Separate opinion of Judge Kooijmans

Document Number
113-20041215-JUD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
113-20041215-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

1366

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE KOOIJMANS

Reason for adding separate opinion to joint declaration — Issue of prima
facie jurisdiction in 1999 Orders on provisional measures — Position of Yugo-
slavia in period 1992-2000 not substantiated in Judgment — Implication for
other pending cases in which Applicant is party — Consistency with earlier case
law ignored by the Court.

Options open to the Court — Dismissal in limine litis — Inconsistency of
Applicant’s behaviour with regard to jurisdictional grounds — Application no
longer meets requirement of Article 38, paragraph 2, of Rules of Court —
Inherent powers of the Court to strike case from General List — Judicial policy
and sound administration of justice.

1. With full conviction, I have subscribed to the joint declaration of

seven members of the Court. I strongly feel that the Court, in the present
Judgment, has failed to meet the criteria for a sound judicial policy, as
spelled out in paragraph 3 of the joint declaration, by basing itself on the
argument that Serbia and Montenegro has no access to the Court, and
that the Court consequently lacks jurisdiction ratione personae.

2. My present point of view may seem slightly surprising to those who
remember the separate opinion I appended to the Court’s Orders of
2 June 1999 on provisional measures in the same cases. There, I said that
the Court’s reasoning in basing itself on prima facie lack of jurisdiction
ratione temporis was flawed from a logical point of view (Legality of Use

of Force (Yugoslavia v. United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, I.C.J.
Reports 1999 (II), p. 878, para. 2).

I was of the view that the decisions taken in 1992 by the competent
organs of the United Nations, with regard to the continued membership
of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the events which had taken

place thereafter, had raised serious doubts as to whether the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia was capable of accepting the compulsory juris-
diction of the Court as a party to the Statute, and that such doubts as a
matter of logic take precedence over other controversies with regard to
the Court’s jurisdiction. I therefore felt that, in respect of its finding that

it had no prima facie jurisdiction, the Court should have based itself on
the argument that the Applicant had doubtful locus standi, and thus that
there was a lack of jurisdiction ratione personae, rather than on the
ground of lack of jurisdiction ratione temporis. (I agreed with the Court’s
finding that with regard to the Genocide Convention it had no prima

631367 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KOOIJMANS )

facie jurisdiction ratione materiae.)

3. The Court took an approach different to the one I had suggested. It
opted for an approach that, in my view, was defensible and legally sound,

even if I preferred another approach from a logical point of view (para-
graph 30 of my opinion). The approach taken by the Court in 1999 has
now been abandoned in favour of the one suggested by me at the time
(see Judgment, para. 44). Far from being elated by this change of
approach, however, I feel concerned for a number of reasons, which are

mentioned in the joint declaration and elaborated upon in the following
paragraphs.
4. First, in 1999, I certainly did not assume that the issue of the
Court’s jurisdiction ratione personae was an open and shut case. I expli-
citly stated: “[n]ot for a moment do I contend that the Court already at

the present stage of the proceedings should have taken a definitive stand
on what I called earlier a thorny question” (Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (II), p. 883, para. 21). I went on to refer to the dossier on the Fed-

eral Republic of Yugoslavia’s continued membership of the United
Nations as being full of legal complications, and was of the opinion that
a thorough analysis and careful evaluation of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia’s status was required at a later stage of the proceedings (ibid,
p. 883, paras. 21 and 22). I am, however, not persuaded by the Court’s

conclusion in the present Judgment that this analysis and evaluation have
convincingly demonstrated that the events of 2000 have “clarified the
thus far amorphous legal situation concerning the status of the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia vis-à-vis the United Nations” (para. 77).
Although this finding is undoubtedly correct as far as the situation after

the admission of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the United
Nations is concerned (this admission did indeed bring to an end its sui
generis position vis-à-vis the United Nations), the Judgment does not
make clear what the legal effects of this “amorphous” situation were in

the period 1992-2000. The reader is left with the statement — in itself not
uncontroversial — that the sui generis position of the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia cannot have amounted to its membership in the Organi-
zation (para. 76).

5. The Court’s finding does not seem to be based on a thorough analy-
sis and careful evaluation of, inter alia, the legal effects of the statements
made and positions taken by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia before
2000, in particular its note of 27 April 1992 to the United Nations, in
which it — admittedly on the presumption of the continuity of the “inter-

national personality of Yugoslavia” — unilaterally committed itself to

641368 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP. KOOIJMANS )

fulfil all the rights conferred on, and obligations assumed by, the Socialist
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in its international relations, including
its membership in all international organizations and participation in
international treaties ratified or acceded to by Yugoslavia. Have these

commitments become meaningless (at least partially), merely as a result
of its admission to the United Nations as a new Member and the nega-
tion of the presumption of continuity implicit therein; and if so, on what
grounds? Have the “thick clouds which have packed around Yugosla-
via’s membership in the United Nations” (an expression I used in my

1999 opinion, para. 27) been fully dissipated by the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia’s belated decision to act as a successor State to the Socialist
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, leaving it in a legal vacuum for the
period 1992-2000 as far as its relationship vis-à-vis the United Nations
and thus its participation in certain treaties — in particular the Genocide

Convention — is concerned? In this respect, the Judgment does not give
the reader much by way of clarification.

6. Second, as regards the potential impact of the 1999 Orders on other

cases before the Court, in particular the 1993 case concerning the Appli-
cation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro),ti
deserves mention that in 1999 both the Applicant and the Respondents
(with the possible exception of Portugal) considered themselves to be

party to the Genocide Convention, which had been found by the Court in
1996 to be the only basis of jurisdiction in the Genocide Convention case.
An impact of the orders on provisional measures in the instant cases on
the Genocide Convention case was therefore not foreseeable and — to say

the least — not very probable.

7. All this changed, however, when in 2000 a new Government came
into power in Belgrade. This Government no longer considered the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia to be the continuation of the former Socialist

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and it decided to apply for membership
of the United Nations as a successor State. Moreover, it was of the view
that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, at the time of its inception in
1992, had not been a party to the Genocide Convention, but only became

a party after its accession to the Convention on 6 March 2001.

8. These new perceptions in Belgrade led the Government to submit
an Application to the Court containing a Request for Revision of the

1996 Judgment on preliminary objections in the Genocide Convention

651369 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KOOIJMANS )

case on the basis of the “newly discovered facts” mentioned in the

previous paragraph.
The Court gave its decision rejecting the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via’s Application for Revision in a Judgment dated 3 February 2003, in
which I did not participate. As recalled in paragraph 10 of the joint dec-
laration, the Court found that “resolution 47/1 did not inter alia affect

the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s right to appear before the Court...
under the conditions laid down by the Statute”, and that the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia’s sui generis position vis-à-vis the United Nations
during the period 1992-2000 cannot have been changed retroactively by
its admission to the United Nations in 2000 (Application for Revision of

the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections (Yugo-
slavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), I.C.J. Reports 2003 , p. 31, paras. 70

and 71).
9. The arguments made by Serbia and Montenegro in the Application
for Revision case and in the present cases are virtually identical, and thus
establish a close link between the Genocide Convention case and the
present cases. Such a link did not exist in previous phases of the proceed-

ings in these cases. It is, therefore, all the more remarkable that, in spite
of the fact that this link is now undeniable, the Court, in its present Judg-
ment, has chosen an approach which is not in line with the approach
taken in 1999 and 2003 and which inevitably has implications for the
Genocide Convention case.

The Court’s statement that it “cannot decline to entertain a case
simply... because its judgment may have implications in another case”
(Judgment, para. 38) may be correct in general terms, but must be
deemed to lack the prudence and care which are called for in situations
where a variety of options exists.

10. Third, the decisions taken by the Court in the 1999 Orders on pro-
visional measures and in the 2003 Judgment in the Application for Revi-
sion case and its reasoning therein are part of the Court’s case law. As we
say in the joint declaration: “[c]onsistency is the essence of legal reason-

ing”. In my view, this consistency in reasoning in the Court’s case law is
of paramount importance and dwarfs any misgivings I personally may
have or may have had with regard to each and every argument used, as
long as I do not consider them legally untenable.

11. Although I do not consider the Court’s reasoning in the instant
cases legally untenable, I have, in some respects, serious doubts as to its
correctness; moreover, I find it judicially unsound for the reasons given

in the joint declaration and in the preceding paragraphs. What seemed to
me to be a logical ground for determining lack of prima facie jurisdiction

661370 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KOOIJMANS )

does not automatically qualify as a proper ground for the definitive deter-
mination of the issue of jurisdiction.

*
* *
12. The views expressed in my separate opinion appended to the 1999
Orders on provisional measures and my perception of them in the light of
today’s circumstances are, however, not the only reason why I deemed it

necessary to add a separate opinion to the joint declaration. I also wish
to indicate which of the options open to the Court and referred to in
paragraph 2 of the joint declaration would, in my view, have been the
better one.

13. These options were three in number. The first is the one chosen by
the Court in its Judgment and is based on its jurisdictional considerations
ratione personae. The second is the approach followed by the Court in
1999, which was founded on a lack of prima facie jurisdiction ratione

temporis and ratione materiae.

The third option would have been dismissal of the case in limine litis.
This option is explicitly rejected in the Judgment, but it would have
been my preference. I therefore find it useful to set out my views; they

are not necessarily shared by other colleagues who have signed the joint
declaration and who might have chosen the second option, which is
also plausible and conceivable for good reasons but with regard to
which the Court has not explicitly expressed itself.

14. The option of dismissal in limine litis logically precedes the other
two and it is therefore with good reason that the Court has dealt with it
first. Similarly, the relevant question has correctly been defined as

“whether in the light of the assertions by the Applicant...coupled
with the contentions of each of the respondent States, the Court

should take a decision to dismiss the case in limine litis, without
further entering into the examination of the question whether
the Court has jurisdiction under the circumstances” (Judgment,
para. 28).

15. I do not intend to deal with all the arguments given by the Court
in the relevant part of the Judgment (paras. 26-42), which contain mainly
a reply to the contentions of the Respondents. In a number of respects, I

agree with what is said by the Court; that is true particularly when it
states: “in certain circumstances the Court may of its own motion put an
end to proceedings in a case” (para. 31). I am, however, of the view that
the Court has refrained from exercising this proprio motu competence in
a well-considered way, and regrettably has confined itself first and fore-

most to responding to the arguments of the Parties in order to ultimately

671371 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KOOIJMANS )

conclude that “[f]or all these reasons, [it] cannot remove the cases...

from the [General] List, or take any decision putting an end to those
cases in limine litis” (para. 42). Though the Court explicitly stated that,
apart from the arguments of the Parties, it would also consider “any
other legal issue which it deems relevant” (para. 25), there is hardly any
evidence that it has done so. In the following, I will try to demonstrate

that such an approach would nevertheless have been the most appro-
priate one.
16. In its final submissions, Serbia and Montenegro asked the Court to
“adjudge and declare on its jurisdiction ratione personae in the present
cases” (CR 2004/23, p. 38). Such a request is highly unusual. Normally,

the applicant asks the Court to find that it has jurisdiction, not whether it
has jurisdiction.
17. The first time that Serbia and Montenegro asked the Court to
decide on its jurisdiction was when it submitted its Written Observations

on the preliminary objections of the Respondents on 20 December 2002.
In its Observations, Serbia and Montenegro summarily stated that, at the
time of the filing of its Applications in 1999, it had neither been a party to
the Statute nor to the Genocide Convention, thereby implying that the
Court could not base its jurisdiction on either Article 36, paragraph 2, of

the Statute or Article IX of the Genocide Convention, which were the
bases of jurisdiction it had invoked in its 1999 Applications.

18. Serbia and Montenegro explicitly stated in a letter to the Court,
dated 28 February 2003, that its Written Observations did not represent

a notice of discontinuance, and reiterated its request to decide on the
Court’s jurisdiction “considering the pleadings formulated in the Written
Observations”. What is striking — although perhaps not surprising in
view of the litigation tactics of Serbia and Montenegro with regard to the
various cases before the Court in which it is a party, as either applicant or

respondent — is that these Observations did not in any way refer to an
alternative basis of jurisdiction replacing the ones presented in 1999 but
no longer maintained by the Applicant.

19. It was only during the oral pleadings that the Applicant raised the

“key question” whether the sui generis position vis-à-vis the United
Nations (mentioned by the Court in the Judgment in the Application for
Revision case of 3 February 2003 and thus three weeks before the sending
of the letter to the Court) could have provided the link between the new
State and international treaties, in particular the Statute of the Court and

the Genocide Convention. In this respect, it is noteworthy that the Agent
for Serbia and Montenegro did not give any suggestion as to how this
could have happened. He merely stated that the question required a
definitive answer and that only a decision of the Court could bring
clarity. “A judgment on jurisdiction based on the elucidation of the

position of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia between 1992 and 2000
could create an anchor point of orientation. ” (CR 2004/14, pp. 26-27,

681372 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KOOIJMANS )

paras. 63-64; emphasis added.)

20. Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court states, inter alia,
that “[t]he application shall specify as far as possible the legal grounds
upon which the jurisdiction of the Court is said to be based” (emphasis
added). The Applications of 29 April 1999 met this requirement by

explicitly mentioning Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute and
Article IX of the Genocide Convention (supplemented in the cases
against Belgium and the Netherlands by letter of 12 May 1999, referring
to compromissory clauses in two bilateral conventions of 1930 and
1931 respectively).

In its Written Observations, filed on 20 December 2002, the Applicant
abandoned these jurisdictional grounds as being pertinent at the date the
Applications were filed without replacing them by another basis for the

Court’s jurisdiction (the Observations were silent as regards the two
bilateral treaties).
21. Therefore, Serbia and Montenegro’s Applications, as supplemented
by its Written Observations of 20 December 2002, no longer meet the
first requirement of Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court. That

fact in itself, however, does not provide the Court with a ground to
remove the cases from the List. The provision that the Application shall
specify the legal grounds of jurisdiction was included in 1936; in order to
distinguish the requirements of paragraph 2 from those of paragraph 1,
which were prescribed by the Statute itself, the words “as far as possible”

were used (see G. Guyomar, Commentaire du Règlement de la Cour
internationale de Justice , 1983, pp. 234 et seq.). In contrast to the require-
ments of paragraph 1, non-compliance with those of paragraph 2 does
not lead eo ipso to non-admissibility. These requirements “were imposed
on the Parties by the Court simply because they were helpful to it, but

represented a mere recommendation” (ibid.,p .35[translation by the
Registry]). Likewise, Rosenne is of the view that “an application will not
be rejected in limine only because such specification [of the jurisdictional
grounds] is omitted” (The Law and Practice of the International Court
1920-1996, 1997, p. 705).

22. Serbia and Montenegro’s contention that only discontinuance in
conformity with Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules of Court may yield a
removal of a case from the List without a judgment on jurisdiction or on

the merits (CR 2004/14, p. 18, para. 29) is, however, not correct. The fact
that the Rules only speak of removing a case from the List by unilateral
action of the applicant (Art. 89) or joint action by the parties (Art. 88)
cannot deprive the Court of its inherent power, as master of its own pro-
cedure, to strike proprio motu a case from the List. This is also recog-

nized by Rosenne who, in this respect, refers to the general powers of the
Court under Articles 36 and 48 of the Statute (op. cit., p. 1478). This

691373 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KOOIJMANS )

power is not related to the intention of the parties but to the judicial task
of the Court. This is borne out by the Court’s reasoning in the Orders in
the cases brought by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia against Spain
and the United States of America, where it said that

“within a system of consensual jurisdiction, to maintain on the
General List a case upon which it appears certain that the Court
will not be able to adjudicate on the merits would most assuredly
not contribute to the sound administration of justice ”( Legality of
Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures , I.C.J.

Reports 1999 (II), p. 773, para. 35; emphasis added).

Such power has to be used sparingly and only as an instrument of judicial
policy to safeguard the integrity of the Court’s procedure. The present
cases, however, are without precedent and can truly be called excep-
tional.

23. The Court was, in my opinion, perfectly entitled to issue such an
order in the instant cases on the basis of the fact that the Applicant has
not provided the Court with any plausible information as to the basis of
its jurisdiction. It is not for the Court to ascertain in the preliminary
phase of a case whether it has jurisdiction if the applicant fails to sub-

stantiate in any persuasive manner what the basis for that jurisdiction
could be, and after it has explicitly admitted that the initial grounds it
invoked are no longer valid. Nor is it the Court’s task to provide a party,
which asks for the elucidation of an observation made by the Court in a
judgment in another case to which it was also a party, with “an anchor

point of orientation”, as this would be tantamount to rendering an advi-
sory opinion or giving an interpretation of a judgment in circumstances
and under conditions not warranted by the Statute.

24. It is incompatible with the respect due to the Court for a party not
to provide it with any substantive argument for the speculation that it
might have jurisdiction while explicitly withdrawing the previously
adduced jurisdictional grounds. It is not in conformity with judicial pro-
priety and a sound judicial policy to render a fully reasoned judgment on

jurisdiction when the Applicant bases its request to do so on grounds
which can only be called inadequate. The Applicant can, therefore, be
held to its statement that there are no recognized or generally accepted
grounds of jurisdiction.

25. In the second round of the oral pleadings, the Agent for France
stated that

“the party against whom the application is brought is not required
to prove that there is no basis for jurisdiction, which would require
it — and it would be absurd to ask this of it — as a matter of course

to examine all possible bases” (CR 2004/21, p. 13, para. 22).

701374 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KOOIJMANS )

What is true for the Respondent is also true for the Court and even more
so. The fact that the Court has the duty under certain circumstances to

ascertain proprio motu that it has jurisdiction cannot, by a contrario
reasoning, be turned into an obligation to explore grounds for its juris-
diction which have not been invoked by the Applicant. As Rosenne
states:

“There can be no doubt that the choice of a title of jurisdiction is
as much a political act as a decision to institute proceedings, and the

Court is following its usual attitude when faced with political ques-
tions of that character not to substitute itself for the party con-
cerned. It is for this reason that a principle such as curia jura novit
cannot appropriately be applied by the Court proprio motu to sub-

stitute a title of jurisdiction which has not been invoked for
another...”( Op. cit., p. 956.)

Neither does the Court have to rule on a title of jurisdiction which has
not been claimed.
26. In view of the fact that the Applicant has failed to demonstrate,
and has not even made an effort to demonstrate, that the Court has juris-

diction, I am of the opinion that the Court should have decided in limine
litis to remove the eight cases from the General List.

(Signed) Pieter H. K OOIJMANS .

71

Bilingual Content

1366

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE KOOIJMANS

Reason for adding separate opinion to joint declaration — Issue of prima
facie jurisdiction in 1999 Orders on provisional measures — Position of Yugo-
slavia in period 1992-2000 not substantiated in Judgment — Implication for
other pending cases in which Applicant is party — Consistency with earlier case
law ignored by the Court.

Options open to the Court — Dismissal in limine litis — Inconsistency of
Applicant’s behaviour with regard to jurisdictional grounds — Application no
longer meets requirement of Article 38, paragraph 2, of Rules of Court —
Inherent powers of the Court to strike case from General List — Judicial policy
and sound administration of justice.

1. With full conviction, I have subscribed to the joint declaration of

seven members of the Court. I strongly feel that the Court, in the present
Judgment, has failed to meet the criteria for a sound judicial policy, as
spelled out in paragraph 3 of the joint declaration, by basing itself on the
argument that Serbia and Montenegro has no access to the Court, and
that the Court consequently lacks jurisdiction ratione personae.

2. My present point of view may seem slightly surprising to those who
remember the separate opinion I appended to the Court’s Orders of
2 June 1999 on provisional measures in the same cases. There, I said that
the Court’s reasoning in basing itself on prima facie lack of jurisdiction
ratione temporis was flawed from a logical point of view (Legality of Use

of Force (Yugoslavia v. United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, I.C.J.
Reports 1999 (II), p. 878, para. 2).

I was of the view that the decisions taken in 1992 by the competent
organs of the United Nations, with regard to the continued membership
of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the events which had taken

place thereafter, had raised serious doubts as to whether the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia was capable of accepting the compulsory juris-
diction of the Court as a party to the Statute, and that such doubts as a
matter of logic take precedence over other controversies with regard to
the Court’s jurisdiction. I therefore felt that, in respect of its finding that

it had no prima facie jurisdiction, the Court should have based itself on
the argument that the Applicant had doubtful locus standi, and thus that
there was a lack of jurisdiction ratione personae, rather than on the
ground of lack of jurisdiction ratione temporis. (I agreed with the Court’s
finding that with regard to the Genocide Convention it had no prima

63 1366

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE KOOIJMANS

[Traduction]

Raison pour laquelle il est joint une opinion individuelle à la déclaration com-
mune — Question de la compétence prima facie dans les ordonnances de 1999
sur la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires — La position de la
Yougoslavie pendant la période 1992-2000 n’est pas clairement établie dans
l’arrêt — Conséquences pour les autres affaires pendantes auxquelles le deman-

deur est partie — La cour ne tient pas compte de l’obligation de cohérence avec
la jurisprudence à laquelle elle est tenue.
Choix qui s’offrent à la Cour — Rejet in limine litis — Incohérence du
demandeur à l’égard des chefs de compétence — La requête ne répond plus aux
prescriptions du paragraphe 2 de l’article 38 du Règlement de la Cour — Pou-
voirs inhérents de la Cour de rayer l’affaire du rôle général — Politique judi-
ciaire et bonne administration de la justice.

1. J’ai souscrit avec une totale conviction à la déclaration commune de

sept membres de la Cour. Je suis très fermement d’avis que la Cour, dans
le présent arrêt, n’a pas obéi aux critères présidant à une bonne adminis-
tration de la justice qui sont définis au paragraphe 3 de ladite déclaration
commune quand elle adopte pour thèse que la Serbie-et-Monténégro n’a
pas accès à la Cour et que celle-ci, par voie de conséquence, n’a pas com-
pétence ratione personae.

2. L’avis que j’exprime ainsi peut sembler quelque peu surprenant à
ceux qui se souviennent de l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe aux
ordonnances rendues dans les mêmes affaires par la Cour le 2 juin 1999
sur les demandes en indication de mesures conservatoires. J’ai dit alors
que la Cour, en retenant prima facie un défaut de compétence ratione

temporis, manquait de logique (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougo-
slavie c. Royaume-Uni), mesures conservatoires, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) ,
p. 878, par. 2).
J’estimais que les décisions prises en 1992 par les organes compétents
de l’Organisation des Nations Unies au sujet du maintien de la qualité de
Membre de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie et des événements qui

avaient suivi suscitaient des doutes sérieux sur la possibilité pour la
République fédérale de Yougoslavie d’accepter la juridiction obligatoire
de la Cour en tant que partie au Statut, et que ces doutes, en toute lo-
gique, donnaient avant toute autre interrogation la réponse à la question
de la compétence de la Cour. Je pensais donc que, aux fins de conclure

qu’elle n’avait pas compétence prima facie, la Cour aurait dû se fonder
sur l’idée qu’il n’était pas certain que le demandeur avait qualité pour
ester devant elle et qu’il y avait donc défaut de compétence ratione per-
sonae plutôt que défaut de compétence ratione temporis. (J’estimais,
conformément à la conclusion de la Cour, que celle-ci n’avait pas com-

631367 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KOOIJMANS )

facie jurisdiction ratione materiae.)

3. The Court took an approach different to the one I had suggested. It
opted for an approach that, in my view, was defensible and legally sound,

even if I preferred another approach from a logical point of view (para-
graph 30 of my opinion). The approach taken by the Court in 1999 has
now been abandoned in favour of the one suggested by me at the time
(see Judgment, para. 44). Far from being elated by this change of
approach, however, I feel concerned for a number of reasons, which are

mentioned in the joint declaration and elaborated upon in the following
paragraphs.
4. First, in 1999, I certainly did not assume that the issue of the
Court’s jurisdiction ratione personae was an open and shut case. I expli-
citly stated: “[n]ot for a moment do I contend that the Court already at

the present stage of the proceedings should have taken a definitive stand
on what I called earlier a thorny question” (Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (II), p. 883, para. 21). I went on to refer to the dossier on the Fed-

eral Republic of Yugoslavia’s continued membership of the United
Nations as being full of legal complications, and was of the opinion that
a thorough analysis and careful evaluation of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia’s status was required at a later stage of the proceedings (ibid,
p. 883, paras. 21 and 22). I am, however, not persuaded by the Court’s

conclusion in the present Judgment that this analysis and evaluation have
convincingly demonstrated that the events of 2000 have “clarified the
thus far amorphous legal situation concerning the status of the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia vis-à-vis the United Nations” (para. 77).
Although this finding is undoubtedly correct as far as the situation after

the admission of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the United
Nations is concerned (this admission did indeed bring to an end its sui
generis position vis-à-vis the United Nations), the Judgment does not
make clear what the legal effects of this “amorphous” situation were in

the period 1992-2000. The reader is left with the statement — in itself not
uncontroversial — that the sui generis position of the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia cannot have amounted to its membership in the Organi-
zation (para. 76).

5. The Court’s finding does not seem to be based on a thorough analy-
sis and careful evaluation of, inter alia, the legal effects of the statements
made and positions taken by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia before
2000, in particular its note of 27 April 1992 to the United Nations, in
which it — admittedly on the presumption of the continuity of the “inter-

national personality of Yugoslavia” — unilaterally committed itself to

64 LICÉITÉ DE L’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KOOIJMANS ) 1367

pétence prima facie à l’égard de la convention sur le génocide, mais il
s’agissait de compétence ratione materiae.)
3. La Cour a adopté une autre démarche que celle que j’avais préco-
nisée. Elle a opté pour une démarche qui, à mon avis, était défendable et

solide en droit, même si, du point de vue de la logique, ma préférence
allait à une autre solution (voir le paragraphe 30 de mon opinion). A pré-
sent, la Cour a renoncé à la démarche adoptée en 1999 en faveur de celle
que j’avais préconisée à l’époque (voir arrêt, par. 44). Cependant, loin
de me réjouir, ce changement d’attitude me préoccupe pour un certain

nombre de raisons qui sont évoquées dans la déclaration commune et
que je vais développer dans les paragraphes qui suivent.
4. Premièrement, en 1999, je n’ai certainement pas considéré que la
question de la compétence ratione personae de la Cour était réglée
d’avance. J’ai dit expressément ceci: «Je ne soutiens pas une minute que

la Cour aurait d’ores et déjà dû, au stade actuel de la procédure, se pro-
noncer définitivement sur une question que j’ai plus haut qualifiée d’épi-
neuse.» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Royaume-Uni),
mesures conservatoires, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 883, par. 21.) Et j’ai

poursuivi en indiquant que le dossier consacré à cette question contro-
versée de savoir si la République fédérale de Yougoslavie héritait de la
qualité de Membre au sein de l’Organisation des Nations Unies était
plein de complications juridiques, et qu’à mon avis le statut juridique de
la République fédérale de Yougoslavie exigeait une analyse et une évalua-

tion approfondies et attentives à un stade ultérieur de la procédure (ibid.,
p. 883, par. 21 et 22). Toutefois, la Cour n’emporte pas mon adhésion
dans le présent arrêt quand elle conclut que cette analyse et cette évalua-
tion ont démontré de manière convaincante que les événements de 2000
ont «clarifié la situation juridique, jusque-là indéterminée, quant au sta-

tut de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie vis-à-vis de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies» (par. 77). Cette conclusion est indéniablement exacte
pour ce qui est de la situation postérieurement à l’admission de la Répu-
blique fédérale de Yougoslavie à l’Organisation des Nations Unies (car

cette admission a bel et bien mis un terme à la situation sui generis de la
République fédérale de Yougoslavie vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies), mais l’arrêt n’indique cependant pas clairement quels
étaient les effets juridiques de la situation dite «indéterminée» pendant la
période allant de 1992 à 2000. Le lecteur doit se contenter d’une affirma-

tion — qui, en soi, n’est pas incontestable — et qui est celle-ci: la situa-
tion sui generis de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie ne pouvait être
regardée comme équivalant à la qualité de Membre de l’Organisation
(par. 76).

5. La conclusion formulée par la Cour ne semble pas reposer sur une
analyse et une évaluation approfondies et attentives portant notamment
sur les effets juridiques des déclarations faites et des positions adoptées
par la République fédérale de Yougoslavie avant 2000, en particulier de
la note qu’elle a adressée le 27 avril 1992 à l’Organisation des

Nations Unies, dans laquelle elle s’engageait unilatéralement — certes sur

641368 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP. KOOIJMANS )

fulfil all the rights conferred on, and obligations assumed by, the Socialist
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in its international relations, including
its membership in all international organizations and participation in
international treaties ratified or acceded to by Yugoslavia. Have these

commitments become meaningless (at least partially), merely as a result
of its admission to the United Nations as a new Member and the nega-
tion of the presumption of continuity implicit therein; and if so, on what
grounds? Have the “thick clouds which have packed around Yugosla-
via’s membership in the United Nations” (an expression I used in my

1999 opinion, para. 27) been fully dissipated by the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia’s belated decision to act as a successor State to the Socialist
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, leaving it in a legal vacuum for the
period 1992-2000 as far as its relationship vis-à-vis the United Nations
and thus its participation in certain treaties — in particular the Genocide

Convention — is concerned? In this respect, the Judgment does not give
the reader much by way of clarification.

6. Second, as regards the potential impact of the 1999 Orders on other

cases before the Court, in particular the 1993 case concerning the Appli-
cation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro),ti
deserves mention that in 1999 both the Applicant and the Respondents
(with the possible exception of Portugal) considered themselves to be

party to the Genocide Convention, which had been found by the Court in
1996 to be the only basis of jurisdiction in the Genocide Convention case.
An impact of the orders on provisional measures in the instant cases on
the Genocide Convention case was therefore not foreseeable and — to say

the least — not very probable.

7. All this changed, however, when in 2000 a new Government came
into power in Belgrade. This Government no longer considered the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia to be the continuation of the former Socialist

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and it decided to apply for membership
of the United Nations as a successor State. Moreover, it was of the view
that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, at the time of its inception in
1992, had not been a party to the Genocide Convention, but only became

a party after its accession to the Convention on 6 March 2001.

8. These new perceptions in Belgrade led the Government to submit
an Application to the Court containing a Request for Revision of the

1996 Judgment on preliminary objections in the Genocide Convention

65 LICÉITÉ DE L’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND .KOOIJMANS ) 1368

le fondement de la présomption de continuité de la «personnalité inter-
nationale de la Yougoslavie» — à exercer tous les droits conférés à la
République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie et à s’acquitter de toutes
les obligations assumées par cette dernière dans ses relations internatio-

nales, y compris en ce qui concernait son appartenance à toutes les orga-
nisations internationales et sa participation à tous les traités internatio-
naux que la Yougoslavie avait ratifiés ou auxquels elle avait adhéré. Ces
engagements sont-ils devenus sans objet (du moins partiellement), sim-
plement du fait de l’admission en tant que nouveau Membre à l’Organi-

sation des Nations Unies et de la disparition de la présomption de conti-
nuité qui accompagne implicitement l’admission; et, si les engagements
sont bien désormais sans objet, quels en sont les motifs? Les «épais
nuages qui se sont amoncelés sur la question de savoir si la Yougoslavie a
ou non la qualité de Membre des Nations Unies» (c’est la formule que j’ai

employée au paragraphe 27 de mon opinion de 1999) ont-ils été entière-
ment dissipés par la décision tardive de la République fédérale de You-
goslavie d’agir en qualité d’Etat successeur de la République fédérative
socialiste de Yougoslavie, décision qui la laissait ainsi dans un vide juri-

dique pour la période allant de 1992 à 2000 en ce qui concerne sa relation
vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et donc sa participation à
certains traités, en particulier la convention sur le génocide? L’arrêt ne
fournit pas beaucoup d’éclaircissements au lecteur sur ce point.
6. Deuxièmement, s’agissant des conséquences éventuelles des ordon-

nances de 1999 sur d’autres instances portées devant la Cour, en particu-
lier l’affaire de 1993 relative à l’Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Serbie-et-Monténégro) , il y a lieu de dire que, en 1999, tant le deman-
deur que les défendeurs (à l’exception peut-être du Portugal) considé-

raient être parties à la convention sur le génocide, ce que la Cour avait
retenu en 1996 comme étant la seule base de compétence en ladite affaire.
Il n’était pas possible de prévoir alors que les ordonnances rendues dans
les présentes affaires auraient des conséquences sur l’affaire relative à la

Convention sur le génocide et l’enchaînement n’était d’ailleurs nullement
probable.
7. La situation a changé du tout au tout en 2000, avec l’arrivée au
pouvoir d’un nouveau gouvernement à Belgrade. Ce gouvernement ne
considère plus que la République fédérale de Yougoslavie assure la conti-

nuité de l’ex-République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie et il décide
de présenter une demande d’admission à l’Organisation des Nations Unies
en tant qu’Etat successeur. De surcroît, ce gouvernement est d’avis que,
au moment où elle commence d’exister en 1992, la République fédérale

de Yougoslavie n’est pas partie à la convention sur le génocide et
ne devient partie à ladite convention qu’après y avoir adhéré le 6 mars
2001.
8. Cette nouvelle conception de la situation à Belgrade conduit le gou-
vernement à soumettre à la Cour une demande en revision de l’arrêt du

11 juillet 1996 sur les exceptions préliminaires en l’affaire relative à la

651369 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KOOIJMANS )

case on the basis of the “newly discovered facts” mentioned in the

previous paragraph.
The Court gave its decision rejecting the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via’s Application for Revision in a Judgment dated 3 February 2003, in
which I did not participate. As recalled in paragraph 10 of the joint dec-
laration, the Court found that “resolution 47/1 did not inter alia affect

the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s right to appear before the Court...
under the conditions laid down by the Statute”, and that the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia’s sui generis position vis-à-vis the United Nations
during the period 1992-2000 cannot have been changed retroactively by
its admission to the United Nations in 2000 (Application for Revision of

the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections (Yugo-
slavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), I.C.J. Reports 2003 , p. 31, paras. 70

and 71).
9. The arguments made by Serbia and Montenegro in the Application
for Revision case and in the present cases are virtually identical, and thus
establish a close link between the Genocide Convention case and the
present cases. Such a link did not exist in previous phases of the proceed-

ings in these cases. It is, therefore, all the more remarkable that, in spite
of the fact that this link is now undeniable, the Court, in its present Judg-
ment, has chosen an approach which is not in line with the approach
taken in 1999 and 2003 and which inevitably has implications for the
Genocide Convention case.

The Court’s statement that it “cannot decline to entertain a case
simply... because its judgment may have implications in another case”
(Judgment, para. 38) may be correct in general terms, but must be
deemed to lack the prudence and care which are called for in situations
where a variety of options exists.

10. Third, the decisions taken by the Court in the 1999 Orders on pro-
visional measures and in the 2003 Judgment in the Application for Revi-
sion case and its reasoning therein are part of the Court’s case law. As we
say in the joint declaration: “[c]onsistency is the essence of legal reason-

ing”. In my view, this consistency in reasoning in the Court’s case law is
of paramount importance and dwarfs any misgivings I personally may
have or may have had with regard to each and every argument used, as
long as I do not consider them legally untenable.

11. Although I do not consider the Court’s reasoning in the instant
cases legally untenable, I have, in some respects, serious doubts as to its
correctness; moreover, I find it judicially unsound for the reasons given

in the joint declaration and in the preceding paragraphs. What seemed to
me to be a logical ground for determining lack of prima facie jurisdiction

66 LICÉITÉ DE L’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND .KOOIJMANS ) 1369

Convention sur le génocide , sur la base des «faits nouvellement décou-
verts» qui sont indiqués au paragraphe précédent.
Par arrêt du 3 février 2003, la Cour a décidé de rejeter la requête en
revision déposée par la République fédérale de Yougoslavie, décision à

laquelle je n’ai pas pris part. Ainsi qu’il est rappelé au paragraphe 10 de
la déclaration commune, la Cour a dit que «[l]a résolution 47/1 ne portait
notamment pas atteinte au droit de la RFY d’ester devant la Cour ... dans
les conditions fixées par le Statut» et que l’admission de la République
fédérale de Yougoslavie à l’Organisation des Nations Unies, en 2000, ne

pouvait avoir modifié rétroactivement la situation sui generis dans laquelle
elle se trouvait vis-à-vis de l’Organisation pendant la période 1992-2000
(Demande en revision de l’arrêt du 11 juillet 1996 en l’affaire relative à
l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions pré-

liminaires (Yougoslavie c. Bosnie-Herzégovine), C.I.J. Recueil 2003 ,
p. 31, par. 70 et 71).
9. La Serbie-et-Monténégro formule en l’affaire de la Demande en
revision et dans les présentes instances pratiquement la même thèse, éta-

blissant par là un lien étroit entre l’affaire relative à la Convention sur le
génocide et celles-ci. Ce lien n’existait pas lors des phases antérieures de la
procédure en ces instances. Il est donc d’autant plus remarquable que la
Cour, bien que ce lien soit à présent indéniable, ait adopté dans son arrêt
actuel une démarche qui ne correspond pas à celle qu’elle a adoptée

en 1999 et en 2003, et qui a inévitablement des conséquences pour
l’affaire relative à la Convention sur le génocide .
Quand la Cour dit qu’elle «ne peut refuser de connaître d’une affaire
simplement ... en raison des conséquences que son arrêt pourrait avoir
dans une autre instance» (arrêt, par. 38), ce peut être exact en général,

mais cette règle est à considérer ici comme étant dénuée de la prudence et
de la circonspection qui s’imposent dès lors qu’il existe plusieurs choix
possibles.
10. Troisièmement, les décisions rendues par la Cour dans les ordon-

nances de 1999 sur les demandes en indication de mesures conservatoires
et dans l’arrêt de 2003 en l’affaire de la Demande en revision ainsi que
leurs motivations font partie de la jurisprudence de la Cour. Ainsi que
nous le disons dans la déclaration commune, «[l]a cohérence est l’essence
même des motivations judiciaires». A mon avis, cette cohérence des moti-

vations dans la jurisprudence de la Cour revêt une importance primor-
diale et l’emporte sur toute réticence que je pourrais éprouver actuelle-
ment ou que j’ai pu éprouver par le passé à l’égard de chacun des
arguments avancés, pour autant que je ne les trouve pas juridiquement

indéfendables.
11. Je ne trouve pas juridiquement indéfendable la motivation de la
Cour dans les présentes affaires, mais j’ai à certains égards de sérieux
doutes quant à son bien-fondé; en outre, pour les raisons exposées dans
la déclaration commune et dans les paragraphes précédents, j’estime que

ladite motivation n’est pas valable du point de vue judiciaire. Ce qui me

661370 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KOOIJMANS )

does not automatically qualify as a proper ground for the definitive deter-
mination of the issue of jurisdiction.

*
* *
12. The views expressed in my separate opinion appended to the 1999
Orders on provisional measures and my perception of them in the light of
today’s circumstances are, however, not the only reason why I deemed it

necessary to add a separate opinion to the joint declaration. I also wish
to indicate which of the options open to the Court and referred to in
paragraph 2 of the joint declaration would, in my view, have been the
better one.

13. These options were three in number. The first is the one chosen by
the Court in its Judgment and is based on its jurisdictional considerations
ratione personae. The second is the approach followed by the Court in
1999, which was founded on a lack of prima facie jurisdiction ratione

temporis and ratione materiae.

The third option would have been dismissal of the case in limine litis.
This option is explicitly rejected in the Judgment, but it would have
been my preference. I therefore find it useful to set out my views; they

are not necessarily shared by other colleagues who have signed the joint
declaration and who might have chosen the second option, which is
also plausible and conceivable for good reasons but with regard to
which the Court has not explicitly expressed itself.

14. The option of dismissal in limine litis logically precedes the other
two and it is therefore with good reason that the Court has dealt with it
first. Similarly, the relevant question has correctly been defined as

“whether in the light of the assertions by the Applicant...coupled
with the contentions of each of the respondent States, the Court

should take a decision to dismiss the case in limine litis, without
further entering into the examination of the question whether
the Court has jurisdiction under the circumstances” (Judgment,
para. 28).

15. I do not intend to deal with all the arguments given by the Court
in the relevant part of the Judgment (paras. 26-42), which contain mainly
a reply to the contentions of the Respondents. In a number of respects, I

agree with what is said by the Court; that is true particularly when it
states: “in certain circumstances the Court may of its own motion put an
end to proceedings in a case” (para. 31). I am, however, of the view that
the Court has refrained from exercising this proprio motu competence in
a well-considered way, and regrettably has confined itself first and fore-

most to responding to the arguments of the Parties in order to ultimately

67 LICÉITÉ DE L’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KOOIJMANS ) 1370

semblait être un fondement logique pour établir qu’il y a défaut de com-
pétence prima facie ne peut pas être automatiquement un fondement
solide pour trancher définitivement la question de la compétence.

*
* *
12. Les vues que j’ai exprimées dans l’opinion individuelle que j’ai
jointe aux ordonnances de 1999 sur les demandes en indication de me-
sures conservatoires et la conception que j’en ai aujourd’hui, dans les

circonstances actuelles, ne sont cependant pas la seule raison pour la-
quelle j’ai jugé nécessaire de joindre une opinion individuelle à la décla-
ration commune. Je tiens aussi à dire quelle est, parmi les possibilités de
choix offertes à la Cour et indiquées au paragraphe 2 de la déclaration

commune, celle qui, à mon sens, eût été la plus appropriée.
13. Ces possibilités étaient au nombre de trois. La première est celle
que la Cour retient dans son arrêt et elle repose sur des considérations
relatives à sa compétence ratione personae. La deuxième est la démarche
adoptée par la Cour en 1999, qui était fondée sur un défaut de compé-

tence prima facie, s’agissant alors de compétence ratione temporis et de
compétence ratione materiae.
La troisième possibilité aurait consisté à rejeter la demande
in limine litis. Elle est explicitement écartée dans l’arrêt, mais c’est l’op-
tion que j’aurais retenue. J’estime donc utile d’exposer mes vues à ce

sujet; elles ne sont pas nécessairement partagées par certains collègues
signataires de la déclaration commune qui auraient peut-être opté pour la
deuxième possibilité, laquelle est également plausible et concevable pour
des raisons valables, mais au sujet de laquelle la Cour ne s’est pas expres-

sément prononcée.
14. La possibilité du rejet in limine litis se présente logiquement avant
les deux autres et c’est donc à juste titre que la Cour l’examine en pre-
mier. De même, la question pertinente est définie à juste titre comme
étant celle

«de savoir si, à la lumière des assertions ... du demandeur et des
prétentions de chacun des Etats défendeurs, la Cour devrait décider

de rejeter l’affaire in limine litis, sans examiner plus avant si, dans
les circonstances de l’espèce, elle a ou non compétence» (arrêt,
par. 28).

15. Je n’ai pas l’intention d’examiner tous les arguments avancés par la
Cour dans la partie pertinente de l’arrêt (par. 26-42), qui consiste princi-
palement à répondre aux affirmations des défendeurs. A plusieurs égards,

je souscris à ce que dit la Cour; c’est notamment le cas lorsqu’elle
déclare: «[D]ans certaines circonstances, celle-ci [la Cour] peut, de sa
propre initiative, mettre un terme à la procédure en une affaire donnée.»
(Par. 31.) Toutefois, je suis d’avis que la Cour s’est abstenue d’exercer
d’office cette compétence de manière mûrement réfléchie et qu’elle s’est

bornée de façon regrettable à répondre avant tout aux arguments des

671371 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KOOIJMANS )

conclude that “[f]or all these reasons, [it] cannot remove the cases...

from the [General] List, or take any decision putting an end to those
cases in limine litis” (para. 42). Though the Court explicitly stated that,
apart from the arguments of the Parties, it would also consider “any
other legal issue which it deems relevant” (para. 25), there is hardly any
evidence that it has done so. In the following, I will try to demonstrate

that such an approach would nevertheless have been the most appro-
priate one.
16. In its final submissions, Serbia and Montenegro asked the Court to
“adjudge and declare on its jurisdiction ratione personae in the present
cases” (CR 2004/23, p. 38). Such a request is highly unusual. Normally,

the applicant asks the Court to find that it has jurisdiction, not whether it
has jurisdiction.
17. The first time that Serbia and Montenegro asked the Court to
decide on its jurisdiction was when it submitted its Written Observations

on the preliminary objections of the Respondents on 20 December 2002.
In its Observations, Serbia and Montenegro summarily stated that, at the
time of the filing of its Applications in 1999, it had neither been a party to
the Statute nor to the Genocide Convention, thereby implying that the
Court could not base its jurisdiction on either Article 36, paragraph 2, of

the Statute or Article IX of the Genocide Convention, which were the
bases of jurisdiction it had invoked in its 1999 Applications.

18. Serbia and Montenegro explicitly stated in a letter to the Court,
dated 28 February 2003, that its Written Observations did not represent

a notice of discontinuance, and reiterated its request to decide on the
Court’s jurisdiction “considering the pleadings formulated in the Written
Observations”. What is striking — although perhaps not surprising in
view of the litigation tactics of Serbia and Montenegro with regard to the
various cases before the Court in which it is a party, as either applicant or

respondent — is that these Observations did not in any way refer to an
alternative basis of jurisdiction replacing the ones presented in 1999 but
no longer maintained by the Applicant.

19. It was only during the oral pleadings that the Applicant raised the

“key question” whether the sui generis position vis-à-vis the United
Nations (mentioned by the Court in the Judgment in the Application for
Revision case of 3 February 2003 and thus three weeks before the sending
of the letter to the Court) could have provided the link between the new
State and international treaties, in particular the Statute of the Court and

the Genocide Convention. In this respect, it is noteworthy that the Agent
for Serbia and Montenegro did not give any suggestion as to how this
could have happened. He merely stated that the question required a
definitive answer and that only a decision of the Court could bring
clarity. “A judgment on jurisdiction based on the elucidation of the

position of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia between 1992 and 2000
could create an anchor point of orientation. ” (CR 2004/14, pp. 26-27,

68 LICÉITÉ DE L’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KOOIJMANS ) 1371

Parties afin de conclure finalement que «[p]our tous ces motifs, [elle] ne
peut rayer du rôle les affaires ..., ou prendre une décision qui mettrait fin
à ces affaires in limine litis » (par. 42). La Cour a bien dit expressément
qu’elle se pencherait non seulement sur les arguments des Parties, mais

aussi «sur toute autre question de droit qu’elle estimera[it] pertinent
d’examiner» (par. 25); or, il n’y a pratiquement rien qui prouve qu’elle a
vraiment suivi cette voie. Dans les paragraphes qui suivent, je vais tenter
de démontrer que cette démarche eût cependant été la plus appropriée.
16. Dans ses conclusions finales, la Serbie-et-Monténégro a demandé à

la Cour de «statuer sur sa compétence ratione personae en les présentes
affaires» (CR 2004/23, p. 38). Une telle demande est extrêmement inusi-
tée. Normalement, le demandeur prie la Cour de dire qu’elle a compé-
tence, et non pas de déterminer si elle a ou non compétence.
17. La première fois que la Serbie-et-Monténégro a prié la Cour de se

prononcer sur sa compétence remonte au 20 décembre 2002, lorsqu’elle a
soumis ses observations écrites sur les exceptions préliminaires des défen-
deurs. Dans lesdites observations, la Serbie-et-Monténégro a déclaré
sommairement que, au moment du dépôt de ses requêtes en 1999, elle

n’était partie ni au Statut ni à la convention sur le génocide, faisant
entendre par là que la Cour ne pouvait fonder sa compétence ni sur le
paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut ni sur l’article IX de la convention
sur le génocide, c’est-à-dire les bases de compétence qu’elle avait invo-
quées dans ses requêtes de 1999.

18. Dans une lettre adressée à la Cour le 28 février 2003, la Serbie-
et-Monténégro a déclaré expressément que ses observations écrites ne
constituaient pas une notification de désistement, et elle a de nouveau
prié la Cour de statuer sur sa compétence «à la lumière des arguments
avancés dans ses observations écrites». Ce qui est frappant — bien que

cela ne soit peut-être pas surprenant au vu de la tactique judiciaire adop-
tée par la Serbie-et-Monténégro à l’égard des différentes affaires portées
devant la Cour auxquelles elle est partie en qualité de demandeur ou
de défendeur — c’est que ces observations ne mentionnaient aucune

autre base de compétence à la place de celles qui ont été invoquées
en 1999 mais auxquelles le demandeur renonçait.
19. Ce n’est qu’à l’audience que le demandeur a soulevé la «question
clé» de savoir si la situation sui generis vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies (évoquée par la Cour dans l’arrêt du 3 février 2003 en

l’affaire de la Demande en revision, c’est-à-dire trois semaines avant que
la lettre rappelée ci-dessus fût envoyée à la Cour) aurait pu établir le lien
entre le nouvel Etat et les traités internationaux, en particulier le Statut
de la Cour et la convention sur le génocide. Il convient de relever à ce

sujet que l’agent de la Serbie-et-Monténégro n’a formulé aucune sugges-
tion quant à la manière dont ce lien aurait pu être établi. Il s’est contenté
de déclarer que la question appelait une réponse définitive et que seule
une décision de la Cour pouvait apporter la lumière. «Si la Cour rendait
un arrêt sur la compétence fondé sur la détermination de la situation de

la RFY entre 1992 et 2000, cela pourrait constituer un point d’ancrage,

681372 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .KOOIJMANS )

paras. 63-64; emphasis added.)

20. Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court states, inter alia,
that “[t]he application shall specify as far as possible the legal grounds
upon which the jurisdiction of the Court is said to be based” (emphasis
added). The Applications of 29 April 1999 met this requirement by

explicitly mentioning Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute and
Article IX of the Genocide Convention (supplemented in the cases
against Belgium and the Netherlands by letter of 12 May 1999, referring
to compromissory clauses in two bilateral conventions of 1930 and
1931 respectively).

In its Written Observations, filed on 20 December 2002, the Applicant
abandoned these jurisdictional grounds as being pertinent at the date the
Applications were filed without replacing them by another basis for the

Court’s jurisdiction (the Observations were silent as regards the two
bilateral treaties).
21. Therefore, Serbia and Montenegro’s Applications, as supplemented
by its Written Observations of 20 December 2002, no longer meet the
first requirement of Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court. That

fact in itself, however, does not provide the Court with a ground to
remove the cases from the List. The provision that the Application shall
specify the legal grounds of jurisdiction was included in 1936; in order to
distinguish the requirements of paragraph 2 from those of paragraph 1,
which were prescribed by the Statute itself, the words “as far as possible”

were used (see G. Guyomar, Commentaire du Règlement de la Cour
internationale de Justice , 1983, pp. 234 et seq.). In contrast to the require-
ments of paragraph 1, non-compliance with those of paragraph 2 does
not lead eo ipso to non-admissibility. These requirements “were imposed
on the Parties by the Court simply because they were helpful to it, but

represented a mere recommendation” (ibid.,p .35[translation by the
Registry]). Likewise, Rosenne is of the view that “an application will not
be rejected in limine only because such specification [of the jurisdictional
grounds] is omitted” (The Law and Practice of the International Court
1920-1996, 1997, p. 705).

22. Serbia and Montenegro’s contention that only discontinuance in
conformity with Articles 88 and 89 of the Rules of Court may yield a
removal of a case from the List without a judgment on jurisdiction or on

the merits (CR 2004/14, p. 18, para. 29) is, however, not correct. The fact
that the Rules only speak of removing a case from the List by unilateral
action of the applicant (Art. 89) or joint action by the parties (Art. 88)
cannot deprive the Court of its inherent power, as master of its own pro-
cedure, to strike proprio motu a case from the List. This is also recog-

nized by Rosenne who, in this respect, refers to the general powers of the
Court under Articles 36 and 48 of the Statute (op. cit., p. 1478). This

69 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. KOOIJMANS ) 1372

lequel nous permettrait de nous orienter .» (CR 2004/14, p. 26-27, par. 63-
64; les italiques sont de moi.)
20. Le paragraphe 2 de l’article 38 du Règlement de la Cour dispose
notamment que «[l]a requête indique autant que possible les moyens de

droit sur lesquels le demandeur prétend fonder la compétence de la
Cour» (les italiques sont de moi). Les requêtes du 29 avril 1999 satisfai-
saient à cette condition puisqu’elles faisaient expressément état du para-
graphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut et de l’article IX de la convention sur le
génocide (lesdites requêtes ont été complétées, dans les affaires intro-

duites contre la Belgique et les Pays-Bas, par la lettre en date du 12 mai
1999 rappelant les clauses compromissoires des deux conventions bila-
térales de 1930 et de 1931 conclues avec chacun de ces deux pays).
Dans ses observations écrites déposées le 20 décembre 2002, le deman-
deur a renoncé à ces chefs de compétence qu’il ne considérait plus comme

pertinents à la date du dépôt des requêtes, et ne les a pas remplacées par
une autre base de compétence de la Cour (lesdites observations sont
muettes sur les deux traités bilatéraux).
21. Dans ces conditions, les requêtes de la Serbie-et-Monténégro, com-

plétées par ses observations écrites du 20 décembre 2002, ne répondent
plus à la première condition posée au paragraphe 2 de l’article 38 du
Règlement de la Cour. Toutefois, ce fait ne fournit pas à lui seul à la
Cour un motif lui permettant de rayer les affaires du rôle. La disposition
précisant que la requête doit indiquer les moyens de droit sur lesquels est

fondée la compétence de la Cour a été insérée en 1936; c’est pour faire la
distinction entre les conditions énoncées au paragraphe 2 et les prescrip-
tions du paragraphe 1 qui ont été dictées par le Statut lui-même que
l’expression «autant que possible» a été employée (voir G. Guyomar,
Commentaire du Règlement de la Cour internationale de Justice , 1983,

p. 234 et suiv.). Par opposition aux conditions énoncées au paragraphe 1,
l’inobservation des prescriptions du paragraphe 2 n’entraîne pas eo ipso
l’irrecevabilité de la requête. Ces conditions «n’étaient demandées aux
Parties par la Cour que parce qu’elles lui étaient utiles, mais cette demande

constituait une simple recommandation» (ibid., p. 235). Rosenne est lui
aussi d’avis qu’«une requête ne doit pas être rejetée in limine uniquement
parce que l’indication [des bases de compétence] fait défaut» (The Law
and Practice of the International Court 1920-1996 , 1997, p. 705).

22. Toutefois, quand la Serbie-et-Monténégro dit que seul le désiste-
ment prévu aux articles 88 et 89 du Règlement de la Cour peut entraîner
la radiation d’une affaire du rôle sans qu’il y ait d’arrêt rendu sur la com-
pétence ni sur le fond (CR2004/14, p. 18, par. 29), elle a tort. Le fait que

le Règlement parle uniquement de radiation opérée par un acte unilatéral
du demandeur (art. 89) ou par une action conjointe des parties (art. 88)
ne saurait priver la Cour du pouvoir inhérent qu’elle détient, parce
qu’elle est maîtresse de sa propre procédure, de rayer d’office une affaire
du rôle. Ce principe est reconnu également par Rosenne qui, à ce sujet,

évoque les pouvoirs généraux que les articles 36 et 48 du Statut confèrent

691373 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. KOOIJMANS )

power is not related to the intention of the parties but to the judicial task
of the Court. This is borne out by the Court’s reasoning in the Orders in
the cases brought by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia against Spain
and the United States of America, where it said that

“within a system of consensual jurisdiction, to maintain on the
General List a case upon which it appears certain that the Court
will not be able to adjudicate on the merits would most assuredly
not contribute to the sound administration of justice ”( Legality of
Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures , I.C.J.

Reports 1999 (II), p. 773, para. 35; emphasis added).

Such power has to be used sparingly and only as an instrument of judicial
policy to safeguard the integrity of the Court’s procedure. The present
cases, however, are without precedent and can truly be called excep-
tional.

23. The Court was, in my opinion, perfectly entitled to issue such an
order in the instant cases on the basis of the fact that the Applicant has
not provided the Court with any plausible information as to the basis of
its jurisdiction. It is not for the Court to ascertain in the preliminary
phase of a case whether it has jurisdiction if the applicant fails to sub-

stantiate in any persuasive manner what the basis for that jurisdiction
could be, and after it has explicitly admitted that the initial grounds it
invoked are no longer valid. Nor is it the Court’s task to provide a party,
which asks for the elucidation of an observation made by the Court in a
judgment in another case to which it was also a party, with “an anchor

point of orientation”, as this would be tantamount to rendering an advi-
sory opinion or giving an interpretation of a judgment in circumstances
and under conditions not warranted by the Statute.

24. It is incompatible with the respect due to the Court for a party not
to provide it with any substantive argument for the speculation that it
might have jurisdiction while explicitly withdrawing the previously
adduced jurisdictional grounds. It is not in conformity with judicial pro-
priety and a sound judicial policy to render a fully reasoned judgment on

jurisdiction when the Applicant bases its request to do so on grounds
which can only be called inadequate. The Applicant can, therefore, be
held to its statement that there are no recognized or generally accepted
grounds of jurisdiction.

25. In the second round of the oral pleadings, the Agent for France
stated that

“the party against whom the application is brought is not required
to prove that there is no basis for jurisdiction, which would require
it — and it would be absurd to ask this of it — as a matter of course

to examine all possible bases” (CR 2004/21, p. 13, para. 22).

70 LICÉITÉ DE L’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND .KOOIJMANS ) 1373

à la Cour (Rosenne, op. cit., p. 1478). Ce pouvoir est lié non à l’intention
des parties mais à la tâche judiciaire incombant à la Cour, comme le
confirme la motivation qu’elle énonce dans les ordonnances rendues dans
les instances introduites par la République fédérale de Yougoslavie contre

l’Espagne et les Etats-Unis d’Amérique; la Cour dit alors en effet que,

«dans un système de juridiction consensuelle, maintenir au rôle
général une affaire sur laquelle il apparaît certain que la Cour ne
pourra se prononcer au fond ne participerait assurément pas d’une
bonne administration de la justice »( Licéité de l’emploi de la force
(Yougoslavie c. Espagne), mesures conservatoires, C.I.J. Recueil

1999 (II), p. 773, par. 35; les italiques sont de moi).

La Cour doit exercer ce pouvoir avec parcimonie et seulement comme un
instrument de politique judiciaire afin de préserver l’intégrité de sa pro-
cédure. Les présentes affaires sont toutefois sans précédent et peuvent
véritablement être qualifiées d’exceptionnelles.

23. A mon avis, la Cour était tout à fait fondée à rendre pareille déci-
sion dans les présentes affaires puisque le demandeur ne lui avait fourni
aucune information plausible concernant la base de sa compétence. Ce
n’est pas la Cour qui doit établir, dans la phase préliminaire d’une
affaire, si elle a ou non compétence lorsque le demandeur ne démontre

pas de manière convaincante quelle pourrait être la base de cette compé-
tence, une fois qu’il a reconnu expressément que les motifs qu’il a invo-
qués initialement ne sont plus valides. Ce n’est pas non plus à la Cour
d’indiquer à une partie qui demande des éclaircissements sur une obser-
vation émanant de la Cour, dans un arrêt rendu dans une autre affaire à

laquelle ladite partie était aussi partie, «un point d’ancrage, lequel [lui]
permettrait de [s’]orienter», car cela équivaudrait à rendre un avis consul-
tatif ou à procéder à l’interprétation d’un arrêt dans des circonstances et
des conditions non prévues par le Statut.

24. Une partie ne témoigne pas à la Cour le respect qu’elle lui doit
quand elle ne lui fournit aucun argument de fond à l’appui de son éven-
tuelle compétence alors qu’elle lui retire expressément les bases de com-
pétence qu’elle avait précédemment invoquées. Il n’est pas conforme à
l’opportunité judiciaire ni à la bonne administration de la justice de

rendre un arrêt pleinement motivé sur la compétence quand le deman-
deur fonde la requête présentée à cette fin sur des bases qui ne peuvent
être qualifiées que d’insuffisantes. Le demandeur peut alors être pris au
mot et s’entendre dire qu’il n’existe pas de base de compétence reconnue
ni généralement acceptée.

25. Au second tour de plaidoiries, l’agent de la France a déclaré que

«[c]e n’[était] pas à la partie contre laquelle la requête est dirigée de
faire la preuve qu’il n’existe aucun titre de compétence, ce qui la
conduirait — et ce serait absurde de le lui demander — à s’interroger

d’office sur tous les titres possibles» (CR2004/21, p. 13, par. 22).

701374 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. KOOIJMANS )

What is true for the Respondent is also true for the Court and even more
so. The fact that the Court has the duty under certain circumstances to

ascertain proprio motu that it has jurisdiction cannot, by a contrario
reasoning, be turned into an obligation to explore grounds for its juris-
diction which have not been invoked by the Applicant. As Rosenne
states:

“There can be no doubt that the choice of a title of jurisdiction is
as much a political act as a decision to institute proceedings, and the

Court is following its usual attitude when faced with political ques-
tions of that character not to substitute itself for the party con-
cerned. It is for this reason that a principle such as curia jura novit
cannot appropriately be applied by the Court proprio motu to sub-

stitute a title of jurisdiction which has not been invoked for
another...”( Op. cit., p. 956.)

Neither does the Court have to rule on a title of jurisdiction which has
not been claimed.
26. In view of the fact that the Applicant has failed to demonstrate,
and has not even made an effort to demonstrate, that the Court has juris-

diction, I am of the opinion that the Court should have decided in limine
litis to remove the eight cases from the General List.

(Signed) Pieter H. K OOIJMANS .

71 LICÉITÉ DE L EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP .IND .KOOIJMANS ) 1374

Ce qui est vrai pour le défendeur l’est aussi, et à plus forte raison encore,

pour la Cour. Le fait que la Cour a l’obligation, dans certaines circon-
stances, de déterminer d’office qu’elle a bien compétence ne saurait, par
un raisonnement a contrario, devenir l’obligation d’examiner d’éven-
tuelles bases de sa compétence que le demandeur n’a pas invoquées.

Comme le dit Rosenne:
«Il ne fait aucun doute que le choix d’un chef de compétence est

tout autant un acte politique que la décision d’introduire une ins-
tance, et, lorsqu’elle est confrontée à des questions politiques de cette
nature, la Cour suit sa pratique habituelle qui consiste à ne pas se
mettre à la place de la partie concernée. C’est pour cette raison qu’il

n’est pas judicieux que la Cour applique d’office un principe tel que
curia jura novit pour remplacer un chef de compétence par un chef
qui n’a pas été invoqué.» (Op. cit., p. 956.)

La Cour n’a pas non plus à se prononcer sur un titre de compétence
qui n’a pas été revendiqué.

26. Le demandeur n’ayant pas démontré ni même tenté de démontrer
qu’elle a compétence, la Cour, à mon avis, aurait dû décider in limine litis
de rayer les huit affaires du rôle général.

(Signé) Pieter H. K OOIJMANS .

71

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Separate opinion of Judge Kooijmans

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