Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Kreca

Document Number
113-20041215-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
113-20041215-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

1394

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE KREC uA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs
I. LOCUS STANDI IN JUDICIO SERBIA AND M ONTENEGRO

1. Locus standi and its relationship to jurisdiction ratione per-
sonae 1-2
2. Issue of United Nations membership and locus standi of Ser-
bia and Montenegro 3-6

(a) Findings of the Court based on “avoiding position” 7-9
(b) Judicial presumptions 10-15
(c) Effective and valid seisin 16
(d) Obiter dictum containing elements or indications of sub-
stantive approach 17-23

3. The legal consequences of the admission of the FRY to the
United Nations 24-31

II. THE GROUNDS INVOKED BY THE R ESPONDENTS FOR REJECTING THE
A PPLICATION IN LIMINE LITIS

1. Implicit discontinuance as a contradictio in adiecto 32-36
2. The congruence of the statements of facts by the Parties and
the duty of the Court to examine its jurisdiction ex officio37-39
(a) Aspect of the legal logic 40

(b) Normative aspect 41-44
(c) Principle compétence de la compétence 45-51
3. The effect on the dispute of the congruence of views between
the Parties as to jurisdiction 52

(a) The existence of a dispute as to jurisdiction as a prelimi-
nary condition for the continuation of the proceedings on
preliminary objections 53-55
(b) The congruence of views between the Parties as to juris-
diction and the alleged disappearance of the dispute on

the merits 56-63
4. Legal interest of the Applicant in the proceedings 64-66

III. THEISSUE OF THEC OMPOSITION OF THECOURT 67-75

911395 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECA )
u

Although I agree with the above Judgment as a whole, I wish to make
my position clear in regard not only to certain points with which I fully
agree but also to some reservations which I have as to the reasoning and

the ultimate findings.
Due, on the one hand, to the substantial similarity and, in more than
one issue, identical nature of the arguments forwarded by the respondent

States and, on the other, to the lack of time to do proper justice to the
cases, the text of my opinion is designed to cover mutatis mutandis all
eight cases.

* * *

I. L OCUS STANDI IN JUDICIO OF SERBIA AND M ONTENEGRO

1. Locus standi and Its Relationship to Jurisdiction ratione personae

1. In its original meaning 1, the expression “locus standi in judicio”

implies the right of a person to appear or to be heard in such-and-such
proceedings (Jowitt’s Dictionary of English Law , 2nd ed., Vol. 2, p. 1115),
or, as regards the present Court, the right of a person lato sensu to

appear or to be heard in proceedings before the Court.

The right to appear before the International Court of Justice, due to
the fact that it is not a fully open court of law, is a limited right. The

limitations exist in two respects. Primo, the right is reserved for States
(Statute, Art. 34, para. 1). Consequently, it does not belong to other
juridical persons or physical persons. Secundo, as far as States are con-

cerned, only States parties to the Statute of the Court possess the right
referred to, being as Members of the United Nations ipso facto parties
to the Statute of the Court or by accepting conditions pursuant to

Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute. States non-parties to the Statute
can acquire this right on condition that they accept the general jurisdiction
of the Court in conformity with Security Council resolution 9 (1946).
From the substantive point of view, this right is a personal privilege

(privilegia favorabile) of the State which, by accepting the Statute of the
Court, has recognized the Court as a judicial body equipped with jus
dicere. It is the consequence of the burden — or privilegia odiosa — con-

sisting in fulfilment of the conditions prescribed.

1Even in the jurisprudence of the Court the expression is sometimes used as a descrip-
tive one. Exempli causa, in the case concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and Power
Company, Limited, the Court used it to denote right of “a government to protect the
interests of shareholders as such” which was in effect the matter of legal interest inde-
pendent of the right of Belgium to appear before the Court (Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1964 , p. 45). On the contrary, in the South West Africa cases the
Court has drawn a clear distinction between “standing before the Court itself”, i.e., locus
standi, and “standing in the . . . phase of . . . proceedings (South West Africa, Second
Phase, I.C.J. Reports 1966 , p. 18, para. 4).

921396 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECA )
u

Locus standi before the Court cannot, however, be taken as synony-
mous to the jurisdiction of the Court. It is, by its nature, a preliminary
condition or presumption for the jurisdiction of the Court or its compe-

tence. In this sense it is appropriate to speak about general jurisdiction
and special jurisdiction or competence of the Court. By possessing locus
standi a State automatically recognizes general jurisdiction of the Court.

In order to be able to speak about special jurisdiction or competence in
casu, however, it is necessary that, besides the right to appear before the

Court, there should exist a specific basis of jurisdiction. And it is on these
grounds that States submit a concrete dispute or type of disputes to the
Court for solution.
In other words, having in mind the fact that the Court is not only a

court of law whose jurisdiction is of an optional nature, but, at the same
time, a partly open court, it can be said that double consent of States is
necessary in order for the Court to establish its competence in casu:

(i) consent that the Court is “an organ instituted for the purpose of jus
dicere” (dissenting opinion by Dr. Daxner, Corfu Channel, I.C.J.
Reports 1948, p. 39). This consent is expressed indirectly, by joining
the membership of the United Nations, or directly, by a non-

Member of the United Nations either by adhering to the Statute of
the Court or by accepting the general jurisdiction of the Court in
conformity with Security Council resolution 9 (1946) as a prelimi-

nary condition, and
(ii) consent that the Court is competent to deal with the particular
dispute or type of disputes, which is made through relevant juris-
dictional bases within Article 36 of the Statute as a substantive
2
but qualified condition .

2. The notions locus standi in judicio and jurisdiction ratione personae
cannot, despite certain extrinsic similarities, be taken as synonymous.

The element shared in common by these two notions is that they rep-
resent processual conditions on whose existence is dependent the validity

2 As stated by the Court “under the system of the Statute the seising of the Court by
means of an Application is not ipso facto open to all States parties to the Statute, it is only
open to the extent defined in the applicable Declarations” (Nottebohm, Preliminary

Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953 , p. 122). It should be noted also that the Court
in the Legality of the Use of Force case found
“[w]hereas the Court, under its Statute, does not automatically have jurisdiction over
legal disputes between States parties to that Statute or between other States to whom
access to the Court has been granted . . . whereas the Court can therefore exercise
jurisdiction only between States parties to a dispute who not only have access to the
Court but also have accepted the jurisdiction of the Court , either in general form
or for the individual dispute concerned” (Provisional Measures, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (II), p. 833, para. 19; emphasis added).

931397 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

of the actual proceedings before the Court; both with respect to inci-

dental proceedings and the merits, and with respect to the bringing of
the dispute to the Court’s decisions in the proceedings. And there the
common ground between the two notions essentially ends and room
for differences emerges.
The difference between the two is, first of all, of a conceptual nature.

Locus standi is a condition which has to do with parties, whereas jurisdic-
tion ratione personae — as an element of the jurisdiction of the Court —
is a condition which has to do with the Court itself. Also, the question of
locus standi as of antecedent nature is a pre-preliminary question which
“should be taken in advance of any question of competence” (Northern

Cameroons, I.C.J. Reports 1963 , p. 105, separate opinion of Sir Gerald
Fitzmaurice; emphasis in the original), whereas jurisdiction ratione per-
sonae is a question of competence, or special jurisdiction of the Court
stricto sensu. Furthermore, a lack of locus standi cannot, as a rule, be

overcome in the proceedings while a lack of jurisdiction ratione personae
is surmountable since the parties may confer jurisdiction upon the Court
in the course of the proceedings or perfect it (for instance, by expressing
agreement or by forum prorogatum). The difference derives from the fact
that jurisdiction is governed by the law in force between the parties, while

locus standi is governed by objective rules of the Statute having a consti-
tutional nature.

The seemingly identical nature of these two notions is, apparently,
mostly due to a tacit equalization of the processual contact between the

Court and the parties to the dispute — and of the litigious relationship.
As there are no separate, preliminary proceedings for establishing the
existence of processual conditions for the validity of the proceedings
(except the administrative action of the Registry in the case of applica-
tions submitted by non-State subjects), the existence of processual con-

ditions is established during the actual proceedings whose validity depends
on the existence of these conditions. This takes place more often than not
during the proceedings on preliminary objections which is why the rare
cases of locus standi are subsumed under jurisdiction ratione personae.

2. Issue of United Nations Membership and locus standi of Serbia and
Montenegro

3. The locus standi of Serbia and Montenegro in the present proceed-

ings before the Court is closely, and, I would say, organically, linked with
its membership in the United Nations, due to the fact that Serbia and
Montenegro could not be considered as being party to the Statute apart
from being a Member State of the United Nations as well as the fact that
its locus standi cannot be based on conditions set forth in Article 35, para-

graph 2, of the Statute of the Court.
4. In normal circumstances, the legal consequences of admission of a

941398 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

State to membership in the United Nations are clear and do not require

special elaboration. At the moment of its admission to membership a
State becomes a bearer of the rights and obligations stipulated in the
United Nations Charter, among which of particular relevance in the
matter at hand is the status of a party to the Statute of the Court. How-
ever, the circumstances surrounding the case at hand could hardly be

termed normal. More precisely, the Applicant, Serbia and Montenegro,
was admitted to membership in the Organization on the basis of the
proper procedure. But this was done without its status in the Organization
being previously established in explicit terms either by the political
organs of the United Nations or by the Court.

5. United Nations General Assembly resolution 47/1 is unclear in sub-
stance and contradictory per se. Assessing its substance in the case con-
cerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Mon-

tenegro) (hereinafter referred to as “Genocide Convention”), the Court
found that “the solution adopted is not free from legal difficulties” (Pro-
visional Measures, Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993,p .,
para. 18). The situation was additionally complicated by the subsequent
practice of the United Nations organs “characterized by pragmatism and

flexibility rather than a strict adherence to the procedures” prescribed by
the Charter (Contributor (Christian Tams) on Article 6 (margin note 25)
in B. Simma (ed.), The Charter of the United Nations, A Commentary ,
2nd ed., Vol. I, 2002, pp. 213-214). In 1993 Professor Rosalyn Higgins
wrote that “[t]he outcome has been anomalous in the extreme” (R. Hig-

gins, “The New United Nations and Former Yugoslavia”, International
Affairs, Vol. 69, No. 3 (July 1993), p. 479). It can, therefore, be con-
cluded that, until the admission of Serbia and Montenegro to member-
ship in the Organization on 1 November 2000, the political organs of the
United Nations had not determined the status of Serbia and Montenegro

in the United Nations in a clear and unequivocal manner.

6. From 1993 onwards the Court was faced with the question of
Serbia and Montenegro’s membership in the United Nations a number of
times. The relevant findings of the Court relating to this particular ques-

tion can, generally, be divided into: primo, findings of the Court which,
by their formal, extrinsic characteristics, could be qualified as “avoiding
positions” and, secundo, the obiter dicta of the Court which contain cer-
tain elements or indications of a substantive approach to the matter at
hand.

(a) Findings of the Court based on “avoiding position”

7. In its Order of 2 June 1999 the Court stated that it “need not con-
sider this question for the purpose of deciding whether or not it can indi-

cate provisional measures in the present case” (I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) ,
p. 836, para. 28). What we have here is a slightly modified formulation

951399 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

expressing “avoiding position” of the Court with regard to the question

of “whether or not Yugoslavia is a Member of the United Nations, and as
such a party to the Statute of the Court” (Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), Provisional Meas-
ures, Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 14, para. 18) which

the Court used several times in the disputes to which Serbia and Mon-
tenegro is a party in the proceedings before the Court. The correctly inter-
preted formulation, regardless of modification in the specific cases, sug-
gests the conclusion that the Court reserved the right to state its definitive
position on the relevant question in the later phases of the proceedings.

It is easy to conclude that such a finding of the Court represents a
delay of the answer to the question “whether or not Yugoslavia is a
Member of the United Nations, and as such a party to the Statute of the
Court” (ibid.). However, the question appears which are, in the circum-

stances of the case, the intrinsic meanings of the delay.
8. On the basis of the Application of the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia (hereinafter referred to as the “FRY”) filed in the Registry of the
Court on 29 April 1999, the Court was seised and on the basis of a
request for the indication of provisional measures the Court instituted

the proper proceedings. Was the Court, in the light of the relevant pro-
visions of the Statute, in a position to be seised? Furthermore, was it in a
position to institute proceedings for the indication of provisional meas-
ures, if the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia had not been a Member of
the United Nations in the relevant period? Nor indeed had the FRY

accepted the general jurisdiction of the Court in conformity with Security
Council resolution 9 (1946) pursuant to Article 35, paragraph 2, of the
Statute of the Court.

The answer to this question is obviously in the negative, having in

mind that, in the optic of a court of law with limited access, it is essential
to fulfil the relevant preliminary condition — to acquire locus standi —as
a prerequisite for taking litigious actions before the Court.

9. The Court was thus faced with a choice among possible solutions in

view of the fact that there existed at least a doubt regarding the legal posi-
tion of Yugoslavia diagnosed already in 1993 (Application of the Conven-
tion on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia
and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), Provisional
Measures, Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 14, para. 18):

(i) to ask for an authentic interpretation of resolution 47/1 from the
General Assembly as the competent organ of the United Nations;

(ii) to make its own interim determination of the matter either by

directing, on the basis of paragraph 2 of Article 38 of the Rules
of Court, that the first pleading should be addressed to the

961400 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP .OP . KRECu )

3
matter or by instituting pre-judicatory proceedings on the basis
of Article 48 of the Statute; and

(iii) to resort to the judicial presumption of the right of Yugoslavia to
appear before the Court.

And the Court made the choice to rely on the presumption that Yugosla-
via was a Member of the United Nations and as such entitled to appear

before the Court (see dissenting opinion of Judge Vereshchetin appended
to the Judgment of 3 February 2003 in the case concerning Application
for Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning

Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary

Objections (Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2003, p. 41, para. 4 (hereinafter referred to as the “Application
for Revision”); separate opinion of Judge Koroma, ibid., p. 36, para. 9).

(b) Judicial presumptions
4
10. Judicial presumption, along with legal presumption , is one of the

3 In the Order of 30 June 1999 the Court noted Belgium requested
“that the question of the jurisdiction of the Court and of the admissibility of the
Application in this case should be separately determined before any proceedings on

the merits” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Order of 30 June
1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , p. 989).
For,

“the fact that the various provisions regulating the incidental jurisdiction are included
in the Statute . . . serves to supply a general consensual basis, through a State’s being
a party to the Charter and Statute, which are always part of the title of jurisdiction
and always confer rights and impose obligations on its parties in relation to the Court
and it’s activities. But if it is obvious that the Court lacks all jurisdiction to deal with
the case on the merits, then it automatically follows that it will lack all incidental
jurisdiction whatsoever .” (Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the Interna-

tional Court 1920-1996, Vol. II, 1997, pp. 598-599; emphasis added.)
4 Better known than judicial presumptions, legal presumptions (praesumptio juris) are
widely applied in international law. International tribunals are used to resort to proof by
inferences of fact (présomption de fait) or circumstantial evidence (Corfu Channel, Mer-
its, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949 , p. 18). For legal presumption in the practice of the

Inter-American Court of Human Rights, see T. Buergenthal, R. Norris and D. Shelton,
Protecting Human Rights in the Americas, Selected Problems , 2nd ed., 1986, pp. 130-132
and pp. 139-144. The practice of international courts abounds in presumptions based on
general principles of international law, whether positive as presumption of good faith
(exempli causa, Mavrommatis Jerusalem Concessions, Judgment No. 5, 1925, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 5, p. 43) or negative as presumption of abuse of right (Certain German
Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Merits, Judgment No. 7, 1926, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7 ,
p. 30; Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex, Second Phase, 1930, P.C.I.J.,

Series A, No. 24,p.12;Corfu Channel, Merits, Judgment, 1949, I.C.J. Reports 1949 ,
p. 119, dissenting opinion of Judge Ecer). The special weight they possess in the interpre-
tation of treaties since the function of interpretation of treaties is to discover “what was,
or what may reasonably be presumed to have been , the intention of the parties to a treaty
when they concluded it” (Harvard Law School, Research in International Law, Part III,
Law of Treaties, Art. 19, p. 940; emphasis added).

971401 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECu )

main sorts of presumption in international law. It means that a certain

fact or state of affairs, even though it has not been proved, is taken by an
international tribunal as truthful. As such it does not necessarily coincide
with, or is not equivalent to, the fact or the state of affairs.

As far as the reasoning of the existence of judicial presumption is con-

cerned, considerations of a practical nature are prevalent.
Judicial presumption is a weapon to avoid waiting to get to know pre-
cisely the facts and situation on which is dependent the existence, content
or cessation of the right that would have adverse consequences for inter-
ested subjects or that would render difficult due course of legal proceed-

ings.
The law, however much it tends to establish the truth and to be truth-
ful, actually pays more attention to finding useful and suitable solutions
for the given situations rather than allowing, in an attempt to establish

truth as such, the rights and obligations that exist to fall through or to be
harmed.
11. As a sort of presumption, the judicial presumption bears some spe-
cific features differing it from legal presumption (praesumptio juris).

Two principal features of judicial presumption should be mentioned in
that regard.
Primo, judicial presumption is, as a rule, a natural, factual presump-
tion (praesumptio facti vel homine) having no basis in the particular
rules that constitute the law of the international tribunal or the law it is

applying. It is an inherent element of the legal reasoning of the interna-
tional tribunal in the interpretation and application of the rules of law.

Secundo, in contrast to legal presumption which can be irrefutable
(praesumptio juris et de jure) , the judicial presumption as a natural or

factual one is, by definition, of refutable nature. Their refutable nature is,
however, a specific one.
Bearing in mind that it is a part of the reasoning of the international
tribunal, it cannot be refutable in the sense in which that is the case of
legal presumption. Judicial presumption, as such, is in fact capable of

being abandoned or replaced by the international tribunal.
In its legal reasoning the international tribunal abandons it, or replaces
it, by other presumption. In the strict sense, only those findings or deci-
sions of the international tribunal that are based on judicial presump-
tions are refutable. However, they lose the ratio of their existence when

the international tribunal identifies the controversial matter which con-
stitutes the subject of judicial presumption. Then they drop by themselves
because they are deprived of their subject. But even then, it is the duty of
the international tribunal to refute, in the proper proceedings, its own
finding or decision based on a presumption.

12. So-called “prima facie jurisdiction” is, in fact, a good illustration

981402 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

of judicial presumptions. The expression “prima facie jurisdiction” is a

somewhat artificial combination of the modal-prima facie and of the
object-jurisdiction. The modal is, in the particular context, also the quali-
tative, having in mind that “prima facie” in the legal reasoning of the
Court implies “not conclusive”, “not definitively”. In its grammatical
meaning the expression “prima facie jurisdiction” suggests the existence

of a distinct jurisdiction, that is, as reflecting a division of the jurisdiction
of the Court. Understood in this sense, the division of jurisdiction has no
foundation in the Statute or Rules of Court, or in the legal logic, for that
matter. The expression “prima facie ascertainment of jurisdiction” seems
to be more appropriate. Basically, it means a prima facie case, a case

established by prima facie evidence. On that basis the Court assumed
jurisdiction reserving the subsequent procedure for further, including the
conclusive, decision.

13. In the substantive meaning, the so-called avoiding position of the
Court in the light of the relevant circumstances of the case is something
more than, and different from, simply delay. The avoiding position of the
Court could not be reduced to delay considering, first of all, the fact that
the question of the FRY’s status vis-à-vis the United Nations and the

Statute of the Court concerns its very ability to appear before the Court.
It is hard to imagine that the Court, as the guardian of its Statute, in
responding to this crucial question, could have been content with simply
delay. The avoiding position of the Court has two aspects: the intrinsic
or substantive one, reflected in the presumption regarding the FRY’s

membership in the United Nations, and the extrinsic, formal one which
boils down to a delay.
14. The presumption of membership of Yugoslavia in the United
Nations in the circumstances that existed prior to 1 November 2000 pro-
vided the only possible basis for seisin of the Court.

The right of a party to appear before the Court is the prerequisite of a
valid seisin. Seisin of the Court is not, nor can it be, an automatic con-
sequence of the act of a State taken with the objective of its seisure (such
an act would be more appropriate to term “seising”; see Sir Gerald Fitz-
maurice, The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice ,

Vol. II, 1986, p. 440, footnote 2). If, arguendo, one would accept the
opposite view, it is unclear why the Court would not be seised also in the
case of acts taken by other persons — physical or juridical — who, pur-
suant to the Statute, are not entitled to appear before the Court.

An effective seisin of the Court is the condition short of which the
Court can hardly exercise the powers conferred upon it by the Statute.
These powers the Court must exercise

“whenever it has been regularly seised and whenever it has not been
shown, on some other ground, that it lacks jurisdiction or that the

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claim is inadmissible” (Nottebohm, Preliminary Objection, Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1953 , p. 122; emphasis added).
The Court, in fact, would not be able to deal with the claim if it were

not regularly seised. As the Court stated:
“When an Application is filed at a time when the law in force

between the parties entails the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court
. . . the filing of the Application is merely the condition required to
enable the clause of compulsory jurisdiction to produce its effects in
respect of the claim advanced in the Application. Once this condition
has been satisfied, the Court must deal with the claim ; it has jurisdic-

tion to deal with all its aspects, whether they relate to jurisdiction, to
admissibility or to the merits.” (Nottebohm, Preliminary Objection,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953 , p. 123; emphasis added.)

15. Judicial presumptions, being refutable per definitionem, are subject
to verification. In principle, such presumptions as to locus standi of the
parties are verified by the Court ex officio or upon objection of the party.

In this (these) particular case(s) it should be pointed out that the pre-

liminary objections of all the respondent States regarding the jurisdiction
of the Court ratione personae are of a specific nature. Although mainly
named as objections to the jurisdiction ratione personae, they in fact chal-
lenged the validity of the seisin of the Court. Moreover, four of the
respondent States (namely, Portugal, Germany, the Netherlands and

Italy) requested, in similar terms, the Court in their final submissions to
adjudge and declare that Yugoslavia “has no locus standi before the
Court” or that “the FRY is not entitled to appear before the Court”. In
other words, they called in question the very existence of the “case”
before the Court.

(c) Effective and valid seisin

16. It appears that a distinction has to be made between an “effective
seisin” and a “valid seisin” of the Court.
Effective seisin of the Court is, as a rule, based on prima facie appre-

ciation of the right of the party or parties to appear before the Court.
The prima facie appreciation of the right of the party or parties to
appear before the Court, in contrast to the appreciation of the basis of
jurisdiction, seems to be relaxed due primarily to the fact that today
almost all States are Members of the United Nations. Accordingly, it

appears that in the practice of the Court it is assumed that the fulfilment
of the conditions specified in Article 38, paragraphs 1, 2 and 3, and
Article 39, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the Rules of Court enables effective
seisin of the Court.
The effective seisin is, in the absence of separate proceedings designed

to deal with conditions for the validity of the proceedings, including the
question of locus standi, before the very institution of a proceeding, a

1001404 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

necessary procedural step enabling the Court to deal, inter alia, with the

validity of its seisin.
In contrast, valid seisin in regard to the question of locus standi means
that it is conclusively established by the Court that parties to a dispute
have fulfilled the necessary precondition to be entitled to appear before
the Court, i.e., that they have recognized in the proper way — by being a

party to the Statute of the Court or by the declaration pursuant to resolu-
tion 9 (1946) of the Security Council — the general jurisdiction of the
Court. It is that relevant point in time in which parties to a dispute
become parties to the dispute before the Court.

In that regard, the relationship between effective seisin and valid seisin
could be compared with the relationship between the so-called prima
facie jurisdiction and jurisdiction considered as conclusively established.
Accordingly, if the expression “effective seisin” or “regular seisin” is

used to denote validity of the seisin of the Court, it should be understood
as relating to the formal aspect of its validity only, not to the substantive
one.

(d) Obiter dictum containing elements or indications of substantive
approach

17. In the Application for Revision case the Court, considering Gen-
eral Assembly resolution 55/12 of 1 November 2000, points out, inter
alia, that it

“cannot have changed retroactively the sui generis position which
the FRY found itself in vis-à-vis the United Nations over the period

1992 to 2000, or its position in relation to the Statute of the Court
and the Genocide Convention. Furthermore, the letter of the Legal
Counsel of the United Nations dated 8 December 2000 cannot have
affected the FRY’s position in relation to treaties.” (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 31, para. 71.)

It is easy to go along with the findings that, as a rule, General Assembly
resolutions, including the resolution in question, do not have retroactive

effect. But this finding of the Court can hardly be said to be very useful.
Because of the object of the exclusion of retroactive effect of General
Assembly resolution 55/12 in the aforementioned obiter — i.e. a “sui
generis position which the FRY found itself in vis-à-vis the United
Nations over the period 1992 to 2000...”— which is obviously unclear

and vague. In the quoted formulation the phrase “sui generis” is linked
to the substantive “position” which, in this particular context, has a
highly unclear and technical meaning. Has it been used as a synonym or
a substitute for the word “membership” or the term “membership rights
and obligations” or, to express, for that matter, the factual relationship

between the Applicant and the Organization? If it has the meaning of
“sui generis” membership, it is difficult to fathom which elements of

1011405 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

membership from the abstract point of view, or which concrete elements

of presumed membership of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, would
provide the basis of the qualification that what is involved here is “sui
generis” membership? Namely, it is worth noting that the United Nations
Charter makes no mention of “sui generis” membership, obviously a
kind of amalgamation of “membership” and “non-membership”. So, the

terms such as this one represent rather an attempt of sorts to conceptu-
alize something that is non-existent as a notion, and not an appropriate
expression of positive legal substance — the more so, if one has in mind
the absence of a limine or exempli causa elements of “membership” or
non-membership” in the world Organization.

It is true, however, that in paragraph 70 of the Judgment of 3 February
2003 in the Application for Revision case it is stated that

“Resolution 47/1 did not inter alia affect the FRY’s right to
appear before the Court... under the conditions laid down by the

Statute. Nor did it affect the position of the FRY in relation to the
Genocide Convention.” (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003 ,p .31
para. 70.)

This particular dictum seems to be an assertion rather than a proper legal
reasoning. More specifically, it is unclear what is actually the legal basis,
in the light of the controversy regarding the status of the Applicant in the

United Nations, for “the FRY’s right to appear before the Court”
(ibid.). Is it based on its being a United Nations Member State which is
ipso facto a party to the Statute of the Court, or under the conditions
specified in Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court and Secu-
rity Council resolution 9 (1946)?

18. It is unclear how the obiter about the “sui generis position” of the
FRY vis-à-vis the United Nations came to find a place in the Court’s
Judgment in the Application for Revision case. In that case the Court was
faced with the issue whether the admission of the FRY to the United

Nations as such is a “new fact” in the sense of Article 61 of the Statute.
The Court itself stressed that:

“In reality, [the FRY] bases its Application for revision on the
legal consequences which it seeks to draw from facts subsequent to
the Judgment which it is asked to have revised. Those consequences,
even supposing them to be established, cannot be regarded as facts

within the meaning of Article 61. The FRY’s argument cannot
accordingly be upheld.” (Application for Revision of the Judgment of
11 July 1996 in the Case concerning Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections

(Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2003, p. 30, para. 69; emphasis added.)

1021406 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

What is striking is that the Court formulated its obiter after almost ten

years of the “avoiding position” approach to the issue, although the issue
of membership of the FRY in the United Nations was ab initio of fun-
damental importance for the jurisdiction of the Court in all disputes in
which the FRY is involved as a party before the Court. Having that in
mind, it could hardly be objected to by the Court that, throughout that

period, it found it necessary, in any of the proceedings unfolding before it
successively, to make interim determination upon the issue in explicit
terms for the purposes of the pending proceedings. However, the Court
failed to do so until the admission of the FRY to the United Nations ,
when the matter was resolved definitely. That comes as a surprise in

itself.

19. The objective meaning of the insistence on the sui generis position
of Serbia and Montenegro vis-à-vis the United Nations in the period

from 1992 to 2000, as considered in paragraph 70 of the Judgment in the
Application for Revision case, amounts in the existing circumstances to
an attempt to revise the decision taken by the main political organs of the
United Nations. Or in terms of legal notions, it amounts to the creation
of a fictio leges.

20. The qualifications of the status of the Applicant in the United
Nations as “sui generis membership”, “de facto working status”, etc., are
deprived of legal substance in terms of the Charter. The Charter of the
United Nations does not recognize such forms of “membership” or “non-
membership” or a mixture thereof. These syntagmas constitute rather an

attempt — based on analogy with membership in terms of the Charter —
of a notional conceptualization of observer status of a non-Member
based on Article 2, paragraph 6, and Article 35, paragraph 2, of the
Charter, or of the status of non-State entities, such as national liberation
movements, or of observer status of regional organizations and groups of

States pursuant to Article 52, paragraph 1, of the Charter of the United
Nations. In the qualitative sense, the meaning of the syntagmas such as
“sui generis membership” or “de facto working status” would mean, in
fact, reduced membership rights or the privileged position of some
non-Members.

Such a meaning can hardly be brought in accordance either with the
provisions of the Charter of the United Nations which regulate member-
ship rights and obligations, or with the fundamental principle of sover-

eign equality of States enshrined in Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Charter
of the United Nations.
The provisions of the Charter, as far as the relationship of the Organi-
zation vis-à-vis States is concerned, have been formulated in terms of the
dichotomy Member States/non-Member States. Tertium quid simply does

not exist. Chapter II of the United Nations Charter (“Membership”)
points out only the division into the original Members of the United

1031407 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

Nations and the subsequently admitted Members of the Organization, a

division which has no substantive meaning in terms of membership rights
and duties, but only that of historical record.
Article 2 of the Charter of the United Nations, setting out the prin-
ciples on which the Organization and its Members are based and shall
act, provides in paragraph 1 that “[t]he Organization is based on the prin-

ciple of the sovereign equality of all its Members”.
The principle contained in Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Charter con-
stitutes ratione materiae a narrow application of the “basic legal concept
of State sovereignty in customary international law” (Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States

of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , p. 111, para. 212;
hereinafter referred to as “Nicaragua”), with legal force equal to that of
the principle expressed in paragraph 2 of the same Article determined by
the Court as being “not only a principle of customary international law

but also a fundamental or cardinal principle of such law” (ibid., p. 100,
para. 190).
The principle of the sovereign equality of States as a universal principle
belonging to corpus juris cogentis operates with the United Nations
Charter on two levels:

(i) in the relationship between the Member States, with the exception of
the permanent members of the Security Council, as the principle of

equal membership rights and obligations, and
(ii) in the relationship between non-Member States and the Organiza-
tion, as the principle of equal rights and obligations non-Members
before the appropriate organs of the Organization as stipulated by
Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Charter.

In other words, the peremptory nature of the principle of sovereign
equality of States would not suffer a reduction in the corpus of rights and

obligations of an individual Member in relation to the corpus of rights
and obligations of a Member State as such on the basis of the Charter;
nor indeed would it entail enlarged rights and obligations of an indi-
vidual non-Member State over and above the extent of the rights and
obligations of non-Member States envisaged by the Charter.

The fact that the exercise of certain membership rights by a Member
State may be suspended on the basis of Article 5 of the Charter is another
matter. The suspension of membership rights and privileges on the basis
of Article 5 does not encroach upon the principle of equal membership
rights and privileges in view of the fact that it leaves unaffected both the

legal basis, and the membership rights and privileges, restricting only the
exercise of the membership rights and privileges until the removal of sus-
pension. However, the suspension of membership rights may, in special
circumstances, lead to a violation of the fundamental principle of equal-
ity of Member States in the proceedings before the Court (for instance, if

a suspended Member is precluded from taking part in the work of organs
of the Organization, or in the procedures established, whose findings or

1041408 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

statements serve as evidence in the proceedings before the Court).

The disappearance of a Member State as a subject of international law
leads ipso facto to the cessation of membership in the Organization of the
United Nations. Since membership rights and obligations are a substan-
tive effect of membership in the Organization, there exists an equal sign

between the disappearance of a State and the cessation of all its member-
ship rights and obligations. (An exception to this are the rights and obli-
gations embodied in the Charter which have an erga omnes or a peremp-
tory character and which, from the legal aspect, are not membership
rights and obligations.)

21. The proper judicial presumption has been applied by the Court in
the proceedings for the indication of provisional measures.
Namely, the finding of the Court that “the declarations made by the
Parties under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute do not constitute a

basis on which the jurisdiction” was grounded in the limitation ratione
temporis contained in Yugoslavia’s declaration recognizing the compul-
sory jurisdiction of the Court (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia
v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (I), p. 135, para. 30). Consequently, the Court did not call in ques-

tion the validity of Yugoslavia’s declaration recognizing the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute, as such, but the temporal modality of its application in the
light of the reciprocity condition.

It appears that Judge Kooijmans was right in noting that:

“How can the Court say that there is no need to consider the ques-
tion of the validity of Yugoslavia’s declaration whereas at the same
time it concludes that this declaration, taken together with that of

the Respondent, cannot constitute a basis of jurisdiction? This con-
clusion surely is based on the presumption of the validity of Yugosla-
via’s declaration, at least for the present stage of the proceedings. If
such a presumption does not exist, the Court should at least have
said that it accepts that validity purely arguendo since, even if it had

been valid, it would not have had the capability to confer jurisdic-
tion on the Court in view of the limitation ratione temporis in the
Applicant’s declaration.” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia
v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J.
Reports 1999 (I), p. 177, para. 16, separate opinion of Judge Kooij-

mans; emphasis added.)

Reciprocity has nothing to do with the validity of a declaration as a juris-
dictional instrument, having in mind that it is limited in its effect to the

temporal scope of the obligation covered by the declaration. It is capable
of producing effect only limiting jurisdiction to the common ground

1051409 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

accepted by both parties, as stated by the Court in the Interhandel

case:
“Reciprocity enables the State which has made the wider accept-

ance of the jurisdiction of the Court to rely upon the reservations to
the acceptance laid down by the other Party. There the effect of reci-
procity ends.” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1959, p. 23; emphasis added.)

Having in mind the provisions of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute
of the Court, and considering that Yugoslavia did not accept the jurisdic-
tion of the Court on the basis of Security Council resolution 9 (1946), it

transpires that the presumption of the validity of Yugoslavia’s declara-
tion only ratione materiae is a narrowed presumption of the membership
of Yugoslavia in the United Nations.

22. The Court furthermore resorted to the presumption of the legal
identity and continuity of the FRY when referring to the Genocide Con-
vention, and found that it lacks jurisdiction due to the fact that genocidal
intent on the part of the respondent States has not been proved.
In other words, the Court found that, in casu, there exists, at least,

prima facie jurisdiction ratione personae — on the basis of the con-
tractual nexus between the Applicant and the Respondent in the frame-
work of the Genocide Convention — and the lack of jurisdiction ratione
materiae on the basis of the Convention was ascribed by the Court to
the fact that genocidal intent, as an element of the crime of genocide,

has not been made probable.
It is obvious that the finding of the Court regarding the FRY as a
party to the Genocide Convention was based in the formal declaration of
the FRY of 22 April 1992, confirmed in an official Note of 27 April 1992
from the Permanent Mission of Yugoslavia to the United Nations

addressed to the Secretary-General to the effect that:

“The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, continuing the State,
international legal and political personality of the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, shall strictly abide by all the commitments
that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia assumed inter-
nationally.” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 610, para. 17.)

The rules of interpretation of unilateral acts of States, accurately and
clearly set out in the Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada) case as
“declarations...aretobe read as a whole” and “interpreted as a unity”
(Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 454, para. 47;

p. 453, para. 44), indicate that unilateral acts “must be interpreted as
[they stand], having regard to the words actually used” (Anglo-Iranian

1061410 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

Oil Co., Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 , p. 105),

with “certain emphasis on the intention of the...State” (Fisheries Juris-
diction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 454, para. 48).

It is difficult, on the basis of these rules of interpretation of unilateral

acts of States, or even on the basis of any of them taken individually, to
draw a conclusion that the intention of Yugoslavia was to “strictly abide
by all the commitments that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
assumed internationally” (Application of the Convention on the Preven-
tion and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina

v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II,)
p. 610, para. 17) without reliance on, or on some other basis, except the
legal identity and continuity with the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia (hereinafter referred to as the “SFRY”). (It is also disputable

whether the declaration of 27 April 1992 could be taken as a unilateral
act creating legal obligations at all. As the Court clearly stated in the
Nuclear Tests cases “[w]hen it is the intention of the State making the
declaration that it should become bound according to its terms, that
intention confers on the declaration the character of a legal undertaking”

(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 ,
p. 267, para. 43; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 472, para. 46). Thus all depends on the intention
of the State and it is up to the Court to “form its own view of the mean-
ing and scope intended by the author of a unilateral declaration which

may create a legal obligation” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 269, para. 48; Nuclear Tests (New
Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 474, para. 50). It
seems crystal clear from the text of the declaration that the intention of
Yugoslavia was not that it should become bound by obligations of the

former SFRY but to remain bound by “all obligations to international
organizations and institutions whose member it is”.)

Having in mind that, after the adoption of the Constitution of 27 April
1992, Yugoslavia did not express its consent to be bound by the Geno-

cide Convention in the way stipulated by Article XI of the Convention
and nor did it issue the notification of succession, it is obvious that the
only basis for Yugoslavia to be considered a party to the Genocide Con-
vention before 12 March 2001 is the legal identity and continuity of the
SFRY in the domain of multilateral treaties.

23. It seems clear that the aforementioned Court’s presumptions were
not, in the circumstances surrounding the overall status of the FRY, of a
violent nature (violentia praesumptio) . A contrario, the finding that the
solution adopted by General Assembly resolution 47/1 “is not free from

legal difficulties” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-

1071411 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

slavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April
1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , p. 14, para. 18) would be devoid of substance.

Having in mind the relevant circumstances that existed until the admis-

sion of Yugoslavia to membership in the United Nations, expressing rela-
tive balance in terms pro et contra, it might be said that those presump-
tions lie between light presumptions (praesumptiones facti vel hominis
leves) and probable presumptions (praesumptiones facti vel hominis
graves).

3. The Legal Consequences of the Admission of the FRY to the United
Nations

24. The FRY claimed legal identity and continuity with the SFRY

until the year 2000. Although, in my view, the FRY, in the light of the
relevant rules of international law — rules which are not quite clear and
crystallized, true — possessed the right to legal identity and continuity
with the SFRY, the continuity claim of the FRY, considered on the basis

of eminently political reasons, has not been accepted. This fact, when
speaking about the status of the FRY in the United Nations, is reflected
in the status which might be, very approximately, qualified as a kind of
irregular de facto suspension of membership rights on the model of
“vacant seat”. A model which, in relation to the FRY, was originally

applied in the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
(OSCE).
25. At the end of the year 2000 the FRY, in the relevant context, did
two things:

(i) renounced the continuity claim and accepted the status of the suc-
cessor State of the former SFRY; and

(ii) proceeding from a qualitatively new legal basis — as the successor
State — submitted the application for admission to membership in
the United Nations.

26. The State, as a notion of international law, comprises two ele-
ments, i.e., possesses two faces:

(i) statehood in the sense of the relevant attributes such as a defined
territory, stable population and sovereign power;

(ii) legal personality, i.e., the status of a subject of international law

equipped with a corpus of rights and obligations. The legal person-
ality of the FRY, in the light of the relevant circumstances surround-
ing it, can be either of an inferential, derivative nature — based on
the legal identity and continuity with the SFRY — or of an inherent,

original nature — based on the status of a new State.
27. By submitting the application for admission to membership in the

United Nations, Yugoslavia not only renounced the claim to legal iden-

1081412 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP .KRECu )

tity and continuity but claimed at the same time to be accepted as a new
State in the sense of some other, different legal personality — a successor

State versus partial continuation of the former SFRY — from the one
claimed until the year 2000. In fact, it accepted the claim qualified as the
claim of the international community made at the moment of the formal

proclamation of the FRY in April 1992. A claim which, however, the rele-
vant international organizations as well as States, acting in corpore as
members of the organizations or individually, did not implement in either

the formal or the substantive sense. Instead, they opted for solutions
based on pragmatic political considerations rather than on considera-
tions based on international law. Hence, a legal “Rashomon” about the
legal character of Yugoslavia was created — it is a new State or the old

State? — and about its status in the United Nations — is it a Member of
the United Nations or not?

28. The admission of Yugoslavia to membership of the United Nations
from 1 November 2000 also meant the acceptance of the claim of Yugo-

slavia to be accepted as a new State in the sense of a new international
personality different from its hybrid and controversial personality in the
period 1992-2000. The claim was accepted by way of a series of collateral
agreements in a simplified form, or a general collateral agreement in a

simplified form, between the FRY, on the one hand, and the Member
States of the United Nations and the world Organization itself, on the
other, embodied tacitly in the letter and spirit of General Assembly reso-

lution 55/12 and subsequent consistent practice of the Organization
(exempli causa, the letter of the Under-Secretary-General and Legal
Counsel of the United Nations of 8 December 2000 and the list of Mem-

ber States with dates of their admission to the United Nations (United
Nations Press Release ORG/1317 updated 18 December 2000). The sub-
ject of the series of collateral agreements, or of the general collateral

agreement, is in fact recognition of the FRY as a new personality, a per-
sonality of the successor State of the former SFRY, and, in that capacity,

5 The letter of the Under-Secretary-General and Legal Counsel of the United Nations
of 8 December 2000 relating to one of the relevant legal consequences of the admission of
the FRY in the United Nations in the capacity of a successor State is basically of the
administrative nature. In that regard, it should be stressed that in its 1996 Judgment deal-
ing with the question of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s participation in the Genocide Conven-
tion, the Court noted that

“Bosnia and Herzegovina became a Member of the United Nations following the
decisions adopted on 22 May 1992 by the Security Council and the General Assem-
bly, bodies competent under the Charter. Article XI of the Genocide Convention
opens it to “any Member of the United Nations’; from the time of its admission to
the Organization, Bosnia and Herzegovina could thus become a party to the Conven-
tion.” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 611, para. 19; emphasis added.)

1091413 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

its admission to the world Organization as a Member. Thus, Yugoslavia,

although being the “old State” in the sense of statehood, was universally
recognized as a “new State” in the sense of its international legal person-
ality. In view of the fact that recognition of a State has ex definitione
retroactive effect, it necessarily follows that all pronouncements and

decisions taken relate to the FRY claiming continuity with the SFRY.
And, as far as the FRY after the year 2000 is concerned, its legal existence
as a new international legal personality started in November 2000 by its
admission to membership of the United Nations.

29. General Assembly resolution 55/12 is not an ordinary resolution.
Resolutions on the admission of a State to the United Nations, as distinct
from recommendation, have a character of decision. Namely,

“the functions and powers conferred by the Charter on the General
Assembly are not confined to discussion, consideration, the initia-
tion of studies and the making of recommendations; they are not

merely hortatory. Article 18 [of the Charter] deals with ‘decisions’ of
the General Assembly ‘on important questions’. These ‘decisions’
do indeed include certain recommendations, but others have disposi-
tive force and effect. Among these latter decisions , Article 18 6

includes suspension of rights and privileges of membership, expul-
sion of Members...Inconnection with the suspension of rights and
privileges of membership and expulsion from membership [Articles 5
and 6], it is the Security Council which has only the power to

recommend and it is the General Assembly which decides and
whose decision determines status. ”( Certain Expenses of the United
Nations (Article 17, Paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 163; emphasis added.)

Consequently, “[t]he decisions of the General Assembly would not be
reversed by the judgment of the Court” (Northern Cameroons, Prelimi-

nary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963 , p. 33), for in the struc-
ture of the United Nations the Court does not possess “the ultimate
authority to interpret the Charter” (Certain Expenses of the United
Nations (Article 17, Paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion,

I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 168).

6Article 18 of the Charter enumerates, inter alia, “the admission of new Members to
the United Nations”.

1101414 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

The determination made by the competent organs of the United
Nations entails the legal consequences. The admission of the FRY to the
United Nations as a Member from 1 November 2000 has two principal
consequences in the circumstances of the cases at hand:

(i) with respect to the admission of Yugoslavia as a Member as from

1 November 2000, it can be said, though somewhat descriptively,
that what is involved here is the admission “as a new Member”. This
expression indicates its temporal status in relation to the Members
admitted on an earlier date;

(ii) the admission of Yugoslavia as a Member as from 1 November 2000
qualified per se its status vis-à-vis the United Nations before that
date. It seems clear that, in the light of the decisions taken by the
competent organs of the United Nations, this status could not be a

membership status. A contrario, Yugoslavia could not have been
admitted as a Member as from 1 November 2000. Just as it is impos-
sible for things to be black and white at the same time, Yugoslavia
could not have been either a Member and a non-Member in the
period 1992-2000.

30. In the case at hand the Court was faced with several preliminary

objections of the Respondent, concerning both the special jurisdiction of
the Court in all three aspects (ratione personae, ratione materiae, ratione
temporis), the admissibility of the Applicant’s claims and the general
jurisdiction of the Court (locus standi of Serbia and Montenegro).

Having found that there is a lack of jurisdiction, the Court based
its decision, essentially, on the absence of locus standi of Serbia and
Montenegro. It appears that it has chosen the right path.
In the choice of the ground on which the Court is basing its lack of

jurisdiction, the Court enjoys a certain discretion — discretio legalis —
whose limits are determined by common sense and overriding legal con-
siderations emanating from the very nature of the judicial function. In
that regard, the Court has produced a general formula in the Certain
Norwegian Loans case, stating that “the Court is free to base its decision

on the ground which in its judgment is more direct and conclusive”
(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957 , p. 25).
The Court puts the formula in concrete terms depending on the cir-
cumstances of each particular case in order to determine the ground

which, objectively, has priority, both in terms of commonsense and in the
sense of legal considerations, in relation to the other grounds raised.
In concreto, it appears that locus standi of Serbia and Montenegro
deserves absolute priority in relation to the other grounds raised.

The priority emanates from the very nature of locus standi as the pre-

1111415 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP. KREuA )

condition, in contrast to the other grounds raised representing the condi-
tions of the special jurisdiction of the Court in all the three aspects raised,

on which to base the jurisdiction of the Court in casu. As such it alone
is sufficient and capable, independently of other grounds raised, of pro-
ducing direct and conclusive effect on the jurisdiction of the Court. None
of the relevant aspects of the special jurisdiction of the Court (ratione

personae, ratione materiae, ratione temporis) , as well as special jurisdic-
tion itself, possesses this capability. For, if Serbia and Montenegro does
not have locus standi, then any discourse about them is devoid of any
substance. It seems to be a proper application of the legal principle, being
also a principle of common sense, a majori ad minus.

Furthermore, it should not be taken as irrelevant that the choice made
by the Court corresponds to the purpose that the Respondent, as well
as the Applicant, attached to the issue of locus standi of Serbia and

Montenegro in their pleadings before the Court and final submissions
respectively.
31. In the light of these considerations, especially under sections 1 and
3 of this part, I am of the opinion that the formulation of the dispositif

explicitly linked to the absence of locus standi of Serbia and Monte-
negro would be more appropriate considering the circumstances of the
cases. The same effect could be produced by simply adding the adjective
“general” to the word “jurisdiction”. Not only because the question of

locus standi was sedes materiae of these proceedings, but because such a
formulation would naturally derive what the Court said dealing with par-
ticular basis of jurisdiction invoked (exempli causa, Judgment, paras. 44,
77 and 89). In the formulation accepted it appears that the dispositif and

reasoning of the Court are not, at least, sufficiently coherent.

II. THE G ROUNDS INVOKED BY THE RESPONDENTS FOR REJECTING THE
A PPLICATION IN LIMINE LITIS

1. Implicit Discontinuance as a contradictio in adiecto

32. The arguments of the Respondents, specifically elaborated by
France, tended to move in the direction of termination of the proceedings
on the basis of something that might be termed “implicit discontinu-
ance”.
Namely, it was contended that “the Federal Government of Yugosla-

via could...have made the choice — the simple, reasonable choice — to
discontinue the proceedings. This was not the case, at least not expli-
citly.” (CR2004/12, p. 6, paras. 3 and 4; emphasis added.) Commenting
on the Written Observations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia,

counsel for France finds that “[t]his looks very much like a discontinu-
ance that will not speak its name” (ibid., p. 8, para. 9 [translation by the
Registry]).

1121416 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

Discontinuance, as designed by Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules of

Court, is comprised of two constitutive elements taken cumulatively: the
will of the parties and the proper process.
The will of the parties represents normative substance of discontinu-
ance as designed in Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules, serving as the legal
basis on which the discontinuance may be effected. By way of “the will of

the parties” discontinuance reflects the structural principle of consensual
jurisdiction in contentious cases according to which the Court cannot
discontinue or withdraw a case on behalf of the parties, if the parties do
not wish so. Viewed in that sense, the will of the parties is an overriding
condition for discontinuance within the meaning of Articles 88 and 89

of the Rules.
The modalities of expression of the will differ. In accordance with
Article 88 of the Rules, agreement of the parties is required and, in the
light of Article 89, paragraph 2, the absence of the objection of the respon-

dent which, in fact, constitutes the presumption of acquiescence, is of
relevance.
The proper process aimed at discontinuance implies the actions of the
party (or parties), as well as an order of the Court. The discontinuance
process, in terms of Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules, bears a dual charac-

teristic: primo, in view of substantial meaning of the will of the parties
the order of the Court represents a neutral act of the Court, an act whose
“main object...sit provide a procedural facility, or rather...ot
reduce the process of discontinuance to order” (Barcelona Traction,
Light and Power Company, Limited, Preliminary Objections, Judgment,

I.C.J. Reports 1964, p. 19); secundo, Article 88, paragraph 1, of the
Rules provides that “the parties, either jointly or separately, notify the
Court in writing” (emphasis added), while Article 89, paragraph 1, stipu-
lates that “the applicant informs the Court in writing” (emphasis added).
The Court effectuated it through an order with reference to Article 48 of

the Statute and Article 88 or 89 of the Rules respectively.

33. In concreto, the eventual discontinuance would, in the light of the
relevant circumstances of the case, have to be based on the provision

of Article 89, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court which provides as
follows:

“If, at the time when the notice of discontinuance is received, the
respondent has already taken some step in the proceedings, the

Court shall fix a time-limit within which the respondent may state
whether it opposes the discontinuance of the proceedings. If no
objection is made to the discontinuance before the expiration of the
time-limit, acquiescence will be presumed and the Court shall make
an order officially recording the discontinuance of the proceedings

and directing the removal of the case from the list. If objection is
made, the proceedings shall continue.”

1131417 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

However, none of the elements of discontinuance, both those concern-

ing the will of the parties and those concerning the proper process,
embodied in that provision are met.
Serbia and Montenegro, as the Applicant, clearly and unambiguously
expressed the will not to discontinue the proceedings. In his concluding
remarks during the oral hearing, the Agent of Serbia and Montenegro

repeatedly pointed out that the Applicant “did not discontinue the pro-
ceedings” (CR2004/23, p. 16, para. 21; p. 18, para. 27; p. 20, para. 34).
As such, it is obvious that Serbia and Montenegro could not have
submitted notice of discontinuance to the Court as provided for by
Article 89, paragraph 2, of the Rules. Some respondent States (the

United Kingdom, the Netherlands and France), true, saw notice of dis-
continuance in the Written Observations of Serbia and Montenegro of
18 December 2002. The Applicant, in its reply to those contentions
contained in a letter dated 28 February 2003 from the Agent of Serbia

and Montenegro, stresses that “the Written Observations of 18 December
2002 do not represent such a notice of discontinuance”. As the will of
the Applicant to discontinue the proceedings in concreto simply does
not exist, there are no elements for forming the will of the parties as the
basis of discontinuance. The statement of the Respondent regarding

the discontinuance of the proceedings is, in this case, irrelevant and
could be qualified as an invitation or a proposal to the Applicant to
proceed to the discontinuance process provided for in Article 89,
paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court.
34. The provisions of Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules, as a part of the

procedural law of the Court, are binding rules both upon the parties and
upon the Court itself. Although created by the Court, the relevant pro-
cedural rules, as legal rules, possess an objective existence, imposing the
restraints that the Court itself must observe. The Court has no power
to modify the operation of Article 89 of the Rules ad casum. Such a con-

clusion, it seems to me, clearly derives both from the nature of the
procedural rules, as legal rules, and from the legislative history of the
Rules of Court. The proposals that it should assume such a power were
rejected with the explanation that “the parties were entitled to have
a reliable guarantee of the stability of the rules of procedure” (Sixth

Meeting of 19 May 1934, P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 2 (3rd add.), p. 38).

It is true that, in contrast to Articles 93 to 97 of Part III of the Rules,
the provisions of Article 89 can be modified or supplemented by the
parties inter se in accordance with Article 101 of the Rules of Court,

which provides:

“The parties to a case may jointly propose particular modifica-
tions or additions to the rules contained in the present Part (with the
exception of Articles 93 to 97 inclusive), which may be applied by

the Court or by a Chamber if the Court or the Chamber considers
them appropriate in the circumstances of the case.”

1141418 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECA )
u

But the Parties to the present dispute have not had recourse to the

possibility offered by the provisions of Article 101.
35. In the light of the provisions of Article 89 of the Rules of Court
“implicit discontinuance” would be contradictio in adiecto . “Implicit dis-

continuance” is in irreconcilable collision both with the explicit intention
of the Applicant to continue the proceedings and with the formal nature
of the discontinuance process. It would, in the circumstances of the case

at hand, imply that the Court renounce the ministerial function which
basically belongs to it in the construction of discontinuance on the basis
of Article 89. Accordingly, the order on discontinuance, too, which, pur-

suant to Article 89 of the Rules, is of a declaratory nature (Article 89
determines the function of the order on discontinuance as “officially

recording the discontinuance of the proceedings”; in that sense, a per- 7
fectly coherent jurisprudence of the Court has also been formed ) would
assume the features of a constitutive act.

36. The respondent States, in formulating the thesis of “implicit dis-
continuance”, seem to have been inspired by the reasoning of the Court
in the cases concerning Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France) and Nuclear

Tests (New Zealand v. France). However, the relevant facts of the
Nuclear Tests cases do not offer ground for any analogy whatsoever with
this particular case.

The Nuclear Tests cases have not been discontinued on the basis of

7 Cases concerning Factory at Chorzów, Order of 25 May 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A,

No. 19,p.13; Delimitation of the Territorial Waters between the Island of Castellorizo
and the Coasts of Anatolia, Order of 26 January 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 51 ,p.6;
Losinger, Order of 14 December 1936, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 69 , p. 101; Borchgrave,
Order of 30 April 1938, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 73 ,p.5;Appeals from Certain Judg-
ments of the Hungaro/Czechoslovak Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, Order of 12 May 1933,
P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 56 , p. 164; Legal Status of the South-Eastern Territory of
Greenland, Order of 11 May 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 55 , p. 159 (in this case the
Court took note that Norway and Denmark had withdrawn their respective applications);
Prince von Pless Administration, Order of 2 December 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 59 ,
pp. 195-196; Polish Agrarian Reform and German Minority, Order of 2 December 1933,

P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 60 , pp. 202-203; Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 (United States
of America v. Bulgaria), Order of 30 May 1960, I.C.J. Reports 1960 , pp. 146-148; Bar-
celona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, Order of 10 April 1961, I.C.J
Reports 1961, pp. 9-10; Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War, Order of 15 December 1973,
I.C.J. Reports 1973, pp. 347-348; Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua
v. Costa Rica), Order of 19 August 1987, I.C.J. Reports 1987 , pp. 182-183; Passage
through the Great Belt (Finland v. Denmark), Order of 10 September 1992, I.C.J.
Reports 1992, pp. 348-349; Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v. United
States of America), Order of 10 November 1998, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 427.

The acquiescence of respondent State has been presumed in the case concerning Protec-

tion of French Nationals and Protected Persons in Egypt, Order of 29 March 1950, I.C.J.
Reports 1950,p.60.
On the basis of a unilateral act of the applicant, discontinuance has been effectuated
in the cases concerning Denunciation of the Treaty of 2 November 1865 between China
and Belgium, Order of 25 May 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 18 ,p.7Trial of Pakistani
Prisoners of War, Order of 15 December 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1973 , p. 348.

1151419 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules. The Court, in fact, terminated the pro-

ceedings in those cases due to the lack of object of the Application , fol-
lowing its reasoning in the Northern Cameroons case (Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963 , p. 38). The Court found, inter alia,
that “[t]he object of the claim having clearly disappeared, there is nothing
on which to give judgment” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 272, para. 59) and that
“[t]he conclusion at which the Court has arrived... does not mean

that it is itself effecting a compromise of the claim; the Court is
merely ascertaining the object of the claim and the effect of the
Respondent’s action” (ibid., p. 270, para. 54; emphasis added).

It is obvious in this particular case that the object of the Application
stands as defined at the moment of instituting the proceedings, causing
the real dispute before the Court, whereas the respondent State did not

take any action nor assumed any commitment whereby the objective of
the Applicant would have been accomplished. (See the objective of the
Applicant, Judgment, para. 20.)

2. The Congruence of the Statements of Facts by the Parties and the
Duty of the Court to Examine its Jurisdiction ex officio

37. In their preliminary objections all the Respondents have found,
inter alia, that the Applicant was neither a Member of the United
Nations nor party to the Statute of the Court, and accordingly did not

have access to the Court at the time of submission of its Application, as
sine qua non condition of the Court’s jurisdiction.

The Applicant for its part, contended that it was admitted to the
United Nations on 1 November 2000 as a new Member and furthermore

that it was not bound by the Statute pursuant to Article 93, paragraph 2,
of the United Nations Charter; nor did it issue a declaration as contem-
plated in Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court.

38. The Respondent contended that, due to the fundamental change of

its position regarding membership in the United Nations and its status as
a party to the Genocide Convention respectively, Serbia and Montenegro
should be estopped from continuing the proceedings on the preliminary
objections. The contention seems to be dubious for the following reasons.
Primo, the doctrine of estoppel is basically founded on the maxim alle-

gans contraria non est audiendus . It could not be taken, however, that, by
claiming continuity of the membership in the United Nations, the Appli-
cant has made a representation on the faith of which the Respondent has
changed its own position suffering some prejudice. As a matter of fact, by
changing its position regarding membership in the United Nations and

its status as a party to the Genocide Convention, the Applicant has acted
against the case it instituted before the Court. Of key importance is the

1161420 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

question whether the change has taken place on a basis of caprice or a

litigation opportunity or, indeed, as an expression of accommodation to
the real state of affairs created without the Applicant’s active participa-
tion, which it could not resist. Secundo, estoppel, even supposing it to be
established in casu, cannot operate against the question of locus standi as
a constitutional requirement of the Statute establishing the objective limit

of exercise of the judicial function of the Court. Tertio, it appears that
the Respondent influenced, or could have influenced, the Applicant’s
position in relation to the two relevant jurisdictional facts: membership
of the Applicant of the United Nations and its status as a party to the
Genocide Convention. Acting as a Member State of the United Nations,

the Respondent voted for the legally contradictory General Assembly
resolution 47/1. It must have been aware of the strong elements of politi-
cal instrumentality contained in the resolution. Besides, the Respondent
has not dissociated itself from the subsequent practice of the United

Nations organs. The Respondent’s position — that the Applicant is one
of five equal successors of the SFRY — is, in the circumstances of this
particular case, in conflict with the treatment of the Applicant as a party
to the Genocide Convention. It is a matter of public knowledge that,
until 12 March 2001, the Applicant had not expressed its consent to be

bound by the Convention in accordance with Article XI of the Conven-
tion, nor did it, for that matter, issue notification of succession. In the
absence of any rules of positive international law on automatic succes-
sion, the only basis to consider the Applicant as a party to the Genocide
Convention is in its legal identity and continuity with the SFRY.

39. It is indisputable that the statements of facts by the Parties relating

to the status of the Applicant in the United Nations as well as to the
Statute of the Court coincide at this phase of the proceedings. (It would
be difficult to claim in concreto that this amounts to the acceptance or
recognition by the Applicant of the Respondent’s statement of facts.
Recognition or acceptance is a volitional act, the expression of the inten-

tion of one party to bow to the allegations of the other party. Rather,
what is involved here is a concurrence of the statements of facts by the
parties, having in mind that the Applicant formulated its own statement
of facts concerning the relevant matter, practically with an identical
content, already at the time of the “Initiative to the Court to reconsider

ex officio jurisdiction over Yugoslavia” (4 May 2001) and in the case
concerning Application for Revision .)
It could not be taken for granted, however, that the concurrence or
even the recognition of the statement of facts as presented by the Respon-
dent, on the part of the Applicant, is determinative of the case and that it

removes per se the need to examine the jurisdiction of the Court.

1171421 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

(a) Aspect of the legal logic

40. Concurrence or recognition, direct or indirect, of the statement of
facts of one party to the proceedings only determines the content of prae-
misae minor of the Court’s syllogism whose conclusio is the ruling on the
justification of the preliminary objection. Understood in this sense, con-
currence or recognition of the statement of facts does not determine, or

at least does not determine in full, the law that the Court should apply —
praemisae major.
If the concurrence of the statement of facts of the parties had an auto-
matic effect on the jurisdiction of the Court, then the parties, and not the
Court, would be deciding, in the substantive sense, the relevant law that

regulates the jurisdiction of the Court. And such an outcome would mean
a departure from the principle, deriving from the very essence of the judi-
cial function, i.e., that the Court is the sole judge of its jurisdiction.

(b) Normative aspect

41. In view of the fact that “the establishment or otherwise of jurisdic-
tion is not a matter for the parties but for the Court itself” (Fisheries
Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 450, para. 37; also, individual opinion of Presi-
dent McNair in the jurisdiction phase of the case concerning Anglo-

Iranian Oil Co. in which he stated that “[a]n international tribunal can-
not regard a question of jurisdiction solely as a question inter partes”
(Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952, pp. 116-117)),
the dispute of the parties regarding the jurisdiction in the preliminary
objection phase is not a necessary condition for the Court to address

the issue of jurisdiction.

Preliminary objections raised by a party are only a tool, a procedurally
designed weapon for the establishment of the jurisdiction of the Court,
suo nomine et suo vigore, for it is under an obligation to do so ex officio.

The legal meaning of the proceedings on preliminary objection has
been defined by the Court in the case concerning Rights of Minorities in
Upper Silesia (Minority Schools) (hereinafter referred to as “Minority
Schools”), as follows:

“the raising of an objection by one Party merely draws the attention
of the Court to an objection to the jurisdiction which it must ex
officio consider”( Rights of Minorities in Upper Silesia (Minority

Schools), Judgment No. 12, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 ,p.23;
emphasis added).

Or, as stated by the Court in the Genocide Convention case:

“[t]he Court must, in each case submitted to it, verify whether it has
jurisdiction to deal with the case... [S]uch objections as are raised

1181422 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

by the Respondent may be useful to clarify the legal situation.” (Pre-

liminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 622,
para. 46; emphasis added.)

Accordingly, the establishment of the jurisdiction by the Court in casu
is not necessarily linked with the dispute as to jurisdiction. If the duty of

the Court to verify its jurisdiction in each particular case exists regardless
of the preliminary objection as such, then the pleadings of the parties in
the proceedings are not a fortiori of decisive importance in that sense. If
as Shabtai Rosenne, commenting on the case concerning Monetary Gold
Removed from Rome in 1943 (hereinafter referred to as “Monetary

Gold”), says:

“[t]he fact that an objection is made does not mean — in the eyes
of the Court — that the Court is being asked not to determine the

merits of the claim under any circumstances” (Shabtai Rosenne,
The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-1996 , Vol. II
(Jurisdiction), p. 863),

then the contrary is equally valid, i.e., that the Court is being asked not

to determine the merits of the claim if an objection to the preliminary
objection is not made. In that sense, an extensive practice of the Court
has been established.
The dictum of the Court in the case concerning the Appeal Relating to
the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (hereinafter referred to as “ICAO

Council”) could represent a synthesis of that practice: “[t]he Court must
however always be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, and must if necessary
go into that matter proprio motu”( Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 52,
para. 13). This is also reflected in the opinions of judges. (In the case con-
cerning Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions , Judge Moore in his dissent-

ing opinion stated “even though the parties be silent, the tribunal, if it
finds that competence is lacking, is bound of its own motion to dismiss
the case” (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 ,p.58);inthe
Minority Schools case, Judge Huber in his dissenting opinion found that
the Court “must ex officio ascertain on what legal foundation it is to base

its judgment upon the claims of the Parties” (Judgment No. 12, 1928,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 , p. 54); and in the case concerning the Free
Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex , Judge Kellogg pointed out
in his observations attached to the Order of 6 December 1930 that it was
not necessary that the question of jurisdiction be raised by one of the

parties, since “[i]t may and should be raised by the Court on its own ini-
tiative, as was done in the Eastern Carelia case” (Order of 6 December
1930, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 24 , p. 43).)
42. The question of the jurisdiction of the Court bears two dominant
features: (a) the question of jurisdiction of the Court is a questio juris ;

and (b) the question of jurisdiction of the Court is a matter of inter-
national public order.

1191423 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP .KRECu )

(a) As a questio juris the jurisdiction of the Court is within the scope

of the principle jura novit curia. In the case concerning Territorial Juris-
diction of the International Commission of the River Oder (hereinafter
referred to as “River Oder”) the Polish Government did not contend that

the Barcelona Convention had not been ratified by Poland until the oral
proceedings. The six respondents asked the Court to reject the Polish
contention a limine, for having been submitted at such an advanced stage
of the proceedings. The Court dismissed the objection as untenable for

“[t]he fact that Poland has not ratified the Barcelona Convention not
being contested, it is evident that the matter is purely one of law such as
the Court... should examine ex officio”( Judgment No. 16, 1929,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 23 , p. 19).

Being bound by law, the Court is not bound by the arguments of the
parties. This follows clearly from the principle jura novit curia addressed
by the Court in its Judgments in the cases concerning Fisheries Jurisdic-
tion (United Kingdom v. Iceland) and Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal

Republic of Germany v. Iceland):

“The Court...asan international judicial organ, is deemed to
take judicial notice of international law, and is therefore required in
a case falling under Article 53 of the Statute, as in any other case,to

consider on its own initiative all rules of international law which
may be relevant to the settlement of the dispute...forthelaw lies
within the judicial knowledge of the Court.” (Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 9, para. 17; ibid., p. 181, para. 18; emphasis

added.)

The principle has also been confirmed in the Nicaragua case by a dictum
that

“[f]or the purpose of deciding whether the claim is well founded in
law, the principle jura novit curia signifies that the Court is not solely
dependent on the argument of the parties before it with respect to

the applicable law” (Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 ,p .,
para. 29; cf. “Lotus”, Judgment No. 9, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 10, p. 31);

consequently, the rule according to which a party seeking to assert a fact

8
“The existence of jurisdiction of the Court in a given case is . . . not a question of
fact, but a question of law to be resolved in the light of the relevant facts.” (Border
and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admis-
sibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988 , p. 76, para. 16.)
The question of the Court’s jurisdiction is

“necessarily an antecedent and independent one — an objective question of law —
which cannot be governed by preclusive considerations capable of being so expressed
as to tell against either Party — or both Parties” (Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction
of the ICAO Council, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 , p. 54, para. 16 (c)).

1201424 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

must bear the burden of proving it “has no relevance for the establish-

ment of the Court’s jurisdiction” (Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain
v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,
p. 450, para. 37).
(b) The disposition of the parties, although being the dominant prin-
ciple in the proceedings before the Court, suffers limitations.

These limitations derive from the objective rules of the Statute and the
Rules of Court defining the nature and limits of the Court’s judicial
action. As constitutional norms (R. Monaco, “Observations sur la hier-
archie des sources du droit international”, Festschrift für Hermann Mos-
ler, 1983, pp. 607-608) or as règles préceptives (intervention of Judge M.

Yovanovitch, Preliminary Session of the Court, P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 2 ,
p. 59), these rules transcend the disposition of the parties and pertain to
the international public order.
As a matter of international public order superior to the will of the

parties the question of jurisdiction need not necessarily be raised by the
parties themselves but the Court can and should examine it ex officio.
(Cf. Territorial Jurisdiction of the International Commission of the River
Oder, Judgment No. 16, 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 23, pp. 18-19; Fish-
eries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Jurisdiction of the Court,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973 , p. 7, para. 12; p. 54, para. 13; Prince von
Pless Administration, Order of 4 February 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B,
No. 52,p.15; Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8, 1927,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9 , p. 32.)
43. In the practice of the Court the expressions ex officio and proprio

motu are used as interchangeable, although there exist differences in the
meaning of these two expressions. The expression “proprio motu” implies
the discretionary authority of the Court to take action on its own initia-
tive. The action taken by the Court “ex officio” is an expression of the
duty of the Court by virtue of its judicial function. The exclusion of the

discretion of the Court relates to the action itself and does not touch
upon the freedom of the Court in respect of the ruling.
The linking element of these two expressions is of a negative nature
and is reflected in the fact that it is about the actions which the Court
takes or may take irrespective of the will and the processual actions of

the parties.
The genuine difference in the meaning of these two expressions is over-
come in some dicta of the Court by adding the qualification “must” to
the expression “proprio motu” as in, for example, the Court’s Judgment
in the ICAO Council case (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 , p. 52, para. 13).

Thus, in fact, the Court’s own motion is qualified as the obligation and
the action proprio motu deprives it of discretion and turns it into action
ex officio.

44. As questio juris pertaining to the public order, jurisdiction is deter-

mined by the decision of the Court, formal or informal, on the basis of
the principle of compétence de la compétence . In the context of the case at

1211425 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

hand, it is necessary to distinguish between the general principle of com-

pétence de la compétence and its narrow normative projection expressed
in Article 36, paragraph 6, of the Statute. Namely, some of the Respon-
dents have asserted that specific terms in Article 36, paragraph 6, of the
Statute provide that “in the event of a dispute as to whether the Court has
jurisdiction, the matter shall be settled by the decision of the Court”

(counsel for the United Kingdom, CR2004/10, p. 10; emphasis in the
original; counsel for France, CR2004/12, p. 12).

(c) Principle compétence de la compétence

45. The general principle of compétence de la compétence represents a
basic structural and functional principle inherent to any adjudicatory
body, whether a regular court or any other body possessing adjudicatory
powers. The principle is, as pointed out by United States Commissioner

Gore in the Betsey case (1797), “indispensably necessary to the discharge
ofany...duties” for any adjudicatory body (J. B. Moore (ed.), Inter-
national Adjudications, Ancient and Modern, History and Documents,
Modern Series, Vol. IV, p. 183).

As such the principle is confirmed in the Court’s jurisprudence. In the
Nottebohm case, the Court stated inter alia :

“Paragraph 6 of Article 36 merely adopted, in respect of the
Court, a rule consistently accepted by general international law in
the matter of international arbitration. Since the Alabama case, it
has been generally recognized, following the earlier precedents, that,
in the absence of any agreement to the contrary, an international

tribunal has the right to decide as to its own jurisdiction and has
the power to interpret for this purpose the instruments which govern
that jurisdiction . . .

.............................
Consequently, the Court has not hesitated to adjudicate on the
question of its own jurisdiction in cases in which the dispute which
had arisen in this respect went beyond the interpretation and appli-

cation of paragraph 2 of Article 36. In the Corfu Channel case
(Judgment of April 9th, 1949, I.C.J. Reports 1949, pp. 23-26 and
36), the Court adjudicated on a dispute as to whether it had jurisdic-
tion to assess the amount of compensation, a dispute which related
to the interpretation of a Special Agreement; in the Ambatielos case

(Judgment of July 1st, 1952, I.C.J. Reports 1952, p. 28), the Court
adjudicated upon a dispute as to its jurisdiction which related to the
interpretation of a jurisdictional clause embodied in a treaty; in both
cases the dispute as to the Court’s jurisdiction related to paragraph 1
and not to paragraph 2 of Article 36.

Article 36, paragraph 6, suffices to invest the Court with power to
adjudicate on its jurisdiction in the present case. But even if this were

1221426 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

not the case, the Court, ‘whose function is to decide in accordance

with international law such disputes as are submitted to it’
(Article 38, paragraph 1, of the Statute), should follow in this con-
nection what is laid down by general international law. The judicial
character of the Court and the rule of general international law
referred to above are sufficient to establish that the Court is compe-

tent to adjudicate on its own jurisdiction in the present case .”
(Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953 , p. 119-120;
emphasis added.)

Being one of the relevant features establishing its judicial nature, the

power of the Court to determine whether it has jurisdiction, emanating
from the general principle compétence de la compétence , is an inherent
right and duty of the Court knowing no limitations (cf. Electricity Com-
pany of Sofia and Bulgaria, Judgment, 1939, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 77,

pp. 102-103, dissenting opinion of Judge Urrutia). The Court exercises
its inherent power from the institution of the proceedings until its end
with a view to establishing whether it possesses jurisdiction or not in
the particular case. (In reality, the Court proceeds to exercise its inherent
power in two ways: (a) by ascertaining the existence of processual

requirements for jurisdiction through prima facie assessment, being sub-
stantively a judicial presumption of jurisdiction or (b) by adopting a
formal decision on the jurisdiction. In that sense, the power of the
Court to determine whether it has jurisdiction in a given case seems
absolute, considering that the Court, even when declaring that it has no

jurisdiction in casu, exercises that inherent power.)
46. Apart from its expression in Article 36, paragraph 6, the general
principle of compétence de la compétence , has found its expression in
several provisions of the Statute. Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Statute
provides that “[t]he Court must... satisfy itself, not only that it has juris-

diction...ut also that the claim is well founded in fact and law”.
In the Fisheries Jurisdiction cases, the Court stated, inter alia, that
“Article 53 of the Statute both entitles the Court and, in the present
proceedings, requires it to pronounce upon the question of its jurisdic-
tion” (Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973 ,p .,

para. 45, and p. 66, para. 45; emphasis added).

The application of the general principle of compétence de la compé-
tence can be seen also in part of the provisions of Article 41 of the Statute
authorizing the Court to indicate provisional measures proprio motu.

The rules of the law of the Court deriving from the general principle of
compétence de la compétence are also rules in Article 32, paragraph 2, of
the Rules of Court, as well as Article 38, paragraph 5. The fact that in
both cases the relevant role is played by the Registry of the Court does

not affect the nature of the rules.
In its application the principle is not restricted to the contentious pro-

1231427 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECu )

cedure. It is equally relevant also in the advisory procedure. As the Court

stated in the case concerning Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear
Weapons in Armed Conflict , “it is incumbent on the Court to satisfy itself
that the conditions governing its own competence to give the opinion
requested are met”( Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I) ,p .,
para. 29; emphasis added). The substantive analogy between the conten-

tious and the advisory procedures (in the Status of Eastern Carelia case
the Court stated that it was the right and obligation of the Court to
examine its own jurisdiction in advisory as well as in contentious cases
(Report by the Registrar (June 1933), P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 2 (3rd
add.), p. 837) in this particular matter has its foundation in the provision

of Article 68 of the Statute. The Court must in every request for an advi-
sory opinion assure itself of its jurisdiction. It is not absolved from doing
so by assuming that a request for an opinion is determinative of the
Court’s power to give opinion on the particular question. (Cf. Shabtai

Rosenne, “The Advisory Competence of the International Court of Jus-
tice”, Revue de droit international, de sciences diplomatiques et politiques
(A. Sottile, Geneva), January-March 1952, No. 1, p. 33; Georg
Schwarzenberger, “Trends in the Practice of the World Court”, Current
Legal Problems, Vol. 4, 1951, p. 27.)

47. The power of the Court to determine whether it has jurisdiction in
casu, emanating from the general principle of compétence de la compé-
tence, should be distinguished from the corresponding power of the
Court to determine the extent of its jurisdiction.
The extent of jurisdiction of the Court is not a matter to be decided on

the basis of the principle of compétence de la compétence solely as a func-
tional norm, but on the basis of substantive norms of the Statute defining
the scope of exercise of the judicial function of the Court. In that regard,
the basic norm of the consensual nature of the Court’s jurisdiction, some
sort of a constitutional norm of the law of the Court and international

tribunals as well, is of relevance.

Already in its Judgment No. 2, the Permanent Court of International
Justice clearly established the limits of its jurisdiction by stating that “the
Court, bearing in mind the fact that its jurisdiction is limited, that it is

invariably based on... consent...and only exists in so far as this con-
sent has been given” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 16).
48. Article 36, paragraph 6, of the Statute is a narrow, restrictive
expression of the general principle of compétence de la compétence . The

application of the principle of compétence de la compétence expressed in
Article 36, paragraph 6, presupposes a dispute as to whether the Court
has jurisdiction. Hence the Court, acting on the basis of Article 36, para-
graph 6, of the Statute, both logically and from the normative aspect, is
not in a position to raise a question of its jurisdiction ex officio. Basically,

the Court then, exercising its judicial function, only adjudicates the dis-
putes as to its jurisdiction ex officio. It is here that, strictissimo sensu, lies

1241428 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

the normative meaning of the principle of compétence de la compétence

as expressed in Article 36, paragraph 6, of the Statute.
In practice there were cases where the Court, in the jurisdictional phase
of the proceedings, proprio motu, raised the question not raised by
parties. For instance, in the Interhandel case the Court applied proprio
motu the objection to its jurisdiction ratione temporis to the alternative

claim (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959 , p. 22).
Such an approach of the Court could be qualified as the overlapping of
the general and the particular, i.e., of the general principle of compétence
de la compétence and its narrower expression embodied in Article 36, para-
graph 6, of the Statute.

49. It is doubtful whether the application of Article 36, paragraph 6,
of the Statute is excluded, as the respondent States asserted, in the
present case, in toto. It seems obvious that it depends on whether the

statements of parties concerning the facts coincide entirely.
That is not the case. Namely, the statements of the Parties coincide
only partially, relating mainly to the jurisdiction of the Court ratione per-
sonae, or, to be more precise, to the status of the Applicant in relation to
the Statute of the Court.

If the statements of the Parties appear to be founded in this matter,
the conclusion affects only the jurisdiction of the Court according to
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute, but does not necessarily —
without knowing the finding of the Court on the meaning of the expres-
sion “the special provisions contained in treaties in force” in Article 35,

paragraph 2, of the Statute — affect the jurisdiction of the Court as set
forth in Article IX of the Genocide Convention.
Regarding the Genocide Convention as a “treaty in force” at the time
of submission of the Application, there is, however, a real —
though latent — hidden dispute between the Parties. The Applicant con-

tended that it became a party to the Genocide Convention by accession
on 12 March 2001, while the Respondents implicitly allowed that the
Applicant was a party at the time of submission of the Application.

Finally, the positions of the Parties were directly and completely

opposed regarding the jurisdiction of the Court ratione materiae and
ratione temporis.
50. The principle compétence de la compétence in its integral form —
comprising both the general principle and its expression in Article 36, para-
graph 6, of the Statute — is a judicial weapon which achieves a double

objective:

Primo, it allows the Court to establish its jurisdiction as the application
of the basis or constitutional norm of the consensual nature in casu either
ex officio or upon objection to its jurisdiction. At the same time, it gives

the Court a legal basis to check, in the development of the proceedings,
its judicial presumptions on its jurisdiction, until a conclusive, definitive

1251429 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECu )

finding on its jurisdiction. Acting in that way, in the conditions of non-
existence of multi-tier judiciary in the international community, the Court
de facto acts as a sui generis appellate court in the question of jurisdic-
tion.

Secundo, in a litigation as tripartite processual relation, it is a judicial
weapon by which the Court not only solves the dispute on jurisdiction,
but the challenge to its own decision on the jurisdiction taken in the pre-
liminary objection phase either ex officio or at the request of a party in
the revision procedure.

Therefore, it could be said that the principle of compétence de la com-
pétence in its integral expression enables the Court to ascertain in every
phase of the proceedings, according to the circumstances and degree of
knowledge, its jurisdiction as the basis and framework of the proper
administration of justice.

51. The Court, when using its right and performing its duties on the
basis of the principle of compétence de la compétence , acts, basically, in
three ways:

(i) it decides ex officio in the proceedings of preliminary objections in
the dispute between the parties as to jurisdiction;
(ii) it raises proprio motu the question of jurisdiction (or, as it is some-

times said, imprecisely, “raises an objection to jurisdiction”, for it
cannot object to jurisdiction as the determination of the matter is
in its exclusive domain), requesting the parties to act pursuant to
Article 79, paragraph 6, of the Rules or, acting itself in accordance
with Article 38, paragraph 5, of the Rules. The proprio motu action

of the Court is the technical realization of the right and duty of the
Court to ascertain ex officio its competence; and

(iii) the ex officio examination of the jurisdiction as an autonomous judi-

cial action which does not rely on the actions of the parties. The very
examination of jurisdiction, apart from the decision of the Court on
jurisdiction, being some sort of organic judicial action, inherent ele-
ment of the legal reasoning of the Court, must not be exercised in a
due form, but in a manner the Court finds appropriate.

3. The Effect on the Dispute of the Congruence of Views between the

Parties as to Jurisdiction

52. In this regard, the assertions made by the Respondents have two
meanings (cf. CR2004/6, pp. 15-17; CR2004/7, pp. 10-12; CR2004/10,
p. 7; CR2004/12, p. 12):

— that just as the existence of a dispute is a preliminary condition for

the continuation of the proceedings on the merits phase, so is the

1261430 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

dispute as to jurisdiction a condition for the continuation of the

proceedings on preliminary objections; and
— that agreement between the parties as to a question of jurisdiction is
determinative of the case, and that, as a result, the dispute before the
Court has disappeared.

(a) The existence of a dispute as to jurisdiction as a preliminary condi-
tion for the continuation of the proceedings on preliminary objec-
tions

53. The equalization between the proceedings on the merits and the

proceedings on preliminary objection would be highly doubtful. Namely,
it ignores the specific features of judicial activity of the Court in the juris-
dictional phase of the proceedings, features which derive from the nature
of the question of jurisdiction. (“The Court finds that Italy’s acceptance

of jurisdiction is one thing, while her raising of a legal issue on jurisdic-
tion is quite another.” (Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943,
Preliminary Question, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1954 , p. 29.) The prac-
tical outcome of such equalization would consist of the treatment of the
question of jurisdiction as quaestio facti and as a matter inter partes

which is in sharp contradiction with its true nature (see paragraphs 40-44
of this opinion).
54. It is based on the idea of the transplantation of the rule regarding
“the existence of a dispute [as] the primary condition for the Court to
exercise its judicial function” (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France),

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 476, para. 58) in the merits phase of a
case into the incidental proceedings of the preliminary objections. This
transplantation is however impossible taking into consideration the very
nature of the question of jurisdiction. It is directly aimed against the
inherent right and duty of the Court to determine its jurisdiction. In that

regard, the formulation of the relevant provisions of the Rules of Court
concerning preliminary objections is indicative. Paragraph 2 of Article 79
of the Rules provides in imperative (wording) formulation that “the pre-
liminary objection shall set out the facts and the law on which the objec-
tion is based” (emphasis added) whereas paragraph 3 of Article 79 pro-

vides, inter alia, that “the other party may present a written statement of
its observations and submissions” (emphasis added). The asymmetrical
relations between the provisions of Article 79 of the Rules — obliga-
tions stricti juris of the Respondent on the one hand, and a right of the
Applicant on the other — represent an indirect expression of a different

nature of the proceedings on the merits and that of the incidental pro-
ceedings on preliminary objection (Article 49 of the Rules establishes the
duties of the parties regarding the Memorial and Counter-Memorial
symmetrically).

55. There is a substantive symmetry in the relevant elements of
the case in hand and the Monetary Gold case. In the latter case, Great

1271431 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

Britain, in its final Submission No. 1 (b) contended that, by raising the
preliminary objection, the

“Application . . .
.............................

(b) has been in effect withdrawn or cancelled by Italy” (Preliminary
Question, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1954, p. 25; see also ibid.,
p. 30).

However, the Court found that “[t]he raising of the Preliminary Question
by Italy cannot be regarded as equivalent to a discontinuance” (ibid.,
p. 30). As to the Submission contending that the Italian Application

should be held to be “invalid and void” (ibid.), the Court found that

“it is enough to state that the Application, if not invalid at the time
it was filed, cannot subsequently have become invalid by reason of
the preliminary question which Italy raised with regard to the Court’s
jurisdiction in this case” (ibid.).

(b) The congruence of views between the Parties as to jurisdiction and
the alleged disappearance of the dispute on the merits

56. The contention that there exists a substantive nexus between the

dispute as to jurisdiction and the dispute on the merits is, in the light of
the uniform jurisprudence of the Court on the issue of a legal dispute,
even more surprising. The relevant constituent elements of the legal dis-
pute seem to be clearly presented in the case at hand.

The contents of the Application, the Memorial, the Preliminary Objec-
tions and other relevant materials, create a clear picture of the situation
in which “two sides hold clearly opposite views concerning the question
of the performance or non-performance of certain treaty obligations”

(Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania,
First Phase, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , p. 74; hereinafter
referred to as “Interpretation of Peace Treaties” ) as well as the perform-
ance of obligations under general international law embodied in the
United Nations Charter (Memorial of 5 January 2000, pp. 301-346). The

Applicant charges the Respondents that by “bombing of Yugoslav terri-
tory” (Memorial, p. 301, para. 2.1.1.) they violated a number of its inter-
national obligations including not only in the international treaties in
force, but also in the Charter of the United Nations. The Respondents

denied the charge.

57. By denying the charges, the Respondents, within the limits and the
range determined by the stage of the procedure, elaborate diametrically
opposite legal concepts according to which the bombing of the territory

of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was carried out lege artis, in con-

1281432 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

formity with the concept of the so-called humanitarian intervention, as

well as by obeying the rules of humanitarian law. This constitutes the
second qualifying condition for the existence of the legal dispute — “that
the claim of one party is positively opposed by the other” (South West
Africa, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328;
emphasis added). Acting in the above-mentioned manner, the Respon-

dents have gone out of the reach of a simple denial of the Applicant’s
charges and set the matter on the level of a conflict of legal views, the
conflict of which is in concreto total and absolute.
58. The issue of the existence of a dispute on the merits possesses its
temporal dimension. As the Court stated in the case concerning Nuclear

Tests (Australia v. France) “[t]he dispute brought before [the Court]
must therefore continue to exist at the time when the Court makes its
decision” (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 271, para. 55).
A dispute in existence in the proceedings before the Court may, in

general, disappear in two ways:
(a) by withdrawing the Application; and

(b) if the object of the claim has been achieved by other means, as
exempli causa, when “a State has entered into a commitment con-
cerning its future conduct” which made the dispute disappear
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1974, p. 272, para. 60).

None of the above-mentioned has happened in the cases at hand.
It is true that the Respondent’s contention was not that the Applica-

tion has been withdrawn, but that the Applicant abandoned the basis of
jurisdiction making “a mockery of the principle that jurisdiction is
founded on the consent of the parties” (CR2004/10, p. 11); some “kind
of forum prorogatum” in the negative sense (CR2004/12, p. 12).
Apart from the nature of the question of jurisdiction (see para-

graphs 40-44 of this opinion), it should be noted that as far as abandon-
ment itself is concerned the Court cannot infer from the arguments of the
parties that a claim was abandoned. As stated in the case concerning Cer-
tain Norwegian Loans, “[a]bandonment cannot be presumed or inferred;
it must be declared expressly” (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957 , p. 26).

59. The real question one is faced with concerns the relationship
between the Application and the arguments of the Parties.
In the process of determination of the legal disputes, the Court bases
itself on the Application and final Submissions, as well as other pertinent

evidence as emphasized in the cases concerning Nuclear Tests (Australia
v. France) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , pp. 262-263) and Fisheries
Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 449, para. 31).
The expression “other pertinent evidence” is a collective term for

various forms of expressing intention of the parties relevant for the
determination of the dispute submitted to the Court. In the existing

1291433 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

circumstances, taking into consideration claims and arguments of the

Respondents, various written and oral pleadings placed before the
Court in the proceedings on the preliminary objections are of particular
interest.
The crucial question which seems to be imposing itself in casu is the
relationship between the Application and the submission, on the one

hand, and the arguments of the Parties, on the other. This question
should especially be considered in the context whether the Application
and submissions can be either derogated, completely or partially, by the
arguments of the Applicant, or in fact be substituted by them.
I believe that the answer to the question is rather negative for several

reasons:

(i) The Application as a whole, including especially the submissions,
represents a basic parameter for the determination of the dispute.
The Court resorts to “other pertinent evidence” (Fisheries Jurisdic-

tion (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 449, para. 31), which in the present case is the writ-
ten and oral pleadings placed before the Court, in case of “uncer-
tainties or disagreements... with regard to the real subject of the
dispute with which the Court has been seised, or to the exact nature

of the claims submitted to it.” (ibid., p. 448, para. 29.)

(ii) Therefore, written and oral pleadings as such are an accessory
means rather than a subsidiary basic parameter for the determina-
tion of the dispute, which the Court resorts to in case of an unclear

or imprecise nature of the Application as a whole. Furthermore,
“when the claim is not properly formulated because the submis-

sions of the parties are inadequate, the Court has no power to
‘substitute itself for them and formulate new submissions simply
on the basis of arguments and facts advanced’ (P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 7, p. 35)” (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 466, para. 30).

(iii) The written pleadings and oral pleadings as such, excluding the sub-

missions, are basically arguments of the parties. Arguments of the
parties together with their contentions as reasons or statements
made for or against the matter are of highly relative value in juris-
dictional phases of the proceedings before the Court, taking into
consideration that the Court is not bound by them and that it, in

fact, possesses “the power to exclude” them (cf. Fisheries Jurisdic-
tion (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 449, para. 32). The value of the arguments and
contentions of the parties is framed in terms of “indications of
what the party was asking the Court to decide” (cf. ibid.; emphasis

added).
(iv) The arguments and contentions of the parties do not appertain to

1301434 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

the submission of the party. The difference in meaning of the French

word “conclusion” and the English word “submission” reflected in
the circumstances that the latter “can extend to the arguments
advanced and the grounds invoked, and not merely to the precise
demand made of the Court” has been resolved in a manner that “the
Court has developed a consistent pattern of case-law on this aspect,

basing itself on the narrower meaning” (Shabtai Rosenne, The Law
and Practice of the International Court, 1920-1996 , Vol. III (Pro-
cedure), p. 1266).

60. Due to the autonomous standing of the notion of “dispute” in

international obligation, its determination possesses certain specific
characteristics. Basically, they derive from the fact that “dispute
between States” is not automatically “dispute before the Court” even
in the case where the States followed the rules of the law of the Court

regarding the institution of proceedings.
Regarding the determination of a “dispute before the Court”, in the
proceedings instituted by Application, roles are assigned to the Applicant
and the Court itself. The role of the Applicant is referred to as the
“presentation” or “formulation of the dispute” (see Fisheries Jurisdic-

tion (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1998, pp. 447-448, paras. 29 and 30) by acts which are designed by the
Statute and the Rules of Court as duties of the Applicant (Statute,
Art. 40, para. 1; Rules of Court, Art. 38, paras. 1 and 2). As far as the
Court is concerned, by executing its judicial function it is its role to

determine the dispute dividing the parties as well as to identify the object
of the claim.
What is in concreto the intrinsic legal meaning of the word “determina-
tion”?
In a substantive sense, determination of a dispute is to a certain extent

expressed as verification of a dispute as presented or formulated by the
applicant. The only case when the determination of the matter by the
Court is autonomous in toto, deprived of any substantive connection to
the application, is the situation when the Court considers that the real
dispute between the parties does not exist. Verification in the sense of

authentication or confirmation of the dispute as presented by the appli-
cant may occur as either total or partial — in which case it is possible to
make a difference between a “real dispute” and a “dispute as presented or
formulated”. Such a substantive determination of the term “determina-
tion of the real dispute” is based on the fact that the application —

together with the final submissions and other pertinent evidence — rep-
resents a basic parameter for the determination of a real dispute. The
expression “irrespective of the nature and subject of the dispute laid
before the Court in the present case” (South West Africa, Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328) is not used in the

meaning outside the application but irrespective of arguments of the
parties regarding the nature and subject of the dispute. The very essence

1311435 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

of the determination process lies in its objectivity as to whether there

exists an international dispute (Interpretation of Peace Treaties with
Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 74).

Even though objectivity is not a personal but a qualitative character-

istic, it includes in concreto an assessment of the constitutive elements of
the legal disputes rather than a construction or a negation of legal dis-
putes. Constitutive elements of the dispute are, in fact, criteria that ought
to be tested in order to “be shown that the claim of one party is positively
opposed by the other” (South West Africa, Preliminary Objections, Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328).
61. If an organic link between the controversy on the jurisdictional
issue and the existence of a dispute in a case indeed existed, then the
Court, for instance, could not entertain a case in the event of a respon-

dent’s non-appearance in the proceedings. The fact remains that the
position of the Applicant in the proceedings is an unusual one, but
not unprecedented. It can be compared precisely with the position of
Italy in the Monetary Gold case where Italy, as the applicant State, raised
the preliminary objection to the jurisdiction of the Court. The Court,

assessing such a position of Italy, said:

“The Court finds that Italy’s acceptance of jurisdiction is one
thing, while her raising of a legal issue on jurisdiction is quite
another. It cannot be inferred from the making of the Preliminary
Objection that Italy’s acceptance of jurisdiction has become less
complete or less positive than was contemplated in the Washington

Statement.” (Preliminary Question, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1954 ,
p. 29.)

Moreover, the Court came to this conclusion in the reply to the submis-
sion of the United Kingdom, which, by its content, precisely corresponds
with Italy’s submission in the present case. Namely, the Court finds
that, “[n]or can the Court accept the contention in the final Submission
No. 1 (b) of the United Kingdom that the Application has been in effect

withdrawn and cancelled by Italy” (ibid., p. 30).
62. That the absence of a specific dispute on jurisdiction does not
deprive the Court’s decision of its judicial character is also confirmed by
the jurisprudence of the Court. In the Monetary Gold case, Italy, as the
Applicant, submitted to the Court what it termed a “Preliminary Ques-

tion” in substantially identical terms as the first request of Serbia and
Montenegro. At the time Italy requested the Court to “adjudicate on the
preliminary question of its jurisdiction to deal with the merits of the
claim set forth under No. 1 of the Submissions of the Application” (Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1954 , p. 23). The first request in the final submis-

sions of Serbia and Montenegro, as Applicant, has been formulated in
the following terms, where it requests the Court “to adjudge and declare

1321436 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

on its jurisdiction ratione personae the present cases” (CR2004/23, p. 38,

para. 34). Consequently, in both cases the applicant States asked the Court
not to declare that it has jurisdiction, but only to rule on its jurisdiction.
63. The request of the Applicant to the Court to rule on its jurisdiction
ratione personae possesses specific justification in the circumstances of
the present cases. These circumstances make relative the qualification of

the Applicant’s request regarding the jurisdiction of the Court ratione
personae as an abstract one. They present it in a different light, i.e., as a
request incorporated in the reality of the Court’s jurisprudence on the
matter, some sort of reminder to the Court to act in accordance with its
own findings. Namely, faced with the question — whether or not Yugo-

slavia is a Member of the United Nations and as such a party to the Stat-
ute of the Court — the Court found, in the provisional measures phase of
the proceedings, that it “need not consider this question for the purpose
of deciding whether or not it can indicate provisional measures in the

present case” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United Kingdom),
Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 836, para. 28; see also
CR2004/23, p. 38, para. 34). The finding, being only a slight modification
of the formulation used in the Order of 8 April 1993 in the Genocide Con-
vention case, implies the right, and obligation at the same time, of the

Court to pronounce upon it in a later phase of the proceedings and, it is
easy to agree, it seems to me, that there is no more proper phase in which
to do so than the preliminary objection phase.

4. Legal Interest of the Applicant in the Proceedings

64. Some of the respondent States (exempli causa, Portugal

(CR2004/9, p. 9)) argued that by requesting the Court to decide that it
has no jurisdiction to adjudicate on the merits, Serbia and Montenegro
showed that it has no legal interest in settling the dispute before the
Court.
Grosso modo, legal interest of the Applicant can be defined as specific

interest to demand judicial intervention, considering that otherwise the
Applicant would suffer some unjust prejudice and (or) would not be able
to protect its violated rights on the basis of international law.

In order to be qualified as a relevant legal interest, the interest of the

Applicant needs to fulfil several conditions:
(a) To be of legal nature. Economic, political or other non-legal interest

as such is not enough considering the fact that the jurisdiction of the
Court is reserved for legal disputes.

(b) To be concrete. This condition implies that the intervention of the
Court, either positively or negatively, reflects on the corpus of rights

and duties of the parties, real or presumed, prescribed by interna-
tional law.

1331437 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

(c) To be of personal nature. This concerns the personal dimension of

the previous condition to be concrete. In fact, the interest needs to
be related to the subjective right of the applicant whereas the advi-
sory opinion of the Court given on the concrete legal question may
be abstract, deprived of a personal dimension. Personal dimen-
sion of the legal interest serves as differentia specifica between a

general interest which lies behind an actio popularis and a specific
interest.

These elements form the essence of the concept of the legal interest
based upon which is legitimatio ad processum(qualité pour agir) , which

is independent of the ability of a State to appear before the Court: it is
an expression of a concrete legal relation between the applicant and the
subject-matter of the dispute.
Legal interest of the applicant should be objectively determined par-

ticularly considering the fact that by instituting the proceedings before
the Court, the applicant demonstrates a subjective perception of its legal
interest in the matter.
Determination of the legal interest of the applicant is ex rerum natura
closely connected and intertwined with the determination of legal dis-

pute, taking into consideration that the dispute is in fact based on the
opposing attitudes of the parties in relation to a certain conflict of
interests. Therefore, what was emphasized regarding the determination
of the legal disputes applies mutatis mutandis to the basic parameters
for the determination of the legal interest of the applicant.

The party entitled to the subjective right, claiming the violation of a
concrete right to which the other party is positively opposed, is in posses-
sion eo ipso of a legal interest. In that case the presumption of legal
interest is applied. Legal interest is, in fact, incorporated into the very
essence of the concept of subjective right.

65. The Applicant, as well as the Respondent, is a State party to a
number of multilateral treaties in force, non-observance of which is
being attributed by the Applicant to the Respondent. Considering the fact
that the parties acquire mutual subjective rights and obligations by the
international treaty, the party whose subjective right has been violated

is entitled to claim the protection of its right (cf. Barcelona Traction,
Light and Power Company, Limited, Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1970, p. 45, para. 80; p. 46, para. 86). The existence of the
subjective right would no longer have its ratio in case the entitled party
did not possess legal interest for its protection. The presumption of legal

interest of the State entitled to the subjective right is strongly supported
by another reason deriving from the very nature of the modern inter-
national community. Due to the general prohibition on self-redress,
the State whose rights have been violated does not have at its disposal
an efficient and legal means for the protection of its subjective rights.

Therefore, it would in fact be convenient to assume the existence of the
legal interest in every particular case of accusation of the violation of the

1341438 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP .KRECAu )

rules of international law, either conventional or customary, as a sort of
actio condemnatoria in the proceedings before the Court
The position of multilateral and bilateral treaties containing compro-

missory clauses is rather specific. The compromissory clause per se et a
priori proves the existence of the legal interest of the party and therefore
need not be either presumed or proved (action attitrée). Considered
stricti juris, the right to legal protection in the case of a compromissory

clause is not deduced from the legal interest of the applicant, but derives
directly from the compromissory clause as a treaty provision.

*
* *

66. Summary removal as such might constitute an administrative
action of the Court, either proprio motu or at the request of the Respon-

dent to reject the Application in limine litis. In either case the validity
of summary removal is, to say the least, of a dubious nature.

Summary removal as an action of the Court proprio motu has lost the
ratio of its existence by the introduction of Article 38, paragraph 5, of the
Rules of Court. Until then, it had been applied as a kind of extorted

action of the Court in circumstances in which one State sues another
without any existing title of jurisdiction and, in fact, called upon that
State to accept the jurisdiction of the Court ad hoc . Cessante ratione,

cessat ipsa lex.
In the circumstances of effective seisin of the Court, summary removal
at the request of the Respondent to the Court to reject the Application in

limine litis is unacceptable. As such, summary removal would be in sharp
contradiction with the duty of the Court to examine ex officio the ques-

9 Thus, the Court found itself in the situation of having to make a choice between Scilla

and Haribda — or to allow the “case” to figure on the General List as a pending case for
an indefinite period of time or to resort to the removal of the “case” from the General List
as was done in a number of cases: Treatment in Hungary of Aircraft and Crew of United
States of America (United States of America v. Hungary), Order of 12 July 1954, I.C.J.
Reports 1954, pp. 99-101, and Treatment in Hungary of Aircraft and Crew of United
States of America (United States of America v. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics),
Order of 12 July 1954, I.C.J. Reports 1954 , pp. 103-105; Aerial Incident of 10 March
1953, Order of 14 March 1956, I.C.J. Reports 1956 , pp. 6-8; Aerial Incident of 4 Sep-
tember 1954, Order of 9 December 1958, I.C.J. Reports 1958 , pp. 158-161; Aerial Inci-
dent of 7 November 1954, Order of 7 October 1959, I.C.J. Reports 1959 , p. 276-278;
Antarctica (United Kingdom v. Argentina), Order of 16 March 1956, I.C.J. Reports 1956 ,
pp. 12-14, and Antarctica (United Kingdom v. Chile), Order of 16 March 1956, I.C.J.
Reports 1956, pp. 15-17.
In the light of Article 38, paragraph 5, what the Court might do proprio motu, in spe-
cific circumstances and before effective seisin, is to take the initiative in removing a case
from the General List which, in fact, is done in accordance with Article 88 or 89 of the

Rules of Court. As a point of illustration, mention can be made of the case concerning
Maritime Delimitation between Guinea-Bissau and Senegal, Order of 8 November 1995,
I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 423.

1351439 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

tion of its jurisdiction in casu on the basis of the general principle of com-
pétence de la compétence . Having in mind the nature of the duty of the
Court to examine ex officio its jurisdiction in the case at hand, it might

even be said that summary removal in such circumstances would have the
meaning of a kind of denial of justice.

Consequently, by the adoption of Article 38, paragraph 5, of the Rules

of Court, “removal” acquires its appropriate meaning as simple removal
as an accessory effect of declining jurisdiction by the Court’s judicial
decision .

III. THE ISSUE OF THE C OMPOSITION OF THE C OURT

67. The fundamental difference between the composition of the Court
in the provisional measures phase of the proceedings, on the one hand,
and its make-up in the preliminary objections phase of the proceedings,

on the other, is noticeable. It calls for comments as a matter of principle.
During the provisional measures phase of the proceedings nine out of
a total of ten respondent States had judges sitting on the Bench of the

Court, irrespective of whether these were national judges (France, Ger-
many, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States of
America) or judges ad hoc (Belgium, Canada, Italy and Spain). Among
the respondent States having no judge of their nationality on the Bench,

only Portugal has not designated its judge ad hoc. The Applicant, for its
part, had one judge ad hoc on the Bench.
In the preliminary objections phase, the Bench underwent a significant

change. At the opening of the public sitting held on 19 April 2004, the
President of the Court stated, inter alia, that

“[b]y letters dated 23 December 2003, the Registrar informed the
Parties that the Court had decided... that the judges ad hoc chosen
by the respondent States should not sit during the current phase of
the procedure in these cases” (CR2004/6, p. 6).

He also noted that “Judge Simma had previously considered that he

should not take part in the decision of these cases and had so informed
[the President] in accordance with Article 24 of the Statute” (ibid.,p.7).
Thus, during the preliminary objections phase the Bench included
three national judges on the side of the respondent States and one ad hoc

judge on the side of the Applicant.
It is interesting to note that the Court, in adopting relevant decisions,

10It might be mentioned in passing that the practice for the “removal clause” to be
included at all into the dispositif of a judgment of the Court is open to question; not only
because of the fact that, as a rule, a case which has been completed is removed automati-
cally from the General List of pending cases, but also because of the nature of the judicial
decision of the Court which concerns the parties to the dispute rather than a matter that,

basically, concerns the internal functioning of the Court.

1361440 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECu )

failed to provide an explanation in more detail, both with respect to par-

ticular decisions concerning the composition of the Court in the proceed-
ings on preliminary objections and with respect to the substantial change
in the two successive phases of the proceedings.
In the provisional measures phase the Court, acting on the objections

raised by the Applicant relating to the nominations of judges ad hoc by
four respondent States, settled for a succinct formulation that the nomi-
nations were “justified in the present phase of the case” . The Court was
somewhat more specific in the relevant decision relating to its own

make-up in the preliminary objections phase. Even though, in contrast to
the provisional measures phase, the Applicant raised no objections regard-
ing the participation of judges ad hoc chosen by the respondent States. In
deciding that “the judges ad hoc chosen by the respondent States should

not sit during the current phase of the procedure” (CR2004/6, p. 6), the
Court invoked the fact of “the presence on the Bench of judges of British,
Dutch and French nationality” (CR2004/6, p. 6).

68. From the terse formulation relating to the acceptance of the nomi-
nations of judges ad hoc by four respondent States in the provisional
measures phase one could infer that the Court, in adopting the decision
that their nominations were justified, relied on the grammatical interpre-

tation of the provision of Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute. Namely,
Article 31, paragraph 3, provides that “[i]f the Court includes upon the
Bench no judge of the nationality of the parties, each of these parties may
proceed to choose a judge”. In other words, the Court followed the logic

that the independent and inherent right of a party to choose a judge ad
hoc on the basis of Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute, was not sub-
ject to any particular restrictions in this particular case. The Applicant
founded its objection to the nomination of the judges ad hoc by four

respondent States on the contention that they are parties in the same
interest and that, consequently, paragraph 5 of Article 31 of the Statute
should have been applied. The Court, in its decision does not deal spe-
cifically with this contention of the Applicant, although the decision itself

implies that the Court rejected it.
69. The absence of an explanation leaves room for assumptions. One
of them, it seems to me, that merits attention rests on the interpretation
of the expression “several parties in the same interest” (Statute, Art. 31,

para. 5). It has been said that

“Article 31, which uses a form of wording in the singular, ‘applies
separately to each case on the Court’s List’. ‘In the presence of two

11Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J.
Reports 1999 (I), p. 130, para. 12; Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Canada),
Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) , p. 265, para. 12; Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Italy), Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) , p. 487, para. 12;
Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (II), p. 767, para. 12.

1371441 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

separate cases between two sets of parties (even if one party is com-

mon to both cases), Article 31, paragraph 5, has no application’.”
(H. Thirlway, “The Law and Procedure of the International Court
of Justice, 1960-1989 (Part Eleven)”, The British Year Book of Inter-

national Law, 2000, p. 167, emphasis added, citing joint declaration
of Judges Bedjaoui, Guillaume and Ranjeva in Questions of Inter-
pretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising
from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 40.)

It appears that the interpretation is far too narrow and, in the light of the

meaning and in particular of the application of Article 31, paragraph 5,
of the Statute, arbitrary because it implies an indissoluble organic link
between “parties in the same interest” and formal joinder, which is
obviously not the case. The Court may find that the parties are in the

same interest without having recourse to joinder. Moreover, it is said
that “the ‘same interest’ provisions apply” only “in the case of the choice
of judges ad hoc” (G. Guillaume, “La ‘cause commune’ devant la Cour
internationale de Justice”, Liber Amicorum — Mohammed Bedjaoui

(Emile Yakpo and Tahar Boumedra, eds.), 1999, p. 330 [translation by
the Registry]). The jurisprudence of the Court was also formed in this
sense .2

Consequently, the provision of Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute
according to which the parties in the same interest shall be reckoned as
one party only, cannot be understood as being tantamount to joinder.
Although the same interest of the parties constitutes an element of the

notion of joinder, taken per se it neither constitutes formal joinder nor
can be considered identical to it. Joinder implies that the parties in the
same interest are reckoned as one party in the totality of their procedural
position which, in addition to the appointment of a single judge ad hoc

includes also one set of pleadings and a single judgment.

The parties in the same interest, in the sense of Article 31, paragraph 5,
of the Statute, are reckoned as one party in a restricted, functional sense

versus the process position of parties in its totality in the event of the
issue of joinder, and that is the choice of judges ad hoc. The formulation
according to which “several parties in the same interest... shall...be
reckoned as one party only” (Statute, Art. 31, para. 5) is made not for the

12Exempli causa,

“in the Fisheries Jurisdiction cases, the Court did not join the cases, and rendered
two distinct series of judgments, both on jurisdiction and on the merits. However,
that did not prevent it from regarding the United Kingdom and Germany as being ‘in
the same interest’ during the initial phase of the procedure.” (G. Guillaume, “La
‘cause commune’ devant la Cour internationale de Justice”, Liber Amicorum —
Mohammed Bedjaoui, 1999, pp. 330, 334-335 [translation by the Registry] ).

1381442 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

purpose of a joinder but “for the purpose of the preceding provisions”

(Statute, Art. 31, para. 5) of Article 31 regulating equalization of the
parties before the Court.

If we continue for a moment to use the terminology of joinder, we
could possibly qualify the parties in the same interest, in the sense of

Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute, as a kind of small or procedural
joinder substantively and functionally linked with the choice of judges
ad hoc on the basis of the provisions of Article 31 of the Statute of the
Court.
70. The fundamental difference in the composition of the Court in the

provisional measures phase as against the preliminary objections phase
could be defended with the argument that in the provisional measures
phase the Court was not in a position to ascertain the positions of the
respondent States vis-à-vis the demands of the Applicant. The argument

bears a certain weight but it should not be overestimated in this particu-
lar case for two reasons at least. Primo, the question of the composition
of the Court is a matter of public order (in the Advisory Opinion case
concerning Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of
South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security

Council Resolution 276 (1970) (hereinafter referred to as “Namibia”),
Vice-President Ammoun pointed out in his separate opinion that it
relates to “the rule of... very equality which the Statute seeks to safe-
guard through the institution of judges ad hoc”( I.C.J. Reports 1971,
p. 68)) possessing “absolute logical priority” (ibid., p. 25, para. 36; see

also Western Sahara, Order of 22 May 1975, I.C.J. Reports 1975 ,
pp. 7-8; Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1975 ,p.17-
18, para. 13). Secundo, the indication for consideration of the same
interest of the respondent States was provided in the Application itself
which related to all the ten respondent States with identical statements

of facts and law. The Application itself offered the basis for a prima facie
appreciation of the facts and law for the treatment of “the appointment
of a judge ad hoc ...asa preliminary matter” (Legal Consequences for
States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South
West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970),

Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 , p. 25, para. 36). Tertio, the
urgency of the proceedings for interim measures could hardly be deemed
to have been an obstacle to such proceedings in this particular case,
because the proceedings for interim measures themselves lasted over
30 days, counting from the date of submission of the request to the

date of the rendering of the order.
71. The decision regarding the composition of the Court in both phases,
the provisional measures phase and the preliminary objections phase, was
adopted informally, being intimated to the Parties by the Registrar. (The
Court has thus departed from the practice established in theSouth West

Africa cases (cf. Order of 18 March 1965, I.C.J. Reports 1965,p .)i
which the decision about the composition of the Court was adopted in the

1391443 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

form of an order.) This practice possessed certain inherent advantages,

both formal and those of a substantive nature. As far as the formal
advantages are concerned, it is difficult to understand that the issue of
composition of the Court is regulated informally, at least when more
delicate and controversial cases are in question, whereas issues, such as
the appointment of experts of the Court (cf. Corfu Channel, Order of

19 November 1949, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 237; Delimitation of the Mari-
time Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area, Appointment of Expert, Order
of 30 March 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 165), the appointment of
experts to assist the parties to implement a judgment (cf.Frontier Dispute,
Nomination of Experts, Order of 9 April 1987, I.C.J. Reports 1987,

p. 7), or decisions on a request for an inspectionin loco (cf. South West
Africa, Order of 29 November 1965, I.C.J. Reports 1965,p.9;Gabèíkovo-
Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Order of 5 February 1997, I.C.J.
Reports 1997, p. 3) are dealt with through a formal order. Although there

is no difference in the legal effect of decisions adopted informally or in the
legal effect of those adopted in a formal manner, the manner in which a
decision of the Court is embodied bears the meaning of an implicit evalua-
tion of the issues being the object of the decision. This practice is all the
more surprising having in mind that the question of the composition of

the Court is not a purely procedural matter, but, in cases such as the case
in hand, a matter of public order that indirectly concerns the principle of
equality of States as one of the fundamental principles of international
law which falls within corpus juris cogentis.
Also indisputable, it seems to me, are the substantive advantages of

making decisions on the composition of the Court in a formal manner.
They emanate from the very structure of the order, in particular from the
special considerations that the Court had in mind making the order and
reasons justifying a particular decision on the composition of the Court.
Thus, an easier and more reliable interpretation of the decision of the

Court is enabled and, equally important, a consolidation of jurisprudence
of the Court on the matter.
72. The decision of the Court by which three respondent States (Bel-
gium, Canada and Italy) have been denied the extension of the appoint-
ments of their judges ad hoc in the preliminary objections phase, and

denying Portugal the right to appoint a judge ad hoc, is based on
Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute which provides that “[s]hould
there be several parties in the same interest, they shall, for the purpose
of the preceding provisions, be reckoned as one party only. Any doubt
upon this point shall be settled by the decision of the Court.”

(a) As regards Belgium, Canada and Italy, the Court adopted the rele-
vant decision “pursuant to Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute, taking
into account the presence on the Bench of judges of British, Dutch and
French nationality” (CR2004/6, pp. 6-7; emphasis added). The interpre-

tation of this explanation of the Court’s decision inevitably leads to the
conclusion that the Court considered not only Belgium, Canada and Italy

1401444 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

as parties in the same interest, but also France, the Netherlands and the

United Kingdom.
The effect of Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute obviously could
not have been the deprivation of Belgium, Canada and Italy’s right,
“reckoned as one party only”, to have upon the Bench a single judge ad
hoc, but of the extension of the appointments of judges ad hoc which they

had appointed individually in the provisional measures phase. The dep-
rivation was legally founded only if the Court had found that these three
respondent States, together with France, the Netherlands and the United
Kingdom, were in the position of “parties in the same interest”. The
argument of the Court is suggestive of this but not explicit, because it

only referred to the “presence on the Bench of judges of British, Dutch
and French nationality” (CR2004/6, p. 6) as ratio of exclusion of the
right of Belgium, Canada and Italy to choose a single judge ad hoc with-
out saying that all of them were parties in the same interest. A direct

nexus between these two matters — on the one hand, the deprivation of
the three respondent States, having no judge of their nationality on the
Bench, of their right to choose a single judge ad hoc, and, on the other
hand, the presence on the Bench of judges of the nationality of the three
other respondent States, having judges of their nationality on the Bench —

is only possible to establish on the basis of the same interest position of
all these respondent States.

(b) As far as Germany is concerned, as Judge Simma had considered
that he should not take part in the decision in this case, Germany, on the

basis of Article 37, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court became “entitled
to choose a judge ad hoc within a time-limit to be fixed by the Court,
or by the President”. The Court, however, decided that the entitlement
under Article 37 is non-existent in casu “pursuant to Article 31, para-
graph 5, of the Statute” (CR2004/6, p. 7). In other words, the Court sub-

sumed the position of Germany in this particular matter under Article 37,
paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court which provides that “[p]arties in the
same interest shall be deemed not to have a judge of one of their nation-
alities .itheMember of the Cour t..iorbecomes unable to sit”
(emphasis added).

Consequently, the Court, proceeding from the “same interest” provi-
sion embodied in Article 31, paragraph 1, of the Statute and elaborated

in Article 37, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the Rules of Court, by its decision
notified to the Parties by letters of the Registrar dated 23 December 2003,
took the position that all eight respondent States are parties in the same
interest.
73. The decision of the Court produced equalization effects in the

composition of the Bench between the Applicant, on the one hand, and
the Respondents, on the other.
The equalization effects are expressed on two levels:

(i) on the level of the relation between the applicant State and those

1411445 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

respondent States having no national judge upon the Bench. Unlike

the provisional measures phase, full equalization was realized in the
preliminary objections phase in accordance with the perfectly coher-
ent jurisprudence of the Court, thanks to the decision of the Court.
(Cf. joint declaration of Judges Bedjaoui, Guillaume and Ranjeva,
Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal

Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , pp. 34-39);

(ii) on the level of the relation between the applicant State and those res-

pondent States having Members of their nationality upon the Bench.
On this level partial equalization has been realized given the fact that
Judge Simma had decided not to take part in the decision in the case,
and the Court’s decision that Germany, pursuant to Article 31, para-

graph 5, of the Statute was not entitled to choose a judge ad hoc.
Thus the relation between the applicant State and the respondent

States having Members of their nationality upon the Bench suffered a
change in the concrete matter in comparison with the composition of the
Court in the procedure on provisional measures — three respondent
States (France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom) have their
national judges upon the Bench and the applicant State has a judge ad

hoc on the Bench.
Can such a solution be considered tenable in law and justice? The
answer to this question, it seems to me, is in the negative rather than in
the positive.
In the construction of Article 31, paragraphs 1 to 5, of the Statute, the

arithmetical equality of the numbers of judges upon the Bench having the
nationality of the parties, in the relevant variants of the relation between
the number of national judges (Art. 31, para. 1), national judges and
judges ad hoc (Art. 31, para. 2) or judges ad hoc mutually (Art. 31,
para. 3), figures as an expression of equality of the parties. Although

equality of the parties is not exhausted in the arithmetical equality, it
seems incontestable that, in the relations among States as sovereign
political units, the arithmetical equality is an important constitutive ele-
ment of equality: a contrario, the provisions of Article 31, paragraphs 1
to 5, of the Statute as such would be devoid of substance.

It is obvious that in concreto this arithmetical equality is non-existent
despite the fact that the respondent States are parties in the same interest.
What is involved, in fact, is but one example of inequality of the parties,
inequality that comes about due to grammatical interpretation of

Article 31, paragraph 4, of the Statute.
For as Judge Guillaume notes, referring to Article 31, paragraph 4, of
the Statute,

“This provision guaranteed equality between the parties where

1421446 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

neither had a national on the Bench. Thus in such cases, whether

there is a plurality of applicants, or of respondents, or of both, only
one judge ad hoc is chosen to sit on each side.

The system worked equally well where the Court included a judge

of the nationality of one of the parties and the latter objected to a
plurality of applicants or respondents acting in the same interest and
not having a judge of their own nationality present on the Bench.
Here again, equality was effectively guaranteed.

On the other hand, the system was more open to criticism where
on one side there were several States with judges of their nationality
on the Bench, whereas on the other there was only one judge, or
even merely a judge ad hoc.” (G. Guillaume, “La ‘cause commune’

devant la Cour internationale de Justice”, Liber Amicorum —
Mohammed Bedjaoui (Emile Yakpo and Tahar Boumedra, eds.),
1999, pp. 328-329; emphasis added.)

It follows, consequently, that in the event of conflict between the prin-

ciple of permanence of the Court and equality of parties “the authors of
the Statute and Rules accorded priority to the principle of the perma-
nence of the Court”, having restricted the application of the principle of
equality of parties “in regard to choice of judges ad hoc to situations
where the ‘common interest’ provisions apply” (ibid.,p.330 [translation

by the Registry]).
Such a state of affairs is hardly tenable. The deficiencies of the solu-
tions enshrined in the Statute and in the Rules of Court cannot constitute
a basis for a derogation of the fundamental principle of equality of
parties. The principle of equality of parties is but one ingredient, a con-

stitutive element of a broader principle of sovereign equality of States.
Although the Statute and the Rules of Court are, by their nature, jus spe-
cialis designed to regulate the work of the Court, it cannot be accepted
that they authorize, as such, the Court to disregard the relevant norms of
general international law. And, as the Statute itself determines, the Court’s

function “is to decide in accordance with international law” (Statute,
Art. 38, para. 1). Especially as concerns contemporary international law
which, unlike international law that was in effect at the time of drawing
up of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, recog-
nizes jus cogens the rules of overriding importance that, by definition,

brook no competition of incongruous rules. And the principle of sovereign
equality of States is undoubtedly a rule that belongs tocorpus juris
cogentis.

74. The issue of the realization of the overriding rule of equality of

States in regard to the composition of the Bench is, basically, an issue of
a technical, derivative nature. There are two ways that seem to be appro-

1431447 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

priate, independently or in combination, depending on the circumstances

of a particular case. One of them boils down to the exemption of a Mem-
ber or Members of the Court in the event that there exists inequality
between the litigant parties in multiple cases in which one party is com-
prised of two or several States whose judges sit in the Court. Whereas the
other party is composed of a State (or States) that do not have national

judges or have a smaller number of national judges as compared to the
other side. In such a case a solution could be found within the co-ordi-
nates of the proposal submitted at the time of the revision of the Rules of
Court in 1926, according to which:

“Where one of the parties is represented by two or more States
having judges present on the Bench, only one of those judges, to be

chosen by the States in question, may take part in the proceedings
and judgment in the case.” (Statut et Règlement de la Cour perma-
nente de Justice internationale — Eléments d’interprétation , Carl
Heymanns Verlag, Berlin, 1934, p. 189, cited in G. Guillaume, “La
‘cause commune’ devant la Cour internationale de Justice”, Liber

Amicorum — Mohammed Bedjaoui (Emile Yakpo and Tahar Bou-
medra, eds.), 1999, p. 329. [Translation by the Registry.] )

Two objections could be raised with respect to this way of solving the
issue. The first is that it implies revision of Article 31, paragraph 1, of the
Statute. The objection is justified, but only partially, having in mind that,
by the application of Article 24, paragraph 2, of the Statute, it is possible
to achieve equalization even without a formal revision of the Statute. The

circumstances that two or more States whose judges sit in the Court —
States that are parties in the same interest — can be regarded by the
President of the Court as a “special reason” for having recourse to the
authority being at their disposal on the basis of Article 24, paragraph 2,
of the Statute. It is difficult, however, to imagine that a broader applica-

tion of this provision of the Statute is feasible, not only because of the
principle of permanence of the function of a Member of the Court, but
also because of the requirement relating to the minimal number of judges
constituting the Court (Statute, Art. 25, para. 2). Still, the possibilities
offered by this provision of the Statute should not be underestimated,

especially if the principle of permanence is interpreted systematically,
without the ingredients of a fetish. In that sense, the principle of perma-
nence of the Court is of a relative nature, not only because of the provi-
sion of the Statute stipulating that a third of judges shall be elected every
third year (Statute, Art. 13), but also because of the fact that a judge or

judges may be prevented from sitting on the Bench for factual or legal
reasons (Statute, Art. 23, para. 3, and Art. 24, para. 1).
The other manner would consist in giving the right to a party having
no judge of its nationality on the Bench to nominate more than one judge
ad hoc if equalization cannot be achieved in some other way. There exist

no substantive obstacles in the Statute to this manner of equalization.
The fact that Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute refers to the right of

1441448 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

“any other party” (i.e., a party other than the party which has a judge of

its nationality) to “choose a person to sit as judge” in the singular, cannot
be regarded as a ban on “any other party” to choose more than one judge
ad hoc. Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute is, both by diction and by
the terms used, designed individualistically, i.e., one party (having a judge
of its nationality on the Bench)/other party (party other than the party

having a judge of its nationality on the Bench). When multiple cases,
such as the cases at hand, are involved, the said provision should be
interpreted teleologically.

A contrario, it remains unclear how equalization, as an expression and

manner of ensuring the fundamental principle of equality of States, could
be achieved. For it should be borne in mind that it is not only about
nominal equality between parties, considering that even a quick look at
the voting practice in the Court shows that differences between national

judges and judges ad hoc in the cases in which States of their nationalities
were involved are not so significant as usually presumed.

75. The schedule of public hearings in the eight cases concerning the
Legality of Use of Force held from 19 April 2004 to 23 April 2004, taken

per se and in particular in connection with the decision of the Court
relating to the composition of the Court in these cases, represents a
specific and unusual approach of the Court.
Prima facie, the schedule of public hearings reflects the idea of consoli-
dation of separate proceedings in the sense of a logical order of the hear-

ings. More precisely, during the first round of pleadings on the prelimi-
nary objections held on 19 and 20 April, all eight respondent States
submitted their pleadings, whereas the Applicant did so on 21 April 2004.
The schedule was basically applied to the second round of pleadings, so
that 22 April 2004 was reserved for the eight respondent States and

23 April 2004 for the Applicant. However, a couple of things contradict
a simple equalization of this schedule of public hearings with the consoli-
dation of separate proceedings. Primo, the schedule departs from the
logical and normal practice that after the pleading of one respondent
State, who raised preliminary objections, there follows the pleading of

the Applicant, bearing in mind that a separate pleading is in question. It
is possible to argue that eight respondent States were in question, so that
the schedule of public hearings in the form in which it is designed was
meant to avoid possible duplication in the arguments of the Parties, in
particular that of the Applicant. Leaving aside the fact that such reason-

ing implies also substantive similarity or identity of pleadings of the
respondent States, it is clear already from a quick reading of the official
records of pleadings that, as designed, the schedule of public hearings did
not exclude duplication of arguments. Secundo, the order of pleadings of
the respondent States does not correspond to their order in the List of

pending cases. Moreover, it is in contrast also with the order of pleadings
of the respondent States in the provisional measures phase of the cases.

1451449 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

The Court decided at the time that after Yugoslavia, as the applicant

State, the respondent States should make their presentations in English
alphabetical order (International Court of Justice, Press Release 99/19 of
7 May 1999), which is also the order of the cases in the official name of
the cases on the Court’s List of pending cases. This would not merit too
much attention by itself. It could simply be a matter of convenience —

if it were not followed also by grouping of the respondent States in the
schedule of public hearings. Thus, within the framework of the first
round of oral pleadings, the morning session of the Court on 19 April
2004 was reserved for Belgium and the Netherlands. Also, the morning
session of the following day was reserved for Germany, France and Italy.

Although the Court offered no explanation for the reasons for such a
grouping, which cannot be taken as unusual, it is reasonable to assume
that the Court relied, among other things, also on different jurisdictional
claims pointed out by the applicant State. (Namely, with respect to Bel-

gium and the Netherlands, the Applicant presented also additional titles
of jurisdiction, i.e., Article 4 of the Convention of Conciliation, Judicial
Settlement and Arbitration between Belgium and the Kingdom of Yugo-
slavia dated 25 March 1930, and Article 4 of the Treaty of Judicial Settle-
ment, Arbitration and Conciliation between the Netherlands and the

Kingdom of Yugoslavia dated 11 March 1931.) On the other hand, the
process position of Germany, France and Italy is characterized by the
fact that these three respondent States have not made a declaration of
acceptance of the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court under Article 36,
paragraph 2, of the Statute. Tertio, there has appeared an intriguing

coincidence of the said grouping of the respondent States in the schedule
of public hearings and of the composition of the Court derived from it, a
composition that would completely fit in with the principle of equality of
parties. If, ex hypothesi, joinder has been established for groups of cases
in accordance with the schedule of public hearings held on 19 and

20 April 2004 (joinder for Belgium and the Netherlands, a second for
Germany, France and Italy, and a third for the United Kingdom, Portu-
gal and Canada), then the relation between the Applicant and the groups
of respondent States included in the said joinders would be brought to
the point of full equality of the Parties as far as the composition of the

Court is concerned.

* * *

76. The question of locus standi of Serbia and Montenegro before
the Court, or its jurisdiction, is one thing, and the question of the legality
of use of force is another.
Due to the inherent features of the jurisdiction of the Court — the
consensual nature coupled with limited access — the Court was not in a

position to make a pronouncement with regard to the legality of use of
force in these particular cases.

1461450 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

This fact testifies by itself to the delicate position in which the Court,
as the world Court, may find itself.
The Court, whose function is “to decide in accordance with interna-
tional law” (Statute, Art. 38, para. 1) disputes as are submitted to it is, in

these particular cases, hindered in a way in carrying out its function in
regard to the issue that certainly cannot be regarded as an ordinary one.

The question of the use of force in relations between States in an onto-
logical issue of the international order. It is a watershed of the primitive

de facto order that is governed by the elements of constellation of powers
and opportunism, and of the de jure international order embodied in the
rule of law.
On this occasion it seems appropriate to observe that we are witnessing
a cacophony of voices, coming as a rule from the circle of powerful

and influential States, to the effect that the sovereignty of States is just
history. As far as international law and the Court, as its organ, are con-
cerned, it is painful and surprising to realize that, among the advocates
of limited sovereignty, there can hardly be found those supporting a limi-

tation of sovereignty in, probably, the only aspect where limitation of
sovereignty — irrespective of the will of the States — corresponds with
the idea of a legally organized international community. Namely, that
disputes between States should be solved before the Court and not on the
battlefield.

The ratio of existence of international law rests in its implementation,
especially when it comes to rules that have an overriding character.
Hence, one can understand the calls, or perhaps entreaties, addressed to
the Court that

“Yugoslavia was at least entitled to deliberation on the merits of
its claim...rather than being brushed off on a jurisdictional tech-

nicality” (Anthony D’Amato in “Review of the ICJ Order of June 2,
1999 on the Illegality [sic] of Use of Force Case”, as found in “Kos-
ovo & Yugoslavia: Law in Crisis”, a presentation of Jurist (source:
http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/amato1.htm at 22 November 2004)).

It remains for the Court, fettered by the strong rules of its jurisdiction,
to appeal, if at all, to the Parties, somewhat quixotically, to be aware

of their responsibilities under international law, following the practice
in some previous cases (exempli causa, Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain
v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,
p. 456, para. 56) or to address the matter even in a more qualified

manner.

(Signed) Milenko K RECu .

147

Bilingual Content

1394

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE KREC uA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs
I. LOCUS STANDI IN JUDICIO SERBIA AND M ONTENEGRO

1. Locus standi and its relationship to jurisdiction ratione per-
sonae 1-2
2. Issue of United Nations membership and locus standi of Ser-
bia and Montenegro 3-6

(a) Findings of the Court based on “avoiding position” 7-9
(b) Judicial presumptions 10-15
(c) Effective and valid seisin 16
(d) Obiter dictum containing elements or indications of sub-
stantive approach 17-23

3. The legal consequences of the admission of the FRY to the
United Nations 24-31

II. THE GROUNDS INVOKED BY THE R ESPONDENTS FOR REJECTING THE
A PPLICATION IN LIMINE LITIS

1. Implicit discontinuance as a contradictio in adiecto 32-36
2. The congruence of the statements of facts by the Parties and
the duty of the Court to examine its jurisdiction ex officio37-39
(a) Aspect of the legal logic 40

(b) Normative aspect 41-44
(c) Principle compétence de la compétence 45-51
3. The effect on the dispute of the congruence of views between
the Parties as to jurisdiction 52

(a) The existence of a dispute as to jurisdiction as a prelimi-
nary condition for the continuation of the proceedings on
preliminary objections 53-55
(b) The congruence of views between the Parties as to juris-
diction and the alleged disappearance of the dispute on

the merits 56-63
4. Legal interest of the Applicant in the proceedings 64-66

III. THEISSUE OF THEC OMPOSITION OF THECOURT 67-75

91 1394

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE KREC uA

[Traduction]

TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Paragraphes
I. LOCUS STANDI DE LA SERBIE-ET-M ONTÉNÉGRO

1. Le rapport entre locus standi et compétence ratione perso-
nae 1-2
2. La qualité de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies de
la Serbie-et-Monténégro et son locus standi 3-6

a) Conclusions de la Cour consistant à éluder le problème 7-9
b) La présomption judiciaire 10-15
c) Saisine effective et saisine valide 16
d) Obiter dictum contenant des éléments ou des indices d’une
position sur le fond 17-23

3. Les conséquences juridiques de l’admission de la RFY à
l’Organisation des Nations Unies 24-31

II. LES RAISONS INVOQUÉES PAR LES DÉFENDEURS EN FAVEUR D UN REJET
IN LIMINE LITIS DE LA REQUÊTE

1. Le désistement implicite est une contradictio in adjecto 32-36
2. Concordance des exposés des Parties sur les faits et obligation
pour la Cour d’examiner ex officio sa compétence 37-39
a) L’aspect logique juridique 40
b) L’aspect normatif 41-44

c) Le principe de compétence de la compétence 45-51
3. La convergence de vues entre les Parties en matière de com-
pétence a des effets sur le différend 52

a) L’existence d’un différend sur la compétence comme
condition préalable à la poursuite de l’examen des excep-
tions préliminaires 53-55
b) La convergence de vues des Parties sur la question de
la compétence et la disparition alléguée du différend au
fond 56-63

4. L’intérêt juridique du demandeur en l’instance 64-66

III. LA QUESTION DE LA COMPOSITION DE LA COUR 67-75

911395 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECA )
u

Although I agree with the above Judgment as a whole, I wish to make
my position clear in regard not only to certain points with which I fully
agree but also to some reservations which I have as to the reasoning and

the ultimate findings.
Due, on the one hand, to the substantial similarity and, in more than
one issue, identical nature of the arguments forwarded by the respondent

States and, on the other, to the lack of time to do proper justice to the
cases, the text of my opinion is designed to cover mutatis mutandis all
eight cases.

* * *

I. L OCUS STANDI IN JUDICIO OF SERBIA AND M ONTENEGRO

1. Locus standi and Its Relationship to Jurisdiction ratione personae

1. In its original meaning 1, the expression “locus standi in judicio”

implies the right of a person to appear or to be heard in such-and-such
proceedings (Jowitt’s Dictionary of English Law , 2nd ed., Vol. 2, p. 1115),
or, as regards the present Court, the right of a person lato sensu to

appear or to be heard in proceedings before the Court.

The right to appear before the International Court of Justice, due to
the fact that it is not a fully open court of law, is a limited right. The

limitations exist in two respects. Primo, the right is reserved for States
(Statute, Art. 34, para. 1). Consequently, it does not belong to other
juridical persons or physical persons. Secundo, as far as States are con-

cerned, only States parties to the Statute of the Court possess the right
referred to, being as Members of the United Nations ipso facto parties
to the Statute of the Court or by accepting conditions pursuant to

Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute. States non-parties to the Statute
can acquire this right on condition that they accept the general jurisdiction
of the Court in conformity with Security Council resolution 9 (1946).
From the substantive point of view, this right is a personal privilege

(privilegia favorabile) of the State which, by accepting the Statute of the
Court, has recognized the Court as a judicial body equipped with jus
dicere. It is the consequence of the burden — or privilegia odiosa — con-

sisting in fulfilment of the conditions prescribed.

1Even in the jurisprudence of the Court the expression is sometimes used as a descrip-
tive one. Exempli causa, in the case concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and Power
Company, Limited, the Court used it to denote right of “a government to protect the
interests of shareholders as such” which was in effect the matter of legal interest inde-
pendent of the right of Belgium to appear before the Court (Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1964 , p. 45). On the contrary, in the South West Africa cases the
Court has drawn a clear distinction between “standing before the Court itself”, i.e., locus
standi, and “standing in the . . . phase of . . . proceedings (South West Africa, Second
Phase, I.C.J. Reports 1966 , p. 18, para. 4).

92 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1395

Je souscris au présent arrêt dans son ensemble; je tiens toutefois à pré-
ciser ma position non seulement sur certains points de la décision aux-

quels j’adhère parfaitement, mais aussi quant à quelques réserves que
j’éprouve sur les motifs et les conclusions finales.
En raison, d’une part, de la grande similitude voire, sur plus d’un

point, de l’identité des arguments présentés par les Etats défendeurs et,
d’autre part, du fait que le temps a manqué pour traiter ces affaires
comme il aurait fallu, mon opinion a été rédigée de manière à s’appliquer,

mutatis mutandis, aux huit affaires à la fois.

* * *

I. L OCUS STANDI DE LA SERBIE -ET-M ONTÉNÉGRO

1. Le rapport entre locus standi et compétence ratione personae
1
1. Dans son acception originelle , l’expression latine «locus standi in
judicio» désigne le droit d’une personne d’ester en justice ou d’agir dans
une instance (Jowitt’s Dictionary of English Law ,2 éd., vol. 2, p. 1115),

ou, pour ce qui est de la Cour internationale de Justice, le droit d’une
personne, au sens large de ce terme, d’ester devant ladite Cour ou de
comparaître dans une instance dont la Cour est saisie.

La Cour internationale de Justice n’étant pas une cour totalement
ouverte, le droit d’ester devant elle est limité à deux égards. Tout d’abord,
ce droit est réservé aux seuls Etats (paragraphe 1 de l’article 34 du Sta-

tut), ce qui signifie qu’aucune autre personne morale ou physique ne peut
en bénéficier. Ensuite, ce droit n’est reconnu qu’aux seuls Etats parties au
Statut de la Cour (les Etats Membres de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies le sont de plein droit), et à ceux qui remplissent les conditions pré-

vues au paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut. Les Etats non parties au
Statut peuvent être admis à ester s’ils acceptent la compétence générale de
la Cour, conformément aux dispositions de la résolution 9 (1946) du

Conseil de sécurité.
Sur le fond, le droit d’ester devant la Cour est un privilège personnel
(privilegia favorabile) de l’Etat qui, en acceptant le Statut de la Cour, la

reconnaît en tant qu’organe judiciaire doté de la faculté de «dire le droit»
(jus dicere). Le droit d’ester est la contrepartie de l’obligation (ou privi-
legia odiosa) faite aux Etats de satisfaire aux conditions prescrites.

1
Même dans la jurisprudence de la Cour, cette expression a parfois un caractère
descriptif. Il en est ainsi, par exemple, dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power, Limited, où la Cour l’a employée non pas pour désigner le droit de la Belgique à
ester devant elle mais pour qualifier un intérêt juridique, en l’espèce celui «d’un gou-
vernement pour protéger les intérêts d’actionnaires en tant que tels» (exceptions prélimi-
naires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1964 , p. 45). Cela étant, dans les affaires du Sud-Ouest afri-
cain, la Cour a, au contraire, établi une nette distinction entre «l’aptitude ... à se présenter
devant la Cour», à savoir le locus standi, et «la qualité des demandeurs en la phase ... de
la procédure» (Sud-Ouest africain, deuxième phase, C.I.J. Recueil 1966 , p. 18, par. 4).

921396 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECA )
u

Locus standi before the Court cannot, however, be taken as synony-
mous to the jurisdiction of the Court. It is, by its nature, a preliminary
condition or presumption for the jurisdiction of the Court or its compe-

tence. In this sense it is appropriate to speak about general jurisdiction
and special jurisdiction or competence of the Court. By possessing locus
standi a State automatically recognizes general jurisdiction of the Court.

In order to be able to speak about special jurisdiction or competence in
casu, however, it is necessary that, besides the right to appear before the

Court, there should exist a specific basis of jurisdiction. And it is on these
grounds that States submit a concrete dispute or type of disputes to the
Court for solution.
In other words, having in mind the fact that the Court is not only a

court of law whose jurisdiction is of an optional nature, but, at the same
time, a partly open court, it can be said that double consent of States is
necessary in order for the Court to establish its competence in casu:

(i) consent that the Court is “an organ instituted for the purpose of jus
dicere” (dissenting opinion by Dr. Daxner, Corfu Channel, I.C.J.
Reports 1948, p. 39). This consent is expressed indirectly, by joining
the membership of the United Nations, or directly, by a non-

Member of the United Nations either by adhering to the Statute of
the Court or by accepting the general jurisdiction of the Court in
conformity with Security Council resolution 9 (1946) as a prelimi-

nary condition, and
(ii) consent that the Court is competent to deal with the particular
dispute or type of disputes, which is made through relevant juris-
dictional bases within Article 36 of the Statute as a substantive
2
but qualified condition .

2. The notions locus standi in judicio and jurisdiction ratione personae
cannot, despite certain extrinsic similarities, be taken as synonymous.

The element shared in common by these two notions is that they rep-
resent processual conditions on whose existence is dependent the validity

2 As stated by the Court “under the system of the Statute the seising of the Court by
means of an Application is not ipso facto open to all States parties to the Statute, it is only
open to the extent defined in the applicable Declarations” (Nottebohm, Preliminary

Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953 , p. 122). It should be noted also that the Court
in the Legality of the Use of Force case found
“[w]hereas the Court, under its Statute, does not automatically have jurisdiction over
legal disputes between States parties to that Statute or between other States to whom
access to the Court has been granted . . . whereas the Court can therefore exercise
jurisdiction only between States parties to a dispute who not only have access to the
Court but also have accepted the jurisdiction of the Court , either in general form
or for the individual dispute concerned” (Provisional Measures, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (II), p. 833, para. 19; emphasis added).

93 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECA ) 1396
u

Cela étant, avoir qualité pour ester devant la Cour (locus standi) ne
signifie pas que la compétence de la Cour soit établie. Il s’agit, de par sa
nature, d’une condition préliminaire ou d’une présomption de compé-

tence de la Cour. Aussi convient-il de dire que la Cour a, d’une part, une
compétence générale et, d’autre part, une compétence spéciale. Dès lors
qu’il a qualité pour ester devant elle, un Etat reconnaît automatiquement

la compétence générale de la Cour.
Par ailleurs, pour qu’il soit possible de parler de compétence spéciale
ou de compétence in casu, il faut qu’existe, outre la qualité pour ester

devant la Cour, une base de compétence particulière. C’est sur ces fon-
dements que les Etats soumettent à la Cour, pour règlement, un différend
ou une catégorie de différends.
En d’autres termes, la Cour étant non pas uniquement une cour de jus-

tice dont la compétence est par nature facultative, mais en même temps
une juridiction qui n’est que partiellement ouverte, il faut de la part des
Etats un double consentement pour qu’elle puisse établir sa compétence

in casu. Les Etats doivent:

i) consentir à reconnaître la Cour en tant «qu’organe institué pour
«dire le droit»» (Détroit de Corfou, C.I.J. Recueil 1948 ,p .,
opinion dissidente de M. Daxner). Ce consentement s’exprime indi-
rectement par le fait de devenir Membre de l’Organisation des Nations

Unies, ou directement, s’il s’agit d’un Etat non Membre, par le fait
que ce dernier adhère au Statut de la Cour ou accepte, à titre de
condition préliminaire, sa compétence générale conformément aux

dispositions de la résolution 9 (1946) du Conseil de sécurité; et
ii) consentir à reconnaître que la Cour a compétence pour connaître du
différend ou de la catégorie de différends en cause. Ce consentement
s’exprime sur les bases juridictionnelles pertinentes énoncées à l’ar-
2
ticle 36 du Statut et c’est une condition de fond, mais relative .

2. Les notions de locus standi et de «compétence ratione personae »ne
peuvent pas, en dépit de certaines ressemblances extrinsèques, être consi-
dérées comme synonymes.

Leur dénominateur commun est d’être des conditions processuelles
dont dépend la validité de l’instance introduite devant la Cour, en ce qui

2 Comme l’a indiqué la Cour, «la saisine de la Cour par voie de requête, dans le système
du Statut, n’est pas ouverte de plein droit à tout Etat partie au Statut, elle n’est ouverte
que dans la mesure définie par les déclarations applicables» (Nottebohm, exceptions pré-

liminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1953 , p. 122). Il convient également de noter que, dans
l’affaire relative à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force , la Cour a dit que:
«[c]onsidérant qu’en vertu de son Statut la Cour n’a pas automatiquement compé-
tence pour connaître des différends juridiques entre les Etats parties audit Statut ou
entre les autres Etats qui ont été admis à ester devant elle ... que la Cour ne peut donc
exercer sa compétence à l’égard d’Etats parties à un différend que si ces derniers ont
non seulement accès à la Cour, mais ont en outre accepté sa compétence , soit d’une
manière générale, soit pour le différend particulier dont il s’agit» (mesures conserva-
toires, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 833, par. 19; les italiques sont de moi).

931397 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

of the actual proceedings before the Court; both with respect to inci-

dental proceedings and the merits, and with respect to the bringing of
the dispute to the Court’s decisions in the proceedings. And there the
common ground between the two notions essentially ends and room
for differences emerges.
The difference between the two is, first of all, of a conceptual nature.

Locus standi is a condition which has to do with parties, whereas jurisdic-
tion ratione personae — as an element of the jurisdiction of the Court —
is a condition which has to do with the Court itself. Also, the question of
locus standi as of antecedent nature is a pre-preliminary question which
“should be taken in advance of any question of competence” (Northern

Cameroons, I.C.J. Reports 1963 , p. 105, separate opinion of Sir Gerald
Fitzmaurice; emphasis in the original), whereas jurisdiction ratione per-
sonae is a question of competence, or special jurisdiction of the Court
stricto sensu. Furthermore, a lack of locus standi cannot, as a rule, be

overcome in the proceedings while a lack of jurisdiction ratione personae
is surmountable since the parties may confer jurisdiction upon the Court
in the course of the proceedings or perfect it (for instance, by expressing
agreement or by forum prorogatum). The difference derives from the fact
that jurisdiction is governed by the law in force between the parties, while

locus standi is governed by objective rules of the Statute having a consti-
tutional nature.

The seemingly identical nature of these two notions is, apparently,
mostly due to a tacit equalization of the processual contact between the

Court and the parties to the dispute — and of the litigious relationship.
As there are no separate, preliminary proceedings for establishing the
existence of processual conditions for the validity of the proceedings
(except the administrative action of the Registry in the case of applica-
tions submitted by non-State subjects), the existence of processual con-

ditions is established during the actual proceedings whose validity depends
on the existence of these conditions. This takes place more often than not
during the proceedings on preliminary objections which is why the rare
cases of locus standi are subsumed under jurisdiction ratione personae.

2. Issue of United Nations Membership and locus standi of Serbia and
Montenegro

3. The locus standi of Serbia and Montenegro in the present proceed-

ings before the Court is closely, and, I would say, organically, linked with
its membership in the United Nations, due to the fact that Serbia and
Montenegro could not be considered as being party to the Statute apart
from being a Member State of the United Nations as well as the fact that
its locus standi cannot be based on conditions set forth in Article 35, para-

graph 2, of the Statute of the Court.
4. In normal circumstances, the legal consequences of admission of a

94 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1397

concerne tant la procédure incidente que le fond, et aussi le fait que le
différend est tranché par la Cour. La similitude s’arrête là car, pour le
reste, les deux notions divergent.

Leur différence est tout d’abord conceptuelle. En effet, le locus standi
est une condition qui intéresse les parties, tandis que la «compétence
ratione personae » — en tant qu’élément de la compétence de la Cour —
intéresse la Cour elle-même. De plus, la question du locus standi ayant un

caractère préalable, c’est une question pré-préliminaire et elle «doi[t] être
examinée préalablement à toute question de compétence» (Cameroun
septentrional, C.I.J. Recueil 1963 , p. 105, opinion individuelle de sir
Gerald Fitzmaurice; les italiques sont dans l’original); la question de la
compétence ratione personae, quant à elle, est une question de compé-

tence ou de compétence spéciale de la Cour stricto sensu. Enfin, il ne
peut, en principe, être remédié à l’absence de qualité pour ester en cours
d’instance, alors que le défaut de compétence ratione personae peut être
surmonté, les parties ayant la possibilité de conférer compétence à la

Cour ou de parfaire ladite compétence lors de l’instance (par exemple, en
exprimant leur accord ou par la voie du forum prorogatum). Cette diffé-
rence tient au fait que la compétence est soumise au droit en vigueur
entre les parties, alors que la qualité pour ester est régie par des disposi-
tions objectives du Statut ayant un caractère institutionnel.

L’identité apparente de ces deux notions semble donc tenir pour l’essen-
tiel à une assimilation tacite entre le contact processuel qui lie la Cour et
les parties à un différend, d’une part, et le rapport litigieux, d’autre part.
Dès lors qu’il n’existe pas de procédure préliminaire distincte permettant
d’établir l’existence de conditions processuelles à la validité de la procé-

dure (mise à part l’intervention administrative du Greffe lorsqu’une
requête est introduite par un sujet autre qu’un Etat), l’existence desdites
conditions processuelles est établie au cours même de la procédure dont
la validité dépend précisément de leur existence. Cela se passe le plus sou-

vent lors de la procédure d’examen d’exceptions préliminaires, ce qui
explique que les rares affaires de locus standi soient assimilées à des af-
faires de compétence ratione personae.

2. La qualité de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies de la
Serbie-et-Monténégro et son locus standi

3. La question du locus standi de la Serbie-et-Monténégro est, en la
présente affaire, très étroitement et même intrinsèquement liée à sa qua-

lité de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, car la Serbie-et-
Monténégro ne saurait être considérée comme étant partie au Statut de la
Cour sauf à être Membre de l’Organisation, et, en outre, parce que les
dispositions du paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut de la Cour ne sau-
raient lui conférer ce locus standi.

4. Normalement, les conséquences juridiques de l’admission d’un Etat

941398 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

State to membership in the United Nations are clear and do not require

special elaboration. At the moment of its admission to membership a
State becomes a bearer of the rights and obligations stipulated in the
United Nations Charter, among which of particular relevance in the
matter at hand is the status of a party to the Statute of the Court. How-
ever, the circumstances surrounding the case at hand could hardly be

termed normal. More precisely, the Applicant, Serbia and Montenegro,
was admitted to membership in the Organization on the basis of the
proper procedure. But this was done without its status in the Organization
being previously established in explicit terms either by the political
organs of the United Nations or by the Court.

5. United Nations General Assembly resolution 47/1 is unclear in sub-
stance and contradictory per se. Assessing its substance in the case con-
cerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Mon-

tenegro) (hereinafter referred to as “Genocide Convention”), the Court
found that “the solution adopted is not free from legal difficulties” (Pro-
visional Measures, Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993,p .,
para. 18). The situation was additionally complicated by the subsequent
practice of the United Nations organs “characterized by pragmatism and

flexibility rather than a strict adherence to the procedures” prescribed by
the Charter (Contributor (Christian Tams) on Article 6 (margin note 25)
in B. Simma (ed.), The Charter of the United Nations, A Commentary ,
2nd ed., Vol. I, 2002, pp. 213-214). In 1993 Professor Rosalyn Higgins
wrote that “[t]he outcome has been anomalous in the extreme” (R. Hig-

gins, “The New United Nations and Former Yugoslavia”, International
Affairs, Vol. 69, No. 3 (July 1993), p. 479). It can, therefore, be con-
cluded that, until the admission of Serbia and Montenegro to member-
ship in the Organization on 1 November 2000, the political organs of the
United Nations had not determined the status of Serbia and Montenegro

in the United Nations in a clear and unequivocal manner.

6. From 1993 onwards the Court was faced with the question of
Serbia and Montenegro’s membership in the United Nations a number of
times. The relevant findings of the Court relating to this particular ques-

tion can, generally, be divided into: primo, findings of the Court which,
by their formal, extrinsic characteristics, could be qualified as “avoiding
positions” and, secundo, the obiter dicta of the Court which contain cer-
tain elements or indications of a substantive approach to the matter at
hand.

(a) Findings of the Court based on “avoiding position”

7. In its Order of 2 June 1999 the Court stated that it “need not con-
sider this question for the purpose of deciding whether or not it can indi-

cate provisional measures in the present case” (I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) ,
p. 836, para. 28). What we have here is a slightly modified formulation

95 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1398

à l’Organisation des Nations Unies en tant que Membre sont claires et
n’appellent aucune précision particulière. L’admission confère à cet Etat

les droits et obligations stipulés dans la Charte des Nations Unies, parmi
lesquels la qualité de partie au Statut de la Cour revêt un intérêt particu-
lier aux fins qui nous occupent. Cela étant, les circonstances de l’espèce
peuvent difficilement être qualifiées de «normales». En effet, si le défen-

deur, la Serbie-et-Monténégro, a été admis en tant que Membre de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies dans le respect de la procédure prévue
à cet effet, son admission a eu lieu sans que son statut vis-à-vis de l’Orga-
nisation ait été au préalable établi de façon explicite, ni par les organes
politiques de l’Organisation ni par la Cour.

5. La résolution 47/1 de l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies n’est
pas claire quant au fond et est même contradictoire en soi. L’ayant exa-
minée au fond dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour
la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine

c. Serbie et Monténégro) (ci-après dénommée «Convention sur le géno-
cide»), la Cour a estimé que «la solution adoptée ne laiss[ait] pas de sus-
citer des difficultés juridiques» (mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du
8 avril 1993, C.I.J. Recueil 1993 , p. 14, par. 18). Par la suite, la pratique

des organes des Nations Unies, «caractérisée par le pragmatisme et la
souplesse plutôt que par un strict respect des procédures» prescrites par
la Charte (contribution de Christian Tams au sujet de l’article 6, par. 25,
in B. Simma, dir. publ., The Charter of the United Nations, A Commen-
e
tary,2 éd., vol. I, 2002mep. 213-214), n’a, en outre, fait que compliquer la
situation. En 1993, M le professeur Rosalyn Higgins écrivait que «[l]e
résultat a[vait] été anormal à l’extrême» (R. Higgins, «The New United
Nations and Former Yugoslavia», International Affairs, vol. 69, n 3, o

juillet 1993, p. 479). Il est dès lors permis de conclure que, jusqu’à son
admission en tant que Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies le
1er novembre 2000, les organes politiques des Nations Unies n’avaient
pas défini le statut de la Serbie-et-Monténégro au sein de l’Organisation

de façon claire et dépourvue d’équivoque.
6. Depuis 1993, la Cour a été confrontée à plusieurs reprises à la ques-
tion de la qualité de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies de la
Serbie-et-Monténégro. Ses conclusions en la matière peuvent en gros être

classées en deux catégories: d’une part, celles qui, sur un plan formel,
extrinsèque, pourraient être qualifiées de «conclusions consistant à éluder
le problème» et, d’autre part, des obiter dicta qui apportent des éléments
de réponse sur le fond.

a) Conclusions de la Cour consistant à éluder le problème

7. Dans son ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, la Cour a dit qu’elle «n’a[vait]

pas à examiner cette question à l’effet de décider si elle p[ouvait] ou non
indiquer des mesures conservatoires dans le cas d’espèce» (C.I.J. Recueil
1999 (II), p. 836, par. 28). Il s’agit là d’une légère variante du texte par

951399 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

expressing “avoiding position” of the Court with regard to the question

of “whether or not Yugoslavia is a Member of the United Nations, and as
such a party to the Statute of the Court” (Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), Provisional Meas-
ures, Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 14, para. 18) which

the Court used several times in the disputes to which Serbia and Mon-
tenegro is a party in the proceedings before the Court. The correctly inter-
preted formulation, regardless of modification in the specific cases, sug-
gests the conclusion that the Court reserved the right to state its definitive
position on the relevant question in the later phases of the proceedings.

It is easy to conclude that such a finding of the Court represents a
delay of the answer to the question “whether or not Yugoslavia is a
Member of the United Nations, and as such a party to the Statute of the
Court” (ibid.). However, the question appears which are, in the circum-

stances of the case, the intrinsic meanings of the delay.
8. On the basis of the Application of the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia (hereinafter referred to as the “FRY”) filed in the Registry of the
Court on 29 April 1999, the Court was seised and on the basis of a
request for the indication of provisional measures the Court instituted

the proper proceedings. Was the Court, in the light of the relevant pro-
visions of the Statute, in a position to be seised? Furthermore, was it in a
position to institute proceedings for the indication of provisional meas-
ures, if the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia had not been a Member of
the United Nations in the relevant period? Nor indeed had the FRY

accepted the general jurisdiction of the Court in conformity with Security
Council resolution 9 (1946) pursuant to Article 35, paragraph 2, of the
Statute of the Court.

The answer to this question is obviously in the negative, having in

mind that, in the optic of a court of law with limited access, it is essential
to fulfil the relevant preliminary condition — to acquire locus standi —as
a prerequisite for taking litigious actions before the Court.

9. The Court was thus faced with a choice among possible solutions in

view of the fact that there existed at least a doubt regarding the legal posi-
tion of Yugoslavia diagnosed already in 1993 (Application of the Conven-
tion on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia
and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), Provisional
Measures, Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 14, para. 18):

(i) to ask for an authentic interpretation of resolution 47/1 from the
General Assembly as the competent organ of the United Nations;

(ii) to make its own interim determination of the matter either by

directing, on the basis of paragraph 2 of Article 38 of the Rules
of Court, that the first pleading should be addressed to the

96 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND .KRECu ) 1399

lequel la Cour élude le problème «de savoir si la Yougoslavie est ou non
Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et, à ce titre, partie au Sta-
tut de la Cour» (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la
répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie

(Serbie et Monténégro)), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 8 avril
1993, C.I.J. Recueil 1993 , p. 14, par. 18). La Cour utilise la formule à
plusieurs reprises dans les affaires en lesquelles la Serbie-et-Monténégro
est partie devant elle. Correctement interprétée, indépendamment des
nuances propres à chaque cas d’espèce, la formule donne à penser que la

Cour se réservait le droit de prendre définitivement position lors d’une
phase ultérieure de l’instance.
La conclusion qui semble s’imposer est que, en statuant ainsi, la Cour
diffère sa réponse à la question «de savoir si la Yougoslavie est ou non
Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et, à ce titre, partie au Sta-

tut de la Cour» (ibid.). Dans les circonstances de l’espèce, on peut cepen-
dant s’interroger sur le sens intrinsèque de ce report de décision.
8. La Cour a été saisie par requête introductive d’instance déposée au
Greffe le 29 avril 1999 par la République fédérale de Yougoslavie (ci-

après dénommée la «RFY»). Egalement saisie d’une demande en indica-
tion de mesures conservatoires, elle a mis en Œuvre la procédure prévue à
cet effet. Etait-elle, au regard des dispositions pertinentes de son Statut, à
même d’être saisie? Pouvait-elle, par ailleurs, engager une procédure en
indication de mesures conservatoires si la République fédérale de You-

goslavie n’avait pas été Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
pendant la période considérée, et que d’ailleurs la RFY n’avait, en tout
état de cause, pas accepté la compétence générale de la Cour aux condi-
tions prévues par la résolution 9 (1946) du Conseil de sécurité, confor-
mément aux dispositions du paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut de la

Cour?
La réponse à ces questions est manifestement négative. En effet, dès
lors qu’il s’agit d’une cour de justice dont l’accès est restreint, il est indis-
pensable que les Etats satisfassent à la condition préliminaire pertinente

— celle d’acquérir qualité pour agir — pour pouvoir saisir la Cour d’un
différend.
9. La Cour avait donc le choix entre plusieurs solutions puisque la
situation juridique de la Yougoslavie était en tout cas incertaine et que
cette incertitude était patente depuis 1993 (Application de la convention

pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzé-
govine c. Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro)), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 8 avril 1993, p. 14, par. 18):

i) la Cour pouvait demander à l’Assemblée générale, en sa qualité
d’organe compétent de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, une inter-
prétation authentique de la résolution 47/1;
ii) elle pouvait formuler provisoirement sa propre réponse en deman-
dant, sur le fondement du paragraphe 2 de l’article 38 du Règlement

de la Cour, que la première pièce de procédure soit consacrée à cette

961400 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP .OP . KRECu )

3
matter or by instituting pre-judicatory proceedings on the basis
of Article 48 of the Statute; and

(iii) to resort to the judicial presumption of the right of Yugoslavia to
appear before the Court.

And the Court made the choice to rely on the presumption that Yugosla-
via was a Member of the United Nations and as such entitled to appear

before the Court (see dissenting opinion of Judge Vereshchetin appended
to the Judgment of 3 February 2003 in the case concerning Application
for Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning

Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary

Objections (Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2003, p. 41, para. 4 (hereinafter referred to as the “Application
for Revision”); separate opinion of Judge Koroma, ibid., p. 36, para. 9).

(b) Judicial presumptions
4
10. Judicial presumption, along with legal presumption , is one of the

3 In the Order of 30 June 1999 the Court noted Belgium requested
“that the question of the jurisdiction of the Court and of the admissibility of the
Application in this case should be separately determined before any proceedings on

the merits” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Order of 30 June
1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , p. 989).
For,

“the fact that the various provisions regulating the incidental jurisdiction are included
in the Statute . . . serves to supply a general consensual basis, through a State’s being
a party to the Charter and Statute, which are always part of the title of jurisdiction
and always confer rights and impose obligations on its parties in relation to the Court
and it’s activities. But if it is obvious that the Court lacks all jurisdiction to deal with
the case on the merits, then it automatically follows that it will lack all incidental
jurisdiction whatsoever .” (Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the Interna-

tional Court 1920-1996, Vol. II, 1997, pp. 598-599; emphasis added.)
4 Better known than judicial presumptions, legal presumptions (praesumptio juris) are
widely applied in international law. International tribunals are used to resort to proof by
inferences of fact (présomption de fait) or circumstantial evidence (Corfu Channel, Mer-
its, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949 , p. 18). For legal presumption in the practice of the

Inter-American Court of Human Rights, see T. Buergenthal, R. Norris and D. Shelton,
Protecting Human Rights in the Americas, Selected Problems , 2nd ed., 1986, pp. 130-132
and pp. 139-144. The practice of international courts abounds in presumptions based on
general principles of international law, whether positive as presumption of good faith
(exempli causa, Mavrommatis Jerusalem Concessions, Judgment No. 5, 1925, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 5, p. 43) or negative as presumption of abuse of right (Certain German
Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Merits, Judgment No. 7, 1926, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7 ,
p. 30; Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex, Second Phase, 1930, P.C.I.J.,

Series A, No. 24,p.12;Corfu Channel, Merits, Judgment, 1949, I.C.J. Reports 1949 ,
p. 119, dissenting opinion of Judge Ecer). The special weight they possess in the interpre-
tation of treaties since the function of interpretation of treaties is to discover “what was,
or what may reasonably be presumed to have been , the intention of the parties to a treaty
when they concluded it” (Harvard Law School, Research in International Law, Part III,
Law of Treaties, Art. 19, p. 940; emphasis added).

97 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECAu ) 1400

question , ou en mettant en Œuvre une procédure préjudiciaire sur la
base des dispositions de l’article 48 du Statut;

iii) elle pouvait aussi poser à titre de présomption judiciaire que la You-
goslavie avait le droit d’ester devant la Cour.

La Cour a choisi de présumer que la Yougoslavie était Membre de

l’Organisation des Nations Unies et avait, à ce titre, qualité pour ester
devant elle (voir l’opinion dissidente de M. le juge Vereshchetin jointe à

l’arrêt rendu le 3 février 2003 en l’affaire de la Demande en revision de
l’arrêt du 11 juillet 1996 en l’affaire relative à l’ Application de la conven-

tion pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-
Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires (Yougoslavie

c. Bosnie-Herzégovine), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003 , p. 41, par. 4 (affaire
ci-après dénommée «Demande en revision»); voir aussi l’opinion indivi-

duelle de M. le juge Koroma, ibid., p. 36, par. 9).

b) La présomption judiciaire

10. La présomption judiciaire , comme la présomption légale, consti-

3
Dans son ordonnance du 30 juin 1999, la Cour a noté que la Belgique avait demandé
«qu’il soit statué séparément, avant toute procédure sur le fond, sur les questions de
la compétence de la Cour et de la recevabilité de la requête en l’espèce» (Licéité de
l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Belgique), C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 989).

«Le fait que les diverses dispositions régissant la compétence incidente figurent
dans le Statut ... offre une base consensuelle générale, les Etats étant parties à la
Charte et au Statut, lesquels sont toujours partie intégrante du titre de compétence et
confèrent toujours des droits et obligations aux parties envers la Cour et ses activités.

Néanmoins, s’il apparaît évident que la Cour n’a absolument aucune compétence pour
connaître d’une affaire au fond, il s’ensuit mécaniquement qu’elle n’aura pas non plus
de compétence incidente .» (Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the Interna-
tional Court, 1920-1996 , vol. II, 1997, p. 598-599; les italiques sont de moi.)
4
Mieux connues que les présomptions judiciaires, les présomptions légales (praesump-
tio juris) sont très fréquentes en droit international. Les juridictions internationales
recourent habituellement à la présomption de fait ou aux preuves circonstancielles (Détroit
de Corfou, fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949 , p. 18). En ce qui concerne la présomption
légale dans la pratique de la Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme, il convient de se

reporter à l’ouvrage de T. Buergenthae, R. Norris et D. Shelton, Protecting Human Rights
in the Americas, Selected Problems ,2 éd., 1986, p. 130-132 et p. 139-144. Les exemples de
présomptions fondées sur les principes généraux du droit international sont extrêmement
nombreux dans la pratique des cours internationales, que la présomption soit utilisée de
manière positive comme présomption de bonne foi (voir, par exemple, Concessions Ma-
vrommatis à Jérusalem, arrêt n o5, 1925, C.P.J.I. série A n 5, p. 43) ou de manière néga-

tive, comme présomptionod’abus de droit (Certains ontérêts allemands en Haute-Silésie
polonaise, fond, arrêt n7, 1926, C.P.J.I. série A n 7,p.30; Zones franches de la Haute-
Savoie et du Pays de Gex (deuxième phase), 1930, C.P.J.I. série A n o24,p.12; Détroit
de Corfou, fond, arrêt, 1949, C.I.J. Recueil 1949 , p. 119, opinion dissidente de M. le juge
Ecˇer). Ces présomptions revêtent une importance particulière dans le domaine de

l’interprétation des traités étant donné que la fonction même d’une telle interprétation est
de déterminer «l’intention, ou ce que l’on peut raisonnablement présumer avoir été l’inten-
tion, des parties à un traité lors de sa conclusion» (Harvard Law School, Research in
International Law, Part III, Law of Treaties , art. 19, p. 940; les italiques sont de moi).

971401 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECu )

main sorts of presumption in international law. It means that a certain

fact or state of affairs, even though it has not been proved, is taken by an
international tribunal as truthful. As such it does not necessarily coincide
with, or is not equivalent to, the fact or the state of affairs.

As far as the reasoning of the existence of judicial presumption is con-

cerned, considerations of a practical nature are prevalent.
Judicial presumption is a weapon to avoid waiting to get to know pre-
cisely the facts and situation on which is dependent the existence, content
or cessation of the right that would have adverse consequences for inter-
ested subjects or that would render difficult due course of legal proceed-

ings.
The law, however much it tends to establish the truth and to be truth-
ful, actually pays more attention to finding useful and suitable solutions
for the given situations rather than allowing, in an attempt to establish

truth as such, the rights and obligations that exist to fall through or to be
harmed.
11. As a sort of presumption, the judicial presumption bears some spe-
cific features differing it from legal presumption (praesumptio juris).

Two principal features of judicial presumption should be mentioned in
that regard.
Primo, judicial presumption is, as a rule, a natural, factual presump-
tion (praesumptio facti vel homine) having no basis in the particular
rules that constitute the law of the international tribunal or the law it is

applying. It is an inherent element of the legal reasoning of the interna-
tional tribunal in the interpretation and application of the rules of law.

Secundo, in contrast to legal presumption which can be irrefutable
(praesumptio juris et de jure) , the judicial presumption as a natural or

factual one is, by definition, of refutable nature. Their refutable nature is,
however, a specific one.
Bearing in mind that it is a part of the reasoning of the international
tribunal, it cannot be refutable in the sense in which that is the case of
legal presumption. Judicial presumption, as such, is in fact capable of

being abandoned or replaced by the international tribunal.
In its legal reasoning the international tribunal abandons it, or replaces
it, by other presumption. In the strict sense, only those findings or deci-
sions of the international tribunal that are based on judicial presump-
tions are refutable. However, they lose the ratio of their existence when

the international tribunal identifies the controversial matter which con-
stitutes the subject of judicial presumption. Then they drop by themselves
because they are deprived of their subject. But even then, it is the duty of
the international tribunal to refute, in the proper proceedings, its own
finding or decision based on a presumption.

12. So-called “prima facie jurisdiction” is, in fact, a good illustration

98 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1401

tue en droit international l’un des principaux types de présomption.
Elle consiste, pour une juridiction internationale, à considérer comme
avérés certains faits ou situations sans qu’ils aient été prouvés. Aussi ne
coïncide-t-elle pas nécessairement avec le fait ou la situation en ques-

tion, ou n’en est pas le strict équivalent.
Lorsque l’on motive l’existence d’une présomption judiciaire, ce sont
les considérations d’ordre pratique qui sont au premier plan.
Le recours à la présomption judiciaire permet de se dispenser d’at-
tendre que soient connus de façon détaillée les faits et la situation

dont dépendent l’existence, la teneur ou l’extinction du droit susceptible
de nuire aux intéressés ou d’entraver le bon déroulement de l’instance.

Même si elle tend au maximum à établir la vérité et à la dire, la justice
en réalité préfère toujours élaborer des solutions utiles et adaptées aux

cas d’espèce au lieu de laisser, en tentant d’établir la vérité en tant que
telle, se perdre totalement ou partiellement des droits et obligations qui
existent.
11. Dans son rôle de présomption, la présomption judiciaire présente

certains traits caractéristiques qui la distinguent de la présomption légale
(praesumptio juris).
Il convient à cet égard de citer deux de ces traits qui sont importants.

En premier lieu, la présomption judiciaire est normalement une pré-

somption naturelle, factuelle (praesumptio facti vel homine) qui ne pro-
cède pas des règles particulières constituant le droit propre aux juridic-
tions internationales ou le droit qu’elles appliquent. C’est un élément
inhérent à la motivation juridique de la juridiction internationale quand
celle-ci interprète et applique les règles de droit.

En second lieu, par opposition à la présomption légale qui peut être
irréfragable (praesumptio juris et de jure) , la présomption judiciaire est
par définition, du fait de son caractère naturel et factuel, réfragable. Ce
caractère réfragable présente toutefois une particularité.

Faisant partie intégrante de la motivation de la juridiction internatio-
nale, la présomption judiciaire ne sera en effet pas réfragable au sens où
peut l’être la présomption légale. Elle peut en effet être écartée ou rem-
placée par la juridiction.
Dans le cadre de sa motivation juridique, la juridiction internationale a

la faculté d’écarter la présomption judiciaire ou de la remplacer par une
présomption d’une autre nature. Au sens strict, seules les conclusions et
décisions que la juridiction internationale fonde sur une présomption
judiciaire sont réfragables. Toutefois, elles perdent leur raison d’être

lorsque la juridiction identifie la question litigieuse qui fait l’objet de la
présomption. Privées d’objet, elles disparaissent alors d’elles-mêmes.
Cela étant, même dans cette hypothèse, la juridiction est tenue de ré-
futer, conformément à la procédure prévue, la conclusion ou décision
qu’elle avait fondée sur une présomption.

12. La compétence dite «prima facie» illustre bien ce que sont les pré-

981402 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

of judicial presumptions. The expression “prima facie jurisdiction” is a

somewhat artificial combination of the modal-prima facie and of the
object-jurisdiction. The modal is, in the particular context, also the quali-
tative, having in mind that “prima facie” in the legal reasoning of the
Court implies “not conclusive”, “not definitively”. In its grammatical
meaning the expression “prima facie jurisdiction” suggests the existence

of a distinct jurisdiction, that is, as reflecting a division of the jurisdiction
of the Court. Understood in this sense, the division of jurisdiction has no
foundation in the Statute or Rules of Court, or in the legal logic, for that
matter. The expression “prima facie ascertainment of jurisdiction” seems
to be more appropriate. Basically, it means a prima facie case, a case

established by prima facie evidence. On that basis the Court assumed
jurisdiction reserving the subsequent procedure for further, including the
conclusive, decision.

13. In the substantive meaning, the so-called avoiding position of the
Court in the light of the relevant circumstances of the case is something
more than, and different from, simply delay. The avoiding position of the
Court could not be reduced to delay considering, first of all, the fact that
the question of the FRY’s status vis-à-vis the United Nations and the

Statute of the Court concerns its very ability to appear before the Court.
It is hard to imagine that the Court, as the guardian of its Statute, in
responding to this crucial question, could have been content with simply
delay. The avoiding position of the Court has two aspects: the intrinsic
or substantive one, reflected in the presumption regarding the FRY’s

membership in the United Nations, and the extrinsic, formal one which
boils down to a delay.
14. The presumption of membership of Yugoslavia in the United
Nations in the circumstances that existed prior to 1 November 2000 pro-
vided the only possible basis for seisin of the Court.

The right of a party to appear before the Court is the prerequisite of a
valid seisin. Seisin of the Court is not, nor can it be, an automatic con-
sequence of the act of a State taken with the objective of its seisure (such
an act would be more appropriate to term “seising”; see Sir Gerald Fitz-
maurice, The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice ,

Vol. II, 1986, p. 440, footnote 2). If, arguendo, one would accept the
opposite view, it is unclear why the Court would not be seised also in the
case of acts taken by other persons — physical or juridical — who, pur-
suant to the Statute, are not entitled to appear before the Court.

An effective seisin of the Court is the condition short of which the
Court can hardly exercise the powers conferred upon it by the Statute.
These powers the Court must exercise

“whenever it has been regularly seised and whenever it has not been
shown, on some other ground, that it lacks jurisdiction or that the

99 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1402

somptions judiciaires. Cette expression associe de façon assez artificielle
un aspect modal (prima facie) et un objet (compétence). Dans ce contexte
particulier, l’aspect modal est également qualitatif, puisque «prima facie»,
dans la motivation juridique de la Cour, veut dire implicitement que ce

n’est «pas concluant» ou «pas définitif». Au sens purement grammatical,
l’expression «compétence prima facie » donne à penser qu’il existe une
compétence distincte, en quelque sorte une subdivision de la compétence
de la Cour. Un tel morcellement de la compétence est pourtant dénué de
fondement, tant au regard du Statut et du Règlement de la Cour que,

d’ailleurs, de la logique juridique. Il faudrait plutôt dire que l’on «cons-
tate prima facie la compétence». C’est-à-dire qu’en principe il s’agit d’une
affaire prima facie, d’une affaire établie par des preuves prima facie. C’est
sur ce fondement que la Cour se présume compétente, en réservant la
suite de la procédure pour se prononcer plus avant, notamment pour for-

muler sa conclusion.
13. Sur le fond, le fait pour la Cour d’éluder le problème est, compte
tenu des circonstances pertinentes de l’espèce, plus qu’un simple report de
décision et est aussi autre chose. Que la Cour élude le problème ne saurait

se ramener à un simple report, tout d’abord parce que le statut de la RFY
vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et du Statut de la Cour inté-
resse la possibilité même de ce pays d’ester devant elle. Il est difficile
d’imaginer que la Cour, qui est gardienne de son Statut, se soit satisfaite
d’un «report» pour répondre à cette question cruciale. Le fait pour la

Cour d’éluder la question revêt deux aspects: le premier aspect, intrin-
sèque, de fond, se traduit par la présomption relative à la qualité de
Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies de la RFY; le second
aspect, extrinsèque, purement formel, se traduit par un simple report.
14. Présumer que la Yougoslavie était Membre de l’Organisation des
er
Nations Unies antérieurement au 1 novembre 2000 était le seul fonde-
ment possible de la saisine de la Cour.
Le droit pour une partie d’ester devant la Cour est le préalable indis-
pensable d’une saisine valide. La saisine n’est pas et ne saurait être une

conséquence automatique de l’acte par lequel un Etat veut saisir la Cour
(dans cette seconde hypothèse, il serait plus approprié de parler de l’«acte
de saisine»; voir sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, The Law and Procedure of the
International Court of Justice , vol. II, 1986, p. 440, note de bas de
page 2). Si, ne serait-ce qu’aux fins de l’argumentation, certains adop-

taient le point de vue opposé, on ne voit pas pourquoi la Cour ne pour-
rait pas également être saisie par des actes émanant d’autres personnes
— physiques ou morales — auxquelles le Statut refuse le droit d’ester
devant elle.

La saisine effective est donc la condition indispensable qui doit être
remplie pour que la Cour puisse exercer les pouvoirs que son Statut lui
confère. La Cour se doit de les exercer

«lorsqu’elle a été régulièrement saisie et qu’il ne lui a pas été démon-

tré, sur une autre base, qu’elle est incompétente ou que la demande

991403 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

claim is inadmissible” (Nottebohm, Preliminary Objection, Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1953 , p. 122; emphasis added).
The Court, in fact, would not be able to deal with the claim if it were

not regularly seised. As the Court stated:
“When an Application is filed at a time when the law in force

between the parties entails the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court
. . . the filing of the Application is merely the condition required to
enable the clause of compulsory jurisdiction to produce its effects in
respect of the claim advanced in the Application. Once this condition
has been satisfied, the Court must deal with the claim ; it has jurisdic-

tion to deal with all its aspects, whether they relate to jurisdiction, to
admissibility or to the merits.” (Nottebohm, Preliminary Objection,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953 , p. 123; emphasis added.)

15. Judicial presumptions, being refutable per definitionem, are subject
to verification. In principle, such presumptions as to locus standi of the
parties are verified by the Court ex officio or upon objection of the party.

In this (these) particular case(s) it should be pointed out that the pre-

liminary objections of all the respondent States regarding the jurisdiction
of the Court ratione personae are of a specific nature. Although mainly
named as objections to the jurisdiction ratione personae, they in fact chal-
lenged the validity of the seisin of the Court. Moreover, four of the
respondent States (namely, Portugal, Germany, the Netherlands and

Italy) requested, in similar terms, the Court in their final submissions to
adjudge and declare that Yugoslavia “has no locus standi before the
Court” or that “the FRY is not entitled to appear before the Court”. In
other words, they called in question the very existence of the “case”
before the Court.

(c) Effective and valid seisin

16. It appears that a distinction has to be made between an “effective
seisin” and a “valid seisin” of the Court.
Effective seisin of the Court is, as a rule, based on prima facie appre-

ciation of the right of the party or parties to appear before the Court.
The prima facie appreciation of the right of the party or parties to
appear before the Court, in contrast to the appreciation of the basis of
jurisdiction, seems to be relaxed due primarily to the fact that today
almost all States are Members of the United Nations. Accordingly, it

appears that in the practice of the Court it is assumed that the fulfilment
of the conditions specified in Article 38, paragraphs 1, 2 and 3, and
Article 39, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the Rules of Court enables effective
seisin of the Court.
The effective seisin is, in the absence of separate proceedings designed

to deal with conditions for the validity of the proceedings, including the
question of locus standi, before the very institution of a proceeding, a

100 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE OP .IND .KRECu ) 1403

est irrecevable» (Nottebohm, exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1953, p. 122; les italiques sont de moi).

En réalité, la Cour ne serait pas à même d’examiner une demande si
elle n’est pas régulièrement saisie. Comme elle l’a noté:

«Lorsque la requête est déposée à un moment où le droit en
vigueur comporte la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour ... le dépôt de
la requête n’est que la condition pour que la clause de juridiction
obligatoire produise effet à l’égard de la demande qui fait l’objet de
la requête. Cette condition remplie, la Cour doit connaître de la

demande; elle a compétence pour en examiner tous les aspects, qu’ils
touchent à la compétence, à la recevabilité ou au fond.» (Ibid.,
p. 123; les italiques sont de moi.)

15. Etant par définition réfragables, les présomptions judiciaires
peuvent faire l’objet de vérifications. En principe, lorsqu’elles portent
sur le locus standi des parties, la Cour les vérifie d’office ou à la demande

d’une partie.
Il convient de souligner que, en la (les) présente(s) affaire(s), les excep-
tions préliminaires formulées par l’ensemble des Etats défendeurs quant à
la compétence de la Cour ratione personae revêtent un caractère particu-

lier. Bien qu’étant présentées comme des exceptions à la compétence
ratione personae de la Cour, elles visent en réalité à contester la validité
de sa saisine. En outre, dans leurs conclusions finales, quatre Etats défen-
deurs (à savoir le Portugal, l’Allemagne, les Pays-Bas et l’Italie) ont prié
la Cour, en des termes similaires, de dire et juger que la «la RFY n’a[vait]

pas qualité pour agir devant [elle]». En d’autres termes, ils mettaient en
doute l’existence même de l’«affaire» devant la Cour.

c) Saisine effective et saisine valide

16. Il faut, semble-t-il, opérer une distinction entre la «saisine effec-
tive» de la Cour et une «saisine valide».
En principe, la première est fondée sur une appréciation prima facie du
droit d’une partie ou des parties d’ester devant la Cour.
L’appréciation prima facie de ce droit semble être moins rigoureuse

que l’appréciation de la base de compétence, du fait surtout que la quasi-
totalité des Etats sont aujourd’hui Membres de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies. On constate donc, dans la pratique de la Cour, que l’observation
des conditions prévues aux paragraphes 1, 2 et 3 de l’article 38 et aux

paragraphes 1 et 2 de l’article 39 du Règlement de la Cour autorise sa
saisine effective.

En l’absence de procédure distincte permettant de vérifier, avant qu’une
instance soit véritablement engagée, que celle-ci répond aux conditions de

validité prescrites, y compris pour ce qui a trait au locus standi, la saisine

1001404 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

necessary procedural step enabling the Court to deal, inter alia, with the

validity of its seisin.
In contrast, valid seisin in regard to the question of locus standi means
that it is conclusively established by the Court that parties to a dispute
have fulfilled the necessary precondition to be entitled to appear before
the Court, i.e., that they have recognized in the proper way — by being a

party to the Statute of the Court or by the declaration pursuant to resolu-
tion 9 (1946) of the Security Council — the general jurisdiction of the
Court. It is that relevant point in time in which parties to a dispute
become parties to the dispute before the Court.

In that regard, the relationship between effective seisin and valid seisin
could be compared with the relationship between the so-called prima
facie jurisdiction and jurisdiction considered as conclusively established.
Accordingly, if the expression “effective seisin” or “regular seisin” is

used to denote validity of the seisin of the Court, it should be understood
as relating to the formal aspect of its validity only, not to the substantive
one.

(d) Obiter dictum containing elements or indications of substantive
approach

17. In the Application for Revision case the Court, considering Gen-
eral Assembly resolution 55/12 of 1 November 2000, points out, inter
alia, that it

“cannot have changed retroactively the sui generis position which
the FRY found itself in vis-à-vis the United Nations over the period

1992 to 2000, or its position in relation to the Statute of the Court
and the Genocide Convention. Furthermore, the letter of the Legal
Counsel of the United Nations dated 8 December 2000 cannot have
affected the FRY’s position in relation to treaties.” (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2003, p. 31, para. 71.)

It is easy to go along with the findings that, as a rule, General Assembly
resolutions, including the resolution in question, do not have retroactive

effect. But this finding of the Court can hardly be said to be very useful.
Because of the object of the exclusion of retroactive effect of General
Assembly resolution 55/12 in the aforementioned obiter — i.e. a “sui
generis position which the FRY found itself in vis-à-vis the United
Nations over the period 1992 to 2000...”— which is obviously unclear

and vague. In the quoted formulation the phrase “sui generis” is linked
to the substantive “position” which, in this particular context, has a
highly unclear and technical meaning. Has it been used as a synonym or
a substitute for the word “membership” or the term “membership rights
and obligations” or, to express, for that matter, the factual relationship

between the Applicant and the Organization? If it has the meaning of
“sui generis” membership, it is difficult to fathom which elements of

101 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1404

effective constitue une démarche procédurale indispensable, qui permet
notamment à la Cour d’établir la validité de sa saisine.
En revanche, pour que la saisine de la Cour soit valide en ce qui
concerne le locus standi, la Cour doit avoir dûment établi que les parties

à un différend ont satisfait à la condition préalable leur permettant
d’ester devant elle, c’est-à-dire qu’elles ont reconnu en bonne et due
forme la compétence générale de la Cour (parce qu’elles sont parties à
son Statut ou qu’elles ont fait une déclaration conforme aux prescriptions
de la résolution 9 (1946) du Conseil de sécurité). C’est à ce moment précis

que les parties à un différend deviennent parties au différend porté
devant la Cour.
A cet égard, le rapport entre saisine effective et saisine valide pourrait
être comparé au rapport entre la «compétence dite prima facie »e tl
«compétence considérée comme établie de façon concluante».

Dès lors, si l’expression «saisine effective» ou «saisine régulière» est
employée pour désigner la validité de la saisine de la Cour, elle doit être
interprétée comme se rattachant au seul aspect formel de cette validité et
non à son aspect de fond.

d) Obiter dictum contenant des éléments ou des indices d’une position
sur le fond

17. Dans l’affaire de la Demande en revision, la Cour, examinant la
er
résolution 55/12 de l’Assemblée générale en date du 1 novembre 2000,
souligne notamment que ladite résolution

«ne peut avoir rétroactivement modifié la situation sui generis dans
laquelle se trouvait la RFY vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies pendant la période 1992-2000, ni sa situation à l’égard du Sta-
tut de la Cour et de la convention sur le génocide. En outre, la lettre

du conseiller juridique de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en date
du 8 décembre 2000 ne peut avoir modifié le statut de la RFY à
l’égard des traités.» (Arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003 , p. 31, par. 71.)

On souscrit sans peine à l’idée qu’en principe les résolutions de l’Assem-
blée générale, dont celle qui est citée ci-dessus, n’ont pas d’effet rétroactif.
Mais dans le cas présent, cette constatation de la Cour n’est guère utile.
En effet, l’objet sur lequel porte l’absence d’effet rétroactif de la résolution

55/12 de l’Assemblée générale dans le passage cité plus haut — à savoir
«la situation sui generis dans laquelle se trouvait la RFY vis-à-vis de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies pendant la période 1992-2000» — est
manifestement confus et imprécis. Dans ce passage, l’expression «sui

generis» qualifie le substantif «situation», dont le sens, dans ce contexte
particulier, est extrêmement abscons et technique. Le terme est-il utilisé
comme un synonyme de l’expression «qualité de Membre» ou de la for-
mule «droits et obligations attachés à la qualité de Membre» ou rem-
place-t-il cette expression ou cette formule, ou bien encore vise-t-il à expri-

mer le lien concret entre le demandeur et l’Organisation? S’il s’agit de la

1011405 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

membership from the abstract point of view, or which concrete elements

of presumed membership of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, would
provide the basis of the qualification that what is involved here is “sui
generis” membership? Namely, it is worth noting that the United Nations
Charter makes no mention of “sui generis” membership, obviously a
kind of amalgamation of “membership” and “non-membership”. So, the

terms such as this one represent rather an attempt of sorts to conceptu-
alize something that is non-existent as a notion, and not an appropriate
expression of positive legal substance — the more so, if one has in mind
the absence of a limine or exempli causa elements of “membership” or
non-membership” in the world Organization.

It is true, however, that in paragraph 70 of the Judgment of 3 February
2003 in the Application for Revision case it is stated that

“Resolution 47/1 did not inter alia affect the FRY’s right to
appear before the Court... under the conditions laid down by the

Statute. Nor did it affect the position of the FRY in relation to the
Genocide Convention.” (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003 ,p .31
para. 70.)

This particular dictum seems to be an assertion rather than a proper legal
reasoning. More specifically, it is unclear what is actually the legal basis,
in the light of the controversy regarding the status of the Applicant in the

United Nations, for “the FRY’s right to appear before the Court”
(ibid.). Is it based on its being a United Nations Member State which is
ipso facto a party to the Statute of the Court, or under the conditions
specified in Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court and Secu-
rity Council resolution 9 (1946)?

18. It is unclear how the obiter about the “sui generis position” of the
FRY vis-à-vis the United Nations came to find a place in the Court’s
Judgment in the Application for Revision case. In that case the Court was
faced with the issue whether the admission of the FRY to the United

Nations as such is a “new fact” in the sense of Article 61 of the Statute.
The Court itself stressed that:

“In reality, [the FRY] bases its Application for revision on the
legal consequences which it seeks to draw from facts subsequent to
the Judgment which it is asked to have revised. Those consequences,
even supposing them to be established, cannot be regarded as facts

within the meaning of Article 61. The FRY’s argument cannot
accordingly be upheld.” (Application for Revision of the Judgment of
11 July 1996 in the Case concerning Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections

(Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2003, p. 30, para. 69; emphasis added.)

102 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND .KRECu ) 1405

qualité de Membre «sui generis», il est difficile de saisir quels sont, dans
l’abstrait, les éléments de la qualité de Membre ou, au cas particulier,
les éléments de la qualité de Membre présumée de la République fédérale
de Yougoslavie, qui autoriseraient à parler en l’occurrence de qualité de

Membre «sui generis». C’est-à-dire qu’il convient d’observer qu’il n’est
fait aucune mention, dans la Charte des Nations Unies, d’une qualité de
Membre «sui generis», qui serait manifestement une sorte d’amalgame
entre la qualité de «Membre» et celle de «non-membre». L’emploi de tels
termes vise plutôt à conceptualiser une notion inexistante qu’à exprimer

de façon juste une réalité juridique vérital — à plus forte raison, à défaut
d’éléments qui, a limine ou à titre d’exemple, illustreraient la «qualité de
Membre» ou celle de «non-membre» au sein de l’organisation mondiale.
Cependant, il est vrai que, au paragraphe 70 de l’arrêt rendu le 3 février
2003 en l’affaire de la Demande en revision, il est dit que:

«La résolution 47/1 ne portait notamment pas atteinte au droit de

la RFY d’ester devant la Cour ... dans les conditions fixées par le
Statut. Elle ne touchait pas davantage à la situation de la RFY au
regard de la convention sur le génocide.» (C.I.J. Recueil 2003,p.31,
par. 70.)

On se trouve ici devant une affirmation plutôt que devant un raisonne-

ment juridique à proprement parler. Plus précisément, compte tenu de la
controverse relative au statut du demandeur à l’égard de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies, on ne voit pas bien ce qui fonde le «droit de la RFY
d’ester devant la Cour» (ibid.). Ce droit procède-t-il de sa qualité d’Etat
Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, qui lui confère ipso facto

la qualité de partie au Statut de la Cour, ou répond-il aux conditions
prescrites au paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut de la Cour et dans la
résolution 9 (1946) du Conseil de sécurité?
18. On comprend mal ce qui a amené la Cour à prononcer son obiter

dictum sur la «situation sui generis » de la RFY vis-à-vis des Nations
Unies dans son arrêt en l’affaire de la Demande en revision. Dans cette
affaire, la Cour devait dire si l’admission de la RFY à l’Organisation des
Nations Unies constituait en tant que telle un «fait nouveau» au sens de
l’article 61 du Statut. La Cour a elle-même souligné ce qui suit:

«[la RFY] fonde en réalité sa requête en revision sur les consé-

quences juridiques qu’elle entend tirer de faits postérieurs à l’arrêt
dont la revision est demandée. Ces conséquences, à les supposer éta-
blies, ne sauraient être regardées comme des faits au sens de l’ar-
ticle 61. L’argumentation de la RFY ne peut par suite être

retenue.» (Demande en revision de l’arrêt du 11 juillet 1996 en
l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. You-
goslavie), exceptions préliminaires (Yougoslavie c. Bosnie-Herzégo-
vine), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003 , p. 30, par. 69; les italiques sont de

moi.)

1021406 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

What is striking is that the Court formulated its obiter after almost ten

years of the “avoiding position” approach to the issue, although the issue
of membership of the FRY in the United Nations was ab initio of fun-
damental importance for the jurisdiction of the Court in all disputes in
which the FRY is involved as a party before the Court. Having that in
mind, it could hardly be objected to by the Court that, throughout that

period, it found it necessary, in any of the proceedings unfolding before it
successively, to make interim determination upon the issue in explicit
terms for the purposes of the pending proceedings. However, the Court
failed to do so until the admission of the FRY to the United Nations ,
when the matter was resolved definitely. That comes as a surprise in

itself.

19. The objective meaning of the insistence on the sui generis position
of Serbia and Montenegro vis-à-vis the United Nations in the period

from 1992 to 2000, as considered in paragraph 70 of the Judgment in the
Application for Revision case, amounts in the existing circumstances to
an attempt to revise the decision taken by the main political organs of the
United Nations. Or in terms of legal notions, it amounts to the creation
of a fictio leges.

20. The qualifications of the status of the Applicant in the United
Nations as “sui generis membership”, “de facto working status”, etc., are
deprived of legal substance in terms of the Charter. The Charter of the
United Nations does not recognize such forms of “membership” or “non-
membership” or a mixture thereof. These syntagmas constitute rather an

attempt — based on analogy with membership in terms of the Charter —
of a notional conceptualization of observer status of a non-Member
based on Article 2, paragraph 6, and Article 35, paragraph 2, of the
Charter, or of the status of non-State entities, such as national liberation
movements, or of observer status of regional organizations and groups of

States pursuant to Article 52, paragraph 1, of the Charter of the United
Nations. In the qualitative sense, the meaning of the syntagmas such as
“sui generis membership” or “de facto working status” would mean, in
fact, reduced membership rights or the privileged position of some
non-Members.

Such a meaning can hardly be brought in accordance either with the
provisions of the Charter of the United Nations which regulate member-
ship rights and obligations, or with the fundamental principle of sover-

eign equality of States enshrined in Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Charter
of the United Nations.
The provisions of the Charter, as far as the relationship of the Organi-
zation vis-à-vis States is concerned, have been formulated in terms of the
dichotomy Member States/non-Member States. Tertium quid simply does

not exist. Chapter II of the United Nations Charter (“Membership”)
points out only the division into the original Members of the United

103 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND .KRECu ) 1406

Il est frappant de constater que la Cour a formulé cet obiter après avoir,
pendant près de dix ans, «éludé» la question de la qualité de Membre de
la RFY au sein de l’Organisation des Nations Unies alors même que cette
question revêtait depuis le début une importance fondamentale pour la

compétence de la Cour dans tous les différends portés devant elle aux-
quels la RFY est partie. Le fait restant présent à l’esprit, la Cour pouvait
difficilement formuler la moindre objection, dans l’une ou l’autre des pro-
cédures introduites successivement devant elle tout au long de cette
période, quant à l’obligation pour elle de se prononcer expressément, à

titre provisoire, sur la question aux fins des procédures en cours. Toute-
fois, la Cour n’a rien fait de tel jusqu’à l’admission de la RFY à l’Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies , qui a résolu définitivement la question. Voilà
qui est en soi surprenant.
19. Objectivement, l’insistance sur la situation sui generis de la Serbie-

et-Monténégro à l’égard de l’Organisation des Nations Unies pendant la
période allant de 1992 à 2000, telle qu’elle est envisagée au paragraphe 70
de l’arrêt en l’affaire de la Demande en revision, revient dans les circon-
stances actuelles à une tentative de revision de la décision prise par les

organes politiques principaux de l’Organisation des Nations Unies. En
termes juridiques, cela revient à créer une fictio legis.
20. Qualifier le statut du demandeur à l’égard de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies par des formules telles que «qualité de Membre sui gene-
ris» et «participation de fait», etc., n’a aucun sens juridique dans l’op-

tique de la Charte. La Charte des Nations Unies ne reconnaît pas pa-
reilles formes d’«appartenance» et de «non-appartenance» ni les formes
hybrides d’appartenance. L’emploi de ces expressions vise plutôt —
par analogie avec la qualité de Membre telle qu’elle est définie dans la
Charte — à doter de façon abstraite et hypothétique un non-membre

du statut d’observateur reposant sur le paragraphe 6 de l’article 2
et le paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 de la Charte, ou à lui conférer le
statut d’entité non étatique qui est celui des mouvements de libération
nationale, ou encore le statut d’observateur conféré à des organisations

régionales et des groupes d’Etats en vertu du paragraphe 1 de l’article 52
de la Charte des Nations Unies. Qualitativement, la formule «qualité de
Membre sui generis » ou «participation de fait» signifierait en réalité
que les droits dont la qualité de Membre est assortie sont restreints ou
bien viserait les privilèges accordés à certains non-membres.

Il est difficile de concilier une telle interprétation avec les dispositions
de la Charte des Nations Unies qui régissent les droits et obligations liés
à la qualité de Membre, ou avec le principe fondamental de l’égalité sou-
veraine des Etats consacré par le paragraphe 1 de l’article 2 de la Charte.

Les dispositions de la Charte, en ce qui concerne le lien entre l’Orga-
nisation et les Etats, ont été formulées suivant la dichotomie opposant les
Etats Membres et les Etats non membres. Il n’existe pas de tertium quid.
Le chapitre II de la Charte des Nations Unies («Membres») n’établit de

distinction qu’entre les Membres originels des Nations Unies et les

1031407 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

Nations and the subsequently admitted Members of the Organization, a

division which has no substantive meaning in terms of membership rights
and duties, but only that of historical record.
Article 2 of the Charter of the United Nations, setting out the prin-
ciples on which the Organization and its Members are based and shall
act, provides in paragraph 1 that “[t]he Organization is based on the prin-

ciple of the sovereign equality of all its Members”.
The principle contained in Article 2, paragraph 1, of the Charter con-
stitutes ratione materiae a narrow application of the “basic legal concept
of State sovereignty in customary international law” (Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States

of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , p. 111, para. 212;
hereinafter referred to as “Nicaragua”), with legal force equal to that of
the principle expressed in paragraph 2 of the same Article determined by
the Court as being “not only a principle of customary international law

but also a fundamental or cardinal principle of such law” (ibid., p. 100,
para. 190).
The principle of the sovereign equality of States as a universal principle
belonging to corpus juris cogentis operates with the United Nations
Charter on two levels:

(i) in the relationship between the Member States, with the exception of
the permanent members of the Security Council, as the principle of

equal membership rights and obligations, and
(ii) in the relationship between non-Member States and the Organiza-
tion, as the principle of equal rights and obligations non-Members
before the appropriate organs of the Organization as stipulated by
Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Charter.

In other words, the peremptory nature of the principle of sovereign
equality of States would not suffer a reduction in the corpus of rights and

obligations of an individual Member in relation to the corpus of rights
and obligations of a Member State as such on the basis of the Charter;
nor indeed would it entail enlarged rights and obligations of an indi-
vidual non-Member State over and above the extent of the rights and
obligations of non-Member States envisaged by the Charter.

The fact that the exercise of certain membership rights by a Member
State may be suspended on the basis of Article 5 of the Charter is another
matter. The suspension of membership rights and privileges on the basis
of Article 5 does not encroach upon the principle of equal membership
rights and privileges in view of the fact that it leaves unaffected both the

legal basis, and the membership rights and privileges, restricting only the
exercise of the membership rights and privileges until the removal of sus-
pension. However, the suspension of membership rights may, in special
circumstances, lead to a violation of the fundamental principle of equal-
ity of Member States in the proceedings before the Court (for instance, if

a suspended Member is precluded from taking part in the work of organs
of the Organization, or in the procedures established, whose findings or

104 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1407

Membres admis à l’Organisation par la suite, mais cette distinction
n’emporte aucune conséquence de fond du point de vue des droits et de-
voirs liés à la qualité de Membre et ne présente qu’un intérêt historique.
L’article 2 de la Charte des Nations Unies, qui énonce les principes sur

lesquels est fondée l’Organisation et selon lesquels doivent agir ses
Membres, dispose en son premier paragraphe que «[l]’Organisation est
fondée sur le principe de l’égalité souveraine de tous ses Membres».
Le principe ainsi énoncé au paragraphe 1 de l’article 2 de la Charte
constitue ratione materiae une application étroite du «concept juridique

fondamental de la souveraineté des Etats en droit international coutu-
mier» (Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci
(Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986 ,
p. 111, par. 212; ci-après l’«affaire Nicaragua») et il est doté d’une force
juridique égale à celle du principe exprimé au paragraphe 2 du même

article, que la Cour a déclaré être «non seulement un principe de droit
international coutumier, mais encore un principe fondamental ou essen-
tiel de ce droit» (ibid., p. 100, par. 190).
Le principe de l’égalité souveraine des Etats en tant que principe

universel relevant du corpus juris cogentis s’applique, dans le cadre de
la Charte des Nations Unies, sur deux plans:

i) dans les relations entre les Etats Membres, à l’exception des membres
permanents du Conseil de sécurité, en tant que principe de l’égalité
des droits et des obligations liés à la qualité de Membre, et
ii) dans les relations entre les Etats non membres et l’Organisation, en
tant que principe de l’égalité des droits et des obligations des non-

membres devant les organes appropriés de l’Organisation ainsi qu’il
est indiqué au paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 de la Charte.

En d’autres termes, le caractère impératif du principe de l’égalité souve-
raine des Etats exclut que l’ensemble des droits et obligations d’un
Membre soit réduit par rapport à l’ensemble des droits et obligations
d’un Etat Membre selon la Charte; il exclut tout autant l’élargissement des

droits et obligations d’un Etat non membre au-delà de ce que prévoit
la Charte pour cette catégorie d’Etats.

La suspension, fondée sur l’article 5 de la Charte, de l’exercice par un
Etat Membre de certains droits liés à la qualité de Membre soulève une

autre question. La suspension fondée sur l’article 5 des droits et privilèges
liés à la qualité de Membre ne porte pas atteinte au principe de l’égalité
de ces droits et privilèges puisque ladite suspension ne modifie ni la base
juridique de la qualité de Membre ni les droits et privilèges qui y sont liés,

son seul effet étant de restreindre l’exercice de ces derniers tant qu’elle
n’est pas levée. Toutefois, la suspension des droits liés à la qualité de
Membre peut, dans certaines circonstances, conduire à une violation du
principe fondamental de l’égalité des Etats Membres dans une procédure
devant la Cour (par exemple, si un Membre suspendu se trouve empêché

de prendre part aux travaux d’organes de l’Organisation, ou aux procé-

1041408 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

statements serve as evidence in the proceedings before the Court).

The disappearance of a Member State as a subject of international law
leads ipso facto to the cessation of membership in the Organization of the
United Nations. Since membership rights and obligations are a substan-
tive effect of membership in the Organization, there exists an equal sign

between the disappearance of a State and the cessation of all its member-
ship rights and obligations. (An exception to this are the rights and obli-
gations embodied in the Charter which have an erga omnes or a peremp-
tory character and which, from the legal aspect, are not membership
rights and obligations.)

21. The proper judicial presumption has been applied by the Court in
the proceedings for the indication of provisional measures.
Namely, the finding of the Court that “the declarations made by the
Parties under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute do not constitute a

basis on which the jurisdiction” was grounded in the limitation ratione
temporis contained in Yugoslavia’s declaration recognizing the compul-
sory jurisdiction of the Court (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia
v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (I), p. 135, para. 30). Consequently, the Court did not call in ques-

tion the validity of Yugoslavia’s declaration recognizing the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute, as such, but the temporal modality of its application in the
light of the reciprocity condition.

It appears that Judge Kooijmans was right in noting that:

“How can the Court say that there is no need to consider the ques-
tion of the validity of Yugoslavia’s declaration whereas at the same
time it concludes that this declaration, taken together with that of

the Respondent, cannot constitute a basis of jurisdiction? This con-
clusion surely is based on the presumption of the validity of Yugosla-
via’s declaration, at least for the present stage of the proceedings. If
such a presumption does not exist, the Court should at least have
said that it accepts that validity purely arguendo since, even if it had

been valid, it would not have had the capability to confer jurisdic-
tion on the Court in view of the limitation ratione temporis in the
Applicant’s declaration.” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia
v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J.
Reports 1999 (I), p. 177, para. 16, separate opinion of Judge Kooij-

mans; emphasis added.)

Reciprocity has nothing to do with the validity of a declaration as a juris-
dictional instrument, having in mind that it is limited in its effect to the

temporal scope of the obligation covered by the declaration. It is capable
of producing effect only limiting jurisdiction to the common ground

105 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND .KRECu ) 1408

dures établies par eux, dont des conclusions ou déclarations sont utilisées
comme éléments de preuve devant la Cour).
La disparition d’un Etat Membre comme sujet de droit international
conduit ipso facto à la suppression de sa qualité de Membre au sein de

l’Organisation des Nations Unies. Puisque les droits et obligations liés à
cette qualité constituent un effet important de l’appartenance à l’Organi-
sation, la disparition d’un Etat équivaut à la cessation de tous ses droits
et obligations liés à la qualité de Membre. (Echappent à cette règle les
droits et obligations consacrés par la Charte qui ont un caractère erga

omnes ou un caractère impératif et qui, considérés sous l’angle juridique,
ne sont pas des droits et obligations liés à la qualité de Membre .)
21. La Cour a recouru à la présomption judiciaire comme il le fallait
dans la procédure en indication de mesures conservatoires.
Pour conclure que «les déclarations faites par les Parties conformé-

ment au paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut ne constituent pas une
base sur laquelle la compétence [pourrait être fondée]», la Cour s’est
appuyée en effet sur la limitation ratione temporis figurant dans la décla-
ration par laquelle la Yougoslavie a reconnu la compétence obligatoire

de la Cour (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Belgique),
mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil
1999 (I), p. 135, par. 30). Par conséquent, la Cour a remis en cause, non
pas en tant que telle, la validité de la déclaration par laquelle la Yougo-
slavie a reconnu la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour conformément au

paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut, mais les modalités temporelles
de son application compte tenu de la condition de réciprocité.
Le juge Kooijmans avait sans doute raison d’écrire:

«Comment la Cour peut-elle dire qu’il n’y a pas lieu d’examiner la

question de la validité de la déclaration de la Yougoslavie et conclure
en même temps que ladite déclaration, considérée avec celle du
défendeur, ne peut pas constituer une base de compétence? Pour
conclure ainsi, il faut certainement prendre pour hypothèse que la

déclaration de la Yougoslavie est valable , tout au moins au stade
actuel de la procédure. Si cette présomption de validité fait défaut, la
Cour aurait dû tout au moins dire qu’elle accepte cette validité aux
seules fins du débat puisque, même si elle avait été valable, cette
déclaration du demandeur n’aurait pas pu conférer compétence à la

Cour en raison de la limitation ratione temporis qu’elle énonce.»
(Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Belgique), mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (I) ,
p. 177, par. 16; opinion individuelle de M. le juge Kooijmans; les

italiques sont de moi.)

La réciprocité n’a rien à voir avec la validité d’une déclaration en tant
qu’instrument juridictionnel, étant donné que son effet est limité à la
durée de validité de l’obligation couverte par la déclaration. Le seul effet

que la réciprocité soit en mesure de produire est de limiter la juridiction

1051409 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

accepted by both parties, as stated by the Court in the Interhandel

case:
“Reciprocity enables the State which has made the wider accept-

ance of the jurisdiction of the Court to rely upon the reservations to
the acceptance laid down by the other Party. There the effect of reci-
procity ends.” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1959, p. 23; emphasis added.)

Having in mind the provisions of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute
of the Court, and considering that Yugoslavia did not accept the jurisdic-
tion of the Court on the basis of Security Council resolution 9 (1946), it

transpires that the presumption of the validity of Yugoslavia’s declara-
tion only ratione materiae is a narrowed presumption of the membership
of Yugoslavia in the United Nations.

22. The Court furthermore resorted to the presumption of the legal
identity and continuity of the FRY when referring to the Genocide Con-
vention, and found that it lacks jurisdiction due to the fact that genocidal
intent on the part of the respondent States has not been proved.
In other words, the Court found that, in casu, there exists, at least,

prima facie jurisdiction ratione personae — on the basis of the con-
tractual nexus between the Applicant and the Respondent in the frame-
work of the Genocide Convention — and the lack of jurisdiction ratione
materiae on the basis of the Convention was ascribed by the Court to
the fact that genocidal intent, as an element of the crime of genocide,

has not been made probable.
It is obvious that the finding of the Court regarding the FRY as a
party to the Genocide Convention was based in the formal declaration of
the FRY of 22 April 1992, confirmed in an official Note of 27 April 1992
from the Permanent Mission of Yugoslavia to the United Nations

addressed to the Secretary-General to the effect that:

“The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, continuing the State,
international legal and political personality of the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, shall strictly abide by all the commitments
that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia assumed inter-
nationally.” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 610, para. 17.)

The rules of interpretation of unilateral acts of States, accurately and
clearly set out in the Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada) case as
“declarations...aretobe read as a whole” and “interpreted as a unity”
(Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 454, para. 47;

p. 453, para. 44), indicate that unilateral acts “must be interpreted as
[they stand], having regard to the words actually used” (Anglo-Iranian

106 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1409

au terrain commun accepté par les deux parties, comme l’a dit la Cour
dans l’affaire de l’Interhandel :

«La réciprocité permet à l’Etat qui a accepté le plus largement la
juridiction de la Cour de se prévaloir des réserves à cette acceptation
énoncées par l’autre partie. Là s’arrête l’effet de la réciprocité .»
(Exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1959 , p. 23; les ita-

liques sont de moi.)
Compte tenu des dispositions du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut

de la Cour et eu égard au fait que la Yougoslavie n’a pas accepté la com-
pétence de la Cour sur la base de la résolution 9 (1946) du Conseil de
sécurité, il faut en déduire que la présomption de validité de la déclara-
tion de la Yougoslavie reposant sur le seul terrain ratione materiae
revient à n’accorder que très étroitement à la Yougoslavie la qualité de

Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies.
22. La Cour a, en outre, présumé qu’il y avait en droit identité et
continuité de la RFY à l’égard de la convention sur le génocide et elle
s’est estimée incompétente parce que l’intention des Etats défendeurs de

commettre un génocide n’a pas été prouvée.
En d’autres termes, la Cour a estimé qu’en l’espèce elle avait, du moins
prima facie, compétence ratione personae — sur le fondement du lien
contractuel entre le demandeur et le défendeur dans le cadre de la
convention sur le génocide — et elle a jugé que si elle n’était pas compé-

tente ratione materiae en vertu de la convention, c’est parce qu’il n’a pas
été démontré que l’intention de commettre un génocide, en tant qu’élé-
ment constitutif de ce crime, était probable.
Il est manifeste que, lorsqu’elle constate que la RFY est partie à la
convention sur le génocide, la Cour se fonde sur la déclaration officielle

de la RFY en date du 22 avril 1992, confirmée dans une note officielle
que la mission permanente de la Yougoslavie auprès de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies adresse au Secrétaire général le 27 avril 1992 et selon
laquelle:

«La République fédérative de Yougoslavie, assurant la continuité
de l’Etat et de la personnalité juridique et politique internationale de

la République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie, respectera stric-
tement tous les engagements que la République fédérative socialiste
de Yougoslavie a pris à l’échelon international.» (Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires,

arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 610, par. 17.)

Selon les règles d’interprétation d’actes unilatéraux émanant d’Etats
que la Cour a énoncées avec précision et clarté dans l’affaire de la Com-
pétence en matière de pêcheries(Espagne c. Canada) («les déclarations ...
doivent être considérées comme un tout» et «interprété[e]s comme for-
mant un tout» (compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 454,

par. 47; p. 453, par. 44)), et on doit interpréter les actes unilatéraux

1061410 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

Oil Co., Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 , p. 105),

with “certain emphasis on the intention of the...State” (Fisheries Juris-
diction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 454, para. 48).

It is difficult, on the basis of these rules of interpretation of unilateral

acts of States, or even on the basis of any of them taken individually, to
draw a conclusion that the intention of Yugoslavia was to “strictly abide
by all the commitments that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
assumed internationally” (Application of the Convention on the Preven-
tion and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina

v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II,)
p. 610, para. 17) without reliance on, or on some other basis, except the
legal identity and continuity with the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia (hereinafter referred to as the “SFRY”). (It is also disputable

whether the declaration of 27 April 1992 could be taken as a unilateral
act creating legal obligations at all. As the Court clearly stated in the
Nuclear Tests cases “[w]hen it is the intention of the State making the
declaration that it should become bound according to its terms, that
intention confers on the declaration the character of a legal undertaking”

(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 ,
p. 267, para. 43; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 472, para. 46). Thus all depends on the intention
of the State and it is up to the Court to “form its own view of the mean-
ing and scope intended by the author of a unilateral declaration which

may create a legal obligation” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 269, para. 48; Nuclear Tests (New
Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 474, para. 50). It
seems crystal clear from the text of the declaration that the intention of
Yugoslavia was not that it should become bound by obligations of the

former SFRY but to remain bound by “all obligations to international
organizations and institutions whose member it is”.)

Having in mind that, after the adoption of the Constitution of 27 April
1992, Yugoslavia did not express its consent to be bound by the Geno-

cide Convention in the way stipulated by Article XI of the Convention
and nor did it issue the notification of succession, it is obvious that the
only basis for Yugoslavia to be considered a party to the Genocide Con-
vention before 12 March 2001 is the legal identity and continuity of the
SFRY in the domain of multilateral treaties.

23. It seems clear that the aforementioned Court’s presumptions were
not, in the circumstances surrounding the overall status of the FRY, of a
violent nature (violentia praesumptio) . A contrario, the finding that the
solution adopted by General Assembly resolution 47/1 “is not free from

legal difficulties” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-

107 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1410

«tel[s] qu’[ils] se présente[nt], en tenant compte des mots effectivement
employés» (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1952, p. 105), «l’accent [étant mis] sur l’intention de l’Etat...»
(Compétence en matière de pêcheries (Espagne c. Canada), compétence

de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 454, par. 48).
Il est difficile, à partir de ces règles d’interprétation des actes unilaté-
raux émanant d’Etats, ou à partir de l’une quelconque d’entre elles prise
individuellement, de conclure que l’intention de la Yougoslavie était de
«respect[er] strictement tous les engagements que la République fédéra-

tive socialiste de Yougoslavie a[vait] pris à l’échelon international» (Appli-
cation de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de
génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 610, par. 17), sans se fonder sur l’iden-
tité et la continuité juridiques avec la République socialiste fédérative de

Yougoslavie (ci-après dénommée la «RSFY») ni prendre un autre fon-
dement de même effet. (Que la déclaration du 27 avril 1992 puisse être
considérée comme un acte unilatéral créant de quelconques obligations
juridiques est également discutable. Ainsi que la Cour l’a clairement indi-

qué dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires, «[q]uand l’Etat auteur de la
déclaration entend être lié conformément à ses termes, cette intention
confère à sa prise de position le caractère d’un engagement juridique»
(Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 267,
par. 43; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J.

Recueil 1974, p. 472, par. 46).) Ainsi, tout dépend de l’intention de l’Etat
et il appartient à la Cour de «se faire sa propre opinion sur le sens et la
portée que l’auteur a entendu donner à une déclaration unilatérale d’où
peut naître une obligation juridique» (Essais nucléaires (Australie
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 269, par. 48; Essais nucléaires

(Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 474, par. 50).
Il ressort très clairement du texte de la déclaration que la Yougoslavie
n’avait pas pour intention de se lier par les obligations de l’ex-RSFY
mais de rester liée par «toutes ses obligations vis-à-vis des organisations

et institutions internationales auxquelles elle appart[enait]».
Eu égard au fait que, après l’adoption de la Constitution du 27 avril
1992, la Yougoslavie n’a pas exprimé son consentement à être liée par la
convention sur le génocide comme il est stipulé à l’article XI de la
convention, et qu’elle n’a pas non plus publié de notification de succes-

sion, il est manifeste que l’on ne saurait considérer la Yougoslavie comme
partie à la convention sur le génocide antérieurement au 12 mars 2001
que sur la base de l’identité et de la continuité juridiques avec la RSFY en
matière de traités multilatéraux.

23. Il est clair que les présomptions évoquées plus haut ne se sont pas,
dans les circonstances entourant le statut général de la RFY, imposées
par la force à la Cour (violentia praesumptio) . Autrement, il n’y aurait
aucun sens à conclure que la solution adoptée par la résolution 47/1 de
l’Assemblée générale «ne laisse pas de susciter des difficultés juridiques»

(Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime

1071411 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

slavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April
1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , p. 14, para. 18) would be devoid of substance.

Having in mind the relevant circumstances that existed until the admis-

sion of Yugoslavia to membership in the United Nations, expressing rela-
tive balance in terms pro et contra, it might be said that those presump-
tions lie between light presumptions (praesumptiones facti vel hominis
leves) and probable presumptions (praesumptiones facti vel hominis
graves).

3. The Legal Consequences of the Admission of the FRY to the United
Nations

24. The FRY claimed legal identity and continuity with the SFRY

until the year 2000. Although, in my view, the FRY, in the light of the
relevant rules of international law — rules which are not quite clear and
crystallized, true — possessed the right to legal identity and continuity
with the SFRY, the continuity claim of the FRY, considered on the basis

of eminently political reasons, has not been accepted. This fact, when
speaking about the status of the FRY in the United Nations, is reflected
in the status which might be, very approximately, qualified as a kind of
irregular de facto suspension of membership rights on the model of
“vacant seat”. A model which, in relation to the FRY, was originally

applied in the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
(OSCE).
25. At the end of the year 2000 the FRY, in the relevant context, did
two things:

(i) renounced the continuity claim and accepted the status of the suc-
cessor State of the former SFRY; and

(ii) proceeding from a qualitatively new legal basis — as the successor
State — submitted the application for admission to membership in
the United Nations.

26. The State, as a notion of international law, comprises two ele-
ments, i.e., possesses two faces:

(i) statehood in the sense of the relevant attributes such as a defined
territory, stable population and sovereign power;

(ii) legal personality, i.e., the status of a subject of international law

equipped with a corpus of rights and obligations. The legal person-
ality of the FRY, in the light of the relevant circumstances surround-
ing it, can be either of an inferential, derivative nature — based on
the legal identity and continuity with the SFRY — or of an inherent,

original nature — based on the status of a new State.
27. By submitting the application for admission to membership in the

United Nations, Yugoslavia not only renounced the claim to legal iden-

108 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1411

de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténé-
gro)), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 8 avril 1993, C.I.J. Recueil
1993, p. 14, par. 18).
Vu les circonstances pertinentes qui ont existé jusqu’à l’admission de la

Yougoslavie à l’Organisation des Nations Unies en qualité de Membre et
dans lesquelles les arguments favorables et les arguments défavorables
s’équilibrent à peu près, on peut dire que ces présomptions se situent
entre des présomptions légères (praesumptiones facti vel hominis leves) et
des présomptions probables (praesumptiones facti vel hominis graves) .

3. Les conséquences juridiques de l’admission de la RFY à l’Organisa-
tion des Nations Unies

24. La RFY a revendiqué l’identité et la continuité juridiques avec la

RSFY jusqu’à l’an 2000. Même si, à mon avis, la RFY, compte tenu des
règles pertinentes du droit international — règles qui, il est vrai, ne sont
pas parfaitement claires ni solides —, avait droit à l’identité et à la conti-
nuité juridiques avec la RSFY, la revendication de continuité de la RFY,

considérée à l’aune de raisons éminemment politiques, n’a pas été accep-
tée. S’agissant du statut de la RFY au sein de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies, ce rejet s’est traduit par ce que l’on pourrait, de manière très
approximative, qualifier de suspension de facto irrégulière des droits liés
à la qualité de Membre, sur le modèle du «siège vacant», modèle qui, en

ce qui concerne la RFY, a été appliqué en premier lieu au sein de l’Orga-
nisation pour la sécurité et la coopération en Europe (OSCE).
25. A la fin de l’an 2000, la RFY, dans le contexte pertinent, a fait
deux choses:

i) elle a renoncé à revendiquer la continuité et accepté le statut d’Etat
successeur de l’ex-RSFY; et

ii) sur une base juridique nouvelle du point de vue qualitatif — c’est-à-
dire en qualité d’Etat successeur —, elle a présenté une demande
d’admission à l’Organisation des Nations Unies.

26. L’Etat, en droit international, est constitué de deux éléments, c’est-
à-dire qu’il se présente sous deux aspects:

i) la qualité d’Etat au sens des attributs constitutifs de cette qualité, par
exemple un territoire défini, une population stable, l’exercice de la
souveraineté;
ii) la personnalité juridique, c’est-à-dire le statut de sujet de droit inter-

national doté d’un corpus de droits et obligations. La personnalité
juridique de la RFY, eu égard aux circonstances pertinentes, peut être
soit déduite, dérivée — fondée sur l’identité et la continuité juridiques
avec la RSFY —, soit intrinsèque, originelle — fondée sur le statut

d’Etat nouveau.
27. En demandant son admission à l’Organisation des Nations Unies,

la Yougoslavie n’a pas seulement renoncé à revendiquer l’identité et la

1081412 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP .KRECu )

tity and continuity but claimed at the same time to be accepted as a new
State in the sense of some other, different legal personality — a successor

State versus partial continuation of the former SFRY — from the one
claimed until the year 2000. In fact, it accepted the claim qualified as the
claim of the international community made at the moment of the formal

proclamation of the FRY in April 1992. A claim which, however, the rele-
vant international organizations as well as States, acting in corpore as
members of the organizations or individually, did not implement in either

the formal or the substantive sense. Instead, they opted for solutions
based on pragmatic political considerations rather than on considera-
tions based on international law. Hence, a legal “Rashomon” about the
legal character of Yugoslavia was created — it is a new State or the old

State? — and about its status in the United Nations — is it a Member of
the United Nations or not?

28. The admission of Yugoslavia to membership of the United Nations
from 1 November 2000 also meant the acceptance of the claim of Yugo-

slavia to be accepted as a new State in the sense of a new international
personality different from its hybrid and controversial personality in the
period 1992-2000. The claim was accepted by way of a series of collateral
agreements in a simplified form, or a general collateral agreement in a

simplified form, between the FRY, on the one hand, and the Member
States of the United Nations and the world Organization itself, on the
other, embodied tacitly in the letter and spirit of General Assembly reso-

lution 55/12 and subsequent consistent practice of the Organization
(exempli causa, the letter of the Under-Secretary-General and Legal
Counsel of the United Nations of 8 December 2000 and the list of Mem-

ber States with dates of their admission to the United Nations (United
Nations Press Release ORG/1317 updated 18 December 2000). The sub-
ject of the series of collateral agreements, or of the general collateral

agreement, is in fact recognition of the FRY as a new personality, a per-
sonality of the successor State of the former SFRY, and, in that capacity,

5 The letter of the Under-Secretary-General and Legal Counsel of the United Nations
of 8 December 2000 relating to one of the relevant legal consequences of the admission of
the FRY in the United Nations in the capacity of a successor State is basically of the
administrative nature. In that regard, it should be stressed that in its 1996 Judgment deal-
ing with the question of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s participation in the Genocide Conven-
tion, the Court noted that

“Bosnia and Herzegovina became a Member of the United Nations following the
decisions adopted on 22 May 1992 by the Security Council and the General Assem-
bly, bodies competent under the Charter. Article XI of the Genocide Convention
opens it to “any Member of the United Nations’; from the time of its admission to
the Organization, Bosnia and Herzegovina could thus become a party to the Conven-
tion.” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 611, para. 19; emphasis added.)

109 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECAu ) 1412

continuité juridiques, elle a demandé en même temps à être acceptée en
tant qu’Etat nouveau, doté d’une autre personnalité juridique — en tant

qu’Etat successeur et non plus d’Etat assurant partiellement la continuité
de l’ex-RSFY — personnalité différente de celle revendiquée jusqu’en
2000. En réalité, elle a accepté la position, présentée comme étant celle de

la communauté internationale, qui fut adoptée au moment de la procla-
mation officielle de la RFY en avril 1992. Position que, cependant, ni les
organisations internationales concernées ni les Etats, agissant in corpore

en qualité de membres desdites organisations ou individuellement, n’ont
mise en application ni dans sa forme ni sur le fond. A la place, ils ont
opté pour des solutions fondées sur des considérations politiques de
caractère pragmatique plutôt que sur le droit international. D’où une

sorte de «Rashomon» juridique au sujet du caractère de la Yougoslavie
— est-ce un nouvel Etat ou bien est-ce l’ancien? — et de son statut au
sein de l’Organisation des Nations Unies — la Yougoslavie est-elle ou

n’est-elle pas Membre de l’Organisation?
28. Admettre la Yougoslavie comme Membre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies à compter du 1 er novembre 2000 a consisté également à

accepter comme elle le demandait de la reconnaître comme un nouvel
Etat, c’est-à-dire de lui reconnaître une nouvelle personnalité internatio-
nale, différente de la personnalité hybride et controversée qui avait été la
sienne au cours de la période allant de 1992 à 2000. Cette demande a été

acceptée sous forme simplifiée par un accord général ou une série
d’accords accessoires entre la RFY d’un côté et les Etats Membres de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies ainsi que l’Organisation elle-même de

l’autre, accords inscrits tacitement dans l’esprit et la lettre de la résolution
55/12 de l’Assemblée générale ainsi que dans la pratique cohérente suivie
ensuite par l’Organisation (voir, par exemple, la lettre du Secrétaire géné-

ral adjoint et conseiller juridique des Nations Unies en date du 8 dé-
cembre 2000 et la liste des Etats Membres avec la date de leur admission
à l’Organisation (communiqué de presse de l’Organisation des Nations

Unies ORG/1317 mis à jour le 18 décembre 2000)). Dans cette série
d’accords accessoires ou dans cet accord accessoire général, on reconnais-

5 La lettre, datée du 8 décembre 2000, du Secrétaire général adjoint et conseiller juri-
dique de l’Organisation des Nations Unies concernant l’une des conséquences juridiques
pertinentes de l’admission de la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies en qualité d’Etat
successeur est essentiellement de caractère administratif. A cet égard, il y a lieu de
souligner que la Cour, dans son arrêt de 1996 traitant de la question de la participation de
la Bosnie-Herzégovine à la convention sur le génocide, a noté que

«la Bosnie-Herzégovine est devenue Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies à
la suite des décisions prises le 22 mai 1992 par le Conseil de sécurité et l’Assemblée
générale, organes compétents en vertu de la Charte. Or, l’article XI de la convention
sur le génocide ouvre celle-ci à «tout Membre des Nations Unies»; dès son admission
au sein de l’Organisation, la Bosnie-Herzégovine pouvait donc devenir partie à la
convention.» ( Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 611, par. 19; les italiques sont de moi.)

1091413 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

its admission to the world Organization as a Member. Thus, Yugoslavia,

although being the “old State” in the sense of statehood, was universally
recognized as a “new State” in the sense of its international legal person-
ality. In view of the fact that recognition of a State has ex definitione
retroactive effect, it necessarily follows that all pronouncements and

decisions taken relate to the FRY claiming continuity with the SFRY.
And, as far as the FRY after the year 2000 is concerned, its legal existence
as a new international legal personality started in November 2000 by its
admission to membership of the United Nations.

29. General Assembly resolution 55/12 is not an ordinary resolution.
Resolutions on the admission of a State to the United Nations, as distinct
from recommendation, have a character of decision. Namely,

“the functions and powers conferred by the Charter on the General
Assembly are not confined to discussion, consideration, the initia-
tion of studies and the making of recommendations; they are not

merely hortatory. Article 18 [of the Charter] deals with ‘decisions’ of
the General Assembly ‘on important questions’. These ‘decisions’
do indeed include certain recommendations, but others have disposi-
tive force and effect. Among these latter decisions , Article 18 6

includes suspension of rights and privileges of membership, expul-
sion of Members...Inconnection with the suspension of rights and
privileges of membership and expulsion from membership [Articles 5
and 6], it is the Security Council which has only the power to

recommend and it is the General Assembly which decides and
whose decision determines status. ”( Certain Expenses of the United
Nations (Article 17, Paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 163; emphasis added.)

Consequently, “[t]he decisions of the General Assembly would not be
reversed by the judgment of the Court” (Northern Cameroons, Prelimi-

nary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963 , p. 33), for in the struc-
ture of the United Nations the Court does not possess “the ultimate
authority to interpret the Charter” (Certain Expenses of the United
Nations (Article 17, Paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion,

I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 168).

6Article 18 of the Charter enumerates, inter alia, “the admission of new Members to
the United Nations”.

110 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE OP .IND .KRECu ) 1413

sait en réalité à la RFY une nouvelle personnalité, c’est-à-dire la person-
nalité de l’Etat successeur de l’ex-RSFY et c’est en cette qualité qu’elle

était admise comme Membre de l’organisation internationale. Dans ces
conditions, la Yougoslavie, bien qu’elle fût toujours «l’ancien Etat» du
point de vue de la qualité d’Etat, a été universellement reconnue comme
un «Etat nouveau» du point de vue de sa personnalité juridique interna-

tionale. Etant donné que la reconnaissance d’un Etat a, par définition, un
effet rétroactif, il s’ensuit nécessairement que toutes les déclarations faites
ou les décisions adoptées qui concernent la RFY se rapportent à la RFY
revendiquant la continuité avec la RSFY. Et, pour ce qui concerne la
RFY postérieurement à l’an 2000, son existence en droit en tant que nou-

velle personnalité juridique internationale a commencé en novembre de
cette année-là avec son admission en qualité de Membre à l’Organisation
des Nations Unies.
29. La résolution 55/12 de l’Assemblée générale n’est pas une résolu-

tion ordinaire. Les résolutions relatives à l’admission d’un Etat à l’Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies ne sont pas des recommandations, mais des
décisions. En effet,

«les fonctions et pouvoirs de l’Assemblée générale selon la Charte ne

sont pas limités à la discussion, à l’examen, à l’étude et à la recom-
mandation; ses attributions ne sont pas simplement de caractère
exhortatif. L’article 18 [de la Charte] traite des «décisions» de
l’Assemblée générale «sur les questions importantes». Ces «déci-

sions» comprennent en effet certaines recommandations, mais
d’autres ont une valeur et un effet de caractère impératif. Parmi ces
dernières décisions, l’article 18 comprend la suspension des droits et
privilèges de Membres, l’exclusion de Membres «et les questions

budgétaires». En ce qui concerne la suspension des droits et privi-
lèges de Membres et l’exclusion de Membres dans le cadre des ar-
ticles 5 et 6, c’est le Conseil de sécurité dont le pouvoir se borne à
faire des recommandations et c’est l’Assemblée générale qui décide et
dont la décision fixe le statut des Etats en question. »( Certaines

dépenses des Nations Unies (article 17, paragraphe 2, de la Charte),
avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 , p. 163; les italiques sont de
moi.)

En conséquence, «[l]’arrêt de la Cour n’infirmerait pas les décisions de

l’Assemblée générale» (Cameroun septentrional, exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1963 , p. 33), car dans la structure de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies, la Cour ne possède pas «l’autorité suprême d’inter-
préter la Charte» (Certaines dépenses des Nations Unies (article 17, para-

graphe 2, de la Charte), avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 , p. 168).

6L’article 18 de la Charte mentionne notamment «l’admission de nouveaux Membres
dans l’Organisation».

1101414 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

The determination made by the competent organs of the United
Nations entails the legal consequences. The admission of the FRY to the
United Nations as a Member from 1 November 2000 has two principal
consequences in the circumstances of the cases at hand:

(i) with respect to the admission of Yugoslavia as a Member as from

1 November 2000, it can be said, though somewhat descriptively,
that what is involved here is the admission “as a new Member”. This
expression indicates its temporal status in relation to the Members
admitted on an earlier date;

(ii) the admission of Yugoslavia as a Member as from 1 November 2000
qualified per se its status vis-à-vis the United Nations before that
date. It seems clear that, in the light of the decisions taken by the
competent organs of the United Nations, this status could not be a

membership status. A contrario, Yugoslavia could not have been
admitted as a Member as from 1 November 2000. Just as it is impos-
sible for things to be black and white at the same time, Yugoslavia
could not have been either a Member and a non-Member in the
period 1992-2000.

30. In the case at hand the Court was faced with several preliminary

objections of the Respondent, concerning both the special jurisdiction of
the Court in all three aspects (ratione personae, ratione materiae, ratione
temporis), the admissibility of the Applicant’s claims and the general
jurisdiction of the Court (locus standi of Serbia and Montenegro).

Having found that there is a lack of jurisdiction, the Court based
its decision, essentially, on the absence of locus standi of Serbia and
Montenegro. It appears that it has chosen the right path.
In the choice of the ground on which the Court is basing its lack of

jurisdiction, the Court enjoys a certain discretion — discretio legalis —
whose limits are determined by common sense and overriding legal con-
siderations emanating from the very nature of the judicial function. In
that regard, the Court has produced a general formula in the Certain
Norwegian Loans case, stating that “the Court is free to base its decision

on the ground which in its judgment is more direct and conclusive”
(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957 , p. 25).
The Court puts the formula in concrete terms depending on the cir-
cumstances of each particular case in order to determine the ground

which, objectively, has priority, both in terms of commonsense and in the
sense of legal considerations, in relation to the other grounds raised.
In concreto, it appears that locus standi of Serbia and Montenegro
deserves absolute priority in relation to the other grounds raised.

The priority emanates from the very nature of locus standi as the pre-

111 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1414

De la décision prise par les organes compétents de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies découlent des conséquences juridiques. L’admission de la

RFY en querité de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies à comp-
ter du 1 novembre 2000 a deux conséquences principales dans les cir-
constances des présentes affaires:

i) en ce qui concerne l’admission de la Yougoslavie en qualité de
Membre à compter du 1 er novembre 2000, on peut dire, bien que
cela relève surtout de la description, qu’il est question ici de son admis-

sion «en qualité de nouveau Membre». Cette expression indique quel
fut son statut dans le temps par rapport aux Membres admis à une
date antérieure;
ii) le fait que la Yougoslavie fut admise comme Membre à compter du
er
1 novembre 2000 indique quelle était précédemment la nature de son
statut vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations Unies. Manifestement,
au vu des décisions prises par les organes compétents de l’Organisa-
tion des Nations Unies, ce statut ne pouvait être celui de Membre.

Autrement, la Yougoslavie nerurait pas pu être admise en qualité de
Membre à compter du 1 novembre 2000. Comme on ne peut en
même temps être une chose et son contraire, la Yougoslavie ne pou-
vait avoir été à la fois Membre et non-membre pendant la période

allant de 1992 à 2000.
30. En l’espèce, la Cour a eu à connaître de plusieurs exceptions pré-

liminaires présentées par le défendeur au sujet de la compétence spéciale
de la Cour sous ses trois aspects (ratione personae, ratione materiae,
ratione temporis), de la recevabilité des demandes de la Yougoslavie et de
la compétence générale de la Cour (locus standi de la Serbie-et-Monténé-

gro).
Ayant conclu au défaut de compétence, la Cour a fondé sa décision
essentiellement sur le fait que la Serbie-et-Monténégro n’avait pas qualité
pour ester devant elle. La Cour a, semble-t-il, choisi la bonne voie.

Sur le choix du motif pour lequel elle se déclare incompétente, la Cour
jouit d’un certain pouvoir discrétionnaire — discretio legalis — dont les
limites sont définies par le bon sens et par des considérations juridiques
primordiales tenant à la nature même de la fonction judiciaire. A cet

égard, la Cour a, en l’affaire relative à Certains emprunts norvégiens ,
énoncé une formule générale consistant à dire qu’«[elle] est libre de baser
sa décision sur le motif qui, selon elle, est plus direct et décisif» (Certains
emprunts norvégiens, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1957 , p. 25).
La Cour applique concrètement cette formule selon les circonstances

de chaque affaire afin de déterminer quel est, objectivement, le motif qui
a priorité sur les autres arguments invoqués, tant selon le bon sens qu’en
vertu de considérations juridiques.
En l’espèce, il semble que la qualité de la Serbie-et-Monténégro pour

ester devant la Cour (locus standi) mérite d’être considérée comme ayant
priorité absolue sur les autres motifs soulevés.
Cette priorité résulte de la nature même du locus standi, qui est la

1111415 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP. KREuA )

condition, in contrast to the other grounds raised representing the condi-
tions of the special jurisdiction of the Court in all the three aspects raised,

on which to base the jurisdiction of the Court in casu. As such it alone
is sufficient and capable, independently of other grounds raised, of pro-
ducing direct and conclusive effect on the jurisdiction of the Court. None
of the relevant aspects of the special jurisdiction of the Court (ratione

personae, ratione materiae, ratione temporis) , as well as special jurisdic-
tion itself, possesses this capability. For, if Serbia and Montenegro does
not have locus standi, then any discourse about them is devoid of any
substance. It seems to be a proper application of the legal principle, being
also a principle of common sense, a majori ad minus.

Furthermore, it should not be taken as irrelevant that the choice made
by the Court corresponds to the purpose that the Respondent, as well
as the Applicant, attached to the issue of locus standi of Serbia and

Montenegro in their pleadings before the Court and final submissions
respectively.
31. In the light of these considerations, especially under sections 1 and
3 of this part, I am of the opinion that the formulation of the dispositif

explicitly linked to the absence of locus standi of Serbia and Monte-
negro would be more appropriate considering the circumstances of the
cases. The same effect could be produced by simply adding the adjective
“general” to the word “jurisdiction”. Not only because the question of

locus standi was sedes materiae of these proceedings, but because such a
formulation would naturally derive what the Court said dealing with par-
ticular basis of jurisdiction invoked (exempli causa, Judgment, paras. 44,
77 and 89). In the formulation accepted it appears that the dispositif and

reasoning of the Court are not, at least, sufficiently coherent.

II. THE G ROUNDS INVOKED BY THE RESPONDENTS FOR REJECTING THE
A PPLICATION IN LIMINE LITIS

1. Implicit Discontinuance as a contradictio in adiecto

32. The arguments of the Respondents, specifically elaborated by
France, tended to move in the direction of termination of the proceedings
on the basis of something that might be termed “implicit discontinu-
ance”.
Namely, it was contended that “the Federal Government of Yugosla-

via could...have made the choice — the simple, reasonable choice — to
discontinue the proceedings. This was not the case, at least not expli-
citly.” (CR2004/12, p. 6, paras. 3 and 4; emphasis added.) Commenting
on the Written Observations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia,

counsel for France finds that “[t]his looks very much like a discontinu-
ance that will not speak its name” (ibid., p. 8, para. 9 [translation by the
Registry]).

112 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE OP .IND .KRECA ) 1415
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condition préalable à remplir pour fonder la juridiction de la Cour en
l’espèce, à la différence des autres motifs invoqués qui représentent les
conditions de la compétence spéciale de la Cour sous les trois aspects à

considérer. La qualité pour ester devant la Cour peut à elle seule, indé-
pendamment des autres motifs soulevés, suffire à produire un effet direct
et définitif sur la compétence de la Cour. Aucun des aspects pertinents de
la compétence spéciale de la Cour (ratione personae, ratione materiae,
ratione temporis), pas plus que la compétence spéciale elle-même, ne peut

avoir cet effet. Car, si la Serbie-et-Monténégro n’a pas de locus standi,
toute considération relative à ces autres aspects est sans objet. C’est là
une application opportune du principe juridique a majori ad minus, qui
est également un principe de bon sens.

En outre, il n’est pas à négliger que le choix fait par la Cour corres-
ponde à l’objet que le défendeur tout autant que le demandeur ont assi-
gné à la question du locus standi de la Serbie-et-Monténégro dans leurs
exposés devant la Cour et dans leurs conclusions finales.

31. Eu égard aux considérations que je viens d’exposer, en particulier
dans les sections 1 et 3 de cette partie, je suis d’avis qu’un dispositif lié
expressément au défaut de locus standi de la Serbie-et-Monténégro serait
plus approprié compte tenu des circonstances des affaires. On produirait

le même effet en qualifiant simplement le terme «compétence» par l’adjec-
tif «générale». Non seulement parce que la question de la qualité pour
ester devant la Cour était le sedes materiae des procédures considérées,
mais aussi parce qu’un tel libellé découlerait naturellement de ce que la

Cour a dit au sujet de la base de compétence invoquée (voir, par exemple,
les paragraphes 44, 77 et 89 de l’arrêt). Le libellé adopté semble révéler à
tout le moins un manque de cohérence entre le dispositif et le raisonne-
ment de la Cour.

II. LES RAISONS INVOQUÉES PAR LES DÉFENDEURS EN FAVEUR D ’UN REJET

IN LIMINE LITIS DE LA REQUÊTE

1. Le désistement implicite est une contradictio in adjecto

32. Les défendeurs, en particulier la France, ont cherché à plaider la
clôture de l’instance sur la base de ce que l’on pourrait appeler un «désis-
tement implicite».

Il a en effet été dit que «la République fédérale de Yougoslavie aurait
pu faire le choix ..., choix simple et raisonnable, du désistement... Ce n’est
pas le cas, du moins pas explicitement .» (CR2004/12, p. 6, par. 3 et 4; les
italiques sont de moi.) Commentant les observations écrites de la Répu-

blique fédérale de Yougoslavie, le conseil de la France déclare «[c]eci
ressemble fort à un désistement qui ne dit pas son nom» (ibid.,p .,
par. 9).

1121416 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

Discontinuance, as designed by Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules of

Court, is comprised of two constitutive elements taken cumulatively: the
will of the parties and the proper process.
The will of the parties represents normative substance of discontinu-
ance as designed in Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules, serving as the legal
basis on which the discontinuance may be effected. By way of “the will of

the parties” discontinuance reflects the structural principle of consensual
jurisdiction in contentious cases according to which the Court cannot
discontinue or withdraw a case on behalf of the parties, if the parties do
not wish so. Viewed in that sense, the will of the parties is an overriding
condition for discontinuance within the meaning of Articles 88 and 89

of the Rules.
The modalities of expression of the will differ. In accordance with
Article 88 of the Rules, agreement of the parties is required and, in the
light of Article 89, paragraph 2, the absence of the objection of the respon-

dent which, in fact, constitutes the presumption of acquiescence, is of
relevance.
The proper process aimed at discontinuance implies the actions of the
party (or parties), as well as an order of the Court. The discontinuance
process, in terms of Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules, bears a dual charac-

teristic: primo, in view of substantial meaning of the will of the parties
the order of the Court represents a neutral act of the Court, an act whose
“main object...sit provide a procedural facility, or rather...ot
reduce the process of discontinuance to order” (Barcelona Traction,
Light and Power Company, Limited, Preliminary Objections, Judgment,

I.C.J. Reports 1964, p. 19); secundo, Article 88, paragraph 1, of the
Rules provides that “the parties, either jointly or separately, notify the
Court in writing” (emphasis added), while Article 89, paragraph 1, stipu-
lates that “the applicant informs the Court in writing” (emphasis added).
The Court effectuated it through an order with reference to Article 48 of

the Statute and Article 88 or 89 of the Rules respectively.

33. In concreto, the eventual discontinuance would, in the light of the
relevant circumstances of the case, have to be based on the provision

of Article 89, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court which provides as
follows:

“If, at the time when the notice of discontinuance is received, the
respondent has already taken some step in the proceedings, the

Court shall fix a time-limit within which the respondent may state
whether it opposes the discontinuance of the proceedings. If no
objection is made to the discontinuance before the expiration of the
time-limit, acquiescence will be presumed and the Court shall make
an order officially recording the discontinuance of the proceedings

and directing the removal of the case from the list. If objection is
made, the proceedings shall continue.”

113 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1416

Un désistement, aux termes des articles 88 et 89 du Règlement de la
Cour, repose sur deux éléments qui agissent cumulativement: la volonté
des parties et la régularité du processus.
La volonté des parties représente l’aspect normatif du désistement tel

qu’il est défini aux articles 88 et 89 du Règlement, car elle constitue le
fondement juridique en vertu duquel le désistement peut être opéré. A
travers «la volonté des parties», le désistement traduit le principe struc-
turel de la compétence consensuelle dans les procédures contentieuses,
selon lequel la Cour ne peut radier ni retirer une affaire du rôle au nom

des parties si telle n’est pas leur volonté. Vue sous cet angle, la volonté
des parties est une condition primordiale du désistement au sens des ar-
ticles 88 et 89 du Règlement.
La volonté des parties s’exprime de différentes manières. Selon l’ar-
ticle 88 du Règlement, l’accord des parties est nécessaire et, à la lumière

du paragraphe 2 de l’article 89, l’absence d’objection de la part du défen-
deur — qui constitue en fait une présomption d’acquiescement — doit
aussi être prise en compte.
Le processus normal de désistement comprend les actions de la partie

ou des parties, ainsi qu’une ordonnance de la Cour. Ce processus, aux
termes des articles 88 et 89 du Règlement, présente une double caracté-
ristique: premièrement, compte tenu de la signification essentielle que
revêt la volonté des parties, l’ordonnance de la Cour constitue un acte
neutre ayant «principalement pour objet de prévoir un moyen de procé-

dure ou plutôt ... d’organiser le processus de désistement» (Barcelona
Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1964 , p. 19); deuxièmement, le paragraphe 1 de
l’article 88 du Règlement dispose que «les parties, conjointement ou
séparément, notifient à la Cour par écrit [leur accord]» (les italiques sont

de moi), tandis que le paragraphe 1 de l’article 89 indique que «le
demandeur fait connaître par écrit à la Cour [sa renonciation]» (les ita-
liques sont de moi). La Cour donne effet au désistement par voie
d’ordonnance en vertu de l’article 48 du Statut et de l’article 88 ou 89 du

Règlement.
33. Au cas particulier, le désistement devrait, le cas échéant et à la
lumière des circonstances propres à l’espèce, être fondé sur les disposi-
tions du paragraphe 2 de l’article 89 du Règlement de la Cour, qui se
lisent comme suit:

«Si, à la date de la réception du désistement, le défendeur a déjà
fait acte de procédure, la Cour fixe un délai dans lequel il peut décla-
rer s’il s’oppose au désistement. Si, dans le délai fixé, il n’est pas fait

objection au désistement, celui-ci est réputé acquis et la Cour rend
une ordonnance en prenant acte et prescrivant la radiation de l’affaire
sur le rôle. S’il est fait objection, l’instance se poursuit.»

1131417 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

However, none of the elements of discontinuance, both those concern-

ing the will of the parties and those concerning the proper process,
embodied in that provision are met.
Serbia and Montenegro, as the Applicant, clearly and unambiguously
expressed the will not to discontinue the proceedings. In his concluding
remarks during the oral hearing, the Agent of Serbia and Montenegro

repeatedly pointed out that the Applicant “did not discontinue the pro-
ceedings” (CR2004/23, p. 16, para. 21; p. 18, para. 27; p. 20, para. 34).
As such, it is obvious that Serbia and Montenegro could not have
submitted notice of discontinuance to the Court as provided for by
Article 89, paragraph 2, of the Rules. Some respondent States (the

United Kingdom, the Netherlands and France), true, saw notice of dis-
continuance in the Written Observations of Serbia and Montenegro of
18 December 2002. The Applicant, in its reply to those contentions
contained in a letter dated 28 February 2003 from the Agent of Serbia

and Montenegro, stresses that “the Written Observations of 18 December
2002 do not represent such a notice of discontinuance”. As the will of
the Applicant to discontinue the proceedings in concreto simply does
not exist, there are no elements for forming the will of the parties as the
basis of discontinuance. The statement of the Respondent regarding

the discontinuance of the proceedings is, in this case, irrelevant and
could be qualified as an invitation or a proposal to the Applicant to
proceed to the discontinuance process provided for in Article 89,
paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court.
34. The provisions of Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules, as a part of the

procedural law of the Court, are binding rules both upon the parties and
upon the Court itself. Although created by the Court, the relevant pro-
cedural rules, as legal rules, possess an objective existence, imposing the
restraints that the Court itself must observe. The Court has no power
to modify the operation of Article 89 of the Rules ad casum. Such a con-

clusion, it seems to me, clearly derives both from the nature of the
procedural rules, as legal rules, and from the legislative history of the
Rules of Court. The proposals that it should assume such a power were
rejected with the explanation that “the parties were entitled to have
a reliable guarantee of the stability of the rules of procedure” (Sixth

Meeting of 19 May 1934, P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 2 (3rd add.), p. 38).

It is true that, in contrast to Articles 93 to 97 of Part III of the Rules,
the provisions of Article 89 can be modified or supplemented by the
parties inter se in accordance with Article 101 of the Rules of Court,

which provides:

“The parties to a case may jointly propose particular modifica-
tions or additions to the rules contained in the present Part (with the
exception of Articles 93 to 97 inclusive), which may be applied by

the Court or by a Chamber if the Court or the Chamber considers
them appropriate in the circumstances of the case.”

114 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE OP .IND .KRECA ) 1417
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Cependant, aucune des conditions relatives au désistement énoncées
dans ces dispositions, en ce qui concerne tant la volonté des parties que la
procédure voulue, n’est remplie.

La Serbie-et-Monténégro, en sa qualité de demandeur, a exprimé clai-
rement et sans ambiguïté la volonté de ne pas se désister de l’instance.
Dans les observations qu’il a formulées en guise de conclusion à l’issue de
la procédure orale, l’agent de la Serbie-et-Monténégro a souligné maintes
fois que le demandeur «[ne s’était] pas désist[é] de l’instance» (CR2004/

23, p. 16, par. 21; p. 18, par. 27; p. 20, par. 34). Il est donc évident que la
Serbie-et-Monténégro ne pouvait avoir notifié son désistement à la Cour
comme le prévoit le paragraphe 2 de l’article 89 du Règlement. Il est vrai
que certains Etats défendeurs (le Royaume-Uni, les Pays-Bas et la France)

ont interprété les observations écrites de la Serbie-et-Monténégro du
18 décembre 2002 comme une notification de désistement. Le demandeur,
répondant à ces affirmations dans la lettre de son agent en date du
28 février 2003, a souligné que la Serbie-et-Monténégro «n’a[vait] pas fait

état, dans ses observations écrites [du 18 décembre 2002], d’un tel désis-
tement». Comme il n’y a tout bonnement pas en l’espèce de volonté du
demandeur de se désister de l’instance, rien ne permet de faire de la
volonté des parties un motif de désistement. La déclaration du défendeur
concernant le désistement est, en l’occurrence, sans pertinence et pourrait

être qualifiée d’invitation ou de proposition adressée au demandeur pour
qu’il se désiste dans les conditions prévues au paragraphe 2 de l’article 89
du Règlement de la Cour.
34. Les dispositions des articles 88 et 89 du Règlement, lesquelles s’ins-

crivent dans le cadre du droit procédural de la Cour, sont des règles obli-
gatoires pour les parties et pour la Cour elle-même. Bien qu’établies par
la Cour, les règles de procédure applicables, en tant que règles de droit,
ont une existence objective et imposent des restrictions que la Cour elle-
même est tenue d’observer. La Cour n’a pas la faculté de modifier ad

casum l’application de l’article 89 du Règlement. Cette conclusion découle
clairement, à mon sens, à la fois de la nature des règles de procédure en
tant que règles de droit et de la genèse du Règlement de la Cour. Les
propositions visant à investir la Cour de cette faculté ont été rejetées au

motif que «les plaideurs ont droit à une sérieuse garantie de la stabilité
des règles de la procédure» (sixième séance, tenue le 19 mai 1934, C.P.J.I.
série D, 3 addendum au n 2, p. 38).
Il est vrai que, contrairement aux article 93 à 97 du titre III du Règle-

ment, les dispositions de l’article 89 peuvent être modifiées ou complétées
par les parties inter se conformément à l’article 101 du Règlement de la
Cour, qui dispose:

«Les parties à une affaire peuvent proposer d’un commun accord

d’apporter aux articles contenus dans le présent titre, à l’exception
des articles 93 à 97 inclus, des modifications ou additions particu-
lières que la Cour ou une chambre peut adopter si elle les estime
appropriées aux circonstances de l’espèce.»

1141418 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECA )
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But the Parties to the present dispute have not had recourse to the

possibility offered by the provisions of Article 101.
35. In the light of the provisions of Article 89 of the Rules of Court
“implicit discontinuance” would be contradictio in adiecto . “Implicit dis-

continuance” is in irreconcilable collision both with the explicit intention
of the Applicant to continue the proceedings and with the formal nature
of the discontinuance process. It would, in the circumstances of the case

at hand, imply that the Court renounce the ministerial function which
basically belongs to it in the construction of discontinuance on the basis
of Article 89. Accordingly, the order on discontinuance, too, which, pur-

suant to Article 89 of the Rules, is of a declaratory nature (Article 89
determines the function of the order on discontinuance as “officially

recording the discontinuance of the proceedings”; in that sense, a per- 7
fectly coherent jurisprudence of the Court has also been formed ) would
assume the features of a constitutive act.

36. The respondent States, in formulating the thesis of “implicit dis-
continuance”, seem to have been inspired by the reasoning of the Court
in the cases concerning Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France) and Nuclear

Tests (New Zealand v. France). However, the relevant facts of the
Nuclear Tests cases do not offer ground for any analogy whatsoever with
this particular case.

The Nuclear Tests cases have not been discontinued on the basis of

7 Cases concerning Factory at Chorzów, Order of 25 May 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A,

No. 19,p.13; Delimitation of the Territorial Waters between the Island of Castellorizo
and the Coasts of Anatolia, Order of 26 January 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 51 ,p.6;
Losinger, Order of 14 December 1936, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 69 , p. 101; Borchgrave,
Order of 30 April 1938, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 73 ,p.5;Appeals from Certain Judg-
ments of the Hungaro/Czechoslovak Mixed Arbitral Tribunal, Order of 12 May 1933,
P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 56 , p. 164; Legal Status of the South-Eastern Territory of
Greenland, Order of 11 May 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 55 , p. 159 (in this case the
Court took note that Norway and Denmark had withdrawn their respective applications);
Prince von Pless Administration, Order of 2 December 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 59 ,
pp. 195-196; Polish Agrarian Reform and German Minority, Order of 2 December 1933,

P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 60 , pp. 202-203; Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 (United States
of America v. Bulgaria), Order of 30 May 1960, I.C.J. Reports 1960 , pp. 146-148; Bar-
celona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, Order of 10 April 1961, I.C.J
Reports 1961, pp. 9-10; Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War, Order of 15 December 1973,
I.C.J. Reports 1973, pp. 347-348; Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua
v. Costa Rica), Order of 19 August 1987, I.C.J. Reports 1987 , pp. 182-183; Passage
through the Great Belt (Finland v. Denmark), Order of 10 September 1992, I.C.J.
Reports 1992, pp. 348-349; Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v. United
States of America), Order of 10 November 1998, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 427.

The acquiescence of respondent State has been presumed in the case concerning Protec-

tion of French Nationals and Protected Persons in Egypt, Order of 29 March 1950, I.C.J.
Reports 1950,p.60.
On the basis of a unilateral act of the applicant, discontinuance has been effectuated
in the cases concerning Denunciation of the Treaty of 2 November 1865 between China
and Belgium, Order of 25 May 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 18 ,p.7Trial of Pakistani
Prisoners of War, Order of 15 December 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1973 , p. 348.

115 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND . KRECu ) 1418

Les Parties au présent différend n’ont cependant pas eu recours à la pos-
sibilité que leur offrent les dispositions de l’article 101.
35. A la lumière de l’article 89 du Règlement de la Cour, un «désis-

tement implicite» constituerait une contradictio in adjecto . Un «désiste-
ment implicite» serait totalement incompatible avec l’intention expresse

du demandeur de poursuivre l’instance et aussi avec le caractère formel
du processus de désistement. Dans les circonstances propres à l’espèce, il

signifierait que la Cour renonce à jouer le rôle essentiellement exécutif
qui lui incombe quand elle doit prononcer un désistement fondé sur

l’article 89. Dans ces conditions, alors que l’ordonnance relative au
désistement elle-même est de nature déclaratoire en vertu de l’article 89

du Règlement (aux termes de cet article, l’ordonnance a pour rôle de
«pren[dre] acte du désistement»; et il existe aussi à cet égard une juris-
prudence de la Cour 7 qui est tout à fait cohérente), cette ordonnance

revêtirait l’aspect d’un acte constitutif.
36. Lorsqu’ils ont défendu la thèse du «désistement implicite», les

Etats défendeurs semblent s’être inspirés de la motivation que la Cour
expose dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France) (Nou-

velle-Zélande c. France) . Aucune analogie ne peut cependant être établie
entre les faits pertinents des affaires des Essais nucléaires et la présente

espèce.
Dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires, il n’y a pas eu de désistement

7 Affaires visées: Usine de Chorzów, ordonnance du 25 mai 1929, C.P.J.I. série A no19,
p. 3; Délimitation des eaux territoriales entre l’île de Castellorizo et les côtes d’Anatolie,
ordonnance du 26 janvier 1933, C.P.J.I. série A/B n o51,p.6; Losinger, ordonnance du
o
14 décembre 1936, C.P.J.I.osérie A/B n 69, p. 101; Borchgrave, ordonnance du 30 avril
1938, C.P.J.I. série A/B n 73,p.5;Appels contre certains jugements du tribunal arbioral
mixte hungaro-tchécoslovaque, ordonnance du 12 mai 1933, C.P.J.I. série A/B n 56,
p. 164; Statut juridique du territoire du sud-est du Groënland, ordonnance du 11 mai 1933,
C.P.J.I. série A/B no55, p. 159 (dans cette affaire, la Cour prit acte des déclarations de la
Norvège et du Danemark portant désistement de leurs requêtes respectives); Administra-
o
tion du prince von Pless, ordonnance du 2 décembre 1933, C.P.J.I. série A/B n 59, p. 195-
196; Réforme agraire oolonaise et minorité allemande, ordonnance du 2 décembre 1933,
C.P.J.I. série A/B n 60, p. 202-203; Incident aérien du 27 juillet 1955 (Etats-Unis
d’Amérique c. Bulgarie), ordonnance du 30 mai 1960, C.I.J. Recueil 1960 , p. 146-148;
Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, ordonnance du 10 avril 1961,
C.I.J. Recueil 1960, p. 9-10; Procès de prisonniers de guerre pakistanais, ordonnance du

15 décembre 1973, C.I.J. Recueil 1973 , p. 347-348; Actions armées frontalières et trans-
frontalières (Nicaragua c. Costa Rica), ordonnance du 19 août 1987, C.I.J. Recueil 1987 ,
p. 182-183; Passage par le Grand-Belt (Finlande c. Danemark), ordonnance du 10 sep-
tembre 1992, C.I.J. Recueil 1992 , p. 348-349; Convention de Vienne sur les relations
consulaires (Paraguay c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), ordonnance du 10 novembre 1998,
C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 427.

Le désistement de l’Etat défendeur a été réputé acquis dans l’affaire relative à la Protec-
tion des ressortissants et protégés français en Egypte, ordonnance du 29 mars 1950, C.I.J.
Recueil 1950,p.60.
Le désistement a été opéré sur la base d’un acte unilatéral du demandeur dans les
affaires relatives à la Dénonciation du traité sino-belge du 2 novembre 1865, ordonnance du
25 mai 1929, C.P.J.I. série A n 18,p.7;etauProcès de prisonniers de guerre pakistanais,

ordonnance du 15 décembre 1973, C.I.J. Recueil 1973 , p. 348.

1151419 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules. The Court, in fact, terminated the pro-

ceedings in those cases due to the lack of object of the Application , fol-
lowing its reasoning in the Northern Cameroons case (Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963 , p. 38). The Court found, inter alia,
that “[t]he object of the claim having clearly disappeared, there is nothing
on which to give judgment” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 272, para. 59) and that
“[t]he conclusion at which the Court has arrived... does not mean

that it is itself effecting a compromise of the claim; the Court is
merely ascertaining the object of the claim and the effect of the
Respondent’s action” (ibid., p. 270, para. 54; emphasis added).

It is obvious in this particular case that the object of the Application
stands as defined at the moment of instituting the proceedings, causing
the real dispute before the Court, whereas the respondent State did not

take any action nor assumed any commitment whereby the objective of
the Applicant would have been accomplished. (See the objective of the
Applicant, Judgment, para. 20.)

2. The Congruence of the Statements of Facts by the Parties and the
Duty of the Court to Examine its Jurisdiction ex officio

37. In their preliminary objections all the Respondents have found,
inter alia, that the Applicant was neither a Member of the United
Nations nor party to the Statute of the Court, and accordingly did not

have access to the Court at the time of submission of its Application, as
sine qua non condition of the Court’s jurisdiction.

The Applicant for its part, contended that it was admitted to the
United Nations on 1 November 2000 as a new Member and furthermore

that it was not bound by the Statute pursuant to Article 93, paragraph 2,
of the United Nations Charter; nor did it issue a declaration as contem-
plated in Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court.

38. The Respondent contended that, due to the fundamental change of

its position regarding membership in the United Nations and its status as
a party to the Genocide Convention respectively, Serbia and Montenegro
should be estopped from continuing the proceedings on the preliminary
objections. The contention seems to be dubious for the following reasons.
Primo, the doctrine of estoppel is basically founded on the maxim alle-

gans contraria non est audiendus . It could not be taken, however, that, by
claiming continuity of the membership in the United Nations, the Appli-
cant has made a representation on the faith of which the Respondent has
changed its own position suffering some prejudice. As a matter of fact, by
changing its position regarding membership in the United Nations and

its status as a party to the Genocide Convention, the Applicant has acted
against the case it instituted before the Court. Of key importance is the

116 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECA ) 1419
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procédant des articles 88 et 89 du Règlement. En fait, dans ces affaires, la
Cour, suivant la motivation qu’elle avait retenue en l’affaire du Came-
roun septentrional (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1963 ,

p. 38), a mis fin aux instances en raison de l’absence d’objet de la requête .
La Cour a notamment estimé que «[l]a demande ayant manifestement
perdu son objet, il n’y a[vait] rien à juger» (Essais nucléaires (Australie
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 272, par. 59) et que

«[l]a conclusion à laquelle cette interprétation a[vait] amené la Cour
ne signifi[ait] pas qu’elle opér[ait]elle-même un retrait de la demande;

elle se born[ait] à établir l’objet de cette demande et l’effet des actes
du défendeur» (ibid., p. 270, par. 54; les italiques sont de moi).

Il est évident que, dans la présente espèce, l’objet de la requête demeure
celui qui a été défini au moment de l’introduction de l’instance et qui est
à l’origine du véritable différend dont la Cour est saisie, puisque l’Etat
défendeur n’a pris aucune mesure ni aucun engagement qui auraient per-

mis d’atteindre l’objectif du demandeur (voir objectif du demandeur,
arrêt, par. 20).

2. Concordance des exposés des Parties sur les faits et obligation pour

la Cour d’examiner ex officio sa compétence

37. Dans leurs exceptions préliminaires, les défendeurs ont tous affirmé
notamment que le demandeur n’était pas membre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies ni partie au Statut de la Cour et que, par conséquent,

la Cour ne lui était pas ouverte à la date du dépôt de sa requête, alors
que cette condition est indispensable pour établir la compétence de la
Cour.
Le demandeur, de son côté, a affirmé avoir été admis à l’Organisation
des Nations Unies le 1 ernovembre 2000 en qualité de nouveau Membre

et n’être pas non plus lié par le Statut en vertu du paragraphe 2 de
l’article 93 de la Charte des Nations Unies; il n’a pas davantage fait
la déclaration prévue au paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut de la
Cour.

38. Le défendeur a soutenu que, en raison du changement fondamen-
tal de position opéré par la Serbie-et-Monténégro au sujet de sa qualité
de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et par ailleurs de son
statut de partie à la convention sur le génocide, il fallait l’empêcher par la

voie de l’estoppel de poursuivre l’instance portant sur les exceptions pré-
liminaires. L’argument semble discutable pour diverses raisons. Premiè-
rement, la doctrine de l’estoppel repose essentiellement sur la maxime
allegans contraria non est audiendus . On ne saurait cependant considérer
que le demandeur, en affirmant assurer la continuité de la qualité de

Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, a avancé une thèse sur la
foi de laquelle le défendeur a revisé sa position à son propre détriment.
En fait, le demandeur, en modifiant sa position au sujet de sa qualité de
Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et de son statut de partie à

1161420 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

question whether the change has taken place on a basis of caprice or a

litigation opportunity or, indeed, as an expression of accommodation to
the real state of affairs created without the Applicant’s active participa-
tion, which it could not resist. Secundo, estoppel, even supposing it to be
established in casu, cannot operate against the question of locus standi as
a constitutional requirement of the Statute establishing the objective limit

of exercise of the judicial function of the Court. Tertio, it appears that
the Respondent influenced, or could have influenced, the Applicant’s
position in relation to the two relevant jurisdictional facts: membership
of the Applicant of the United Nations and its status as a party to the
Genocide Convention. Acting as a Member State of the United Nations,

the Respondent voted for the legally contradictory General Assembly
resolution 47/1. It must have been aware of the strong elements of politi-
cal instrumentality contained in the resolution. Besides, the Respondent
has not dissociated itself from the subsequent practice of the United

Nations organs. The Respondent’s position — that the Applicant is one
of five equal successors of the SFRY — is, in the circumstances of this
particular case, in conflict with the treatment of the Applicant as a party
to the Genocide Convention. It is a matter of public knowledge that,
until 12 March 2001, the Applicant had not expressed its consent to be

bound by the Convention in accordance with Article XI of the Conven-
tion, nor did it, for that matter, issue notification of succession. In the
absence of any rules of positive international law on automatic succes-
sion, the only basis to consider the Applicant as a party to the Genocide
Convention is in its legal identity and continuity with the SFRY.

39. It is indisputable that the statements of facts by the Parties relating

to the status of the Applicant in the United Nations as well as to the
Statute of the Court coincide at this phase of the proceedings. (It would
be difficult to claim in concreto that this amounts to the acceptance or
recognition by the Applicant of the Respondent’s statement of facts.
Recognition or acceptance is a volitional act, the expression of the inten-

tion of one party to bow to the allegations of the other party. Rather,
what is involved here is a concurrence of the statements of facts by the
parties, having in mind that the Applicant formulated its own statement
of facts concerning the relevant matter, practically with an identical
content, already at the time of the “Initiative to the Court to reconsider

ex officio jurisdiction over Yugoslavia” (4 May 2001) and in the case
concerning Application for Revision .)
It could not be taken for granted, however, that the concurrence or
even the recognition of the statement of facts as presented by the Respon-
dent, on the part of the Applicant, is determinative of the case and that it

removes per se the need to examine the jurisdiction of the Court.

117 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1420

la convention sur le génocide, a agi à l’encontre de l’instance qu’il a intro-
duite devant la Cour. Il est d’une importance capitale de savoir si ce
changement résulte d’un caprice ou d’un artifice de procédure, ou s’il tra-
duit l’adaptation du demandeur à un état de fait créé sans participation

active de sa part et sans qu’il puisse s’y opposer. Deuxièmement, l’estop-
pel, à supposer même qu’il soit établi in casu, ne peut entrer en contradic-
tion avec la question du locus standi, condition énoncée dans le Statut et
établissant la limite objective de l’exercice de la fonction judiciaire de la
Cour. Troisièmement, il s’avère que le défendeur a exercé, ou peut avoir

exercé, une influence sur la position du demandeur par rapport à deux
faits juridictionnels pertinents: la qualité de Membre de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies du demandeur et son statut de partie à la convention
sur le génocide. En qualité d’Etat Membre de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies, le défendeur a voté pour la résolution 47/1 — juridiquement contra-

dictoire — de l’Assemblée générale. Il a certainement eu conscience que
cette résolution représentait un important moyen d’action politique. En
outre, le défendeur n’a pas non plus retiré son adhésion à la pratique sui-
vie ultérieurement par les organes des Nations Unies. Dans le cadre de la

présente espèce, la position du défendeur — laquelle est que le deman-
deur est l’un des cinq successeurs de la RSFY se trouvant sur un pied
d’égalité — exclut que le demandeur soit considéré comme étant partie à
la convention sur le génocide. Il est de notoriété publique que, jusqu’au
12 mars 2001, le demandeur n’avait pas expressément consenti à être lié

par la convention en vertu de l’article XI de celle-ci et qu’il n’a d’ailleurs
pas publié de notification de succession à ce sujet. En l’absence de règles
de droit international positif en matière de succession automatique, c’est
uniquement sur la base de l’identité et de la continuité juridiques entre le
demandeur et la RSFY que le demandeur peut être considéré comme

étant partie à la convention sur le génocide.
39. Incontestablement, à ce stade de l’instance, les exposés des Parties
sur les faits coïncident en ce qui concerne le statut du demandeur tant
vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations Unies qu’au regard du Statut de

la Cour. (Il serait difficile d’affirmer en l’espèce que cela équivaut à
l’acceptation ou à la reconnaissance par le demandeur de l’exposé des
faits émanant du défendeur. La reconnaissance ou l’acceptation est un
acte délibéré, exprimant l’intention d’une partie de s’incliner devant les
allégations de l’autre. Il s’agit plutôt, ici, d’une convergence des exposés

des Parties sur les faits, étant donné que, déjà à l’époque de l’«Initiative
présentée à la Cour aux fins d’un réexamen d’office de sa compétence»
(en date du 4 mai 2001) et en l’affaire de la Demande en revision,e l
demandeur avait présenté à ce sujet un exposé des faits dont la teneur

était pratiquement identique.)
On ne peut cependant pas tenir pour acquis que la convergence des
vues du demandeur et du défendeur sur les faits, voire la reconnaissance
par le demandeur de l’exposé des faits tel qu’il est présenté par le défen-
deur, soit concluante pour l’instance et qu’elle suffise en soi à écarter la

nécessité d’examiner si la Cour est compétente.

1171421 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

(a) Aspect of the legal logic

40. Concurrence or recognition, direct or indirect, of the statement of
facts of one party to the proceedings only determines the content of prae-
misae minor of the Court’s syllogism whose conclusio is the ruling on the
justification of the preliminary objection. Understood in this sense, con-
currence or recognition of the statement of facts does not determine, or

at least does not determine in full, the law that the Court should apply —
praemisae major.
If the concurrence of the statement of facts of the parties had an auto-
matic effect on the jurisdiction of the Court, then the parties, and not the
Court, would be deciding, in the substantive sense, the relevant law that

regulates the jurisdiction of the Court. And such an outcome would mean
a departure from the principle, deriving from the very essence of the judi-
cial function, i.e., that the Court is the sole judge of its jurisdiction.

(b) Normative aspect

41. In view of the fact that “the establishment or otherwise of jurisdic-
tion is not a matter for the parties but for the Court itself” (Fisheries
Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 450, para. 37; also, individual opinion of Presi-
dent McNair in the jurisdiction phase of the case concerning Anglo-

Iranian Oil Co. in which he stated that “[a]n international tribunal can-
not regard a question of jurisdiction solely as a question inter partes”
(Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952, pp. 116-117)),
the dispute of the parties regarding the jurisdiction in the preliminary
objection phase is not a necessary condition for the Court to address

the issue of jurisdiction.

Preliminary objections raised by a party are only a tool, a procedurally
designed weapon for the establishment of the jurisdiction of the Court,
suo nomine et suo vigore, for it is under an obligation to do so ex officio.

The legal meaning of the proceedings on preliminary objection has
been defined by the Court in the case concerning Rights of Minorities in
Upper Silesia (Minority Schools) (hereinafter referred to as “Minority
Schools”), as follows:

“the raising of an objection by one Party merely draws the attention
of the Court to an objection to the jurisdiction which it must ex
officio consider”( Rights of Minorities in Upper Silesia (Minority

Schools), Judgment No. 12, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 ,p.23;
emphasis added).

Or, as stated by the Court in the Genocide Convention case:

“[t]he Court must, in each case submitted to it, verify whether it has
jurisdiction to deal with the case... [S]uch objections as are raised

118 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE OP .IND .KRECA ) 1421
u

a) L’aspect logique juridique

40. La convergence de vues ou la reconnaissance, directe ou indirecte,
de l’exposé des faits émanant d’une partie à l’instance ne détermine que le
contenu de la prémisse mineure du syllogisme dont la conclusion est la

décision que la Cour adopte sur l’exception préliminaire. Vue sous cet
angle, la convergence de vues ou la reconnaissance de l’exposé des faits
ne détermine pas, du moins pas complètement, le droit que la Cour doit
appliquer — et qui constitue la prémisse majeure du syllogisme.

Si la convergence des exposés des faits des parties avait un effet auto-
matique sur la compétence de la Cour, ce seraient les parties et non la
Cour qui décideraient quant au fond quel droit pertinent régit la compé-
tence de la Cour. Pareil résultat reviendrait à s’écarter du principe issu de

l’essence même de la fonction judiciaire, à savoir que la Cour est seule
juge de sa compétence.

b) L’aspect normatif

41. Dans ces conditions, «établir ou ne pas établir sa compétence n’est
pas une question qui relève des parties; elle est du ressort de la Cour elle-
même» (Compétence en matière de pêcheries (Espagne c. Canada), com-
pétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 450, par. 37; voir aussi
l’opinion individuelle de sir Arnold McNair, président, émise au stade de

l’examen de la compétence dans l’affaire de l’Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., dans
laquelle l’auteur déclare qu’«[u]n tribunal international ne saurait consi-
dérer une question de compétence comme une simple question inter
partes»( exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1952 , p. 116));

compte tenu de ce fait, le désaccord entre les parties sur la compétence
au stade des exceptions préliminaires n’est pas une condition nécessaire
pour que la Cour examine la question de sa compétence.
Les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par une partie ne sont qu’un
instrument, un moyen de procédure permettant à la Cour d’établir sa

compétence, suo nomine et suo vigore, car elle est tenue de le faire ex offi-
cio. La signification juridique de la procédure relative aux exceptions pré-
liminaires a été définie par la Cour dans l’affaire relative aux Droits de
minorités en Haute-Silésie (écoles minoritaires) (ci-après dénommée

l’affaire des «Ecoles minoritaires»):
«l’exception de la partie ne fait qu’attirer l’attention du tribunal sur

une objection à la compétence qu’il doit examiner d’office» (oroits de
minorités en Haute-Silésie (écoles minoritaires), arrêt n 12, 1928,
C.P.J.I. série A n 15, p. 23; les italiques sont de moi).

Dans l’affaire relative à la Convention sur le génocide , la Cour a aussi
indiqué qu’elle

«doit, dans chaque instance introduite devant elle, vérifier si elle a
compétence pour connaître de l’affaire... [L]es exceptions éventuelle-

1181422 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

by the Respondent may be useful to clarify the legal situation.” (Pre-

liminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 622,
para. 46; emphasis added.)

Accordingly, the establishment of the jurisdiction by the Court in casu
is not necessarily linked with the dispute as to jurisdiction. If the duty of

the Court to verify its jurisdiction in each particular case exists regardless
of the preliminary objection as such, then the pleadings of the parties in
the proceedings are not a fortiori of decisive importance in that sense. If
as Shabtai Rosenne, commenting on the case concerning Monetary Gold
Removed from Rome in 1943 (hereinafter referred to as “Monetary

Gold”), says:

“[t]he fact that an objection is made does not mean — in the eyes
of the Court — that the Court is being asked not to determine the

merits of the claim under any circumstances” (Shabtai Rosenne,
The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-1996 , Vol. II
(Jurisdiction), p. 863),

then the contrary is equally valid, i.e., that the Court is being asked not

to determine the merits of the claim if an objection to the preliminary
objection is not made. In that sense, an extensive practice of the Court
has been established.
The dictum of the Court in the case concerning the Appeal Relating to
the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (hereinafter referred to as “ICAO

Council”) could represent a synthesis of that practice: “[t]he Court must
however always be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, and must if necessary
go into that matter proprio motu”( Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 52,
para. 13). This is also reflected in the opinions of judges. (In the case con-
cerning Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions , Judge Moore in his dissent-

ing opinion stated “even though the parties be silent, the tribunal, if it
finds that competence is lacking, is bound of its own motion to dismiss
the case” (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 ,p.58);inthe
Minority Schools case, Judge Huber in his dissenting opinion found that
the Court “must ex officio ascertain on what legal foundation it is to base

its judgment upon the claims of the Parties” (Judgment No. 12, 1928,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 , p. 54); and in the case concerning the Free
Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex , Judge Kellogg pointed out
in his observations attached to the Order of 6 December 1930 that it was
not necessary that the question of jurisdiction be raised by one of the

parties, since “[i]t may and should be raised by the Court on its own ini-
tiative, as was done in the Eastern Carelia case” (Order of 6 December
1930, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 24 , p. 43).)
42. The question of the jurisdiction of the Court bears two dominant
features: (a) the question of jurisdiction of the Court is a questio juris ;

and (b) the question of jurisdiction of the Court is a matter of inter-
national public order.

119 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1422

ment soulevées par la partie défenderesse peuvent être utiles pour

clarifier la situation juridique.» (Exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 622, par. 46; les italiques sont de moi.)

L’établissement de sa compétence par la Cour in casu n’est donc pas

nécessairement lié au différend sur la compétence. Si la Cour est tenue de
vérifier sa compétence dans chaque cas d’espèce indépendamment des
exceptions préliminaires en tant que telles, les arguments avancés par les
parties ne revêtent à fortiori pas une importance décisive en la matière.

Dès lors que, comme le fait observer Shabtai Rosenne au sujet de l’affaire
de l’Or monétaire pris à Rome en 1943 (ci-après dénommée l’affaire de
l’«Or monétaire»),

«[l]e fait qu’il soit soulevé une exception ne signifie pas — aux yeux
de la Cour — qu’elle soit priée de s’abstenir en toutes circonstances
de se prononcer sur le fond de la demande» (Shabtai Rosenne, The
Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-1996 , vol. II,

compétence, p. 863),

la proposition contraire est tout aussi vraie, à savoir que la Cour est priée
de s’abstenir de se prononcer sur le fond de la demande s’il n’est pas fait

opposition à l’exception préliminaire, ce que confirme abondamment la
pratique de la Cour.
Le dictum énoncé par la Cour dans l’affaire de l’Appel concernant la
compétence du Conseil de l’OACI (ci-après dénommée l’affaire du

«Conseil de l’OACI») pourrait représenter une synthèse de cette pra-
tique: «[l]a Cour n’en doit pas moins toujours s’assurer de sa compétence
et elle doit, s’il y a lieu, l’examiner d’office» (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972 ,
p. 52, par. 13). C’est également ce qui ressort des opinions des juges.

(Dans l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine , le juge Moore
a dit dans son opinion dissidente que «même dans le silence des parties,
le tribunal est tenu de se dessaisir d’office s’il estime qu’il y a défaut de
compétence» (arrêt n 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n 2, p. 58); dans l’affaire

des Ecoles minoritaires, le juge Huber a affirmé, dans son opinion dissi-
dente: «[la Cour] recherchera d’office quelle sera sa base juridique pour
se prononcer sur les demandes des Parties» (arrêt n 12, 1928, C.P.J.I.
série A n 15, p. 54); et, dans l’affaire des Zones franches de la Haute-

Savoie et du Pays de Gex, le juge Kellog a souligné, dans ses observations
jointes à l’ordonnance du 6 décembre 1930, qu’il n’était pas indispensable
que la question de la compétence soit soulevée par l’une des parties, car
«[cette question] peut et doit être soulevée par la Cour de sa propre ini-

tiative, ainsi qu’elle l’a fait dans l’affaire deola Carélie orientale» (ordon-
nance du 6 décembre 1930, C.P.J.I. série A n 24, p. 43).)
42. La question de la compétence de la Cour présente deux grandes
caractéristiques: il s’agit a) d’une questio juris et c’est aussi b) une ques-

tion d’ordre public international.

1191423 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP .KRECu )

(a) As a questio juris the jurisdiction of the Court is within the scope

of the principle jura novit curia. In the case concerning Territorial Juris-
diction of the International Commission of the River Oder (hereinafter
referred to as “River Oder”) the Polish Government did not contend that

the Barcelona Convention had not been ratified by Poland until the oral
proceedings. The six respondents asked the Court to reject the Polish
contention a limine, for having been submitted at such an advanced stage
of the proceedings. The Court dismissed the objection as untenable for

“[t]he fact that Poland has not ratified the Barcelona Convention not
being contested, it is evident that the matter is purely one of law such as
the Court... should examine ex officio”( Judgment No. 16, 1929,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 23 , p. 19).

Being bound by law, the Court is not bound by the arguments of the
parties. This follows clearly from the principle jura novit curia addressed
by the Court in its Judgments in the cases concerning Fisheries Jurisdic-
tion (United Kingdom v. Iceland) and Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal

Republic of Germany v. Iceland):

“The Court...asan international judicial organ, is deemed to
take judicial notice of international law, and is therefore required in
a case falling under Article 53 of the Statute, as in any other case,to

consider on its own initiative all rules of international law which
may be relevant to the settlement of the dispute...forthelaw lies
within the judicial knowledge of the Court.” (Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 9, para. 17; ibid., p. 181, para. 18; emphasis

added.)

The principle has also been confirmed in the Nicaragua case by a dictum
that

“[f]or the purpose of deciding whether the claim is well founded in
law, the principle jura novit curia signifies that the Court is not solely
dependent on the argument of the parties before it with respect to

the applicable law” (Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 ,p .,
para. 29; cf. “Lotus”, Judgment No. 9, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 10, p. 31);

consequently, the rule according to which a party seeking to assert a fact

8
“The existence of jurisdiction of the Court in a given case is . . . not a question of
fact, but a question of law to be resolved in the light of the relevant facts.” (Border
and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admis-
sibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988 , p. 76, para. 16.)
The question of the Court’s jurisdiction is

“necessarily an antecedent and independent one — an objective question of law —
which cannot be governed by preclusive considerations capable of being so expressed
as to tell against either Party — or both Parties” (Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction
of the ICAO Council, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 , p. 54, para. 16 (c)).

120 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND . KRECu ) 1423

a) En tant que questio juris , la compétence de la Cour relève du prin-

cipe jura novit curia. Dans l’affaire relative à la Juridiction territoriale de
la Commission internationale de l’Oder (ci-après dénommée l’affaire de
l’«Oder»), ce n’est qu’au moment de la procédure orale que le Gouver-

nement polonais a soutenu que la convention de Barcelone n’avait pas
été ratifiée par la Pologne. Les six défendeurs ont demandé à la Cour de
rejeter in limine l’argument polonais parce qu’il avait été présenté à un

stade aussi avancé de l’instance. La Cour a rejeté l’exception, considérant
qu’elle n’était pas fondée puisque, «[l]e fait que la Pologne n’a[vait] pas
ratifié la convention de Barcelone n’[ayant] pas [été] contesté, il [était] évi-
dent qu’il s’agi[ssait] d’une pure question de droit que la Cour ... devrait
o o
examiner même d’office» (arrêt n 16, 1929, C.P.J.I. série A n 23, p. 19).
La Cour est liée par le droit, mais n’est pas liée par les thèses des
parties. C’est ce qui ressort clairement du principe jura novit curia tel que

la Cour l’interprète dans ses arrêts sur la Compétence en matière de
pêcheries (Royaume-Uni c. Islande) et la Compétence en matière de
pêcheries (République fédérale d’Allemagne c. Islande) :

«La Cour, en tant qu’organe judiciaire international, ... est ...

censée constater le droit international et, dans une affaire relevant de
l’article 53 du Statut comme dans toute autre, est donc tenue de
prendre en considération de sa propre initiative toutes les règles de

droit international qui seraient pertinentes pour le règlement du dif-
férend ... car le droit ressortit au domaine de la connaissance judi-
ciaire de la Cour.» (Fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 9, par. 17;

ibid., p. 181, par. 18; les italiques sont de moi.)

Le principe a aussi été confirmé dans l’affaire Nicaragua par un dictum
selon lequel

«[l]e principe jura novit curia signifie que, pour décider que les
conclusions sont fondées en droit, la Cour ne doit pas s’appuyer

uniquement sur les exposés des parties relativement au droit appli-
cable» (fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986 , p. 24, par. 29; cf. Lotus,
arrêt n 9, 1927, C.P.J.I. série A n o10, p. 31);

par conséquent, la règle selon laquelle c’est à la partie qui affirme un fait

8 «L’existence de la compétence de la Cour dans un cas particulier n’est pas une ques-
tion de fait, mais une question de droit qui doit être tranchée à la lumière des faits
pertinents.» (Actions armées frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua c. Hondu-

ras), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1988 , p. 76, par. 16.)
La question de la compétence de la Cour est

«une question nécessairement préalable et indépendante, une question de droit objec-
tive, qui ne saurait être régie par des considérations de forclusion pouvant être
formulées de façon à jouer contre l’une des Parties ou contre les deux» (Appel
concernant la compétence du Conseil de l’OACI, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972 ,p.54,
par. 16 c)).

1201424 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

must bear the burden of proving it “has no relevance for the establish-

ment of the Court’s jurisdiction” (Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain
v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,
p. 450, para. 37).
(b) The disposition of the parties, although being the dominant prin-
ciple in the proceedings before the Court, suffers limitations.

These limitations derive from the objective rules of the Statute and the
Rules of Court defining the nature and limits of the Court’s judicial
action. As constitutional norms (R. Monaco, “Observations sur la hier-
archie des sources du droit international”, Festschrift für Hermann Mos-
ler, 1983, pp. 607-608) or as règles préceptives (intervention of Judge M.

Yovanovitch, Preliminary Session of the Court, P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 2 ,
p. 59), these rules transcend the disposition of the parties and pertain to
the international public order.
As a matter of international public order superior to the will of the

parties the question of jurisdiction need not necessarily be raised by the
parties themselves but the Court can and should examine it ex officio.
(Cf. Territorial Jurisdiction of the International Commission of the River
Oder, Judgment No. 16, 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 23, pp. 18-19; Fish-
eries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Jurisdiction of the Court,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973 , p. 7, para. 12; p. 54, para. 13; Prince von
Pless Administration, Order of 4 February 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B,
No. 52,p.15; Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8, 1927,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9 , p. 32.)
43. In the practice of the Court the expressions ex officio and proprio

motu are used as interchangeable, although there exist differences in the
meaning of these two expressions. The expression “proprio motu” implies
the discretionary authority of the Court to take action on its own initia-
tive. The action taken by the Court “ex officio” is an expression of the
duty of the Court by virtue of its judicial function. The exclusion of the

discretion of the Court relates to the action itself and does not touch
upon the freedom of the Court in respect of the ruling.
The linking element of these two expressions is of a negative nature
and is reflected in the fact that it is about the actions which the Court
takes or may take irrespective of the will and the processual actions of

the parties.
The genuine difference in the meaning of these two expressions is over-
come in some dicta of the Court by adding the qualification “must” to
the expression “proprio motu” as in, for example, the Court’s Judgment
in the ICAO Council case (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 , p. 52, para. 13).

Thus, in fact, the Court’s own motion is qualified as the obligation and
the action proprio motu deprives it of discretion and turns it into action
ex officio.

44. As questio juris pertaining to the public order, jurisdiction is deter-

mined by the decision of the Court, formal or informal, on the basis of
the principle of compétence de la compétence . In the context of the case at

121 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1424

qu’il incombe de le prouver «est sans pertinence aux fins d’établir la com-

pétence de la Cour» (Compétence en matière de pêcheries (Espagne
c. Canada), compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 450,
par. 37).
b) La volonté des parties, bien qu’elle constitue le principe primordial

de la procédure qui se déroule devant la Cour, comporte des limites.
Ces limites découlent des règles objectives du Statut et du Règlement
de la Cour qui définissent la nature et les limites de l’action judiciaire de
la Cour. En tant que normes constitutionnelles (R. Monaco, «Observa-

tions sur la hiérarchie des sources du droit international», Festschrift für
Hermann Mosler, 1983, p. 607-608) ou en tant que règles préceptives
(intervention du juge Yovanovitch, session préliminaire de la Cour,
C.P.J.I. série D n o 2, p. 59), ces règles vont au-delà de la volonté des

parties et relèvent de l’ordre public international.
La question de la compétence relevant donc de l’ordre public interna-
tional et étant supérieure à la volonté des parties, il n’est pas indispen-
sable qu’elle soit soulevée par les parties elles-mêmes, mais la Cour peut

et doit l’examiner ex officio (cf. ouridiction territoriale de la Commission
internationale de l’Oder, arrêt n 16, 1929, C.P.J.I. série A n 23,p.18-
19; Compétence en matière de pêcheries (Royaume-Uni c. Islande), com-
pétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1973 , p. 7, par. 12; p. 54,

par. 13; Administration du pronce von Pless, ordonnance du 4 février
1933, C.P.J.I. série A/B n 52,p.5;Usine de Chorzów, compétence,
arrêt n 8, 1927, C.P.J.I. série A n o 9, p. 32).
43. Dans la pratique de la Cour, les expressions «ex officio» et «pro-

prio motu» sont employées comme si elles étaient interchangeables même
s’il existe des nuances de sens entre elles. L’expression «proprio motu»
renvoie au pouvoir discrétionnaire de la Cour d’agir de sa propre initia-
tive. Lorsque la Cour agit «ex officio», c’est en vertu de l’obligation que

lui impose sa fonction judiciaire. L’exclusion du pouvoir discrétionnaire
de la Cour se rapporte à l’action même et n’a pas d’incidence sur la
liberté dont la Cour jouit pour se prononcer.
L’élément commun aux deux expressions est de caractère négatif et a

trait aux dispositions que la Cour prend ou peut prendre indépendam-
ment de la volonté et des actes procéduraux des parties.

La réelle différence de sens existant entre les deux expressions disparaît

dans certains dicta de la Cour quand l’expression «proprio motu» est
assortie de l’obligation qu’exprime le verbe «devoir», comme c’est le
cas, par exemple, dans l’arrêt de la Cour en l’affaire du Conseil de
l’OACI (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972 , p. 52, par. 13). L’initiative de la Cour

est alors présentée comme étant l’obligation et l’acte commis «proprio
motu» lui ôte sa valeur discrétionnaire et la transforme en acte commis
«ex officio».
44. En tant que questio juris relevant de l’ordre public, la compétence

est déterminée par la décision, officielle ou officieuse, que la Cour adopte
en vertu du principe de la compétence de la compétence. Dans la présente

1211425 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

hand, it is necessary to distinguish between the general principle of com-

pétence de la compétence and its narrow normative projection expressed
in Article 36, paragraph 6, of the Statute. Namely, some of the Respon-
dents have asserted that specific terms in Article 36, paragraph 6, of the
Statute provide that “in the event of a dispute as to whether the Court has
jurisdiction, the matter shall be settled by the decision of the Court”

(counsel for the United Kingdom, CR2004/10, p. 10; emphasis in the
original; counsel for France, CR2004/12, p. 12).

(c) Principle compétence de la compétence

45. The general principle of compétence de la compétence represents a
basic structural and functional principle inherent to any adjudicatory
body, whether a regular court or any other body possessing adjudicatory
powers. The principle is, as pointed out by United States Commissioner

Gore in the Betsey case (1797), “indispensably necessary to the discharge
ofany...duties” for any adjudicatory body (J. B. Moore (ed.), Inter-
national Adjudications, Ancient and Modern, History and Documents,
Modern Series, Vol. IV, p. 183).

As such the principle is confirmed in the Court’s jurisprudence. In the
Nottebohm case, the Court stated inter alia :

“Paragraph 6 of Article 36 merely adopted, in respect of the
Court, a rule consistently accepted by general international law in
the matter of international arbitration. Since the Alabama case, it
has been generally recognized, following the earlier precedents, that,
in the absence of any agreement to the contrary, an international

tribunal has the right to decide as to its own jurisdiction and has
the power to interpret for this purpose the instruments which govern
that jurisdiction . . .

.............................
Consequently, the Court has not hesitated to adjudicate on the
question of its own jurisdiction in cases in which the dispute which
had arisen in this respect went beyond the interpretation and appli-

cation of paragraph 2 of Article 36. In the Corfu Channel case
(Judgment of April 9th, 1949, I.C.J. Reports 1949, pp. 23-26 and
36), the Court adjudicated on a dispute as to whether it had jurisdic-
tion to assess the amount of compensation, a dispute which related
to the interpretation of a Special Agreement; in the Ambatielos case

(Judgment of July 1st, 1952, I.C.J. Reports 1952, p. 28), the Court
adjudicated upon a dispute as to its jurisdiction which related to the
interpretation of a jurisdictional clause embodied in a treaty; in both
cases the dispute as to the Court’s jurisdiction related to paragraph 1
and not to paragraph 2 of Article 36.

Article 36, paragraph 6, suffices to invest the Court with power to
adjudicate on its jurisdiction in the present case. But even if this were

122 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE OP .IND .KRECA ) 1425
u

affaire, il est nécessaire de faire la distinction entre le principe général de
compétence de la compétence et sa projection normative étroite énoncée
au paragraphe 6 de l’article 36 du Statut. Certains défendeurs ont sou-

tenu qu’il est spécifié au paragraphe 6 de l’article 36 du Statut que, «[e]n
cas de contestation sur le point de savoir si la Cour est compétente, la
Cour décide» (CR2004/10, p. 10, conseil du Royaume-Uni; les italiques
sont dans l’original; CR2004/12, p. 12, conseil de la France).

c) Le principe dit de compétence de la compétence

45. Le principe général de «compétence de la compétence» est un

principe structurel et fonctionnel fondamental, inhérent à toute institu-
tion judiciaire, qu’il s’agisse d’une juridiction ordinaire ou de tout autre
organe investi de pouvoirs juridictionnels. Comme le soulignait le com-
missaire américain Gore dans l’affaire de la Betsey (1797), ce principe est

«indispensable aux fins de l’accomplissement de [l]a mission» de tout
organe juridictionnel (J. B. Moore, dir. publ., International Adjudica-
tions, Ancient and Modern, History and Documents, Modern Series ,
vol. IV, p. 183 [traduction du Greffe]).
Le principe est confirmé dans la jurisprudence de la Cour. Dans

l’affaire Nottebohm, la Cour a notamment déclaré ce qui suit:

«Le paragraphe 6 de l’article 36 ne fait que reprendre pour la
Cour une règle que le droit international commun a consacrée en
matière d’arbitrage international. Depuis l’affaire de l’Alabama,li
est admis, conformément à des précédents antérieurs, qu’à moins de
convention contraire, un tribunal international est juge de sa propre

compétence et a le pouvoir d’interpréter à cet effet les actes qui gou-
vernent celle-ci.

.............................
En conséquence, la Cour n’a pas hésité à statuer sur sa propre
compétence dans des cas où la contestation élevée à ce sujet dépas-

sait l’interprétation et l’application du paragraphe 2 de l’article 36.
Dans l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou (arrêt du 9 avril 1949, C.I.J.
Recueil 1949, p. 23-26 et 36), elle a statué sur une contestation de sa
compétence pour fixer le montant de la réparation, contestation por-

tant sur l’erterprétation d’un compromis; dans l’affaire Ambatielos
(arrêt du 1 juillet 1952, C.I.J. Recueil 1952, p. 28), elle a statué sur
une contestation de compétence concernant l’interprétation de la
clause compromissoire inscrite dans un traité; ici et là, le différend
sur la compétence se rattachait au paragraphe premier et non au para-

graphe 2 de l’article 36.

L’article 36, paragraphe 6, suffit à conférer à la Cour le pouvoir de
statuer sur sa compétence dans le cas présent. Même si tel n’était pas

1221426 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

not the case, the Court, ‘whose function is to decide in accordance

with international law such disputes as are submitted to it’
(Article 38, paragraph 1, of the Statute), should follow in this con-
nection what is laid down by general international law. The judicial
character of the Court and the rule of general international law
referred to above are sufficient to establish that the Court is compe-

tent to adjudicate on its own jurisdiction in the present case .”
(Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953 , p. 119-120;
emphasis added.)

Being one of the relevant features establishing its judicial nature, the

power of the Court to determine whether it has jurisdiction, emanating
from the general principle compétence de la compétence , is an inherent
right and duty of the Court knowing no limitations (cf. Electricity Com-
pany of Sofia and Bulgaria, Judgment, 1939, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 77,

pp. 102-103, dissenting opinion of Judge Urrutia). The Court exercises
its inherent power from the institution of the proceedings until its end
with a view to establishing whether it possesses jurisdiction or not in
the particular case. (In reality, the Court proceeds to exercise its inherent
power in two ways: (a) by ascertaining the existence of processual

requirements for jurisdiction through prima facie assessment, being sub-
stantively a judicial presumption of jurisdiction or (b) by adopting a
formal decision on the jurisdiction. In that sense, the power of the
Court to determine whether it has jurisdiction in a given case seems
absolute, considering that the Court, even when declaring that it has no

jurisdiction in casu, exercises that inherent power.)
46. Apart from its expression in Article 36, paragraph 6, the general
principle of compétence de la compétence , has found its expression in
several provisions of the Statute. Article 53, paragraph 2, of the Statute
provides that “[t]he Court must... satisfy itself, not only that it has juris-

diction...ut also that the claim is well founded in fact and law”.
In the Fisheries Jurisdiction cases, the Court stated, inter alia, that
“Article 53 of the Statute both entitles the Court and, in the present
proceedings, requires it to pronounce upon the question of its jurisdic-
tion” (Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973 ,p .,

para. 45, and p. 66, para. 45; emphasis added).

The application of the general principle of compétence de la compé-
tence can be seen also in part of the provisions of Article 41 of the Statute
authorizing the Court to indicate provisional measures proprio motu.

The rules of the law of the Court deriving from the general principle of
compétence de la compétence are also rules in Article 32, paragraph 2, of
the Rules of Court, as well as Article 38, paragraph 5. The fact that in
both cases the relevant role is played by the Registry of the Court does

not affect the nature of the rules.
In its application the principle is not restricted to the contentious pro-

123 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1426

le cas, la Cour, «dont la mission est de régler conformément au droit
international les différends qui lui sont soumis» (article 38, para-
graphe 1, du Statut), devrait suivre à cet égard ce que prescrit le
droit international commun. Or le caractère judiciaire de la Cour et

la règle de droit international commun qui a été précédemment rap-
pelée suffisent à établir que la Cour est compétente pour statuer sur
sa propre compétence en la présente affaire. »( Exception prélimi-
naire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1953 , p. 119-120; les italiques sont de
moi.)

Etant l’une des caractéristiques qui font d’elle une institution judi-
ciaire, la faculté conférée à la Cour de statuer sur sa compétence, laquelle
procède du principe général de compétence de la compétence, est un droit
et une obligation inhérents à la Cour qui ne connaissent aucune limita-

tion (cf. Compagnie doélectricité de Sofia et de Bulgarie, arrêt, 1939,
C.P.J.I. série A/B n 77, p. 102-103, opinion dissidente du juge Urrutia).
De l’introduction de l’instance jusqu’à sa clôture, la Cour exerce son pou-
voir inhérent pour dire si elle a ou non compétence dans l’affaire consi-

dérée. (En fait, la Cour exerce son pouvoir inhérent de deux manières: a)
en s’assurant, par une appréciation prima facie, de l’existence des condi-
tions procédurales nécessaires à sa compétence, ce qui équivaut au fond à
une présomption judiciaire de compétence, ou b) en adoptant une déci-
sion officielle sur la compétence. En ce sens, le pouvoir de la Cour de

déterminer si elle a compétence dans une affaire donnée semble être
absolu, étant donné que la Cour exerce ce pouvoir inhérent même si elle
déclare n’avoir pas compétence en l’espèce.)
46. Mis à part l’énoncé du principe au paragraphe 6 de l’article 36 du
Statut, ce principe général de compétence de la compétence figure dans

plusieurs dispositions du Statut. Le paragraphe 2 de l’article 53 précise
que «[l]a Cour ... doit s’assurer non seulement qu’elle a compétence ...
mais que les conclusions sont fondées en fait et en droit». Dans les af-
faires de la Compétence en matière de pêcheries , la Cour a notamment

dit que «l’article 53 du Statut donn[ait] à la Cour le droit et, dans ...
[l’]affaire [considérée], lui impos[ait] l’obligation de se prononcer
sur le problème de sa compétence» (Compétence de la Cour, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 22, par. 45, et p. 66, par. 45; les italiques sont
de moi).

Une partie des dispositions de l’article 41 du Statut autorisant la Cour
à indiquer proprio motu des mesures conservatoires peut également être
interprétée comme procédant du principe général de compétence de la
compétence.

En outre, le droit interne de la Cour comprend des règles qui procèdent
du principe général de compétence de la compétence, à savoir celles qui
sont énoncées au paragraphe 2 de l’article 32 ainsi qu’au paragraphe 5 de
l’article 38 du Règlement de la Cour. Le rôle central joué par le Greffe
dans les deux cas ne modifie en rien la nature de ces règles.

Le principe ne s’applique pas uniquement à la procédure contentieuse.

1231427 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECu )

cedure. It is equally relevant also in the advisory procedure. As the Court

stated in the case concerning Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear
Weapons in Armed Conflict , “it is incumbent on the Court to satisfy itself
that the conditions governing its own competence to give the opinion
requested are met”( Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I) ,p .,
para. 29; emphasis added). The substantive analogy between the conten-

tious and the advisory procedures (in the Status of Eastern Carelia case
the Court stated that it was the right and obligation of the Court to
examine its own jurisdiction in advisory as well as in contentious cases
(Report by the Registrar (June 1933), P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 2 (3rd
add.), p. 837) in this particular matter has its foundation in the provision

of Article 68 of the Statute. The Court must in every request for an advi-
sory opinion assure itself of its jurisdiction. It is not absolved from doing
so by assuming that a request for an opinion is determinative of the
Court’s power to give opinion on the particular question. (Cf. Shabtai

Rosenne, “The Advisory Competence of the International Court of Jus-
tice”, Revue de droit international, de sciences diplomatiques et politiques
(A. Sottile, Geneva), January-March 1952, No. 1, p. 33; Georg
Schwarzenberger, “Trends in the Practice of the World Court”, Current
Legal Problems, Vol. 4, 1951, p. 27.)

47. The power of the Court to determine whether it has jurisdiction in
casu, emanating from the general principle of compétence de la compé-
tence, should be distinguished from the corresponding power of the
Court to determine the extent of its jurisdiction.
The extent of jurisdiction of the Court is not a matter to be decided on

the basis of the principle of compétence de la compétence solely as a func-
tional norm, but on the basis of substantive norms of the Statute defining
the scope of exercise of the judicial function of the Court. In that regard,
the basic norm of the consensual nature of the Court’s jurisdiction, some
sort of a constitutional norm of the law of the Court and international

tribunals as well, is of relevance.

Already in its Judgment No. 2, the Permanent Court of International
Justice clearly established the limits of its jurisdiction by stating that “the
Court, bearing in mind the fact that its jurisdiction is limited, that it is

invariably based on... consent...and only exists in so far as this con-
sent has been given” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 16).
48. Article 36, paragraph 6, of the Statute is a narrow, restrictive
expression of the general principle of compétence de la compétence . The

application of the principle of compétence de la compétence expressed in
Article 36, paragraph 6, presupposes a dispute as to whether the Court
has jurisdiction. Hence the Court, acting on the basis of Article 36, para-
graph 6, of the Statute, both logically and from the normative aspect, is
not in a position to raise a question of its jurisdiction ex officio. Basically,

the Court then, exercising its judicial function, only adjudicates the dis-
putes as to its jurisdiction ex officio. It is here that, strictissimo sensu, lies

124 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1427

Il est tout aussi pertinent pour la procédure consultative. Comme la Cour

l’a dit dans l’affaire de la Licéité de l’utilisation des armes nucléaires par
un Etat dans un conflit armé , «il incombe ... à la Cour de s’assurer que les
conditions auxquelles est subordonnée sa propre compétence pour donner
l’avis sollicité sont remplies »( avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I) ,

p. 83, par. 29; les italiques sont de moi). Il existe une ressemblance de
fond entre les procédures contentieuse et consultative (dans l’affaire du
Statut de la Carélie orientale , la Cour a dit qu’elle avait le droit et l’obli-
gation d’examiner sa propre compétence dans les affaires consultatives

aussi bien que dans les afoairesecontentieuses (rapport du greffier, juin
1933, C.P.J.I. série D n 2, 3 Addendum, p. 837) et cette ressemblance
repose, pour cette question particulière, sur l’article 68 du Statut. Lors de
toute demande d’avis consultatif, la Cour doit s’assurer elle-même de sa

compétence. Elle ne peut s’en dispenser au motif qu’une demande d’avis
consultatif suffit à lui conférer le pouvoir de rendre un avis sur la ques-
tion posée (cf. Shabtai Rosenne, «The Advisory Competence of the
International Court of Justice», Revue de droit international, de sciences
o
diplomatiques et politiques (A. Sottile, Genève), janvier-mars 1952, n 1,
p. 33; Georg Schwarzenberger, «Trends in the Practice of the World
Court», Current Legal Problems, vol. 4, 1951, p. 27).
47. Il convient de distinguer entre la faculté qu’a la Cour de détermi-

ner si elle a compétence in casu — en vertu du principe général de com-
pétence de la compétence — et la faculté concomitante qu’elle exerce
aussi de déterminer l’étendue de sa compétence.
L’étendue de la compétence de la Cour n’est pas une question à tran-

cher sur la base du principe de compétence de la compétence considéré
exclusivement en tant que norme fonctionnelle, car il faut alors faire
appel à des normes de fond du Statut qui définissent la portée de la fonc-
tion judiciaire impartie à la Cour. A cet égard, c’est la norme fondamen-

tale du caractère consensuel de la compétence de la Cour — norme en
quelque sorte constitutionnelle du droit interne de la Cour et des juridic-
tions internationales — qu’il faut tenir pour pertinente.
Dès son arrêt n 2, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale a déjà

clairement établi les limites de sa compétence quand elle dit «que sa juri-
diction est limitée, qu’elle se fonde toujours sur le consentement ... et ne
saurait subsister en dehors des limites dans lesquelles ce consentement a
été donné» (Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, 1924, C.P.J.I. série
o
An 2, p. 16).
48. Le paragraphe 6 de l’article 36 du Statut exprime de manière
étroite et restrictive le principe général de compétence de la compétence.
Pour que s’applique ce principe tel qu’il est énoncé dans cette disposition

il faut qu’existe au préalable un différend sur la compétence de la Cour.
De ce fait, la Cour, se fondant sur le paragraphe 6 de l’article 36 du Sta-
tut, n’est pas en mesure, ni du point de vue logique ni du point de vue
normatif, de mettre ex officio en doute sa compétence. C’est-à-dire que la

Cour, dans l’exercice de sa fonction judiciaire, ne se prononce ex officio
que sur les différends relatifs à sa compétence. Telle est, strictissimo

1241428 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

the normative meaning of the principle of compétence de la compétence

as expressed in Article 36, paragraph 6, of the Statute.
In practice there were cases where the Court, in the jurisdictional phase
of the proceedings, proprio motu, raised the question not raised by
parties. For instance, in the Interhandel case the Court applied proprio
motu the objection to its jurisdiction ratione temporis to the alternative

claim (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959 , p. 22).
Such an approach of the Court could be qualified as the overlapping of
the general and the particular, i.e., of the general principle of compétence
de la compétence and its narrower expression embodied in Article 36, para-
graph 6, of the Statute.

49. It is doubtful whether the application of Article 36, paragraph 6,
of the Statute is excluded, as the respondent States asserted, in the
present case, in toto. It seems obvious that it depends on whether the

statements of parties concerning the facts coincide entirely.
That is not the case. Namely, the statements of the Parties coincide
only partially, relating mainly to the jurisdiction of the Court ratione per-
sonae, or, to be more precise, to the status of the Applicant in relation to
the Statute of the Court.

If the statements of the Parties appear to be founded in this matter,
the conclusion affects only the jurisdiction of the Court according to
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute, but does not necessarily —
without knowing the finding of the Court on the meaning of the expres-
sion “the special provisions contained in treaties in force” in Article 35,

paragraph 2, of the Statute — affect the jurisdiction of the Court as set
forth in Article IX of the Genocide Convention.
Regarding the Genocide Convention as a “treaty in force” at the time
of submission of the Application, there is, however, a real —
though latent — hidden dispute between the Parties. The Applicant con-

tended that it became a party to the Genocide Convention by accession
on 12 March 2001, while the Respondents implicitly allowed that the
Applicant was a party at the time of submission of the Application.

Finally, the positions of the Parties were directly and completely

opposed regarding the jurisdiction of the Court ratione materiae and
ratione temporis.
50. The principle compétence de la compétence in its integral form —
comprising both the general principle and its expression in Article 36, para-
graph 6, of the Statute — is a judicial weapon which achieves a double

objective:

Primo, it allows the Court to establish its jurisdiction as the application
of the basis or constitutional norm of the consensual nature in casu either
ex officio or upon objection to its jurisdiction. At the same time, it gives

the Court a legal basis to check, in the development of the proceedings,
its judicial presumptions on its jurisdiction, until a conclusive, definitive

125 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1428

sensu, la signification normative du principe de compétence de la compé-
tence tel qu’il est énoncé au paragraphe 6 de l’article 36 du Statut.
Dans la pratique, il est arrivé à la Cour, au stade de la procédure por-
tant sur la compétence, de soulever la question proprio motu alors que les

parties ne l’avaient pas fait. Par exemple, dans l’affaire de l’Interhandel,
la Cour a opposé proprio motu à la demande subsidiaire l’exception rela-
tive à sa compétence ratione temporis (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1959, p. 22). Une telle démarche de la part de la Cour
pourrait être considérée comme un chevauchement de la règle générale et

du cas particulier, en d’autres termes du principe général de compétence
de la compétence et de sa formulation la plus étroite qui figure au para-
graphe 6 de l’article 36 du Statut.
49. Il est douteux que, comme l’ont affirmé les Etats défendeurs,
l’application du paragraphe 6 de l’article 36 du Statut soit, dans la pré-

sente espèce, exclue in toto. A l’évidence, tout dépend de la question de
savoir si les exposés des Parties sur les faits coïncident entièrement.
Tel n’est pas le cas. En réalité, les exposés des Parties ne coïncident que
partiellement, car ils portent principalement sur la compétence ratione

personae de la Cour, ou, plus précisément, sur le statut du demandeur par
rapport au Statut de la Cour.
Si les exposés des Parties paraissent fondés à cet égard, la conclusion
concerne exclusivement la compétence de la Cour au sens du para-
graphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut, mais ne concerne pas nécessairement —

sauf à connaître la décision de la Cour quant à la signification de
l’expression «[l]es dispositions particulières des traités en vigueur» figu-
rant au paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut — la compétence de la
Cour au titre de l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide.
En ce qui concerne la convention sur le génocide en tant que «traité en

vigueur» au moment de la présentation de la requête, il existe cependant,
sous les apparences, un différend bien réel — quoique latent — entre les
Parties. Le demandeur a soutenu qu’il était devenu partie à la convention
sur le génocide par voie d’adhésion le 12 mars 2001, alors que les défen-

deurs ont implicitement admis que le demandeur était partie à la conven-
tion à l’époque où il a présenté sa requête.
Enfin, en ce qui concerne la compétence ratione materiae et la compé-
tence ratione temporis de la Cour, les positions des parties sont diamé-
tralement et totalement opposées.

50. Dans son intégralité, le principe de compétence de la compétence
— c’est-à-dire le principe général et aussi le principe sous la forme qu’il
revêt au paragraphe 6 de l’article 36 du Statut — est un instrument judi-
ciaire qui permet d’atteindre un double objectif:

Premièrement, il permet à la Cour d’établir sa compétence in casu en
application de la norme fondamentale ou constitutionnelle que représente
la juridiction consensuelle, soit ex officio, soit lorsqu’il est soulevé une
exception à sa compétence. Parallèlement, il autorise en droit la Cour à

vérifier, au fur et à mesure du déroulement de l’instance, ses présomp-

1251429 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECu )

finding on its jurisdiction. Acting in that way, in the conditions of non-
existence of multi-tier judiciary in the international community, the Court
de facto acts as a sui generis appellate court in the question of jurisdic-
tion.

Secundo, in a litigation as tripartite processual relation, it is a judicial
weapon by which the Court not only solves the dispute on jurisdiction,
but the challenge to its own decision on the jurisdiction taken in the pre-
liminary objection phase either ex officio or at the request of a party in
the revision procedure.

Therefore, it could be said that the principle of compétence de la com-
pétence in its integral expression enables the Court to ascertain in every
phase of the proceedings, according to the circumstances and degree of
knowledge, its jurisdiction as the basis and framework of the proper
administration of justice.

51. The Court, when using its right and performing its duties on the
basis of the principle of compétence de la compétence , acts, basically, in
three ways:

(i) it decides ex officio in the proceedings of preliminary objections in
the dispute between the parties as to jurisdiction;
(ii) it raises proprio motu the question of jurisdiction (or, as it is some-

times said, imprecisely, “raises an objection to jurisdiction”, for it
cannot object to jurisdiction as the determination of the matter is
in its exclusive domain), requesting the parties to act pursuant to
Article 79, paragraph 6, of the Rules or, acting itself in accordance
with Article 38, paragraph 5, of the Rules. The proprio motu action

of the Court is the technical realization of the right and duty of the
Court to ascertain ex officio its competence; and

(iii) the ex officio examination of the jurisdiction as an autonomous judi-

cial action which does not rely on the actions of the parties. The very
examination of jurisdiction, apart from the decision of the Court on
jurisdiction, being some sort of organic judicial action, inherent ele-
ment of the legal reasoning of the Court, must not be exercised in a
due form, but in a manner the Court finds appropriate.

3. The Effect on the Dispute of the Congruence of Views between the

Parties as to Jurisdiction

52. In this regard, the assertions made by the Respondents have two
meanings (cf. CR2004/6, pp. 15-17; CR2004/7, pp. 10-12; CR2004/10,
p. 7; CR2004/12, p. 12):

— that just as the existence of a dispute is a preliminary condition for

the continuation of the proceedings on the merits phase, so is the

126 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND .KRECu ) 1429

tions judiciaires concernant sa compétence jusqu’à ce qu’elle se prononce
sur celle-ci de manière finale et définitive. Ce faisant, comme il n’existe
pas plusieurs paliers de juridiction en droit international, la Cour agit de
facto comme une cour d’appel sui generis en matière de compétence.

Deuxièmement, dans un procès reposant sur une relation tripartite, le
principe constitue un instrument judiciaire qui permet à la Cour de sta-
tuer non seulement sur le différend relatif à sa compétence, mais aussi sur
la contestation de la décision qu’elle a adoptée à ce sujet au stade des
exceptions préliminaires, soit ex officio, soit à la demande d’une partie

dans le cadre d’une procédure de revision.

On peut donc affirmer que, pris dans son intégralité, le principe de
compétence de la compétence permet à la Cour de s’assurer à chaque
stade de l’instance, conformément aux circonstances et compte tenu de ce
qu’elle sait, de sa compétence en tant que fondement et de cadre d’une
bonne administration de la justice.

51. Quand elle exerce son droit et s’acquitte de son obligation en se
fondant sur le principe de compétence de la compétence, la Cour agit
fondamentalement sur trois plans:

i) elle statue ex officio au stade des exceptions préliminaires sur le dif-
férend qui oppose les parties au sujet de sa compétence;
ii) elle soulève proprio motu la question de sa compétence (ou, comme

on dit parfois de façon peu précise, elle «soulève une exception
d’incompétence», car la Cour ne saurait soulever d’exception à sa
compétence puisque la décision en la matière est de son ressort exclu-
sif), en demandant aux parties de se conformer au paragraphe 6 de
l’article 79 du Règlement ou en appliquant elle-même le paragraphe 5

de l’article 38 du Règlement. En agissant ainsi proprio motu, la Cour
met techniquement en Œuvre le droit et l’obligation lui incombant de
s’assurer ex officio de sa compétence; et
iii) elle procède ex officio à l’examen de la compétence par une action

judiciaire autonome qui ne relève pas de l’initiative des parties. Indé-
pendamment de la décision que la Cour adopte sur sa compétence,
l’examen même de la compétence — acte judiciaire en quelque sorte
organique, et élément inhérent à la motivation juridique de la Cour
— doit revêtir non pas une forme établie, mais la manière que la

Cour juge appropriée.

3. L’effet produit sur le différend par la convergence de vues entre les

Parties en matière de compétence

52. A cet égard, les exposés des défendeurs signifient deux choses (cf.
CR2004/6, p. 15-17; CR2004/7, p. 10-12; CR2004/10, p. 7; CR2004/12,
p. 12):

— de même que l’existence d’un différend est une condition préalable à

la poursuite de la procédure judiciaire au fond, l’existence d’un diffé-

1261430 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

dispute as to jurisdiction a condition for the continuation of the

proceedings on preliminary objections; and
— that agreement between the parties as to a question of jurisdiction is
determinative of the case, and that, as a result, the dispute before the
Court has disappeared.

(a) The existence of a dispute as to jurisdiction as a preliminary condi-
tion for the continuation of the proceedings on preliminary objec-
tions

53. The equalization between the proceedings on the merits and the

proceedings on preliminary objection would be highly doubtful. Namely,
it ignores the specific features of judicial activity of the Court in the juris-
dictional phase of the proceedings, features which derive from the nature
of the question of jurisdiction. (“The Court finds that Italy’s acceptance

of jurisdiction is one thing, while her raising of a legal issue on jurisdic-
tion is quite another.” (Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943,
Preliminary Question, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1954 , p. 29.) The prac-
tical outcome of such equalization would consist of the treatment of the
question of jurisdiction as quaestio facti and as a matter inter partes

which is in sharp contradiction with its true nature (see paragraphs 40-44
of this opinion).
54. It is based on the idea of the transplantation of the rule regarding
“the existence of a dispute [as] the primary condition for the Court to
exercise its judicial function” (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France),

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 476, para. 58) in the merits phase of a
case into the incidental proceedings of the preliminary objections. This
transplantation is however impossible taking into consideration the very
nature of the question of jurisdiction. It is directly aimed against the
inherent right and duty of the Court to determine its jurisdiction. In that

regard, the formulation of the relevant provisions of the Rules of Court
concerning preliminary objections is indicative. Paragraph 2 of Article 79
of the Rules provides in imperative (wording) formulation that “the pre-
liminary objection shall set out the facts and the law on which the objec-
tion is based” (emphasis added) whereas paragraph 3 of Article 79 pro-

vides, inter alia, that “the other party may present a written statement of
its observations and submissions” (emphasis added). The asymmetrical
relations between the provisions of Article 79 of the Rules — obliga-
tions stricti juris of the Respondent on the one hand, and a right of the
Applicant on the other — represent an indirect expression of a different

nature of the proceedings on the merits and that of the incidental pro-
ceedings on preliminary objection (Article 49 of the Rules establishes the
duties of the parties regarding the Memorial and Counter-Memorial
symmetrically).

55. There is a substantive symmetry in the relevant elements of
the case in hand and the Monetary Gold case. In the latter case, Great

127 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1430

rend sur la compétence conditionne la poursuite de la procédure rela-
tive aux exceptions préliminaires; et
— l’existence d’un accord entre les parties sur une question de compé-
tence est déterminante car elle a pour conséquence que le différend

porté devant la Cour disparaît.

a) L’existence d’un différend sur la compétence comme condition préa-
lable à la poursuite de la procédure relative aux exceptions prélimi-

naires

53. Assimiler la procédure relative aux exceptions préliminaires à la
procédure au fond serait très discutable. Cela reviendrait en effet à occul-
ter la spécificité de l’activité judiciaire qu’exerce la Cour au stade de l’exa-
men de sa compétence, spécificité qui procède du caractère même de la

question de la compétence. («La Cour estime que l’acceptation par l’Ita-
lie de la juridiction est une chose, alors que le fait par elle de soulever un
problème de droit touchant la juridiction en est une autre.» (Affaire de
l’Or monétaire pris à Rome en 1943, question préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J.

Recueil 1954, p. 29.) Une telle assimilation aurait pour conséquence pra-
tique de traiter la question de la compétence comme une question de fait
et un sujet inter partes, ce qui est totalement contraire à sa véritable
nature (voir ci-dessus aux paragraphes 40-44 de la présente opinion).
54. Cette assimilation est fondée sur l’idée qu’il convient de transposer

à la procédure incidente des exceptions préliminaires la règle s’appliquant
à la phase de l’examen au fond selon laquelle «[l]’existence d’un différend
est ... la condition première de l’exercice de la fonction judiciaire [de la
Cour]» (Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1974, p. 476, par. 58). Une telle transposition est cependant

impossible eu égard à la nature même de la question de la compétence.
Elle est en effet totalement contraire au droit et à l’obligation inhérents
consistant pour la Cour à établir sa compétence. Sur ce point, l’énoncé
des dispositions pertinentes du Règlement de la Cour concernant les

exceptions préliminaires est révélateur. Ainsi le paragraphe 2 de l’ar-
ticle 79 dispose-t-il en termes impératifs que «[l]’acte introductif de l’excep-
tion contient l’exposé de fait et de droit sur lequel l’exception est fondée»
(les italiques sont de moi), tandis que le paragraphe 3 de ce même
article dispose notamment que «la partie contre laquelle l’exception est

introduite peut présenter un exposé écrit contenant ses observations et
conclusions» (les italiques sont de moi). Cette asymétrie entre les pres-
criptions de l’article 79 du Règlement — obligations stricti juris incom-
bant au défendeur d’un côté, et faculté accordée au demandeur de

l’autre — dit indirectement qu’il y a une différence de nature entre la pro-
cédure au fond et la procédure incidente des exceptions préliminaires
(l’article 49 du Règlement énonce quant à lui en termes symétriques les
obligations des parties relatives au mémoire et au contre-mémoire).
55. Il existe un étroit parallélisme entre les éléments pertinents de la

présente affaire et ceux de l’affaire de l’Or monétaire. En cette dernière, la

1271431 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

Britain, in its final Submission No. 1 (b) contended that, by raising the
preliminary objection, the

“Application . . .
.............................

(b) has been in effect withdrawn or cancelled by Italy” (Preliminary
Question, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1954, p. 25; see also ibid.,
p. 30).

However, the Court found that “[t]he raising of the Preliminary Question
by Italy cannot be regarded as equivalent to a discontinuance” (ibid.,
p. 30). As to the Submission contending that the Italian Application

should be held to be “invalid and void” (ibid.), the Court found that

“it is enough to state that the Application, if not invalid at the time
it was filed, cannot subsequently have become invalid by reason of
the preliminary question which Italy raised with regard to the Court’s
jurisdiction in this case” (ibid.).

(b) The congruence of views between the Parties as to jurisdiction and
the alleged disappearance of the dispute on the merits

56. The contention that there exists a substantive nexus between the

dispute as to jurisdiction and the dispute on the merits is, in the light of
the uniform jurisprudence of the Court on the issue of a legal dispute,
even more surprising. The relevant constituent elements of the legal dis-
pute seem to be clearly presented in the case at hand.

The contents of the Application, the Memorial, the Preliminary Objec-
tions and other relevant materials, create a clear picture of the situation
in which “two sides hold clearly opposite views concerning the question
of the performance or non-performance of certain treaty obligations”

(Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania,
First Phase, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , p. 74; hereinafter
referred to as “Interpretation of Peace Treaties” ) as well as the perform-
ance of obligations under general international law embodied in the
United Nations Charter (Memorial of 5 January 2000, pp. 301-346). The

Applicant charges the Respondents that by “bombing of Yugoslav terri-
tory” (Memorial, p. 301, para. 2.1.1.) they violated a number of its inter-
national obligations including not only in the international treaties in
force, but also in the Charter of the United Nations. The Respondents

denied the charge.

57. By denying the charges, the Respondents, within the limits and the
range determined by the stage of the procedure, elaborate diametrically
opposite legal concepts according to which the bombing of the territory

of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was carried out lege artis, in con-

128 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECA ) 1431
u
o
Grande-Bretagne a, dans sa conclusion finale n 1 b), soutenu que, en
raison de l’exception préliminaire soulevée par l’Italie, la

«requête ...

.............................
b) a[vait] été, en fait, retirée ou annulée par l’Italie» (question préli-
minaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1954 , p. 25; voir aussi ibid., p. 30).

La Cour a cependant jugé que le «fait par l’Italie d’avoir soulevé la ques-

tion préliminaire ne saurait être considéré comme équivalant à un désis-
tement» (ibid., p. 30). Quant à la conclusion selon laquelle la requête
italienne devrait être considérée comme «nulle et non avenue» (ibid.),la
Cour a estimé que

«il suffit de dire que la requête, qui n’était pas entachée de nullité au
moment de son introduction, n’a pu ultérieurement devenir nulle par

suite de la question préliminaire que l’Italie avait soulevée touchant
la compétence de la Cour en l’espèce» (ibid.).

b) La convergence de vues des Parties sur la question de la compétence

et la disparition alléguée du différend au fond

56. La thèse selon laquelle il existerait un lien étroit entre le différend
concernant la compétence et le différend au fond est, à la lumière de la
jurisprudence constante de la Cour sur la question de l’existence d’un dif-

férend juridique, plus surprenante encore. Les divers éléments constitutifs
d’un différend d’ordre juridique semblent être clairement exposés en
l’espèce.
La teneur de la requête, du mémoire, des exceptions préliminaires et
des autres pièces se rapportant à l’affaire brosse un tableau clair d’une

situation dans laquelle «les points de vue des deux parties, quant à l’exé-
cution ou à la non-exécution de certaines obligations découlant des trai-
tés, sont nettement opposés» (Interprétation des traités de paix conclus
avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie, première phase, avis consul-

tatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950 , p. 74; ci-après dénommée l’affaire de l’«Inter-
prétation des traités de paix» ), et il en va de même quant à l’exécution
d’obligations au titre du droit international général qui sont consacrées
par la Charte des Nations Unies (mémoire du 5 janvier 2000, p. 301-346).

Le demandeur soutient que «[l]es bombardements du territoire yougo-
slave» (mémoire, p. 301, par. 2.1.1) constituent la violation par les défen-
deurs d’obligations internationales qui leur incombent en vertu non seu-
lement des traités internationaux en vigueur, mais aussi de la Charte des
Nations Unies. Les défendeurs ont rejeté cette accusation.

57. Ce faisant, les défendeurs développent, dans les limites et la mesure
imposées par la procédure à ce stade, une argumentation juridique dia-
métralement opposée, suivant laquelle le bombardement du territoire de
la République fédérale de Yougoslavie aurait été mené en toute légalité,

1281432 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

formity with the concept of the so-called humanitarian intervention, as

well as by obeying the rules of humanitarian law. This constitutes the
second qualifying condition for the existence of the legal dispute — “that
the claim of one party is positively opposed by the other” (South West
Africa, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328;
emphasis added). Acting in the above-mentioned manner, the Respon-

dents have gone out of the reach of a simple denial of the Applicant’s
charges and set the matter on the level of a conflict of legal views, the
conflict of which is in concreto total and absolute.
58. The issue of the existence of a dispute on the merits possesses its
temporal dimension. As the Court stated in the case concerning Nuclear

Tests (Australia v. France) “[t]he dispute brought before [the Court]
must therefore continue to exist at the time when the Court makes its
decision” (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 271, para. 55).
A dispute in existence in the proceedings before the Court may, in

general, disappear in two ways:
(a) by withdrawing the Application; and

(b) if the object of the claim has been achieved by other means, as
exempli causa, when “a State has entered into a commitment con-
cerning its future conduct” which made the dispute disappear
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1974, p. 272, para. 60).

None of the above-mentioned has happened in the cases at hand.
It is true that the Respondent’s contention was not that the Applica-

tion has been withdrawn, but that the Applicant abandoned the basis of
jurisdiction making “a mockery of the principle that jurisdiction is
founded on the consent of the parties” (CR2004/10, p. 11); some “kind
of forum prorogatum” in the negative sense (CR2004/12, p. 12).
Apart from the nature of the question of jurisdiction (see para-

graphs 40-44 of this opinion), it should be noted that as far as abandon-
ment itself is concerned the Court cannot infer from the arguments of the
parties that a claim was abandoned. As stated in the case concerning Cer-
tain Norwegian Loans, “[a]bandonment cannot be presumed or inferred;
it must be declared expressly” (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957 , p. 26).

59. The real question one is faced with concerns the relationship
between the Application and the arguments of the Parties.
In the process of determination of the legal disputes, the Court bases
itself on the Application and final Submissions, as well as other pertinent

evidence as emphasized in the cases concerning Nuclear Tests (Australia
v. France) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , pp. 262-263) and Fisheries
Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 449, para. 31).
The expression “other pertinent evidence” is a collective term for

various forms of expressing intention of the parties relevant for the
determination of the dispute submitted to the Court. In the existing

129 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1432

conformément au principe dit d’ingérence humanitaire et aux règles du
droit humanitaire. Se trouve ainsi remplie la seconde condition mise à
l’existence d’un différend juridique — «que la réclamation de l’une des
parties se heurte à l’opposition manifeste de l’autre» (Sud-Ouest africain,

exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 , p. 328; les italiques
sont de moi). En adoptant cette façon de procéder, les défendeurs sont
allés au-delà de la simple dénégation des accusations du demandeur et
ont élevé la question au niveau d’une opposition de thèses juridiques,
opposition qui, au cas particulier, est totale et absolue.

58. La question de l’existence d’un différend au fond revêt une dimen-
sion temporelle. Comme la Cour l’a dit dans l’affaire des Essais nu-
cléaires (Australie c. France) , «[l]e différend dont la Cour a été saisie
doit donc persister au moment où elle statue» (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1974, p. 271, par. 55).

Un différend existant dans une instance pendante devant la Cour peut,
en règle générale, disparaître de deux manières:

a) par le retrait de la requête; ou
b) si la demande a été satisfaite par d’autres voies, par exemple
lorsqu’«un Etat a pris un engagement quant à son comportement
futur» qui a entraîné la disparition du différend (Essais nucléaires

(Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 272, par. 60).

Or, rien de tel ne s’est produit dans les présentes affaires.
Il est vrai que le défendeur a prétendu non que la requête avait été reti-
rée, mais que le demandeur avait renoncé à la base de compétence, tour-
nant «en dérision le principe d’une compétence fondée sur le consente-
ment des parties» (CR2004/10, p. 11), une «sorte de forum dit proroga-

tum» au sens négatif (CR2004/12, p. 12).
Hormis la nature de la question de la compétence (voir ci-dessus, aux
paragraphes 40-44 de la présente opinion), il convient de noter qu’en ce
qui concerne l’abandon lui-même la Cour ne peut déduire des thèses des

parties qu’une demande a été abandonnée. Ainsi qu’il a été précisé dans
l’affaire des Emprunts norvégiens «[l]’abandon ne saurait être présumé ni
déduit; il doit être déclaré expressément» (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1957 ,
p. 26).
59. La véritable question à laquelle nous nous trouvons confrontés est

celle du rapport entre la requête et les thèses des Parties.
Comme ce fut souligné dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires (Austra-
lie c. France) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 262-263) et de la Compétence
en matière de pêcheries (Espagne c. Canada), compétence de la Cour

(arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 449, par. 31), la Cour, pour définir le dif-
férend juridique porté devant elle, se fonde sur la requête et les conclu-
sions finales ainsi que sur d’autres éléments de preuve pertinents.
L’expression «autres éléments de preuve pertinents» est une formule
collective désignant diverses façons d’exprimer l’intention des parties qui

permettent de définir le différend porté devant la Cour. Dans les circon-

1291433 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

circumstances, taking into consideration claims and arguments of the

Respondents, various written and oral pleadings placed before the
Court in the proceedings on the preliminary objections are of particular
interest.
The crucial question which seems to be imposing itself in casu is the
relationship between the Application and the submission, on the one

hand, and the arguments of the Parties, on the other. This question
should especially be considered in the context whether the Application
and submissions can be either derogated, completely or partially, by the
arguments of the Applicant, or in fact be substituted by them.
I believe that the answer to the question is rather negative for several

reasons:

(i) The Application as a whole, including especially the submissions,
represents a basic parameter for the determination of the dispute.
The Court resorts to “other pertinent evidence” (Fisheries Jurisdic-

tion (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 449, para. 31), which in the present case is the writ-
ten and oral pleadings placed before the Court, in case of “uncer-
tainties or disagreements... with regard to the real subject of the
dispute with which the Court has been seised, or to the exact nature

of the claims submitted to it.” (ibid., p. 448, para. 29.)

(ii) Therefore, written and oral pleadings as such are an accessory
means rather than a subsidiary basic parameter for the determina-
tion of the dispute, which the Court resorts to in case of an unclear

or imprecise nature of the Application as a whole. Furthermore,
“when the claim is not properly formulated because the submis-

sions of the parties are inadequate, the Court has no power to
‘substitute itself for them and formulate new submissions simply
on the basis of arguments and facts advanced’ (P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 7, p. 35)” (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 466, para. 30).

(iii) The written pleadings and oral pleadings as such, excluding the sub-

missions, are basically arguments of the parties. Arguments of the
parties together with their contentions as reasons or statements
made for or against the matter are of highly relative value in juris-
dictional phases of the proceedings before the Court, taking into
consideration that the Court is not bound by them and that it, in

fact, possesses “the power to exclude” them (cf. Fisheries Jurisdic-
tion (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 449, para. 32). The value of the arguments and
contentions of the parties is framed in terms of “indications of
what the party was asking the Court to decide” (cf. ibid.; emphasis

added).
(iv) The arguments and contentions of the parties do not appertain to

130 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECA ) 1433
u

stances de l’espèce, compte tenu des revendications et des thèses des dé-
fendeurs, les différentes écritures et plaidoiries soumises à la Cour au
cours de la procédure relative aux exceptions préliminaires se révèlent

particulièrement éclairantes.
La question qui semble cruciale en l’espèce est celle du rapport entre la
requête et les conclusions formulées d’une part, et les thèses des Parties
d’autre part. A cet égard, il s’agit tout particulièrement de voir si les
thèses du demandeur peuvent déroger, en tout ou partie, à la requête et

aux conclusions, voire les remplacer.

A mon sens, il convient de répondre à cette question par la négative, et
ce pour plusieurs raisons:

i) La requête dans son ensemble, c’est-à-dire assortie des conclusions
qui y sont énoncées, constitue un paramètre fondamental pour la
définition du différend. La Cour fait appel à «[d’]autres éléments de
preuve pertinents» (Compétence en matière de pêcheries (Espagne

c. Canada), compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 ,
p. 449, par. 31) en cas d’«incertitudes ou [de] contestations ... quant
à l’objet réel du différend dont la Cour est saisie ou à la nature exacte
des demandes qui lui sont soumises» (ibid., p. 448, par. 29). Dans la

présente affaire, il s’agit des écritures et plaidoiries qui lui ont été
soumises.
ii) En tant que telles, les écritures et plaidoiries constituent donc plutôt
un moyen accessoire qu’un paramètre de base subsidiaire servant à
définir le différend et la Cour s’en sert lorsque la requête dans son

ensemble est obscure ou imprécise. De surcroît,

«quand la demande n’est pas formulée comme il convient parce
que les conclusions des parties sont inadéquates, la Cour n’a pas le
pouvoir de «se substituer [aux parties] pour en formuler de nou-
velles sur la base des seules thèses avancées et faits allégués»
o
(C.P.J.I. série A n 7,p.35)»( Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 466, par. 30).

iii) Les écritures et plaidoiries en tant que telles, à l’exclusion des conclu-
sions, sont, essentiellement, des thèses présentées par les parties. Or
ces thèses, de même que les thèses avancées par les parties à l’appui
ou à l’encontre de la demande formulée, présentent une valeur très

relative au stade de l’examen de la compétence de la Cour, cette der-
nière n’étant pas liée par lesdites thèses et possédant en fait «le pou-
voir [de les] écarter» (cf. Compétence en matière de pêcheries
(Espagne c. Canada), compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1998, p. 449, par. 32). La valeur qui est assignée par la Cour aux

arguments et thèses des parties est celle d’«indications de ce que
la partie lui demande de décider» (cf. ibid.; les italiques sont de
moi).
iv) Les arguments et thèses des parties ne sont pas intégrés à leurs

1301434 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

the submission of the party. The difference in meaning of the French

word “conclusion” and the English word “submission” reflected in
the circumstances that the latter “can extend to the arguments
advanced and the grounds invoked, and not merely to the precise
demand made of the Court” has been resolved in a manner that “the
Court has developed a consistent pattern of case-law on this aspect,

basing itself on the narrower meaning” (Shabtai Rosenne, The Law
and Practice of the International Court, 1920-1996 , Vol. III (Pro-
cedure), p. 1266).

60. Due to the autonomous standing of the notion of “dispute” in

international obligation, its determination possesses certain specific
characteristics. Basically, they derive from the fact that “dispute
between States” is not automatically “dispute before the Court” even
in the case where the States followed the rules of the law of the Court

regarding the institution of proceedings.
Regarding the determination of a “dispute before the Court”, in the
proceedings instituted by Application, roles are assigned to the Applicant
and the Court itself. The role of the Applicant is referred to as the
“presentation” or “formulation of the dispute” (see Fisheries Jurisdic-

tion (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1998, pp. 447-448, paras. 29 and 30) by acts which are designed by the
Statute and the Rules of Court as duties of the Applicant (Statute,
Art. 40, para. 1; Rules of Court, Art. 38, paras. 1 and 2). As far as the
Court is concerned, by executing its judicial function it is its role to

determine the dispute dividing the parties as well as to identify the object
of the claim.
What is in concreto the intrinsic legal meaning of the word “determina-
tion”?
In a substantive sense, determination of a dispute is to a certain extent

expressed as verification of a dispute as presented or formulated by the
applicant. The only case when the determination of the matter by the
Court is autonomous in toto, deprived of any substantive connection to
the application, is the situation when the Court considers that the real
dispute between the parties does not exist. Verification in the sense of

authentication or confirmation of the dispute as presented by the appli-
cant may occur as either total or partial — in which case it is possible to
make a difference between a “real dispute” and a “dispute as presented or
formulated”. Such a substantive determination of the term “determina-
tion of the real dispute” is based on the fact that the application —

together with the final submissions and other pertinent evidence — rep-
resents a basic parameter for the determination of a real dispute. The
expression “irrespective of the nature and subject of the dispute laid
before the Court in the present case” (South West Africa, Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328) is not used in the

meaning outside the application but irrespective of arguments of the
parties regarding the nature and subject of the dispute. The very essence

131 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND .KRECu ) 1434

conclusions. La différence de sens entre le terme français «conclu-
sion» et le terme anglais «submission» qui correspond au fait que le
second terme «peut, au-delà de la demande précise adressée à la
Cour, englober les arguments avancés et les moyens invoqués» a reçu

pour solution que «la Cour a constitué une jurisprudence constante
en cette matière en se fondant sur le sens le plus restrictif» (Shabtai
Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-
1996, vol. III (Procedure), p. 1266).

60. En raison de l’autonomie de la notion de «différend» en matière
d’obligations internationales, la définition d’un différend revêt certaines
spécificités. Celles-ci procèdent pour l’essentiel de ce qu’un «différend
entre Etats» n’est pas automatiquement un «différend devant la Cour»,

et ce même dans l’hypothèse où les Etats ont observé les règles régissant
l’introduction d’une instance devant la Cour.
En ce qui concerne la définition d’un «différend devant la Cour»,
lorsque l’instance est introduite par une requête, il est assigné un rôle tant

au demandeur qu’à la Cour elle-même. Le rôle du demandeur consiste à
«présenter» ou à «formul[er le] différend» (voir Compétence en matière
de pêcheries (Espagne c. Canada), compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1998, p. 447-448, par. 29 et 30) au moyen d’actes dont le Statut et
le Règlement de la Cour font des obligations du demandeur (para-

graphe 1 de l’article 40 du Statut; paragraphes 1 et 2 de l’article 38 du
Règlement de la Cour). Quant à la Cour, c’est à elle qu’il revient, dans
l’exercice de sa fonction judiciaire, de définir le différend opposant les
parties ainsi que d’identifier l’objet de la demande.
Quelle est alors, concrètement, la signification juridique intrinsèque du

terme «définition»?
Sur le fond, la définition d’un différend consiste, jusqu’à un certain
point, à vérifier l’existence d’un différend tel qu’il est présenté ou formulé
par le demandeur. Le seul cas de figure où la Cour procède elle-même à

cette définition de façon entièrement autonome, sans aucun lien matériel
avec la requête, est celui où elle considère qu’il n’existe pas de véritable
différend entre les parties. La vérification, au sens de l’authentification ou
de la confirmation du différend tel qu’il est présenté par le demandeur,
peut être totale ou partielle. Dans cette dernière hypothèse, il est alors

possible de distinguer entre le «véritable différend» et le «différend tel
que présenté ou formulé». Cette interprétation matérielle de l’expression
«définition du véritable différend» est fondée sur le fait que la requête —
assortie des conclusions finales et autres éléments de preuve pertinents —

constitue un paramètre fondamental pour la définition du véritable dif-
férend. A cet égard, les mots «quels que soient la nature et l’objet du dif-
férend soumis à la Cour dans la présente instance» (Sud-Ouest africain,
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 , p. 328) s’entendent
comme signifiant qu’on se situe non pas en dehors de la requête, mais

indépendamment des thèses des parties concernant la nature et l’objet du

1311435 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

of the determination process lies in its objectivity as to whether there

exists an international dispute (Interpretation of Peace Treaties with
Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 74).

Even though objectivity is not a personal but a qualitative character-

istic, it includes in concreto an assessment of the constitutive elements of
the legal disputes rather than a construction or a negation of legal dis-
putes. Constitutive elements of the dispute are, in fact, criteria that ought
to be tested in order to “be shown that the claim of one party is positively
opposed by the other” (South West Africa, Preliminary Objections, Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328).
61. If an organic link between the controversy on the jurisdictional
issue and the existence of a dispute in a case indeed existed, then the
Court, for instance, could not entertain a case in the event of a respon-

dent’s non-appearance in the proceedings. The fact remains that the
position of the Applicant in the proceedings is an unusual one, but
not unprecedented. It can be compared precisely with the position of
Italy in the Monetary Gold case where Italy, as the applicant State, raised
the preliminary objection to the jurisdiction of the Court. The Court,

assessing such a position of Italy, said:

“The Court finds that Italy’s acceptance of jurisdiction is one
thing, while her raising of a legal issue on jurisdiction is quite
another. It cannot be inferred from the making of the Preliminary
Objection that Italy’s acceptance of jurisdiction has become less
complete or less positive than was contemplated in the Washington

Statement.” (Preliminary Question, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1954 ,
p. 29.)

Moreover, the Court came to this conclusion in the reply to the submis-
sion of the United Kingdom, which, by its content, precisely corresponds
with Italy’s submission in the present case. Namely, the Court finds
that, “[n]or can the Court accept the contention in the final Submission
No. 1 (b) of the United Kingdom that the Application has been in effect

withdrawn and cancelled by Italy” (ibid., p. 30).
62. That the absence of a specific dispute on jurisdiction does not
deprive the Court’s decision of its judicial character is also confirmed by
the jurisprudence of the Court. In the Monetary Gold case, Italy, as the
Applicant, submitted to the Court what it termed a “Preliminary Ques-

tion” in substantially identical terms as the first request of Serbia and
Montenegro. At the time Italy requested the Court to “adjudicate on the
preliminary question of its jurisdiction to deal with the merits of the
claim set forth under No. 1 of the Submissions of the Application” (Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1954 , p. 23). The first request in the final submis-

sions of Serbia and Montenegro, as Applicant, has been formulated in
the following terms, where it requests the Court “to adjudge and declare

132 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECA ) 1435
u

différend. L’essence même du processus de définition réside dans le fait
que l’existence d’un différend international demande à être établie objec-
tivement (Interprétation des traités de paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la

Hongrie et la Roumanie, première phase, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil
1950, p. 74).
L’objectivité est un caractère qualitatif mais impersonnel et consiste
dans la pratique à évaluer les éléments constitutifs des différends juri-
diques plutôt qu’à interpréter ou à nier l’existence de tels différends. Ces

éléments constitutifs du différend sont en réalité des critères à l’aune des-
quels il convient de «démontrer que la réclamation de l’une des parties se
heurte à l’opposition manifeste de l’autre» (Sud-Ouest africain, excep-
tions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 , p. 328).

61. Si un lien organique devait effectivement être établi entre la contro-
verse sur la question de la compétence et l’existence d’un différend dans
une affaire déterminée, la Cour ne pourrait, par exemple, connaître d’une
affaire en cas de défaut de comparution du défendeur. Bien qu’elle soit, il

est vrai, inhabituelle, la situation du demandeur en la présente instance
n’est cependant pas sans précédent. Ainsi apparaît-elle très semblable à
celle de l’Italie en l’affaire de l’Or monétaire, dans laquelle cet Etat, à titre
de demandeur, a soulevé comme exception préliminaire la question de la
compétence de la Cour. Celle-ci, analysant cette situation de l’Italie, a dit

ceci:

«La Cour estime que l’acceptation par l’Italie de la juridiction est
une chose, alors que le fait par elle de soulever un problème de droit
touchant la juridiction en est une autre. De la présentation d’une
exception préliminaire on ne saurait déduire que l’acceptation par
l’Italie de la juridiction est devenue moins complète ou moins posi-

tive que ne l’envisageait la déclaration de Washington.» (Question
préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1954 , p. 29.)

En outre, la Cour a adopté cette position dans sa réponse à la conclu-
sion du Royaume-Uni, laquelle, dans sa teneur, correspond précisément
à la conclusion de l’Italie en la présente affaire. La Cour a estimé
«[qu’elle] ne saurait [non plus] retenir la thèse formulée par le Royaume-
o
Uni dans sa conclusion finale n 1 b) et selon laquelle la requête aurait en
fait été retirée ou annulée par l’Italie» (ibid., p. 30).
62. La Cour confirme également par sa jurisprudence que l’absence de
différend particulier en matière de compétence ne prive pas sa décision de

son caractère judiciaire. Dans l’affaire de l’Or monétaire, l’Italie, à titre
de demanderesse, a soumis à la Cour ce qu’elle appelait elle-même une
«question préliminaire» formulée de façon quasi identique à la première
demande de la Serbie-et-Monténégro. A l’époque, l’Italie priait la Cour
de «statuer sur la question préliminaire de sa compétence pour connaître
o
au fond de la demande formulée au n 1 des conclusions de la requête»
(ibid., p. 23). Dans la première demande énoncée dans ses conclusions
finales, la Serbie-et-Monténégro, c’est-à-dire le demandeur, a prié la Cour
de «statuer sur sa compétence ratione personae en les présentes affaires»

1321436 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

on its jurisdiction ratione personae the present cases” (CR2004/23, p. 38,

para. 34). Consequently, in both cases the applicant States asked the Court
not to declare that it has jurisdiction, but only to rule on its jurisdiction.
63. The request of the Applicant to the Court to rule on its jurisdiction
ratione personae possesses specific justification in the circumstances of
the present cases. These circumstances make relative the qualification of

the Applicant’s request regarding the jurisdiction of the Court ratione
personae as an abstract one. They present it in a different light, i.e., as a
request incorporated in the reality of the Court’s jurisprudence on the
matter, some sort of reminder to the Court to act in accordance with its
own findings. Namely, faced with the question — whether or not Yugo-

slavia is a Member of the United Nations and as such a party to the Stat-
ute of the Court — the Court found, in the provisional measures phase of
the proceedings, that it “need not consider this question for the purpose
of deciding whether or not it can indicate provisional measures in the

present case” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United Kingdom),
Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 836, para. 28; see also
CR2004/23, p. 38, para. 34). The finding, being only a slight modification
of the formulation used in the Order of 8 April 1993 in the Genocide Con-
vention case, implies the right, and obligation at the same time, of the

Court to pronounce upon it in a later phase of the proceedings and, it is
easy to agree, it seems to me, that there is no more proper phase in which
to do so than the preliminary objection phase.

4. Legal Interest of the Applicant in the Proceedings

64. Some of the respondent States (exempli causa, Portugal

(CR2004/9, p. 9)) argued that by requesting the Court to decide that it
has no jurisdiction to adjudicate on the merits, Serbia and Montenegro
showed that it has no legal interest in settling the dispute before the
Court.
Grosso modo, legal interest of the Applicant can be defined as specific

interest to demand judicial intervention, considering that otherwise the
Applicant would suffer some unjust prejudice and (or) would not be able
to protect its violated rights on the basis of international law.

In order to be qualified as a relevant legal interest, the interest of the

Applicant needs to fulfil several conditions:
(a) To be of legal nature. Economic, political or other non-legal interest

as such is not enough considering the fact that the jurisdiction of the
Court is reserved for legal disputes.

(b) To be concrete. This condition implies that the intervention of the
Court, either positively or negatively, reflects on the corpus of rights

and duties of the parties, real or presumed, prescribed by interna-
tional law.

133 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1436

(CR2004/23, p. 38, par. 34). Dans ces deux affaires, par conséquent, les
demandeurs ont invité la Cour non à déclarer qu’elle avait compétence,
mais seulement à statuer sur sa compétence.
63. Dans les circonstances des présentes affaires, le fait que le deman-

deur ait prié la Cour de statuer sur sa compétence ratione personae obéit
à une raison particulière. Lesdites circonstances interdisent de qualifier la
demande formulée par le demandeur au sujet de la compétence de la
Cour ratione personae de demande complètement abstraite. Elles per-
mettent de la voir sous un jour différent, c’est-à-dire comme une demande

s’inscrivant dans la jurisprudence de la Cour en la matière, comme pour
lui rappeler d’agir conformément à ses propres décisions. En effet, face à
la question de savoir si la Yougoslavie était ou non Membre des Nations
Unies et, à ce titre, partie à son Statut, la Cour a jugé, dans la phase de
l’examen des mesures conservatoires, qu’elle «n’a[vait] pas à examiner

cette question à l’effet de décider si elle [pouvait] ou non indiquer des
mesures conservatoires dans le cas d’espèce» (Licéité de l’emploi de la
force (Yougoslavie c. Royaume-Uni), ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J.
Recueil 1999 (II), p. 836, par. 28; voir aussi CR2004/23, p. 38, par. 34).

Cet énoncé, qui ne diffère que légèrement de celui de l’ordonnance du
8 avril 1993 en l’affaire relative à la Convention sur le génocide , revient à
dire implicitement que la Cour a le droit, et en même temps l’obligation,
de se prononcer sur cette question dans une phase ultérieure de la procé-
dure. A mon sens, et l’on en conviendra aisément, la phase la plus appro-

priée pour ce faire est celle des exceptions préliminaires.

4. L’intérêt juridique du demandeur en l’instance

64. Certains Etats défendeurs (comme le Portugal, par exemple
(CR2004/9, p. 9)) ont soutenu que, en priant la Cour de dire qu’elle
n’avait pas compétence pour statuer au fond, la Serbie-et-Monténégro

avait démontré qu’elle n’avait pas d’intérêt juridique à demander le règle-
ment du différend par la Cour.
Schématiquement, l’intérêt juridique du demandeur peut être défini
comme un intérêt particulier à solliciter l’intervention judiciaire, faute de

quoi le demandeur subirait un préjudice injuste et (ou) ne serait pas en
mesure de défendre, conformément au droit international, ceux de ses
droits auxquels il a été porté atteinte.
Pour être qualifié d’intérêt juridique pertinent, l’intérêt du demandeur
doit remplir plusieurs conditions:

a) Cet intérêt doit être de nature juridique. La Cour ne pouvant
connaître que de différends d’ordre juridique, les intérêts non juri-

diques, qu’ils soient notamment économiques ou politiques, ne suf-
fisent pas en tant que tels.
b) L’intérêt doit être concret. Cette condition signifie implicitement que
l’intervention de la Cour se répercute, de manière positive ou néga-
tive, sur l’ensemble de droits et d’obligations, réels ou présumés, des

parties, tels que les prescrit le droit international.

1331437 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

(c) To be of personal nature. This concerns the personal dimension of

the previous condition to be concrete. In fact, the interest needs to
be related to the subjective right of the applicant whereas the advi-
sory opinion of the Court given on the concrete legal question may
be abstract, deprived of a personal dimension. Personal dimen-
sion of the legal interest serves as differentia specifica between a

general interest which lies behind an actio popularis and a specific
interest.

These elements form the essence of the concept of the legal interest
based upon which is legitimatio ad processum(qualité pour agir) , which

is independent of the ability of a State to appear before the Court: it is
an expression of a concrete legal relation between the applicant and the
subject-matter of the dispute.
Legal interest of the applicant should be objectively determined par-

ticularly considering the fact that by instituting the proceedings before
the Court, the applicant demonstrates a subjective perception of its legal
interest in the matter.
Determination of the legal interest of the applicant is ex rerum natura
closely connected and intertwined with the determination of legal dis-

pute, taking into consideration that the dispute is in fact based on the
opposing attitudes of the parties in relation to a certain conflict of
interests. Therefore, what was emphasized regarding the determination
of the legal disputes applies mutatis mutandis to the basic parameters
for the determination of the legal interest of the applicant.

The party entitled to the subjective right, claiming the violation of a
concrete right to which the other party is positively opposed, is in posses-
sion eo ipso of a legal interest. In that case the presumption of legal
interest is applied. Legal interest is, in fact, incorporated into the very
essence of the concept of subjective right.

65. The Applicant, as well as the Respondent, is a State party to a
number of multilateral treaties in force, non-observance of which is
being attributed by the Applicant to the Respondent. Considering the fact
that the parties acquire mutual subjective rights and obligations by the
international treaty, the party whose subjective right has been violated

is entitled to claim the protection of its right (cf. Barcelona Traction,
Light and Power Company, Limited, Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1970, p. 45, para. 80; p. 46, para. 86). The existence of the
subjective right would no longer have its ratio in case the entitled party
did not possess legal interest for its protection. The presumption of legal

interest of the State entitled to the subjective right is strongly supported
by another reason deriving from the very nature of the modern inter-
national community. Due to the general prohibition on self-redress,
the State whose rights have been violated does not have at its disposal
an efficient and legal means for the protection of its subjective rights.

Therefore, it would in fact be convenient to assume the existence of the
legal interest in every particular case of accusation of the violation of the

134 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1437

c) L’intérêt doit être personnel, dimension qui complète le caractère
concret évoqué plus haut. Si l’avis consultatif que donne la Cour sur
une question juridique concrète peut être abstrait et dépourvu de
dimension personnelle, l’intérêt doit ici être lié à un droit subjectif du

demandeur. Cette dimension personnelle de l’intérêt juridique est le
critère permettant d’opérer la distinction entre un intérêt général qui
sous-tend une actio popularis et un intérêt particulier.

Les éléments ci-dessus constituent l’essence du concept d’intérêt juri-
dique sur lequel est fondée la legitimatio ad processum (qualité pour
agir), laquelle est indépendante de la qualité d’un Etat pour ester
devant la Cour: c’est l’expression d’un rapport juridique concret entre
le demandeur et l’objet du différend.

Il faut définir objectivement l’intérêt juridique du demandeur, d’autant
que celui-ci, en introduisant une instance devant la Cour, prouve qu’il
ressent subjectivement son intérêt juridique en l’espèce.

Comme le différend juridique est en réalité fondé sur une opposition de
points de vue entre les parties au sujet de certains intérêts contradictoires,
sa définition et celle de l’intérêt juridique du demandeur sont, par nature,
étroitement liées. Dès lors, ce que nous avons dit de la définition des dif-
férends juridiques s’applique mutatis mutandis aux paramètres fonda-

mentaux servant à définir l’intérêt juridique du demandeur.

La partie titulaire du droit subjectif, quand elle invoque la violation
d’un droit concret auquel l’autre partie s’oppose formellement, possède
eo ipso un intérêt juridique. Dans ce cas de figure, la présomption d’inté-

rêt juridique s’applique. L’intérêt juridique fait en réalité partie inté-
grante de la notion de droit subjectif.
65. Le demandeur, tout comme le défendeur, est un Etat qui est partie
à un certain nombre de traités multilatéraux en vigueur, dont il reproche

l’inobservation au défendeur. Etant donné que ces traités internationaux
confèrent aux parties des droits et obligations subjectifs réciproques, la
partie dont un droit subjectif a été violé est fondée à revendiquer la pro-
tection dudit droit (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company,
Limited, deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970 , p. 45, par. 80; p. 46,

par. 86). L’existence du droit subjectif n’aurait plus de fondement si la
partie qui en est titulaire ne possède pas d’intérêt juridique à assurer sa
protection. Cette présomption d’intérêt juridique au profit de l’Etat titu-
laire du droit subjectif est solidement confortée par une autre raison liée

à la nature même de la communauté internationale moderne. En raison
de la règle générale interdisant de se faire justice soi-même, l’Etat dont les
droits ont été violés ne dispose pas de moyens juridiques efficaces pour
défendre ses droits subjectifs. En conséquence, il serait commode de tenir
comme établie l’existence de l’intérêt juridique chaque fois qu’est alléguée

une violation des règles du droit international, qu’il s’agisse de règles

1341438 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP .KRECAu )

rules of international law, either conventional or customary, as a sort of
actio condemnatoria in the proceedings before the Court
The position of multilateral and bilateral treaties containing compro-

missory clauses is rather specific. The compromissory clause per se et a
priori proves the existence of the legal interest of the party and therefore
need not be either presumed or proved (action attitrée). Considered
stricti juris, the right to legal protection in the case of a compromissory

clause is not deduced from the legal interest of the applicant, but derives
directly from the compromissory clause as a treaty provision.

*
* *

66. Summary removal as such might constitute an administrative
action of the Court, either proprio motu or at the request of the Respon-

dent to reject the Application in limine litis. In either case the validity
of summary removal is, to say the least, of a dubious nature.

Summary removal as an action of the Court proprio motu has lost the
ratio of its existence by the introduction of Article 38, paragraph 5, of the
Rules of Court. Until then, it had been applied as a kind of extorted

action of the Court in circumstances in which one State sues another
without any existing title of jurisdiction and, in fact, called upon that
State to accept the jurisdiction of the Court ad hoc . Cessante ratione,

cessat ipsa lex.
In the circumstances of effective seisin of the Court, summary removal
at the request of the Respondent to the Court to reject the Application in

limine litis is unacceptable. As such, summary removal would be in sharp
contradiction with the duty of the Court to examine ex officio the ques-

9 Thus, the Court found itself in the situation of having to make a choice between Scilla

and Haribda — or to allow the “case” to figure on the General List as a pending case for
an indefinite period of time or to resort to the removal of the “case” from the General List
as was done in a number of cases: Treatment in Hungary of Aircraft and Crew of United
States of America (United States of America v. Hungary), Order of 12 July 1954, I.C.J.
Reports 1954, pp. 99-101, and Treatment in Hungary of Aircraft and Crew of United
States of America (United States of America v. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics),
Order of 12 July 1954, I.C.J. Reports 1954 , pp. 103-105; Aerial Incident of 10 March
1953, Order of 14 March 1956, I.C.J. Reports 1956 , pp. 6-8; Aerial Incident of 4 Sep-
tember 1954, Order of 9 December 1958, I.C.J. Reports 1958 , pp. 158-161; Aerial Inci-
dent of 7 November 1954, Order of 7 October 1959, I.C.J. Reports 1959 , p. 276-278;
Antarctica (United Kingdom v. Argentina), Order of 16 March 1956, I.C.J. Reports 1956 ,
pp. 12-14, and Antarctica (United Kingdom v. Chile), Order of 16 March 1956, I.C.J.
Reports 1956, pp. 15-17.
In the light of Article 38, paragraph 5, what the Court might do proprio motu, in spe-
cific circumstances and before effective seisin, is to take the initiative in removing a case
from the General List which, in fact, is done in accordance with Article 88 or 89 of the

Rules of Court. As a point of illustration, mention can be made of the case concerning
Maritime Delimitation between Guinea-Bissau and Senegal, Order of 8 November 1995,
I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 423.

135 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND .KRECu ) 1438

conventionnelles ou de règles coutumières, à la manière d’une actio
condemnatoria dans les procédures engagées devant la Cour.
Le cas des traités multilatéraux ou bilatéraux énonçant une clause

compromissoire est un cas à part. Une clause compromissoire prouve en
soi et à priori l’existence de l’intérêt juridique de la partie, laquelle n’a
donc pas à être présumée ni prouvée (action attitrée). D’un point de vue
strictement juridique, le droit à la protection juridique quand il est

énoncé une clause compromissoire ne procède pas de l’intérêt juridique
du demandeur, ce droit procède directement de la clause compromissoire
elle-même en tant que disposition conventionnelle.

*
* *

66. En tant que telle, la procédure sommaire de radiation du rôle
pourrait constituer une mesure administrative que la Cour prescrirait soit

de sa propre initiative, soit à la demande du défendeur, pour rejeter la
requête in limine litis. Dans un cas comme dans l’autre, la validité de
cette procédure de radiation sommaire est à tout le moins contestable.

Cette radiation sommaire qui serait prescrite par la Cour proprio motu
est privée de tout fondement par l’adoption des dispositions énoncées au
paragraphe 5 de l’article 38 du Règlement de la Cour. Auparavant, elle

avait été appliquée comme une sorte de mesure extorquée à la Cour
lorsqu’un Etat intentait une action contre un autre Etat sans aucun titre
de compétence, en le sommant à toutes fins pratiques d’accepter la com-
9
pétence ad hoc de la Cour. Cessante ratione, cessat ipsa lex.
Dans les cas de saisine effective de la Cour, il est inacceptable que la
Cour raye sommairement une affaire du rôle pour acquiescer à la demande

d’un défendeur qui la prie de rejeter la requête in limine litis. Une telle
action contreviendrait gravement à l’obligation incombant à la Cour

9 Ainsi la Cour s’est-elle retrouvée dans la situation de devoir choisir entre Charybde et

Scylla: soit autoriser l’«affaire» à figurer au rôle général pour un temps indéfini, soit pres-
crire sa radiation, comme cela a été fait dans un certain nombre de cas: Traitement en
Hongrie d’un avion des Etats-Unis d’Amérique et de son équipage (Etats-Unis d’Amérique
c. Hongrie), ordonnance du 12 juillet 1954, C.I.J. Recueil 1954 , p. 99-101, et Traitement
en Hongrie d’un avion des Etats-Unis d’Amérique et de son équipage (Etats-Unis
d’Amérique c. Union des Républiques socialistes soviétiques), ordonnance du 12 juillet
1954, C.I.J. Recueil 1954 , p. 103-105; Incident aérien du 10 mars 1953, ordonnance du
14 mars 1956, C.I.J. Recueil 1956 , p. 6-8; Incident aérien du 4 septembre 1954, ordon-
nance du 9 décembre 1958, C.I.J. Recueil 1958 , p. 158-161; Incident aérien du 7 novembre
1954, ordonnance du 7 octobre 1959, C.I.J. Recueil 1959 , p. 276-278; Antarctique
(Royaume-Uni c. Argentine), ordonnance du 16 mars 1956, C.I.J. Recueil 1956 , p. 12-14,
et Antarctique (Royaume-Uni c. Chili), ordonnance du 16 mars 1956, C.I.J. Recueil 1956 ,
p. 15-17.
A la lumière du paragraphe 5 de l’article 38 du Règlement, ce que la Cour pourrait faire
proprio motu, dans certaines circonstances et avant saisine effective, serait de décider de
radier une affaire du rôle général, ce qu’elle fait en réalité en vertu des procédures prévues

aux articles 88 et 89 du Règlement de la Cour. A titre d’exemple, on peut citer l’affaire de
la Délimitation maritime entre la Guinée-Bissau et le Sénégal, ordonnance du 8 novembre
1995, C.I.J. Recueil 1995 , p. 423.

1351439 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

tion of its jurisdiction in casu on the basis of the general principle of com-
pétence de la compétence . Having in mind the nature of the duty of the
Court to examine ex officio its jurisdiction in the case at hand, it might

even be said that summary removal in such circumstances would have the
meaning of a kind of denial of justice.

Consequently, by the adoption of Article 38, paragraph 5, of the Rules

of Court, “removal” acquires its appropriate meaning as simple removal
as an accessory effect of declining jurisdiction by the Court’s judicial
decision .

III. THE ISSUE OF THE C OMPOSITION OF THE C OURT

67. The fundamental difference between the composition of the Court
in the provisional measures phase of the proceedings, on the one hand,
and its make-up in the preliminary objections phase of the proceedings,

on the other, is noticeable. It calls for comments as a matter of principle.
During the provisional measures phase of the proceedings nine out of
a total of ten respondent States had judges sitting on the Bench of the

Court, irrespective of whether these were national judges (France, Ger-
many, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States of
America) or judges ad hoc (Belgium, Canada, Italy and Spain). Among
the respondent States having no judge of their nationality on the Bench,

only Portugal has not designated its judge ad hoc. The Applicant, for its
part, had one judge ad hoc on the Bench.
In the preliminary objections phase, the Bench underwent a significant

change. At the opening of the public sitting held on 19 April 2004, the
President of the Court stated, inter alia, that

“[b]y letters dated 23 December 2003, the Registrar informed the
Parties that the Court had decided... that the judges ad hoc chosen
by the respondent States should not sit during the current phase of
the procedure in these cases” (CR2004/6, p. 6).

He also noted that “Judge Simma had previously considered that he

should not take part in the decision of these cases and had so informed
[the President] in accordance with Article 24 of the Statute” (ibid.,p.7).
Thus, during the preliminary objections phase the Bench included
three national judges on the side of the respondent States and one ad hoc

judge on the side of the Applicant.
It is interesting to note that the Court, in adopting relevant decisions,

10It might be mentioned in passing that the practice for the “removal clause” to be
included at all into the dispositif of a judgment of the Court is open to question; not only
because of the fact that, as a rule, a case which has been completed is removed automati-
cally from the General List of pending cases, but also because of the nature of the judicial
decision of the Court which concerns the parties to the dispute rather than a matter that,

basically, concerns the internal functioning of the Court.

136 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE OP .IND .KRECu ) 1439

d’examiner d’office en l’espèce la question de sa compétence, sur la base
du principe général de compétence de la compétence. Eu égard au contexte
particulier dans lequel la Cour se doit d’examiner d’office sa compétence

en la présente instance, on pourrait même considérer qu’une radiation
sommaire du rôle équivaudrait dans les circonstances à une sorte de déni
de justice.
En conséquence, l’adoption du paragraphe 5 de l’article 38 du Règle-

ment de la Cour a conféré à la «radiation» son sens adéquat, celui d’un
simple effet accessoire d’une décision judiciaire 10de la Cour, par laquelle
celle-ci se déclare incompétente.

III. L A QUESTION DE LA COMPOSITION DE LA C OUR

67. La différence fondamentale entre la composition de la Cour lors de
la phase de la procédure consacrée aux mesures conservatoires, d’une
part, et sa formation au stade des exceptions préliminaires, d’autre part,

est manifeste. Elle appelle quelques observations de principe.
Lors de la phase de la procédure relative aux mesures conservatoires,
neuf des dix Etats défendeurs étaient représentés sur le siège de la Cour,

que ce fût par un juge de leur nationalité (France, Allemagne, Pays-Bas,
Royaume-Uni et Etats-Unis d’Amérique) ou par un juge ad hoc (Bel-
gique, Canada, Italie et Espagne). Parmi les Etats défendeurs non repré-
sentés sur le siège par un juge de leur nationalité, seul le Portugal n’a pas

désigné de juge ad hoc. Le demandeur comptait pour sa part un juge ad
hoc sur le siège.
Au stade des exceptions préliminaires, la composition de la Cour fut

sensiblement modifiée. A l’ouverture de l’audience publique, le 19 avril
2004, le président de la Cour déclara notamment que

«[p]ar lettres datées du 23 décembre 2003, le greffier a[vait] informé
les Parties que la Cour avait décidé ... que ... les juges ad hoc dési-
gnés par les Etats défendeurs ne siégeraient pas dans la présente
phase de la procédure en ces affaires» (CR2004/6, p. 6).

Le président ajouta que «le juge Simma avait auparavant estimé devoir

ne pas participer au jugement de ces affaires et [lui] en avait fait part,
conformément [à] ... l’article 24 du Statut» (ibid.,p.7).
Ainsi, au stade des exceptions préliminaires, la Cour comptait-elle sur
le siège trois juges nationaux pour les Etats défendeurs et un juge ad hoc

pour le demandeur.
Il est intéressant de noter que la Cour a adopté pareilles décisions sans

10On peut signaler au passage que la question de savoir si la «clause de radiation» doit
figurer dans le dispositif d’un arrêt de la Cour reste posée; non seulement parce que la
règle veut que soit automatiquement radiée du rôle général une affaire arrivée à son terme,
mais aussi en raison de la nature de la décision judiciaire de la Cour, laquelle concerne les
parties au différend plutôt qu’une question qui, fondamentalement, a trait au fonctionne-

ment interne de la Cour.

1361440 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KRECu )

failed to provide an explanation in more detail, both with respect to par-

ticular decisions concerning the composition of the Court in the proceed-
ings on preliminary objections and with respect to the substantial change
in the two successive phases of the proceedings.
In the provisional measures phase the Court, acting on the objections

raised by the Applicant relating to the nominations of judges ad hoc by
four respondent States, settled for a succinct formulation that the nomi-
nations were “justified in the present phase of the case” . The Court was
somewhat more specific in the relevant decision relating to its own

make-up in the preliminary objections phase. Even though, in contrast to
the provisional measures phase, the Applicant raised no objections regard-
ing the participation of judges ad hoc chosen by the respondent States. In
deciding that “the judges ad hoc chosen by the respondent States should

not sit during the current phase of the procedure” (CR2004/6, p. 6), the
Court invoked the fact of “the presence on the Bench of judges of British,
Dutch and French nationality” (CR2004/6, p. 6).

68. From the terse formulation relating to the acceptance of the nomi-
nations of judges ad hoc by four respondent States in the provisional
measures phase one could infer that the Court, in adopting the decision
that their nominations were justified, relied on the grammatical interpre-

tation of the provision of Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute. Namely,
Article 31, paragraph 3, provides that “[i]f the Court includes upon the
Bench no judge of the nationality of the parties, each of these parties may
proceed to choose a judge”. In other words, the Court followed the logic

that the independent and inherent right of a party to choose a judge ad
hoc on the basis of Article 31, paragraph 3, of the Statute, was not sub-
ject to any particular restrictions in this particular case. The Applicant
founded its objection to the nomination of the judges ad hoc by four

respondent States on the contention that they are parties in the same
interest and that, consequently, paragraph 5 of Article 31 of the Statute
should have been applied. The Court, in its decision does not deal spe-
cifically with this contention of the Applicant, although the decision itself

implies that the Court rejected it.
69. The absence of an explanation leaves room for assumptions. One
of them, it seems to me, that merits attention rests on the interpretation
of the expression “several parties in the same interest” (Statute, Art. 31,

para. 5). It has been said that

“Article 31, which uses a form of wording in the singular, ‘applies
separately to each case on the Court’s List’. ‘In the presence of two

11Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J.
Reports 1999 (I), p. 130, para. 12; Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Canada),
Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) , p. 265, para. 12; Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Italy), Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) , p. 487, para. 12;
Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (II), p. 767, para. 12.

137 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE OP .IND . KRECu ) 1440

les expliquer plus avant, qu’il s’agisse des décisions relatives à sa compo-

sition dans la procédure sur les exceptions préliminaires ou du remanie-
ment substantiel intervenu entre les deux phases successives de la procé-
dure.

Au stade des mesures conservatoires, la Cour, répondant aux objec-
tions élevées par le demandeur contre la désignation d’un juge ad hoc par
quatre Etats défendeurs, s’en est tenue à une formule succincte selon
laquelle les désignations «se justifiai[en]t dans la présente phase de
11
l’affaire» . La Cour fut un peu plus explicite dans sa décision concer-
nant sa propre composition lors de la phase relative aux exceptions pré-
liminaires, alors même que le demandeur, bien qu’il y fût opposé au stade
des mesures conservatoires, n’élevait plus aucune objection contre la par-

ticipation de juges ad hoc désignés par les Etats défendeurs. A l’appui de
la décision selon laquelle «les juges ad hoc désignés par les Etats défen-
deurs ne siégeraient pas dans la présente phase de la procédure»
(CR2004/6, p. 6), la Cour invoqua «la présence sur le siège de juges de

nationalité britannique, française et néerlandaise» (CR2004/6, p. 6).
68. De la formule laconique utilisée pour approuver la désignation
d’un juge ad hoc par quatre Etats défendeurs au stade des mesures

conservatoires, l’on pouvait déduire que, en déclarant la désignation des
intéressés justifiée, la Cour se fondait sur une interprétation grammaticale
de la disposition énoncée au paragraphe 3 de l’article 31 du Statut, selon
laquelle «[s]i la Cour ne compte sur le siège aucun juge de la nationalité

des parties, chacune de ces parties peut procéder à la désignation d’un
juge». En d’autres termes, la Cour a estimé que le droit indépendant et
naturel d’une partie de désigner un juge ad hoc en vertu du paragraphe 3
de l’article 31 du Statut n’était soumis à aucune restriction particulière en

l’espèce. Or, le demandeur contestait la désignation de juges ad hoc par
quatre Etats défendeurs au motif que ceux-ci faisaient cause commune et
que, par conséquent, le paragraphe 5 de l’article 31 du Statut aurait dû
s’appliquer. La Cour ne traite pas spécifiquement de cet argument du

demandeur dans sa décision, mais celle-ci signifie implicitement en soi
que la Cour l’a rejeté.

69. Cette absence d’explication autorise plusieurs hypothèses. L’une
d’elles, qui mérite selon moi d’être examinée, repose sur l’interpréta-
tion de l’expression «plusieurs parties f[aisant] cause commune» (para-
graphe 5 de l’article 31 du Statut). Il a été dit que:

«l’article 31, qui us[e] du singulier, «s’applique séparément à chaque
affaire inscrite au rôle de la Cour». «En présence de deux affaires

11
Voir Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Belgique), ordonnance du 2 juin
1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (I), p. 130, par. 12; Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie
c. Canada), ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (I) , p. 265, par. 12; Licéité
de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Italie), ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil
1999 (I), p. 487, par. 12; Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Espagne), ordon-
nance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 767, par. 12.

1371441 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KRECu )

separate cases between two sets of parties (even if one party is com-

mon to both cases), Article 31, paragraph 5, has no application’.”
(H. Thirlway, “The Law and Procedure of the International Court
of Justice, 1960-1989 (Part Eleven)”, The British Year Book of Inter-

national Law, 2000, p. 167, emphasis added, citing joint declaration
of Judges Bedjaoui, Guillaume and Ranjeva in Questions of Inter-
pretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising
from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 40.)

It appears that the interpretation is far too narrow and, in the light of the

meaning and in particular of the application of Article 31, paragraph 5,
of the Statute, arbitrary because it implies an indissoluble organic link
between “parties in the same interest” and formal joinder, which is
obviously not the case. The Court may find that the parties are in the

same interest without having recourse to joinder. Moreover, it is said
that “the ‘same interest’ provisions apply” only “in the case of the choice
of judges ad hoc” (G. Guillaume, “La ‘cause commune’ devant la Cour
internationale de Justice”, Liber Amicorum — Mohammed Bedjaoui

(Emile Yakpo and Tahar Boumedra, eds.), 1999, p. 330 [translation by
the Registry]). The jurisprudence of the Court was also formed in this
sense .2

Consequently, the provision of Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute
according to which the parties in the same interest shall be reckoned as
one party only, cannot be understood as being tantamount to joinder.
Although the same interest of the parties constitutes an element of the

notion of joinder, taken per se it neither constitutes formal joinder nor
can be considered identical to it. Joinder implies that the parties in the
same interest are reckoned as one party in the totality of their procedural
position which, in addition to the appointment of a single judge ad hoc

includes also one set of pleadings and a single judgment.

The parties in the same interest, in the sense of Article 31, paragraph 5,
of the Statute, are reckoned as one party in a restricted, functional sense

versus the process position of parties in its totality in the event of the
issue of joinder, and that is the choice of judges ad hoc. The formulation
according to which “several parties in the same interest... shall...be
reckoned as one party only” (Statute, Art. 31, para. 5) is made not for the

12Exempli causa,

“in the Fisheries Jurisdiction cases, the Court did not join the cases, and rendered
two distinct series of judgments, both on jurisdiction and on the merits. However,
that did not prevent it from regarding the United Kingdom and Germany as being ‘in
the same interest’ during the initial phase of the procedure.” (G. Guillaume, “La
‘cause commune’ devant la Cour internationale de Justice”, Liber Amicorum —
Mohammed Bedjaoui, 1999, pp. 330, 334-335 [translation by the Registry] ).

138 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1441

distinctes entre deux séries de parties (même si l’une des parties est

en cause dans les deux affaires) , le paragraphe 5 de l’article 31 ne
trouve pas à s’appliquer.»» (H. Thirlway, «The Law and Procedure
of the International Court of Justice, 1960-1989 (Part Eleven)», The

British Year Book of International Law, 2000, p. 167; l’auteur cite la
déclaration commune des juges Bedjaoui, Guillaume et Ranjeva
dans l’affaire relative à des Questions d’interprétation et d’applica-
tion de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident

aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Royaume-Uni),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 40; les ita-
liques sont de moi.)

Or, c’est là une interprétation bien trop réductrice et aussi — compte tenu

du sens et, en particulier, de l’application du paragraphe 5 de l’article 31
du Statut — arbitraire car elle suppose l’existence d’un lien organique
indissoluble entre les «parties f[aisant] cause commune» et la jonction
formelle d’instances, lien qui n’existe naturellement pas. La Cour peut

fort bien considérer que les parties font cause commune sans prononcer
la jonction d’instances. En outre, il a été dit que «les dispositions sur la
cause commune trouv[ai]ent à s’appliquer» uniquement «à l’occasion de
la désignation des juges ad hoc » (G. Guillaume, «La «cause commune»

devant la Cour internationale de Justice», Liber Amicorum — Moham-
med Bedjaoui, Emile Yakpo et Tahar Boumedra, dir. publ., 1999, p. 330).
C’est ce que confirme aussi la jurisprudence de la Cour . 12

Dès lors, la disposition énoncée au paragraphe 5 de l’article 31 du Sta-
tut, selon laquelle les parties faisant cause commune ne comptent que
pour une seule, ne saurait être assimilée à la jonction d’instances. Si le fait
que les parties font «cause commune» est l’un des éléments de la jonction

d’instances, cette cause commune ne constitue pas pour autant, en tant
que telle, une jonction formelle, pas plus qu’elle ne peut être tenue pour
identique à celle-ci. La jonction d’instances signifie que les parties faisant
cause commune ne comptent que pour une seule dans l’ensemble de leurs

démarches procédurales qui, outre la désignation d’un seul juge ad hoc,
comprennent également un seul jeu d’écritures et un arrêt unique.
Si les parties faisant cause commune au sens du paragraphe 5 de l’ar-
ticle 31 du Statut ne comptent que pour une seule, c’est, par opposition à

la jonction d’instances qui suppose une position unique des parties dans
l’ensemble de leurs démarches procédurales, dans un sens restreint et
fonctionnel, c’est-à-dire uniquement pour le choix du juge ad hoc. La for-
mule selon laquelle «les parties f[aisant] cause commune ... ne comptent

12Par exemple, dans

«les affaires de la Compétence en matière de pêcheries , la Cour n’a pas prononcé une
telle jonction et a rendu deux séries d’arrêts distincts, tant sur la compétence que sur
le fond. Mais cela ne l’a pas empêchée de regarder le Royaume-Uni et l’Allemagne
comme faisant «cause commune» dans la première phase de la procédure.» (G. Guil-
laume, «La «cause commune» devant la Cour internationale de Justice», Liber Ami-
corum — Mohammed Bedjaoui , 1999, p. 330 et 334-335.)

1381442 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

purpose of a joinder but “for the purpose of the preceding provisions”

(Statute, Art. 31, para. 5) of Article 31 regulating equalization of the
parties before the Court.

If we continue for a moment to use the terminology of joinder, we
could possibly qualify the parties in the same interest, in the sense of

Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute, as a kind of small or procedural
joinder substantively and functionally linked with the choice of judges
ad hoc on the basis of the provisions of Article 31 of the Statute of the
Court.
70. The fundamental difference in the composition of the Court in the

provisional measures phase as against the preliminary objections phase
could be defended with the argument that in the provisional measures
phase the Court was not in a position to ascertain the positions of the
respondent States vis-à-vis the demands of the Applicant. The argument

bears a certain weight but it should not be overestimated in this particu-
lar case for two reasons at least. Primo, the question of the composition
of the Court is a matter of public order (in the Advisory Opinion case
concerning Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of
South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security

Council Resolution 276 (1970) (hereinafter referred to as “Namibia”),
Vice-President Ammoun pointed out in his separate opinion that it
relates to “the rule of... very equality which the Statute seeks to safe-
guard through the institution of judges ad hoc”( I.C.J. Reports 1971,
p. 68)) possessing “absolute logical priority” (ibid., p. 25, para. 36; see

also Western Sahara, Order of 22 May 1975, I.C.J. Reports 1975 ,
pp. 7-8; Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1975 ,p.17-
18, para. 13). Secundo, the indication for consideration of the same
interest of the respondent States was provided in the Application itself
which related to all the ten respondent States with identical statements

of facts and law. The Application itself offered the basis for a prima facie
appreciation of the facts and law for the treatment of “the appointment
of a judge ad hoc ...asa preliminary matter” (Legal Consequences for
States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South
West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970),

Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 , p. 25, para. 36). Tertio, the
urgency of the proceedings for interim measures could hardly be deemed
to have been an obstacle to such proceedings in this particular case,
because the proceedings for interim measures themselves lasted over
30 days, counting from the date of submission of the request to the

date of the rendering of the order.
71. The decision regarding the composition of the Court in both phases,
the provisional measures phase and the preliminary objections phase, was
adopted informally, being intimated to the Parties by the Registrar. (The
Court has thus departed from the practice established in theSouth West

Africa cases (cf. Order of 18 March 1965, I.C.J. Reports 1965,p .)i
which the decision about the composition of the Court was adopted in the

139 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1442

... que pour une seule» (Statut, art. 31, par. 5) ne vise pas une jonction
mais «l’application des dispositions qui précèdent» (Statut, art. 31, par. 5)
de l’article 31, lesquelles réglementent l’égalité entre les parties estant
devant la Cour.

Si nous restons encore un instant dans le registre de la jonction d’ins-
tances, nous pourrions peut-être même dire de la situation de parties fai-
sant cause commune au sens du paragraphe 5 de l’article 31 du Statut que
c’est une sorte de jonction restreinte ou d’ordre procédural liée, au fond
et dans la pratique, à la désignation de juges ad hoc sur la base des dis-

positions de l’article 31 du Statut de la Cour.
70. La Cour aurait pu justifier cette différence fondamentale de sa
composition au stade des mesures conservatoires par opposition à celui
des exceptions préliminaires en faisant valoir que, au stade des mesures
conservatoires, elle n’était pas en mesure d’analyser quelle position les

Etats défendeurs adoptaient sur les demandes du demandeur. Il faut sans
doute reconnaître à cet argument un certain poids, mais il ne faut cepen-
dant pas trop lui en accorder dans la présente affaire, et ce pour au moins
deux raisons. Premièrement, la question de la composition de la Cour

relève de l’ordre public (dans l’opinion individuelle qu’il joignit à l’avis
consultatif sur les Conséquences juridiques pour les Etats de la présence
continue de l’Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain) nonobstant
la résolution 276 (1970) du Conseil de sécurité (ci-après dénommé avis
consultatif relatif à la «Namibie»), le juge Ammoun, vice-président, sou-

ligna que cette question touchait à «la règle de l’égalité que le Statut de la
Cour a[vait] voulu justement sauvegarder par l’institution du juge ad
hoc»( C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 68)), règle présentant une «priorité logique
absolue» (ibid., p. 25, par. 36; voir également Sahara occidental, ordon-
nance du 22 mai 1975, C.I.J. Recueil 1975 , p. 7-8; Sahara occidental, avis

consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1975 , p. 17-18, par. 13). Deuxièmement, la
cause commune des Etats défendeurs ressortait de la requête elle-même,
qui présentait à l’encontre des dix pays un exposé des faits et du droit
identique. La requête permettait, en soi, d’apprécier prima facie les faits

et le droit pour traiter «la désignation d’un juge ad hoc ... comme une
question préliminaire» (Conséquences juridiques pour les Etats de la pré-
sence continue de l’Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain)
nonobstant la résolution 276 (1970) du Conseil de sécurité, avis
consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1971 , p. 25, par. 36). Troisièmement, on voit

mal comment l’urgence de la procédure relative aux mesures conserva-
toires aurait pu être perçue comme un obstacle à une telle démarche en
l’espèce, cette procédure ayant elle-même duré trente jours à compter de
la date du dépôt de la requête jusqu’à celle du prononcé de l’ordonnance.

71. La décision relative à la composition de la Cour dans les deux
phases (celle des mesures conservatoires et celle des exceptions préliminaires)
a été adoptée de manière informelle, ayant été annoncée aux Parties par le
greffier (la Cour s’est ainsi écartée de la pratique établie dans les affaires du
Sud-Ouest africain (cf. ordonnance du 18 mars 1965, C.I.J. Recueil 1965,

p. 3), dans lesquelles elle avait décidé de sa composition par voie d’ordon-

1391443 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

form of an order.) This practice possessed certain inherent advantages,

both formal and those of a substantive nature. As far as the formal
advantages are concerned, it is difficult to understand that the issue of
composition of the Court is regulated informally, at least when more
delicate and controversial cases are in question, whereas issues, such as
the appointment of experts of the Court (cf. Corfu Channel, Order of

19 November 1949, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 237; Delimitation of the Mari-
time Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area, Appointment of Expert, Order
of 30 March 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 165), the appointment of
experts to assist the parties to implement a judgment (cf.Frontier Dispute,
Nomination of Experts, Order of 9 April 1987, I.C.J. Reports 1987,

p. 7), or decisions on a request for an inspectionin loco (cf. South West
Africa, Order of 29 November 1965, I.C.J. Reports 1965,p.9;Gabèíkovo-
Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Order of 5 February 1997, I.C.J.
Reports 1997, p. 3) are dealt with through a formal order. Although there

is no difference in the legal effect of decisions adopted informally or in the
legal effect of those adopted in a formal manner, the manner in which a
decision of the Court is embodied bears the meaning of an implicit evalua-
tion of the issues being the object of the decision. This practice is all the
more surprising having in mind that the question of the composition of

the Court is not a purely procedural matter, but, in cases such as the case
in hand, a matter of public order that indirectly concerns the principle of
equality of States as one of the fundamental principles of international
law which falls within corpus juris cogentis.
Also indisputable, it seems to me, are the substantive advantages of

making decisions on the composition of the Court in a formal manner.
They emanate from the very structure of the order, in particular from the
special considerations that the Court had in mind making the order and
reasons justifying a particular decision on the composition of the Court.
Thus, an easier and more reliable interpretation of the decision of the

Court is enabled and, equally important, a consolidation of jurisprudence
of the Court on the matter.
72. The decision of the Court by which three respondent States (Bel-
gium, Canada and Italy) have been denied the extension of the appoint-
ments of their judges ad hoc in the preliminary objections phase, and

denying Portugal the right to appoint a judge ad hoc, is based on
Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute which provides that “[s]hould
there be several parties in the same interest, they shall, for the purpose
of the preceding provisions, be reckoned as one party only. Any doubt
upon this point shall be settled by the decision of the Court.”

(a) As regards Belgium, Canada and Italy, the Court adopted the rele-
vant decision “pursuant to Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute, taking
into account the presence on the Bench of judges of British, Dutch and
French nationality” (CR2004/6, pp. 6-7; emphasis added). The interpre-

tation of this explanation of the Court’s decision inevitably leads to the
conclusion that the Court considered not only Belgium, Canada and Italy

140 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1443

nance). Cette pratique présentait certains avantages intrinsèques, tant du
point de vue de la forme que de celui du fond. En ce qui concerne les avan-
tages formels, il est difficile de saisir pourquoi la Cour règle de manière
informelle la question de sa composition, du moins lorsque des affaires

plus délicates et controversées sont en cause, alors qu’elle traite par voie
d’ordonnance formelle des questions comme la désignation d’experts à son
service (cf. Détroit de Corfou, ordonnance du 19 novembre 1949, C.I.J.
Recueil 1949, p. 237; Délimitation de la frontière maritime dans la région
du golfe du Maine, nomination d’expert, ordonnance du 30 mars 1984,

C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 165), la désignation d’experts chargés d’aider les
parties à mettre un arrêt en Œuvre (cf.Différend frontalier, désignation
d’experts, ordonnance du 9 avril 1987, C.I.J. Recueil 1987,p .)uels
demandes de descente sur les lieux (cf.Sud-Ouest africain, ordonnance du
29 novembre 1965, C.I.J. Recueil 1965,p.9; Projet Gabc ˇíkovo-Nagymaros

(Hongrie/Slovaquie), ordonnance du 5 février 1997, C.I.J. Recueil 1997,
p. 3). Il n’y a certes aucune différence entre l’effet juridique de décisions
adoptées à titre informel et l’effet juridique de décisions formelles, mais la
manière dont la Cour se prononce traduit cependant une appréciation

implicite des questions faisant l’objet de la décision. Cette pratique est
d’autant plus surprenante quand on sait que la question de la composition
de la Cour n’est pas une question purement procédurale, mais est, dans des
affaires comme celle qui nous occupe ici, une question d’ordre public qui
intéresse indirectement le principe de l’égalité des Etats, l’un des principes

fondamentaux du droit international qui relève ducorpus juris cogentis.
Il est également incontestable, me semble-t-il, que donner un caractère
formel aux décisions de la Cour sur sa composition présente des avan-
tages quant au fond. Ceux-ci tiennent à la structure même de l’ordon-
nance, et surtout aux considérations spéciales que la Cour avait à l’esprit

en la rendant et aux raisons justifiant sa décision sur sa composition. La
Cour permet ainsi une interprétation plus aisée et plus sûre de sa décision
et, ce qui est tout aussi important, consolide sa jurisprudence sur le sujet.

72. En décidant de refuser à trois Etats défendeurs (la Belgique, le
Canada et l’Italie) la prorogation du mandat de leur juge ad hoc au stade
des exceptions préliminaires, et en refusant au Portugal le droit de dési-
gner un juge ad hoc, la Cour s’est fondée sur le paragraphe 5 de l’ar-
ticle 31 du Statut, lequel dispose que «[l]orsque plusieurs parties font

cause commune, elles ne comptent, pour l’application des dispositions
qui précèdent, que pour une seule. En cas de doute, la Cour décide.»

a) S’agissant de la Belgique, du Canada et de l’Italie, la Cour a pris cette
décision «en application du paragraphe 5 de l’article 31 de son Statut...,
compte tenu de la présence sur le siège de juges de nationalité britannique,
française et néerlandaise» (CR2004/6, p. 6-7; les italiques sont de moi). A
l’interpréter, on conclut nécessairement de cette explication de la décision

de la Cour que cette dernière considérait non seulement que la Belgique, le

1401444 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

as parties in the same interest, but also France, the Netherlands and the

United Kingdom.
The effect of Article 31, paragraph 5, of the Statute obviously could
not have been the deprivation of Belgium, Canada and Italy’s right,
“reckoned as one party only”, to have upon the Bench a single judge ad
hoc, but of the extension of the appointments of judges ad hoc which they

had appointed individually in the provisional measures phase. The dep-
rivation was legally founded only if the Court had found that these three
respondent States, together with France, the Netherlands and the United
Kingdom, were in the position of “parties in the same interest”. The
argument of the Court is suggestive of this but not explicit, because it

only referred to the “presence on the Bench of judges of British, Dutch
and French nationality” (CR2004/6, p. 6) as ratio of exclusion of the
right of Belgium, Canada and Italy to choose a single judge ad hoc with-
out saying that all of them were parties in the same interest. A direct

nexus between these two matters — on the one hand, the deprivation of
the three respondent States, having no judge of their nationality on the
Bench, of their right to choose a single judge ad hoc, and, on the other
hand, the presence on the Bench of judges of the nationality of the three
other respondent States, having judges of their nationality on the Bench —

is only possible to establish on the basis of the same interest position of
all these respondent States.

(b) As far as Germany is concerned, as Judge Simma had considered
that he should not take part in the decision in this case, Germany, on the

basis of Article 37, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court became “entitled
to choose a judge ad hoc within a time-limit to be fixed by the Court,
or by the President”. The Court, however, decided that the entitlement
under Article 37 is non-existent in casu “pursuant to Article 31, para-
graph 5, of the Statute” (CR2004/6, p. 7). In other words, the Court sub-

sumed the position of Germany in this particular matter under Article 37,
paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court which provides that “[p]arties in the
same interest shall be deemed not to have a judge of one of their nation-
alities .itheMember of the Cour t..iorbecomes unable to sit”
(emphasis added).

Consequently, the Court, proceeding from the “same interest” provi-
sion embodied in Article 31, paragraph 1, of the Statute and elaborated

in Article 37, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the Rules of Court, by its decision
notified to the Parties by letters of the Registrar dated 23 December 2003,
took the position that all eight respondent States are parties in the same
interest.
73. The decision of the Court produced equalization effects in the

composition of the Bench between the Applicant, on the one hand, and
the Respondents, on the other.
The equalization effects are expressed on two levels:

(i) on the level of the relation between the applicant State and those

141 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1444

Canada et l’Italie étaient des parties faisant cause commune, mais aussi
qu’il en allait de même pour la France, les Pays-Bas et le Royaume-Uni.
Manifestement, l’effet du paragraphe 5 de l’article 31 du Statut ne pou-
vait pas être de priver la Belgique, le Canada et l’Italie, qui «ne comptent

... que pour une seule» partie, de leur droit d’être représentés sur le siège
par un juge ad hoc unique, mais cet effet était de les priver de la proroga-
tion du mandat des juges ad hoc que ces Etats avaient désignés indivi-
duellement au stade des mesures conservatoires. Or, ce refus de proro-
gation n’était fondé en droit que si la Cour avait conclu que ces trois

Etats défendeurs se trouvaient être, avec la France, les Pays-Bas et le
Royaume-Uni, dans la situation de «parties [faisant] cause commune».
L’argument de la Cour donne à penser que tel est le cas, mais elle ne
l’exprime pas clairement, puisqu’elle se borne à évoquer «la présence sur
le siège de juges de nationalité britannique, française et néerlandaise»

(CR2004/6, p. 6) comme une raison justifiant d’exclure le droit de la
Belgique, du Canada et de l’Italie de désigner un juge ad hoc unique sans
déclarer que ces Etats faisaient tous cause commune. Pour établir un lien
direct entre ces deux éléments — d’une part, le fait que les trois Etats dé-

fendeurs non représentés sur le siège par un juge de leur nationalité ont
été privés de leur droit de désigner un juge ad hoc unique et, de l’autre, la
présence sur le siège de juges de la nationalité des trois autres Etats dé-
fendeurs qui, eux, étaient bien représentés —, il faut nécessairement consi-
dérer que les Etats défendeurs en question faisaient tous cause commune.

b) En ce qui concerne l’Allemagne, le juge Simma ayant estimé devoir
ne pas participer au jugement de l’affaire, elle était, sur la base du para-
graphe 1 de l’article 37 du Règlement de la Cour, «autorisée à désigner
un juge ad hoc dans un délai fixé par la Cour ou ... par le président». La
Cour a toutefois déclaré que l’autorisation prévue à l’article 37 n’était en

l’espèce pas applicable «en vertu du paragraphe 5 de l’article 31 du Sta-
tut» (CR2004/6, p. 7). C’est-à-dire que la Cour a considéré que la situa-
tion de l’Allemagne relevait à cet égard des dispositions du paragraphe 2
de l’article 37 du Règlement, aux termes duquel «[l]es parties faisant

cause commune ne sont pas considérées comme comptant ... un juge de la
nationalité de l’une d’elles si le membre de la Cour ... n’est pas ou n’est
plus en mesure de siéger» (les italiques sont de moi).

En conséquence, suivant la disposition relative à la «cause commune»
qui est énoncée au paragraphe 1 de l’article 31 de son Statut et dévelop-
pée aux paragraphes 1 et 2 de l’article 37 de son Règlement, la Cour, par
la décision qui fut notifiée aux Parties par le greffier dans des lettres

datées du 23 décembre 2003, a adopté pour position que les huit Etats
défendeurs faisaient tous cause commune.
73. Cette décision de la Cour a eu pour effet de rétablir, dans sa com-
position, l’égalité entre le demandeur et les défendeurs.

Ce rétablissement de l’égalité se manifeste à deux niveaux:

i) au niveau de la relation entre l’Etat demandeur et ceux des Etats

1411445 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.KRECu )

respondent States having no national judge upon the Bench. Unlike

the provisional measures phase, full equalization was realized in the
preliminary objections phase in accordance with the perfectly coher-
ent jurisprudence of the Court, thanks to the decision of the Court.
(Cf. joint declaration of Judges Bedjaoui, Guillaume and Ranjeva,
Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal

Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , pp. 34-39);

(ii) on the level of the relation between the applicant State and those res-

pondent States having Members of their nationality upon the Bench.
On this level partial equalization has been realized given the fact that
Judge Simma had decided not to take part in the decision in the case,
and the Court’s decision that Germany, pursuant to Article 31, para-

graph 5, of the Statute was not entitled to choose a judge ad hoc.
Thus the relation between the applicant State and the respondent

States having Members of their nationality upon the Bench suffered a
change in the concrete matter in comparison with the composition of the
Court in the procedure on provisional measures — three respondent
States (France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom) have their
national judges upon the Bench and the applicant State has a judge ad

hoc on the Bench.
Can such a solution be considered tenable in law and justice? The
answer to this question, it seems to me, is in the negative rather than in
the positive.
In the construction of Article 31, paragraphs 1 to 5, of the Statute, the

arithmetical equality of the numbers of judges upon the Bench having the
nationality of the parties, in the relevant variants of the relation between
the number of national judges (Art. 31, para. 1), national judges and
judges ad hoc (Art. 31, para. 2) or judges ad hoc mutually (Art. 31,
para. 3), figures as an expression of equality of the parties. Although

equality of the parties is not exhausted in the arithmetical equality, it
seems incontestable that, in the relations among States as sovereign
political units, the arithmetical equality is an important constitutive ele-
ment of equality: a contrario, the provisions of Article 31, paragraphs 1
to 5, of the Statute as such would be devoid of substance.

It is obvious that in concreto this arithmetical equality is non-existent
despite the fact that the respondent States are parties in the same interest.
What is involved, in fact, is but one example of inequality of the parties,
inequality that comes about due to grammatical interpretation of

Article 31, paragraph 4, of the Statute.
For as Judge Guillaume notes, referring to Article 31, paragraph 4, of
the Statute,

“This provision guaranteed equality between the parties where

142 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1445

défendeurs qui ne comptaient sur le siège aucun juge national: grâce
à ladite décision de la Cour, l’égalité, absente au stade des mesures
conservatoires, était parfaite lors de la phase consacrée aux excep-
tions préliminaires, conformément à la jurisprudence tout à fait cohé-

rente de la Cour (voir la déclaration commune de MM. les juges
Bedjaoui, Guillaume et Ranjeva dans l’affaire des Questions d’inter-
prétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résul-
tant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne
c. Royaume-Uni), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 ,

p. 34-39);
ii) au niveau de la relation entre l’Etat demandeur et ceux des Etats
défendeurs qui comptaient sur le siège un membre de leur nationalité:
à ce niveau, l’égalité a été rétablie partiellement quand le juge Simma
a décidé de ne pas participer au jugement de l’affaire et que la Cour a

conclu que l’Allemagne, en application du paragraphe 5 de l’article
31, n’était pas habilitée à désigner un juge ad hoc.

Ainsi la relation entre l’Etat demandeur et les Etats défendeurs comp-
tant sur le siège un membre de leur nationalité a-t-elle été concrètement
modifiée par rapport à la composition de la Cour lors de la procédure sur
les mesures conservatoires — trois Etats défendeurs (la France, les Pays-

Bas et le Royaume-Uni) ont sur le siège un juge de leur nationalité et
l’Etat demandeur y comptait un juge ad hoc.

Pareille solution est-elle défendable du point de vue du droit et de la
justice? Il faut à mon sens répondre à cette question non par l’affirmative

mais par la négative.
Lorsqu’on interprète les paragraphes1à5de l’article 31 du Statut, on
voit que l’égalité arithmétique du nombre de juges sur le siège ayant la
nationalité des parties, laquelle est assurée par des variantes du rapport

entre le nombre de juges nationaux (art. 31, par. 1), le nombre de juges
nationaux et de juges ad hoc (art. 31, par. 2) ou le nombre de juges ad
hoc, réciproquement (art. 31, par. 3), constitue une expression de l’égalité
des parties. Cette égalité des parties ne correspond certes pas exclusive-
ment à l’égalité arithmétique, mais il semble toutefois incontestable que,

dans les relations entre Etats en tant qu’entités politiques souveraines,
l’égalité arithmétique est une composante importante de l’égalité: si tel
n’était pas le cas, les dispositions des paragraphes1à5de l’article 31 du
Statut seraient, en tant que telles, dénuées de substance.
Or, force est de constater que, concrètement, cette égalité arithmétique

n’existe pas, bien que les Etats défendeurs fassent cause commune. En
fait, nous sommes tout simplement face à un exemple d’inégalité entre les
parties, inégalité due à une interprétation grammaticale du paragraphe 4
de l’article 31 du Statut.

En effet, comme M. le juge Guillaume, se référant au paragraphe 4 de
l’article 31 du Statut, le fait observer,

«Ce texte permettait d’assurer l’égalité des parties dans l’hypo-

1421446 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

neither had a national on the Bench. Thus in such cases, whether

there is a plurality of applicants, or of respondents, or of both, only
one judge ad hoc is chosen to sit on each side.

The system worked equally well where the Court included a judge

of the nationality of one of the parties and the latter objected to a
plurality of applicants or respondents acting in the same interest and
not having a judge of their own nationality present on the Bench.
Here again, equality was effectively guaranteed.

On the other hand, the system was more open to criticism where
on one side there were several States with judges of their nationality
on the Bench, whereas on the other there was only one judge, or
even merely a judge ad hoc.” (G. Guillaume, “La ‘cause commune’

devant la Cour internationale de Justice”, Liber Amicorum —
Mohammed Bedjaoui (Emile Yakpo and Tahar Boumedra, eds.),
1999, pp. 328-329; emphasis added.)

It follows, consequently, that in the event of conflict between the prin-

ciple of permanence of the Court and equality of parties “the authors of
the Statute and Rules accorded priority to the principle of the perma-
nence of the Court”, having restricted the application of the principle of
equality of parties “in regard to choice of judges ad hoc to situations
where the ‘common interest’ provisions apply” (ibid.,p.330 [translation

by the Registry]).
Such a state of affairs is hardly tenable. The deficiencies of the solu-
tions enshrined in the Statute and in the Rules of Court cannot constitute
a basis for a derogation of the fundamental principle of equality of
parties. The principle of equality of parties is but one ingredient, a con-

stitutive element of a broader principle of sovereign equality of States.
Although the Statute and the Rules of Court are, by their nature, jus spe-
cialis designed to regulate the work of the Court, it cannot be accepted
that they authorize, as such, the Court to disregard the relevant norms of
general international law. And, as the Statute itself determines, the Court’s

function “is to decide in accordance with international law” (Statute,
Art. 38, para. 1). Especially as concerns contemporary international law
which, unlike international law that was in effect at the time of drawing
up of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, recog-
nizes jus cogens the rules of overriding importance that, by definition,

brook no competition of incongruous rules. And the principle of sovereign
equality of States is undoubtedly a rule that belongs tocorpus juris
cogentis.

74. The issue of the realization of the overriding rule of equality of

States in regard to the composition of the Bench is, basically, an issue of
a technical, derivative nature. There are two ways that seem to be appro-

143 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1446

thèse où aucune des parties ne compte un de ses nationaux parmi les
membres de la Cour. En pareil cas en effet, que l’on ait pluralité de
demandeurs ou pluralité de défendeurs, voire pluralité à la fois de
demandeurs et de défendeurs, un seul juge ad hoc est désigné pour

siéger de chaque côté.
Le système était également satisfaisant dans le cas où figure parmi
les membres de la Cour un juge ayant la nationalité de l’une des
parties et lorsque cette partie est opposée à une pluralité de deman-
deurs ou de défendeurs faisant cause commune et n’ayant pas de

juge de leur nationalité au sein de la juridiction. Là encore, l’égalité
est en effet garantie.
En revanche la situation était plus critiquable lorsque, d’un côté,
se trouvent plusieurs Etats ayant des juges de leur nationalité siégeant
à la Cour tandis que, de l’autre, on ne compte qu’un juge, voire un

juge ad hoc.» (G. Guillaume, «La «cause commune» devant la Cour
internationale de Justice», Liber Amicorum — Mohammed Bed-
jaoui, Emile Yakpo et Tahar Boumedra, dir. publ., 1999, p. 328-329;
les italiques sont de moi.)

Il s’ensuit donc que, en cas de conflit entre le principe de la permanence
de la Cour et celui de l’égalité des parties, «les auteurs du Statut et du
Règlement ont privilégié le principe de la permanence de la Cour», ayant
restreint l’application du principe de l’égalité entre les parties «à l’occa-

sion de la désignation des juges ad hoc ... [où] les dispositions sur la clause
commune trouvent à s’appliquer» (ibid., p. 330).

Pareil état de choses est difficilement acceptable. Les lacunes que pré-
sentent les solutions prévues dans le Statut et dans le Règlement de la

Cour ne sauraient justifier une dérogation au principe fondamental de
l’égalité des parties. Ce principe n’est qu’un ingrédient, une composante
du principe plus général de l’égalité souveraine des Etats. Bien que le Sta-
tut et le Règlement de la Cour constituent, par nature, un jus specialis

destiné à réglementer les travaux de la Cour, on ne saurait pour autant
considérer que, en tant que tels, ils autorisent la Cour à faire fi des
normes du droit international général en la matière. D’ailleurs, ainsi qu’il
est dit dans le Statut lui-même, la mission de la Cour «est de régler [les
différends] conformément au droit international» (Statut, art. 38, par. 1).

Cela vaut d’autant plus lorsqu’il s’agit du droit international contempo-
rain qui, à la différence du droit international en vigueur à l’époque de la
rédaction du Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale,
range dans le jus cogens les règles d’importance fondamentale, lesquelles,

par définition, ne souffrent aucune concurrence de la part de règles incon-
grues. Or, le principe de l’égalité souveraine des Etats fait indubitable-
ment partie intégrante du corpus juris cogentis.
74. La concrétisation du principe fondamental de l’égalité des Etats
dans la composition de la Cour constitue fondamentalement une ques-

tion accessoire d’ordre technique. Deux moyens semblent permettre

1431447 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

priate, independently or in combination, depending on the circumstances

of a particular case. One of them boils down to the exemption of a Mem-
ber or Members of the Court in the event that there exists inequality
between the litigant parties in multiple cases in which one party is com-
prised of two or several States whose judges sit in the Court. Whereas the
other party is composed of a State (or States) that do not have national

judges or have a smaller number of national judges as compared to the
other side. In such a case a solution could be found within the co-ordi-
nates of the proposal submitted at the time of the revision of the Rules of
Court in 1926, according to which:

“Where one of the parties is represented by two or more States
having judges present on the Bench, only one of those judges, to be

chosen by the States in question, may take part in the proceedings
and judgment in the case.” (Statut et Règlement de la Cour perma-
nente de Justice internationale — Eléments d’interprétation , Carl
Heymanns Verlag, Berlin, 1934, p. 189, cited in G. Guillaume, “La
‘cause commune’ devant la Cour internationale de Justice”, Liber

Amicorum — Mohammed Bedjaoui (Emile Yakpo and Tahar Bou-
medra, eds.), 1999, p. 329. [Translation by the Registry.] )

Two objections could be raised with respect to this way of solving the
issue. The first is that it implies revision of Article 31, paragraph 1, of the
Statute. The objection is justified, but only partially, having in mind that,
by the application of Article 24, paragraph 2, of the Statute, it is possible
to achieve equalization even without a formal revision of the Statute. The

circumstances that two or more States whose judges sit in the Court —
States that are parties in the same interest — can be regarded by the
President of the Court as a “special reason” for having recourse to the
authority being at their disposal on the basis of Article 24, paragraph 2,
of the Statute. It is difficult, however, to imagine that a broader applica-

tion of this provision of the Statute is feasible, not only because of the
principle of permanence of the function of a Member of the Court, but
also because of the requirement relating to the minimal number of judges
constituting the Court (Statute, Art. 25, para. 2). Still, the possibilities
offered by this provision of the Statute should not be underestimated,

especially if the principle of permanence is interpreted systematically,
without the ingredients of a fetish. In that sense, the principle of perma-
nence of the Court is of a relative nature, not only because of the provi-
sion of the Statute stipulating that a third of judges shall be elected every
third year (Statute, Art. 13), but also because of the fact that a judge or

judges may be prevented from sitting on the Bench for factual or legal
reasons (Statute, Art. 23, para. 3, and Art. 24, para. 1).
The other manner would consist in giving the right to a party having
no judge of its nationality on the Bench to nominate more than one judge
ad hoc if equalization cannot be achieved in some other way. There exist

no substantive obstacles in the Statute to this manner of equalization.
The fact that Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute refers to the right of

144 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1447

d’assurer cette égalité, séparément ou conjointement, selon les circon-
stances. Le premier d’entre eux consiste simplement à dispenser un ou
plusieurs membres de la Cour de siéger quand existe une inégalité entre
les parties en litige dans les affaires multiples où l’une des parties comprend

deux ou plusieurs Etats représentés sur le siège par un juge de leur natio-
nalité, tandis que l’autre partie comprend un ou plusieurs Etats qui n’ont
aucun juge national sur le siège ou qui en comptent moins que la partie
adverse. En pareil cas, une solution consisterait peut-être à s’inspirer de
la proposition qui fut faite en 1926, à l’époque de la revision du Règle-

ment de la Cour, selon laquelle:
«Lorsqu’une des parties est représentée par deux ou plus de deux

Etats qui ont des juges siégeant à la Cour, seul l’un de ces juges, dési-
gné par lesdits Etats, pourra prendre part à la procédure et au juge-
ment de l’affaire.» (Statut et Règlement de la Cour permanente de
Justice internationale — Eléments d’interprétation , Carl Heymanns

Verlag, Berlin, 1934, p. 189, cité in G. Guillaume, «La «cause com-
mune» devant la Cour internationale de Justice», Liber Amico-
rum — Mohammed Bedjaoui, Emile Yakpo et Tahar Boumedra, dir.
publ., 1999, p. 329.)

On peut formuler deux objections à l’encontre de cette manière de
régler la question. La première est que cette solution oblige implicitement
à reviser le paragraphe 1 de l’article 31 du Statut. Cette objection est jus-

tifiée, mais seulement en partie, si l’on se souvient que l’application du
paragraphe 2 de l’article 24 du Statut permet d’assurer l’égalité sans
même qu’il faille procéder à une revision formelle du Statut. Le fait que
deux ou plusieurs Etats comptent des juges de leur nationalité sur le siège
de la Cour, s’agissant d’Etats qui font cause commune, peut en effet être

considéré par le président comme une «raison spéciale» d’exercer le pou-
voir que lui confère le paragraphe 2 de l’article 24 du Statut. Toutefois, il
est difficile d’envisager une application plus extensive de cette disposition
du Statut, eu égard non seulement au principe de la permanence de la

mission des membres de la Cour, mais aussi à la condition relative au
nombre minimum de juges à réunir pour constituer la Cour (Statut,
art. 25, par. 2). Pourtant, il ne faut pas sous-estimer les possibilités
offertes par cette disposition du Statut, surtout si l’on interprète le prin-
cipe de la permanence de façon systématique sans verser dans le fétichisme.

En ce sens, le principe de la permanence de la Cour revêt un caractère
relatif, en raison non seulement de la disposition du Statut prévoyant
qu’un tiers de la Cour est élu tous les trois ans (Statut, art. 13), mais aussi
du fait qu’un ou plusieurs juges peuvent être empêchés de siéger pour des

raisons factuelles ou juridiques (Statut, art. 23, par. 3, et art. 24, par. 1).
Le second moyen consisterait à autoriser une partie non représentée
sur le siège par un juge de sa nationalité à désigner plus d’un juge ad hoc
si l’égalité ne peut être établie autrement. Rien, dans le Statut, ne fait
vraiment obstacle à cette manière d’établir l’égalité. Le fait que le para-

graphe 2 de l’article 31 du Statut confère à «toute autre partie» (c’est-à-

1441448 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

“any other party” (i.e., a party other than the party which has a judge of

its nationality) to “choose a person to sit as judge” in the singular, cannot
be regarded as a ban on “any other party” to choose more than one judge
ad hoc. Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute is, both by diction and by
the terms used, designed individualistically, i.e., one party (having a judge
of its nationality on the Bench)/other party (party other than the party

having a judge of its nationality on the Bench). When multiple cases,
such as the cases at hand, are involved, the said provision should be
interpreted teleologically.

A contrario, it remains unclear how equalization, as an expression and

manner of ensuring the fundamental principle of equality of States, could
be achieved. For it should be borne in mind that it is not only about
nominal equality between parties, considering that even a quick look at
the voting practice in the Court shows that differences between national

judges and judges ad hoc in the cases in which States of their nationalities
were involved are not so significant as usually presumed.

75. The schedule of public hearings in the eight cases concerning the
Legality of Use of Force held from 19 April 2004 to 23 April 2004, taken

per se and in particular in connection with the decision of the Court
relating to the composition of the Court in these cases, represents a
specific and unusual approach of the Court.
Prima facie, the schedule of public hearings reflects the idea of consoli-
dation of separate proceedings in the sense of a logical order of the hear-

ings. More precisely, during the first round of pleadings on the prelimi-
nary objections held on 19 and 20 April, all eight respondent States
submitted their pleadings, whereas the Applicant did so on 21 April 2004.
The schedule was basically applied to the second round of pleadings, so
that 22 April 2004 was reserved for the eight respondent States and

23 April 2004 for the Applicant. However, a couple of things contradict
a simple equalization of this schedule of public hearings with the consoli-
dation of separate proceedings. Primo, the schedule departs from the
logical and normal practice that after the pleading of one respondent
State, who raised preliminary objections, there follows the pleading of

the Applicant, bearing in mind that a separate pleading is in question. It
is possible to argue that eight respondent States were in question, so that
the schedule of public hearings in the form in which it is designed was
meant to avoid possible duplication in the arguments of the Parties, in
particular that of the Applicant. Leaving aside the fact that such reason-

ing implies also substantive similarity or identity of pleadings of the
respondent States, it is clear already from a quick reading of the official
records of pleadings that, as designed, the schedule of public hearings did
not exclude duplication of arguments. Secundo, the order of pleadings of
the respondent States does not correspond to their order in the List of

pending cases. Moreover, it is in contrast also with the order of pleadings
of the respondent States in the provisional measures phase of the cases.

145 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KRECu ) 1448

dire toute partie autre que celle représentée par un juge de sa nationalité)
le droit de «désigner une personne de son choix pour siéger en qualité de
juge», au singulier, ne saurait être interprété comme interdisant que
«toute autre partie» désigne plus d’un juge ad hoc. Le paragraphe 2 de

l’article 31 du Statut, tant dans sa syntaxe que dans ses termes, est conçu
dans une optique individuelle, c’est-à-dire suivant l’opposition entre une
partie (ayant sur le siège un juge de sa nationalité)/l’autre partie (autre
que celle ayant sur le siège un juge de sa nationalité). Mais quand il faut
juger des affaires multiples comme celles qui nous occupent ici, cette dis-

position devrait être interprétée de manière téléologique.
Dans le cas contraire, on voit mal comment assurer ce rééquilibrage en
tant qu’expression du principe fondamental de l’égalité des Etats et
manière d’en garantir le respect. Car il ne faut pas oublier qu’il n’est pas
seulement question d’une égalité symbolique entre les parties, puisqu’un

simple coup d’Œil à la pratique de la Cour lorsqu’elle vote montre que la
différence entre les juges nationaux et les juges ad hoc, dans les affaires où
des Etats de leur nationalité sont en cause, n’est pas si grande qu’on le
pense généralement.

75. Le calendrier des audiences publiques tenues du 19 au 23 avril
2004 dans les huit affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force ,
envisagé en tant que tel et, en particulier, au regard de la décision de la
Cour sur sa composition dans lesdites affaires, représente une approche
particulière et inhabituelle de la part de la Cour.

A première vue, le calendrier des audiences publiques paraît suggérer
une intention de regrouper des procédures distinctes afin d’organiser les
audiences selon un ordre logique. Plus précisément, lors du premier tour
de plaidoiries sur les exceptions préliminaires, tenu les 19 et 20 avril, les
huit Etats défendeurs ont tous plaidé tandis que le demandeur l’a fait le

21 avril 2004. Le second tour de plaidoiries a été en substance organisé de
la même manière, de sorte que le 22 avril 2004 a été réservé aux huit Etats
défendeurs et le 23 avril 2004 au demandeur. Cependant, trois éléments
montrent que ce calendrier des audiences publiques ne peut pas être sim-

plement assimilé à un regroupement de procédures distinctes. Première-
ment, le calendrier s’écarte de la pratique logique et normale qui est que,
à la suite de la plaidoirie d’un Etat défendeur ayant soulevé des exceptions
préliminaires, le demandeur plaide à son tour, étant bien entendu qu’il
s’agit de plaidoiries distinctes. On pourrait arguer que huit Etats défen-

deurs étaient en cause, de sorte que le calendrier des audiences publiques,
tel qu’il a été établi, visait à éviter d’éventuelles redites dans les plaidoiries
des Parties, en particulier dans celles du demandeur. Mis à part le fait
qu’un tel raisonnement suppose également que les plaidoiries des défen-

deurs présentent au fond beaucoup de ressemblances et soient même iden-
tiques, il suffit de parcourir les comptes rendus officiels d’audience pour
voir clairement que, tel qu’il était conçu, le calendrier des audiences pu-
bliques n’a pas empêché les redites. Deuxièmement, l’ordre de parole des
Etats défendeurs ne correspond pas à l’ordre qui leur est attribué dans la

liste des affaires pendantes. Il ne correspond pas non plus à l’ordre dans

1451449 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

The Court decided at the time that after Yugoslavia, as the applicant

State, the respondent States should make their presentations in English
alphabetical order (International Court of Justice, Press Release 99/19 of
7 May 1999), which is also the order of the cases in the official name of
the cases on the Court’s List of pending cases. This would not merit too
much attention by itself. It could simply be a matter of convenience —

if it were not followed also by grouping of the respondent States in the
schedule of public hearings. Thus, within the framework of the first
round of oral pleadings, the morning session of the Court on 19 April
2004 was reserved for Belgium and the Netherlands. Also, the morning
session of the following day was reserved for Germany, France and Italy.

Although the Court offered no explanation for the reasons for such a
grouping, which cannot be taken as unusual, it is reasonable to assume
that the Court relied, among other things, also on different jurisdictional
claims pointed out by the applicant State. (Namely, with respect to Bel-

gium and the Netherlands, the Applicant presented also additional titles
of jurisdiction, i.e., Article 4 of the Convention of Conciliation, Judicial
Settlement and Arbitration between Belgium and the Kingdom of Yugo-
slavia dated 25 March 1930, and Article 4 of the Treaty of Judicial Settle-
ment, Arbitration and Conciliation between the Netherlands and the

Kingdom of Yugoslavia dated 11 March 1931.) On the other hand, the
process position of Germany, France and Italy is characterized by the
fact that these three respondent States have not made a declaration of
acceptance of the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court under Article 36,
paragraph 2, of the Statute. Tertio, there has appeared an intriguing

coincidence of the said grouping of the respondent States in the schedule
of public hearings and of the composition of the Court derived from it, a
composition that would completely fit in with the principle of equality of
parties. If, ex hypothesi, joinder has been established for groups of cases
in accordance with the schedule of public hearings held on 19 and

20 April 2004 (joinder for Belgium and the Netherlands, a second for
Germany, France and Italy, and a third for the United Kingdom, Portu-
gal and Canada), then the relation between the Applicant and the groups
of respondent States included in the said joinders would be brought to
the point of full equality of the Parties as far as the composition of the

Court is concerned.

* * *

76. The question of locus standi of Serbia and Montenegro before
the Court, or its jurisdiction, is one thing, and the question of the legality
of use of force is another.
Due to the inherent features of the jurisdiction of the Court — the
consensual nature coupled with limited access — the Court was not in a

position to make a pronouncement with regard to the legality of use of
force in these particular cases.

146 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND .KRECu ) 1449

lequel les Etats défendeurs ont plaidé au stade des mesures conservatoires
dans ces affaires. La Cour à l’époque a décidé qu’après la Yougoslavie,
qui était l’Etat demandeur, les Etats défendeurs devraient plaider suivant
l’ordre alphabétique anglais (Cour internationale de Justice, communiqué

de presse 99/19 du 7 mai 1999), ce qui est également l’ordre dans lequel les
affaires sont officiellement dénommées dans la liste des affaires pendantes
inscrites au rôle de la Cour. Cela ne mérite pas en soi qu’on s’y attarde et
ce pourrait simplement répondre à un souci de commodité s’il n’y avait
pas eu aussi, par la suite, regroupement des Etats défendeurs dans le

calendrier des audiences publiques. Ainsi, dans le cadre du premier tour
de plaidoiries, l’audience tenue par la Cour le matin du 19 avril 2004 a-t-
elle été réservée à la Belgique et aux Pays-Bas. De même, l’audience tenue
le matin suivant a été réservée à l’Allemagne, la France et l’Italie. La Cour
n’a pas précisé les raisons d’un tel groupement, lequel ne saurait être tenu

pour inhabituel, mais on peut raisonnablement penser qu’elle avait tenu
notamment compte de différents motifs de compétence invoqués par
l’Etat demandeur (c’est-à-dire que, à l’égard de la Belgique et des Pays-
Bas, le demandeur invoquait aussi des titres de compétence supplémen-

taires, soit l’article 4 de la convention de conciliation, de règlement judi-
ciaire et d’arbitrage entre la Belgique et le Royaume de Yougoslavie, datée
du 25 mars 1930, et l’article 4 du traité de règlement judiciaire, d’arbitrage
et de conciliation entre les Pays-Bas et le Royaume de Yougoslavie, daté
du 11 mars 1931). Ce qui caractérisait, en revanche, la situation de l’Alle-

magne, celle de la France et celle de l’Italie dans ces procédures, c’est
qu’aucun de ces trois Etats défendeurs n’avait fait la déclaration d’accep-
tation de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour qui est prévue au para-
graphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut. Troisièmement, on constate une coïn-
cidence intéressante entre ledit regroupement des Etats défendeurs dans le

calendrier des audiences publiques et la composition de la Cour qui peut
en être déduite, composition qui répondrait pleinement au principe de
l’égalité des parties. A supposer, par hypothèse, qu’il y ait jonction d’ins-
tances pour des groupes d’affaires constitués conformément au calendrier

des audiences publiques tenues les 19 et 20 avril 2004 (soit une première
jonction pour la Belgique et les Pays-Bas, une deuxième jonction pour
l’Allemagne, la France et l’Italie et une troisième pour le Royaume-Uni, le
Portugal et le Canada), le demandeur et les groupes d’Etats défendeurs
visés par lesdites jonctions auraient alors été placés dans une position

d’égalité parfaite du point de vue de la composition de la Cour.
*
* *
76. La question de savoir si la Serbie-et-Monténégro a qualité pour

ester devant la Cour ou si cette dernière est compétente est une chose,
celle de la licéité de l’emploi de la force en est une autre.
En raison des caractéristiques inhérentes de sa compétence — le carac-
tère consensuel et l’accès limité —, la Cour n’a pas été en mesure de se
prononcer sur la licéité de l’emploi de la force dans les affaires en ques-

tion.

1461450 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KRECu )

This fact testifies by itself to the delicate position in which the Court,
as the world Court, may find itself.
The Court, whose function is “to decide in accordance with interna-
tional law” (Statute, Art. 38, para. 1) disputes as are submitted to it is, in

these particular cases, hindered in a way in carrying out its function in
regard to the issue that certainly cannot be regarded as an ordinary one.

The question of the use of force in relations between States in an onto-
logical issue of the international order. It is a watershed of the primitive

de facto order that is governed by the elements of constellation of powers
and opportunism, and of the de jure international order embodied in the
rule of law.
On this occasion it seems appropriate to observe that we are witnessing
a cacophony of voices, coming as a rule from the circle of powerful

and influential States, to the effect that the sovereignty of States is just
history. As far as international law and the Court, as its organ, are con-
cerned, it is painful and surprising to realize that, among the advocates
of limited sovereignty, there can hardly be found those supporting a limi-

tation of sovereignty in, probably, the only aspect where limitation of
sovereignty — irrespective of the will of the States — corresponds with
the idea of a legally organized international community. Namely, that
disputes between States should be solved before the Court and not on the
battlefield.

The ratio of existence of international law rests in its implementation,
especially when it comes to rules that have an overriding character.
Hence, one can understand the calls, or perhaps entreaties, addressed to
the Court that

“Yugoslavia was at least entitled to deliberation on the merits of
its claim...rather than being brushed off on a jurisdictional tech-

nicality” (Anthony D’Amato in “Review of the ICJ Order of June 2,
1999 on the Illegality [sic] of Use of Force Case”, as found in “Kos-
ovo & Yugoslavia: Law in Crisis”, a presentation of Jurist (source:
http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/amato1.htm at 22 November 2004)).

It remains for the Court, fettered by the strong rules of its jurisdiction,
to appeal, if at all, to the Parties, somewhat quixotically, to be aware

of their responsibilities under international law, following the practice
in some previous cases (exempli causa, Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain
v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,
p. 456, para. 56) or to address the matter even in a more qualified

manner.

(Signed) Milenko K RECu .

147 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KRECu ) 1450

Ce fait témoigne en soi de la position délicate dans laquelle la Cour, en
tant que cour mondiale, peut se trouver.
La Cour, dont la mission est «de régler conformément au droit inter-
national» les différends qui lui sont soumis (Statut, art. 38, par. 1), est en

quelque sorte empêchée dans les présentes affaires de s’acquitter de sa
mission en ce qui concerne cette question, laquelle ne peut certainement
pas être considérée comme une question ordinaire.
La question de l’emploi de la force dans les relations entre Etats touche
à l’ontologie de l’ordre international. Elle est à la charnière entre l’ordre

primitif de facto, régi par les alliances et l’opportunisme, et l’ordre inter-
national de jure, incarné par l’état de droit.

Il y a lieu ici de constater qu’il nous est servi une véritable cacophonie
dont la source correspond généralement aux Etats puissants et influents,

lesquels nous disent finalement que la souveraineté des Etats appartient
désormais au passé. S’agissant du droit international et de la Cour, parce
qu’elle en est l’organe, il est désolant et surprenant de voir que, parmi les
partisans d’une souveraineté limitée, il ne s’en trouve guère pour préco-

niser une limitation de la souveraineté en ce qui concerne le seul aspect,
car c’est probablement le seul, à l’égard duquel — indépendamment de la
volonté des Etats — cette limitation répond à l’idée d’une communauté
internationale juridiquement organisée, à savoir que les différends entre
Etats doivent être réglés devant la Cour et non sur le champ de bataille.

La raison d’être du droit international réside dans sa mise en Œuvre, à
fortiori lorsqu’il s’agit de règles qui revêtent un caractère primordial. Par-
tant, on peut comprendre les appels, ou peut-être devrait-on dire les
exhortations, adressés à la Cour en ces termes:

«La Yougoslavie avait au moins droit à ce que la Cour délibère
sur le fond de sa demande ... au lieu d’être écartée pour un point de

procédure concernant la compétence» (Anthony D’Amato, in
«Review of the ICJ Order of June 2, 1999 on the Illegality [sic] of
Use of Force Case», extrait de «Kosovo & Yugoslavia: Law in Cri-
sis», a presentation of Jurist (source: http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/
amato1.htm, consulté le 22 novembre 2004)).

Il reste à la Cour, entravée par les règles rigoureuses qui gouvernent sa
compétence, à rappeler peut-être aux Parties, sans grand espoir d’être

entendue, les responsabilités qui sont les leurs en vertu du droit interna-
tional, conformément à la pratique qu’elle a suivie dans quelques affaires
antérieures (voir, par exemple, Compétence en matière de pêcheries
(Espagne c. Canada), compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 ,

p. 456, par. 56); ou bien il lui reste à examiner la question, fût-ce de
manière plus limitée.

(Signé) Milenko K REuA .

147

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