mesures doivent êtreprises par l'organisation, soit

par ceux des États Membres qui sont d'accord d'y participer, soit
par l'intermédiaire du Secrétaire général oud'un autre agent OU
organisme. Dans ces cas là, en dépit de l'obligation de participer
aux expenses qui en résultent, la résolution garde son caractère
fondamentalement non obligatoire, car, si les États Membres sont
tenus de contribuer financièrement, ils ne sont pas tenus de parti-
65obliged to participate in the operational carrying out of the sub-
stantive activities provided for in the resolution. Where however
the "action" to be taken under the resolution consists solely of
provision for making a payment or financial contribution (e.g. for
some purpose of aid or relief), so that the making of this payment
or contribution is not merely a means to an end-viz. enabling the
resolution to be carried out-but the end itself, and the soleobject
of the resolution, it is evident that if the payment or contribution
concerned is to be treated as one to which even Member States which
voted against the resolution must contribute by reason of Article17,
paragraph 2, the resolution acquires in practice a wholly obligatory

character-since it does one thing only, and Member States are
bound, or would be bound, to do or contribute to doing that one
thing. In this connexion, it is significant that the actual practice
of the Assembly (and the Court has drawn considerable inspiration
from this source), has been to finance expenditures falling within
this class of case, mainly by calling for voluntarycontributions from
Member States. E~amples are the activities (or most of them) for
which budgetary provision is made under such heads as those of
"Trust Funds" and "Special AccountsJ'-for instance the U.X.
Special Fund, UNKRA, UNSCO, EPTA, UNRWA, UXICEF, the
U.N. Fund for the Congo, and the U.N. Congo Famine Fund.
No doubt special considerations applied in some of these cases;
still, the fact remains that contributions were not claimed as a
matter of actual obligation.

The same point arises in another way, in relation to head B II
in the list of expenditures ranking asexpenses of the Organization
given at the end of Section V above. What expenditures precisely
should this head B II be regarded as covering? There are broadly
two main classes of functions which the Organization performs under
the Charter-those which it has a duty to carry out, and those
which are more or less permissive in character. Peace-keeping,
dispute-settling and, indeed, most of the political activities of the
Organization would come under the former head; many of what
might be called its social and economic activities might come under
the latter. Expenses incurred in relation to the first set of activities
are therefore true expenses, which the Organization has no choice
but to incur in order to carry out a duty, and an essential function
which it is bound to perform. Therefore the principle enunciated
by the Court in the Injuries to United Nations Servawtscase, and

mentioned earlier, applies: the Organization "must be deemed to
have those powers which, though not expressly provided in the
Charter, are conferred upon it by necessary implication as being
essential tothe performance of its duties" (citation on p.8 above).
Even without Article 17, paragraph 2, the Organization could
require Member States to contribute to these expenses.
66ciper à l'exécution matérielle des activités concrètes prévues par
la résolution. Mais là où 1'«action 1à entreprendre conformément à

la résolution consiste uniquement en une disposition en vue du
paiement ou d'une contribution financière (par exemple aux fins
d'aide ou de secours), en sorte que le paiement ou la contribution
n'est pas seulement un moyen pour atteindre un but - c'est-à-dire
pour permettre l'exécution de la résolution - mais un but en soi
et l'objet unique de la résolution, il est évident que, si le paiement
ou la contribution en question doit être considérécomme une
expense à laquelle même lesÉtats Membres qui ont voté contre la
résolution doivent contribuer en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l'arti-
cle 17, la résolution acquiert en pratique un caractère absolument
obligatoire - puisqu'elle n'a qu'un seul objet et que les États

Membres sont tenus. ou seraient tenus. de faire cette seule chose
ou d'y contribuer. A cet égard il est significatif que la pratique
effective de l'Assemblée(et la Cour.s'estlargement inspirée de cette
source) a étéde financer les expenditures ïentrant dans cette caté-
gorie de cas en faisant surtout appel aux États Membres pour
qu'ils versent des contributions volontaires.C'est le cas des activités
pour lesquelles (ou pour la plupart desquelles) les dispositions
budgétaires figurent sous des rubriques telles que «trust fz~nds))
et « fonds spéciaux 1)- par exemple le Fonds spécial des Nations
Unies, I'UNKRA, I'UNSCO, le PEAT, SUNRWA, le FISE, le
Fonds de l'ONU pour le Congo et le Fonds'de l'ONU contre la

famine au Congo. Certes, il y a des considérations spéciales dans
certains de ces cas; mais il n'en reste pas moins que les contri-
butions ne sont pas réclamées à titre obligatoire.
La mêmequestion se présente d'une autre façon à propos de la
rubrique B II de la liste des expenditurescomptant comme expenses
de l'organisation que l'on trouve à la fin de la section V ci-dessus.
Quelles sont exactement les expenditures entrant dans cette caté-
gorie B II? D'une façon générale,il existe deux catégories princi-
pales de fonctions que l'Organisation exerce selon la Charte -
celles qui ont un caractère obligatoire et celles qui ont un caractère
plus ou moins facultatif. Le maintien de la paix, le règlement des

conflits et mêmela plupart des activités politiques de l'organisa-
tion entrent dans la première catégorie; presque tout ce qu'on peut
appeler ses activitéssociales et économiquesentrent dans la seconde.
Les expenses encourues pour la première catégorie d'activités sont
donc des expenses réellesque l'organisation doit obligatoirement
encourir pour exécuter un devoir et une fonction essentielle qu'elle
est tenue d'accomplir. Le principe énoncépar la Cour dans l'avis
concernant la Réparationdes domlnagesubis au servicedes Nations
L'nies mentionné plus haut s'applique donc: l'Organisation « doit
êtreconsidéréecomme possédant ces pouvoirs qui, s'ils ne sont pas
expressément énoncésdans la Charte, sont, par une conséquence

nécessaire, conférés à l'organisation en tant qu'essentiels à l'exer-
cice des fonctions de celle-ci 1(citép. 20s supra). Mêmesilepara-
66 It is less clear that any similar power exists to require Member
States to meet the costs incurred in performing merely permissive
activities carried out under non-binding resolutions. There certainly
would be no such power without Article 17, paragraph 2-at least
not as regards Member States which voted against the resolution
giving rise to the expenditure concerned; and even with the assis-

tance of Article 17, the position is not entirely clear. There is.a
definite distinction, inasmuch as where the activities involved are
such asthe Organization has a duty to carry out, non-contributiori
by a Member State would be fundamentally inconsistent with thac
State's membership, as being calculated to prevent or gravely
impede the performance by the Organization of an essential func-
tion. Where the costs of permissive, or non-essential activities are
concemed, there is no correspondingly clear-cut inconsistency,

and there must remain a question whether, in this type of case,
Article 17, paragraph 2, is sufficient to give rise to a financial obli-
gation for the dissenting voter.If it is sufficient, then it would follow
that, in theory at least, the Assembly could vote enormous expen-
ditures, and thereby place a heavy financialburden even on dissent-
ing States, and as a matter of obligation even in the case of non-
essentialactivities. This would be reading a lot into such a provision
as Article 17, paragraph 2. In this connexion, it must be borne in
mind that, if a two-thirds majority is required for the adoption of

financial resolutions, the present scales of apportionment cause a
major part of the resulting contributions to fall on a comparatively
small minority of the Member States. As has already been men-
tioned, the existencehere of a genuine difficulty seems to have been
recognized in practice within the Organization, inasmuch as the
cost of a large part of these permissive activities is met from
voluntary contributions '0.

To set against these considerations, there is the fact that it would
not be easy to drawa hard and fast line between necessary, essential
and obligatory functions of the Organization, on the one hand, and
merely optional, non-essential and permissive ones on the other.
Changing concepts also are involved. Today, the humanitarian
and aid-givingfunctions of the Organization are, if less imperative,

l0 1 have already given it as my view (see Section V above) that no financial
obligation arises where the Organization acts outside the ambit of the Charter,
eStates) no illegality is involved. But in these cases, the lack of obligation derives
notço much from the casting of a contrary vote, as from the fact that, inmy opin-
ion, the expenditures involved would not properly speaking be "expenses of the
Organization"withinthe meaning of Article 17,paragr2,at all.

67graphe 2 de l'article17 n'existait pas, l'organisation pourrait exiger
des États Membres qu'ils contribuent à ces expenses.

L'existence d'un pouvoir du mêmeordre permettant à l'organi-
sation d'exiger que les États Membres participent aux frais encourus
dans l'exécution d'activités ayant un caractère simplement facul-
tatif aux termes de résolutions non obligatoires est moins claire.
Sans l'article 17, paragraphe z, il n'y aurait certainement aucun
pouvoir de ce genre - du moins à l'égarddes États Membres qui
votent contre la résolution entraînant l'expenditure en question;
mêmesi l'on recourt à l'article 17, la situation n'est pas absolument

claire. Il existe une distinction nette pour autant que, si les activités
en question sont celles que l'organisation a le devoir d'assumer,
le refus d'un Etat Membre d'y contribuer serait fondamentalement
incompatible avec la qualité de Membre de l'organisation, car il
pourrait apparaître que ce refus vise à empêcherou à contrarier
dangereusement l'action de l'organisation dans l'accomplissement
d'une de ses fonctions essentielles. &orsquJils'agit defrais entraînés
par des activités facultatives ou non essentielles, il n'y a pas d'in-
compatibilité bien définie correspondante et il reste à savoir si,

dans cette catégorie de cas, le paragraphe 2 de l'article17 suffit à
créer une obligation financière pour I'Etat Membre ayant votécontre.
Dans l'affirmative, il en découlerait, en théoriedu moins, que l'As-
semblée générale pourrait voter des expenditztresénormes,imposant
ainsi une lourde charge financière mêmeaux États ayant voté
contre et lui donnant un caractère obligatoire mêmedans le cas
d'activités non essentielles. Ce serait là une interprétation très
extensive de la disposition du paragraphe 2 de l'article 17. A cet
égard, ilfaut retenir que, même si lesrésolutionsfinancièresdoivent

êtreadoptées à la majorité des deux tiers, l'actuelle répartition des
quotes-parts impose la majeure partie des contributions à une
minorité relativement restreinte d'États Membres. Ainsi que je l'ai
déjà mentionné, il existe sur ce point une difficultévéritable qui
semble avoir été reconnue en pratique au sein de l'organisation, pour
autant que les frais entraînés par une grande part de ces activités
facultatives sont couverts par des contributions volontaires 'O.
A l'encontre de ces conçidérations, on peut avancer qu'il ne

serait pas facile de distinguer de façon nette et constante entre les
fonctions nécessaires, essentielles et obligatoires de l'organisation
d'une part et les fonctions simplement facultatives et non essen-
tielles d'autre part. Il s'agit aussi de notions qui changent. Aujour-
d'hui, les fonctions humanitaires et d'assistance de l'organisation

gation financière lorsque SOrganisation agissait hors du domaine de la Charte,as obli-
même s'iln'y avait pas illégalité(l'organisation ayant 6té invitée ainsi et
limitant son action aux États consentants). Mais, dans ces cas, l'absence d'obligation
d6rive moins d'un vote contraire que du fait que les ex+enditures en cause ne sont
pas,à mon avis, desuexpenses de l'organisatioà proprement parlerau sens du
paragraphe 2de l'article 17.
67hardly less important than its political functions, and may well
contribute materially, or even be essential, to the success of the
latter.

For the purposes of the present Request it is not necessary to
express any final view about these points, but 1 have thought it
useful to draw attention to them. There is moreover at least one
case of this kind as to which 1 feel no doubt about the obligation to
contribute, irrespective of how a Member State's vote has been cast.
It has been suggested by some of those who deny al1 validity to
peace-keeping activities organized by the Assembly, that (on the

analogy, as 1 suppose, of the well-known Prize Law doctrine of
"infection") even civil expenditures in the nature of technical
assistance, famine relief, etc., given to any country contempo-
raneously and in connexion with such peace-keeping activities (as
is the case under some of the resolutions now involved) become,
by a process of association, "tainted", as it were, with the same
invalidity as is alleged to exist for the peace-keeping activities
themselves. 1 take a view which is the exact antithesis of this, and
applies the doctrine of "infection" in reverse. Even if it should be
the case (and on this 1 do not express any final view) that there is
no positive obligation to contribute to the expenses of carrying out
social and economic activities of a permissive character (except for
Member States supporting or not opposing the activity concerned),
1 consider that where such an activity is closely connected with,
arises out of, and, in short, is basically part of a peace-keeping
endeavour, and necessary for, or directly contributory to the
success of that endeavour, the activity in question takes on the
nature of an essential activity, the expenses of which a.= expenses

of the Organization to which al1Member Statesare bound to contri-
bute, irrespective of their votes.

Consequently, my concurrence in the Opinion of the Court extends
no less to the civil than to the military expenditures incurred under
the Resolutions specified in the Request.

(Signed) G. G. FITZMAURICE. ne sont guère moins importantes que ses fonctions politiques, même
si elles sont moins impératives, et elles peuvent bien contribuer
matériellement au succès de ces dernières ou même en être un
élément essentiel.
Aux fins de la présente requête,il n'y a pas lieu d'exprimer une

opinion définitive sur ces points, mais j'ai pensé qu'il serait utile
de les signaler à l'attention. De plus, il existe au moins un cas de
ce genre où l'obligation de contribuer me paraît incontestable, quel
que soit le vote de l'État Membre. Parmi ceux qui contestent toute
validité aux activités visant au maintien de la paix organiséespar
l'Assemblée générale,certains ont avancé (par analogie, je pense,
avec la doctrine traditionnelle de l'infection hostile en matière de
prises) que les expenditurescivilesprésentant les caractères de l'assis-
tance technique, des secours en cas de famine, etc., accordés à un

pays quelconque à la même époqueet en rapport avec les activités
relatives au maintien de la paix (comme c'est le cas d'après cer-
taines résolutions en cause ici) deviennent à leur tour, par un pro-
cessus d'association, (entachées ))de la mêmeinvalidité que celles
qu'on invoque à propos des activités visant au maintien de la paix
elles-mêmes.Je souscris àl'opinion exactement contraire et applique
la doctrine de l'«infection ))en sens inverse. Mêmes'il n'existait
pas (et je n'exprime pas d'opinion définitive sur ce point) d'obli-
gation positive de contribuer aux expenses concernant la mise en
Œuvre d'activités sociales et économiques de caractère facultatif
(sauf pour les Etats Membres qui appuient l'activité en question

ou qui ne s'y opposent pas), j'estime que, lorsqu'une telle activité
se rattache étroitement à une entreprise visant au maintien de la
paix ou qu'elle en découle, ou en un mot qu'elle en est un des
élémentsfondamentaux, ou qu'elle est nécessaire au maintien de
la paix ou contribue directement au succès de cette tentative,
l'activité en question prend le caractère d'une activité essentielle
et les expenses qu'elle entraîne sont des expenses de l'Organisation
auxquelles tous les Etats Membres sont tenus de contribuer, quel
qu'ait étéleur vote.

Par conséquent,je partage l'avis de la Cour tant en ce qui concerne
les expenditures civiles qu'en ce qui concerne les expenditures mili-
taires encourues aux termes des résolutions mentionnées dans la
requête.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice

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