Dissenting opinion of Judge Sepúlveda-Amor

Document Number
139-20090119-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
139-20090119-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SEPU uLVEDA-AMOR

Agreement with most of the reasoning and most of the decisions — Regret
that Court did not settle issues incontrovertibly characterized by a degree of
opacity — Implicit recognition by the Court that a dispute exists — Interpre-

tation of obligation of result as one which requires specific outcome and within
reasonable period of time — Failing success, need for alternative and effective
means, such as legislative action — Medellín was executed without the required
review and reconsideration — The Court finds that the United States has
breached its obligations — But there is no determination of the legal conse-
quences flowing from this breach — The Avena Judgment remains binding.

Article 36 confers individual rights — Mexico and the United States hold dif-
ferent views — The procedural default rule has not been revised — Non-applica-
tion of procedural default rule is required to allow review and reconsideration to
become operative — Binding force of the Judgment — United States Supreme
Court’s ruling is at odds with the one provided by Mexico and by the United
States — The Court should have settled the issue raised by the conflicting inter-
pretations — Review and reconsideration received by only one Mexican national
out of 51 listed in the Avena Judgment — The obligation falls upon all state and
federal authorities — Importance of role played by the judicial system, espe-

cially the United States Supreme Court — Mexico has established the existence
of a dispute — State responsibility — It engages the action of the competent
organs and authorities acting in that State — LaGrand found that a United
States Governor is under the obligation to act in conformity with United States
undertakings — In the present case, all competent organs and all constituent
subdivisions must comply with mandated review and reconsideration, as Mexico
claims — Interpretation of the dispute by the Court would have rendered an
invaluable construction to the clarification of rules and its enforcement.

1. I am in agreement with most of the reasoning of the Court in the
present Judgment, as well as with most of the decisions expressed in the

operative clause of the Judgment. It is with regret that I am unable to
join the Court in some of its conclusions. My regret stems not only from
my disagreement with some of these views, but also from my belief that
the Court has missed a splendid opportunity to settle issues calling for
interpretation and to construe the meaning or scope of the Avena Judg-
ment in certain respects incontrovertibly characterized by a degree of

opacity.
2. Before I embark on the process of setting out and explaining my
points of disagreement with the Judgment, I believe it useful to revisit
some of the important considerations that the Court has found worthy
of stating; to a large extent, these follow from an interpretation of the

31Avena Judgment. In the present Judgment, the Court has clearly estab-
lished what is meant by an obligation of result: it is “an obligation

which requires a specific outcome” (Judgment, paragraph 27). It is clear
that an obligation falls upon the United States to provide the Mexican
nationals named in the Avena Judgment who remain on death row with
review and reconsideration consistent with paragraphs 138 to 141 of the
Avena Judgment. But then the Court construes the scope of the obliga-

tion:
“The Court observes that this obligation of result is one which

must be met within a reasonable period of time . Even serious efforts
of the United States, should they fall short of providing review and
reconsideration consistent with paragraphs 138 to 141 of the Avena
Judgment, would not be regarded as fulfilling this obligation of
result.” (Para. 27; emphasis added.)

3. If the obligation of result is one which “must be met within a rea-
sonable period of time”, then there has been a failure by the United

States to comply with it. According to Mexico, since March 2004, when
the Avena Judgment was issued,
“at least 33 of the 51 Mexican nationals named in the Court’s Judg-

ment have sought review and reconsideration in United States state
and federal courts.

To date, only one of these nationals — Osbaldo Torres Aguil-
era — has received review and reconsideration consistent with this

Court’s mandate. We should also mention, however, that the State
of Arkansas agreed to reduce Mr. Rafael Camargo Ojeda’s death
sentence to life imprisonment in exchange for his agreement to waive
his right to review and reconsideration under the Avena Judgment.
All other efforts to enforce the Avena Judgment have failed.”

(CR 2008/14, p. 20, paras. 2 and 3 (Babcock).)

Almost five years have elapsed since the Avena Judgment was handed
down. Since, as the Court considers, time is of the essence and the actual
compliance performance has been poor, to say the least, the specific out-
come associated with the obligation of result cannot be regarded as
having been brought about by the United States.

4. A careful reading of the Court’s Judgment in the present case sug-
gests an implicit recognition by the Court that Mexico and the United
States have in fact shown themselves as holding opposing views in regard
to the meaning and scope of the Avena Judgment. It was stated in the

Order indicating provisional measures, in paragraph 55, that
“while it seems both Parties regard paragraph 153 (9) of the Avena

Judgment as an international obligation of result, the Parties none-
theless apparently hold different views as to the meaning and scope

32 of that obligation of result, namely, whether that understanding is
shared by all United States federal and state authorities and whether

that obligation falls upon those authorities” (Order, p. 326, para. 55).

5. Although the Court reaches the conclusion that the matters claimed
by Mexico as requiring an interpretation are not matters decided by the

Court in its Avena Judgment and thus cannot give rise to the interpreta-
tion requested by Mexico (Judgment, operative clause, paragraph 59 (1)),
the Court accepts that “[o]n the one hand, it could be said that a variety
of factors suggest that there is a difference of perception that would con-
stitute a dispute under Article 60 of the Statute” (ibid., paragraph 31).

And then, after reviewing some of Mexico’s contentions, the Court
“observes that these elements could suggest a dispute between the Parties
within the sense of Article 60 of the Statute” (ibid., paragraph 35). Addi-
tionally, the Court indicates — in a paragraph to be examined later, for

it gives rise to divergent interpretations — that
“Mexico did not specify that the obligation of the United States

under the Avena Judgment was directly binding upon its organs,
subdivisions or officials, although this might be inferred from the
arguments it presented, in particular in its further written explana-
tions.” (Ibid., paragraph 41; emphasis added.)

6. The fact is that the Judgment comes close to recognizing that there

is a “dispute”, “contestation”, or “desacuerdo”, as the term is translated
in the Spanish version of Article 60 of the Statute. Whether or not
Mexico complied with Article 98, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court,
which states that “the precise point or points in dispute as to the meaning
or scope of the judgment shall be indicated”, is a question requiring

further consideration, which it will receive later in this dissenting opinion.

7. In the present Judgment, the Court further construes the meaning
and scope of the Avena Judgment when it states that

“considerations of domestic law which have so far hindered the imple-

mentation of the obligation incumbent upon the United States, can-
not relieve it of its obligation. A choice of means was allowed to the
United States in the implementation of its obligation and, failing
success within a reasonable period of time through the means chosen,
it must rapidly turn to alternative and effective means of attaining

that result.”( Ibid., paragraph 47; emphasis added.)

As the United States Supreme Court has ruled, the alternative and effec-
tive means rapidly to implement the obligation of result incumbent on
the United States is through legislative action: “The responsibility for
transforming an international obligation arising from a non-self-executing

33treaty into domestic law falls to Congress” (Medellín v. Texas, 128 S. Ct.
1346, 1368 (2008), attached as Annex B, p. 60, of Mexico’s Request

for Interpretation of the Judgment of 31 March 2004 in the Case concern-
ing Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of
America) (Mexico v. United States of America) ).
8. The means available to the United States is essentially legislative
action, preferably at the federal level, quickly to attain effective compli-

ance with the obligation. As the Permanent Court of International Jus-
tice found

“a State which has contracted valid international obligations is
bound to make in its legislation such modifications as may be nec-
essary to ensure the fulfillment of the obligations undertaken”
(Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, Advisory Opinion,

1925, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 10 , p. 20).
The Court has repeatedly affirmed in its jurisprudence that a State can-

not invoke its domestic law to justify its failure to perform an interna-
tional legal obligation. In taking the action required of it under the Avena
Judgment, the United States “cannot adduce as against another State its
own Constitution with a view to evading obligations incumbent upon it
under international law or treaties in force” (Treatment of Polish Nation-

als and Other Persons of Polish Origin or Speech in the Danzig Territory,
Advisory Opinion, 1932, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 44 , p. 24).

9. The Court has clearly established that José Ernesto Medellín Rojas

“was executed without being afforded the review and reconsidera-
tion provided for by paragraphs 138 to 141 of the Avena Judgment,
contrary to what was directed by the Court in its Order indicating

provisional measures of 16 July 2008” (Judgment, paragraph 52).
In the operative clause of the Judgment, the Court has found unani-

mously that the United States “has breached the obligation incumbent
upon it” under the Court’s Order (ibid., paragraph 61 (2)). The Court
leaves no doubt in its decision that the obligation upon the United States
not to execute the other four Mexican nationals named in the Order of
16 July 2008 “pending review and reconsideration being afforded to them

is fully intact by virtue” of the Avena Judgment itself (ibid., para-
graph 54). In the operative clause of the Judgment, the Court reaffirms
“the continuing binding character of the obligations of the United States
of America under paragraph 153 (9) of the Avena Judgment” (ibid., para-
graph 61 (3)).

10. The Court has found that the United States is in breach of its obli-
gations for having executed Mr. Medellín in violation of the Order of
16 July 2008. What is missing from the present Judgment is a determina-
tion of the legal consequences which flow from the serious failure by the

United States to comply with the Order and the Avena Judgment.

34 11. The Court, in its Order of 16 July 2008, placed clear emphasis on
certain commitments undertaken by the United States. The Court took

note of the following understandings and pledges voiced by the Agent of
the United States:

“the United States has recognized that, were any of the Mexican
nationals named in the request for the indication of provisional
measures to be executed without the necessary review and reconsid-
eration required under the Avena Judgment, that would constitute a
violation of United States obligations under international law . . . in

particular, the Agent of the United States declared before the Court
that ‘[t]o carry out Mr. Medellín’s sentence without affording him
the necessary review and reconsideration obviously would be incon-
sistent with the Avena Judgment’;

the United States has recognized that ‘it is responsible under inter-
national law, for the actions of its political sub-divisions’, including
‘federal, state, and local officials’, and that its own international
responsibility would be engaged if, as a result of acts or omissions by
any of those political subdivisions, the United States was unable to

respect its international obligations under the Avena Judgment . . . in
particular, the Agent of the United States acknowledged before the
Court that ‘the United States would be responsible, clearly, under
the principle of State responsibility for the internationally wrongful
actions of [state] officials’” (Order of 16 July 2008, pp. 330-331,

paras. 76-77).

12. On 5 August 2008, Mr. Medellín was executed in the State of
Texas without having been afforded the required review and reconsidera-
tion, and after having unsuccessfully filed an application for a writ of
habeas corpus and applications for stay of execution and having been
refused a stay of execution through the clemency process, as the Judg-

ment indicates in paragraph 52. Yet the Court has not found it necessary
even to mention in the present Judgment the commitments assumed by
the Agent of the United States through his recognition: that Mr. Medel-
lín’s execution would constitute a violation of an international obliga-
tion; that it would be inconsistent with the Avena Judgment; that the

United States was responsible under international law for the actions of
its political subdivisions; and that the responsibility of the United States
would be engaged, under the principles of State responsibility, for the
internationally wrongful acts of federal, state and local officials.
13. It is to be deeply regretted that the Court has decided not to pass

judgment on a failure by the United States to discharge an international
obligation. It is difficult to understand and accept this forbearance, espe-
cially when the United States Agent himself has recognized that a breach
of its international obligations entails the responsibility of the State he

represents. By refraining from attributing any legal significance to a vio-
lation of the Avena Judgment and of the Order of 16 July 2008, the Court

35has let pass an opportunity to further the development of the law of State

responsibility and has ignored the need to adjudge the consequences of
the internationally wrongful acts of a State and to determine the remedial
action required in such circumstances.

14. In spite of this unexplained legal omission, the Court feels the need

to “reiterate that its Avena Judgment remains binding and that the
United States continues to be under an obligation fully to implement it”
(Judgment, paragraph 60). It is to be hoped that the United States Con-
gress will enact legislation so as to comply with the decision of the Court.

In the absence of federal legislation, the obligations stipulated in the
Avena Judgment will become a mere abstraction, devoid of any legal sub-
stance. In the words of the United States Supreme Court,

“The Avena judgment creates an international law obligation on
the part of the United States, but it is not automatically binding
domestic law because none of the relevant treaty sources — the

Optional Protocol, the U.N. Charter, or the ICJ Statute — creates
binding federal law in the absence of implementing legislation and
no such legislation has been enacted.” (Medellín v. Texas,
128 S. Ct. 1346 (2008), Syllabus; attached as Annex B to the Appli-

cation, p. 44.)

I. D ISPUTE/CONTESTATION /D ESACUERDO

15. In order properly to ascertain whether there is a “dispute”/“con-
testation”/“desacuerdo” for purposes of Article 60 of the Statute, it is
necessary to consider the wider perspective of the litigation between the

United States and Mexico. The legal proceedings have involved federal
and state authorities, particularly the Executive branches of government
at the federal and state levels, as well as federal and state courts.
16. The Avena Judgment clearly applies broadly to all Mexican nation-
als facing severe penalties or prolonged incarceration. Thus the Judgment

includes not only the 51 Mexican nationals mentioned therein but also
Mexican nationals sentenced to “severe penalties” in the future. The
Court found, unanimously, that

“should Mexican nationals nonetheless be sentenced to severe pen-

alties, without their rights under Article 36, paragraph 1 (b),ofthe
Convention having been respected, the United States of America
shall provide, by means of its own choosing, review and reconsidera-
tion of the conviction and sentence, so as to allow full weight to be
given to the violation of the rights set forth in the Convention”

(Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of
America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 73, para. 153 (11)).

36 17. On the basis of this finding of the Court, which is part of the

operative clause of the Judgment, it is perfectly legitimate to examine the
opposing views propounded to the United States Supreme Court in the
Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon case, involving a Mexican national sentenced
to more than 20 years of imprisonment; though not named in the Avena
Judgment, he is entitled to the benefit of the judicial remedy mandated

therein. It is also instructive to read the views expressed by the United
States Supreme Court in the Sanchez-Llamas case, views which diverge
substantially from Mexico’s contentions and from what this Court decided
in the LaGrand and the Avena cases, as will be shown in the following

paragraphs.

II. A RTICLE 36 C ONFERS INDIVIDUAL R IGHTS

18. In the Amicus Curiae Brief in support of Sanchez-Llamas as pet-
itioner for the writ of certiorari before the United States Supreme Court,
Mexico emphatically stated:

“the Avena Judgment reaffirmed in the clearest possible terms that

Article 36 of the Vienna Convention confers individual rights on all
Mexican nationals who are detained or arrested in the United States”
(Brief Amicus Curiae of the Government of the United Mexican
States in support of Petitioner 3, 4, Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon,

126 S. Ct 2669 (2006); emphasis added).

To support its contention, Mexico resorts to paragraph 40 of the Avena
Judgment: the individual rights of Mexican nationals “are rights which
are to be asserted, at any rate in the first place, within the domestic legal
system of the United States” (Avena and Other Mexican Nationals

(Mexico v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004
(I), p. 35, para. 40).
19. To strengthen its argument in the Sanchez-Llamas case, Mexico
cited what the United States had pleaded before the Court in the Tehran

case. There, the United States argued that Article 36 “establishes rights . . .
for the nationals of the sending State who are assured access to consular
officers and through them to others” (I.C.J. Pleadings, United States
Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v.

Iran), 1979, p. 174; emphasis added).

20. It is clear that the United States holds a different view in the
Sanchez-Llamas case on the question of individual rights conferred by
Article 36 of the Convention. In its Brief to the United States Supreme

Court, the United States asserted that the principle that the United States
Supreme Court “should give ‘respectful consideration’ to an interna-
tional court’s interpretation of a treaty does not lead to the conclusion

37that Article 36 affords an individual a right to challenge his conviction
and sentence” (Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting

Respondents, Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon, 126 S. Ct. 2669 (2006), p. 28;
emphasis added).

21. But the Amicus Curiae Brief for the United States not only con-

tradicts the Mexican view; it also strongly challenges the interpretations
handed down by the International Court of Justice in the LaGrand and
Avena cases. In the words of the Brief,

“The United States has no obligation to accept the reasoning under-

lying the ICJ’s Judgments . . . As we have demonstrated, the
ICJ’s reasoning is inconsistent with principles of treaty construc-
tion...Moreover,theweighttobegivenanICJJudgmentisatits
nadir where, as here, the Executive Branch, whose views on treaty
interpretation are entitled to at least ‘great weight’, has considered

the ICJ’s decisions and determined that its own long standing inter-
pretation of the treaty is the correct one. Notably, the withdrawal of
the United States from the Optional Protocol will ensure that the
United States incurs no further international legal obligations to

review and reconsider convictions and sentences in light of violations
of Article 36 based on the ICJ’s interpretation of the Convention .
Under these circumstances and in light of the considerations dis-
cussed above, this Court should conclude that Article 36 does not
give a criminal defendant a private right to challenge his conviction

and sentence on the ground that Article 36 (consular access) was
breached.”( Ibid., p. 30; emphasis added.)

22. It is to be noted that the Agent of the United States in the present

case, who vehemently argued that “in the field of international relations,
the United States speaks with one voice through the executive branch”
(CR 2008/17, p. 11, para. 15 (Bellinger)), was also responsible, in his
capacity as Legal Adviser to the Department of State and together with
the United States Solicitor General, for the Brief for the United States to

the United States Supreme Court in the Sanchez-Llamas case.
23. One of the questions answered by the United States Supreme
Court in the Sanchez-Llamas case was “whether Article 36 of the Vienna
Convention grants rights that may be invoked by individuals in a judicial

proceeding”. The Court noted:

“Respondents and the United States as amicus curiae, strongly
dispute this contention. They argue that ‘there is a presumption that
a treaty will be enforced through political and diplomatic channels,
rather than through the courts ..’. . Because we conclude that

38 Sanchez-Llamas and Bustillo are not in any event entitled to relief on
their claims, we find it unnecessary to resolve the question whether

the Vienna Convention grants individuals enforceable rights.”
(126 S. Ct. 2669, 2677-2678 (2006); emphasis added.)

The United States Supreme Court nevertheless decided to affirm the
judgment of the Supreme Court of Oregon, to the effect that Article 36
“does not create rights to consular access or notification that are enforce-

able by detained individuals in a judicial proceeding” (ibid., p. 2676).

24. When the Medellín case was argued before the Texas Court of
Criminal Appeals, Mexico contended:

“The very purpose of Article 36 is to permit the nations that
signed the Vienna Convention — including Mexico, the United
States and 164 other countries — to protect the interests of their citi-

zens when they are arrested or otherwise detained while living, work-
ing, or traveling abroad. That interest is most acute when a citizen is
facing trial in another country for a cause that may lead to his execu-
tion.” (Brief Amicus Curiae of the United Mexican States in Support

of José Ernesto Medellín, Ex Parte Medellín, 223 S.W. 3d 315
(Tex. Crim. App. 2006) at (ix); emphasis added.)

25. The United States took an opposing view:
“Medellín contends that, standing alone, the Avena decision con-

stitutes a binding rule of federal law that he may privately enforce in
this Court. While the United States has an international obligation
to comply with the decision of the International Court of Justice in
this case under Article 94 of the United Nations Charter, the text

and background of Article 94 make clear that an I.C.J. decision is
not, of its own force, a source of privately enforceable rights in
court.”( Ibid., 223 S.W. 3d 315 (Tex. Crim. App. 2006); emphasis
added.)

26. The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals wrote:

“while we recognize the competing arguments before us concerning
whether Article 36 confers privately enforceable rights, a resolution
to that issue is not required for our determination of whether Avena

is enforceable in this Court. Our decision is controlled by the Supreme
Court’s recent opinion in Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon, and accord-
ingly, we hold that Avena is not binding federal law. ”( Ibid., 223 S.W.
3d 315, 330 (Tex. Crim. App. 2006); emphasis added.)

27. In the Medellín case argued before the United States Supreme
Court, counsel for the United States asserted:

39 “Petitioner contends that the Avena decision is privately enforce-

able because the Optional Protocol and the United Nations Charter
obligate the United States to comply with the decision . . . Allowing
private enforcement, without the President’s authorization, would
undermine the President’s ability to make those determinations.”

Those determinations are related to a decision by the President to comply
with an International Court of Justice judgment and the measures that

should be taken (Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae, Medellín
v. Texas, 128 S. Ct. 1346 (2008), p. 19). Without addressing the issue of
individual rights recognized under LaGrand and Avena, the United States
Supreme Court decided in 2008 that the Avena Judgment was not directly

enforceable as domestic law in state court.
28. This Court, in its LaGrand and Avena Judgments, has ruled that
Article 36, paragraph 1, creates individual rights for those in detention.
That pronouncement runs counter to the legal arguments advanced by
United States federal authorities and sustained by state and federal

courts. In LaGrand, the Court stated that it

“cannot accept the argument of the United States which proceeds, in
part, on the assumption that paragraph 2 of Article 36 applies only
to the rights of the sending State and not also to those of the

detained individual. The Court has already determined that Arti-
cle 36, paragraph 1, creates individual rights for the detained person
in addition to the rights accorded the sending State , and that conse-
quently the reference to ‘rights’ in paragraph 2 must be read as
applying not only to the rights of the sending State, but also to the

rights of the detained individual .” (LaGrand (Germany v. United
States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 497, para. 89;
emphasis added.)

In the present case, the Court could have better fulfilled its judicial func-
tion by dispelling all doubts raised by federal and state authorities in the
executive and judicial branches of government in the United States. That

should have been done by reaffirming the binding force of the LaGrand
and Avena Judgments and the existence of individual rights under Arti-
cle 36, even if that had meant acting on its own initiative, in order prop-
erly to construe the meaning or scope of the Avena Judgment.

III. THE P ROCEDURAL D EFAULT R ULE

29. In the Avena case, Mexico contended that the United States, by
applying provisions of its municipal law, had failed to provide meaning-
ful and effective review and reconsideration of convictions and sentences.
Specifically, Mexico argued that

“The United States uses several municipal legal doctrines to prevent

40 finding any legal effect from the violations of Article 36. First,
despite this Court’s clear analysis in LaGrand, US courts, at both the

state and federal level, continue to invoke default doctrines to bar
any review of Article 36 violations — even when the national had
been unaware of his rights to consular notification and communica-
tion and thus his ability to raise their violation as an issue at trial,
due to the competent authorities’ failure to comply with Article 36.”

(Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of
America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 55, para. 109.)

30. The Court found in the Avena Judgment that “the procedural
default rule has not been revised, nor has any provision been made to

prevent its application” (ibid., p. 57, para. 113). Then the Court added:

“The crucial point in this situation is that, by the operation of the
procedural default rule as it is applied at present, the defendant is
effectively barred from raising the issue of the violation of his rights
under Article 36 of the Vienna Convention . . .” (ibid.,p .,
para. 134).

31. After recalling that the LaGrand and Avena Judgments were enti-
tled only to “respectful consideration”, the United States Supreme Court

in the Sanchez-Llamas case went on to say:
“the International Court of Justice concluded that where a defend-

ant was not notified of his rights under Article 36, application of the
procedural default rule failed to give ‘full effect’ to the purposes of
Article 36 because it prevented courts from attaching ‘legal signifi-
cance’ to the Article 36 violation. This reasoning overlooks the
importance of procedural default rules in an adversary system , which

relies chiefly on the parties to raise significant issues and present
them to the courts in the appropriate manner at the appropriate time
for adjudication . . . The consequence of failing to raise a claim for
adjudication at the proper time is generally forfeiture of that claim.
As a result, rules such as procedural default routinely deny ‘legal sig-

nificance’ — in the Avena and LaGrand sense — to otherwise viable
legal claims.” (Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon, 126 S. Ct. 2669, 2685-
2686 (2006); emphasis added.)

32. The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, when reviewing Medellín’s

application for a writ of habeas corpus, provided a procedural history of
Medellín’s case:

“Medellín filed an initial application for a writ of habeas corpus,
claiming for the first time, among other things, that his rights under

41 Article 36 of the Vienna Convention had been violated because he
had not been advised of his right to contact the Mexican consular

official after he was arrested. The district court found that Medellín
failed to object to the violation of his Vienna Convention rights at
trial and, as a result, concluded that his claim was procedurally
barred from review.

Medellín appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Cir-
cuit, which also denied his application. The Fifth Circuit noted the
I.C.J. decision in Avena, but determined that it was bound by the
Supreme Court’s decision in Breard v. Greene, which held that

claims based on a violation of the Vienna Convention are subject to
procedural default rules .

[W]e are bound by the Supreme Court’s determination that I.C.J.
decisions are not binding on United States courts. As a result,

Medellín . . . cannot show that Avena requires us to set aside Section
5 and review and reconsider his Vienna Convention claim. ”( Ex Parte
Medellín, 223 S.W. 3d 315, 321, 332 (2006); emphasis added.)

33. When submitting the Brief for the United States as amicus curiae

before the United States Supreme Court in the Sanchez-Llamas case, in
his capacity as Legal Adviser to the Department of State, the Agent of
the United States in the present case pleaded that

“The I.C.J. decisions in LaGrand and Avena are clearly not bind-
ing on this Court in this case . . . [T]he United States undertaking
under Article 94 of the United Nations Charter to comply with a

decision of the I.C.J. in a dispute to which it is a party, is to comply
with the I.C.J.’s ultimate resolution of the dispute, not to accept all
the reasoning that leads to that resolution. In this case, the I.C.J.’s
reasoning is not persuasive ...ytteoi,nypcul
rule that prevented a court from deciding the substance of a Vienna

Convention claim — such as a State’s statute of limitations for seek-
ing collateral review — would have to be set aside as inconsistent
with Article 36 (2).” (Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae
Supporting Respondents, Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon, 126 S. Ct. 2669
(2006); emphasis added.)

34. In principle, only the operative clause of an International Court of
Justice judgment has binding force. However, under certain circum-

stances and in certain cases, the reasoning underlying the conclusions
reached in the operative clause is inseparable from them and, because of

42this link, part of the reasoning in the Avena Judgment must also be the
subject-matter of interpretation by the Court. I believe that construing

the meaning or scope of most of the subparagraphs of paragraph 153, the
operative clause of the Judgment, requires resort to the reasoning of the
Court, for it is there that an explanation is found as to how the proce-
dural default rule represents a judicial obstacle which renders inoperative

and dysfunctional the rights embedded in Article 36 of the Vienna Con-
vention. It is not sufficient to claim that the operative clause has binding
force if its provisions become legally ineffective in the face of enforce-
ment by United States federal and state courts of the procedural default
rule. Such a domestic doctrine precludes compliance with international

obligations, vitiates treaty rights of substance and renders a judgment
nugatory.
35. The Court has already had occasion to consider the relationship
between the reasoning in a judgment and the operative clause when

entertaining requests for interpretation of a judgment. The Court recently
explained that

“any request for interpretation must relate to the operative part of
the judgment and cannot concern the reasons for the judgment
except in so far as these are inseparable from the operative part ”
(Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 11 June 1998 in the
Case concerning the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cam-

eroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections
(Nigeria v. Cameroon), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) ,p .5,
para. 10; emphasis added).

36. In the present case, the Court could have reached beyond the
operative clause in the Avena case and examined one of the essential
foundations for the proper functioning of that judgment: the non-

application of the procedural default rule so as to enable the required
review and reconsideration of convictions and sentences.

IV. B INDING FORCE OF THE JUDGMENT

37. Mexico has claimed in its Application that the Avena Judgment is

final and binding as between Mexico and the United States, invoking
Article 59 of the Statute of the Court in support of its contention. Mexico
asserts that, in spite of the obligation under Article 94, paragraph 1, of
the United Nations Charter to comply with decisions of the Court,

“requests by the Mexican nationals for the review and reconsidera-
tion mandated in their cases by the Avena Judgment have repeatedly

been denied. On 25 March 2008, the Supreme Court of the United
States determined in the case of José Ernesto Medellín Rojas, one of
the Mexican nationals subject to the Avena Judgment, that the Judg-
ment itself did not directly require US courts to provide review and
reconsideration under domestic law . . . The Supreme Court, while

43 expressly recognizing the United States’s obligation to comply with
the Judgment under international law, further held that the means

chosen by the President of the United States to comply were un-
available under the US Constitution and indicated alternate means
involving legislation by the US Congress or voluntary compliance by
the State of Texas.” (Application, p. 10, para. 4; emphasis added.).

According to Mexico,

“the obligation to provide review and reconsideration is not contin-
gent on the success of any one means. Mexico understands that in
the absence of full compliance with the obligation to provide review
and reconsideration, the United States must be considered to be in

breach.” (Ibid., p. 10, para. 5.)

38. It is apparent that Mexico and the United States take opposing
views on the issue of the automatic application of the Avena Judgment in
the domestic realm of the United States. Quoting the United States Brief
as amicus curiae in the last Medellín case before the United States

Supreme Court, Mexico notes that the United States, while having
acknowledged an “international law obligation to comply with the I.C.J.’s
decision in Avena”, contended that the Judgment was not independently
enforceable in domestic courts absent intervention by the President. The
United States is quoted as follows:

“[W]hile petitioner is entitled to review and reconsideration by vir-
tue of the President’s determination , such review and reconsideration
would not be available to petitioner in the absence of the President’s
determination.” (See Submission of Mexico in Response to the Writ-
ten Observations of the United States of America, 17 September 2008,

p. 2, para. 6; emphasis in the original.)

39. Mexico points out that

“the Supreme Court expressly adopted the United States’ argument
as to the lack of enforceability of the Judgment in domestic courts.
Hence, the Court held that neither the Avena Judgment on its own,
nor the Judgment in conjunction with the President’s determination
to comply, constituted directly enforceable federal law that pre-

cluded Texas from applying state procedural rules that barred all
review and reconsideration of Mr. Medellín’s Vienna Convention
claim.” (Ibid., p. 2, para. 7.)

40. The United States Supreme Court in its ruling in the Medellín case
provided an interpretation which is at odds with those proffered by

44Mexico and by the United States. The Supreme Court’s understanding of
the legal significance of Article 94 of the United Nations Charter and of

Article 59 of the Court’s Statute is expressed in the following terms:

“The Executive Branch contends that the phrase ‘undertakes to
comply’ is not ‘an acknowledgement that an I.C.J. decision will have
immediate legal effect in the courts of UN members’, but rather
‘a commitment on the part of UN Members to take future action
through their political branches to comply with an I.C.J. decision’.

We agree with this construction of Article 94. The Article is not a
directive to domestic courts . It does not provide that the United
States ‘shall’ or ‘must’ comply with an I.C.J. decision, nor indicate
that the Senate that ratified the United Nations Charter intended to

vest I.C.J. decisions with immediate legal effect in domestic courts.”
(128 S. Ct. 1346, 1358 (2008); emphasis added.)

41. The conclusion by the United States Supreme Court that the
Avena Judgment does not by itself constitute binding federal law confutes
the contention of the United States Executive Branch that,

“while the Avena Judgment does not of its own force require domes-
tic courts to set aside ordinary rules of procedural default, that judg-
ment became the law of the land with precisely that effect pursuant

to the President’s Memorandum and his power ‘to establish binding
rules of decision that preempt contrary state law’” (ibid., p. 1367).

42. After making clear that unilaterally converting a non-self-executing
treaty into a self-executing one is not among the means available to

the United States President to enforce an international obligation, the
Supreme Court stated:

“When the President asserts the power to ‘enforce’ a non-self-
executing treaty by unilaterally creating domestic law, he acts in con-
flict with the implicit understanding of the ratifying Senate.” (Ibid.,
p. 1369.)

43. Three different interpretations are advanced as to the domestic
effects of an international obligation. Three different interpretations are

advanced as to domestic implementation of the United Nations Charter,
the Court’s Statute and the Avena Judgment. The Court could have made
an important contribution to the development of international law by
settling the issues raised by these conflicting interpretations.

45 V. R EVIEW AND R ECONSIDERATION

44. It is justifiable to conclude that a dispute arises in the present case
out of the fundamentally different views taken by Mexico and the United
States on the interpretation to be given to the obligation imposed by the
Avena Judgment. But there is not only a conflict of legal views and of

interests between the two countries. There is a disagreement on several
points of law and, also, on the facts.
45. In its oral pleadings, Mexico recalled that the review and reconsid-
eration mandated by the Avena Judgment must take place as part of the
“judicial process”. Mexico pointed out that

“since March 2004, at least 33 of the 51 Mexican nationals named in

the Court’s Judgment have sought review and reconsideration in
United States state and federal courts.

To date, only one of these nationals — Osbaldo Torres Aguil-
era — has received review and reconsideration consistent with the

Court’s mandate. We should also mention, however, that the State
of Arkansas agreed to reduce Mr. Rafael Camargo Ojeda’s death
sentence to life imprisonment in exchange for his agreement to waive
his right to review and reconsideration under the Avena Judgment.

All other efforts to enforce the Avena Judgment have failed .”
(CR 2008/14, p. 20, paras. 2 and 3 (Babcock); emphasis added.)

46. In contrast, the United States claims that “several Mexican nation-
als named in Avena have already received review and reconsideration of
their convictions and sentences” (CR 2008/15, p. 56, para. 22 (Bellinger);
emphasis added). But only Osbaldo Torres is mentioned as a beneficiary

of the remedy.
47. Fifty-one Mexican nationals fell within the scope of the review and
reconsideration mandated in the Avena Judgment. At present only 50 are
on the list, after the execution of José Medellín Rojas by the State of

Texas on 5 August 2008 without review and reconsideration of his con-
viction and sentence. The case of Torres Aguilera has already been men-
tioned. Seven other cases have been disposed of without recourse to
review and reconsideration. Rafael Camargo Ojeda, in Arkansas, under a
plea agreement facilitated by Avena, waived his right to review and

reconsideration in exchange for the reduction of his death sentence to life
imprisonment. Juan Caballero Hernández, Mario Flores Urbán and
Gabriel Solache Romero had their sentences commuted by the Governor
of Illinois in 2003, a measure which benefited all persons on death row in

that state at that time. Martin Raul Soto Fong and Osvaldo Regalado
Soriano in Arizona had their sentences commuted after the United States
Supreme Court declared unconstitutional the application of a death sen-
tence to those under age at the time they committed the crime. Daniel
Angel Plata Estrada in Texas had his death sentence commuted after the

46United States Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional the execution of a

mentally retarded person (source: http://www.internationaljusticeproject.
org/nationals-Stats.com and http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/foreign-
nationals-and-death-penalty-us). It is now almost five years since the
Avena Judgment was handed down and 42 Mexican nationals have yet to

receive the relief required by it.

VI. T HE O BLIGATION F ALLS UPON ALL S TATE AND

F EDERAL AUTHORITIES

48. Mexico contends that the obligation of result falls upon all state
and federal authorities and, particularly, upon the United States Supreme

Court, taking into account the “judicial process” remedy mandated by
Avena. The conclusion reached by Mexico on this matter cannot be
regarded as anything else but proof of a clash of views — reflecting a
disagreement with the United States on a point of law — and therefore a

dispute. According to Mexico,

“the [United States Supreme] Court found that the expression of the
obligation to comply in Article 94 (1) somehow precluded the judi-
cial branch — the authority best suited to implement the obligation
imposed by Avena — from taking steps to comply . There is nothing

in the text or object and purpose of Article 94 (1) that suggests such
an incongruous result. It is moreover fundamentally inconsistent
with the interpretation of the Avena Judgment as imposing an obli-
gation of result incumbent on all constituent organs, including the

judiciary. Needless to say, Mexico does not agree with the Supreme
Court’s interpretation. ” (Submission of Mexico in Response to the
Written Observations of the United States of America, 17 Septem-
ber 2008, p. 15, para. 53; emphasis added.)

49. Clearly, this is an issue on which Mexico has indicated “the precise
point or points in dispute as to the meaning or scope of the judgment”.
Mexico’s contention is that the United States Supreme Court

“does not share Mexico’s view of the Avena Judgment — that is,
that the operative language establishes an obligation of result reach-
ing all organs, including the federal and state judiciaries, that must
be discharged irrespective of domestic law impediments ”( ibid.,p.16,

para. 56; emphasis added).

47 50. In the light of all these considerations, it is obvious that there is a
misreading and a misinterpretation in the present Judgment of Mexico’s

position. The Court’s mistaken assumptions are reflected in paragraph 24
of this Judgment:

“Mexico referred in particular to the actions of the United States
federal Executive, claiming that certain actions reflected the United
States disagreement with Mexico over the meaning or scope of the
Avena Judgment. According to Mexico, this difference of views
manifested itself in the position taken by the United States Govern-

ment in the Supreme Court . . . Mexico maintains that the United
States Government’s narrow reading of the means for implementing
the Judgment led to its failure to take all the steps necessary to bring
about compliance by all authorities concerned with the obligation
borne by the United States.” (Emphasis added.)

51. It is not Mexico’s position that the failure to comply with the
Avena obligation is attributable only to the United States federal Execu-

tive. What Mexico has argued is that the definitive determination to deny
the judicial review and reconsideration mandated by Avena is attribut-
able to the United States Supreme Court for having decided that: “while
a treaty may constitute an international commitment, it is not domestic
law unless Congress has enacted statutes implementing it”; “the Avena

Judgment . . . is not automatically domestic law”; “Avena does not by
itself constitute binding federal law”;

“the President’s Memorandum does not independently require the
States to provide review and reconsideration of the claims of the 51
Mexican nationals named in Avena without regard to state proce-
dural default rules”.

52. Given these judicial determinations, there can be no doubt that the
United States Supreme Court does not share the understanding that the

mandate of the Avena Judgment is an obligation of result. The same is
true of other authorities, and especially federal and state courts, as is evi-
dent from decisions adopted by such jurisdictions, including the Supreme
Court of Oregon, the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, the United
States Supreme Court, state trial courts, federal district courts and the

United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit.

53. In paragraph 48 of the Order of 16 July 2008, indicating provi-
sional measures, the Court stated:

“in Mexico’s view, the fact that ‘[n]either the Texas executive, nor
the Texas legislature, nor the federal executive, nor the federal leg-
islature has taken any legal steps at this point that would stop th[e]

execution [of Mr. Medellín] from going forward . . . reflects a dispute
over the meaning and scope of [the] Avena [Judgment]’”.

48Mexico reiterated this position in its further written explanations.
54. The United States however submitted in its oral pleadings that

“the United States agrees that it is responsible under international
law for the actions of its political subdivisions. That is not the same,
however, as saying that the views of a state court are attributed to

the United States for purposes of determining whether there is a dis-
pute between the United States and Mexico as to the meaning and
scope of the Avena Judgment.” (CR 2008/17, p. 11, para. 13 (Bell-
inger).)

The question of attribution of responsibility for the conduct of State
organs will be dealt with at a later stage in this opinion. But what is
important at present is to observe that there is undeniably a dispute
between Mexico and the United States on this point. Of course, the issue

relates not only to the views of a state court, as the United States would
have us believe, although those views may also have legal consequences
in the implementation of the Avena Judgment.

55. The crux of the dispute turns on the decision of the highest federal

judicial authority of the United States. The interpretation by the United
States Supreme Court is conclusive as a matter of domestic law and bind-
ing on all state and federal courts and officials — including the federal
Executive. Mexico rightly points out that “the views of the Supreme

Court as to the scope and meaning of the United States’ treaty obliga-
tions are relevant for purposes of the objective determination of a dis-
pute” (Submission of Mexico in Response to the Written Observations of
the United States of America, 17 September 2008, p. 14, para. 51).

56. In the present Judgment, the Court states, in paragraph 38, that “it
is difficult to discern, save by inference, Mexico’s position regarding the
existence of a dispute as to whether the obligation of result falls on all

state and federal authorities”. But it is not only by inference that the
Mexican position can be discerned. As shown in the preceding para-
graphs, there is a dispute: Mexico clearly argues that “each of the Fed-
eral Executive, Judiciary, and Legislature have failed to treat the Avena
Judgment as imposing an obligation of result” (ibid., p. 11, para. 40).

57. The United States disputes this contention:

“under established international law, whether Texas, or any other
U.S. state, has a different interpretation of the Court’s judgment is
irrelevant to the issue before the Court. Similarly irrelevant are any
interpretations by officials of other entities of the federal govern-
ment that are not deemed by international law to speak on behalf of

49 the United States.” (Written Observations of the United States of
America, 29 August 2008, p. 20, para. 44.)

In this statement, it is worth noting that great care has been taken to

avoid any mention of state and federal courts and, in particular, the role
of the United States Supreme Court. The question is not who speaks for
the United States. The question is what is the legal consequence of a deci-
sion by the United States Supreme Court interpreting a United States
international obligation as not constituting binding federal law without

implementing legislation.

58. In its final submissions to the Court on 17 September 2008, Mexico
asked the Court to adjudge and declare

“(a) That the correct interpretation of the obligation incumbent
upon the United States under paragraph 153 (9) of the Avena
Judgment is that it is an obligation of result ...

and that, pursuant to the interpretation of the foregoing obliga-
tion of result,
(1) the United States, acting through all of its competent

organs and all its constituent subdivisions, including all
branches of government and any official, state or federal,
exercising government authority, must take all measures
necessary to provide the reparation of review and recon-
sideration mandated by the Avena Judgment in para-

graph 153 (9)” (Submission of Mexico in Response to the
Written Observations of the United States of America,
17 September 2008, p. 24, para. 86; emphasis added;
Judgment, paragraph 10).

59. After a careful reading of this submission, I find it incomprehen-
sible that the Court could conclude that

“Mexico did not specify that the obligation of the United States
under the Avena Judgment was directly binding upon its organs,
subdivisions or officials, although this might be inferred from the

arguments it presented, in particular in its further written explana-
tions.” (Ibid., paragraph 41).

All the required specificity is there; there is no need to resort to infer-
ences.
60. In its concluding remarks and submissions, Mexico indicated that
it

“welcomes any good faith attempt to ensure its nationals are pro-
vided with effective review and reconsideration that is fully consist-
ent with this Court’s mandate in the Avena Judgment. Nonetheless,

it is clear that constituent organs of the United States do not share
Mexico’s view that the Avena Judgment imposes an obligation of

50 result. It is thus clearly established that there is a dispute between the
United States and Mexico as to the meaning and scope of para-

graph 153 (9) of said Judgment.” (CR 2008/16, p. 21, para. 2 (Lomó-
naco); emphasis added.)

Contrary to what is stated in paragraph 41 of this Judgment, I do not
believe that it can be argued that “Mexico has not established the
existence of any dispute between itself and the United States”. It is not

sufficient to find that the United States claims there is no dispute. The
positions and actions taken by various United States federal and state
authorities, particularly the federal judiciary, prove otherwise.

VII. S TATE RESPONSIBILITY

61. In 1999 the Court decided that the international responsibility of a
State was engaged by the actions of the competent organs and authorities
of that State, whatever they may be. Thus in the LaGrand case, when the
Court ordered the provisional measures to be taken by the United States,
it concluded that

“Whereas the international responsibility of a State is engaged by
the action of the competent organs and authorities acting in that

State, whatever they may be; whereas the United States should take
all measures at its disposal to ensure that Walter LaGrand is not
executed pending the final decision in these proceedings; whereas,
according to the information available to the Court, implementation
of the measures indicated in the present Order falls within the juris-

diction of the Governor of Arizona ; whereas the Government of the
United States is consequently under the obligation to transmit the
present Order to the said Governor ; whereas the Governor of Arizona
isundertheobligationtoactinconformitywiththeinternationalunder-

takings of the United States ”( LaGrand (Germany v. United
States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 March 1999,
I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I), p. 16, para. 28; emphasis added).

62. It is crystal clear in its final submissions (see paragraph 10 of the
Judgment) that Mexico has taken into account the language used by the
Court in the LaGrand Order, even employing the same terminology.

Mexico asserts that there is an obligation of result incumbent upon the
United States under the Avena Judgment. The international responsibil-
ity of the United States is “engaged by the actions of its competent organs
and authorities”. Thus,

“the United States, acting through all of its competent organs and all
its constituent subdivisions , including all branches of government
and any official, state or federal, exercising government authority,

51 must take all measures necessary to provide the reparation of review
and reconsideration mandated by the Avena Judgment in para-

graph 153 (9)” (emphasis added).

63. Article 4 of the International Law Commission’s Articles on State
Responsibility provides:

“1. The conduct of any State organ shall be considered an act of
that State under international law, whether the organ exercises legis-
lative, executive, judicial or any other functions, whatever position

it holds in the organization, and whatever its character as an organ
of the central government or of the territorial unit of the State.”
(Report of the International Law Commission, Fifty-third Session,
General Assembly Official Records , Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10).)

64. In its Commentary to Article 4, the International Law Commis-
sion holds that the “reference to a ‘State organ’ covers all the individual
and collective entities which make up the organization of the State and
act on its behalf”. It adds that “the State is responsible for the conduct of
its own organs, acting in that capacity”, something that has long been

recognized in international judicial decisions. The Commission also points
out that

“the reference to a State organ in Article 4 is intended in the most
general sense. It is not limited to the organs of the central govern-
ment, to officials at a high level or to persons with responsibility for

the external relations of the State . It extends to organs of govern-
ment of whatever kind or classification, exercising whatever func-
tions, and at whatever level in the hierarchy, including those at pro-
vincial or even local level.” (International Law Commission, Draft
Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful

Acts, with commentaries Ch. II, Art. 4, Yearbook of the International
Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two; emphasis added.)

65. It is obvious that Mexico’s final submission, in keeping with the
LaGrand Order and with what is indicated in the Articles on State
Responsibility, asserts that there is an obligation of result falling upon

the United States and its competent organs and constituent subdivisions.
These must be understood to include inter alia the State of Texas, the
Supreme Court of the State of Oregon, the United States federal courts,
the United States Government, and the United States Supreme Court.

Clearly, the wrongful conduct must be attributed to the United States, as
a political entity under international law, a political entity that must nec-
essarily act through its competent organs, its constituent subdivisions and
all officials exercising government authority.

52 66. When these considerations are kept in mind, it is extremely diffi-

cult to understand the scope of paragraph 41 of this Judgment. The
Court contends that it could be argued that Mexico’s final submission

“does not say that there is an obligation of result falling upon the
various competent organs, constituent subdivisions and public
authorities, but only that the United States will act through these in
itself fulfilling the obligations incumbent on it under para-

graph 153 (9)”.
Contrary to what the Court states, a reading of Mexico’s final submis-

sions shows that it asserts that there is an obligation of result, in Mexico’s
interpretation, and that pursuant to such obligation the United States,
acting through any and all organs of the State, must take all necessary
measures to provide the Avena remedy.

VIII. C ONCLUSION

67. I have done my utmost to demonstrate in this dissenting opinion
that there is a dispute between Mexico and the United States, a dispute
which is ongoing. In my view, a dispute exists as to the meaning or scope

of the Avena Judgment, in the sense of Article 60 of the Statute of the
Court, since it is clear that Mexico and the United States have funda-
mentally different views on the interpretation of the obligation imposed
by the Avena Judgment. But it is my understanding that it is not only a
dispute/contestation/desacuerdo under Article 60. There is also a dispute

in the sense of Article 38, paragraph 1, since there is a disagreement on
several points of law and on the facts. I am convinced that there is a con-
flict of legal views and of interests between Mexico and the United States
on the substance of the obligations incumbent upon the United States

under the Avena Judgment.
68. Had it interpreted the scope and meaning of the Avena Judgment,
the Court could have made an invaluable contribution to the settlement
of a dispute which runs the risk of self-perpetuation. The Court had at its

disposal all the necessary elements to identify the precise point or points
in dispute as to the meaning or scope of the Avena Judgment. It decided
otherwise and the consequence is that the international legal order has
been deprived of an enlightened construction of its fundamental rules

and principles and, equally important, guidance in enforcing them.

(Signed) Bernardo S EPÚLVEDA -A MOR .

53

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SEPU uLVEDA-AMOR

Agreement with most of the reasoning and most of the decisions — Regret
that Court did not settle issues incontrovertibly characterized by a degree of
opacity — Implicit recognition by the Court that a dispute exists — Interpre-

tation of obligation of result as one which requires specific outcome and within
reasonable period of time — Failing success, need for alternative and effective
means, such as legislative action — Medellín was executed without the required
review and reconsideration — The Court finds that the United States has
breached its obligations — But there is no determination of the legal conse-
quences flowing from this breach — The Avena Judgment remains binding.

Article 36 confers individual rights — Mexico and the United States hold dif-
ferent views — The procedural default rule has not been revised — Non-applica-
tion of procedural default rule is required to allow review and reconsideration to
become operative — Binding force of the Judgment — United States Supreme
Court’s ruling is at odds with the one provided by Mexico and by the United
States — The Court should have settled the issue raised by the conflicting inter-
pretations — Review and reconsideration received by only one Mexican national
out of 51 listed in the Avena Judgment — The obligation falls upon all state and
federal authorities — Importance of role played by the judicial system, espe-

cially the United States Supreme Court — Mexico has established the existence
of a dispute — State responsibility — It engages the action of the competent
organs and authorities acting in that State — LaGrand found that a United
States Governor is under the obligation to act in conformity with United States
undertakings — In the present case, all competent organs and all constituent
subdivisions must comply with mandated review and reconsideration, as Mexico
claims — Interpretation of the dispute by the Court would have rendered an
invaluable construction to the clarification of rules and its enforcement.

1. I am in agreement with most of the reasoning of the Court in the
present Judgment, as well as with most of the decisions expressed in the

operative clause of the Judgment. It is with regret that I am unable to
join the Court in some of its conclusions. My regret stems not only from
my disagreement with some of these views, but also from my belief that
the Court has missed a splendid opportunity to settle issues calling for
interpretation and to construe the meaning or scope of the Avena Judg-
ment in certain respects incontrovertibly characterized by a degree of

opacity.
2. Before I embark on the process of setting out and explaining my
points of disagreement with the Judgment, I believe it useful to revisit
some of the important considerations that the Court has found worthy
of stating; to a large extent, these follow from an interpretation of the

31 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE SEPÚLVEDA-AMOR

[Traduction]

Accord avec l’essentiel du raisonnement et la plupart des conclusions — Regret
que la Cour n’ait pas tranché des questions indéniablement assez obscures
— Reconnaissance implicite par la Cour de l’existence d’une contestation

— Interprétation de l’obligation de résultat comme nécessitant un résultat précis
dans un délai raisonnable — Faute de résultat, nécessité de recourir à d’autres
moyens efficaces, tels que l’adoption de textes législatifs — M. Medellín ayant
été exécuté sans avoir bénéficié du réexamen et de la revision requis — La Cour
considérant que les Etats-Unis ont violé leurs obligations — Pourtant, absence
de détermination des conséquences juridiques découlant de cette violation
— Arrêt Avena demeurant obligatoire.
Article 36 conférant des droits individuels — Mexique et Etats-Unis ayant
des vues divergentes — Règle de la carence procédurale n’ayant pas été révisée
— Nécessité de ne pas appliquer la règle de la carence procédurale pour que le
réexamen et la revision puissent produire effet — Force obligatoire de l’arrêt
— Interprétation de la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis différente de celle du
Mexique et des Etats-Unis — La Cour aurait dû trancher la question soulevée
par les interprétations contradictoires — Réexamen et revision ayant bénéficié à
un seul ressortissant mexicain parmi les cinquante et un cités dans l’arrêt Avena
— Obligation incombant à toutes les autorités à l’échelon des Etats et à l’éche-

lon fédéral — Importance du rôle du système judiciaire, et plus particulièrement
de la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis — Mexique ayant établi l’existence d’une
contestation — Responsabilité de l’Etat — Cette responsabilité étant engagée
par l’action des organes et autorités compétents agissant dans cet Etat — Arrêt
LaGrand ayant conclu qu’un gouverneur a l’obligation d’agir conformément aux
engagements des Etats-Unis — En la présente affaire, tous les organes compé-
tents et toutes les entités constitutives devant se conformer au réexamen et à la
revision prescrits, ainsi que le soutient le Mexique — L’interprétation du diffé-
rend par la Cour aurait pu apporter une contribution inestimable à la clarifica-
tion des règles et à leur exécution.

1. Je souscris pour l’essentiel au raisonnement de la Cour, ainsi qu’à la
plupart des conclusions formulées dans le dispositif du présent arrêt. Je

regrette toutefois de ne pouvoir m’associer à certaines d’entre elles, étant
non seulement en désaccord avec certaines des vues exprimées, mais esti-
mant aussi que la Cour n’a pas saisi une excellente occasion qui lui aurait
permis de régler des questions appelant une interprétation et de préciser
le sens et la portée de l’arrêt Avena sur certains points indéniablement
obscurs.

2. Avant d’exposer et d’expliciter les points sur lesquels je suis en
désaccord avec l’arrêt, il me semble utile de rappeler certaines observa-
tions importantes que la Cour a jugé bon de formuler; celles-ci découlent
dans une large mesure d’une interprétation de l’arrêt Avena. Dans le pré-

31Avena Judgment. In the present Judgment, the Court has clearly estab-
lished what is meant by an obligation of result: it is “an obligation

which requires a specific outcome” (Judgment, paragraph 27). It is clear
that an obligation falls upon the United States to provide the Mexican
nationals named in the Avena Judgment who remain on death row with
review and reconsideration consistent with paragraphs 138 to 141 of the
Avena Judgment. But then the Court construes the scope of the obliga-

tion:
“The Court observes that this obligation of result is one which

must be met within a reasonable period of time . Even serious efforts
of the United States, should they fall short of providing review and
reconsideration consistent with paragraphs 138 to 141 of the Avena
Judgment, would not be regarded as fulfilling this obligation of
result.” (Para. 27; emphasis added.)

3. If the obligation of result is one which “must be met within a rea-
sonable period of time”, then there has been a failure by the United

States to comply with it. According to Mexico, since March 2004, when
the Avena Judgment was issued,
“at least 33 of the 51 Mexican nationals named in the Court’s Judg-

ment have sought review and reconsideration in United States state
and federal courts.

To date, only one of these nationals — Osbaldo Torres Aguil-
era — has received review and reconsideration consistent with this

Court’s mandate. We should also mention, however, that the State
of Arkansas agreed to reduce Mr. Rafael Camargo Ojeda’s death
sentence to life imprisonment in exchange for his agreement to waive
his right to review and reconsideration under the Avena Judgment.
All other efforts to enforce the Avena Judgment have failed.”

(CR 2008/14, p. 20, paras. 2 and 3 (Babcock).)

Almost five years have elapsed since the Avena Judgment was handed
down. Since, as the Court considers, time is of the essence and the actual
compliance performance has been poor, to say the least, the specific out-
come associated with the obligation of result cannot be regarded as
having been brought about by the United States.

4. A careful reading of the Court’s Judgment in the present case sug-
gests an implicit recognition by the Court that Mexico and the United
States have in fact shown themselves as holding opposing views in regard
to the meaning and scope of the Avena Judgment. It was stated in the

Order indicating provisional measures, in paragraph 55, that
“while it seems both Parties regard paragraph 153 (9) of the Avena

Judgment as an international obligation of result, the Parties none-
theless apparently hold different views as to the meaning and scope

32sent arrêt, la Cour a établi avec précision ce qu’est une obligation de
résultat: il s’agit d’«une obligation d’aboutir à un résultat précis» (arrêt,

par. 27). Il est clair que les Etats-Unis ont l’obligation d’assurer le réexa-
men et la revision visés aux paragraphes 138 à 141 de l’arrêt Avena aux
ressortissants mexicains cités dans cette décision qui encourent toujours
la peine de mort. La Cour a cependant précisé la portée de cette
obligation:

«La Cour observe qu’il doit être satisfait à cette obligation de

résultat dans un délai raisonnable . Même des efforts sérieux des
Etats-Unis, s’ils n’aboutissent pas à la revision et au réexamen visés
aux paragraphes 138 à 141 de l’arrêt Avena, ne sauraient être consi-
dérés comme satisfaisant à une telle obligation .» (Par. 27; les itali-
ques sont de moi.)

3. Si l’obligation de résultat est une obligation à laquelle «il doit être
satisfait ... dans un délai raisonnable», alors les Etats-Unis ne s’y sont

pas conformés. En effet, le Mexique a indiqué que, depuis le mois de
mars 2004, date à laquelle a été rendu l’arrêt Avena,
«au moins trente-trois des cinquante et un ressortissants mexicains

cités dans l’arrêt de la Cour ont demandé le réexamen et la revision
de leur cas auprès de juridictions des Etats fédérés et de l’Etat fédéral
des Etats-Unis d’Amérique.
A ce jour, seul l’un de ces ressortissants — M. Osbaldo Torres
Aguilera — a vu son cas réexaminé et révisé conformément à la déci-

sion de la Cour. Il convient toutefois d’indiquer que l’Etat de l’Arkan-
sas a accepté de commuer la peine capitale prononcée contre
M. Rafael Camargo Ojeda en une peine de réclusion à perpétuité en
échange de son consentement à renoncer aux droits au réexamen et à
la revision prévus par l’arrêt Avena. Tous les autres efforts déployés

aux fins de la mise en Œuvre de cet arrêt ont échoué.» (CR 2008/14,
p. 20, par. 2 et 3 (Babcock).)

Près de cinq années se sont écoulées depuis le prononcé de l’arrêt Avena.
Dès lors que la Cour estime que la question des délais est un élément
essentiel et que les résultats obtenus du point de vue de l’exécution de
l’arrêt ont été limités — ce qui est un euphémisme —, on ne saurait consi-
dérer que les Etats-Unis ont atteint le résultat précis attaché à l’obligation

de résultat.
4. Ainsi qu’il ressort d’une lecture attentive de l’arrêt en la présente
affaire, la Cour reconnaît implicitement que le Mexique et les Etats-Unis
se sont en réalité révélés avoir des vues opposées quant au sens et à la
portée de l’arrêt Avena. Dans l’ordonnance en indication de mesures

conservatoires, il est indiqué au paragraphe 55 que,
«s’il semble que les deux Parties voient dans le point 9) du para-

graphe 153 de l’arrêt Avena une obligation internationale de
résultat, elles n’en paraissent pas moins diverger d’opinion quant

32 of that obligation of result, namely, whether that understanding is
shared by all United States federal and state authorities and whether

that obligation falls upon those authorities” (Order, p. 326, para. 55).

5. Although the Court reaches the conclusion that the matters claimed
by Mexico as requiring an interpretation are not matters decided by the

Court in its Avena Judgment and thus cannot give rise to the interpreta-
tion requested by Mexico (Judgment, operative clause, paragraph 59 (1)),
the Court accepts that “[o]n the one hand, it could be said that a variety
of factors suggest that there is a difference of perception that would con-
stitute a dispute under Article 60 of the Statute” (ibid., paragraph 31).

And then, after reviewing some of Mexico’s contentions, the Court
“observes that these elements could suggest a dispute between the Parties
within the sense of Article 60 of the Statute” (ibid., paragraph 35). Addi-
tionally, the Court indicates — in a paragraph to be examined later, for

it gives rise to divergent interpretations — that
“Mexico did not specify that the obligation of the United States

under the Avena Judgment was directly binding upon its organs,
subdivisions or officials, although this might be inferred from the
arguments it presented, in particular in its further written explana-
tions.” (Ibid., paragraph 41; emphasis added.)

6. The fact is that the Judgment comes close to recognizing that there

is a “dispute”, “contestation”, or “desacuerdo”, as the term is translated
in the Spanish version of Article 60 of the Statute. Whether or not
Mexico complied with Article 98, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court,
which states that “the precise point or points in dispute as to the meaning
or scope of the judgment shall be indicated”, is a question requiring

further consideration, which it will receive later in this dissenting opinion.

7. In the present Judgment, the Court further construes the meaning
and scope of the Avena Judgment when it states that

“considerations of domestic law which have so far hindered the imple-

mentation of the obligation incumbent upon the United States, can-
not relieve it of its obligation. A choice of means was allowed to the
United States in the implementation of its obligation and, failing
success within a reasonable period of time through the means chosen,
it must rapidly turn to alternative and effective means of attaining

that result.”( Ibid., paragraph 47; emphasis added.)

As the United States Supreme Court has ruled, the alternative and effec-
tive means rapidly to implement the obligation of result incumbent on
the United States is through legislative action: “The responsibility for
transforming an international obligation arising from a non-self-executing

33 au sens et à la portée de cette obligation de résultat — plus précisé-
ment quant à la question de savoir si cette communauté de vues est

partagée par toutes les autorités des Etats-Unis, à l’échelon fédéral
et à celui des Etats, et si cette obligation s’impose à ces autorités»
(ordonnance, p. 326, par. 55).

5. Bien que la Cour soit parvenue à la conclusion que les questions
qui, selon le Mexique, appellent une interprétation n’ont pas été tran-
chées par elle dans le cadre de l’arrêt Avena et qu’elles ne peuvent dès lors

pas donner lieu à l’interprétation demandée par le Mexique (arrêt, par. 59,
point 1), elle admet qu’«[o]n peut considérer que divers éléments sem-
blent révéler l’existence d’une différence d’appréciation qui constituerait
une contestation au sens de l’article 60 du Statut» (ibid., par. 31). Ayant
examiné certaines allégations du Mexique, la Cour fait ensuite «obser-

ve[r] que [c]es éléments ... pourraient indiquer qu’il existe, entre les
Parties, une contestation au sens de l’article 60 du Statut» (ibid., par. 35).
Enfin, elle déclare — dans un paragraphe qui sera examiné ultérieure-
ment car il se prête à des interprétations divergentes — que

«[l]e Mexique n’a pas précisé que l’obligation imposée par l’arrêt
Avena aux Etats-Unis liait directement les organes, entités ou auto-

rités de ce pays, même si cela pourrait être déduit des arguments qu’il
a présentés, notamment dans son supplément d’information. »( Ibid.,
par. 41; les italiques sont de moi.)

6. En réalité, la Cour reconnaît presque dans l’arrêt qu’il existe une
«contestation», «dispute»,o u «desacuerdo», selon la traduction espa-
gnole de l’article 60 du Statut. La question de savoir si le Mexique s’est

ou non conformé au paragraphe 2 de l’article 98 du Règlement de la
Cour, qui dispose que «le point ou les points contestés quant au sens ou
à la portée de l’arrêt» sont indiqués «avec précision», mérite un examen
approfondi, auquel nous nous livrerons ultérieurement dans le cadre de
la présente opinion dissidente.

7. Dans le présent arrêt, la Cour interprète plus précisément le sens et
la portée de l’arrêt Avena en indiquant que

«les considérations de droit interne qui ont, jusqu’à présent, empêché
que soit honorée l’obligation incombant aux Etats-Unis ne sauraient
les en délier. Les Etats-Unis ont été laissés libres de recourir aux
moyens de leur choix pour la mise en Œuvre de cette obligation et,

dans l’hypothèse où le moyen retenu ne permettrait pas d’atteindre le
résultat escompté dans un délai raisonnable, ils doivent recourir
promptement à d’autres moyens efficaces à cette fin .» ( Ibid., par. 47;
les italiques sont de moi.)

Ainsi que la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis l’a dit, les autres moyens effi-
caces permettant aux Etats-Unis d’exécuter rapidement l’obligation leur

incombant consistent à adopter des textes législatifs: «le pouvoir d’inté-
grer à la loi interne une obligation conventionnelle découlant d’un traité

33treaty into domestic law falls to Congress” (Medellín v. Texas, 128 S. Ct.
1346, 1368 (2008), attached as Annex B, p. 60, of Mexico’s Request

for Interpretation of the Judgment of 31 March 2004 in the Case concern-
ing Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of
America) (Mexico v. United States of America) ).
8. The means available to the United States is essentially legislative
action, preferably at the federal level, quickly to attain effective compli-

ance with the obligation. As the Permanent Court of International Jus-
tice found

“a State which has contracted valid international obligations is
bound to make in its legislation such modifications as may be nec-
essary to ensure the fulfillment of the obligations undertaken”
(Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, Advisory Opinion,

1925, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 10 , p. 20).
The Court has repeatedly affirmed in its jurisprudence that a State can-

not invoke its domestic law to justify its failure to perform an interna-
tional legal obligation. In taking the action required of it under the Avena
Judgment, the United States “cannot adduce as against another State its
own Constitution with a view to evading obligations incumbent upon it
under international law or treaties in force” (Treatment of Polish Nation-

als and Other Persons of Polish Origin or Speech in the Danzig Territory,
Advisory Opinion, 1932, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 44 , p. 24).

9. The Court has clearly established that José Ernesto Medellín Rojas

“was executed without being afforded the review and reconsidera-
tion provided for by paragraphs 138 to 141 of the Avena Judgment,
contrary to what was directed by the Court in its Order indicating

provisional measures of 16 July 2008” (Judgment, paragraph 52).
In the operative clause of the Judgment, the Court has found unani-

mously that the United States “has breached the obligation incumbent
upon it” under the Court’s Order (ibid., paragraph 61 (2)). The Court
leaves no doubt in its decision that the obligation upon the United States
not to execute the other four Mexican nationals named in the Order of
16 July 2008 “pending review and reconsideration being afforded to them

is fully intact by virtue” of the Avena Judgment itself (ibid., para-
graph 54). In the operative clause of the Judgment, the Court reaffirms
“the continuing binding character of the obligations of the United States
of America under paragraph 153 (9) of the Avena Judgment” (ibid., para-
graph 61 (3)).

10. The Court has found that the United States is in breach of its obli-
gations for having executed Mr. Medellín in violation of the Order of
16 July 2008. What is missing from the present Judgment is a determina-
tion of the legal consequences which flow from the serious failure by the

United States to comply with the Order and the Avena Judgment.

34non auto-exécutoire relève du Congrès et non de l’exécutif» (Medellín
c. Texas, 128 S. Ct. 1346, 1368 (2008), joint en annexe B, p. 60, de la

Demande en interprétation de l’arrêt du 31 mars 2004 en l’affaire Avena
et autres ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique)
(Mexique c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique) ).
8. Les moyens dont disposent les Etats-Unis pour assurer rapidement

une exécution effective de l’obligation qui leur incombe sont essentielle-
ment d’ordre législatif et ce, de préférence à l’échelon fédéral. Ainsi que
l’a indiqué la Cour permanente de justice internationale:

«un Etat qui a valablement contracté des obligations internationales
est tenu d’apporter à sa législation les modifications nécessaires pour
assurer l’exécution des engagements pris» (Echange des populations
o
grecques et turques, avis consultatif, 1925, C.P.J.I. série B n 10,
p. 20).

La Cour n’a cessé de réaffirmer dans sa jurisprudence qu’un Etat ne sau-
rait invoquer son droit interne pour justifier de ne pas avoir exécuté une
obligation juridique internationale. Ainsi, en prenant les mesures qui leur
incombent en vertu de l’arrêt Avena, les Etats-Unis «ne saurai[en]t invo-
quer vis-à-vis d’un autre Etat [leur] propre Constitution pour se soustraire

aux obligations que [leur] imposent le droit international ou les traités en
vigueur» (Traitement des nationaux polonais et des autres personnes
d’origine ou de langue polonaise dans le territoire de Dantzig, avis consul-
tatif, 1932, C.P.J.I. série A/B n o 44, p. 24).

9. La Cour a clairement établi que M. José Ernesto Medellín Rojas
«a été exécuté sans avoir pu bénéficier du réexamen et de la revision

prévus aux paragraphes 138 à 141 de l’arrêt Avena, contrairement à
ce qu’[elle] avait prescrit ... dans son ordonnance en indication de
mesures conservatoires du 16 juillet 2008» (arrêt, par. 52).

Dans le dispositif de l’arrêt, elle a dit, à l’unanimité, que les Etats-Unis
«ont violé l’obligation dont ils étaient tenus» en vertu de l’ordonnance
qu’elle avait rendue (ibid., par. 61, point 2). La Cour ne laisse par ailleurs

subsister aucun doute quant au fait que l’obligation incombant aux
Etats-Unis de ne pas exécuter les quatre autres ressortissants mexicains
visés dans l’ordonnance du 16 juillet 2008, «tant qu’ils n’auront pas béné-
ficié du réexamen et de la revision requis», «demeure intacte» en vertu de
l’arrêt Avena lui-même (ibid., par. 54). Elle réaffirme en outre, dans le

dispositif, «que les obligations énoncées au point 9) du paragraphe 153
de l’arrêt Avena continuent de s’imposer aux Etats-Unis d’Amérique»
(ibid., par. 61, point 3).
10. La Cour a donc jugé que, pour avoir exécuté M. Medellín en viola-

tion de l’ordonnance du 16 juillet 2008, les Etats-Unis avaient manqué à
l’obligation qui leur incombait. Ce qui fait défaut, dans le présent arrêt,
c’est la détermination des conséquences juridiques découlant du grave
manquement des Etats-Unis aux prescriptions de l’ordonnance et de
l’arrêt Avena.

34 11. The Court, in its Order of 16 July 2008, placed clear emphasis on
certain commitments undertaken by the United States. The Court took

note of the following understandings and pledges voiced by the Agent of
the United States:

“the United States has recognized that, were any of the Mexican
nationals named in the request for the indication of provisional
measures to be executed without the necessary review and reconsid-
eration required under the Avena Judgment, that would constitute a
violation of United States obligations under international law . . . in

particular, the Agent of the United States declared before the Court
that ‘[t]o carry out Mr. Medellín’s sentence without affording him
the necessary review and reconsideration obviously would be incon-
sistent with the Avena Judgment’;

the United States has recognized that ‘it is responsible under inter-
national law, for the actions of its political sub-divisions’, including
‘federal, state, and local officials’, and that its own international
responsibility would be engaged if, as a result of acts or omissions by
any of those political subdivisions, the United States was unable to

respect its international obligations under the Avena Judgment . . . in
particular, the Agent of the United States acknowledged before the
Court that ‘the United States would be responsible, clearly, under
the principle of State responsibility for the internationally wrongful
actions of [state] officials’” (Order of 16 July 2008, pp. 330-331,

paras. 76-77).

12. On 5 August 2008, Mr. Medellín was executed in the State of
Texas without having been afforded the required review and reconsidera-
tion, and after having unsuccessfully filed an application for a writ of
habeas corpus and applications for stay of execution and having been
refused a stay of execution through the clemency process, as the Judg-

ment indicates in paragraph 52. Yet the Court has not found it necessary
even to mention in the present Judgment the commitments assumed by
the Agent of the United States through his recognition: that Mr. Medel-
lín’s execution would constitute a violation of an international obliga-
tion; that it would be inconsistent with the Avena Judgment; that the

United States was responsible under international law for the actions of
its political subdivisions; and that the responsibility of the United States
would be engaged, under the principles of State responsibility, for the
internationally wrongful acts of federal, state and local officials.
13. It is to be deeply regretted that the Court has decided not to pass

judgment on a failure by the United States to discharge an international
obligation. It is difficult to understand and accept this forbearance, espe-
cially when the United States Agent himself has recognized that a breach
of its international obligations entails the responsibility of the State he

represents. By refraining from attributing any legal significance to a vio-
lation of the Avena Judgment and of the Order of 16 July 2008, the Court

35 11. Dans son ordonnance du 16 juillet 2008, la Cour a clairement
insisté sur certains engagements des Etats-Unis. Elle a pris acte des vues

et engagements ci-après, formulés par l’agent des Etats-Unis:

«les Etats-Unis ont reconnu que, si l’un quelconque des ressortis-
sants mexicains cités dans la demande en indication de mesures
conservatoires devait être exécuté sans avoir bénéficié du réexamen
et de la revision prescrits par l’arrêt Avena, il y aurait violation des
obligations que leur impose le droit international ... en particulier,

l’agent des Etats-Unis a déclaré à la Cour qu’«il serait manifeste-
ment contraire à l’arrêt Avena de procéder à l’exécution de la peine
de M. Medellín sans accorder à celui-ci le réexamen et la revision
requis»;

les Etats-Unis ont admis «qu’ils [étaient] responsables en droit inter-
national des actes de leurs entités politiques», notamment «des
autorités fédérales, des autorités des Etats ou des autorités locales»,
et que leur propre responsabilité internationale serait engagée si, par
suite d’actes ou d’omissions de l’une quelconque de ces entités poli-

tiques, ils se trouvaient dans l’incapacité de respecter les obligations
internationales leur incombant en vertu de l’arrêt Avena ... en parti-
culier, l’agent des Etats-Unis a reconnu devant la Cour que «les
Etats-Unis seraient incontestablement responsables, en application
du principe de l’engagement de la responsabilité de l’Etat, à raison

de faits internationalement illicites commis par les autorités d’Etats
[fédérés]» (ordonnance du 16 juillet 2008, p. 330-331, par. 76-77).

12. Le 5 août 2008, M. Medellín a été exécuté dans l’Etat du Texas
sans avoir pu bénéficier du réexamen et de la revision requis, après avoir
présenté en vain un recours en habeas corpus et des demandes de sursis à
exécution, et après qu’un sursis à exécution sollicité par la voie du recours
en grâce lui eut été refusé, ainsi que cela est précisé au paragraphe 52 de

l’arrêt. Or, la Cour n’a pas même jugé nécessaire de mentionner dans le
présent arrêt les engagements qu’a pris l’agent des Etats-Unis lorsqu’il a
reconnu que l’exécution de M. Medellín constituerait une violation d’une
obligation internationale, qu’elle serait contraire à l’arrêt Avena, que les
Etats-Unis étaient responsables en droit international des actes de leurs

entités politiques et que leur propre responsabilité serait engagée, en
vertu des principes de la responsabilité de l’Etat, à raison de faits inter-
nationalement illicites commis par les autorités fédérales, des Etats ou
locales.
13. Il est profondément regrettable que la Cour n’ait pas jugé néces-

saire de se prononcer sur le fait que les Etats-Unis ne se sont pas confor-
més à une obligation internationale. Il est difficile de comprendre et
d’admettre un tel silence, dès lors, notamment, que l’agent des Etats-Unis
a lui-même reconnu que la violation d’une obligation internationale par

l’Etat qu’il représente engageait la responsabilité de celui-ci. En s’abste-
nant de conférer une quelconque portée juridique à la violation de l’arrêt

35has let pass an opportunity to further the development of the law of State

responsibility and has ignored the need to adjudge the consequences of
the internationally wrongful acts of a State and to determine the remedial
action required in such circumstances.

14. In spite of this unexplained legal omission, the Court feels the need

to “reiterate that its Avena Judgment remains binding and that the
United States continues to be under an obligation fully to implement it”
(Judgment, paragraph 60). It is to be hoped that the United States Con-
gress will enact legislation so as to comply with the decision of the Court.

In the absence of federal legislation, the obligations stipulated in the
Avena Judgment will become a mere abstraction, devoid of any legal sub-
stance. In the words of the United States Supreme Court,

“The Avena judgment creates an international law obligation on
the part of the United States, but it is not automatically binding
domestic law because none of the relevant treaty sources — the

Optional Protocol, the U.N. Charter, or the ICJ Statute — creates
binding federal law in the absence of implementing legislation and
no such legislation has been enacted.” (Medellín v. Texas,
128 S. Ct. 1346 (2008), Syllabus; attached as Annex B to the Appli-

cation, p. 44.)

I. D ISPUTE/CONTESTATION /D ESACUERDO

15. In order properly to ascertain whether there is a “dispute”/“con-
testation”/“desacuerdo” for purposes of Article 60 of the Statute, it is
necessary to consider the wider perspective of the litigation between the

United States and Mexico. The legal proceedings have involved federal
and state authorities, particularly the Executive branches of government
at the federal and state levels, as well as federal and state courts.
16. The Avena Judgment clearly applies broadly to all Mexican nation-
als facing severe penalties or prolonged incarceration. Thus the Judgment

includes not only the 51 Mexican nationals mentioned therein but also
Mexican nationals sentenced to “severe penalties” in the future. The
Court found, unanimously, that

“should Mexican nationals nonetheless be sentenced to severe pen-

alties, without their rights under Article 36, paragraph 1 (b),ofthe
Convention having been respected, the United States of America
shall provide, by means of its own choosing, review and reconsidera-
tion of the conviction and sentence, so as to allow full weight to be
given to the violation of the rights set forth in the Convention”

(Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of
America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 73, para. 153 (11)).

36Avena et de l’ordonnance du 16 juillet 2008, la Cour a manqué une occa-

sion de contribuer au développement du droit de la responsabilité de
l’Etat, et n’a pas tenu compte de la nécessité de statuer sur les consé-
quences des actes internationalement illicites d’un Etat et de déterminer
le remède qui s’impose dans de telles circonstances.
14. Malgré ce silence inexpliqué, la Cour ressent le besoin de «rappeler

que l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en l’affaire Avena reste obligatoire et que les
Etats-Unis sont toujours tenus de l’appliquer pleinement» (arrêt, par. 60).
Espérons que le Congrès des Etats-Unis adoptera un texte de loi afin de
se conformer à la décision de la Cour. Faute d’un texte adopté au niveau

fédéral, les obligations énoncées dans l’arrêt Avena deviendront une pure
abstraction, dépourvue de toute valeur juridique. Pour reprendre les
termes de la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis,

«[l]’arrêt Avena donne lieu à des obligations de droit international
assumées par les Etats-Unis, cependant il ne s’impose pas en droit
interne parce qu’aucun des traités en cause — le protocole de signa-

ture facultative, la Charte des Nations Unies et le Statut de la CIJ —
ne peut être assimilé à une loi fédérale en l’absence de lois de mise en
Œuvre; aucune loi de ce genre n’a été adoptée» (Medellín c. Texas,
128 S. Ct. 1346 (2008), Résumé; joint à la requête en tant

qu’annexe B, p. 44).

I. C ONTESTATION /D ISPUTE/D ESACUERDO

15. Afin de bien déterminer s’il existe une «contestation»/«dispute»/
«desacuerdo» au sens de l’article 60 du Statut, il convient de prendre
en compte toute la dimension du litige qui oppose les Etats-Unis au

Mexique. Les autorités au niveau fédéral et à celui de l’Etat fédéré, en
particulier le pouvoir exécutif ainsi que les autorités judiciaires à ces
deux niveaux, ont pris part à la procédure.
16. L’arrêt Avena est clairement applicable, d’une manière générale, à
tous les ressortissants mexicains ayant été condamnés à de lourdes peines

ou à une détention prolongée. Il ne vise donc pas seulement les cinquante
et un ressortissants mexicains cités, mais également les ressortissants
mexicains qui seraient, à l’avenir, condamnés à des «peines sévères». La
Cour a jugé, à l’unanimité, que

«si des ressortissants mexicains devaient néanmoins être condamnés

à une peine sévère sans que les droits qu’ils tiennent de l’alinéa b) du
paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 de la convention aient été respectés, les
Etats-Unis d’Amérique devront, en mettant en Œuvre les moyens
de leur choix, assurer le réexamen et la revision du verdict de culpa-
bilité et de la peine, de façon à accorder tout le poids voulu à la

violation des droits prévus par la convention» (Avena et autres
ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 73, par. 153, point 11)).

36 17. On the basis of this finding of the Court, which is part of the

operative clause of the Judgment, it is perfectly legitimate to examine the
opposing views propounded to the United States Supreme Court in the
Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon case, involving a Mexican national sentenced
to more than 20 years of imprisonment; though not named in the Avena
Judgment, he is entitled to the benefit of the judicial remedy mandated

therein. It is also instructive to read the views expressed by the United
States Supreme Court in the Sanchez-Llamas case, views which diverge
substantially from Mexico’s contentions and from what this Court decided
in the LaGrand and the Avena cases, as will be shown in the following

paragraphs.

II. A RTICLE 36 C ONFERS INDIVIDUAL R IGHTS

18. In the Amicus Curiae Brief in support of Sanchez-Llamas as pet-
itioner for the writ of certiorari before the United States Supreme Court,
Mexico emphatically stated:

“the Avena Judgment reaffirmed in the clearest possible terms that

Article 36 of the Vienna Convention confers individual rights on all
Mexican nationals who are detained or arrested in the United States”
(Brief Amicus Curiae of the Government of the United Mexican
States in support of Petitioner 3, 4, Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon,

126 S. Ct 2669 (2006); emphasis added).

To support its contention, Mexico resorts to paragraph 40 of the Avena
Judgment: the individual rights of Mexican nationals “are rights which
are to be asserted, at any rate in the first place, within the domestic legal
system of the United States” (Avena and Other Mexican Nationals

(Mexico v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004
(I), p. 35, para. 40).
19. To strengthen its argument in the Sanchez-Llamas case, Mexico
cited what the United States had pleaded before the Court in the Tehran

case. There, the United States argued that Article 36 “establishes rights . . .
for the nationals of the sending State who are assured access to consular
officers and through them to others” (I.C.J. Pleadings, United States
Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v.

Iran), 1979, p. 174; emphasis added).

20. It is clear that the United States holds a different view in the
Sanchez-Llamas case on the question of individual rights conferred by
Article 36 of the Convention. In its Brief to the United States Supreme

Court, the United States asserted that the principle that the United States
Supreme Court “should give ‘respectful consideration’ to an interna-
tional court’s interpretation of a treaty does not lead to the conclusion

37 17. Compte tenu de cette conclusion, qui figure dans le dispositif de
l’arrêt, il est tout à fait légitime de s’intéresser aux vues opposées qui ont

été présentées à la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis en l’affaire Sanchez-
Llamas c. Oregon, qui a trait au cas d’un ressortissant mexicain condamné
à plus de vingt ans de réclusion. Ce dernier, bien qu’il ne soit pas nommé-
ment désigné dans l’arrêt Avena, a le droit de bénéficier du remède judi-

ciaire qui y est prescrit. Il est également fort instructif d’examiner les
appréciations portées dans cette même affaire par la Cour suprême des
Etats-Unis, lesquelles divergent très nettement, ainsi que nous le démon-
trerons dans les paragraphes suivants, de celles du Mexique et de ce que
la présente Cour a dit dans les affaires LaGrand et Avena.

II. L’ARTICLE 36 CONFÈRE DES DROITS INDIVIDUELS

18. Dans le mémoire qu’il a présenté en qualité d’amicus curiae en
faveur de M. Sanchez-Llamas, dans le cadre du recours en certiorari
formé par celui-ci devant la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis, le Mexique a
déclaré avec la plus grande insistance que

«la Cour, dans l’arrêt Avena, a réaffirmé on ne peut plus clairement
que l’article 36 de la convention de Vienne confère des droits indivi-

duels à tous les ressortissants mexicains détenus ou arrêtés aux
Etats-Unis» (mémoire à titre d’amicus curiae présenté par le Gou-
vernement des Etats-Unis du Mexique en faveur du requérant 3, 4,
Sanchez-Llamas c. Oregon , 126 S. Ct. 2669 (2006); les italiques sont
de moi).

A l’appui de sa thèse, le Mexique invoque le paragraphe 40 de l’arrêt
Avena : les droits individuels des ressortissants mexicains «sont des droits

dont la réalisation doit, en tout cas en premier lieu, être recherchée dans
le cadre du système juridique interne des Etats-Unis (Avena et autres
ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 35, par. 40).

19. En l’affaire Sanchez-Llamas, le Mexique a également invoqué,
pour étayer son argumentation, ce que les Etats-Unis avaient fait valoir
devant la Cour dans l’affaire Téhéran. En l’espèce, les Etats-Unis avaient
soutenu que l’article 36 «crée des droits ... pour les ressortissants de
l’Etat d’envoi, auxquels est garanti le droit d’accès aux autorités consu-

laires et, par le biais de celles-ci, à d’autres autorités» (C.I.J. Mémoires,
Personnel diplomatique et consulaire des Etats-Unis à Téhéran (Etats-
Unis d’Amérique c. Iran) , 1979, p. 174; les italiques sont de moi).
20. Il apparaît clairement que, en l’affaire Sanchez-Llamas, les Etats-

Unis n’ont pas porté la même appréciation sur la question des droits indi-
viduels conférés par l’article 36 de la convention. Dans le mémoire qu’ils
ont adressé à la Cour suprême, ils ont soutenu que le principe selon
lequel celle-ci «doit accorder une «considération respectueuse» à l’inter-
prétation d’un traité faite par une juridiction internationale n’amène pas

37that Article 36 affords an individual a right to challenge his conviction
and sentence” (Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae Supporting

Respondents, Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon, 126 S. Ct. 2669 (2006), p. 28;
emphasis added).

21. But the Amicus Curiae Brief for the United States not only con-

tradicts the Mexican view; it also strongly challenges the interpretations
handed down by the International Court of Justice in the LaGrand and
Avena cases. In the words of the Brief,

“The United States has no obligation to accept the reasoning under-

lying the ICJ’s Judgments . . . As we have demonstrated, the
ICJ’s reasoning is inconsistent with principles of treaty construc-
tion...Moreover,theweighttobegivenanICJJudgmentisatits
nadir where, as here, the Executive Branch, whose views on treaty
interpretation are entitled to at least ‘great weight’, has considered

the ICJ’s decisions and determined that its own long standing inter-
pretation of the treaty is the correct one. Notably, the withdrawal of
the United States from the Optional Protocol will ensure that the
United States incurs no further international legal obligations to

review and reconsider convictions and sentences in light of violations
of Article 36 based on the ICJ’s interpretation of the Convention .
Under these circumstances and in light of the considerations dis-
cussed above, this Court should conclude that Article 36 does not
give a criminal defendant a private right to challenge his conviction

and sentence on the ground that Article 36 (consular access) was
breached.”( Ibid., p. 30; emphasis added.)

22. It is to be noted that the Agent of the United States in the present

case, who vehemently argued that “in the field of international relations,
the United States speaks with one voice through the executive branch”
(CR 2008/17, p. 11, para. 15 (Bellinger)), was also responsible, in his
capacity as Legal Adviser to the Department of State and together with
the United States Solicitor General, for the Brief for the United States to

the United States Supreme Court in the Sanchez-Llamas case.
23. One of the questions answered by the United States Supreme
Court in the Sanchez-Llamas case was “whether Article 36 of the Vienna
Convention grants rights that may be invoked by individuals in a judicial

proceeding”. The Court noted:

“Respondents and the United States as amicus curiae, strongly
dispute this contention. They argue that ‘there is a presumption that
a treaty will be enforced through political and diplomatic channels,
rather than through the courts ..’. . Because we conclude that

38à conclure que l’article 36 confère à une personne le droit de contester le
verdict rendu ou la peine prononcée à son encontre» (mémoire déposé

par les Etats-Unis d’Amérique en qualité d’amicus curiae en faveur des
défendeurs, Sanchez-Llamas c. Oregon , 126 S. Ct. 2669 (2006), p. 28; les
italiques sont de moi).
21. Or, dans ce mémoire déposé à titre d’amicus curiae, non seule-
ment les Etats-Unis contredisent la position mexicaine, mais aussi ils

contestent fortement les interprétations de la Cour internationale
de Justice dans les affaires LaGrand et Avena. Le mémoire se lit comme
suit:

«Les Etats-Unis ne sont aucunement tenus d’accepter le raisonne-
ment qui sous-tend les arrêts de la CIJ ... Comme nous l’avons

démontré, le raisonnement de la CIJ est contraire aux principes qui
régissent l’interprétation des traités... En outre, le poids à accorder à
un arrêt émanant de cette juridiction est d’autant plus faible que,
comme en l’espèce, le pouvoir exécutif — dont les vues en matière
d’interprétation des traités doivent se voir accorder au moins un

«poids important» — a examiné les décisions rendues par elle et
estimé que l’interprétation qu’il fait lui-même de longue date du
traité est la bonne. Notamment, puisque les Etats-Unis se sont reti-
rés du protocole de signature facultative, il ne leur incombe plus
aucune obligation internationale de réexaminer ou réviser les verdicts

de culpabilité rendus et les peines prononcées à la lumière de viola-
tions de l’article 36 se fondant sur l’interprétation faite par la CIJ de
la convention. Dès lors, et compte tenu de ce qui précède, plaise à la
Cour de dire et juger que l’article 36 ne confère pas à l’accusé un
droit individuel de contester les verdicts de culpabilité rendus et les

peines prononcées à son encontre au motif que l’article 36 aurait été
violé.» ( Ibid., p. 30; les italiques sont de moi.)

22. Il convient de noter que l’agent des Etats-Unis en la présente
espèce, qui a soutenu avec vigueur que, «dans le domaine des relations
internationales, les Etats-Unis parlent d’une seule voix par l’intermédiaire
du pouvoir exécutif» (CR 2008/17, p. 11, par. 15 (Bellinger)), est égale-

ment responsable, en sa qualité de conseiller juridique au département
d’Etat, avec le Solicitor General des Etats-Unis, du mémoire déposé par
les Etats-Unis auprès de la Cour suprême dans l’affaire Sanchez-Llamas.
23. L’une des questions à laquelle la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis a
répondu en l’affaire Sanchez-Llamas était celle de savoir si «l’article 36

de la convention de Vienne confère des droits pouvant être invoqués par
des particuliers dans le cadre d’une procédure judiciaire». La Cour
suprême a relevé que:

«[l]es défendeurs, et les Etats-Unis en qualité d’amicus curiae,
contestent formellement cette allégation. Ils soutiennent qu’il «existe

une présomption selon laquelle un traité est mis en Œuvre par voie
politique et diplomatique et non par voie judiciaire...». Attendu que

38 Sanchez-Llamas and Bustillo are not in any event entitled to relief on
their claims, we find it unnecessary to resolve the question whether

the Vienna Convention grants individuals enforceable rights.”
(126 S. Ct. 2669, 2677-2678 (2006); emphasis added.)

The United States Supreme Court nevertheless decided to affirm the
judgment of the Supreme Court of Oregon, to the effect that Article 36
“does not create rights to consular access or notification that are enforce-

able by detained individuals in a judicial proceeding” (ibid., p. 2676).

24. When the Medellín case was argued before the Texas Court of
Criminal Appeals, Mexico contended:

“The very purpose of Article 36 is to permit the nations that
signed the Vienna Convention — including Mexico, the United
States and 164 other countries — to protect the interests of their citi-

zens when they are arrested or otherwise detained while living, work-
ing, or traveling abroad. That interest is most acute when a citizen is
facing trial in another country for a cause that may lead to his execu-
tion.” (Brief Amicus Curiae of the United Mexican States in Support

of José Ernesto Medellín, Ex Parte Medellín, 223 S.W. 3d 315
(Tex. Crim. App. 2006) at (ix); emphasis added.)

25. The United States took an opposing view:
“Medellín contends that, standing alone, the Avena decision con-

stitutes a binding rule of federal law that he may privately enforce in
this Court. While the United States has an international obligation
to comply with the decision of the International Court of Justice in
this case under Article 94 of the United Nations Charter, the text

and background of Article 94 make clear that an I.C.J. decision is
not, of its own force, a source of privately enforceable rights in
court.”( Ibid., 223 S.W. 3d 315 (Tex. Crim. App. 2006); emphasis
added.)

26. The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals wrote:

“while we recognize the competing arguments before us concerning
whether Article 36 confers privately enforceable rights, a resolution
to that issue is not required for our determination of whether Avena

is enforceable in this Court. Our decision is controlled by the Supreme
Court’s recent opinion in Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon, and accord-
ingly, we hold that Avena is not binding federal law. ”( Ibid., 223 S.W.
3d 315, 330 (Tex. Crim. App. 2006); emphasis added.)

27. In the Medellín case argued before the United States Supreme
Court, counsel for the United States asserted:

39 nous concluons que M. Sanchez-Llamas et M. Bustillo ne sont en
aucun cas recevables en leurs demandes , point n’est besoin de tran-

cher la question de savoir si la convention de Vienne confère aux
particuliers des droits directement opposables.» (126 S. Ct. 2669,
2677-2678 (2006); les italiques sont de moi.)

La Cour suprême a néanmoins décidé de confirmer l’arrêt rendu par la
Cour suprême de l’Oregon, selon lequel l’article 36 «ne crée pas de droits
d’accès aux autorités consulaires ou à la notification directement oppo-
sables dont les personnes détenues peuvent se prévaloir dans le cadre

d’une procédure judiciaire » (ibid., p. 2676).
24. Lorsque l’affaire Medellín a été portée devant la cour d’appel
pénale du Texas, le Mexique a fait valoir que:

«l’objet même de l’article 36 est de permettre aux nations ayant
signé la convention de Vienne — dont le Mexique, les Etats-Unis et
164 autres pays — de protéger les intérêts de leurs ressortissants
lorsque ceux-ci sont arrêtés ou détenus alors qu’ils vivent, travaillent

ou voyagent à l’étranger. Cela est d’autant plus important lorsqu’une
personne est jugée dans un pays étranger pour des faits pouvant
entraîner son exécution .» (Mémoire des Etats-Unis d’Amérique à
titre d’amicus curiae en faveur de M. José Ernesto Medellín, ex parte
Medellín, 223 S.W. 3d 315 (Tex. Crim. App. 2006), point ix); les

italiques sont de moi.)
25. Les Etats-Unis ont soutenu la thèse opposée:

«M. Medellín soutient que la décision Avena a, en elle-même,
valeur de loi fédérale contraignante dont il pourrait se prévaloir à
titre individuel devant la Cour. Si, en vertu de l’article 94 de la Charte

des Nations Unies, les Etats-Unis d’Amérique sont soumis à l’obli-
gation internationale de se conformer à la décision rendue par la
Cour internationale de Justice en ladite affaire, il ressort clairement
du libellé et du contexte de l’article 94 qu’une décision émanant de la

CIJ n’est pas, en elle-même, source de droits individuels dont il est
possible de se prévaloir devant une juridiction .» ( Ibid.,
223 S.W. 3d 315 (Tex. Crim. App. 2006); les italiques sont de moi.)

26. La cour d’appel pénale du Texas a indiqué:
«nous prenons acte des arguments qui nous ont été opposés quant à

la question de savoir si l’article 36 confère des droits individuels di-
rectement opposables, mais il n’est pas nécessaire de trancher celle-ci
afin de déterminer si l’arrêtAvena s’impose à la présente Cour. La ré-
cente décision de la Cour suprême en l’affaire Sanchez-Llamas c. Ore-
gon s’impose à nous et nous estimons, partant, que l’arrêt Avena n’a

pas valeur de loi fédérale contraignante.»(Ibid., 223 S.W. 3d 315, 330
(Tex. Crim. App. 2006); les italiques sont de moi.)

27. Devant la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis, le conseil des Etats-Unis
a affirmé en l’affaire Medellín:

39 “Petitioner contends that the Avena decision is privately enforce-

able because the Optional Protocol and the United Nations Charter
obligate the United States to comply with the decision . . . Allowing
private enforcement, without the President’s authorization, would
undermine the President’s ability to make those determinations.”

Those determinations are related to a decision by the President to comply
with an International Court of Justice judgment and the measures that

should be taken (Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae, Medellín
v. Texas, 128 S. Ct. 1346 (2008), p. 19). Without addressing the issue of
individual rights recognized under LaGrand and Avena, the United States
Supreme Court decided in 2008 that the Avena Judgment was not directly

enforceable as domestic law in state court.
28. This Court, in its LaGrand and Avena Judgments, has ruled that
Article 36, paragraph 1, creates individual rights for those in detention.
That pronouncement runs counter to the legal arguments advanced by
United States federal authorities and sustained by state and federal

courts. In LaGrand, the Court stated that it

“cannot accept the argument of the United States which proceeds, in
part, on the assumption that paragraph 2 of Article 36 applies only
to the rights of the sending State and not also to those of the

detained individual. The Court has already determined that Arti-
cle 36, paragraph 1, creates individual rights for the detained person
in addition to the rights accorded the sending State , and that conse-
quently the reference to ‘rights’ in paragraph 2 must be read as
applying not only to the rights of the sending State, but also to the

rights of the detained individual .” (LaGrand (Germany v. United
States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 497, para. 89;
emphasis added.)

In the present case, the Court could have better fulfilled its judicial func-
tion by dispelling all doubts raised by federal and state authorities in the
executive and judicial branches of government in the United States. That

should have been done by reaffirming the binding force of the LaGrand
and Avena Judgments and the existence of individual rights under Arti-
cle 36, even if that had meant acting on its own initiative, in order prop-
erly to construe the meaning or scope of the Avena Judgment.

III. THE P ROCEDURAL D EFAULT R ULE

29. In the Avena case, Mexico contended that the United States, by
applying provisions of its municipal law, had failed to provide meaning-
ful and effective review and reconsideration of convictions and sentences.
Specifically, Mexico argued that

“The United States uses several municipal legal doctrines to prevent

40 «Le requérant soutient que la décision Avena est invocable à titre
individuel car le protocole de signature facultative et la Charte des

Nations Unies obligent les Etats-Unis à s’y conformer... Permettre
une exécution directe, sans autorisation présidentielle, serait contraire
au pouvoir que détient le président de prendre de telles décisions.»

Cela renvoie à une décision du président des Etats-Unis relative à l’exécu-
tion des arrêts rendus par une juridiction internationale et aux mesures
devant être prises (mémoire des Etats-Unis à titre d’amicus curiae, Medel-

lín c. Texas, 128 S. Ct. 1346 (2008), p. 19). Sans s’intéresser à la question
des droits individuels reconnus dans les arrêts LaGrand et Avena, la Cour
suprême des Etats-Unis a jugé, en 2008, que l’arrêt Avena ne s’imposait
pas directement avec valeur de droit interne aux juridictions d’Etat.

28. Dans ses arrêts LaGrand et Avena, la Cour a jugé que le para-
graphe 1 de l’article 36 créait des droits individuels pour les personnes
détenues. Cette conclusion est contraire à l’argumentation juridique
avancée par les autorités fédérales des Etats-Unis et maintenue par les
juridictions au niveau fédéral et à celui de l’Etat fédéré. Dans l’arrêt

LaGrand, la Cour a indiqué qu’elle
«ne saurait retenir l’argument des Etats-Unis qui repose en partie

sur l’hypothèse que le paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 ne s’applique
qu’aux droits de l’Etat d’envoi et non à ceux de la personne mise en
détention. La Cour a déjà établi que le paragraphe 1 de l’article 36
créait des droits individuels pour les personnes détenues, en sus des

droits accordés à l’Etat d’envoi , et que, par voie de conséquence, les
«droits» visés au paragraphe 2 désignent non seulement les droits de
l’Etat d’envoi, mais aussi ceux des personnes détenues .» ( LaGrand
(Allemagne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001 ,
p. 497, par. 89; les italiques sont de moi.)

En la présente affaire, la Cour aurait pu mieux remplir sa fonction judi-
ciaire en levant les doutes émis par les autorités exécutives et judiciaires
des Etats-Unis, au niveau fédéral et à celui de l’Etat fédéré. Elle aurait pu
réaffirmer la force obligatoire des arrêts LaGrand et Avena et l’existence
de droits individuels découlant de l’article 36 et ce, même s’il lui fallait

pour cela agir proprio motu, afin d’interpréter correctement le sens et la
portée de l’arrêt Avena.

III. LA RÈGLE DE LA CARENCE PROCÉDURALE

29. Dans l’affaire Avena, le Mexique a soutenu que les Etats-Unis, en
appliquant des dispositions de leur droit interne, n’avaient pas assuré un
réexamen et une revision véritables et effectifs des verdicts de culpabilité

et des peines. Il a plus particulièrement soutenu que
«[l]es Etats-Unis s’appuient sur plusieurs doctrines de droit interne

40 finding any legal effect from the violations of Article 36. First,
despite this Court’s clear analysis in LaGrand, US courts, at both the

state and federal level, continue to invoke default doctrines to bar
any review of Article 36 violations — even when the national had
been unaware of his rights to consular notification and communica-
tion and thus his ability to raise their violation as an issue at trial,
due to the competent authorities’ failure to comply with Article 36.”

(Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of
America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 55, para. 109.)

30. The Court found in the Avena Judgment that “the procedural
default rule has not been revised, nor has any provision been made to

prevent its application” (ibid., p. 57, para. 113). Then the Court added:

“The crucial point in this situation is that, by the operation of the
procedural default rule as it is applied at present, the defendant is
effectively barred from raising the issue of the violation of his rights
under Article 36 of the Vienna Convention . . .” (ibid.,p .,
para. 134).

31. After recalling that the LaGrand and Avena Judgments were enti-
tled only to “respectful consideration”, the United States Supreme Court

in the Sanchez-Llamas case went on to say:
“the International Court of Justice concluded that where a defend-

ant was not notified of his rights under Article 36, application of the
procedural default rule failed to give ‘full effect’ to the purposes of
Article 36 because it prevented courts from attaching ‘legal signifi-
cance’ to the Article 36 violation. This reasoning overlooks the
importance of procedural default rules in an adversary system , which

relies chiefly on the parties to raise significant issues and present
them to the courts in the appropriate manner at the appropriate time
for adjudication . . . The consequence of failing to raise a claim for
adjudication at the proper time is generally forfeiture of that claim.
As a result, rules such as procedural default routinely deny ‘legal sig-

nificance’ — in the Avena and LaGrand sense — to otherwise viable
legal claims.” (Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon, 126 S. Ct. 2669, 2685-
2686 (2006); emphasis added.)

32. The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, when reviewing Medellín’s

application for a writ of habeas corpus, provided a procedural history of
Medellín’s case:

“Medellín filed an initial application for a writ of habeas corpus,
claiming for the first time, among other things, that his rights under

41 pour empêcher que soient attachées des conséquences juridiques aux
violations de l’article 36. En premier lieu, malgré la claire analyse qui

a été faite par la Cour dans l’affaire LaGrand, les juridictions amé-
ricaines, tant étatiques que fédérales, continuent à invoquer la règle
de la carence procédurale pour faire obstacle à tout examen des vio-
lations de l’article 36 — même si le ressortissant n’était pas conscient
de ses droits à la notification et à la communication consulaires et,

partant, du fait qu’il pouvait invoquer leur violation lors de son pro-
cès, précisément parce que les autorités n’avaient pas respecté l’ar-
ticle 36.» (Avena et autres ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. Etats-
Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 55, par. 109.)

30. Dans l’arrêt Avena, la Cour a indiqué que «la règle de la carence
procédurale n’a pas été révisée et qu’il n’a pas davantage été pris de dis-

positions pour empêcher son application» (ibid., p. 57, par. 113). Elle a
ensuite précisé:

«[l]e point crucial, en pareille situation, est que, par l’effet de la
règle de la carence procédurale telle qu’elle est actuellement appli-
quée, l’intéressé se voit en fait interdire de soulever la question de la
violation des droits que lui reconnaît l’article 36 de la convention de
Vienne» (ibid., p. 63, par. 134).

31. En l’affaire Sanchez-Llamas, après avoir rappelé que les arrêts
LaGrand et Avena ne méritaient à bon droit qu’une «considération res-

pectueuse», la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis a poursuivi comme suit:
«[l]a Cour internationale de Justice a conclu que, lorsqu’un défen-

deur n’a pas été informé des droits qu’il tient de l’article 36, l’appli-
cation de la règle de la carence procédurale empêche cet article de
produire «plein effet» puisqu’elle empêche les juridictions d’attacher
une «portée juridique» à sa violation. C’est là méconnaître l’impor-
tance des règles de la carence procédurale dans un système accusa-

toire, système dans lequel c’est principalement aux parties qu’il
incombe de soulever les questions pertinentes et de les présenter aux
juridictions de manière appropriée et en temps opportun afin qu’elles
soient tranchées... Le défaut de présentation d’une demande en
temps opportun entraîne généralement la forclusion. Il est ainsi fré-

quent que l’application de règles telles que celles de la carence pro-
cédurale prive de «portée juridique» — au sens des arrêts Avena et
LaGrand — des demandes tout à fait valables en droit. »( Sanchez-
Llamas c. Oregon, 126 S. Ct. 2669, 2685-2686 (2006); les italiques
sont de moi.)

32. Dans le cadre de son examen du recours en habeas corpus formé

par M. Medellín, la cour d’appel pénale du Texas a rappelé la procédure
en l’affaire concernant l’intéressé:

«M. Medellín a déposé une requête initiale en habeas corpus dans
laquelle il a notamment indiqué pour la première fois que les droits

41 Article 36 of the Vienna Convention had been violated because he
had not been advised of his right to contact the Mexican consular

official after he was arrested. The district court found that Medellín
failed to object to the violation of his Vienna Convention rights at
trial and, as a result, concluded that his claim was procedurally
barred from review.

Medellín appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Cir-
cuit, which also denied his application. The Fifth Circuit noted the
I.C.J. decision in Avena, but determined that it was bound by the
Supreme Court’s decision in Breard v. Greene, which held that

claims based on a violation of the Vienna Convention are subject to
procedural default rules .

[W]e are bound by the Supreme Court’s determination that I.C.J.
decisions are not binding on United States courts. As a result,

Medellín . . . cannot show that Avena requires us to set aside Section
5 and review and reconsider his Vienna Convention claim. ”( Ex Parte
Medellín, 223 S.W. 3d 315, 321, 332 (2006); emphasis added.)

33. When submitting the Brief for the United States as amicus curiae

before the United States Supreme Court in the Sanchez-Llamas case, in
his capacity as Legal Adviser to the Department of State, the Agent of
the United States in the present case pleaded that

“The I.C.J. decisions in LaGrand and Avena are clearly not bind-
ing on this Court in this case . . . [T]he United States undertaking
under Article 94 of the United Nations Charter to comply with a

decision of the I.C.J. in a dispute to which it is a party, is to comply
with the I.C.J.’s ultimate resolution of the dispute, not to accept all
the reasoning that leads to that resolution. In this case, the I.C.J.’s
reasoning is not persuasive ...ytteoi,nypcul
rule that prevented a court from deciding the substance of a Vienna

Convention claim — such as a State’s statute of limitations for seek-
ing collateral review — would have to be set aside as inconsistent
with Article 36 (2).” (Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae
Supporting Respondents, Sanchez-Llamas v. Oregon, 126 S. Ct. 2669
(2006); emphasis added.)

34. In principle, only the operative clause of an International Court of
Justice judgment has binding force. However, under certain circum-

stances and in certain cases, the reasoning underlying the conclusions
reached in the operative clause is inseparable from them and, because of

42 dont il jouit en vertu de l’article 36 de la convention de Vienne
avaient été violés car il n’avait pas été informé de son droit de

contacter les autorités consulaires mexicaines après son arrestation.
Le tribunal de première instance a jugé que M. Medellín ne s’était
pas, lors de son procès, prévalu de la violation des droits qu’il tient de
la convention de Vienne et, partant, a estimé que sa demande ne pou-
vait être réexaminée pour des raisons d’ordre procédural .

M. Medellín a interjeté appel devant la cour d’appel des Etats-
Unis pour le cinquième circuit, laquelle a également rejeté sa
demande. Le cinquième circuit a pris note de la décision rendue par
la CIJ en l’affaire Avena, mais a jugé qu’il était lié par la décision

rendue par la Cour suprême en l’affaire Breard c. Greene, aux termes
de laquelle les règles de la carence procédurale s’appliquent aux
demandes fondées sur une violation de la convention de Vienne .
[N]ous sommes liés par la décision de la Cour suprême aux termes
de laquelle les décisions de la CIJ ne s’imposent pas aux juridictions

des Etats-Unis. Dès lors, M. Medellín ... ne saurait démontrer qu’il
nous incombe, en vertu de l’arrêt Avena, d’écarter la section 5 et de
procéder au réexamen et à la revision de la demande qu’il a formulée
en vertu de la convention de Vienne. »( Ex parte Medellín, 223 S.W.
3d 315, 321, 332 (2006); les italiques sont de moi.)

33. Lors du dépôt du mémoire présenté par les Etats-Unis à titre

d’amicus curiae devant la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis en l’affaire
Sanchez-Llamas, l’agent des Etats-Unis en la présente affaire a fait valoir,
en sa qualité de conseiller juridique du département d’Etat, que:

«La présente Cour n’est, en l’espèce, pas liée par les décisions ren-
dues par la CIJ dans les affaires LaGrand et Avena... Aux termes de
l’article 94 de la Charte des Nations Unies, les Etats-Unis se sont

engagés à se conformer aux décisions rendues par la CIJ dans le
cadre des différends auxquels ils sont partie, à savoir à se conformer
à la solution prescrite par la CIJ, et non à accepter l’intégralité du
raisonnement ayant conduit à cette conclusion. En l’espèce, le raison-
nement de la CIJ n’est pas convaincant... Selon ce raisonnement,

toute règle procédurale ayant empêché une juridiction de connaître
au fond d’une demande relative à la convention de Vienne — telle
que les règles de prescription en vigueur dans un Etat en ce qui
concerne les recours indirects — devrait être écartée pour incompa-
tibilité avec le paragraphe 2 de l’article 36.» (Mémoire déposé par les

Etats-Unis d’Amérique à titre d’amicus curiae en faveur des défen-
deurs, Sanchez-Llamas c. Oregon, 126 S. Ct. 2669 (2006); les itali-
ques sont de moi.)

34. En principe, seul le dispositif de l’arrêt rendu par une juridiction
internationale a force obligatoire. Il arrive toutefois, dans certaines cir-

constances et dans certaines affaires, que le raisonnement qui sous-tend
les conclusions formulées dans le dispositif en soit indissociable et, en rai-

42this link, part of the reasoning in the Avena Judgment must also be the
subject-matter of interpretation by the Court. I believe that construing

the meaning or scope of most of the subparagraphs of paragraph 153, the
operative clause of the Judgment, requires resort to the reasoning of the
Court, for it is there that an explanation is found as to how the proce-
dural default rule represents a judicial obstacle which renders inoperative

and dysfunctional the rights embedded in Article 36 of the Vienna Con-
vention. It is not sufficient to claim that the operative clause has binding
force if its provisions become legally ineffective in the face of enforce-
ment by United States federal and state courts of the procedural default
rule. Such a domestic doctrine precludes compliance with international

obligations, vitiates treaty rights of substance and renders a judgment
nugatory.
35. The Court has already had occasion to consider the relationship
between the reasoning in a judgment and the operative clause when

entertaining requests for interpretation of a judgment. The Court recently
explained that

“any request for interpretation must relate to the operative part of
the judgment and cannot concern the reasons for the judgment
except in so far as these are inseparable from the operative part ”
(Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 11 June 1998 in the
Case concerning the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cam-

eroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections
(Nigeria v. Cameroon), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) ,p .5,
para. 10; emphasis added).

36. In the present case, the Court could have reached beyond the
operative clause in the Avena case and examined one of the essential
foundations for the proper functioning of that judgment: the non-

application of the procedural default rule so as to enable the required
review and reconsideration of convictions and sentences.

IV. B INDING FORCE OF THE JUDGMENT

37. Mexico has claimed in its Application that the Avena Judgment is

final and binding as between Mexico and the United States, invoking
Article 59 of the Statute of the Court in support of its contention. Mexico
asserts that, in spite of the obligation under Article 94, paragraph 1, of
the United Nations Charter to comply with decisions of the Court,

“requests by the Mexican nationals for the review and reconsidera-
tion mandated in their cases by the Avena Judgment have repeatedly

been denied. On 25 March 2008, the Supreme Court of the United
States determined in the case of José Ernesto Medellín Rojas, one of
the Mexican nationals subject to the Avena Judgment, that the Judg-
ment itself did not directly require US courts to provide review and
reconsideration under domestic law . . . The Supreme Court, while

43son de ce lien, une partie des motifs de l’arrêt Avena doit également être
interprétée par la Cour. Selon moi, pour interpréter le sens et la portée de

la plupart des points du paragraphe 153 du dispositif de l’arrêt, il faut se
référer aux motifs puisque c’est là que se trouve exposée la raison pour
laquelle la règle de la carence procédurale constitue un obstacle judiciaire
qui rend inopérants les droits consacrés par l’article 36 de la convention

de Vienne et empêche leur exercice. Il ne suffit pas d’affirmer que le dis-
positif de l’arrêt Avena a force obligatoire si l’application de la règle de la
carence procédurale par les juridictions des Etats-Unis le rend juridique-
ment inopérant. Cette doctrine à usage interne empêche de se conformer
à des obligations internationales, prive les droits conventionnels de tout

contenu et rend sans valeur un arrêt.

35. La Cour a déjà eu l’occasion d’examiner, dans le cadre de demandes
en interprétation, la question du lien existant entre les motifs d’un arrêt

et son dispositif. Ainsi, elle a récemment indiqué que

«toute demande en interprétation doit porter sur le dispositif de
l’arrêt et ne peut concerner les motifs que dans la mesure où ceux-ci
sont inséparables du dispositif »( Demande en interprétation de l’arrêt
du 11 juin 1998 en l’affaire de la Frontière terrestre et maritime entre
le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria), exceptions préli-

minaires (Nigéria c. Cameroun), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (I) ,
p. 35, par. 10; les italiques sont de moi).

36. En la présente espèce, la Cour aurait pu ne pas limiter son examen
au dispositif de l’arrêt Avena, en considérant l’une des conditions indis-
pensables pour une mise en Œuvre adéquate de cet arrêt, à savoir la non-

application de la règle de la carence procédurale aux fins de permettre le
réexamen et la revision prescrits des verdicts de culpabilité et des peines.

IV. F ORCE OBLIGATOIRE DE L ’ARRÊT

37. Dans sa requête, se fondant sur l’article 59 du Statut de la Cour, le

Mexique a fait valoir que l’arrêt Avena était définitif et obligatoire entre
lui et les Etats-Unis. Il soutient que, en dépit de l’obligation de se confor-
mer aux décisions de la Cour énoncée au paragraphe 1 de l’article 94 de
la Charte des Nations Unies,

«des refus répétés ont été opposés à des demandes soumises par des
ressortissants mexicains en vue du réexamen et de la revision de leur

cas, prescrits par l’arrêt Avena. Le 25 mars 2008, la Cour suprême
des Etats-Unis d’Amérique a jugé, dans le cas de José Ernesto Medel-
lín Rojas, l’un des ressortissants mexicains visés dans l’arrêt Avena,
que l’arrêt n’imposait pas en soi directement aux juridictions des
Etats-Unis de procéder à un réexamen et une revision selon le droit

43 expressly recognizing the United States’s obligation to comply with
the Judgment under international law, further held that the means

chosen by the President of the United States to comply were un-
available under the US Constitution and indicated alternate means
involving legislation by the US Congress or voluntary compliance by
the State of Texas.” (Application, p. 10, para. 4; emphasis added.).

According to Mexico,

“the obligation to provide review and reconsideration is not contin-
gent on the success of any one means. Mexico understands that in
the absence of full compliance with the obligation to provide review
and reconsideration, the United States must be considered to be in

breach.” (Ibid., p. 10, para. 5.)

38. It is apparent that Mexico and the United States take opposing
views on the issue of the automatic application of the Avena Judgment in
the domestic realm of the United States. Quoting the United States Brief
as amicus curiae in the last Medellín case before the United States

Supreme Court, Mexico notes that the United States, while having
acknowledged an “international law obligation to comply with the I.C.J.’s
decision in Avena”, contended that the Judgment was not independently
enforceable in domestic courts absent intervention by the President. The
United States is quoted as follows:

“[W]hile petitioner is entitled to review and reconsideration by vir-
tue of the President’s determination , such review and reconsideration
would not be available to petitioner in the absence of the President’s
determination.” (See Submission of Mexico in Response to the Writ-
ten Observations of the United States of America, 17 September 2008,

p. 2, para. 6; emphasis in the original.)

39. Mexico points out that

“the Supreme Court expressly adopted the United States’ argument
as to the lack of enforceability of the Judgment in domestic courts.
Hence, the Court held that neither the Avena Judgment on its own,
nor the Judgment in conjunction with the President’s determination
to comply, constituted directly enforceable federal law that pre-

cluded Texas from applying state procedural rules that barred all
review and reconsideration of Mr. Medellín’s Vienna Convention
claim.” (Ibid., p. 2, para. 7.)

40. The United States Supreme Court in its ruling in the Medellín case
provided an interpretation which is at odds with those proffered by

44 interne... La Cour suprême, tout en reconnaissant expressément
l’obligation incombant aux Etats-Unis d’Amérique en vertu du droit

international de se conformer à l’arrêt, a également estimé que les
moyens choisis par le président des Etats-Unis pour ce faire n’étaient
pas prévus par la Constitution des Etats-Unis et indiqué d’autres
moyens reposant sur le vote de lois par le Congrès ou une exécution
volontaire de l’arrêt par l’Etat du Texas.» (Requête, p. 11, par. 4; les

italiques sont de moi.)

Le Mexique ajoute que
«le respect de l’obligation d’assurer un réexamen et une revision

ne saurait être fonction de l’aboutissement de tel ou tel moyen
en particulier. Selon le Mexique, si l’obligation d’assurer un
réexamen et une revision n’était pas pleinement respectée, les Etats-
Unis devraient être considérés comme ayant violé cette obligation.»

(Ibid., p. 11, par. 5.)
38. Il est donc manifeste que le Mexique et les Etats-Unis ont des vues

opposées sur la question de l’applicabilité automatique de l’arrêt Avena
dans l’ordre interne des Etats-Unis. Citant le mémoire que les Etats-Unis
ont présenté en qualité d’amicus curiae dans la dernière affaire Medellín
dont a connu la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis, le Mexique relève que,
bien qu’ayant reconnu que leur incombait «une obligation en vertu du

droit international de se conformer à la décision de la CIJ en l’affaire
Avena», les Etats-Unis affirment que, en l’absence d’intervention du pré-
sident, l’arrêt ne s’impose pas, en lui-même, à leurs juridictions natio-
nales. Leurs propos sont repris comme suit:

«Si le demandeur a droit à un réexamen et une revision en vertu de
la décision du président , il ne pourrait en bénéficier en l’absence de

cette décision.» (Supplément d’information du Mexique en réponse
aux observations écrites des Etats-Unis d’Amérique, 17 septembre
2008, p. 2, par. 6; les italiques sont dans l’original.)

39. Le Mexique précise que

«la Cour suprême a expressément retenu l’argument des Etats-Unis
concernant le caractère non exécutoire de l’arrêt par les juridictions
internes. [Elle] a donc jugé que l’arrêt Avena n’avait pas, ni en tant

que tel ni lu conjointement avec la décision du président, valeur de
droit fédéral directement applicable empêchant la mise en Œuvre par
le Texas de règles procédurales de son droit interne faisant obstacle
à tout réexamen et à toute revision des décisions relatives aux
demandes formulées par M. Medellín sur le fondement de la conven-

tion de Vienne.» (Ibid., p. 2, par. 7.)

40. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en l’affaire Medellín, la Cour suprême
des Etats-Unis s’est donc livrée à une interprétation différente de celle du

44Mexico and by the United States. The Supreme Court’s understanding of
the legal significance of Article 94 of the United Nations Charter and of

Article 59 of the Court’s Statute is expressed in the following terms:

“The Executive Branch contends that the phrase ‘undertakes to
comply’ is not ‘an acknowledgement that an I.C.J. decision will have
immediate legal effect in the courts of UN members’, but rather
‘a commitment on the part of UN Members to take future action
through their political branches to comply with an I.C.J. decision’.

We agree with this construction of Article 94. The Article is not a
directive to domestic courts . It does not provide that the United
States ‘shall’ or ‘must’ comply with an I.C.J. decision, nor indicate
that the Senate that ratified the United Nations Charter intended to

vest I.C.J. decisions with immediate legal effect in domestic courts.”
(128 S. Ct. 1346, 1358 (2008); emphasis added.)

41. The conclusion by the United States Supreme Court that the
Avena Judgment does not by itself constitute binding federal law confutes
the contention of the United States Executive Branch that,

“while the Avena Judgment does not of its own force require domes-
tic courts to set aside ordinary rules of procedural default, that judg-
ment became the law of the land with precisely that effect pursuant

to the President’s Memorandum and his power ‘to establish binding
rules of decision that preempt contrary state law’” (ibid., p. 1367).

42. After making clear that unilaterally converting a non-self-executing
treaty into a self-executing one is not among the means available to

the United States President to enforce an international obligation, the
Supreme Court stated:

“When the President asserts the power to ‘enforce’ a non-self-
executing treaty by unilaterally creating domestic law, he acts in con-
flict with the implicit understanding of the ratifying Senate.” (Ibid.,
p. 1369.)

43. Three different interpretations are advanced as to the domestic
effects of an international obligation. Three different interpretations are

advanced as to domestic implementation of the United Nations Charter,
the Court’s Statute and the Avena Judgment. The Court could have made
an important contribution to the development of international law by
settling the issues raised by these conflicting interpretations.

45Mexique et de celle des Etats-Unis. Elle interprète la portée juridique de
l’article 94 de la Charte des Nations Unies et l’article 59 du Statut de la

Cour comme suit:
«Le pouvoir exécutif soutient que l’expression «s’engage à se

conformer» ne constitue pas «une reconnaissance du fait que les
décisions de la CIJ ont un effet juridique immédiat dans les juridic-
tions internes des Membres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies»,
mais qu’il s’agit d’un «engagement de la part des Membres de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies de prendre ultérieurement, par

l’intermédiaire de leurs pouvoirs politiques, des mesures d’exécution
de la décision de la CIJ». Nous partageons cette interprétation
de l’article 94. Cette disposition n’est pas une directive adressée
aux juridictions internes . Elle ne prévoit pas que les Etats-Unis

«sont tenus de» ou «doivent» se conformer aux décisions de la
CIJ. De plus, rien n’indique que le Sénat, au moment où il a ratifié
la Charte des Nations Unies, avait l’intention d’accorder aux
décisions de la CIJ un effet juridique immédiat devant ses juri-
dictions internes.» (128 S. Ct. 1346, 1358 (2008); les italiques sont

de moi.)
41. La conclusion de la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis selon laquelle

l’arrêt Avena n’a pas, en lui-même, valeur de loi fédérale contraignante
contredit la position du pouvoir exécutif des Etats-Unis selon laquelle

«s’il est vrai que l’arrêt Avena ne peut pas, de lui-même, forcer les
juridictions internes à écarter des règles de carence procédurale
d’application générale, cet arrêt est devenu assimilable à une loi
interne ayant précisément cet effet, en vertu du mémorandum prési-
dentiel et du pouvoir du président «d’établir des règles obligatoires

ayant prépondérance sur les lois contraires en vigueur au niveau des
Etats»» (ibid., p. 1367).

42. Après avoir indiqué clairement que la transformation unilatérale
d’un traité non auto-exécutoire en un traité auto-exécutoire ne fait pas
partie des moyens dont dispose le président des Etats-Unis pour faire res-
pecter une obligation internationale, la Cour suprême a précisé:

«Lorsque le président exerce son pouvoir d’«exécution» d’un
traité non auto-exécutoire en l’assimilant unilatéralement à une loi
interne, il agit contrairement à l’intention implicite du Sénat ayant

ratifié ledit traité.» (Ibid., p. 1369.)
43. Il existe trois interprétations différentes des effets, sur le plan

national, d’une obligation internationale, et trois interprétations diffé-
rentes de la mise en Œuvre, sur le plan national, de la Charte des Nations
Unies, du Statut de la Cour et de l’arrêt Avena. La Cour aurait donc
pu apporter une contribution importante au développement du droit

international en tranchant les questions soulevées par ces interprétations
contradictoires.

45 V. R EVIEW AND R ECONSIDERATION

44. It is justifiable to conclude that a dispute arises in the present case
out of the fundamentally different views taken by Mexico and the United
States on the interpretation to be given to the obligation imposed by the
Avena Judgment. But there is not only a conflict of legal views and of

interests between the two countries. There is a disagreement on several
points of law and, also, on the facts.
45. In its oral pleadings, Mexico recalled that the review and reconsid-
eration mandated by the Avena Judgment must take place as part of the
“judicial process”. Mexico pointed out that

“since March 2004, at least 33 of the 51 Mexican nationals named in

the Court’s Judgment have sought review and reconsideration in
United States state and federal courts.

To date, only one of these nationals — Osbaldo Torres Aguil-
era — has received review and reconsideration consistent with the

Court’s mandate. We should also mention, however, that the State
of Arkansas agreed to reduce Mr. Rafael Camargo Ojeda’s death
sentence to life imprisonment in exchange for his agreement to waive
his right to review and reconsideration under the Avena Judgment.

All other efforts to enforce the Avena Judgment have failed .”
(CR 2008/14, p. 20, paras. 2 and 3 (Babcock); emphasis added.)

46. In contrast, the United States claims that “several Mexican nation-
als named in Avena have already received review and reconsideration of
their convictions and sentences” (CR 2008/15, p. 56, para. 22 (Bellinger);
emphasis added). But only Osbaldo Torres is mentioned as a beneficiary

of the remedy.
47. Fifty-one Mexican nationals fell within the scope of the review and
reconsideration mandated in the Avena Judgment. At present only 50 are
on the list, after the execution of José Medellín Rojas by the State of

Texas on 5 August 2008 without review and reconsideration of his con-
viction and sentence. The case of Torres Aguilera has already been men-
tioned. Seven other cases have been disposed of without recourse to
review and reconsideration. Rafael Camargo Ojeda, in Arkansas, under a
plea agreement facilitated by Avena, waived his right to review and

reconsideration in exchange for the reduction of his death sentence to life
imprisonment. Juan Caballero Hernández, Mario Flores Urbán and
Gabriel Solache Romero had their sentences commuted by the Governor
of Illinois in 2003, a measure which benefited all persons on death row in

that state at that time. Martin Raul Soto Fong and Osvaldo Regalado
Soriano in Arizona had their sentences commuted after the United States
Supreme Court declared unconstitutional the application of a death sen-
tence to those under age at the time they committed the crime. Daniel
Angel Plata Estrada in Texas had his death sentence commuted after the

46 V. R ÉEXAMEN ET REVISION

44. On est tout à fait fondé à conclure qu’un désaccord est né, en la
présente affaire, des vues diamétralement opposées du Mexique et des
Etats-Unis quant à l’interprétation qu’il convient de faire de l’obligation
prescrite par l’arrêt Avena. Ce n’est cependant pas seulement un conflit

d’opinions juridiques et d’intérêts qui oppose les deux pays. Il existe un
désaccord sur différents points de droit et, également, de fait.
45. A l’audience, le Mexique a rappelé que le réexamen et la revision
prescrits par l’arrêt Avena devaient s’inscrire dans le cadre de la «procé-
dure judiciaire». Il a indiqué que,

«depuis mars 2004, au moins trente-trois des cinquante et un ressor-

tissants mexicains cités dans l’arrêt de la Cour ont demandé le réexa-
men et la revision de leur cas auprès de juridictions des Etats fédérés
et de l’Etat fédéral des Etats-Unis d’Amérique.
A ce jour, seul l’un de ces ressortissants — M. Osbaldo Torres
Aguilera — a vu son cas réexaminé et révisé conformément à la déci-

sion de la Cour. Il convient toutefois d’indiquer que l’Etat de l’Arkan-
sas a accepté de commuer la peine capitale prononcée contre
M. Rafael Camargo Ojeda en une peine de réclusion à perpétuité en
échange de son consentement à renoncer au droit au réexamen et à

la revision prévus par l’arrêt Avena. Tous les autres efforts déployés
aux fins de la mise en Œuvre de cet arrêt ont échoué. » (CR 2008/14,
p. 20, par. 2 et 3 (Babcock); les italiques sont de moi.)

46. Les Etats-Unis soutiennent, quant à eux, que «plusieurs ressortis-
sants mexicains qui sont cités [dans l’arrêt Avena] ont bénéficié d’un ré-
examen et d’une revision des verdicts de culpabilité et des peines qui avaient
été prononcés à leur encontre» (CR 2008/15, p. 56, par. 22 (Bellin-

ger); les italiques sont de moi). Or, seul M. Osbaldo Torres est mentionné.
47. Cinquante et un ressortissants mexicains étaient visés par le réexa-
men et la revision prescrits par l’arrêt Avena. A l’heure actuelle, ils ne
sont plus que cinquante, M. José Medellín Rojas ayant été exécuté par

l’Etat du Texas, le 5 août 2008, sans avoir bénéficié du réexamen et de la
revision du verdict de culpabilité rendu et de la peine prononcée à son
encontre. Le cas de M. Torres Aguilera a déjà été mentionné. Sept autres
affaires ont été tranchées sans qu’il y ait eu réexamen et revision. En
Arkansas, M. Rafael Camargo Ojeda a renoncé à son droit au réexamen

et à la revision en échange de la commutation de la peine capitale pro-
noncée à son encontre en une peine de réclusion à perpétuité, dans le
cadre d’une composition pénale (plea agreement) qui a pu être conclue à
la suite de l’arrêt Avena. Les peines de MM. Juan Caballero Hernández,

Mario Flores Urbán et Gabriel Solache Romero ont été commuées par
le gouverneur de l’Illinois en 2003, mesure dont ont bénéficié toutes les
personnes condamnées à la peine capitale dans cet Etat à l’époque.
En Arizona, les peines de MM. Martin Raul Soto Fong et Osvaldo
Regalado Soriano ont été commuées après que la Cour suprême des

46United States Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional the execution of a

mentally retarded person (source: http://www.internationaljusticeproject.
org/nationals-Stats.com and http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/foreign-
nationals-and-death-penalty-us). It is now almost five years since the
Avena Judgment was handed down and 42 Mexican nationals have yet to

receive the relief required by it.

VI. T HE O BLIGATION F ALLS UPON ALL S TATE AND

F EDERAL AUTHORITIES

48. Mexico contends that the obligation of result falls upon all state
and federal authorities and, particularly, upon the United States Supreme

Court, taking into account the “judicial process” remedy mandated by
Avena. The conclusion reached by Mexico on this matter cannot be
regarded as anything else but proof of a clash of views — reflecting a
disagreement with the United States on a point of law — and therefore a

dispute. According to Mexico,

“the [United States Supreme] Court found that the expression of the
obligation to comply in Article 94 (1) somehow precluded the judi-
cial branch — the authority best suited to implement the obligation
imposed by Avena — from taking steps to comply . There is nothing

in the text or object and purpose of Article 94 (1) that suggests such
an incongruous result. It is moreover fundamentally inconsistent
with the interpretation of the Avena Judgment as imposing an obli-
gation of result incumbent on all constituent organs, including the

judiciary. Needless to say, Mexico does not agree with the Supreme
Court’s interpretation. ” (Submission of Mexico in Response to the
Written Observations of the United States of America, 17 Septem-
ber 2008, p. 15, para. 53; emphasis added.)

49. Clearly, this is an issue on which Mexico has indicated “the precise
point or points in dispute as to the meaning or scope of the judgment”.
Mexico’s contention is that the United States Supreme Court

“does not share Mexico’s view of the Avena Judgment — that is,
that the operative language establishes an obligation of result reach-
ing all organs, including the federal and state judiciaries, that must
be discharged irrespective of domestic law impediments ”( ibid.,p.16,

para. 56; emphasis added).

47Etats-Unis eut déclaré inconstitutionnelle la condamnation à la peine

capitale d’une personne mineure à l’époque des faits. Au Texas, la
peine capitale prononcée à l’encontre de M. Daniel Angel Plata Estrada
a été commuée après que la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis eut jugé
inconstitutionnelle l’exécution d’un déficient mental (source: http://

www.internationaljusticeproject.org/nationals-Stats.com et http://www.
deathpenaltyinfo.org/foreign-nationals-and-death-penalty-us). Cela fait
déjà près de cinq ans que l’arrêt Avena a été rendu, et quarante-deux res-
sortissants mexicains n’ont toujours pas bénéficié du remède prescrit.

VI. L’ OBLIGATION INCOMBE À TOUTES LES AUTORITÉS ,

TANT À L ÉCHELON DES E TATS QU ’ÀL ’ÉCHELON FÉDÉRAL

48. Le Mexique soutient que l’obligation de résultat incombe à toutes
les autorités, tant à l’échelon fédéral qu’à celui des Etats, et, en particu-

lier, à la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis puisque le remède prescrit par
l’arrêt Avena est une «procédure judiciaire». La conclusion du Mexique à
cet égard ne peut être considérée que comme la preuve d’une absolue
divergence de vues — qui reflète le désaccord l’opposant aux Etats-Unis

sur un point de droit — et, partant, d’une contestation. Selon le Mexique,

«la Cour suprême [des Etats-Unis] a conclu que la formulation de
l’obligation de respecter les arrêts de la Cour énoncée au para-
graphe 1 de l’article 94 empêchait, d’une manière ou d’une autre,
les autorités judiciaires — les autorités les mieux placées pour exé-

cuter l’obligation imposée par l’arrêt Avena — de prendre les mesures
pertinentes. Il n’y a rien dans le libellé ou dans l’objet de cette
disposition qui justifie une conclusion aussi absurde. Ce serait
en outre fondamentalement incompatible avec l’interprétation

de l’arrêt Avena selon laquelle celui-ci impose une obligation de résul-
tat à tous les organes constitutifs de l’Etat, y compris au pouvoir
judiciaire. Il va sans dire que le Mexique rejette l’interprétation
de la Cour suprême. » (Supplément d’information du Mexique

en réponse aux observations écrites des Etats-Unis d’Amérique,
17 septembre 2008, p. 15, par. 53; les italiques sont de moi.)

49. Il s’agit, à l’évidence, d’une question au sujet de laquelle le Mexi-
que a indiqué «avec précision» «le point ou les points contestés quant au
sens ou à la portée de l’arrêt». Le Mexique soutient que la Cour suprême

des Etats-Unis

«ne partage pas [s]es vues ... au sujet de l’arrêt Avena — selon les-
quelles le dispositif de celui-ci institue une obligation de résultat
visant tous les organes du gouvernement, y compris les organes judi-
ciaires à l’échelon fédéral et au niveau des Etats, qui doit être res-

pectée en dépit des obstacles posés par le droit interne »( ibid.,p.16,
par. 56; les italiques sont de moi).

47 50. In the light of all these considerations, it is obvious that there is a
misreading and a misinterpretation in the present Judgment of Mexico’s

position. The Court’s mistaken assumptions are reflected in paragraph 24
of this Judgment:

“Mexico referred in particular to the actions of the United States
federal Executive, claiming that certain actions reflected the United
States disagreement with Mexico over the meaning or scope of the
Avena Judgment. According to Mexico, this difference of views
manifested itself in the position taken by the United States Govern-

ment in the Supreme Court . . . Mexico maintains that the United
States Government’s narrow reading of the means for implementing
the Judgment led to its failure to take all the steps necessary to bring
about compliance by all authorities concerned with the obligation
borne by the United States.” (Emphasis added.)

51. It is not Mexico’s position that the failure to comply with the
Avena obligation is attributable only to the United States federal Execu-

tive. What Mexico has argued is that the definitive determination to deny
the judicial review and reconsideration mandated by Avena is attribut-
able to the United States Supreme Court for having decided that: “while
a treaty may constitute an international commitment, it is not domestic
law unless Congress has enacted statutes implementing it”; “the Avena

Judgment . . . is not automatically domestic law”; “Avena does not by
itself constitute binding federal law”;

“the President’s Memorandum does not independently require the
States to provide review and reconsideration of the claims of the 51
Mexican nationals named in Avena without regard to state proce-
dural default rules”.

52. Given these judicial determinations, there can be no doubt that the
United States Supreme Court does not share the understanding that the

mandate of the Avena Judgment is an obligation of result. The same is
true of other authorities, and especially federal and state courts, as is evi-
dent from decisions adopted by such jurisdictions, including the Supreme
Court of Oregon, the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, the United
States Supreme Court, state trial courts, federal district courts and the

United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit.

53. In paragraph 48 of the Order of 16 July 2008, indicating provi-
sional measures, the Court stated:

“in Mexico’s view, the fact that ‘[n]either the Texas executive, nor
the Texas legislature, nor the federal executive, nor the federal leg-
islature has taken any legal steps at this point that would stop th[e]

execution [of Mr. Medellín] from going forward . . . reflects a dispute
over the meaning and scope of [the] Avena [Judgment]’”.

48 50. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, il paraît évident que le présent
arrêt fait une interprétation erronée de la position du Mexique. Cela res-

sort du paragraphe 24:

«Le Mexique s’est notamment référé à la conduite de l’exécutif fé-
déral des Etats-Unis, affirmant que certains aspects de celle-ci reflé-
taient son désaccord avec les Etats-Unis sur le sens et la portée de l’arrêt
Avena. Selon le Mexique, cette divergence de vues s’est manifestée
à travers la position adoptée par le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis

devant la Cour suprême... Le Mexique soutient que le Gouvernement
des Etats-Unis, en raison de sa vision restrictive des moyens de mise
en Œuvre de l’arrêt, a manqué de prendre toutes les mesures nécessaires
pour amener l’ensemble des autorités compétentes à respecter
l’obligation incombant aux Etats-Unis.» (Les italiques sont de moi.)

51. Le Mexique ne prétend pas que le non-respect de l’obligation de se
conformer à l’arrêt Avena serait uniquement imputable à l’exécutif fédé-

ral des Etats-Unis. Sa thèse est que la décision finale consistant à ne pas
accorder le réexamen et la revision judiciaires prescrits par l’arrêt Avena
est imputable à la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis, laquelle a jugé que, «s’il
est vrai que les traités sont des engagements de caractère international, ils
n’ont pas valeur de droit interne, à moins que le Congrès n’ait promulgué

des lois pour les mettre en Œuvre», que «l’arrêt Avena ... n’a pas auto-
matiquement valeur de droit interne», que «l’arrêt Avena n’a pas en soi
valeur de droit fédéral ayant force obligatoire» et que

«le mémorandum présidentiel n’oblige pas de façon indépendante
les Etats à procéder au réexamen et à la revision des demandes dépo-
sées par les cinquante et un ressortissants mexicains dans l’affaire
Avena, sans tenir compte des règles de la carence procédurale appli-
cables à leur niveau».

52. Compte tenu de ces conclusions juridiques, il ne saurait faire de
doute que la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis ne souscrit pas à la thèse selon

laquelle l’arrêt Avena prescrit une obligation de résultat. Il en va de même
des autres autorités, et plus particulièrement des juridictions au niveau
fédéral et à celui des Etats, ainsi que cela ressort clairement des décisions
prises par celles-ci, y compris la Cour suprême de l’Oregon, la cour
d’appel pénale du Texas, la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis, les tribunaux

de première instance à l’échelon des Etats, les tribunaux fédéraux de dis-
trict et la cour d’appel des Etats-Unis pour le cinquième circuit.
53. Au paragraphe 48 de son ordonnance en indication de mesures
conservatoires du 16 juillet 2008, la Cour a indiqué:

«selon le Mexique, le fait que «[n]i le pouvoir exécutif ni la législa-
ture du Texas, ni le pouvoir exécutif fédéral ni le Congrès n’ont, à ce
stade, pris une quelconque mesure de nature juridique qui empêche-

rait l’exécution de M. Medellín ... reflète l’existence d’une contesta-
tion quant au sens et à la portée de l’arrêt Avena»».

48Mexico reiterated this position in its further written explanations.
54. The United States however submitted in its oral pleadings that

“the United States agrees that it is responsible under international
law for the actions of its political subdivisions. That is not the same,
however, as saying that the views of a state court are attributed to

the United States for purposes of determining whether there is a dis-
pute between the United States and Mexico as to the meaning and
scope of the Avena Judgment.” (CR 2008/17, p. 11, para. 13 (Bell-
inger).)

The question of attribution of responsibility for the conduct of State
organs will be dealt with at a later stage in this opinion. But what is
important at present is to observe that there is undeniably a dispute
between Mexico and the United States on this point. Of course, the issue

relates not only to the views of a state court, as the United States would
have us believe, although those views may also have legal consequences
in the implementation of the Avena Judgment.

55. The crux of the dispute turns on the decision of the highest federal

judicial authority of the United States. The interpretation by the United
States Supreme Court is conclusive as a matter of domestic law and bind-
ing on all state and federal courts and officials — including the federal
Executive. Mexico rightly points out that “the views of the Supreme

Court as to the scope and meaning of the United States’ treaty obliga-
tions are relevant for purposes of the objective determination of a dis-
pute” (Submission of Mexico in Response to the Written Observations of
the United States of America, 17 September 2008, p. 14, para. 51).

56. In the present Judgment, the Court states, in paragraph 38, that “it
is difficult to discern, save by inference, Mexico’s position regarding the
existence of a dispute as to whether the obligation of result falls on all

state and federal authorities”. But it is not only by inference that the
Mexican position can be discerned. As shown in the preceding para-
graphs, there is a dispute: Mexico clearly argues that “each of the Fed-
eral Executive, Judiciary, and Legislature have failed to treat the Avena
Judgment as imposing an obligation of result” (ibid., p. 11, para. 40).

57. The United States disputes this contention:

“under established international law, whether Texas, or any other
U.S. state, has a different interpretation of the Court’s judgment is
irrelevant to the issue before the Court. Similarly irrelevant are any
interpretations by officials of other entities of the federal govern-
ment that are not deemed by international law to speak on behalf of

49Le Mexique a réaffirmé sa position dans son supplément d’information.
54. A l’audience, les Etats-Unis ont toutefois déclaré qu’ils

«reconnaiss[ai]ent qu’ils [étaient] responsables en droit international
des actes de leurs subdivisions politiques. Cependant, cela ne revient
pas à dire que les prises de position d’une juridiction d’un Etat
fédéré devraient être attribuées aux Etats-Unis afin de détermi-

ner si une contestation oppose ce pays au Mexique au sujet du
sens et de la portée de l’arrêt Avena.» (CR 2008/17, p. 11, par. 13
(Bellinger).)

La question de l’attribution de la responsabilité à raison du comporte-
ment des organes de l’Etat sera examinée ultérieurement dans la présente
opinion. Ce qui importe, à ce stade, c’est de relever qu’il existe indénia-
blement une contestation entre le Mexique et les Etats-Unis sur ce point.
Naturellement, cette contestation n’a pas, contrairement à ce que les

Etats-Unis souhaiteraient nous faire accroire, uniquement trait aux vues
exprimées par une juridiction d’un Etat fédéré, bien que ces vues puissent
avoir des conséquences juridiques quant à l’exécution de l’arrêt Avena.
55. L’élément central de la contestation est la décision rendue par la
plus haute autorité judiciaire des Etats-Unis à l’échelon fédéral. L’inter-

prétation de la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis est définitive du point de
vue du droit interne et a force obligatoire à l’égard de toutes les juridic-
tions et autorités, tant à l’échelon des Etats fédérés qu’à l’échelon fédéral
— y compris l’exécutif fédéral. Le Mexique précise à juste titre que «les
vues de la Cour suprême concernant la portée et le sens des obligations

conventionnelles des Etats-Unis sont pertinentes aux fins de statuer objec-
tivement sur la question de l’existence d’une contestation» (Supplément
d’information du Mexique en réponse aux observations écrites des Etats-
Unis d’Amérique, 17 septembre 2008, p. 14, par. 51).
56. Au paragraphe 38 du présent arrêt, la Cour indique qu’«il est dif-

ficile de discerner, sauf par déduction, la position du Mexique quant à
l’existence d’une contestation sur la question de savoir si l’obligation de
résultat incombe à toutes les autorités, à l’échelon fédéral et à celui des
Etats». La déduction n’est toutefois pas la seule manière de discerner la
position du Mexique. Ainsi que nous l’avons démontré dans le paragra-

phe précédent, il existe une contestation: le Mexique affirme clairement
que «ni l’exécutif fédéral, ni les autorités judiciaires, ni les autorités légis-
latives n’ont interprété l’arrêt Avena comme imposant une obligation de
résultat» (ibid., p. 11, par. 40).
57. Les Etats-Unis contestent cette thèse:

«au regard des principes établis du droit international, le fait que le
Texas, ou tout autre Etat des Etats-Unis, interprète différemment
l’arrêt de la Cour n’a aucune pertinence quant à la question soumise

à la Cour. Il en va de même de toutes les interprétations émanant de
responsables d’autres entités du gouvernement fédéral qui ne sont

49 the United States.” (Written Observations of the United States of
America, 29 August 2008, p. 20, para. 44.)

In this statement, it is worth noting that great care has been taken to

avoid any mention of state and federal courts and, in particular, the role
of the United States Supreme Court. The question is not who speaks for
the United States. The question is what is the legal consequence of a deci-
sion by the United States Supreme Court interpreting a United States
international obligation as not constituting binding federal law without

implementing legislation.

58. In its final submissions to the Court on 17 September 2008, Mexico
asked the Court to adjudge and declare

“(a) That the correct interpretation of the obligation incumbent
upon the United States under paragraph 153 (9) of the Avena
Judgment is that it is an obligation of result ...

and that, pursuant to the interpretation of the foregoing obliga-
tion of result,
(1) the United States, acting through all of its competent

organs and all its constituent subdivisions, including all
branches of government and any official, state or federal,
exercising government authority, must take all measures
necessary to provide the reparation of review and recon-
sideration mandated by the Avena Judgment in para-

graph 153 (9)” (Submission of Mexico in Response to the
Written Observations of the United States of America,
17 September 2008, p. 24, para. 86; emphasis added;
Judgment, paragraph 10).

59. After a careful reading of this submission, I find it incomprehen-
sible that the Court could conclude that

“Mexico did not specify that the obligation of the United States
under the Avena Judgment was directly binding upon its organs,
subdivisions or officials, although this might be inferred from the

arguments it presented, in particular in its further written explana-
tions.” (Ibid., paragraph 41).

All the required specificity is there; there is no need to resort to infer-
ences.
60. In its concluding remarks and submissions, Mexico indicated that
it

“welcomes any good faith attempt to ensure its nationals are pro-
vided with effective review and reconsideration that is fully consist-
ent with this Court’s mandate in the Avena Judgment. Nonetheless,

it is clear that constituent organs of the United States do not share
Mexico’s view that the Avena Judgment imposes an obligation of

50 pas, en droit international, réputés s’exprimer au nom des Etats-
Unis.» (Observations écrites des Etats-Unis d’Amérique, 29 août

2008, p. 20, par. 44.)
Il convient de relever que, dans cette déclaration, les Etats-Unis ont bien

veillé à ne pas mentionner les juridictions des Etats et les juridictions
fédérales et, en particulier, la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis. La question
n’est pas de savoir qui parle au nom des Etats-Unis. La question est de
savoir quelles sont les conséquences juridiques d’une décision émanant de
la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis aux termes de laquelle celle-ci dit qu’une

obligation internationale incombant aux Etats-Unis n’a pas valeur de loi
fédérale contraignante en l’absence de loi d’application.
58. Dans ses conclusions finales en date du 17 septembre 2008, le
Mexique a prié la Cour de dire et juger:

«a) Que, selon l’interprétation de l’obligation imposée aux Etats-
Unis par le point 9) du paragraphe 153 de l’arrêt Avena, celle-ci
constitue une obligation de résultat ...

et que, conformément à l’interprétation de l’obligation de résul-
tat susmentionnée,
1) les Etats-Unis, par l’intermédiaire de tous leurs organes

compétents et de toutes leurs entités constitutives, y compris
toutes les branches du gouvernement et tout détenteur de
l’autorité publique, à l’échelon des Etats et à l’échelon fédéral,
doivent prendre toutes les mesures nécessaires pour accorder
la réparation que constituent le réexamen et la revision

prescrits dans l’arrêt Avena au point 9) du paragraphe 153»
(Supplémentd’informationduMexiqueenréponseauxobser-
vations écrites des Etats-Unis d’Amérique, 17 septembre
2008, p. 24, par. 86; les italiques sont de moi; arrêt, par. 10).

59. Ayant attentivement examiné ces conclusions, je ne comprends pas
comment la Cour peut conclure que

«[l]e Mexique n’a pas précisé que l’obligation imposée par l’arrêt
Avena aux Etats-Unis liait directement les organes, entités ou auto-
rités de ce pays, même si cela pourrait être déduit des arguments

qu’il a présentés, notamment dans son supplément d’information»
(ibid., par. 41).

Toutes les précisions nécessaires figurent dans cette demande; point n’est
besoin de procéder par déduction.
60. Dans ses observations finales et conclusions, le Mexique a indiqué
qu’il

«accueill[ait] avec satisfaction tout effort déployé de bonne foi en
vue d’assurer que ses ressortissants bénéficient d’un réexamen et
d’une revision effectifs pleinement conformes aux prescriptions de la

Cour dans l’arrêt Avena. Il est clair toutefois que les entités consti-
tutives des Etats-Unis ne partagent pas le point de vue du Mexique

50 result. It is thus clearly established that there is a dispute between the
United States and Mexico as to the meaning and scope of para-

graph 153 (9) of said Judgment.” (CR 2008/16, p. 21, para. 2 (Lomó-
naco); emphasis added.)

Contrary to what is stated in paragraph 41 of this Judgment, I do not
believe that it can be argued that “Mexico has not established the
existence of any dispute between itself and the United States”. It is not

sufficient to find that the United States claims there is no dispute. The
positions and actions taken by various United States federal and state
authorities, particularly the federal judiciary, prove otherwise.

VII. S TATE RESPONSIBILITY

61. In 1999 the Court decided that the international responsibility of a
State was engaged by the actions of the competent organs and authorities
of that State, whatever they may be. Thus in the LaGrand case, when the
Court ordered the provisional measures to be taken by the United States,
it concluded that

“Whereas the international responsibility of a State is engaged by
the action of the competent organs and authorities acting in that

State, whatever they may be; whereas the United States should take
all measures at its disposal to ensure that Walter LaGrand is not
executed pending the final decision in these proceedings; whereas,
according to the information available to the Court, implementation
of the measures indicated in the present Order falls within the juris-

diction of the Governor of Arizona ; whereas the Government of the
United States is consequently under the obligation to transmit the
present Order to the said Governor ; whereas the Governor of Arizona
isundertheobligationtoactinconformitywiththeinternationalunder-

takings of the United States ”( LaGrand (Germany v. United
States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 March 1999,
I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I), p. 16, para. 28; emphasis added).

62. It is crystal clear in its final submissions (see paragraph 10 of the
Judgment) that Mexico has taken into account the language used by the
Court in the LaGrand Order, even employing the same terminology.

Mexico asserts that there is an obligation of result incumbent upon the
United States under the Avena Judgment. The international responsibil-
ity of the United States is “engaged by the actions of its competent organs
and authorities”. Thus,

“the United States, acting through all of its competent organs and all
its constituent subdivisions , including all branches of government
and any official, state or federal, exercising government authority,

51 selon lequel l’arrêt Avena impose une obligation de résultat. Il est
donc clairement établi qu’il existe une contestation entre les Etats-

Unis et le Mexique sur le sens et la portée du point 9) du para-
graphe 153 dudit arrêt.» (CR 2008/16, p. 21, par. 2 (Lomónaco); les
italiques sont de moi.)

Contrairement à ce qui est indiqué au paragraphe 41 du présent arrêt, je
ne pense pas que l’on puisse soutenir que «le Mexique n’a établi l’exis-
tence d’aucune contestation l’opposant aux Etats-Unis». On ne saurait se

contenter de l’affirmation des Etats-Unis selon laquelle il n’existe aucune
contestation. Les positions et actions de différentes autorités américaines,
tant à l’échelon fédéral qu’à celui des Etats — particulièrement le pouvoir
judiciaire fédéral —, attestent le contraire.

VII. R ESPONSABILITÉ DE L ’ETAT

61. En 1999, la Cour a jugé que la responsabilité internationale d’un
Etat était engagée par l’action des organes et autorités compétents agis-
sant dans cet Etat, quels qu’ils soient. En l’affaire LaGrand, elle a ainsi
conclu, lorsqu’elle a indiqué les mesures conservatoires devant être prises
par les Etats-Unis:

«Considérant que la responsabilité internationale d’un Etat est
engagée par l’action des organes et autorités compétents agissant

dans cet Etat, quels qu’ils soient; que les Etats-Unis doivent prendre
toutes les mesures dont ils disposent pour que M. Walter LaGrand
ne soit pas exécuté tant que la décision définitive en la présente ins-
tance n’aura pas été rendue; que, selon les informations dont dispose
la Cour, la mise en Œuvre des mesures indiquées dans la présente

ordonnance relève de la compétence du gouverneur de l’Etat d’Ari-
zona; que le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis est par suite dans l’obliga-
tion de transmettre la présente ordonnance audit gouverneur ;etque
le gouverneur de l’Arizona est dans l’obligation d’agir conformément

aux engagements internationaux des Etats-Unis .» ( LaGrand (Alle-
magne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), mesures conservatoires, ordon-
nance du 3 mars 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (I) , p. 16, par. 28; les
italiques sont de moi.)

62. Il ressort très clairement des conclusions finales du Mexique (voir
le paragraphe 10 de l’arrêt) que celui-ci a tenu compte des termes employés
par la Cour dans l’ordonnance LaGrand, et qu’il les a même repris. Le

Mexique soutient qu’une obligation de résultat incombe aux Etats-Unis
en vertu de l’arrêt Avena. La responsabilité internationale des Etats-Unis
est «engagée par l’action des organes et autorités compétents agissant
dans cet Etat ». Dès lors,

«les Etats-Unis, par l’intermédiaire de tous leurs organes compétents
et de toutes leurs entités constitutives , y compris toutes les branches
du gouvernement et tout détenteur de l’autorité publique, à l’échelon

51 must take all measures necessary to provide the reparation of review
and reconsideration mandated by the Avena Judgment in para-

graph 153 (9)” (emphasis added).

63. Article 4 of the International Law Commission’s Articles on State
Responsibility provides:

“1. The conduct of any State organ shall be considered an act of
that State under international law, whether the organ exercises legis-
lative, executive, judicial or any other functions, whatever position

it holds in the organization, and whatever its character as an organ
of the central government or of the territorial unit of the State.”
(Report of the International Law Commission, Fifty-third Session,
General Assembly Official Records , Supplement No. 10 (A/56/10).)

64. In its Commentary to Article 4, the International Law Commis-
sion holds that the “reference to a ‘State organ’ covers all the individual
and collective entities which make up the organization of the State and
act on its behalf”. It adds that “the State is responsible for the conduct of
its own organs, acting in that capacity”, something that has long been

recognized in international judicial decisions. The Commission also points
out that

“the reference to a State organ in Article 4 is intended in the most
general sense. It is not limited to the organs of the central govern-
ment, to officials at a high level or to persons with responsibility for

the external relations of the State . It extends to organs of govern-
ment of whatever kind or classification, exercising whatever func-
tions, and at whatever level in the hierarchy, including those at pro-
vincial or even local level.” (International Law Commission, Draft
Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful

Acts, with commentaries Ch. II, Art. 4, Yearbook of the International
Law Commission, 2001, Vol. II, Part Two; emphasis added.)

65. It is obvious that Mexico’s final submission, in keeping with the
LaGrand Order and with what is indicated in the Articles on State
Responsibility, asserts that there is an obligation of result falling upon

the United States and its competent organs and constituent subdivisions.
These must be understood to include inter alia the State of Texas, the
Supreme Court of the State of Oregon, the United States federal courts,
the United States Government, and the United States Supreme Court.

Clearly, the wrongful conduct must be attributed to the United States, as
a political entity under international law, a political entity that must nec-
essarily act through its competent organs, its constituent subdivisions and
all officials exercising government authority.

52 des Etats et à l’échelon fédéral, doivent prendre toutes les mesures
nécessaires pour accorder la réparation que constituent le réexamen

et la revision prescrits dans l’arrêt Avena au point 9) du para-
graphe 153» (les italiques sont de moi).

63. L’article 4 des articles de la Commission du droit international sur
la responsabilité de l’Etat dispose que:

«1. Le comportement de tout organe de l’Etat est considéré comme
un fait de l’Etat d’après le droit international, que cet organe exerce
des fonctions législative, exécutive, judiciaire ou autres, quelle que

soit la position qu’il occupe dans l’organisation de l’Etat, et quelle
que soit sa nature en tant qu’organe du gouvernement central ou
d’une collectivité territoriale de l’Etat.» (Nations Unies, Rapport de la
Commission du droit international, cinquante-troisième sessionD , ocu-
o
ments officiels de l’Assemblée générale , supplément n 10 (A56/10).)

64. Dans son commentaire de l’article 4, la Commission du droit inter-
national précise que «[l]’expression «organe de l’Etat» s’entend de toutes
les personnes ou entités qui entrent dans l’organisation de l’Etat et
agissent en son nom ». Elle ajoute que «l’Etat est responsable du com-
portement de ses organes, agissant en cette qualité », principe affirmé

de longue date dans les décisions des juridictions internationales. La
Commission précise également que

«[l]’expression «un organe de l’Etat» utilisée à l’article 4 doit s’en-
tendre dans son acception la plus large. Elle ne se limite pas aux
organes du gouvernement central, aux hauts responsables ou aux per-

sonnes chargées des relations extérieures de l’Etat . Elle recouvre les
organes publics de quelque nature et de quelque catégorie que ce soit ,
remplissant quelque fonction que ce soit et à quelque niveau que ce
soit, y compris au niveau régional, voire local.» (Commission du
droit international, Projet d’articles sur la responsabilité de l’Etat

pour faits internationalement illicites, Commentaires, chap. II, art. 4,
Annuaire de la Commission du droit international , 2001, vol. II,
deuxième partie; les italiques sont de moi.)

65. Il est clair que dans ses conclusions finales, qui sont conformes à
l’ordonnance LaGrand et à ce qui est dit dans les articles sur la respon-
sabilité de l’Etat, le Mexique affirme qu’une obligation de résultat incombe

aux Etats-Unis et à leurs organes compétents ainsi qu’à leurs entités
constitutives. Ces entités doivent être comprises comme incluant, notam-
ment, l’Etat du Texas, la Cour suprême de l’Etat de l’Oregon, les juridic-
tions fédérales des Etats-Unis, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis et la

Cour suprême des Etats-Unis. A l’évidence, le comportement illicite doit
être attribué aux Etats-Unis, en tant qu’entité politique en vertu du droit
international, entité politique qui doit nécessairement agir par l’intermé-
diaire de ses organes compétents, de ses entités constitutives et de toutes
les personnes exerçant l’autorité gouvernementale.

52 66. When these considerations are kept in mind, it is extremely diffi-

cult to understand the scope of paragraph 41 of this Judgment. The
Court contends that it could be argued that Mexico’s final submission

“does not say that there is an obligation of result falling upon the
various competent organs, constituent subdivisions and public
authorities, but only that the United States will act through these in
itself fulfilling the obligations incumbent on it under para-

graph 153 (9)”.
Contrary to what the Court states, a reading of Mexico’s final submis-

sions shows that it asserts that there is an obligation of result, in Mexico’s
interpretation, and that pursuant to such obligation the United States,
acting through any and all organs of the State, must take all necessary
measures to provide the Avena remedy.

VIII. C ONCLUSION

67. I have done my utmost to demonstrate in this dissenting opinion
that there is a dispute between Mexico and the United States, a dispute
which is ongoing. In my view, a dispute exists as to the meaning or scope

of the Avena Judgment, in the sense of Article 60 of the Statute of the
Court, since it is clear that Mexico and the United States have funda-
mentally different views on the interpretation of the obligation imposed
by the Avena Judgment. But it is my understanding that it is not only a
dispute/contestation/desacuerdo under Article 60. There is also a dispute

in the sense of Article 38, paragraph 1, since there is a disagreement on
several points of law and on the facts. I am convinced that there is a con-
flict of legal views and of interests between Mexico and the United States
on the substance of the obligations incumbent upon the United States

under the Avena Judgment.
68. Had it interpreted the scope and meaning of the Avena Judgment,
the Court could have made an invaluable contribution to the settlement
of a dispute which runs the risk of self-perpetuation. The Court had at its

disposal all the necessary elements to identify the precise point or points
in dispute as to the meaning or scope of the Avena Judgment. It decided
otherwise and the consequence is that the international legal order has
been deprived of an enlightened construction of its fundamental rules

and principles and, equally important, guidance in enforcing them.

(Signed) Bernardo S EPÚLVEDA -A MOR .

53 66. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, il est extrêmement difficile de com-

prendre la portée du paragraphe 41 du présent arrêt. La Cour estime que
l’on pourrait soutenir que la demande du Mexique

«ne signifie pas qu’il y ait une obligation de résultat incombant aux
divers organes compétents, entités constitutives et détenteurs de
l’autorité publique, mais uniquement que les Etats-Unis devront agir
par l’intermédiaire de ceux-ci pour s’acquitter des obligations qui

sont les leurs en vertu du point 9) du paragraphe 153».
Contrairement à ce que la Cour affirme, il ressort du libellé des conclu-

sions finales du Mexique que celui-ci soutient qu’il existe une obligation
de résultat et que, conformément à cette obligation, les Etats-Unis doi-
vent prendre, par l’intermédiaire de l’un quelconque des organes de
l’Etat, toutes les mesures nécessaires pour accorder la réparation prescrite

dans l’arrêt Avena.

VIII. C ONCLUSION

67. Dans la présente opinion dissidente, je me suis efforcé de démon-
trer qu’un désaccord oppose le Mexique et les Etats-Unis, désaccord qui
perdure. Il existe, selon moi, une contestation aux termes de l’article 60

du Statut de la Cour quant au sens et à la portée de l’arrêt Avena,
puisqu’il apparaît clairement que le Mexique et les Etats-Unis ont des
vues radicalement différentes quant à l’interprétation de l’obligation énon-
cée par l’arrêt Avena. Selon moi, il ne s’agit cependant pas uniquement
d’une contestation/dispute/desacuerdo au sens de l’article 60. Il existe éga-

lement un différend au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article 38, puisqu’il y a
désaccord sur divers points de droit et de fait. Je suis convaincu qu’un
conflit d’opinions juridiques et d’intérêts oppose le Mexique et les Etats-
Unis sur la nature des obligations incombant à ces derniers en vertu de

l’arrêt Avena.
68. Si la Cour avait interprété la portée et le sens de l’arrêt Avena, elle
aurait pu apporter une contribution inestimable au règlement d’un litige
qui risque de se perpétuer. Elle disposait de tous les éléments nécessaires

pour déterminer le point ou les points précis faisant l’objet d’une contes-
tation quant au sens et à la portée de l’arrêt Avena. Elle en a décidé
autrement, et l’ordre juridique international se voit donc privé d’une
interprétation éclairée de ses règles et principes fondamentaux et — ce

qui est tout aussi important — de lignes directrices pour les appliquer.

(Signé) Bernardo S EPÚLVEDA -AMOR .

53

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Dissenting opinion of Judge Sepúlveda-Amor

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