Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Bula-Bula (translation)

Document Number
121-20020214-JUD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
121-20020214-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE BULA-BULA

(Translution]

Estczhlishn~erît qf the farts, rnediate und imrnediu*e - Derolonization -
Riglzt of proples fo self-cieterminution - Sovereign eyuality of States - Inter-
,fi.rencr in cionîesticclffùirs - Arrned aggression - International humunitariun

1ai.r- Imn~z~nities?fa Minister for Foreign Affairs - Irnmunity and impu-
nity - Subjrct-matter and persistencr7 of' tlze clisputc. - Adrnissihility of an
applicution -- Claim to universaljurisdiction - Non ,iltra petita rule - Inter-
national cusfonîury law - Exceptiotî - Opinio juri: and international prac-

tice - Internationullj, ivrongful nct - Afric~znconception - A people's dig-
nity - Internutiorîul rrsponsihilit) - Morul injurj' - Repurution - Good
,fuith - De~~elopmeat qf internutional luw -- The int,~rnutionalcomniunity -
Lessons of ir~ternution~clzalii.

1. Given that the landmark Judgment of 14 February 2002 declares the

law and settles the dispute between the Democratic Republic of the Congo
(hereinafter "the Corigo") and the Kingdom of Belgium (hereinafter "Bel-
gium"); that this judicial decision is without precedent in the field and

codifies and develops contemporary international liw; and that the Court
has thus imposed the force of law upon the law of force within the "inter-

national community" which it has been at pains to cstablish over the years:
1fully and unreservedly support the entire operativ: part of the Judgment.

2. 1would nonetheless like to emphasizehere otlier grounds of fact and
law which seem to me to supplement and strengtlien this collective deci-
sion. My opinion is illso justified by the particulai duty incumbent upon

me in my capacity as judge ad hoc. An "opinior" does not necessarily
obey rigid rules. Doilbtless it must iiot address qiiestions which bear no

relation to any part of the Judgment. Subject to this, the traditional prac-
tice would seem to be characterized by its freedcim. Not only does the
length of opinions sometimes exceed that of the Judgment itselfl, but also

' Compare the Judgmerit of 5 February 1970in the case corcerning the BurceloiruTruc-
fion, Ligl~ttrndPower Coinputiy, Limiteci(49 pages) with the opinions of Judges Ammoun
(48 pages). Tariaka (47 pages), Fitzmaurice (50 pages) and Jes:up (61 pages); the Advisory

Opinion of 21 June 1971 in the South W?st Africu case (43 pages) with the opinion of
Judge Fitzmaurice (103 pages); the Judgment of 27 June 1986in the case concerning Mili-
tory und Purcimilirci~~ Acr'ivifiesin und ugrrinsiNicurczguu(N,curaguu v. United Stutes
Anzrricci) (137 pages). wi1.hthe opinion of Judge Schwebel (269pages); the Judgment of
16 June 1992inthe case cc~ncerningCertctinPhosphateLunds in Nauru jNauru v. Austruliu)
(30pages) with the opiniori of Judge Shahabuddeen (31 pages); the Judgment of 3June 1993
in the case concerning Murifinle Belimifution in the Areu berireonGreenlundutidJuii Mriyrti
(Denrncirk v.Norwuy) (41 pages) with the opinion of Judge Sliahabuddern (81 pages): the

Judgment of 24February 1982in the case concerning the Conrizentu1Skeif(TunisiulLihyuti
Aruh Jurnulriri~u)(77 pages) with the opiniori of Judge Oda ( 21 pages); the Judgment of
12 December 1996in the case concerning Oil PlutfOrms (I.slr~nt'cRryuhlic ofIrun v. United
Stcites ofAriic,i.ic.rr)(19 pages) with the opinioii of Judge Shah; buddee~i(20 pages). ARliEST WARRANT (SFP. OP. BULA-BULA) 101

they can be written with a variety of aims in view'. Thus it is open to me,
without carrying matters to excess, to develop my argument to a reason-
able extent. On the one hand, it seems to me that .he summary version of

the facts presented by the opposing Parties reveals only the visible face of
the iceberg. It permii:~a superficial reading of a case forming part of a far
wider dispute. On thi: other, it was in part the immediate circumstances as
thus presented to it which led the Court not to exilmine in depth the fun-
damental issue of the independence of the Congo, Belgium's former and
sole colony, vis-à-vis the latter. The reference to sovereign equality, suc-

cessively belaboured both at the provisional measures phase and then at
the merits stage by i:wo of Congo's counsel, botk members of the Gov-
ernment, is a cal1to examine the matter in depth. Itis repeated in the final
submissions. And it surely underlies the choice of judges LEh^oc, first by
the Respondent, then by the Applicant!
3. In doctrine, judges ad hoc have the particuli~r duty of contributing

to an objective and impartial establishment of the facts and of presenting
the conception of th.e law held by each party to the dispute3. In Judge
Lauterpacht's view, an ad hoc judge has an ob1ig;ition to

"endeavour to ensure that, so far as is rea:onable, every relevant
argument in favour of the party that has a1)pointed him has been
fully appreciateld in the course of collegial consideration and, ulti-
mately, is reflected - though not necessarily accepted - in any
separate or dissirnting opinion that he may \iritem4.

4. Fulfilment of si~chan obligation does not in any sense assimilate a
judge ad hoc to a representative of a State5. Furtlier, his is in no sense a

national representation but a "national presence"', which is, moreover, a
permanent one for the permanent members of the Security Council.
J. G. Merrills takes the view that the institution of judge ad hoc "provides
an important link between the parties and the Court". In these circum-
stances, "the institution of the ad hoc judge reflecting, as it does, 'the inci-
dence of metajuridical considerations in the functioning of international

adjudication' is perhaps still too useful to be dispensed with"'.
5. Naturally 1am in agreement, in my capacit) as judge ad hoc, with

- See on this point, Ch;irles Rousseau. Droit intwiiutionul~uhlic. Vol. V. "Les rapports
conflictuels". 1983,p. 463.
1999, p. 855.para. 541E:M.cWhinney. Les Nutions Unies et ILfIormution du droit. 1986,,
p. 150.
Judge Lauterpacht, separate opinion appended to the Orjer of 17 December 1997 in
the case concerniiig Applicution of the Coni.entiot~on the Prevention und Puninfment
the Crinie of Getzocide(/(-rouV.Yugoslaviu). I.C.J. R~,pp1997, p. 278.
See theoinmunication of E. Lauterpacht, "The Role of bd hoc Judgcs", in Increusing
the Effectivenr,ofthe It?ternarionulCourt qf'Justice. 1997. p. 374.
See the commentary of Krzystof Skubiszewski, ibirl..p. 178.
J. G. Meri-ills.Ititernutionul Di.~puteSrttlc~rnent,3rd ed.. 1998.p. 139."at least the basic stance of the appointing State (jurisdiction, admissibil-
ity, fundamentals of the merits)"'. Otherwise, how could 1 have accepted
the proposed appointment? My consent of cours? means that "there is a
certain understanding . . .for the case that has been put in front of
him" '. Moreover, it seemed to me helpful, as jiidge ad hoc, to give an
opinion in both of the phases undergone by this taseIo, thus, in my view,
making the reasonirig more readily understandable.

6. Covering a gre:atdeal of ground, and out of regard for the Court
and its working methods, 1willconfine myself to recalling very concisely,
from Belgian, Congolese, transnational and international sources, certain
factual data, of both indirect and direct relevanre, which make up the
background to the case concerning the Arrest Wurrant of II April2000.
Through these brief references, 1 seek both to exorcize the past and to
foster between the Applicant and the Respondent, States intimately
linked by history, effective implementation of th,: principle of sovereign

eyuulity between Stutes.
7. Addressing the Congolese people at Kinshasa on 30 June 1991,
forty-first anniversa:ry of the country's independcnce, the Belgian Prime
Minister declared :

"You are an, important part of Our past. Special, particularly
strong links unnte Our two countries. Links based on a relationship
marked by pain, by promise, by prudence . . What unites us - you
know it, we know it - is reflected in the extrrnal mirror constituted
by Ourgood or our bad conscience, the boun jary between good and
evil, between good intentions and blunders .. .1 wish to say to the
Congolese people, wheresoever they may be on this vast territory,
that we are aviare of their pain and of tlie suffering they have

endured."
Rarely have such views been publicly expressed hy the head of the gov-
ernment of a former colonial power four decades after decolonization.

Wrongly or rightly, litis perhaps in the circumstances of a very particular
act of decolonizatiori, whose consequences are still with us today, includ-
ing in the present case, that the justification for these views is to be
sought.
8. Rereading the account of the decolonization of the Congo"

"ee the commentary of Krzystof Skubiszewski, Incrensing the EjJ'ectivenessof tlie
Intc~rnutiotzalCourt Justiceloc. cit., p. 378.
"ee the contribution of Hugh W.A. Thirlway, ihidp...?93.
According to A. Pellet, ihiju,dges ud hoc are very ap~reciated if they express their
opinionsduring the various phases of the case", p. 395.

Nations to involve the Court. See S. Rosenne, "La Cour nternationale de Justice en
1961". Revue g<;ni.rulcd~? droit internutiontil puhlic~,3rd series, Vol. XXXIII, October-
December 1962, No. 4. p.703.prepared by one of the 40 or so political reconciliation conferencesi2,
we learn the followinig:

"Following his victory in the legislative el~:ctions,Patrice Emery
Lumumba, after consulting the main parties and political personali-
ties at that time. formed a Government.
On 23 June 1060, he obtained the confidence of Parliament, even

before the latter's election of Kasavubu as Htbad of State, thanks to
the Lumumba Party's majority.
Less than a week on from 30 June 1960, oii 4 July, the army and
police mutinied. Following the provocative statement by General
Janssens to the military - 'after independence equals before inde-
pendence' - thLedisturbances worsened. Kdtanga proclaimed its

secession on 11 July 1960 and South Kasai its autonomy on
8 August 1960.Territorial and military administration collapsed and
financial resourced dried up. The people's zovereignty was under
threat.
Despite the CO-operation agreements signed between the Kingdom

of Belgiun~and the young Republic on 29 June 1960, the crisis was
aggravated by the untimely intervention of Belgian troops. Faced
with this situation, on 15 July the Head of Skite Kasavubu, guaran-
tor of territorial integrity, and the Prime Minister and Minister of
Defence, Lumurnba, jointly signed a telegrani appealing for troops

from the Unitecl Nations in New York . . . as a result of Belgian
diplomatic manŒuvres, the United Nations hesitated to
intervene . . ."''

9. Rightly or wrorigly, the report also cites Belpium for its responsibi-
lity in the removal from office of Prime Minister >umumba:
"After Our country had achieved indepetidence . . . President

Kasavubu and Prime Minister Lumumba worked harmoniously
together. They had even toured Elisabethville together. 1believe that
the Belgians were against this harmony. So tkieyprovoked this divi-
sive tension ... i telephoned Lumumba to tell him about it. He then
contacted Presiclent Kasavubu. 1 thought they had taken precau-

tions against those manŒuvres. 1was surprised to hear on the radio
around 5 Septenlber 1960 of the dismissal of Lumumba and on the
same day of that of Kasavubu by L~mumba."'~

10. According to the report: "The Belgian amb: ssador in Leopoldville

''Known as the "Sovereign National Coriference", the forum was held from Novem-
ber 1991 to December 1992.Itwas organizedby the then Covernment. under pressure
from its principal partners, includinguin, and financl>them.
I3Sovereign National Conference, Report of the Commission on Murders and Viola-
tions of Human Rights. pip. 18-19.
'"hiri.. statement of Mr. CléophasKamitatu. then Provinc:al President of Leopoldville
(Kinshasa).was behind the creation of the autonomous State of South Kasai. By
8 August 1960, it was a fait accompli."" In regard to the murder of

Prime Minister Lumumba and his companions, the report inter uliu
States: "On 16 January 1961 there was a meeting 2 t Ndjili airport. Those
present included Messrs. Nendaka, Damien Kandolo, Ferdinand Kazadi,
Lahaye and the Sabena representatives." A witness, Mr. Gabriel Kitenge,

stated the following:

"When the aircraft arrived, he recognized only one of the three
packages, Mr. Lumumba, who was covered iiibruises and trying to
cling to a wall. Al1three were unloaded alive at Elisabethville. Soon
afterwards they were taken to the villa Broiiwez a few kilometres

from the airport, where they had a talk with Messrs. Godefroid
Munongo and Jean-Baptiste Kibwe, who were together with some
white soldiers . . .
They were executed in the bush a kilometrc from the villa. Under
the command oifa white officer, the black soldiers shot Okito first

and finished off with Lumumba.
Those present were: Messrs. Munongo, Kitenge, Sapwe, Muke,
four Belgians . . On the orders of a senior Belgian police officer, the
three prisoners were shot one after the other and thrown into a com-

mon grave which had already been dug." l6

II. The conference report concluded with a proposa1 for "the opening
of proceedings". It si:ated:

"The murders of Lumumba, Mpolo and Okito, although not fall-
ing within the categories currently defined by the United Nations,
should be assimilated to crimes uguinst humu~ity, for these were acts
of persecution and murder for political reasoris."

This proposa1 may thus stimulate reflection on tlie part of writers who
note uncertainties in the notion of crime against hiimanity 17.The confer-
ence established responsibility on the part of a niimber of persons both
natural and legal, domestic and foreign. Of whoni, for purposes of this
case it suffices to note the following:

"The Governnzent qf the Kingdom of Belgium as protecting power

for having failed to ensure bilateral securitj for an independence
deliberately rushed through by it in a perfunctory manner. The
ambiguous natuire of the Basic Law is self-evicent. Despite the agree-
ment of 29 June 1960,Belgium did not provida: the lawful authorities

li Op ci/f.ootnote 13supra. p. 26.
IhIbid.. p. 40.
l7See G. Abi Saab. "I~iternational Criminal Tribunals an@the Development of Inter-
national Humanitarian and Human Rights Law". Liber A~zicorum Jtrdgr Mohamnzed
under International Law", ihirl.,pp. 223-240."Time Limitat ons for Claims and Actions established by ii:in the Congo with the military and technical assist-
ance which would have enabled the worst to be avoided.

.............................

The support of tlze Brlgiatz Goverrzrnenl for the secession of
Katanga through its officia1 recognition as an independent State,
with the opening of a Consulate-General, represents an offence
against the rights of the Congolese people. 1:ollowing the interven-
tion of the Belgian Minister for African Affairs, Mr. Harold Aspre-

mont, President Tshombe, on 16January 1901, accepted transfer of
the packages." l8

Reacting, as it were, in advance to the responder t State, the conference
decided to :

"Alert international opinion so that the very persons who teach us
respect for humian rights and the rights of the citizen contained in
the United Natiions Declaration may not in future repeat the same

mistakes, which do not sit well with world o,~inion." l9

12. Six years earlier, the transnational group 1.nown as "The Perma-
nent Court of the Peoples [tribunal permanent des peuples]", called upon
to deliver a ruling 011 the case of Zaire (Congo) stated:

"When the right of a people freely to pursue its economic, social
and cultural development is treated with con empt by a State repre-
sented by collaborationist oligarchies, hostages or agents of foreign

powers, installetl or maintained in place by it: will, that State cannot
constitute a cover for the extinction of a peol~le'sright to self-deter-
mination." 20

Thus that "court" held:

"In such a case, we are faced with a pheno nenon essentially simi-
lar to the colonial situation opposing an enslaved people to a foreign
power, with the government authorities playing the role of overseer,

seemingly differing little in their functions from the former colonial
agents (viceroy:;, governors, prkfefcrt.~ e,tc.) or local satraps in the
service of the metr~pole."~'

The jury further stated:

"The violatiori of the right of the Zairian peopleperpetrated by an
alienated State raises the problem of the responsibility of other

lxSovereign National Conference. Report of the Commis: ion on Murders and Viola-
tions of Human Rights, pp. 55-56.
'Vbid
"'See Judg177rnlofPrrtncrnet~tCourt rhr Peoples, Rotterdam. 20 September 1982,
p. 29.
" Ihid governments, anid in particular of those who defend the interests for

whose benefit the Zairian people are deprived of their sovereignty." 22

The jury thus established, inter aliu, "the responsibility . . . of Bel-
giumW2'.The operative part of the judgment finds that a number of the
charges "constitute crimes against the Zairian pe0.3le"~~.Examining inter
~rlia the legal force of the decisions of this "co~rt of public opinion",

some writers have concluded that "such a condemnation is a first step
towards reparation" 25.
13. More recently, the United Nations Comniission responsible for
investigating the illegal exploitation of the natural resources of the Congo

cited, among others, Belgian companies in occupied territories. Could it
not be that the purported "neutrality" of the local Belgian authorities in
the face of the armetl aggres~ion?~suffered by the Congo since 2 August
1998 is being underrnined by the participation of private groups or Bel-

gian parastatal entities in the looting of the natural resources of the
Congo, as established by a United Nations investigation2'? Al1the more
so in that the investigation has established a lirk between that illegal
exploitation and the continuation of the ~ar~~.

14. The immediate circumstances which gave :ise to the issue of the
warrant were amply debated by the Parties. It would be pointless to go
over them again. Nonetheless, there are pertinent questions raised by this
case. Why is it that virtually al1 of those charged before the Belgian

courts, including Mr. Abdulaye Yerodia Ndomba ;i, belong essentially to
a political tendency that was ousted in 1960 and, thanks to a variety of
circumstances, regained power in 1997? Why does the respondent State
not exercise its territorial jurisdiction by prosecuting Belgian companies

established on its territory suspected of illegal activities in areas of
foreign occupation v~ithinthe Congo'?
15. These are some of the facts emerging from a rapid survey covering
more than four decaties whereby the respective coiiducts of the Parties to

the dispute before us may be judged. They should be compared with Bel-

,,
-- Op. cil. footriote 20 .supra,p. 30.
23 Ibici., p. 32.
3 Ihid., p. 34
" B. H. Weston. R. A,. Falk and A. d'Amato, Interncrric.11~L1uit' utid World Orrler,
2nd ed.. p. 1286.
'" Within the meaning of Article 51 of the United Nation' Charter. as further defined
by Article 3 of resolution 3314 of 14December 1974and confirmed as a rule of customary
law by the Judgment of the Court of 27 June 1986 inilifclrj und Puruniilitur~ Activitirs
in und uguinsf Ni(,rzruguu(Nicrzruguv.UniteriStutrs ofAn ericu), para. 195.
SeeRepoif of'the Princ.1of'E.vperor2tllr Illcgul Esplortcztioi~of Nuturc11Re~o~~rc<,.s
crntlOflier Formof'W~'ultIoj't11~DetnocicrticRcpublic oftl7t Congo. Those cited include
the following Brlgian cornpanies: Cogem, Muka-Eiiterprise and Transintra for cassiter-
ite; Chimie Pharmacie, C'ogea,Tradement. Finiming Ltd., Cicle International, Specialty
Metal, for coltan: Soger. Sogem. Cogecom, Tradement. MDIV, for cassiterite and coltan.
Source: http:I/www.un.oi-g/News/dh/latestldrcongo.htm.
'"ee ihici.,paras. 109ct .sec/."Links between the exploitat on of natural resources and
the continuationof the conflict."gium's closing speech. Even as the respondent State brings its peroration

to a glowing close wifh an invocation of the democracy and human rights
which purportedly giiided its conduct 2" at the sarne time it reopens one
of the most shameful pages in the history of decolcnization. In the 1960s,
it appeared to grant the Congo its independence while, with the right

hand, it was at the saimetime virtually ensuring the destabilization of that
sovereignty and of the new-born Congolese democracy. The author
Joseph Ki-Zerbo was able to write that, in the (:ongo. "independence
was thrown like a bone to the natives in order the better to exploit their

divisions, .. . the moldel for poisoned grants of inlependence" 'O.
16. One of the points hotly debated by the Parties is Mr. Ndombasi's
current loss of any governmental post. The Respondent relied on this fact
in order to secure dismissal of the case by the Cou.t, while the Applicant

contended that it has no effect on the proceedings.

17. In my view, the argument deriving from the loss (and not the
absence) of any current governmental function on Mr. Ndombasi's part
is morally indecent. I3ut the Court does not decidt: disputes on the basis

of international morality, so dear to Nicolas Politis7'. Legally, however,
this argument should rebound against the Respondent, who has raised a
mere corner of the veil over the cause of this situation, while exploiting its
effects - and only those effects - to the full. It is.iuridically improper to

seek to ground one's principal argument on a serious violation of inter-
national law (exercise of a right of censorship over the composition of the
Congolese Government amounts to interference in the interna1 affairs of
another State), which aggravates the original infringement of the criminal

immunities and inviolability of the person of the Minister for Foreign
Affairs. The Applicant's written pleadings and oral arguments (during
both the "provisiona~l" and the mei-its phase) de lounced this fact and
were not effectively rebutted by the Respondent. "he Court was witness

to this dismissal of a representative of the Congolest. State, which occurred
not only after the rnatter had been referred to the Court (17 Octo-
ber 2000), but, what is more, the demotion took place the day the hear-
ings opened in the provisional phase (20 November 2000),and Mr. Ndom-
basi left the Government altogether not long afterwards (14 April 2001).

Since that time his reappointment, although const;tntly announced in the
press, has been resisted, apparently because of unldwful pressure exerted
by the Respondent.
18. It is the duty of the Court, as guarantor of the integrity of inter-

national law3{ to sanction this doubly unlawful conduct on the part of
the Respondent, denounced by the Applicant in its final submissions.

'' See Belgi~im'soral argumeiit, CR2001111. pp. 17-18. paras. 8. 9 an11.
"' Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Preface to Ahamadou A. Dicko's Jour.1~1[l'unecl6fuite.Autour du
rc~Ji.reridu?i 28 Septcjn~bre1958 en Afiiyue noire, 199p. YIV.
" Nicolas Polit~sLu triorcilcinternufioriule, 1943, p. 179.
" COI~LCI/ftifit~.C'.J'Roports 1949, p. 35. 19. There are two possible ways in which the notion of "organ respon-
sible for the integrity of international law" is genc:rally understood. For
some, it involves a "duty to preserve the integrity cf law as a discipline -
distinct from considerations of politics, morality, expediency and so
on" '3
. In my view, it ought also to mean that the Court is under an obli-
gation to ensure respect for international law in ~tstotality. As regards
the specific nature of the task of a judicial organ b!!comparison with that
of a political organ, such as the Security Council, there is already plenti-

ful case law on this point.
20. 1 also share Manfred Lachs's view that "the Court is the guardian
of legality for the international community as a hol le"'^.

21. It is difficult to see how the Court can focus its gaze so particularly
on Mr. Ndombasi's current loss of government office while closing its
eyes to the obvious reasons for that situation in the light of events which
have been sufficientl!~argued before it right from the start of the provi-

sional measures phase up to the closing of the merits phase. This is par-
ticularly so in that the violation of the immunitie; in question is simply
evidence of a general disregard for the principle of sovereign equality of
a State decolonized by Belgium. On this point th': Court made no mis-

take. More than once in its reasoning, in the polite ;t of terms, it criticized
the Respondent's unlawful conduct.
22. Quite aside from the attention devoted by ihe Court to the argu-
ment concerning the loss of official duties, made so much of by the

author of fundamentallv unlawful conduct. therc: is the matter of the
non-existent legal elffe; which the Respondent seeks to infer from
Mr. Ndombasi's new situation. From the moment the immunities of the
Minister for Foreign Affairs were breached, the violation of international

law was complete. And the Congo began to insist -- and continued to do
so until the close of argument - that the Court should find that its rights
have been biolated, and that it be granted reparztion accordingly. The
Congo has never believed, and has never asserted, that one of its citizens

has been the victim alfa Belgian wrongful act. The Applicant has always
been convinced, and 11asalways declared, that Belgium was actingagainst
it as a sovereign entity wishing to organize itself Jreely, including in the
conduct of its foreign relations by a Minister of ils choosing. But it has

suffered, and continues to suffer, de fucto interfercnce resulting from the
issue, maintenance and circulation of the warrani, and from Belgium's
attempts to give greater effect to that warrant.

'? See H. Mendelson, "Formation of International Law and the Observational Stand-
point", in connection with "The Formation of Rules of Cuitomary (General) Interna-
tional Law". Int<,rnutionulLn». A.r.rociution.Repnftlze Si:-/y-Tlzird Conf,rence, Wur-
.rrr>.,ugust 21st to A~rgust27th 1988, p. 944.
lJ See M. Lachs, separate opinion appended tothe Order of 14April 1992 in the case
concerning Questions of'lnt~rpretcrtiot~und Application of the 1971 Montreul Convc~ntion
urisingfrom the Aeriul Irrc~itlenctrtLorkerhie (Li-uArah lolnuhiriyu v. United King-
tlom), 1.C.J. Reports 1992. p. 26. ARREST WARRANT (SEP. OP. BULA-EULA) 109

23. The relevance of Mr. Ndombasi's loss of governmental responsi-
bilities lies in the glaring light it throws on Belgium's flagrant meddling in
the Congo's internal affairs. Further evidence of tl.iiscan be found in the
identity of certain Congolese complainants, merlbers of a Congolese
opposition political party '5,whose names the Respondent obstinately

refused to reveal to the Court for so-called "security" reasons. Whichever
way you look at it, thliscase clearly demonstrates t le Respondent's inter-
ference in the Applicant's internal affairs. And, ~iltimately, the serious
disregard for the sovereign equality of States underlying the violation of

the immunities of thi: Minister for Foreign Affairs. The loss of govern-
ment office is of no relevance in relation to Mr. Ndombasi's ers on al
odyssey; he, strangely, unlike other accused Congclese high officials, and
other foreign authorities, had this unprecedented *Narrantissued against

him as Minister for Foreign Affairs, charged with niaintaining permanent
contact with the Congo's principal foreign partnei.

24. So long as there shall exist the authentic, independent State of the

Congo, born of decolonization -- not to be confiised with the fictional
State entity calling itself "The Congo Free State", I~orneto the baptismal
font by the powers al. Berlin36 - that debt will continue to exist. This is
not a debt due to one specific incumbent Governnient - a Government
bound, moreover, to pass on one day like every G Ivernment. What is at

stake here is a debt owed to the Congolese people, freely organized in a
sovereign State calling for its dignity to be respected.
25. But dignity has no price. It is one of thosc: intangible assets, on
which it is impossible to put a price in money tctrms. When a person,

whether legal or natural, gives up his dignity, he lxes the essence of his
natural or legal personality. The dignity of the Congolese people, victim
of the neocolonial chaos imposed upon it on the rnorrow of decoloniza-
tion, of which the current tragic events largely represent the continued

expression, is a dignity of this kind.
26. The loss of office bv one of its authorities could not vut an end to
the unlawfulness of the Belgian warrant, any mole than it could trans-
form it into a lawful act. To av~reciate that the unlawfulness cannot be

extinguished as a result of M;. 'A. Yerodia Ndonibasi's loss of govern-
ment office, 1give two examples. When a represent.itive of a foreign State

35According to the Applicant, these are representatives of ;in opposition party operat-
ing in Brussels! (See verbatim record of the public heariiig of 22 November 2000,
CR 2000134.p. 20.) The Respondent, on the other hand. cites "security reasons" to the
Court (despite the fact that the Court can sit in closed session) in order not to disclose the
identity of theomplainants of Congolese nationality (see verbatim record of the public
heariiig of 21 November :!000, CR 2000133,p. 23).
jhThe 14 colonial powers meeting at Berlin (14 Novembt:r 1884-26 February 1885)
accorded their endorsemerit to the colonial project of King Leclpold II called "Congo Free
Statc". ARREST WARRANT (SEP. OP. BULA-BIJLA) 110

is killed by the police in a particular country ", that diplomat ceases by
the very fact of his deiith to hold office. Can it be claimed that the unlaw-

fulness of the act was extinguished by the death ol'the representative of
the foreign State? It seems to me that the unlawfiilness persists. Let us
take another case. Suppose the diplomat was merely seriously wounded.
After being evacuated to his sending country, he is ieclared unfit for dip-

lomatic service. Can it be said that the unlawful act has disappeared,
since the victim of the assault no longer represent:. his country abroad?
1think not.
27. The question of the lack of object of the Congolese claim could

have arisen if Belgium had adopted a diametrically opposite attitude, by
showing respect for the Congo's independence. It ;hould have admitted
its violation of international law and then cancelled the warrant and
hastened to request the foreign countries to which it had circulated the

instrument to discharge it. It would then have iniormed the Congo of
these various measures, which would have been taniamount to an expres-
sion of regret and an a~pology.Nothing of the sort occurred. The Congo's
claim thus retained its object in full.

28. The Congo adnlits that "these requests diffei to some extent from
those formulated in its Application instituting proceedings", given

Mr. Ndombasi's new :situation. But it adds that, "since they are based on
the same facts as those referred to in the Application, this cannot pose
any problem" 7X. The Court has correctly confirmecl its established prac-
tice of according the Parties the freedom to refine their claim between the

date of filing of the Application instituting proceedings and the presenta-
tion of the final submissions at the close of oral arirume.,. Thus there is
no basis for criticism here, since these subsequent :hanges are based on
the same facts as those already cited in the initial claim.

29. Moreover, in accordance with the Court's jettled jurisprudence,
the admissibility of the Congo's Application is to be assessed on "the
only relevant date", ~ihich is the date of its filing in the Registry of the

Court ". It is irrelevant whether the Respondent might subsequently have
acted so as to empty the Application of its substance. The claim was
already filed 3s such on 17October 2000. Furthermore, as its substance is
based on the violation of the Congo's sovereignty b:i the issue of the war-

rant, which requires reparation, that substance rerr ains intact.
30. The Respondent's attempt to transform the international judicial

" This happened in Lonié(Togo) in OctoberiNovember 19S5,where a German diplo-
mat aas killed by policem<:natn roadblock in the early evening. The incident ca~iseda
wrious dctcrior;ition in relations between Gcrmanq and Togo.
Mernorial (if the Democratic Republic of the Congo, p. 6 para. 8.
j" See the case concerning Qu~s/i»n.vof Iniel.prc.tution rinc'Appli<~t7fitlw 1971
,Wontrc,cilConvet71iontrri.vingfhnr fl~c,A~riol It7//cl.o<,horhic,(Lihyun Aruh Jtrrn(r-
hiri~,ov. (:nite(/ S/crrc,.sof',lrrI.(..JRcy~orfs1998. p.1:'O.para. 43.proceedings institutetl and pursued by the Congo i:l its own right, follow-

ing the violation of the criminal immunities and inviolability of one of its
highest representatives, into the mere exercise of diplomatie protection of
one of its nationals deserves a polite dismissal calling for no further com-
ment on my part.
31. Did the Congo's final submissions preclude the Court from ruling

on the question of so-called universal jurisdiction"
32. It is true that the Congo's "final submissions" make no mention
whatever of this q~es~tion.They seek to have the C'ourt enforce the "rule
of international customary law concerning the absolute inviolability and

immunity from criminal process of incumbent ,foreign rninisters; in so
doing [the Responderit] violated the principle of sol ereign equality among
States" 40.
33. The issue here is one of judicial procedure. Did the Applicant's
spectacular change of position on this point require the Court not to rule

on so-called universal jurisdiction in the operative part of its Judgment?
Most definitely. It would have been criticized for riiling ultra petitu. That
is not the same as taking no collective position on the point. In any event,
in so far as the Judgrnent's reasoning failed to adclress this question, the

opinions would do so.
34. Moreover, of the 64 pages of the Congo's Memorial, 15 are
devoted to this quesition4'. At the oral proceedings, the Congo stated,
through its counsel, Professor Rigaux, that "tha: [was] an area of no
interest to [it]", even though it had raised it in its original Appli~ation~~.

But, battle-weary, or for reasons of litigation strategy, it allowed that the
Court might examine the

"issues of internutionul luiv raised by universcdjurisdiction, but it will
not do so at the request of the Applicant: it will, in a sense, have the
issuejorced uporr'it as a result of the defence strategy adopted by the
Respondent, since the Respondent appears to contend not only that

it is lawful to exercise such jurisdiction but that it is moreover
obligatory to do so, and therefore that the ex:rci.se of .suchjurisdic-
tion cun represerrta vulid counteriveight to th,]observance of immu-
nities".

And counsel conclud~rs :

''1accordingly believe that the Court will iri any event be obliged
to adjudicate on (certainuspects of universal jurisdiction, but 1would
stress that this il; not at the request of the Applicant, which is not

directly interested in the issue."43

4"See CR 2001110,p. 26: emphasis added.
42See CR 2001110,p.e11.cratic Republic of the Congo, pp. 47-61
" Ihid :mphasis addecl.And Counsel then refers to its forthcorning submissions. For her part, Pro-
fessor Chemillier-Geridreau, another of the Congo's counsel, stated that :

"the extension of such jurisdiction to a case ivlîere the person con-

cerned is not ivithin the territory hus at prescnt no confirmed legal
husis, ~vliichis very diffrrent from saying, us Professor Duvid tvould
have us say, tliat ,ce no longer cliullenge universal jurisdiction

in absentia".

Congo's counsel continued :

"In the light of this case, Belgium would lik: the Court, by finding
in favour of a uniilersaljurisdiction ~vhichpîssesses tlzose hroader
hounds, to intervene in the lawmaking proces and thereby endorse

the validity of its policy."

She concluded :

"For our part, we contend that the point to which the Court
should corijineits ruling in regurd to universal,juri.sdiction is, as Pro-

fessor Rigaux h,asjust said, its use where it infringes an iiîzinunity
.fiorn,jurisdiction of an incumbent Minister,fo A Foreign Affuirs. Atid
ii~~theri rrquest the Court to declare thrrt iti. use in these circunz-

.stanceJ, UJ hrnhodied in Belgiurn 'saction, i~contrarj3to internutionrrl
la,\ .44

35. For its part, Belgium basically founded its clefence strategy on so-
called universal jurisdiction, upon which its controversial statute and dis-

puted warrant are piirportedly based. But, since the Congo ignored the
issue of such purported jurisdiction in its final submissions, Belgium
accordingly argued tl-iatthe Court's jurisdiction wis thus limited, pursu-
ant to the tzotzultra pl"itu rule, solely to those points in dispute appearing

in the final submissions. The Respondent cited the Court's jurispru-
dence?': "It is the duty of the Court not only to reply to the questions as
stated in the final suibmissions of the parties, bu also to ahstuitî fiom

deciding points not included in those submissions. "4h

36. In its oral argument, the Respondent also stated that it was

"reluctant, not because it has doubts as to the legality of its position

or the soundness of its arguments, but rather i8would have preferred
the accusations iigainst Mr. Yerodia Ndombasi to be dealt with by

'j See CR 2001110.p. 17; emphasis added.
45 Case concerning Corfit Chonriel,A.\srs.srnrofrAmouil/ of Conipcnsution, Judgrtient.
I.C.J. Report.\ 1949. p. 240: case coiicerning Recluest,/i~rIr~rer/*r<,tcitico'nf'tlotf'rlgnic~n
20 Noi~eniher1950 NI rl~eAsylur~iCase, Judgrnent, I.C.J. Reports IY50, p. 402.

4" Recruesthr Internreti,ition of the Jud~nlent of 20 Novemh,,r 1950 in the A.~vlunzCusc,.
JII~~~~I~ICI.,~J, ~cjixirt!, 1950: p. 402': Counter-~emoria of Belgiurn. Gras. 0.25.
2.74, 2.79, 2.81. 10.2. the competent authorities in the Democrzttic Republic of the
C~ngo"~'.

It also asserted that "the principles of universal jurisdiction and the
absence of immunity in the case of allegations cf serious breaches of
international humanit.arian law are well-founded iii the law . . ."48.

37. In my view, this is a major point of dispute between the Parties
which the Court coultl decide were it not for the non ultra prtita rule. On
pain of acting ultru vires, the Court could not rule ultru petitu. It has
been correctly said that "while the Court is judge of its jurisdiction, it is
not its master"". The examination of points not included in the Congo's

submissions would halveexposed the Court to criticism on this score. In
its final submissions, which were silent on the point, the Congo did not,
however, show itself hiostileto the Court's taking a stance on the point in
its reasoning.

38. For its part, Belgium did not wish the Court to rule on the sub-
stance of its claims as above, which it did, howevei, consider established
in law:

"In the realm of law as process, the question is, if it ultimately
turns on the discretion of the Court, ichetlzerit ivould be desiruble
jbr tlie Court to procc~edto CIjudgment on the merits of'this cuse.

Belgium, with the very greatest of respect for tlie role of the Court in
developing international law, contends that 't ii*ouldnot. In Bel-
gium's contentiori, in the absence of a compelling reason to do so -
and a conipelling reason to do so would be a siibsisting concrete dis-

pute between two States which requires resolution - for the Court
to proceed to a judgment on the merits of these issues would risk
rigidity in the la~wjust at the point at whic:h States. principally
responsible for the development of the law, are groping to~vurds,TO/U-
tions of their owii. In Belgium's contention, tliis is not the point at

&le," rSOidity in the law, whether expansive <Irrestrictive, is desir-

39. It goes without saying that it is not for a litisant to tell the Court
how to do its job. The Respondent's concern reg,irding the rigidifying
effects of an international judicial decision are unfo ~nded. Particularly in

international customary law, it is established that international jurispru-
dence does not have the effect of freezing the law for al1time. To a cer-
tain extent, the same is true of treaty law, which is itself developed by
States. Finally, to say that States have the prime responsibility for devel-
oping the law is to recognize implicitly the responsibility of other organs

47CR 200118,p. 8.
48CR 200118,p. 3 1,para. 54.
4' Charles Rousseau. "L.es rapports conflictuels", Droit Nit~rncrtlublic, Vol. V.
1983,p. 326.
"' CR 200118.p. 31,para. 54; crnphasis added.or entities, including the Court, for performing other tasks. Legal
scholars are virtually unanimous in acknowledgin;; this.

40. In short, how should so-called universal jurisdiction have been
treated, given the discretion shown in the Congo'; final submissions on

this subject and the lack of urgency demonstrated t'y Belgium for a ruling
by the Court on the rnatter? The Congo's extreme caution was not justi-
fied, since it was seeking to have the dispute cor~pletely resolved. The
resistance on Belgium's part was unfounded too. The Respondent, which
was claiming to act urider international law, had tht opportunity to secure

a positive sanction for a practice which it consider~:dlawful. In my view,
the Court's prinlary ,responsibility rvas to decide v~hether or not, as the
Applicant claimed, the customary rules concerning the persona1 immuni-
ties and inviolability from criminal process of the Minister for Foreign
Affairs of the Congo. Mr. Yerodia Ndombasi, hatl been violated by the

Respondent. And since it was in the name of a so-cklled universal jurisdic-
tion, in my opinion ill-conceived and misapplied, that this infringement
took place, the operative part of the ~udgment noni:theless implicidy con-
demns Belgium's claim. But ought iiot the Court, as guarantor of the
integrity of internatioi~al law, to have ruleriin its reasoning equally clearly

on the validity rwtione loci and rrrtionepersoncle cbfsuch manifestly un-
lawful claims on Belgium's part? Should the reascning of the Judgment
not have contained a relevant passage on one of tl.lecurrently most con-
troversial questions in international law? Would the Court have been
criticized for stating ithe law on this point? The Lict remains, however,

that the Court, in accord with the Parties, made iis choice of "essential
rea~ons"~' in order to settle the dispute. It has taken the opportunity to
codifv and develo~ the law of immunities. The vexeclauestion of so-called
universal jurisdiction, as presented in this case, has also been settled.
41. There is not the slightest doubt that in custorlary international law

Ministers for Foreign Affairs enjoy immunities ancl inviolability of their
tlerson in restlect of 1:riminal wrocess before national courts. These are
restrictions imposed by international law on the operation of domestic
law. To be more specific, al1national law ceases to prevail in the presence
of a higher organ of a foreign State. No sovereign tntity can legally exer-

cise authority over ariy other equally sovereign go~ernment as so repre-
sented. That is the cilrrent state of positive interriational law, which a
worldwide survey woilld certainly confirm.

42. The Respondent has done its utmost to cr:ate confusion in the

mind of the layman. Kthas been unable to do so iii the minds of jurists.

See Tanaka. separate opinion appended to the Judgment ~f24 July 1964 in the case
concerningBrrr.c.rlot~tTrrcic,igl~rcinPoii.~Coitzpcrny,L rniterl,Preliniirztrrj Ohjec-
rioil.\,I.C.J. R<,p1964.p. 65.

115 AKREST WARRANT (SEP. OP. BULA-BULA) 115

Belgium went to great lengths in seeking to equate immunity with in~pu-
nity. No lawyer would be so misled as to belie-ie that any proof was
required of proposition that the persona1 crimin.11responsibility of the
perpetrator of an alleged offence remains intaci:, notwithstanding the
immunities protectirig him. Nor should we lose sight of the basics of

criminal law, to the point of forgetting the principle of the presumption
of the accused's innocence! It might even have been thought that the
issue of a Minister's immunities was a legal comrnonplace, had "certain
recent development~:"~' not been cited. Wrongly. Those who defend

before this Court States' rights to make law are s~eking to transform the
proponents of a certain school of doctrine into legslators, having refused
that status to the Court.
43. There is no dloubt that the immunities aiid their corollary, the
inviolability of the person of the Minister in quescion, have a functional

character. They are based on the importance of a high representative of
another State being able freely to discharge his du .ies. without let or hin-
dranceand under conditions of equality. It is for t lis reason that the pre-
rogatives of the host State in regard, it~trr dia. to ihe maintenance of law

and order, defence and justice must be exercised in such a way asto make
it easier for the Minister for Foreign Affairs of another State to do his
job. As certain writers have stated: "the immunity representatives of for-
eign States enjoy is aL function of the nature of their ~ffice"'~.
44. American doctrine recalls that:

"According to the Restatement, immunity extended to :

((1) the State itself;
(b) its head of State;

(c) its governrrient or any governmental agency;
(d) its head of government ;
(e) its foreign ininister;
(fj any other public minister, official, or azent of the State with

respect to acts performed in his officialcapacity if the effect of
exercising jurisdiction would be to enf0rc.ea rule of law against
the State." ''j

45. Although the Congo was not able to denonstrate sufficiently,
either in its written pleadings or in oral argument the extent of the hin-
drance caused by Belgium to the free exercise of hi:.duties by the Congo's

Minister for Foreign Affairs, 1can now give Som- examples. Following
the issue of the warrant, the Congolese Minister fi)r Foreign Affairs was
unable to attend miriisterial meetings of the ACP States with the Euro-
pean Union in Brussels, since his criminal immuiiities and inviolability

'' Counter-Mernorial of Belgium. p. 109, para. 3.4.1.
53 Louis Henkin, Richard Crawford Pugh. Oscar Schachter and Hans SmIr~ti~rrwfiotiul
Luii..1993.p.1188.
54 It~idp. 1191were not guaranteed. Nor was he able to participate in a meeting held in
Paris to evaluate the Francophone Summit. In October 2000, Mr. Ndom-
basi was unable to iindertake an official visit to Tokyo (Japan), as the
Japanese authorities stated that they were unablt: to give an assurance
that his criminal imnlunities and inviolability WOL Id be guaranteed.
46. In addition to the official visits that he was unable to make, the
Minister was obligeti, depending on the itinerarli, to travel separately

from his Head of State arriving late at their con-mon destination. This
resulted in increased travel costs, lost baggage, an1 late arrivals at inter-
national meetings, such as the Maputo Summit following a visit to China.
It is self-evident that, as a result of the official visits that he missed or
carried out under such difficult circumstances, tht: Minister for Foreign
Affairs was unable tciperform his duties normally, whether alongside the
Head of State or otl~erwise. Finally, a combination of various factors,
particularly hisundesirable character in the eyesofcertain Belgian authori-
ties, led to his dismissal on 20 November 2000, the date of the opening of

the hearings in the provisional measures phase of his case.
47. The Respondent contends that there is an exception to the rule of
the immunity and criminal inviolability of the per:on of the Minister for
Foreign Affairs in the case of "crimes under international law". It has not
proved that contention. This is no more than an element of its defence
strategy. At times, it sought to circumvent the officia1status enjoyed at
the relevant time by hdr. Ndombasi by arguing thai it was concerned with
him solely in his capacity as a private individual; 2 t others. it apparently
attempted to invent an exception which simply do1:snot exist in custom-

ary international law.
48. The existence of a firmly established rule, ot~ligatorilyfollowed by
the majority of some 190States from Africa, Asia, America, Europe and
Oceania, whereby an incumbent Minister for Foreign Affairs enjoys
absolute immunity arid inviolability from criminal process is not open to
question. The doctrine confirms this 5s.

49. Nonetheless, some dissenting voices, apparently moved by certain
moral concerns, claim that these appointed State 1-epresentativesshould
be stripped of such absolute legal protection where they have committed

certain international offences. In many regions of he world, such provi-
sions can orily be welcome in countries traditionilly victims of crimes
against humanity. From its inception, the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice, our predecessor, recognized that,

55See inter crliuJean Salmon, Manuel de droit diplomatique. 1994,p. 539: the Minister
for Foreign Affairsjoys "privileges and immunities analogous to those of the Head of
Government"; Joe Verhoeven. Droitinternational puhlic. 20(10,p. 123: "there is a ten-
dency, at least in the doctrine, to grant the Head of Governme it. and indeed the Minister
for Foreign Affairs, the protection accorded to the Head of Srate". ARIZEST WARRANT (SEP. OP. BULA-BULA) 117

"in the fulfilment of its task of itseij uscrrtuining ivhut the internu-
tiot~ul1r~i.ii, [the Court] has not confined itself to a consideration of
the arguments put forward, but has includcd in its researches al1
precrdc>nt.s . .. and jucts to which it had accesi and which might pos-

sibly have revealed the existence of one of the principles of interna-
tional law contemplated in the special agreerlent" 5h.

50. It is in the area of customary laiv that the E.elgianclaims and their
counterparts, the Coi~golesedenials, lie. The Belgian Government possibly
anticipated that, as ,with the Truman Proclamaticln of 1945 on the con-
tinental shelf, its new claim, formulated at a tir,~ewhen humanitarian

ideas are undergoing: a revival of interest, would 1)efollowed (massively)
by other States. It giliesthe impression of having overestimated its impor-
tance on the world chessboard. No matter. The inain charge which can
be levied against the Respondent is of abusing the humanitarian argu-

ment for the purposes of political domination. A: in the nineteenth cen-
turyS7!To the point of devising an exception to ti-e rules of international
law governing immunities which simply does not exist in international
law.

51. In short, the Belgian claim was bound, fr0.n its inception, to rep-
resent violation of eriisting law. Despite the publicity enjoyed by the war-
rant of II April 200C1n ,o other State has followed Belgium'sexample. No
member of the international community has offered Belgium assistance

in executing the warrant. In fact, on the contrary, several States, particu-
larly African States, have ignored it. The unfortunate Belgian precedent
has thus remained an isolated one. While Belgiu n is entitled to contri-
bute to the formation of general international law, it cannot, on its own,

create that law. Thus it does not have internation~l practice behind it. By
contrast, the State which is the victim of this action, the Congo, has reso-
lutely opposed the application of the Belgian mi:asure. On the ground
that it is unlawful.

52. Moreover, thr: Belgian Government has shown, by its conduct,
that it is unsure of the lawfulness of its disputed .ict. Its correspondence
with the Applicant vvhilethe proceedings were in progress demonstrates
thisSX.The Respondent claims that it is contemp1;iting an amendment to

its controversial statute so as to respect the imrlunities of high repre-
sentatives of foreign States. From al1the many inccnsistencies and equivo-
cations fundamentally characterizing a practice b,~thunilateral and soli-
tary - if we exclude the Yugoslav initiative of 21 September 2000, which

has strangely gone ~inremarked by Belgium - n I customary norm has

zh "Lotus", Judgn~cwt,Yo. Y1927, P.CI. J., Series A, No10,p. 31.
57The Preamble to the General Act of Berlin of 26 Februaiy 1885provides reassurance
as to the object and purpose of the Treaty: "the moral anil material well-being of the
indigenous populations".
5XSee the Belgiaii communication of 14 February 2001, to which the Congo replied on
22 June 2001. emerged. Just as the Respondent's own opiniojurlv is apparently far from
established.
53. In reality, the Respondent has sought to rely on a small number of
opinions of publicisi.sin order to claim that a nerv derogative customary
norm has come into being. It has provided no e~idencë of its existence.
We know that doctrine represents a means for determining the rules of
law. It must be founded on a general practice corresponding to the opinio

juri~ sive neces.ritas. Nothing of the kind exists .oday. In my view, the
Court could readily findthat the Respondent's claims were unfounded. 1s
it possible that the implementation of internatilmal humanitarian law
might be subject to a co-efficientof velutive norm~ttivity - to paraphrase
P. Weil? If not, how can there be any legal justification for suspending
proceedings against an organ of a Middle Eastern State whilst obsti-
nately persisting witll proceedings against the former Congolese Minister

for Foreign"Affairs?
54. Referring to i.he relationship between crinies and immunities, or
the extent to which the nature of the former imp:des the exercise of the
latter, Pierre-Marie Dupuy writes, in light of the House of Lords ruling
in the Pinocl~et case:

"We should exercisecaution in confirming the emergence of a new
customary rule as embodied in the House of Lords ruling, which is
based on considlerations that are not entirely consistent and cannot,
oj'itself,result in the consolidation of such custom." 5y

Dupuy then recalled that
"custom emerges from the legal opinion of :Statesas demonstrated

by their practice, which is, however, far frcm unified, and in any
event shows that States are still reluctant to accept any reductions in
the imrnunities of their high officiais" 60.
There is no conduct "generally" adopted "by t ie practice of States".

As this Court has held,
"[the] presence [ofcustomary norms] in the o,?iniojuris of States can
be tested by indluction based on the analysis of a sufficiently exten-
siveand convincing practice, and not by deduc.tionfrorn pveconceived

ideas" "'.
These are few decisions - or at least any significant number - of courts

" Pierre-Marie Dupuy, "Crimes et immunités,ou dans quelle mesure la nature des pre-
miers empêche l'exercice des secondes", Revue ginirale di, droit international public,
Vol. 103. No. 2, 1999. p. 293: emphasis added.
"'Ihid.
"'Delinzitutivn othclMuritirnrBoundu- in rh~~Gulf'of MuirzeArea, Judgrvlen1.C.J.
R~ports1984, p. 299; emiphasisadded.and tribunals worldwide which have taken thi: Belgian view. Quite

the contrary. Just recently, the Court delivered an Opinion in the case
concerning the DifJêrenceRelriting to Immuniti? from Legal Process
of a Speciul Rapporteur qf'the Cornmi~sionon t7uman Rights, stating:
"the Malaysian courts had the obligation to de21 with the question of

immunity from legal process as a pr'liminary is:ue to be expeditiously
decided" h'.
55. Previously, it had noted that

"The High Court of Kuala Lumpur did not pass upon ... immu-
nity in liminr liris, but held that it had jurisciiction to hear the case
before it on the merits, including making a determination of whether

Mr. Cumaraswamy was entitled to any imrn~~nity."~'

A similar obligation applies also, and above all, to States in their mutual
relations. Thus, by way of analogy, and u,fi>rtiori - since we are dealing
here with primary subjects of international law and with their highest

ranking representatives, namely Ministers for Foreign Affairs - this rule
as restated by the Court must be applied in the present case.

56. The successivc:changes in Mr. Ndombasi's status have no serious

implications for the case, except to underline furt ier the violation of the
Congo's sovereignty by Belgium on account of its continued interference
(see above).
57. Moreover, as the focus of this case is the violation of the immuni-

ties of the Minister for Foreign Affairs at the tim: of the issue and noti-
fication of the warrant, the previous and subsequeiit status of Mr. Ndom-
basi in no way affect the Congolese complaint. Criven that the unlawful
proceedings were instituted at a time when he had the status of a special-

ized organ responsible for the foreign relations ol'a State and, in conse-
quence, was protected by absolute immunity and personal inviolability
from criminal process, the violation of international law to the detriment
of the Congo continues to exist; in transgressing the rule of customary

international law governing inter-State relations, Belgium has incurred a
debt not to an indiv:idual but a State, the Congo, whose organ responsi-
ble for international relations has been subjected to a rash, vexatious and
unlawful measure, which calls for reparation. Yct, in response to these

well-founded claims of the Applicant, the Respondent claims not to have
violated the sovereign rights of its victim. On the contrary, Belgium
claims to be exercisirig a right conferred on it by i:iternational law or ful-
filling an obligation imposed on it by internatiorial law. That is why it

Bifyc~renceRrlutingto Imrnunify from Lepl Procrss r~j(1Speci~iI Rupportc,uof
the Conztnis.riorion Hunlun Righf.~, Ativi.~«r.vOpinion, I.C.1.orts1999 (1). p. 90,
para. 67 (2) ih); emphasis added.
"l Ihitl., p. 72. pa1;'. ARF1EST WARRANT (SEP.OP. BULA-BULA) 120

refuses to cancel the warrant and thus make reparation for the injury
suffered. Mr. Ndomlbasi's persona1 odysseyin no sense marks the end of
the inter-State dispute.
58. It is significant that the Respondent implizitly acknowledges the
weakness of its defence in the following terms:

"Even were the Court to uphold, contrar:i to Belgium's submis-
sions, the immunity of Mr. Yerodia Ndomba:,i qua Minister for For-
eign Affairs of i.heDRC in the circumstancej in issue, it would not
follow that he would have been immune, even when in office, as
regards conduct of a private nature . .."h4

59. Unless one were to contend that Belgium':;offence became time-

barred aftei-two years. There is in principle no such rule in international
law, even less so in the Africun conception of the I;LwI.n Africa, a dispute
does not disappear. It is transmitted, like a debt, from generation to gen-
eration. The same applies to the sub,ject-matter of the dispute, which can-
not be effaced as long as there is no acknowledgment of the offence
committed or reparation for the injury suffered by the victim. The
Respondent's unfounded denials prompt me to present a hypothetical

case.
60. Let us take the example of an individual carrying out the duties of
an Adviser on African Affairs to the President or Prime Minister of a
certain State. In thaitcapacity, the individual ordvrs the suppression of a
popular uprising or a student demonstration in 1 "friendly country"65,
resulting in deaths. Subsequently, that Adviser is appointed Minister for
Foreign Affairs or Secretary of State of the country in question.

61. A third State then issues a warrant again ;t the Minister or Sec-
retary of State on the grounds that he had given orders as Adviser
which, when implernented, led to wide-scale ancl systematic violations
of human 1-ights.The question is whether such 21warrant does or does
not affect the criminal immunities and personal inviolability of the
Minister or Secretary of State. In my opinion, the reply has to be in
the affirmative. It is the organ of the State, respc~nsiblefor representing

that State internationally, which is the victim of that measure at that
point in time.
62. Following a change in administration or gclvernment, the Minister
for Foreign Affairs or Secretary of State loses his post (which is different

h4Counter-Mernorial, p. 116, para. 3.4.15.
h'Jean-Pierre CotA l'?preuvedu pouvoir. Le tic~rs-rnontlisme.Pour quo?,1984,
p. 85. The author notes that. when he was Minister for Cc-operation, he issued orders
that French rnilitaryvisers should not be involved in th,: suppression of the student
demonstration of June1981 in Kinshasa. ARllEST WARRANT (SEP.OP. BULA-BULA) 121

from the case of Mr. Ndombasi, where external pressures were exerted).
The State which issued the warrant continues 1)roceedings. Does this
measure continue to affect the Adviser on African Affairs, the Minister

for Foreign Affairs or the Secretary of State, or does it affect the indi-
vidual now freed of al1governmental responsibilii.y? 1consider that it is
the date of the issue of the warrant which establis les the precise moment
of the internationally wrongful act and the status at that time of the per-
son against whom the warrant is issued, naming him and violating his

moral integrity. It is the Minister for Foreign Affiirs or the Secretary of
State on the day and at the time of the issue of the warrant who was
impugned. This is not an investigative measure di:.ected against a private
individual, which th12former Secretary of State cr Minister for Foreign
Affairs has become, nor is it a measure directed at the time against the
Adviser on African Affairs. Nothing can change tlie facts, which, like the

sphinx, remain unaffected.
63. The principle ofjurisdiction which some cal1"universal" cannot be
seriously contested in terms of the relevant provisions of the Geneva
Conventions. However, 1 do have certain reservations about the some-
what unfortunate ti:rminology used in international law. For, in my

opinion, the correct surnrnu divi.rio should consist of (1) territorial juris-
diction, (2) personal jurisdiction and (3)jurisdiction in the public interest.

64. 1would not describe the authority exerciseclby a State as "univer-
sa1jurisdiction", whlether exercised with respect to its nationals abroad,

which comes under ithehead of its personal juristliction, or with respect
to foreign nationals on the high seas having com~nitted acts of maritime
piracy, which falls under the head ofjurisdiction i i the public interest, or
with respect to any person in its territory havirg offended against its
ordre public., which thus falls within the scope 01'its territorial jurisdic-
tion. The same applies to the jurisdiction which States accord to them-

selves regarding the punishment of certain violations of treaty provisions.
It is readily conceivatble that a worldwide entity, not yet in existence, or
the United Nations itself and its principal judicial organ, being of a
quasi-universal nature, might lay claim to univers il legal jurisdiction. As
we know, under the specific treaties to which the! ^re parties, the mem-

bers of the quasi-universal community have the power to punish certain
offences coinmitted outside their territory in well defined circumstances.
Yet, in material terms, such legal power is not uriiversal. Perhaps under
the unfortunate influence of the views of criminal law specialistsh6, cer-
tain internationalists refer to it as the exercise of universal jurisdiction.

This expression doel; not seem appropriate in th: present international

hh References to "universal jurisdiction" are relatively raie in the works of criminal
jurists themselves. See. for example. André Huet and René Koering-JDroit p611ul
irifrrnufron(1994. orderh7. At a time when a large number of States are seeking to promote
an international crirninal forum with worldwide jurisdiction, would the
promotion of "universal" jurisdiction not be a I~ackward step in legal
terms?

65. As thus understood, the principle of "unive -sa1jurisdiction" is laid
down, in particular, in Article 49 of the First Geneva Convention of
12August 1949". But its conception, and especial'y its application by the
Respondent in the present case, do not accord witli the law as it currently

stands.
66. According to tlheauthorized interpretation of the above Article, the
system is based on three essential obligations in':umbent on each high
contracting party, namely: "to promulgate speci~l legislution; to searc11
for any individual accused of violating the Conve ition; to try such indi-
vidual or, if the contracting party prefers, to Izandover the individual for

trial to another interested Staten6".

67. The liespondent is to be thanked for havin,:, in principle, satisfied
the first obligation, subject to reservations as to he scope of its special
legislation. Its apparent concern to search for any individual accused of

having violated the relevant conventional provisiolis is also praiseworthy.

68. The congrutulutions due to the Responderit as regards the prin-
ciples nevertheless leave room for legitimutc~conipluints on grounds of
the scope of its legislation and its implementing Ineasures. The warrant

would appear to conle under the latter category.

tary rules, that what is inappropriately termed universal jurisciction derives. But it cannot
escape the marks of its original mould. Hence theomewh:t nebulous character of an
ancient legal power, limit'rdto a handful of historical curiosities such as the repression of
the slave trade, tiinidlyended in the mid-twentieth centur:~to include the punishment
of violationsof international humanitarian law. It is from t1.elatter that the specialized
doctrine and jurisprudence (Internationaliminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia)
are seeking to make it autonomous. For the "universal jurisc iction" claimed by Belgium
concerns coercive implementation of the hurnanitarian rules of Geneva. It is beyond dis-
pute that positive international law authorizes States to penalize offences committed out-
side their territory when certain conditions relating to the appurtenance to their territorial
sovereignty have been met. Nor is there any doubt that thisnal jurisdiction should be
strictly interpreted. in coriformity with the requirements ofal law.

" Article 49 states
"Each high contracting party shall be obliged toar:h for persons presumed to
have committed or ordered to have committed one or other of these offences, and
must briiig them befinretheir own courts, irrespective of their nationality."

Jean I'ictet (ed.), C70inrnentcrroyn tize Geizei'tiConventior;fi~rtl~c.Ati~eliorcitionoj'tlle
added.ion of'tiie CVoundellund Sick in Arnird Forces in rlic'F'eld. 1952,p. 407; emphasis 1. Speciul Legislution

69. Neither of the two States (Switzerland and \7ugoslavia) cited in the
above-mentioned Commentary have adopted legislation with such uni-
versa1 geographical reach as the Belgian warrant. The passages in the

Commentary merely reflect a concern to punish oj'fences.The Commen-
tary even warns that "no reference is made to the responsibility which
could be incurred by individuals who have not intervrncd to preverzt UII
ofl~~nce or to li~~litt". Given "the Convention's silence,it must be accepted

that it is for national legislation to settle the matt~:r"~~.

2. Seurcl~ingji~r und Pro.secut,ng
the Pc.rpetrators

70. Not only does the Commentary emphasize the punishment of the
accused irrespective of their nationality, it also endorses the territorial

link, which, under classical international law as thus codified at Geneva,
is in fact the norm:

"As soon as oineof the contracting parties i:,aware of the fact that
an individual prcsent on its territory has comrilitted such an offence,
its dut4 is to ensure that the individual is arrested and prosecuted

quickly." 71

Thus, it is not only at the request of a State that the necessary
police investigations can be undertaken, but the;! may also be carried
out unprompted. Beyond the confines of national territory, where in prin-
ciple the exercise of State authority, whether legislative, executive or

judicial, must end, the Commentary - quite na~.urallyin my view -
refers to the mechu~ristn of judiciul CO-operation,that is to Say extra-
dition, where "adequate charges are brought against the ac~used"'~.
Not only is there no extradition treaty between the Parties concerned

regarding this matter, but the Congo also subscribes to the legal
principle that it canniot extradite its own nationals. It adds - an argu-
ment decisive of the .matter - that it is unable to prosecute Mr. Ndom-
basi for lack of any charges against him, there bting nothing it accuses

him of.
7 1. The exercise o:f"universal" jurisdiction thu: presupposes the exis-
tence of "adequate charges", under the terms of the humanitarian con-

ventions7?. Are there any in this case? The Applicant has rejected

Jean Pictet (ed.), Cornmrnrtrryon GC~Z~I CUOnventiotfor tlreAn~eliortitionof rlie
Coric/ifi»tiof'tlie Wountlc,rlcrndSick in Al.ri~edForce.\in the F,eld. 1952, p. 409; emphasis
added.
71 Ihitl., p. ;emphariis added.
7' Ihitl.
77 See, for example, Article 129(2) of the Third Geneva Corivention of 12August 1949.them74. Presidents of the Congolese Bar asserted 1)eforelocal media, the

day after notificatiori of the warrant on 12 July 21100,that "the case-file
was empty". In its warrant, the Respondent failed to specify adequate
charges, apart from an unproven assertion that the accused "actively
and directly" participated in committing serious offences under interna-

tional humanitarian law.
72. What, moreover is the objective criterion wliich would authorize a
State to exercise universal jurisdiction by defauli in various situations
where no jurisdiction has normally been exercisel? 1s it that these are

core crimes? There are said to be a number of them. Hence the legitimacy
of the territorial crii.erion, which allocates jurisdiction as between the
States concerned. Otherwise the political criteriori of expediency would
hold sway. lt is accordingly understandable that tlie consequences of the
tragic events in the Congo in August 1998 providetl a pretext for the war-

rant of 11 April 2000, whereas the exterminution of over two and a half
million Congolese sirice that date by Rwandan, Ugandan and Burundian
aggressors has so far gone unpunished.
73. The Respondent has done everything it can, in accordance with its

egregious approach, itocriminalize the Applicant's conduct. To the bitter
end it has done its uitmost to try and prick the conscience of the judges.
Not only has it chosen the wrong forum - this Court not being one deal-
ing with matters of substance relating to possitle individual criminal

responsibility - it ha~sfailed, moreover, to provide proof of such respon-
sibility. It should be remembered that uctori incurvlbitprobatio, but also
that a1legan.sprobut.
74. Should the former mode1 colony of the Bvlgian Congo, without

any proof, prosecute one of the Congolese leaders, who, like his fellow
countrymen, rose up against the foreign invader; and their Congolese
henchmen? The idea that a State could have tlie legal power to try
offences committed abroad, by foreigners agains foreigners, while the
suspect himself is on foreign territory, runs counter to the very notion of

international law.
75. Article 129, paragraph 2, of the Third Geneva Convention, setting
out the principle aut dederr aut judicare with respect to criminal penal-
ties, lays down the requirement of "adequate charges". In no wise has it

contemplated a so-ca~lledjurisdiction by default (in uh.~entiu).Thus the

74 Mernorial of the Dernocratic Republic of the Congo, p. 38, para. 57,

"the Belgian ;luthorities failed to place his [Mr. Yerodia':;]statements. notably those
made on 28 August 1998.in any historical or cultural conrext. They irnproperly inter-
preted them . .but the causal connection between those words and certain unspeak-
able acts of violenc. .is far from having been clearly ':stablished."

For its part the Counter-Mernorial ofthe Kingdom of Belgium reiterates (p. 11,para. 1.10)
the facts as stated in the warrant ofpril 2000. after announcing: "it is not necessary
to go intothese facts at this point, although relevant aspects will be addressed briefly in
Part III below".Commentary on this provision expressly contemplates a situation where
the accused "is present on the territory" (of the Si.ate party).
76. In vain would one look, in recent practice, for a legislative text or

domestic jurisprudence as far-going as this. In its War Crimes Act 1945.
as amended in 1988, Austmlia states that "only a!l Australian citizen or
residrnt can be charged under the 1988 Act" (Section 11 of the above
Act). In P~lj~uklzovi~rlvz. Cornrnon~veultlz qf'Au::truliu, the Australian
High Court had recclgnized that the Australian courts had the power to

exercise "a jurisdiction recognized by internationa law us urîiversuljuris-
diction" vis-à-vis war crimes7j.

77. A territorial connection is also required by the Austrian Criminal
Code in relation to the prosecution of internationil1 crimes such as geno-

cide (see its application in the Dusko C~;jetko~-ic cilse of 13July 1994).A
persona1 or territori,al connection is also required by Article 7 of the
Canadian Criminal Code, as revised in 1985. It waj applied in R v. Fintu.
France, too. requires this connection :"where [the :ndividual] ispresent irz
Fr~~nce"'".It would be tiresome to list al1the maiiy examples.

78. If 1niay resort to reusot~inghy unulogy, it is noteworthy that, in
the case concerning Militurj~ und Paratniliturjl A .tivities in aizd uguirzst
Nicarugua (Nicaruguu v. United States of Aineri,-u), Merits, the Court
held, specifically with respect to human rights, thi~t:

"where human rights are protected by inte-national conventions,
that protection i.akes the form of such arrangements for monitoring
or ensuring respect for human rights as are provided for in the con-

ventions themselves" 77.
At the time of their adoption, the Geneva Convc:ntions clearly circum-

scribed the rights and obligations of States on thi: point. The authors of
those instruments certainly in no way contemp1att:d the excessively wide
interpretation adopted by Belgium. Moreover, there has been scant evi-
dence in the subsequlcnt practice of any customary development of treaty
law in this direction. It could have been codified in the Rome Convention

of 17 July 1998, but was not. Thus, one year aftcr the adoption of that
Convention, Belgiun~ has introduced a radical innovation of its own.
Such concern for humanity !
79. In providing, in Article 7 of the Law of 16 .lune 1993, as amended
on 10 February 1999, that "Belgiari courts have jurisdiction to try the
offences provided for in the present Law, irrespective of rzllzerr~uch

ojfence.~ huve heet~ rornrnitted", Belgium adopted legislation that was
totally unprecedented. It set itself up, if not as the prosecutor for the

'' Poly~ikl~ovi~. Conrrnoni+~eulofAustrcili(1991)172CLR 501, p. 562; emphasis
added.
7" Article 689-1 of the Code of Criminal Procedure.
'' r,C.J.Report.\ 1986. 134,para. 267.human race in the trans-temporal and trans-spatial sense attributed to
this term by R.-J. Dupuy, then at least as arbiter of transnational justice,
in accordance with the doctrine of "law without frontiers". This approach
could even be said to transcend international law itself, since the latter
deals essentially with relations between structures with defined borders,

namely States.Yet even a cursory assessment shows that the Respondent
is violating international law. It is not entitled, as the law currently
stands, disdainfully to transcend it. Thus, Heads of States in office Lau-
rent Gbagbo (Côte d'Ivoire) on 26 June 2001, Saddam Hussein on
29 June 2001, Fidel Castro (Cuba) on 4 October 2001. Denis Sassou

Nguesso (Congo-Brazzaville) on 4 October 2001, Yasser Arafat on
27 November 2001, a Prime Minister, Ariel Sharon (Israel) on 1July 2001,
an incumbent Minister for Foreign Affairs, Abdulaye Yerodia Ndombasi
on 11 April 2000, are the subject of complaints or prosecutions before the

Belgian courts for various "international crimes". The list is still far from
exhaustive, the name of President Paul Biya (Cameroon) having been
added in December 2001. Joe Verhoeven7' rightly feared that the result
would be chaos, by definition the opposite of an order already precarious
in the international arena. The Court must necessarily be called upon to

intervene.
80. It should be strongly emphasized that Mr. A. Yerodia Ndombasi
would appear to be the only person to have been served with an "inter-
national arrest warrant". Most singular. It should also be emphasized

that the proceedings against Mr. Ariel Sharon, closely watched al1over
the world, have apparently been quietly put on hold while Belgium seeks
an honourable way out for him through a form of a legal technicality;
that since then the highest political authorities in the land have been
queuing upat the universities (ULB) to give lectures abruptly denouncing

the absiirdities of this law, and that, since the close of the oral argument
in November 2001, one of Belgium's counsel has altered his teaching in
favour of a sirlL~ILIilon territorial connection. Such is the showingof the
Belgian Law when put to the test of international Realpolitik. The
chances are that the proceedings instituted following a complaint

by "unrepentant subjects of law" against Mr. A. Sharon will be a dead
letter.
81. Belgium has neither any obligation -- as discussed above - nor
any entitlement under international law to pose as prosecutor for al1

Joe Verhoeven, "M. Pinochet, la coutume internationide et la compétence uni-
verselle".o~irtioliic.~trihirritruu,1999. p. 315. and. by the saine author. "Vers un ordre
répressif universel? Quelques observations",itz~~uir,.f(i,un(~ii.sO<'&oit i/if<~t.~~(rfiot~(ll.
1999.p. 55. Also. "what ~/ould happen if a plaintiff prosecuted Mr. Chirac in the French
courts forhaving served iinthe Algerian War, when massacres werc carried out by the
French army'?"a senior Israeli official is snid to have asked following the complaint filcd
by Mr. Sharon. the Israeli Prime Minister. (The Wu.thingtorrPo.sr.30 April 2001, Wash-
ingtonPost Foreign Service. Karl Vick. p."Death Toll in Congo War May Approach
3 Million".)mankind, in other words, to claim the right to redeem human suffering
across national borders and over generations. The State practice referred

to above also applies to my comments here. In no sense, however, is this
to argue the case for impunity, whether geographical or temporal, includ-
ing in wars of colon~al conquest and neo-colonial reconquest in Africa,

America, Asia, Europe and Oceania.

82. As victims of the violence7"of the aggressors and the series of grave

breaches of international humanitarian law, such as the occupation of the
Inga Dam and the severing of power and water supplies, particularly in
Kinshasa, a city of over 5 million people, resulting in numerous deaths, the
Congolese people have consistently called for the withdrawal of the regular

occupying forces from Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi. They have also
called for the setting up of an international criininal tribunal on the
Congo. This tribunal would try al1persons. whether perpetrators, co-per-

petrators or accomplices,whether African or non-African, having commit-
ted war crimes and crimes against humanity, such as the extermination of
over two-and-a-half million Congolese X0 in the regions under foreign occu-

pation since 2 August 1998.It would seem that those victims are (as yet) of
no concern to Belgium, sadly notorious - rightly or wrongly - for its
colonialx1 and neo-colonialx2 past in the field of' human rights in the
Congo, where a situation of grave, systematic and massive human rights

violations persists which requires a response from international opinion.
To echo the very fitting words of the French Ambassador to Kinshasa:
"on such an issue, there must be no beating about the bush. Endless

semantics are not an option when an entii-e people is dying." For "it is
war . . . the occupying armies are on Congolese soi1despite the injunctions
of the international comrn~nity"~~.

'" See S. Oda. declar;itiori appeiided to the Order of9 April 1998in the case conceriiing
the Vicrirrci oni'c,tiriororti Cor~s~rrelirtions,Proii.sionir1,Wrd.vlrs..CJ.Rq~ort.slYY8,
p. 260. para. 2, and the Order of 3 March 1999in LrrGrrrt~t(l(;i,rnlaq~v. Clni/<~Stlrrrtof'
Atnr~ric~trP).rovi.siorici1Meo.sirr<,.\1..('..1.Ri,port.slYY9 (Il, p. 18, para. 2. on the need to
take:account of the righta of the victinis of violent attacks (an aapect ofien neglected).

Source: 1nternation;il Reacue Coinmittee (USA), <http:llintranet.theirç.orglc1ocsl
mortll-report-small.pdf.s.
XiAdam Horschild. Le firnttirllr,(lu Roi L6opoltl. [IIIlrolo<.tru.c.otelrhlr6.1998. pp. 264-
274: Daiiiel Vangroenwcghe. DLI.srrrl~sur. /<,.1itrrir.c.Lioyolil I1.1.soir Cotigo. 1986.

pp. 18-123 ; Barbara Emerson. Li.o[)olilII. L? Ro~.tr~rrr 1c.1'Et~il~ir.c9.0. pp. 248-351.
" See CR 2000134,p. 16.on the scathing argument of the C'ongoand Noam Chomsky.
Autop.sic,tic,rc,rrori.\r,. 001, pp. 12-13.
"The Europeari Powers concl~iereda large part of the uorld with extreme brutality.
With very few exceptions. these Powers were not attacked by their victims in
retlirn. ... nor was Belgium attacked by the Congo .. ."

" Sec the speech by Mr. Gildas Le Lidec. French Ambassador in Kinshasa. on
14July 2001, on the occasion of the French national holiday. Le PcrIr~~i~rN~.~..2181. of
16July 2001. 17.8. 83. The views of a few legal writers will suffice to indicate the scale
of the dispute on this issue. According to P.-M. Dupuy, "still seldom
recognized in custoinary law, universal jurisdiction can thus only be
~ptional"~~. The author cites in his support the fact that the French
Court of Cassation "has confirmed the refusal by the Appeal Court to see

the 1949 Geneva Conventions as providing any legal basis for invoking
such jurisdicti~n"~~. He concludes that "the Rome Convention does
not . . . institute true universal iurisdiction. based as it is on the iurisdic-
tion of the State of nationality if the perpetrator andlos that of LheState

where the offence was committed" X6. ASfor Fran~ois Rigaux, he prefers
not to commit himself "on a controversial, topical thememX7M . ario Bet-
tati, on the other hand, considers that "universal jurisdiction . .. provides
grounds for any State to prosecute crimes which are al1the more serious

because they sometirnes involve both crimes against the laws of war and
crimes against h~manity"~~. No proof is provided for this assertion. By
contrast, Nguyen QLIOC Dinh, Patrick Dailler and Alain Pellet refer to it
as "a disputed principlen8'. Olivier T. Covey only accepts it if the author

of the offence "is later found on national territ~ry""~. The advocates of
universal jurisdiction recognize it provided the accused "is present on its
territory"". Jean Combacau and Serge Sur, however, point out that
"States remain faithful to territorial and personal criteria and refrain
from any recourse to universal or in rem jurisdiction"". And

Philippe Weckel, while observing the reference to universal jurisdiction in
the Preamble to the Treaty of Rome of 28 July 1998, nevertheless notes
the ubiquitous presence of the "judicial sovereignty of States"; for, as
Belgian practice has already shown, "universal jurisdiction . . . would

ultimately seem to be exercised unilaterally"".

84. Thewarrant of 11 April2000 produced legal effects both internally
in Belgium and internationally.

X4 Pierre-Marie Dupuy, loc. cit., p. 293; emphasis added.
8s Ihid., p. 294.
Ihici.
François Rigaux, "Le concept de territorialité: un fantasme en quêtede réalité".in
Li"erMario Bettati. Le &oit d'ingi.renc.1,.Mutatu'cl'ordre international, 1996, p. 269.

%" Nguyen Quoc Dinh, Patrick Dailler and Alain Pellet, Droit international public,
19"",Olivier T. Covey. "La compétence des Etats", Droit int<'rnutio. ilcrnct persprc-
tiorr. 1991, p. 336.
" Brigitte Stern, "A propos de la compétence ~iniverselle", in Lihrr Ainicorurl~
Judgr Molicin~n~ecBlrcljtroui.p. 748.
'-!Jean Conibacau and Serge Sur, Droit intrrncitioriulpublic. 1993. 1. 35
'-'P. Weckel, "La Cour phale internatioiiale". Resur gi.ric;rtil&oit intert~utional
public,, Vol. 102, No. 4, 1998. pp. 986. 989. According to one criminal expert from the
Congo, Nyabirungu Mwene Songa, Droit pénalgeneral, Kinshasa, 1995, pp. 77 and 79.
the "so-called system of universal jurisdiction gives the court of therofurrest the
power of trial" (emphasi!; added). 85. To begin with the interna1 aspect. Juridically, it seems clear that
serving a warrant on a Miiiister for Foreign Affairs constitutes an unlaw-

ful act, as it breaches both his inviolability and his immunity from crimi-
na1jurisdiction. Forrnally, it is by nature an act of coercion. Materially.
its terms make no secret of the fate which awaits the Foreign Minister.
The agents of the Belgian authorities are required physically to appre-

liend a Minister for Foreign Affairs of another sovereign State! In terms
of its purpose, the warrant seeks to extinguislî the freedom to come aiid
go as well as to destroy the inherent dignity of an organ of an indepen-
dent country. Organically, the investigating judge who acted against the
Minister concerned is not to be confused with an açent of State protocol.

Regarding the warrant. the Court rightly states:
"its meîe issue violated . . . immunity . . . The Court accordingly con-

cludes that the issue of the warrant constituted a violation of an
obligation of Belgium towards the Congo, in that it failed to respect
the immunity of that Minister .. . uiider international law." (Judg-
ment, para. 70.)

86. These are the objective elenlents showing that this unprecedented
warrant produced legal effects. The fact that it was not physically imple-

mented is another matter. It could have been iinplemented. That the
Respondent may flout the rules of elementary courtesy between supposedly
civilized States with respect to another State is one thing in law. The war-
rant quite simply discredited the Congolese organs of State, treating them
in an altogether discourteous and unlawful manner. And that is not all.

87. At i~iternational level. our main focus of attention here, since we
are dealing with a flagrant breach of customary international law on
immunities, 1need only refer to my analysis at the provisional measures
stage. Moreover, the reasoning of the Judgment does indeed appear to
unclerline the lcgal hiirm thus suffered'".

88. As 1indicated at the preliminary measures stage, the disputed war-
rant caused prejudice to Congolese diplomacy. While the head of the dip-
lomatic corps was nevertheless able to travel unimpeded in the southern
heniisphere in order to attend diplomatic meetings aimed at bringing an

end to the armed conflict in the Congo, he was, on the otherhand, unable
so to travel in other regions much more important for settlement of the
conflict. Even if the Congolese State was represeilted there, it was at a
lower level. The result was that the substance of the peace talks at foreign
ministerial level was iidversely affected by virtue of the rule of diplomatic

precedence. Ultimately. the Congo's international sovereignty preroga-
tives suffered prejudiceY5.

'4 Judgment. paras. 70 and 71.
"' Seealso S. Bula-Bula, dissentingopinion appended to the Order of 8 December 2000,
Arrc~.stWUI.I.Lof~II April ZOO0[Detnocriltic Repuhlicofthe C012,yov. B~4gium),Pro-
i~isioiiMc(rslrrc,I.CJ. Reports2000. p. 222. para. 16. 89. In particular, the regular and continuous operation of the coun-
try's foreign service was disrupted by this politico-legal interference, the
head of the diplomatic corps having been subjected to "arbitrary quar-
antine". The serving of the warrant also violated the political independ-

ence of the Congo. As indicated above, it obliged a weak State, further
weakened by armed aggression, to change the composition of its
Government - against its wishes according to counsel for the Congo, a

meinber of that country's Government" - to please the Respondent.
Belgium has not disputed this statement.
90. There is no doubt at al1that Belgium's conduct has discredited the

Congo. Its effect, as a result of a decision taken in an apparently sum-
mary manner, has been to put further pressure on a State already under
attack at a time when the Central African States. meeting in Libreville

(Gabon)on 24 September 1998, "condemned the aggression against the
DR of the Congo and the interference described above in the interna1
affairs of that country"". The criminal proceedings thus instituted against

an organ of a victim of aggression constitute accusations that degrade it
in the eyes of the "iinternational community". They had a deleterious
effect on the moral rights to honour and dignity of the Congolese people,

as represented by their Stateqx.
91. The fact that, by issuing. circulating and inaintaining the arrest
warrant of 1 I April 2000, the Respondent committed an internationally

wrongful act has been demonstrated above. Belgium breached its inter-
national obligations under general international law.
92. At this point, the following view expressed by Paul Guggenheim

seeins particularly instructive:

"Contrary to iwidelyheld opinion, it is not only when it is actually
implemented that doinestic law may violtrre inrrrnutionul Irrt~xThe
very fact of the enactment - or non-enactment - of a general norm

capable of beingrapplied directly and thereby causing injury. is an
~nterntrtioiiulii,rong. The enactment of a noriii contrary to interna-
tional law is thus a sanctionable matter . . ."""

This is an argument applicable tr,fortiori to the warrant. a mere act -

indeed, in the view of Congo's counsel, a wrongful act - of application.

93. On closer exarniilation, the Belgian warrant does not, in interna-

"(See oral argument of 32 November 2000, CR 7000134.p. 10.
"'See Le Pli(irr. NO818 of 28 September 1988.p. 3.
""ee also S. Bula-Bula. disseriting opinion appended to the Order of 8 December 2000.
Arri'.s/ btirrrtrirtII ilpril 2000 (Dc177ocrirticRt~puhliof'thcl Co17~qo. Be1,qicirir).Pro-
i.i.~iotitr,l21<~trI.. .J. Rcyorls 7000. pp.222-223. para. 17.
" P. Guggenheim. Trtlifi'de (iroit ir~tc,rirtrrllhliVol. 1.pp. 7-8. quoted by Krys-
tyna Marek, "Les rapports eiitrc le droit international et le droit inteànla lumièrede la
jurisprudence de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale". Rei~c~gc'nc'rolt/etlroit
intc,rrrtrtiori(rplliVol. XXXIII. 1962. p. 276: emphasis added.tional law, constitute a legal act. As noted by Congo's counsel, it is an

internationally wrongful act. The proposition that : "[iln the eyes of inter-
national law and of the Court which is its organ, domestic laws are
merely facts, manifestations of the will and the activity of States, just as
judicial decisions or administrative measures are'' ""'.is extremely appo-
site here.

94. The argument seeking to distinguish the in.rtruinc~lituno i n the one
hand and the rzegotiunz on the other is thus invalid. Wrongfulness does
not cease to exist because the organ of State has changed. For, through
that organ. it is. of course, the State which is the target. This is even

clearer in the case at issue, in which various members of the Governmeiit
were on the list drawn up by the Belgian judge, the Head of State
included! Moreover., an unlawful warrant is not, ipso,fircto. void in law.
This is precisely the case here. Generally speaking, in international law,
there are national measures (human rights. law of the sea, etc.) enacted

perfectly legally, which are nevertheless unlawful. They engage the respon-
sibility of their authors. But the fact that it is adjudged unlawful by an
international organ does not of itself annul the national measure. It is for
the State transgressing international law to extinguish its unlawful act.

95. The Respondent violated international law on iinmunities on
11 April 2000 by issuing the warrant. It subsequently confirmed its un-
lawful conduct by circulating the warrant internationally. The unlawful
act was communicated to the Applicant on 12July 2000. After the viola-

tion, which was cornplete on 11 April 2000, the Respondent claims to
have sought, on 15September 2000, to transmit the case file to the Appli-
cant by diplomatic channels. Not only did it provide no proof of
this tardy act of repentance. which, moreover, is contested by Congo's
counsel; the attempt to whitewash the wrongful act, rightly repudiated

by the Applicant, is devoid of al1effect.

96. Worse, there is a major factor which demonstrates Belgium's reso-
lutely wrongfiil conduct in the course of the proceedings. What other

word could be used to describe the Respondent's request for a Red
Notice on 12Septemiber 2001?Notwithstanding the international judicial
proceedings brought against it, Belgium persists in seeking to implement
its unilateral wronglul act by means of a Red Notice. In so doing, not
only has the Respondent provided eloquent proof of lack of good fuit11 in

relation to the condilct of the international legal pi-oceedings; but is it not
also guilty of "an ericroachment on the functions of the Court" Io'?

'INCase concerning Certriin Gern~u~Irnterests irzPollipprrSilcsiu, Merits. J~~rlg-
ment No. 7, 1926,P.C.I.J., Scries ANo. 7,p. 19.
Il"1 am here drawing ionthe views of Judge Tarazi. dissenting opinion appended to the
Judgment of 74 May 19P0,case concerriing (lnitctl Stutcs Diplomuiic uiltl Con.sulcirStc~ff
in Tehrtrn1.(IJ. Xc~port.,1980. p. 64. 97. While powerf'ul States - a relative notion in terms of time and
geography - sometimes tend to invoke international law to justify their
conduct a post~riori:,weak States - an equally relative concept in the
sarne terms - often tend to ensure tliat their conduct complies with

international law, since this is the only power they have.

98. Without regard for the criminal immunities and inviolability of the
Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Congo, the Kingdom of Belgium

issued an arrest warrant against this distinguished organ of a sovereign
State on the basis of allegations that "international crimes" had been
committed during the armed attack on the Congo of 2 August 1998.
99. Not only has the Congo demonstrated vis-A-visthe "international

community" its status as a subject of international law capable of appear-
ing before the Court, but this victim of aggression has conducted itself as
a State of law, in other words, an entity which respects international law.
100. The Congolese people, through the medium of their State, have

thiis been able to express their international personality. They have also
affirmed that they are free. In this respect, has the Respondent mistaken
which generation and era it is dealing with'? When in 1989 the ruling
Government in Kinshasa considered bringing the Beigo-Congolcsp dis-

pute before the Court, its initiative went no further than acceptance of
the Court's compulsory jurisdiction. There followed the Rabat Agree-
ment of June 1989, which defused the quarrel between sovereigns States.
That is no longer the case today.

101. Whilst R. Aron maintained in 1984that "the example of Congo
suggests that, in the masses, tribal awareness still prevails over national
awareness . . .""", at the same time, Paul Reuter and Jean Combacau
had no hesitation in drawing the following parallel between the nation-

building process in "the most centralized European States of today" and
in the Congo: "this is the situation of a large and populous African State
such as Zaire, where a Zairian nation is daily being forged at the expense
of the ethnie communities, whose fate might otherwise have been differ-
103. We, for our part, have taken the view that "for unacknowledged

reasons, the collective Zairian will to live, forged by years of sometimes
open, sometimes silent resistance to one of the most savage political
regimes the twentietli century has seen, is underestimated" 'O4.

102. Like a two-l-ieaded Janus, the Judgment constitutes, on the one
hand, an açt of repudiation of the unhealthy relations, supposedly of
frieildship and co-operation, between a doininating and a dominated

lo"aymond Aron, Priis et guerre entre les nations, 1984,p. 389.
Io3Paul Reuter and Jean Combacau, Institutions cTrelutions i~ztrrnutionules, 1988,
p. 24.
Io4Sayeman Bula-Bula, "La doctrine d'ingérencehumanitaire revisitée", Revue rdri-
cuiticdodroit intrrnutionul et con7puri.(London). Vol. 9, No 3, September 1p.626,
footnote 109.State immediately fclllowing a botched process of decolonization;on the
other hand, it is an act which may well serve as the basis of mutually
beiieficial healthy relations of friendship and lastingco-operation between
sovereign partners linked by history. Sooner or ldter such relations will

develop. The sooner the better. It is to be hoped that the Parties. and
especially the Respondent, grasp the fundamental significance of this
decision. The Court's contribution to the peaceful settlement of the dis-
pute will have been most beneficial. Provided the Respondent adopts a
new mindset and jettisons its outmoded conceptions maintained by the

weight of history and unequal power relations. Thus, on the eve of the
formation of a government inspired by Belgium, academic advisers from
that country warned it that:

"Unless it ensures that it can play a decisive role in revitalizing the

national economy, unless it claims such a role for itself and succeeds
in playing it, Belgium risks relinquishing its leadership in Zaire and
losing its principal asset, as well as its most effective vehicle for
the expression of foreign policy. It is jïr.rt (rnd,fi)rrn~o.~Z t crire that

enclh1e.sus to play u role on the inte~nutioncrlstrrgr a/îd,fi.equerît/j~
to sit ut thcl tczhlof'the poi.t~e~f~1."'~'

103. The African States particularly. which increasingly appear as
"ordinary" parties before the Court, have their own reasons for entrust-

ing their disputes to that body of eminent, independent and upright 'Oh
jurists. Here 1am particularly thinking of complaints like the one against
Congo brought before a national judge, should the Respondent pursue
its policy of double standards. Especially as the large number of African,

Latin Ainerican and 4sian leaders brought before I3elgianjustice might -
wrongly - suggest that the presumed violations of international humani-
tarian law, in particular crimes against peace, crimes against humanity
and war crimes, are a monopoly of Africa, Latin America and Asia.

104. This is where "universal" jurisdiction shows its true colours as a
"variable geometry" jurisdiction, selectively exercised against some States
to the exclusion of others. It requires no great knowledge to be aware
that, at global level, it is not just the handful of prominent personalities

charged before the Brussels judge who are the subject of public rumours
of serious human rig,hts violations.
105. It is clear that the Court's task is to settle disputes between States

"" See Socibténationale d'investissement et administration généralede la coopération
au développement, Zciïrr. c.er,teurde.s/irrrcislrrtrrusi,-i.uc,iii.utionde /I'i.corior?lirC.onti-ihu-
lion tl'c~ntrc~plierportc,fiuilkedc,I'Ercir,bypM. Moll. J.-P.Couvreur aiid M. Norro.
professors at theUniversite catholique dc Louvairi, 29 April 1994. p. 231.

"'"ee Article 2 of thc Statute of the International Court of Justiccsubmitted to it by parties. It is not its task to teach the law. Yet the
settlement of disputes can provide valuable lessons. Indeed, at the end of
the oral argument, one of Belgium's counsel revised his script. One of the

merits of the Judgment is that it has contributed to the teaching of inter-
national law. The fears we expressed when preliminary measures were
requested '(17have not become groundless. The Court has drafted a new
chapter on the international law of immunities as it pertains to Ministers

for Foreign Affairs IOX.As such, there is no doubt that it is a useful addi-
tion to the handbooks on public international law. Intervening at a time
when the doctrinal debate is at its height, as witness the proceedings of
the Institut de droit international at its Vancouver session in August 2001,

the Judgment casts a great deal of light on this issue.

106. The question of the "legal relationship between universal jurisdic-
tion and . . . immunities" lu', which 1 was concerned to raise, has also
implicitly been settled in favour of immunities 'Io.And without prejudice

to the established nature of the legal principle concerned, with the excep-
tion of the power to punish certain violations of conventional provisions
recognized as between States parties.
107. The Court has established the existence in customary interna-

tional law of the rules relating to the criminal immunity and inviolability
of Ministers for Foreign Affairs. It has applied them to this case because
Mr. A. Yerodia Ndombasi was Minister for Foreign Affairs at the time
of the events concerned. Given that the international dispute concerned

conflicting claims between the immunities in question and so-called uni-
versal jurisdiction, it follows that the Court, by virtue of its decision, has
it?lplicith rejected the claim to such jurisdiction in the present case"'.
It has thus ruled that so-called universal jurisdiction, even if it were

established in international law, would in any event be inoperative as
regards the criminal immunities and inviolability of the Minister for
Foreign Affairs, wl-iatever the alleged crimes. The Applicant has not
requested a declaratory judgment. The Court has been asked to settle a

concrete dispute by stating the law and effecti~ely applying it to the
dispute. But a general, abstract, impersonal discussion of this disputed

''"See Sayeman Bula-Bula, dissenting opinion appended to the Order of 8 Decem-
ber 2000 delivered in the case concerning the Arre.s/ Warrutlt of II April2000 (Demo-
c.rutic Rt~publof the Congo v. Belgiirm). Proii.riunul Meusures, I.C.J. Reports 2000.
p. 219, para. 4.
IoXAccording to Dominique Carreau. Droit internutiotzul, Vol. 1, 2001, p. 653, the
Court performs a "major.role" in "the development of contemporary international law".
''"Sayemari Bula-Bulai,dissenting opinion appended to the Order of 8 December 2000
delivered in the case concerning there.st Warrant oJI1 April2000 (Det?zocruticRepub-
lic of'the Coneo v. Bc~l~iI.Provi~ionulMeusures. 1.(TJ. Reoorts 2000,P. 220, para. 7.
Il"~udgment, paras:'7i3 and 71.
"' See the cases concerning the North Seu Continentul Shelf; I.C.J. Reports 1969. pp. 6jurisdiction, having not been requested by the Applicant, was not
required'12, even though. in my view, it would have been desirable for
the Congo to have maintained this claim also in its final written and

oral submissions. Since the Applicant asked the Court to state the law
and settle the dispute, should it not have sought to dispose of every
possible ground, whether "universal", humanitarian or other? One thing
is certain, the argument seeking to qualify immunities was rejected in

the Judgment's operative part. Any other argument founded on
other grounds of "trans-frontierism" is also virtually excluded in the
reasoning. Faced with the "sound judicial economy"l17 observed by our
institution, it was for the opinions to "illuminate the reasoning of the

Judgment in counterpoint", so that "the decision's full substance could
be extracted and the whole import of its contribution to the jurisprudence
could be annrehended" Il3.

108. In 'Anclusion, it is clear that the Congo also seems to have
acted in accordance with the "functional duality" referred to by Georges
Scelle. It brought international legal proceedings not only on its own
behalf and for itself, but also for the benefit of the "international com-

munity". It has given the Court the opportiinity to reaffirm and
strengthen the legal mechanism of immunities, which facilitates legal
relations between States worldwide, irrespective of the arguments raised

against it.
109. There is every likelihood that the Judgment, small in size, yet
large in legal substance. will be favourably received by the "international
community", if, of course, this is taken to mean a:l States, international

organizations and other international public entities. Irrespective of the
divergence of interests, the disparity in the level of development and the
diversity of cultures, what has been reaffirmed here is a denominator

common to all.
110. The decision should also serve as a rebuke to the opinion manipu-
lators, who should be denied the ~/o.fuc.to power to exploit "the misfor-
tunes of others" for unstated ends '".

'" There are sonie who trace "universal jurisdiction" back to the Middle Ages. In this
respect, one should perhaps bc wary of taking as uiiiversal what is probably inerely
regional. Hence. accordirig toE. Ogueri II "the rules of conduct which. for example, gov-
erned relations between Ghana and Nigeria in West Africa, or between nations in other
parts of Africa and Asia, were regarded as 'universally recognized customary law"'prior
to colonization. See E. Operi II, Intervention,Intcr11utioi7l UIVAs.tot.irrtiotz Rc~port.
Warsaw Sessioii, 1988, p. 969.

Il3See Manfred Lachs. separate opinion appended to the ludgment of 24 May 1980 in
the case coiicerning Ciiitt~l Srcites Diplorilcltic (rnti Cori.su/crrSraff' irl i.C..J.at
Rcy~ort,sIYXO,p. 47.
IiJMohaniined Bebjaoui, "La 'fabrication' des arrêtsde laCour international de Jus-
tice".Lc tirort ir7tc~rnutiorclru .scri,tic,kipais, de kajir.srit.c~et cirrtl&i~elop/~rr~ietlr,
M6Ititi,q~.\M~(./ICI/'ircr1991, p. 105.
'' Sec Bernard Koucl-iner.Lr rr~cillzc~(uier.scii,991 (241 pages). 111. Lastly, it should cal1 for greater modesty from the new funda-
mentalist crusaders on behalf of humanitarianism, "skilled at presenting

problems in a false light in order to justify damaging ~olutions""~,
including a certain trend of legal militancy Il7.

f Signecl) Sayeman BULA-BULA

''"ee AiméCésaire,Di~cours.sui.le coloniali.snie.1995. p. 8.
Il7On legal militancy, see J. Combacau and Serge Sur, Droit irzternotionulpuhlic. 1993.
p. 46; Nguyen Quoc Dinh, Patrick Dallier and Alain Pellet, Droit irrrrrnntionalpublic,
1992, p. 79. The authors discern a western current of militancy. supposedly represented
by Georg Schwarzenberger and Rosalyn Higgins of the United Kingdom and
Myres S. McDougal. Richard Falk and M. Reisman of the United States; an Eastern
current. without indicating any authors, and an Ancient Uorld current with Moham-
med Bedjaoui. Georges Abi-Saab and Taslim Olawale Elias in the kanguard. In reality,
there is always an ideological start. and hence militancy. in the work of any author. To
quote just a Se&.J. Comt~acau and S. Sur, in op. cit., Avertissement, while stressing their
"legal positivism". nonetheless display their liberal tendencq. Thus. at a time when the
nuniber of ratifications required by the Convention on the Law of the Sea had been
reached, they still specul;ite: "always supposing it ever enterr into force" (pp. 453-453);
see also the assertion that this Convention has inverted "on purely fornial bases the real
balance between interests, and power" (p. 446) or the assertion that this text is not "like
the Geneva Conventions of 1958, a convention of codification but one of progressive
development .. ."(p. 452). See also Nguyen Quoc Dinh et al., op. cit., p. 1093,who refer
to "the possible entry into force of the Convention".

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. BULA-BULA

Rétablis.senientdes ,faits, médiats et in~médiat.s - Décoloni.sation - Droit
despeuples à disposer d'eu'c--mênz -es Egalitk .souverainedes Etrits - Itzterven-
tion rians les afffiires intkrieures - Agression armée - Droit international

humanitaire - Itnmunités du rninistre des uf~aire.sétrangères - Imnlunité
et impunité - Objet et persistunce du dgfgrend - Recevabilité d'une
requête - Allégution rie compPtence ~iniver.selle - Règle non ultra

petita - Droit international coutumier - Esception - Opiniojuris et pratique
internationule - Fuit internationalement illicite - Conception afri-
caine - Dignité d'unpeuple - Respon.vahilitéinternationrile - Dornrnage

nioral - Rkparution - Bonne,foi - Dkvc~loppei~ienrtludroit international -
Coinrnunaut~;internutionctle - Enseignrnlent r/udroit international.

1. Puisque I'arrêtde principe du 14 février2002 dit le droit et tranche
le différendqui opposait la République démocratique du Congo (ci-apres

dénomméele ((Congo ») au Royaume de Belgique (ci-apres dénomméla
«Belgique»), puisque cette décisionjudiciaire sans précédent enla matière

codifie et développe le droit internationalcontemporain, puisque la Cour
vient ainsi d'imposer la force du droit contre le droit de la force au sein
de la ((communauté internationale)) qu'elle s'attache à construire au fil

des ans; j'appuie pleinement sans réservetout le dispositif de I'arrêt.
2. Néanmoins, je voudrais ici souligner d'autres motifs de fait et de

droit qui me paraissent compléter et conforter cette Œuvre collective.
Mon opinion se justifie aussi par le devoir particulier que me dicte ma

qualitéde juge ad hoc. Il n'est pas certain qu'une «opinion» obéisseà des
règles rigides. Sans doute ne doit-elle pas traiter des questions sans rap-
port avec l'une ou l'autre partie de l'arrêt. Sous cetteréserve,la liberté

semble caractériser la pratique judiciaire. Non seulement il arrive que le
volume du propos excèdela longueur de l'arrêtlui-même',mais encore il

Comparer I'arrêtdu 5 février 1970 en I'affaire de la Btrrc,elontr Trriction. Ligllt (rnd
Poii,er Con~pui~y,Linlitet1 (49 pages) avec I'opinion de MM. Ammoun (48 pages). Tanaka

(47 pages), Fitzmaurice (50 pages) et Jessup (61 pages); I'avisdu 21juin 1971en I'affaire
du Slrcl-Ouest ufricuin (43 pages) avec l'opinion de Fitzmaurice (103 pages); I'arrèt du
27 juin 1986 en I'affaire des Aciii,irc;s 1ili1ittiirr.c ct pcrrtriililitr~irt~.~uir .Yi<~cirngu(icJi
c.on/rcJcelui-ci (Nic.(rruguu c. Etrrt.s-Unis cl'An~c;riy~r<,)(137 pages). avec I'opinion de
S. M. Schwebel (269 pages); I'arrèt du 26 juin 1992sur Cc,rtciinc,.srerrcs li pl~o.spl~u~c
Nouru (~'V~rzirz1i,.A~r~trolic~(30 pages) avec I'opinion de M. Shahabuddeen (31 pages);
I'arrètdu 14 juin 1993en I'affaire de la Dc;lirniicrtiorl t?l(rvi(~IIS 10ri.giotl xitllGc,c~itve

IL,Grorrilun<l cJtJun Mrrycw (Dune~nurk 1,.Norri.gc,) (41 pages) avec I'opinion de M. Sha-
habuddeen (81 pages); I'arrêtdu 24 février1982en I'affaire du Plritc~rrucoritinc~titfTuni-
.sielJun~ul~iriy rirrrhr lih~~c,ii(77 pages) avec I'opinion de S. Oda (121 pages); 1'arrZ.td~i
12décembre 1996en I'affaire des Plr~tc~~~f~rti~pi<ro~1ii.refsRi.puhlicluc, i.vlumique rl'lrun
c. Errrt.s-CTni.sd'Atizc;riclu(19 pages) avec I'opinion de M. Shahabuddeen (20 pages). SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE BULA-BULA

(Translution]

Estczhlishn~erît qf the farts, rnediate und imrnediu*e - Derolonization -
Riglzt of proples fo self-cieterminution - Sovereign eyuality of States - Inter-
,fi.rencr in cionîesticclffùirs - Arrned aggression - International humunitariun

1ai.r- Imn~z~nities?fa Minister for Foreign Affairs - Irnmunity and impu-
nity - Subjrct-matter and persistencr7 of' tlze clisputc. - Adrnissihility of an
applicution -- Claim to universaljurisdiction - Non ,iltra petita rule - Inter-
national cusfonîury law - Exceptiotî - Opinio juri: and international prac-

tice - Internationullj, ivrongful nct - Afric~znconception - A people's dig-
nity - Internutiorîul rrsponsihilit) - Morul injurj' - Repurution - Good
,fuith - De~~elopmeat qf internutional luw -- The int,~rnutionalcomniunity -
Lessons of ir~ternution~clzalii.

1. Given that the landmark Judgment of 14 February 2002 declares the

law and settles the dispute between the Democratic Republic of the Congo
(hereinafter "the Corigo") and the Kingdom of Belgium (hereinafter "Bel-
gium"); that this judicial decision is without precedent in the field and

codifies and develops contemporary international liw; and that the Court
has thus imposed the force of law upon the law of force within the "inter-

national community" which it has been at pains to cstablish over the years:
1fully and unreservedly support the entire operativ: part of the Judgment.

2. 1would nonetheless like to emphasizehere otlier grounds of fact and
law which seem to me to supplement and strengtlien this collective deci-
sion. My opinion is illso justified by the particulai duty incumbent upon

me in my capacity as judge ad hoc. An "opinior" does not necessarily
obey rigid rules. Doilbtless it must iiot address qiiestions which bear no

relation to any part of the Judgment. Subject to this, the traditional prac-
tice would seem to be characterized by its freedcim. Not only does the
length of opinions sometimes exceed that of the Judgment itselfl, but also

' Compare the Judgmerit of 5 February 1970in the case corcerning the BurceloiruTruc-
fion, Ligl~ttrndPower Coinputiy, Limiteci(49 pages) with the opinions of Judges Ammoun
(48 pages). Tariaka (47 pages), Fitzmaurice (50 pages) and Jes:up (61 pages); the Advisory

Opinion of 21 June 1971 in the South W?st Africu case (43 pages) with the opinion of
Judge Fitzmaurice (103 pages); the Judgment of 27 June 1986in the case concerning Mili-
tory und Purcimilirci~~ Acr'ivifiesin und ugrrinsiNicurczguu(N,curaguu v. United Stutes
Anzrricci) (137 pages). wi1.hthe opinion of Judge Schwebel (269pages); the Judgment of
16 June 1992inthe case cc~ncerningCertctinPhosphateLunds in Nauru jNauru v. Austruliu)
(30pages) with the opiniori of Judge Shahabuddeen (31 pages); the Judgment of 3June 1993
in the case concerning Murifinle Belimifution in the Areu berireonGreenlundutidJuii Mriyrti
(Denrncirk v.Norwuy) (41 pages) with the opinion of Judge Sliahabuddern (81 pages): the

Judgment of 24February 1982in the case concerning the Conrizentu1Skeif(TunisiulLihyuti
Aruh Jurnulriri~u)(77 pages) with the opiniori of Judge Oda ( 21 pages); the Judgment of
12 December 1996in the case concerning Oil PlutfOrms (I.slr~nt'cRryuhlic ofIrun v. United
Stcites ofAriic,i.ic.rr)(19 pages) with the opinioii of Judge Shah; buddee~i(20 pages).peut se fixer divers objectifs2. Sans verser dans de tels travers, il m'est
ainsi loisible de développer de manière raisonnable mon argumentation
juridique. D'une part, il me paraît que le raccourci des faits présentéspar
les Parties en litige ne laisse apparaître que la face visible de l'iceberg. 11

expose A une lecture en surface d'une affaire relevant d'un vaste conten-
tieux. D'autre part, les circonstances immédiates ainsi présentéesont, en
partie, conduit la Cour à ne pas examiner en profondeur la question fon-
damentalede l'indépendancedu Congo, ancienne et unique colonie de la
Belgique, vis-à-vis de cette dernière. La mention relative iil'égalitésou-

veraine, marteléesuccessivement à l'occasion de la phase conservatoire et
lors de la phase du fond par deux conseils du Congo, membres du gou-
vernement, invite à regarder les choses en profondeur. Elle est réitérée
dans les conclusions finales. N'est-elle pas à la base de la désignationdes
juges (idlmc, d'abord par le défendeur, ensuite par le demandeur!
3. La doctrine impose particulièrement aux juges ad Iiocle fardeau de

contribuer au rétablissement objectif et impartial des faits ainsi que de
présenter la conception juridique de chaque partie au différend7. De
l'avis de E. Lauterpacht, il incombe au juge ud hoc de

((veillerà ce que, dans toute la mesure possible, chacun des argu-
ments pertinents de la partie qui l'a désigné ait étépleinement pris en
considération au coursde l'examen collégialet soit, en finde compte,
reflété- i défaut d'êtreaccepté - dans sa propre opinion indivi-
duelle ou dissidente))".

4. Se plier à une telle obligation ne rapproche guèrelejuge ud hoc d'un
représentant d'un Etat'. Au demeurant, il ne s'agit point d'une représen-
tation nationale mais d'une ((présencenati~nale))~ par ailleurs perma-

nente pour les membres permanents du Conseil de sécurité.Concernant
le rôle du juge ud Izoc,J. G. Merrills estime que l'institution ((établitun
lien important entre les parties et la Cour)). Dans ces conditions, «l'ins-
titution du juge ud hoc, en tant qu'elle reflète((l'incidence de considéra-
tions métajuridiques sur le règlement des différends internationaux)),

reste peut-êtretrop utile pour que l'on puisse s'en dispenser))'.
5. Naturellement. je suis d'accord, en ma qualitéde juge ad hoc avec,

Voir, sur ce point. Charles Rousseau, Droit internutioncrlput.V, «Les rapports
conflictuels», 1983,. 463.
Nguyen Quoc Dinh, Patrick Daillier et Alain Pellet, Droit internu/i«rzulpublic, 1999,
p. 855. par. 54;E. McWhinney. Les Notions Unieset IuJorn~utiordu &oit, 1986,p. 150.
E. Lauterpacht. opinion individuelle joiàtl'ordonnance du 17 décembre 1997en
l'affaire relatiàeI'Applicutior~d(.cconvention pour10 pri.icntior7 et lu r&pre.ciiln
crinle de gi.~zociiBo.~>iic~-Herzc;~ovci,ougo.~luvir).C.I.J. Rc~cu1997, p. 278.
' Voir la communication de E. Lauterpacht, «The Role of cid lioc Judgesn. dans
It~crrusingthe Efictivenesof tl7eInternutionul Court Justice,1997, p. 374.
Voir le commentaire de Krzystof Skubiszewski, ihitl.. p. 378. [Trrrtizictio>dzu Grc~y'e.]
' J. Ci. Merrills. 117terncrrli.spirSrftlrnienf, 3' éd., 1998, p. 139.[Truduction du
Grc:ff<~. ARliEST WARRANT (SFP. OP. BULA-BULA) 101

they can be written with a variety of aims in view'. Thus it is open to me,
without carrying matters to excess, to develop my argument to a reason-
able extent. On the one hand, it seems to me that .he summary version of

the facts presented by the opposing Parties reveals only the visible face of
the iceberg. It permii:~a superficial reading of a case forming part of a far
wider dispute. On thi: other, it was in part the immediate circumstances as
thus presented to it which led the Court not to exilmine in depth the fun-
damental issue of the independence of the Congo, Belgium's former and
sole colony, vis-à-vis the latter. The reference to sovereign equality, suc-

cessively belaboured both at the provisional measures phase and then at
the merits stage by i:wo of Congo's counsel, botk members of the Gov-
ernment, is a cal1to examine the matter in depth. Itis repeated in the final
submissions. And it surely underlies the choice of judges LEh^oc, first by
the Respondent, then by the Applicant!
3. In doctrine, judges ad hoc have the particuli~r duty of contributing

to an objective and impartial establishment of the facts and of presenting
the conception of th.e law held by each party to the dispute3. In Judge
Lauterpacht's view, an ad hoc judge has an ob1ig;ition to

"endeavour to ensure that, so far as is rea:onable, every relevant
argument in favour of the party that has a1)pointed him has been
fully appreciateld in the course of collegial consideration and, ulti-
mately, is reflected - though not necessarily accepted - in any
separate or dissirnting opinion that he may \iritem4.

4. Fulfilment of si~chan obligation does not in any sense assimilate a
judge ad hoc to a representative of a State5. Furtlier, his is in no sense a

national representation but a "national presence"', which is, moreover, a
permanent one for the permanent members of the Security Council.
J. G. Merrills takes the view that the institution of judge ad hoc "provides
an important link between the parties and the Court". In these circum-
stances, "the institution of the ad hoc judge reflecting, as it does, 'the inci-
dence of metajuridical considerations in the functioning of international

adjudication' is perhaps still too useful to be dispensed with"'.
5. Naturally 1am in agreement, in my capacit) as judge ad hoc, with

- See on this point, Ch;irles Rousseau. Droit intwiiutionul~uhlic. Vol. V. "Les rapports
conflictuels". 1983,p. 463.
1999, p. 855.para. 541E:M.cWhinney. Les Nutions Unies et ILfIormution du droit. 1986,,
p. 150.
Judge Lauterpacht, separate opinion appended to the Orjer of 17 December 1997 in
the case concerniiig Applicution of the Coni.entiot~on the Prevention und Puninfment
the Crinie of Getzocide(/(-rouV.Yugoslaviu). I.C.J. R~,pp1997, p. 278.
See theoinmunication of E. Lauterpacht, "The Role of bd hoc Judgcs", in Increusing
the Effectivenr,ofthe It?ternarionulCourt qf'Justice. 1997. p. 374.
See the commentary of Krzystof Skubiszewski, ibirl..p. 178.
J. G. Meri-ills.Ititernutionul Di.~puteSrttlc~rnent,3rd ed.. 1998.p. 139.«à tout le moins, la position de base de 1'Etatqui a procédé à la désigna-
tion (compétence, recevabilité, principes essentielsdu fond)»8. Autre-
ment, comment aurais-je accepté la proposition de cette charge? Le
consentement donné à cette dernièresignifie biensûr «une certaine récep-
tivité [du juge désigné] ... à l'argumentation qui lui a étésoumise»9.
D'autre part, il m'a paru intéressant, commejuge ad hoc, d'exprimer mon
opinion dans les deux phases qu'a connues cette affaire 'O.Il en résulteà
mon sens une meilleure intelligence de l'analyse.

6. A grandes enjambées etpar respect pour la Cour et sa méthodologie
de travail, je me bornerai à rappeler très succinctement à partir des
sources belges, congolaises, transnationales et internationales, quelques
donnéesfactuelles médiateset immédiatesqui constituent la toile de fond
de l'affaire du Mandut d'arrêtdu Il uvril2000. A travers ces mentions
brèves, je souhaite à la fois conjurer le passé et promouvoir entre
1'Etat demandeur et 1'Etat défendeur, intimement liéspar I'histoire, la
mise en Œuvre effectivedu principe de l'igulitésouveruine entre les Etuts.

7. S'adressant aux Congolais à Kinshasa, le 30 juin 2001, quarante et
unièmeanniversaire de l'indépendancedu pays, le premier ministre belge
déclara :

«Vous êtesune part importante de notre passé. Des liensparticu-
lierstrèsforts unissent nos deux pays. Des liens fondéssur des rap-
ports tantôt douloureux, tantôt prometteurs; tantôt confiants, tan-
tôt circonspects ...Ce qui nous unit, vous le savez, nous le savons,
relèvede ce miroir intérieur qu'est notre bonne ou notre mauvaise
conscience, cette frontière entre le bien et le mal, entre la bonne
intention et la maladresse ... Je veux dire au peuple congolais, où
qu'il vive sur ce grand territoire, que nous savons sa douleur et les

épreuves endurées. ))
Rarement de tels propos ont été publiquementtenus par le chef du gou-
vernement d'une ancienne puissance coloniale quatre décenniesaprès la

décolonisation. A tort ou à raison, il faut peut-êtrechercher dans les
conditions d'une décolonisation singulière aux séquellestoujours pré-
sentes, y compris dans la présenteaffaire, la justification de ce propos.

8. La relecture de I'histoire du Congo décolonisé" à laquelle s'est

Voir le commentaire de Krzystof Skubiszewski, Increusing the Ejfictiofthe.~
Irrtrrnutionul Court of'Ju.rtice. toc. cil., p. 378. /Tructucrion clu Greffe./
Voir l'intervention de Hugh W. A. Thirlway, ibid., p. 393. [Truduction du Gr~fe.1
"'Selon le commentaire d'A. Pellet, ibid., «il est très appréciédes juges ad lzoc qu'ils
expriment leur point de vue au cours des différentesphases de l'affaire)),p. 395. [Tru~iuc-
tion du Gref'e./
l'organisation des Nations Unàemettreàrcontribution la Cour. Voir S. Rosenne, «La
Cour internationale de Justice en 1961», Revue gI.nderdroit it~iernationalpublic,
3' série.t. XXXIII, octobre-décembre 1962,nop.703."at least the basic stance of the appointing State (jurisdiction, admissibil-
ity, fundamentals of the merits)"'. Otherwise, how could 1 have accepted
the proposed appointment? My consent of cours? means that "there is a
certain understanding . . .for the case that has been put in front of
him" '. Moreover, it seemed to me helpful, as jiidge ad hoc, to give an
opinion in both of the phases undergone by this taseIo, thus, in my view,
making the reasonirig more readily understandable.

6. Covering a gre:atdeal of ground, and out of regard for the Court
and its working methods, 1willconfine myself to recalling very concisely,
from Belgian, Congolese, transnational and international sources, certain
factual data, of both indirect and direct relevanre, which make up the
background to the case concerning the Arrest Wurrant of II April2000.
Through these brief references, 1 seek both to exorcize the past and to
foster between the Applicant and the Respondent, States intimately
linked by history, effective implementation of th,: principle of sovereign

eyuulity between Stutes.
7. Addressing the Congolese people at Kinshasa on 30 June 1991,
forty-first anniversa:ry of the country's independcnce, the Belgian Prime
Minister declared :

"You are an, important part of Our past. Special, particularly
strong links unnte Our two countries. Links based on a relationship
marked by pain, by promise, by prudence . . What unites us - you
know it, we know it - is reflected in the extrrnal mirror constituted
by Ourgood or our bad conscience, the boun jary between good and
evil, between good intentions and blunders .. .1 wish to say to the
Congolese people, wheresoever they may be on this vast territory,
that we are aviare of their pain and of tlie suffering they have

endured."
Rarely have such views been publicly expressed hy the head of the gov-
ernment of a former colonial power four decades after decolonization.

Wrongly or rightly, litis perhaps in the circumstances of a very particular
act of decolonizatiori, whose consequences are still with us today, includ-
ing in the present case, that the justification for these views is to be
sought.
8. Rereading the account of the decolonization of the Congo"

"ee the commentary of Krzystof Skubiszewski, Incrensing the EjJ'ectivenessof tlie
Intc~rnutiotzalCourt Justiceloc. cit., p. 378.
"ee the contribution of Hugh W.A. Thirlway, ihidp...?93.
According to A. Pellet, ihiju,dges ud hoc are very ap~reciated if they express their
opinionsduring the various phases of the case", p. 395.

Nations to involve the Court. See S. Rosenne, "La Cour nternationale de Justice en
1961". Revue g<;ni.rulcd~? droit internutiontil puhlic~,3rd series, Vol. XXXIII, October-
December 1962, No. 4. p.703.livréel'une de la quarantaine des conférences politiques de réconcilia-
tion l2nous apprend :

«Victorieux des élections législatives, Patrice Emery Lumumba,
après consultation des principaux partis et personnalités politiques
de l'époque,forma le gouvernement.
En date du 23juin 1960,il obtient la confiance du Parlement, et ce
bien avant l'électionpar celui-ci du chef de 1'Etat Kasavubu grâce à

la majorité lumumbiste.
En moins d'une semaine après le 30 juin 1960, soit le 4 juillet,
éclate la mutinerie de la force publique. Suite à l'équation provoca-
trice du généralJanssens aux militaires, savoir, «après l'indépen-
dance égale avant l'indépendance)), les troubles s'attisent. Le
Katanga proclame sa sécessionle 11juillet 1960et le Sud-Kasaï son

autonomie le 8 août 1960. 11y a effondrement de l'administration
territoriale et militaire ainsi que manque des ressources financières.
La souveraineté populaire est hypothéquée.
En dépit des accords de coopération signésentre le Royaume de
Belgique et lajeune République, le 29juin 1960,la crise est aggravée
par l'intervention intempestive des troupes belges. Face a cette situa-

tion, le 15 juillet, le chef de 1'Etat Kasavubu, garant de l'intégrité
territoriale, et le premier ministre et ministre de la défensenationale
Lumumba signent conjointement le télégrammefaisant appel aux
troupes des Nations Unies à New York ...les manŒuvres diploma-
tiques belges feront que les Nations Unies hésitent d'intervenir ..»13

9. A juste titre ou non, le rapport met aussi en cause la responsabilité
de la Belgique dans l'évictiondu premier ministre Lumumba:

((Après l'accession de notre pays à l'indépendance ...le président
Kasavubu et le premier ministre Lumumba travaillaient en harmo-
nie. Ils avaient même effectué une tournée ensemble a Elisabethville.
Je pense que les Belgesétaientcontre cette harmonie. C'est pourquoi
ils avaient créécette tension de division ...Moi, j'ai téléphoné a

Lumumba pour lui en faire part. A son tour, il a contacté le prési-
dent Kasavubu. J'ai cru qu'ils avaient pris des précautions contre ces
manŒuvres. J'étais surpris d'entendre à la radio vers le 5 septembre
1960la révocation de Lumumba et le mêmejour aussi celle de Kasa-
vubu par Lumumba. »l4

10. A en croire le rapport: ((L'ambassadeur belge a Léo suscite la

'*Dénommé((conférencenationale souveraine)), le forum s'est tenu de novembre 1991
à décembre 1992. Il fut organisé par le gouvernement alors en place, sous pression de ses
principaux partenaires, et financépar ceux-ci. y compris la Belgique.
l3Conférence nationale souveraine, rapport de la comn~ission des assassinats et des
violations des droits de l'homme, p. 18-19.
l4Ihici..témoignagede M. Cléophas Kamitatu, alors président provincial de Léopold-
ville (Kinshasa).prepared by one of the 40 or so political reconciliation conferencesi2,
we learn the followinig:

"Following his victory in the legislative el~:ctions,Patrice Emery
Lumumba, after consulting the main parties and political personali-
ties at that time. formed a Government.
On 23 June 1060, he obtained the confidence of Parliament, even

before the latter's election of Kasavubu as Htbad of State, thanks to
the Lumumba Party's majority.
Less than a week on from 30 June 1960, oii 4 July, the army and
police mutinied. Following the provocative statement by General
Janssens to the military - 'after independence equals before inde-
pendence' - thLedisturbances worsened. Kdtanga proclaimed its

secession on 11 July 1960 and South Kasai its autonomy on
8 August 1960.Territorial and military administration collapsed and
financial resourced dried up. The people's zovereignty was under
threat.
Despite the CO-operation agreements signed between the Kingdom

of Belgiun~and the young Republic on 29 June 1960, the crisis was
aggravated by the untimely intervention of Belgian troops. Faced
with this situation, on 15 July the Head of Skite Kasavubu, guaran-
tor of territorial integrity, and the Prime Minister and Minister of
Defence, Lumurnba, jointly signed a telegrani appealing for troops

from the Unitecl Nations in New York . . . as a result of Belgian
diplomatic manŒuvres, the United Nations hesitated to
intervene . . ."''

9. Rightly or wrorigly, the report also cites Belpium for its responsibi-
lity in the removal from office of Prime Minister >umumba:
"After Our country had achieved indepetidence . . . President

Kasavubu and Prime Minister Lumumba worked harmoniously
together. They had even toured Elisabethville together. 1believe that
the Belgians were against this harmony. So tkieyprovoked this divi-
sive tension ... i telephoned Lumumba to tell him about it. He then
contacted Presiclent Kasavubu. 1 thought they had taken precau-

tions against those manŒuvres. 1was surprised to hear on the radio
around 5 Septenlber 1960 of the dismissal of Lumumba and on the
same day of that of Kasavubu by L~mumba."'~

10. According to the report: "The Belgian amb: ssador in Leopoldville

''Known as the "Sovereign National Coriference", the forum was held from Novem-
ber 1991 to December 1992.Itwas organizedby the then Covernment. under pressure
from its principal partners, includinguin, and financl>them.
I3Sovereign National Conference, Report of the Commission on Murders and Viola-
tions of Human Rights. pip. 18-19.
'"hiri.. statement of Mr. CléophasKamitatu. then Provinc:al President of Leopoldville
(Kinshasa).création deI'Etat autonome du Sud-Kasaï. Le 8 août 1960,c'était chose
faite.»l5Sur l'assassinat du premier ministre Lumumba et de ses compa-
gnons, il est notamment dit: «Le 16janvier 1961se tient une réuniona

l'aéroport deNdjili. Y prennent part MM. Nendaka, Damien Kandolo,
Ferdinand Kazadi, Lahaye et lesreprésentantsde la Sabena. »Un témoin,
M. Gabriel Kitenge, dira que:

«A l'arrivée de l'avion, il n'a reconnu, des trois colis, que
M. Lumumba qui, très tuméfiét,entait de s'agripper à une muraille.
Tous les trois ont débarquévivants à Elisabethville. Conduits peu
après à la villa Brouwez a quelques kilomètres de l'aéroport, ils
s'entretiendront avec MM. Godefroid Munongo et Jean-

Baptiste Kibwe en compagnie de quelques militaires blancs ...

Ils seront exécutésen brousse a un kilomètre de la villa. Sous le
commandement d'un officierblanc, les soldats noirs tireront d'abord
sur Okito pour enfin terminer avec Lumumba.
Sont présents: MM. Munongo, Kitenge, Sapwe, Muke, quatre
Belges... Sur l'ordre d'un commissaire de police belge,les trois déte-
nus seront fusilléschacun a son tour et jetésdans une fosse com-

mune préalablement creusée. » l"
11. En définitive,le rapport de la conférencea proposé «l'ouverture

du procès». Elle a proposéque:
«Les assassinatsde Lumumba, Mpolo et Okito, bien que n'entrant

pas dans les catégories définies actuellementpar les Nations Unies,
devraient êtreassimilésaux crimes contre l'hunîanité,car il s'agit de
persécutionset assassinats pour des raisons politiques. ))

La proposition peut ainsi stimuler la réflexiondes auteurs qui décèlent
des incertitudes sur le concept de crime contre l'humanité". La confé-
rence a établila responsabilitéde plusieurs personnes tant physiques que
morales, nationales et étrangères.Au nombre desquelles il suffit de rete-
nir dans le cadre de la présenteaffaire:

«Le Gouvernement du Royaume de Belgique en tant que puissance
de tutelle de n'avoir pas su contenir la sécurité bilatérae'une indé-
pendance bâcléepar elle-mêmeintentionnellement. L'ambiguïté de
la loi fondamentale fait foi. En dépitdes accords du 29 juin 1960,il
n'a pas offert aux autorités légitimes qu'ilavait installéesau Congo

'"Ibid., p. 40.3,ci-dessus. p. 26.
I7Voir G. Abi-Saab, ((International Criminal Tribunals and the Development of Inter-
national Humanitarian andHuman Rights Law», Liber. Aniicorum Judge Mohummed
Beàjuoui, 1999, p. 651. Voir aussi E. Roucounas, «Time Limitations for Claims and
Actions under International Laihid.p. 223-240.was behind the creation of the autonomous State of South Kasai. By
8 August 1960, it was a fait accompli."" In regard to the murder of

Prime Minister Lumumba and his companions, the report inter uliu
States: "On 16 January 1961 there was a meeting 2 t Ndjili airport. Those
present included Messrs. Nendaka, Damien Kandolo, Ferdinand Kazadi,
Lahaye and the Sabena representatives." A witness, Mr. Gabriel Kitenge,

stated the following:

"When the aircraft arrived, he recognized only one of the three
packages, Mr. Lumumba, who was covered iiibruises and trying to
cling to a wall. Al1three were unloaded alive at Elisabethville. Soon
afterwards they were taken to the villa Broiiwez a few kilometres

from the airport, where they had a talk with Messrs. Godefroid
Munongo and Jean-Baptiste Kibwe, who were together with some
white soldiers . . .
They were executed in the bush a kilometrc from the villa. Under
the command oifa white officer, the black soldiers shot Okito first

and finished off with Lumumba.
Those present were: Messrs. Munongo, Kitenge, Sapwe, Muke,
four Belgians . . On the orders of a senior Belgian police officer, the
three prisoners were shot one after the other and thrown into a com-

mon grave which had already been dug." l6

II. The conference report concluded with a proposa1 for "the opening
of proceedings". It si:ated:

"The murders of Lumumba, Mpolo and Okito, although not fall-
ing within the categories currently defined by the United Nations,
should be assimilated to crimes uguinst humu~ity, for these were acts
of persecution and murder for political reasoris."

This proposa1 may thus stimulate reflection on tlie part of writers who
note uncertainties in the notion of crime against hiimanity 17.The confer-
ence established responsibility on the part of a niimber of persons both
natural and legal, domestic and foreign. Of whoni, for purposes of this
case it suffices to note the following:

"The Governnzent qf the Kingdom of Belgium as protecting power

for having failed to ensure bilateral securitj for an independence
deliberately rushed through by it in a perfunctory manner. The
ambiguous natuire of the Basic Law is self-evicent. Despite the agree-
ment of 29 June 1960,Belgium did not provida: the lawful authorities

li Op ci/f.ootnote 13supra. p. 26.
IhIbid.. p. 40.
l7See G. Abi Saab. "I~iternational Criminal Tribunals an@the Development of Inter-
national Humanitarian and Human Rights Law". Liber A~zicorum Jtrdgr Mohamnzed
under International Law", ihirl.,pp. 223-240."Time Limitat ons for Claims and Actions une assistance technique et militaire qui aurait permis d'éviterle
pire.

Le soutien du Gouvernement belge à la sécessiondu Katanga par
sa reconnaissance officiellecomme Etat indépendantavec ouverture
d'un consulat g"néralconstitue autant d'actes infractionnels contre
le peuple du Congo. Sur intervention du ministre belge des affaires
africaines,M. Harold Aspremont, le président Tschombé acceptera,
en date du 16janvier 1961,le transfert des colis. » lX

Répondanten quelque sorte anticipativement à 1'Etatdéfendeur,la confé-
rence a décidéd'

«alerter l'opinion internationale que ceux-la mêmequi nous ensei-
gnent le respect des droits de l'homme et du citoyen, contenus dans
la Déclarationdes Nations Unies, ne puissent infuturum rééditerles
mêmeserreurs qui ne cadrent pas avec l'opinion dans le monde))".

12. Six ans plus tôt, le groupement transnational dit «tribunal perma-
nent des peuples)) appelé à statuer sur le cas du Zaïre (Congo) a dit:

«Lorsque le droit du peuple de poursuivre librement son dévelop-
pement économique,social et culturel est méprisé par un Etat se per-
sonnalisant en des oligarchies complices,otages ou agentsde l'étran-
ger, misesen place ou maintenues par sa volonté,cet Etat ne saurait
constituer un écran derrièrelequel s'annule le droit du peuple à

l'autodétermination. D~~
Car cette ((juridiction)) a estiméque,

«dans ce cas-là, on se trouve devant un phénomène semblabledans
son essence à la situation coloniale opposant un peuple asservi à une
puissance étrangère,les autorités gouvernementales jouant un rôle
de courroie de transmission et n'apparaissant guère différentes,dans
leurs fonctions, des anciens agents coloniaux (vice-rois,gouverneurs,

préfets,etc.) ou des potentats locaux au service de la métropole»21.
Le jury a aussi soutenu que

«La violation des droits du peuple zaïrois perpétréepar un Etat
aliéné soulève le problème de la responsabilité d'autres gouverne-

'*Conférence nationale souveraine, rapport de la coinmission des assassinats et des
violations des droits de l'homme, p. 55-56.
lYIbid.
"'Voir Ir St~ninicc,du Trihunril prrmnncwt clespeup1c.v.Rotterdam, le 20 septembre
19"2Ihicl.. established by ii:in the Congo with the military and technical assist-
ance which would have enabled the worst to be avoided.

.............................

The support of tlze Brlgiatz Goverrzrnenl for the secession of
Katanga through its officia1 recognition as an independent State,
with the opening of a Consulate-General, represents an offence
against the rights of the Congolese people. 1:ollowing the interven-
tion of the Belgian Minister for African Affairs, Mr. Harold Aspre-

mont, President Tshombe, on 16January 1901, accepted transfer of
the packages." l8

Reacting, as it were, in advance to the responder t State, the conference
decided to :

"Alert international opinion so that the very persons who teach us
respect for humian rights and the rights of the citizen contained in
the United Natiions Declaration may not in future repeat the same

mistakes, which do not sit well with world o,~inion." l9

12. Six years earlier, the transnational group 1.nown as "The Perma-
nent Court of the Peoples [tribunal permanent des peuples]", called upon
to deliver a ruling 011 the case of Zaire (Congo) stated:

"When the right of a people freely to pursue its economic, social
and cultural development is treated with con empt by a State repre-
sented by collaborationist oligarchies, hostages or agents of foreign

powers, installetl or maintained in place by it: will, that State cannot
constitute a cover for the extinction of a peol~le'sright to self-deter-
mination." 20

Thus that "court" held:

"In such a case, we are faced with a pheno nenon essentially simi-
lar to the colonial situation opposing an enslaved people to a foreign
power, with the government authorities playing the role of overseer,

seemingly differing little in their functions from the former colonial
agents (viceroy:;, governors, prkfefcrt.~ e,tc.) or local satraps in the
service of the metr~pole."~'

The jury further stated:

"The violatiori of the right of the Zairian peopleperpetrated by an
alienated State raises the problem of the responsibility of other

lxSovereign National Conference. Report of the Commis: ion on Murders and Viola-
tions of Human Rights, pp. 55-56.
'Vbid
"'See Judg177rnlofPrrtncrnet~tCourt rhr Peoples, Rotterdam. 20 September 1982,
p. 29.
" Ihid ments et notamment de ceux qui défendentles intérêts au profit des-
quels la souverainetédu peuple zaïrois est aliénée.»22
C'est ainsi qu'ila étéétabli, entre autres, «la responsabilité ...de la Bel-

gique~~'. Le dispositif conclut que nombre des faits jugés((constituent
des crimes contre le peuple zaïrois»24. Examinant, entre autres, la valeur
juridique des décisions dece tribunal d'opinion, des auteurs concluent
que ((pareille condamnation est un premier pas vers la réparati~n))~'.

13. Plus récemment, la commission de l'organisation des Nations
Unies chargée d'enquêter surI'exploitation illégale des ressourcesnatu-
relles du Congo a mis en cause, entre autres, des sociétés belges en terri-

toires occupés.La ((neutralité))revendiquéepar les autorités belges en
place face à l'agression armée'6subie par le Congo depuis le 2 août
1998ne pourrait-elle pas êtremise à mal par la participation des grou-
pements privés ou des organismes parastataux belges au pillage des
ressources naturelles du Congo d'après une enquête de l'ONU2'?
D'autant plus que la commission établit un lien entre cette exploitation
illégale et lapours~ite*~de la guerre.

14. Les circonstances immédiates qui ont occasionné l'émissiondu
mandat ont étéamplement présentéesde manière contradictoire par les
Parties. Il serait futile d'y revenir. Néanmoins, il est des questions perti-
nentes que soulèvecette affaire. Pourquoi la quasi-totalitédes personna-
lités prévenuesdevant la justice belge, y compris M. Abdulaye Yerodia
Ndombasi, appartiennent essentiellement à une tendance politique évin-
céeen 1960et réapparueau pouvoir en 1997 à la faveur de circonstances

diverses? Pourquoi 1'Etatdéfendeurn'exerce-t-il pas sa compétence ter-
ritoriale en poursuivant les sociétés belges établiessur son sol suspectées
d'activitésillicites en zones d'occupation étrangèreau Congo?
15. Tels sont quelques élémentsde fait arpentés sur plus de quatre
décades qui permettent dejuger du comportement respectif des Parties au
litige tranché.Ils doivent êtremis en regard avec la plaidoirie finale de la

" Op. cil., note 20. ci-dessus. p. 30.
" Ihirl., p. 32.
" fiid., p. 34.
" B. H. Weston, R. A. Falk et A. d'Amata, Interncrtional Luic und World Orrl<>r,
2' éd., p. 1286. [Traduction du Gr<flk.]
'Qu sens de l'article 51 de la Chartede l'organisation des Nations Unies, précisépar
l'article 3 de la résolution 3314 du 14décembre 1974,confirméen tant que norme coutu-
mière par l'arrêtde la Cour du 27 juin 1986 en l'affaire desitgs mi lit ri iree^t pliru-
milituires uu Nicuruguu et coutre celui-ci (Nicuruguu c. Etats-Unis ri'Aniiriq~lr,),par. 195.
und Orller Fortns of Weultli tllcDernocrutic Repuhlic of Cotigo. Sont aussi citéesles
sociétésbelges suivantes: Cogem, Muka-Entreprise et Transintra pour la cassitérite;
Chimie Pharmacie. Cogea. Finiming Ltd.. Cicle International, Specialty Metal. pour le
coltan; Soger. Sogem, Cogecom, Tradement, MDW pour la cassitérite et le coltan.
Source: http://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/drcongo.htm.
'H Ihid., par. 109et suiv. ((Liens entre l'exploitation de ressources naturelles et la pour-
suite du confli)[Trtr~luc~tinluGwffi.1 governments, anid in particular of those who defend the interests for

whose benefit the Zairian people are deprived of their sovereignty." 22

The jury thus established, inter aliu, "the responsibility . . . of Bel-
giumW2'.The operative part of the judgment finds that a number of the
charges "constitute crimes against the Zairian pe0.3le"~~.Examining inter
~rlia the legal force of the decisions of this "co~rt of public opinion",

some writers have concluded that "such a condemnation is a first step
towards reparation" 25.
13. More recently, the United Nations Comniission responsible for
investigating the illegal exploitation of the natural resources of the Congo

cited, among others, Belgian companies in occupied territories. Could it
not be that the purported "neutrality" of the local Belgian authorities in
the face of the armetl aggres~ion?~suffered by the Congo since 2 August
1998 is being underrnined by the participation of private groups or Bel-

gian parastatal entities in the looting of the natural resources of the
Congo, as established by a United Nations investigation2'? Al1the more
so in that the investigation has established a lirk between that illegal
exploitation and the continuation of the ~ar~~.

14. The immediate circumstances which gave :ise to the issue of the
warrant were amply debated by the Parties. It would be pointless to go
over them again. Nonetheless, there are pertinent questions raised by this
case. Why is it that virtually al1 of those charged before the Belgian

courts, including Mr. Abdulaye Yerodia Ndomba ;i, belong essentially to
a political tendency that was ousted in 1960 and, thanks to a variety of
circumstances, regained power in 1997? Why does the respondent State
not exercise its territorial jurisdiction by prosecuting Belgian companies

established on its territory suspected of illegal activities in areas of
foreign occupation v~ithinthe Congo'?
15. These are some of the facts emerging from a rapid survey covering
more than four decaties whereby the respective coiiducts of the Parties to

the dispute before us may be judged. They should be compared with Bel-

,,
-- Op. cil. footriote 20 .supra,p. 30.
23 Ibici., p. 32.
3 Ihid., p. 34
" B. H. Weston. R. A,. Falk and A. d'Amato, Interncrric.11~L1uit' utid World Orrler,
2nd ed.. p. 1286.
'" Within the meaning of Article 51 of the United Nation' Charter. as further defined
by Article 3 of resolution 3314 of 14December 1974and confirmed as a rule of customary
law by the Judgment of the Court of 27 June 1986 inilifclrj und Puruniilitur~ Activitirs
in und uguinsf Ni(,rzruguu(Nicrzruguv.UniteriStutrs ofAn ericu), para. 195.
SeeRepoif of'the Princ.1of'E.vperor2tllr Illcgul Esplortcztioi~of Nuturc11Re~o~~rc<,.s
crntlOflier Formof'W~'ultIoj't11~DetnocicrticRcpublic oftl7t Congo. Those cited include
the following Brlgian cornpanies: Cogem, Muka-Eiiterprise and Transintra for cassiter-
ite; Chimie Pharmacie, C'ogea,Tradement. Finiming Ltd., Cicle International, Specialty
Metal, for coltan: Soger. Sogem. Cogecom, Tradement. MDIV, for cassiterite and coltan.
Source: http:I/www.un.oi-g/News/dh/latestldrcongo.htm.
'"ee ihici.,paras. 109ct .sec/."Links between the exploitat on of natural resources and
the continuationof the conflict."Belgique. Lorsque 1'Etatdéfendeur conclut brillamment sa plaidoirie par
l'invocation de la démocratie et des droits de l'homme qui guideraient

son comportement2', il rouvre tout de mêmel'une des pages les plus hon-
teuses de la décolonisation. Dans les années soixante,de la main gauche,
il a sembléoctroyer l'indépendanceau Congo et, de la main droite, il a en
mêmetemps virtuellement précarisécette souveraineté et la démocratie
congolaisenaissante. L'écrivainJoseph Ki-Zerbo a pu écrirequ'au Congo
((l'indépendancefut jetéecomme un os aux indigènespour mieux exploi-
ter leurs divisions», soit le ((modèledes indépendances empoisonnée^»'^.

16. Parmi les points âprement débattus de manière contradictoire par
les Parties figure la perte,à l'heure actuelle, de toute fonction gouverne-
mentale par M. A. Yerodia Ndombasi. La situation est mise en avant par
le défendeurafin d'obtenir un non-lieu de la part de la Cour. Elle serait
sans effet pour l'instance de l'avis du demandeur.
17. A mon sens, l'argument tiréde la perte (et non de l'absence) de
fonction gouvernementale actuellement exercéepar M. Ndombasi est
moralement indécent. Mais la Cour ne tranche pas les litiges sur la base

d'une morale internationale chère àNicola Politis". Juridiquement cepen-
dant ce moyen invoquédevrait se retourner contre le défendeur. Puisque
ce dernier lèveainsi un coin du voile sur la cause de cette situation dont
le défendeur exploite à fond les effets, rien que les effets. Il est juridique-
ment incorrect de chercher à asseoir solidement son arguuentation arin-
cipale sur une grave violation du droit international (la censure de la
composition du Gouvernement congolais équivaut à l'ingérencedans les
affaires intérieuresd'autrui) qui s'ajoute à l'atteinte portéeprimitivement

aux immunités et à l'inviolabilité pénalesde la personne du ministre des
affaires étrangères.Les écritures et les plaidoiries du demandeur (lors de
la hase <cconservatoire»et lors de la hase du fond) ont dénoncéce fait
sans être véritablement contredites par le défendeur. La Cour a été
témoinde cette déchéanced'un organe de 1'Etat congolais survenu non
seulement après la saisine (17 octobre 2000); mais encore le limogeage a
eu lieu le jour de l'ouverture des audiences de la phase conservatoire
(20novembre 2000)et ledépartdugouvernement peu après(14avril 2001).

Depuis toute nomination nouvelle de l'intéressé,pourtant sans cesse
annoncéepar la presse, est repousséeapparemment à cause des pressions
illicites du défendeur.

18. Il est du devoir de la Cour, garant de l'intégritédu droit interna-
tional'', de sanctionner ce double comportement illicite du défendeur
stigmatisépar le demandeur dans ses conclusions finales.

" Voir plaidoiries de la Belgique, CR 2001111.p. 17-18, par. 8. 9 et 11.
"'Joseph Ki-Zerbo, préfaceiil'ouvrage d'Ahamadou A. Dicko. Jourttul d'une tlb/uite.
Autour ri~rri:/?rcn(lir28.septembre1958en A,friquenoire, 1992,p. XIV.
" Nicola PolitiLtrtnorule intc~rnuti»nnlr.1943.p. 179.
j2DGtroit[leCoi-fou,C.I.J. Rcc,i1949,p. 35.gium's closing speech. Even as the respondent State brings its peroration

to a glowing close wifh an invocation of the democracy and human rights
which purportedly giiided its conduct 2" at the sarne time it reopens one
of the most shameful pages in the history of decolcnization. In the 1960s,
it appeared to grant the Congo its independence while, with the right

hand, it was at the saimetime virtually ensuring the destabilization of that
sovereignty and of the new-born Congolese democracy. The author
Joseph Ki-Zerbo was able to write that, in the (:ongo. "independence
was thrown like a bone to the natives in order the better to exploit their

divisions, .. . the moldel for poisoned grants of inlependence" 'O.
16. One of the points hotly debated by the Parties is Mr. Ndombasi's
current loss of any governmental post. The Respondent relied on this fact
in order to secure dismissal of the case by the Cou.t, while the Applicant

contended that it has no effect on the proceedings.

17. In my view, the argument deriving from the loss (and not the
absence) of any current governmental function on Mr. Ndombasi's part
is morally indecent. I3ut the Court does not decidt: disputes on the basis

of international morality, so dear to Nicolas Politis7'. Legally, however,
this argument should rebound against the Respondent, who has raised a
mere corner of the veil over the cause of this situation, while exploiting its
effects - and only those effects - to the full. It is.iuridically improper to

seek to ground one's principal argument on a serious violation of inter-
national law (exercise of a right of censorship over the composition of the
Congolese Government amounts to interference in the interna1 affairs of
another State), which aggravates the original infringement of the criminal

immunities and inviolability of the person of the Minister for Foreign
Affairs. The Applicant's written pleadings and oral arguments (during
both the "provisiona~l" and the mei-its phase) de lounced this fact and
were not effectively rebutted by the Respondent. "he Court was witness

to this dismissal of a representative of the Congolest. State, which occurred
not only after the rnatter had been referred to the Court (17 Octo-
ber 2000), but, what is more, the demotion took place the day the hear-
ings opened in the provisional phase (20 November 2000),and Mr. Ndom-
basi left the Government altogether not long afterwards (14 April 2001).

Since that time his reappointment, although const;tntly announced in the
press, has been resisted, apparently because of unldwful pressure exerted
by the Respondent.
18. It is the duty of the Court, as guarantor of the integrity of inter-

national law3{ to sanction this doubly unlawful conduct on the part of
the Respondent, denounced by the Applicant in its final submissions.

'' See Belgi~im'soral argumeiit, CR2001111. pp. 17-18. paras. 8. 9 an11.
"' Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Preface to Ahamadou A. Dicko's Jour.1~1[l'unecl6fuite.Autour du
rc~Ji.reridu?i 28 Septcjn~bre1958 en Afiiyue noire, 199p. YIV.
" Nicolas Polit~sLu triorcilcinternufioriule, 1943, p. 179.
" COI~LCI/ftifit~.C'.J'Roports 1949, p. 35. 108 MANDAT D'ARRET (OP. IND. BULA-BULA)

19. Il est possible de reconnaître deux acceptions à l'expression((organe
d'intégritédu droit international ». Pour certains, il s'agirait du «devoir
de préserver l'intégritédu droit en tant que discipline - exempte de
considérationsayant trait iila politique, la moralité, l'opportunité,etc.» 33.
A mon avis, la formule devrait aussi signifier que la Cour a l'obligation

d'assurer le respect de la totalité du droit international. Quant à la spé-
cificitéde la mission d'un organe judiciaire par rapport au mandat d'un
organe politique, tel que le Conseil de sécurité, la jurisprudence y relative
est déjàabondante.
20. Je partage ainsi l'opinion de Manfred Lachs selon laquelle «la
Cour est la gardienne de la légalitépour la communauté internationale

dans son ensemble ))34.
21. On imagine mal que la Cour puisse projeter un regard soutenu sur
la perte actuelle des fonctions gouvernementales de M. Ndombasi et fer-
mer les yeux sur les raisons évidentes de cette situation a la lumière des
événements quilui ont été suffisamment exposés dés la phasd ee demande
de mesures conservatoiresjusqu'à la clôture de la phase de fond.D'autant

plus que la transgression des immunités en cause n'est qu'un fait révéla-
teur de la méconnaissance du principe de l'égalitésouveraine d'un Etat
décolonisépar la Belgique. Li-dessus, la Cour ne s'est guère trompée.
Elle a plus d'une fois dans les motifs sanctionné de manière élégantela
pratique illicite du défendeur.

22. Outre l'attention de la Cour qu'attire l'argument de perte de fonc-
tion officielle que brandit l'auteur du comportement fondamentalement
illicite, il y a cet effet juridique inexistant recherchépar 1'Etatdéfendeur
dans la nouvelle situation de M. A. Yerodia Ndombasi. Dèsl'instant où
l'atteinte aux immunités du ministre des affaires étrangères a été portée,
la violation du droit international a été réalisée. E let Congo a commencé

et a continué à exiger, jusqu'à la clôture des débats, que le constat de
l'infraction soit fait par la Cour et que celle-ci lui octroie réparation
consécutive. Elle n'a jamais cru et n'a jamais dit qu'un de ses citoyens
avait étévictime d'un fait illicite belge. Le demandeur a toujours été
convaincu et a toujours déclaréque ce dernier le visait en tant qu'entité
souveraine désireusede s'organiser librement, y compris de conduire ses

relations extérieures par le ministre de son choix. Mais elle a subi et
continue de subir des entraves de fait résultant de l'émission,du main-
tien, de la diffusion du mandat et des tentatives de lui donner plus d'effets
par la Belgique.

77Voir l'opinion de M. H. Mendelson, ((Formation of International Law and the
Observational Standpoint)), au sujet de «The Formation of Rules of Customary
(General) International Law)), Iriternutionul Laiv A.ssociation, Report oj thc Sixty-Third
Conference, War.ruiv,Airgirst21st to Aup27th 1988, p.944. [Traduction dir Grejf..]
34Voir M. Lachs, opinion individuelle jointà l'ordonnance du 14 avril 1992 en
l'affaire relaàides Quc.sfion.sd'intrrprttution rt d'upplicafiondt~la conilentionde Mont-
rc'ul de 1971 rtsirltcrnt de l'incident u&5rLockerbie lJa~~~al~iriuI.U~Clibyenne
c. Royuurnc-Uni).C',J. Recueil 1992, p. 26. 19. There are two possible ways in which the notion of "organ respon-
sible for the integrity of international law" is genc:rally understood. For
some, it involves a "duty to preserve the integrity cf law as a discipline -
distinct from considerations of politics, morality, expediency and so
on" '3
. In my view, it ought also to mean that the Court is under an obli-
gation to ensure respect for international law in ~tstotality. As regards
the specific nature of the task of a judicial organ b!!comparison with that
of a political organ, such as the Security Council, there is already plenti-

ful case law on this point.
20. 1 also share Manfred Lachs's view that "the Court is the guardian
of legality for the international community as a hol le"'^.

21. It is difficult to see how the Court can focus its gaze so particularly
on Mr. Ndombasi's current loss of government office while closing its
eyes to the obvious reasons for that situation in the light of events which
have been sufficientl!~argued before it right from the start of the provi-

sional measures phase up to the closing of the merits phase. This is par-
ticularly so in that the violation of the immunitie; in question is simply
evidence of a general disregard for the principle of sovereign equality of
a State decolonized by Belgium. On this point th': Court made no mis-

take. More than once in its reasoning, in the polite ;t of terms, it criticized
the Respondent's unlawful conduct.
22. Quite aside from the attention devoted by ihe Court to the argu-
ment concerning the loss of official duties, made so much of by the

author of fundamentallv unlawful conduct. therc: is the matter of the
non-existent legal elffe; which the Respondent seeks to infer from
Mr. Ndombasi's new situation. From the moment the immunities of the
Minister for Foreign Affairs were breached, the violation of international

law was complete. And the Congo began to insist -- and continued to do
so until the close of argument - that the Court should find that its rights
have been biolated, and that it be granted reparztion accordingly. The
Congo has never believed, and has never asserted, that one of its citizens

has been the victim alfa Belgian wrongful act. The Applicant has always
been convinced, and 11asalways declared, that Belgium was actingagainst
it as a sovereign entity wishing to organize itself Jreely, including in the
conduct of its foreign relations by a Minister of ils choosing. But it has

suffered, and continues to suffer, de fucto interfercnce resulting from the
issue, maintenance and circulation of the warrani, and from Belgium's
attempts to give greater effect to that warrant.

'? See H. Mendelson, "Formation of International Law and the Observational Stand-
point", in connection with "The Formation of Rules of Cuitomary (General) Interna-
tional Law". Int<,rnutionulLn». A.r.rociution.Repnftlze Si:-/y-Tlzird Conf,rence, Wur-
.rrr>.,ugust 21st to A~rgust27th 1988, p. 944.
lJ See M. Lachs, separate opinion appended tothe Order of 14April 1992 in the case
concerning Questions of'lnt~rpretcrtiot~und Application of the 1971 Montreul Convc~ntion
urisingfrom the Aeriul Irrc~itlenctrtLorkerhie (Li-uArah lolnuhiriyu v. United King-
tlom), 1.C.J. Reports 1992. p. 26. 23. La pertinence de la perte des fonctions gouvernementales de
M. A Yerodia Ndombasi résidedans la lumièretoute crue qu'elle projette

sur la flagrante immixtion dans les affaires intérieures du Congo par la
Belgique. En témoigne encore l'identité de certains plaignants congolais,
membres d'un parti politique congolais d'opp~sition'~, que le défendeur
tait obstinément pour des raisons dites de sécuritédevant la Cour. Par
quelque bout qu'on la prenne, cette affaire montre bien l'ingérencedu

défendeur dans les affaires intérieures du demandeur. Et, en définitive,la
grave méconnaissance de l'égalitésouveraine des Etats, derriére l'atteinte
aux immunités du ministre des affaires étrangères. La pertinence de la
perte de responsabilité gouvernementaleest nulle relativement à l'odyssée
personnelle de M. A. Yerodia Ndombasi qui essuya, à l'exclusion curieuse

des autres personnalités congolaises inculpées et d'autres autorités étran-
gères, le mandat insolite en tant que ministre des affaires étrangères,
appelé à entretenir le contact permanent avec le principal partenaire
étranger du Congo.
24. Tant qu'existera l'authentique Etat indépendant du Congo, issu de

la décolonisation - à ne pas confondre avec l'entitéétatique fictive dite
Etat indépendant du Congo)) portée aux fonts baptismaux par les puis-
sances berlinoise^'^, cette dette subsistera. Il ne s'agit pas de la créance
d'un gouvernement en place donné,au demeurant appeléà passer un jour
comme tout gouvernement. Mais il est question d'un dû au peuple congo-

lais librement organisé en Etat souverain qui réclame le respect de sa
dignité.
25. Or, la dignitén'a pas de prix. Elle relèveprécisémentdu domaine
extrapatrimonial, impossible à évaluer en argent. Lorsqu'une personne
juridique, physique ou morale, a renoncéà sa dignité,elle a perdu l'essen-

tiel de son êtrephysique ou moral. La dignité du peuple congolais, vic-
time du désordre néocolonial imposéau lendemain de la décolonisation,
dont les tragiques événementsen cours constituent largement l'expression
continue, est de celle-là.
26. La perte de fonction d'une de ses autorités ne pouvait pas mettre

un terme à I'illicéitédu mandat belge, pas plus qu'elle ne pouvait le trans-
former en acte licite. Afin de comprendre qu'il n'y a guère extinction de
l'illicéitéen raison de la perte des fonctions gouvernementales par
M. A. Yerodia Ndombasi, j'émets deux hypothèses.Lorsqu'un représen-

" Selon le demandeur, il s'agirait de représentants d'un parti d'opposition fonctionnant
à Bruxelles! (Voir compte rendu d'audience publique du 22 novembre 2000. CR 2000134,
p. 20.) En revanche. le défendeurexcipe des «raisons de sécurité))devant la Cour (alors
que le huis clos est permis) pour ne pas révélerl'identité desplaignants de nationalité con-
golaise (voir compte rendu de l'audience publique dunovembre 2000, CR 2000133,
p.'"es. quatorze puissances coloniales réunàeBcrlin (14 novembre 1884-26 février
1885) avalisèrent le projet colonial du roi Léopold II dénommé«Etat indépendant du
Congo ». ARREST WARRANT (SEP. OP. BULA-EULA) 109

23. The relevance of Mr. Ndombasi's loss of governmental responsi-
bilities lies in the glaring light it throws on Belgium's flagrant meddling in
the Congo's internal affairs. Further evidence of tl.iiscan be found in the
identity of certain Congolese complainants, merlbers of a Congolese
opposition political party '5,whose names the Respondent obstinately

refused to reveal to the Court for so-called "security" reasons. Whichever
way you look at it, thliscase clearly demonstrates t le Respondent's inter-
ference in the Applicant's internal affairs. And, ~iltimately, the serious
disregard for the sovereign equality of States underlying the violation of

the immunities of thi: Minister for Foreign Affairs. The loss of govern-
ment office is of no relevance in relation to Mr. Ndombasi's ers on al
odyssey; he, strangely, unlike other accused Congclese high officials, and
other foreign authorities, had this unprecedented *Narrantissued against

him as Minister for Foreign Affairs, charged with niaintaining permanent
contact with the Congo's principal foreign partnei.

24. So long as there shall exist the authentic, independent State of the

Congo, born of decolonization -- not to be confiised with the fictional
State entity calling itself "The Congo Free State", I~orneto the baptismal
font by the powers al. Berlin36 - that debt will continue to exist. This is
not a debt due to one specific incumbent Governnient - a Government
bound, moreover, to pass on one day like every G Ivernment. What is at

stake here is a debt owed to the Congolese people, freely organized in a
sovereign State calling for its dignity to be respected.
25. But dignity has no price. It is one of thosc: intangible assets, on
which it is impossible to put a price in money tctrms. When a person,

whether legal or natural, gives up his dignity, he lxes the essence of his
natural or legal personality. The dignity of the Congolese people, victim
of the neocolonial chaos imposed upon it on the rnorrow of decoloniza-
tion, of which the current tragic events largely represent the continued

expression, is a dignity of this kind.
26. The loss of office bv one of its authorities could not vut an end to
the unlawfulness of the Belgian warrant, any mole than it could trans-
form it into a lawful act. To av~reciate that the unlawfulness cannot be

extinguished as a result of M;. 'A. Yerodia Ndonibasi's loss of govern-
ment office, 1give two examples. When a represent.itive of a foreign State

35According to the Applicant, these are representatives of ;in opposition party operat-
ing in Brussels! (See verbatim record of the public heariiig of 22 November 2000,
CR 2000134.p. 20.) The Respondent, on the other hand. cites "security reasons" to the
Court (despite the fact that the Court can sit in closed session) in order not to disclose the
identity of theomplainants of Congolese nationality (see verbatim record of the public
heariiig of 21 November :!000, CR 2000133,p. 23).
jhThe 14 colonial powers meeting at Berlin (14 Novembt:r 1884-26 February 1885)
accorded their endorsemerit to the colonial project of King Leclpold II called "Congo Free
Statc".tant d'un Etat étranger est tué par des agents de l'ordre d'un pays
donnés7,ce diplomate cesse par le fait mêmede son décès d'exercerses

fonctions. Peut-on soutenir que I'illicéitéde l'acte s'est effacée avec la
mort du représentant de 1'Etat étranger? Il me semble que I'illicéité
demeure. Prenons un autre cas. A supposer que ce diplomate n'ait été que
grièvement blessé.Evacué versson pays d'envoi, il est déclaréinapte pour
le service diplomatique. Peut-on affirmer que le fait illicite a disparu étant

donné que la victime des coups et blessures n'est plus représentant de son
pays a l'étranger? Je ne le pense pas.
27. La question du défaut d'objet de la demande congolaise aurait pu
se poser si la Belgique avait adopté un comportement radicalement
opposé consistant à respecter l'indépendance du Congo. Elle aurait dû

reconnaître la violation du droit international commise par elle, avant de
mettre à néant son mandat et de s'em~resser de demander aux Davs . -
étrangers auxquels elle avait adressé son acte de lui réserver une fin de
non-recevoir. Toute cette ~anL~.ie de mesures aurait étécommuniauée
au Congo et vaudrait expression de regrets et présentation d'excuses.

Rien de semblable ne s'est produit. La demande du Congo a ainsi
conservé pleinement son objet.
28. Le Congo admet que «ces demandes diffèrent quelque peu de ...
celles qui furent formulé[e]sdans sa requêteintroductive)) eu égard à la
nouvelle situation de M. A. Yerodia Ndombasi. Mais elle ajoute que,

«dès l'instant où ils prennent appui sur les mêmesfaits que ceux mention-
nésdans cette requête,aucune difficulténe saurait surgir à cet égard»38. A
bon droit la Cour a confirmé sapratique constante de laisser aux parties
la faculté de préciser exactement leur demande depuis le dépôt de la
requête introductive d'instance jusqu'à la soumission des conclusions

finales à la fin de la procédure orale. Il n'y a là rien de reprochable dès
lors que ces modifications ultérieures s'appuient sur les faits identiques
déjamentionnés dans la demande initiale.
29. D'autre part, la recevabilitéde la requêtedu Congo, selon la juris-
prudence constante de la Cour, s'apprécie à «la seule date pertinente))

qu'est son dépôt au Greffe de la Cours9. Que le défendeur se soit par la
suite comporté de manière à ce que la requêtesoit vidéede sa substance
est inopérant. La demande était déjà déposéetelle quelle le 17 octobre
2000. Au demeurant, sa substance reposant sur la violation de la souve-
raineté du Congo face i l'émissiondu mandat qui appelle réparation

demeure intacte.
30. La tentative du défendeur de faire opérer une mutation de l'action

'' Le cas est arriàéLomé(Togo) en octobre-novembre 1995 où un diplomate alle-
mand a été tuépar des agents de l'ordre à un barrage routier en début de soirée.
L'incident avait gravement détérioréles relations germano-togolaises.
'"Mémoire de la République démocratique du Congo, p.6. par. 8.
'"Voir affaire relatàvdesQuestions cl'interprC.rutioncr ck'upplic~utiot(zle lu convention
li/~ji,r,.Etrit.s-Unis (/'Aini.r.C:1J.Rcc,ueil IYYHp. 130, par. 43.(1/1iriyuurube ARREST WARRANT (SEP. OP. BULA-BIJLA) 110

is killed by the police in a particular country ", that diplomat ceases by
the very fact of his deiith to hold office. Can it be claimed that the unlaw-

fulness of the act was extinguished by the death ol'the representative of
the foreign State? It seems to me that the unlawfiilness persists. Let us
take another case. Suppose the diplomat was merely seriously wounded.
After being evacuated to his sending country, he is ieclared unfit for dip-

lomatic service. Can it be said that the unlawful act has disappeared,
since the victim of the assault no longer represent:. his country abroad?
1think not.
27. The question of the lack of object of the Congolese claim could

have arisen if Belgium had adopted a diametrically opposite attitude, by
showing respect for the Congo's independence. It ;hould have admitted
its violation of international law and then cancelled the warrant and
hastened to request the foreign countries to which it had circulated the

instrument to discharge it. It would then have iniormed the Congo of
these various measures, which would have been taniamount to an expres-
sion of regret and an a~pology.Nothing of the sort occurred. The Congo's
claim thus retained its object in full.

28. The Congo adnlits that "these requests diffei to some extent from
those formulated in its Application instituting proceedings", given

Mr. Ndombasi's new :situation. But it adds that, "since they are based on
the same facts as those referred to in the Application, this cannot pose
any problem" 7X. The Court has correctly confirmecl its established prac-
tice of according the Parties the freedom to refine their claim between the

date of filing of the Application instituting proceedings and the presenta-
tion of the final submissions at the close of oral arirume.,. Thus there is
no basis for criticism here, since these subsequent :hanges are based on
the same facts as those already cited in the initial claim.

29. Moreover, in accordance with the Court's jettled jurisprudence,
the admissibility of the Congo's Application is to be assessed on "the
only relevant date", ~ihich is the date of its filing in the Registry of the

Court ". It is irrelevant whether the Respondent might subsequently have
acted so as to empty the Application of its substance. The claim was
already filed 3s such on 17October 2000. Furthermore, as its substance is
based on the violation of the Congo's sovereignty b:i the issue of the war-

rant, which requires reparation, that substance rerr ains intact.
30. The Respondent's attempt to transform the international judicial

" This happened in Lonié(Togo) in OctoberiNovember 19S5,where a German diplo-
mat aas killed by policem<:natn roadblock in the early evening. The incident ca~iseda
wrious dctcrior;ition in relations between Gcrmanq and Togo.
Mernorial (if the Democratic Republic of the Congo, p. 6 para. 8.
j" See the case concerning Qu~s/i»n.vof Iniel.prc.tution rinc'Appli<~t7fitlw 1971
,Wontrc,cilConvet71iontrri.vingfhnr fl~c,A~riol It7//cl.o<,horhic,(Lihyun Aruh Jtrrn(r-
hiri~,ov. (:nite(/ S/crrc,.sof',lrrI.(..JRcy~orfs1998. p.1:'O.para. 43.judiciaire interétatique propre du Congo, initiée et poursuivie en tant que
telle par le demandeur à la suite de l'atteinte aux immunités et à I'invio-
labilité pénalesd'un de ses plus hauts représentants, en exercice de pro-

tection diplomatique d'un de ses ressortissants quelconque, mérite unefin
de non-recevoir polie qui interdit tout commentaire de ma part.
31. Les conclusions finales du Congo ont-elles empêchéla Cour de se
prononcer sur la question de la compétence dite universelle?
32. Il est vrai que les «conclusions finales)) du Congo passent complè-

tement sous silence cette question. Elles visent a obtenir de la Cour le
respect de la «règle de droit international coutumier relative a I'inviola-
bilitéet l'immunité pénaleabsolues du ministre des affaires étrangères en

e-uercice; que ce faisant [le défendeur] a porté atteinte au principe de
l'égalitésouveraine entre les Etats~~O.
33. C'est une question relative a la procédurejudiciaire qui se pose. Le
revirement spectaculaire opérépar le demandeur sur ce point obligeait-il

la Cour a ne pas trancher dans son dispositif la compétence dite univer-
selle? Certainement. Il lui serait reproché de statuer ultra petitu. C'est
dire autre chose que de ne pas prendre position collectivement là-dessus.
De toute manière, si les motifs de l'arrêt l'omettaient, les opinions y
reviendraient.

34. Au demeurant quinze pages sur soixante-quatre du mémoire du
Congo n'ont-elles pas été réservées à cette question4'. Au cours des plai-
doiries, le Congo a déclarépar la voie de son conseil, M. Rigaux, que
«cela ne [l']intéressepas» quoiqu'elle l'ait évoquédans sa requêteini-

tiale42.Mais de guerre lasse ou par stratégiejudiciaire, elle a concédéà la
Cour l'examen des

«problèmes suscités en droit internutionul pur la compétence ztniver-
selle, mais elle ne le fera pas à la requête dela Partie demanderesse,
elle y est entraînée en quelque sorte par le système de défense dela

Partie défenderesse,parce que la Partie défenderesse semble affirmer
non seulement qu'il est licite d'exercer cette compétence, mais en
plus qu'il serait obligatoire de le faire et que, par conséquent, I'exrr-
cice de cette compétencepourrait valablement cotztrebaluncer le res-

pect deCsinîwîunités)).
Et de conclure :

«ljle crois donc que la Cour devra se prononcer sur certains aspects,

en tout cas, de la compétence universelle, mais j'insiste, ce n'est pas
à la requête dela Partie demanderesse que cette question n'intéresse
pas r/irectement >43.

40 CR 2001110.p. 26; les italiques sont de moi.
41 Mémoirede la République démocratique du Congo, p.47-61
42 Voir CR 2001/10, p. 11.
4' Ibid;les italiques sont de moi.

112proceedings institutetl and pursued by the Congo i:l its own right, follow-

ing the violation of the criminal immunities and inviolability of one of its
highest representatives, into the mere exercise of diplomatie protection of
one of its nationals deserves a polite dismissal calling for no further com-
ment on my part.
31. Did the Congo's final submissions preclude the Court from ruling

on the question of so-called universal jurisdiction"
32. It is true that the Congo's "final submissions" make no mention
whatever of this q~es~tion.They seek to have the C'ourt enforce the "rule
of international customary law concerning the absolute inviolability and

immunity from criminal process of incumbent ,foreign rninisters; in so
doing [the Responderit] violated the principle of sol ereign equality among
States" 40.
33. The issue here is one of judicial procedure. Did the Applicant's
spectacular change of position on this point require the Court not to rule

on so-called universal jurisdiction in the operative part of its Judgment?
Most definitely. It would have been criticized for riiling ultra petitu. That
is not the same as taking no collective position on the point. In any event,
in so far as the Judgrnent's reasoning failed to adclress this question, the

opinions would do so.
34. Moreover, of the 64 pages of the Congo's Memorial, 15 are
devoted to this quesition4'. At the oral proceedings, the Congo stated,
through its counsel, Professor Rigaux, that "tha: [was] an area of no
interest to [it]", even though it had raised it in its original Appli~ation~~.

But, battle-weary, or for reasons of litigation strategy, it allowed that the
Court might examine the

"issues of internutionul luiv raised by universcdjurisdiction, but it will
not do so at the request of the Applicant: it will, in a sense, have the
issuejorced uporr'it as a result of the defence strategy adopted by the
Respondent, since the Respondent appears to contend not only that

it is lawful to exercise such jurisdiction but that it is moreover
obligatory to do so, and therefore that the ex:rci.se of .suchjurisdic-
tion cun represerrta vulid counteriveight to th,]observance of immu-
nities".

And counsel conclud~rs :

''1accordingly believe that the Court will iri any event be obliged
to adjudicate on (certainuspects of universal jurisdiction, but 1would
stress that this il; not at the request of the Applicant, which is not

directly interested in the issue."43

4"See CR 2001110,p. 26: emphasis added.
42See CR 2001110,p.e11.cratic Republic of the Congo, pp. 47-61
" Ihid :mphasis addecl.Et de renvoyer aux conclusions à lire du Congo. Pour sa part, un autre
conseil du Congo, Mn" Chemillier-Gendreau, précisera:

«que l'extension de cette compétence à l'hypothèse où l'intéressé
n'est pus sur le territoire est actuelletnent sans fondement juridique

cotz$rmé,ce qui est très difjerent de lerire,cotnme veut nous lefaire
dire le professeur David que nozls ne contesterions plus lu compk-
tence universelle par &fiut »

Le conseil du Congo poursuit:

«La Belgique souhaiterait à la lumière de cette affaire que la
Cour, en se prononçant en faveur d'une compétenceurziverselleainsi

étendzre,intervienne dans le processus de création du droit et lui
donne une reconnaissance du bien-fondé de sa politique. ))

Et de conclure :

«Nous soutenons pour notre part que le point sur lequel il est
rzécessaireque la Cour se prononce. relativement à la compétence
univer.selle,comme vient de le dire le professeur Rigaux, est limité

à son usage lorsqzr'ellepuhse outre il une Nnmunitéde juridiction
d'un ministre des affrrires étrangères en exercice. Et nous lui
detnundon., alors lie dire qziecet uscrge,tel qu'il résultede I1'(~ctiod ne
lu Belgiqzre,est contrtrire lerudroit international. »44

35. Pour sa part, la Belgique a fondamentalement construit son sys-

tème de défense sur la com~étencedite universelle sur laauelle se base-
raient et sa loi controversée et son mandat contesté. Mais étant donné
que le Congo a ignorédans ses conclusions finales ladite compétence allé-
guée,la Belgique en a tirécomme conséquence que la Cour, conformé-

ment à la règle non ultra petita. voyait ainsi sa compétence limitéeaux
seuls points litigieux figurant dans les conclusions finales. Le défendeur
s'est appuyé sur la jurisprudence de la Celle-ci «a le devoir de
répondre aux demandes des parties telles qu'elles s'expriment dans leurs

conclusions finales, mais aussi celui de s'abstenir stutuer sur despoints
non cornpris ~1lert1 1.s.stlircsu't.i?~unl.insi e,~priin&s>bd6.
36. Lors de ses plaidoiries, la Partie défenderesses'est aussi déclarée

((réticente,non parce qu'elle a des doutes sur la légalitéde sa posi-
tion ou la solidité de ses arguments mais plutôt parce qu'elle aurait

préféré que les accusations contre M. Yerodia Ndombasi aient été

4V0~r CC 2001/10. p. 16-17: les italiques sont de moi.
Affairedu D<;troirde Corfi)u, fi\-(rrioriihr i?ioritrrrif(les r.c;pirrrrtior~i.1sr,r8/. C.I.J.
Rccircil1949.p. 249:affaire relaàila Der?itrt~iint<,rpr<;tir1rI'crrr(L20 t~ovrnihre
1950 rii I'(rff(rrrcc,l11rlroittl'rr.silr.irrr81,C.I.J. Rrcxtril 1950. p. 402.
Affaire relativi la Der~lrrncltel'inreriiri.derlI'irrr@~tlir?O ~rovc,nihrr1950 rrz
I'i~jfriircL~IItIiroirc,rrCr.C.I.J. Rc(.~lc'i1l950. p. 403: contre-mémoire de la Belgique.
par. 0.25. 2.74. 2.79. 2.81, 10.2.And Counsel then refers to its forthcorning submissions. For her part, Pro-
fessor Chemillier-Geridreau, another of the Congo's counsel, stated that :

"the extension of such jurisdiction to a case ivlîere the person con-

cerned is not ivithin the territory hus at prescnt no confirmed legal
husis, ~vliichis very diffrrent from saying, us Professor Duvid tvould
have us say, tliat ,ce no longer cliullenge universal jurisdiction

in absentia".

Congo's counsel continued :

"In the light of this case, Belgium would lik: the Court, by finding
in favour of a uniilersaljurisdiction ~vhichpîssesses tlzose hroader
hounds, to intervene in the lawmaking proces and thereby endorse

the validity of its policy."

She concluded :

"For our part, we contend that the point to which the Court
should corijineits ruling in regurd to universal,juri.sdiction is, as Pro-

fessor Rigaux h,asjust said, its use where it infringes an iiîzinunity
.fiorn,jurisdiction of an incumbent Minister,fo A Foreign Affuirs. Atid
ii~~theri rrquest the Court to declare thrrt iti. use in these circunz-

.stanceJ, UJ hrnhodied in Belgiurn 'saction, i~contrarj3to internutionrrl
la,\ .44

35. For its part, Belgium basically founded its clefence strategy on so-
called universal jurisdiction, upon which its controversial statute and dis-

puted warrant are piirportedly based. But, since the Congo ignored the
issue of such purported jurisdiction in its final submissions, Belgium
accordingly argued tl-iatthe Court's jurisdiction wis thus limited, pursu-
ant to the tzotzultra pl"itu rule, solely to those points in dispute appearing

in the final submissions. The Respondent cited the Court's jurispru-
dence?': "It is the duty of the Court not only to reply to the questions as
stated in the final suibmissions of the parties, bu also to ahstuitî fiom

deciding points not included in those submissions. "4h

36. In its oral argument, the Respondent also stated that it was

"reluctant, not because it has doubts as to the legality of its position

or the soundness of its arguments, but rather i8would have preferred
the accusations iigainst Mr. Yerodia Ndombasi to be dealt with by

'j See CR 2001110.p. 17; emphasis added.
45 Case concerning Corfit Chonriel,A.\srs.srnrofrAmouil/ of Conipcnsution, Judgrtient.
I.C.J. Report.\ 1949. p. 240: case coiicerning Recluest,/i~rIr~rer/*r<,tcitico'nf'tlotf'rlgnic~n
20 Noi~eniher1950 NI rl~eAsylur~iCase, Judgrnent, I.C.J. Reports IY50, p. 402.

4" Recruesthr Internreti,ition of the Jud~nlent of 20 Novemh,,r 1950 in the A.~vlunzCusc,.
JII~~~~I~ICI.,~J, ~cjixirt!, 1950: p. 402': Counter-~emoria of Belgiurn. Gras. 0.25.
2.74, 2.79, 2.81. 10.2. traitées par les autorités compétentes en République démocratique
du Congo»47.

Elle a également affirméque «les principes de compétence universelle et
l'absence d'immunité en cas d'allégations de violations graves du droit

international humanitaire sont bien fondés endroit ..»jx.
37. A mon sens, il ya là un point de désaccordmajeur entre les Parties
que la Cour pouvait trancher si la règle non ultra petitu ne lui avait pas
étéopposée. A peine de verser dans l'e'ccèsdepouvoir, la Cour ne pouvait
statuer ultrupetitu. On a pu direjustement que, ccsil'arbitre estjuge de sa

compétence, il n'en est pas le maître))"'. L'examen de points qui ne figu-
reraient pas dans les demandes congolaises aurait exposéla Cour à des
reproches semblables. Dans ses conclusions finales muettes, le Congo ne
s'est cependant pas montré hostile à une prise de position par la Cour à
ce sujet dans sa motivation.
38. D'autre part, la Belgique n'a pas voulu que la Cour se prononce au

fond relativement aux allégations ci-dessus qu'elle estimait pourtant éta-
blies en droit :

«Si l'on considère le droit comme un processus évolutif et s'il faut
s'en remettre finalement à la décision de la Cour en la matière, la
question est de savoir s'il serait soulzcrituhleque lu Cour se prorzonce
au fond. La Belgique, malgré tout le respect dû au rôle que joue la

Cour dans le développement du droit international, pense pour sa
part que la r6pon.c.eest nkgcztiiv. Elle considère en effet que, sauf
motif impérieux - par exemple parce qu'il subsiste un litige concret
entre deux Etats nécessitant un règlement -, le fait pour la Cour de
statuer au fond risque de figer le droit au moment précisoù les Etats,

auxquels la responsabilité du développement du droit revient en pre-
mier lieu, cherchent en tâtonnunt une solutioiz qui leur soit propre.
De l'avis de la Belgique, iln'est pas opportun à ce stade de figer le
droit dans un sens extensif ou restrictif.))

39. Il va sans dire qu'il n'appartient pas à un plaideur d'apprendre au
juge son métier. Les appréhensions de ce dernier sur les effets cristalli-

sants éventuelsd'une décision judiciaire internationale manquent de fon-
dement. Particulièrement dans l'ordre coutumier international, il est
prouvé que la jurisprudence internationale n'a pas pour effet de figer
absolument le droit. Il en est de mêmedans une certaine mesure du droit
conventionnel lui-mêmeélaborépar les Etats. Enfin, dire que ces derniers

ont la responsabilité premièrede bâtir le droit revient à reconnaître impli-

47 CR 200118,p. 8.
4X CR 200118,p. 31, par. 54.
4y Charles Rousseau, «Les rapports coiiflictuels». Droit interrzutionulpuhlic, t. V, 1983,
p. "'CR 700118.p. 31, par. 54; les italiques sont de moi. the competent authorities in the Democrzttic Republic of the
C~ngo"~'.

It also asserted that "the principles of universal jurisdiction and the
absence of immunity in the case of allegations cf serious breaches of
international humanit.arian law are well-founded iii the law . . ."48.

37. In my view, this is a major point of dispute between the Parties
which the Court coultl decide were it not for the non ultra prtita rule. On
pain of acting ultru vires, the Court could not rule ultru petitu. It has
been correctly said that "while the Court is judge of its jurisdiction, it is
not its master"". The examination of points not included in the Congo's

submissions would halveexposed the Court to criticism on this score. In
its final submissions, which were silent on the point, the Congo did not,
however, show itself hiostileto the Court's taking a stance on the point in
its reasoning.

38. For its part, Belgium did not wish the Court to rule on the sub-
stance of its claims as above, which it did, howevei, consider established
in law:

"In the realm of law as process, the question is, if it ultimately
turns on the discretion of the Court, ichetlzerit ivould be desiruble
jbr tlie Court to procc~edto CIjudgment on the merits of'this cuse.

Belgium, with the very greatest of respect for tlie role of the Court in
developing international law, contends that 't ii*ouldnot. In Bel-
gium's contentiori, in the absence of a compelling reason to do so -
and a conipelling reason to do so would be a siibsisting concrete dis-

pute between two States which requires resolution - for the Court
to proceed to a judgment on the merits of these issues would risk
rigidity in the la~wjust at the point at whic:h States. principally
responsible for the development of the law, are groping to~vurds,TO/U-
tions of their owii. In Belgium's contention, tliis is not the point at

&le," rSOidity in the law, whether expansive <Irrestrictive, is desir-

39. It goes without saying that it is not for a litisant to tell the Court
how to do its job. The Respondent's concern reg,irding the rigidifying
effects of an international judicial decision are unfo ~nded. Particularly in

international customary law, it is established that international jurispru-
dence does not have the effect of freezing the law for al1time. To a cer-
tain extent, the same is true of treaty law, which is itself developed by
States. Finally, to say that States have the prime responsibility for devel-
oping the law is to recognize implicitly the responsibility of other organs

47CR 200118,p. 8.
48CR 200118,p. 3 1,para. 54.
4' Charles Rousseau. "L.es rapports conflictuels", Droit Nit~rncrtlublic, Vol. V.
1983,p. 326.
"' CR 200118.p. 31,para. 54; crnphasis added.114 MANDAT D'ARKET (OP. IND. BULA-BULA)

citement la responsabilité d'autres organes ou entités, dont la Cour, de
s'acquitter d'autres tâches. La doctrine le constate quasi unanimement.

40. En définitive, quel sort aurait dû êtreréservéà la compétence dite
universelle eu égard à la discrétion desconclusions finales du Congo à ce
sujet et au peu d'empressement manifesté par la Belgique a voir la Cour
se prononcer là-dessus? La prudence extrême duCongo n'était pasjus-

tifiéepuisque cet Etat sollicitait que le litige soit totalement vidé. Larésis-
tance de la Belgique également n'était pas fondéeL . a Partie défenderesse,
qui alléguait agir en vertu du droit international, avait I'opportiinité de
faire sanctionner positivement sa pratique jugée par elle licite. A mon
sens, la Cour avait la responsabilitéprincipule de trancher si oui ou non
comme le prétendait le demandeur les règles coutumières relatives aux

immunités et a l'inviolabilité personnelle pénalesdu ministre des affaires
étrangèresdu Congo, M. Yerodia Ndombasi, ont étévioléespar le défen-
deur. Et puisque c'est au nom d'une compétence dite universelle, mal
conçue et mal appliquée, a mon avis, que cette transgression est interve-
nue, le dispositif de l'arrêt sanctionne implicitement malgré tout cette

prétention. Mais la Cour n'aurait-elle pas dû dans l'exposé des motifs,en
tant qu'organe garant de l'intégritédu droit international, .reprononcer
aussi nettement sur la validitératione loci et ratione personae des préten-
tions belges aussi manifestement illicites? La motivation de l'arrêt
n'aurait-elle pas dû comporter une mention pertinente sur l'une des ques-
tions les plus controversées actuellement en droit international. Aurait-on

reproché la Cour d'avoir dit le droit sur ce point? Cependant, il
demeure que la Cour a bien choisi, en accord avec les Parties, «des motifs
essentiel^))^pour trancher le litige. Elle a, à cette occasion, codifié et
développéle droit des immunités. La nébuleuse question de compétence
dite universelle, telle que présentéedans cette affaire, a aussi été réglée.

41. Que les ministres des affaires étrangèresjouissent des immunitéset
de l'inviolabilité pénalesde leur personne physique en droit international
coutumier devant les juridictions nationales ne fait l'ombre d'aucun
doute. Celles-là correspondent a des restrictions imposées par le droit
international à l'expression du droit interne. En termes précis, tout droit

national cesse de se manifester contre la présencede l'organe supérieur de
1'Etat étranger. Aucune entité souveraine ne saurait en droit soumettre à
son autorité tout autre Etat également souverain ainsi représenté. Tel est
l'étatactuel du droit international positif qu'une enquête,à l'échellemon-
diale, devrait confirmer.
42. Le défendeur s'est évertuéà entretenir la confusion dans l'esprit de

l'homme du commun. Il ne pouvait le faire à l'égard d'un homme de

5'Voir Tanaka, opinion individuelle joànl'arrêtdu 24 juillet 1964en l'affaire de
BurcelorzcrTrcictior?,Ligkt und Poirci-Comp~iriy,Lirnircd c'i(~c~ptiorpesr,rét,iriii>~uiru
C.I.J. Rrcueil 1964, p. 65.

115or entities, including the Court, for performing other tasks. Legal
scholars are virtually unanimous in acknowledgin;; this.

40. In short, how should so-called universal jurisdiction have been
treated, given the discretion shown in the Congo'; final submissions on

this subject and the lack of urgency demonstrated t'y Belgium for a ruling
by the Court on the rnatter? The Congo's extreme caution was not justi-
fied, since it was seeking to have the dispute cor~pletely resolved. The
resistance on Belgium's part was unfounded too. The Respondent, which
was claiming to act urider international law, had tht opportunity to secure

a positive sanction for a practice which it consider~:dlawful. In my view,
the Court's prinlary ,responsibility rvas to decide v~hether or not, as the
Applicant claimed, the customary rules concerning the persona1 immuni-
ties and inviolability from criminal process of the Minister for Foreign
Affairs of the Congo. Mr. Yerodia Ndombasi, hatl been violated by the

Respondent. And since it was in the name of a so-cklled universal jurisdic-
tion, in my opinion ill-conceived and misapplied, that this infringement
took place, the operative part of the ~udgment noni:theless implicidy con-
demns Belgium's claim. But ought iiot the Court, as guarantor of the
integrity of internatioi~al law, to have ruleriin its reasoning equally clearly

on the validity rwtione loci and rrrtionepersoncle cbfsuch manifestly un-
lawful claims on Belgium's part? Should the reascning of the Judgment
not have contained a relevant passage on one of tl.lecurrently most con-
troversial questions in international law? Would the Court have been
criticized for stating ithe law on this point? The Lict remains, however,

that the Court, in accord with the Parties, made iis choice of "essential
rea~ons"~' in order to settle the dispute. It has taken the opportunity to
codifv and develo~ the law of immunities. The vexeclauestion of so-called
universal jurisdiction, as presented in this case, has also been settled.
41. There is not the slightest doubt that in custorlary international law

Ministers for Foreign Affairs enjoy immunities ancl inviolability of their
tlerson in restlect of 1:riminal wrocess before national courts. These are
restrictions imposed by international law on the operation of domestic
law. To be more specific, al1national law ceases to prevail in the presence
of a higher organ of a foreign State. No sovereign tntity can legally exer-

cise authority over ariy other equally sovereign go~ernment as so repre-
sented. That is the cilrrent state of positive interriational law, which a
worldwide survey woilld certainly confirm.

42. The Respondent has done its utmost to cr:ate confusion in the

mind of the layman. Kthas been unable to do so iii the minds of jurists.

See Tanaka. separate opinion appended to the Judgment ~f24 July 1964 in the case
concerningBrrr.c.rlot~tTrrcic,igl~rcinPoii.~Coitzpcrny,L rniterl,Preliniirztrrj Ohjec-
rioil.\,I.C.J. R<,p1964.p. 65.

115droit. La Belgique a déployétoutes sesénergiespour faire croire qu'immu-
nitééquivaut a irnpunité.Nul juriste ne s'yégareraitpour qu'il faillemon-
trer que la responsabilité pénale personnelle de l'auteur d'une infraction
éventuelle estintacte nonobstant les immunitésdont il est couvert. Encore
ne faut-il pas perdre son latin de pénaliste au point d'oublier le principe

de présomption d'innocence de l'inculpé! A la limite, examiner les immu-
nitésdu ministre serait une banalité, n'eût été l'invocation de ((certains
développements récents»52. A tort. Les défenseursdes Etats législateurs,
face à la Cour, tentent d'érigerune certaine doctrine en législateur,après

avoir refuséà la haute juridiction cette qualité.

43. Il ne fait pas de doute que les immunités et leur corollaire, I'invio-
labilité de la personne physique du ministre en examen, revêtent un

caractère fonctionnel. Elles se fondent sur l'intérêd te la fonction que doit
assumer librement, sans entrave, l'organe éminent représentant l'autre
Etat égalà soi-même.C'est pourquoi les prérogativesen matière de main-
tien de l'ordre, de la défenseet de la justice, entre autres, de 1'Etat hôte
doivent êtreexercéesde manière à faciliter davantage l'activitédu mi-

nistre des affaires étrangères d'autrui. Comme le commentent des
auteurs: «l'immunité dont jouissent les représentants d'Etats étrangers
découlede la nature de leur charge))".
44. La doctrine américaine rappelle:

((Selon le Restuternent, l'immunité s'étendait:

a) a 1'Etat lui-même;
h) au chef de 1'Etat;

c) au gouvernement ou a tout organisme gouvernemental;
(1) au chef du gouvernement;
e) au ministre des affaires étrangères;
f) à tout autre ministre, haut responsable ou agent de I'Etat, en ce
qui concerne les actes qu'il effectue êtitre officiel, dans les cas où

l'exercice de la compétence entraînerait la mise en Œuvre d'une
règlede droit contre 1'Etat en question. »54

45. Quoique. ni dans ses écritures, ni dans ses plaidoiries, le Congo
n'ait pu montrer suffisamment l'entrave faite à l'exercicelibre de ses fonc-
tions de ministre des affaires étrangéresdu Congo par la Belgique, je

peux signaler quelques exenlples. Le ministre congolais des affaires étran-
gères n'a pas pu participer, au lendemain de l'émissiondu mandat, aux
réunions ministérielles des Etats ACP avec l'Union européenne à Bru-
xelles, ses immunités et son inviolabilité pénalesn'étant pas garanties.

i'Contre-mémoire de la Belgique. p109.par. 3.4.1.
" Louis Henkin. Richard Crawford Pugh. Oscar Schachter et Hans Smhi/eitirrfion<rl
Lriii1993. p.1188.[Ti.tr(l~ictiorr(lu .i.c:ffi,
54Ihirl.p. llc)l. AKREST WARRANT (SEP. OP. BULA-BULA) 115

Belgium went to great lengths in seeking to equate immunity with in~pu-
nity. No lawyer would be so misled as to belie-ie that any proof was
required of proposition that the persona1 crimin.11responsibility of the
perpetrator of an alleged offence remains intaci:, notwithstanding the
immunities protectirig him. Nor should we lose sight of the basics of

criminal law, to the point of forgetting the principle of the presumption
of the accused's innocence! It might even have been thought that the
issue of a Minister's immunities was a legal comrnonplace, had "certain
recent development~:"~' not been cited. Wrongly. Those who defend

before this Court States' rights to make law are s~eking to transform the
proponents of a certain school of doctrine into legslators, having refused
that status to the Court.
43. There is no dloubt that the immunities aiid their corollary, the
inviolability of the person of the Minister in quescion, have a functional

character. They are based on the importance of a high representative of
another State being able freely to discharge his du .ies. without let or hin-
dranceand under conditions of equality. It is for t lis reason that the pre-
rogatives of the host State in regard, it~trr dia. to ihe maintenance of law

and order, defence and justice must be exercised in such a way asto make
it easier for the Minister for Foreign Affairs of another State to do his
job. As certain writers have stated: "the immunity representatives of for-
eign States enjoy is aL function of the nature of their ~ffice"'~.
44. American doctrine recalls that:

"According to the Restatement, immunity extended to :

((1) the State itself;
(b) its head of State;

(c) its governrrient or any governmental agency;
(d) its head of government ;
(e) its foreign ininister;
(fj any other public minister, official, or azent of the State with

respect to acts performed in his officialcapacity if the effect of
exercising jurisdiction would be to enf0rc.ea rule of law against
the State." ''j

45. Although the Congo was not able to denonstrate sufficiently,
either in its written pleadings or in oral argument the extent of the hin-
drance caused by Belgium to the free exercise of hi:.duties by the Congo's

Minister for Foreign Affairs, 1can now give Som- examples. Following
the issue of the warrant, the Congolese Minister fi)r Foreign Affairs was
unable to attend miriisterial meetings of the ACP States with the Euro-
pean Union in Brussels, since his criminal immuiiities and inviolability

'' Counter-Mernorial of Belgium. p. 109, para. 3.4.1.
53 Louis Henkin, Richard Crawford Pugh. Oscar Schachter and Hans SmIr~ti~rrwfiotiul
Luii..1993.p.1188.
54 It~idp. 1191Il n'a pas pu prendre part aussi à la réunion de Paris sur l'évaluation du

sommet de la francophonie. M. A. Yerodia Ndombasi n'a pas pu effec-
tuer une visite officiellei Tokyo (Japon), en octobre 2000, au motif que
les autorités japonaises ont déclarén'êtrepas en mesure de l'assurer que
ses immunités et son inviolabilité pénales luiseraient garanties.
46. Outre des missions officielles manquées, le ministre a dû se séparer

de son chef de I'Etat, selon les itinéraires, et arriver en retard à la même
destination. Il en est résulté descoûts de voyage plus élevésd , es pertes de
bagages, des arrivées tardives aux réunions internationales, tel qu'au
sommet de Maputo au départ de la Chine. Il va sans dire que, à la suite
des missions officielles manquées ou réaliséesavec tant de désagréments,

le ministre des affaires étrangèresn'a pu assumer normalement ses fonc-
tions aux côtésdu chef de 1'Etatou en dehors de celui-ci. En définitive.la
conjugaison de divers facteurs, particulièrement son caractère indésirable
aux yeux de certaines autorités belges, conduira à son limogeage le
20 novembre 2000, date d'ouverture des audiences de la phase conserva-

toire de cette affaire.
47. L'Etat défendeur allègue l'existence d'une exception aux immuni-
tés de la personne du ministre des affaires étrangères et à la règle de
l'inviolabilité pénale en casde commission de ((crimes de droit interna-
tional)). II ne l'a guère prouvée. Cela participe tout simplement de sa stra-

tégiede défense.Tantôt n'a-t-il pas cherchéà contourner la qualité offi-
cielle alors revêtuepar M. A. Yerodia Ndombasi en arguant qu'il n'a visé
que la personne privéede ce dernier, tantôt n'a-t-il pas tenté d'inventer
une exception inexistante en droit international coutumier?

48. L'existence d'une règle fermement établie suivie obligatoirement
par la majorité d'environ cent quatre-vingt-dix Etats appartenant à
l'Afrique, l'Asie, l'Amérique, l'Europe et l'Océanie,en vertu de laquelle
le ministre des affaires étrangères en fonction bénéficied'une immu-
nité etd'une inviolabilité pénalesabsolues n'est pas contestable. Le con-

stat en est fait par la doctrine55.
49. Néanmoins, quelques voix dissonantes, à priori animées de cer-
taines préoccupations morales, s'expriment afin que ces représentants
qualifiés desEtats soient dépouillésde ces protectionsjuridiques absolues
en cas de commission de certaines infractions internationales. Plus que dans

nombre de régions du monde, ces dispositions ne peuvent qu'êtreles
bienvenues dans des pays victimes traditionnellesde crimes contre l'huma-
nité. Dès sa naissance, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale,
notre devancière, s'est reconnue la responsabilité que,

" Voir notamment Jean Salmon, Mrrtii~c~ldi.oil ili/~lorrzi. 994. p. 539: cet
auteur propose que le ministre affaires étrangèresjouisse «des privilègeset immunités
analogues àceux du chef de gouvernemen>>;Joe Verhoeven, Droit intc~riiutionuplublic,.
2000. p. 173: 11existe une tendance. au moins doctrinAlaccorder au chef du gou-
vernement, voire au ministre des affaires étrangères.la protectionnue au chef de
I'Etat»were not guaranteed. Nor was he able to participate in a meeting held in
Paris to evaluate the Francophone Summit. In October 2000, Mr. Ndom-
basi was unable to iindertake an official visit to Tokyo (Japan), as the
Japanese authorities stated that they were unablt: to give an assurance
that his criminal imnlunities and inviolability WOL Id be guaranteed.
46. In addition to the official visits that he was unable to make, the
Minister was obligeti, depending on the itinerarli, to travel separately

from his Head of State arriving late at their con-mon destination. This
resulted in increased travel costs, lost baggage, an1 late arrivals at inter-
national meetings, such as the Maputo Summit following a visit to China.
It is self-evident that, as a result of the official visits that he missed or
carried out under such difficult circumstances, tht: Minister for Foreign
Affairs was unable tciperform his duties normally, whether alongside the
Head of State or otl~erwise. Finally, a combination of various factors,
particularly hisundesirable character in the eyesofcertain Belgian authori-
ties, led to his dismissal on 20 November 2000, the date of the opening of

the hearings in the provisional measures phase of his case.
47. The Respondent contends that there is an exception to the rule of
the immunity and criminal inviolability of the per:on of the Minister for
Foreign Affairs in the case of "crimes under international law". It has not
proved that contention. This is no more than an element of its defence
strategy. At times, it sought to circumvent the officia1status enjoyed at
the relevant time by hdr. Ndombasi by arguing thai it was concerned with
him solely in his capacity as a private individual; 2 t others. it apparently
attempted to invent an exception which simply do1:snot exist in custom-

ary international law.
48. The existence of a firmly established rule, ot~ligatorilyfollowed by
the majority of some 190States from Africa, Asia, America, Europe and
Oceania, whereby an incumbent Minister for Foreign Affairs enjoys
absolute immunity arid inviolability from criminal process is not open to
question. The doctrine confirms this 5s.

49. Nonetheless, some dissenting voices, apparently moved by certain
moral concerns, claim that these appointed State 1-epresentativesshould
be stripped of such absolute legal protection where they have committed

certain international offences. In many regions of he world, such provi-
sions can orily be welcome in countries traditionilly victims of crimes
against humanity. From its inception, the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice, our predecessor, recognized that,

55See inter crliuJean Salmon, Manuel de droit diplomatique. 1994,p. 539: the Minister
for Foreign Affairsjoys "privileges and immunities analogous to those of the Head of
Government"; Joe Verhoeven. Droitinternational puhlic. 20(10,p. 123: "there is a ten-
dency, at least in the doctrine, to grant the Head of Governme it. and indeed the Minister
for Foreign Affairs, the protection accorded to the Head of Srate". «dans l'accomplissement de sa tâche de cor?nczître elle-nîêmele droit
international, elle [la Cour] ne s'est pas bornéeà cet examen. mais a
étendu ses recherches a tous les prkcédents et fuits qui lui étaient

accessibles et qui auraient, le cas échéant,pu révéler l'existence d'un
des principes du droit international visépar le compromis))56.

50. C'est sur le terrain du droit coutun~ierque les assertions belges et
leur pendant, les dénégationscongolaises, se situent. Le Gouvernement
belge a peut-être escompté,à la manière de la proclamation Truman sur

le plateau continental de 1945,que sa revendication nouvelle formuléeau
moment où des idéeshumanitaires connaissent un regain d'intérêtserait
suivie (massivement) par d'autres Etats. Il donne l'impression d'avoir
surestimé son poids sur l'échiquiermondial. Peu importe. Le grief prin-
cipal qui doit êtrearticuléà l'encontre du défendeur est d'user de I'argu-

ment humanitaire à des fins de domination politique. Comme au
XIX" siècle57!Au point d'inventer une entorse au droit international des
immunités parfaitement inexistantes en droit international.

51. Sommairement, la revendication belge ne peut, il'origine, que vio-
ler le droit existant. Nonobstant la publicité dont a bénéficié le mandat
du 11 avril 2000, elle n'a étésuivie par aucun autre Etat. Nul membre de
la sociétéinternationale ne lui a prêtémain forte en vue de son exécution.

Bien au contraire, plusieurs Etats, spécialementdes Etats africains, l'ont
ignoré. Le fâcheux précédentbelge est donc demeuréisolé.Si la Belgique
a le titre juridique de contribuer a la formation du droit international
général,elle ne saurait, iielle seule, créerce dernier. La pratique interna-
tionale lui fait donc défaut. En revanche, 1'Etat victime de ce fait, le

Congo, s'est fermement opposé à l'application de la mesure belge. Au
motif qu'elle est illicite.

52. D'autre part, le Gouvernement belge montre. par son comporte-

ment, qu'il n'est pas sûr de la licéitéde son acte contesté. La correspon-
dance adresséeau demandeur en cours d'instance judiciaire le prouvesR.
Le défendeur prétendenvisager la revision de sa loi querelléeafin de res-
pecter les immunités des hauts représentants des Etats étrangers. Au

milieu de tant de contradictions, d'attitudes incertaines qui marquent
fondamentalement cette pratique unilatérale et solitaire - sauf I'initia-
tive yougoslave du 21 septembre 2000 passéecurieusement sous silence
par la Belgique -, nulle norme coutumière ne saurait émerger. Comme

5%ffaire du Lotus,cirréno Y,1927, C.P.J.I. Recueil siAiII"10.p. 31.
" Le préambule de l'Acte généralde Berlin du 26 février1885rassure sur l'objet et le
but du traité:le bien-êtremoral et matériel des populations indigènes)).

5XVoir la coinmunication belge du 14 février200àlaquelle le Congo a répondu le
22 juin 2001. ARIZEST WARRANT (SEP. OP. BULA-BULA) 117

"in the fulfilment of its task of itseij uscrrtuining ivhut the internu-
tiot~ul1r~i.ii, [the Court] has not confined itself to a consideration of
the arguments put forward, but has includcd in its researches al1
precrdc>nt.s . .. and jucts to which it had accesi and which might pos-

sibly have revealed the existence of one of the principles of interna-
tional law contemplated in the special agreerlent" 5h.

50. It is in the area of customary laiv that the E.elgianclaims and their
counterparts, the Coi~golesedenials, lie. The Belgian Government possibly
anticipated that, as ,with the Truman Proclamaticln of 1945 on the con-
tinental shelf, its new claim, formulated at a tir,~ewhen humanitarian

ideas are undergoing: a revival of interest, would 1)efollowed (massively)
by other States. It giliesthe impression of having overestimated its impor-
tance on the world chessboard. No matter. The inain charge which can
be levied against the Respondent is of abusing the humanitarian argu-

ment for the purposes of political domination. A: in the nineteenth cen-
turyS7!To the point of devising an exception to ti-e rules of international
law governing immunities which simply does not exist in international
law.

51. In short, the Belgian claim was bound, fr0.n its inception, to rep-
resent violation of eriisting law. Despite the publicity enjoyed by the war-
rant of II April 200C1n ,o other State has followed Belgium'sexample. No
member of the international community has offered Belgium assistance

in executing the warrant. In fact, on the contrary, several States, particu-
larly African States, have ignored it. The unfortunate Belgian precedent
has thus remained an isolated one. While Belgiu n is entitled to contri-
bute to the formation of general international law, it cannot, on its own,

create that law. Thus it does not have internation~l practice behind it. By
contrast, the State which is the victim of this action, the Congo, has reso-
lutely opposed the application of the Belgian mi:asure. On the ground
that it is unlawful.

52. Moreover, thr: Belgian Government has shown, by its conduct,
that it is unsure of the lawfulness of its disputed .ict. Its correspondence
with the Applicant vvhilethe proceedings were in progress demonstrates
thisSX.The Respondent claims that it is contemp1;iting an amendment to

its controversial statute so as to respect the imrlunities of high repre-
sentatives of foreign States. From al1the many inccnsistencies and equivo-
cations fundamentally characterizing a practice b,~thunilateral and soli-
tary - if we exclude the Yugoslav initiative of 21 September 2000, which

has strangely gone ~inremarked by Belgium - n I customary norm has

zh "Lotus", Judgn~cwt,Yo. Y1927, P.CI. J., Series A, No10,p. 31.
57The Preamble to the General Act of Berlin of 26 Februaiy 1885provides reassurance
as to the object and purpose of the Treaty: "the moral anil material well-being of the
indigenous populations".
5XSee the Belgiaii communication of 14 February 2001, to which the Congo replied on
22 June 2001.118 MANDAT D'ARRÊT (OP. IND. BULA-BULA)

I'opiniojuris dans le chef du défendeur lui-même n'estapparemment
guèreétablie.
53. A dire vrai, 1'Etatdéfendeurs'est évertué à s'appuyer sur quelques
opinions de publicistes pour alléguer l'apparition d'une norme coutu-
mièredérogatoire. 11n'a pas rapporté la preuve de son existence. On sait
que la doctrine constitue un moyen de détermination dela règlede droit.
Elle doit se fonder sur une pratique généralecorrespondant à I'opinio

juris sive necessitas. Rien de pareil à ce jour. A mon sens, il n'a pas été
malaisépour la Cour de relever le caractère non fondédes allégationsdu
défendeur. La mise en Œuvre du droit international humanitaire serait-
elle affectéed'un coefficient de normativité relative, pour paraphraser
P. Weil? Sinon, comment justifier juridiquement la suspension des pour-
suites contre l'organe d'un Etat du Proche-Orient et le maintien obstiné

des poursuites contre l'ancien ministre congolais desaffaires étrangères?

54. Evoquant les rapports entre crimes et immunités,ou dans quelle
mesure la nature des premiers empêchel'exercice des secondes, Pierre-
Marie Dupuy estime à la suite de la décisionde la Chambre des lords en
l'affaire Pinochet :

«Pour autant il convient d'êtreprudent dans l'affirmation d'une
nouvelle coutume, dont la décision desLords, au demeurant fondée
sur des considérations souvent hétérogènes, nesaurait à elle seule
entraîner la consolidation. )59

Et de rappeler que

«[l]a coutume procède de l'opinion juridique des Etats telle qu'elle
ressort de leur pratique. Or, celle-ci est encore loin d'êtreunifiée,
et manifeste en tout cas la persistance des réticencesétatiques ii
la réductiondes immunitésdes agents supérieursde 1'Etat. )ho

Il n'y a pas de comportement ((généralement))adopté «par la pratique
des Etats)). Ainsi que l'a dit notre Cour,

«la présence [desnormes coutumières]dans l'opiniojuris des Etats se
prouve par la voie d'induction en partant de l'analysed'une pratique
suffisamment étoffée etconvaincante et non paspar voie de déduc-
tion en partant d'idkespréconstituées à priori))".

Point de nombreuses décisions descours et tribunaux de l'ensemble des

5yPierre-Marie Dupuy, ((Crimes et immunités,ou dans quelle mesure la nature des pre-
miers empêchel'exercice des secondes)), Revueinirale de droit international public,
vol.103, no 2, 1999,p. 293; les italiques sont de moi.
Ibid.
Affaire de la Dilimitalion de lafrontilre maritime dans b rigion riugolfe du Maine,
arrc't,C.I.J. Recue1984, p299; les italiques sont de moi. emerged. Just as the Respondent's own opiniojurlv is apparently far from
established.
53. In reality, the Respondent has sought to rely on a small number of
opinions of publicisi.sin order to claim that a nerv derogative customary
norm has come into being. It has provided no e~idencë of its existence.
We know that doctrine represents a means for determining the rules of
law. It must be founded on a general practice corresponding to the opinio

juri~ sive neces.ritas. Nothing of the kind exists .oday. In my view, the
Court could readily findthat the Respondent's claims were unfounded. 1s
it possible that the implementation of internatilmal humanitarian law
might be subject to a co-efficientof velutive norm~ttivity - to paraphrase
P. Weil? If not, how can there be any legal justification for suspending
proceedings against an organ of a Middle Eastern State whilst obsti-
nately persisting witll proceedings against the former Congolese Minister

for Foreign"Affairs?
54. Referring to i.he relationship between crinies and immunities, or
the extent to which the nature of the former imp:des the exercise of the
latter, Pierre-Marie Dupuy writes, in light of the House of Lords ruling
in the Pinocl~et case:

"We should exercisecaution in confirming the emergence of a new
customary rule as embodied in the House of Lords ruling, which is
based on considlerations that are not entirely consistent and cannot,
oj'itself,result in the consolidation of such custom." 5y

Dupuy then recalled that
"custom emerges from the legal opinion of :Statesas demonstrated

by their practice, which is, however, far frcm unified, and in any
event shows that States are still reluctant to accept any reductions in
the imrnunities of their high officiais" 60.
There is no conduct "generally" adopted "by t ie practice of States".

As this Court has held,
"[the] presence [ofcustomary norms] in the o,?iniojuris of States can
be tested by indluction based on the analysis of a sufficiently exten-
siveand convincing practice, and not by deduc.tionfrorn pveconceived

ideas" "'.
These are few decisions - or at least any significant number - of courts

" Pierre-Marie Dupuy, "Crimes et immunités,ou dans quelle mesure la nature des pre-
miers empêche l'exercice des secondes", Revue ginirale di, droit international public,
Vol. 103. No. 2, 1999. p. 293: emphasis added.
"'Ihid.
"'Delinzitutivn othclMuritirnrBoundu- in rh~~Gulf'of MuirzeArea, Judgrvlen1.C.J.
R~ports1984, p. 299; emiphasisadded.119 MANDAT D'ARRET (OP. [ND. BULA-BULA)

Etats du globe, à tout le moins d'un nombre significatif, dans l'optique
belge. Bien au contraire. Très récemment, la Cour a émis un avis dans
l'affaire relative auDgf'érendrelutif à l'immunitédejuridiction d'un rup-
porteur spécialde lu Commission des doits de I'hornme, en ces termes:
«les tribunaux malaisiens avaient l'obligation de traiter la question de

l'immunité de juridiction comme une question préliminaire A trancher
dans les meilleurs délais» 6'.
55. Auparavant, elle avait constaté que

«la Higlz Court de Kuala Lumpur n'a pas statué ir~lin~irzeiitis sur
I'immunité ...mais a rendu un jugement par lequel elle s'est déclarée
compétente pour connaître au fond de l'affaire dont elle étaitsaisie;
y compris pour déterminer si M. Cumaraswamy pouvait se prévaloir
d'une quelconque immunité»".

Semblable obligation pèse aussi et surtout sur les Etats dans leurs rap-
ports mutuels. Aussi, par analogie, conjuguée avec l'argument à for-

tiori entre sujets primaires du droit international et les organes parti-
culièrement qualifiés que sont les ministres des affaires étrangères,
cette règle rappelée par la Cour devrait s'appliquer à la présente
espèce.
56. Les changementsde statut qu'a connus successivement M. A. Yero-
dia Ndombasi n'ont pas de conséquence fâcheuse sur l'affaire sinon de

souligner davantage l'atteinte à la souveraineté du Congo par la Belgique
en raison de ses ingérencescontinues (voir ci-dessus).
57. D'autre part, centréequ'elle l'est sur la violation des immunités du
ministre des affaires étrangères au moment de l'émission etde la notifica-
tion du mandat, le statut antérieur et les statuts postérieurs revêtuspar
M. A. Yerodia Ndombasi n'affectent en rien la plainte congolaise. Dès

lors que les poursuites illicites sont exercéesau moment où ila cette qua-
lité d'organe spécialisédans les relations extérieures d'un Etat et, en
conséquence, couvert d'immunités et d'inviolabilité personnelle pénales
absolues, la violation du droit international au préjudicedu Congo sub-
siste; la Belgique ayant contracté une dette i l'égardnon pas d'un indi-
vidu en transgressant la norme du droit international coutumier régissant

les relations interétatiques, mais vis-A-vis d'un Etat, le Congo, dont
l'organe en charge des relations internationales s'est vu infligéune mesure
téméraire,vexatoire et illicite, qui appelle réparation. Or, face à ces allé-
gations bien fondées du demandeur, le défendeur prétend ne pas porter
atteinte aux droits de souveraineté de sa victime. Bien au contraire, la
Belgique affirme exercer un droit A elle conféréou accomplit une obliga-

tion à elle imposéepar le droit international. D'où le refus d'anéantir le

" Diffi.rrnd r.clutif'ùI'irnlejuridiction d'un rcipporrczrrscibiCoinrnis.~ion
clesciroitstic,I'lrornrtrr,ovi.~coti~ult(~fif,C.I.J. Recircjil1par.67. 2 h)les
italiques sont de moi.
"' Ihid.p.72,par. 17.and tribunals worldwide which have taken thi: Belgian view. Quite

the contrary. Just recently, the Court delivered an Opinion in the case
concerning the DifJêrenceRelriting to Immuniti? from Legal Process
of a Speciul Rapporteur qf'the Cornmi~sionon t7uman Rights, stating:
"the Malaysian courts had the obligation to de21 with the question of

immunity from legal process as a pr'liminary is:ue to be expeditiously
decided" h'.
55. Previously, it had noted that

"The High Court of Kuala Lumpur did not pass upon ... immu-
nity in liminr liris, but held that it had jurisciiction to hear the case
before it on the merits, including making a determination of whether

Mr. Cumaraswamy was entitled to any imrn~~nity."~'

A similar obligation applies also, and above all, to States in their mutual
relations. Thus, by way of analogy, and u,fi>rtiori - since we are dealing
here with primary subjects of international law and with their highest

ranking representatives, namely Ministers for Foreign Affairs - this rule
as restated by the Court must be applied in the present case.

56. The successivc:changes in Mr. Ndombasi's status have no serious

implications for the case, except to underline furt ier the violation of the
Congo's sovereignty by Belgium on account of its continued interference
(see above).
57. Moreover, as the focus of this case is the violation of the immuni-

ties of the Minister for Foreign Affairs at the tim: of the issue and noti-
fication of the warrant, the previous and subsequeiit status of Mr. Ndom-
basi in no way affect the Congolese complaint. Criven that the unlawful
proceedings were instituted at a time when he had the status of a special-

ized organ responsible for the foreign relations ol'a State and, in conse-
quence, was protected by absolute immunity and personal inviolability
from criminal process, the violation of international law to the detriment
of the Congo continues to exist; in transgressing the rule of customary

international law governing inter-State relations, Belgium has incurred a
debt not to an indiv:idual but a State, the Congo, whose organ responsi-
ble for international relations has been subjected to a rash, vexatious and
unlawful measure, which calls for reparation. Yct, in response to these

well-founded claims of the Applicant, the Respondent claims not to have
violated the sovereign rights of its victim. On the contrary, Belgium
claims to be exercisirig a right conferred on it by i:iternational law or ful-
filling an obligation imposed on it by internatiorial law. That is why it

Bifyc~renceRrlutingto Imrnunify from Lepl Procrss r~j(1Speci~iI Rupportc,uof
the Conztnis.riorion Hunlun Righf.~, Ativi.~«r.vOpinion, I.C.1.orts1999 (1). p. 90,
para. 67 (2) ih); emphasis added.
"l Ihitl., p. 72. pa1;'.120 MANDAT D'ARRÊT (OP. IND. BULA-BULA)

mandat et en conséquence deréparerle préjudice subi.L'odysséeperson-
nelle de M. A. Yerodia Ndombasi ne vide en rien le différendinteréta-
tique.
58. Il est significatif que le défendeur reconnaisse implicitement le
manque de soliditéde ses moyens en ces termes:

«Mêmedans l'éventualitéou la Cour devrait, contrairement aux
conclusions de la Belgique, confirmer l'immunitéde M. A. Yerodia
Ndombasi, en sa qualitéde ministre des affaires étrangèresdu Congo
dans lescirconstances considéréesi,ln'endécouleraitpas qu'ildemeu-
rerait au bénéficede l'immunité, même en occupant le poste de mi-
nistre pour ses activitésde caractère privé..D~~

59. A moins de soutenir que l'infraction commisepar la Belgiquea été
prescrite au bout de deux ans. A priori, rien de pareil commerègle endroit
international, encore moins dans la conception africaine du droit. En
Afrique, un différend nese dissout pas. Il se transmet, comme une dette,

de successionen succession.Il en estainside l'objetdu litigequiestineffaçable
tant que la reconnaissancede la faute commisepar l'auteur et la réparation
du préjudice subipar sa victimen'ont pas eu lieu. Lesdénégations non fon-
déesdu défendeurme poussent à formuler une proposition théorique.

60. Prenons l'hypothèsed'une personnalité assumant les fonctions de
conseiller aux affaires africainesà la présidenceou à la primature d'une
puissance donnée.Elle ordonne à ce titre la répressiond'une insurrection
populaire ou d'une manifestation estudiantine dans un ((pays ami»65qui
entraîne mort d'hommes. Par la suite, ce conseiller accèdeaux fonctions
de ministre des affaires étrangèresou de secrétaire d'Etat de la puissance

en question.
61. Un Etat tiers délivrealors un mandat contre le ministre ou secré-
taired'Etat au motif qu'il avait donnédes ordres, en tant que conseiller,
qui, dans leur mise en Œuvre,ont causé des violationsmassives et systé-
matiques des droits humains. La question est de savoir si pareil mandat
affecte ou n'affecte pas les immunités et l'inviolabilité personnelle pénales
du ministre ou du secrétaire d7Etat. A mon avis, la réponse est affirma-
tive. C'est l'organe deI'Etat, chargéde le représenterinternationalement,
qui est victime de la mesure à ce moment-là.

62. A la suite d'un changement d'administration ou de gouvernement,

le ministre des affaires étrangèresou le secrétaire d'Etat perd son poste

" Jean-Pierre CoA,l'épreuve dupouiwir. Le tiers-mondisme. Pour quoifuire?, 1984,
p. 85. L'auteur signale que, alors qu'il était ministre de la coopération. il a donnédes
ordres afin que les coopérants militaires français ne soieàla répressionde la
manifestation estudiantine de juinàKinshasa. ARF1EST WARRANT (SEP.OP. BULA-BULA) 120

refuses to cancel the warrant and thus make reparation for the injury
suffered. Mr. Ndomlbasi's persona1 odysseyin no sense marks the end of
the inter-State dispute.
58. It is significant that the Respondent implizitly acknowledges the
weakness of its defence in the following terms:

"Even were the Court to uphold, contrar:i to Belgium's submis-
sions, the immunity of Mr. Yerodia Ndomba:,i qua Minister for For-
eign Affairs of i.heDRC in the circumstancej in issue, it would not
follow that he would have been immune, even when in office, as
regards conduct of a private nature . .."h4

59. Unless one were to contend that Belgium':;offence became time-

barred aftei-two years. There is in principle no such rule in international
law, even less so in the Africun conception of the I;LwI.n Africa, a dispute
does not disappear. It is transmitted, like a debt, from generation to gen-
eration. The same applies to the sub,ject-matter of the dispute, which can-
not be effaced as long as there is no acknowledgment of the offence
committed or reparation for the injury suffered by the victim. The
Respondent's unfounded denials prompt me to present a hypothetical

case.
60. Let us take the example of an individual carrying out the duties of
an Adviser on African Affairs to the President or Prime Minister of a
certain State. In thaitcapacity, the individual ordvrs the suppression of a
popular uprising or a student demonstration in 1 "friendly country"65,
resulting in deaths. Subsequently, that Adviser is appointed Minister for
Foreign Affairs or Secretary of State of the country in question.

61. A third State then issues a warrant again ;t the Minister or Sec-
retary of State on the grounds that he had given orders as Adviser
which, when implernented, led to wide-scale ancl systematic violations
of human 1-ights.The question is whether such 21warrant does or does
not affect the criminal immunities and personal inviolability of the
Minister or Secretary of State. In my opinion, the reply has to be in
the affirmative. It is the organ of the State, respc~nsiblefor representing

that State internationally, which is the victim of that measure at that
point in time.
62. Following a change in administration or gclvernment, the Minister
for Foreign Affairs or Secretary of State loses his post (which is different

h4Counter-Mernorial, p. 116, para. 3.4.15.
h'Jean-Pierre CotA l'?preuvedu pouvoir. Le tic~rs-rnontlisme.Pour quo?,1984,
p. 85. The author notes that. when he was Minister for Cc-operation, he issued orders
that French rnilitaryvisers should not be involved in th,: suppression of the student
demonstration of June1981 in Kinshasa.121 MANDAT D'ARRÊT (OP. IND. BULA-BULA)

(ce qui est différent du cas Yerodia en raison des pressions extérieures).
L'Etat auteur du mandat maintient son acte. Cette mesure continue-t-elle
d'affecter le conseiller aux affaires africaines, le ministre des affaires

étrangèresou le secrétaired'Etat, ou touche la personne désormais libé-
réede toute charge gouvernementale? Je pense que c'est ladatede l'émis-
sion du mandat qui définit le moment précisde la violation du droit
international et la qualitéen ce temps-la du destinataire de l'acte qui in-
dique la personnalitévioléedans son intégrité morale.C'estle ministre des
affaires étrangèresou le secrétaired'Etat au jour et a l'heure de I'émis-
sion du mandat qui fut atteint. Il ne s'agit ni d'un acte d'instruction émis
contre une personne privéeque l'ancien secrétaire d'Etat ou ministre des

affaires étrangèresest devenu, ni d'une mesure frappant à l'époquele
conseiller aux affaires africaines. L'intangibilité des faits se dresse,
impassible comme un sphinx.

63. Le principe d'une compétencedite universelle par une partie de la
doctrine ne saurait êtresérieusementcontestéaux termes des dispositions
genevoises pertinentes. Quelques réservesque je puisse avoir d'abord sur
une terminologie peu heureuse au plan du droit international. Car, la

sumnîa divisiocorrecte,à mon sens, devrait retenir 1)la compétence ter-
ritoriale, 2) la compétencepersonnelle et 3) la compétencà raison de ser-
vices publics.
64. Je ne qualifierais pas de ((compétenceuniverselle» l'autoritéexer-
céepar un Etat, soit à I'égardde ses nationaux à l'étranger,qui relèvede
sa compétence personnelle, soit a I'égardde ressortissants étrangers en
haute mer auteurs d'actes de piraterie maritime, qui rentre dans le cadre
de la compétencea raison de services publics, soità I'égardde toute per-

sonne se trouvant sur son territoire ayant porté atteinte à son ordre
public, qui tombe ainsi dans le champ de sa compétenceterritoriale. Il en
est de mêmede la compétenceen matière de répression de certaines vio-
lations de dispositions conventionnelles que se reconnaissent les Etats.
On conçoit aisémentqu'une entitéuniverselle, encore inexistante, l'Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies elle-mêmeet son principal organe judiciaire,
étant plutôt quasi universelle, puisse seprévaloir d'un pouvoir juridique
universel. On sait que, en vertu des traités spécifiquesauxquels ils sont
parties, les membres de la communauté quasi universelle sereconnaissent

le pouvoir de réprimercertaines infractions commises au-delà de leur ter-
ritoire dans des conditions bien définies.Matériellement ensuite, sem-
blable pouvoir juridique n'est pas universel. Peut-êtresous l'influence
peu heureuse des conceptions pénalistes"; une partie de la doctrine inter-
nationaliste s'y réfèrecomme l'exercice d'une compétence universelle.

hhL'absence de mention de ((compétence universelle)) n'est pas aussi rare dans les
travaux des pénalistes eux-mêmes.rar exemple André Huet et René Koering-Joulin,
Droitpi.11i~t1~ternutitiu4. ARllEST WARRANT (SEP.OP. BULA-BULA) 121

from the case of Mr. Ndombasi, where external pressures were exerted).
The State which issued the warrant continues 1)roceedings. Does this
measure continue to affect the Adviser on African Affairs, the Minister

for Foreign Affairs or the Secretary of State, or does it affect the indi-
vidual now freed of al1governmental responsibilii.y? 1consider that it is
the date of the issue of the warrant which establis les the precise moment
of the internationally wrongful act and the status at that time of the per-
son against whom the warrant is issued, naming him and violating his

moral integrity. It is the Minister for Foreign Affiirs or the Secretary of
State on the day and at the time of the issue of the warrant who was
impugned. This is not an investigative measure di:.ected against a private
individual, which th12former Secretary of State cr Minister for Foreign
Affairs has become, nor is it a measure directed at the time against the
Adviser on African Affairs. Nothing can change tlie facts, which, like the

sphinx, remain unaffected.
63. The principle ofjurisdiction which some cal1"universal" cannot be
seriously contested in terms of the relevant provisions of the Geneva
Conventions. However, 1 do have certain reservations about the some-
what unfortunate ti:rminology used in international law. For, in my

opinion, the correct surnrnu divi.rio should consist of (1) territorial juris-
diction, (2) personal jurisdiction and (3)jurisdiction in the public interest.

64. 1would not describe the authority exerciseclby a State as "univer-
sa1jurisdiction", whlether exercised with respect to its nationals abroad,

which comes under ithehead of its personal juristliction, or with respect
to foreign nationals on the high seas having com~nitted acts of maritime
piracy, which falls under the head ofjurisdiction i i the public interest, or
with respect to any person in its territory havirg offended against its
ordre public., which thus falls within the scope 01'its territorial jurisdic-
tion. The same applies to the jurisdiction which States accord to them-

selves regarding the punishment of certain violations of treaty provisions.
It is readily conceivatble that a worldwide entity, not yet in existence, or
the United Nations itself and its principal judicial organ, being of a
quasi-universal nature, might lay claim to univers il legal jurisdiction. As
we know, under the specific treaties to which the! ^re parties, the mem-

bers of the quasi-universal community have the power to punish certain
offences coinmitted outside their territory in well defined circumstances.
Yet, in material terms, such legal power is not uriiversal. Perhaps under
the unfortunate influence of the views of criminal law specialistsh6, cer-
tain internationalists refer to it as the exercise of universal jurisdiction.

This expression doel; not seem appropriate in th: present international

hh References to "universal jurisdiction" are relatively raie in the works of criminal
jurists themselves. See. for example. André Huet and René Koering-JDroit p611ul
irifrrnufron(1994.Cette expression parait impropre dans l'ordre international actuelh7.Au
moment où une fraction importante des Etats tend à promouvoir un
mécanismeinstitutionnel répressif a vocation universelle,la promotion de
la compétence dite universelle ne constituerait-elle pas une régression
juridique ?

65. Le principe d'une ((compétenceuniverselle)) ainsi entendue est
affirménotamment a l'article 49 de la premièreconvention de Genèvedu
12 août 194968.Mais sa conception et surtout son application par le
défendeurdans le cas d'espèce s'éloignend t e l'étatdu droit en vigueur.

66. Selon l'interprétation autorisée de la stipulation conventionnelle
ci-dessus, le système se fonde sur trois obligations essentielles qui sont
mises a la charge de chaque partie contractante, a savoir: ((promul-
guer une législationspécir~le; rechercher toute personne prévenued'une
violation de la Convention; juger une telle personne ou, si la Partie
contractante le préfère, la remettre pour jugement a un autre Etat inté-

ressé»
67. Il faut savoir gréà la Partie défenderessed'avoir, en principe, satis-
fait a la premiéreobligation, sans préjudicepour l'heure de la portée de
sa législation spéciale. Il convient aussi d'apprécierle souci qui semble
l'animer, à priori, de rechercher toute personne présuméeavoir violéles
dispositions conventionnelles pertinentes.

68. Le satisfecitqu'on peut adresser au défendeursur le plan des prin-
cipes laisse place à des reproches légitimes en raison de la portée desa
législation et de ses mesures d'application. Le mandat semble corres-
pondre à ces dernières.

67C'est du droit international pénal,branche embryonnaire aux règleséparseset frag-
mentaires, que ressortit la compétence improprement dite universelle. Cette dernière ne
saurait s'affranchir des marques qui caractérisent sa matrice. D'où le caractère quelque
peu nébuleuxd'un pouvoir juridique ancien, liàiquelques curiositéshistoriques telles
que la répressionde la traite des esclaves. étendu timidement au XX siècle àla
répression des infractions au droit international humanitaire. C'est de ce dernier que la
doctrine et lajurisprudence spécialisées(Tribunal pénalinternational pour l'ex-Yougosla-
vie) s'efforcent de lui conférer une autonomie. Puisque la ((compétenceuniverselle)) telle
taires genevoises. Que le droit international positif autorise les Etatsner desumani-
infractions commises en dehors de leur territoire lorsque certaines conditions de rattache-
ment à leur souveraineté territoriale sont réunies n'estpas contestable. Que cette com-
pétence répressive doiveêtreinterprétée de manière stricte commel'exige le droit pénal
n'est pas non plus douteux.
h%'article 49 dispose:

nues d'avoir commis, ou d'avoir ordonnéde commettre l'une ou l'autre de ces infrac-
tions, et elledevra lesdéférerpropres tribunaux. quelle que soit leur nat))nalité.

Jean Pictet (dir. publ.). Cornrnentuirc,de lu convention de Genh pour I'urnéliorc~tion
du sort des blrssks et des tnu1ade.criunsles /Orcescn ccitnpugne,1952, p. 407: les
italiques sont de moi. orderh7. At a time when a large number of States are seeking to promote
an international crirninal forum with worldwide jurisdiction, would the
promotion of "universal" jurisdiction not be a I~ackward step in legal
terms?

65. As thus understood, the principle of "unive -sa1jurisdiction" is laid
down, in particular, in Article 49 of the First Geneva Convention of
12August 1949". But its conception, and especial'y its application by the
Respondent in the present case, do not accord witli the law as it currently

stands.
66. According to tlheauthorized interpretation of the above Article, the
system is based on three essential obligations in':umbent on each high
contracting party, namely: "to promulgate speci~l legislution; to searc11
for any individual accused of violating the Conve ition; to try such indi-
vidual or, if the contracting party prefers, to Izandover the individual for

trial to another interested Staten6".

67. The liespondent is to be thanked for havin,:, in principle, satisfied
the first obligation, subject to reservations as to he scope of its special
legislation. Its apparent concern to search for any individual accused of

having violated the relevant conventional provisiolis is also praiseworthy.

68. The congrutulutions due to the Responderit as regards the prin-
ciples nevertheless leave room for legitimutc~conipluints on grounds of
the scope of its legislation and its implementing Ineasures. The warrant

would appear to conle under the latter category.

tary rules, that what is inappropriately termed universal jurisciction derives. But it cannot
escape the marks of its original mould. Hence theomewh:t nebulous character of an
ancient legal power, limit'rdto a handful of historical curiosities such as the repression of
the slave trade, tiinidlyended in the mid-twentieth centur:~to include the punishment
of violationsof international humanitarian law. It is from t1.elatter that the specialized
doctrine and jurisprudence (Internationaliminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia)
are seeking to make it autonomous. For the "universal jurisc iction" claimed by Belgium
concerns coercive implementation of the hurnanitarian rules of Geneva. It is beyond dis-
pute that positive international law authorizes States to penalize offences committed out-
side their territory when certain conditions relating to the appurtenance to their territorial
sovereignty have been met. Nor is there any doubt that thisnal jurisdiction should be
strictly interpreted. in coriformity with the requirements ofal law.

" Article 49 states
"Each high contracting party shall be obliged toar:h for persons presumed to
have committed or ordered to have committed one or other of these offences, and
must briiig them befinretheir own courts, irrespective of their nationality."

Jean I'ictet (ed.), C70inrnentcrroyn tize Geizei'tiConventior;fi~rtl~c.Ati~eliorcitionoj'tlle
added.ion of'tiie CVoundellund Sick in Arnird Forces in rlic'F'eld. 1952,p. 407; emphasis123 MANDAT D'ARRÊT (OP. IND. BULA-BULA)

1. Légi.slutionsp6ciulr

69. Aucun des deux Etats (Suisse et Yougoslavie) cités dans le com-
mentaire ci-dessus n'avait adopté une Iégislationaussi géographiquement
universelle que le texte belge. Les développements du commentaire ne
reflètent que le souci de la répression des infractions. Le commentaire
prévient mêmequ'«aucune allusion n'est faite à la responsabilité que

pourraient encourir des personnes qui ne sont pas intervenuespour cnlpê-
c/wr une infiaction ou lafaire ces.\er». Face au ((silence de la Convention
on doit admettre que c'est i la Iégislationnationale qu'il appartient de
réglercette

2. Reclierche et poursuite des uuteurs

70. Non seulement le commentaire met l'accent sur une répression des
inculpéssans égard à leur nationalité, mais encore il retient le rattache-
ment territorial. Rien de plus normal dans l'étatdu droit international

classique ainsi codifiéà Genève: à partir du moment ou l'une des Parties
contractantes
<<aconnaissance du fait qu'une personne se trouvant sur son terri-

toire aurait commis une telle infraction, son devoir est de veiller a ce
qu'elle soit arrêtéeet poursuivie rapidement D~'.

Ce n'est donc pas seulement sur la demande d'un Etat que l'on devra
entreprendre les recherches policières nécessaires, mais aussi spontané-
ment. Au-delà du territoire national qui limite en principe l'exercice de
l'autorité de 1'Etat qu'elle soit législative,exécutiveou judiciaire. à mon
avis, le commentaire désignetout naturellement le rn&cunist?~ dee coop6ru-

tion judiciuire qu'est l'extradition dans la mesure où «des charges suffi-
santes» sont retenues contre l'inc~lpé'~.Non seulement il n'y a pas de
traité d'extradition entre les Parties en présence relativement à la matière,
mais encore le Congo dit appartenir à la conception juridique qui refuse
d'extrader ses nationaux. Argument décisif,il ajoute ne pouvoir pour-

suivre M. A. Yerodia Ndombasi faute de charge à son égard, puisqu'il ne
lui reproche rien.

71. L'exercice de la compétence dite universelle suppose donc l'exis-
tence de ((charges suffisantes)), selon les termes des conventions humani-

taire~~~. Y en a-t-il dans le cas d'espèce? L'Etat demandeur les a reje-

'"Jean Pictet (dir. publ.), Cornmentciire(le11Conver~tion(le Geni.ivpour 1'umi.lior~ution
[lusort (les blt,.ssi.set ckc,.rsntrludc~is1un.clesforc~esurmkes ct7crrtnpu;les,1952, p. 409
italiques sont de moi.
"'Ihid., p. 4:1les italiques sont de moi.
73Voir par exemple l'article 129,al. 2, de la troisièmeconvention de Genève du 12août
1949. 1. Speciul Legislution

69. Neither of the two States (Switzerland and \7ugoslavia) cited in the
above-mentioned Commentary have adopted legislation with such uni-
versa1 geographical reach as the Belgian warrant. The passages in the

Commentary merely reflect a concern to punish oj'fences.The Commen-
tary even warns that "no reference is made to the responsibility which
could be incurred by individuals who have not intervrncd to preverzt UII
ofl~~nce or to li~~litt". Given "the Convention's silence,it must be accepted

that it is for national legislation to settle the matt~:r"~~.

2. Seurcl~ingji~r und Pro.secut,ng
the Pc.rpetrators

70. Not only does the Commentary emphasize the punishment of the
accused irrespective of their nationality, it also endorses the territorial

link, which, under classical international law as thus codified at Geneva,
is in fact the norm:

"As soon as oineof the contracting parties i:,aware of the fact that
an individual prcsent on its territory has comrilitted such an offence,
its dut4 is to ensure that the individual is arrested and prosecuted

quickly." 71

Thus, it is not only at the request of a State that the necessary
police investigations can be undertaken, but the;! may also be carried
out unprompted. Beyond the confines of national territory, where in prin-
ciple the exercise of State authority, whether legislative, executive or

judicial, must end, the Commentary - quite na~.urallyin my view -
refers to the mechu~ristn of judiciul CO-operation,that is to Say extra-
dition, where "adequate charges are brought against the ac~used"'~.
Not only is there no extradition treaty between the Parties concerned

regarding this matter, but the Congo also subscribes to the legal
principle that it canniot extradite its own nationals. It adds - an argu-
ment decisive of the .matter - that it is unable to prosecute Mr. Ndom-
basi for lack of any charges against him, there bting nothing it accuses

him of.
7 1. The exercise o:f"universal" jurisdiction thu: presupposes the exis-
tence of "adequate charges", under the terms of the humanitarian con-

ventions7?. Are there any in this case? The Applicant has rejected

Jean Pictet (ed.), Cornmrnrtrryon GC~Z~I CUOnventiotfor tlreAn~eliortitionof rlie
Coric/ifi»tiof'tlie Wountlc,rlcrndSick in Al.ri~edForce.\in the F,eld. 1952, p. 409; emphasis
added.
71 Ihitl., p. ;emphariis added.
7' Ihitl.
77 See, for example, Article 129(2) of the Third Geneva Corivention of 12August 1949.tée~~~ D.es bâtonniers congolais ont soutenu devant les médias locaux, au
lendemain de la notification du mandat le 12juillet 2000, que «le dossier

était vide)). L'Etat défendeur n'a pas rapporté dans son mandat des
charges suffisantes, hormis l'affirmation qui reste à démontrer que son
inculpé a ((activement et directement)) participé à la commission des
infractions graves de droit international humanitaire.

72. D'autre part, quel est le critère objectif qui autoriserait l'exercice
de la compétence universelle par défaut par un Etat devant plusieurs
situations de non-exercice? Est-ce le corc crin~e.~ ?II y en aurait plusieurs.
D'où la légitimitédu critère territorial qui départage les compétences
entre Etats en présence. Sinon, le critère politique d'opportunité triom-

pherait. On comprend alors que les conséquences des événementstra-
giques au Congo en août 1998 aient offert l'alibi au mandat du 11 avril
2000. Mais que I'e'ctermination de plus de deux millions et demi de
Congolais depuis la mêmedate par les agresseurs rwandais, ougandais et
burundais demeure, jusque-là, impunie.

73. La Partie défenderesse s'estacharnée, dans la droite ligne de son
esprit singulier, à criminaliser le comportement du demandeur. Elle s'est
évertuée jusqu'au bout à chercher à troubler la conscience des juges. Non

seulement elle s'est trompée de prétoire - la Cour n'étant en rien une
juridiction de fond relativement à une responsabilité pénale individuelle
éventuelle -, mais encore elle n'a pas rapporté la preuve de cette der-
nière. Il convient de rappeler que actori incumbit probutio, mais aussi
alleguns probat.

74. L'ancienne colonie modèle du Congo belge doit-elle, sans preuve,
poursuivre l'un des dirigeants congolais, qui s'est dressé,comme partout
ailleurs, contre des envahisseurs étrangers et leurs auxiliaires congolais?
L'idée selon laquelleun Etat aurait le pouvoir juridique de connaître des

infractions éventuelles commises à l'étranger, par des étrangers, contre
des étrangers, alors mêmeque le suspect éventuelse trouve en territoire
étranger, est contraire à la conception du droit international.
75. L'article 129, alinéa2, de la troisième convention genevoise énon-
çant le principe aut dedere aut judicure en matière de sanctions pénales

pose l'exigence de «charges suffisantes)). II n'a aucunement envisagéune
compétencedite universelle par défaut (in ubsentia) . Puisque le commen-

74Mémoirede la République démocratique du Congo. p. 38, par. 57:

((Les paroles [que M. Yerodia] a notamment prononcéesle 28 août 1998n'ont fait
l'objet de la part des autorités publiques belges d'aucune mise en contexte, ni his-
torique ni culturelle. Elles ont étéabusivement interprétéespar celles-ci...alors que le
lien de causalité entre ces paroles et certains actes inqualifiables de violence
d'êtreclairement établi.
Quant au contre-mémoire du Royaume de Belgique, il reprend (p. 11, par. 1.10) les faits
tels que repris dans le mandat du 11avril 2000 après avoir annoncé: «il n'est pas néces-
saire d'approfondir ces faits qui seront traités brièvement dans la partiethem74. Presidents of the Congolese Bar asserted 1)eforelocal media, the

day after notificatiori of the warrant on 12 July 21100,that "the case-file
was empty". In its warrant, the Respondent failed to specify adequate
charges, apart from an unproven assertion that the accused "actively
and directly" participated in committing serious offences under interna-

tional humanitarian law.
72. What, moreover is the objective criterion wliich would authorize a
State to exercise universal jurisdiction by defauli in various situations
where no jurisdiction has normally been exercisel? 1s it that these are

core crimes? There are said to be a number of them. Hence the legitimacy
of the territorial crii.erion, which allocates jurisdiction as between the
States concerned. Otherwise the political criteriori of expediency would
hold sway. lt is accordingly understandable that tlie consequences of the
tragic events in the Congo in August 1998 providetl a pretext for the war-

rant of 11 April 2000, whereas the exterminution of over two and a half
million Congolese sirice that date by Rwandan, Ugandan and Burundian
aggressors has so far gone unpunished.
73. The Respondent has done everything it can, in accordance with its

egregious approach, itocriminalize the Applicant's conduct. To the bitter
end it has done its uitmost to try and prick the conscience of the judges.
Not only has it chosen the wrong forum - this Court not being one deal-
ing with matters of substance relating to possitle individual criminal

responsibility - it ha~sfailed, moreover, to provide proof of such respon-
sibility. It should be remembered that uctori incurvlbitprobatio, but also
that a1legan.sprobut.
74. Should the former mode1 colony of the Bvlgian Congo, without

any proof, prosecute one of the Congolese leaders, who, like his fellow
countrymen, rose up against the foreign invader; and their Congolese
henchmen? The idea that a State could have tlie legal power to try
offences committed abroad, by foreigners agains foreigners, while the
suspect himself is on foreign territory, runs counter to the very notion of

international law.
75. Article 129, paragraph 2, of the Third Geneva Convention, setting
out the principle aut dederr aut judicare with respect to criminal penal-
ties, lays down the requirement of "adequate charges". In no wise has it

contemplated a so-ca~lledjurisdiction by default (in uh.~entiu).Thus the

74 Mernorial of the Dernocratic Republic of the Congo, p. 38, para. 57,

"the Belgian ;luthorities failed to place his [Mr. Yerodia':;]statements. notably those
made on 28 August 1998.in any historical or cultural conrext. They irnproperly inter-
preted them . .but the causal connection between those words and certain unspeak-
able acts of violenc. .is far from having been clearly ':stablished."

For its part the Counter-Mernorial ofthe Kingdom of Belgium reiterates (p. 11,para. 1.10)
the facts as stated in the warrant ofpril 2000. after announcing: "it is not necessary
to go intothese facts at this point, although relevant aspects will be addressed briefly in
Part III below".taire y relatif vise expressément l'hypothèse où l'inculpé«se trouve sur
son territoire)) (de 1'Etat partie).

76. C'est en vain qu'on explorerait, dans la pratique récente, soit un
texte législatif,soit unejurisprudence interne aussi osée.Par sa loi de 1945
sur les crimes de guerre, telle que modifiéeen 1988, I'Austrulie dit que
«seul un ressortissant ou un résidentaustralien peut êtrepoursuivi au titre

de la loi de 1988))(section 11 de la loi ci-dessus). [Traduction du Greffe.]
La High Court de l'Australie avait reconnu, à l'occasion de l'affaire Polyu-
khoviclz v. Comrnon~veultizof'Austruliu. aue la iuridiction australienne
avait le pouvoir d'exercer «une compétencereconnue par le droit interna-
tional comme une compétenceuniver.selle» à l'égarddes crimes de guerre75.

77. Le rattachement territorial est aussi visépar le Code pénal autri-
chien pour ce qui a trait à la poursuite des crimes internationaux tels que
le génocide (voir application dans l'affaire Dusko Cvjetkovic du
13juillet 1994). Le rattachement personnel ou territorial est aussi requis
par l'article 7 du Code pénaldu Canada, tel que reviséen 1985. Il a été

appliqué dans l'affaire R v. Fintu. La France prévoit aussi ce rattache-
ment «si [la personne] se trouve en Il serait fastidieux de mul-
tiplier les exemples.
78. S'il est permis de recourir au ruisonnernent pur analogie, on relè-

vera que, dans l'affaire des Activités rnilituires et parumilituires au Nicu-
ruguu et contre celui-ci (Nicuruguu c. Etuts-Unis d'Anîérique), fond,
urrêt. la Cour avait précisémentdéclaréau sujet des droits humains:

<[Qluand les droits de l'homme sont protégéspar des conventions
internationales, cette protection se traduit par des dispositions pré-
vues dans le texte des conventions elles-mêmeset qui sont destinées
à vérifierou a assurer le respect de ces droits.))"

Les instruments genevois ont bien circonscrit à l'époqueles droits et les
obligations des Etats sur ce point. Il est certain que les auteurs de ces

textes n'ont nullement envisagél'interprétation excessive belge. D'autre
part, la pratique ultérieure ne montre guère une évolution de la norme
conventionnelle au plan coutumier dans cette perspective. Elle aurait pu
êtrecodifiéedans la convention de Rome du 17juillet 1998.Tel n'est pas

le cas. Aussi la Belgique a, une année aprèsl'adoption de celle-ci, innové
radicalement et solitairement. Sentiments humanitaires obligent!

79. En décidant A l'article 7de la loi du 16juin 1993, telle qu'amendée
le 10 février 1999,que «[Iles juridictions belges sont compétentes pour

connaître des infractions prévuesa la présente loi, indépendamment du
lieu où celles-ci auront étécommises», la Belgique a adopté une Iégisla-
tion totalement insolite. Elle s'est autoproclamée sinon procureur de

75PO~J'U~~ZOV V~C~oIzmonirealtof'Australiu (1991) 172 CLR 501, p. 562: les ita-
liques sont de moi.raci~rctiondu Greffe.]
7hArticle 689-1 du Code de procédure pénale.
" C.I.J. RCCLIC1986. p.134. par. 267.Commentary on this provision expressly contemplates a situation where
the accused "is present on the territory" (of the Si.ate party).
76. In vain would one look, in recent practice, for a legislative text or

domestic jurisprudence as far-going as this. In its War Crimes Act 1945.
as amended in 1988, Austmlia states that "only a!l Australian citizen or
residrnt can be charged under the 1988 Act" (Section 11 of the above
Act). In P~lj~uklzovi~rlvz. Cornrnon~veultlz qf'Au::truliu, the Australian
High Court had recclgnized that the Australian courts had the power to

exercise "a jurisdiction recognized by internationa law us urîiversuljuris-
diction" vis-à-vis war crimes7j.

77. A territorial connection is also required by the Austrian Criminal
Code in relation to the prosecution of internationil1 crimes such as geno-

cide (see its application in the Dusko C~;jetko~-ic cilse of 13July 1994).A
persona1 or territori,al connection is also required by Article 7 of the
Canadian Criminal Code, as revised in 1985. It waj applied in R v. Fintu.
France, too. requires this connection :"where [the :ndividual] ispresent irz
Fr~~nce"'".It would be tiresome to list al1the maiiy examples.

78. If 1niay resort to reusot~inghy unulogy, it is noteworthy that, in
the case concerning Militurj~ und Paratniliturjl A .tivities in aizd uguirzst
Nicarugua (Nicaruguu v. United States of Aineri,-u), Merits, the Court
held, specifically with respect to human rights, thi~t:

"where human rights are protected by inte-national conventions,
that protection i.akes the form of such arrangements for monitoring
or ensuring respect for human rights as are provided for in the con-

ventions themselves" 77.
At the time of their adoption, the Geneva Convc:ntions clearly circum-

scribed the rights and obligations of States on thi: point. The authors of
those instruments certainly in no way contemp1att:d the excessively wide
interpretation adopted by Belgium. Moreover, there has been scant evi-
dence in the subsequlcnt practice of any customary development of treaty
law in this direction. It could have been codified in the Rome Convention

of 17 July 1998, but was not. Thus, one year aftcr the adoption of that
Convention, Belgiun~ has introduced a radical innovation of its own.
Such concern for humanity !
79. In providing, in Article 7 of the Law of 16 .lune 1993, as amended
on 10 February 1999, that "Belgiari courts have jurisdiction to try the
offences provided for in the present Law, irrespective of rzllzerr~uch

ojfence.~ huve heet~ rornrnitted", Belgium adopted legislation that was
totally unprecedented. It set itself up, if not as the prosecutor for the

'' Poly~ikl~ovi~. Conrrnoni+~eulofAustrcili(1991)172CLR 501, p. 562; emphasis
added.
7" Article 689-1 of the Code of Criminal Procedure.
'' r,C.J.Report.\ 1986. 134,para. 267.126 MANDAT D'ARRÉT (OP. IND. BULA-BULA)

l'humanité, au sens transtemporel et transpatial que R.-J. Dupuy attri-

buait à ce mot, du moins justicier sans frontières d'après la doctrine
du «sans frontiérismen. A la limite, cette revendication dépasse le droit
international lui-même puisque ce dernier règle essentiellement les rela-
tions entre des structures aux frontières définies:les Etats. Mais selon une
appréciation minimale, 1'Etat défendeur viole le droit international. Il ne

saurait, en l'état actuel, superbement le transcender. Ainsi des chefs
d'Etat en fonction, Laurent Gbagbo (Côte d'Ivoire), le 26juin 2001, Sad-
dam Hussein, le 29 juin 2001, Fidel Castro (Cuba), le 4 octobre 2001,
Denis Sassou Nguesso (Congo-Brazzaville), le 4 octobre 2001, Yasser

Arafat, le 27 novembre 2001, un premier ministre, Ariel Sharon (Israël),
le 1" juillet 2001, un ministre des affaires étrangèresen fonction, Abdu-
laye Yerodia Ndombasi, le 11 avril 2000, font l'objet de plaintes ou de
poursuites judiciaires devant les juridictions belges pour divers ((crimes
internationaux)). La liste est loin d'êtreexhaustive, si on y ajoute en

décembre2001 le président Paul Biya (Cameroun).Joe Verhoe~en'~a eu
raison de craindre l'instauration d'un chaos, par définitionle contraire de
l'ordre déjà difficile, dans le milieu international. La Cour ne pouvait
qu'êtreinterpellée.

80. On mentionnera de manière appuyée que seul apparemment
M. A. Yerodia Ndombasi s'est vu infliger un ((mandat d'arrêtinterna-
tional)). Très curieux. Il convient de souligner aussi que les poursuites
contre M. Ariel Sharon, suivies attentivement de par le monde, auraient

étésuspendues, au bas mot, que la Belgique cherche en faveur de ce
dernier une porte de sortie honorable à coup d'arguties juridiques, que
depuis les plus hautes autorités politiques du pays se sont répandues en
conférences dans les universités (ULB) pour dénoncer soudainement les

absurdités de cette loi, que l'un des conseils de la Belgique a revisésa
doctrine d'enseignement à l'issue des plaidoiries de novembre 2001
dans le sens d'un rattachement territorial sine quu non. Telle est la
loi belge a l'épreuve des rapports de force internationaux. On peut
parier que les poursuites initiées à la suite d'une plainte de «justi-

ciables impénitents)) contre M. A. Sharon sont mort-nées.

81. Ni au titre d'obligation examinée plus haut. ni au titre d'une pré-
rogative à elle attribuée par le droit international, la Belgique ne saurait

7"~ Verhoeven, «M. Pinochet, la coutume internationale et la compétence uni-
verselle)),uiiiudc~suihutzuus. 1999, p. 315.et, du mêmeau<<Vers un ordrc répres-
sif universel? Quelques observations)), Annuuirc. Jronqui.~dc tiroir internotionul. 1999,
p. 55. D'autre part. <<Quese passerait-il si un plaignant poursuivait devant les tribunaux
par l'armée française'?))aurait interroge un haut fonctionnaire israélien de Lacommis
plainte déposéepar M. Sharon, premier ministre d'Israël. (The Wusliington Post, 30 avril
2001, Washington Post Foreign Service, Karl Vick, p. 1:1((Death Toll in Congo
War May Approach 3 Million)).)human race in the trans-temporal and trans-spatial sense attributed to
this term by R.-J. Dupuy, then at least as arbiter of transnational justice,
in accordance with the doctrine of "law without frontiers". This approach
could even be said to transcend international law itself, since the latter
deals essentially with relations between structures with defined borders,

namely States.Yet even a cursory assessment shows that the Respondent
is violating international law. It is not entitled, as the law currently
stands, disdainfully to transcend it. Thus, Heads of States in office Lau-
rent Gbagbo (Côte d'Ivoire) on 26 June 2001, Saddam Hussein on
29 June 2001, Fidel Castro (Cuba) on 4 October 2001. Denis Sassou

Nguesso (Congo-Brazzaville) on 4 October 2001, Yasser Arafat on
27 November 2001, a Prime Minister, Ariel Sharon (Israel) on 1July 2001,
an incumbent Minister for Foreign Affairs, Abdulaye Yerodia Ndombasi
on 11 April 2000, are the subject of complaints or prosecutions before the

Belgian courts for various "international crimes". The list is still far from
exhaustive, the name of President Paul Biya (Cameroon) having been
added in December 2001. Joe Verhoeven7' rightly feared that the result
would be chaos, by definition the opposite of an order already precarious
in the international arena. The Court must necessarily be called upon to

intervene.
80. It should be strongly emphasized that Mr. A. Yerodia Ndombasi
would appear to be the only person to have been served with an "inter-
national arrest warrant". Most singular. It should also be emphasized

that the proceedings against Mr. Ariel Sharon, closely watched al1over
the world, have apparently been quietly put on hold while Belgium seeks
an honourable way out for him through a form of a legal technicality;
that since then the highest political authorities in the land have been
queuing upat the universities (ULB) to give lectures abruptly denouncing

the absiirdities of this law, and that, since the close of the oral argument
in November 2001, one of Belgium's counsel has altered his teaching in
favour of a sirlL~ILIilon territorial connection. Such is the showingof the
Belgian Law when put to the test of international Realpolitik. The
chances are that the proceedings instituted following a complaint

by "unrepentant subjects of law" against Mr. A. Sharon will be a dead
letter.
81. Belgium has neither any obligation -- as discussed above - nor
any entitlement under international law to pose as prosecutor for al1

Joe Verhoeven, "M. Pinochet, la coutume internationide et la compétence uni-
verselle".o~irtioliic.~trihirritruu,1999. p. 315. and. by the saine author. "Vers un ordre
répressif universel? Quelques observations",itz~~uir,.f(i,un(~ii.sO<'&oit i/if<~t.~~(rfiot~(ll.
1999.p. 55. Also. "what ~/ould happen if a plaintiff prosecuted Mr. Chirac in the French
courts forhaving served iinthe Algerian War, when massacres werc carried out by the
French army'?"a senior Israeli official is snid to have asked following the complaint filcd
by Mr. Sharon. the Israeli Prime Minister. (The Wu.thingtorrPo.sr.30 April 2001, Wash-
ingtonPost Foreign Service. Karl Vick. p."Death Toll in Congo War May Approach
3 Million".)127 MANDAT D'ARRÊT (OP. IND.BULA-BULA)

se poser en procureur de l'humanité, à savoir prétendre assumer le mal-
heur des hommes au-delà des frontières étatiques et au-delà des généra-

tions. La pratique des Etats signalée ci-dessus vaut également pour les
présents développements. Pour autant il ne s'agit nullement de couvrir
une impunité quelle qu'elle soit dans le temps et dans l'espace, y compris
lors des guerres de conquêtecoloniale et de reconquêtenéocoloniale en

Afrique, en Amérique, en Asie, en Europe et en Océanie.
82. Victime de la violence7Ves agresseurs et du cortège d'infractions
graves au droit international humanitaire, telle que la prise en otage du bar-

rage d'Inga entraînant la coupure d'électricité ed t'eau, notamment à Kin-
shasa, ville de plus de cinq millions d'habitants d'ou il en résulta plusieurs
morts, le peuple congolais n'a de cesse d'exigerle retrait des forces armées
régulièresd'occupation de l'Ouganda, du Rwanda et du Burundi. Il sollicite

en outre l'établissementd'un tribunal pénalinternational sur le Congo. Ce
dernierjugerait toutes les personnes, auteurs, coauteurs ou complices, Afri-
cains et non-Africains, ayant commis des crimes de guerre, des crimes
contre l'humanité, commel'extermination de plus de deux millions cinq cent

mille Congolais"' dans les régions sous occupation étrangère depuis le
2 août 1998. A priori, ces victimes-làn'intéressentpas (encore) la Belgique.
Elle, dont le passécolonialx1et néocolonial" est, à tort ou à raison, jugé

tristement célèbredans le domaine des droits humains au Congo. Là per-
dure une situation de violations graves, systén~atiques et massivesdes droits
humains qui doivent interpeller l'opinion internationale. Pour emprunter
les mots justes de l'ambassadeur de France à Kinshasa: «devant pareil

enjeu, les choses doivent être dites clairement. On ne peut jouer indéfini-
ment dans la sémantiquelorsqu'un peuple entier est en train d'agoniser.))
Car, «c'est le temps de guerre et ...les armées d'occupationse trouvent sur

le sol congolais en dépit des injonctions de la communauté internatio-
nale~~'.

'' Voir. S. Oda. déclarationsjointeà I'ordonnarice du 9 avril 1998en l'affaire relative
à la (Orr~.c,r~tio/riiI'iorln~~11)lc~.~r~1utiori.s co~~~rrluiI,ICSII~~co~~.\o~.~.iltoires,
C.I.J. Rc,c,irc,ilIYYY (Ip. 260, par. 2. età l'ordonnance di1 3 mars 1999. cil l'affaire
L~rGrcinrl iAllc.r~ici~r(.. Ettrts-UII~S iI'Art~?rirllr~~). iiic,srrrc2s <~onsrrCI.J.oiic'~r,
Rcc~ucjil19YY (1).p. 18. par. 2. sur la nécessitt.de tenir compte des droits des victimes
d'actes de violence (aspect qui a souvent éténégligé).

"' Source: International Resc~ie Cornmittee (USA), http:l/intranet.theirc.~rgid~~c~l
mortll-report-sinalI.pdf.
" 'Adam Horschild. lac,forittir~ic,(lu Ror Li;o/~oltl. CJI lroorrhlic1998. p. 264-
371; Dariiel Vanzroenweghe. DII sirng s~ivlc~sliirrres. I.?opcJsoir Cor~~o.1986.p. 18-
123: Barbara Emerson. L<;o~~olrI/Lc R~~trrrrrrcc~JtI'Erii~1980. p. 748-251.
" Voir CR 2000134.p. 16.sur la plaidoirie acéréedu Congo et Noam Chomsky. Alriop-
.sicJdc,c.tserror.i.001i.p. 11-13.
«Les puissances eiiropéeiinesmenaient la conquêted'une grande partie du monde.
avec uiie brutalitécwtrême. de tr& rares exccptions. ces puissances n'ont pas étéeri
retour attacl~iéespar lcurs victi...ni la Belgiq~icpar le Congo...))

"' Voir discours de M. Gildas Le Lidec. ambassadeur de France à Kinshasa. le 14juil-
let 2001,à1'occ:isionde la fêtenationale dc la RépubliquefrançaisLc Paltirtrr?II"2181
du 16juillet 2001.p. 8.mankind, in other words, to claim the right to redeem human suffering
across national borders and over generations. The State practice referred

to above also applies to my comments here. In no sense, however, is this
to argue the case for impunity, whether geographical or temporal, includ-
ing in wars of colon~al conquest and neo-colonial reconquest in Africa,

America, Asia, Europe and Oceania.

82. As victims of the violence7"of the aggressors and the series of grave

breaches of international humanitarian law, such as the occupation of the
Inga Dam and the severing of power and water supplies, particularly in
Kinshasa, a city of over 5 million people, resulting in numerous deaths, the
Congolese people have consistently called for the withdrawal of the regular

occupying forces from Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi. They have also
called for the setting up of an international criininal tribunal on the
Congo. This tribunal would try al1persons. whether perpetrators, co-per-

petrators or accomplices,whether African or non-African, having commit-
ted war crimes and crimes against humanity, such as the extermination of
over two-and-a-half million Congolese X0 in the regions under foreign occu-

pation since 2 August 1998.It would seem that those victims are (as yet) of
no concern to Belgium, sadly notorious - rightly or wrongly - for its
colonialx1 and neo-colonialx2 past in the field of' human rights in the
Congo, where a situation of grave, systematic and massive human rights

violations persists which requires a response from international opinion.
To echo the very fitting words of the French Ambassador to Kinshasa:
"on such an issue, there must be no beating about the bush. Endless

semantics are not an option when an entii-e people is dying." For "it is
war . . . the occupying armies are on Congolese soi1despite the injunctions
of the international comrn~nity"~~.

'" See S. Oda. declar;itiori appeiided to the Order of9 April 1998in the case conceriiing
the Vicrirrci oni'c,tiriororti Cor~s~rrelirtions,Proii.sionir1,Wrd.vlrs..CJ.Rq~ort.slYY8,
p. 260. para. 2, and the Order of 3 March 1999in LrrGrrrt~t(l(;i,rnlaq~v. Clni/<~Stlrrrtof'
Atnr~ric~trP).rovi.siorici1Meo.sirr<,.\1..('..1.Ri,port.slYY9 (Il, p. 18, para. 2. on the need to
take:account of the righta of the victinis of violent attacks (an aapect ofien neglected).

Source: 1nternation;il Reacue Coinmittee (USA), <http:llintranet.theirç.orglc1ocsl
mortll-report-small.pdf.s.
XiAdam Horschild. Le firnttirllr,(lu Roi L6opoltl. [IIIlrolo<.tru.c.otelrhlr6.1998. pp. 264-
274: Daiiiel Vangroenwcghe. DLI.srrrl~sur. /<,.1itrrir.c.Lioyolil I1.1.soir Cotigo. 1986.

pp. 18-123 ; Barbara Emerson. Li.o[)olilII. L? Ro~.tr~rrr 1c.1'Et~il~ir.c9.0. pp. 248-351.
" See CR 2000134,p. 16.on the scathing argument of the C'ongoand Noam Chomsky.
Autop.sic,tic,rc,rrori.\r,. 001, pp. 12-13.
"The Europeari Powers concl~iereda large part of the uorld with extreme brutality.
With very few exceptions. these Powers were not attacked by their victims in
retlirn. ... nor was Belgium attacked by the Congo .. ."

" Sec the speech by Mr. Gildas Le Lidec. French Ambassador in Kinshasa. on
14July 2001, on the occasion of the French national holiday. Le PcrIr~~i~rN~.~..2181. of
16July 2001. 17.8.128 MANDAT D'ARRFT (OP. IND. BULA-BULA)

83. Il suffit maintenant de signaler quelques vues doctrinales qui mon-

trent peut-être l'ampleur de la controverse sur la question. A en croire
P.-M. Dupuy, «encore rarement reconnue en droit coutumier, la compé-
tence universelle ne l'est alors que de façon f~cultutive»~~. L'auteur
s'appuie sur le fait que la Cour de cassation française «a confirméle refus
de la Cour d'appel de voir dans les conventions de Genève de 1949 une

base de droit pour l'invocation d'une telle c~rnpétence))~'.Enfin, il relève
que «la convention de Rome n'institue ..pas vraiment une compétence
universelle, puisqu'elle s'établiten fonction de celle de 1'Etat de nationa-
lité du criminel etlou celle de 19Etatoù l'infraction a étécommise»86.
Quant à François Rigaux, il préfèrene pas se prononcer «sur un thème
actuel et c~ntroversé))~. A l'opposé,Mario Bettati est d'avis que (<lacom-

pétenceuniverselle ...fonde n'importe quel Etat à poursuivre des crimes
d'autant plus graves qu'ils mêlentparfois ceux commis contre les lois de
la guerre et ceux accomplis contre l'humanité»8x. L'affirmation n'est
guère suivie de démonstration. A l'opposé, NguyenQuoc Dinh, Patrick
Dailler et Alain Pellet la signalent comme «un principe contr~versé~~~~.

Olivier T. Covey ne l'admet que si l'auteur de l'infraction ((est par la suite
retrouvé sur le territoire national n"'.Les partisans de la compétenceuni-
verselle reconnaissent cette derniére à condition que l'inculpé«se trouve
sur son territoire))". Pour leur part, Jean Combacau et Serge Sur souli-
gnent que ((les Etats restent fidèlesaux critères territorial et personnel, et

s'abstiennent de tout recours à une compétence universelle ou réelle))".
Quant à Philippe Weckel, observant la mention dans le préambule du
traité de Rome du 28 juillet 1998 de la compétence universelle, il note
néanmoins l'omniprésence de la ((souverainetéjudiciaire des Etats)); car
comme le démontre déjà lapratique de la Belgique, «une compétenceuni-

verselle ... s'exercerait en définitivede manière unilatérale))".
84. Le mandat du 11 avril 2000 a produit des effetsjuridiques tant sur
le plan interne belge que sur le plan international.

" Pierre-Marie Dupuy, loc. cit.. p. 293; les italiques sont de moi.
" Ibi(/., p. 294.
""b ici.
François Rigaux. <<Leconcept de territorialité: un fantasme en quêtede réalité)).
dans Liber Ainicoruin Juci~Mol~crr~~rnrceidjt~oui.1999. p. 211.
" Mario Bettati. Le tlrroirtl'ingc;rrrlet. MuttrriorrcieI'or(lrrirrl,96. p. 269.
#" Nguyen Quoc Dinh, Patrick Dailler et Alain Pellet. Binirrrzcitior~ulpir1999.
p. 689.
"' Olivier T. Covcy. «La compétencedes Etatsn. Droit irrt<~rnutil.ilietpc,r~pec-
tivc~s,1991p.336.
" Brigitte Stcrn«A propos de la compétence universelle)), dans Liber An~icorurn
J~itlge,Wo/7uiin?il rdjtroiii,p. 748.
"' Jean Combacau et Serge Sur. Droit iiiteri~trtioriirplrrhlic. 1993. p. 351.
')'Pli. Weckel<<La Cour péiialeinternationalen, Rc,i.urgi.ni.rtrlerlc,tiroirir7tc~ri1utiontrl
piihlic,. t. 102. no 4. 1998.p. 986, 989. D'après les vues d'~~npénalistedu Congo, Nya-
pétence universelle de la loi pénale donne au juge du lieu tl'urrr.c.turiorlie po~ivoir de
juger)) (les italiques soiit de moi). 83. The views of a few legal writers will suffice to indicate the scale
of the dispute on this issue. According to P.-M. Dupuy, "still seldom
recognized in custoinary law, universal jurisdiction can thus only be
~ptional"~~. The author cites in his support the fact that the French
Court of Cassation "has confirmed the refusal by the Appeal Court to see

the 1949 Geneva Conventions as providing any legal basis for invoking
such jurisdicti~n"~~. He concludes that "the Rome Convention does
not . . . institute true universal iurisdiction. based as it is on the iurisdic-
tion of the State of nationality if the perpetrator andlos that of LheState

where the offence was committed" X6. ASfor Fran~ois Rigaux, he prefers
not to commit himself "on a controversial, topical thememX7M . ario Bet-
tati, on the other hand, considers that "universal jurisdiction . .. provides
grounds for any State to prosecute crimes which are al1the more serious

because they sometirnes involve both crimes against the laws of war and
crimes against h~manity"~~. No proof is provided for this assertion. By
contrast, Nguyen QLIOC Dinh, Patrick Dailler and Alain Pellet refer to it
as "a disputed principlen8'. Olivier T. Covey only accepts it if the author

of the offence "is later found on national territ~ry""~. The advocates of
universal jurisdiction recognize it provided the accused "is present on its
territory"". Jean Combacau and Serge Sur, however, point out that
"States remain faithful to territorial and personal criteria and refrain
from any recourse to universal or in rem jurisdiction"". And

Philippe Weckel, while observing the reference to universal jurisdiction in
the Preamble to the Treaty of Rome of 28 July 1998, nevertheless notes
the ubiquitous presence of the "judicial sovereignty of States"; for, as
Belgian practice has already shown, "universal jurisdiction . . . would

ultimately seem to be exercised unilaterally"".

84. Thewarrant of 11 April2000 produced legal effects both internally
in Belgium and internationally.

X4 Pierre-Marie Dupuy, loc. cit., p. 293; emphasis added.
8s Ihid., p. 294.
Ihici.
François Rigaux, "Le concept de territorialité: un fantasme en quêtede réalité".in
Li"erMario Bettati. Le &oit d'ingi.renc.1,.Mutatu'cl'ordre international, 1996, p. 269.

%" Nguyen Quoc Dinh, Patrick Dailler and Alain Pellet, Droit international public,
19"",Olivier T. Covey. "La compétence des Etats", Droit int<'rnutio. ilcrnct persprc-
tiorr. 1991, p. 336.
" Brigitte Stern, "A propos de la compétence ~iniverselle", in Lihrr Ainicorurl~
Judgr Molicin~n~ecBlrcljtroui.p. 748.
'-!Jean Conibacau and Serge Sur, Droit intrrncitioriulpublic. 1993. 1. 35
'-'P. Weckel, "La Cour phale internatioiiale". Resur gi.ric;rtil&oit intert~utional
public,, Vol. 102, No. 4, 1998. pp. 986. 989. According to one criminal expert from the
Congo, Nyabirungu Mwene Songa, Droit pénalgeneral, Kinshasa, 1995, pp. 77 and 79.
the "so-called system of universal jurisdiction gives the court of therofurrest the
power of trial" (emphasi!; added). 85. Au plan interne d'abord. Juridiquement, il paraît évidentque I'émis-
sion du mandat à I'encontre du ministre des affaires étrangèresconstitue

un fait illicite puisqu'elle viole les immunités et l'inviolabilité pénalesatta-
chées à ce dernier. Au plan formel, ils'agit d'un acte coercitif par nature.
Sous l'angle matériel,la teneur de cet instrument ne fait guèremystèredu
sort réservé à l'organe étranger. Il est exigé des agents de l'autorité
publique belge d'appréhender physiquement un ministre des affaires

étrangèresd'un autre Etat souverain! Du point de vue téléologique,il vise
à anéantirla liberté d'alleret de venir ainsi aue la diGnitéinhérenteà un or-
gane d'un pays indépendant. Sous l'angle organique, le juge d'instruction,
qui a agi à I'encontre du ministre en question, ne se confond pas avec un
agent du protocole d'Etat. A bon droit, la Cour dit au sujet du mandat:

(([sa] seule émission ... portait atteinte à l'immunité ...La Cour en
conclut que l'émissiondudit mandat a constitué une violation d'une

obligation de la Belgique àl'égarddu Congo, en ce qu'elle a méconnu
l'immunité[dont bénéficiait] ce ministre ... en vertu du droit interna-
tional.))(Arrêt, par. 70.)

86. Tels sont les élémentsobjectifs qui attestent de la production des
effets juridiques par le mandat insolite. Qu'il n'ait pas étéexécutématé-
riellement est une autre question. Il était susceptible de l'être.Que 1'Etat
défendeur puisse mépriservis-à-vis d'un pair les règlesde courtoisie élé-
mentaires entre Etats dits civiliséspasse encore en droit. Le mandat a bel

et bien jeté le discrédit sur les organes de 1'Etat congolais traités de
manière aussi discourtoise et illicite. Il y a davantage.
87. Au plan international, qui nous préoccupele plus, s'agissant d'une
atteinte flagrante au droit international coutumier des immunités, il
convient de rappeler l'analyse esquissée dèsla phase de l'examen de la

demande de mesures conservatoires. Au demeurant, la motivation de
l'arrêtsemble bien faire ressortir le préjudicejuridique ainsi subig4.
88. Ainsi que je l'ai indiqué en la phase de demande de mesures
conservatoires, le mandat querellé a causé un préjudice à la diplomatie

congolaise. Si son chef a néanmoins pu se déplacer sans entrave dans
l'hémisphèreSud en vue de participer à des rencontres diplomatiques ten-
dant à mettre un terme au conflit armé au Congo, il n'a pu par contre
effectuer de tels déplacements dans d'autres régionsqui comptent beau-
coup pour le règlement du conflit. Quand bien mêmesi 1'Etatcongolais y

a pu êtrereprésenté,il l'a étéà un échelon inférieur.La substance des
pourparlers de paix au niveau des ministres des affaires étrangèresen a
étéaffectée en raison de la règle de préséancediplomatique. En fin de
compte, les prérogatives de souveraineté internationale du Congo ont
subi des dommages".

"4Voir aussi S. Bula-Bula, opinion dissidente joiàtl'ordonnance du 8 décembre
2000, Mundut rl'urrêtl~rII cii;ril2OOO(R6puhlirlirc,ci6i~rodcu Con~o c. Belgique),
t?ieslrrr.scotr.seri.c.loJ Rcweil 2000, p. 222, par. 16. 85. To begin with the interna1 aspect. Juridically, it seems clear that
serving a warrant on a Miiiister for Foreign Affairs constitutes an unlaw-

ful act, as it breaches both his inviolability and his immunity from crimi-
na1jurisdiction. Forrnally, it is by nature an act of coercion. Materially.
its terms make no secret of the fate which awaits the Foreign Minister.
The agents of the Belgian authorities are required physically to appre-

liend a Minister for Foreign Affairs of another sovereign State! In terms
of its purpose, the warrant seeks to extinguislî the freedom to come aiid
go as well as to destroy the inherent dignity of an organ of an indepen-
dent country. Organically, the investigating judge who acted against the
Minister concerned is not to be confused with an açent of State protocol.

Regarding the warrant. the Court rightly states:
"its meîe issue violated . . . immunity . . . The Court accordingly con-

cludes that the issue of the warrant constituted a violation of an
obligation of Belgium towards the Congo, in that it failed to respect
the immunity of that Minister .. . uiider international law." (Judg-
ment, para. 70.)

86. These are the objective elenlents showing that this unprecedented
warrant produced legal effects. The fact that it was not physically imple-

mented is another matter. It could have been iinplemented. That the
Respondent may flout the rules of elementary courtesy between supposedly
civilized States with respect to another State is one thing in law. The war-
rant quite simply discredited the Congolese organs of State, treating them
in an altogether discourteous and unlawful manner. And that is not all.

87. At i~iternational level. our main focus of attention here, since we
are dealing with a flagrant breach of customary international law on
immunities, 1need only refer to my analysis at the provisional measures
stage. Moreover, the reasoning of the Judgment does indeed appear to
unclerline the lcgal hiirm thus suffered'".

88. As 1indicated at the preliminary measures stage, the disputed war-
rant caused prejudice to Congolese diplomacy. While the head of the dip-
lomatic corps was nevertheless able to travel unimpeded in the southern
heniisphere in order to attend diplomatic meetings aimed at bringing an

end to the armed conflict in the Congo, he was, on the otherhand, unable
so to travel in other regions much more important for settlement of the
conflict. Even if the Congolese State was represeilted there, it was at a
lower level. The result was that the substance of the peace talks at foreign
ministerial level was iidversely affected by virtue of the rule of diplomatic

precedence. Ultimately. the Congo's international sovereignty preroga-
tives suffered prejudiceY5.

'4 Judgment. paras. 70 and 71.
"' Seealso S. Bula-Bula, dissentingopinion appended to the Order of 8 December 2000,
Arrc~.stWUI.I.Lof~II April ZOO0[Detnocriltic Repuhlicofthe C012,yov. B~4gium),Pro-
i~isioiiMc(rslrrc,I.CJ. Reports2000. p. 222. para. 16. 89. En particulier le fonctionnement régulier et continu du service
public des affaires étrangères a puêtreperturbé par cette ingérencepoli-

tico-judiciaire dès lors que son chef a subi une ((quarantaine arbitraire)).
D'autre part, l'émission du mandat a porté atteinte à l'indépendance
politique du Congo. Comme montré plus haut, elle a contraint un Etat
faible, davantage affaibli par une agression armée, à modifier malgrélui,
selon l'un des conseils du Congo, membre du gouvernement de ce pays9(>,

la composition de l'équipegouvernementale pour plaire à 1'Etat défen-
deur. La Belgique n'a guère contesté cette déclaration.
90. Il ne fait pas l'ombre d'un doute que le comportement de la Bel-
gique a discréditéle Congo. Il a eu pour effet d'accabler, à priori par un
jugement sommaire, un Etat agresséau moment ou les Etats d'Afrique

centrale réunis A Libreville (Gabon) le 24 septembre 1998ont (<condatiîné
l'agression contre la Républiqiie démocratique du Congo et les ingé-
rences caractériséesdans les affaires intérieures de ce pays^"^. Les pour-
suites pénales ainsi intentées contre un organe de cet Etat agressécons-

tituent des accusations infamantes au sein de la ((communauté interna-
tionale)). Elles ont affectéles droits extrapatrimoniaux à l'honneur, à la
dignitédu peuple congolais représentépar son Etatqx.

91. Que 1'Etatdéfendeur ait, par l'émission,la diffusion et le maintien

du mandat d'arrêtdu 11 avril 2000 commis un fait internationalement
illicite a étémontré plus haut. II a opéréune rupture de ses engagements
internationaux en droit international général.
92. Pour l'heure, me paraît tout instructive l'opinion suivante de Paul

Guggenheim :
((Contrairement à une opinion répandue, ce n'est pas seulement

au moment où ilest véritablement appliquéque le droit interne peut
i,ioler.le clr(,fter-~zrrtio~îIll.y a &lit inter-r~utionlu fait mêmede
la promulgation - ou de la non-promulgation - d'une norme géné-
rale, susceptible d'être appliquée directement etcausant par là même
un dommage. La promulgation d'une norme contraire au droit

international donne donc lieu à des sanctions ..D""
C'est en conséquence un argument à fortiori qu'il faudrait appliquer

s'agissant du mandat, mesure d'application d'un simple fait, mieux d'une
voie de fait, de l'avis d'un conseil du Congo.
93. A serrer de plus près, le mandat belge ne constitue pas en droit

" Voir plaidoirie du 22 novembre 2000, CR 2000134,p. 10.
" Voir Le Phnrr, no 818 du 28 septembre 1988, p. 3.
'Voir aussi S. Bula-Bula, opinion dissidente joiàtl'ordonnance du 8 décembre
2000, Matldcitc/'urrrilII civri12000 (Rkpzrhliqur tlktiiocr.rrtiquctiu Congo c. Belgique),
trzesurescon.scri7atoires,C I.J. Recueil 2000. p. 222-223, par. 17.
'jV~al Guggenheim, Truite de droit internutiontll pub1,p. 7-8, citépar Krystyna
Marek, «Les rapports entre le droit international et le droit iàtla lumière de la
jurisprudence de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale)),g6ntr.ule riedroit
internufional public, t. XXXIII, 1962, p. 276; les italiques sont de moi. 89. In particular, the regular and continuous operation of the coun-
try's foreign service was disrupted by this politico-legal interference, the
head of the diplomatic corps having been subjected to "arbitrary quar-
antine". The serving of the warrant also violated the political independ-

ence of the Congo. As indicated above, it obliged a weak State, further
weakened by armed aggression, to change the composition of its
Government - against its wishes according to counsel for the Congo, a

meinber of that country's Government" - to please the Respondent.
Belgium has not disputed this statement.
90. There is no doubt at al1that Belgium's conduct has discredited the

Congo. Its effect, as a result of a decision taken in an apparently sum-
mary manner, has been to put further pressure on a State already under
attack at a time when the Central African States. meeting in Libreville

(Gabon)on 24 September 1998, "condemned the aggression against the
DR of the Congo and the interference described above in the interna1
affairs of that country"". The criminal proceedings thus instituted against

an organ of a victim of aggression constitute accusations that degrade it
in the eyes of the "iinternational community". They had a deleterious
effect on the moral rights to honour and dignity of the Congolese people,

as represented by their Stateqx.
91. The fact that, by issuing. circulating and inaintaining the arrest
warrant of 1 I April 2000, the Respondent committed an internationally

wrongful act has been demonstrated above. Belgium breached its inter-
national obligations under general international law.
92. At this point, the following view expressed by Paul Guggenheim

seeins particularly instructive:

"Contrary to iwidelyheld opinion, it is not only when it is actually
implemented that doinestic law may violtrre inrrrnutionul Irrt~xThe
very fact of the enactment - or non-enactment - of a general norm

capable of beingrapplied directly and thereby causing injury. is an
~nterntrtioiiulii,rong. The enactment of a noriii contrary to interna-
tional law is thus a sanctionable matter . . ."""

This is an argument applicable tr,fortiori to the warrant. a mere act -

indeed, in the view of Congo's counsel, a wrongful act - of application.

93. On closer exarniilation, the Belgian warrant does not, in interna-

"(See oral argument of 32 November 2000, CR 7000134.p. 10.
"'See Le Pli(irr. NO818 of 28 September 1988.p. 3.
""ee also S. Bula-Bula. disseriting opinion appended to the Order of 8 December 2000.
Arri'.s/ btirrrtrirtII ilpril 2000 (Dc177ocrirticRt~puhliof'thcl Co17~qo. Be1,qicirir).Pro-
i.i.~iotitr,l21<~trI.. .J. Rcyorls 7000. pp.222-223. para. 17.
" P. Guggenheim. Trtlifi'de (iroit ir~tc,rirtrrllhliVol. 1.pp. 7-8. quoted by Krys-
tyna Marek, "Les rapports eiitrc le droit international et le droit inteànla lumièrede la
jurisprudence de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale". Rei~c~gc'nc'rolt/etlroit
intc,rrrtrtiori(rplliVol. XXXIII. 1962. p. 276: emphasis added.131 MANDAT D'ARRÉT (OP. IND. RULA-BIJLA)

international un acte juridique. Comme l'a relevél'un des conseils du
Congo, il s'agit d'un fait internationalement illicite. L'opinion selon
laquelle: «Au regard du droit international et de la Cour qui en est
l'organe, les lois nationales sont de simples faits, manifestations de la

volonté et de l'activitédes Etats, au mêmetitre que les décisions judi-
ciaires ou les mesures administratives»""', trouve bien sa place ici.
94. D'où le raisonnement qui tendrait à distinguer d'un côtéllin.szru-
r?~enturnetde l'autre côtéle nrgotiur?~ne vaut pas. L'illicéité ns e'estompe

pas parce que l'organe de 1'Etata changé. Puisque a travers ledit organe,
c'est bien sûr 1'Etat qui a étévisé.Cela est encore plus manifeste dans le
cas d'espèce où plusieurs membres du gouvernement étaient sur la liste
dresséepar le juge belge, y compris le chef de I'Etat! D'autre part, un

mandat illicite n'est pas ipso ,firctoillégal.Tel est précisémentle cas ici.
De manière générale,il existe en droit international (droits de l'homme,
droit de la mer, etc.) des mesures nationales parfaitement légales,mais
qui demeurent illicites. Elles engagent la responsabilité de leurs auteurs.

Mais le constat de I'illicéité par un organe international n'emporte pas en
lui-même l'anéantissementde la mesure nationale. C'est à 1'Etat trans-
gresseur du droit international qu'incombe l'obligation d'extinction de
son acte illicite.

95. Le défendeur a commis une infraction au droit international des
immunitésdèsle 11avril 2000 par l'émissiondu mandat. IIa, par la suite,
confirmé son comportement illicite en diffusant ce dernier au plan inter-
national. Le fait illicite a étécommuniquéau demandeur le 12juillet 2000.

L'infraction consommée. dèsle 11 avril 2000. le défendeur s'est évertué.
d'après lui, i tenter de transmettre par voie diplomatique le 15 sep-
tembre 2000, le prétendu dossierjudiciaire au demandeur. Non seulement
il n'a apporté aucune preuve de ce repentir actif mais tardif, par ailleurs

contestépar l'un des conseils du Congo; mais encore la tentative de blan-
chiment du fait illicite répudiéepar 1'Etat requérant, à bon droit, est
dénuéede tout effet.
96. Pire, ily a un élémentmajeur qui montre le comportement résolu-

ment illicite de la Belgique au cours du procès. Comment qualifier autre-
ment la demande de notice rouge forinulée le 12 septembre 2001 par le
défendeur? Actionné devant la justice internationale, ce dernier n'arrête
pas de poursuivre la mise en Œuvre de son acte unilatéral illicite au

moyen de la notice rouge. Non seulement la Belgique a ainsi fait preuve
de manière éloquente de manque de />onnc,foidans la poursuite de la pro-
cédurejudiciaire internationale; mais encore n'a-t-elle pas commis «un
empiétement sur les fonctions de la Cour» Io'Y

"IoAffaire relatiàeCC~rtuinisr~fi.rs //~IIIL<,~HI.lire-Silipol~r~ui.~,f~o,nd,crrl.<;t
ri"7,1926. C P.J.1. si.Aicn"7, p.19.
"" Je m'inspire ainside l'avisde M. Tarazi, opinion dissidenteàjl'arrêtdu 24 mai
1980. affaire du Personneltliplorncrtictconsr~lirirles Er~rt.s-C~i.cT$lii.rtrrz,C.I.J.
R(,<,lr1980, p. 64.

132tional law, constitute a legal act. As noted by Congo's counsel, it is an

internationally wrongful act. The proposition that : "[iln the eyes of inter-
national law and of the Court which is its organ, domestic laws are
merely facts, manifestations of the will and the activity of States, just as
judicial decisions or administrative measures are'' ""'.is extremely appo-
site here.

94. The argument seeking to distinguish the in.rtruinc~lituno i n the one
hand and the rzegotiunz on the other is thus invalid. Wrongfulness does
not cease to exist because the organ of State has changed. For, through
that organ. it is. of course, the State which is the target. This is even

clearer in the case at issue, in which various members of the Governmeiit
were on the list drawn up by the Belgian judge, the Head of State
included! Moreover., an unlawful warrant is not, ipso,fircto. void in law.
This is precisely the case here. Generally speaking, in international law,
there are national measures (human rights. law of the sea, etc.) enacted

perfectly legally, which are nevertheless unlawful. They engage the respon-
sibility of their authors. But the fact that it is adjudged unlawful by an
international organ does not of itself annul the national measure. It is for
the State transgressing international law to extinguish its unlawful act.

95. The Respondent violated international law on iinmunities on
11 April 2000 by issuing the warrant. It subsequently confirmed its un-
lawful conduct by circulating the warrant internationally. The unlawful
act was communicated to the Applicant on 12July 2000. After the viola-

tion, which was cornplete on 11 April 2000, the Respondent claims to
have sought, on 15September 2000, to transmit the case file to the Appli-
cant by diplomatic channels. Not only did it provide no proof of
this tardy act of repentance. which, moreover, is contested by Congo's
counsel; the attempt to whitewash the wrongful act, rightly repudiated

by the Applicant, is devoid of al1effect.

96. Worse, there is a major factor which demonstrates Belgium's reso-
lutely wrongfiil conduct in the course of the proceedings. What other

word could be used to describe the Respondent's request for a Red
Notice on 12Septemiber 2001?Notwithstanding the international judicial
proceedings brought against it, Belgium persists in seeking to implement
its unilateral wronglul act by means of a Red Notice. In so doing, not
only has the Respondent provided eloquent proof of lack of good fuit11 in

relation to the condilct of the international legal pi-oceedings; but is it not
also guilty of "an ericroachment on the functions of the Court" Io'?

'INCase concerning Certriin Gern~u~Irnterests irzPollipprrSilcsiu, Merits. J~~rlg-
ment No. 7, 1926,P.C.I.J., Scries ANo. 7,p. 19.
Il"1 am here drawing ionthe views of Judge Tarazi. dissenting opinion appended to the
Judgment of 74 May 19P0,case concerriing (lnitctl Stutcs Diplomuiic uiltl Con.sulcirStc~ff
in Tehrtrn1.(IJ. Xc~port.,1980. p. 64. 97. Alors que les Etats puissants - notion relative dans le temps et
l'espace - ont parfois tendance à invoquer le droit international pour
justifier a posteriori leur comportement, les Etats faibles - concept éga-

lement relatif selon les mêmesfacteurs - inclinent souvent à conformer
leur conduite au droit international. Puisque ce dernier est leur unique
force.

98. Sans égardpour les immunitéset l'inviolabilité pénalesdu ministre
des affaires étrangères du Congo, le Royaume de Belgique a émis un
mandat d'arrêt contre cet organe éminent d'un Etat souverain au nom
d'allégations de commission de «crimes internationaux)) lors de l'agres-

sion arméedu 2 août 1998contre le Congo.
99. Non seulement le Congo a démontréà la face de la (ccommunauté
internationale)) sa qualité de sujet de droit international capable d'ester
en justice; mais encore cet Etat agressés'est comporté en tant qu7Etat de

droit, à savoir une entité respectueuse du droit international.
100. Le peuple congolais, à travers son Etat, a pu ainsi exprimer sa
personnalité internationale. Il s'est aussi affirmé libre. Sous ce rap-

port, 1'Etat défendeur s'est-il trompé de génération et d'époque?
Lorsqu'en 1989,le gouvernement en place à Kinshasa a envisagé desaisir
la Cour du c~otztc.ntieu.b uc~lgo-congoluis,son initiative s'est arrêtéenet à
l'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de celle-ci. Par la suite, ily eut

l'accord de Rabat de juin 1989qui a abasourdi la brouille entre princes.
Tel n'est pas le cas aujourd'hui.

101. Alors que M. R. Aron maintenait en 1984 que «l'exemple du
Congo suggèreque, dans la masse, la conscience tribale l'emporte encore
sur la conscience nationale ... »'O2, à la même période,Paul Reuter et
Jean Combacau n'hésitaientpas à établirun parallélismeentre le proces-

sus de formation de la nation parmi ((des Etats européens les plus cen-
tralisésd'aujourd'hui)) et le procès suivi par le Congo en ces termes: «il
en est ainsi d'un Etat africain étendu et peuplé comme le Zaïre pour

lequel la constitution progressive d'une nation zaïroise s'établit quoti-
diennement aux dépens descommunautés ethniques dont le destin aurait
pu êtredifférent» Io'.Il nous est apparu qu'con sous-estime, pour des rai-
sons inavouées, le vouloir-vivre collectif des Zaïrois forgépar des ans de

résistancetantôt ouverte, tantôt silencieuse, à l'un des régimespolitiques
les plus férocesqu'ait connu le XXc siècle» Io4.
102. Comme les deux faces de Janus. l'arrêt constitue, d'un côté,
l'acte de répudiation des relations malsaines dites d'amitié et de coopé-

ration entre un Etat dominateur et un Etat dominé, dès le lendemain

"" Rüyinond Aron. Ptris et glrervc,c,lesrrr<rtior,984, p. 389.
l1IPaul Reuter et Jean Combacau. Institutiorls cl relrrtior1.ci.nlc~rntrt1988.k.s.
p. 74.
Il"Sayeman Bula-Bula. <<Ladoctrine d'ingérence humanitaire 1-evisitée), eriro ufi.i-
criircl<,(/roi/ irrtrrn(r/i(l1co~?zp~rr<iondres), t.9. no 3. septembre 1997, p. 626.
note 109. 97. While powerf'ul States - a relative notion in terms of time and
geography - sometimes tend to invoke international law to justify their
conduct a post~riori:,weak States - an equally relative concept in the
sarne terms - often tend to ensure tliat their conduct complies with

international law, since this is the only power they have.

98. Without regard for the criminal immunities and inviolability of the
Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Congo, the Kingdom of Belgium

issued an arrest warrant against this distinguished organ of a sovereign
State on the basis of allegations that "international crimes" had been
committed during the armed attack on the Congo of 2 August 1998.
99. Not only has the Congo demonstrated vis-A-visthe "international

community" its status as a subject of international law capable of appear-
ing before the Court, but this victim of aggression has conducted itself as
a State of law, in other words, an entity which respects international law.
100. The Congolese people, through the medium of their State, have

thiis been able to express their international personality. They have also
affirmed that they are free. In this respect, has the Respondent mistaken
which generation and era it is dealing with'? When in 1989 the ruling
Government in Kinshasa considered bringing the Beigo-Congolcsp dis-

pute before the Court, its initiative went no further than acceptance of
the Court's compulsory jurisdiction. There followed the Rabat Agree-
ment of June 1989, which defused the quarrel between sovereigns States.
That is no longer the case today.

101. Whilst R. Aron maintained in 1984that "the example of Congo
suggests that, in the masses, tribal awareness still prevails over national
awareness . . .""", at the same time, Paul Reuter and Jean Combacau
had no hesitation in drawing the following parallel between the nation-

building process in "the most centralized European States of today" and
in the Congo: "this is the situation of a large and populous African State
such as Zaire, where a Zairian nation is daily being forged at the expense
of the ethnie communities, whose fate might otherwise have been differ-
103. We, for our part, have taken the view that "for unacknowledged

reasons, the collective Zairian will to live, forged by years of sometimes
open, sometimes silent resistance to one of the most savage political
regimes the twentietli century has seen, is underestimated" 'O4.

102. Like a two-l-ieaded Janus, the Judgment constitutes, on the one
hand, an açt of repudiation of the unhealthy relations, supposedly of
frieildship and co-operation, between a doininating and a dominated

lo"aymond Aron, Priis et guerre entre les nations, 1984,p. 389.
Io3Paul Reuter and Jean Combacau, Institutions cTrelutions i~ztrrnutionules, 1988,
p. 24.
Io4Sayeman Bula-Bula, "La doctrine d'ingérencehumanitaire revisitée", Revue rdri-
cuiticdodroit intrrnutionul et con7puri.(London). Vol. 9, No 3, September 1p.626,
footnote 109.133 MANDAT D'ARKET (OP. IND. BGLA-RULA)

d'une décolonisation bâclée; il forme, d'un autre côté,l'acte susceptible

de fonder des relations saines, d'amitié et de coopération durable
mutuellement avantageuses entre partenaires souverains liéspar l'his-
toire. Tôt ou tard pareils rapports s'instaureront. Mieux vaudrait main-
tenant. Il faut souhaiter que les Parties, spécialement I'Etat défendeur,

saisissent la signification profonde de la présente décision.La contribu-
tion de la Cour au règlement pacifique du différend aura ététrès
féconde. Pourvu que le défendeur adopte une nouvelle vision abandon-
nant ses conceptions surannées entretenues par des pesanteurs histo-

riques et les rapports de force inégaux. A titre d'exemple. à la veille de la
mise en orbite d'un de ces gouvernements inspirés par la Belgique, des
universitaires conseilleurs de leur pays alertèrent ce dernier en ces
termes :

<<Sielle ne se met pas en mesure, ne revendique pas, et n'obtient
pas de jouer un rôle déterminant dans la revitalisation de l'écono-

mie du pays, la Belgique risque l'affaiblissement de son leadership
au Zaïre et la perte de son principal atout en mêmetemps que celle
de son outil le plus efficace d'expression de politique extérieure.
C'est cl'ul~orrl Zuïre qui nous perruet cl'i.nlc~rgsur Irplan intrr-

nutiorzul et d'ctrr assis, N t~luint~>.so(.i.r~.siN~~10 t~~hle d~~spllis
grurztls» 'O5

103. Les Etats africains notamment qui se manifestent de plus en plus
comme les plaideurs «ordinaires» devant la Cour ont des raisons de
confier au corps des juristes éminents, indépendants et intègres Io"leurs

différends. Je pense ainsi particulièrement iides plaintes analogues iicelle
contre le Congo introduites auprès d'un juge national au cas où le défen-
deur poursuivrait sa politique de deux poids. deux mesures. D'autant
plus que le grand nombre de dirigeants afro-latino-asiatiques traduits

devant la justice belge laisserait croire, à tort, que les violations présu-
méesdu droit international humanitaire. notamment les crimes contre la
paix, les crimes contre l'humailité et les crimes de guerre constituent le
monopole de l'Afrique. l'Amériquelatine et l'Asie.
104. C'est là où la compétence dite universelle apparaît sous son vrai

jour de compétenceà géométrie variableexercéesélectivementcontre cer-
tains Etats i l'exclusion d'autres. Il ne faut pas êtregrand clerc pour
constater, à priori, que la rumeur publique sur des violations graves de
droits humains ne s'abat pas, il'échellemondiale, que sur la brochette de

personnalités accuséesauprès du juge bruxellois.
105. Sans doute la mission de la Cour consiste à trancher les litiges

loVoir Sociéténationale d'investissement et administration géiiéralede la coopération
au développement,Zuïre, secteur clespurcistutuu.;. ri.cic,tii.crtionri. ontrihu-niic~C
tiorzd'entreprise du portc.f~uille derapport réalisépar M. Moll, J.-P. Couvreur et
M. Norro. ~rofesseursà l'université catholiaue de Louvain. Bruxelles. le 29 avril 1994,
p. 231.
Io"Voir article 2 du Statut dc la Cour iriternatioriale de JusticeState immediately fclllowing a botched process of decolonization;on the
other hand, it is an act which may well serve as the basis of mutually
beiieficial healthy relations of friendship and lastingco-operation between
sovereign partners linked by history. Sooner or ldter such relations will

develop. The sooner the better. It is to be hoped that the Parties. and
especially the Respondent, grasp the fundamental significance of this
decision. The Court's contribution to the peaceful settlement of the dis-
pute will have been most beneficial. Provided the Respondent adopts a
new mindset and jettisons its outmoded conceptions maintained by the

weight of history and unequal power relations. Thus, on the eve of the
formation of a government inspired by Belgium, academic advisers from
that country warned it that:

"Unless it ensures that it can play a decisive role in revitalizing the

national economy, unless it claims such a role for itself and succeeds
in playing it, Belgium risks relinquishing its leadership in Zaire and
losing its principal asset, as well as its most effective vehicle for
the expression of foreign policy. It is jïr.rt (rnd,fi)rrn~o.~Z t crire that

enclh1e.sus to play u role on the inte~nutioncrlstrrgr a/îd,fi.equerît/j~
to sit ut thcl tczhlof'the poi.t~e~f~1."'~'

103. The African States particularly. which increasingly appear as
"ordinary" parties before the Court, have their own reasons for entrust-

ing their disputes to that body of eminent, independent and upright 'Oh
jurists. Here 1am particularly thinking of complaints like the one against
Congo brought before a national judge, should the Respondent pursue
its policy of double standards. Especially as the large number of African,

Latin Ainerican and 4sian leaders brought before I3elgianjustice might -
wrongly - suggest that the presumed violations of international humani-
tarian law, in particular crimes against peace, crimes against humanity
and war crimes, are a monopoly of Africa, Latin America and Asia.

104. This is where "universal" jurisdiction shows its true colours as a
"variable geometry" jurisdiction, selectively exercised against some States
to the exclusion of others. It requires no great knowledge to be aware
that, at global level, it is not just the handful of prominent personalities

charged before the Brussels judge who are the subject of public rumours
of serious human rig,hts violations.
105. It is clear that the Court's task is to settle disputes between States

"" See Socibténationale d'investissement et administration généralede la coopération
au développement, Zciïrr. c.er,teurde.s/irrrcislrrtrrusi,-i.uc,iii.utionde /I'i.corior?lirC.onti-ihu-
lion tl'c~ntrc~plierportc,fiuilkedc,I'Ercir,bypM. Moll. J.-P.Couvreur aiid M. Norro.
professors at theUniversite catholique dc Louvairi, 29 April 1994. p. 231.

"'"ee Article 2 of thc Statute of the International Court of Justicc134 MANDAT D'ARRET (OP. IND. BULA-BULA)

interétatiques que lui soumettent les parties. Elle ne consiste pas a ensei-
gner le droit. Néanmoins, par le règlement des différends,il peut résulter
des enseignements précieux.Au demeurant, dèsla fin des plaidoiries, l'un

des conseils de la Belgique a revisésa copie. L'un des méritesde l'arrêtest
d'avoir contribué A l'enseignement du droit international. Les appréhen-
sions que nous avions ainsi exprimées lors de la phase de demande des
mesures conservatoires 'O7n'ont plus de raison d'être a ce niveau. C'est un

chapitre du droit international des immunités du ministre des affaires
étrangèresque vient d'ébaucher la Cour IO8. A ce titre, il enrichit certai-
nement les manuels de droit international public. Intervenant au beau
milieu des débats doctrinaux, comme le montrent les travaux de l'Institut

de droit international, de la session de Vancouver, en août 2001, l'arrêt
apporte beaucoup de lumiéresur cette question.
106. La question de ((l'articulation juridique entre la compétence dite
universelle et les immunités»'0' qui suscitait ma curiosité a étéaussi

régléeimplicitement au profit de celles-ci 'Io.Sans préjudicedu caractère
établide la catégoriejuridique alléguée,hors la compétence de répression
de certaines violations de dispositions conventionnelles reconnue entre
Etats parties.

107. La Cour a établi l'existence en droit international coutumier des
règles relatives iil'immunité et l'inviolabilité pénalesdu ministre des
affaires étrangères. Elle les a appliquées au cas d'espéce parce que

M.A. YerodiaNdombasi était ministredes affaires étrangèresau moment
des faits. Puisqueledifférendinternational portait sur des prétentionscontra-
dictoires entre les immunités en question et la compétence dite univer-
selle, par sa décision, la Cour a impliciteinent rejeté l'allégationde cette

compétence dans la présente affaire. Elle a ainsi jugé la compétence dite
universelle, si elle était établieen droit international, de toute manièreino-
pérante à l'égard des immunités et del'inviolabilité pénalesdu ministre
des affaires étrangères, quels que soient les prétendus crimes allégués.

Le requérant n'a guéresollicitéun arrêtdéclaratoire'". Il a étédemandé
à la Cour de trancher un litige concret en disant le droit et en l'appliquant
effectivement au différend. Mais, une réflexiongénérale,abstraite et donc
impersonnelle de cette compétence controversée et non sollicitée par

"" Voir Sayeman Bula-Bula, opinion dissidente jointà l'ordonnance du 8 décembre
2000 rendue en l'affaire dMundut d'urrêtri~IIruvril2000 (Ri;puhliclued6t71ocrcrtcuud
Congo c.Belgique). tne.turr.r.consc~rvert~1.J. Recueil 2000, p. 219. par. 4.

Io8D'après Dominique Carreau, Droit ititert~utioricilt,. 1,2001. p. 653, la Cour accom-
plit un((rôle majeur» dans «le développementdu droit international contemporain ».
Io'Sayeman Bula-Bula, opinion dissidente jointà l'ordonnance du 8 décembre2000
rendue en l'affaire du Mundur d'arrêt du Il uvril 2000 (RLpublique dLmocrutique du
Congo c. Belgique), n~esuresco~z.servutoirrs,C.I.J. Recueil 2000, p. 220, par. 7.
lIoParagraphes 70 et 71 de l'arrêt.
Voir affaire duPlureuu confinentu1de lu t?zc,rdu NorC1.J Reciieil1969,p. 6 et
suiv.submitted to it by parties. It is not its task to teach the law. Yet the
settlement of disputes can provide valuable lessons. Indeed, at the end of
the oral argument, one of Belgium's counsel revised his script. One of the

merits of the Judgment is that it has contributed to the teaching of inter-
national law. The fears we expressed when preliminary measures were
requested '(17have not become groundless. The Court has drafted a new
chapter on the international law of immunities as it pertains to Ministers

for Foreign Affairs IOX.As such, there is no doubt that it is a useful addi-
tion to the handbooks on public international law. Intervening at a time
when the doctrinal debate is at its height, as witness the proceedings of
the Institut de droit international at its Vancouver session in August 2001,

the Judgment casts a great deal of light on this issue.

106. The question of the "legal relationship between universal jurisdic-
tion and . . . immunities" lu', which 1 was concerned to raise, has also
implicitly been settled in favour of immunities 'Io.And without prejudice

to the established nature of the legal principle concerned, with the excep-
tion of the power to punish certain violations of conventional provisions
recognized as between States parties.
107. The Court has established the existence in customary interna-

tional law of the rules relating to the criminal immunity and inviolability
of Ministers for Foreign Affairs. It has applied them to this case because
Mr. A. Yerodia Ndombasi was Minister for Foreign Affairs at the time
of the events concerned. Given that the international dispute concerned

conflicting claims between the immunities in question and so-called uni-
versal jurisdiction, it follows that the Court, by virtue of its decision, has
it?lplicith rejected the claim to such jurisdiction in the present case"'.
It has thus ruled that so-called universal jurisdiction, even if it were

established in international law, would in any event be inoperative as
regards the criminal immunities and inviolability of the Minister for
Foreign Affairs, wl-iatever the alleged crimes. The Applicant has not
requested a declaratory judgment. The Court has been asked to settle a

concrete dispute by stating the law and effecti~ely applying it to the
dispute. But a general, abstract, impersonal discussion of this disputed

''"See Sayeman Bula-Bula, dissenting opinion appended to the Order of 8 Decem-
ber 2000 delivered in the case concerning the Arre.s/ Warrutlt of II April2000 (Demo-
c.rutic Rt~publof the Congo v. Belgiirm). Proii.riunul Meusures, I.C.J. Reports 2000.
p. 219, para. 4.
IoXAccording to Dominique Carreau. Droit internutiotzul, Vol. 1, 2001, p. 653, the
Court performs a "major.role" in "the development of contemporary international law".
''"Sayemari Bula-Bulai,dissenting opinion appended to the Order of 8 December 2000
delivered in the case concerning there.st Warrant oJI1 April2000 (Det?zocruticRepub-
lic of'the Coneo v. Bc~l~iI.Provi~ionulMeusures. 1.(TJ. Reoorts 2000,P. 220, para. 7.
Il"~udgment, paras:'7i3 and 71.
"' See the cases concerning the North Seu Continentul Shelf; I.C.J. Reports 1969. pp. 61'Etatdemandeur ne s'imposait pas Il7,encore qu'il aurait été désirableà ,
mon avis, que le Congo maintînt aussi ce point dans ses demandes finales

écriteset orales. Puisque le demandeur sollicitait que la Cour dise le droit
et tranche le litige, ne lui appartenait-il pas de pourchasser tous les alibis
possibles, dits universels, humanitaires et autres? Une chose est certaine,

le prétexte tirédu prétendu infléchissement des immunités a étérejeté
dans le dispositif. Tout autre alibi qui s'appuierait sur d'autres bases du
«sans frontiérisme)) est aussi virtuellement sanctionné dans les motifs.

Face à «une saine économiejudiciaire)) Il',observéepar notre institution.
il revenait aux opinions d'«éclairer en contrepoint la motivation de
l'arrêt». de manière que «l'on [puisse] extraire toute la substance de cette
décisionjudiciaire et saisir tout ce qu'elle a apporté à lajurisprudence)) Il4.

108. En définitive,on se rend compte que le Congo semble aussi avoir

agi en manière de ((dédoublement fonctionnel)) de Georges Scelle. Il a
intenté une action judiciaire internationale non seulement en son nom et
pour son compte, mais aussi au profit de la ((communauté internatio-
nale». N'a-t-elle pas permis à la Cour de réaffirmer et de développer le

mécanisme juridique des immunités qui facilite le commerce juridique
entre l'universalitédes Etats, quel que soit l'alibi avancé?

109. Il y a fort à parier que l'arrêt,petit par son volume, mais grand
par sa substance juridique, sera accueilli favorablement par la ((commu-
nauté internationale)). Bien entendu, si on entend par là l'ensemble des
Etats, des organisations internationales et d'autres entités publiques inter-

nationales. Quelles que soient les divergences d'intérêt,la disparité du
niveau de développement et la diversité descultures, il y a là un dénomi-
nateur commun à tous qui a été réaffirmé.

110. La décision devrait aussi interpeller les manipulateurs de l'opi-
nion auxquels doit être dénié le pouvoir de fait d'exploiter, à des fins ina-
vouées.«le malheur des autres»'li.

Certains font remonter la ((compétenceuniverselle» aLiMoyen Age européen. En
cette matière. il füut peut-êtrese garder de prendre pour universel ce qui n'est probable-
ment que régional. Ainsi, selon E. Ogucri II. ((les règlcsde conduite qui régissaient.par
exemple. les relations entre le Ghana et le Nigériaen Arrique de l'Ouest, ou entre des
nations d'autres parties d'Afriq~ieet d'Asie, étaientconsidéréescomme des ((lois coutu-
mières universellen~ent reconnues)), avant la colonisation. [Tïtrtlirc~tior7tIir G'rc.ffe.1
Voir E. Ogueri II. Intcrvcntion.Ir~ri~ï~~otiorLII~I.lA.\.\~ci~Rc,l)ortsession de Varsovie.
1988, p. 969.
"' Voir Manfred Lachs. opinion individuellejointe à l'arrêtdu 24 mai 1980rendu dans
l'affaire duPcr.soiztlc,/rlil~lor,~irtit/ireet coti.\irlcrircc,/0.\ Ti.h~rorC:I.J.Rccirc,il
19x0, p. 47.
ll%ohanimed Bedjaoui. ((La ((fabrication » des arrêtsde la Cour internationale de

Justice)).Lr tiroir i17tc~ïn~itio11ncurl.sovicIliptri.~.tic,lr justic.e et (ILItii.i~eloppei~7rnt:
h1i.lut1ge.sMiclic,l I'irri1991. p. 105.
"' Voir Bernard Kouchrier, Le rrrtillie/-,.trliire1991(241 pages).jurisdiction, having not been requested by the Applicant, was not
required'12, even though. in my view, it would have been desirable for
the Congo to have maintained this claim also in its final written and

oral submissions. Since the Applicant asked the Court to state the law
and settle the dispute, should it not have sought to dispose of every
possible ground, whether "universal", humanitarian or other? One thing
is certain, the argument seeking to qualify immunities was rejected in

the Judgment's operative part. Any other argument founded on
other grounds of "trans-frontierism" is also virtually excluded in the
reasoning. Faced with the "sound judicial economy"l17 observed by our
institution, it was for the opinions to "illuminate the reasoning of the

Judgment in counterpoint", so that "the decision's full substance could
be extracted and the whole import of its contribution to the jurisprudence
could be annrehended" Il3.

108. In 'Anclusion, it is clear that the Congo also seems to have
acted in accordance with the "functional duality" referred to by Georges
Scelle. It brought international legal proceedings not only on its own
behalf and for itself, but also for the benefit of the "international com-

munity". It has given the Court the opportiinity to reaffirm and
strengthen the legal mechanism of immunities, which facilitates legal
relations between States worldwide, irrespective of the arguments raised

against it.
109. There is every likelihood that the Judgment, small in size, yet
large in legal substance. will be favourably received by the "international
community", if, of course, this is taken to mean a:l States, international

organizations and other international public entities. Irrespective of the
divergence of interests, the disparity in the level of development and the
diversity of cultures, what has been reaffirmed here is a denominator

common to all.
110. The decision should also serve as a rebuke to the opinion manipu-
lators, who should be denied the ~/o.fuc.to power to exploit "the misfor-
tunes of others" for unstated ends '".

'" There are sonie who trace "universal jurisdiction" back to the Middle Ages. In this
respect, one should perhaps bc wary of taking as uiiiversal what is probably inerely
regional. Hence. accordirig toE. Ogueri II "the rules of conduct which. for example, gov-
erned relations between Ghana and Nigeria in West Africa, or between nations in other
parts of Africa and Asia, were regarded as 'universally recognized customary law"'prior
to colonization. See E. Operi II, Intervention,Intcr11utioi7l UIVAs.tot.irrtiotz Rc~port.
Warsaw Sessioii, 1988, p. 969.

Il3See Manfred Lachs. separate opinion appended to the ludgment of 24 May 1980 in
the case coiicerning Ciiitt~l Srcites Diplorilcltic (rnti Cori.su/crrSraff' irl i.C..J.at
Rcy~ort,sIYXO,p. 47.
IiJMohaniined Bebjaoui, "La 'fabrication' des arrêtsde laCour international de Jus-
tice".Lc tirort ir7tc~rnutiorclru .scri,tic,kipais, de kajir.srit.c~et cirrtl&i~elop/~rr~ietlr,
M6Ititi,q~.\M~(./ICI/'ircr1991, p. 105.
'' Sec Bernard Koucl-iner.Lr rr~cillzc~(uier.scii,991 (241 pages).136 MANDAT D'ARRET (OP. IND. BULA-BULA)

111. Elle devrait enfin appeler à plus de modestie les nouveaux croi-
sésde l'intégrisme à prétention humanitaire {(habiles à mal poser les pro-
blèmes pour justifier les odieuses solutions qu'on pré~onise))"~,
y compris un certain courant du militantisme juridique Il7.

(Signkj Sayeman BULA-BULA.

IlhVoir Aimé Césaire.Di.~courssui-Ir c.olonirrli.siiie1.995, p. 8.
Il7Sur le militantisme juridique. voir J. Combacau et Serge Sur, Droit ii~rertiutioric~l
puhlic, 1993, p. 46; Nguyen Quoc Dinh, Patrick Dallier et Alain Pellet, Droit irztrriiutioriul
public, 1992, p. 79. Lesauteurs discernent Lincourant occidental du militantisme qui serait
représentépar l'Anglais Georg Schwarzenberger et les Américains Myres S. McDougal,
Richard Falk et M. Reisman ainsi que l'Anglaise Rosalyn Higgins; un courant oriental
sans en préciser les auteurs et un courant del'Ancien Monde avec comme figures de
proue. entre autres, Mohammed Bedjaoui, Georges Abi-Saab et Taslim Olawale Elias. A
dire vrai, il a toujours une coloration idéologique, donc militante. dans les travaux de
chaque auteur. Pour ne citer que certains. Combacau et S. Sur, op. cii., Avertissement,
ont beau avertir Ic lecteur sur leur choix du «positivisme juridique)); ils nc montrent pas
moins leur inclination idéologique libérale. Voirpar exemple au moment de la réuniondu
nombre des ratifications requises par la convention sur le droit de la mer, ils spéculent
encore «à supposer mêmequ'elle entre en vigueur)) (p. 452-453); ainsi que l'affirmation
selon laquelle cette convention aurait inversésurs bases purement formelles l'équilibre
réeldes intérêtset de la puissance)) (p. 446) ou encorefirmation selon laquelle ce texte
ne serait pas,à l'instar des conventions de Genèvede 1958,une convention de codifica-
tion mais plutôt de développement progressif...)) (p.). Voir aussi Nguyen Quoc Dinh
ei al.op. cit., p. 1093,évoquant ((l'entréeen vigueur éventuellede la convention)). 111. Lastly, it should cal1 for greater modesty from the new funda-
mentalist crusaders on behalf of humanitarianism, "skilled at presenting

problems in a false light in order to justify damaging ~olutions""~,
including a certain trend of legal militancy Il7.

f Signecl) Sayeman BULA-BULA

''"ee AiméCésaire,Di~cours.sui.le coloniali.snie.1995. p. 8.
Il7On legal militancy, see J. Combacau and Serge Sur, Droit irzternotionulpuhlic. 1993.
p. 46; Nguyen Quoc Dinh, Patrick Dallier and Alain Pellet, Droit irrrrrnntionalpublic,
1992, p. 79. The authors discern a western current of militancy. supposedly represented
by Georg Schwarzenberger and Rosalyn Higgins of the United Kingdom and
Myres S. McDougal. Richard Falk and M. Reisman of the United States; an Eastern
current. without indicating any authors, and an Ancient Uorld current with Moham-
med Bedjaoui. Georges Abi-Saab and Taslim Olawale Elias in the kanguard. In reality,
there is always an ideological start. and hence militancy. in the work of any author. To
quote just a Se&.J. Comt~acau and S. Sur, in op. cit., Avertissement, while stressing their
"legal positivism". nonetheless display their liberal tendencq. Thus. at a time when the
nuniber of ratifications required by the Convention on the Law of the Sea had been
reached, they still specul;ite: "always supposing it ever enterr into force" (pp. 453-453);
see also the assertion that this Convention has inverted "on purely fornial bases the real
balance between interests, and power" (p. 446) or the assertion that this text is not "like
the Geneva Conventions of 1958, a convention of codification but one of progressive
development .. ."(p. 452). See also Nguyen Quoc Dinh et al., op. cit., p. 1093,who refer
to "the possible entry into force of the Convention".

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Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Bula-Bula (translation)

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