Individual Opinion by M. Alvarez (translation)

Document Number
003-19480528-ADV-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
003-19480528-ADV-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

INDIVIDUAL OPINION Bi' M. ALVAREZ.
[Translation.]

1.

I do not agree with the method adopted by the Court in giving
the opinion for which it has been asked by the General Assembly
of the United Nations.

The Court has inferred frnm the enumeration of the conditions
prescribed in Article 4, paragraph 1,of the Charter for the admission
of a State tn membership in the United Nations, that nothing else
can be adduced to justify a negative vote. This question cannot
be answered merely by a clarification of the texts, nor by a study of
the preparatory work ; another method must be adopted and, in
particular, recourse must be had to the great principles of the new
international law.
ivliore changes have taken place in international life since the
last great social cataclysm than would normally occur in a
century. îvloreover, this life is evolving at a vertiginous speed :
inter-State relations are becoming more and more various and
complex. The fundamental principles of international law are
passing through a serious crisis, and this necessitates its recons-
truction. A new international law is developing, which embodies
not only this reconstruction, but also some entirely new elements.

For a long time past Ihave insisted on the rôle which the Court
must play in the renewal and development of international law.
A recent event supports my opinion. The General Assembly of
the United Nations in its Resolution No. 171 of November qth,
1947, declares that it is of paramount importance, in the firsi place,
that the interpreta,tion of the Chartei should be based on recognized
principles of international law and, in the second place, that the
Court should be utilized, to the greatest practicableextent, in the
progressive development of this law, both in regard to legal issues
between States and in regard to constitutional interpretation or
to questions of a general nature submitted to it for its opinion.
1hold that in this connexion the Court has a free hand to allow
scope to the new spirit which is evolving in contact with the new
conditions of international life : there must be a renewal of inter-
national law corresponding to the renewal of this life.
With regard to the interpretation oflegal texts, it is to be observed
that, while in some cases preparatory work plays an important

part, as a rule this is not the case. The reason lies in the fact that
delegates, in discussing a subject, express the most varied views on
certain matters and often without a sufficient knowledge of them ; INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ 68

sometimes also they change their views without expressly saying
so. The preparatory work on the constitution of the United
Nations Organization is of but little value. Moreover, the fact
should be stressed that an institution, once established, acqiiires
a life of its own, independent of the elenlents which have given

birth to it, and it must develop, not in accordance with the views
of those who created it, but in accordance with the requirenients
of international life.

II.

As the question put to the Court concerns the admission of new
States to the United Nations Organization, the character of the
international community andthe place in it occupied by the Organ-
ization must be borne in mind.
As a result of the increasingly closer relations between Sta.tes,
\vhich has led to their ever greater interdependence, the old com-
munity of nations has been transformed into a veritable interna-

tional societv, though it has neither an executive power, nor a
legislative power, nor yet a judicia! power, which are the charac-
teristics of a national society, but not of international societyThis
society comprises al1 States throughout the world, without there
being any need for consent on their part or on that of other States;
it has aims and interests of its own ; States no longer have an absol-
ute sovereignty but are interdependent ; they have not only
rights, but alsoduties towards each other and towards this society ;
finally, the latter is organized and governed, to an ever increasing
extent, by a law of a character quite different from that of custom-
ary law.
The foregoing indicates the place occupied by the United Nations
Organization in the universal international society. The creation

of the League of Nations constituted a great effort to organize this
society, particularly from the standpoint of the maintenance of
peace. The present United Nations Organization, which is destined
to replace it and has the same aims, is therefore merely an instit-
ution. within the universal international society.
The aims of this Organization are not confined to certain States
or to a great number of States, but are of a world-wide nature.
They are concerned with the maintenance of peace and the
development of CO-operationamong al1 States of the world ; it
will suffice to read the Preamble and Chapter 1 of the Charter to
appreciate this.
But to become a Member of this Organization, a State must

apply for admission, must fulfil certain conditions and must be
adrnitted by the Organization. States which arenot yet Members
of the Organization have not the rights and duties which it has
laid dom, but they have these conferred or imposed upon them
as members of the universal society of nations. Moreover, such
15 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ 69

States may enter into relations of every kind with those which
belong to the United Nations Organization, and these relations
are governed by international law.

III.

Before giving the opinion asked of it by the General Assembly
of the United Nations, the Court has had to make up its mind as
to the legal or political character of the question put..
The traditional distinction between what is legal and what is

political, and between law and politics, has to-day been profoundly
modified. Formerly, everything dependent on precepts of law was
regarded as legal and anything left to the free will of States was
regarded as political.
Relations between States have become multiple and complex.
As a result, they present a variety of aspects : legal, political,
economic, social, etc. ; there are, therefore, no more strictly legal
issues. Moreover, many questions regarded as essentially legal,
such as the interpretation of a treaty, may, in certain cases, assume
a political character, especially in the case of a peace treaty.
Again, many questions have both a legal and a political character,
notably those relating to international organization.

A new conception of law in general, and particularly of inter-
national law, has also emerged. The traditionally juridical
and individualistic conception of law is being progressively
superseded by the following conception : in the first place, inter-

national law is not strictly juridical; it is also political,
economic, social and psychological ; hence, al1 the fundamental
elements of traditional individualistic law are profoundly modified,
a fact which necessitates their reconstruction. In the next place,
strictly individualistic international law is being more and more
superseded bywhatmay be termed the law ofsocial interdependence.
The latter is the outcome, not of theory, but of the realities of
international life and of the juridical conscience of the nations.
The Court is the most authoritative organ for the expression of
this juridical conscience, which also finds expression in certain
treaties, in the most recent national. legislative measures and in
certain resolutions of associations devoted to the study of inter-
national law.
This law of social interdependence has certain characteristics of
which the following are the most essential :(a) it is concerned not

only with the delimitation of the rights of States, but also with
harmonizing them ;(b) in every question it takes into account al1
its various aspects ; (c) it takes the general interest fully into
account ; (d) it emphasizes the notion of the duties of States,not
only towards each other but also towards the international society ;
(e) it condemns the abuse of right ; (1)it adjusts itself to the
I6 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ 70
necessities of international life and evolves together with it ;
accordingly, it is in harmony with policy ; (g) to the rights conferred
by strictly juridical law it adds that which States possess to belong
to the international organization which is being set up.

Far therefore from being in opposition to each other, law and
policy are to-day closely linked together. The latter is not always
the selfish and arbitrary policy of States ;there is also a collective
or individual policy inspired by the general interest. This policy
now exercises a profound influence on international law ; it either
confirms it or endows it with new life, or even opposes itif it
appears out of date. It is also one of the elements governing
the relations between States when no legal precepts exist.

It is however always necessary to differentiate between juridical
and political elements, particularly from the standpoint of the
Court's jurisdiction.
The United Nations Charter makes the Court one of its organs
(Art. 7), and Article 92 lays down that it is its principal judicial

organ. The Statute of the present Court, like that of the old,
indicates that its task is to hear and determine legal questions,
and not political questions. The advisory opinions for which it
may be asked must also relate to legal questions (Articles 36,
No. 3, and 96 of the Charter; Article 65 of the Statute of the
Court) .
When a question is referred to the Court, the latter therefore
must decide whether its dominant element is legal, and whether
it should accordingly deal with it, or whether the political element
is dominant and, in that case, it must declare that it has no
jurisdiction.
In the questions which it is called upon to consider, the Court
must, however, take into account al1 aspects of the matter,
including the political aspect when it is closely bound up with

the legal aspect. It would be a manifest miçtake to seek to
limit the Court to consideration of questions solely from their
legal aspect, to the exclusion of other aspects ; it woi~ldbe incon-
sistent with the realities of international life.
It follows from the foregoing that the constitutional Charter
cannot be interpreted according to a strictly legal criterion ;
another and broader criterion must be employed and room left,
if need be, for political considerations.
The Court has decided that the question on which its advisory
opinion has been asked is a legal one because it concerns the
iriterpretation of the Charter of the United Nations, which is
a treaty.
In rcality, this question is botli legal and political, but the
legal element predominates, not so much because it is a matter
of interpreting the Charter but because it is concerned with

the problem whether States have a viglzt to nlembership in the
17 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ 7I

United Nations Organization if they fulfil the conditions required
by the Statute of the Organization. The question is at the same
time a political one, because it is the States comprising the Security
Council and those belonging to the General Assembly which
determine whether these conditions are, or are not, fulfilled by
the applicant.

IV.

As regards the essential conditions to be fulfilled by every
State desiring to be admitted to membership in the United Nations
Organization, these are prescribed in Article 4, paragraph 1, of
the Charter. These conditions are exhaustive because they are
the only ones enumerated. If it had been intended to require
others, this would have been expressly stated.
Moreover, having regard to the nature of the universal inter-
national Society, the purposes of the United Nations Organization

and its mission of universalitgr, it must be held that al1 States
fulfilling the conditions required by Article 4 of the Charter have
a right to membership in that Organization. The exercise of this
right cannot be blocked by the imposition of other conditions not
expressly providecl for bv the Charter, by international law or by
a convention, or on grounds of a political nature.
Nerertheless, it has to be judged in each case whether the condi-
tions of admission required by the Charter are fulfilled. The units
which may form this judgment are the States composing the
Security Council and the members of the General Assembly. They
must be guided solely by considerations of justice and good faith,
i.e., they must confine themselves to considering whether the
applicant fulfils the conditions required by Article 4, paragraph I.

In actual fact, however, these Statesare mainly guided by consider-
atioiîs of their own policy and, consequently, if not directly, at
al1events indirectly, they sometimes require of an applicant condi-
tions other than those provided for in Article 4, since they vote
against its admission if such other conditions are not fulfilled.
That is an abuse of right which the Court must condemn ; but
at the present time no sacction attaches to it Save the reprobation
of public opinion.
Kevertheless, cases mav arise in which the admission of a State
is liable to disturb the international situation, or at al1 events
the international orgapization, for instance, if such admission
woiild give a very great influence to certain groups of States, or

produce profound divergencies between them. Conseqiiently,
even if the conditions of admission are fulfilled by an applicant,
admission may be refuset!. In such cases, the question is no longer
a legal one ; it becomes a political one and must be regarded as
such. In a concrete case of ihis kind, the Court must declare that
it has no jurisdiction.
18 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ 72

A claim by a hiember of the United Nations Organization, which
recognizes the conditions of Article 4 of the Charter to be fulfilled
by an applicant State, to subject its affirmative vote to the condi-
tion that nther States be admitted to membership together with
this applicant, would be an act contrary to the letter and spirit

of the Charter. Nevertheless, siich a claim may be justified
in exceptional circumstances, for instance, in the case of applica-
tions for admission by two or more States simultaneously brought
into existence as the result of the disappearance of the State or
colony of which they formed part. It is natural in that case that
their admission should be considered simultaneously.

Having regard to the foregoing, 1 consider that the following
replies should be given to the actual questions put in the request
for an advisory opinion addressed to the Court :

IO No State is juridically entitled to make its consent to the
admission of a new Member to the United Nations Organization
dependent on conditions pot expressly provided for by Article 4,
paragraph 1, of the Charter.
2" A State may not, while recognizing the conditions required
by Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Charter, to be fulfilled by the
applicant State, subject its affirmative vote to the condition that

other States be admitted to membership in the United Nations
together with that State. Nevertheless, in exceptional cases, such
a claim may be justified.
To the above conclusions the following,which ensues from them,
should be added :

Ifthere are several simultaneous applicatio~is for admission, each
must be considered separately, Save in exceptional circumstances :
there is no ground for establishing a connexion between them not
contemplated by the Charter.

The foregoing statement clearly demonstrates the importance
of the new method indicated above, and of the rôle which the
Court is called upon to play in the development of inter-
national life and of international law. In consequenceof Resolu-
tion 171 of November 14th, 1947 ,dopted by the General Assernbly
of the United Nations, this method and this rôle emerge from the
domain of doctrine and become applicable in practice.

(Signed) ALVAREZ.

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVAREZ

Je ne suis pas d'accord avec la Cour sur la méthode qu'elle a
suivie pour arriver à émettre l'avis qui lui a été demandé par

l'Assemblée générale des Nations unies.
La Cour a déduit de l'énoncé des conditipns mises par l'article 4,
alinéa 1, de la Charte à l'admission d'un Etat comme Membre des
Nations unies que rien d'autre ne pouvait êtrealléguépour justifier
un vote négatif. Cette question ne peut être résolue par la pure
exégèsedes textes ni par l'examen des travaux préparatoires ; il
faut adopter une autre méthode en ayant recours surtout aux grands
principes du droit international nouveau.

Après le dernier grand cataclysme social, il s'est produit dans la
vie des nations plus de changements que dans un siècleen période
normale. D'autre part, cette vie évolue de façon vertigineuse ; les
rapports entre Etats sont de plus en plus complexes et variables.
Le droit des gens traverse une crise profonde dans ses éléments
fondamentaux, ce qui rend nécessaire sa reconstruction. Un droit
international nouveau se développe, qui comprend non seulement
ladite reconstruction mais aussi les aspects actuels des matières
anciennes, ainsi que des matières entièrement nouvelles.
Depuis longtemps, j'ai insisté sur le rôle que doit jouer la Cour
dans le renouvellement et le développement du droit international.

Un fait tout récent est venu appuyer mon opinion. L'Assemblée
générale des Nations unies, en effet, dans sa Résolution 171 du
14 novembre 1947 a déclaréqu'il est de la plus haute importance,
d'une part, que I'interprétation de la Charte repose sur des prin-
cipes consacrés du droit international et, d'autre part,qu'il soit le
plus largement fait appel àla Cour pour le développement progressif
de ce droit, tant à l'occasion de litiges entre États qu'en matière
d'interprétation constitutionnelle ou de questions de caractère
généralqui prêtent à des doutes.
J'estime qu'à cet égard la Cour a pleine liberté pour donner
passage à l'esprit nouveau qui progresse au contact des conditions
nouvelles de la vie internationale : au renouvellement de cette
vie doit correspondre un renouvellement du droit des gens.
Pour ce qui concerne I'interprétation des textes légaux, il faut
remarquer que si les travaux préparatoires ont, dans certains
cas, une grande importance, généralement il n'en est pas ainsi.
Le motif réside dans le fait que les délégués, endiscutant un
sujet, émettent les opinions les plus diverses sur des matières INDIVIDUAL OPINION Bi' M. ALVAREZ.
[Translation.]

1.

I do not agree with the method adopted by the Court in giving
the opinion for which it has been asked by the General Assembly
of the United Nations.

The Court has inferred frnm the enumeration of the conditions
prescribed in Article 4, paragraph 1,of the Charter for the admission
of a State tn membership in the United Nations, that nothing else
can be adduced to justify a negative vote. This question cannot
be answered merely by a clarification of the texts, nor by a study of
the preparatory work ; another method must be adopted and, in
particular, recourse must be had to the great principles of the new
international law.
ivliore changes have taken place in international life since the
last great social cataclysm than would normally occur in a
century. îvloreover, this life is evolving at a vertiginous speed :
inter-State relations are becoming more and more various and
complex. The fundamental principles of international law are
passing through a serious crisis, and this necessitates its recons-
truction. A new international law is developing, which embodies
not only this reconstruction, but also some entirely new elements.

For a long time past Ihave insisted on the rôle which the Court
must play in the renewal and development of international law.
A recent event supports my opinion. The General Assembly of
the United Nations in its Resolution No. 171 of November qth,
1947, declares that it is of paramount importance, in the firsi place,
that the interpreta,tion of the Chartei should be based on recognized
principles of international law and, in the second place, that the
Court should be utilized, to the greatest practicableextent, in the
progressive development of this law, both in regard to legal issues
between States and in regard to constitutional interpretation or
to questions of a general nature submitted to it for its opinion.
1hold that in this connexion the Court has a free hand to allow
scope to the new spirit which is evolving in contact with the new
conditions of international life : there must be a renewal of inter-
national law corresponding to the renewal of this life.
With regard to the interpretation oflegal texts, it is to be observed
that, while in some cases preparatory work plays an important

part, as a rule this is not the case. The reason lies in the fact that
delegates, in discussing a subject, express the most varied views on
certain matters and often without a sufficient knowledge of them ;68 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVAREZ

données et souvent sans une connaissance suffisante de celles-ci ;
parfois même, ils changent d'opinion, sans le dire expressément.
Les travaux préparatoires de la constitution de 1'0.N. U. ont
peu de valeur. Outre les considérations précédentes, il faut insister
sur le fait qu'une institution, une fois créée,acquiert une vie
propre indépendante des éléments qui lui ont donné naissance
et qu'elle doit se développer conformément non pas à l'opinion
de ceux-ci, mais aux exigences de la vie internationale.

II.

La question poséeà la Cour concernant l'admission de nouveaux
États dans l'organisation des Nations unies, il convient d'avoir
présents à l'esprit le caractère de la communauté internationale
et la place qu'y occupe cette Organisation.
Par suite du rapprochement croissant des États, qui a produit
leur interdépendance de plus en plus grande, l'ancienne commu-
nauté des nations s'est transformée en une véritable société inter-
nationale, bien que ne possédant ni pouvoir exécutif, ni pouvoir
législatif, ni pouvoir judiciaire, lesquels sont des caractéristiques

de la société civilemais pas de la sociétéinternationale. Cette
société comprend tous les États du monde, sans que soit néces-
saire un consentement de leur part ou de celle des autres Etats ;
elle a des buts et des intérêtspropres ; les Etats n'y sont plus
souverains absolus mais interdépendants ; ils ont non seulement
des droits mais aussi des devoir entre eux ainsi qu'envers ladite
société ; enfin, celle-ci est organisée et elle est régie de plus en
plus par un droit d'un caractère tout autre que celui du droit
traditionnel.
Ce qui précède indique la place qu'occupe l'organisation des
Nations unies dans la sociétéinternationale universelle. La création
de la Sociétédes Nations a kté un grand effort pour organiser

cette société,notamment au point de vue du maintien de la paix.
L'actuelle Organisation des Nations unies, destinée à la remplacer
et qui se propose les mêmes buts, n'est donc qu'une institution
à l'intérieur de ladite sociétéinternationale universelle.
Les objectifs de cette Organisation ne sont pas limités à
plusieurs États ou à un grand nombre d'entre eux, mais ont un
caractère universel ;ils se réfèrent au maintien de la paix et au
développement de la coopération parmi tous les Etats du monde ;
pour s'en convaincre, il suffit de lire le Préambule et le chapitre
premier de la Charte.
Mais pour faire partie de cette Organisation, il est nécessaire
que les États fassent une demande d'admission, qu'ils réuniçsent

certaines conditions et que l'organisation les admette. Les Etats
qui ne sont pas encore Membres de cette Organisation n'ont pas
les droits et les devoirs qu'elle a établis, mais ils ont ceux qui
s'imposent à eux comme membres de la sociétéuniverselle des
1.5 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ 68

sometimes also they change their views without expressly saying
so. The preparatory work on the constitution of the United
Nations Organization is of but little value. Moreover, the fact
should be stressed that an institution, once established, acqiiires
a life of its own, independent of the elenlents which have given

birth to it, and it must develop, not in accordance with the views
of those who created it, but in accordance with the requirenients
of international life.

II.

As the question put to the Court concerns the admission of new
States to the United Nations Organization, the character of the
international community andthe place in it occupied by the Organ-
ization must be borne in mind.
As a result of the increasingly closer relations between Sta.tes,
\vhich has led to their ever greater interdependence, the old com-
munity of nations has been transformed into a veritable interna-

tional societv, though it has neither an executive power, nor a
legislative power, nor yet a judicia! power, which are the charac-
teristics of a national society, but not of international societyThis
society comprises al1 States throughout the world, without there
being any need for consent on their part or on that of other States;
it has aims and interests of its own ; States no longer have an absol-
ute sovereignty but are interdependent ; they have not only
rights, but alsoduties towards each other and towards this society ;
finally, the latter is organized and governed, to an ever increasing
extent, by a law of a character quite different from that of custom-
ary law.
The foregoing indicates the place occupied by the United Nations
Organization in the universal international society. The creation

of the League of Nations constituted a great effort to organize this
society, particularly from the standpoint of the maintenance of
peace. The present United Nations Organization, which is destined
to replace it and has the same aims, is therefore merely an instit-
ution. within the universal international society.
The aims of this Organization are not confined to certain States
or to a great number of States, but are of a world-wide nature.
They are concerned with the maintenance of peace and the
development of CO-operationamong al1 States of the world ; it
will suffice to read the Preamble and Chapter 1 of the Charter to
appreciate this.
But to become a Member of this Organization, a State must

apply for admission, must fulfil certain conditions and must be
adrnitted by the Organization. States which arenot yet Members
of the Organization have not the rights and duties which it has
laid dom, but they have these conferred or imposed upon them
as members of the universal society of nations. Moreover, such
1569 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVASEZ

nations. En outre, ces Gtats peuvent entrer en rapports de toute
nature avec ceux faisant partie de l'organisation des Nations
unies, et ces rapports sont régis par le droit international.

III.

Avant de donner l'avis qui lui a étédemandé par l'Assemblée
générale des Nations unies, la Cour a dû prendre parti sur le
caractère juridique ou politique de la question posée.
La distinction traditionnelle entre le juridique et le politique,

ainsi que celle entre le domaine du droit e~celui de la politique, se
trouvînt aujourd'hui profondément modifiées. On considérait
comme juridiques les matières soumises à des préceptes de,droit
et comme politiques c~lles laisséesàla libre appréciation des Etats.
Les rapports entre Etats sont devenus multiples et complexes ;
de ce fait, ils présentent divers aspects à la fois : juridique, poli-
tique, économique, social, etc. ; il n'y a donc plus de matières
strictement juridiques. En outre bien des questions considérées
comme essentiellement juridiques, telle l'interprétation d'un traité,
peuvent, dans certains cas, revêtir un caractère surtout politique,
notamment s'il s'agit d'un trait6 de paix. Et nombre de matières
revêtent un double caractère : juridique et politique, principale-
ment celles qui ont trait à l'organisation internationale.

Une nouvelle conception du droit en général,et notamment du
droit des gens, se manifeste aussi. A la conception traditionnelle
du droit de caractere strictement juridique et individualiste, se
substitue progressivement la suivante : d'abord le droit des gens
n'est pas strictement juridique ; il est aussi politique, économique,
social et psychologique ;de ce fait, tous les élémentsfondamentaux
du droit traditiopnel individualiste se trouvent profondément
modifiés, ce qui rend nécessaire leur reconstruction. Ensuite, le
droit des gens de caractère strictement individualiste fait place
de plus en plus à celui qu'on peut appeler le droit d'interdépendance
sociale.Celui-ci est issu non de la spéculation mais des réalitésde
la vie internationale, ainsi que de la conscience juridique des
peuples. La Cour est l'organe le plus autorisé pour exprimer cette

conscience juridique, laquelle se manifeste également dans certains
traités, dans les dispositions législatives nationales les plus récentes,
ainsi que dans certaines résolutions des associations vouées à
l'étude du droit des gens.
Ce droit d'interdépendance sociale présente diverses caracté-
ristiques dont voici les princjpales: a) il ne s'attache pas seulement
à delimiter les droits des Etats mais surtout à les harmoniser ;
b) il prend en considératicn dans chaque matière tous les aspects
qu'elle présente ; c) il tient largement compte de l'intérêtgénéral;
d) il met en relief la ilotion des devoirs des Etats non seulement
entre eux mais envers la sociétéinternationale ; e) il condamne
l'u abus du droit ); f) il se plie aux nécessitésde la vie des peuples

16 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ 69

States may enter into relations of every kind with those which
belong to the United Nations Organization, and these relations
are governed by international law.

III.

Before giving the opinion asked of it by the General Assembly
of the United Nations, the Court has had to make up its mind as
to the legal or political character of the question put..
The traditional distinction between what is legal and what is

political, and between law and politics, has to-day been profoundly
modified. Formerly, everything dependent on precepts of law was
regarded as legal and anything left to the free will of States was
regarded as political.
Relations between States have become multiple and complex.
As a result, they present a variety of aspects : legal, political,
economic, social, etc. ; there are, therefore, no more strictly legal
issues. Moreover, many questions regarded as essentially legal,
such as the interpretation of a treaty, may, in certain cases, assume
a political character, especially in the case of a peace treaty.
Again, many questions have both a legal and a political character,
notably those relating to international organization.

A new conception of law in general, and particularly of inter-
national law, has also emerged. The traditionally juridical
and individualistic conception of law is being progressively
superseded by the following conception : in the first place, inter-

national law is not strictly juridical; it is also political,
economic, social and psychological ; hence, al1 the fundamental
elements of traditional individualistic law are profoundly modified,
a fact which necessitates their reconstruction. In the next place,
strictly individualistic international law is being more and more
superseded bywhatmay be termed the law ofsocial interdependence.
The latter is the outcome, not of theory, but of the realities of
international life and of the juridical conscience of the nations.
The Court is the most authoritative organ for the expression of
this juridical conscience, which also finds expression in certain
treaties, in the most recent national. legislative measures and in
certain resolutions of associations devoted to the study of inter-
national law.
This law of social interdependence has certain characteristics of
which the following are the most essential :(a) it is concerned not

only with the delimitation of the rights of States, but also with
harmonizing them ;(b) in every question it takes into account al1
its various aspects ; (c) it takes the general interest fully into
account ; (d) it emphasizes the notion of the duties of States,not
only towards each other but also towards the international society ;
(e) it condemns the abuse of right ; (1)it adjusts itself to the
I670 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVAREZ

et évolue avec elle ; de ce fait, il s'harmonise avec la politique ;
g) aux facultés qpe confère le droit strictement juridique il ajoute
celle qu'ont les Etats de faire partie de l'organisation internatio-
nale qui s'établit.
Loin donc de s'opposer, comme autrefois, le droit et la politique
sont aujourd'hui en relations étroites. Celle-ci n'est pas toujours
la politique égoïsteet abusive des Etats ; ily a aussi une politique
collective ou individuelle inspirée de l'intérêtgénéral.Cette poli-
tique exerce actuellement une influence profonde sur le droit des
gens, soit en le confirmant, soit en le vivifiant, soit mêmeen le
contrariant quand il apparaît désuet. Elle est aussi un des éléments
qui régissent les rapports entre Etats quand il n'existe pas de
préceptes juridiques.

Il est, cependant, toujours nécessai.re de faire la distinction
entre le juridique et le politique, notamment au point de vue de
la compétence de la Cour.
La Charte des Nations unies a fait de ce tribunal un de ses
organes (art. 7),et l'article 92 établit qu'il est son principal organe
judiciaire. Le Statut de la Cour actuelle, comme celui de la précé-
dente, indique que sa mission est de connaître des affaires juri-
diques et pas des affaires politiques. Les avis consultatifs qui lui
sont demandés doivent aussi porter sur des questions juridiques
(articles36, no 3, et 96 de la Charte ; article 65 du Statut de la
Cour).
Quand une question est soumise à la Cour, celle-ci doit donc
décidersi l'élémentqui y prévaut est juridique et si,en conséquence,
elle doit examiner ladite question, ou si c'est l'élémentpolitique
qui l'emporte, et alors elle doit se déclarer incompétente.

Dans les matières qu'elle a à examiner, la Cour doit, cependant,
prendre en considération tous les aspects qu'elles présentent, y
compris l'aspect politique, quand ils sont étroitement liésau juri-
dique. Ceserait une erreur manifeste de vouloirconfiner cetribunal à
l'examen des questions sous leur seul aspect juridique, en excluant
les autres ; ce serait contredire aux réalitésde la vie internationale.

D'après ce qui vient d'être dit, l'interprétation de la Charte
constitutionnelle ne peut pas se faire avec un critère strictement
juridique ; il faut en employer un autre plus large et faire place, si
c'est nécessaire, à des considérations politiques.
La Cour a décidéque la question sur laquelle l'avis consultatif
lui a étédemandé est juridique parce qu'il s'agit de l'interprétation
de la Charte des Nations unies, laquelle est un traité.

En réalité,cette question est juridique et politique àla fois,mais
le juridique y prévaut non pas tant parce qu'il s'agit de l'interpré-
tation de la Charte que parce qu'il s'agit de déterminer le droit
qu'ont les Etats à devenir Membres de l'Organisation des Nations
17 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ 70
necessities of international life and evolves together with it ;
accordingly, it is in harmony with policy ; (g) to the rights conferred
by strictly juridical law it adds that which States possess to belong
to the international organization which is being set up.

Far therefore from being in opposition to each other, law and
policy are to-day closely linked together. The latter is not always
the selfish and arbitrary policy of States ;there is also a collective
or individual policy inspired by the general interest. This policy
now exercises a profound influence on international law ; it either
confirms it or endows it with new life, or even opposes itif it
appears out of date. It is also one of the elements governing
the relations between States when no legal precepts exist.

It is however always necessary to differentiate between juridical
and political elements, particularly from the standpoint of the
Court's jurisdiction.
The United Nations Charter makes the Court one of its organs
(Art. 7), and Article 92 lays down that it is its principal judicial

organ. The Statute of the present Court, like that of the old,
indicates that its task is to hear and determine legal questions,
and not political questions. The advisory opinions for which it
may be asked must also relate to legal questions (Articles 36,
No. 3, and 96 of the Charter; Article 65 of the Statute of the
Court) .
When a question is referred to the Court, the latter therefore
must decide whether its dominant element is legal, and whether
it should accordingly deal with it, or whether the political element
is dominant and, in that case, it must declare that it has no
jurisdiction.
In the questions which it is called upon to consider, the Court
must, however, take into account al1 aspects of the matter,
including the political aspect when it is closely bound up with

the legal aspect. It would be a manifest miçtake to seek to
limit the Court to consideration of questions solely from their
legal aspect, to the exclusion of other aspects ; it woi~ldbe incon-
sistent with the realities of international life.
It follows from the foregoing that the constitutional Charter
cannot be interpreted according to a strictly legal criterion ;
another and broader criterion must be employed and room left,
if need be, for political considerations.
The Court has decided that the question on which its advisory
opinion has been asked is a legal one because it concerns the
iriterpretation of the Charter of the United Nations, which is
a treaty.
In rcality, this question is botli legal and political, but the
legal element predominates, not so much because it is a matter
of interpreting the Charter but because it is concerned with

the problem whether States have a viglzt to nlembership in the
17 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALVAREZ
71
unies s'ils remplissent les conditions exigées par son statut, La
matière est, en mêmetemps, politique parce que ce sont les Etats
composant le Conseil de Sécurité et ceux faisant partie de
l'Assembléegénéralequi apprécient si ces conditions sont ou non
remplies par le demandeur.

IV.

Pour ce qui concerne les conditions nécessaires que doit remplir
tout Etat désirant êtreadmis dans l'organisation desNations unies,
elles sont celles indiquées dans l'article 4, alinéa 1,de la Charte.
Ces conditions ont un caractère limitatif, car ce sont les seules
qu'elle mentionne ; si on avait voulu en exiger d'autres, elle l'aurait
dit expressément.
D'autre part, étant donné la nature de la sociétéinternationale
mondiale, les buts de l'organisation des Nations uni~s et sa voca-
tion à l'universalité, on doit considérer que tous les Etats qui rem-
plissent les conditions exigées par l'article 4 de la Charte ont un

droit à devenir Membres de cette Organisation. L'exercice de ce
droitnepeut pas êtreentravé par l'exigence d'autres conditions non
expressément prévues par la Charte,par ledroit desgens ou par une
convention, ni pour des motifs d'ordre politique.
Cependant, il faut apprécier dans chaque cas si les conditions
d'admission indiquées dans la Charte sont remplies. Les entités qui
peuvent faire cette appréciation sont les États composant le Conseil
de Sécuritéet les membres de l'Assembléegénérale.Ils devraient
s'inspirer uniquement de considérations de justice et de la bonne
foi, c'est-à-dire se borner à examiner si le demandeur réuni! les
conditions exigéesdans l'article 4, alinéa I.Mais, en fait, ces Etats
s'inspirent surtout de leur propre politique et, en conséquence,
sinon directement du moins indirectement, ils exigent parfois de

l'État demandeur d'autres conditions que celles prévues dans ledit
article 4,en votant contre l'admission si ces conditions ne sont pas
remplies. C'est là un « abusdu droit 1)que la Cour doit condamner ;
mais actuellement il n'a pas d'autre sanction que la réprobation de
l'opinion publique.

Toutefois, il peut se présenter des cas où l'admission d'un État
est susceptible d'apporter un trouble dans la situation internatio-
nale, ou tout au moins dans l'organisation internationale, par
exemple, si cette admission doit donner une influence très grande à
certains groupes d'Etats ou produire de profondesdivergences entre

eux. Par suite, mêmesi les conditions d'admission sont remplies
par l'État demandeur, on poürra refuser de l'admettre. Dans de
pareils cas, la question n'est plus juridique ; elle devient politique
et doit êtreconsidérée commetelle. Si ce cas concret se présente
devant la Cour, celle-ci doit se déclarer incompétente.
18 INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ 7I

United Nations Organization if they fulfil the conditions required
by the Statute of the Organization. The question is at the same
time a political one, because it is the States comprising the Security
Council and those belonging to the General Assembly which
determine whether these conditions are, or are not, fulfilled by
the applicant.

IV.

As regards the essential conditions to be fulfilled by every
State desiring to be admitted to membership in the United Nations
Organization, these are prescribed in Article 4, paragraph 1, of
the Charter. These conditions are exhaustive because they are
the only ones enumerated. If it had been intended to require
others, this would have been expressly stated.
Moreover, having regard to the nature of the universal inter-
national Society, the purposes of the United Nations Organization

and its mission of universalitgr, it must be held that al1 States
fulfilling the conditions required by Article 4 of the Charter have
a right to membership in that Organization. The exercise of this
right cannot be blocked by the imposition of other conditions not
expressly providecl for bv the Charter, by international law or by
a convention, or on grounds of a political nature.
Nerertheless, it has to be judged in each case whether the condi-
tions of admission required by the Charter are fulfilled. The units
which may form this judgment are the States composing the
Security Council and the members of the General Assembly. They
must be guided solely by considerations of justice and good faith,
i.e., they must confine themselves to considering whether the
applicant fulfils the conditions required by Article 4, paragraph I.

In actual fact, however, these Statesare mainly guided by consider-
atioiîs of their own policy and, consequently, if not directly, at
al1events indirectly, they sometimes require of an applicant condi-
tions other than those provided for in Article 4, since they vote
against its admission if such other conditions are not fulfilled.
That is an abuse of right which the Court must condemn ; but
at the present time no sacction attaches to it Save the reprobation
of public opinion.
Kevertheless, cases mav arise in which the admission of a State
is liable to disturb the international situation, or at al1 events
the international orgapization, for instance, if such admission
woiild give a very great influence to certain groups of States, or

produce profound divergencies between them. Conseqiiently,
even if the conditions of admission are fulfilled by an applicant,
admission may be refuset!. In such cases, the question is no longer
a legal one ; it becomes a political one and must be regarded as
such. In a concrete case of ihis kind, the Court must declare that
it has no jurisdiction.
1872 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE If. ALVAREZ

La prétention d'un Membre de l'organisation des Nations unies,
qui reconnaît que les conditions de l'article 4 de la Charte sont
remplies par l'État demandeur, de subordonner son vote affirmatif
à la condition que, en mêmetemps que celui-ci, d'autres Etats
soient également admis, est un procédé contraire à la lettre
.t à l'esprit de la Charte. Cependant, une telle exigence peut
être justifiée exceptionnellement, par exemple dans le cas de la

demande d'admission de deux ou plusieurs Etats nés simulta-
nément par suite de la disparition de 1'Etat ou de la colonie dont
ils faisaient partie. Il est naturel alors que leurs admissions soient
prises en considération en mêmetemps.

En raison de tout ce qui précède, j'estime que les réponses
suivantes s'imposent pour les questions concrètes contenues dans
la demande d'avis consultatif adressée à la Cour :

IO Aucun État n'est juridiquement fondé à faire dépendre son
consentement à l'admission d'un nouveau Membre dans l'Orga-
nisation des Nations unies de conditions non expressément prévues
dans l'art-le 4, alinéa 1, de la Charte.
2O Un Etat ne peut pas, alors qu'il reconnaît que les conditions
exigées par l'article 4, alinéa 1, de la Charte sont remplies p2r
1'Etat demandeur, subordonner son vote affirmatif à la condition
que, en mêmetemps que celui-ci, d'autres Etats soient également

admis comme Membres des Nations unies. Toutefois, dans des
cas exceptionnels, une telle exigence peut êtrejustifiée.
Aux conclusions précédentes, il y a lieu d'ajouter la suivante,
qui en découle :

S'il y a plusieurs demandes d'admission simultanées, chacune
d'elles doit être examinée séparément, sauf dans des cas excep-
tionnels :il n'y a aucun motif pour qu'on leur donne un caractère
,de corrélation que la Charte ne prévoit pas.

L'exposé qui précède montre clairement l'importance de la

nouvelle méthode indiquée plus haut, ainsi que du rôle que la
Cour est appelée à jouer dans le développement de la vie inter-
nationale et du droit des gens. A la suite de la Résolution 171
du 14 novembre 1947 de l'Assemblée généraledes Nations unies,
.cette méthode et ce rôle sortent du terrain scientifique pour
entrer dans la pratique.

(Signe) ALVAREZ. INDIVIDUAL OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ 72

A claim by a hiember of the United Nations Organization, which
recognizes the conditions of Article 4 of the Charter to be fulfilled
by an applicant State, to subject its affirmative vote to the condi-
tion that nther States be admitted to membership together with
this applicant, would be an act contrary to the letter and spirit

of the Charter. Nevertheless, siich a claim may be justified
in exceptional circumstances, for instance, in the case of applica-
tions for admission by two or more States simultaneously brought
into existence as the result of the disappearance of the State or
colony of which they formed part. It is natural in that case that
their admission should be considered simultaneously.

Having regard to the foregoing, 1 consider that the following
replies should be given to the actual questions put in the request
for an advisory opinion addressed to the Court :

IO No State is juridically entitled to make its consent to the
admission of a new Member to the United Nations Organization
dependent on conditions pot expressly provided for by Article 4,
paragraph 1, of the Charter.
2" A State may not, while recognizing the conditions required
by Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Charter, to be fulfilled by the
applicant State, subject its affirmative vote to the condition that

other States be admitted to membership in the United Nations
together with that State. Nevertheless, in exceptional cases, such
a claim may be justified.
To the above conclusions the following,which ensues from them,
should be added :

Ifthere are several simultaneous applicatio~is for admission, each
must be considered separately, Save in exceptional circumstances :
there is no ground for establishing a connexion between them not
contemplated by the Charter.

The foregoing statement clearly demonstrates the importance
of the new method indicated above, and of the rôle which the
Court is called upon to play in the development of inter-
national life and of international law. In consequenceof Resolu-
tion 171 of November 14th, 1947 ,dopted by the General Assernbly
of the United Nations, this method and this rôle emerge from the
domain of doctrine and become applicable in practice.

(Signed) ALVAREZ.

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Individual Opinion by M. Alvarez (translation)

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