Dissenting opinion of Judge Al-Khasawneh

Document Number
121-20020214-JUD-01-07-EN
Parent Document Number
121-20020214-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DlSSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AL-KHASAWNEH

Irnrnunity (fa Foreign Ministerjirnctionul - It.s estent is not clear
Dif-
ferent froni diplonlatic reprc~sentative. ~- AI.sodiffbrerztfron7 Heads of Stute -
Ministers erititled to irnmunitj)fïoni enji~rcertzentii,herzon ufjicial r~iissions -
But not on privute visits - Belgicrn it'uïrurit did not violate MI. Yc,rodiu'.s
inimunity - E.~pres.vlurzguageon non-enfircecihility ~r~iiro nn ofJcicil n7ission -

Circullfion uf ivurrunt not ciccoriipciniedhj, Red Notice - More ,furzrl~ir~zc~ntul
question is ii'hc~thrtri7ereurr e.~ceprionsin the case of grave crinies -- Irnn?unitj,
and ir?lpunity - Distinction bet~veenprocedural cznd suhstcintive usjlects of'
irnmunity urtijc.iu1- Casespo.stuluter1hl1the Court do not clddre.~q .~uestions of
impuni- adequntely - Effi~ctive cornhating ofgrci~e international crirnes hcis

c~.s.sz<ni Lcdjus cogens c11c~ruc.tc -r Siiouk/ prei~rziloiler rules on it?ztnunio. -
Dri~eloj~r~zeriz nr tlzefield qf'jurisdictional iri1n7unitie.srele~~uri t T1i.ofiiulfy
prerr~i.se. s Absolute irnnzunitj. - No e.uc<ytiorl Dissent.

1. As a general proposition it may be said without too much fear of
contradiction that the effective conduct of diplomacy - the importance

of which for the maintenance of peaceful relations among States needs
hardly to be demonstrated - requires that those engaged in such con-

duct be given appropriate immunities from - inter cilia- criminal pro-
ceedings before the courts of other States. The nature and extent of such
immunities has been clarified in the case of diplomatic representatives in

the 1961 Vienna Convention, as well as in extensive jurisprudence since
the adoption of that Convention. By contrat, and this is not without
irony, the nature and extent of immunities enjoyed by Foreign Ministers

is far from clear. so much so that the ILC Special Rapporteur on Juris-
dictional Immunities of States and Their Property expressed the opinion
that the immunities of Foreign Ministers are granted on the basis of com-

ity rather than on the basis of established rules of international law. To
be sure the Convention on Special Missions - the status of which as a

reflection of customary law is however not without controversy - covers
the immunities of Foreign Ministers who are on officia1 mission, but
reserves the extent of those immunities under the unhelpful formula:

"The Head of the Government, the Minister for Foreign Affairs
and other persons of high rank, when they take part in a special mis-

sion of the sending State, shall enjoy in the receiving State or in a
third State, in addition to what is granted by the present Conven-

tion, the facilities, privileges and immunities accorded by interna-
tional law." (Art. 21, para. 2.)Nor is the situation made any clearer by the total absence of precedents

with regard to the immunities of Foreign Ministers from criminal
process. What is sure however is that the position of Foreign Ministers
cannot be assimilated to diplomatic representatives for in the case of
the latter the host State has a discretion regarding their accreditation

and can also declare a representative persona non grata, which in itself
constitutes some sanction for wrongful conduct and more importantly
opens the way - assuming good faith of course - for subsequent
prosecution in hislher home State. A Minister for Foreign Affairs
accused of criminal conduct - and for that matter criminal conduct that

infringes the interests of the community of States as a whole in terms
of the gravity of the crimes he is alleged to have committed, and the
importance of the interests that the community seeks to protect and
who is furthermore not prosecuted in his home State - is hardly under
the same conditions as a diplomatic representative granted immunity

from criminal process.

2. If the immunities of a Minister for Foreign Affairs cannot be

assimilated to a diplomatic representative, can those immunities be estab-
lished by assimilating him to a Head of a State? Whilst a Foreign Min-
ister is undoubtedly an important personage of the State and represents it
in the conduct of its foreign relations, he does not, in any sense, personify
the State. As Sir Arthur Watts correctly puts it:

"heads of governments and foreign ministers, although senior and

important figures, do not symbolize or personify their States in the
way that Heads of States do. Accordingly, they do not enjoy in
international law any entitlement to special treatment by virtue of
qualities of sovereignty or majesty attaching to them personally."

(A. Watts, "The Legal Position in International Law of Heads of
States, Heads of Governments and Foreign Ministers", Recueil des
coursde l'A<.u~lémdie edroit internationalde Lu Huye, 1994,Vol. 247,
pp. 102-103).

3. Moreover, it should not be forgotten that immunity is by definition
an exception from the general rule that man is responsible legally and

morally for his actions. As an exception, it has to be narrowly defined.

4. A Minister for Foreign Affairs is entitled to immunity from enforce-
ment when on official mission for the unhindered conduct of diplomacy
would suffer if the case was otherwise, but the opening of criminal inves-

tigations against him can hardly be said by any objective criteria to con-
stitute interference with the conduct of diplomacy. A faint-hearted or
ultra-sensitive Minister may restrict his private travels or feel discomfort
but this is a subjective elenlent that must be discarded. The warrantissued against Mr. Yerodia goes further than a mere opening of investi-
gation and may arguably be seen as an enforcement measure but it con-

tained express language to the effect that it was not to be enforced if
Mr. Yerodia was on Belgian territory on an officia1mission. In fact press
reports - not cited in the Memorials or the oral pleadings - suggest
that he had paid a visit to Belgium after the issuance of the warrant and
no steps were taken to enforce it. Significantly also the circulation of the

international arrest warrant was not accompanied by a Red Notice
requiring third States to take steps to enforce it (which only took place
after Mr. Yerodia had left office) and had those States acted tliey would
be doing so at their own risk. A breach of an obligation presupposes the

existence of an obligation and in the absence of any evidence to suggest a
Foreign Minister is entitled to absolute immunity, 1 cannot see why the
Kingdom of Belgium, when we have regard to the terms of the warrant
and the lack of an Interpol Red Notice was in breach of its obligations
owed to the Democratic Republic of Congo.

5. A more fundamental question is whether high State officiaisare
entitled to benefit from immunity even when they are accused of having

committed exceptionally grave crimes recognized as such by the interna-
tional community. In other words, should immunity become de facto
impunity for criminal conduct as long as it was in pursuance of State
policy? The Judgment sought to circumvent this morally embarrassing

issue by recourse to an existing but artificially drawn distinction between
immunity as a substantive defence on the one hand and immunity as a
procedural defence on the other. The artificiality of this distinction can be
gleaned from the ILC commentary to Article 7 of the Draft Code of
Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, which States: "The

absence of any procedural immunity with respect to prosecution or pun-
ishment in appropriate judicial proceedings" - and it should not be for-
gotten that the draft was intended to apply to national or international
courts - "is an essential corollary of the absence of any substantive

immunity or defence. Tt would be paradoxical to prevent an individual
from invoking his official position to avoid responsibility for a crime only
to permit him to invoke this same consideration to avoid the conse-
quences of this responsibility."

6. Having drawn this distinction, the Judgment then went on to pos-
tulate four cases where, in an attempt at proving that immunity and
impunity are not synonymous, a Minister, and by analogy a high-ranking
official, would be held personally accountable:

(il) for prosecution in hislher home State;
(b) for prosecution in other States if hislher immunity had been waived;(c) after helshe leaves office except for officia1acts committed while in
office;
(d) for prosecution before an international court.

This paragraph (Judgment, para. 61) is more notable for the things it
does not say than for the things it does: as far as prosecution at home
and waiver are concerned, clearly the problem arises when they do not
take place. With regard to former high-ranking officials the question of

impunity remains with regard to officia1 acts, the fact that most grave
crimes are definitionally State acts inakes this more than a theoretical
lacuna. Lastly with regard to existing international courts their jurisdic-
tion rutione rnuteriue is limited to the two cases of the former Yugoslavia
and Rwanda and the future international court's jurisdiction is limited
rutione tenzporis by non-retroactivity as well as by the fact that primary

responsibility for prosecution remains with States. The Judgment cannot
dispose of the problem of impunity by referral to a prospective interna-
tional criminal court or existing ones.

7. The effective combating of grave crimes has arguably assumed a jus
cogens character reflecting recognition by the internationalcommunity of

the vital community interests and values it seeks to protect and enhance.
Therefore when this hierarchically higher norm comes into conflict with
the rules on immunity, it should prevail. Even if we are to speak in terms
of reconciliation of the two sets of rules, this would suggest to me a much
more restrictive interpretation of the immunities of high-ranking officials

than the Judgment portrays. Incidentally, such a restrictive approach
would be much more in consonance with the now firmly established
move towards a restrictive concept of State immunity, a move that has
removed the bar regarding the submission of States to jurisdiction of
other States often expressed in the maxim pur in purern rzonIiuhrt inzper-
iurn. It is difficult to see why States would accept that their conduct with

regard to important areas of their development be open to foreign judi-
cial proceedings but not the criminal conduct of their officials.

8. In conclusion, this Judgment is predicated on two faulty premises:

(a) that a Foreign Minister enjoys absolute immunity from both
jurisdiction and enforcement of foreign States as opposed to only
functional immunity from enforcement when on official mission, a
proposition which is neither supported by precedent, opinio juris,

legal logic or the writings of publicists;

(bj that as international law stands today, there are no exceptions to the
immunity of high-ranking State officials even when they are accused
of grave crimes. While, admittedly, the readiness of States and
municipal courts to admit of exceptions is still at a very nebulous

stage of development, the situation is much more fluid than theJudgment suggests. 1believe that the move towards greater persona1
accountability represents a higher norm than the rules on immunity
and should prevail over the latter. In consequence, 1 am unable to
join the majority view.

(Signrd) Awn AL-KHASAWNEH.

Bilingual Content

DlSSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AL-KHASAWNEH

Irnrnunity (fa Foreign Ministerjirnctionul - It.s estent is not clear
Dif-
ferent froni diplonlatic reprc~sentative. ~- AI.sodiffbrerztfron7 Heads of Stute -
Ministers erititled to irnmunitj)fïoni enji~rcertzentii,herzon ufjicial r~iissions -
But not on privute visits - Belgicrn it'uïrurit did not violate MI. Yc,rodiu'.s
inimunity - E.~pres.vlurzguageon non-enfircecihility ~r~iiro nn ofJcicil n7ission -

Circullfion uf ivurrunt not ciccoriipciniedhj, Red Notice - More ,furzrl~ir~zc~ntul
question is ii'hc~thrtri7ereurr e.~ceprionsin the case of grave crinies -- Irnn?unitj,
and ir?lpunity - Distinction bet~veenprocedural cznd suhstcintive usjlects of'
irnmunity urtijc.iu1- Casespo.stuluter1hl1the Court do not clddre.~q .~uestions of
impuni- adequntely - Effi~ctive cornhating ofgrci~e international crirnes hcis

c~.s.sz<ni Lcdjus cogens c11c~ruc.tc -r Siiouk/ prei~rziloiler rules on it?ztnunio. -
Dri~eloj~r~zeriz nr tlzefield qf'jurisdictional iri1n7unitie.srele~~uri t T1i.ofiiulfy
prerr~i.se. s Absolute irnnzunitj. - No e.uc<ytiorl Dissent.

1. As a general proposition it may be said without too much fear of
contradiction that the effective conduct of diplomacy - the importance

of which for the maintenance of peaceful relations among States needs
hardly to be demonstrated - requires that those engaged in such con-

duct be given appropriate immunities from - inter cilia- criminal pro-
ceedings before the courts of other States. The nature and extent of such
immunities has been clarified in the case of diplomatic representatives in

the 1961 Vienna Convention, as well as in extensive jurisprudence since
the adoption of that Convention. By contrat, and this is not without
irony, the nature and extent of immunities enjoyed by Foreign Ministers

is far from clear. so much so that the ILC Special Rapporteur on Juris-
dictional Immunities of States and Their Property expressed the opinion
that the immunities of Foreign Ministers are granted on the basis of com-

ity rather than on the basis of established rules of international law. To
be sure the Convention on Special Missions - the status of which as a

reflection of customary law is however not without controversy - covers
the immunities of Foreign Ministers who are on officia1 mission, but
reserves the extent of those immunities under the unhelpful formula:

"The Head of the Government, the Minister for Foreign Affairs
and other persons of high rank, when they take part in a special mis-

sion of the sending State, shall enjoy in the receiving State or in a
third State, in addition to what is granted by the present Conven-

tion, the facilities, privileges and immunities accorded by interna-
tional law." (Art. 21, para. 2.) OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AL-KI1ASAWNEH

(Traduction]

Ir?~munité (l'unministre des uffuires r:trctngérefsonc 'ionnelle - Son étendue

n'estanp tciscluire - D(ffrrente de celle des représentantsdiplornutiques Egu-
lement riiffgrente c/ecelle ck.vclzefs d'Etcrt -- Ministre.;,jouissunt de I'in7nzunité
d'exécutionlorsqu'i1.s.sonterlmission (?ficielle - Murs non en 1,isiteprivée -
Mcinc/utbelge ne violu,rztpersI'irnm~~nitr (O M. Yerodi.c - Indiccition P.upre.v.se

de son cureictèrenon o.vc;cutoireclurant une r~~issiorcl.fjcicllr - Diffiisio~idu
nzanckrtnon ucconwpcrg.rzdB 'une notice rouge - Que~twn plus ,fondurnentule, fi
sciroirs'il y (1~ie.sexcry~tiorl~ dans le cas clescritne.~grcli3c, s Inzn?unitécJtiuipu-
nité - Distinction entre usprcts procidurau-c et & ,fl~ndde l'imrnunitc;clut$-
cielle - A,f/iiire.si17)~oqzii>pa<r>lu Cozlr ~z'~.vu~inunItlas les qurstions d'i~~ipu-

nité ri(léq~u11cvrre nt Lirrte gff2ctii1econtre les crin~(,sinterncitioncruujiru~v.s
reiGtclntle currrctèreliejus cogens - -Dei~ontprinier le.\règ1e.s.surI'ininzunit< ;
Evol~~tiorz dutzs le u'«rn8uin(eles irnrnunités,juridic.tionn<,llep sertinente - Dru.\-
prét~zi.s.s<er~rsnées - .Itnniunitéubsoli4r~ - Pe1.sd'exception - Désur,cord

1. On peut dire d'iine manière généralesans trop craindre la contradic-
tion que la conduite efficace de la diplomatie - dont il n'est guèrebesoin

de démontrer l'importance pour le maintien de re181tionspacifiques entre
les Etats - requiert que ceux qui s'y livrent rec,oivent des immunités

appropriées,notamment lajuridiction pénaledes tribunaux d'autres Etats.
La nature et l'étenduede ces immunités ont étééclairciesdans le cas des
représentants diplomatiques par la convention de Vienne de 1961, ainsi

que par une abondarite jurisprudence depuis l'adoption de cette conven-
tion. Par contre, et c.ecin'est pas sans ironie, la riature et l'étendue des
immunités dont jouissent les ministres des affairfs étrangèressont loin

d'êtreclaires, à tel point que le rapporteur spécial de la CD1 sur les
immunitésjuridictionnelles des Etats et de leurs biens a exprimé l'opinion

selon laquelle les immunitésdes ministres des affai~esétrangèresleur sont
accordées par l'effet de la courtoisie internationale et non par celui de
règles établies du droit international. Certes, la convention sur les mis-

sions spéciales - dorit le statut en tant qu'expression du droit coutumier
n'est néanmoins pas :sanssusciter de controverses - couvre les immuni-
tés des ministres des affaires étrangères qui sont en mission officielle,

mais réservel'étendue de ces immunités dans unc formule qui ne nous
aide guère :

((Le chef de goiivernement, le ministre des a 'fairesétrangèreset les

autres personnalités de rang élevé,quand ils prennent part à une
mission spécialede 1'Etatd'envoi, jouissent, d.ms 1'Etat de réception
ou dans un Etat tiers, en plus de ce qui est a:cordé par la présente

convention, des facilités, privilèges et immunités reconnus par le
droit international.)) (Art. 21, par. 2.)Nor is the situation made any clearer by the total absence of precedents

with regard to the immunities of Foreign Ministers from criminal
process. What is sure however is that the position of Foreign Ministers
cannot be assimilated to diplomatic representatives for in the case of
the latter the host State has a discretion regarding their accreditation

and can also declare a representative persona non grata, which in itself
constitutes some sanction for wrongful conduct and more importantly
opens the way - assuming good faith of course - for subsequent
prosecution in hislher home State. A Minister for Foreign Affairs
accused of criminal conduct - and for that matter criminal conduct that

infringes the interests of the community of States as a whole in terms
of the gravity of the crimes he is alleged to have committed, and the
importance of the interests that the community seeks to protect and
who is furthermore not prosecuted in his home State - is hardly under
the same conditions as a diplomatic representative granted immunity

from criminal process.

2. If the immunities of a Minister for Foreign Affairs cannot be

assimilated to a diplomatic representative, can those immunities be estab-
lished by assimilating him to a Head of a State? Whilst a Foreign Min-
ister is undoubtedly an important personage of the State and represents it
in the conduct of its foreign relations, he does not, in any sense, personify
the State. As Sir Arthur Watts correctly puts it:

"heads of governments and foreign ministers, although senior and

important figures, do not symbolize or personify their States in the
way that Heads of States do. Accordingly, they do not enjoy in
international law any entitlement to special treatment by virtue of
qualities of sovereignty or majesty attaching to them personally."

(A. Watts, "The Legal Position in International Law of Heads of
States, Heads of Governments and Foreign Ministers", Recueil des
coursde l'A<.u~lémdie edroit internationalde Lu Huye, 1994,Vol. 247,
pp. 102-103).

3. Moreover, it should not be forgotten that immunity is by definition
an exception from the general rule that man is responsible legally and

morally for his actions. As an exception, it has to be narrowly defined.

4. A Minister for Foreign Affairs is entitled to immunity from enforce-
ment when on official mission for the unhindered conduct of diplomacy
would suffer if the case was otherwise, but the opening of criminal inves-

tigations against him can hardly be said by any objective criteria to con-
stitute interference with the conduct of diplomacy. A faint-hearted or
ultra-sensitive Minister may restrict his private travels or feel discomfort
but this is a subjective elenlent that must be discarded. The warrant MANDAT D'ARRET (OP. DISS. AL-KHAS~WNEH) 96

Et la situation n'est pas rendue plus claire par l'absence totale de juris-
prudence en ce qui concerne l'immunité de la juridiction pénale des mi-

nistres des affaires étrangères. Ce qui est néanmoins sûr est que la posi-
tion des ministres des affaires étrangèresne peut êtreassimiléeà celle des
représentants diploniatiques car, dans le cas dc ces derniers, 1'Etat
d'accueil jouit d'un (certain pouvoir discrétionnaire en ce qui concerne

leur accréditation et peut aussi déclarer un représentant persona non
grata, ce qui en soi constitue une sanction pour uii comportement fautif
ou, plus important, ouvre la voie - en assumant la bonne foi bien
entendu - à des poursuites ultérieures dans son Istat d'origine. Un mi-
nistre des affaires étrangèresaccuséd'un comporte nent criminel - et, de

fait, d'un comportenient criminel qui porte atteinte aux intérêts dela
communauté des Etaits dans son ensemble de pal la gravité des crimes
qu'on l'accuse d'avoir commis, et l'importance des intérêts quela com-
munauté cherche a protéger et qui, de plus, ne fait pas l'objet de pour-
suites dans son Etat d'origine - est loin d'êtredins la mêmesituation

qu'un représentant diplomatique à qui I'on a accordé l'immunité de la
juridiction pénale.
2. Si les immunités d'un ministre des affaires Ztrangères ne peuvent
êtreassimiléesà celles d'un représentant diplomatique, peut-on en établir

le contenu en assimilant un ministre des affaires étrangères à un chef
d'Etat? Si un ministire des affaires étrangèresest à n'en pas douter un
important personnage de 1'Etat et représente celui-cidans la conduite de
ses relations extérieures, il ne personnifie en aiicune manière 1'Etat.
Comme sir Arthur Watts le déclareà juste titre :

«les chefs de gouvernement et les ministres des affaires étrangères,
bien qu'il s'agisse de deux personnages importants et de haut rang,

ne symbolisent ni ne personnifient leurs Etats comme le font les chefs
d'Etat. C'est pourquoi, en droit international ils n'ont aucun droit
à un traitement spécial en vertu de qualités de souveraineté ou
de majesté s'attachant à eux personnelleme~it.» (A. Watts, «The

Legal Position in International Law of Heacs of States, Heads of
Governments and Foreign Ministers)), R~cutil des cours rie I'Aca-
déinie de droit international de Lu Halle, 1994, vol. 247,
p. 102-103.)

3. De plus, il ne faut pas oublier que l'immunité estpar définition une
exception à la règle généralequi veut qu'un êtreliumain soit juridique-
ment et moralement responsable de ses actes. En ant qu'exception, elle

doit être étroitementdéfinie.
4. Un ministre des affaires étrangères a droit à 1immunité d'exécution
lorsqu'il est en missio'nofficielle car autrement la tliplomatie ne pourrait
êtreconduite sans entrave, mais on ne peut guère considérer, quels que
soient les critères objectifs que I'on applique, que l'ouverture d'une

enquêtepénale à son encontre constitue une entrave à la conduite de la
diplomatie. Un ministre craintif ou d'une sensibilité exacerbée peutres-
treindre ses voyages privés ou se sentir mal à l'aise, mais il s'agit la d'unissued against Mr. Yerodia goes further than a mere opening of investi-
gation and may arguably be seen as an enforcement measure but it con-

tained express language to the effect that it was not to be enforced if
Mr. Yerodia was on Belgian territory on an officia1mission. In fact press
reports - not cited in the Memorials or the oral pleadings - suggest
that he had paid a visit to Belgium after the issuance of the warrant and
no steps were taken to enforce it. Significantly also the circulation of the

international arrest warrant was not accompanied by a Red Notice
requiring third States to take steps to enforce it (which only took place
after Mr. Yerodia had left office) and had those States acted tliey would
be doing so at their own risk. A breach of an obligation presupposes the

existence of an obligation and in the absence of any evidence to suggest a
Foreign Minister is entitled to absolute immunity, 1 cannot see why the
Kingdom of Belgium, when we have regard to the terms of the warrant
and the lack of an Interpol Red Notice was in breach of its obligations
owed to the Democratic Republic of Congo.

5. A more fundamental question is whether high State officiaisare
entitled to benefit from immunity even when they are accused of having

committed exceptionally grave crimes recognized as such by the interna-
tional community. In other words, should immunity become de facto
impunity for criminal conduct as long as it was in pursuance of State
policy? The Judgment sought to circumvent this morally embarrassing

issue by recourse to an existing but artificially drawn distinction between
immunity as a substantive defence on the one hand and immunity as a
procedural defence on the other. The artificiality of this distinction can be
gleaned from the ILC commentary to Article 7 of the Draft Code of
Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, which States: "The

absence of any procedural immunity with respect to prosecution or pun-
ishment in appropriate judicial proceedings" - and it should not be for-
gotten that the draft was intended to apply to national or international
courts - "is an essential corollary of the absence of any substantive

immunity or defence. Tt would be paradoxical to prevent an individual
from invoking his official position to avoid responsibility for a crime only
to permit him to invoke this same consideration to avoid the conse-
quences of this responsibility."

6. Having drawn this distinction, the Judgment then went on to pos-
tulate four cases where, in an attempt at proving that immunity and
impunity are not synonymous, a Minister, and by analogy a high-ranking
official, would be held personally accountable:

(il) for prosecution in hislher home State;
(b) for prosecution in other States if hislher immunity had been waived; MANDAT D'ARRÊT (OP. DISS. AL-KHAS~WNEH) 97

élément subjectifqui doit êtreécarté.Le mandai émis à l'encontre de
M. Yerodia va plus loin que la simple ouverture d'une enquêteet peut

raisonnablement être considérécomme une mesu-e d'exécution, mais il
contenait des dispositions expresses selon lesquell(:s il ne devait pas être
exécutési M. Yerodia se trouvait sur le territoire belge en mission offi-
cielle. En fait, des articles de presse - qui n'ont étécités ni dans les
mémoiresni dans les plaidoiries - donnent à pen:;er qu'il s'est rendu en

Belgique après I1émis:sion du mandat et qu'aucun: mesure n'a étéprise
pour exécuter celui-ci.Fait égalementimportant : la diffusion du mandat
d'arrêt international in'étaitpas accompagnée d'un: notice rouge deman-
dant aux Etats tiers de prendre des mesures pou. l'exécuter (cequi ne
s'est produit qu'après que M. Yerodia a quitté ses fonctions) et si ces

Etats avaient agi ils l'auraient fait a leurs propre:, risques. La violation
d'une obligation présuppose l'existence d'une obli :ation et, en l'absence
de tout élémentdonnant à penser qu'un ministre des affaires étrangères a
droit A l'immunité absolue,je ne vois pas pourquoi le Royaume de Bel-
gique, eu égard aux termes du mandat et à l'absence de notice rouge

d'Interpol, a manqué à ses obligations envers la République démocra-
tique du Congo.
5. Une question plus fondamentale est de savoii si les hauts responsa-
bles de 1'Etat ont droit à l'immunitémêmelorsqu'ils sont accusésd'avoir
commis des crimes exceptionnellement graves recoIinus comme tels par la

communauté internationale. En d'autres termes, l'immunité devrait-elle
devenir une impunité de,fucto en cas de comportement criminel dès lors
que cecomportement correspond àla politique de 1'Etat ?L'arrêts'efforce
de contourner cette question moralement embariassante en invoquant
une distinction, existante mais artificielle, entre I'rmmunitéen tant que

moyen de défenseau fond, d'une part, et l'immunité en tant que moyen
de défenseprocédural, de l'autre. Le caractère artificiel de cette distinc-
tion ressort du commentaire de la CD1 à l'article7 du projet de code des
crimes contre la paix et la sécuritéde l'humanité, qui stipule :((L'absence

detoute immunité procéduralepermettant de se soi~straireaux poursuites
ou au châtiment daris le cadre d'une procédure .udiciaire appropriée))
- et il ne faut pas oublier que ce texte devait êtreappliquépar les tribu-
naux nationaux et internationaux - ((constitue un corollaire essentiel de
l'absence de toute immunité substantielle ou de tout fait justificatif. Il

serait paradoxal que l'intéresséne puisse pas invoquer sa qualitéofficielle
pour s'exonérerde sa responsabilité pénalemais puisse l'invoquer pour se
soustraire aux conséqluencesde cette responsabilitt:. ))
6. Ayant fait cette distinction, l'arrêtpoursuit en citant quatre cas
dans lesquels, s'agissant de prouver qu'immunité e'.impunité ne sont pas

synonymes, un minisl.re, et par analogie une persoiinalité officielle, serait
tenu personnellement responsable :

a) aux fins de poursuites dans son Etat d'origine.
h) aux fins de poursuites dans d'autres Etats s son immunité a été

levée :(c) after helshe leaves office except for officia1acts committed while in
office;
(d) for prosecution before an international court.

This paragraph (Judgment, para. 61) is more notable for the things it
does not say than for the things it does: as far as prosecution at home
and waiver are concerned, clearly the problem arises when they do not
take place. With regard to former high-ranking officials the question of

impunity remains with regard to officia1 acts, the fact that most grave
crimes are definitionally State acts inakes this more than a theoretical
lacuna. Lastly with regard to existing international courts their jurisdic-
tion rutione rnuteriue is limited to the two cases of the former Yugoslavia
and Rwanda and the future international court's jurisdiction is limited
rutione tenzporis by non-retroactivity as well as by the fact that primary

responsibility for prosecution remains with States. The Judgment cannot
dispose of the problem of impunity by referral to a prospective interna-
tional criminal court or existing ones.

7. The effective combating of grave crimes has arguably assumed a jus
cogens character reflecting recognition by the internationalcommunity of

the vital community interests and values it seeks to protect and enhance.
Therefore when this hierarchically higher norm comes into conflict with
the rules on immunity, it should prevail. Even if we are to speak in terms
of reconciliation of the two sets of rules, this would suggest to me a much
more restrictive interpretation of the immunities of high-ranking officials

than the Judgment portrays. Incidentally, such a restrictive approach
would be much more in consonance with the now firmly established
move towards a restrictive concept of State immunity, a move that has
removed the bar regarding the submission of States to jurisdiction of
other States often expressed in the maxim pur in purern rzonIiuhrt inzper-
iurn. It is difficult to see why States would accept that their conduct with

regard to important areas of their development be open to foreign judi-
cial proceedings but not the criminal conduct of their officials.

8. In conclusion, this Judgment is predicated on two faulty premises:

(a) that a Foreign Minister enjoys absolute immunity from both
jurisdiction and enforcement of foreign States as opposed to only
functional immunity from enforcement when on official mission, a
proposition which is neither supported by precedent, opinio juris,

legal logic or the writings of publicists;

(bj that as international law stands today, there are no exceptions to the
immunity of high-ranking State officials even when they are accused
of grave crimes. While, admittedly, the readiness of States and
municipal courts to admit of exceptions is still at a very nebulous

stage of development, the situation is much more fluid than theC) après qu'il a quittéses fonctions, exceptépour des actes officiels com-
mis alors qu'il &ait en fonction;
d) aux fins de poursuites devant une juridiction internationale.

Ce paragraphe (arrêt,par. 6 1)est plus remarquablt: par les choses qu'il ne
dit pas que par celles qu'il dit :pour ce qui est des ])oursuites dans le pays
d'origine et de la levie de I'immuniti, il est clair que le problème se pose

lorsqu'elles n'interviennent. pas. S'agissant d'ancie 1s hauts dignitaires, la
question de l'impunité demeure.pour ce qui est des actes officiels, et le fait
que la plupart des crimes graves sont par définition desactes de 1'Etatfait
qu'il s'agit d'une lacune plus que théorique. Enfin, en ce qui concerne les
juridictions internationales existantes, leur compétence rufione nzuteriae
est limitéeaux deux cas de l'ex-Yougoslavie et du Rwanda et la compé-

tence de la future cour internationale est limitée rritione tetnporis par la
non-rétroactivité et par le fait que c'est aux Etats qu'il incombe au pre-
mier chef d'engager 11:spoursuites. L'arrêtne peut se débarrasser du pro-
blèmede l'impunitéen renvoyant à ilne future cour pénaleinternationale
ou à celles qui existent.
7. On peut arguer que la lutte effective contre es crimes graves revêt

désormais le caractère de jus cogerz.~c .e qui reflètela reconnaissance par
la communauté inte.rnationale des intérêts etvaieurs communautaires
vitaux qu'elle cherche à protéger et renforcer. En conséquence, lorsque
cette norme hiérarchiquement plus élevéeentre en conflit avec les règles
régissant l'immunité,elle devrait prévaloir. Mêmesi l'on parle de conci-
lier les deux sériesde règles. ilme semble que l'interprétation des immu-

nités desresponsableis de haut rang devrait être be.iucoup plus restrictive
que celle que retient l'arrêt.Incidemment. cette approche restrictive serait
beaucoup plus conforme à la tendance maintenan. fermement établie en
faveur d'une notion restrictive de I'immunitéde I'lZtat,une tendance qui
a éliminél'obstacle concernant la soumission des Etats à la juridiction

d'autres Etats souvent exprimé par la maxime ~ L ~in parem non lzubrt
itnperiuni. On voit mal pourquoi les Etats accepterient que leur compor-
tement concernant des domaines importantsde leur développement, mais
non le comportement criminel de leurs agents, puisse faire l'objet de pro-
céduresjudiciaires à l'étranger.
8. En conclusion, Ileprésent arrêtrepose sur deiix prémisseserronées :

a) qu'un ministre des affaires étrangères jouit d'me immunité absolue
tant de lajuridiction que de l'exécutiondes Eta s étrangers,par oppo-
sition â l'immunité d'exécution uniquementfor ctionnelle quand ilest

en visite officielle, une proposition qui n'est étziyée ni par la jurispru-
dence, ni par l'opit~iojuri.~,ni par la logiquejuridique, ni par la doc-
trine;
b) que, dans l'étatactuel du droit international, il n'y a pas d'exceptions
à l'immunité des hauts dignitaires de 1'Etat mêmelorsqu'ils sont
accusésde crimes graves. Si, certes. le désirdes Etats et des tribunaux

internes d'admettre des exceptions en est encore à un stade de déve-
loppement très nébuleux, la situation est bealcoup plus fluide queJudgment suggests. 1believe that the move towards greater persona1
accountability represents a higher norm than the rules on immunity
and should prevail over the latter. In consequence, 1 am unable to
join the majority view.

(Signrd) Awn AL-KHASAWNEH.l'arrêt nele donneApenser. J'estime que la tendance en faveur d'une
responsabilité pi:rsonnelle plus étendue repriisente une norme plus
élevéeque les règlessur l'immunité etdevrait prévaloir sur elles. En
conséquence,je ne suis pas en mesure de faire mienne l'opinion majo-
ritaire.

(Signé) P,wn AL-KHASAWNEH.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion of Judge Al-Khasawneh

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