Dissenting Opinion of Judge ad hoc Mavungu

Document Number
126-20060203-JUD-01-07-EN
Parent Document Number
126-20060203-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

95

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC MAVUNGU

[Translation]

Preliminary objections — Jurisdiction of the Court and admissibility of the

Application — Compromissory clauses — Necessary preconditions for seisin of
the Court — Existence of a dispute — Diplomatic negotiations — Recourse to
arbitration.

INTRODUCTION

1. In its Order of 10 July 2002 on the request for the indication of pro-
visional measures (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New
Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda),

I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 219), the Court dismissed both Parties’ claims,
holding that the necessary conditions for the indication of provisional
measures (urgency, safeguard of the parties’ rights, non-aggravation of
the dispute, prima facie jurisdiction of the Court) did not exist in the
present case. It likewise rejected the Republic of Rwanda’s submission

that the case should be removed from the Court’s List.

The balance achieved by the Court in 2002 has now been lost as a
result of the Judgment on the preliminary objections. Just as I was of the
opinion that the Court could have indicated certain provisional measures
in reliance on certain of the bases of jurisdiction invoked by the Demo-

cratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), so I believe that, at this stage of
the proceedings, the Court could have established its jurisdiction and
addressed the merits of the case.
2. Neither the general public nor specialist commentators will under-
stand how the Court could arrive at two opposing rulings in two cases

sharing the same characteristics. There can be no doubt whatsoever that
the DRC nourishes the same grievances against Uganda as it does
against Rwanda. For no apparent reason, Uganda’s counsel espoused
Rwanda’s cause:

“the requests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo relating to
activities or situations involving the Republic of Rwanda or its
agents are inadmissible . . .” (Armed Activities on the Territory of
the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 186, para. 24).
3. When delivering its Judgment on 19 December 2005 in the case
between the DRC and Uganda, the Court was at pains to note the com-

plexity of the situation in the Great Lakes region of Africa. It also
focused on the need to achieve a comprehensive settlement of the region’s
problems:

93 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. MAVUNGU ) 96

“The Court is aware of the complex and tragic situation which has
long prevailed in the Great Lakes region. There has been much suf-
fering by the local population and destabilization of much of the

region . . . The Court is aware, too, that the factional conflicts within
the DRC require a comprehensive settlement to the problems of the
region.” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 190, para. 26; emphasis added.)

4. The Court’s ruling at the preliminary objections stage, resulting in
removal of the case from the List, means that no decision will be made

from an international law perspective on the Parties’ claims and no
closure reached in the minds of the various victims, who still await
redress.

The ideal approach would have been to settle the entire litigation
between the DRC and two of its neighbours, Uganda and Rwanda, in
the present case, in order to work effectively towards the restoration and
consolidation of peace in the region . 1

5. The Court, principal judicial organ of the United Nations, has
set limits to its action in the legal settlement of disputes between the
countries of the Great Lakes region:

“[T]he task of the Court must be to respond, on the basis of inter-
national law, to the particular legal dispute brought before it. As it
interprets and applies the law, it will be mindful of the context, but

its task cannot go beyond that.” (Armed Activities on the Territory
of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 190, para. 26.)

6. In disputing the Court’s jurisdiction and the admissibility of the
Application submitted by the DRC, the Republic of Rwanda raised two
preliminary objections . It was of the opinion that the bases of jurisdic-

tion cited by the DRC (Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimi-
nation; Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination
against Women; Article IX of the Genocide Convention; Article 75 of
the Constitution of the WHO; Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Unesco

Constitution; Article 9 of the Convention on Privileges and Immunities;
Article 30, paragraph 1, of the Convention against Torture; Article 14,
paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention; peremptory norms (jus

cogens) in the area of human rights and forum prorogatum) could not

1 For an analysis of the Court’s role in settling disputes, see Mohammed Bedjaoui, “La
place de la Cour internationale de Justice dans le système général du maintien de la paix
institué par la Charte des Nations Unies”, Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit inter-
national de La Haye, Vol. 8, 1996, pp. 541-548; Mvumbi-di-Ngoma Mavungu, Le règle-
ment judiciaire des différends interétatiques en Afrique , 1992.

2 Regarding preliminary objections, see Georges Abi-Saab, Les exceptions prélimi-
naires dans la procédure de la Cour internationale , 1967.

94 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DIS. OP.MAVUNGU ) 97

found the jurisdiction of the Court (see Judgment, para. 15).

In any event, even assuming that one of the titles or rules of customary

international law were to be accepted by the Court, the DRC’s Applica-
tion would be “nevertheless inadmissible” (ibid.).
7. Pursuant to Article 79 of its Rules, the Court suspended proceed-
ings on the merits of the case in order to examine these preliminary objec-

tions. Their examination could result in removal of the case from the List
in the event of the Court concluding that it lacked the jurisdiction to hear
the dispute submitted to it or that the Application was inadmissible
ratione materiae, ratione temporis or ratione loci .

In the instant case, the Court confined itself to addressing the issue of
its jurisdiction. Not having accepted any of the grounds of jurisdiction
advanced by the DRC, the Court considered that it was unnecessary to

take matters any further by considering the Application’s admissibility.
8. Certain final findings in the Judgment justify the present dissenting
opinion. As I pointed out in 2002, during the proceedings on provisional
measures, while it is true that not all the titles and rules of customary

international law advanced by the DRC were capable of establishing the
Court’s prima facie jurisdiction, there were, however, compromissory
clauses upon which the Court could have based itself for this purpose

(Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002)
(Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Provisional Measures,
Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , pp. 277 et seq.).

9. In the present case, I am not convinced that the Court has analysed
in depth the compromissory clauses contained in the following interna-
tional treaties: the Constitution of the WHO, the Montreal Convention

and the Convention on Discrimination against Women. Furthermore,
the Republic of Rwanda remained deliberately vague as to whether it had
withdrawn its reservation to the Genocide Convention, in light both of
its own constitutional law and of the declaration of the Rwandan Justice

Minister at the sixty-first session of the United Nations Commission on
Human Rights in Geneva on 17 March 2005.

1. THE C ONSTITUTION OF THE W ORLD H EALTH ORGANIZATION

10. Article 75 of the WHO Constitution states:

“Any question or dispute concerning the interpretation or applica-
tion of this Constitution which is not settled by negotiation or by the

Health Assembly shall be referred to the International Court of Jus-
tice in conformity with the Statute of the Court, unless the parties

3Regarding the Court’s jurisdiction see Maurice Arbour, Droit international public ,
3rd ed., 1997; Pierre-Marie Dupuy, Droit international public , 5th ed., Nguyen Quoc

Dinh, Patrick Daillier, Alain Pellet, Droit international public , 6th ed., 1999.

95 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS.OP .MAVUNGU ) 98

concerned agree on another mode of settlement.”

11. The first precondition fixed by this compromissory clause is the

existence of “any question or dispute concerning the interpretation or
application” of the WHO Constitution.
12. The Court ruled that

“the DRC has not shown that there was a question concerning the
interpretation or application of the WHO Constitution on which
itself and Rwanda had opposing views, or that it had a dispute with
that State in regard to this matter” (Judgment, para. 99).

13. The Permanent Court of International Justice defined a dispute

as “a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or
of interests between two persons” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions
(Greece v. United Kingdom), Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 2, p. 11).
In the event of a dispute between two or more States, the words “two

persons” should be read as “two or more States”.
In a number of cases, the Court has had to clarify and amplify the
notion of a dispute. To establish the existence of a dispute, “[i]t must be
shown that the claim of one party was positively opposed by the other”
(South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa),

Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328); more-
over, “[w]hether there exists an international dispute is a matter for
objective determination” (Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria,
Hungary and Romania (First Phase), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1950,p.74;East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1995, p. 100, para. 22; Questions of Interpretation and Application of the
1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie
(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 17, para. 22; Questions of Interpreta-
tion and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the

Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States
of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,
pp. 122-123, para. 21).
14. In the present case, the question or dispute must concern the inter-
pretation or application of the WHO Constitution.

15. Both the spirit and the letter of the WHO Constitution establish
overriding obligations towards the Organization. As I had previously
submitted,

“any State which becomes a Member of the WHO has a duty not
only to co-operate with the organization to assist in fulfilling the
mission assigned to it, but also to act in order to provide the popula-
tion with the best possible level of health. Any failure to uphold the

right to health is contrary to the object and purpose of the WHO
Constitution. It would be wrong to assert that this Constitution does

96 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS.OP. MAVUNGU ) 99

not lay down any obligations for Member States.” (Armed Activities
on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Demo-

cratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Provisional Measures,
Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 279, para. 28 seperate
opinion of Judge Mavungu.)

16. On repeated occasions, the DRC made various protests regarding

the deterioration of the state of the Congolese population’s health during
the armed conflict.
In his speech to the fifty-seventh session of the United Nations Com-
mission on Human Rights on 30 March 2001, President Joseph Kabila

stated:

“According to data provided by NGOs such as the International
Rescue Committee and by agencies of the United Nations, around
2,500,000 Congolese have lost their lives in the occupied territories,
victims directly and indirectly of aggression . . .

Countless numbers of killings have occurred among the peaceable
Congolese civilian populations. Numerous barbarous and savage
acts have taken place such as . . . rapes, the deliberate spreading of
AIDS . . .” (Emphasis added.)

The various White Papers, previously published by the DRC’s
Ministry of Human Rights, record numerous violations of human
rights, including health-related questions. Both Rwanda and Uganda
are cited in this respect. By way of example, paragraph 45 of the First
White Paper, distributed as a working document to the Security Council,

states the following:

“Museveni and Kagame are committing acts which are beyond all
understanding in the pursuit of their strategy of exterminating the
Congolese civilian population in the occupied areas. For example,

2,000 Ugandan soldiers suffering from acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS) or infected with the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) were sent to the front in Orientale Province, their mis-
sion to rape women and girls with the aim of spreading the disease.

Need it be recalled that Uganda and Rwanda have the sorry distinc-
tion of having Africa’s largest number of AIDS sufferers and HIV-
infected persons . . .” [Translation by the United Nations Secre-
tariat.]

The Fourth White Paper also describes the deterioration in health con-
4
ditions in the occupied territories . This has been confirmed by several
humanitarian organizations (Oxfam, Save the Children, Christian Aid,

4See Fourth White Paper, Ministry of Human Rights, Kinshasa, February 2002, pp. 34
et seq.

97 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS.OP. MAVUNGU ) 100

etc.), the European Parliament (14 June 2002 resolution), the Special
Rapporteur on the human rights situation in the DRC , etc.5

17. Violations of human rights, including health-related questions,
have been the subject of exchanges between the Parties in regional and
international bodies (OAU, Security Council, General Assembly, Com-
mission on Human Rights, etc.).

18. In protecting the inviolable core of human rights, the priority lies
less in specifying the conventional provisions breached than in denoun-
cing these serious attacks on human dignity in order to put an end to
them. It is surely unreasonable to blame the Applicant for having in
certain cases omitted in its protests in international forums to cite the

norms or conventional provisions that underpinned them.

19. In view of the foregoing, a dispute between the two Parties as to
application of the WHO Constitution definitely existed. WHO Member

States commit themselves to
“the attainment by all people to the highest possible level of health,

to regarding the achievement of the highest achievable standard
of health as a fundamental right of every person on the planet,
a recognition of health as fundamental to peace, and of the duty
of State co-operation to achieve this ideal . . .” (Legality of the

Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (I), p. 146, dissenting opinion of Judge Weeramantry).

20. The second precondition fixed by Article 75 of the WHO Constitu-
tion is the recourse to negotiations or the World Health Assembly prior
to seisin of the Court.

21. Without supporting its argument, the Court finds:
“even if the DRC had demonstrated the existence of a question or
dispute falling within the scope of Article 75 of the WHO Constitu-

tion, it has in any event not proved that the other preconditions for
seisin of the Court established by that provision have been satisfied,
namely that it attempted to settle the question or dispute by negotia-
tion with Rwanda or that the World Health Assembly had been

unable to settle it” (Judgment, para. 100).
“The Court concludes from the foregoing that Article 75 of the WHO

Constitution cannot serve to found its jurisdiction in the present case.”
(Judgement, para. 101.)
22. The state of conflict prevailing between the two Parties was not
conducive to direct negotiations in order to settle the totality of the dis-

putes between them. Both the DRC and Rwanda have acknowledged
having engaged in negotiations prior to the seisin of the Court.

5See in particular the reports of 20 September 2000, 1 February 2001 and 27 March
2001.

98 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS.OP. MAVUNGU ) 101

23. In a document dated 18 October 2000, entitled “Responses and

Preliminary Objections of the Republic of Rwanda”, submitted to the
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights on 24 October 2000,
in response to Communication 227/99 filed by the DRC, Rwanda stated
the following:

“the acts reported . . . (acts constituting violations of numerous
international humanitarian rights and/or international humanitarian
law instruments) have repeatedly been brought by the Democratic

Republic of the Congo to the attention of international organs,
including :
— meetings of the United Nations General Assembly;
— meetings of the Security Council;

— sessions of the United Nations Commission on Human
Rights”.
“Communication 227/99 must be declared inadmissible on the

basis of the fact that the allegations in question have been the sub-
ject of intense discussions and negotiations before the competent
organs of the United Nations and the Organization of African Unity .”
(CR 2005/20, pp. 13-14, para. 16; emphasis added.)

24. The DRC, for its part, confirmed that negotiations had taken
place between the two Parties with a view to achieving a comprehensive
settlement to the conflict, including the organization of arbitration
(CR 2002/38, pp. 10-11).

25. In my previous opinion, I had occasion to state:
“When a jurisdiction clause provides for recourse to prior diplo-
matic negotiations, it is self-evident that the parties have to comply

therewith. This requirement is rather an obligation of conduct than
of result . . . The Court has moreover given a wide interpretation to
the notion of ‘diplomatic negotiations’ (exchanges of views: diplo-
matic notes, protests, discussions within an international organiza-
tion, talks).” (Footnote: “See inter alia Right of Passage over Indian

Territory, I.C.J. Reports 1960 , pp. 148-149; South West Africa,
Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1962, pp. 344 et seq.; Border
and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 31 March 1988, I.C.J. Reports 1988 ,

pp. 99 et seq.”) (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo
(New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Rwanda), Provisional Measures, Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J.
Reports 2002 ; p. 280, para. 30, separate opinion of Judge Mavungu.)

26. Both Parties having confirmed that various negotiations took place
in international forums on human rights violations, including those relat-
ing to the health of the Congolese population, the Court was bound to
take note of that fact.

27. The third and last precondition stipulated by the compromissory
clause is that the question or dispute “be referred to the International

99 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DIS. OP.MAVUNGU ) 102

Court of Justice in conformity with the Statute of the Court, unless the

parties concerned agree on another mode of settlement”.

28. In the present case, it was apparent from the arguments advanced

by the two Parties that the dispute could not be settled by diplomatic
negotiations, much less by the organization of arbitration. The Republic
of Rwanda disputed the admissibility of the Communication filed with

the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights by the DRC.
Seisin of the Court by an application instituting proceedings, in accord-
ance with Article 36, paragraph 1, of its Statute, was the only option still
available to the Applicant.

29. In view of the foregoing, the Court should have found that it had
jurisdiction to examine the merits of the dispute.

2. THE M ONTREAL CONVENTION FOR THE SUPPRESSION OF U NLAWFUL

A CTS AGAINST THE S AFETY OF C IVILA VIATION

30. The compromissory clause in the Montreal Convention for the
Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation of

23 September 1971 was also invoked by the DRC as a base of jurisdiction
for the Court. Article 14, paragraph 1, of this Convention sets three pre-
conditions for seisin of the Court: the existence of a dispute concerning

the interpretation or application of the Convention; the Parties must
have attempted to settle the dispute by negotiation, or by arbitration.

31. With respect to the first precondition, the DRC accused Rwanda
and Uganda (“the allied aggressors”) of shooting down a Congo Airlines
Boeing 727 after take-off from Kindu (Maniema province) on 9 Octo-

ber 1998. All of the passengers (37 women and children) and the three
crew members lost their lives as a result of this unlawful act.

32. The DRC issue6 a number of protests on this matter, in particular
in its White Papers and in the Memorial which it filed with the African
Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights . 7

Moreover, it filed a complaint against Rwanda and Uganda with the
President of the ICAO Council by a letter dated 20 October 1998. The
representatives of both Parties in the present case participated in
the organization’s deliberations without voting rights.

Article 1 of the Montreal Convention stipulates that:

“[a]ny person commits an offence if he unlawfully and intentionally:

6
See First White Paper, Human Rights Ministry, Kinshasa, December 1998, pp. 10-11,
pa7a. 67; Second White Paper, April 1999, p. 35.
DRC’s Memorial with respect to Communication filed with the African Commission
on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Human Rights Ministry, Kinshasa, 2000, p. 11, note 13.

100 ARMED ACTIVITIES DISS. OP. MAVUNGU ) 103

— performs an act of violence against a person on board an aircraft

in flight if that act is likely to endanger the safety of that aircraft;
or
— destroys an aircraft in service or causes damage to such an air-
craft which renders it incapable of flight or which is likely to
endanger its safety in flight.”

The States parties to the Montreal Convention are obliged to punish
such acts by severe penalties (Art. 3).

33. The declaration of the ICAO Council following consideration of
the request filed by the DRC is very clear:
“the unlawful seizure of aircraft and other acts of unlawful inter-

ference against civil aviation, including acts aimed at destruction
of aircraft, have serious adverse effects on the safety, efficiency
and regularity of international civil aviation, endanger the lives
of aircraft passengers and crew, and undermine the confidence of the
peoples of the world in the safety of international civil aviation”

(para. 2).
34. In view of the discussions organized under the aegis of the ICAO,

there can be no doubt whatsoever that a dispute existed between the two
Parties prior to seisin of the Court.
35. The second precondition is the organization of negotiations. I am
of the opinion that the negotiations organized within international
bodies, in the present case by the ICAO Council, can be regarded as

official negotiations between the two Parties.

It should be noted that the Court has broadly interpreted the notion of
“negotiations”: exchange of views, diplomatic Notes, protests, discus-
sions within an international organization, talks (South West Africa

(Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , pp. 344 et seq.; Border and Trans-
border Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988 , pp. 99 et seq.).

36. The third and last precondition concerns requests for arbitration:

“If within six months from the date of the request for arbitration

the Parties are unable to agree on the organization of the arbitra-
tion, any one of those Parties may refer the dispute to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice by request in conformity with the Statute of
the Court.”

In other words, seisin of the Court by one of the parties can only take
place when it has proved impossible to organize arbitration, six months
after the date when it was requested.

37. In its consistent jurisprudence, the Court has had the opportunity
to define in precise terms the formal condition for requesting arbitration.

101 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS.OP.MAVUNGU ) 104

The lack of an agreement between the two Parties on the organization of

arbitration cannot be assumed. The existence of such a disagreement can
only be shown by an offer of arbitration made by the Applicant to which
the Respondent has not responded. (See Questions of Interpretation and
Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising from the Aerial

Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom),
Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 17, para. 21; Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising
from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United

States of America), I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 122, para. 20.)
38. Since the three preconditions are cumulative, the DRC had to
demonstrate that it had proposed to Rwanda that this dispute be sub-
mitted to arbitration.

However, during the proceedings on the request for the indication of
provisional measures, the DRC told the Court that it had been impos-
sible to organize an arbitration owing to the lack of co-operation
from Rwanda. The proposals made in July 2001 (Lusaka), September

2001 (Durban), January 2002 (Blantyre) and March 2002 (Lusaka) were
reportedly met with refusals by the Republic of Rwanda.
39. There can be no doubt that the armed conflict in the DRC gave
rise to a number of different disputes regarding violations of human

rights and/or basic international humanitarian law. A request for arbitra-
tion could not focus all the attention on one precise dispute at the
expense of all others. Strict adherence to legal formalities was not appro-
priate when defending human rights.

The exceptional circumstances of the conflict and the Respondent’s
attitude prior to seisin of the Court, as well as during the current pro-
ceedings, should have led the Court to find that it had jurisdiction as
arbiter of last resort.

3. THE C ONVENTION ON THE E LIMINATION OF ALL F ORMS OF
DISCRIMINATION AGAINST W OMEN

40. Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination
against Women includes a compromissory clause, which reads as follows:

“Any dispute between two or more States Parties concerning the

interpretation or application of the present Convention which is not
settled by negotiation shall, at the request of one of them, be sub-
mitted to arbitration. If within six months from the date of the
request for arbitration the parties are unable to agree on the organi-

zation of the arbitration, any one of those parties may refer the dis-
pute to the International Court of Justice by request in conformity
with the Statute of the Court.”

41. This clause specifies the preconditions for seisin of the Court: the

102 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP.MAVUNGU ) 105

existence of a dispute, the impossibility of settling the dispute by negotia-

tion and a request for arbitration. These conditions are similar to those in
the Montreal Convention (see above). With the exception of a few minor
differences, the conclusions that I have reached in my analysis of that

Convention can equally be applied to this one.

42. The Court did not see fit to decide whether the various human
rights violations committed against the women of the Congo in the con-

flict zones — sexual violence, the deliberate spreading of the HIV/AIDS
virus, the burial of women alive, etc. — were covered by the Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

43. In its various protests, the DRC emphasized the specific violations
concerning Congolese women . The dispute between the two Parties con-
cerns the application of the Convention.
44. With respect to prior negotiations, the Court has found on a

number of occasions that talks within international bodies can be regarded
as negotiations.
45. It is true that the African Commission on Human and Peoples’

Rights is not strictu sensu an arbitral body. However, in the circum-
stances of the present case, its seisin by a Communication by the DRC
and the adversarial process between the two Parties that took place
within it could be regarded as an attempt at arbitration. We should not

lose sight of the fact that the Commission was established within the
Organization for African Unity (OAU) to hear human rights disputes
between Members of that pan-African organization.

46. The foregoing elements could have allowed the Court to find that
it had jurisdiction and to rule on the merits of the case.

(Signed) Jean-Pierre M AVUNGU .

8
See White Paper, Vol. 3, pp. 39 et seq. ; Vol. 4, pp. 41 et seq. ; Special Number,
pp. 26 et seq.

103

Bilingual Content

95

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC MAVUNGU

Exceptions préliminaires — Compétence de la Cour et recevabilité de la

requête — Clauses compromissoires — Conditions préalables à la saisine de la
Cour — Existence d’un différend — Négociations diplomatiques — Recours à
l’arbitrage.

NTRODUCTION

1. Dans son ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002 relative à la demande en
indication de mesures conservatoires (Activités armées sur le territoire du
Congo (nouvelle requête: 2002) (République démocratique du Congo

c. Rwanda), C.I.J. Recueil 2002 , p. 219), la Cour a renvoyé les deux
Parties «dos à dos» estimant que les conditions requises n’étaient pas
remplies dans le cas d’espèce pour indiquer des mesures conservatoires
(l’urgence, la préservation des droits des parties, la non-aggravation du
différend, la compétence de la Cour prima facie). Elle a également rejeté

les conclusions de la République rwandaise tendant à ce que l’affaire soit
rayée du rôle de la Cour.
La position équilibrée à laquelle la Cour était parvenue en 2002 est à
présent rompue suite à l’arrêt rendu sur les exceptions préliminaires.
Autant j’étais d’avis que la Cour aurait pu indiquer quelques mesures
conservatoires en se fondant sur une partie des bases de compétence invo-

quées par la République démocratique du Congo (RDC), autant je pense
dans cette phase de la procédure que la Cour pouvait établir sa compé-
tence et examiner l’affaire au fond.
2. Tant le commun des mortels que des observateurs avisés ne com-
prendraient pas que la Cour soit arrivée à deux conclusions opposées sur

deux affaires ayant les mêmes caractéristiques. Il ne fait l’ombre d’aucun
doute que la RDC formule les mêmes griefs à l’Ouganda et au Rwanda.
Le conseil de l’Ouganda s’est fait l’avocat du Rwanda sans raisons évi-
dentes:

«les prétentions de la République démocratique du Congo relatives
aux activités ou aux situations impliquant la République du Rwanda
ou ses agents sont irrecevables...» (Activités armées sur le territoire
du Congo (République démocratique du Congo c Ouganda), arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 186, par. 24).
3. En rendant son arrêt, le 19 décembre 2005, dans l’affaire opposant
la RDC à l’Ouganda, la Cour n’a pas manqué de relever la complexité de

la situation dans la région des Grands Lacs africains. Elle a également
mis l’accent sur la nécessité de parvenir à un règlement global des pro-
blèmes de la région:

93 95

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC MAVUNGU

[Translation]

Preliminary objections — Jurisdiction of the Court and admissibility of the

Application — Compromissory clauses — Necessary preconditions for seisin of
the Court — Existence of a dispute — Diplomatic negotiations — Recourse to
arbitration.

INTRODUCTION

1. In its Order of 10 July 2002 on the request for the indication of pro-
visional measures (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New
Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda),

I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 219), the Court dismissed both Parties’ claims,
holding that the necessary conditions for the indication of provisional
measures (urgency, safeguard of the parties’ rights, non-aggravation of
the dispute, prima facie jurisdiction of the Court) did not exist in the
present case. It likewise rejected the Republic of Rwanda’s submission

that the case should be removed from the Court’s List.

The balance achieved by the Court in 2002 has now been lost as a
result of the Judgment on the preliminary objections. Just as I was of the
opinion that the Court could have indicated certain provisional measures
in reliance on certain of the bases of jurisdiction invoked by the Demo-

cratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), so I believe that, at this stage of
the proceedings, the Court could have established its jurisdiction and
addressed the merits of the case.
2. Neither the general public nor specialist commentators will under-
stand how the Court could arrive at two opposing rulings in two cases

sharing the same characteristics. There can be no doubt whatsoever that
the DRC nourishes the same grievances against Uganda as it does
against Rwanda. For no apparent reason, Uganda’s counsel espoused
Rwanda’s cause:

“the requests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo relating to
activities or situations involving the Republic of Rwanda or its
agents are inadmissible . . .” (Armed Activities on the Territory of
the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 186, para. 24).
3. When delivering its Judgment on 19 December 2005 in the case
between the DRC and Uganda, the Court was at pains to note the com-

plexity of the situation in the Great Lakes region of Africa. It also
focused on the need to achieve a comprehensive settlement of the region’s
problems:

9396 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS.MAVUNGU )

«La Cour est consciente de la situation complexe et tragique qui
prévaut depuis longtemps dans la région des Grands Lacs. Il y a eu
beaucoup de souffrance pour la population locale et déstabilisation

d’une grande partie de la région... La Cour est aussi consciente de la
nécessité de parvenir, du fait des conflits entre factions que connaît
la RDC, à un règlement global des problèmes de la région .» ( C.I.J.

Recueil 2005, p. 190, par. 26; les italiques sont de moi.)

4. La décision rendue par la Cour au stade des exceptions prélimi-
naires et ayant pour conséquence la radiation de l’affaire du rôle ne per-

mettra pas de trancher au regard du droit international sur les préten-
tions des Parties, mais aussi de fixer les esprits des victimes de tout genre
qui attendent réparation.

L’idéal aurait été de vider tout le contentieux judiciaire entre la RDC
et deux de ses voisins, en l’occurrence l’Ouganda et le Rwanda, afin de
concourir efficacement à la restauration et à la consolidation de la paix
dans la région .1

5. La Cour, organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies, a fixé les
limites de son action dans le règlement judiciaire des différends opposant
les pays des Grands Lacs:

«La Cour a néanmoins pour mission de trancher, sur la base du
droit international, le différend juridique précis qui lui est soumis.
En interprétant et en appliquant le droit, elle gardera ce contexte

présent à l’esprit, mais ne saurait aller au-delà.» (Activités armées
sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo
c. Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005 , p. 190, par. 26.)

6. Contestant la compétence de la Cour et la recevabilité de la requête
introduite par la RDC, la République rwandaise a soulevé deux excep-
tions préliminaires . Elle était d’avis que les bases de compétence citées

par la RDC (l’article 22 de la convention sur la discrimination raciale; le
paragraphe 1 de l’article 29 de la convention sur la discrimination à
l’égard des femmes; l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide; l’ar-
ticle 75 de la Constitution de l’OMS; le paragraphe 2 de l’article XIV de

l’acte constitutif de l’Unesco; l’article 9 de la convention sur les privilèges
et immunités; le paragraphe 1 de l’article 30 de la convention contre la
torture; le paragraphe 1 de l’article 14 de la convention de Montréal; les

normes impératives (jus cogens) en matière des droits de l’homme ainsi

1 Pour une analyse du rôle de la Cour au règlement des différends, voir notamment
Mohammed Bedjaoui, «La place de la Cour internationale de Justice dans le système
général de maintien de la paix institué par la Charte des Nations Unies», Recueil des
cours de l’Académie de droit internationale de La Haye , vol. 8, 1996, p. 541-548; Mvumbi-
di-Ngoma Mavungu, Le règlement judiciaire des différends interétatiques en Afrique ,
1992.
2 Sur les exceptions préliminaires, lire Georges Abi-Saab, Les exceptions préliminaires
dans la procédure de la Cour internationale , 1967.

94 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP. MAVUNGU ) 96

“The Court is aware of the complex and tragic situation which has
long prevailed in the Great Lakes region. There has been much suf-
fering by the local population and destabilization of much of the

region . . . The Court is aware, too, that the factional conflicts within
the DRC require a comprehensive settlement to the problems of the
region.” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 190, para. 26; emphasis added.)

4. The Court’s ruling at the preliminary objections stage, resulting in
removal of the case from the List, means that no decision will be made

from an international law perspective on the Parties’ claims and no
closure reached in the minds of the various victims, who still await
redress.

The ideal approach would have been to settle the entire litigation
between the DRC and two of its neighbours, Uganda and Rwanda, in
the present case, in order to work effectively towards the restoration and
consolidation of peace in the region . 1

5. The Court, principal judicial organ of the United Nations, has
set limits to its action in the legal settlement of disputes between the
countries of the Great Lakes region:

“[T]he task of the Court must be to respond, on the basis of inter-
national law, to the particular legal dispute brought before it. As it
interprets and applies the law, it will be mindful of the context, but

its task cannot go beyond that.” (Armed Activities on the Territory
of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 190, para. 26.)

6. In disputing the Court’s jurisdiction and the admissibility of the
Application submitted by the DRC, the Republic of Rwanda raised two
preliminary objections . It was of the opinion that the bases of jurisdic-

tion cited by the DRC (Article 22 of the Convention on Racial Discrimi-
nation; Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination
against Women; Article IX of the Genocide Convention; Article 75 of
the Constitution of the WHO; Article XIV, paragraph 2, of the Unesco

Constitution; Article 9 of the Convention on Privileges and Immunities;
Article 30, paragraph 1, of the Convention against Torture; Article 14,
paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention; peremptory norms (jus

cogens) in the area of human rights and forum prorogatum) could not

1 For an analysis of the Court’s role in settling disputes, see Mohammed Bedjaoui, “La
place de la Cour internationale de Justice dans le système général du maintien de la paix
institué par la Charte des Nations Unies”, Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit inter-
national de La Haye, Vol. 8, 1996, pp. 541-548; Mvumbi-di-Ngoma Mavungu, Le règle-
ment judiciaire des différends interétatiques en Afrique , 1992.

2 Regarding preliminary objections, see Georges Abi-Saab, Les exceptions prélimi-
naires dans la procédure de la Cour internationale , 1967.

9497 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES OP .DISS. MAVUNGU )

que le forum prorogatum) ne pouvaient pas fonder la compétence de la
Cour (voir arrêt, par. 15).

En tout état de cause, même dans l’hypothèse où l’un des titres ou l’une
des règles de droit international coutumier serait retenu par la haute juri-
diction, la requête de la RDC «n’en serait pas moins irrecevable» (ibid.).

7. En vertu de l’article 79 de son Règlement, la Cour a suspendu la
procédure sur le fond afin d’examiner les exceptions préliminaires sus-
mentionnées. L’examen de celles-ci peut aboutir à la radiation de l’affaire

du rôle dès lors que la Cour arrive à la conclusion qu’elle n’a pas com-
pétence pour connaître du différend à elle soumis ou que la requête est
irrecevable ratione materiae, ratione temporis ou ratione loci . 3
En l’espèce, la Cour s’est limitée à examiner la question relative à sa

compétence. N’ayant retenu aucune des bases de compétence invoquées
par la RDC, la Cour n’a pas jugé utile de se prononcer plus avant en
abordant la recevabilité de la requête.

8. Certaines conclusions définitives contenues dans l’arrêt justifient la
rédaction de la présente opinion dissidente. Comme je l’avais indiqué en
2002, au cours de la procédure en indication de mesures conservatoires,

s’il est vrai que tous les titres et règles de droit international coutumier
invoqués par la RDC ne pouvaient établir prima facie la compétence de
la Cour, il est néanmoins des clauses compromissoires sur lesquelles la
Cour pouvait s’appuyer à cette fin (Activités armées sur le territoire du

Congo (nouvelle requête: 2002) (République démocratique du Congo
c. Rwanda), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, C.I.J.
Recueil 2002, p. 277 et suiv.).

9. Dans la présente instance, je n’ai pas conscience que la Cour ait
analysé en profondeur les clauses compromissoires contenues dans les
traités internationaux ci-après: la Constitution de l’OMS, la convention

de Montréal et la convention sur la discrimination à l’égard des femmes.
De plus, la République rwandaise a maintenu un flou sur la levée ou non
de sa réserve à la convention sur le génocide, tant au regard des disposi-

tions de droit constitutionnel que de la déclaration faite par la ministre de
la justice devant la soixante et unième session de la Commission des
droits de l’homme des Nations Unies à Genève le 17 mars 2005.

1. L A C ONSTITUTION DE L ’ORGANISATION MONDIALE DE LA S ANTÉ

10. L’article 75 de la Constitution de l’OMS a la teneur suivante:

«Toute question ou différend concernant l’interprétation ou
l’application de cette Constitution, qui n’aura pas été réglé par voie
de négociation ou par l’Assemblée de la Santé, sera déféré par les
parties à la Cour internationale de Justice conformément au Statut

3 Sur la compétence de la Cour, voir notamment Maurice Arbour,Droit international
public,3éd., 1997; Pierre-Marie Dupuy,Droit international pubéd.; Nguyen Quoc
Dinh, Patrick Daillier et Alain Pellet,Droit international public,6.

95 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DIS. OP.MAVUNGU ) 97

found the jurisdiction of the Court (see Judgment, para. 15).

In any event, even assuming that one of the titles or rules of customary

international law were to be accepted by the Court, the DRC’s Applica-
tion would be “nevertheless inadmissible” (ibid.).
7. Pursuant to Article 79 of its Rules, the Court suspended proceed-
ings on the merits of the case in order to examine these preliminary objec-

tions. Their examination could result in removal of the case from the List
in the event of the Court concluding that it lacked the jurisdiction to hear
the dispute submitted to it or that the Application was inadmissible
ratione materiae, ratione temporis or ratione loci .

In the instant case, the Court confined itself to addressing the issue of
its jurisdiction. Not having accepted any of the grounds of jurisdiction
advanced by the DRC, the Court considered that it was unnecessary to

take matters any further by considering the Application’s admissibility.
8. Certain final findings in the Judgment justify the present dissenting
opinion. As I pointed out in 2002, during the proceedings on provisional
measures, while it is true that not all the titles and rules of customary

international law advanced by the DRC were capable of establishing the
Court’s prima facie jurisdiction, there were, however, compromissory
clauses upon which the Court could have based itself for this purpose

(Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002)
(Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Provisional Measures,
Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , pp. 277 et seq.).

9. In the present case, I am not convinced that the Court has analysed
in depth the compromissory clauses contained in the following interna-
tional treaties: the Constitution of the WHO, the Montreal Convention

and the Convention on Discrimination against Women. Furthermore,
the Republic of Rwanda remained deliberately vague as to whether it had
withdrawn its reservation to the Genocide Convention, in light both of
its own constitutional law and of the declaration of the Rwandan Justice

Minister at the sixty-first session of the United Nations Commission on
Human Rights in Geneva on 17 March 2005.

1. THE C ONSTITUTION OF THE W ORLD H EALTH ORGANIZATION

10. Article 75 of the WHO Constitution states:

“Any question or dispute concerning the interpretation or applica-
tion of this Constitution which is not settled by negotiation or by the

Health Assembly shall be referred to the International Court of Jus-
tice in conformity with the Statute of the Court, unless the parties

3Regarding the Court’s jurisdiction see Maurice Arbour, Droit international public ,
3rd ed., 1997; Pierre-Marie Dupuy, Droit international public , 5th ed., Nguyen Quoc

Dinh, Patrick Daillier, Alain Pellet, Droit international public , 6th ed., 1999.

9598 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS.MAVUNGU )

de ladite Cour, à moins que les parties intéressées ne conviennent
d’un autre mode de règlement».

11. La première condition prescrite par cette clause compromissoire est
l’existence de «toute question ou différend concernant l’interprétation ou
l’application» de la Constitution de l’OMS.
12. La Cour est arrivée à la conclusion que

«la RDC n’a pas démontré l’existence d’une question sur laquelle le
Rwanda aurait des vues différentes des siennes ou d’un différend qui

l’opposerait à cet Etat, en ce qui concerne l’interprétation ou l’appli-
cation de la Constitution de l’OMS» (arrêt, par. 99).

13. La Cour permanente de Justice internationale avait défini un dif-
férend comme «un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, une contra-
diction, une opposition de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts entre deux per-
sonnes» (Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine (Grèce c. Royaume-
o
Uni), arrêt n 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n°2 , p. 11).
S’agissant d’un différend entre deux ou plusieurs Etats, les termes
«deux personnes» devraient se lire «deux ou plusieurs Etats».
Dans plusieurs affaires, la Cour actuelle a eu à préciser et à compléter
la notion de différend. Pour établir l’existence d’un différend «[i]l faut

démontrer que la réclamation de l’une des parties se heurte à l’opposition
manifeste de l’autre» (Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud;
Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1962, p. 328); par ailleurs, «[l]’existence d’un différend interna-
tional demande à être établie objectivement» (Interprétation des traités

de paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie, première
phase, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950 ,p.74; Timor oriental (Por-
tugal c. Australie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995 , p. 100, par. 22; Questions
d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971

résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne
c. Royaume-Uni), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 ,
p. 17, par. 22; Question d’interprétation et d’application de la convention
de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jama-
hiriya arabe libyenne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), exceptions prélimi-

naires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 122-123, par. 21).
14. En l’espèce, la question ou le différend doit porter sur l’interpréta-
tion ou l’application de la Constitution de l’OMS.
15. L’esprit et la lettre de la Constitution de l’OMS prévoient priori-
tairement des obligations à charge de l’Organisation. Comme je l’ai sou-

tenu précédemment,

«tout Etat qui devient membre de l’OMS se doit non seulement de
coopérer avec l’Organisation pour l’aider à remplir le but qui lui a
été assigné [celui d’amener tous les peuples au niveau de santé le plus
élevé possible], mais également d’agir afin d’offrir aux populations le
meilleur état de santé possible. Ne pas concourir à l’exercice du droit

à la santé, c’est aller à l’encontre de l’objet et du but de la Constitu-

96 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS.OP .MAVUNGU ) 98

concerned agree on another mode of settlement.”

11. The first precondition fixed by this compromissory clause is the

existence of “any question or dispute concerning the interpretation or
application” of the WHO Constitution.
12. The Court ruled that

“the DRC has not shown that there was a question concerning the
interpretation or application of the WHO Constitution on which
itself and Rwanda had opposing views, or that it had a dispute with
that State in regard to this matter” (Judgment, para. 99).

13. The Permanent Court of International Justice defined a dispute

as “a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or
of interests between two persons” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions
(Greece v. United Kingdom), Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 2, p. 11).
In the event of a dispute between two or more States, the words “two

persons” should be read as “two or more States”.
In a number of cases, the Court has had to clarify and amplify the
notion of a dispute. To establish the existence of a dispute, “[i]t must be
shown that the claim of one party was positively opposed by the other”
(South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa),

Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328); more-
over, “[w]hether there exists an international dispute is a matter for
objective determination” (Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria,
Hungary and Romania (First Phase), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1950,p.74;East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1995, p. 100, para. 22; Questions of Interpretation and Application of the
1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie
(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 17, para. 22; Questions of Interpreta-
tion and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the

Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States
of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,
pp. 122-123, para. 21).
14. In the present case, the question or dispute must concern the inter-
pretation or application of the WHO Constitution.

15. Both the spirit and the letter of the WHO Constitution establish
overriding obligations towards the Organization. As I had previously
submitted,

“any State which becomes a Member of the WHO has a duty not
only to co-operate with the organization to assist in fulfilling the
mission assigned to it, but also to act in order to provide the popula-
tion with the best possible level of health. Any failure to uphold the

right to health is contrary to the object and purpose of the WHO
Constitution. It would be wrong to assert that this Constitution does

9699 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES OP .DISS. MAVUNGU )

tion de l’OMS. Il serait faux d’affirmer que cet acte constitutif ne
prescrit aucune obligation aux Etats membres.» (Activités armées

sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle requête: 2002) (République
démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda) , mesures conservatoires, ordon-
nance du 10 juillet 2002, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 , p. 279, par. 28, opinion
individuelle du juge Mavungu.)

16. A maintes reprises, la RDC a élevé plusieurs protestations du fait

de la détérioration de l’état de santé des populations congolaises pendant
le conflit armé.
Dans son allocution du 30 mars 2001 à la cinquante-septième session
de la Commission des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies, le président

Joseph Kabila a déclaré:

«D’après les données fournies par des ONG telles que l’Interna-
tional Rescue Committee et par des organismes de l’ONU, environ
2 500 000 Congolais ont péri dans les territoires occupés, victimes
directes et indirectes de l’agression...

Les massacres de paisibles populations civiles congolaises ne sont
plus à compter. Nombreux sont les actes avérés de barbarie et de
sauvagerie tels que ... les viols, la propagation délibérée du SIDA ...»
(Les italiques sont de moi.)

Les différents tomes du Livre blanc, publiés naguère par le ministère
des droits humains de la RDC, ont recensé plusieurs violations des droits
de l’homme, y compris dans le domaine de la santé. Tant le Rwanda que
l’Ouganda ont été cités à cet effet. A titre d’exemple, le tome 1 du Livre
blanc, distribué comme document de travail du Conseil de sécurité, indi-

que au paragraphe 45 ce qui suit:

«Poursuivant leur stratégie d’extermination des populations ci-
viles congolaises dans les zones occupées, MUSEVENI et KAGAME
commettent des actes qui dépassent tout entendement. En effet, 2000

soldats ougandais sidéens ou séropositifs ont été envoyés sur le front
de la Province orientale avec mission de violer les femmes et jeunes
filles pour répandre la maladie. Faut-il rappeler que l’Ouganda et le
Rwanda détiennent le triste record des sidéens et des séropositifs en

Afrique...»

Le tome 4 du Livre blanc évoque aussi la détérioration de la situation
4
sanitaire dans les territoires occupés . Celle-ci a été confirmée par plu-
sieurs organisations humanitaires (Oxfam, Save the Children, Christian

4 Voir Livre blanc, t. 4, ministère des doits humains, Kinshasa, février 2002, p. 34 et
suiv.

97 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS.OP. MAVUNGU ) 99

not lay down any obligations for Member States.” (Armed Activities
on the Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Demo-

cratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Provisional Measures,
Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 279, para. 28 seperate
opinion of Judge Mavungu.)

16. On repeated occasions, the DRC made various protests regarding

the deterioration of the state of the Congolese population’s health during
the armed conflict.
In his speech to the fifty-seventh session of the United Nations Com-
mission on Human Rights on 30 March 2001, President Joseph Kabila

stated:

“According to data provided by NGOs such as the International
Rescue Committee and by agencies of the United Nations, around
2,500,000 Congolese have lost their lives in the occupied territories,
victims directly and indirectly of aggression . . .

Countless numbers of killings have occurred among the peaceable
Congolese civilian populations. Numerous barbarous and savage
acts have taken place such as . . . rapes, the deliberate spreading of
AIDS . . .” (Emphasis added.)

The various White Papers, previously published by the DRC’s
Ministry of Human Rights, record numerous violations of human
rights, including health-related questions. Both Rwanda and Uganda
are cited in this respect. By way of example, paragraph 45 of the First
White Paper, distributed as a working document to the Security Council,

states the following:

“Museveni and Kagame are committing acts which are beyond all
understanding in the pursuit of their strategy of exterminating the
Congolese civilian population in the occupied areas. For example,

2,000 Ugandan soldiers suffering from acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS) or infected with the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) were sent to the front in Orientale Province, their mis-
sion to rape women and girls with the aim of spreading the disease.

Need it be recalled that Uganda and Rwanda have the sorry distinc-
tion of having Africa’s largest number of AIDS sufferers and HIV-
infected persons . . .” [Translation by the United Nations Secre-
tariat.]

The Fourth White Paper also describes the deterioration in health con-
4
ditions in the occupied territories . This has been confirmed by several
humanitarian organizations (Oxfam, Save the Children, Christian Aid,

4See Fourth White Paper, Ministry of Human Rights, Kinshasa, February 2002, pp. 34
et seq.

97100 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS.MAVUNGU )

Aid, etc.), le Parlement européen (résolution du 14 juin 2002), le rappor-
5
teur spécial sur la situation des droits de l’homme en RDC , etc.
17. Les violations des droits de l’homme, y compris dans le domaine de
la santé, ont fait l’objet des échanges entre les Parties au sein des ins-
tances internationales régionales et internationales (OUA, Conseil de

sécurité, Assemblée générale, Commission des droits de l’homme, etc.).
18. S’agissant de la protection du noyau intangible des droits de
l’homme, la priorité résiderait moins dans l’énumération des dispositions
conventionnelles violées que dans la dénonciation des atteintes graves à

la personne humaine en vue de les faire cesser. On ne saurait raisonna-
blement reprocher au demandeur d’avoir omis, dans certains cas, de citer
dans ses actes de protestation, dans les enceintes internationales, les
normes ou dispositions conventionnelles faisant l’objet de celle-ci.

19. Au regard des éléments qui précèdent, un différend existe bel et
bien entre les deux Parties, relatif à l’application de la Constitution de
l’OMS. Les Etats membres ont pris l’engagement

«d’amener tous les peuples au niveau de santé le plus élevé possible
et de considérer la possession du meilleur état de santé possible
comme un droit fondamental de tous les êtres humains, la santé est

reconnue comme une condition de la paix et le devoir de tous les
Etats de coopérer pour atteindre l’idéal fixé est établi...» (Licéité de
l’utilisation des armes nucléaires par un Etat dans un conflit armé,
avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I) , p. 146, opinion dissidente

du juge Weeramantry).
20. La deuxième condition prévue par l’article 75 de la Constitution de

l’OMS est le recours à la négociation ou à l’Assemblée de la Santé avant
la saisine de la Cour.
21. Sans avoir étayé son argumentation, la Cour conclut que:

«quand bien même elle aurait établi l’existence d’une question ou
d’un différend entrant dans les prévisions de l’article 75 de la Cons-
titution de l’OMS, la RDC n’a en tout état de cause pas apporté la

preuve que les autres conditions préalables à la saisine de la Cour,
fixées par cette disposition, aient été remplies, à savoir qu’elle ait
tenté de régler ladite question ou ledit différend par voie de négocia-
tion avec le Rwanda» (arrêt, par. 100).

«La Cour conclut de ce qui précède que l’article 75 de la Constitu-
tion de l’OMS ne peut pas servir de fondement à sa compétence pour

connaître de la présente affaire.» (Arrêt, par. 101.)
22. La situation de belligérance entre les deux Parties n’était pas de
nature à favoriser des négociations directes en vue du règlement de
l’ensemble des différends. Aussi bien la RDC que le Rwanda ont reconnu

avoir engagé des négociations avant la saisine de la Cour.

5 Voir notamment les rapports des 20 septembre 2000février 2001 et 27 mars 2001.

98 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS.OP. MAVUNGU ) 100

etc.), the European Parliament (14 June 2002 resolution), the Special
Rapporteur on the human rights situation in the DRC , etc.5

17. Violations of human rights, including health-related questions,
have been the subject of exchanges between the Parties in regional and
international bodies (OAU, Security Council, General Assembly, Com-
mission on Human Rights, etc.).

18. In protecting the inviolable core of human rights, the priority lies
less in specifying the conventional provisions breached than in denoun-
cing these serious attacks on human dignity in order to put an end to
them. It is surely unreasonable to blame the Applicant for having in
certain cases omitted in its protests in international forums to cite the

norms or conventional provisions that underpinned them.

19. In view of the foregoing, a dispute between the two Parties as to
application of the WHO Constitution definitely existed. WHO Member

States commit themselves to
“the attainment by all people to the highest possible level of health,

to regarding the achievement of the highest achievable standard
of health as a fundamental right of every person on the planet,
a recognition of health as fundamental to peace, and of the duty
of State co-operation to achieve this ideal . . .” (Legality of the

Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (I), p. 146, dissenting opinion of Judge Weeramantry).

20. The second precondition fixed by Article 75 of the WHO Constitu-
tion is the recourse to negotiations or the World Health Assembly prior
to seisin of the Court.

21. Without supporting its argument, the Court finds:
“even if the DRC had demonstrated the existence of a question or
dispute falling within the scope of Article 75 of the WHO Constitu-

tion, it has in any event not proved that the other preconditions for
seisin of the Court established by that provision have been satisfied,
namely that it attempted to settle the question or dispute by negotia-
tion with Rwanda or that the World Health Assembly had been

unable to settle it” (Judgment, para. 100).
“The Court concludes from the foregoing that Article 75 of the WHO

Constitution cannot serve to found its jurisdiction in the present case.”
(Judgement, para. 101.)
22. The state of conflict prevailing between the two Parties was not
conducive to direct negotiations in order to settle the totality of the dis-

putes between them. Both the DRC and Rwanda have acknowledged
having engaged in negotiations prior to the seisin of the Court.

5See in particular the reports of 20 September 2000, 1 February 2001 and 27 March
2001.

98101 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP.DISS. MAVUNGU )

23. Dans son document du 18 octobre 2000 intitulé «Réponses et
objections préliminaires de la République rwandaise», déposé le 24 oc-
tobre 2000 à la Commission africaine des droits de l’homme et des
peuples, en réponse à la communication-plainte n 227/99 introduite par

la RDC, le Rwanda a déclaré ce qui suit:
«les faits relatés ... (faits constitutifs de violations de nombreux ins-
truments relatifs aux droits de l’homme et ou droit international

humanitaire) ont été à maintes reprises portés par la République
démocratique du Congo devant les organes internationaux, y com-
pris:

— les réunions de l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies;
— les réunions du Conseil de sécurité;
— les sessions de la Commission des droits de l’homme».

«La communication 227/99 doit être déclarée irrecevable sur la
base du fait que les allégations en question ont fait l’objet d’intenses
discussions et négociations devant les organes compétents de l’Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies et de l’Organisation de l’unité africaine .»

(CR 2005/20, p. 13-14, par. 16; les italiques sont de moi.)
24. La RDC, pour sa part, a également confirmé les négociations
qui ont eu lieu entre les deux Parties en vue de parvenir à un règlement

global du conflit, y compris par l’organisation de l’arbitrage (CR 2002/38,
p. 10-11).
25. Dans mon opinion précédente, j’ai eu à préciser que

«Lorsque la clause de juridiction prévoit le recours aux négocia-
tions diplomatiques préalables, il va de soi que les parties doivent s’y
conformer. Cette exigence est plus une obligation de comportement
que de résultat... La Cour a d’ailleurs interprété de manière extensive

la notion de «négociations diplomatiques» (échange de vues: notes
diplomatiques, protestations, discussions au sein d’une organisation
internationale, pourparlers).» (Note de bas de page: «Voir notam-
ment Droit de passage sur territoire indien, C.I.J. Recueil 1960,

p. 148-149; Sud-Ouest africain, exceptions préliminaires, C.I.J.
Recueil 1962, p. 344 et suiv.; Actions armées frontalières et trans-
frontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras) , C.I.J. Recueil 1988,p.99et
suiv.») (Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle
requête: 2002) (République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda),

mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, C.I.J.
Recueil 2002, p. 280, par. 30, opinion individuelle du juge Mavungu.)

26. Les deux Parties ayant affirmé qu’il y a eu différentes négociations
dans les instances internationales sur des violations des droits de l’homme,
y compris ceux liés à la santé des populations congolaises, la Cour ne
pouvait que prendre acte de cette réalité.
27. La troisième et dernière condition prescrite par la clause compro-

missoire est que la question ou différend «sera déféré par les parties à la

99 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS.OP. MAVUNGU ) 101

23. In a document dated 18 October 2000, entitled “Responses and

Preliminary Objections of the Republic of Rwanda”, submitted to the
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights on 24 October 2000,
in response to Communication 227/99 filed by the DRC, Rwanda stated
the following:

“the acts reported . . . (acts constituting violations of numerous
international humanitarian rights and/or international humanitarian
law instruments) have repeatedly been brought by the Democratic

Republic of the Congo to the attention of international organs,
including :
— meetings of the United Nations General Assembly;
— meetings of the Security Council;

— sessions of the United Nations Commission on Human
Rights”.
“Communication 227/99 must be declared inadmissible on the

basis of the fact that the allegations in question have been the sub-
ject of intense discussions and negotiations before the competent
organs of the United Nations and the Organization of African Unity .”
(CR 2005/20, pp. 13-14, para. 16; emphasis added.)

24. The DRC, for its part, confirmed that negotiations had taken
place between the two Parties with a view to achieving a comprehensive
settlement to the conflict, including the organization of arbitration
(CR 2002/38, pp. 10-11).

25. In my previous opinion, I had occasion to state:
“When a jurisdiction clause provides for recourse to prior diplo-
matic negotiations, it is self-evident that the parties have to comply

therewith. This requirement is rather an obligation of conduct than
of result . . . The Court has moreover given a wide interpretation to
the notion of ‘diplomatic negotiations’ (exchanges of views: diplo-
matic notes, protests, discussions within an international organiza-
tion, talks).” (Footnote: “See inter alia Right of Passage over Indian

Territory, I.C.J. Reports 1960 , pp. 148-149; South West Africa,
Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1962, pp. 344 et seq.; Border
and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 31 March 1988, I.C.J. Reports 1988 ,

pp. 99 et seq.”) (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo
(New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Rwanda), Provisional Measures, Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J.
Reports 2002 ; p. 280, para. 30, separate opinion of Judge Mavungu.)

26. Both Parties having confirmed that various negotiations took place
in international forums on human rights violations, including those relat-
ing to the health of the Congolese population, the Court was bound to
take note of that fact.

27. The third and last precondition stipulated by the compromissory
clause is that the question or dispute “be referred to the International

99102 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS.MAVUNGU )

Cour internationale de Justice conformément au Statut de ladite Cour, à
moins que les parties intéressées ne conviennent d’un autre mode de

règlement».
28. En l’espèce, il est apparu au vu des arguments avancés par les
Parties que le différend ne pouvait pas être résolu par des négociations

diplomatiques, encore moins par l’organisation d’un arbitrage. La Répu-
blique rwandaise a contesté la recevabilité de la communication-plainte
introduite par la RDC à la Commission africaine des droits de l’homme

et des peuples. La saisine de la Cour par une requête introductive d’ins-
tance, conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 du Statut, restait la
seule possibilité à exploiter par le demandeur.
29. Au regard des éléments qui précèdent, la Cour aurait dû établir sa

compétence et examiner le différend au fond.

2. L A CONVENTION DE M ONTRÉAL POUR LA RÉPRESSION D ’ACTES DIRIGÉS
CONTRE LA SÉCURITÉ DE L AVIATION CIVILE

30. La clause compromissoire contenue dans la convention de Mon-
tréal du 23 septembre 1971 pour la répression d’actes illicites dirigés
contre la sécurité de l’aviation civile a été également invoquée par la

RDC comme base de compétence de la Cour. L’article 14, paragraphe 1,
de cette convention indique trois conditions préalables à la saisine de la
Cour: l’existence d’un différend qui doit porter sur l’interprétation ou

l’application de la convention; les parties doivent avoir tenté de résoudre
le différend par voie de négociation ou par arbitrage.
31. S’agissant de la première condition, la RDC a accusé le Rwanda et
l’Ouganda («agresseurs coalisés») d’avoir abattu, le 9 octobre 1998, un

Boeing 727 de la compagnie Congo Airlines après son décollage de
l’aéroport de Kindu (province du Maniema). Tous les passagers (trente-
sept femmes et enfants) et les trois membres d’équipage ont péri à la suite

de cet acte illicite.
32. La RDC a élevé plusieurs protestations à ce sujet, notamment dans
le Livre blanc et le mémoire adressé à la Commission africaine des droits
7
de l’homme et des peuples .
De plus, elle a saisi le président du conseil de l’OACI, par lettre en date
du 20 octobre 1998, d’une plainte dirigée contre le Rwanda et l’Ouganda.
Les représentants des deux Parties dans la présente instance ont participé

aux délibérations sans droit de vote.
L’article 1er de la convention de Montréal prévoit que:

«Commet une infraction pénale toute personne qui illicitement et
intentionnellement:

6 Voir Livre blanc, t. 1, ministère des droits humains, Kinshasa, décembre 1998, p. 10-
11, par. 67; t. 2, avril 1999, p. 35.
7 Mémoire de la RDC relatif à la communication-plainte introduite à la Commission
africaine des droits de l’homme et des peuples, ministère des droits humains, Kinshasa,
2000, p. 11, note 13.

100 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DIS. OP.MAVUNGU ) 102

Court of Justice in conformity with the Statute of the Court, unless the

parties concerned agree on another mode of settlement”.

28. In the present case, it was apparent from the arguments advanced

by the two Parties that the dispute could not be settled by diplomatic
negotiations, much less by the organization of arbitration. The Republic
of Rwanda disputed the admissibility of the Communication filed with

the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights by the DRC.
Seisin of the Court by an application instituting proceedings, in accord-
ance with Article 36, paragraph 1, of its Statute, was the only option still
available to the Applicant.

29. In view of the foregoing, the Court should have found that it had
jurisdiction to examine the merits of the dispute.

2. THE M ONTREAL CONVENTION FOR THE SUPPRESSION OF U NLAWFUL

A CTS AGAINST THE S AFETY OF C IVILA VIATION

30. The compromissory clause in the Montreal Convention for the
Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation of

23 September 1971 was also invoked by the DRC as a base of jurisdiction
for the Court. Article 14, paragraph 1, of this Convention sets three pre-
conditions for seisin of the Court: the existence of a dispute concerning

the interpretation or application of the Convention; the Parties must
have attempted to settle the dispute by negotiation, or by arbitration.

31. With respect to the first precondition, the DRC accused Rwanda
and Uganda (“the allied aggressors”) of shooting down a Congo Airlines
Boeing 727 after take-off from Kindu (Maniema province) on 9 Octo-

ber 1998. All of the passengers (37 women and children) and the three
crew members lost their lives as a result of this unlawful act.

32. The DRC issue6 a number of protests on this matter, in particular
in its White Papers and in the Memorial which it filed with the African
Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights . 7

Moreover, it filed a complaint against Rwanda and Uganda with the
President of the ICAO Council by a letter dated 20 October 1998. The
representatives of both Parties in the present case participated in
the organization’s deliberations without voting rights.

Article 1 of the Montreal Convention stipulates that:

“[a]ny person commits an offence if he unlawfully and intentionally:

6
See First White Paper, Human Rights Ministry, Kinshasa, December 1998, pp. 10-11,
pa7a. 67; Second White Paper, April 1999, p. 35.
DRC’s Memorial with respect to Communication filed with the African Commission
on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Human Rights Ministry, Kinshasa, 2000, p. 11, note 13.

100103 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS.MAVUNGU )

— accomplit un acte de violence à l’encontre d’une personne se

trouvant à bord d’un aéronef en vol, si cet acte est de nature à
compromettre la sécurité de cet aéronef;
— détruit un aéronef en service ou cause à un tel aéronef des dom-
mages qui le rendent inapte au vol ou qui sont de nature à com-
promettre sa sécurité en vol...»

Les Etats parties à la convention de Montréal ont l’obligation de répri-
mer de peines sévères ces infractions (art. 3).

33. La déclaration du Conseil de l’OACI faite à l’issue des délibéra-
tions sur la plainte introduite par la RDC est sans équivoque:
«la capture illicite d’aéronefs et les autres actes d’intervention illicite

contre l’aviation civile, notamment les actes visant à détruire des
aéronefs, nuisent gravement à la sécurité, à l’efficacité et à la régu-
larité de l’aviation civile internationale, mettent en danger la vie
des passagers et membres d’équipage et minent la confiance des
peuples du monde dans la sécurité de l’aviation civile internationale»

(par. 2).
34. Au regard des débats organisés sous les auspices de l’OACI, il ne

fait l’ombre d’aucun doute qu’il y a eu un différend entre les deux Parties
avant la saisine de la Cour.
35. La deuxième condition consiste en l’organisation des négociations
diplomatiques. Je suis d’avis que les négociations organisées au sein des
instances internationales, en l’occurrence par le Conseil de l’OACI,

peuvent être considérées comme des négociations diplomatiques entre
les Parties.
Il y a lieu de rappeler que la Cour a interprété de manière extensive la
notion de «négociations diplomatiques»: échanges de vues, notes diplo-
matiques, protestations, discussions au sein d’une organisation interna-

tionale, pourparlers (Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud;
Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 344 et suiv.; Actions armées frontalières et trans-
frontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 99 et suiv.).

36. La troisième et dernière condition porte sur une demande d’arbi-
trage:
«Si, dans les six mois qui suivent la date de la demande d’arbi-

trage, les Parties ne parviennent pas à se mettre d’accord sur l’orga-
nisation de l’arbitrage, l’une quelconque d’entre elles pourra sou-
mettre le différend à la Cour internationale de Justice, en déposant
une requête conformément au Statut de la Cour.»

Autrement dit, ce n’est que lorsqu’il y a impossibilité d’organiser l’arbi-
trage que l’une des parties peut saisir la Cour, six mois après la date de la
demande d’arbitrage.

37. De jurisprudence constante, la Cour a eu l’occasion de préciser la
condition formelle de recours à l’arbitrage. L’absence d’accord entre les

101 ARMED ACTIVITIES DISS. OP. MAVUNGU ) 103

— performs an act of violence against a person on board an aircraft

in flight if that act is likely to endanger the safety of that aircraft;
or
— destroys an aircraft in service or causes damage to such an air-
craft which renders it incapable of flight or which is likely to
endanger its safety in flight.”

The States parties to the Montreal Convention are obliged to punish
such acts by severe penalties (Art. 3).

33. The declaration of the ICAO Council following consideration of
the request filed by the DRC is very clear:
“the unlawful seizure of aircraft and other acts of unlawful inter-

ference against civil aviation, including acts aimed at destruction
of aircraft, have serious adverse effects on the safety, efficiency
and regularity of international civil aviation, endanger the lives
of aircraft passengers and crew, and undermine the confidence of the
peoples of the world in the safety of international civil aviation”

(para. 2).
34. In view of the discussions organized under the aegis of the ICAO,

there can be no doubt whatsoever that a dispute existed between the two
Parties prior to seisin of the Court.
35. The second precondition is the organization of negotiations. I am
of the opinion that the negotiations organized within international
bodies, in the present case by the ICAO Council, can be regarded as

official negotiations between the two Parties.

It should be noted that the Court has broadly interpreted the notion of
“negotiations”: exchange of views, diplomatic Notes, protests, discus-
sions within an international organization, talks (South West Africa

(Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , pp. 344 et seq.; Border and Trans-
border Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988 , pp. 99 et seq.).

36. The third and last precondition concerns requests for arbitration:

“If within six months from the date of the request for arbitration

the Parties are unable to agree on the organization of the arbitra-
tion, any one of those Parties may refer the dispute to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice by request in conformity with the Statute of
the Court.”

In other words, seisin of the Court by one of the parties can only take
place when it has proved impossible to organize arbitration, six months
after the date when it was requested.

37. In its consistent jurisprudence, the Court has had the opportunity
to define in precise terms the formal condition for requesting arbitration.

101104 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP.DISS. MAVUNGU )

Parties sur l’organisation d’un arbitrage ne peut en effet pas se présumer.
L’existence d’un tel désaccord ne peut résulter que d’une proposition

d’arbitrage faite par le demandeur et restée sans réponse de la part du
défendeur. (Voir Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la conven-
tion de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie
(Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Royaume-Uni), exceptions préliminaires,

C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 17, par. 21; Questions d’interprétation et d’appli-
cation de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien
de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique) ,
C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 122, par. 20.)
38. Les trois conditions préalables étant cumulatives, il fallait démon-

trer que la RDC a proposé au Rwanda de soumettre à l’arbitrage ledit
différend.
Pourtant, au cours de la procédure de la demande en indication de
mesures conservatoires, la RDC a informé la Cour que l’organisation

de l’arbitrage ne pouvait aboutir en raison du manque de collaboration
de la part du Rwanda. Les propositions faites en juillet 2001 (Lusaka),
septembre 2001 (Durban), janvier 2002 (Blantyre) et en mars 2002
(Lusaka) se seraient heurtées au refus de la République rwandaise.

39. Sans aucun doute, le conflit armé en RDC impliquait plusieurs dif-
férends portant sur les violations des droits de l’homme et/ou des règles
de base du droit international humanitaire. Une demande d’arbitrage ne
pouvait pas focaliser l’attention sur un différend précis et unique au détri-

ment des autres. Le formalisme juridique dans la défense des droits de la
personne humaine n’était pas de mise.
Les circonstances exceptionnelles du conflit et l’attitude du défendeur
avant la saisine de la Cour et au cours de la présente instance auraient dû

amener la Cour à établir sa compétence en tant qu’ultime recours.

3. L A CONVENTION SUR L ’ÉLIMINATION DE TOUTES LES FORMES
DE DISCRIMINATION À L ’ÉGARD DES FEMMES

40. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article 29 de la convention sur la non-

discrimination à l’égard des femmes prévoit une clause compromissoire
qui se lit comme suit:

«Tout différend entre deux ou plusieurs Etats parties concernant
l’interprétation ou l’application de la présente Convention qui n’est
pas réglé par voie de négociation est soumis à l’arbitrage, à la
demande de l’un d’entre eux. Si, dans les six mois qui suivent la date

de la demande d’arbitrage, les parties ne parviennent pas à se mettre
d’accord sur l’organisation de l’arbitrage, l’une quelconque d’entre
elles peut soumettre le différend à la Cour internationale de Justice,
en déposant une requête conformément au Statut de la Cour.»

41. Cette clause prescrit des conditions préalables avant la saisine de la

102 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS.OP.MAVUNGU ) 104

The lack of an agreement between the two Parties on the organization of

arbitration cannot be assumed. The existence of such a disagreement can
only be shown by an offer of arbitration made by the Applicant to which
the Respondent has not responded. (See Questions of Interpretation and
Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising from the Aerial

Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom),
Preliminary Objections, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 17, para. 21; Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising
from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United

States of America), I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 122, para. 20.)
38. Since the three preconditions are cumulative, the DRC had to
demonstrate that it had proposed to Rwanda that this dispute be sub-
mitted to arbitration.

However, during the proceedings on the request for the indication of
provisional measures, the DRC told the Court that it had been impos-
sible to organize an arbitration owing to the lack of co-operation
from Rwanda. The proposals made in July 2001 (Lusaka), September

2001 (Durban), January 2002 (Blantyre) and March 2002 (Lusaka) were
reportedly met with refusals by the Republic of Rwanda.
39. There can be no doubt that the armed conflict in the DRC gave
rise to a number of different disputes regarding violations of human

rights and/or basic international humanitarian law. A request for arbitra-
tion could not focus all the attention on one precise dispute at the
expense of all others. Strict adherence to legal formalities was not appro-
priate when defending human rights.

The exceptional circumstances of the conflict and the Respondent’s
attitude prior to seisin of the Court, as well as during the current pro-
ceedings, should have led the Court to find that it had jurisdiction as
arbiter of last resort.

3. THE C ONVENTION ON THE E LIMINATION OF ALL F ORMS OF
DISCRIMINATION AGAINST W OMEN

40. Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on Discrimination
against Women includes a compromissory clause, which reads as follows:

“Any dispute between two or more States Parties concerning the

interpretation or application of the present Convention which is not
settled by negotiation shall, at the request of one of them, be sub-
mitted to arbitration. If within six months from the date of the
request for arbitration the parties are unable to agree on the organi-

zation of the arbitration, any one of those parties may refer the dis-
pute to the International Court of Justice by request in conformity
with the Statute of the Court.”

41. This clause specifies the preconditions for seisin of the Court: the

102105 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. DISS.MAVUNGU )

Cour: l’existence d’un différend, l’impossibilité de résoudre le différend

par des négociations diplomatiques et la demande d’arbitrage. Ces condi-
tions sont similaires à celles contenues dans la convention de Montréal
(voir ci-dessus). A quelques nuances près, les conclusions auxquelles je
suis parvenu en analysant cette convention peuvent également s’appli-

quer ici.
42. La Cour n’a pas jugé utile de trancher la question de savoir si
les différentes violations des droits de l’homme faites aux femmes congo-
laises dans les zones de conflit rentraient sous le régime de la convention

sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination à l’égard des
femmes: violences sexuelles, diffusion délibérée du virus VIH/Sida,
enterrement des femmes vivantes, etc.
43. Dans ses différentes protestations, la RDC a mis en avant les vio-
8
lations spécifiques faites à la femme congolaise . Le différend entre les
deux Parties porte sur l’application de la convention.
44. S’agissant des négociations diplomatiques préalables, la Cour a
admis à plusieurs reprises que des discussions dans les instances interna-

tionales peuvent être assimilées aux négociations diplomatiques.
45. Il est vrai que la Commission africaine des droits de l’homme et des
peuples n’est pas stricto sensu un organe arbitral. Cependant, dans les
circonstances de l’espèce, sa saisine par une communication-plainte de la

RDC et le débat contradictoire qui s’y est déroulé entre les Parties
auraient pu être considérés comme une tentative d’arbitrage. L’on ne doit
pas perdre de vue que la Commission a été créée au sein de l’Organisation
de l’unité africaine (OUA) pour connaître du contentieux en matière de

droits de l’homme entre les Etats membres de l’Organisation panafri-
caine.
46. Les éléments qui précèdent auraient pu amener la Cour à établir sa
compétence et à statuer sur le fond.

(Signé) Jean-Pierre M AVUNGU .

8 Voir le Livre blanc, t. 3, p. 59 et suiv., t. 4, p. 59 et suiv.; numéro spécial, p. 28 et suiv.

103 ARMED ACTIVITIES (DISS. OP.MAVUNGU ) 105

existence of a dispute, the impossibility of settling the dispute by negotia-

tion and a request for arbitration. These conditions are similar to those in
the Montreal Convention (see above). With the exception of a few minor
differences, the conclusions that I have reached in my analysis of that

Convention can equally be applied to this one.

42. The Court did not see fit to decide whether the various human
rights violations committed against the women of the Congo in the con-

flict zones — sexual violence, the deliberate spreading of the HIV/AIDS
virus, the burial of women alive, etc. — were covered by the Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.

43. In its various protests, the DRC emphasized the specific violations
concerning Congolese women . The dispute between the two Parties con-
cerns the application of the Convention.
44. With respect to prior negotiations, the Court has found on a

number of occasions that talks within international bodies can be regarded
as negotiations.
45. It is true that the African Commission on Human and Peoples’

Rights is not strictu sensu an arbitral body. However, in the circum-
stances of the present case, its seisin by a Communication by the DRC
and the adversarial process between the two Parties that took place
within it could be regarded as an attempt at arbitration. We should not

lose sight of the fact that the Commission was established within the
Organization for African Unity (OAU) to hear human rights disputes
between Members of that pan-African organization.

46. The foregoing elements could have allowed the Court to find that
it had jurisdiction and to rule on the merits of the case.

(Signed) Jean-Pierre M AVUNGU .

8
See White Paper, Vol. 3, pp. 39 et seq. ; Vol. 4, pp. 41 et seq. ; Special Number,
pp. 26 et seq.

103

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge ad hoc Mavungu

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