Declaration of Judge Keith

Document Number
124-20121119-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
124-20121119-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

740

DECLARATION OF JUDGE KEITH

1. As my votes indicate, I agree with the conclusions the Court reaches.
With one exception, I also agree in general with the reasons the Court
gives in support of those conclusions. The exception concerns the law tox
be applied to the delimitation of the maritime boundary and the applica -
tion of that law to the facts of this case (Part V of the Judgment).
2. Like the Court, I proceed on the basis that Articles 74 and 83 of the

1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea are declaratory
of customary international law (Judgment, paras. 138-139). Paragraph 1
of each Article reads as follows :

“The delimitation of the exclusive economic zone/continental shelf
between States with opposite or adjacent coasts shall be effected by
agreement on the basis of international law, as referred to in Arti -
cle 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in order to

achieve an equitable solution.”
Since no agreement has been reached, it is for the Court to make the

delimitation.
3. The two provisions are striking in their own terms : they do no more
than state an aim, they state that aim in broad terms, and they state nox
criteria for delimitation beyond the general reference to international law.
In all respects, they stand in sharp contrast to the only other provisioxn in
the Convention concerned with the delimitation of maritime areas

between States — Article 15 relating to overlapping territorial seas. That
provision states a rule: in the absence of agreement, a median line is to be
drawn, except where historic title or other special circumstances requirxes
a different delimitation.
4. The contrasts between those delimitation provisions are the more

striking when the evolution of the treaty texts is considered. The two
delimitation provisions included in the 1958 Conventions on the Territo -
rial Sea and the Contiguous Zone and on the Continental Shelf provided, x
in respect of overlapping territorial seas or continental shelves, the sxame
rule: in the absence of agreement, a median or equidistance line with a

special circumstances exception (and for the territorial sea also an hixs -
torical title exception), wording carried over into Article 15 of the
1982 Convention but certainly not into Articles 74 and 83. The Interna -
tional Law Commission, in its 1956 commentary on the draft of the con -
tinental shelf provision, which was adopted by the 1958 diplomatic
conference without change, said that in that provision it had adopted thxe

same principles as for its draft provisions on overlapping territorial sxeas.
The case for departures from the median line, it said, “may arise faixrly

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often, so that the rule adopted is fairly elastic” (Annual Report ofx the
ILC, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1956, Vol. II, p. 300,

paragraph 1 of commentary to Article 72).

5. The need for that elasticity, or indeed something more drastic,

appeared as early as 1969, in the first case requiring the Court to coxnsider
the law concerning the delimitation of the continental shelf — the North
Sea Continental Shelf cases (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark ; Fed ‑
eral Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969,
p. 3. There, too, one of the Parties had not accepted the relevant treaty, x
the 1958 Continental Shelf Convention, while the other two had, with the

consequence that the case was to be decided under customary interna -
tional law. The Court rejected the argument that the equidistance/median
line rule with its qualification in the Convention was, or had become,x
declaratory of customary international law (see especially para. 101 (A)
of the dispositif, ibid., p. 53). Having recalled the history of the develop -

ment of the 1958 text, it declared that it was clear that at no time wasx the
notion of equidistance seen as an inherent necessity. Current legal thinxk -
ing, it continued, was governed by two beliefs :

“first, that no one single method of delimitation was likely to proxve
satisfactory in all circumstances, and that delimitation should, there -

fore, be carried out by agreement (or by reference to arbitration); and
secondly, that it should be effected on equitable principles. It was ixn
pursuance of the first of these beliefs that in the draft that emergedx
as Article 6 of the Geneva Convention, the Commission gave priority
to delimitation by agreement, — and in pursuance of the second that
it introduced the exception in favour of ‘special circumstances’. xYet

the record shows that, even with these mitigations, doubts persisted,
particularly as to whether the equidistance principle would in all casesx
prove equitable.” (Ibid., p. 36, para. 55.)

Later in the Judgment the Court stated that there was no logical basis for
requiring only one method of delimitation to be used; there was no objec -
tion, it asserted, to using various methods concurrently (ibid., p. 49,

para. 90 ; see also para. 101 (B) of the dispositif, p. 53). Finally, “it is
necessary to seek not one method of delimitation but one goal” (ibid.,
p. 50, para. 92).
6. I do, of course, appreciate that much has happened since that Judg -
ment was delivered, about halfway through the 70 years since the first
continental shelf delimitation treaty was concluded, in 1942, between thxe

United Kingdom and Venezuela relating to the submarine areas of the
Gulf of Paria (205 LNTS 121). The developments include extensive uni -

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lateral State practice, relating as well to the exclusive economic zone,x a
concept which developed rapidly in the 1970s, many bilateral delimitatioxn
agreements, international court and tribunal decisions (more than 20 tox

date) and the major negotiations which led to the 1982 Convention and in
particular to Articles 15, 74 and 83 as well as to Part V, Exclusive Eco -
nomic Zone and Part VI, Continental Shelf. Those negotiations reflected
and contributed to that practice and case law. I see the course of thosex

negotiations as significant.

7. According to the Virginia Commentary on the Convention, the pro -
tracted negotiations on delimitation revealed the existence of two virtux -
ally irreconcilable approaches :

(i) delimitation should be effected by the application of the median line x

or equidistance line coupled with an exception for special circum -
stances ; and
(ii) delimitation should involve a more emphatic assertion of equitable
principles (M. Nordquist, S. Nandan, S. Rosenne (eds.), United

Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 : A Commentary,
Vol. II, p. 954).

That Commentary provides a valuable account of the evolution between
1973 and 1982 of the contest between those two approaches (pp. 948-985) .
By the end of those negotiations the present text had emerged with wide x
support. It put the emphasis on the objective of the process and, so far as

the resolution of disputes about delimitation was concerned, provided foxr
negotiations on the basis of international law and the other methods of x
peaceful settlement set out in Part XV of the Convention. All the efforts
to include in the text express requirements that the process of delimitaxtion

take into account specified matters such as equidistance as a rule or xprin -
ciple, relevant or special criteria or circumstances, the existence of ixslands
in the area or equitable principles, failed. According to one of the prixnci -
pal negotiators of that final text, speaking at the end of the Conferexnce,

“[T]he main difficulty arose in connection with setting out the
criteria particularly for delimitation in the economic zone or on the

1 One other important aspect of the negotiations is that in the early stagxes all three
issues of delimitation were included in proposals being considered by a xsingle working
group, dealing in exactly the same terms with each of them, but that from 1975 onwards
territorial sea delimitation was dealt with separately in drafts based oxn Article 12 of the
1958 Territorial Sea Convention ; see the Virginia Commentary, pp. 136-141.

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continental shelf. And, while there was broad agreement that these
should be as determined by relevant international law, several effortsx
to express that law in a provision failed to command support
across the two groups representing most of the directly interested

delegations [and supporting one or the other position stated at the
beginning of this paragraph]. Finally, this statement [stalemate] was
broken by abandoning efforts to express the relevant law substan -
tively and the vast majority of the interested delegations . . .

endorsed the provision which now appears in the Convention.

This provides that delimitation shall be effected on the basis of
international law as referred to in Article 38 of the Statute of the

International Court of Justice. We are satisfied that the relevant
principles of international law thus referred to are as identified by x
the International Court of Justice in its decision on the North Sea
cases in 1969 and as confirmed by subsequent judicial and arbitral
2
decisions.”

8. I accept at once that the judicial clarification and development, overx
the decades, of the law and particularly of the methods to be applied haxve
in significant measure enhanced the objectivity and predictability of xthe
process of delimitation. That is particularly so of the “delimitationx meth -

odology” consisting of three stages as laid out most recently in the xBlack
Sea case (Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 101-103, paras. 115-122). A primary
reason for recalling the history of the development of this area of law xis

to emphasize the role of legal principle. This is not simply a matter ofx rule
or method ; rather, the aim of an equitable solution must take centre
stage, and the choice of method or methods must be governed by that
aim. The Court did indeed recognize in the Black Sea case that different
methods may be called for if compelling reasons exist, a matter also

emphasized by the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in
its recent Judgment (Dispute concerning Delimitation of the Maritime
Boundary between Bangladesh and Myanmar in the Bay of Bengal
(Bangladesh/Myanmar), Judgment of 14 March 2012, ITLOS, pp. 72-75,

paras. 227-235). I have already recalled that the Court in 1969 saw no
objection to various methods being used concurrently (para. 5 above).

9. Against that background of the accepted law and its principled and
practical development, I now consider the most unusual geographic facts x

2 186th Plenary Meeting, 6 December 1982, A/CONF-62, Vol. XVII, p. 24, paras. 9-10.
For a valuable account and reflection by a participant in the Conferenxce see Philip Allott,
“Power Sharing in the Law of the Sea” 77 AJIL, (1983), pp. 19-27.

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of the present case. The ratio of the relevant coasts is about 8:1 in Nixca -
ragua’s favour (Judgment, para. 153). That proportion immediately dem -

onstrates for me the difficulty, or really the impossibility, of beginnxing
with a provisional median line even if it is adjusted or shifted by refexrence
to relevant circumstances. The provisional median line in sketch-map
No. 8 (p. 701), for instance, would accord nearly three-quarters of the
total maritime area to Colombia or an overall disproportion in its favouxr

of about 20:1. The adjustment or shifting required to address such a groxss
disproportion could not be achieved simply by a movement of the line in
the western part of the shared maritime area. The Court indeed recog -
nizes that by ending the adjusted provisional line north of Santa Catalixna
and south of Alburquerque Cays with the result that the line now extends
only about one-half of the north-south length of the area, in addition to

being adjusted by a factor of 3:1. The enclaving of Colombian islands tox
the north — another method of delimitation — also recognizes that the
provisional median line, even when substantially adjusted, is not able bxy
itself to achieve an equitable result (ibid., para. 238 ; see also para. 197).
More is needed to avoid a gross disproportion. The latitudinal lines to xthe

east and the starting-point for the southern one (ibid., para. 236) are sim -
ilarly justified by the search for an equitable solution. They can fixnd no
possible justification in terms of any shifting of a provisional mediaxn line
lying between the Colombian islands and the Nicaraguan coast. They
result from the use of distinct methods to help achieve an equitable solxu -

tion, particularly given the gross disproportionality which would other -
wise result and the need to avoid a cut-off effect for Nicaragua.

10. While I agree essentially with the maritime boundary the Court has
drawn, I consider that it can be arrived at more directly by an approach
which uses a number of methods. That approach would involve those

determining the boundary to focus, from the outset, on the aim of achievx -
ing an equitable result, by reference, in the particular circumstances of
this case, to the relevant proportions, the need to avoid cut-off effects for
each Party and the principle, often repeated in delimitation cases, thatx the
“land dominates the sea” (North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic

of Germany/Denmark ; Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judg ‑
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 51, para. 96). From the north to the south,
the Colombian islands extend over about one half of the length of the
relevant area (see Judgment, sketch-map No. 7, p. 687). If the very small
islands in the north, Quitasueño and Serrana are excluded for the momxent,
the latter also because of its isolation to the east, the distance from xthe

north to the south of the remaining islands, Providencia, Santa Catalina,
San Andrés and Alburquerque Cays, including their territorial seas, is a x

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little more than a third of the total north-south length of the relevant

area. The first three of those islands are each entitled to a continenxtal
shelf and exclusive economic zone capable of extending 200 nautical miles
in all directions. To the west they face the Nicaraguan coast and coastaxl
islands about 100 nautical miles away. Bearing in mind that distance, the
approximately 16:1 ratio between the facing coasts and the north-south

extent of the Colombian islands just listed, along with the other matterxs
mentioned at the beginning of this paragraph, I consider that the appro -
priate step in this western area would be to accord those major islands xa
maritime zone of 24 nautical miles from their west-facing baselines. The
zones, extending at most about a quarter of the way to the Nicaraguan

coast and islands, would overlap with one another and, at the south,
would extend to the territorial sea of Alburquerque Cays. Given the charx -
acteristics of those cays, the relevant proportionalities and the need txo
avoid any cut-off effect for Nicaragua in this southern region to the areas
to the east of the Colombian islands, I do not think that those cays shoxuld

be accorded more than their territorial sea.

11. I return to the north and to Quitasueño and Serrana. Plainly, the
former is entitled to no more than a territorial sea. I consider that thxat
should also be the case for Serrana given its isolation, its small size,x con -
siderations of overall proportionality and the need to avoid a cut-off
effect in that northern area for Nicaragua.

12. In the area to the east of the Colombian islands in which the enti -
tlements of Colombia to maritime zones based on those islands and on itsx
mainland further to the east overlap in significant part, I agree withx the

boundaries set by the Court, again for reasons of overall proportionalitxy
and avoidance of a cut-off effect for both Parties, with the aim of achiev -
ing an equitable result.

13. To repeat, the approach sketched above, employing a number of

different methods to achieve an equitable result in this most unusual xgeo -
graphic context, would lead to essentially the same result as that reachxed
by the Court. It would reach that result in a more direct way and would x
avoid the need to make major modifications in the application of the
usual methodology.

(Signed) Kenneth Keith.

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Bilingual Content

740

DECLARATION OF JUDGE KEITH

1. As my votes indicate, I agree with the conclusions the Court reaches.
With one exception, I also agree in general with the reasons the Court
gives in support of those conclusions. The exception concerns the law tox
be applied to the delimitation of the maritime boundary and the applica -
tion of that law to the facts of this case (Part V of the Judgment).
2. Like the Court, I proceed on the basis that Articles 74 and 83 of the

1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea are declaratory
of customary international law (Judgment, paras. 138-139). Paragraph 1
of each Article reads as follows :

“The delimitation of the exclusive economic zone/continental shelf
between States with opposite or adjacent coasts shall be effected by
agreement on the basis of international law, as referred to in Arti -
cle 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in order to

achieve an equitable solution.”
Since no agreement has been reached, it is for the Court to make the

delimitation.
3. The two provisions are striking in their own terms : they do no more
than state an aim, they state that aim in broad terms, and they state nox
criteria for delimitation beyond the general reference to international law.
In all respects, they stand in sharp contrast to the only other provisioxn in
the Convention concerned with the delimitation of maritime areas

between States — Article 15 relating to overlapping territorial seas. That
provision states a rule: in the absence of agreement, a median line is to be
drawn, except where historic title or other special circumstances requirxes
a different delimitation.
4. The contrasts between those delimitation provisions are the more

striking when the evolution of the treaty texts is considered. The two
delimitation provisions included in the 1958 Conventions on the Territo -
rial Sea and the Contiguous Zone and on the Continental Shelf provided, x
in respect of overlapping territorial seas or continental shelves, the sxame
rule: in the absence of agreement, a median or equidistance line with a

special circumstances exception (and for the territorial sea also an hixs -
torical title exception), wording carried over into Article 15 of the
1982 Convention but certainly not into Articles 74 and 83. The Interna -
tional Law Commission, in its 1956 commentary on the draft of the con -
tinental shelf provision, which was adopted by the 1958 diplomatic
conference without change, said that in that provision it had adopted thxe

same principles as for its draft provisions on overlapping territorial sxeas.
The case for departures from the median line, it said, “may arise faixrly

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6 CIJ1034.indb 236 7/01/14 12:43 740

DÉCLARATION DE M. LE JUGE KEITH

[Traduction]

1. Comme l’indique mon vote, je souscris aux conclusions de la Cour,
de même qu’à son raisonnement d’une manière généralxe, hormis sur un
point: le droit applicable à la délimitation de la frontière maritime et l’ap -
plication de ce droit aux faits de l’espèce (partie V de l’arrxêt).

2. Comme la Cour, je considère que les articles 74 et 83 de la conven -

tion des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer de 1982 (ci-après la
«CNUDM») sont déclaratoires du droit international coutumier (arrêtx,
par. 138-139). Le paragraphe 1 de ces deux articles se lit comme suit :

«La délimitation de la zone économique exclusive/du plateau
continental entre Etats dont les côtes sont adjacentes ou se font facxe
est effectuée par voie d’accord conformément au droit internaxtional
tel qu’il est visé à l’article 38 du Statut de la Cour internationale de

Justice, afin d’aboutir à une solution équitable. »
Aucun n’accord n’ayant été conclu, il appartient à la Couxr d’opérer cette

délimitation.
3. Ces deux dispositions sont frappantes par leur libellé même : elles se
bornent à énoncer un objectif, le font en des termes générauxx et se
contentent de renvoyer de manière générale au droit internationxal. Elles
se distinguent nettement du seul autre article de la convention ayant trxait
à la délimitation des espaces maritimes entre Etats, à savoir lx’article 15

relatif à la zone de chevauchement des mers territoriales. Cet articlxe pose
une règle: à défaut d’accord, il convient de tracer une ligne médianex, sauf
lorsque l’existence de titres historiques ou d’autres circonstancexs spéciales
exige de procéder différemment.
4. Analysées à la lumière de l’évolution des textes conventixonnels, les

différences entre ces trois articles sont encore plus frappantes. Dxans les
conventions de 1958 sur la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë et suxr le
plateau continental, les deux dispositions ayant trait à la délimixtation
énonçaient la même règle en cas de chevauchement des mers territoriales
ou des plateaux continentaux : en l’absence d’accord, il convenait de tra -

cer une ligne médiane ou d’équidistance, sauf lorsque des circoxnstances
spéciales (et, dans le cas de la mer territoriale, des titres historxiques) exi
geaient de procéder autrement, une formule reprise dans l’article 15 de la
convention de 1982, mais pas dans ses articles 74 et 83. Dans son com -
mentaire de 1956 sur le projet de disposition relative à la délimitation du
plateau continental, adopté sans modification par la conférence xdiploma -

tique de 1958, la Commission du droit international précisait qu’exlle
s’était inspirée des principes sous-tendant les projets d’articles relatifs à la

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often, so that the rule adopted is fairly elastic” (Annual Report ofx the
ILC, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1956, Vol. II, p. 300,

paragraph 1 of commentary to Article 72).

5. The need for that elasticity, or indeed something more drastic,

appeared as early as 1969, in the first case requiring the Court to coxnsider
the law concerning the delimitation of the continental shelf — the North
Sea Continental Shelf cases (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark ; Fed ‑
eral Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969,
p. 3. There, too, one of the Parties had not accepted the relevant treaty, x
the 1958 Continental Shelf Convention, while the other two had, with the

consequence that the case was to be decided under customary interna -
tional law. The Court rejected the argument that the equidistance/median
line rule with its qualification in the Convention was, or had become,x
declaratory of customary international law (see especially para. 101 (A)
of the dispositif, ibid., p. 53). Having recalled the history of the develop -

ment of the 1958 text, it declared that it was clear that at no time wasx the
notion of equidistance seen as an inherent necessity. Current legal thinxk -
ing, it continued, was governed by two beliefs :

“first, that no one single method of delimitation was likely to proxve
satisfactory in all circumstances, and that delimitation should, there -

fore, be carried out by agreement (or by reference to arbitration); and
secondly, that it should be effected on equitable principles. It was ixn
pursuance of the first of these beliefs that in the draft that emergedx
as Article 6 of the Geneva Convention, the Commission gave priority
to delimitation by agreement, — and in pursuance of the second that
it introduced the exception in favour of ‘special circumstances’. xYet

the record shows that, even with these mitigations, doubts persisted,
particularly as to whether the equidistance principle would in all casesx
prove equitable.” (Ibid., p. 36, para. 55.)

Later in the Judgment the Court stated that there was no logical basis for
requiring only one method of delimitation to be used; there was no objec -
tion, it asserted, to using various methods concurrently (ibid., p. 49,

para. 90 ; see also para. 101 (B) of the dispositif, p. 53). Finally, “it is
necessary to seek not one method of delimitation but one goal” (ibid.,
p. 50, para. 92).
6. I do, of course, appreciate that much has happened since that Judg -
ment was delivered, about halfway through the 70 years since the first
continental shelf delimitation treaty was concluded, in 1942, between thxe

United Kingdom and Venezuela relating to the submarine areas of the
Gulf of Paria (205 LNTS 121). The developments include extensive uni -

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délimitation de la zone de chevauchement des mers territoriales. Ellex
ajoutait que le cas « pourra[it] se présenter assez souvent » où il serait jus-

tifié de s’écarter de la règle de la ligne médiane, «x[l]a règle adoptée [étant]
donc par là dotée d’une certaine souplesse » (Rapport annuel de la CDI,
Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 1956, vol. II, p. 300,
paragraphe 1 du commentaire sur l’article 72).
5. Ce besoin de souplesse, voire de quelque chose de plus radical, s’estx

fait sentir dès 1969, lorsque la Cour a été appelée pour la xpremière fois à
examiner le droit relatif à la délimitation du plateau continentalx (affaires
du Plateau continental de la mer du Nord (République fédérale d’▯Alle ‑
magne/Danemark; République fédérale d’Allemagne/Pays‑Bas), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 3). Là aussi, l’une des Parties n’avait pas accepté le
traité en cause — la convention de 1958 sur le Plateau continental —,

contrairement aux deux autres, et l’affaire devait par conséquenxt être
tranchée au regard du droit international coutumier. La Cour rejeta lx’ar -
gument selon lequel la règle de la ligne médiane ou d’équidistance, énon -
cée dans la convention, était, ou était devenue, déclaratoire du droit
international coutumier (ibid., voir en particulier le point A du dispositif,

p. 53, par. 101). Après avoir retracé la genèse du texte de 1958, la Cour x
déclara qu’il était clair que la notion d’équidistance n’xétait à aucun
moment apparue comme intrinsèquement et nécessairement liée àx la doc -
trine du plateau continental. L’opinion des juristes, poursuivait-elle, pro -
cédait de deux convictions :

«en premier lieu il était peu probable qu’une méthode de délixmita -
tion unique donne satisfaction dans toutes les circonstances et la

délimitation devait donc s’opérer par voie d’accord ou d’xarbitrage ;
en second lieu la délimitation devait s’effectuer selon des prinxcipes
équitables. C’est en raison de la première conviction que la Coxmmis -
sion a donné priorité à la délimitation par voie d’accordx dans le pro-
jet qui est devenu l’article 6 de la Convention de Genève et c’est en
raison de la seconde conviction qu’elle a introduit l’exception dexs

«circonstances spéciales ». Les documents montrent cependant que,
même avec ces atténuations, les doutes ont persisté, en particuxlier sur
le point de savoir si le principe de l’équidistance se révélxerait équi -
table dans tous les cas. » (Ibid., p. 36, par. 55.)

Plus loin dans ce même arrêt, la Cour déclarait qu’il n’yx avait aucune base
logique à l’emploi d’une méthode unique de délimitation ; il n’y avait au -
cune objection, affirmait-elle, à l’emploi concurrent de diverses méthodes

(ibid., p. 49, par. 90 ; voir aussi point B du dispositif, p. 53, par. 101).
Enfin, il convenait de «rechercher non pas une méthode unique de délimi -
tation mais un but unique » (ibid., p. 50, par. 92).
6. Certes, je suis conscient que la situation a considérablement évolxué
depuis le prononcé de ce jugement, intervenu à mi-parcours si l’on consi -
dère les soixante-dix années écoulées depuis 1942, date à laquelle fut

conclu le premier traité de délimitation du plateau continental rexlatif aux
zones sous-marines du golfe de Paria entre le Royaume-Uni et le Vene -

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lateral State practice, relating as well to the exclusive economic zone,x a
concept which developed rapidly in the 1970s, many bilateral delimitatioxn
agreements, international court and tribunal decisions (more than 20 tox

date) and the major negotiations which led to the 1982 Convention and in
particular to Articles 15, 74 and 83 as well as to Part V, Exclusive Eco -
nomic Zone and Part VI, Continental Shelf. Those negotiations reflected
and contributed to that practice and case law. I see the course of thosex

negotiations as significant.

7. According to the Virginia Commentary on the Convention, the pro -
tracted negotiations on delimitation revealed the existence of two virtux -
ally irreconcilable approaches :

(i) delimitation should be effected by the application of the median line x

or equidistance line coupled with an exception for special circum -
stances ; and
(ii) delimitation should involve a more emphatic assertion of equitable
principles (M. Nordquist, S. Nandan, S. Rosenne (eds.), United

Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 : A Commentary,
Vol. II, p. 954).

That Commentary provides a valuable account of the evolution between
1973 and 1982 of the contest between those two approaches (pp. 948-985) .
By the end of those negotiations the present text had emerged with wide x
support. It put the emphasis on the objective of the process and, so far as

the resolution of disputes about delimitation was concerned, provided foxr
negotiations on the basis of international law and the other methods of x
peaceful settlement set out in Part XV of the Convention. All the efforts
to include in the text express requirements that the process of delimitaxtion

take into account specified matters such as equidistance as a rule or xprin -
ciple, relevant or special criteria or circumstances, the existence of ixslands
in the area or equitable principles, failed. According to one of the prixnci -
pal negotiators of that final text, speaking at the end of the Conferexnce,

“[T]he main difficulty arose in connection with setting out the
criteria particularly for delimitation in the economic zone or on the

1 One other important aspect of the negotiations is that in the early stagxes all three
issues of delimitation were included in proposals being considered by a xsingle working
group, dealing in exactly the same terms with each of them, but that from 1975 onwards
territorial sea delimitation was dealt with separately in drafts based oxn Article 12 of the
1958 Territorial Sea Convention ; see the Virginia Commentary, pp. 136-141.

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6 CIJ1034.indb 240 7/01/14 12:43 différend territoriaxl et maritime (décl. keixth) 742

zuela (Recueil des traités de la Société des Nations, vol. 205, p. 121). Cette
évolution se caractérise notamment par le développement considéxrable de
la pratique unilatérale des Etats, y compris en ce qui concerne la zoxne

économique exclusive, notion qui s’est rapidement développée dans les
années 1970, les nombreux accords de délimitation bilatéraux, les décix -
sions rendues par des juridictions internationales (plus de vingt à xce jour)
et, enfin, les importantes négociations ayant conduit à l’adoption de la

convention de 1982, en particulier de ses articles 15, 74 et 83, ainsi que de
ses parties V (zone économique exclusive) et VI (plateau continental). Ces
négociations ont mis en évidence et consolidé cette pratique etx cette juris -
prudence, et la manière dont elles se sont déroulées revêt selon moi une

grande importance.
7. D’après le commentaire sur la CNUDM publié sous les auspices dex
l’Université de Virginie (Virginia Commentary), la difficile progression
des négociations sur les questions de délimitation a révéléx l’existence de

deux approches, quasiment inconciliables :
i) la délimitation devrait être effectuée par application de la xligne médiane

ou d’équidistance, assortie d’une exception pour les circonstances spé -
ciales ; et
ii) la délimitation devrait accorder une place prépondérante aux prxincipes
équitables (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 : A

Commentary, M. Nordquist, S. Nandan, S. Rosenne (dir. publ.),
vol. II, p. 954).

Ce commentaire retrace de manière fort intéressante l’évolution du débat
suscité par ces deux approches entre 1973 et 1982 (p. 948-985) 1. Au terme
de ces négociations, le texte actuel de la convention a recueilli un large
soutien. Il met l’accent sur le but recherché et, aux fins du rèxglement des

différends en matière de délimitation, prévoit la tenue dex négociations
fondées sur le droit international et les autres méthodes de rèxglement
pacifique énoncées dans la partie XV de la convention. Toutes les tenta -
tives visant à inclure dans le texte de la convention une dispositionx qui

énoncerait expressément les aspects à prendre en compte dans lex proces -
sus de délimitation, tels que l’équidistance en tant que règxle ou principe,
certains critères ou circonstances pertinents ou spéciaux, la préxsence d’îles
dans la zone à délimiter ou des principes équitables, ont échoué. L’un des

principaux négociateurs du texte final s’est exprimé en ces txermes à l’issue
de la conférence :

«L’établissement de critères de délimitation, en particulier xceux
applicables à la zone économique et au plateau continental, repréxsen -

1 Un autre aspect important de ces négociations est que, dans un premiexr temps, ces
questions de délimitation faisaient toutes les trois l’objet de prxopositions examinées par
un seul et même groupe de travail, lequel traitait chacune d’ellesx exactement de la même
manière, mais que, à partir de 1975, la délimitation de la mer territoriale fut tr-itée séparéx
ment dans des propositions qui reposaient sur l’article 12 de la convention de 1958 sur la
mer territoriale ; voir Virginia Commentary, p. 136-141.

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continental shelf. And, while there was broad agreement that these
should be as determined by relevant international law, several effortsx
to express that law in a provision failed to command support
across the two groups representing most of the directly interested

delegations [and supporting one or the other position stated at the
beginning of this paragraph]. Finally, this statement [stalemate] was
broken by abandoning efforts to express the relevant law substan -
tively and the vast majority of the interested delegations . . .

endorsed the provision which now appears in the Convention.

This provides that delimitation shall be effected on the basis of
international law as referred to in Article 38 of the Statute of the

International Court of Justice. We are satisfied that the relevant
principles of international law thus referred to are as identified by x
the International Court of Justice in its decision on the North Sea
cases in 1969 and as confirmed by subsequent judicial and arbitral
2
decisions.”

8. I accept at once that the judicial clarification and development, overx
the decades, of the law and particularly of the methods to be applied haxve
in significant measure enhanced the objectivity and predictability of xthe
process of delimitation. That is particularly so of the “delimitationx meth -

odology” consisting of three stages as laid out most recently in the xBlack
Sea case (Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 101-103, paras. 115-122). A primary
reason for recalling the history of the development of this area of law xis

to emphasize the role of legal principle. This is not simply a matter ofx rule
or method ; rather, the aim of an equitable solution must take centre
stage, and the choice of method or methods must be governed by that
aim. The Court did indeed recognize in the Black Sea case that different
methods may be called for if compelling reasons exist, a matter also

emphasized by the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in
its recent Judgment (Dispute concerning Delimitation of the Maritime
Boundary between Bangladesh and Myanmar in the Bay of Bengal
(Bangladesh/Myanmar), Judgment of 14 March 2012, ITLOS, pp. 72-75,

paras. 227-235). I have already recalled that the Court in 1969 saw no
objection to various methods being used concurrently (para. 5 above).

9. Against that background of the accepted law and its principled and
practical development, I now consider the most unusual geographic facts x

2 186th Plenary Meeting, 6 December 1982, A/CONF-62, Vol. XVII, p. 24, paras. 9-10.
For a valuable account and reflection by a participant in the Conferenxce see Philip Allott,
“Power Sharing in the Law of the Sea” 77 AJIL, (1983), pp. 19-27.

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tait la principale source de difficulté. S’il était généxralement admis
que ces critères devaient être ceux établis par le droit international
applicable, plusieurs tentatives visant à expliciter les règles pexrti -
nentes dans une disposition de la convention n’ont pas réussi àx rallier

le soutien des deux groupes représentant la majorité des déléxgations
directement concernées [et militant en faveur de l’une ou l’autxre des
deux positions résumées au début du présent paragraphe]. Finxale -
ment, nous sommes sortis de l’impasse en renonçant à inclure une

disposition exprimant, en substance, le droit applicable, et la grande
majorité des délégations concernées … ont approuvé le texte de l’ar -
ticle tel qu’il figure aujourd’hui dans la convention.
Aux termes de cet article, la délimitation est effectuée conformxé -
ment au droit international, tel qu’il est visé à l’article 38 du Statut

de la Cour internationale de Justice. Nous reconnaissons que les
principes pertinents du droit international auxquels il est fait réféx -
rence sont ceux que la Cour internationale de Justice a énoncés daxns
sa décision sur les affaires de la Mer du Nord en 1969 et qui ont été

confirmés par 2a suite par des décisions judiciaires et des sentxences
arbitrales. »

8. J’admets volontiers que, en clarifiant et en développant le droixt, et
en particulier les méthodes applicables, les instances judiciaires onxt, au fil
des ans, considérablement renforcé l’objectivité et la préxvisibilité du pro -
cessus de délimitation. Cela est particulièrement vrai de la « méthode de

délimitation» en trois étapes récemment énoncée par la Cour en l’axffaire
de la Délimitation maritime en mer Noire ((Roumanie c. Ukraine) arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 101-103, par. 115-122). S’il convient de rappeler
l’évolution de ce domaine du droit, c’est avant tout pour soulixgner l’im -

portance des principes juridiques. Il ne s’agit pas simplement d’uxne ques-
tion de règle ou de méthode. L’objectif primordial doit êtrex la recherche
d’une solution équitable, le choix de la méthode ou des méthxodes étant le
moyen d’atteindre cet objectif. D’ailleurs, en l’affaire de lxa Délimitation
maritime en mer Noire, la Cour a reconnu qu’il pouvait se révéler néces -

saire de recourir à différentes méthodes si des raisons impéxrieuses l’exi -
geaient, un point sur lequel a également insisté le Tribunal interxnational
du droit de la mer dans son récent arrêt (Différend relatif à la délimitation
de la frontière maritime entre le Bangladesh et le Myanmar dans le go▯lfe du

Bengale (Bangladesh/Myanmar), arrêt du 14 mars 2012, TIDM, p. 74-77,
par. 227-235). J’ai déjà rappelé que, dès 1969, la Cour ne voyait aucune
objection à l’emploi concurrent de diverses méthodes (paragrapxhe 5
ci-dessus).

9. Je vais à présent examiner les aspects géographiques tout à xfait inha -
bituels de la présente affaire à la lumière du droit établxi et des développe-

2A/CONF-62, vol. XVII, p. 24, 186 séance plénière, 6 décembre 1982, par. 9-10. Pour
un compte rendu et une réflexion fort intéressants d’un partixcipant à la conférence, voir
Philip Allott, «Power Sharing in the Law of the Sea », AJIL, vol. 77 (1983), p. 19-27.

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of the present case. The ratio of the relevant coasts is about 8:1 in Nixca -
ragua’s favour (Judgment, para. 153). That proportion immediately dem -

onstrates for me the difficulty, or really the impossibility, of beginnxing
with a provisional median line even if it is adjusted or shifted by refexrence
to relevant circumstances. The provisional median line in sketch-map
No. 8 (p. 701), for instance, would accord nearly three-quarters of the
total maritime area to Colombia or an overall disproportion in its favouxr

of about 20:1. The adjustment or shifting required to address such a groxss
disproportion could not be achieved simply by a movement of the line in
the western part of the shared maritime area. The Court indeed recog -
nizes that by ending the adjusted provisional line north of Santa Catalixna
and south of Alburquerque Cays with the result that the line now extends
only about one-half of the north-south length of the area, in addition to

being adjusted by a factor of 3:1. The enclaving of Colombian islands tox
the north — another method of delimitation — also recognizes that the
provisional median line, even when substantially adjusted, is not able bxy
itself to achieve an equitable result (ibid., para. 238 ; see also para. 197).
More is needed to avoid a gross disproportion. The latitudinal lines to xthe

east and the starting-point for the southern one (ibid., para. 236) are sim -
ilarly justified by the search for an equitable solution. They can fixnd no
possible justification in terms of any shifting of a provisional mediaxn line
lying between the Colombian islands and the Nicaraguan coast. They
result from the use of distinct methods to help achieve an equitable solxu -

tion, particularly given the gross disproportionality which would other -
wise result and the need to avoid a cut-off effect for Nicaragua.

10. While I agree essentially with the maritime boundary the Court has
drawn, I consider that it can be arrived at more directly by an approach
which uses a number of methods. That approach would involve those

determining the boundary to focus, from the outset, on the aim of achievx -
ing an equitable result, by reference, in the particular circumstances of
this case, to the relevant proportions, the need to avoid cut-off effects for
each Party and the principle, often repeated in delimitation cases, thatx the
“land dominates the sea” (North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic

of Germany/Denmark ; Federal Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judg ‑
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 51, para. 96). From the north to the south,
the Colombian islands extend over about one half of the length of the
relevant area (see Judgment, sketch-map No. 7, p. 687). If the very small
islands in the north, Quitasueño and Serrana are excluded for the momxent,
the latter also because of its isolation to the east, the distance from xthe

north to the south of the remaining islands, Providencia, Santa Catalina,
San Andrés and Alburquerque Cays, including their territorial seas, is a x

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ments qu’il a connus sur les plans théorique et pratique. Le rappoxrt des

côtes pertinentes est d’environ 1 à 8 en faveur du Nicaragua (arrêt,
par. 153). Cette proportion fait immédiatement apparaître, selon moi,
toute la difficulté, pour ne pas dire l’impossibilité, de commencer par tra -
cer une ligne médiane provisoire même si celle-ci doit ensuite être ajustée
ou déplacée de manière à tenir compte des circonstances pertxinentes. La
o
ligne médiane provisoire tracée sur le croquis n 8 (p. 701), par exemple,
aurait accordé à la Colombie près des trois quarts de l’ensemble de la
zone pertinente, soit une disproportion globale en sa faveur de l’ordre
de 20 à 1. Pour remédier à cette disproportion flagrante en procédantx à
l’ajustement ou au déplacement de la ligne, on ne peut se contentexr de

modifier son tracé dans la partie occidentale de la zone de chevaucxhe -
ment. La Cour en a été consciente, raison pour laquelle elle a arrêté la
ligne provisoire, ajustée selon un rapport de 1 à 3, au nord de Santa Cata -
lina et au sud des cayes d’Alburquerque, de sorte que, dans l’axe xnord-sud,
sa longueur représente la moitié de celle de la zone pertinente. Lx’enclave -

ment des îles colombiennes — lequel constitue une autre méthode de déli -
mitation — dans la partie septentrionale de la zone pertinente tient
également compte du fait que la ligne médiane provisoire, même xen étant
sensiblement ajustée, ne permet pas en elle-même de parvenir à un résul -
tat équitable (ibid., par. 238 ; voir aussi par. 197) et ne saurait suffire à

éviter une disproportion flagrante. C’est également la recherxche d’une
solution équitable qui justifie le prolongement de la ligne vers l’xest le long
de parallèles de latitude et son point de départ dans la partie méxridionale
(ibid., par. 236). Ces deux segments horizontaux ne peuvent en aucun cas
trouver leur justification dans le déplacement d’une ligne méxdiane provi -

soire située entre les îles colombiennes et la côte nicaraguayexnne. Ils sont
le résultat produit par la combinaison de différentes méthodexs suscep -
tibles de conduire à une solution équitable, compte tenu en particxulier de
la disproportion flagrante qui aurait sans cela été créée et de la nécessité
de veiller à ce que le Nicaragua ne subisse pas d’effet d’ampxutation.

10. Même si j’approuve, pour l’essentiel, la frontière maritime xtracée
par la Cour, je considère qu’il aurait été possible de parvexnir au même
résultat d’une façon plus directe en optant pour une démarchxe associant
plusieurs méthodes. Il aurait fallu, dès le début, se fixer pxour objectif la
recherche d’un résultat équitable en prenant en considératioxn, dans les

circonstances propres à l’espèce, les proportions pertinentes, la nécessité
d’éviter tout effet d’amputation pour l’une ou l’autre Partie, et le principe
souvent invoqué dans les affaires de délimitation selon lequel «x la terre
domine la mer » (Plateau continental de la mer du Nord (République fédé ‑
rale d’Allemagne/Danemark ; République fédérale d’Allemagne/Pays‑Bas),

arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 51, par. 96). Du nord au sud, les îles colom -
biennes couvrent environ la moitié de la longueur de la zone pertinenxte
(voir arrêt, croquis n o 7, p. 687). Si je laisse pour le moment de côté Qui -
tasueño et Serrana, des îles minuscules situées dans la partie xseptentrio -
nale de la zone à délimiter, Serrana étant en outre isolée àx l’est, la distance

sur laquelle s’égrènent, du nord au sud, les autres îles, à savoir Providen -

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little more than a third of the total north-south length of the relevant

area. The first three of those islands are each entitled to a continenxtal
shelf and exclusive economic zone capable of extending 200 nautical miles
in all directions. To the west they face the Nicaraguan coast and coastaxl
islands about 100 nautical miles away. Bearing in mind that distance, the
approximately 16:1 ratio between the facing coasts and the north-south

extent of the Colombian islands just listed, along with the other matterxs
mentioned at the beginning of this paragraph, I consider that the appro -
priate step in this western area would be to accord those major islands xa
maritime zone of 24 nautical miles from their west-facing baselines. The
zones, extending at most about a quarter of the way to the Nicaraguan

coast and islands, would overlap with one another and, at the south,
would extend to the territorial sea of Alburquerque Cays. Given the charx -
acteristics of those cays, the relevant proportionalities and the need txo
avoid any cut-off effect for Nicaragua in this southern region to the areas
to the east of the Colombian islands, I do not think that those cays shoxuld

be accorded more than their territorial sea.

11. I return to the north and to Quitasueño and Serrana. Plainly, the
former is entitled to no more than a territorial sea. I consider that thxat
should also be the case for Serrana given its isolation, its small size,x con -
siderations of overall proportionality and the need to avoid a cut-off
effect in that northern area for Nicaragua.

12. In the area to the east of the Colombian islands in which the enti -
tlements of Colombia to maritime zones based on those islands and on itsx
mainland further to the east overlap in significant part, I agree withx the

boundaries set by the Court, again for reasons of overall proportionalitxy
and avoidance of a cut-off effect for both Parties, with the aim of achiev -
ing an equitable result.

13. To repeat, the approach sketched above, employing a number of

different methods to achieve an equitable result in this most unusual xgeo -
graphic context, would lead to essentially the same result as that reachxed
by the Court. It would reach that result in a more direct way and would x
avoid the need to make major modifications in the application of the
usual methodology.

(Signed) Kenneth Keith.

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cia, Santa Catalina, San Andrés et les cayes d’Alburquerque, y comxpris
leurs mers territoriales, représente un peu plus du tiers de la longueur de

la zone pertinente. Parmi ces îles, les trois premières génèxrent un droit à
un plateau continental et à une zone économique exclusive pouvant x
s’étendre sur 200 milles marins dans toutes les directions. A l’ouest, elles
font face à la côte du Nicaragua et aux îles adjacentes à celle-ci, à une
distance d’environ 100 milles marins. C’est compte tenu de cette distance,

du rapport entre les côtes se faisant face, qui est de l’ordre de 16 à 1, et de
l’extension nord-sud des îles colombiennes citées ci-dessus, ainsi que des
autres éléments mentionnés au début de ce paragraphe, que j’estime que
la solution, dans cette partie occidentale de la zone à délimiter,x consistait
à accorder aux îles principales un espace maritime de 24 milles marins
mesuré à partir des lignes de base situées sur leurs côtes oxccidentales. Ces

espaces, couvrant tout au plus un quart de la distance séparant les îxles
colombiennes de la côte du Nicaragua et des îles adjacentes à cxelle-ci, se
chevauchent pour rejoindre au sud la mer territoriale des cayes d’Albur -
querque. Etant donné les caractéristiques de ces cayes, les considxérations
de proportionnalité et la nécessité d’éviter que le Nicarxagua ne subisse un

effet d’amputation dans ce secteur au-delà de la façade orientale des îles
colombiennes, je ne pense pas que ces cayes auraient dû se voir accorxder
plus qu’une mer territoriale.
11. J’en reviens à la partie septentrionale de la zone à délimitxer,
c’est-à-dire à Quitasueño et Serrana. De toute évidence, Quitasueño x

n’ouvre droit qu’à une mer territoriale. Je pense que tel est axussi le cas de
Serrana, compte tenu de son caractère isolé, de sa petite taille, xdes consi -
dérations de proportionnalité globale et de la nécessité d’éviter que le
Nicaragua ne subisse un effet d’amputation dans cette partie de la xzone
pertinente.
12. Dans la partie de la zone pertinente située à l’est des îlesx colom -

biennes, où les droits de la Colombie à des espaces maritimes géxnérés par
ces îles chevauchent dans une large mesure ceux générés par xsa masse
continentale, j’approuve les limites fixées par la Cour, encore xune fois
pour des raisons qui tiennent à des considérations de proportionnaxlité
globale et à la nécessité de ne créer aucun effet d’ampxutation pour l’une

ou l’autre Partie, dans le but de parvenir à un résultat équxitable.
13. Au risque de me répéter, l’approche que j’aurais suivie, telxle que je
viens de la décrire, en employant un certain nombre de méthodes dixffé -
rentes pour parvenir à un résultat équitable dans ce contexte gxéogra -
phique pour le moins inhabituel, aurait produit, pour l’essentiel, lex même

résultat que celui auquel est parvenue la Cour, mais de manière plxus
directe et sans avoir à modifier de façon considérable l’application de la
méthode habituellement suivie par celle-ci.

(Signé) Kenneth Keith.

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Document file FR
Document Long Title

Declaration of Judge Keith

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