Separate opinion of Judge Higgins

Document Number
110-20041215-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
110-20041215-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

1067

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE HIGGINS

Removal from the List other than for reasons of discontinuance — Inherent
powers of the Court — Inherent powers not limited to two existing examples —
Reasons why this case should have been removed from the List — Inappropriate
for Judgment to have pronounced on Article 35, paragraph 2, of Statute.

1. The Court in its Judgment finds that the Observations of Serbia and
Montenegro have not had the legal effect of discontinuance of proceed-
ings under the Rules (para. 31). I agree. It is clear that the Applicant has

declined to “discontinue”, and that “discontinuance” as envisaged in the
Rules is dependent on the consent of the Parties.

2. The Court further observes that:

“Prior to the adoption of Article 38, paragraph 5, of the Rules of
Court, in a number of cases in which the application disclosed no
subsisting title of jurisdiction, but merely an invitation to the State

named as respondent to accept jurisdiction for the purposes of the
case, the Court removed the cases from the List by order. By Orders
of 2 June 1999, it removed from the List two cases brought by Serbia
and Montenegro concerning Legality of the Use of Force against
Spain and the United States of America, on the ground that the
Court ‘manifestly lack[ed] jurisdiction’ (I.C.J. Reports 1999, pp. 773

and 925).” (Judgment, para. 32.)

3. The Court then observes that “[t]he present case does not however
fall into either of these categories”. The Court thus appears to regard
these as a closed list of categories for the removal of cases from the List
(other than where discontinuance has occurred), and to suggest that no
removal from the List was open to the Court in the present case as the

facts do not fall within the existing two examples.
4. A case may be discontinued by the applicant alone and an order
issued to remove it from the List (Denunciation of the Treaty of 2 Novem-
ber 1865 between China and Belgium, Order of 25 May 1929, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 18; Legal Status of the South-Eastern Territory of Green-

land, Order of 11 May 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 55, p. 157; Protec-
tion of French Nationals and Protected Persons in Egypt, Order of
29 March 1950, I.C.J. Reports 1950 ,p.59;Electricité de Beyrouth Com-
pany, Order of 29 July 1954, I.C.J. Reports 1954, p. 107; Aerial Incident
of 27 July 1955 (United Kingdom v. Bulgaria), Order of 3 August 1959,

601068 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP. OP. HIGGINS )

I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 264; Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 (United

States of America v. Bulgaria), Order of 30 May 1960, I.C.J. Reports
1960, p. 146; Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited,
Order of 10 April 1961, I.C.J. Reports 1961 ,p.9; Trial of Pakistani Pris-
oners of War, Order of 15 December 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1973 , p. 347;
Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica),

Order of 19 August 1987, I.C.J. Reports 1987 , p. 182; Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States
of America), Order of 26 September 1991, I.C.J. Reports 1991 ,p .7;
Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Order
of 27 May 1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 222; Passage through the Great

Belt (Finland v. Denmark), Order of 10 September 1992, I.C.J. Reports
1992, p. 348; Maritime Delimitation between Guinea-Bissau and Senegal,
Order of 8 November 1995, I.C.J. Reports 1995 , p. 423; Vienna Conven-
tion on Consular Relations (Paraguay v. United States of America),

Order of 10 November 1998, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 426; Armed Activi-
ties on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Burundi), Order of 30 January 2001, I.C.J. Reports 2001,p.3; Armed
Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of
the Congo v. Rwanda), Order of 30 January 2001, I.C.J. Reports 2001 ,

p. 6).
5. There is a comparable, and analogous, practice relating to discon-
tinuance upon the agreement of the parties, removal from the List being
effected by order. Among the many examples are Delimitation of the Ter-
ritorial Waters between the Island of Castellorizo and the Coasts of Ana-

tolia, Order of 26 January 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 51,p .4;
Compagnie du Port, des Quais et des Entrepôts de Beyrouth and Société
Radio-Orient, Order of 31 August 1960, I.C.J. Reports 1960 , p. 186; Cer-
tain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Order of 13 Sep-
tember 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , p. 322; Questions of Interpretation and

Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial
Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom),
Order of 10 September 2003, I.C.J. Reports 2003 , p. 149; Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising
from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United

States of America), Order of 10 September 2003, I.C.J. Reports 2003 ,
p. 152.
6. The Court has also declined to proceed with cases in circumstances
other than discontinuance under the Rules. The Permanent Court termi-
nated interim measures proceedings in the Prince von Pless Administra-

tion case, on the grounds that the request made by Germany in its Appli-
cation had ceased to have any object (Order of 11 May 1933, P.C.I.J.,
Series A/B, No. 54, p. 150). And in the Northern Cameroons case, the
Court declined to proceed further with a case for what it saw as reasons
of judicial propriety (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.

Reports 1963, p. 29). In the Nuclear Tests cases, the Court did not
regard itself as constrained by the fact that Australia and New Zealand

611069 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.HIGGINS )

had not, after the French announcement of the conclusion of its testing,
discontinued the proceedings under Article 74 of the 1972 Rules. The
Court stated that “this does not prevent the Court from making its own
independent finding” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment,

I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 270, para. 54; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v.
France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 476, para. 57) and it deter-
mined that “the object of the claim has been achieved by other means”
— i.e., means other than litigation (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 271, para. 55; Nuclear Tests (New

Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 476, para. 58).

7. In a pertinent dictum the Court stated that it saw:

“no reason to allow the continuance of proceedings which it knows
are bound to be fruitless. While judicial settlement may provide a

path to international harmony in circumstances of conflict, it is none
the less true that the needless continuance of litigation is an obstacle
to such harmony.” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 271, para. 58; Nuclear Tests (New Zea-
land v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 477, para. 61.)

In both the Northern Cameroons and Nuclear Tests cases, the Court
decided not to adjudicate further and did not issue a formal order.

8. In its Orders of 2 June 1999 (Legality of Use of Force (Yugosla-
via v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 , p. 916; Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999,

I.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 761) the Court had removed the cases from the
List after hearings on provisional measures, on the grounds that the
Court manifestly lacked jurisdiction. And, as was recognized in the Judg-
ment at paragraph 32, prior to the formulation of Article 38, para-

graph 5, of the Rules of Court, there were cases removed from the List
because the application was merely an invitation to the respondent.

9. These were actions by the Court in the exercise of its inherent
powers. The precedents on removal from the List cited by the Court

— where from the outset no subsisting title of jurisdiction has been
disclosed, or where the Court manifestly lacked jurisdiction — do not
constitute two exclusive categories within which the Court has to fall if it
wishes to exercise its inherent powers in the absence of discontinuance.

There is nothing in the case law that so suggests. Indeed, it is hard to
know what might be the legal source of a right to remove cases from the
List provided only that this would be limited to these two examples.

10. The Court’s inherent jurisdiction derives from its judicial character

and the need for powers to regulate matters connected with the adminis-

621070 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .HIGGINS )

tration of justice, not every aspect of which may have been foreseen in

the Rules. It was on such a basis that the Permanent Court had admitted
the filing of preliminary objections to jurisdiction even before this possi-
bility was regulated by the Rules of Court. The Court stated that it was
“at liberty to adopt the principle which it considers best calculated to
ensure the administration of justice” (Mavrommatis Palestine Conces-

sions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 , p. 16). The power
of the Court to identify remedies for any breach of a treaty, in a case
where jurisdiction was based solely upon the treaty concerned, has been
regarded as within the Court’s inherent powers in the Corfu Channel case
(Assessment of Amount of Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949 ,

p. 244) and in the LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America) case
(Memorial of the Federal Republic of Germany, Vol. I, 16 Septem-
ber 1999, para. 3.60).
11. The very occasional need to exercise inherent powers may arise as

a matter in limine litis, or as a decision by the Court not to exercise a
jurisdiction it has, or in connection with the conduct or the merits of a
case. The judges who jointly dissented in the Nuclear Tests cases did not
challenge the existence of such inherent powers. They asserted that their
use “must be considered as highly exceptional and a step to be taken only

when the most cogent considerations of judicial propriety so require”
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 ,
p. 322, para. 22, joint dissenting opinion). Understandably, these judges
were particularly concerned that the exercise of the power to decide pro-
prio motu should not be exercised without affording an applicant the

opportunity to submit counter arguments, as this was not consonant with
the due administration of justice. In the present instance, the issue of
whether the case should be removed from the List was fully canvassed
before the Court.

12. Thus the real question is not whether the Applicant has or has not
“discontinued” the case, nor whether the present circumstances are exactly
identical to the few examples where the Court itself has removed a case
from the List (examples which will, in their turn, have been “new” at the
relevant time and not falling into any previously established category).

The question is whether the circumstances are such that it is reasonable,
necessary and appropriate for the Court to strike the case off the List
as an exercise of inherent power to protect the integrity of the judicial
process.
I believe the answer is in the affirmative.

13. The starting point for discontinuance is Article 38, paragraph 2, of
the Rules of Court, whereby the applicant “shall specify as far as possible
the legal grounds upon which the jurisdiction of the Court is said to be
based”. The Court may, in certain circumstances, allow these grounds of
jurisdiction to be enlarged, and it may also occur that an applicant later

prefers to proceed on the basis of one specified ground rather than
another. Nonetheless, for all the flexibility built in to Article 38, para-

631071 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .HIGGINS )

graph 2, of the Rules, the obligation contained in it is a continuing one.

An applicant which on Monday specifies two bases of jurisdiction for the
case it wishes the Court to decide, and on Thursday informs the Court
that these are not, after all, grounds on which it relies, cannot be said on
Saturday to be in conformity with Article 38, paragraph 2. It has put
itself out of conformity with Article 38, paragraph 2, and the fact that it

at the same time declines to “discontinue” the case under Article 88 or 89
of the Rules is irrelevant to that fact.

14. No more is the position of the Applicant who resiled from speci-
fied heads of jurisdiction without proffering others rendered in compli-

ance with the Rules by virtue of asking the Court “to decide on its
jurisdiction” in the light of these changes of position (Judgment, para. 28).
Such a request is totally outside of the contemplation of the Rules. Yet
this is what has occurred in this case. On 24 April 1999 the then Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia filed its Application instituting proceedings
against various States, invoking as the basis of the Court’s jurisdiction
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, as well as Article IX
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide. On 20 December 2002, Serbia and Montenegro formally stipu-

lated that it was not a party to the Statute of the Court before 1 Novem-
ber 2000 — and that at the time of its initial Application, it was not
bound by the Genocide Convention.
15. Having thus put itself in a position incompatible with Article 38,
paragraph 2, of the Rules, Serbia and Montenegro did not inform the

Court it was discontinuing the case under Article 89 of the Rules, but
rather “asked the Court to decide on its jurisdiction”. It was in fact in no
position to make such a request of the Court, and these events alone are
sufficient, in my view, for the Court to have used its inherent powers to
ensure orderly conduct of its judicial function, and to have removed the

cases from the List.
16. In the event, the disorderly nature of the course now being fol-
lowed by Serbia and Montenegro was compounded. In response to its
initial claims on the merits against the various respondent States, in the
eight cases allowed to proceed by the Court beyond the initial hearings

on provisional measures, preliminary objections were lodged. For the
ensuing three years no response was made to these objections — and
indeed, when extremely brief Written Observations were eventually made,
they did not even attempt to counter or otherwise respond to the sub-
stantive arguments contained in the preliminary objections of the Respon-

dents. Instead, the Applicant resiled from its previously stated grounds of
jurisdiction and simply suggested that “the Court decide”. This incoher-
ent manner of proceeding is not, in my view, compatible with sound judi-
cial procedures, which are designed to be fair to all parties concerned,
and it provided further grounds for which the appropriate response of

the Court would have been to remove the cases from the List.

641072 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. HIGGINS)

17. The regrettable history of events in this case falls within the

circumstances described by the Court in the Northern Cameroons
(Cameroon v. United Kingdom) case:

“There are inherent limitations on the exercise of the judicial func-
tion which the Court, as a court of justice, can never ignore. There
may thus be an incompatibility between the desires of an applicant,
or, indeed, of both parties to a case, on the one hand, and on the
other hand the duty of the Court to maintain its judicial character.

The Court itself, and not the parties, must be the guardian of the
Court’s judicial integrity.” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1963, p. 29.)

*
* *

18. In paragraph 39 of the Judgment, the Court states that it “cannot
decline to entertain a case simply because of a suggestion as to the
motives of one of the parties or because its judgment may have implica-
tions in another case”. Some observations in response to this statement
have been made in paragraph 12 of the joint declaration of seven judges.

In that context it is also necessary to make some observations on the
remarkable attention given by the Court to Article 35, paragraph 2, of
the Statute. This provision had, of course, never been invoked by the
Applicant during the period when it relied on its original grounds of
jurisdiction. The Applicant’s irregular request of 20 December 2002 to

the Court was “to decide on its jurisdiction considering the pleadings
formulated in these Written Observations”. These Written Observations
contained no invocation of Article 35, paragraph 2, as an alternative
ground of jurisdiction — yet, going beyond what the Applicant requested
in the present case, the Court has devoted some 23 paragraphs to laying

the grounds for a finding that Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute
could not have been an alternative basis for allowing access to the Court
in respect of the Genocide Convention so far as Serbia and Montenegro
is concerned. This exercise was clearly unnecessary for the present case.
Its relevance can lie, and only lie, in another pending case. I believe the

Court should not have entered at all upon this ground in the present case.

* * *

19. Because I am of the firm view that grounds ratione personae
should not have been chosen for the disposition of this case (for reasons
elaborated in the joint declaration of seven judges), it is not my intention
here to offer my own views as to the arguments that the Court advances

to support its findings on this ground. It suffices to say that, while
General Assembly resolution 55/12 of 1 November 2000, admitting the

651073 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.HIGGINS )

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a new State, necessarily clarifies the
legal situation thereafter, it remains debatable whether “from the van-

tage point from which the Court now looks at the legal situation”, the
“new development in 2000...hasclarified the thus far amorphous legal
situation concerning the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
vis-à-vis the United Nations” at the relevant time (Judgment, para. 78).

20. It was said by Judge Lachs in 1992 that, while the various major
organs of the United Nations do each have their various roles to play in
a situation or dispute, they should act

“in harmony — though not, of course, in concert — and that each

should perform its functions with respect to a situation or dispute,
different aspects of which appear on the agenda of each, without
prejudicing the exercise of the other’s powers” (Questions of Inter-
pretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising

from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v.
United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of 14 April 1992,
I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 27, separate opinion of Judge Lachs).

The Court, in purporting to find an ex post facto clarification of the
situation as it was in 1992-2000, notwithstanding that the General Assem-

bly and Security Council had in all deliberation felt the objectives of the
United Nations were best met by legal ambiguity, seems to have ignored
that wise dictum.

(Signed) Rosalyn H IGGINS .

66

Bilingual Content

1067

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE HIGGINS

Removal from the List other than for reasons of discontinuance — Inherent
powers of the Court — Inherent powers not limited to two existing examples —
Reasons why this case should have been removed from the List — Inappropriate
for Judgment to have pronounced on Article 35, paragraph 2, of Statute.

1. The Court in its Judgment finds that the Observations of Serbia and
Montenegro have not had the legal effect of discontinuance of proceed-
ings under the Rules (para. 31). I agree. It is clear that the Applicant has

declined to “discontinue”, and that “discontinuance” as envisaged in the
Rules is dependent on the consent of the Parties.

2. The Court further observes that:

“Prior to the adoption of Article 38, paragraph 5, of the Rules of
Court, in a number of cases in which the application disclosed no
subsisting title of jurisdiction, but merely an invitation to the State

named as respondent to accept jurisdiction for the purposes of the
case, the Court removed the cases from the List by order. By Orders
of 2 June 1999, it removed from the List two cases brought by Serbia
and Montenegro concerning Legality of the Use of Force against
Spain and the United States of America, on the ground that the
Court ‘manifestly lack[ed] jurisdiction’ (I.C.J. Reports 1999, pp. 773

and 925).” (Judgment, para. 32.)

3. The Court then observes that “[t]he present case does not however
fall into either of these categories”. The Court thus appears to regard
these as a closed list of categories for the removal of cases from the List
(other than where discontinuance has occurred), and to suggest that no
removal from the List was open to the Court in the present case as the

facts do not fall within the existing two examples.
4. A case may be discontinued by the applicant alone and an order
issued to remove it from the List (Denunciation of the Treaty of 2 Novem-
ber 1865 between China and Belgium, Order of 25 May 1929, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 18; Legal Status of the South-Eastern Territory of Green-

land, Order of 11 May 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 55, p. 157; Protec-
tion of French Nationals and Protected Persons in Egypt, Order of
29 March 1950, I.C.J. Reports 1950 ,p.59;Electricité de Beyrouth Com-
pany, Order of 29 July 1954, I.C.J. Reports 1954, p. 107; Aerial Incident
of 27 July 1955 (United Kingdom v. Bulgaria), Order of 3 August 1959,

60 1067

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M ME LE JUGE HIGGINS

[Traduction]

Radiation du rôle pour des motifs autres que le désistement — Pouvoirs inhé-
rents de la Cour — Pouvoirs inhérents ne se limitant pas à deux exemples exis-
tants — Motifs pour lesquels la présente affaire aurait dû être rayée du rôle —
Inopportunité de statuer dans l’arrêt sur l’application du paragraphe 2 de l’ar-
ticle 35 du Statut.

1. Dans son arrêt, la Cour conclut que les observations de la Serbie-
et-Monténégro n’ont pas eu pour effet juridique un désistement d’ins-

tance au sens des dispositions du Règlement (par. 31). J’en suis d’accord.
Il ne fait aucun doute que le demandeur a refusé de se «désister» et que
le «désistement», tel que prévu dans le Règlement, dépend de la volonté
des Parties.
2. La Cour relève ensuite que:

«Avant l’adoption du paragraphe 5 de l’article 38 dudit Règle-

ment, dans un certain nombre d’affaires dans lesquelles la requête
n’indiquait aucun titre de compétence existant, mais invitait simple-
ment l’Etat désigné comme défendeur à accepter la compétence de la
Cour aux fins de l’espèce, la Cour, par voie d’ordonnance, a rayé les

affaires en question de son rôle. Par ordonnances du 2 juin 1999,
elle a rayé du rôle deux affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi
de la force, portées devant elle par la Serbie-et-Monténégro contre
l’Espagne et les Etats-Unis d’Amérique, au motif qu’elle «n’a[vait]
manifestement pas compétence» (C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) ,p .3

et 925).» (Arrêt, par. 32.)

3. Puis la Cour constate que «[l]a présente espèce ne relève toutefois ni
de l’une ni de l’autre de ces catégories». Il semble donc que la Cour
estime qu’il s’agit d’une liste limitative de cas (autres que le désistement)
dans lesquels une affaire peut être rayée du rôle et laisse entendre qu’elle
ne pouvait pas rayer la présente affaire du rôle puisque les faits ne cor-

respondent pas aux deux exemples existants.
4. Une affaire peut être rayée du rôle par le seul fait du demandeur,
une ordonnance pouvant alors être rendue à cette fin (Dénonciation du
traité sino-belge du 2 novembre 1865, ordonnance du 25 mai 1929,
o
C.P.J.I. série A n 18; Statut juridique du territoire du oud-est du Groën-
land, ordonnance du 11 mai 1933, C.P.J.I. série A/B n 55, p. 157; Pro-
tection des ressortissants et protégés français en Egypte, ordonnance du
29 mars 1950, C.I.J. Recueil 1950 ,p.59; Société Electricité de Beyrouth,
ordonnance du 29 juillet 1954, C.I.J. Recueil 1954 , p. 107; Incident aérien

du 27 juillet 1955 (Royaume-Uni c. Bulgarie), ordonnance du 3 août 1959,

601068 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP. OP. HIGGINS )

I.C.J. Reports 1959, p. 264; Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 (United

States of America v. Bulgaria), Order of 30 May 1960, I.C.J. Reports
1960, p. 146; Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited,
Order of 10 April 1961, I.C.J. Reports 1961 ,p.9; Trial of Pakistani Pris-
oners of War, Order of 15 December 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1973 , p. 347;
Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica),

Order of 19 August 1987, I.C.J. Reports 1987 , p. 182; Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States
of America), Order of 26 September 1991, I.C.J. Reports 1991 ,p .7;
Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Order
of 27 May 1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 222; Passage through the Great

Belt (Finland v. Denmark), Order of 10 September 1992, I.C.J. Reports
1992, p. 348; Maritime Delimitation between Guinea-Bissau and Senegal,
Order of 8 November 1995, I.C.J. Reports 1995 , p. 423; Vienna Conven-
tion on Consular Relations (Paraguay v. United States of America),

Order of 10 November 1998, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 426; Armed Activi-
ties on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Burundi), Order of 30 January 2001, I.C.J. Reports 2001,p.3; Armed
Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of
the Congo v. Rwanda), Order of 30 January 2001, I.C.J. Reports 2001 ,

p. 6).
5. There is a comparable, and analogous, practice relating to discon-
tinuance upon the agreement of the parties, removal from the List being
effected by order. Among the many examples are Delimitation of the Ter-
ritorial Waters between the Island of Castellorizo and the Coasts of Ana-

tolia, Order of 26 January 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 51,p .4;
Compagnie du Port, des Quais et des Entrepôts de Beyrouth and Société
Radio-Orient, Order of 31 August 1960, I.C.J. Reports 1960 , p. 186; Cer-
tain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia), Order of 13 Sep-
tember 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , p. 322; Questions of Interpretation and

Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the Aerial
Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom),
Order of 10 September 2003, I.C.J. Reports 2003 , p. 149; Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising
from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United

States of America), Order of 10 September 2003, I.C.J. Reports 2003 ,
p. 152.
6. The Court has also declined to proceed with cases in circumstances
other than discontinuance under the Rules. The Permanent Court termi-
nated interim measures proceedings in the Prince von Pless Administra-

tion case, on the grounds that the request made by Germany in its Appli-
cation had ceased to have any object (Order of 11 May 1933, P.C.I.J.,
Series A/B, No. 54, p. 150). And in the Northern Cameroons case, the
Court declined to proceed further with a case for what it saw as reasons
of judicial propriety (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.

Reports 1963, p. 29). In the Nuclear Tests cases, the Court did not
regard itself as constrained by the fact that Australia and New Zealand

61 LICÉITÉ DE L’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS ) 1068

C.I.J. Recueil 1959, p. 264; Incident aérien du 27 juillet 1955 (Etats-Unis
d’Amérique c. Bulgarie), ordonnance du 30 mai 1960, C.I.J. Recueil 1960 ,
p. 146; Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, ordon-
nance du 10 avril 1961, C.I.J. Recueil 1961 ,p.9;Procès de prisonniers de

guerre pakistanais, ordonnance du 15 décembre 1973, C.I.J. Recueil 1973 ,
p. 347; Actions armées frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua
c. Costa Rica), ordonnance du 19 août 1987, C.I.J. Recueil 1987, p. 182;
Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nica-
ragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), ordonnance du 26 septembre 1991,

C.I.J. Recueil 1991,p .47;Actions armées frontalières et transfronta-
lières (Nicaragua c. Honduras), ordonnance du 27 mai 1992,
C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 222; Passage par le Grand-Belt (Finlande c. Dane-
mark), ordonnance du 10 septembre 1992, C.I.J. Recueil 1992 , p. 348;
Délimitation maritime entre la Guinée-Bissau et le Sénégal, ordonnance

du 8 novembre 1995, C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 423; Convention de Vienne
sur les relations consulaires (Paraguay c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), ordon-
nance du 10 novembre 1998, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 426; Activités armées
sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo

c. Burundi), ordonnance du 30 janvier 2001, C.I.J. Recueil 2001 ,p .3;
Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du
Congo c. Rwanda), C.I.J. Recueil 2001 ,p.6).
5. Il existe une pratique comparable et analogue en ce qui concerne le
désistement par accord entre les parties, la radiation du rôle s’effectuant

par voie d’ordonnance. Parmi les nombreux exemples de tels cas, on peut
citer: Délimitation des eaux territoriales entre l’île de Castellorizo et les
côtes d’Anatolie, ordonnance du 26 janvier 1933, C.P.J.I. série A/B n o 51,
p. 4; Compagnie du port, des quais et des entrepôts de Beyrouth et Société
Radio-Orient, ordonnance du 31 août 1960, C.I.J. Recueil 1960 , p. 186;

Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru c. Australie), ordonnance
du 13 septembre 1993, C.I.J. Recueil 1993 , p. 322; Questions d’interpré-
tation et d’application de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de
l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Royaume-

Uni), ordonnance du 10 septembre 2003, C.I.J. Recueil 2003 , p. 149;
Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Montréal
de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe
libyenne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), ordonnance du 10 septembre 2003,
C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 152.

6. La Cour a également refusé d’examiner plus avant certaines affaires
dans des cas autres que le désistement, au sens des dispositions du Règle-
ment. C’est ainsi que la Cour permanente a mis fin à une procédure en
indication de mesures conservatoires en l’affaire de l’Administration du

prince von Pless, au motif que la demande formulée par l’Allemagne dans
sa requête éoait devenue sans objet (ordonnance du 11 mai 1933, C.P.J.I.
série A/B n 54, p. 150). Et la Cour a refusé de poursuivre l’examen de
l’affaire du Cameroun septentrional pour ce qu’elle estimait être des rai-
sons tenant à sa fonction judiciaire (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 29). Dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires,a l

611069 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.HIGGINS )

had not, after the French announcement of the conclusion of its testing,
discontinued the proceedings under Article 74 of the 1972 Rules. The
Court stated that “this does not prevent the Court from making its own
independent finding” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment,

I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 270, para. 54; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v.
France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 476, para. 57) and it deter-
mined that “the object of the claim has been achieved by other means”
— i.e., means other than litigation (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 271, para. 55; Nuclear Tests (New

Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 476, para. 58).

7. In a pertinent dictum the Court stated that it saw:

“no reason to allow the continuance of proceedings which it knows
are bound to be fruitless. While judicial settlement may provide a

path to international harmony in circumstances of conflict, it is none
the less true that the needless continuance of litigation is an obstacle
to such harmony.” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 271, para. 58; Nuclear Tests (New Zea-
land v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 477, para. 61.)

In both the Northern Cameroons and Nuclear Tests cases, the Court
decided not to adjudicate further and did not issue a formal order.

8. In its Orders of 2 June 1999 (Legality of Use of Force (Yugosla-
via v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of
2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 , p. 916; Legality of Use of Force
(Yugoslavia v. Spain), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999,

I.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 761) the Court had removed the cases from the
List after hearings on provisional measures, on the grounds that the
Court manifestly lacked jurisdiction. And, as was recognized in the Judg-
ment at paragraph 32, prior to the formulation of Article 38, para-

graph 5, of the Rules of Court, there were cases removed from the List
because the application was merely an invitation to the respondent.

9. These were actions by the Court in the exercise of its inherent
powers. The precedents on removal from the List cited by the Court

— where from the outset no subsisting title of jurisdiction has been
disclosed, or where the Court manifestly lacked jurisdiction — do not
constitute two exclusive categories within which the Court has to fall if it
wishes to exercise its inherent powers in the absence of discontinuance.

There is nothing in the case law that so suggests. Indeed, it is hard to
know what might be the legal source of a right to remove cases from the
List provided only that this would be limited to these two examples.

10. The Court’s inherent jurisdiction derives from its judicial character

and the need for powers to regulate matters connected with the adminis-

62 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE OP .IND .HIGGINS ) 1069

Cour n’a pas considéré comme un obstacle pour elle le fait que l’Australie
et la Nouvelle-Zélande, une fois que la France eut annoncé qu’elle met-
tait fin à ses essais, ne s’étaient pas désistées des instances en application
de l’article 74 du Règlement de 1972. La Cour a dit que «cela n[e l]’empê-

ch[ait] pas ... d’arriver à sa propre conclusion sur la question» (Essais
nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 270,
par. 54; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1974, p. 476, par. 57) et a estimé que «l’objet de la demande
a[vait] été atteint d’une autre manière» — c’est-à-dire autrement que par

la voie contentieuse (Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1974, p. 271, par. 55; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 476, par. 58).
7. Dans un dictum pertinent, la Cour a dit qu’elle ne voyait

«pas de raison de laisser se poursuivre une procédure qu’elle sait
condamnée à rester stérile. Si le règlement judiciaire peut ouvrir la

voie de l’harmonie internationale lorsqu’il existe un conflit, il n’est
pas moins vrai que la vaine poursuite d’un procès compromet cette
harmonie.» (Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 271, par. 58; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-
Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 477, par. 61.)

Tant en l’affaire du Cameroun septentrional que dans celles des Essais
nucléaires, la Cour a décidé de ne pas poursuivre son examen et n’a pas

rendu formellement d’ordonnance.
8. Par ordonnances rendues le 2 juin 1999 (Licéité de l’emploi de la
force (Yougoslavie c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 916; Licéité de
l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Espagne), mesures conservatoires,

ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 761), la Cour a
rayé les affaires en question du rôle après les audiences consacrées aux
mesures conservatoires au motif qu’elle n’avait manifestement pas com-
pétence. Et, comme le reconnaît le présent arrêt en son paragraphe 32,

avant l’adoption du paragraphe 5 de l’article 38 du Règlement, des af-
faires furent rayées du rôle au motif que la requête était une simple
invitation adressée au défendeur.
9. Il s’agit là de mesures prises par la Cour dans l’exercice de ses pou-
voirs inhérents. Les précédents en matière de radiation du rôle cités par la

Cour — lorsque aucun titre de compétence existant n’était indiqué au
départ ou lorsque la Cour n’avait manifestement pas compétence — ne
constituent pas deux catégories exclusives auxquelles la Cour doit se rap-
porter si elle souhaite exercer ses pouvoirs inhérents en l’absence d’un

désistement. Rien dans la jurisprudence ne permet de le soutenir. On voit
mal d’ailleurs quelle pourrait être la source juridique d’un droit permet-
tant de rayer une affaire du rôle à la seule condition qu’il soit limité à ces
deux exemples.
10. Les pouvoirs inhérents de la Cour découlent de son caractère judi-

ciaire et du fait qu’elle doit disposer de moyens pour réglementer

621070 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .HIGGINS )

tration of justice, not every aspect of which may have been foreseen in

the Rules. It was on such a basis that the Permanent Court had admitted
the filing of preliminary objections to jurisdiction even before this possi-
bility was regulated by the Rules of Court. The Court stated that it was
“at liberty to adopt the principle which it considers best calculated to
ensure the administration of justice” (Mavrommatis Palestine Conces-

sions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 , p. 16). The power
of the Court to identify remedies for any breach of a treaty, in a case
where jurisdiction was based solely upon the treaty concerned, has been
regarded as within the Court’s inherent powers in the Corfu Channel case
(Assessment of Amount of Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949 ,

p. 244) and in the LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America) case
(Memorial of the Federal Republic of Germany, Vol. I, 16 Septem-
ber 1999, para. 3.60).
11. The very occasional need to exercise inherent powers may arise as

a matter in limine litis, or as a decision by the Court not to exercise a
jurisdiction it has, or in connection with the conduct or the merits of a
case. The judges who jointly dissented in the Nuclear Tests cases did not
challenge the existence of such inherent powers. They asserted that their
use “must be considered as highly exceptional and a step to be taken only

when the most cogent considerations of judicial propriety so require”
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 ,
p. 322, para. 22, joint dissenting opinion). Understandably, these judges
were particularly concerned that the exercise of the power to decide pro-
prio motu should not be exercised without affording an applicant the

opportunity to submit counter arguments, as this was not consonant with
the due administration of justice. In the present instance, the issue of
whether the case should be removed from the List was fully canvassed
before the Court.

12. Thus the real question is not whether the Applicant has or has not
“discontinued” the case, nor whether the present circumstances are exactly
identical to the few examples where the Court itself has removed a case
from the List (examples which will, in their turn, have been “new” at the
relevant time and not falling into any previously established category).

The question is whether the circumstances are such that it is reasonable,
necessary and appropriate for the Court to strike the case off the List
as an exercise of inherent power to protect the integrity of the judicial
process.
I believe the answer is in the affirmative.

13. The starting point for discontinuance is Article 38, paragraph 2, of
the Rules of Court, whereby the applicant “shall specify as far as possible
the legal grounds upon which the jurisdiction of the Court is said to be
based”. The Court may, in certain circumstances, allow these grounds of
jurisdiction to be enlarged, and it may also occur that an applicant later

prefers to proceed on the basis of one specified ground rather than
another. Nonetheless, for all the flexibility built in to Article 38, para-

63 LICÉITÉ DE L’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND .HIGGINS ) 1070

des questions liées à l’administration de la justice, dont tous les aspects
peuvent ne pas être prévus par le Règlement. C’est sur ce fondement que
la Cour permanente a permis le dépôt d’exceptions préliminaires d’incom-

pétence avant même que le Règlement ne prévoie cette possibilité. La
Cour a dit qu’elle était «libre d’adopter la règle qu’elle considère comme
la plus appropriée à la bonne administration de la justice» (Concessions
Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt n o 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n 2, p. 16).
Le pouvoir qu’a la Cour de déterminer les remèdes pour toute violation

d’un traité, dans une affaire où sa compétence est fondée uniquement sur
ce traité, a été considéré comme relevant des pouvoirs inhérents de
la Cour en l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou (fixation du montant des répa-
rations, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949 , p. 244) et en l’affaire LaGrand (Alle-

magne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique) (mémoire de la République fédérale
d’Allemagne, vol. I, 16 septembre 1999, par. 3.60).
11. La Cour n’a que très rarement à exercer ses pouvoirs inhérents: la
question peut se poser in limine litis, ou lorsqu’elle décide de ne pas exer-

cer sa compétence, ou encore pour des raisons liées au déroulement ou au
fond d’une affaire. Les juges qui ont rédigé une opinion dissidente com-
mune dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires ne contestaient pas l’exis-
tence de ces pouvoirs inhérents. Ils ont affirmé que ceux-ci ne pouvaient
être utilisés que «dans des cas tout à fait exceptionnels et lorsque les

considérations les plus impérieuses touchant à ce qui est approprié à la
fonction judiciaire l’exige[aie]nt» (Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 322, par. 22, opinion dissidente commune).
Ces juges tenaient particulièrement, et on le conçoit sans peine, à ce que

le pouvoir de statuer d’office ne soit pas exercé sans donner au deman-
deur la possibilité de présenter des conclusions en sens contraire, ce qui
aurait été incompatible avec une bonne administration de la justice. En la
présente affaire, la question de savoir s’il y avait lieu de rayer l’affaire du
rôle a été pleinement débattue devant la Cour.

12. La vraie question n’est donc pas de savoir si le demandeur s’est
«désisté» ou non de l’affaire ni si les circonstances de l’espèce sont exac-
tement identiques aux rares cas dans lesquels la Cour, de sa propre ini-
tiative, a rayé une affaire du rôle (cas qui, d’ailleurs, étaient sans doute

«nouveaux» à l’époque et n’entraient dans aucune des catégories établies
auparavant). La question est de savoir si les circonstances sont telles qu’il
est raisonnable, nécessaire et indiqué que la Cour raye l’affaire du rôle
dans l’exercice de son pouvoir inhérent en vue de préserver l’intégrité de

la procédure judiciaire.
Je pense qu’il faut répondre à cette question par l’affirmative.
13. En matière de désistement, le point de départ est le paragraphe 2
de l’article 38 du Règlement de la Cour, aux termes duquel le demandeur
«indique autant que possible les moyens de droit sur lesquels [il] prétend

fonder la compétence de la Cour». La Cour peut, dans certaines circon-
stances, permettre l’élargissement de ces chefs de compétence et il peut
arriver aussi qu’un demandeur préfère par la suite se fonder sur un
moyen particulier plutôt que sur un autre. Néanmoins, le paragraphe 2

631071 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP .HIGGINS )

graph 2, of the Rules, the obligation contained in it is a continuing one.

An applicant which on Monday specifies two bases of jurisdiction for the
case it wishes the Court to decide, and on Thursday informs the Court
that these are not, after all, grounds on which it relies, cannot be said on
Saturday to be in conformity with Article 38, paragraph 2. It has put
itself out of conformity with Article 38, paragraph 2, and the fact that it

at the same time declines to “discontinue” the case under Article 88 or 89
of the Rules is irrelevant to that fact.

14. No more is the position of the Applicant who resiled from speci-
fied heads of jurisdiction without proffering others rendered in compli-

ance with the Rules by virtue of asking the Court “to decide on its
jurisdiction” in the light of these changes of position (Judgment, para. 28).
Such a request is totally outside of the contemplation of the Rules. Yet
this is what has occurred in this case. On 24 April 1999 the then Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia filed its Application instituting proceedings
against various States, invoking as the basis of the Court’s jurisdiction
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of the Court, as well as Article IX
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide. On 20 December 2002, Serbia and Montenegro formally stipu-

lated that it was not a party to the Statute of the Court before 1 Novem-
ber 2000 — and that at the time of its initial Application, it was not
bound by the Genocide Convention.
15. Having thus put itself in a position incompatible with Article 38,
paragraph 2, of the Rules, Serbia and Montenegro did not inform the

Court it was discontinuing the case under Article 89 of the Rules, but
rather “asked the Court to decide on its jurisdiction”. It was in fact in no
position to make such a request of the Court, and these events alone are
sufficient, in my view, for the Court to have used its inherent powers to
ensure orderly conduct of its judicial function, and to have removed the

cases from the List.
16. In the event, the disorderly nature of the course now being fol-
lowed by Serbia and Montenegro was compounded. In response to its
initial claims on the merits against the various respondent States, in the
eight cases allowed to proceed by the Court beyond the initial hearings

on provisional measures, preliminary objections were lodged. For the
ensuing three years no response was made to these objections — and
indeed, when extremely brief Written Observations were eventually made,
they did not even attempt to counter or otherwise respond to the sub-
stantive arguments contained in the preliminary objections of the Respon-

dents. Instead, the Applicant resiled from its previously stated grounds of
jurisdiction and simply suggested that “the Court decide”. This incoher-
ent manner of proceeding is not, in my view, compatible with sound judi-
cial procedures, which are designed to be fair to all parties concerned,
and it provided further grounds for which the appropriate response of

the Court would have been to remove the cases from the List.

64 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE OP .IND .HIGGINS ) 1071

de l’article 38 a beau offrir une grande latitude, l’obligation qu’il énonce
est une obligation continue. Un demandeur qui, le lundi, énonce deux
terrains de compétence pour l’affaire sur laquelle il demande à la Cour de
statuer et qui, le jeudi, informe la Cour qu’il n’entend finalement plus

invoquer ces moyens, ne saurait être considéré, le samedi, comme s’étant
conformé au paragraphe 2 de l’article 38. Il s’est exclu lui-même du cadre
légitime du paragraphe 2 de l’article 38 et le fait qu’il refuse dans le même
temps de se désister de l’affaire en application de l’article 88 ou 89 du
Règlement n’a, à cet égard, aucune pertinence.

14. La position du demandeur qui renonce aux terrains de compétence
annoncés, sans en proposer d’autres ainsi que l’exige le Règlement, n’est
pas davantage pertinente du fait qu’il prie la Cour de «statuer sur sa
compétence» en tenant compte de l’évolution de la situation (arrêt,
par. 28). Une telle demande sort complètement des prévisions du Règle-

ment. Pourtant, c’est bien ce qui s’est produit en l’espèce. Le 24 avril 1999,
l’ancienne République fédérale de Yougoslavie a déposé sa requête intro-
ductive d’instance contre plusieurs Etats en invoquant, pour fonder la
compétence de la Cour, le paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Statut de la

Cour ainsi que l’article IX de la convention pour la prévention et la
répression du crime de génocide. Le 20 décembre 2002, la Serbie-et-Mon-
ténégro a affirmé formellement qu’elle n’était pas partie au Statut de la
Cour avant le 1 ernovembre 2000 et que, au moment du dépôt de sa
requête initiale, elle n’était pas liée par la convention sur le génocide.

15. S’étant ainsi placée dans une situation incompatible avec le para-
graphe 2 de l’article 38 du Règlement, la Serbie-et-Monténégro n’a pas
fait savoir à la Cour qu’elle se désistait de l’affaire en application de
l’article 89 du Règlement, mais l’a plutôt priée de «statuer sur sa compé-
tence». En réalité, elle ne pouvait adresser une telle demande à la Cour et

ces seuls faits auraient suffi, selon moi, pour que la Cour use de ses pou-
voirs inhérents en vue d’assurer le bon exercice de sa fonction judiciaire et
raye les affaires du rôle.
16. En fait, le caractère désordonné de la ligne de conduite suivie par

la Serbie-et-Monténégro s’est accentué. En réponse aux prétentions ini-
tiales avancées quant au fond à l’encontre des différents Etats défendeurs,
dans les huit affaires dont la Cour a permis l’examen au-delà des pre-
mières audiences consacrées aux mesures conservatoires, des exceptions
préliminaires ont été déposées. Pendant les trois années qui suivirent,

aucune réponse n’y fut donnée — et d’ailleurs, lorsque le demandeur
présenta finalement de très brèves observations, il ne chercha même pas
à réfuter les arguments de fond contenus dans les exceptions prélimi-
naires des défendeurs, ni du reste, à y répondre. Au lieu de cela, le

demandeur a renoncé aux chefs de compétence invoqués auparavant et
s’est contenté de suggérer que «la Cour statue». Cette façon incohérente
de procéder n’est pas, à mes yeux, compatible avec une procédure judi-
ciaire régulière, qui vise à traiter toutes les parties concernées de façon
équitable, et elle constituait un autre motif pour lequel il eût été indiqué

que la Cour raye les affaires du rôle.

641072 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE SEP .OP. HIGGINS)

17. The regrettable history of events in this case falls within the

circumstances described by the Court in the Northern Cameroons
(Cameroon v. United Kingdom) case:

“There are inherent limitations on the exercise of the judicial func-
tion which the Court, as a court of justice, can never ignore. There
may thus be an incompatibility between the desires of an applicant,
or, indeed, of both parties to a case, on the one hand, and on the
other hand the duty of the Court to maintain its judicial character.

The Court itself, and not the parties, must be the guardian of the
Court’s judicial integrity.” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1963, p. 29.)

*
* *

18. In paragraph 39 of the Judgment, the Court states that it “cannot
decline to entertain a case simply because of a suggestion as to the
motives of one of the parties or because its judgment may have implica-
tions in another case”. Some observations in response to this statement
have been made in paragraph 12 of the joint declaration of seven judges.

In that context it is also necessary to make some observations on the
remarkable attention given by the Court to Article 35, paragraph 2, of
the Statute. This provision had, of course, never been invoked by the
Applicant during the period when it relied on its original grounds of
jurisdiction. The Applicant’s irregular request of 20 December 2002 to

the Court was “to decide on its jurisdiction considering the pleadings
formulated in these Written Observations”. These Written Observations
contained no invocation of Article 35, paragraph 2, as an alternative
ground of jurisdiction — yet, going beyond what the Applicant requested
in the present case, the Court has devoted some 23 paragraphs to laying

the grounds for a finding that Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute
could not have been an alternative basis for allowing access to the Court
in respect of the Genocide Convention so far as Serbia and Montenegro
is concerned. This exercise was clearly unnecessary for the present case.
Its relevance can lie, and only lie, in another pending case. I believe the

Court should not have entered at all upon this ground in the present case.

* * *

19. Because I am of the firm view that grounds ratione personae
should not have been chosen for the disposition of this case (for reasons
elaborated in the joint declaration of seven judges), it is not my intention
here to offer my own views as to the arguments that the Court advances

to support its findings on this ground. It suffices to say that, while
General Assembly resolution 55/12 of 1 November 2000, admitting the

65 LICÉITÉ DE L ’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS ) 1072

17. Cette regrettable série d’événements rentre dans le cadre des
circonstances décrites par la Cour en l’affaire du Cameroun septen-
trional:

«Il y a des limitations inhérentes à l’exercice de la fonction judi-
ciaire dont la Cour, en tant que tribunal, doit toujours tenir compte.
Il peut ainsi y avoir incompatibilité entre, d’un côté, les désirs d’un

demandeur ou même des deux parties à une instance et, de l’autre, le
devoir de la Cour de conserver son caractère judiciaire. C’est à la
Cour elle-même et non pas aux parties qu’il appartient de veiller à
l’intégrité de la fonction judiciaire de la Cour.» (Exceptions prélimi-
naires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1963 , p. 29.)

* * *

18. Au paragraphe 39 de son arrêt, la Cour dit qu’elle «ne peut refuser
de connaître d’une affaire simplement du fait des motivations alléguées
de l’une des parties, ou en raison des conséquences que son arrêt pourrait

avoir dans une autre instance». Les sept juges qui ont émis une déclara-
tion commune ont fait, au paragraphe 12 de celle-ci, quelques observa-
tions sur ce point. A ce propos, d’autres observations s’imposent sur
l’attention considérable qui a été portée par la Cour au paragraphe 2 de
l’article 35 du Statut. Bien entendu, cette disposition n’avait jamais été

invoquée par le demandeur au cours de la période pendant laquelle il s’en
tenait à ses deux terrains de compétence initiaux. La demande irrégulière
adressée à la Cour par le demandeur le 20 décembre 2002 tendait à ce que
celle-ci «[statue] sur sa compétence à la lumière de l’argumentation expo-

sée dans les présentes observations écrites». Ces observations écrites ne
renvoyaient nulle part au paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 comme chef subsi-
diaire de compétence — et pourtant, allant au-delà de ce qu’avait demandé
la Serbie-et-Monténégro en l’espèce, la Cour a consacré quelque vingt-
trois paragraphes à l’énoncé des motifs l’amenant à conclure que le para-

graphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut ne pouvait constituer un chef subsidiaire
de compétence en vertu duquel la Serbie-et-Monténégro aurait pu accé-
der à la Cour en application de la convention sur le génocide. Cette ana-
lyse était manifestement inutile en l’espèce. Elle ne peut présenter d’inté-
rêt, et c’est le seul cas possible, qu’à l’égard d’une autre affaire pendante.

Je pense que la Cour n’aurait jamais dû se placer sur ce terrain en la pré-
sente affaire.

*
* *

19. Etant convaincue qu’il ne fallait pas choisir de trancher le diffé-
rend sur la base de motifs ratione personae (pour les raisons données
dans la déclaration commune émise par sept juges), il n’est pas dans mon
intention ici de présenter mes propres vues sur les arguments avancés par
la Cour pour étayer ses conclusions sur cette base. Je me contenterai de

dire que, si la résolution 55/12 de l’Assemblée générale, adoptée le

651073 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP.HIGGINS )

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a new State, necessarily clarifies the
legal situation thereafter, it remains debatable whether “from the van-

tage point from which the Court now looks at the legal situation”, the
“new development in 2000...hasclarified the thus far amorphous legal
situation concerning the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
vis-à-vis the United Nations” at the relevant time (Judgment, para. 78).

20. It was said by Judge Lachs in 1992 that, while the various major
organs of the United Nations do each have their various roles to play in
a situation or dispute, they should act

“in harmony — though not, of course, in concert — and that each

should perform its functions with respect to a situation or dispute,
different aspects of which appear on the agenda of each, without
prejudicing the exercise of the other’s powers” (Questions of Inter-
pretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising

from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v.
United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of 14 April 1992,
I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 27, separate opinion of Judge Lachs).

The Court, in purporting to find an ex post facto clarification of the
situation as it was in 1992-2000, notwithstanding that the General Assem-

bly and Security Council had in all deliberation felt the objectives of the
United Nations were best met by legal ambiguity, seems to have ignored
that wise dictum.

(Signed) Rosalyn H IGGINS .

66 LICÉITÉ DE L’EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS ) 1073

1er novembre 2000, par laquelle la République fédérale de Yougoslavie a
été admise comme nouvel Etat, clarifie forcément la situation juridique à

partir de ce moment, on est toujours en droit de se demander si, «la Cour
se trouvant aujourd’hui à même d’apprécier l’ensemble de la situation
juridique», l’«évolution survenue en 2000 ... a clarifié la situation juri-
dique, jusque-là indéterminée, quant au statut de la République fédérale de

Yougoslavie vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations Unies» à l’époque
qui nous intéresse (arrêt, par. 78).
20. Le juge Lachs a dit en 1992 que, s’il est vrai que les divers organes
principaux de l’Organisation des Nations Unies ont chacun leur propre
rôle à jouer à l’égard d’une situation ou d’un différend, ils doivent agir

«dans l’harmonie — bien que pas, évidemment, de concert — et

[qu’il importe] que chacun d’entre eux s’acquitte de ses fonctions
concernant une situation ou un différend dont divers aspects figurent
à l’ordre du jour de chacun d’entre eux sans porter préjudice à l’exer-
cice des pouvoirs de l’autre» (Questions d’interprétation et d’applica-

tion de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident
aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Royaume-Uni),
mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 14 avril 1992,
C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 27, opinion individuelle de M. le juge Lachs).

La Cour, en prétendant éclaircir à posteriori la situation qui existait
entre 1992 et 2000, alors même que l’Assemblée générale et le Conseil de

sécurité avaient estimé, lors de toutes les délibérations, que les objectifs
des Nations Unies étaient mieux servis par le flou juridique, semble avoir
fait fi de cette sage parole.

(Signé) Rosalyn H IGGINS .

66

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Separate opinion of Judge Higgins

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