Joint Separate Opinion by Judges Higgins, Kooijmans, Elaraby, Owada and Simma

Document Number
126-20060203-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
126-20060203-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

65

JOINT SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGES HIGGINS,
KOOIJMANS, ELARABY, OWADA AND SIMMA

A proper reading of the Court’s Advisory Opinion of 1951 — Questions that
were not and could not have been before the Court in 1951 — Problems that
have arisen — Trends in practice of human rights courts and monitoring bodies
under human rights treaties — Concordant practice of the International Court
in 2002 and 2006 — Article IX of the Genocide Convention and the object
and purpose of that Convention — Court should revisit its existing view that a
reservation to Article IX is not incompatible with the object and purpose of
the Convention.

1. The Court has in paragraph 67 of its Judgment stated as follows:

“Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention
bears on the jurisdiction of the Court, and does not affect substan-
tive obligations relating to acts of genocide themselves under that
Convention. In the circumstances of the present case, the Court can-
not conclude that the reservation of Rwanda in question, which is

meant to exclude a particular method of settling a dispute relating to
the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention, is to
be regarded as being incompatible with the object and purpose of
the Convention.”

2. We have voted in favour of the dispositif (para. 128). However,
some issues underlying paragraph 67 have concerned us greatly.

3. Our intention in this short opinion is twofold: to draw attention to
the significance of certain recent aspects of the Court’s jurisprudence in
the matter of reservations; and to examine the underlying reason for the
Court’s repeated finding that a reservation to Article IX of the Genocide
Convention is not contrary to the object and purpose of that treaty.
4. In recent years there has been a tendency for some States, and

certain commentators, to view the Court’s 1951 Advisory Opinion on
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide as stipulating a régime of inter-State laissez-faire in
the matter of reservations, in the sense that while the object and purpose
of a convention should be borne in mind both by those making reserva-

tions and those objecting to them, everything in the final analysis is left to
the States themselves.

5. In our view a proper reading of the 1951 Advisory Opinion suggests
that this conclusion is too sweeping. The Court in 1951 was answering

6366 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JOINT SEP.OP .)

certain specific questions put to it by the General Assembly; what it said

has to be understood against that background.
6. There were three questions put to the Court, the first two of which
have relevance for present purposes. Problems had arisen, especially as
regards the depository functions of the United Nations Secretary-
General, due to the fact that objections had been made by some States

parties to the Convention to reservations made by other States. Although
the questions put to the Court were formulated in abstract terms, in reality
they concerned reservations that had been made relating to Article IX,
which provides for the jurisdiction of the Court to the settlement of dis-
putes relating to the Genocide Convention. The Court was asked (i) if a

reserving State can be regarded as a party to the Convention while still
maintaining its reservation, if the reservation is objected to by one or
more parties to the Convention but not by others, and (ii) if so, what is
the effect of a reservation as between the reserving State and (a) the

parties that objected to the reservation and (b) those that accepted it.
(Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951 ,p.16 .)

7. These questions all started from the assumption that, although

there was no express provision in the Genocide Convention on this
matter, reservations could in principle be made. The Court satisfied itself
from the travaux préparatoires and other factors that reservations were
indeed not in principle prohibited (ibid., pp. 22-23). It then turned to the
specific question of “what kind of reservations may be made” (ibid.,

p. 23). Emphasizing the special characteristics of the Genocide Conven-
tion, and the desirability of universal adherence to it, the Court famously
determined that

“it is the compatibility of a reservation with the object and purpose
of a Convention that must furnish the criteria for the attitude of a
State in making the reservation on accession as well as for the
appraisal by a State in objecting to the reservation” (ibid., p. 24).

The Court did not accept that a reservation to a multilateral treaty was
conditional on the assent of all the parties (ibid., p. 25).

8. Turning to the second question, the Court found that
“[as] no State can be bound by a reservation to which it has not con-

sented, it necessarily follows that each State objecting to it will or
will not, on the basis of its individual appraisal within the limits of
the criteria of the object and purpose stated above, consider the
reserving State to be a party to the Convention” (ibid., p. 26).

9. The Court in 1951 was clearly not unaware of the hazards inherent
in its answers, in the sense that they would entail a veritable web of

diverse reciprocal commitments within the framework of a multilateral
convention. (See on this point the joint dissenting opinion of Judges Guer-

6467 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JOINT SEP. OP.)

rero, Sir Arnold McNair, Read and Hsu Mo, I.C.J. Reports 1951, pp. 31

et seq.) The Court’s Opinion conceded that in a convention of this type
“one cannot speak of individual advantages or disadvantages to States,
or of the maintenance of a perfect contractual balance between rights and
duties” (ibid., p. 23). And it acknowledged that “the disadvantages which
result from this possible divergence of views . . . are real” (ibid., p. 26).

10. In the event, the problems which the Court could already envisage
in 1951 have turned out to be vastly greater than it could have foreseen.
The Genocide Convention stood virtually alone in the sphere of human
rights in 1951. Since then it has been added to by a multitude of multi-

lateral conventions, to which States have not hesitated to enter a plethora
of reservations — often of a nature that gives serious concern as to com-
patibility with the object and purpose of the treaty concerned. And the
vast majority of States, who the Court in 1951 envisaged would scrutinize

and object to such reservations, have failed to engage in this task. (There
are currently 28 reservations entered by States to the Genocide Conven-
tion, with 18 States making objections; 57 States have entered reserva-
tions to the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination, with 26 States making objections; 75 States have

entered reservations to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women, with 18 States making objections; 58
States have entered reservations to the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights, with 17 States making objections; 45 States have
entered reservations to the International Covenant on Economic, Social

and Cultural Rights, with 10 States making objections; and 74 States
have filed reservations to the International Convention on the Rights of
the Child, with 13 States filing objections. See records maintained by the
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights,
http://www.ohchr.org/English/bodies/index.htm, updated to 13 Decem-

ber 2005.)

11. The assumption of the Court in 1951 that

“it is the compatibility of a reservation with the object and purpose
of the Convention that must furnish the criterion for the attitude of
a State in making the reservation on accession as well as for the
appraisal by a State in objecting to the reservation” (ibid., p. 24),

with a view to balancing the freedom to make reservations and the scru-
tiny and objections of other States, has turned out to be unrealized:

a mere handful of States do this. For the great majority, political con-
siderations would seem to prevail.

12. The Court itself was not in 1951 asked to pronounce on the com-
patibility of particular reservations to the Genocide Convention with its

object and purpose — nor indeed whether its answers as to the role of
States in making and responding to reservations precluded it from doing

6568 ARMED ACTIVITIES JOINT SEP .OP.)

so. Since 1951 many other issues relating to reservations have emerged,

that equally were not and could not have been before the Court at that
time. Among them are whether, in particular, a role as regards assess-
ment of compatibility with object and purpose is to be assigned to moni-
toring bodies established under United Nations multilateral human rights
treaties. Another related question not asked of the Court in 1951 con-

cerns the scope of powers given to courts at the centre of great human
rights treaties, such as the Inter-American Court on Human Rights, the
European Court of Human Rights, and, for the future, the African Court
on Human and Peoples’ Rights. The Court in 1951 had no occasion to
address the application of the law of treaties to issues of severability in

the context of reservations to human rights treaties. And the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties, concluded in 1969, is not wholly
unambiguous on these points especially in its Article 19. There are
many other issues concerning reservations that were not covered by the

Court’s Advisory Opinion in 1951, either because they had not been put
to the Court or because they had not yet arisen in State practice.

13. The Court’s Advisory Opinion in 1951 thus did not settle all
matters relating to reservations. To observe this reality is not to attempt
to fragment a mythical overarching law on all questions of reservations.
The Court’s Advisory Opinion in 1951 set out the law as to what it was
asked, and no more; and did not foreclose legal developments in respect

of hitherto uncharted waters in the future.

14. The issue raised here relates to reservations generally, and not just
those to human rights treaties — though this category has perhaps

attracted the greatest attention. There now exists a substantial practice
and a vast literature as regards many of these problems. A separate
opinion attached to a judgment of the Court is neither the time nor the
place for a scholarly, and inevitably very lengthy, assessment of this prac-
tice and literature. The study of reservations to treaties, in all its com-

plexity, is under preparation in the International Law Commission. (On
the issues under consideration in this opinion, see, in particular, Second
Report on Reservations to Treaties, by Mr. Alain Pellet, Special Rap-
porteur, Report of the International Law Commission to the General
Assembly on the work of its Forty-ninth Session, Yearbook of the Inter-

national Law Commission, Vol. II, Part Two (1997), pp. 44-57 (Chap-
ter V: “Reservations to Treaties”); Tenth Report on Reservations
to Treaties, by Mr. Alain Pellet, Special Rapporteur, Report of the
International Law Commission, Fifty-seventh Session, United Nations
docs. A/CN.4/558 (1 June 2005), A/CN.4/558/Add.1 (14 June 2005),

A/CN.4/558/Add.2 (30 June 2005).)

6669 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JOINT SEP.OP .)

15. In the meantime certain new trends in practice are also discern-

ible. Both the European Court of Human Rights, and the Inter-Ameri-
can Court of Human Rights, have not followed the “laissez faire”
approach attributed to the International Court’s Advisory Opinion of
1951; they have each themselves pronounced upon the compatibility of
specific reservations to the European Convention on Human Rights and

the American Convention on Human Rights, respectively. They have not
thought that it was simply a matter of bilateral sets of obligations, left to
individual assessment of the States parties to the Convention concerned.
(See in particular, Belilos v. Switzerland, Judgment of 29 April 1988,
10 Eur. Ct. H.R. (Ser. A) (1988); Loizidou v. Turkey, Judgment of

23 March 1995, Preliminary Objections, 310 Eur. Ct. H.R. (Ser. A)
(1995); The Effect of Reservations on the Entry into Force of the Ameri-
can Convention, Advisory Opinion OC-2/82, Inter-Am. Ct. Hum. Rts.
(Ser. A), No. 2 (1982); Restrictions to the Death Penalty, Advisory Opin-

ion OC-3/83, Inter-Am. Ct. Hum. Rts. (Ser. A), No. 3 (1983); see also
Rawle Kennedy v. Trinidad and Tobago, Human Rights Committee,
Communication No. 845, United Nations doc. CCPR/C/67D/845/1999
(31 December 1999).)
16. The Human Rights Committee in General Comment No. 24 (52)

has sought to provide some answers to contemporary problems in the
context of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, with
its analysis being very close to that of the European Court of Human
Rights and the Inter-American Court. The practice of such bodies is not
to be viewed as “making an exception” to the law as determined in 1951

by the International Court; we take the view that it is rather a develop-
ment to cover what the Court was never asked at that time, and to
address new issues that have arisen subsequently.

17. In 1999 the Court issued Orders dismissing the cases brought

by Yugoslavia against Spain and against the United States. The Court
satisfied itself with stating:

“Whereas the Genocide Convention does not prohibit reserva-
tions; whereas Yugoslavia did not object to the United States reser-
vation to Article IX; and whereas the said reservation had the effect
of excluding that Article from the provisions of the Convention in

force between the Parties.” (See Legality of Use of Force (Yugosla-
via v. Spain), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J.
Reports 1999 (II), p. 761, at p. 772, paras. 32 and 33, and Legality
of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United States of America), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II),

p. 916, at p. 924, paras. 24 and 25.)
18. Spain had contented itself with submitting that Article IX was

inapplicable in the mutual relations between Spain and Yugoslavia. The
United States, interestingly, had gone beyond this and contended that its

6770 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JOINT SEP.OP .)

reservation was not contrary to the object and purpose of the Conven-

tion. Yugoslavia (in contrast to the present case) had not introduced any
argument during the pleadings that the reservations were contrary to the
object and purpose of the Convention. So the Court did not pronounce
on that issue.
19. In its Order of 10 July 2002 in the present case, the Court did not

limit itself to recalling the fact that the Congo had not objected to
Rwanda’s reservation. It sought also briefly to respond to various other
arguments made by the Congo including the claim that such a reserva-
tion was contrary to the object and purpose of the Convention. In para-
graph 72 the Court stated that:

“whereas that reservation does not bear on the substance of the law,
but only on the Court’s jurisdiction; whereas it therefore does not
appear contrary to the object and purpose of the Convention” (see
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Applica-
tion: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Provi-

sional Measures, Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 246,
para. 72).

20. The Court thus added its own assessment as to the compatibility
of Rwanda’s reservation with the object and purpose of the Genocide
Convention. Paragraph 67 of the present Judgment contains no more
generalized finding.
21. The Court has in the present Judgment on jurisdiction again gone

beyond noting a reservation by one State and a failure by the other to
object. The terms of paragraph 67 (quoted in paragraph 1 above) are not
entirely identical to the comparable paragraph 72 in the 2002 Order on
provisional measures. We believe it is now clear that it had not been
intended to suggest that the fact that a reservation relates to jurisdiction

rather than substance necessarily results in its compatibility with the
object and purpose of a convention. Much will depend upon the particu-
lar convention concerned and the particular reservation. In some treaties
not all reservations to specific substantive clauses will necessarily be con-
trary to the object and purpose of the treaty. Some such reservations to

particular substantive clauses in, for example, the International Cov-
enant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, may be of this character. Con-
versely, a reservation to a specific “procedural” provision in a certain
convention, could be contrary to the treaty’s object and purpose. For

example, the treaty bodies set up under certain United Nations conven-
tions may well be central to the whole efficacy of those instruments. As
the Human Rights Committee pointed out in General Comment 24, the
periodic submission of reports by States parties to the Committee, and
its examination thereof, are at the heart of the covenant system. If a

State purported to accept the substantive obligations of the Covenant,
but refused to report on them or to participate in the examination of

6871 ARMED ACTIVITIES JOINT SEP .OP.)

States reports by the Committee, that could be contrary to the object

and purpose of the Covenant. The same might well be true of other
monitoring bodies in instruments whose whole efficacy turns upon the
State reporting system.

22. Human Rights courts and tribunals have not regarded themselves
as precluded by this Court’s 1951 Advisory Opinion from doing other
than noting whether a particular State has objected to a reservation. This
development does not create a “schism” between general international
law as represented by the Court’s 1951 Advisory Opinion, a “deviation”

therefrom by these various courts and tribunals.

23. Rather, it is to be regarded as developing the law to meet contem-
porary realities, nothing in the specific findings of the Court in 1951 pro-

hibiting this. Indeed, it is clear that the practice of the International
Court itself reflects this trend for tribunals and courts themselves to pro-
nounce on compatibility with object and purpose, when the need arises.

* * *

24. We now turn to our second point. While we voted in favour of
paragraph 128 of this Judgment, it has become apparent to us that some
issues do require further consideration.

25. It is a matter for serious concern that at the beginning of the
twenty-first century it is still for States to choose whether they consent to
the Court adjudicating claims that they have committed genocide. It
must be regarded as a very grave matter that a State should be in a posi-
tion to shield from international judicial scrutiny any claim that might be

made against it concerning genocide. A State so doing shows the world
scant confidence that it would never, ever, commit genocide, one of the
greatest crimes known.
26. Judicial settlement of claims relating to genocide is highly desir-
able. At the same time, it cannot be said that the entire scheme of the

Genocide Convention would necessarily collapse if some States make
reservations to Article IX. Were it so, adherence to the jurisdiction of the
Court could have been made compulsory, as is now the case as regards
the European Convention on Human Rights in relation to the European
Court of Human Rights. The International Court in 1951 held that no

prohibition against reservations was to be inferred from the silence in the
Genocide Convention itself. Further, it did so fully aware that the reser-
vations in question in fact related to Article IX. In that context it may be
recalled that the Convention defines Genocide (Art. II), and identifies
acts that “shall be punishable” (Art. III). Articles IV to VII concern

measures to be undertaken by States to punish persons charged with
genocide, primarily by enacting legislation within their own territory.

6972 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JOINT SEP.OP .)

There is also reference to trial by “such international penal tribunal as

may have jurisdiction with respect to those Contracting Parties which
shall have accepted its jurisdiction”. The International Court of Justice is
clearly not the penal tribunal envisaged to try and punish individuals.

27. No doubt these are the considerations that the Court has had in
mind in its findings, thus far, that a reservation to Article IX is not

incompatible with the objects and purposes of the Convention.
28. There are other elements, however, that continue to concern us.
While the Court is not a monitoring body under a treaty in the normal
sense of that term (that is to say, it does not receive obligatory reports

from States upon which it examines them for compliance), it nonetheless
does have an important role under the Genocide Convention. Under that
Convention it is States who are the monitors of each other’s compliance
with prohibition on genocide. Article IX then gives a State who believes

another State is committing genocide the chance to come to the Court.
Article IX speaks not only of disputes over the interpretation and appli-
cation of the Convention, but over the “fulfilment of the Convention”.
Further, the disputes that may be referred to the Court under Article IX

“include[e] those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide”.

29. It is thus not self-evident that a reservation to Article IX could not

be regarded as incompatible with the object and purpose of the Conven-
tion and we believe that this is a matter that the Court should revisit for
further consideration.

(Signed) Rosalyn H IGGINS.
(Signed) Pieter H. K OOIJMANS .

(Signed) Nabil E LARABY .

(Signed) Hisashi O WADA .
(Signed) Bruno S IMMA .

70

Bilingual Content

65

JOINT SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGES HIGGINS,
KOOIJMANS, ELARABY, OWADA AND SIMMA

A proper reading of the Court’s Advisory Opinion of 1951 — Questions that
were not and could not have been before the Court in 1951 — Problems that
have arisen — Trends in practice of human rights courts and monitoring bodies
under human rights treaties — Concordant practice of the International Court
in 2002 and 2006 — Article IX of the Genocide Convention and the object
and purpose of that Convention — Court should revisit its existing view that a
reservation to Article IX is not incompatible with the object and purpose of
the Convention.

1. The Court has in paragraph 67 of its Judgment stated as follows:

“Rwanda’s reservation to Article IX of the Genocide Convention
bears on the jurisdiction of the Court, and does not affect substan-
tive obligations relating to acts of genocide themselves under that
Convention. In the circumstances of the present case, the Court can-
not conclude that the reservation of Rwanda in question, which is

meant to exclude a particular method of settling a dispute relating to
the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention, is to
be regarded as being incompatible with the object and purpose of
the Convention.”

2. We have voted in favour of the dispositif (para. 128). However,
some issues underlying paragraph 67 have concerned us greatly.

3. Our intention in this short opinion is twofold: to draw attention to
the significance of certain recent aspects of the Court’s jurisprudence in
the matter of reservations; and to examine the underlying reason for the
Court’s repeated finding that a reservation to Article IX of the Genocide
Convention is not contrary to the object and purpose of that treaty.
4. In recent years there has been a tendency for some States, and

certain commentators, to view the Court’s 1951 Advisory Opinion on
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide as stipulating a régime of inter-State laissez-faire in
the matter of reservations, in the sense that while the object and purpose
of a convention should be borne in mind both by those making reserva-

tions and those objecting to them, everything in the final analysis is left to
the States themselves.

5. In our view a proper reading of the 1951 Advisory Opinion suggests
that this conclusion is too sweeping. The Court in 1951 was answering

63 65

ME
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE COMMUNE DE M LE JUGE
HIGGINS ET MM. LES JUGES KOOIJMANS, ELARABY,
OWADA ET SIMMA

[Traduction]

Lecture appropriée de l’avis consultatif de la Cour de 1951 — Questions dont
la Cour n’a pas été, et n’aurait pu être, saisie en 1951 — Problèmes survenus —
Evolution de la pratique des juridictions des droits de l’homme et des organes de
surveillance institués par les traités relatifs aux droits de l’homme — Pratique
concordante de la Cour internationale en 2002 et 2006 — Article IX de la
convention sur le génocide et objet et but de cette convention — La Cour de-
vrait réexaminer sa conception actuelle selon laquelle une réserve à l’ar-
ticle IX n’est pas incompatible avec l’objet et le but de la convention.

1. Au paragraphe 67 de son arrêt, la Cour a déclaré:

«La réserve du Rwanda à l’article IX de la convention sur le géno-
cide porte sur la compétence de la Cour et n’affecte pas les obliga-

tions de fond qui découlent de cette convention s’agissant des actes
de génocide eux-mêmes. Dans les circonstances de l’espèce, la Cour
ne peut conclure que la réserve du Rwanda, qui vise à exclure un
moyen particulier de régler un différend relatif à l’interprétation, à
l’application ou à l’exécution de la convention, doit être regardée

comme incompatible avec l’objet et le but de cette convention.»

2. Nous avons voté en faveur du dispositif (par. 128) mais certaines
questions sous-jacentes au paragraphe 67 nous préoccupent grandement.
3. Notre propos, dans cette brève opinion, est double: faire ressortir
l’importance de certains aspects récents de la jurisprudence de la Cour en

matière de réserves; et examiner la raison qui sous-tend la conclusion
répétée de la Cour qu’une réserve à l’article IX de la convention sur le
génocide n’est pas contraire à l’objet et au but de ce traité.
4. On relève depuis quelques années une tendance, de la part de cer-
tains Etats, et de certains commentateurs, à considérer que l’avis consul-
tatif rendu par la Cour en 1951 sur les Réserves à la convention pour la

prévention et la répression du crime de génocide stipule, en matière de
réserves, un régime de laisser-faire interétatique, en ce sens que même si
ceux qui formulent des réserves à une convention et ceux qui font objec-
tion à ces réserves sont censés les uns et les autres garder présents à
l’esprit l’objet et le but de la convention, tout serait, en dernière analyse,

laissé à la décision des Etats eux-mêmes.
5. Une lecture appropriée de l’avis consultatif de 1951 montre, selon
nous, que c’est là une conclusion hâtive. En 1951, la Cour répondait à

6366 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JOINT SEP.OP .)

certain specific questions put to it by the General Assembly; what it said

has to be understood against that background.
6. There were three questions put to the Court, the first two of which
have relevance for present purposes. Problems had arisen, especially as
regards the depository functions of the United Nations Secretary-
General, due to the fact that objections had been made by some States

parties to the Convention to reservations made by other States. Although
the questions put to the Court were formulated in abstract terms, in reality
they concerned reservations that had been made relating to Article IX,
which provides for the jurisdiction of the Court to the settlement of dis-
putes relating to the Genocide Convention. The Court was asked (i) if a

reserving State can be regarded as a party to the Convention while still
maintaining its reservation, if the reservation is objected to by one or
more parties to the Convention but not by others, and (ii) if so, what is
the effect of a reservation as between the reserving State and (a) the

parties that objected to the reservation and (b) those that accepted it.
(Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951 ,p.16 .)

7. These questions all started from the assumption that, although

there was no express provision in the Genocide Convention on this
matter, reservations could in principle be made. The Court satisfied itself
from the travaux préparatoires and other factors that reservations were
indeed not in principle prohibited (ibid., pp. 22-23). It then turned to the
specific question of “what kind of reservations may be made” (ibid.,

p. 23). Emphasizing the special characteristics of the Genocide Conven-
tion, and the desirability of universal adherence to it, the Court famously
determined that

“it is the compatibility of a reservation with the object and purpose
of a Convention that must furnish the criteria for the attitude of a
State in making the reservation on accession as well as for the
appraisal by a State in objecting to the reservation” (ibid., p. 24).

The Court did not accept that a reservation to a multilateral treaty was
conditional on the assent of all the parties (ibid., p. 25).

8. Turning to the second question, the Court found that
“[as] no State can be bound by a reservation to which it has not con-

sented, it necessarily follows that each State objecting to it will or
will not, on the basis of its individual appraisal within the limits of
the criteria of the object and purpose stated above, consider the
reserving State to be a party to the Convention” (ibid., p. 26).

9. The Court in 1951 was clearly not unaware of the hazards inherent
in its answers, in the sense that they would entail a veritable web of

diverse reciprocal commitments within the framework of a multilateral
convention. (See on this point the joint dissenting opinion of Judges Guer-

64 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. COM .) 66

certaines questions précises que lui avait posées l’Assemblée générale, et

ce qu’elle a dit doit être interprété dans ce contexte.
6. Il était posé à la Cour trois questions, dont les deux premières sont
pertinentes pour notre propos. Des problèmes étaient survenus, touchant
notamment les fonctions de dépositaire du Secrétaire général de l’Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies, parce que certains Etats parties à la conven-

tion sur le génocide avaient fait objection à des réserves faites par
d’autres Etats. Bien que formulées en termes abstraits, les questions
posées à la Cour visaient en réalité des réserves qui avait été faites à
l’article IX, lequel attribue compétence à la Cour pour le règlement des
différends relatifs à cette convention. Il était demandé à la Cour i) si

un Etat ayant formulé une réserve peut être considéré comme partie à la
convention aussi longtemps qu’il maintient sa réserve si une ou plu-
sieurs parties à la convention font une objection à cette réserve, les autres
parties n’en faisant pas, et ii) dans l’affirmative, quel est l’effet de la ré-

serve dans les relations entre l’Etat qui a formulé la réserve et a) les par-
ties qui ont fait une objection à la réserve et b) celles qui l’ont acceptée
(Réserves à la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de
génocide, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1951 , p. 16).
7. Toutes ces questions postulaient que, même si la convention sur le

génocide était muette sur la question, des réserves étaient en principe
admises. La Cour a établi à sa satisfaction, sur la base des travaux pré-
paratoires et d’autres éléments, qu’il n’y avait effectivement pas d’inter-
diction de principe des réserves (ibid., p. 22-23). Elle a ensuite cherché à
déterminer «le caractère des réserves qui peuvent être formulées» (ibid.,

p. 23). Soulignant les traits particuliers de la convention sur le génocide et
le fait qu’il était souhaitable qu’elle bénéficie d’une adhésion universelle,
la Cour est arrivée à la conclusion bien connue que

«c’est la compatibilité de la réserve avec l’objet et le but de la
convention qui doit fournir le critère de l’attitude de l’Etat qui joint
une réserve à son adhésion et de l’Etat qui estime devoir y faire une
objection» (ibid., p. 24).

La Cour n’a pas admis que l’efficacité d’une réserve à un traité multilatéral
puisse être subordonnée à l’assentiment de toutes les partiesi(bid., p. 25).

8. Passant à l’examen de la deuxième question, la Cour a conclu que:
«Comme ... aucun Etat ne peut être lié par une réserve à laquelle

il n’a pas consenti, il en résulte nécessairement qu’en fait chaque Etat
qui fait objection à une réserve, s’inspirant de son appréciation per-
sonnelle de celle-ci dans les limites du critère de l’objet et du but
énoncé ci-dessus, peut ou non considérer l’Etat qui a formulé la
réserve comme partie à la convention» (ibid., p. 26).

9. La Cour, en 1951, n’avait manifestement pas conscience des dangers
inhérents à ses réponses, en ce sens qu’elles donneraient naissance à tout

un réseau d’obligations réciproques variées à l’intérieur du cadre d’une
convention multilatérale. (Voir sur ce point l’opinion dissidente com-

6467 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JOINT SEP. OP.)

rero, Sir Arnold McNair, Read and Hsu Mo, I.C.J. Reports 1951, pp. 31

et seq.) The Court’s Opinion conceded that in a convention of this type
“one cannot speak of individual advantages or disadvantages to States,
or of the maintenance of a perfect contractual balance between rights and
duties” (ibid., p. 23). And it acknowledged that “the disadvantages which
result from this possible divergence of views . . . are real” (ibid., p. 26).

10. In the event, the problems which the Court could already envisage
in 1951 have turned out to be vastly greater than it could have foreseen.
The Genocide Convention stood virtually alone in the sphere of human
rights in 1951. Since then it has been added to by a multitude of multi-

lateral conventions, to which States have not hesitated to enter a plethora
of reservations — often of a nature that gives serious concern as to com-
patibility with the object and purpose of the treaty concerned. And the
vast majority of States, who the Court in 1951 envisaged would scrutinize

and object to such reservations, have failed to engage in this task. (There
are currently 28 reservations entered by States to the Genocide Conven-
tion, with 18 States making objections; 57 States have entered reserva-
tions to the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination, with 26 States making objections; 75 States have

entered reservations to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women, with 18 States making objections; 58
States have entered reservations to the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights, with 17 States making objections; 45 States have
entered reservations to the International Covenant on Economic, Social

and Cultural Rights, with 10 States making objections; and 74 States
have filed reservations to the International Convention on the Rights of
the Child, with 13 States filing objections. See records maintained by the
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights,
http://www.ohchr.org/English/bodies/index.htm, updated to 13 Decem-

ber 2005.)

11. The assumption of the Court in 1951 that

“it is the compatibility of a reservation with the object and purpose
of the Convention that must furnish the criterion for the attitude of
a State in making the reservation on accession as well as for the
appraisal by a State in objecting to the reservation” (ibid., p. 24),

with a view to balancing the freedom to make reservations and the scru-
tiny and objections of other States, has turned out to be unrealized:

a mere handful of States do this. For the great majority, political con-
siderations would seem to prevail.

12. The Court itself was not in 1951 asked to pronounce on the com-
patibility of particular reservations to the Genocide Convention with its

object and purpose — nor indeed whether its answers as to the role of
States in making and responding to reservations precluded it from doing

65 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. COM .) 67

mune de M. Guerrero, sir Arnold McNair et MM. Read et Hsu Mo,

C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 31 et suiv.) Dans son avis, la Cour a concédé que
«l’on ne saurait, pour une convention de ce type, parler d’avantages ou
de désavantages individuels des Etats, non plus que d’un exact équilibre
contractuel à maintenir entre les droits et les charges» (ibid., p. 23) et elle
a admis que «[l]es inconvénients qu’entraîne cette divergence éventuelle

de vues ... sont réels» (ibid., p. 26).
10. En l’occurrence, les problèmes que la Cour pouvait envisager
dès 1951 se sont révélés beaucoup plus considérables qu’elle n’eût pu le
prévoir. En 1951, la convention sur le génocide était pratiquement seule
de son espèce dans le domaine des droits de l’homme. Depuis, il est venu

s’y adjoindre une multitude de conventions multilatérales, que les Etats
n’ont pas hésité à assortir d’une pléthore de réserves — dont la nature
soulève souvent de graves inquiétudes quant à leur compatibilité avec
l’objet et le but du traité concerné. Et la grande majorité des Etats, dont

la Cour pensait en 1951 qu’ils examineraient attentivement de telles ré-
serves et y feraient objection, ont failli à cette tâche. (A l’heure actuelle,
vingt-huit réserves ont été faites par des Etats à la convention sur le géno-
cide et dix-huit Etats ont fait des objections; cinquante-sept Etats ont fait
des réserves à la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les

formes de discrimination raciale et vingt-six ont fait des objections;
soixante-quinze Etats ont fait des réserves à la convention sur l’élimina-
tion de toutes les formes de discrimination à l’égard des femmes et dix-
huit ont fait des objections; cinquante-huit Etats ont fait des réserves au
Pacte international relatif aux droits civils et politiques et dix-sept ont fait

des objections; quarante-cinq Etats ont fait des réserves au Pacte inter-
national relatif aux droits économiques, sociaux et culturels et dix ont fait
des objections; et soixante-quatorze Etats ont fait des réserves à la
convention internationale relative aux droits de l’enfant et treize ont fait
des objections. Voir les états tenus par le Haut Commissariat des Nations

Unies aux droits de l’homme, http://www.ohchr.org/english/countries/
ratification/index.htm, mis à jour au 13 décembre 2005.)
11. Le postulat dont partait la Cour en 1951, à savoir que

«c’est la compatibilité de la réserve avec l’objet et le but de la
convention qui doit fournir le critère de l’attitude de l’Etat qui joint
une réserve à son adhésion et de l’Etat qui estime devoir y faire une
objection» (ibid., p. 24),

de manière à maintenir un équilibre entre la liberté de faire des réserves et
la faculté qu’ont les autres Etats de les examiner et d’y faire objection, ne

s’est pas confirmé dans la réalité: les Etats qui usent de cette faculté ne
sont qu’une poignée. Pour la grande majorité, les considérations poli-
tiques semblent l’emporter.
12. La Cour elle-même n’était pas invitée, en 1951, à se prononcer sur
la compatibilité de réserves particulières à la convention sur le génocide

avec l’objet et le but de cette convention, ni d’ailleurs sur le point de
savoir si ses réponses quant au rôle des Etats en matière de formulation

6568 ARMED ACTIVITIES JOINT SEP .OP.)

so. Since 1951 many other issues relating to reservations have emerged,

that equally were not and could not have been before the Court at that
time. Among them are whether, in particular, a role as regards assess-
ment of compatibility with object and purpose is to be assigned to moni-
toring bodies established under United Nations multilateral human rights
treaties. Another related question not asked of the Court in 1951 con-

cerns the scope of powers given to courts at the centre of great human
rights treaties, such as the Inter-American Court on Human Rights, the
European Court of Human Rights, and, for the future, the African Court
on Human and Peoples’ Rights. The Court in 1951 had no occasion to
address the application of the law of treaties to issues of severability in

the context of reservations to human rights treaties. And the Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties, concluded in 1969, is not wholly
unambiguous on these points especially in its Article 19. There are
many other issues concerning reservations that were not covered by the

Court’s Advisory Opinion in 1951, either because they had not been put
to the Court or because they had not yet arisen in State practice.

13. The Court’s Advisory Opinion in 1951 thus did not settle all
matters relating to reservations. To observe this reality is not to attempt
to fragment a mythical overarching law on all questions of reservations.
The Court’s Advisory Opinion in 1951 set out the law as to what it was
asked, and no more; and did not foreclose legal developments in respect

of hitherto uncharted waters in the future.

14. The issue raised here relates to reservations generally, and not just
those to human rights treaties — though this category has perhaps

attracted the greatest attention. There now exists a substantial practice
and a vast literature as regards many of these problems. A separate
opinion attached to a judgment of the Court is neither the time nor the
place for a scholarly, and inevitably very lengthy, assessment of this prac-
tice and literature. The study of reservations to treaties, in all its com-

plexity, is under preparation in the International Law Commission. (On
the issues under consideration in this opinion, see, in particular, Second
Report on Reservations to Treaties, by Mr. Alain Pellet, Special Rap-
porteur, Report of the International Law Commission to the General
Assembly on the work of its Forty-ninth Session, Yearbook of the Inter-

national Law Commission, Vol. II, Part Two (1997), pp. 44-57 (Chap-
ter V: “Reservations to Treaties”); Tenth Report on Reservations
to Treaties, by Mr. Alain Pellet, Special Rapporteur, Report of the
International Law Commission, Fifty-seventh Session, United Nations
docs. A/CN.4/558 (1 June 2005), A/CN.4/558/Add.1 (14 June 2005),

A/CN.4/558/Add.2 (30 June 2005).)

66 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. COM .) 68

de réserves et de réaction à celles-ci ne l’empêchaient pas de le faire.
Depuis 1951, il s’est posé au sujet des réserves beaucoup d’autres ques-
tions dont la Cour n’était pas non plus, et n’aurait pas pu être, saisie à
l’époque. L’une d’elles est de savoir s’il convient de confier aux organes

de surveillance institués en vertu des traités multilatéraux des
Nations Unies relatifs aux droits de l’homme un rôle d’appréciation de la
compatibilité avec l’objet et le but. Une autre question connexe qui n’a
pas été posée à la Cour en 1951 concerne l’étendue des pouvoir conférés
aux juridictions qui sont au centre des grands traités relatifs aux droits de

l’homme, telles la Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme, la Cour
européenne des droits de l’homme et, pour l’avenir, la Cour africaine des
droits de l’homme et des peuples. En 1951, la Cour n’a pas eu l’occasion
de se pencher sur l’application du droit des traités à la question de la divi-
sibilité dans le contexte des réserves à des traités relatifs aux droits de

l’homme. La convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités conclue en 1969
n’est pas totalement dépourvue d’ambiguïté sur ces points, particulière-
ment en son article 19. Beaucoup d’autres questions encore concernant
les réserves n’ont pas été abordées par la Cour dans son avis consultatif

de 1951, soit parce qu’elles ne lui avaient pas été soumises, soit parce
qu’elles ne s’étaient pas encore posées dans la pratique des Etats.
13. Ainsi, l’avis consultatif rendu par la Cour en 1951 n’a pas résolu
toutes les questions soulevées par les réserves. Dire cela, c’est constater
un fait, et non tenter de fragmenter quelque corps de règles de droit

mythique qui embrasserait la totalité des questions relatives aux réserves.
Dans son avis consultatif de 1951, la Cour a exposé le droit sur les points
qui lui étaient soumis, et sur ces seuls points; elle n’excluait pas pour
l’avenir de nouveaux développements juridiques dans des domaines non
encore balisés.

14. La question soulevée ici intéresse les réserves en général, et non pas
seulement les réserves aux traités relatifs aux droits de l’homme — même
si c’est sans doute cette catégorie de réserves qui retient le plus l’attention.
Il existe désormais sur nombre de ces problèmes une pratique substan-

tielle et une abondante doctrine. Ce n’est ni le moment ni le lieu, dans une
opinion individuelle jointe à un arrêt de la Cour, de nous livrer à une
analyse savante, et nécessairement fort longue, de cette pratique et cette
doctrine. L’étude des réserves aux traités, dans toute sa complexité, est en
cours au sein de la Commission du droit international. (Sur les points

abordés dans la présente opinion, voir, en particulier: deuxième rapport
sur les réserves aux traités, par M. Alain Pellet, rapporteur spécial, rap-
port de la Commission du droit international à l’Assemblée générale sur
les travaux de sa quarante-neuvième session, Annuaire de la Commission

du droit international, vol. II, deuxième partie (1997), p. 44-58 (chap. V:
«Les réserves aux traités»); dixième rapport sur les réserves aux traités,
par M. Alain Pellet, rapporteur spécial, rapport de la Commission du
droit international, cinquante-septième session, Nations Unies, doc. A/
CN.4/558 (1 erjuin 2005), A/CN.4/558/Add.1 (14 juin 2005), A/CN.4/558/

Add.2 (30 juin 2005).)

6669 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JOINT SEP.OP .)

15. In the meantime certain new trends in practice are also discern-

ible. Both the European Court of Human Rights, and the Inter-Ameri-
can Court of Human Rights, have not followed the “laissez faire”
approach attributed to the International Court’s Advisory Opinion of
1951; they have each themselves pronounced upon the compatibility of
specific reservations to the European Convention on Human Rights and

the American Convention on Human Rights, respectively. They have not
thought that it was simply a matter of bilateral sets of obligations, left to
individual assessment of the States parties to the Convention concerned.
(See in particular, Belilos v. Switzerland, Judgment of 29 April 1988,
10 Eur. Ct. H.R. (Ser. A) (1988); Loizidou v. Turkey, Judgment of

23 March 1995, Preliminary Objections, 310 Eur. Ct. H.R. (Ser. A)
(1995); The Effect of Reservations on the Entry into Force of the Ameri-
can Convention, Advisory Opinion OC-2/82, Inter-Am. Ct. Hum. Rts.
(Ser. A), No. 2 (1982); Restrictions to the Death Penalty, Advisory Opin-

ion OC-3/83, Inter-Am. Ct. Hum. Rts. (Ser. A), No. 3 (1983); see also
Rawle Kennedy v. Trinidad and Tobago, Human Rights Committee,
Communication No. 845, United Nations doc. CCPR/C/67D/845/1999
(31 December 1999).)
16. The Human Rights Committee in General Comment No. 24 (52)

has sought to provide some answers to contemporary problems in the
context of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, with
its analysis being very close to that of the European Court of Human
Rights and the Inter-American Court. The practice of such bodies is not
to be viewed as “making an exception” to the law as determined in 1951

by the International Court; we take the view that it is rather a develop-
ment to cover what the Court was never asked at that time, and to
address new issues that have arisen subsequently.

17. In 1999 the Court issued Orders dismissing the cases brought

by Yugoslavia against Spain and against the United States. The Court
satisfied itself with stating:

“Whereas the Genocide Convention does not prohibit reserva-
tions; whereas Yugoslavia did not object to the United States reser-
vation to Article IX; and whereas the said reservation had the effect
of excluding that Article from the provisions of the Convention in

force between the Parties.” (See Legality of Use of Force (Yugosla-
via v. Spain), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J.
Reports 1999 (II), p. 761, at p. 772, paras. 32 and 33, and Legality
of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United States of America), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II),

p. 916, at p. 924, paras. 24 and 25.)
18. Spain had contented itself with submitting that Article IX was

inapplicable in the mutual relations between Spain and Yugoslavia. The
United States, interestingly, had gone beyond this and contended that its

67 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. COM .) 69

15. La pratique aussi, dans l’intervalle, a témoigné d’une certaine évo-
lution. Ni la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme ni la Cour intera-

méricaine des droits de l’homme n’ont suivi l’approche favorable au
«laisser-faire» que l’on a prêtée à la Cour internationale au vu de son
avis consultatif de 1951; elle se sont chacune prononcées sur la compati-
bilité de réserves précises à la convention européenne des droits de

l’homme et à la convention américaine des droits de l’homme, respecti-
vement. Elles n’ont pas estimé avoir simplement affaire à des ensembles
d’obligations de caractère bilatéral, dont l’appréciation était laissée aux
différents Etats parties à la convention en cause. (Voir en particulier Beli-
los c. Suisse, arrêt du 29 avril 1988, CEDH (série A), vol. 132 (1988);

Loizidou c. Turquie, arrêt du 23 mars 1995, exceptions préliminaires,
CEDH (série A), vol. 310 (1995); The Effect of Reservations on the Entry
into Force of the American Convention , avis consultatif OC-2/82, Cour
interaméricaine des droits de l’homme (série A), n 2 (1982); Restrictions

to the Death Penalty, avis consoltatif OC-3/83, Cour interaméricaine des
droits de l’homme (série A), n 3 (1983); voir aussi Rawle Kennedy c. Tri-
nité-et-Tobago, Comité des droits de l’homme, communication n 845, o
Nations Unies, doc. CCPR/C/67D/845/1999 (31 décembre 1999).)

16. L’analyse qu’a faioe le Comité des droits de l’homme dans son
observation générale n 24 (52), où il s’est efforcé d’apporter quelques
réponses à des problèmes contemporains à propos du Pacte international
relatif aux droits civils et politiques, est très proche de celle de la Cour

européenne des droits de l’homme et de la Cour interaméricaine. La pra-
tique de tels organes ne doit pas être considérée comme «faisant excep-
tion» au droit tel que l’a dit la Cour internationale en 1951; nous y
voyons plutôt un nouveau développement, destiné à répondre à des inter-

rogations dont la Cour n’a jamais été saisie à l’époque et à résoudre des
problèmes nouveaux ayant surgi par la suite.
17. En 1999, la Cour a rendu des ordonnances déboutant la Yougo-
slavie des demandes qu’elle avait introduites contre l’Espagne et contre

les Etats-Unis. La Cour a jugé suffisant de motiver sa décision en ces
termes:

«Considérant que la convention sur le génocide n’interdit pas les
réserves; que la Yougoslavie n’a pas présenté d’objection à la réserve
faite par les Etats-Unis à l’article IX; et que cette réserve a eu pour
effet d’exclure cet article des dispositions de la convention en vigueur

entre les Parties.» (Voir Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie
c. Espagne), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 2 juin 1999,
C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 772, par. 32 et 33, et Licéité de l’emploi
de la force (Yougoslavie c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), mesures conser-

vatoires, ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 924,
par. 24 et 25.)

18. L’Espagne s’était contentée de faire valoir que l’article IX ne
s’appliquait pas dans les relations mutuelles entre l’Espagne et la You-
goslavie. Les Etats-Unis, et c’est là un point intéressant, étaient allés plus

6770 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JOINT SEP.OP .)

reservation was not contrary to the object and purpose of the Conven-

tion. Yugoslavia (in contrast to the present case) had not introduced any
argument during the pleadings that the reservations were contrary to the
object and purpose of the Convention. So the Court did not pronounce
on that issue.
19. In its Order of 10 July 2002 in the present case, the Court did not

limit itself to recalling the fact that the Congo had not objected to
Rwanda’s reservation. It sought also briefly to respond to various other
arguments made by the Congo including the claim that such a reserva-
tion was contrary to the object and purpose of the Convention. In para-
graph 72 the Court stated that:

“whereas that reservation does not bear on the substance of the law,
but only on the Court’s jurisdiction; whereas it therefore does not
appear contrary to the object and purpose of the Convention” (see
Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Applica-
tion: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Provi-

sional Measures, Order of 10 July 2002, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 246,
para. 72).

20. The Court thus added its own assessment as to the compatibility
of Rwanda’s reservation with the object and purpose of the Genocide
Convention. Paragraph 67 of the present Judgment contains no more
generalized finding.
21. The Court has in the present Judgment on jurisdiction again gone

beyond noting a reservation by one State and a failure by the other to
object. The terms of paragraph 67 (quoted in paragraph 1 above) are not
entirely identical to the comparable paragraph 72 in the 2002 Order on
provisional measures. We believe it is now clear that it had not been
intended to suggest that the fact that a reservation relates to jurisdiction

rather than substance necessarily results in its compatibility with the
object and purpose of a convention. Much will depend upon the particu-
lar convention concerned and the particular reservation. In some treaties
not all reservations to specific substantive clauses will necessarily be con-
trary to the object and purpose of the treaty. Some such reservations to

particular substantive clauses in, for example, the International Cov-
enant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, may be of this character. Con-
versely, a reservation to a specific “procedural” provision in a certain
convention, could be contrary to the treaty’s object and purpose. For

example, the treaty bodies set up under certain United Nations conven-
tions may well be central to the whole efficacy of those instruments. As
the Human Rights Committee pointed out in General Comment 24, the
periodic submission of reports by States parties to the Committee, and
its examination thereof, are at the heart of the covenant system. If a

State purported to accept the substantive obligations of the Covenant,
but refused to report on them or to participate in the examination of

68 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES OP .IND .COM .) 70

loin et avaient soutenu que leur réserve n’était pas contraire à l’objet et

au but de la convention. La Yougoslavie (contrairement à ce qui se passe
dans la présente affaire) n’avait pas essayé de plaider que les réserves
étaient contraires à l’objet et au but de la convention. Aussi la Cour ne
s’est-elle pas prononcée sur ce point.
19. Dans l’ordonnance sur les mesures conservatoires qu’elle a ren-

due le 10 juillet 2002 en la présente affaire, la Cour ne s’est pas bornée
à rappeler que le Congo n’avait pas fait objection à la réserve du
Rwanda. Elle a aussi cherché à répondre brièvement à divers autres
arguments du Congo, notamment celui selon lequel cette réserve était
contraire à l’objet et au but de la convention. Au paragraphe 72, la

Cour a déclaré:

«Considérant ... que ladite réserve ne porte pas sur le fond du
droit, mais sur la seule compétence de la Cour; qu’elle n’apparaît
dès lors pas contraire à l’objet et au but de la convention...» (Voir
Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle requête: 2002)
(République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda), mesures conser-

vatoires, ordonnance du 10 juillet 2002, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 , p. 246,
par. 72.)

20. La Cour a ainsi ajouté sa propre appréciation de la compatibilité
de la réserve du Rwanda avec l’objet et le but de la convention sur le
génocide. Le paragraphe 67 du présent arrêt sur la compétence ne géné-
ralise pas davantage cette conclusion.
21. La Cour ne s’est pas limitée non plus, dans le présent arrêt, à pren-

dre note de la réserve formulée par un des Etats et de l’absence d’objec-
tion de la part de l’autre Etat. Les termes du paragraphe 67 (cité plus
haut au paragraphe 1) ne sont pas absolument identiques à ceux du para-
graphe comparable (par. 72) de l’ordonnance de 2002. Selon nous, il est
désormais clair que l’intention n’était pas de laisser entendre que le fait

qu’une réserve a trait à la compétence et non au fond emporte nécessai-
rement sa compatibilité avec l’objet et le but de la convention en cause.
Cela dépend beaucoup de la convention particulière et de la réserve parti-
culière dont il s’agit. Dans le cas de certains traités, les réserves à des dis-
positions de fond précises ne seront pas toutes nécessairement contraires

à l’objet et au but du traité. Certaines, se rapportant à des dispositions
de fond particulières, figurant par exemple dans les pactes internationaux
relatifs aux droits civils et politiques ou aux droits économiques sociaux
et culturels, pourront ne pas l’être. A l’inverse, une réserve concernant
une disposition «procédurale» précise d’une certaine convention pourra

être contraire à l’objet et au but du traité. Par exemple, les organes de
surveillance institués en application de certaines conventions des
Nations Unies sont des éléments centraux dont dépend sans doute toute
l’efficacité de ces instruments. Comme le Comité des droits de l’homme
l’a souligné dans son observation générale 24, la présentation périodique

de rapports à ce comité par les Etats parties, et l’étude de ces rapports,
sont au cŒur du système des pactes. Si un Etat prétendait accepter les

6871 ARMED ACTIVITIES JOINT SEP .OP.)

States reports by the Committee, that could be contrary to the object

and purpose of the Covenant. The same might well be true of other
monitoring bodies in instruments whose whole efficacy turns upon the
State reporting system.

22. Human Rights courts and tribunals have not regarded themselves
as precluded by this Court’s 1951 Advisory Opinion from doing other
than noting whether a particular State has objected to a reservation. This
development does not create a “schism” between general international
law as represented by the Court’s 1951 Advisory Opinion, a “deviation”

therefrom by these various courts and tribunals.

23. Rather, it is to be regarded as developing the law to meet contem-
porary realities, nothing in the specific findings of the Court in 1951 pro-

hibiting this. Indeed, it is clear that the practice of the International
Court itself reflects this trend for tribunals and courts themselves to pro-
nounce on compatibility with object and purpose, when the need arises.

* * *

24. We now turn to our second point. While we voted in favour of
paragraph 128 of this Judgment, it has become apparent to us that some
issues do require further consideration.

25. It is a matter for serious concern that at the beginning of the
twenty-first century it is still for States to choose whether they consent to
the Court adjudicating claims that they have committed genocide. It
must be regarded as a very grave matter that a State should be in a posi-
tion to shield from international judicial scrutiny any claim that might be

made against it concerning genocide. A State so doing shows the world
scant confidence that it would never, ever, commit genocide, one of the
greatest crimes known.
26. Judicial settlement of claims relating to genocide is highly desir-
able. At the same time, it cannot be said that the entire scheme of the

Genocide Convention would necessarily collapse if some States make
reservations to Article IX. Were it so, adherence to the jurisdiction of the
Court could have been made compulsory, as is now the case as regards
the European Convention on Human Rights in relation to the European
Court of Human Rights. The International Court in 1951 held that no

prohibition against reservations was to be inferred from the silence in the
Genocide Convention itself. Further, it did so fully aware that the reser-
vations in question in fact related to Article IX. In that context it may be
recalled that the Convention defines Genocide (Art. II), and identifies
acts that “shall be punishable” (Art. III). Articles IV to VII concern

measures to be undertaken by States to punish persons charged with
genocide, primarily by enacting legislation within their own territory.

69 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES OP .IND .COM .) 71

obligations de fond découlant du pacte tout en refusant de rendre compte
de leur exécution ou de participer à l’examen des rapports des Etats par
le Comité, cela pourrait être contraire à l’objet et au but du pacte. Il en va
sans doute de même en ce qui concerne les organes de suivi d’autres ins-

truments dont l’efficacité repose tout entière sur un système de présenta-
tion des rapports par les Etats.
22. Les juridictions des droits de l’homme n’ont pas considéré que
l’avis consultatif rendu par la Cour en 1951 leur interdisait de faire
davantage que noter si un Etat donné avait fait objection à une réserve.

Cette évolution ne crée pas pour autant un «schisme» entre le droit inter-
national général représenté par l’avis consultatif de la Cour de 1951 et
une «déviation» de ce droit qu’auraient introduite les diverses juridic-
tions en cause.
23. Il faut y voir plutôt un développement du droit permettant de

répondre aux réalités contemporaines, développement que rien dans les
conclusions énoncées en 1951 par la Cour n’interdit. D’ailleurs, il est clair
que la pratique même de la Cour internationale reflète cette tendance des
juridictions en question à se prononcer elles-mêmes, quand le besoin s’en

fait sentir, sur la compatibilité avec l’objet et le but.

* * *

24. Nous en venons maintenant à notre second point. Bien que nous

ayons voté en faveur du paragraphe 128 de l’arrêt, il nous apparaît que
certains aspects demandent à être étudiés plus avant.
25. Il est gravement préoccupant qu’en ce début du XXI siècle on
laisse encore au bon vouloir des Etats le soin de consentir ou non à ce que
la Cour statue sur les allégations de génocide qui seraient formulées à

leur encontre. Il faut considérer comme très grave qu’un Etat soit à même
de soustraire à l’examen judiciaire international une requête le mettant en
cause pour génocide. Un Etat qui agit ainsi se montre aux yeux du
monde bien peu assuré de ne jamais, au grand jamais, commettre de

génocide, l’un des plus grands crimes que l’on connaisse.
26. Le règlement judiciaire des contestations relatives au crime de
génocide est hautement souhaitable. Pour autant, on ne saurait dire que
tout le dispositif de la convention sur le génocide s’effondrera nécessai-
rement si certains Etats formulent des réserves à l’article IX. Si tel était le

cas, l’acceptation de la juridiction de la Cour aurait dû être rendue obli-
gatoire, comme le prévoit maintenant la convention européenne des
droits de l’homme pour ce qui est de la Cour européenne des droits de
l’homme. La Cour internationale, en 1951, a considéré qu’aucune inter-

diction de formuler des réserves ne devait être inférée du silence de la
convention elle-même sur le génocide. Qui plus est, elle l’a fait en ayant
pleinement conscience que les réserves en question se rapportaient en fait
à l’article IX. Rappelons à ce propos que la convention définit le génocide
(art. II) et énumère les actes qui «seront punis» (art. III). Les articles IV

à VII concernent les mesures que doivent prendre les Etats pour punir les

6972 ARMED ACTIVITIES (JOINT SEP.OP .)

There is also reference to trial by “such international penal tribunal as

may have jurisdiction with respect to those Contracting Parties which
shall have accepted its jurisdiction”. The International Court of Justice is
clearly not the penal tribunal envisaged to try and punish individuals.

27. No doubt these are the considerations that the Court has had in
mind in its findings, thus far, that a reservation to Article IX is not

incompatible with the objects and purposes of the Convention.
28. There are other elements, however, that continue to concern us.
While the Court is not a monitoring body under a treaty in the normal
sense of that term (that is to say, it does not receive obligatory reports

from States upon which it examines them for compliance), it nonetheless
does have an important role under the Genocide Convention. Under that
Convention it is States who are the monitors of each other’s compliance
with prohibition on genocide. Article IX then gives a State who believes

another State is committing genocide the chance to come to the Court.
Article IX speaks not only of disputes over the interpretation and appli-
cation of the Convention, but over the “fulfilment of the Convention”.
Further, the disputes that may be referred to the Court under Article IX

“include[e] those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide”.

29. It is thus not self-evident that a reservation to Article IX could not

be regarded as incompatible with the object and purpose of the Conven-
tion and we believe that this is a matter that the Court should revisit for
further consideration.

(Signed) Rosalyn H IGGINS.
(Signed) Pieter H. K OOIJMANS .

(Signed) Nabil E LARABY .

(Signed) Hisashi O WADA .
(Signed) Bruno S IMMA .

70 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP.IND .COM .) 72

personnes accusées de génocide, et principalement la législation qu’ils

doivent édicter sur leur propre territoire. Il est également prévu de tra-
duire ces personnes «devant la cour criminelle internationale qui sera
compétente à l’égard de celles des Parties contractantes qui en auront
reconnu la juridiction». La Cour internationale de Justice n’est manifes-

tement pas la juridiction criminelle envisagée pour juger et punir les indi-
vidus en question.
27. Tels sont à n’en pas douter les éléments que la Cour a pris en
considération pour dire jusqu’à présent qu’une réserve à l’article IX n’est

pas incompatible avec les objets et buts de la convention.
28. Mais il est d’autres éléments qui continuent à nous préoccuper. Si
la Cour n’est pas un organe de surveillance conventionnel au sens où on
l’entend habituellement (dans la mesure où elle ne reçoit pas de rapports

que les Etats seraient tenus de lui présenter et qu’elle examinerait pour
déterminer si les Etats se conforment au traité en cause), la convention
sur le génocide lui assigne néanmoins un rôle important. Selon cette
convention, ce sont les Etats qui se contrôlent mutuellement pour vérifier

que chacun respecte l’interdiction du génocide. Si un Etat pense qu’un
autre Etat commet le crime de génocide, l’article IX lui donne alors la
possibilité de saisir la Cour. L’article IX vise les différends qui portent
non seulement sur l’interprétation ou l’application de la convention, mais

aussi sur son «exécution». En outre, les différends pouvant être soumis à
la Cour aux termes de l’article IX comprennent «ceux relatifs à la res-
ponsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide».
29. Il n’est donc pas évident qu’on ne puisse pas considérer une réserve

à l’article IX comme incompatible avec l’objet et le but de la convention,
et nous pensons que c’est là une question sur laquelle la Cour devrait
revenir afin de l’examiner plus avant.

(Signé) Rosalyn H IGGINS.
(Signé) Pieter H. K OOIJMANS .

(Signé) Nabil E LARABY .

(Signé) Hisashi O WADA .
(Signé) Bruno S IMMA .

70

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Joint Separate Opinion by Judges Higgins, Kooijmans, Elaraby, Owada and Simma

Links