Dissenting Opinion of Judge Bedjaoui (translation)

Document Number
096-19981204-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
096-19981204-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE BEDJAOUI

[Translation]

Subject-matter of the dispute - Tripartite determination by Applicant,
Respondent andthe Court - Dijferent role of each "actor" - Inviolability of
Applicant's status - Applicant's right to have the Courtrule on the subject of

the dispute referred to it by the Applicant andon that alone - The Court can-
not substitute another subject of the disputefor the one submitted by the Appli-
cant - That would amount to deciding a quite different case.
Validity of the Canadian reservation - Sovereign, undisputedpower of a
State to maintain or amend, whetherby restricting or by extending it, a declara-
tion of acceptanceof the Court'sjurisdiction, or to withdraw it altogether when-
ever it wishes - Power to attach any reservation - Suchfreedom nonetheless
conditional on compliance with the Statute and the Rules of Court, the Charter

of the United Nations, and more generally, with internationallaw and "ordre
public international" - Rights and obligations of the declarant State with
regard to the clause "system", to those currently orpotentially participating in
it and to the ultimate addresseeof the clause, the International Court - Declar-
ant State free to withdrawfrom the "system" but not to compromise its exist-
ence orfunctioning andyet remain within it.

Dejînition of "conservationand management measures" - A new concept -
Pressing need for the international community to clarify, rationalize andhar-
monize conservation and management measures - Need for CO-operation -
Dejînition of such measures in light of international law - Their compatibility
with internationallaw a sinequa non - Elements of the international dejïnition
of such measures - Technical and scientiJicaspects - Legal elements - Issue
of legality - Legality as a built-in elementof the dejînition - International law
cannot supply a dejînition which is conjïned to technical aspects and which, if

taken literally, would apparently authorize the violation of the most jïrmly
establishedprinciple of international law,freedom of the high seas.

1. Continuing its long and estimable tradition of respect for the pri-
macy of law, both interna1 and external, Canada has for 70 years placed
full confidence,first in the Permanent Court of International Justice and

then in its successor, Our present Court. Thus, its first declaration of
acceptance of the jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International
Justice dates from 20 September 1929.And since then it has always held
Ourjurisdiction in great respect and has not hesitated to have recourse to

it, as for example in the Gulfof Maine case.
2. On two occasions, however, in 1970and 1994,Canada made reser-
vations imposing specificrestrictions on the Court's jurisdiction. In 1970
it amended its declaration of acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction so asto enable it to take measures to prevent pollution and protect the marine
environment of its northern coast, over an area extending more than
100milestowards the polar zone.At that time, however,the United States,
at which these measures were aimed, did not bring the matter before
the Court.

3. Canada's reservation, contained in its declaration of 7 April 1970
(see I.C.J. Yearbook 1975-1976, p. 54), had a certain resemblance, at
least as regards the manner in which it was formulated, to that of 1994
and read as follows:

"(2) 1declare that the Government of Canada acceptsas compul-
sory . . .the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice . . .
over al1disputes . . other than:

(d) disputes arising out of or concevning jurisdiction or rights
claimed or exercised by Canada in respect of the conservation,
management or exploitation of the living resourcesof thesea, or
in respect of the prevention or control or contamination of the

marine environment in marine areas adjacent to the coast of
Canada." (Emphasis added.)

4. Disregarding the 1985declaration, which contained no equivalent
reservation, it will benoted that the 1970reservation quoted above has
been replaced by another, situated in the same place, allowing Canada to
exclude the jurisdiction of the Court in regard to

(d) disputes arising out of or concevningconservation and manage-
ment measures taken by Canada with respect to vesselsfishing
in the NAFO Regulatory Area, as definedin the Convention on
Future Multilateral Co-operation in the Northwest Atlantic
Fisheries, 1978, and the enforcement of such measures."
(Emphasisadded.)

5. These similar reservations formulated by Canada on two separate
occasions would appear to reflect its hesitation, or reluctance, to submit
to the sanction of the International Court issues which it regarded as
vital, and in relation to which it considered the applicable law to be, in
the words of the Canadian Foreign Minister, "inadequate, non-existent
or irrelevant". The point was that Canada was not entirely satisfiedwith
the Montego Bay Convention of 10 December 1982on the Law of the
Sea, which for this reason it has not ratified and which, in its view,failed
to settle fully the problem of overfishing, thus jeopardizing fisheries
resources for future generations. 6. Canada has frequently expressed its dissatisfactionand invoked the
"emergency", or even "state of necessity", which it is facing in this
regard. Its declarations in international fora have been as clear as they
have been numerous. One writer has described one of them in the follow-
ing terms :

"The (Canadian) Minister of Fisheries, Mr. John Crosbie, had
told the Rio de Janeiro Conference that foreign overfishing was one
of the subjects which Canada intended to address as a matter of
urgency and that it had a dual aim in this regard: to obtain approval
from the world leaders meeting at the Earth Summit for certain prin-
ciples and measures on the one hand, and to seek a follow-up con-
ference to examine these questions in greater detail on the other
hand .. .Mr. Crosbie stated in barely veiled terms that legislative
action by the Canadian Federal Government with regard toJishing

on thehighseas was beingconsidered as a real alternative in response
to the urgent appeals that he had been getting from the Atlantic
Provinces, and in particular from Newfoundland, asking him to deal
with the problem of foreign overfishing on the 'Nose' and 'Tail' of
the Grand Banks by unilaterally extending his fisheries jurisdiction
beyond the 200-mile limit." '

7. Statements of this type give us an insight into the real background
to the present case. The Court had to rule on its jurisdiction by examin-
ing the meaning and scope of Canada's reservation, but it could not
ignore the fact that, if it accepted such a reservation, it was leaving the
author of that reservation free to combat foreign overfishing by unilater-
ally giving itself powers over the high seas for as long as no settlement
had been reached between itself and the States concerned. This account
of the background to the case was necessary, inasmuch as, where reser-
vations have been formulated ratione materiae, prima facie they cannot

be construed without at least some reference to the substantive issues
involved.
8. The case would have been perfectly simple if the duty of the Court
had been to confine itself to ascertaining the meaning of the expression
"conservation and management measures" contained in the reservation,
and to affirming that "the enforcement of those measures" against the
Spanish fishing vesse1Estai was precisely covered by the terms of that
reservation, thus preventingthe Court from entertainingany claim in this
regard. It is absolutely essential, however, that attention be focused on
another, far more important term of the reservation, that which places
Canada's action, in geographicalterms, "in the NAFO Regulatory Area",
that is to say outside the 200-mile limit. And indeed the Estai was

lPaul Fauteux, "L'initiative juridique canadienne de la pêcheen haute mer", Canadian
Yearbook of International Law, 1993,Vol. XXXI (pp. 33-87),p. 58. [Translation by the
Registry.]

90boarded some 245 miles off the Canadian Coast. If in the Canadian res-
ervation we simply substitute for the words "in the NAFO Regulatory
Area" the expression "beyond Canada's 200-mile exclusive economic
zone", then it irnrnediately becomes clear that the Court is dealing here
with a reservation of an unusual,not to say audacious, nature. Hence it
became incumbent upon the Court to verify whether such a reservation
could be accepted without difficulty under the optional clause system.
9. Article 1(2) of the NAFO Convention contains a crystal-clear defi-
nition which leaves no doubt in this regard when it provides that:

"The area referred to in this Convention as 'the Regulatory Area'
is that part of the Convention Area which liesbeyond the areas in
which coastal States exercise jïsheries jurisdiction." (Emphasis
added.)

It is in nosense a distortion of the Canadian reservation to recast it in
terms of its true meaning, making it accessible to the reader, who may
not be aware of the precise significanceof the expression "NAFO Regu-
latory Area" and will certainly be in a better position to understand the
object of the reservation, whose field of application is "the high seas".
The object of the reservation is to signal urbi et orbi that Canada claims
special jurisdiction over the high seas. The Court cannot interpret or
accept this reservation in the same way as it would interpret or accept an

ordinary reservation, since, without any need for a consideration of the
merits, its terms prima facie disclose a violation of a basic principle of
international law. This is an issue which the Court cannot simply ignore
by restricting itself to an external and superficialinterpretation of theres-
ervation. It cannot be right for the Court to content itselfin this case with
a purely forma1 view of the reservation, disregarding its material con-
tent - a content which does not require an investigation involving
examination of the merits, sinceit is abundantly clear that the reservation
affects a traditionally established right. This is the real flavour of this
fascinating case.
10. Without going further into the merits than is permissible at this
jurisdictional stage, the Court is bound to take account of the efforts by
Canada over more than a decade to obtain recognition, in the context of

its "preferential right" as a coastal State, of its specialjurisdiction to act
on the high seas by means of measures for the conservation and manage-
ment of fisheries stocks in the interests of the entire international com-
munity. But, however estimable this aim, it would be over-facile to hold
that we must "answer a simple question: were the measures taken by
Canada and enforced against the Spanish vesse1Estai, conservation and
management measures? If the answer is yes, the Court is without juris-
diction" (CR 98/14,p. 51, para. 10).It is over-simplifyingthe question to
empty the reservation of its sole veritable substance, for which Canada
has been campaigning for so many years, namely the purported prefer-
ential right of coastal States to take conservation and management meas- ures in respect of the high seas2. The precise scope of the Canadian
reservation, and hence the question whether or not the Court's jurisdic-
tion is excluded, thus dependsbasically on the issue of the meaning of the
"conservation and management measures" contemplated by that reserva-
tion. Depending on whether such measures fa11to be interpreted by ref-
erence to Canadian law - or even simply by reference to the generally

accepted meaning of that expression - or on the contrary on the basis of
international law, given already that there is nothing to prevent them
being applied on the high seas, impugningthe traditional principle of the
freedom of that area, the Canadian reservation takes on quite different
aspects. At this stage it is alreadyclear that the Court cannot just content
itself with stating that the boarding on the high seas of a foreign fishing
vesse1merely represents the enforcement of conservation and manage-
ment measures taken by Canada, and thus hold that that incident is cov-
ered by a reservation entirely depriving it of jurisdiction, for this would
be to shelter behind the notion of "conservation and management meas-
ures", interpreted in an artificial manner, without any concern for what

such measures involve in terms of the violation of a well-establishedprin-
ciple of international law.
11. It follows that the only proper attitude is to interpret and evaluate
those "conservation and management measures" by reference to interna-
tional law. It is in the corpus of the law of nations that a definition of
such measures must be sought. And two options, and two only, accord-
ingly present themselves to the Court at this stage of the proceedings:
either, at the very least, to state that it cannot readily find any well-
established international definition of such measures applicable to the case
before it, and is accordingly obliged to touch on the merits of the case by
going further in its examination of the facts and of their implications in

terms of the international practice of States, and in consequence to
declare that Canada's objection to jurisdiction is not of an exclusively
preliminary character within the meaning of Article 79, paragraph 7, of
the Rules of Court; or, on the contrary, to declare that it does have avail-
able to it an undisputed international definition of conservation and
management measures, which, applied to the facts of this case, obliges it
to interpret the Canadian reservation as invalid or not opposable in so
far as itpurports to cover acts occurring on the high seas, and is accord-
ingly not capable of constituting a bar to the Court's jurisdiction to pro-
ceed to an examination of the merits.
12. Without dealing with al1the points which appear to me disputable

in the Judgrnent - in particular the theoreticaland practical implications
of the methods of interpretation adopted therein, or at least the manner
in which the Judgment formulates a number of these points (see in par-

Laurent Lucchini, "La loicanadienne du 12mai 1994:la logique extrêmedela théorie
du droit préférentieldeEtatcôtier en haute mer au titre stocks chevauchants", Annuaire
français de droit international, 1994,pp. 864-875.ticular paragraphs 46 to 54 of the Judgrnent) - 1shall restrict myself to
raising three important questions on which, to my great regret, 1 find

myselfobliged to expressmy disagreementwith the majority of the Court:
- the subject-matter of the dispute;
- the validity of the Canadian reservation;
- the definition of conservation and management measures.

II. THESUBJECT-MATT OER THE DISPUTE

13. What makes this case so unique and at the same time gives it its
great legalinterest, is the persistent disagreement between the applicant
State and the respondent State with regard to the actual subject-matter of
the dispute - a disagreement now extended by another, just as far-
reaching, between the majority of the Court and the minority on the

same point. This is hardly an everyday occurrence in the Court's juris-
prudence.
14. Determination of the subject-matter of the dispute appears to me
to be a "tripartite operation", involving first the applicant State, then the
respondent State and finally the Court. But I would hasten to add that in
this operation the distribution of roles among the various actors is
necessarily unequal or, more precisely, different, since the principle of

equality has no part to play here. In a case before the International
Court the allocation of tasks is necessarily dependent upon the status of
each of the actors. And to accord to each of them an equal say in the
determination of the subject of the dispute is to cal1into question the
intrinsic status of Spainas Applicant, the equally specificstatus of Canada
as Respondent, and finally the status of the Court asforum rather than
party.
15. For it stands to reason that within any judicial order, whether

domestic or international, it is naturally the applicant who has the initia-
tive and who defines - at his own judicial risk - the subject-matter of
the dispute which he wishes to bring before the court. In this regard he
enjoys a clear procedural right, deriving from his status as applicant, to
seek and to obtain from the court a ruling on the subject of the dispute
which he has submitted to it and on that alone, to the exclusion of al1
others (subject of course to any superveningincidental proceeding). The

principle of the equality of the parties is by its nature completely irrele-
vant to this question, for it cannot render "equal" those who, procedur-
ally, are "different". It cannot turn the "respondent" into a "second
applicant", purportedly endowedwith some concurrent power to reformu-
late the subject-matter of the dispute as defined by the applicant. Nor, by
the same token, can it transform the court into an applicant "party" (a
third one!), with the power to set aside the subject of the dispute as

defined in the application and replace it with an entirely different one. 16. In international proceedings, as indeed in domestic litigation, the
respondent State, by virtue of its very status as respondent,does not have
a power to intervene in the definition of the subject as presented by the
applicant. It could only have such a right if it changed its status, which
can happen in two cases: first, where the proceedings are instituted not as
in this case by an application, but by means of a special agreement, thus
making each State simultaneously applicant and respondent, and
secondly where, in proceedings instituted by an application as in this
case, the respondent State lodges a counter-claim, of which there is no
question here.

17. What then happened in this case?

1shall do my best to avoidcompoundingthe semantic confusion which
has rendered still more complex a problem thought to be simple, and
1 shall in particular endeavour to avoid using the word "claims", which
in my view has a somewhat narrow scope, giving my preference to what
1 consider to be the more appropriate term here, namely the "dispute",
which has a wider sense. Thus it appears to me that the word "claims"
denotes legal acts whereby oneparty to the proceedings makes "requests",
which it seeksto have upheld by the court by means of arguments of fact
or law (the "grounds"), presented by it in support of those requests in
order to enable the court to settle the "dispute".
18. How, as Applicant, did the complainant here indicate to the Court
what it was complaining about? Spain clearly stated the precise matter
over which it was bringing Canada before the Court. In both its written
and its oral pleadings, it consistently complained of "a very serious
infringement of a right deriving from its sovereign status, namely exclu-
sive jurisdiction over vessels flying its flag on the high seas" (CR9819,
p. 20), and stated that the subject of the dispute, which constituted "the

crux of the case", was the issue of Canada's legal title to act on the high
seas against vesselsflying the flag of a foreign State. And in its final sub-
missions Spain again emphasized that "the subject-matter of the dispute
is Canada's lack of title to act on the high seas against vesselsflving the
SpanishJEag,thefact that Canadian$sheries legislutioncannot be invoked
against Spain, and reparationfor the wronaful acts perpetrated against
Spanish vessels" (emphasis added).

19. In setting out in clear and precise terms the subject of its dispute,
both from the outset in its Application, and then in its Memorial, oral
argument and final submissions,Spain had satisfied the requirements of
the Statute and the Rules of Court. Thus at no time was there any sug-
gestion by the Court that Spain had failed to comply with the require-
ments of Article 40 of the Statute or of Article 38, paragraph 1, of the
Rules of Court, both of which obliged it to state the precise nature of
"the subject of the dispute" from the outset, when it filedits Application. 20. It should be noted in passing that this same dispute also involved
not just Spain, but the entire European Community. And it is not with-
out relevance to observe that Spain, whose concern was matched by that
of the other member States, both of the European Community and of
NAFO, had already raised the same subject of dispute, and consistently
posed the same problem in the same terms, by protesting vigorously
against the Canadian legislation, even before the filing of its Application
with the Court some ten months later following the boarding of the Estai
and the harassment and inspection of other Spanish vessels. Spain could
not have dernonstrated greaterconsistency. The same dispute was already
in existence even before the incident. The conflict between Spain and

Canada over the alleged entitlement to a "right" over the high seas was
already in existence and had indeed become quite serious, before it dra-
matically came to a head ten months later as a result of the effectiveexer-
cise of such a "right" against a Spanish vessel. Canada's purported
"right" to act on the high seas under certain conditions laid down in its
new legislation remained the same. It had finally provided Spain with the
opportunity to bring it before the Court. That was the subject of the dis-
pute, declared and indeed reiterated with rare perseverance by Spain.

21. In sum, in this case, for Spain acting in its capacity as Applicant,
the subject of the dispute was clearly constituted by the issue of the legal
title to act on the high seas, in the light of the principles and rules of
international law which uphold the freedom of the seas ("grounds" of
law) and which Spain claims to have been violated by Canada ("argu-

ments" of fact), as a result of which Spainhas asked the Court to declare
the Canadian legislation unopposable to it and to order that Canada
refrain from any repetition of the acts complained of and make appro-
priate reparation for those acts ("claims" and "requests").

22. It was an altogether dijjferentsubject-matter that Canada - not-
withstanding its status as respondent State - raised against Spain. It
invoked issues of fishing and of the conservation and management of
fisheriesresources within the NAFO Regulatory Area, and consequently
contended that this was the true subject of the dispute, and that it was
excluded from the jurisdiction of the Court by virtue of reservation (d)
inserted by Canada in its new declaration notified on 10 May 1994(two

days before the adoption of Bill C-29 amending the Coastal Fisheries
Protection Act). It is worth noting that the definition of the subject of the
dispute given by Canada in this case was not "objectively" substantiated
in submissions on the merits. Spain, on the other hand, did present
submissions on the merits in its Application. Canada's definition may
therefore appear to have been "tailored to suit the occasion", inasmuch
as it was intended to support the Canadian position concerning jurisdic-
tion. Thus Canada stated that
"this case arose out of and concerns conservation and management
measures taken by Canada with respect to Spanish vesselsfishingin
the NAFO Regulatory Area and the enforcement of such measures"
(Counter-Memorial of Canada, para. 229).

23. We are faced here with two entirely different subjects of the dis-
pute: one put forward in Spain's Application, and the only one which -
because it emanated from the Applicant - the Court was required to
settle (having, of course, first "processed" it, i.e., given the dispute its

"legal characterization"); the other submitted by Canada, which the
Court could not have entertained unless Canada had itself lodged a
counter-claim. This was not the case. The Court should therefore, ut
most, have focused the proceedings on the true subject of the dispute,
as presented and dejînedby the applicant State, while asking Canada to
concentrate its defence on this subject and noother, although ut the same
time allowing Canada to submit, as one of its "grounds" of law, what it
had presented as a "subject of the dispute". In this way, the Court could
have "adjusted thefocus" of the proceedings whileremaining on firm legal
ground. None of this occurred, despite the desperate attempts by Spain,
which simply reiterated its contention that the dispute was confied to
events on the high seas and that the other, prior, matters did not relate
to the dispute stricto sensu and didnot in any case concernSpain, which,
in its capacity as Applicant, wasfree to refer to the Court the dispute
of its choosing, albeit, obviously, ut its ownjudicial risk.

24. There is of course a connection between the subject-matter of the
dispute, as defined by the Applicant for the purposes of the claim which
it instituted, but which regrettably was not heard, and that alleged by the
Respondent to be the true one, which the Court did indeed settle and dis-
pose of. However, that connection in no wayjustified the substitution by
the Court of the second subject for the first one as defined by the Appli-
cant.
25. And even allowing, on an extreme view, that the Canadian legisla-
tion, together with its implementingregulations, had given rise to a gen-
eral dispute, and that, on that basis, such a general dispute could be
regarded as comprising a number of aspects or involving a number of
levels, this was still no justification for refusing, as the Court did, to rec-
ognize an applicant State's right to refer to itnly one aspect of that gen-
eral dispute, despite its connection with other aspects. As the Court was

at pains to point out in the case of theUnitedStates Diplomatic and Con-
sular Staff in Tehran, "no provisions of the Statute or Rules contem-
plates that the Court should decline to take cognizance of one aspect of a
dispute merely because that dispute had other aspects". 26. Notwithstanding al1 of this, the Court took the view that the
proper course in law was to relocate the subject of the dispute so as to
bring it farcloser to that proposed by Canada. In my viewthe Judgment
conferred upon the respondent State and the Court powers so wide as to
distort the essential nature of the subject of the dispute as set out in the
Application. Determination of the subject-matter of the dispute is admit-
tedly, as 1 have already said, a "tripartite" or triangular operation,
involving, in variousdegreesand with different roles andpowers, first the
Applicant, then the Respondent, and finally the Court. The applicant
State is free to submit such dispute as it wishesto submit, but has a duty
under the Statute to "specify" and "define" the subject-matter of that dis-

pute. The sceneis set. The play to be acted out has been freely chosen by
the Applicant. The proceedings have been initiated, on the terms desired
by the Applicant. The respondent State now has the option of castingits
legal "grounds", whatever they be, in the mould thus prepared for them.
It is, however, wellaccepted that the Respondent may in practice opt for
an alternative judicial strategy and may seek to escape the definition of
the dispute given by the applicant State by invoking grounds and argu-
ments, which it is for the Court to evaluate. But the Court can in no way
modify the "decor" or change the subject-matter of the dispute. For, if it
did so, it would be rendering judgrnent in a case altogether differentfrom
that brought before it by the Applicant. The Court's role is to give an
appropriate legal characterization to those claims of the applicant State
which properly corne within theframework of the subject-matter of the
dispute as that State has defined it in its Application. This does not mean

that the Court has the power to alter the subject-matter put before it. Still
less can the respondent State propose a different subject-matter to the
Court. That would be to hear a different case.

27. 1find it regrettable that the Court allowed such a metamorphosis
to occur. The Respondent argued that the only possible subject-matter of
the dispute was "the conservation and management measures" taken by
it, in respect of whose enforcement it had been at pains to protect itself
through its reservation. And the Court accepted this, allowing the real
dispute submitted to it by the applicant State, which concernedits exclu-
siveand sovereignjurisdiction on the high seas over vesselsflyingits flag,
to be subsurned - in desolating fashion for the Applicant - in a non-
existent dispute about fisheries conservation and management. Thus,

while Spain proclaims its sovereignty on the high seas over its vessels,
Canada speaks of conservation and management measures. Whereas
Spain invokes a "conflict of jurisdiction" on the high seas, Canada
opposes to it a "conflict over fisheriesconservation and management".
28. There is a suggestiveparallel to be drawn between these two situa-
tions. Spain asked the Court to settle a dispute which had arisenbetween
itself and Canada in 1995 concerning the legality and opposability toSpain of a Canadian interna1enactment which, when implemented on the
high seas, affected vessels flying its flag. The Court, won over by Cana-

da's claim to alter the clear subject of the dispute, proceeded to settle a
dispute - one which moreoverno longer exists, having arisen in1994
between Canada and the European Community. In place of the dispute
properly submitted to it by the applicant State, which concerned respect
for the international limits of national jurisdiction, the Court proceeded,
in quite surprising fashion, to direct its attention to a dispute regarding
measures for the conservation and management of fisheries. In short,
Spain talked of State sovereignty, Canada of jîsheries conservation and
management.

29. As Judge Fitzmaurice so aptly put it in the separate opinion which
he appended to the two Fisheries Jurisdiction Judgrnents,

"agreed measures of conservation on the high seas for the preserva-
tion of common fisheriesin which al1have a right to participate, is of
course a completely different matter from a unilateral claim by a
coastal State to prevent fishing by foreign vessels entirely, or to
allow it only at the will and under the control of that State. The
question of conservation has therefore no relevance to the jurisdic-
tional issue now before the Court, which involves its competence to
adjudicate upon a dispute occasioned by Iceland's claim unilaterally
to assert exclusivejurisdictionforjîshery purposes up to a distance of
50 nautical milesfrom and around hercoasts." (1C.J. Reports 1973,
pp. 26-27; emphasis added.) (N.B. At the time there was no exclu-

sive economic zone and the distance referred to here actually takes
us ont0 the "high seas".)

30. A glimmer of hope nevertheless emerges on reading paragraphs 34
to 35 of the Judgment. We note that the Court accepts that the subject of
the dispute is what the Applicant states it to be:

"34. The filing of the Application was occasioned by specificacts
of Canada which Spain contends violated its rights under interna-
tional law.These acts were carried out on the basis of certain enact-
ments and regulations adopted by Canada, which Spain regards as
contrary to international law and not opposable to it. It is in that
context that the legislative enactments and regulations of Canada
should be considered.
35. The specificacts (see paragraph 34 above) which gave rise to

the present dispute are the Canadian activities on the high seas in
relation to thepursuit of the Estai, the means used to accomplish its
arrest and the fact of its arrest, and the detention of the vesse1and
arrest of itsaster, arisingfrom Canada's amended Coastal Fisher- ies Protection Act and implementingregulations. The essence of the
dispute between the Parties is whether these acts violated Spain's
rights under international law and require reparation. The Court
must now decide whether the Parties have conferredupon itjurisdic-
tion in respect of that dispute."

31. But hope is rapidly extinguished. 1thus find it astonishing that, on
the pretext of placing a legal characterization on the dispute submitted to
it by the applicant State, the Court so far overstepped the limits of the
operation whereby it sought to "clarify" the subject of that dispute as to
veer away towards a subject altogether different from that submitted to
it, notwithstanding that Spain, as a sovereign State and as applicant
State, had an uncontested procedural right - obviously at its own judi-
cial risk- to seisethe Court of whatever subject it considered legitimate,
and an inalienable interest ut law in seeking and obtaining judgment on
the specific dispute whose subject it had indicated with perfect clarity.
Such a decision represents a regrettable departure from the traditional
general view of the respective roles of applicant State, respondent State
and the Court.

32. 1have already said enough about the respective roles of Applicant
and Respondent. It remains to be more specificabout that of the Court.
According to the Judgment, the Court is empowered "to determine on an
objective basis the disputedividingtheparties" (para. 30).1am afraid this
is not altogether correct. Adding the words "on an objective basis" can-
not lend acceptability to this power of "definition", whose result here has
been to substitute one dispute for another. The Court can do no more

than attribute a "legal characterization" (and not a "definition") to the
subject of the dispute. Where an act takes place on the high seas, the
Court must verify factually what that act is (in this case the "boarding"
of a fishing vessel),in what area it took place ("the high seas"), and who
the author is ("Canada"). Those are facts. After that, it has to ascertain
whether the author of the act possesses a title, or legalground, on which
to base its act, inorder finally, in this phase of the proceedings, to be in
a position to rule on the question whether or not the title or legal ground
invoked is covered by Canada's reservation (d).

33. In the Nuclear Tests cases (1974), the Court rejected certain argu-
ments put forward by one party as part of its submissions because it con-
sidered them 'hot as indications of what the party was asking the Court
to decide, but as reasons advanced why the Court should decide in thesense contended for by that party". In support of its decision, it cited the
Fisheriescase, in which it had said that nine of the thirteen points making
up the Applicant's submissions "[were] elements which might furnish
reasons in support of the Judgment, but cannot constitute the decision
(I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 126)" (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 262; emphasis
added).
In 1974the Court considered itself legitimately entitled - and indeed
obliged - "to isolate the real issue in the case and to identijy the object
of the claim" (para. 29; emphasis added), but not, at least according to
the intention there expressed, to proceed proprio motu to "the reformula-
tion of submissions". In the same paragraph it made it clear, citing the
case-law of its predecessor (P. C.Z.J., Series A, No. 7, p. 35), that it had
no power to "substitute itselffor [the parties] and formulate new submis-

sions".
34. So aroused was the judges' vigilance that, despite the majority's
precautions in this regard, it was strongly criticized by the minority on
this issue. There is no better way of defining the limits upon the Court's
duties than that set out by JudgesJiménezdeAréchaga,Dillard, Onyeama
and Sir Humphrey Waldock in their joint dissenting opinion in those
Nuclear Tests cases :

"11. In a case brought to the Court by means of an application
the forma1 submissions of the parties define the subject of the dis-
pute, as is recognized in paragraph 24 of the Judgment. Those sub-
missions must therefore be considered as indicating the objectives
which are pursued by an applicant through the judicial proceedings.

While the Court is entitled to inter~ret the submissions of the
parties, it is not authorized to introdice into them radical altera-
tions. The Permanent Court said in this respect:'. . .though it can
construe the submissions of the Parties, it cannot substitute itself for
them and formulate new submissions simply on the basis of argu-
ments and facts advanced' (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7,p. 35,case con-
cerning Certain German Znterestsin Polish UpperSilesia). The Judg-
ment (para. 29) refers to this as a limitation on the power of the
Court to interpret the submissions 'when the claim is not properly
formulated because the submissions of the parties are inadequate'.
If, however, the Court lacks the power to reformulate inadequate
submissions, a fortiori it cannot reformulate submissions as clear
and specificas those in this case.
12. In any event, the cases cited in paragraph 29 of the Judgment

to justify the settingaside in the present instance of the Applicant's
first submission do not, in Ourview, provide any warrant for such a
summary disposa1of the 'main prayer in the Application'. In those
cases the submissions held by the Court not to be true submissions
were specific propositions advanced merely to furnish reasons in
support of the decision requested of the Court in the 'true' finalsub-
mission. Thus, in the Fisheries case the Applicant had summarizedin the form of submissions a whole seriesof legalpropositions, some
not even contested, merely as steps logically leading to its true final
submissions (1C. J. Reports 1951, pp. 121-123and 126).In the Min-
quiers and Ecrehos case the 'true' final submission was stated first
and two legal propositions were then adduced by way of furnishing
alternative grounds on which the Court might uphold it (1C.J.
Reports 1953, at p. 52); and in the Nottebohm case a submission
regardingthe naturalization of Nottebohm in Liechtenstein was con-
sidered by the Court to be merely 'a reason advanced for a decision
by the Court in favour of Liechtenstein' on the 'real issue' of the
admissibility of the claim (ZC..J. Reports 1955, at p. 16). In the
present case, as we have indicated, the situation is quite otherwise.
The legality or illegality of the carrying out by France of atmos-
phericnuclear tests in the South PacificOcean is the basic issue sub-

mitted to the Court's decision, and it seems to us as wholly un-
justifiable to treat the Applicant's request for a declaration of
illegality merely as reasoning advanced in support of its request for
an Order prohibiting further tests.

13. In accordance with these basic principles, the true nature of
the Australian claim, and of the objectives sought by the Applicant
ought to have been determined on the basis of the clear and natural
meaning of the text of its forma1 submission.The interpretation of
that submission made by the Court constitutes in Our view not an
interpretation but a revision of the text, which ends in eliminating
what the Applicant stated is 'the main prayer in the Application',
namely the request for a declaration of illegality of nuclear atmos-
pheric tests in the South PacificOcean. A radical alteration or muti-
lation of an applicant's submission under the guise of interpretation
has serious consequences because it constitutes a frustration of a
party's legitimateexpectations that the case which it has put before
the Court will be examined and decided . ..

14. The Judgment revises, we think, the Applicant's submission
by bringing in other materials such as diplomatic communications
and statements made in the course of the hearings. These materials
do not justify, however, the interpretation arrived at in the Judg-
ment. They refer to requests made repeatedly by the Applicant for
an assurance from France as to the cessation of tests. But these
requests for an assurance cannot have the effect attributed to them
by the Judgment. While litigation is in progress an applicant may
addressrequests to a respondent to givean assurance that it willnot
pursue the contested activity, but such requests cannot by them-
selvessupport the inferencethat an unqualified assurance, ifreceived,
would satisfy al1the objectives the applicant is seeking through the
judicial proceedings; still lessn they restrict or amend the claims
formally submitted to the Court. According to the Rules of Court,
this can only result from a clear indication by the applicant to that effect, through a withdrawal of the case, a modification of its sub-
missions or an equivalent action. It is not for nothing that the sub-
missions are required to be presented in writing and bear the signa-
ture of the agent. It is a non sequitur, therefore, to interpret such
requests for an assurance as constituting an implied renunciation, a
modification or a withdrawal of the claim which is still maintained
before the Court, asking for a judicial declaration of illegality of
atmospheric tests. At the very least, since the Judgment attributes
intentions and implied waivers to the Applicant, that Party should

have been given an opportunity to explain its real intentions and
objectives, instead of proceeding to such a determination inaudita
parte." (1.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 316-317.)
35. In relying in the present case on the 1974 French Nuclear Tests
cases, the Court seems to me, moreover, to have invoked a precedent
which is not apt to justify the faculty here accorded to Canada, the
respondent State, since France - the respondent State in 1974 - having

failed to appear, did not put forward any argument for a definition of the
subject of the dispute different from that formulated by the Applicant.

36. In the present case, the Court has relied on jurisprudence which
seemseither not fullyrelevant, or to have been interpreted incorrectly. In
this respect 1 would first cite what 1 think is a particularly appropriate
passage from the SociétéCommerciale de Belgiquecase, which was itself
cited by the Court in the case concerning Military and Pararnilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua :

"It is to be observed that the liberty accorded to the parties to

amend their submissions up to the end of the oral proceedings
must be construed reasonably and without infringing the terms of
Article 40 of the Statute and Article 32, paragraph 2, of the Rules
which provide that the Application must indicate the subject of the
dispute . . it is clear that the Court cannot, in principle, allow a
dispute brought before it by application to be transformed by amend-
ments in the submissions into another dispute which is different in
character. A practice of this kind would be calculated to prejudice
the interests of third States to which, under Article 40, paragraph 2,
of the Statute, al1applications must be communicated in order that
they may be in a position to avail themselves ofthe right of interven-
tion provided for in Articles 62 and 63 of the Statute." (P.C.I.J.,
Series AIB, No. 78, p. 173; see Military and PararnilitaryActivities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America),

Jurisdiction and Admissibility, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 427, para. 80.)
It will beevident that this highly cautious piece of jurisprudence limits
even thepower of the applicant State, the reason being to avoid prejudice FISHERlES JURISDICTION (DISSO . P.BEDJAOUI) 531

to third States which might wish to avail themselves of their right to
intervenein the proceedings.
37. Jurisprudence of a similar kind was again applied by the Court,
and with a similarly cautious approach, in the case concerning Certain
Phosphate Lands in Nauru:

"Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court provides that
the 'subjectof the dispute' must be indicated in the Application; and
Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court requires 'the precise
nature of the claim' to be specifiedin the Application. These provi-
sions are so essential from the point of view oflegal security and the
good administration of justice that they were already, in substance,
part of the text of the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice, adopted in 1920(Art. 40, first paragraph), and of the
text of the firstules of that Court, adopted in 1922(Art. 35, second

paragraph), respectively.On several occasions the Permanent Court
had to indicate the precise significanceof these texts. Thus, in its
Order of 4 February 1933in the caseconcerningthe Prince vonPless
Administration (Preliminary Objection), it stated that :

'under Article 40 of the Statute, it is the Application which sets
out the subject of the dispute, and the Case, though it may eluci-
date the terms of the Application, must not go beyond the limits
of the claim as set out therein . ..' (P.C.1J., Series AIB, No. 52,
p. 14)."(Certain Phosphate Lands inNauru (Nauru v. Australia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, 1 C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 266-

267, para. 69.)
Obviously, such vigilance on the part of the Court, in requiring even
the applicant State to remain within the specificconfinesof the subject of
the dispute submitted by it to the Court, is al1the more appropriate in
relation to the respondent State and indeed to the Court itself, since not
only does it preclude the possibility of third States being deprived of their
right of intervention, but also - more crucially - it enables the Court
properly to adjudicate on itsjurisdiction in light of the subject as defined
by the Applicant, and not of some other subjectadducedsubsequently by

the Applicant or by anyone else.
38. It would seem to me prudent in any event to preclude any notion
of placing the Respondent on a precisely equal footing with the Appli-
cant in relation to the definition of the subject of the dispute. Quite apart
from the infringement of procedural requirements, to allow the Respon-
dent an identical power in the determination of the subject of the dispute
would be to deny the possibility under the Statute of instituting proceed-
ings unilaterally by way of application, thus engendering the belief that
the Statute and the Rules of Court allowed parties no means of institut-
ing proceedings otherwise than by specialagreement. However, what has
occurred in the present case strikesme as evenmore disturbing, inasmuch
as the Court's reasoning has led it willy-nillyto place the Respondent notmerely on an equal footing with the Applicant but indeed above it, per-
mitting the former to substitute itself for the latter in "defining" the
subject of the dispute submitted to the Court by the applicant State.

39. As regards the Right of Passage overIndian Territory case, also
cited in the Judgment, one should of course bear in mind that this was a
case on the merits, settling a dispute concerning a condition ratione tem-
poris in India's declaration of acceptance of the optional clause - a con-
dition which in the preliminary phase had been referred for final consid-
eration to the merits stage. A decision on that condition had thus been
joined to the merits because, in the light of the subject-matter of the dis-
pute, as established by Portugal, the applicant State, it was not exclu-
sively preliminary in character. The situation today is quite different,
since neither Canada nor Spain has submitted a memorial to the Court
on the merits. And the two cases differ in many other respects, to the

point at which any comparison becomes artificial. Spain has not altered
the subject of the dispute since it filed its Application. Canada has not
undertaken, either directly to Spain, or by making a unilateral declara-
tion as France did in 1974,to cease in future applyingits domestic legis-
lation to vesselson the high seas. The subject of the dispute as set out in
the Spanish Application has remained as it was and no further element
whatsoever has emerged on either side. The Court should therefore have
decided the question of its jurisdiction in the light of that subject and
none other.
40. Turning now to the case concerning Maritime Delimitation and
Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain, mentioned in para-
graph 31 of the Judgment, it is not difficult to see that here too the situa-

tion was in no way comparable with that of the present case. As the
Court made it perfectly clear in its Judgment of 1 July 1994 (IC. J.
Reports 1994, pp. 123-125, paras. 33-38), there was already a text -
called the "Bahraini formula" - which describedthe wholeof the dispute
which the parties had agreed to bring before the Court. Since the Appli-
cation by Qatar, at whose instance the Court was seised, contained only
its own claims, the Court had still to be seised effectivelyof the whole of
the dispute. There was no question in the Court's approach of its remod-
elling a "subject of the dispute", which had already been clearly demar-
cated by the parties in a joint agreement; yet that is what the Court is
doing in the present case, under pretext of "itseif determin[ing] the real
dispute that has been submitted to it" (para. 31; emphasis added). In

short, in the Qatar v. Bahrain case, the Court simply ensured that the
subject of the dispute, as agreed between the parties, was respected in its
entirety. The present case bears absolutely no relationship with the Qatar
v. Bahrain case. 41. Lastly, as regards the Court's power to determine its own jurisdic-
tion under Article 36, paragraph 6, of the Statute, that is to Say,within
the limits of its sovereign discretion in relation to its own jurisdiction,t
must, as 1have already pointed out, interpret the subject of the dispute,
but without in any way changing it, as the Respondent did. On this point,
the jurisprudence of the present Court's predecessor demonstrates admi-
rable caution. The Permanent Court of International Justice did not per-
mit itself either to alter, or even merely to "correct", the subject of the
dispute where the applicant State had formulated it inadequately, but

merely asked the Applicant itself to correct the subject of the dispute; on
its failing to do so, the Court simply refrained from determining the
claim. This is what occurred in the case concerning Certain German
Interests in Polish UpperSilesia, Jurisdiction(P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7,
pp. 34-35).

III. THEVALIDITY OF THE CANADIAR NESERVATION

42. It would be absurd to cast doubt, in any degree, on the sovereign
power of a State to maintain or amend, whether by restricting or by
extending it, a declaration of acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction, or to
withdraw it altogether whenever it wishes - always subject, of course, to
cornpliance with the procedure (and in particular any prior notice) estab-
lished by that State itself in its declaration. Doctrine and jurisprudence
are unanimous on this point. As Sir Arnold McNair wrote: "A state,
being free either to make a Declaration or not, is entitled, if itecides to
make one, to limit the scope of its Declaration in any way it chooses"
(quoted in the Counter-Memorial of Canada, p. 24, para. 50; emphasis

added). The language used by Canada in paragraph 3 of its most recent
declaration of 1994clearly expresses,moreover, the undisputed right of a
State "to . . .at any time .. . add to, amend, or withdraw any of the
foregoing reservations, or any that may hereafter be added" and, one
might add, to do likewisein respect of any declaration it has made.

43. However, a State'sfreedom to attach reservations or conditions to
its declaration must be exercised in conformity with the Statute and
Rules of Court, with the Charter of the United Nations, and more gener-
ally with international law and with what 1may venture to cal1"l'ordre
public international". Just as the acts of a State, and more generally its
conduct, in whatever area of international relations, must confom to
existing international legal noms, so the formulation of a reservation,
which is no more than one element of such conduct, must also comply
with these noms.

44. Accordingly,
- 1 do not see why the Court should hesitate to reject, or to declare inadmissible, or not opposable, or even invalid or null and void, a
reservation the purpose or effect of which isto nullify or distort one
or more of the provisions of the Statute or Rules of Court which gov-

ern international judicial proceedings, and to establish some sort of
ad hocjudicial procedure suiting or benefiting the author of the res-
ervation alone;
- 1 do not see why the Court should hesitate to declare null and void
and invalid ab initio any reservation that prevents it from hearing
proceedings concerning genocide, slavery, piracy, or any other inter-
national crime;
- 1 do not see why the Court should accept any "automatic" reserva-

tion so formulated that only the State making it is empowered to
decide whether or not its conduct, oran act done by it, is covered by
that reservation, thus depriving the Court of the "power to determine
its own jurisdiction" provided for by Article 36, paragraph 6, of its
Statute;
- 1do not see why the Court should allow itself to consider a reserva-
tion which, while appearing to set specificlimits to the Court's juris-

diction, is in the final analysis incompatible with respect for the integ-
rity of the declaration as a whole, since, while international law
undeniably confers freedom of consent and the declaration implies
recognition of the Court's jurisdiction, a reservation made within this
framework must also respect the consistency and the integrity of the
optional clause "system".

45. Under the optional clause "system", as currently structured within
the framework of the "international legal corpus" - that is to stay, nei-
ther total chaos nor an absurd "bric-a-brac" (Jean Combacau) - which
we cal1"international law", a State's freedom is immense, but cannot be
regarded as boundless. Anyone is free to join a club or not, but he who
does so must accept the rules governing the club's activities.

46. In joining the optional clause "system" through its declaration, a
State enters freely into a network of specificrights and obligations. It is
perfectly clear that its declaration is not totally devoid of implications for
the scope of its rights and obligations. In this respect the declarant State
will obviously enjoy vis-à-vis the Court - to which the declaration is
addressed - and as regards the other declarant States less freedom than
a State which has not accepted the Court's jurisdiction. In short, it has

obligations vis-à-vis the clause "system" - those currently orpotentially
participating init - and also to the party to whom that clause is ulti-
mately addressed, namely the International Court. It is not entitled to
provoke the implosion of a "system" to which it now owes duties, the
counterpart of which are the rights it derives from it. The possibility of
withdrawing from the system remains fully open to it, but what is notacceptable is that the declarant State should distort or pervert the system,
or compromiseits existence or its functioning, and yet remain part of it.

47. This case inevitably engenders a certain unease. These were events
which occurred over a specificperiod of two days, 10 and 12May 1994,
during which, almost simultaneously, Canada formulated its reservation

- thus barring any action by the Court - lodged a Billwith Parliament
and had it adopted. There is every reason to think that, in so acting,
Canada wished to protect itself in advance against any application to the
Court, so as to be completely free to follow a particular line of conduct,
over whose legality it had certain doubts. Without any consideration of
the merits of the case - something we are not entitled to do at the
present, jurisdictional phase of the proceedings - it is clear that this
hypothesis is a reasonably credible one. Canada itself, in an officia1news
release dated 10May 1994,the day on which the new declaration with its
reservation (d) was deposited, stated the following:

"Canada has today amended its acceptance of the compulsory
jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice in the Hague to pre-
clude any challenge which might undermine Canada's ability to pro-
tect the stocks." (Emphasis added.)

As the Spanish Memorial States, Canada's purpose in this reservation
was to "secure itself against any judicial rejection of. .. such measures".
What is more, one of Canada's counsel gave a particularly clear descrip-
tion of this "specialperiod" when he said:

"The exact coincidencein timing of BillC-29 and the new declara-
tion demonstrates that the reservation was deliberately designed to
exclude Bill C-29 and everything done in or in connection with it
from judicialsettlement" (CR 98111,p. 44,para. 63 ;emphasisadded.)

And the same counsel reiterated:
"Canada amended its declaration .. .[on]exactly the same day it

introduced into Parliament an Act on ... [fisheries. ..The intimate
link between these two instruments was and is absolutely transpar-
ent." (CR 98/14, p. 51,para. 7; emphasis added.)

48. In short, the Canadian Government - the discussions in Parlia-

ment on Bill C-29 made this clear - wished to have a free hand and
sought to avoid the risk of losing a case before the Court in respect of
action in the NAFO Regulatory Area, i.e., on the high seas. There is little
doubt that the legislation adopted had the specific purpose of enabling
Canada to intervene beyond the boundary of its national maritime juris-diction. This is the main objective of the Act of 12May 1994,as Article 1
of the Act States. Another Canadian counsel stated:

"The measures are perfectly ordinary conservation and manage-

ment measures, and the only thing that makes them different is
where Canada applied them, in the NAFO Regulatory Area and
therefore, beyond two hundred miles. But that of course is the whole
rationalefor the reservation." (CR98112, p. 14, para. 66; emphasis
added.)
And the Agent of Canada was clear and specific,before the Court, on

this crucial point. This leaves no doubt that Canada knew that, in the
absence of any appropriate reservation in its declaration, it ran the risk of
condemnation by the Court for any intervention on the high seas against
a foreign vessel, since apparently it had doubts as to the legality of such
intervention. So much so that one of Spain's counsel asserted:

"[It is a wrongful act] 'withpremeditation'! A State may prepare

[for it].hen it may take the necessary steps to escape the court;
and, thus [it acts] assured of impunity." (CR98110, p. 37, para. 1;
emphasis added.)
49. This is not what onemight have expected of a country like Canada,
whichfor the last 70 years has set an example of its attachment to the
Court'sjurisdiction andits respectfor international law. Nor is it a wel-
come situationfor Canada's traditionalNAFO partners, orfor the inter-

national community or, indeed,for the optional clause "system" and the
Court itselJ

The latter has, most regrettably, failed to recognize that reliance on a
reservation, in circumstances where a State wishes to undertake specijic
acts of doubtful international legality, risks seriously dumaging the credi-
bility of the optional clause "system".

50. 1 therefore regret that the Court did not reject, or even hold nul1
and void, a reservation whose obvious purpose, when read together with
a piece of domestic legislation, was to permit encroachment upon an
essential freedom of international law, both past and present, without
fear of judicial intervention. Canada - admittedly with legitimate con-
Cernfor the conservation of fishery resources - unfortunately yielded to

temptation and took a regrettable legislative initiative with a view to an
operation on the high seas, believing it could escapejudicial sanctioizby
simultaneously notifying the internationalcommunity of a new reservation
adoptedfor purposes itfeared might be illegal.
Such a reservationcould not and should not be accepted by the Court.
51. The Canadian reservation (d) is damaging to the optional clause
"system". A better and perfectly clear position would have been as fol-lows: either Canadashould havewithdrawn its declaration completely in
1994, provisionally and for the period required for its fisheriesconserva-
tion policy, or the Court should now, in its present Judgment, in 1998,
have rejectedreservation(d). The situation created by the maintenance of
the declaration subject to the reservation representsthe least satisfactory
solution for al1concerned: Canada, other declarant States and the Inter-
national Court of Justice.
52. The backbone of the optional clause "system" consists in good

faith among declarant States. Upon this principle depends the freedom of
a State to formulate a reservation. If, for reasons of domestic or interna-
tional policy, which may of course be perfectly legitimate, a declarant
State finds itself in difficulty as a result of the terms of its declaration,t
should temporarily withdraw that declarationfor the period requiredby
the political action which it contemplates, rather than attach to the dec-
laration - Z am tempted to say encumber and undermine it - a reserva-
tion intended to cover a purpose which might very well be regarded as
unlawful. It may not on the one hand set out to accept the Court's juris-
diction for a wide variety of disputes, given the broad terms of its decla-
ration, while on the other seeking simultaneously to escapejudicial scru-

tiny (which its declaration has clearly demonstrated that it wishes to
accept) in respect of a specific class of acts protected by its reservation
where it doubts their legality.
53. First, this situation- stemming directly from reservation (d) -
places the consistency of the declarant State's conduct under interna1
"strain". Next, it undermines the optional clause "system" from within,
risking its implosion, sinceit robs the system of the good faith which is its
very life-blood. According to a maxim of French civil law, "donner et
retenir ne vaut" (you cannot both give and take back). A declarant State
cannot take away with one hand what it has givenwith the other. It can-
not swear fealty to international justice by submitting itself to the latter's

verdict in respect of those acts where it considers it has behaved correctly,
while shunning that samejustice in the case of those acts whose legalityit
fears may be questionable. It is not possible for a declarant State to
remodel the philosophy of the clause "system" in this way, still less to
bend the "system" to suit its own conflicting requirements, or to mix two
incompatible aims.
54. But Canada is not the only victim of its own choice - a choice
which tarnishes the bright image of a State committed for the last 70
years to the ideal of international justice. Nor is it only the clause "sys-
tem" which suffers. The Court itself, in holding that it lacksjurisdiction,
lays itself open to a degree of damage. The saying is that "lack ofjuvisdic-

tion does not imply legality", i.e., the Court in no way endorses Canada's
conduct by declaring that it lacksjurisdiction in regard to that conduct.
That is true, but psychologically the impact is disastrous. Was there
really no other way than to embarras the Court, which clearly discerns
illegalityin Canada's conduct on the high seas, but must nonetheless play
Pontius Pilate and wash its hands of the case? This is an unwelcomesituation for a court which knows that it must render justice but cannot
do so.
55. This is not the end of the harm caused by reservation (d) .Declar-
ant States also suffer. A State is of course free to formulate reservations;

from this the Court proceeded to the conclusion that, had it refused to
recognize the reservation - on the basis of which it accepted the Respon-
dent's claimthat it had no jurisdiction - the clause "system" would have
been severelyprejudiced. To disregard a declarant State's inviolable right
to make reservations would be to undermine the structure of the system
and discourage States wishing in the future to make a declaration of
acceptance. This, it was said, would be the speedy ruin of the clause
"system".

56. This argument fails on two accounts. First, the idea that States will
be discouraged - stopped in their tracks in their rush to make a declara-
tion - because, for once, ajudgment of the Court has rejected an incom-
patible and potentially hazardous reservation, seems to me pure fantasy.
Unfortunately, more than two thirds of today's States, for reasons which
1to some extent understand, flatly reject the idea of making a declaration
and, whatever the Court does, will probably never accept its compulsory
jurisdiction, despite the blessing bestowed by the Court - to a quiet un-
reasonable degree - upon the right to make reservations, and the over-

whelming enthusiasm displayed by the Judgment for the Canadian reser-
vation in particular.

The second point is even more important: we should not consider
merely the position of States which have yet to accede to the optional
clause "system". We must not forget those States which have already
made a declaration and which participate in the clause "system". 1s it
right for these States, which through the "system" are working for sta-

bility, foreseeability and security in legal relations, that other declarant
States should hastily formulate a reservation whenever they encounter a
problem? 1s this the best they can hope for in their legitimate expecta-
tions for the security of their relations with other declarant States? Does
this not jeopardize the stability of the entire optional clause "system"?

57. Nor should we forget that this is the second time Canada has
introduced a reservation in order to escape the Court's jurisdiction in

situations involving the freedom of the high seas. This time, however, it is
to be feared that the Court has endorsed Canada's action, given that, in
holding that the Court lacksjurisdiction, the Judgment has failed to take
adequate precautions or to issue any kind of caveat.
58. In concluding these remarks on the issue of the validity of the
Canadian reservation (d) - and bearing in mind that in my opinion
Canada would have been better advised to withdraw its 1985declaration
entirely rather than replace it by the declaration of 1994with its reserva-

tion (d), which is incompatible with the declaration itself - 1 wouldpoint out that in the present case the Court has found itself the focus of
a somewhat sensitive combination of circumstances. It is no secret that
Canada, which has always played a major part in the milestoneinterna-
tional conferences on the road to the creation of the new legal order of
the sea, and which pursues a very active, somewould even Sayaggressive,
fisheries policy, is dissatisfied with the law of the sea as it stands and

wishes to press on with reforming it, notably with a view to the enjoy-
ment by coastal States of "preferential rights" in matters of fisheriescon-
servation and management. It has then proceeded, while invoking in cer-
tain fora the idea of a "state of need", or simply of "emergency", to the
point of breaking the existing law in order to secure "progress" in this
regard on the part of other States. The Court has of course no bounden
duty either to encourage or to discourage this strategy. The formative
process of a new international legal nom need not involve wrongful con-
duct designed by its author to induce other States to negotiate a new law.

The decision by the majority that the Court lacksjurisdiction must not be
taken to mean that the Court, the guardian of international legality,
offers any encouragement whatever to this strategy.

59. It seemsto me that the Applicant was reluctant to take its criticism
of the Canadian reservation (d) to its logical conclusion. In its final sub-
missions it did not go so far as to claim that the reservation was a "nul-

lity". Should we welcome this caution, on the argument - as is some-
times proposed - that nullity of the reservation would have entailed that
of the entire declaration, which would have confirmed even more force-
fully the Court's lack of jurisdiction in this case?
60. Let me begin by saying that, al1in all, 1 would have preferred a
situation in which the Court had taken the clearer - and ~ossiblv
sounder - course of founding its lack of jurisdiction on the nullik of the
declaration as a whole, rather than on reservation (d) alone.
In any case, it is far from certain that the nullity of a reservationentails
ipsofacto that of the entire declaration; common sense, for one thing,

tells us otherwise. A reservationrestricts the field ofconsent given by the
declaration. A field with ill-defined boundaries is still a field. But most
importantly, case-law, doctrine and State practice are in accord that,
looking beyond the sui generisnature of a declaration, the principles and
rules peculiar to bilateral or multilateral acts, i.e., to treaties, should be
applied mutatis mutandis to this unilateral act. And treaty law, as codi-
fied in 1969,enshrinesin Article 44 of the Vienna Convention - admit-
tedly with certain exceptions - the principle of separability of the vari-
ousprovisionscontained in a treaty. 1really cannot see whya declaration
should wholly escape this principle.

61. This issue has in fact been raised in a number of cases, includingthe NorwegianLoans and Interhandel cases, and somejudges have evoked
and accepted the principle of separability (cf.wegian Loans, I.C.J.
Reports 1957, p. 55-59; Interhandel, I.C.J. Reports 1959, pp. 57, 77-78,
116-117).
At the regional level too, the European Court of Human Rights, for
example, has found occasion to apply the principle of separability by
striking down reservations in respect of certain provisions in the-
pean Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms, without invalidating in their totality declarations ofpt-

ance of the jurisdiction of the Strasbourg Court in respect of disputes
concerning the Convention (cf.Loizidou v. Turkey, Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment of 23 March 1995).
By way of comparison, it should also be observed that the principle of
separabilitys fully accepted in international commercial arbitration, in
so far as treatment of the arbitration clause is deemed to be independent
of that of the other provisions in the agreement.

IV. THEDEFINITIO NF "CONSERVATI OND MANAGEMEN MTEASURES"

62. The question of the "applicable law" for purposes of defining the
expression "conservation and management measures" has taken on great
importance in this case.
63. Spain argues that there is no dispute between itself and Canada
about fishing, rather that the case concernsCanada's legal entitlement to
take "measures" on the highseas against Spanish vessels, on the pretext
of enforcing "conservation and management measures". The applicant
State doubts whether the Respondent has any such entitlement and asks
the Court toconsider the merits of the case in order to answer the ques-
tion. Moreover, Spain considers that reservation (d) does not constitute

a bar to the Court's jurisdiction, sinceit excludes only "conservation and
management measures" from such jurisdiction, and not the issue of
Canada's title to act on the higheas. For Canada, on the other hand,
such measures include al1conservation and management measures, what-
ever the geographical location where their impact is felt, which is ulti-
mately to say, whether or not they are in accordance with international
law.
64. The extent of this conflict of viewsbetween the parties is evident,
as is the significance of the definition of "conservation and management
measures". In short, Canada takes the view that this expression has a
purely technical,common-sense meaning, whereas Spain contends that it

must be given the meaning now attaching to it under international law. 65. For my part, 1remain convinced that the term can be interpreted

only within the framework of international law. And since, in these cir-
cumstances, the definition and content of the phrase can be fully ascer-
tained only at the merits stage, it follows that only then would the Court
be in a position to determine whether the Canadian legislation and the
resultant actions against Spanish vessels come within the international
definitionof suchmeasures and their enforcement,and henceare excluded
from the Court's jurisdiction by virtue of reservation (d). In other words,
this is a case whereArticle 79, paragraph 7, should have been applied,
with the result that examination of the definition and precise content of
"conservation and management measures" would have been postponedto
the merits stage, these being matters not having an exclusively prelimi-
nary character.

66. 1 welcome the statement by the Judgment, in paragraph 69, that
the expressionmust be defined "in the light of international law". Unfor-
tunately, having said this, the Judgment then falls back on a definition
based on technicalcharacteristics, aspropounded by Canada, thus return-

ing us to the starting-point. 1 regret that the Court felt able to take the
view that it was entitled, at thejurisdiction stage of the case, to arrive at
hasty conclusions concerning the "factual and scientificcriteria" said to
characterize the expression "conservation and management measures",
and to do so on the basis of widelydiffering sources,including legislation
from various countries which was neither presented systematically nor
analysed in any depth. The Court's purpose here was to seekto satisfyits
minority with a mere form of words, confining itself to a technical defini-
tion that allowed it, at this stage of the proceedings, to dispose of the
issue of the exclusionfrom the Court's jurisdiction of the measures taken
against the Estai and other vessels.Paragraph 70 of the Judgment states
that for a measure to be a "conservation and vnanagement measure"
within the meaning of the Canadian reservation (d), "it is sufficient" that
the purpose of the "measure" is to conserve and manage living resources
and that it satisfiesarious technicalrequirements. This, in reality, is not
a legal approach but a purely 'ffactual" one, that has little to do with
international law, which the Court is pledged to apply.

67. Canada's reservation (d) refers to "conservationand management
measures" taken or enforced by it in relation to fishing vessels in the
"NAFO Regulatory Area". The Court thus had to interpret this expres-
sion in order to define the scope of reservation (d). It may be helpful to
recall that in1970Canada made a similar albeit not identicalreservationin relation to the Arctic, which referred to the "conservation, manage-
ment or exploitation of the living resources of the sea".

68. In defining the expression "conservation and management meas-
ures" contained in its reservation (d), Canada did not refer to its newly

amended domestic legislation.Admittedly, that legislation was adopted
two days after Canada had deposited its new declaration containing the
reservation. This however posed no technical obstacle,had Canada genu-
inely wished to refer to this legislation - which in Bill form was tabled
simultaneously with its notification of the new declaration. In fact, the
reservation contains no definition of the measures in question. By con-
trast, in defining the geographical scope of the reservation, Canada
referred to an international treaty, the NAFO Convention. This was

already an indication that the expression "conservation and management
measures" - a vital objective of the Convention - should in the inter-
ests of consistency be construed in the light of international law.

69. It should also be noted in this regard that a "Fisheries Commis-
sion", set up under the NAFO Convention, operates within the Regula-
tory Area defined in that Convention. Hence the "conservation and man-
agement measures" adopted by Canada in that same geographical area
are additional to those adopted by this international body. It therefore

cannot be right to have recourse to Canadian law - which is not men-
tioned at al1in the reservation - in order to define such measures where
they have been taken by Canada, whilst identical measures in the same
area fa11to be interpreted by reference to international law when they
result from the activity of the NAFO Fisheries Commission. We may
note in passing - although this is an issue whose solution is for the mer-
its of the case- that here too Canada's legal title to take such measures
appears to be in question, since this is a matter apparently entrusted by

treaty to an international body. The NAFO Convention, which gives
Statesthe right to objectto any measuresto be adopted by the Commission,
does not in any way encroach upon the rights offlag Statesin the NAFO
Regulatory Area, since such measures are taken in CO-operationwith the
Statesconcerned.This is a clear indication that it is not possible to inter-
pret the "conservation and management measures" taken by Canada in a
manner totally differentfrom that applicable to similar measures taken in
the same zone by NAFO bodies.

70. Moreover, as 1 have already pointed out, Canada did not specify
in reservation (d) what it meant by "conservation and management
measures". If we accordingly look simply to the objectiveintention of the
declarant State, it would not be unreasonable to take the view that it
wished this expression to have the meaning that it has in international
law - al1the more so, we must remember, in that this reservation by
Canada was addressed to the community of those other declarant States

participating in the optional clause "system". Furthermore, in seeking togive this expression the meaning which it claimed for it, Canada itself
cited the decision in the Aegean Sea Continental Shelf case, in which

the term "territorial status" was interpreted not by reference to Greek
domestic law but in accordance with international law.

71. Contrary to what the Judgment States,the notion of "conservation
and management measures" cannot be confined to simple "factual" or
"technical" matters, but has to be taken to refer to those types of meas-
ure which the "new legal order of the sea" has been gradually regulating,
with the result that such measures now constitute an objective legal cat-
egory which cannot be other than part of international law. The expres-
sion "conservation and management measures" of the living resources of
the high seas was the accepted one throughout the Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea and was enshrined in the final text
of the Montego Bay Convention of 10 December 1982, specifically in
Articles 116 to 120, and also in Article 63 on straddling stocks and

Articles 64 to 67. The expression "conservation and management meas-
ures" thus received international recognition in what the preamble to the
Montego Bay Convention calls the new "legal orderfor the seas and
oceans". And it is this new order which, through the 1982 Convention
and its supplementing instruments, has been treated by international
jurisprudence and by State practice as the current expression of the
opiniojuris .

72. The Montego Bay Convention, which admittedlyhas not yet been
ratified by Canada but to which it nonetheless referred before the Court
(which itself also referred to it, in particular in paragraph 70 of the Judg-
ment) provides in Article 62, paragraph 4, that the "laws and regula-
tions" enacted by a coastal State for conservation purposes in its exclu-
sive economic zone must respect the rules of the Convention itself. Thus
the international law of the sea does concern itself with the nature of
"conservation and management measures", even in relation to a fishing
zone which is under the jurisdiction of a coastal State. Such a provision
would lack consistency if, on the high seas, a coastal State remained free

to take "conservation and management measures" which conflicted with
international law. Articles 117to 119of the Montego Bay Convention do
in fact contain detailed rules for CO-operationamong States in establish-
ing such measures for the high seas and for promoting its organization
and functioning. It is therefore by reference to the international law of
the sea that we must view the "conservation and management measures"
of the Canadian reservation (d) .

73. A definition of "conservation and management measures", or essential elements of it, appears in numerous international instruments
subsequent to the Montego Bay Convention of 1982.
74. However, before 1 cite them to illustrate my point, we must not
forget that the definitional elements of these measures and the conditions
for their enforcement (through CO-operation) were already present in
1978 - at a time when freedom of fishing on the high seas was less
restricted - in the NAFO Convention itself, whose object, as stated in
Article II (l), is "to contribute through consultation and cooperation to
the optimum utilization, rational management and conservation of the
Jishery resources of the Convention Area".
75. 1would refer first to the Agreement to Promote Compliance with
International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Ves-
sels on the High Seas, adopted by the FA0 Conference on 24 November

1993at its twenty-seventh session in resolution 15/93.Article 1 (b) pro-
vides that :
"'international conservation and management measures' means
measures to conserve or manage one or more species of living
marine resources that are adopted and applied in accordance with

the relevant rules of international law as reflected in the 1982United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Such measures mav be
adopted either by global, regional or subregional fisheries orgakiza-
tions, subject to the rights and obligations of their members, or by
treaties or other international agreements" (emphasis added).

76. This provision thus not only supplies both the definitionalelements

and the content of such measures, but also States who may adopt them.
Arguing a contrario,this provision would appear to preclude a State alto-
gether from taking such measures itself on the basis of its own domestic
law, where it intends them to be applied on the high seas, which is gov-
erned by the Agreement. A State may "receive" such internationally
definedmeasures into its domestic law and must provide for their enforce-
ment. It is interesting to note, for purposes of the present case, that this
position finds confirmation in the second paragraph of the preamble to
the Agreement, which provides that it is "under international law" that
"al1States" are to take "such measures . . .as may be necessary for the
conservationof the living resourcesof the high seas" (emphasis added).
77. In Article IX of the Agreement, "Settlement of Disputes", there is
an express reference in paragraph 3 to the "rules of international law

relating to the conservation of living marine resources". Moreover, scat-
tered references throughout the Agreement describe the measures which
concern us here as "international conservation and management meas-
ures" (seethe sixth and eighth recitals of the preamble and Articles V (l),
VI (8) (a) and (b), VI11(2) and VI11(3).
78. As regards the Code of Conductfor Responsible Fisheries,adopted
by the FA0 Conferenceat itsfollowing(twenty-eighth) sessionon 31Octo-
ber 1995,a reading of the text reveals the followingcharacteristics: 79. (a) The entire Code is built around the guidingprinciple that the
State cannot take conservation and management measures except in
areas under its jurisdiction; in the case of the high seas, such measures
are described as "international" and they are not to be construed by ref-
erence to a State's domestic law. It is the international Code which
definessuch conservationand managementmeasures. The followingquo-

tations from the Code - inter alia - clearly demonstrate this:
- "This Code sets out principles and international standards of behav-
iour . .. with a view to ensuring the effective conservation, manage-
ment and development of living aquatic resources." (Preamble.)

- "This Code is voluntary. However, certain parts of it are based on
relevant rules of international law, including those reflected in the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December
1982 . . [and in] other . . .legal instruments. . .such as the Agree-
ment to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and
Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas, 1993,
which, according to FA0 Conference resolution 15/93,paragraph 3,
forms an integral part of the Code" (Art. 1.1).

- "The Code isglobal inscope" (Art. 1.2)and "provides principles and
standards applicable to the . . .management and development of al1
fisheries" (Art. 1.3).

- More generally,the objectivesof the Code areto "establishprinciples,
in accordancewith the relevant rules of international law,for ... fish-
ing" (Art. 2.1) and "serve as an instrument of referenceto help States
to establish or to improve the legal and institutional framework
required for the exerciseof responsible fisheries" (Art. 2.3). (Empha-
sis added in each case.)

80. (b) The Code states on numerous occasions that measures for
"conservation and management of fisheriesresources" are "international
rneasures"established "in accordance with international law".

- The measures concerned are "international conservation and manage-
ment measures" (Art. 7.8).
- In regard to CO-operationamong States, the Code speaks of "inter-
national standardsfor ... living aquatic resources conservation" and
of their "effective implementation" (Art. 11.2.11). It provides that
"States should, in accordancewith international law, .. .cooperate to
establish systems for monitoring, control, surveillance and enforce-
ment of applicable measures .. ." (Art. 8.1.4).

- Article 6, "General Principles", contains an illuminating and helpful
provision in relation to the present Judgment:

"6.10. Within their respective competence and in accordancewith
international law . . . States should ensure compliance with and enforcement of conservation and na nage mentmeasures and estab-
lish effectivemechanisms, as appropriate, to monitor and control the
activities of fishing vessels. .."
And in Article 6.12 the Code invites States to CO-operatesubject to the
same limits of the law, and in particular recommends them to curb their

power to take domestic measures, so as to ensure their compatibility with
international measures for the high seas:
"6.12. States should, within their respective competence and in
accordancewith international law, cooperate ... to promote conser-
vation and management . . .of living aquatic resources throughout
their rangeof distribution, taking into account the needfor compat-
ible measures in areas within and beyond national jurisdiction."
(Emphasisadded.)

The same notion governs the special issue of "straddling stocks",
"highly migratory" fish stocks and "high seas" fish stocks:

"7.3.2. . .. conservation and management measures established
for such stocks in accordancewith the respective competence of rele-
vant States . . . should be compatible. Compatibility should be
achieved in a manner consistent with the rights, competence and
interests of the States concerned." (Emphasis added.)

81. (c) The Code even specifiesthe means to be employed in its inter-
pretation (and also in its application), which, it States,is to be that result-
ing from "international law" :
- "3.1. The Code is to be interpreted and appliedin conformity with the
relevant rules of international law . . ."
- "3.2. the Code is also to be interpreted and applied:

(a) in a manner consistent with the relevant provisionsof the Agree-
ment for the Implementation of the [Montego Bay] Convention
Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling
Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks;

(b) in accordance with other applicable rules of international
law . ..;
(c) in the light of the 1992 Declaration of Cancun, the 1992 Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development,and Agenda 21
adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) . . . and other .. . declarations and
international instruments." (Emphasis added.)

Hence the entire arsenal of legal weapons employed in interpreting
(and equally in applying)the notion of so-called "international" conser-
vation and management measures derives from international law. 82. (d) It now remains to be seenhow the Code definessuch conserva-
tion and management measures in practice and how it interprets them.
Obviously, it refers to the technical characteristics whereby such meas-
ures are defined internationally, but it also includesin the definition mat-
ters of a social, economic or institutional nature, which go beyond the
purely technical aspects, thereby necessarily making the definition an
international one, having regard to the diversity of social, economic and

institutional factors in the various States concerned, which it then sup-
plements with the standardized technical elements.Not until Article 7.6.9
is there any mention of "technical measures related to fish size, meshsize
or gear, discards, closed seasons and areas and zones reservedfor selected
fisheries", protection of "juveniles and spawners", and in more general
terms the "performance of . . .fishing gear, methods and practices"
(Art. 7.6.4),the use of which must be "selective,environmentally safe and
cost effective".And even these technical measures cannot be defined uni-
laterally, since they are the outcome of State practice and CO-operation
(seeArticle 8.5 on fishing gear selectivity).It is this CO-operationamong
States that has been instrumental in defining and agreeing these inter-
nationally standardized technical norms (see Article 8.5.4 relating to
research programmes for fishing gear selectivity and "fishing methods
and strategies", and to "dissemination of the results of such researchpro-

grammes and the transfer of technology").

83. Before referring to these various technical aspects - these being
natural components of any definition of "conservation and management
measures", a definition which can only be international, givenits gradua1
emergence out of State practice and CO-operation - the Code, in
Article 7.2.2, which deals with resource management objectives, sets out
the other aspects of the definition ofsuchmeasures: "economicconsidera-
tions" (Art. 7.2.2 (b)), "interests offishers" (7.2.2 (c)), "biodiversity of
aquatic habits and ecosystems" (7.2.2 (d)), "adverse environmental
impacts on the resources" (7.2.2 (f)) and the need to minimize 'pollution,
waste" etc. (7.2.2 (g)); while Article 7.4.5 lays emphasis on the "social
and economic objectives" and the "social, economic and institutional"
factors.

84. In other words the definition of "conservation and management
measures" - which are in any event international, whether or not
expressly described as such - has two aspects: one technical, gradually
developedinternationally through State practice and standardized in sys-
tematic fashion through State CO-operation;the other "social, economic
and institutional", taking account of the particular characteristics of the
various States concerned; and the whole combines to produce a neces-
sarily international approach to such conservation and management
measures.
85. It may be noted in passing that exactly the same spirit governs theKyoto Declaration and Plan of Action of 9 December 1995on the sus-
tainable contribution of fisheriesto food security, which reads:

"We the 95 States meeting in Kyoto from 4 to 9 December
1995.. .
Declare that we should, without prejudice to the rights and obli-
gations of States under international law . ..
.............................

5. Take steps for effectiveapplication of the FA0 Code of Con-
duct for Responsible Fisheries, and consider becoming parties to
the .. .Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Con-
servation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the
High Seas, and enact, correspondingly, appropriate domestic legis-
lation and regulations in a timely manner."

86. The Declaration calls on States, in defining the measures in ques-
tion, to increase "respect and understanding of social, economic and cul-
tural differences among States and regions in the use of living aquatic
resources, especially cultural diversity in dietary habits, consistent with
management objectives7'.And, moving well away from the purely tech-
nical element in the definition of such measures,the Declaration calls for
attention to be given to "(iii) improvement in economic and social well-
being" and "(iv) inter- and intra-generational equity".

87. Numerous other international and regional instruments might be
cited. For example, the diplomatic conference held in Crete from 12 to
14December 1994on CO-operationamong States for the conservation of
resources in the Mediterranean referred to what it called a harmonized
system of conservation and management, something which cannot be

envisaged under a definition solelyin terms of the domestic law of a par-
ticular State. And the Barcelona declaration of 28 November 1995 on
Euro-Mediterranean CO-operationitself referred to that system in a pro-
vision for "appropriate follow-up action in the legal sphere". 1shall con-
fine myself to citing only one further regional instrument, the solemn
declaration of 27-29November 1996bythe European Union on the con-
servation and management of fisheries resources in the Mediterranean,
which itself refers to a very large number of international conventions
and declarations, revealing the wealth of efforts being made towards
international regulation. This solemn declaration of the European Union
considered it "essential to secure respect for international measures for
conservation and management of fisheriesresources taken by competent
regional management organizations" and, in paragraph 6, it too referred
to the development "of a harmonized system for conservation and man-
agement" at the Mediterranean level, and for that purpose it set up "a
group of legal and technical experts". 88. The various international instruments discussed above are evi-
dence that the international community has increasingly felt the need to
rationalize and harmonize conservation and management measures in
order to ensure that those taken by a State in respect of its maritime
zones are compatible with those adopted by the international community
in respect of the free zones of the high seas. These instruments appeal to
al1States to see to it that their legislation conforms to common criteria,
identified and harmonized by those instruments.

89. The United Nations Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and
Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, adopted on 4 August 1995, has not of
course entered into force, but it was signed by both Spain and Canada,
on 3 December 1996and 4 December 1995respectively. Article 1, para-
graph 1 (b), of the Convention defined conservation and management
measures as "measures to conserve and manage one or more species of
living marine resources that are adopted and applied consistent with the
relevant rules of international law as reflected in the Convention and this
Agreement".

90. Thus once again we find that the definition is not confined to tech-
nical elements but also incorporates the very important element of con-
formity with international law, which constitutes the prerequisite for the
legalcharacterization ofconservation and managementmeasures. In para-
graph 70 the Judgrnent divorces the technical aspectsfrom the element of
conformity with public international law, dismissing the latter on the pre-
text that it raises the problem of the legality of such measures, which the
Court cannot consider in the present phase. This reductionist approach is
totally unjustified. The element of conformity does indeed raise the prob-
lem of the legality of the measures, but that is absolutely no reason for
excluding it from the definition, at a time when a very substantial body of
international instruments, includingthe 1995United Nations Convention

mentioned above, demonstrates that the international legislator recog-
nizes such conservation and management measures - which are morë-
over referred to as "international" - in light of various factors, both
technical and legal. The fact that the latter raise an issue of legality is
totally irrelevant to whether or not they should be included in the defini-
tion, which here serves simply to identify the measures in question.
91. What is more, the Court's approach to this issue consists in a
simple assertion - and this is undoubtedly the weakest point in its Judg-
ment - that "the authority from which such measures derive, the area
affected by them, and the way in which they are to be enforced do not
belong to the essential attributes intrinsic to the very concept of conserva-

tion and management measures". In this way the Court quietly disposes
of the entire subject-matter of the dispute.
92. In emptying of al1legal content a definition which it seeks none-
theless to present as a "legal" one, the Court appears to be saying that
the Canadian measures are routine technical measures which are accepted
and adopted worldwide. That is a serious assertion. For if this is whatthey are, any State, whether coastal or not, in order to be able to act as
and wherever it wishes, whether on the high seas or in areas under
national jurisdiction, will merely have to satisfy the technical require-
ments which are identified in the Judgrnent (type of nets, regulation of
catches,etc.).What will then be left of the freedom of the high seas? For,
once the Court finds that it lacks jurisdiction, it will never have the
opportunity to move on to the merits stage, the issue of legality. If there
is any sphere of law in which the ratione loci aspect is of the greatest

importance, it is the law of the sea. It is not the issue of legality as such
that 1 seek to raise here; that would lay me open al1too easily to the
charge of pre-empting an examination of the merits. What concerns me
rather is the ratione materiae aspect, that is to Say,the definition of con-
servation and management measures.
93. The Judgment gives an incomplete and partial definition of con-
servation and management measures which is contradicted by the inter-
national practice of States in which it sought its basis. Nor does the
Judgment take sufficient account of the new approach embodied in the
international concept of "conservation and management measures", an
approach which was already evident at the First United Nations Confer-

ence on the Law of the Sea and resulted in the Convention on Fishing
and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas; it was then
formalized in the Montego Bay Convention, and had in fact been
described as early as 1974in the Court's Judgment in the fisheries case:
"It is one of the advances in maritime international law, resulting

from the intensification of fishing, that the former laissez-faire treat-
ment of the living resources of the sea in the high seas has been
replaced by a recognition of a duty to have due regard to the rights
of other States and the needs of conservationfor the beneJitof all."
(Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Merits, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 31, para. 72; emphasis added.)

94. It is perfectly clear that this new approach could only be - and
indeed has been - an international one; otherwise the chaos created by
overfishingwould have been replaced by chaos of a differentkind - that
produced by each State taking, as and wherever it thought fit, whatever
conservation and management measures it wished. To limit this advance
to a simple harmonization of the technical aspects of fishing, as the Judg-
ment has done, is to ignore the entire development, both now and over
the last two or three decades, in the law on conservation and manage-
ment measures, a process which givesjudicial expression to a profound

need on the part of States for clar$cation, harmonization and CO-opera-
tion. Such measures cannot therefore simply be reduced to any act done
by a State with regard to its choice of conservation techniques, whilst
ignoring the fact that these measures now have to be incorporated into
an international network of rights and obligations which States have cre-
ated for themselves. Here, economiclogic andlegal logichave to combine- as indeed they do in al1international instruments - in order to avoid
the chaos both of uncontrolled overjishingand of illegalregulation. Com-
patibility with international law is an integral part of the international
definition of conservation and management measures; it is "built in".
This is not to adjudicate on the merits or to make any ruling on respon-

sibility; it is simply to state that, on a true interpretation of the expres-
sion "conservation and management measures", the reservation cannot
be upheld.
95. Paragraph 70 ofthe Judgment sets out to give the definition to be
found in "international law" of the concept of "conservation and man-
agement measures", since it begins with the words: "According to inter-
national law, .. .". But, strangely,it ends with a paragraph in which the
Judgment removes from that definition - notwithstanding its claim to be
a definition under "international law" - al1references to the legal ele-
ments (such as the status or identity of the author of the measures or the

nature of the maritime area affected by them), retaining only the techni-
cal and scientiJic aspects. How could international law possibly supply
such an incomplete dejinition, which, taken literally, would appear to
authorize the violation of the most jirmly established principle of this
same international law, namelyfreedom of the high seas?I cannot beper-
suaded that I am touching here upon an issue goingto the merits, that of
legality. Zn reality I have stopped short of that, and wouldsimply point
out that, on the basis of the Judgment, international law is bent on a
courseof self-destruction in supplying a definition whichallows it to be so

directly violated. How is itpossible to turn international law against itself
in sojîagrant a manner ?
96. It is this kind of approach which flawsthe Judgment, including al1
those paragraphs in which the issue of legality is so conveniently dis-
missed, and especially paragraphs 54, 56, 79, 80, 85 and 87. Even con-
fining myself to paragraph 79, 1 find regrettable the Court's assertion
that "there is no rule of interpretation which requires that reservations
be interpreted so as to cover only acts compatible with international
law . . [Tlhis is to confuse the legality of the acts with consent to juris-
diction . . ."That would be perfectly correct if interpretation alone had

been involved.Here, though, it should not be the case that one constituent
element of an international definition is interpreted to the exclusion
of another, when an international legislatorhas made the latter a part of
the definition. Al1these elements areprerequisites for the process of inter-
pretation, which must look at them all, without exception.
97. It follows, therefore, that the Canadian measures relating to the
high seas cannot be interpreted on the basis of Canada's own interna1
legal order - for this in effectis what the Judgment has done - sincethe
definition of conservation and management measures which the Judg-

ment claims to draw from international law has ultimately been reduced
to a commonplace technical definition - the very same that underlies the
Canadian legislation and its implementing rules - without any regard
for respect of the principle of freedom of the high seas. On the basis of itsreservation as thus interpreted by the Judgment, Canada is protected
against judicial scrutiny. In reality, however, conservation and manage-
ment measures fa11to be assessed solelyby reference to international law.
If this is so and it cannot be othenvise - then the Court was bound to

declare itself competent at this stage and to undertake an examination of
the merits in order to determine whether the measures taken against the
Spanish vesselswere in fact conservation and management measures (see
Article 79, paragraph 7, of the Rules of Court).

(Signed) Mohammed BEDJAOUI.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. BEDJAOUI

Objet du diffërend - Détermination tripartitepar le demandeur, le défendeur
et la Cour - Rôle différent de chaque «acteur» - Qualité intangiblede
demandeur - Son droit d'obtenir de la Cour un prononcésur l'objet du diffé-
rend qu'il lui a présentéet sur celui-là seul - Impossibilitépour la Courde
substituer un autre objet du différend à celui soun:ispar le demandeur - Ce

serait juger unetoute autre affaire -
Question de la validitéde laréserve canadienne - Pouvoir souverain etindis-
cuté deI'Etat de maintenir ou de modifier, enla limitant ou en l'élargissant,une
déclaration d'acceptationde lacompétence dela Cour,ou encorede laretirer à
son gré - Pouvoir de l'assortirde toute réserve - Libertéconditionnée cepen-
dant par le respect du Statut et du Règlement de la Cour, de la Charte des

Nations Unieset plus généralemene tncore du droit international et de l'«ordre
public international)) - Droits et devoirsde I'Etat déclarant à l'égarddu «sys-
tème))de la clause, de ses acteurs, actuels ou potentiels, comme aussi vis-à-vis
du destinatairefinal de la clause qui est lajuridiction internationale - L'Etat
déclarantpeut se retirer du «système», mais il ne saurait en compromettre
l'existence ou lefonctionnement, tout en y restant -

Question de la définitiondes ((mesuresde conservationet de gestion)) - Nou-
veautédu concept - Besoins impératifsde lacommunauté internationalede cla-
rifier, de rationaliser et d'harmoniser lesmesures de conservation et de gestion
- Besoins de coopération - Définitionde ces mesures par référenceau droit
international - Conformité sinequa non des mesures au droit international -
Eléments dela déJinitioninternationale de ces mesures - Elémentstechniques

et scientifiques - Elémentsjuridiques - Question de la licéité - La licéité
comme élément de définition «built in» - Le droit international ne saurait
livrer une définition limitée à ses élémentstechniques et qui, prise à la lettre,
semblerait autoriser la violationduprincipe le mieux établi dudroit internatio-
nal, celui de la libertéde la haute mer -

1. Prolongeant sa longue et estimable tradition de respect de la «pri-

mauté du droit)) au dedans et au dehors, le Canada a, depuis soixante-dix
ans, placétoute sa confiance dans la Cour permanente de Justice inter-
nationale, puis dans la nôtre qui lui a succédé.Sa première déclaration
d'acceptation de la juridiction de la Cour permanente de Justice interna-

tionale date en effet du 20 septembre 1929. Et depuis lors il nourrit un
grand respect pour notre juridiction qu'il n'a pashésité à saisir, comme
dans l'affaire du Golfe du Maine.

2. A deux reprises cependant, en 1970et 1994,le Canada avait,par des
réserves,limitéde manière toute particulière la compétencede la Cour.
En 1970, ila modifiésa déclaration d'acceptation de la compétencede la DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE BEDJAOUI

[Translation]

Subject-matter of the dispute - Tripartite determination by Applicant,
Respondent andthe Court - Dijferent role of each "actor" - Inviolability of
Applicant's status - Applicant's right to have the Courtrule on the subject of

the dispute referred to it by the Applicant andon that alone - The Court can-
not substitute another subject of the disputefor the one submitted by the Appli-
cant - That would amount to deciding a quite different case.
Validity of the Canadian reservation - Sovereign, undisputedpower of a
State to maintain or amend, whetherby restricting or by extending it, a declara-
tion of acceptanceof the Court'sjurisdiction, or to withdraw it altogether when-
ever it wishes - Power to attach any reservation - Suchfreedom nonetheless
conditional on compliance with the Statute and the Rules of Court, the Charter

of the United Nations, and more generally, with internationallaw and "ordre
public international" - Rights and obligations of the declarant State with
regard to the clause "system", to those currently orpotentially participating in
it and to the ultimate addresseeof the clause, the International Court - Declar-
ant State free to withdrawfrom the "system" but not to compromise its exist-
ence orfunctioning andyet remain within it.

Dejînition of "conservationand management measures" - A new concept -
Pressing need for the international community to clarify, rationalize andhar-
monize conservation and management measures - Need for CO-operation -
Dejînition of such measures in light of international law - Their compatibility
with internationallaw a sinequa non - Elements of the international dejïnition
of such measures - Technical and scientiJicaspects - Legal elements - Issue
of legality - Legality as a built-in elementof the dejînition - International law
cannot supply a dejînition which is conjïned to technical aspects and which, if

taken literally, would apparently authorize the violation of the most jïrmly
establishedprinciple of international law,freedom of the high seas.

1. Continuing its long and estimable tradition of respect for the pri-
macy of law, both interna1 and external, Canada has for 70 years placed
full confidence,first in the Permanent Court of International Justice and

then in its successor, Our present Court. Thus, its first declaration of
acceptance of the jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International
Justice dates from 20 September 1929.And since then it has always held
Ourjurisdiction in great respect and has not hesitated to have recourse to

it, as for example in the Gulfof Maine case.
2. On two occasions, however, in 1970and 1994,Canada made reser-
vations imposing specificrestrictions on the Court's jurisdiction. In 1970
it amended its declaration of acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction so asCour, aux fins de prendre des mesures anti-pollution et de protection
de l'environnement pour la zone maritime nord, sur une profondeur de
100 milles en direction de l'Arctique. A cette époque-là, cependant, les
Etats-Unis, qui étaient viséspar ces mesures, n'ont pas saisi la Cour.

3. La réservedu Canada, contenuedans sa déclarationdu 7 avril 1970
(C.I.J. Annuaire 1975-1976, p. 57),possédait unecertaine ressemblance,
du moins dans sa formulation, avec cellede 1994et se lisait comme suit:

((2) Nous déclarons que le Gouvernement canadien ...,accepte
comme obligatoire ... la juridiction de la Cour en ce qui concerne
tous les différends..autres que

d) les différendsauxquels peuvent donner lieuou qui concernent la
juridiction ou les droit invoqués ouexercéspar le Canada en ce
qui concerne la conservation, lagestion ou l'exploitation des res-
sources biologiquesde lamer, ou lesmesures de préventionou de
lutte contre la pollution ou la contamination du milieu marin
dans les zones marines adjacentes au littoral canadien)) (les ita-
liques sont de moi).

4. Si l'on fait abstraction de la déclaration de 1985 qui ne contenait
plus de réserveéquivalente,on notera que la réservede 1970 citéeci-
dessus a été remplacép ear une autre, figurantà la mêmeplace, et qui a
permis au Canada d'écarterla compétencede la Cour pour

d) les différendsauxquelspourraient donner lieulesmesures de ges-
tion et de conservationadoptéespar le Canada pour les navires
pêchant dans la zone de réglementationde I'OPAN[O], telle que
définiedans la convention sur la future coopérationmultilatérale
dans les pêchesde l'Atlantique Nord-Ouest, 1978,et l'exécution
de telles mesures)) (les italiques sont de moi).

5. Les réservessimilaires qu'il a ainsi émisespar deux fois semblent
refléterson hésitation,ou son manque d'intérêt, à soumettre à la sanction
dujuge international des questions estiméespar lui vitaleset auxquelles le
droit applicable lui paraissait, comme l'a dit le secrétairetat canadien
pour les affaires extérieures,((inadéquat, inexistant ou non-pertinent)).
C'estqu'en effet leCanada n'étaitpas entièrementsatisfaitpar la conven-
tion de Montego Bay du 10décembre1982sur le droit de la mer qu'iln'a
pour cette raison pas ratifiée et qui, selon lui, n'avait pas entièrement
réglé leproblème de la surpêche,compromettant ainsi l'avenir des res-
sources halieutiques pour les générationsfutures.to enable it to take measures to prevent pollution and protect the marine
environment of its northern coast, over an area extending more than
100milestowards the polar zone.At that time, however,the United States,
at which these measures were aimed, did not bring the matter before
the Court.

3. Canada's reservation, contained in its declaration of 7 April 1970
(see I.C.J. Yearbook 1975-1976, p. 54), had a certain resemblance, at
least as regards the manner in which it was formulated, to that of 1994
and read as follows:

"(2) 1declare that the Government of Canada acceptsas compul-
sory . . .the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice . . .
over al1disputes . . other than:

(d) disputes arising out of or concevning jurisdiction or rights
claimed or exercised by Canada in respect of the conservation,
management or exploitation of the living resourcesof thesea, or
in respect of the prevention or control or contamination of the

marine environment in marine areas adjacent to the coast of
Canada." (Emphasis added.)

4. Disregarding the 1985declaration, which contained no equivalent
reservation, it will benoted that the 1970reservation quoted above has
been replaced by another, situated in the same place, allowing Canada to
exclude the jurisdiction of the Court in regard to

(d) disputes arising out of or concevningconservation and manage-
ment measures taken by Canada with respect to vesselsfishing
in the NAFO Regulatory Area, as definedin the Convention on
Future Multilateral Co-operation in the Northwest Atlantic
Fisheries, 1978, and the enforcement of such measures."
(Emphasisadded.)

5. These similar reservations formulated by Canada on two separate
occasions would appear to reflect its hesitation, or reluctance, to submit
to the sanction of the International Court issues which it regarded as
vital, and in relation to which it considered the applicable law to be, in
the words of the Canadian Foreign Minister, "inadequate, non-existent
or irrelevant". The point was that Canada was not entirely satisfiedwith
the Montego Bay Convention of 10 December 1982on the Law of the
Sea, which for this reason it has not ratified and which, in its view,failed
to settle fully the problem of overfishing, thus jeopardizing fisheries
resources for future generations. 6. Le Canada a souvent exprimé son sentiment d'insatisfaction et
invoqué la ((situation d'urgence)), voire d'«état de nécessité))qu'il tra-
verse à cet égard.Sesdéclarations dans lesfora internationaux sont aussi
claires que nombreuses. Un auteur fait étatde l'une d'entre ellesdans les
termes suivants :

«le ministre (canadien) des pêches,M. John Crosbie, avait dit à la
conférence deRio de Janeiro que la surpêcheétrangère était undes
sujets prioritaires que le Canada entendait aborder et que son objec-
tif était double: faire approuver par les leaders mondiaux réunis au
Sommet de la Terre certains principes et mesures d'une part, et sol-
liciter une conférencede suivi pour examiner ces questions plus en

détaild'autre part ...Le ministre Crosbie faisait comprendre en des
termes à peine voilésque l'initiative juridique du Gouvernement
fédéral canadien sur la pêcheen haute mer étaiten fait une alterna-
tive aux appelspressants que lui adressaient lesProvinces de l'Atlan-
tique, et en particulier cellesde Terre-Neuve,pour qu'il règlele pro-
blème de la surpêcheétrangère surle «Nez» et la «Queue» des
Grands Bancs en étendant unilatéralementsa juridiction en matière
de pêcheau-delà de la limite des 200 milles.»'

7. Des déclarations de cette nature permettent le situer le vrai contexte
de la présenteaffaire. La Cour avait à se prononcer sur sa compétence en
examinant le sens et la portée de la réserveémise,mais sans devoir se
cacher qu'en accueillant une telle réservela Cour laissaitlibre son auteur

de combattre la surpêcheétrangèreen s'attribuant unilatéralement des
compétences en haute mer aussi longtempsqu'un règlementne serait pas
intervenu entre le Canada et les Etats concernés.Ce contexte de la pré-
sente affaire de compétencedevait êtreévoquécar lorsque des réserves
possèdent une nature ratione materiae, il n'est pas possible de les appré-
cier sans un minimum de référenceau fond, prima facie.

8. L'affaire aurait étésimple à souhait si la Cour devait se limiter à
rechercher le sens de la formule ((mesuresde gestion et de conservation))
contenue dans la réserveet à affirmer que «l'exécution deces mesures))
dont a étévictime le bateau de pêcheespagnol l'Estai, est parfaitement

couverte par ladite réservequi fait défenseà la Cour de connaître d'inci-
dent de cettenature. Il est indispensable de s'attacheàune autre formule
autrement plus importante de la réserve,qui situegéographiquement l'ac-
tion du Canada «dans la zone de réglementation de l'OPAN[O]», c'est-
à-dire au-delù de la limite des 200 milles. Et de fait l'Estai a étéarrai-
sonné à 245 milles environ des côtes canadiennes. Il suffit de remplacer

lPaul Fauteux, ((L'initiative juridiquecanadienne den haute me»,Annuaire
canadien de droit international, 1993,t. XXXI (p. 33-87), p. 58.

90 6. Canada has frequently expressed its dissatisfactionand invoked the
"emergency", or even "state of necessity", which it is facing in this
regard. Its declarations in international fora have been as clear as they
have been numerous. One writer has described one of them in the follow-
ing terms :

"The (Canadian) Minister of Fisheries, Mr. John Crosbie, had
told the Rio de Janeiro Conference that foreign overfishing was one
of the subjects which Canada intended to address as a matter of
urgency and that it had a dual aim in this regard: to obtain approval
from the world leaders meeting at the Earth Summit for certain prin-
ciples and measures on the one hand, and to seek a follow-up con-
ference to examine these questions in greater detail on the other
hand .. .Mr. Crosbie stated in barely veiled terms that legislative
action by the Canadian Federal Government with regard toJishing

on thehighseas was beingconsidered as a real alternative in response
to the urgent appeals that he had been getting from the Atlantic
Provinces, and in particular from Newfoundland, asking him to deal
with the problem of foreign overfishing on the 'Nose' and 'Tail' of
the Grand Banks by unilaterally extending his fisheries jurisdiction
beyond the 200-mile limit." '

7. Statements of this type give us an insight into the real background
to the present case. The Court had to rule on its jurisdiction by examin-
ing the meaning and scope of Canada's reservation, but it could not
ignore the fact that, if it accepted such a reservation, it was leaving the
author of that reservation free to combat foreign overfishing by unilater-
ally giving itself powers over the high seas for as long as no settlement
had been reached between itself and the States concerned. This account
of the background to the case was necessary, inasmuch as, where reser-
vations have been formulated ratione materiae, prima facie they cannot

be construed without at least some reference to the substantive issues
involved.
8. The case would have been perfectly simple if the duty of the Court
had been to confine itself to ascertaining the meaning of the expression
"conservation and management measures" contained in the reservation,
and to affirming that "the enforcement of those measures" against the
Spanish fishing vesse1Estai was precisely covered by the terms of that
reservation, thus preventingthe Court from entertainingany claim in this
regard. It is absolutely essential, however, that attention be focused on
another, far more important term of the reservation, that which places
Canada's action, in geographicalterms, "in the NAFO Regulatory Area",
that is to say outside the 200-mile limit. And indeed the Estai was

lPaul Fauteux, "L'initiative juridique canadienne de la pêcheen haute mer", Canadian
Yearbook of International Law, 1993,Vol. XXXI (pp. 33-87),p. 58. [Translation by the
Registry.]

90 dans la réservecanadienne la formule «dans la zonede réglementationde
l'OPAN[O]» par la formule ((au-delà des 200 milles de la zone écono-
mique exclusivedu Canada» pour serendre compte que la Cour setrouve
en présenced'uneréservepeuhabituelle, pour ne pas dire audacieuse. Dès
lors la Cour avait le devoir de vérifiersi cette réservepeut êtreaccueillie
sans difficultédans le systèmede la clause facultative.

9. L'article premier, paragraphe 2, de la convention OPANO, offre
une définitioncristallinequi ne laisseaucun doute à ce sujet lorsqu'il sti-
pule que:

«La zone ci-après appelée«zone de réglementation))désignela
partie de la zone de la convention qui s'étendau-delà des régions
dans lesquelles lesEtats côtiers exercent leurjuridiction en matière
de pêche.» (Les italiques sont de moi.)

Ce n'est nullement déformer laréservecanadienne que de la restituer
dans son sens clair, accessibleau lecteur qui peut ignorer la signification
exacte de l'expression «zone de réglementation de 170PAN[O]»et qui
comprendrait certainement mieux l'objet de la réservedont le champ
d'application se situe«en haute mer». Ladite réservea pour objet de
signalerurbi et orbi que le Canada se reconnaît une compétence spéciale
en haute mer. La Cour ne peut pas interpréter et accueillir cette réserve
qui, sans qu'on ait besoin d'entrer au fond, montre prima facie qu'elle
porte atteinte à un principe essentiel de droit international, comme elle
interpréterait etaccueillerait une réserveordinaire. Il y a un problème
sur lequel la Cour ne peut pas faire l'impasse ens'en tenantà une inter-
prétation toute extérieure,et superficielle,de la réserve. ne semble pas
possible que la Cour se contente en ce cas d'une perception simplement

formelle de la réserveen ignorant son contenu matériel,contenu qu'il
n'est pas nécessaire desonder au prix d'un examen de fond, tant il est
clair que la réservetouche à un droit traditionnellement établi. C'est là
tout le sel de cette passionnante affaire.

10. Sans entrer plus que permis dans le fond à ce stade de la compé-
tence, on ne saurait ignorer les efforts canadiens déployésdepuis plus
d'une décenniepour sefaire reconnaître, dans le cadre de son ((droit pré-
férentiel))d'Etat côtier, une compétence spécialepour agir en haute mer
par des mesures de conservation et de gestion des ressources halieutiques
dans l'intérêt dle'ensemblede la communauté internationale. Mais par-
delà le caractèreestimable de l'objectif,il serait trop facile d'affirmerque
«la question simple est: les mesures prises par le Canada et exécutées
contre le navire espagnol Estai étaient-elles des mesuresde gestion et de

conservation? Si la réponseest affirmative, la Cour est incompétente))
(CR98114,p. 51,par. 10).C'esten effet simplifier à l'excèsla question que
de vider la réservede son seul et véritablecontenu pour lequel le Canada
semobilise depuis tant d'années, à savoir le droit préférentil u'auraient
des Etats côtiers àprendre des mesures de gestion et de conservation enboarded some 245 miles off the Canadian Coast. If in the Canadian res-
ervation we simply substitute for the words "in the NAFO Regulatory
Area" the expression "beyond Canada's 200-mile exclusive economic
zone", then it irnrnediately becomes clear that the Court is dealing here
with a reservation of an unusual,not to say audacious, nature. Hence it
became incumbent upon the Court to verify whether such a reservation
could be accepted without difficulty under the optional clause system.
9. Article 1(2) of the NAFO Convention contains a crystal-clear defi-
nition which leaves no doubt in this regard when it provides that:

"The area referred to in this Convention as 'the Regulatory Area'
is that part of the Convention Area which liesbeyond the areas in
which coastal States exercise jïsheries jurisdiction." (Emphasis
added.)

It is in nosense a distortion of the Canadian reservation to recast it in
terms of its true meaning, making it accessible to the reader, who may
not be aware of the precise significanceof the expression "NAFO Regu-
latory Area" and will certainly be in a better position to understand the
object of the reservation, whose field of application is "the high seas".
The object of the reservation is to signal urbi et orbi that Canada claims
special jurisdiction over the high seas. The Court cannot interpret or
accept this reservation in the same way as it would interpret or accept an

ordinary reservation, since, without any need for a consideration of the
merits, its terms prima facie disclose a violation of a basic principle of
international law. This is an issue which the Court cannot simply ignore
by restricting itself to an external and superficialinterpretation of theres-
ervation. It cannot be right for the Court to content itselfin this case with
a purely forma1 view of the reservation, disregarding its material con-
tent - a content which does not require an investigation involving
examination of the merits, sinceit is abundantly clear that the reservation
affects a traditionally established right. This is the real flavour of this
fascinating case.
10. Without going further into the merits than is permissible at this
jurisdictional stage, the Court is bound to take account of the efforts by
Canada over more than a decade to obtain recognition, in the context of

its "preferential right" as a coastal State, of its specialjurisdiction to act
on the high seas by means of measures for the conservation and manage-
ment of fisheries stocks in the interests of the entire international com-
munity. But, however estimable this aim, it would be over-facile to hold
that we must "answer a simple question: were the measures taken by
Canada and enforced against the Spanish vesse1Estai, conservation and
management measures? If the answer is yes, the Court is without juris-
diction" (CR 98/14,p. 51, para. 10).It is over-simplifyingthe question to
empty the reservation of its sole veritable substance, for which Canada
has been campaigning for so many years, namely the purported prefer-
ential right of coastal States to take conservation and management meas-haute mer2. La portée exacte de la réservecanadienne, et par voie de
conséquencel'exclusion ou non de la compétencede la Cour, dépendent
doncfondumentalement du problème desavoir ce que signifient les ((me-
sures de gestion et de conservation» envisagéespar cette réserve.Selon
que ces mesures doivent s'interpréter par référenceau droit canadien, ou
mêmetout simplement par rapport au sens commun de cette expression,
ou au contraire par rapport au droit international du seul fait déjà
qu'elles n'excluent pas une application en haute mer, qui toucherait le

principe traditionnel de la liberté de cette zone, la réservecanadienne
prend des couleurs tout à fait différentes.A ce stade, on voit déjà claire-
ment qu'il n'est pas possible de se contenter d'affirmer que l'arraisonne-
ment en haute mer d'un bateau de pêcheétranger constitue simplement
l'exécutionde mesures de gestion et de conservation prises par le Canada
et de conclure que cet incident est couvert par la réserveretirant toute
compétence à la Cour, car ce serait se servir du paravent des ((mesuresde
gestion et de conservation» interprétées artificiellement sans se préoc-
cuper de ce qu'elles recouvrent comme atteinte à un principe bien établi
du droit international.

11. La seule attitude correcte tenir est donc d'interpréter et d'appré-
cier lesdites ((mesures de conservation et de gestion» par référenceau
droit international. C'est dans le corpus du droit des gens qu'il convient
de rechercher une définitiondesdites mesures. Et deux options, et deux
seules, s'offrent alors au juge en cette phase de la procédure: ou bienà
tout le moins déclarer qu'ilne trouve pas d'embléeune définitioninter-
nationale bien établiede ces mesures et prêteà son application à l'espèce
et que dèslors il est obligéde toucher au fond de l'affaire en allant plus
avant dans l'examen des faits de l'espèceet de leurs implications dans la
pratique internationale des Etats, et cela devraitl'entraîàedéclarerque
l'exception d'incompétence formuléepar le Canada n'a pas un caractère
exclusivement préliminaire, selon l'article79, paragraphe 7, du Règle-

ment de la Cour; ou bien au contraire déclarerqu'il dispose d'une défini-
tion internationale incontestéedes mesures de gestion et de conservation,
qui, appliquée à l'espèce,lui fait devoir d'interpréter la réservecana-
dienne comme invalide ou inopposable lorsqu'elle prétend couvrir des
faits survenus en haute mer et donc comme impropre à faire barrageà la
compétencede la Cour pour connaître du fond par la suite.

12. Sans m'arrêtersur tous les points qui me paraissent contestables
dans le présentarrêt,notamment au sujet des implications théoriqueset
pratiques des méthodesd'interprétation retenues dans la présenteespèce,
ou à tout le moins sur la formulation que l'arrêt donne à nombre de ces

Laurent Lucchini, «La loi canadienne du 12mai 1994:la logique extrêmede la théo-
rie du droit préférentiel decôtier en haute mer au titre des stocks chevauchants~,
Annuaire français de droit international, 1994,p. 864-875. ures in respect of the high seas2. The precise scope of the Canadian
reservation, and hence the question whether or not the Court's jurisdic-
tion is excluded, thus dependsbasically on the issue of the meaning of the
"conservation and management measures" contemplated by that reserva-
tion. Depending on whether such measures fa11to be interpreted by ref-
erence to Canadian law - or even simply by reference to the generally

accepted meaning of that expression - or on the contrary on the basis of
international law, given already that there is nothing to prevent them
being applied on the high seas, impugningthe traditional principle of the
freedom of that area, the Canadian reservation takes on quite different
aspects. At this stage it is alreadyclear that the Court cannot just content
itself with stating that the boarding on the high seas of a foreign fishing
vesse1merely represents the enforcement of conservation and manage-
ment measures taken by Canada, and thus hold that that incident is cov-
ered by a reservation entirely depriving it of jurisdiction, for this would
be to shelter behind the notion of "conservation and management meas-
ures", interpreted in an artificial manner, without any concern for what

such measures involve in terms of the violation of a well-establishedprin-
ciple of international law.
11. It follows that the only proper attitude is to interpret and evaluate
those "conservation and management measures" by reference to interna-
tional law. It is in the corpus of the law of nations that a definition of
such measures must be sought. And two options, and two only, accord-
ingly present themselves to the Court at this stage of the proceedings:
either, at the very least, to state that it cannot readily find any well-
established international definition of such measures applicable to the case
before it, and is accordingly obliged to touch on the merits of the case by
going further in its examination of the facts and of their implications in

terms of the international practice of States, and in consequence to
declare that Canada's objection to jurisdiction is not of an exclusively
preliminary character within the meaning of Article 79, paragraph 7, of
the Rules of Court; or, on the contrary, to declare that it does have avail-
able to it an undisputed international definition of conservation and
management measures, which, applied to the facts of this case, obliges it
to interpret the Canadian reservation as invalid or not opposable in so
far as itpurports to cover acts occurring on the high seas, and is accord-
ingly not capable of constituting a bar to the Court's jurisdiction to pro-
ceed to an examination of the merits.
12. Without dealing with al1the points which appear to me disputable

in the Judgrnent - in particular the theoreticaland practical implications
of the methods of interpretation adopted therein, or at least the manner
in which the Judgment formulates a number of these points (see in par-

Laurent Lucchini, "La loicanadienne du 12mai 1994:la logique extrêmedela théorie
du droit préférentieldeEtatcôtier en haute mer au titre stocks chevauchants", Annuaire
français de droit international, 1994,pp. 864-875.points (voir en particulier les paragraphes 46 à 54 de l'arrêt),je me limi-
terai à relever trois questionsimportantes au sujet desquellesj'exprime, à
mon vif regret, mon désaccord avecla majorité de la Cour:

- la question de l'objet du différend;
- la question de la validité dela réservecanadienne;
- la question de la définitiondes mesuresde conservationet de gestion.

II. LA QUESTION DE L'OBJET DU DIFFÉREND

13. Ce qui fait la singularitéde la présenteaffaire et du mêmecoup
son grand intérêjturidique, c'est le désaccord persistant entre 1'Etat
demandeur et 1'Etat défendeurau sujet de l'objet mêmedu différend,
désaccordqui se prolonge aujourd'hui par un autre, tout aussi profond,
entre la majorité de la Cour et la minorité surle mêmepoint. C'est là une
situation peu banale dans la jurisprudence de la Cour.

14. La détermination del'objet du différendme paraît constituer une

((opérationtripartite)) àlaquelle doivent concourir d'abord 1'Etatdeman-
deur, ensuite 1'Etatdéfendeur etenfin la Cour. Mais il faut s'empresser
d'ajouter que dans une telle opération,la répartition des rôles entre les
acteurs respectifs est nécessairement inégale,ou plus exactement diffé-
rente, le principe d'égalitén'ayant là rien à voir. Dans le procèsinterna-
tional, la distribution des tâches prend nécessairement encompte la qua-
litéde chacun des acteurs. Et c'estmettre en cause la qualité intrinsèque
de ((demandeur))de l'Espagne,celletout aussiconsubstantiellede ((défen-
deur)) du Canada, et enfin cellede ((juridiction))et non de ((partie))de la

Cour, que de reconnaître à chacun d'eux un pouvoir égaldans la déter-
mination de l'objet du différend.
15. Il tombe en effet sous le sensque, dans l'ordre juridictionnel, aussi
bien interne qu'international d'ailleurs, c'estnaturellement le demandeur
qui possèdel'initiative et qui définit- à ses risques judiciaires- l'objet
du différendqu'il entendporter devant son juge. Il jouit àcet égard d'un
droit procédural évident, qu'il tientde sa qualité de demandeur, de
demander et d'obtenir de son juge un prononcé sur l'objet dudifférend

qu'il luia présentéet sur celui-làseul, à l'exception de tout autre (sauf
évidemmentsurvenanced'une procédureincidente quelconque). Le prin-
cipe de l'égalité depsarties est par nature complètementétranger à cette
question car il ne saurait faire «égaux»ceux qui, procéduralement, sont
((différents». Il ne pourrait faire du ((défendeur» un «demandeur bis))
qui disposerait d'un pouvoir concurrent pour recomposer l'objet du dif-
férenddéfinipar le demandeur. De mêmequ'ilne pourrait transformer le
juge en «partie» demanderesse - une troisième! - qui serait habilitéeà
écarter l'objet dudifférend précisé dans la requête,pour lui en substituer

un tout autre.ticular paragraphs 46 to 54 of the Judgrnent) - 1shall restrict myself to
raising three important questions on which, to my great regret, 1 find

myselfobliged to expressmy disagreementwith the majority of the Court:
- the subject-matter of the dispute;
- the validity of the Canadian reservation;
- the definition of conservation and management measures.

II. THESUBJECT-MATT OER THE DISPUTE

13. What makes this case so unique and at the same time gives it its
great legalinterest, is the persistent disagreement between the applicant
State and the respondent State with regard to the actual subject-matter of
the dispute - a disagreement now extended by another, just as far-
reaching, between the majority of the Court and the minority on the

same point. This is hardly an everyday occurrence in the Court's juris-
prudence.
14. Determination of the subject-matter of the dispute appears to me
to be a "tripartite operation", involving first the applicant State, then the
respondent State and finally the Court. But I would hasten to add that in
this operation the distribution of roles among the various actors is
necessarily unequal or, more precisely, different, since the principle of

equality has no part to play here. In a case before the International
Court the allocation of tasks is necessarily dependent upon the status of
each of the actors. And to accord to each of them an equal say in the
determination of the subject of the dispute is to cal1into question the
intrinsic status of Spainas Applicant, the equally specificstatus of Canada
as Respondent, and finally the status of the Court asforum rather than
party.
15. For it stands to reason that within any judicial order, whether

domestic or international, it is naturally the applicant who has the initia-
tive and who defines - at his own judicial risk - the subject-matter of
the dispute which he wishes to bring before the court. In this regard he
enjoys a clear procedural right, deriving from his status as applicant, to
seek and to obtain from the court a ruling on the subject of the dispute
which he has submitted to it and on that alone, to the exclusion of al1
others (subject of course to any superveningincidental proceeding). The

principle of the equality of the parties is by its nature completely irrele-
vant to this question, for it cannot render "equal" those who, procedur-
ally, are "different". It cannot turn the "respondent" into a "second
applicant", purportedly endowedwith some concurrent power to reformu-
late the subject-matter of the dispute as defined by the applicant. Nor, by
the same token, can it transform the court into an applicant "party" (a
third one!), with the power to set aside the subject of the dispute as

defined in the application and replace it with an entirely different one. 522 COMPÉTENCE PÊCHERIES (OP. DISS.BEDJAOUI)

16. Dans le procès international, comme du reste dans un procès
interne, 1'Etat défendeur ne possède pas, de par sa qualité mêmede
défendeur, un pouvoir d'intervention dans la définitionde l'objet pré-
sentéepar le demandeur. 11ne pourrait jouir de ce droit que s'il change
de qualité,ce qui se produit dans deux hypothèses: d'une part lorsque
l'instance est introduite, non pas comme ici par voie de requête,maispar
un compromis, faisant ainsi des deux Etats, et l'un vis-à-vis de l'autre,
des demandeurs et des défendeurs à la fois, et d'autre part lorsque dans
une instance introduite par voie de requêtecomme ici, 1'Etatdéfendeur

introduit une demande reconventionnelle,ce qui n'est nullement le cas ici.

17. Or que s'est-il passédans la présenteaffaire?
Je tâcherai d'éviter pour ma part d'alimenter encore la confusion
sémantiquequi s'estajoutée àla grande complexitéd'un problèmequ'on
croyait simple et je m'emploierai en particulier à éviter le mot «de-
mandes)) qui possède à mon avis une portée assez étroite,pour m'atta-
cher à ce qui importe iciàsavoir le ((différend)),lequel a une portée plus
large. Les«demandes» désignent en effet,me semble-t-il, des actes juri-

diques par lesquels une partie au procès émetdes ((prétentions))qu'elle
cherche à faire admettre par lejuge grâceà des arguments de fait ou de
droit (lesmoyens») qu'elle luiprésente à l'appui de ces prétentionspour
lui permettre de trancher le «différend».
18. Comment, en tant que demandeur, le plaignant a-t-il fait part àci
son juge de ce dont il se plaint. L'Espagne a clairement indiqué surquel
objet préciselle affronte le Canada devant la Cour. Tant dans ses écri-
tures que dans ses plaidoiries, elle s'est plainte invariablement d'«une
atteinte graveà un droit découlantde la souveraineté,tel que la juridic-
tion exclusive sur les bateaux arborant son pavillon en haute mer»
(CR9819, p. 20) et a fait valoir que l'objet du différend, qui constitue «le
cŒurdu problème)),est l'existenceou non d'un titrejuridique du Canada

pour agir en haute merà l'encontre de bateaux battant pavillon d'un Etat
étranger. Et dans ses conclusions finales, l'Espagne a bien rappeléavec
insistanceque ((l'objetdu différendest le défaut detitre du Canada pour
agir en haute mer à l'encontre des navires battant pavillon espagnol,
l'inopposabilité l'Espagne de la législationcanadienne des pêcheset la
réparation desfaits illicitesperpétrésl'égard desnaviresespagnols» (les
italiques sont de moi).
19. En indiquant, précisant etdéfinissantl'objet de son différend,tant
dans sa requête déjà, que dans sonmémoire,sesplaidoirieset sesconclu-
sions finales, l'Espagne avait satisfait aux exigences du Statut et du
Règlement de la Cour. Par exemple, à aucun moment la Cour ne lui a

reproché d'avoir méconnules prescriptionsde l'article 40 du Statut et de
l'article 38, paragraphe 1, du Règlement, qui lui faisaient devoir, l'un et
l'autre, d'indiquer et de préciser((l'objetdu différend))au stade du dépôt
de la requête déjà. 16. In international proceedings, as indeed in domestic litigation, the
respondent State, by virtue of its very status as respondent,does not have
a power to intervene in the definition of the subject as presented by the
applicant. It could only have such a right if it changed its status, which
can happen in two cases: first, where the proceedings are instituted not as
in this case by an application, but by means of a special agreement, thus
making each State simultaneously applicant and respondent, and
secondly where, in proceedings instituted by an application as in this
case, the respondent State lodges a counter-claim, of which there is no
question here.

17. What then happened in this case?

1shall do my best to avoidcompoundingthe semantic confusion which
has rendered still more complex a problem thought to be simple, and
1 shall in particular endeavour to avoid using the word "claims", which
in my view has a somewhat narrow scope, giving my preference to what
1 consider to be the more appropriate term here, namely the "dispute",
which has a wider sense. Thus it appears to me that the word "claims"
denotes legal acts whereby oneparty to the proceedings makes "requests",
which it seeksto have upheld by the court by means of arguments of fact
or law (the "grounds"), presented by it in support of those requests in
order to enable the court to settle the "dispute".
18. How, as Applicant, did the complainant here indicate to the Court
what it was complaining about? Spain clearly stated the precise matter
over which it was bringing Canada before the Court. In both its written
and its oral pleadings, it consistently complained of "a very serious
infringement of a right deriving from its sovereign status, namely exclu-
sive jurisdiction over vessels flying its flag on the high seas" (CR9819,
p. 20), and stated that the subject of the dispute, which constituted "the

crux of the case", was the issue of Canada's legal title to act on the high
seas against vesselsflying the flag of a foreign State. And in its final sub-
missions Spain again emphasized that "the subject-matter of the dispute
is Canada's lack of title to act on the high seas against vesselsflving the
SpanishJEag,thefact that Canadian$sheries legislutioncannot be invoked
against Spain, and reparationfor the wronaful acts perpetrated against
Spanish vessels" (emphasis added).

19. In setting out in clear and precise terms the subject of its dispute,
both from the outset in its Application, and then in its Memorial, oral
argument and final submissions,Spain had satisfied the requirements of
the Statute and the Rules of Court. Thus at no time was there any sug-
gestion by the Court that Spain had failed to comply with the require-
ments of Article 40 of the Statute or of Article 38, paragraph 1, of the
Rules of Court, both of which obliged it to state the precise nature of
"the subject of the dispute" from the outset, when it filedits Application. 20. L'on notera au passage que c'est ce mêmedifférendqui a préoc-
cupénon seulement l'Espagne, mais aussi l'ensemblede la Communauté
européenne.Et il n'est pas sans intérêt d'observer quel'Espagne, dont
l'inquiétude étaitau diapason de celledes autres Etats membres, tant de
la Communauté européenne que de l'OPAN0, avait déjà invoqué le
mêmeobjet du différendet avait toujours poséle mêmeproblème dans
les mêmestermes, en protestant vigoureusement contre la législation
canadienne, cela avant mêmel'introduction quelque dix mois plus tard de

sa requête devant la Cour, à la suite de l'arraisonnement de l'Estai et du
harcèlement et du contrôle d'autres bateaux espagnols. On ne saurait
faire preuve de plus deconstance. Le mêmedifférend existait déjàavant
l'incident. La querelle entre l'Espagne et le Canada sur laissance allé-
guéed'un «droit» en haute mer existait déjà et avait mêmepris un tour
assez vif déjà,lorsqu'elle s'estdramatiquement concrétisée dix mois plus
tard par l'exerciceeffectifd'un tel «droit» contre un bateau espagnol. Le
«droit» allégué par le Canada d'agir en haute mer dans certaines condi-
tions articuléesdans sa nouvelle législation est resle même. Il a fourni
à l'Espagne l'occasion de le porter finalement devant la Cour. C'est là
l'objet du différend,déclaréem t êmeressasséavec une rare persévérance

par l'Espagne.
21. En bref, en l'espèceet pour l'Espagne agissant en sa qualitéde
demandeur. ,l'ob8.t du différendest clairement constitué Dar la auestion
du titre juridiqueà agir en haute mer, cela au regard des principes et
règles de droit international qui proclament la liberté de cet espace
(«moyens» de droit) et qui, selon l'Espagne, ont étvioléspar le Canada
(«arguments» de fait), ce qui a amenél'Espagne à demander à la Cour de
prononcer l'inopposabilitéde la législationcanadienne à l'Espagne et de
prescrire le non-renouvellement des actes dénoncés etleur réparation
adéquate («demandes))et ((prétentions))).

22. C'est un objet du différend tout autre que le Canada, agissant
pourtant en sa qualité d'Etat défendeur,a opposé à l'Espagne. Il a
invoquéles questions d'exercicede la pêcheet de conservation et de ges-
tion des ressources halieutiques dans la zone OPANO et a soutenu en
conséquenceque c'est là l'objet du différendvéritable et que celui-ci
échappait à la compétencede la Cour par l'effet de l'existence de la
réserve d) introduite par le Canada dans sa nouvelle déclarationnotifiée
le 10mai 1994(deuxjours avant l'adoption du projet de loi C-29 modi-
fiant la législationcanadienne sur les pêchescôtières).Il n'est pas sans

intérêdte relever que la définition del'objet du différenddonnéepar le
Canada en l'espèce netrouve pas de fondement «objectif» dans des
conclusions au fond. L'Espagne en revanchea présentéquant à elle des
conclusions au fond dans sa requête. Ladéfinitioncanadienne peut donc
apparaître comme de «circonstance», en ce qu'ellevise à étayersa thèse
sur la compétence. 20. It should be noted in passing that this same dispute also involved
not just Spain, but the entire European Community. And it is not with-
out relevance to observe that Spain, whose concern was matched by that
of the other member States, both of the European Community and of
NAFO, had already raised the same subject of dispute, and consistently
posed the same problem in the same terms, by protesting vigorously
against the Canadian legislation, even before the filing of its Application
with the Court some ten months later following the boarding of the Estai
and the harassment and inspection of other Spanish vessels. Spain could
not have dernonstrated greaterconsistency. The same dispute was already
in existence even before the incident. The conflict between Spain and

Canada over the alleged entitlement to a "right" over the high seas was
already in existence and had indeed become quite serious, before it dra-
matically came to a head ten months later as a result of the effectiveexer-
cise of such a "right" against a Spanish vessel. Canada's purported
"right" to act on the high seas under certain conditions laid down in its
new legislation remained the same. It had finally provided Spain with the
opportunity to bring it before the Court. That was the subject of the dis-
pute, declared and indeed reiterated with rare perseverance by Spain.

21. In sum, in this case, for Spain acting in its capacity as Applicant,
the subject of the dispute was clearly constituted by the issue of the legal
title to act on the high seas, in the light of the principles and rules of
international law which uphold the freedom of the seas ("grounds" of
law) and which Spain claims to have been violated by Canada ("argu-

ments" of fact), as a result of which Spainhas asked the Court to declare
the Canadian legislation unopposable to it and to order that Canada
refrain from any repetition of the acts complained of and make appro-
priate reparation for those acts ("claims" and "requests").

22. It was an altogether dijjferentsubject-matter that Canada - not-
withstanding its status as respondent State - raised against Spain. It
invoked issues of fishing and of the conservation and management of
fisheriesresources within the NAFO Regulatory Area, and consequently
contended that this was the true subject of the dispute, and that it was
excluded from the jurisdiction of the Court by virtue of reservation (d)
inserted by Canada in its new declaration notified on 10 May 1994(two

days before the adoption of Bill C-29 amending the Coastal Fisheries
Protection Act). It is worth noting that the definition of the subject of the
dispute given by Canada in this case was not "objectively" substantiated
in submissions on the merits. Spain, on the other hand, did present
submissions on the merits in its Application. Canada's definition may
therefore appear to have been "tailored to suit the occasion", inasmuch
as it was intended to support the Canadian position concerning jurisdic-
tion. Le Canada estime ainsi que
«ce sont les mesures de gestion et de conservation adoptées par le
Canada pour les navires espagnols pêchant dans la zone de régle-
mentation de I'OPANO, et l'exécutionde telles mesures, qui ont
donné lieu à la présente affaire)) (contre-mémoire du Canada,
par.229).

23. Nous sommes là en présence de deuxobjets du différend, parfai-
tement distincts, l'un avancépar la requêtede l'Espagne, le seul qui,
parce qu'il émanaitdu demandeur, devait être tranchépar la Cour (bien
entendu après «traitement» par elle, c'est-à-dire après qu'elle lui eut
donné sa «qual$cation juridique))), l'autre soumis par le Canada qui

n'aurait pu être retenu par la Cour que si le Canada avait introduit lui-
mêmeune demande reconventionnelle. Tel n'est pas le cas. Tout auplus
aurait-ilfallu alors que la Courfocalise le procèssur l'objet véritabledu
différendtel que présentéet définipar I'Etat demandeur, tout en priant le
Canada de ciblersa défensesur cet objet et non sur un autre, enpermet-
tant toutefois au Canada de faire valoir comme l'un de ses «moyens» de
droit ce qu'il a présenté comme un((objet du différend)).La Cour aurait
ainsi pu «recentrer» le procès avec plus de rectitude juridique. Rien de
cela ne s'est produit en dépitdes tentatives désespéréedse l'Espagne qui
rappelait tout simplement que pour elle le différendse limitaità ce qui
s'étaitpassé enhaute mer et que lereste, survenu en amont, ne concernait
pas le différend proprement ditet n'intéressaiten tout caspas l'Espagne
en sa qualitéde demandeur, libre desoumettre à la Courle différend qu'il
veut, à ses risques judiciaires évidemment.

24. Il existe bien sûr une connexité entre l'objet du différend,tel que
dégagépar le demandeur aux fins du procès qu'ila intenté,mais qui n'a
malheureusement pas eu lieu, et l'objet allégué commevéritablepar le
défendeur,mais qui a étél,ui, tranché etvidé.Une telle connexiténejus-
tifiait toutefois nullement la substitution par la Cour du second objet au
premier du demandeur.

25. Et mêmesi l'on venait à considérer,à la rigueur, que la législation
canadienne, ensemble sa réglementation d'application, avait généré un
différend global,et même si,dans cette perspective, on voulait bien consi-
dérer qu'untel différendglobalcomportait plusieurs aspects, ou se situait
à plusieurs niveaux, on n'aurait pas dû méconnaître alors, comme la
Cour, le droit d'un Etat demandeur à soumettre à celle-ciun aspect seu-
lement de ce différend global en dépit de sa connexité avec d'autres

aspects. C'estainsi que dans l'affaire du Personnel diplomatiqueet consu-
laire des Etats-Unis à Téhéran,la Cour avait bien déclaréqu'«aucune
disposition du Statut ou du Règlement ne lui interdit de se saisir d'un
aspect d'un différendpour la seule raison que ce différendcomporterait
d'autres aspects». Thus Canada stated that
"this case arose out of and concerns conservation and management
measures taken by Canada with respect to Spanish vesselsfishingin
the NAFO Regulatory Area and the enforcement of such measures"
(Counter-Memorial of Canada, para. 229).

23. We are faced here with two entirely different subjects of the dis-
pute: one put forward in Spain's Application, and the only one which -
because it emanated from the Applicant - the Court was required to
settle (having, of course, first "processed" it, i.e., given the dispute its

"legal characterization"); the other submitted by Canada, which the
Court could not have entertained unless Canada had itself lodged a
counter-claim. This was not the case. The Court should therefore, ut
most, have focused the proceedings on the true subject of the dispute,
as presented and dejînedby the applicant State, while asking Canada to
concentrate its defence on this subject and noother, although ut the same
time allowing Canada to submit, as one of its "grounds" of law, what it
had presented as a "subject of the dispute". In this way, the Court could
have "adjusted thefocus" of the proceedings whileremaining on firm legal
ground. None of this occurred, despite the desperate attempts by Spain,
which simply reiterated its contention that the dispute was confied to
events on the high seas and that the other, prior, matters did not relate
to the dispute stricto sensu and didnot in any case concernSpain, which,
in its capacity as Applicant, wasfree to refer to the Court the dispute
of its choosing, albeit, obviously, ut its ownjudicial risk.

24. There is of course a connection between the subject-matter of the
dispute, as defined by the Applicant for the purposes of the claim which
it instituted, but which regrettably was not heard, and that alleged by the
Respondent to be the true one, which the Court did indeed settle and dis-
pose of. However, that connection in no wayjustified the substitution by
the Court of the second subject for the first one as defined by the Appli-
cant.
25. And even allowing, on an extreme view, that the Canadian legisla-
tion, together with its implementingregulations, had given rise to a gen-
eral dispute, and that, on that basis, such a general dispute could be
regarded as comprising a number of aspects or involving a number of
levels, this was still no justification for refusing, as the Court did, to rec-
ognize an applicant State's right to refer to itnly one aspect of that gen-
eral dispute, despite its connection with other aspects. As the Court was

at pains to point out in the case of theUnitedStates Diplomatic and Con-
sular Staff in Tehran, "no provisions of the Statute or Rules contem-
plates that the Court should decline to take cognizance of one aspect of a
dispute merely because that dispute had other aspects". 26. Nonobstant tout cela, la Cour a considéré plujuridique de dépla-
cer l'objet du différendbeaucoup plus en direction de celui proposépar le
Canada. L'arrêtme paraît avoir conféré à1'Etatdéfendeur et à la Cour
des pouvoirs larges au point qu'ils dénaturent la physionomie de l'objet
du différend dela requête. La détermination de l'objet dudifférend est
certes, comme je l'aidéjà dit,une ((opérationtripartite)), ou triangulaire,
faisant intervenir, des degrés diverset avec des rôles et despouvoirs dg-
férents, d'abord le demandeur, ensuite le défendeur et enfin la Cour.
L'Etat demandeur est libre de soumettre le différend qu'ilveut, mais a le
devoir statutaire de «préciser» et de «définir» son objet. Le décorest
bien planté. Lapiècequi sejoue a été librement choisiepar le demandeur.
Le procès est ouvert, dans les termes voulus par le demandeur. L'Etat
défendeur,quant à lui, a la faculté de couler ses «moyens» juridiques,

quels qu'ils soient, dans le moule ainsi préparé.Il est cependant admis
qu'il peut choisir en pratique une autre stratégiejudiciaire et qu'il peut
s'employer à échapper à la définition du différend donnée par 1'Etat
demandeur. Il invoquera alors des moyens et arguments qu'il reviendra à
la Cour d'apprécier. Quant à celle-ci, il ne lui appartient nullement de
modifier «le décor))et de changer l'objet du différend.Car elle en vien-
drait à juger une toute autre affaire que celle que lui avait soumise le
demandeur. Son rôle est de donner unequalijicationjuridique appropriée
à celles des demandes de 1'Etatdemandeur qui entrent parfaitement dans
le cadre del'objet dudifférendque cet Etat a dé$nidans sa requête.Une
telle opérationne signifiepas que la Cour disposedu pouvoir de modifier
l'objet dont elleest saisie. Encoremoins 1'Etatdéfendeurpeut-il proposer
à la Cour un autre objet. Ce serait changer d'affaire.

27. C'est avec regret que je relève cette mutation, autorisée par la
Cour. L'Etat défendeura soutenu que l'objet du différendne peut être
que «les mesures de gestion et de conservation)) qu'il a prises et pour
l'exécution desquellesil a pris soin de se protéger par sa réserve.Et la
Cour a suivi 1'Etatdéfendeur,en s'exposant àvoir le différendréelà elle
soumis par 1'Etat demandeur et portant sur sa juridiction exclusive et
souveraine en haute mer sur les bateaux de son pavillon, se diluer de
façon désolante pour lui au sein d'un différend, quin'existe pas, sur la
gestion et la conservation des pêcheries. Ainsi,pendant que l'Espagne
clame sa souverainetéen haute mer sur ses navires, le Canada parle de

mesures de conservationet de gestion.Pendant que l'Espagne invoqueun
((conflit de juridiction)) sur la haute mer, le Canada lui oppose un
((conflitde gestion et de conservation)) de pêcheries.
28. Je voudrais faire un parallèle entre les deux situations. Il est sug-
gestif. L'Espagne a priéla Cour de trancher un différendsurgi entre elle
et le Canada, en 1995, et portant sur la licéitéet l'opposabilitéà elle- 26. Notwithstanding al1 of this, the Court took the view that the
proper course in law was to relocate the subject of the dispute so as to
bring it farcloser to that proposed by Canada. In my viewthe Judgment
conferred upon the respondent State and the Court powers so wide as to
distort the essential nature of the subject of the dispute as set out in the
Application. Determination of the subject-matter of the dispute is admit-
tedly, as 1 have already said, a "tripartite" or triangular operation,
involving, in variousdegreesand with different roles andpowers, first the
Applicant, then the Respondent, and finally the Court. The applicant
State is free to submit such dispute as it wishesto submit, but has a duty
under the Statute to "specify" and "define" the subject-matter of that dis-

pute. The sceneis set. The play to be acted out has been freely chosen by
the Applicant. The proceedings have been initiated, on the terms desired
by the Applicant. The respondent State now has the option of castingits
legal "grounds", whatever they be, in the mould thus prepared for them.
It is, however, wellaccepted that the Respondent may in practice opt for
an alternative judicial strategy and may seek to escape the definition of
the dispute given by the applicant State by invoking grounds and argu-
ments, which it is for the Court to evaluate. But the Court can in no way
modify the "decor" or change the subject-matter of the dispute. For, if it
did so, it would be rendering judgrnent in a case altogether differentfrom
that brought before it by the Applicant. The Court's role is to give an
appropriate legal characterization to those claims of the applicant State
which properly corne within theframework of the subject-matter of the
dispute as that State has defined it in its Application. This does not mean

that the Court has the power to alter the subject-matter put before it. Still
less can the respondent State propose a different subject-matter to the
Court. That would be to hear a different case.

27. 1find it regrettable that the Court allowed such a metamorphosis
to occur. The Respondent argued that the only possible subject-matter of
the dispute was "the conservation and management measures" taken by
it, in respect of whose enforcement it had been at pains to protect itself
through its reservation. And the Court accepted this, allowing the real
dispute submitted to it by the applicant State, which concernedits exclu-
siveand sovereignjurisdiction on the high seas over vesselsflyingits flag,
to be subsurned - in desolating fashion for the Applicant - in a non-
existent dispute about fisheries conservation and management. Thus,

while Spain proclaims its sovereignty on the high seas over its vessels,
Canada speaks of conservation and management measures. Whereas
Spain invokes a "conflict of jurisdiction" on the high seas, Canada
opposes to it a "conflict over fisheriesconservation and management".
28. There is a suggestiveparallel to be drawn between these two situa-
tions. Spain asked the Court to settle a dispute which had arisenbetween
itself and Canada in 1995 concerning the legality and opposability tomêmed'une législationinterne canadiennequi, appliquée en haute mer, a
affectédes bateaux battant son pavillon. La Cour, suivant en cela la pré-
tention du Canada de modifier l'objet clair de ce différend,s'est résolue
trancher un différend, qui de surcroît n'existe plus, surgi, lui, en 1994,
entre le Canada et la Communautéeuropéenne.Au lieu du différendlégi-
timement proposé à la compétence dela Cour par 1'Etat demandeur et
portant sur le respect des limites internationales de la juridiction natio-
nale, la Cour s'est tournéevers la contemplation inattendue d'un diffé-
rend sur les mesures de gestion et de conservation de la pêche. Enbref,
l'Espagne aparléde souveraineté del'Etat, le Canada de gestion et de
conservation de lapêche.

29. Comme l'a si bien dit lejuge Fitzmaurice dans son opinion indivi-
duellejointe aux deux arrêtsrelatifs la Compétenceenmatièredepêche-
ries,

((l'adoption concertéede mesures de conservation concernant la
haute mer en vue de protégerdes pêcheriescommunes dont l'exploi-
tation est ouverteà tous est évidemment tout autre chose aue la
prétention émiseunilatéralementpar un Etat riverain d'interdire
complètement la pêcheaux navires étrangers, ou de ne l'autoriser
qu'à son gréet sous son contrôle.La question de la conservation est
donc sans rapport avec le problème juridictionnel dont la Cour est
saisie et qui concernesa compétencepour trancher undifférendrésul-
tant de la prétention émisepar l'Islande deproclamer unilatérale-

ment sajuridiction exclusive,enmatièredepêches ,ur une zones'éten-
dant autour de ses côtesjusqu'ù une distance de 50 milles marins.»
(C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 26-27; les italiques sont de moi.) (N:BA
cette époque-là, il n'existait pas de zone économiqueexclusive et la
distance ici considéréenous place effectivement en((haute mer».)
30. Un espoir traverse cependant l'esprit à la lecture des para-
graphes 34 et 35 de l'arrêt. Onobserve que la Cour accueille l'objet du

différend telqu'articulé parle demandeur:
«34. Le dépôt dela requêtea étésuscitépar certainesactions spé-
cifiques du Canada dont l'Espagne prétend qu'elles ont violéses
droits en vertu du droit international. Ces actions ont étéprises sur
le fondement de certains textes législatifs etréglementairesadoptés
par le Canada, que l'Espagne estime contraires au droit internatio-
nal et inopposables àelle-mêmeC . 'estdans cecontextequ'il faudrait
considérerles textes législatifset réglementairedu Canada.

35. Les actions spécifiques(voir paragraphe 34 ci-dessus) ayant
donnénaissance au présent différendsont lesactivitéscanadiennesen
haute mer qui ont trait lapoursuite de l'Estai,aux moyens employés
pour l'arraisonner, àl'arraisonnement lui-même,ainsi qu'à la saisie
du navire etàl'arrestation de son capitaine en vertu de la législationSpain of a Canadian interna1enactment which, when implemented on the
high seas, affected vessels flying its flag. The Court, won over by Cana-

da's claim to alter the clear subject of the dispute, proceeded to settle a
dispute - one which moreoverno longer exists, having arisen in1994
between Canada and the European Community. In place of the dispute
properly submitted to it by the applicant State, which concerned respect
for the international limits of national jurisdiction, the Court proceeded,
in quite surprising fashion, to direct its attention to a dispute regarding
measures for the conservation and management of fisheries. In short,
Spain talked of State sovereignty, Canada of jîsheries conservation and
management.

29. As Judge Fitzmaurice so aptly put it in the separate opinion which
he appended to the two Fisheries Jurisdiction Judgrnents,

"agreed measures of conservation on the high seas for the preserva-
tion of common fisheriesin which al1have a right to participate, is of
course a completely different matter from a unilateral claim by a
coastal State to prevent fishing by foreign vessels entirely, or to
allow it only at the will and under the control of that State. The
question of conservation has therefore no relevance to the jurisdic-
tional issue now before the Court, which involves its competence to
adjudicate upon a dispute occasioned by Iceland's claim unilaterally
to assert exclusivejurisdictionforjîshery purposes up to a distance of
50 nautical milesfrom and around hercoasts." (1C.J. Reports 1973,
pp. 26-27; emphasis added.) (N.B. At the time there was no exclu-

sive economic zone and the distance referred to here actually takes
us ont0 the "high seas".)

30. A glimmer of hope nevertheless emerges on reading paragraphs 34
to 35 of the Judgment. We note that the Court accepts that the subject of
the dispute is what the Applicant states it to be:

"34. The filing of the Application was occasioned by specificacts
of Canada which Spain contends violated its rights under interna-
tional law.These acts were carried out on the basis of certain enact-
ments and regulations adopted by Canada, which Spain regards as
contrary to international law and not opposable to it. It is in that
context that the legislative enactments and regulations of Canada
should be considered.
35. The specificacts (see paragraph 34 above) which gave rise to

the present dispute are the Canadian activities on the high seas in
relation to thepursuit of the Estai, the means used to accomplish its
arrest and the fact of its arrest, and the detention of the vesse1and
arrest of itsaster, arisingfrom Canada's amended Coastal Fisher- canadienne sur les pêchescôtièreset de sa réglementation d'applica-
tion telles que modifiées.Dans son essence, le différendentre les

Parties porte sur la question de savoir si ces actions ont violéles
droits que l'Espagne tient du droit international et s'ils exigentrépa-
ration.Il appartient maintenantà la Cour de décidersi les Parties lui
ont conféré une compétencp eour connaître de ce différend.»
31. Mais l'espoir s'éteint vite.Il me paraît donc surprenant que, sous
couleur de donner sa qualificationjuridique au différend à elle soumis

par 1'Etat demandeur, la Cour en soit venue à dépasser les limites de
l'opérationpar laquelle ellea cherchéà «préciser»l'objet dece différend,
au point de glisservers un tout autre objet que celui dont elle étaitsaisie,
alors mêmeque l'Espagne jouissait, en sa qualité d'Etat souverain et
d'Etat demandeur, d'un droit procédural incontesté d'introduire, à ses
risques judiciaires évidemment, tout objet du différend qu'il luiparais-
sait légitimede présenter et possédait un intérêjturidique inaliénableà
demander et à obtenir un prononcé sur le différendspécifiquedont elle
avait parfaitement précisél'objet. Une telle jurisprudence déplace de
façon regrettable la perspective généraletraditionnelle en ce qui concerne
les rôles respectifs de1'Etat demandeur, de 1'Etat défendeur et de la
Cour.

32. Sur les rôles respectifs du demandeur et du défendeur, j'en ai assez
dit plus haut. Resteà préciserdavantage celui de la Cour. Selon l'arrêt,
celle-ci aurait le pouvoir dedéfinirelle-même,sur unebase objective, le
différend quioppose lesparties)) (par. 30). Je crains que cela ne soit pas
tout à fait exact. Ce n'est pas en ajoutant l'expression «sur une base
objective)) qu'elle peut faire admettre ce pouvoir de «définition» qui a
abouti icià la substitution d'un différendà un autre. La Cour ne peut
attribuer qu'une «qualificationjuridique)) (et non pas une «définitionà)
l'objet. Dans l'hypothèse d'unacte survenu en haute mer, la Cour doit
vérifierfactuellement de quel acte il s'agit (ici l'«arraisonnement» d'un

bateau de pêche),dans quelle zone il s'est produit(«la haute mer»), par
quel auteur («le Canada))). Ce sont là des faits. Après quoi, elle doit se
demander si l'auteur de l'actepossèdeun titre, ou un motifjuridique,àla
base de son acte, pour pouvoir enfin seprononcer, en cettephase de com-
pétence,sur la question de savoir si letitre ou le motif juridique invoqué
est ou non couvert par la réserved) du Canada.

33. Dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires(1974),la Cour a écartécer-

tains arguments avancéspar une partie comme élémentde ses conclu-
sions parce qu'elle les considéraiton pas comme des indications de ce
que la partie lui demande de décider, mais comme des motifs invoqués ies Protection Act and implementingregulations. The essence of the
dispute between the Parties is whether these acts violated Spain's
rights under international law and require reparation. The Court
must now decide whether the Parties have conferredupon itjurisdic-
tion in respect of that dispute."

31. But hope is rapidly extinguished. 1thus find it astonishing that, on
the pretext of placing a legal characterization on the dispute submitted to
it by the applicant State, the Court so far overstepped the limits of the
operation whereby it sought to "clarify" the subject of that dispute as to
veer away towards a subject altogether different from that submitted to
it, notwithstanding that Spain, as a sovereign State and as applicant
State, had an uncontested procedural right - obviously at its own judi-
cial risk- to seisethe Court of whatever subject it considered legitimate,
and an inalienable interest ut law in seeking and obtaining judgment on
the specific dispute whose subject it had indicated with perfect clarity.
Such a decision represents a regrettable departure from the traditional
general view of the respective roles of applicant State, respondent State
and the Court.

32. 1have already said enough about the respective roles of Applicant
and Respondent. It remains to be more specificabout that of the Court.
According to the Judgment, the Court is empowered "to determine on an
objective basis the disputedividingtheparties" (para. 30).1am afraid this
is not altogether correct. Adding the words "on an objective basis" can-
not lend acceptability to this power of "definition", whose result here has
been to substitute one dispute for another. The Court can do no more

than attribute a "legal characterization" (and not a "definition") to the
subject of the dispute. Where an act takes place on the high seas, the
Court must verify factually what that act is (in this case the "boarding"
of a fishing vessel),in what area it took place ("the high seas"), and who
the author is ("Canada"). Those are facts. After that, it has to ascertain
whether the author of the act possesses a title, or legalground, on which
to base its act, inorder finally, in this phase of the proceedings, to be in
a position to rule on the question whether or not the title or legal ground
invoked is covered by Canada's reservation (d).

33. In the Nuclear Tests cases (1974), the Court rejected certain argu-
ments put forward by one party as part of its submissions because it con-
sidered them 'hot as indications of what the party was asking the Court
to decide, but as reasons advanced why the Court should decide in thepour qu'elle se prononce dans le sens désiré))A. l'appui de sa décision,

elle avait citél'affaire des Pêcheries danslaquelle elle a dit de neuf des
treize points que comportaient les conclusions du demandeur: «ce sont là
des éléments qui, le cas échéant,pourraient fournirlesmotifs de l'arrêtet
non en constituer l'objet (C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 126)))(C.I.J. Recueil
1974, p. 262; les italiques sont de moi).
La Cour en 1974 s'était reconnu légitimementle droit et mêmele
devoir de ((circonscrire le véritable problème en cause et (de) préciser
l'objet de la demande)) (par. 29; les italiques sont de moi), mais nulle-
ment, du moins selon l'intention ainsi déclarée,de procéder par elle-
même à «uneformulation nouvelle de conclusions». Dans le mêmepara-
graphe ellea nettement indiquéqu'ellene sereconnaissaitpas «lepouvoir
de «se substituer [aux parties] pour en formuler de nouvelles», citant
ainsi la jurisprudence de sa devancière (C.P.J.I. sérieA no 7, p. 35).
34. La vigilance des juges étaittellement en éveilque malgréles pré-

cautions ainsi prises par la majoritél'époque,la minorité l'asévèrement
critiquéeen ce domaine. Et l'on ne saurait circonscrire les devoirs de la
Cour mieux que ne l'ont déjà faitles quatre juges dissidents Jiménez de
Aréchaga,Dillard,Onyeamaet sir Humphrey Waldock, dans leur opinion
dissidente commune dans ces affairesdes Essais nucléaires:

((11.Dans une affaire portée devant la Cour par requêteles
conclusions formelles des Parties définissentl'objet du différend,
comme le reconnaît le paragraphe 24 de l'arrêt. Il faut donc consi-
dérer que ces conclusions correspondent aux objectifs que vise le
demandeur en introduisant l'instance judiciaire.
La Cour a certes le droit d'interpréterles conclusions des Parties,
mais rien ne l'autorisà les transformer radicalement. La Cour per-
manente s'estexpriméeainsisur ce point: «Si ellepeut interpréterles

conclusions des Parties, elle ne saurait se substituercelles-cipour
en formuler de nouvelles sur la base des seules thèses avancéeset
faits allégués.(C.P.J.I. sérieA no 7, p. 35, affaire relatiàe Cer-
tains intérêts allemandsen Haute-Silésie polonaise.) Au para-
graphe 29, l'arrêtvoit là une limitation du pouvoir de la Cour
d'interpréterles conclusions «quand la demande n'est pas formulée
comme il convient parce que les conclusions des parties sont inadé-
quates)). Si, toutefois, la Cour n'a pas le pouvoir de reformuler des
conclusions inadéquates, elle ne saurait à fortiori reformuler des
conclusions aussi claires et précisesque dans la présenteespèce.
12. Les affaires invoquéespar l'arrêten son paragraphe 29 pour
écarter lapremièreconclusion du demandeur en l'espèce nejustifient
selon nous en aucune manière un traitement aussi sommaire de «la
conclusionprincipale de larequête)).Danslesditesaffaires les conclu-

sions que la Cour n'a pas considérées comme des conclusions véri-
tables étaient des développements précisqui avaient pour seul objet
de motiver la décision sollicitéde la Cour dans la «vraie» conclu-
sion finale. C'est ainsique dans l'affaire des Pêcheriesle demandeursense contended for by that party". In support of its decision, it cited the
Fisheriescase, in which it had said that nine of the thirteen points making
up the Applicant's submissions "[were] elements which might furnish
reasons in support of the Judgment, but cannot constitute the decision
(I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 126)" (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 262; emphasis
added).
In 1974the Court considered itself legitimately entitled - and indeed
obliged - "to isolate the real issue in the case and to identijy the object
of the claim" (para. 29; emphasis added), but not, at least according to
the intention there expressed, to proceed proprio motu to "the reformula-
tion of submissions". In the same paragraph it made it clear, citing the
case-law of its predecessor (P. C.Z.J., Series A, No. 7, p. 35), that it had
no power to "substitute itselffor [the parties] and formulate new submis-

sions".
34. So aroused was the judges' vigilance that, despite the majority's
precautions in this regard, it was strongly criticized by the minority on
this issue. There is no better way of defining the limits upon the Court's
duties than that set out by JudgesJiménezdeAréchaga,Dillard, Onyeama
and Sir Humphrey Waldock in their joint dissenting opinion in those
Nuclear Tests cases :

"11. In a case brought to the Court by means of an application
the forma1 submissions of the parties define the subject of the dis-
pute, as is recognized in paragraph 24 of the Judgment. Those sub-
missions must therefore be considered as indicating the objectives
which are pursued by an applicant through the judicial proceedings.

While the Court is entitled to inter~ret the submissions of the
parties, it is not authorized to introdice into them radical altera-
tions. The Permanent Court said in this respect:'. . .though it can
construe the submissions of the Parties, it cannot substitute itself for
them and formulate new submissions simply on the basis of argu-
ments and facts advanced' (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7,p. 35,case con-
cerning Certain German Znterestsin Polish UpperSilesia). The Judg-
ment (para. 29) refers to this as a limitation on the power of the
Court to interpret the submissions 'when the claim is not properly
formulated because the submissions of the parties are inadequate'.
If, however, the Court lacks the power to reformulate inadequate
submissions, a fortiori it cannot reformulate submissions as clear
and specificas those in this case.
12. In any event, the cases cited in paragraph 29 of the Judgment

to justify the settingaside in the present instance of the Applicant's
first submission do not, in Ourview, provide any warrant for such a
summary disposa1of the 'main prayer in the Application'. In those
cases the submissions held by the Court not to be true submissions
were specific propositions advanced merely to furnish reasons in
support of the decision requested of the Court in the 'true' finalsub-
mission. Thus, in the Fisheries case the Applicant had summarizeda résumé, sousforme de conclusions, toute une sériede propositions
juridiques, dont certaines n'étaientmêmepas contestées,pour ame-
ner logiquement ses véritables conclusions finales (C.I.J. Recueil
1951, p. 121-123 et 126).Dans l'affaire des Minquiers et desEcré-
hous, la «vraie» conclusion finale a étéénoncéeen premier et suivie
de deux arguments juridiques qui visaient à fournir d'autres motifs
pour que la Cour retienne cette conclusion (C.I.J. Recueil 1953,
p. 52); dans l'affaire Nottebohm une conclusion concernant la natu-
ralisation de Nottebohm au Liechtenstein n'a été considérée palra
Cour que comme «une raison àl'appui d'une décisionde la Cour en
faveur du Liechtenstein))sur la «vraie question))de la recevabilitéde
la demande (C.I.J. Recueil 1955, p. 16). Dans la présente espèce,
comme nous l'avons dit, la situation est entièrement différente.La
auestion fondamentale soumise à la décisionde la Cour est celle du

caractère licite ou illicite des expériencesnucléaires françaises en
atmosphèredans l'océan PacifiqueSud, et il nous paraît entièrement
injustifiéde traiter la demande de déclarationd'illicéitéprésenper
le requérant comme un simple motif à l'appui de l'interdiction de
nouveaux essais qu'il sollicite également.
13. Conformément à ces principes de base, il aurait fallu détermi-
ner la véritablenature de la demande australienne et des objectifs
viséspar le requérant en se fondant sur le sens clair et naturel du
texte de sa conclusion formelle. Dans l'inter~rétation au'elle en a
donnéela Cour, selon nous, n'a pas vraiment interprétémais revisé
le texte, et éliminépour finir ce que le requérant avait appelé«la
conclusionprincipale dela requête»,c'est-à-direla demandetendant
à ce que les essais nucléairesatmosphériquesdans l'océan Pacifique
Sud soient déclarésillicites. Il est grave de modifier ou de mutiler

radicalement la conclusion d'un plaideur, sous couleur d'interpréta-
tion, car on frustre ainsi son attente légitimeque l'affaire dont il a
saisi la Cour sera examinéeet résolue...

14. Nous pensons que la Cour revise la conclusion du demandeur
en faisant appelà d'autres élémentset notamment aux communica-
tions diplomatiques et déclarationsfaites au cours de la procédure.
Ces élémentsne justifient cependant pas l'interprétation qu'en tire
l'arrêt.l est fait étatdes demandes réitéréese l'Australie tendanà
obtenir de la France l'assurance qu'il serait mis fin aux essais. Ces
demandes ne sauraient cependant avoir l'effet que l'arrêt leur attri-
bue. Pendant qu'un procèsse déroule,un demandeur peut prier son
adversaire de l'assurer qu'il ne poursuivra pas l'activité contestée,
mais on ne peut en conclure qu'une assurance sans réserve, à sup-
poser qu'elle soit donnée, répondraità tous les objectifs que visait

le demandeur en entamant la procédure judiciaire; encore moins
peut-on restreindreou amender pour cette raison lesprétentionsfor-
mellement soumises à la Cour. D'après le Règlement, ce résultatne
pourrait être obtenu que sile demandeurdonnait une indication pré-in the form of submissions a whole seriesof legalpropositions, some
not even contested, merely as steps logically leading to its true final
submissions (1C. J. Reports 1951, pp. 121-123and 126).In the Min-
quiers and Ecrehos case the 'true' final submission was stated first
and two legal propositions were then adduced by way of furnishing
alternative grounds on which the Court might uphold it (1C.J.
Reports 1953, at p. 52); and in the Nottebohm case a submission
regardingthe naturalization of Nottebohm in Liechtenstein was con-
sidered by the Court to be merely 'a reason advanced for a decision
by the Court in favour of Liechtenstein' on the 'real issue' of the
admissibility of the claim (ZC..J. Reports 1955, at p. 16). In the
present case, as we have indicated, the situation is quite otherwise.
The legality or illegality of the carrying out by France of atmos-
phericnuclear tests in the South PacificOcean is the basic issue sub-

mitted to the Court's decision, and it seems to us as wholly un-
justifiable to treat the Applicant's request for a declaration of
illegality merely as reasoning advanced in support of its request for
an Order prohibiting further tests.

13. In accordance with these basic principles, the true nature of
the Australian claim, and of the objectives sought by the Applicant
ought to have been determined on the basis of the clear and natural
meaning of the text of its forma1 submission.The interpretation of
that submission made by the Court constitutes in Our view not an
interpretation but a revision of the text, which ends in eliminating
what the Applicant stated is 'the main prayer in the Application',
namely the request for a declaration of illegality of nuclear atmos-
pheric tests in the South PacificOcean. A radical alteration or muti-
lation of an applicant's submission under the guise of interpretation
has serious consequences because it constitutes a frustration of a
party's legitimateexpectations that the case which it has put before
the Court will be examined and decided . ..

14. The Judgment revises, we think, the Applicant's submission
by bringing in other materials such as diplomatic communications
and statements made in the course of the hearings. These materials
do not justify, however, the interpretation arrived at in the Judg-
ment. They refer to requests made repeatedly by the Applicant for
an assurance from France as to the cessation of tests. But these
requests for an assurance cannot have the effect attributed to them
by the Judgment. While litigation is in progress an applicant may
addressrequests to a respondent to givean assurance that it willnot
pursue the contested activity, but such requests cannot by them-
selvessupport the inferencethat an unqualified assurance, ifreceived,
would satisfy al1the objectives the applicant is seeking through the
judicial proceedings; still lessn they restrict or amend the claims
formally submitted to the Court. According to the Rules of Court,
this can only result from a clear indication by the applicant to that cisedans ce sens en retirant l'affaire, en modifiant sesconclusions ou
par toute autre action équivalente. Ce n'est pas pour rien que les
conclusionsdoivent êtreprésentéespar écritet porter la signaturede
l'agent. Il est donc illogique d'interpréterles demandes d'assurances
comme une renonciation, une modification ou un retrait tacite de la
requêtedont la Cour reste saisie et qui vise àfaire déclarerjudiciai-
rement que les essais atmosphériquessont illicites.Et puisque l'arrêt
attribue au demandeur des intentions et des renonciations implicites,
la Cour aurait dû pour le moins lui donner la possibilité d'expliquer
sesdesseinset objectifsvéritables,au lieu d'entreprendre de lesdéter-
miner inauditaparte. » (C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 316-317.)

35. En se fondant dans la présenteespècesur les affaires de 1974rela-
tives aux Essais nucléairesfrançais, la Cour me paraît d'ailleurs avoir
invoqué un précédent impropre à justifier le pouvoir reconnu ici au
Canada, Etat défendeur,puisquela France, Etat défendeuraussi en 1974,
n'avait pas comparu et n'avait donc pas fait valoir une définition de
l'objet du différendautre que celle du demandeur.

36. Dans la présenteespèce,la Cour s'estfondéesurune jurisprudence

qui, ou bien ne paraît pas parfaitement pertinente, ou bien semble avoir
étéinterprétée de façon inexacte. A cet égard je voudrais citer tout
d'abord l'affaire de la Sociétécommerciale de Belgique dans un passage
qui me paraît particulièrement approprié et qui a étérepris par la Cour
dans l'affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et
contre celui-ci:
«Il y a lieu d'observer que la facultélaisséeaux parties de modifier
leurs conclusionsjusqu'à la fin de la procédure orale doit être com-

prise d'une manière raisonnable et sans porter atteinte à l'article 40
du Statut età l'article 38, alinéa2, du Règlement,qui disposent que
la requête doit indiquer l'objet du différend ..il est évidentque la
Cour ne saurait admettre, en principe, qu'un différendporté devant
elle par requêtepuisse être transformé,par voie de modifications
apportées auxconclusions, en un autre différenddont le caractèrene
serait pas le même.Une semblable pratique serait de nature àporter
préjudiceaux Etats tiers qui, conformément à l'article 40, alinéa2,
du Statut, doivent recevoir communication de toute requête afin
qu'ils puissent se prévaloir du droit d'intervention prévupar les ar-
ticles 62 et 63 du Statut.)).P.J.I. sérieAIB no 78, p. 173; cf. Acti-
vités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci
(Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique), compétence etrecevabilité,

C.Z.J. Recueil 1984, p. 427, par. 80.)
On aura observéque cette jurisprudence fort précautionneuse limite
mêmelepouvoir de I'Etat demandeur, pour éviter deporter préjudiceaux effect, through a withdrawal of the case, a modification of its sub-
missions or an equivalent action. It is not for nothing that the sub-
missions are required to be presented in writing and bear the signa-
ture of the agent. It is a non sequitur, therefore, to interpret such
requests for an assurance as constituting an implied renunciation, a
modification or a withdrawal of the claim which is still maintained
before the Court, asking for a judicial declaration of illegality of
atmospheric tests. At the very least, since the Judgment attributes
intentions and implied waivers to the Applicant, that Party should

have been given an opportunity to explain its real intentions and
objectives, instead of proceeding to such a determination inaudita
parte." (1.C.J. Reports 1974, pp. 316-317.)
35. In relying in the present case on the 1974 French Nuclear Tests
cases, the Court seems to me, moreover, to have invoked a precedent
which is not apt to justify the faculty here accorded to Canada, the
respondent State, since France - the respondent State in 1974 - having

failed to appear, did not put forward any argument for a definition of the
subject of the dispute different from that formulated by the Applicant.

36. In the present case, the Court has relied on jurisprudence which
seemseither not fullyrelevant, or to have been interpreted incorrectly. In
this respect 1 would first cite what 1 think is a particularly appropriate
passage from the SociétéCommerciale de Belgiquecase, which was itself
cited by the Court in the case concerning Military and Pararnilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua :

"It is to be observed that the liberty accorded to the parties to

amend their submissions up to the end of the oral proceedings
must be construed reasonably and without infringing the terms of
Article 40 of the Statute and Article 32, paragraph 2, of the Rules
which provide that the Application must indicate the subject of the
dispute . . it is clear that the Court cannot, in principle, allow a
dispute brought before it by application to be transformed by amend-
ments in the submissions into another dispute which is different in
character. A practice of this kind would be calculated to prejudice
the interests of third States to which, under Article 40, paragraph 2,
of the Statute, al1applications must be communicated in order that
they may be in a position to avail themselves ofthe right of interven-
tion provided for in Articles 62 and 63 of the Statute." (P.C.I.J.,
Series AIB, No. 78, p. 173; see Military and PararnilitaryActivities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America),

Jurisdiction and Admissibility, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 427, para. 80.)
It will beevident that this highly cautious piece of jurisprudence limits
even thepower of the applicant State, the reason being to avoid prejudiceEtats tiers susceptibles de se prévaloir d'un droit d'interventiànl'ins-
tance.
37. Une tellejurisprudence a étéencore appliquéepar la Cour, avec le
mêmesouci de prudence, en l'affaire de Certaines terresàphosphates à
Nauru :
«Le paragraphe 1 de l'article 40 du Statut de la Cour stipule que
l'«objet du différend))doit être indiqué dans la requête, elte para-

graphe 2 de l'article 38 du Règlement de la Cour requiert que la
«nature précisede la demande)) soit indiquée dans la requête. Ces
dispositions sont tellement essentielles au regard de la sécurjuri-
dique et de la bonne administration de la justice qu'elles figuraient
déjà,en substance, dans le texte du Statut de la Cour permanente de
Justiceinternationale adoptéen 1920(art. 40, premier alinéa)et dans
le texte du premier Règlementde cette Cour adopté en 1922(art. 35,
deuxièmealinéa),respectivement. La Cour permanente a, à plusieurs
reprises, eu l'occasion de préciserla portée deces textes. Ainsi, dans
son ordonnance du 4 février 1933, rendue en l'affaire relativeà
l'Administration duprince vonPless (exception préliminaire),elle a
affirmé

((qu'aux termes de l'article 40 du Statut, c'est la requête qui indi-
que l'objet du différend; que le mémoire,tout en pouvant éclaircir
les termes de la requête,ne peut pas dépasser les limites de la
demande qu'elle contient...)) (C.P.J.I. sérieAIB no 52, p. 14).»
(Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru c. Australie),
exceptions préliminaires,arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 266-267,
par. 69.)

Il me paraît évident quecette vigilance de la Cour qui cantonne 1'Etat
demandeur lui-mêmedans la détermination précise del'objet du diffé-
rend qu'il lui soumet, se recommande encore plus à l'égard de1'Etat
défendeur etenfin vis-à-visde la Cour elle-mêmec ,ar non seulement elle
permet d'éviter defrustrer d'éventuelsEtats tiers de leur droit d'interven-
tion, mais encore, ce qui est plus décisif,elle permeta Cour de se pro-
noncer correctement sur sa compétence au vu de l'objet définipar le
demandeur et non pas en contemplation d'un tout autre objet, dégagé
ultérieurementpar le demandeur ou par qui que ce soit d'autre.
38. En tout cas, il me paraît aviséde s'interdire de placerEtatdéfen-
deur exactementsur le mêmeplan que 1'Etatdemandeur lui-même,s'agis-
sant de la définitionde l'objet du différend.Outre la violation des règles

procédurales, ce serait la négation de la possibilité qu'offre le Statut
d'introduire unilatéralement une instance par voie de requête que de
reconnaître à 1'Etatdéfendeuraussi un pouvoir identique de détermina-
tion de l'objet du différend,ce qui aboutiraià croire que le Statut et le
Règlement de la Cour n'ouvrent aux parties que la voie du compromis
pour introduire l'instance. Mais ce qui s'est produit dans la présente
espèceme semble encore plus préoccupant dans la mesure où la Cour,
par son raisonnement, a étéentraînée volens nolens à placer cet Etat FISHERlES JURISDICTION (DISSO . P.BEDJAOUI) 531

to third States which might wish to avail themselves of their right to
intervenein the proceedings.
37. Jurisprudence of a similar kind was again applied by the Court,
and with a similarly cautious approach, in the case concerning Certain
Phosphate Lands in Nauru:

"Article 40, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court provides that
the 'subjectof the dispute' must be indicated in the Application; and
Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court requires 'the precise
nature of the claim' to be specifiedin the Application. These provi-
sions are so essential from the point of view oflegal security and the
good administration of justice that they were already, in substance,
part of the text of the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice, adopted in 1920(Art. 40, first paragraph), and of the
text of the firstules of that Court, adopted in 1922(Art. 35, second

paragraph), respectively.On several occasions the Permanent Court
had to indicate the precise significanceof these texts. Thus, in its
Order of 4 February 1933in the caseconcerningthe Prince vonPless
Administration (Preliminary Objection), it stated that :

'under Article 40 of the Statute, it is the Application which sets
out the subject of the dispute, and the Case, though it may eluci-
date the terms of the Application, must not go beyond the limits
of the claim as set out therein . ..' (P.C.1J., Series AIB, No. 52,
p. 14)."(Certain Phosphate Lands inNauru (Nauru v. Australia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, 1 C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 266-

267, para. 69.)
Obviously, such vigilance on the part of the Court, in requiring even
the applicant State to remain within the specificconfinesof the subject of
the dispute submitted by it to the Court, is al1the more appropriate in
relation to the respondent State and indeed to the Court itself, since not
only does it preclude the possibility of third States being deprived of their
right of intervention, but also - more crucially - it enables the Court
properly to adjudicate on itsjurisdiction in light of the subject as defined
by the Applicant, and not of some other subjectadducedsubsequently by

the Applicant or by anyone else.
38. It would seem to me prudent in any event to preclude any notion
of placing the Respondent on a precisely equal footing with the Appli-
cant in relation to the definition of the subject of the dispute. Quite apart
from the infringement of procedural requirements, to allow the Respon-
dent an identical power in the determination of the subject of the dispute
would be to deny the possibility under the Statute of instituting proceed-
ings unilaterally by way of application, thus engendering the belief that
the Statute and the Rules of Court allowed parties no means of institut-
ing proceedings otherwise than by specialagreement. However, what has
occurred in the present case strikesme as evenmore disturbing, inasmuch
as the Court's reasoning has led it willy-nillyto place the Respondent notdéfendeur non pas seulement sur le mêmeplan que 1'Etat demandeur,
mais mêmeau-dessus de celui-ci, en le laissant «définir» en ses lieu et
place l'objet du différend qu'ila soumis à la Cour.

39. Quant à l'affaire du Droit depassage enterritoire indienégalement
citéedans le présentarrêt,il faudrait quand mêmebien observerque cette
affaire-làconcernait lefond et vidait une controverse relatiàeune condi-
tion ratione temporisfigurant dans la déclaration par laquelle l'Inde avait
souscrit à la clause facultative, condition dont l'examen final avait été
renvoyé,dans la phase préliminaire,au fond de l'affaire. La décisionsur
cette condition avait ainsi étéjointe au fond parce qu'ellene revêtait pas
un caractère exclusivement préliminaire, au vu de l'objet du différend, tel
qu'établipar le Portugal, Etat demandeur. La situation aujourd'hui est
toute autre, ni le Canada ni l'Espagne n'ayant présentéà la Cour de mé-
moire sur le fond. Et bien d'autres différencesdenature existent entre les

deux affaires au point de rendre artificielletoute comparaison. L'Espagne
n'a pas modifiél'objet du différenddepuis l'introduction de sa requête.
Le Canada ne s'estpas obligé,ni en s'adressant directement à l'Espagne,
ni en faisant une déclaration unilatérale comme la France en 1974, à ne
plus appliquer à l'avenir sa législationinterneà des bateaux en haute
mer. L'objet du différend telque précisédans la requêtede l'Espagne
a été maintenu, sans qu'aucun élémentnouveau ne se soit produit de
quelque côté que ce soit. C'était doncpar rapport à cet objet exclusive-
ment que la Cour devait trancher la question de sa compétence.
40. En outre, si l'on setourne vers l'affaire dela Délimitationmaritime
et des questions territoriales entre Qataret Bahreïn,entionnéeau para-
graphe 31 de l'arrêt,on pourra aisément constater que, là encore, la

situation n'étaitnullement comparable àcellede la présenteespèce. Ainsi
que la Cour l'a bien relevédans son arrêtdu le' juillet 1994 (C.I.J.
Recueil 1994, p. 123-125,par. 33-38), il existait déjà un te-te dit «for-
mule bahreïnite))- qui décrivait l'ensemble du différend que les
parties s'étaient engagées à soumettre à la Cour. Qatar, à la diligence
duquella Cour fut saisie,n'ayant présenté dans sa requête quesespropres
demandes, il convenait encore que la Cour fût saisie effectivement de
l'ensemble du différend.Il n'avait étéaucunement question dans la dé-
marche de la Cour que celle-ciremodelât un «objet du différend»que les
parties avaient déjà bien circonscrit dans un commun accord, alors
qu'en la présenteespècela Cour se livre à un tel exercice sous couvert

de «détermine[r]elle-mêmequel est le véritabledifférendporté devant
elle» (par. 31;les italiques sont de moi). En bref, dans l'affaire Qatar
c.Bahreïn, la Cour a simplement veilléau respect de l'intégrité del'objet
du différendconvenu entre les parties. La présenteespècen'a strictement
aucun rapport avec cette affaire-là.merely on an equal footing with the Applicant but indeed above it, per-
mitting the former to substitute itself for the latter in "defining" the
subject of the dispute submitted to the Court by the applicant State.

39. As regards the Right of Passage overIndian Territory case, also
cited in the Judgment, one should of course bear in mind that this was a
case on the merits, settling a dispute concerning a condition ratione tem-
poris in India's declaration of acceptance of the optional clause - a con-
dition which in the preliminary phase had been referred for final consid-
eration to the merits stage. A decision on that condition had thus been
joined to the merits because, in the light of the subject-matter of the dis-
pute, as established by Portugal, the applicant State, it was not exclu-
sively preliminary in character. The situation today is quite different,
since neither Canada nor Spain has submitted a memorial to the Court
on the merits. And the two cases differ in many other respects, to the

point at which any comparison becomes artificial. Spain has not altered
the subject of the dispute since it filed its Application. Canada has not
undertaken, either directly to Spain, or by making a unilateral declara-
tion as France did in 1974,to cease in future applyingits domestic legis-
lation to vesselson the high seas. The subject of the dispute as set out in
the Spanish Application has remained as it was and no further element
whatsoever has emerged on either side. The Court should therefore have
decided the question of its jurisdiction in the light of that subject and
none other.
40. Turning now to the case concerning Maritime Delimitation and
Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain, mentioned in para-
graph 31 of the Judgment, it is not difficult to see that here too the situa-

tion was in no way comparable with that of the present case. As the
Court made it perfectly clear in its Judgment of 1 July 1994 (IC. J.
Reports 1994, pp. 123-125, paras. 33-38), there was already a text -
called the "Bahraini formula" - which describedthe wholeof the dispute
which the parties had agreed to bring before the Court. Since the Appli-
cation by Qatar, at whose instance the Court was seised, contained only
its own claims, the Court had still to be seised effectivelyof the whole of
the dispute. There was no question in the Court's approach of its remod-
elling a "subject of the dispute", which had already been clearly demar-
cated by the parties in a joint agreement; yet that is what the Court is
doing in the present case, under pretext of "itseif determin[ing] the real
dispute that has been submitted to it" (para. 31; emphasis added). In

short, in the Qatar v. Bahrain case, the Court simply ensured that the
subject of the dispute, as agreed between the parties, was respected in its
entirety. The present case bears absolutely no relationship with the Qatar
v. Bahrain case. 41. Enfin, dans le cadre de «la compétence de sacompétence))prévue
à l'article 36, paragraphe 6 du Statut, c'est-à-dire dans les limites de son
pouvoir souveraind'appréciation de sa propre compétence,la Cour doit,
comme je l'ai déjà souligné,interpréter l'objet du différend mais nulle-
ment le modifier, comme l'avait fait le défendeur. Sur ce chapitre-là, la
jurisprudence de sa devancièreétait prudente à souhait. La Cour perma-
nente de Justiceinternationale ne s'estreconnu le pouvoir ni de modifier,

ni mêmeseulement de «corriger» l'objet du différend lorsque 1'Etat
demandeur l'avait libelléde manièreinadéquate.Elle se bornait alors à le
prier de corriger lui-même cetobjet et, faute pour lui d'y procéder,elle
s'interdisait tout simplement de se prononcer sur la demande. C'est ce
que l'on constate dans l'affaire deCertains intérêta sllemands en Haute-
Silésiepolonaise Cfond,C. P.J.I. sérieA no 7, p. 34-35).

III. LA QUESTION DE LA VALIDITÉ DE LA RÉSERVE CANADIENNE

42. Il serait absurde de mettre en doute, si peu que ce soit, le pouvoir
souverain de 1'Etat de maintenir ou de modifier, en la limitant ou en
l'élargissant, une déclaration d'acceptationde la compétencede la Cour,
ou encore de la retirerà son gré,le tout bien évidemmentdans le respect

de la procédure (et notamment des préavis éventuels) qu'ila librement
établie dans sa déclaration même.La doctrine et la jurisprudence sont
sans faille dans leur unanimité.Sir Arnold McNair avait écrit:«Un Etat
ayant loisir de faire une déclaration ou de s'enabstenir, est en droit, dans
l'affirmative, de limiter laportéede sa déclarationen quelque façon qu'il
lui plaira)) (citépar le contre-mémoiredu Canada, p. 26, par. 50; les ita-
liques sont de moi). La formule adoptée par le Canada au paragraphe 3
de sa dernière déclaration de 1994exprime d'ailleurs bien le droit incon-
testé de 1'Etat «de compléter,modifier ou retirer à tout moment l'une
quelconque des réservesformulées ...ou toutes autres qu'il pourrait for-
muler par la suite))et, peut-on ajouter, d'en faire autant pour toute décla-

ration souscrite.
43. La facultélaissée à 1'Etatd'assortir sa déclaration de toute réserve
ou de toute condition doit cependant s'exercerdans le respect du Statut
et du Règlementde la Cour, de la Charte des Nations Unies, et plus géné-
ralement encore du droit international et de ce que je me hasarderais à
appeler 1'«ordrepublic international». De mêmeque les actes de 17Etat,et
plus généralementla conduite de 17Etat,dans quelque domaine que ce
soit des relationsinternationales, doiventêtreconformesaux normesjuri-
diques internationales en vigueur, de mêmel'émissiond'une réserve,qui
n'est autre qu'un élément decetteconduite, doit aussi leur êtreconforme.
44. En conséquence,

- je ne vois pas pourquoi la Cour devrait hésiterécarter, ou déclarer 41. Lastly, as regards the Court's power to determine its own jurisdic-
tion under Article 36, paragraph 6, of the Statute, that is to Say,within
the limits of its sovereign discretion in relation to its own jurisdiction,t
must, as 1have already pointed out, interpret the subject of the dispute,
but without in any way changing it, as the Respondent did. On this point,
the jurisprudence of the present Court's predecessor demonstrates admi-
rable caution. The Permanent Court of International Justice did not per-
mit itself either to alter, or even merely to "correct", the subject of the
dispute where the applicant State had formulated it inadequately, but

merely asked the Applicant itself to correct the subject of the dispute; on
its failing to do so, the Court simply refrained from determining the
claim. This is what occurred in the case concerning Certain German
Interests in Polish UpperSilesia, Jurisdiction(P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7,
pp. 34-35).

III. THEVALIDITY OF THE CANADIAR NESERVATION

42. It would be absurd to cast doubt, in any degree, on the sovereign
power of a State to maintain or amend, whether by restricting or by
extending it, a declaration of acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction, or to
withdraw it altogether whenever it wishes - always subject, of course, to
cornpliance with the procedure (and in particular any prior notice) estab-
lished by that State itself in its declaration. Doctrine and jurisprudence
are unanimous on this point. As Sir Arnold McNair wrote: "A state,
being free either to make a Declaration or not, is entitled, if itecides to
make one, to limit the scope of its Declaration in any way it chooses"
(quoted in the Counter-Memorial of Canada, p. 24, para. 50; emphasis

added). The language used by Canada in paragraph 3 of its most recent
declaration of 1994clearly expresses,moreover, the undisputed right of a
State "to . . .at any time .. . add to, amend, or withdraw any of the
foregoing reservations, or any that may hereafter be added" and, one
might add, to do likewisein respect of any declaration it has made.

43. However, a State'sfreedom to attach reservations or conditions to
its declaration must be exercised in conformity with the Statute and
Rules of Court, with the Charter of the United Nations, and more gener-
ally with international law and with what 1may venture to cal1"l'ordre
public international". Just as the acts of a State, and more generally its
conduct, in whatever area of international relations, must confom to
existing international legal noms, so the formulation of a reservation,
which is no more than one element of such conduct, must also comply
with these noms.

44. Accordingly,
- 1 do not see why the Court should hesitate to reject, or to declare irrecevable, ou non opposable,ou mêmeinvalide ou nulle, une réserve
qui aurait pour objet ou pour effet d'annihiler ou de dénaturer une ou
plusieurs dispositions statutaires ou réglementairesqui régissentle
procès international et d'établir une sorte de procédurejudiciaire ad
hoc à la convenance et au profit du seul auteur de ladite réserve;

- je ne vois pas pourquoi la Cour devrait hésiter déclarernulle et inva-
lide ab initio toute réservequi l'empêcheraitde connaître d'un géno-
cide, de l'esclavage, de la piraterie, ou de tout crime international;

je ne vois pas pourquoi la Cour se permettrait d'accueillir toute

réservedite ((automatique)),dont la formulation serait telleque 1'Etat
qui l'a émiseserait le seul à pouvoir déciderqu'une conduite qu'il a
tenue, ou qu'un acte qu'il a commis, entre ou non dans le cadre de sa
réserve,privant ainsi la Cour de «la compétencede sa compétence))
telle que prévuepar l'article 36, paragraphe 6, de son Statut;
je ne vois pas pourquoi la Cour accepterait de prendre en compte une
réservequi, sous couleur d'établir des limites spécifiquesà la compé-
tence de la Cour, apparaîtrait en fin de compte comme incompatible
avec le respect de l'intégrité dela déclaration dans son ensemble, car
si le droit international pose incontestablement la liberté du consen-
tement et si la déclarationpose la reconnaissance de la compétence de
la Cour, il faut aussi que la réservefaite dans ce cadre respecte la
cohérenceet l'intégritédu «système» de la clause facultative.

45. Dans ce «système» de la clause facultative, tel que son ordonnan-
cement apparaît dans ce ((corpusjuridique international))qui n'est ni un
total désordre, ni un «bric-à-brac» dérisoire (Jean Combacau) et qui
s'appelle ((droit international)), la libertéde 1'Etatest immense, mais ne
peut seconcevoir sansaucune limite. Toute personne est libre d'adhérer à
un club ou de ne pas le faire, mais si elle conseàty entrer, elle est tenue
d'accepter les((règlesdu jeu» qui régissent l'activité dce club.
46. En adhérant par sa déclarationau «système» de la clause faculta-
tive,1'Etat se positionne librement dans un réseau dedroits et d'obliga-
tions particuliers. Il est parfaitement clair que sa déclaration n'est pas
dépourvue de toute implication sur l'étendue de ses droits et obligations.

A cet égardil est évidentque 1'Etat déclarant dispose, vis-à-vis de la
Cour, destinataire de sa déclaration, età l'égard desautres Etats décla-
rants, d'une liberté moindre qu'un Etat qui n'a pas acceptéla juridiction
de la Cour. En breJ;il a des devoirsà l'égarddu ((système))de la clause,
de ses acteurs, actuels oupotentiels, comme aussi vis-à-visdu destinataire
final de la clausequ'est lajuridiction internationale. Il n'a pas le droit de
faire imploser ce «système», envers lequel il a désormais des devoirs,
contrepartie des droits qu'il en retire. Se retirer du systèmerestepour lui
une possibilité pleinementouverte, mais le dénaturer, le pervertir ou en inadmissible, or not opposable, or even invalid or null and void, a
reservation the purpose or effect of which isto nullify or distort one
or more of the provisions of the Statute or Rules of Court which gov-

ern international judicial proceedings, and to establish some sort of
ad hocjudicial procedure suiting or benefiting the author of the res-
ervation alone;
- 1 do not see why the Court should hesitate to declare null and void
and invalid ab initio any reservation that prevents it from hearing
proceedings concerning genocide, slavery, piracy, or any other inter-
national crime;
- 1 do not see why the Court should accept any "automatic" reserva-

tion so formulated that only the State making it is empowered to
decide whether or not its conduct, oran act done by it, is covered by
that reservation, thus depriving the Court of the "power to determine
its own jurisdiction" provided for by Article 36, paragraph 6, of its
Statute;
- 1do not see why the Court should allow itself to consider a reserva-
tion which, while appearing to set specificlimits to the Court's juris-

diction, is in the final analysis incompatible with respect for the integ-
rity of the declaration as a whole, since, while international law
undeniably confers freedom of consent and the declaration implies
recognition of the Court's jurisdiction, a reservation made within this
framework must also respect the consistency and the integrity of the
optional clause "system".

45. Under the optional clause "system", as currently structured within
the framework of the "international legal corpus" - that is to stay, nei-
ther total chaos nor an absurd "bric-a-brac" (Jean Combacau) - which
we cal1"international law", a State's freedom is immense, but cannot be
regarded as boundless. Anyone is free to join a club or not, but he who
does so must accept the rules governing the club's activities.

46. In joining the optional clause "system" through its declaration, a
State enters freely into a network of specificrights and obligations. It is
perfectly clear that its declaration is not totally devoid of implications for
the scope of its rights and obligations. In this respect the declarant State
will obviously enjoy vis-à-vis the Court - to which the declaration is
addressed - and as regards the other declarant States less freedom than
a State which has not accepted the Court's jurisdiction. In short, it has

obligations vis-à-vis the clause "system" - those currently orpotentially
participating init - and also to the party to whom that clause is ulti-
mately addressed, namely the International Court. It is not entitled to
provoke the implosion of a "system" to which it now owes duties, the
counterpart of which are the rights it derives from it. The possibility of
withdrawing from the system remains fully open to it, but what is notcompromettre l'existence ou le fonctionnement, tout en y restant, n'est

guèreacceptable.

47. Dans le cas d'espèce,on ne peut se départir d'un certain inconfort.
Il s'agit des événementq sui se sont dérouléspendantune période spéciale
de deux jours, celle des 10 et 12 mai 1994,au cours de laquelle presque
simultanément le Canada a formulé sa réserveet verrouilléainsi toute
réaction juridictionnelle, déposéau Parlement un projet de loi et fait
adopter celui-ci. Ily a tout lieu de penser que, ce faisant, le Canada a
voulu se prémunir contre tout recours judiciaire, aux fins d'adopter en
toute licence une certaine conduite, sur la légalitde laquelle il éprouvait
quelques doutes. Il n'est mêmepas nécessaire de passer à l'examen du
fond de l'affaire, impossible en cettephase de compétence,pour s'assurer
que cette hypothèse peut êtrecréditéed'un coefficient de vraisemblance
assez significatif.En effet c'estle Canada lui-mêmequi, dans un commu-
niquéde presse officiel,rendu public le 10mai 1994,jour du dépôt dela
nouvelle déclaration avec sa réserved), a déclaréce qui suit:

«Le Canada a modifiéson acceptation de la compétenceobliga-
toire de la Cour internationale de Justice afin d'empêchertoute
situation qui pourrait anéantirles efforts du Canada pour protéger
ses stocks.» (Les italiques sont de moi.)

Comme le dit le mémoireespagnol il a voulu ainsipar cette réserve«se
prémunir contre une récusationjudiciaire de ce type de mesures)). Mieux
encore, l'un des conseils du Canada a été particulièrement clair pour qua-
lifier cette(périodespéciale»,en déclarant:
«Le dépôt simultané du projet de loi C-29 et de la nouvelle décla-
ration démontre que la réservea étédélibérémen ctonçuepour sous-

traireà la contestationjudiciaire le projet de loi C-29, ainsique toute
décision prise sousson empire ou s'yrapportant. »(CR 98111,p. 44,
par. 63; les italiques sont de moi.)
Et le mêmeconseil de répéter:

«Le Canada a modifiésa déclaration ..exactement le même jour
où il saisissait le Parlement d'une loi nouvelle su...les pêcheries...
Le lien intime qui unit ces deux instrumentsjuridiques étaitet est
d'une transparence absolue. » (CR 98/14, p. 51, par. 7; les italiques
sont de moi.)

48. En bref, le Gouvernement canadien, et le débat parlementaire
autour du projet de loi C-29 l'a bien montré, désirait avoirles mains
libres et ne pas courir le risque d'êtredéjugépar la Cour pour des me-
sures dans la zone de réglementationde 170PAN0, c'est-à-dire en haute
mer. Il fait peu de doute en effet que les mesures législativesadoptées
l'ont spécialementétépour permettre l'intervention du Canada au-delàacceptable is that the declarant State should distort or pervert the system,
or compromiseits existence or its functioning, and yet remain part of it.

47. This case inevitably engenders a certain unease. These were events
which occurred over a specificperiod of two days, 10 and 12May 1994,
during which, almost simultaneously, Canada formulated its reservation

- thus barring any action by the Court - lodged a Billwith Parliament
and had it adopted. There is every reason to think that, in so acting,
Canada wished to protect itself in advance against any application to the
Court, so as to be completely free to follow a particular line of conduct,
over whose legality it had certain doubts. Without any consideration of
the merits of the case - something we are not entitled to do at the
present, jurisdictional phase of the proceedings - it is clear that this
hypothesis is a reasonably credible one. Canada itself, in an officia1news
release dated 10May 1994,the day on which the new declaration with its
reservation (d) was deposited, stated the following:

"Canada has today amended its acceptance of the compulsory
jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice in the Hague to pre-
clude any challenge which might undermine Canada's ability to pro-
tect the stocks." (Emphasis added.)

As the Spanish Memorial States, Canada's purpose in this reservation
was to "secure itself against any judicial rejection of. .. such measures".
What is more, one of Canada's counsel gave a particularly clear descrip-
tion of this "specialperiod" when he said:

"The exact coincidencein timing of BillC-29 and the new declara-
tion demonstrates that the reservation was deliberately designed to
exclude Bill C-29 and everything done in or in connection with it
from judicialsettlement" (CR 98111,p. 44,para. 63 ;emphasisadded.)

And the same counsel reiterated:
"Canada amended its declaration .. .[on]exactly the same day it

introduced into Parliament an Act on ... [fisheries. ..The intimate
link between these two instruments was and is absolutely transpar-
ent." (CR 98/14, p. 51,para. 7; emphasis added.)

48. In short, the Canadian Government - the discussions in Parlia-

ment on Bill C-29 made this clear - wished to have a free hand and
sought to avoid the risk of losing a case before the Court in respect of
action in the NAFO Regulatory Area, i.e., on the high seas. There is little
doubt that the legislation adopted had the specific purpose of enabling
Canada to intervene beyond the boundary of its national maritime juris- 536 COMPÉTENCE PÊCHERIES (OP.DISS.BEDJAOUI)

de la limite de sa juridiction maritime nationale. C'est l'objectifessentiel
de la loi du 12mai 1994comme le dit son article 1. Un autre conseil du
Canada a déclaréde son côté:
«Les mesures en question sont des mesures de gestion et de
conservation parfaitement ordinaires et la seule chose qui les dis-
tingueest lelieuoù le Canada lesa appliquées,à savoir lazone de régle-

mentation de I'OPANO qui se situe au-delà des 200 milles. Mais
c'étaitprécisémenttoute la raison d'être dela réserve.» (CR98112,
p. 14,par. 66; les italiques sont de moi.)
Et l'agent du Canada a étéclair et précis,a la barre de la Cour, sur ce
point capital. Cela ne laisse aucun doute sur le fait que le Canada savait
qu'en l'absence detoute réserveappropriée dans sa déclaration,il risquait

une condamnation par la Cour pour toute intervention en haute mer
contre un bateau étranger, car apparemment il nourrissait des doutes sur
la licéitde cette intervention. Tant et si bien qu'un conseil de l'Espagne
a pu affirmer:
(([C'est un fait] illicite «avec préméditation))!Un Etat peut s['y]
préparer.Il prend ensuite les dispositions nécessairespour échapper
au juge; et enfinil agit en toute impunité.»(CR98110, p. 37, par. 1 ;
les italiques sont de moi.)

49. Unetelle situation n'estpas la meilleure qu'ilfaille espérerpour un
pays, le Canada, qui a donné depuissoixante-dix ans l'exemple de son
attachement a la compétence dela Cour et de son respect pour le droit
international. Elle ne l'est guèrenon plus pour ses partenaires tradition-
nels de I'OPANO, non plus enfin que pour lacommunauté internationale
et, je ne dois pas l'oublier,pour le «système» de la clausefacultative et
pour la Courelle-même.

Celle-cia,fort dommageablement, manquédenoter qu'unrecoursà une
réserve,dans les hypothèses dans lesquelles un Etat entend mener des
actions particulières d'une licéité douteuse au regadru ddroit internatio-
nal, risqued'affecter sérieusementla crédibilitédu «système» de la clause
optionnelle.
50. Je regrette donc que la Cour n'ait pas écarté, ou plus encore, radi-
calement invalidé, une réservequi, prise simultanément avec une loi,
avait pour objectif évidentde permettre de porter atteinte sans risque
judiciaireà une libertéessentielle du droit international passéet présent.
Le Canada, certes légitimementpréoccupépar la conservation des res-
sources halieutiques, a malheureusement succombéet pris une initiative
législativeregrettable pour une action en haute mer, a la sanction judi-
ciaire de laquelleilpensait échapper en notifiant simultanément à la com-
munauté internationale une nouvelle réserveadoptée a des fins dontil
redoutait le caractère illicite.

Une telle réservene pouvait et ne devait pas êtreaccueilliepar la Cour.
51. La réserved) canadiennemet ù mal le «système» de la clause.Il
eût mieux valu en toute clartél'une des deuxsituations suivantes: ou biendiction. This is the main objective of the Act of 12May 1994,as Article 1
of the Act States. Another Canadian counsel stated:

"The measures are perfectly ordinary conservation and manage-

ment measures, and the only thing that makes them different is
where Canada applied them, in the NAFO Regulatory Area and
therefore, beyond two hundred miles. But that of course is the whole
rationalefor the reservation." (CR98112, p. 14, para. 66; emphasis
added.)
And the Agent of Canada was clear and specific,before the Court, on

this crucial point. This leaves no doubt that Canada knew that, in the
absence of any appropriate reservation in its declaration, it ran the risk of
condemnation by the Court for any intervention on the high seas against
a foreign vessel, since apparently it had doubts as to the legality of such
intervention. So much so that one of Spain's counsel asserted:

"[It is a wrongful act] 'withpremeditation'! A State may prepare

[for it].hen it may take the necessary steps to escape the court;
and, thus [it acts] assured of impunity." (CR98110, p. 37, para. 1;
emphasis added.)
49. This is not what onemight have expected of a country like Canada,
whichfor the last 70 years has set an example of its attachment to the
Court'sjurisdiction andits respectfor international law. Nor is it a wel-
come situationfor Canada's traditionalNAFO partners, orfor the inter-

national community or, indeed,for the optional clause "system" and the
Court itselJ

The latter has, most regrettably, failed to recognize that reliance on a
reservation, in circumstances where a State wishes to undertake specijic
acts of doubtful international legality, risks seriously dumaging the credi-
bility of the optional clause "system".

50. 1 therefore regret that the Court did not reject, or even hold nul1
and void, a reservation whose obvious purpose, when read together with
a piece of domestic legislation, was to permit encroachment upon an
essential freedom of international law, both past and present, without
fear of judicial intervention. Canada - admittedly with legitimate con-
Cernfor the conservation of fishery resources - unfortunately yielded to

temptation and took a regrettable legislative initiative with a view to an
operation on the high seas, believing it could escapejudicial sanctioizby
simultaneously notifying the internationalcommunity of a new reservation
adoptedfor purposes itfeared might be illegal.
Such a reservationcould not and should not be accepted by the Court.
51. The Canadian reservation (d) is damaging to the optional clause
"system". A better and perfectly clear position would have been as fol-le Canada aurait dû retirer complètement sa déclarationen 1994 à titre
provisoire et pour la périodenécessaireà sa politique de conservation des
pêcheries,ou bien la Couraurait dû aujourd'hui,dans le présentarrêt,en
1998,écarterla réserved). Car la situation crééepar le maintien de la
déclarationassortie de ladite réserveconstitue la solution la plus discu-
table de toutes pour tous, le Canada le premier, les autres Etats décla-
rants ensuite et la Cour internationale de Justice enfin.
52. L'épinedorsale du «système»de la clause facultative est constituée

par la bonne foi entre les Etats déclarants. La libertéde 1'Etatd'intro-
duire une réserve estconditionnéepar ce principe. Si, pour des raisonsde
politiqueintérieureou internationale,qui peuvent au demeurant êtrepar-
faitement légitimes,un Etat déclarant se trouve embarrassé par les dis-
positions de sa déclaration, il devrait la retirer provisoirement pourla
durée nécessaire à l'actionpolitique qu'il envisage, plutôt que d'assortir,
- j'allais dired'encombrer et de miner- cette déclarationd'une réserve
destinéeà couvrirun but dont onpeut bien imaginerqu'ilpeut êtreillicite.
Il ne peut pas s'assignerpour objectif d'une part de se soumettràlajuri-
dictionde la Cour pour une grande variétéde différends grâce àla géné-
ralitédes termes de sa déclaration,mais d'autre part, et en même temps,
d'échapperau contrôle juridictionnel (dont sa déclaration montre pour-

tant bien qu'ilveut lerespecter)pour une catégoriespécifiqued'actespro-
tégés par sa réservealors mêmequ'il doute de leur licéité.
53. Cette situation, produit direct de la réserved), créed'abord une
«tension» interne dans la cohérencede la conduite de I'Etat déclarant.
Elle mine ensuite de l'intérieurle «système» de la clause facultative,
qu'ellerisque de faireimploser,car elle leprive dela bonne foiqui est son
propre oxygène. ((Donneret retenir ne vaut», dit un adage du droit civil
français.L'Etat déclarantne peut retirer d'une main ce qu'il a donnéde
l'autre.Il ne peut rendre hommage à la justice internationale en se sou-
mettant à son verdict pour les actes qui lui paraissent bons dans sa
conduite, mais tourner le dos à cette mêmejustice pour les actes dont il
craint pour leur licéité.Il n'est pas possible pour un Etat déclarant de
remodeler ainsi la philosophie du «système» de la clause, et mêmeplus

encore de plier un tel «système» à ses propres exigencescontradictoires,
ou d'y mêlerdeux objectifs incompatibles.

54. Mais ce n'est pas le Canada seul qui souffre de son propre choix
qui porte atteinte à son image de marque flatteuse d'un Etat attaché
depuis soixante-dix ans au respect de la justice internationale. Ce n'est
pas le «système»de la clause seul qui en pâtit aussi. La Cour elle-même
s'expose, par son arrêtdéclarant son incompétence, à quelques dégâts.
L'on dit que ((exemption de compétence nesignijîe pas licéité)),c'est-
à-dire que la Cour ne cautionne nullement les actes du Canada en se
déclarant incompétente à leur égard.Certes. Mais l'aspect psychologique
reste dévastateur. Etait-il inévitable d'exposàrun embarras la Cour qui

devine sans peine l'existenced'une illicéitsous l'acte canadien en haute
mer, mais qui doit néanmoins faire le Ponce Pilate en s'en lavant leslows: either Canadashould havewithdrawn its declaration completely in
1994, provisionally and for the period required for its fisheriesconserva-
tion policy, or the Court should now, in its present Judgment, in 1998,
have rejectedreservation(d). The situation created by the maintenance of
the declaration subject to the reservation representsthe least satisfactory
solution for al1concerned: Canada, other declarant States and the Inter-
national Court of Justice.
52. The backbone of the optional clause "system" consists in good

faith among declarant States. Upon this principle depends the freedom of
a State to formulate a reservation. If, for reasons of domestic or interna-
tional policy, which may of course be perfectly legitimate, a declarant
State finds itself in difficulty as a result of the terms of its declaration,t
should temporarily withdraw that declarationfor the period requiredby
the political action which it contemplates, rather than attach to the dec-
laration - Z am tempted to say encumber and undermine it - a reserva-
tion intended to cover a purpose which might very well be regarded as
unlawful. It may not on the one hand set out to accept the Court's juris-
diction for a wide variety of disputes, given the broad terms of its decla-
ration, while on the other seeking simultaneously to escapejudicial scru-

tiny (which its declaration has clearly demonstrated that it wishes to
accept) in respect of a specific class of acts protected by its reservation
where it doubts their legality.
53. First, this situation- stemming directly from reservation (d) -
places the consistency of the declarant State's conduct under interna1
"strain". Next, it undermines the optional clause "system" from within,
risking its implosion, sinceit robs the system of the good faith which is its
very life-blood. According to a maxim of French civil law, "donner et
retenir ne vaut" (you cannot both give and take back). A declarant State
cannot take away with one hand what it has givenwith the other. It can-
not swear fealty to international justice by submitting itself to the latter's

verdict in respect of those acts where it considers it has behaved correctly,
while shunning that samejustice in the case of those acts whose legalityit
fears may be questionable. It is not possible for a declarant State to
remodel the philosophy of the clause "system" in this way, still less to
bend the "system" to suit its own conflicting requirements, or to mix two
incompatible aims.
54. But Canada is not the only victim of its own choice - a choice
which tarnishes the bright image of a State committed for the last 70
years to the ideal of international justice. Nor is it only the clause "sys-
tem" which suffers. The Court itself, in holding that it lacksjurisdiction,
lays itself open to a degree of damage. The saying is that "lack ofjuvisdic-

tion does not imply legality", i.e., the Court in no way endorses Canada's
conduct by declaring that it lacksjurisdiction in regard to that conduct.
That is true, but psychologically the impact is disastrous. Was there
really no other way than to embarras the Court, which clearly discerns
illegalityin Canada's conduct on the high seas, but must nonetheless play
Pontius Pilate and wash its hands of the case? This is an unwelcomemains? Ce n'est pas une situation réjouissante pour une juridiction qui
sait qu'il faut faire justice, mais qui ne le peut pas.
55. Le dommage causépar cette réserved) ne s'arrête paslà. Les Etats
déclarants en pâtissent également. Certes 1'Etat est libre d'émettre des
réserveset l'on en déduit alorsque si la Cour n'avait pas tenu compte de
l'existence de la réservepour se déclarer incompétenteselon le vŒudu
défendeur, on aurait alors gravement porté atteinte au «système» de la
clause. En méconnaissant ainsi le droit intangible de l'Etat déclarant
d'introduire une réserve,on bousculerait l'ordonnancement d'un tel sys-
tème et l'on découragerait les Etats qui voudraient à l'avenir souscrire
une déclaration d'acceptation. Ce serait alors, dit-on, la ruine prochaine
du «système» de la clause.
56. Cet argument est dépourvu de valeur, pour deux raisons. La pre-

mièreest que cette idée dedécouragementdes Etats, arrêtésnet dans leur
élanpour souscrire une déclaration, parce que l'arrêt de la Couraurait
pour une fois écarté uneréserveincompatible et pleine de périls,me
paraît une pure chimère.Ce sont, hélas, plus desdeux-tiers des Etats exis-
tants qui me semblent, d'ailleurs pour des raisons dont je comprends
quelques-unes, tout à fait irréductibleà l'idéede souscrire une déclara-
tion et qui, quoi que fasse la Cour, ne viendront probablement jamais
accepter la juridiction obligatoirede la Cour, mêmesi celle-ciavait sanc-
tifiéplus que de raison le droàtla réserveet mêmesi l'arrêten étaitvenu
à manifester le plus grand enthousiasme pour la réservecanadienne en
particulier.
La seconde raison est encore plus importante. Il ne faut pas en effet se
placer exclusivement du côté des Etats potentiels qui n'ont pas encore
adhéré à la clause optionnelle. On ne saurait oublier lesEtats qui ont déjà
souscrit une déclaration et qui font partie du «système» de la clause.

Est-il bon pour des Etats déjà déclarants, quiŒuvrent grâce audit «sys-
tème» à la stabilitéà la prévisibilitéetà la sécurité desrelations juri-
diques, devoir d'autres Etats déclarantsintroduire subitement une réserve
chaque fois qu'ils rencontrent un problème? Une telle perspective est-elle
la meilleure qu'ils puissent espérerpour les expectatives légitimesqu'ils
nourrissent pour la sécurité de leursrelations avec les autres Etats décla-
rants? Ne frappe-t-on pas, ainsi, de précaritétout le «système» de la
clause optionnelle?
57. On ne perdra pas de vue, de surcroît, que c'estla deuxièmefoisque
le Canada introduit une réservepour échapper à la compétence de la
Cour, dans des situations où la liberté de la haute mer est en cause. Mais
cette fois-ci, on craint que ce soit avec la caution de la Cour puisqu'aussi
bien l'arrêt déclarl'incompétence dela Cour sans précaution suffisante
et sans aucun <ccaveat»de quelque nature que ce soit.

58. Pour conclure ces remarques au sujet de la question de la validité
de la réserve d) canadienne, et tout en rappelant que le Canada aurait
mieux fait, à mon avis, de retirer l'ensemble de sa déclaration de 1985
plutôt que de lui substituer cellede 1994avec la réserve) qui est incom-
patible avec la déclarationelle-mêmej,e voudrais préciser qu'avecla pré-situation for a court which knows that it must render justice but cannot
do so.
55. This is not the end of the harm caused by reservation (d) .Declar-
ant States also suffer. A State is of course free to formulate reservations;

from this the Court proceeded to the conclusion that, had it refused to
recognize the reservation - on the basis of which it accepted the Respon-
dent's claimthat it had no jurisdiction - the clause "system" would have
been severelyprejudiced. To disregard a declarant State's inviolable right
to make reservations would be to undermine the structure of the system
and discourage States wishing in the future to make a declaration of
acceptance. This, it was said, would be the speedy ruin of the clause
"system".

56. This argument fails on two accounts. First, the idea that States will
be discouraged - stopped in their tracks in their rush to make a declara-
tion - because, for once, ajudgment of the Court has rejected an incom-
patible and potentially hazardous reservation, seems to me pure fantasy.
Unfortunately, more than two thirds of today's States, for reasons which
1to some extent understand, flatly reject the idea of making a declaration
and, whatever the Court does, will probably never accept its compulsory
jurisdiction, despite the blessing bestowed by the Court - to a quiet un-
reasonable degree - upon the right to make reservations, and the over-

whelming enthusiasm displayed by the Judgment for the Canadian reser-
vation in particular.

The second point is even more important: we should not consider
merely the position of States which have yet to accede to the optional
clause "system". We must not forget those States which have already
made a declaration and which participate in the clause "system". 1s it
right for these States, which through the "system" are working for sta-

bility, foreseeability and security in legal relations, that other declarant
States should hastily formulate a reservation whenever they encounter a
problem? 1s this the best they can hope for in their legitimate expecta-
tions for the security of their relations with other declarant States? Does
this not jeopardize the stability of the entire optional clause "system"?

57. Nor should we forget that this is the second time Canada has
introduced a reservation in order to escape the Court's jurisdiction in

situations involving the freedom of the high seas. This time, however, it is
to be feared that the Court has endorsed Canada's action, given that, in
holding that the Court lacksjurisdiction, the Judgment has failed to take
adequate precautions or to issue any kind of caveat.
58. In concluding these remarks on the issue of the validity of the
Canadian reservation (d) - and bearing in mind that in my opinion
Canada would have been better advised to withdraw its 1985declaration
entirely rather than replace it by the declaration of 1994with its reserva-

tion (d), which is incompatible with the declaration itself - 1 wouldsente affaire la Cour s'est retrouvéeau centre d'une conjoncture assez
délicate.Il est connu que le Canada, qui a toujours pris une grande part
aux conférencesinternationales qui ont jalonné la création du nouvel
ordrejuridique de lamer, et qui mèneune politique de pêchetrès active
et, selon certains, mêmetrèsoffensive,ne se satisfait pas de l'étatactuel
de ce droit de la mer et qu'ilveut continuer encore de réformerce corpus,
notamment en vue d'une reconnaissance de ((droits préférentiels))subs-
tantiels à 1'Etat côtier en matière de conservation et de gestion des
pêches. Il est alors allé,en soutenant dans certains fora l'idéed'un «état
de nécessité)o)u simplement de ((l'urgence)),jusqu'à violer le droit exis-
tant pour obtenir des autres Etats un «progrès» de ce droit. C'est là bien
entendu une stratégiequela Cour n'a le devoir impératifni d'encourager,
ni de décourager.Le processus de formation d'une norme juridique inter-

nationale nouvelle ne doit pas nécessairementpasser par des comporte-
ments illicites destinéspar leur auteurà pousser les autres Etats vers la
négociationd'un droit nouveau. La décisiond'incompétence àlaquelle la
majoritéest parvenue ne doit pas signifier que la Cour, gardienne de la
légalitéinternationale, prodigue un quelconque encouragement à cette
stratégie.

59. Le demandeur me paraît avoir hésité à aller jusqu'au bout de sa
critique de la réserved) canadienne. Il n'est pas alléjusqu'à se prévaloir
de la «nullité»de celle-cidans ses conclusions finales. Faudrait-il se féli-
citer de sa prudence,parce qu'une nullitéde cette réserveaurait entraîné,
comme on soutientparfois, la nullitéde la déclarationtout entière,ce qui

aurait alors confirméplus radicalement encore l'incompétencede la Cour
dans la présenteaffaire?
60. J'observerai d'abord qu'à tout prendre j'aurais préféré uns eitua-
tion dans laquelle la Cour aurait plus clairement, et plus solidementpeut-
être,fondé son incompétencesur la nullitéde l'ensemblede la déclaration
plutôt que sur celle de la réserve) seulement.
Mais par ailleurs, il est loin d'êtrecertain que la nullitéd'une réserve
entraîne ipsofacto celle de la déclaration tout entière. Tout d'abord le
bon sens ne le permet pas. Une réserve limitele champ du consentement
donné par la déclaration.Un champmal limiténe devient pas un champ
inexistant. Mais surtout, l'on s'accordeà déclarer,en jurisprudence, en
doctrine et dans la pratique des Etats, que, par-delà la nature juridique
sui generis d'une déclaration,il convient d'appliquer mutatis mutandis à
cet acte unilatéral les principes et règlespropres aux actes bi ou multi-

latéraux,c'est-à-dire aux traités.Or le droit des traités,tel que codifié
Vienne en 1969,fait sa place en son article 44, il est vrai avec quelques
exceptions, au principe de divisibilitédes différentesstipulations conte-
nues dans un traité. La raison pour laquelle une déclarationne serait pas
du tout soumise à un tel principe m'échappevraiment.
61. La question a d'ailleursété soulevé deans quelques espèces,commepoint out that in the present case the Court has found itself the focus of
a somewhat sensitive combination of circumstances. It is no secret that
Canada, which has always played a major part in the milestoneinterna-
tional conferences on the road to the creation of the new legal order of
the sea, and which pursues a very active, somewould even Sayaggressive,
fisheries policy, is dissatisfied with the law of the sea as it stands and

wishes to press on with reforming it, notably with a view to the enjoy-
ment by coastal States of "preferential rights" in matters of fisheriescon-
servation and management. It has then proceeded, while invoking in cer-
tain fora the idea of a "state of need", or simply of "emergency", to the
point of breaking the existing law in order to secure "progress" in this
regard on the part of other States. The Court has of course no bounden
duty either to encourage or to discourage this strategy. The formative
process of a new international legal nom need not involve wrongful con-
duct designed by its author to induce other States to negotiate a new law.

The decision by the majority that the Court lacksjurisdiction must not be
taken to mean that the Court, the guardian of international legality,
offers any encouragement whatever to this strategy.

59. It seemsto me that the Applicant was reluctant to take its criticism
of the Canadian reservation (d) to its logical conclusion. In its final sub-
missions it did not go so far as to claim that the reservation was a "nul-

lity". Should we welcome this caution, on the argument - as is some-
times proposed - that nullity of the reservation would have entailed that
of the entire declaration, which would have confirmed even more force-
fully the Court's lack of jurisdiction in this case?
60. Let me begin by saying that, al1in all, 1 would have preferred a
situation in which the Court had taken the clearer - and ~ossiblv
sounder - course of founding its lack of jurisdiction on the nullik of the
declaration as a whole, rather than on reservation (d) alone.
In any case, it is far from certain that the nullity of a reservationentails
ipsofacto that of the entire declaration; common sense, for one thing,

tells us otherwise. A reservationrestricts the field ofconsent given by the
declaration. A field with ill-defined boundaries is still a field. But most
importantly, case-law, doctrine and State practice are in accord that,
looking beyond the sui generisnature of a declaration, the principles and
rules peculiar to bilateral or multilateral acts, i.e., to treaties, should be
applied mutatis mutandis to this unilateral act. And treaty law, as codi-
fied in 1969,enshrinesin Article 44 of the Vienna Convention - admit-
tedly with certain exceptions - the principle of separability of the vari-
ousprovisionscontained in a treaty. 1really cannot see whya declaration
should wholly escape this principle.

61. This issue has in fact been raised in a number of cases, includingl'affaire des Emprunts norvégiensou celle de l'lnterhandel et quelques
juges ont évoquéet admis le principe de divisibilité (voirEmprunts nor-
végiens,C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 55-59; Interhandel, C.I.J. Recueil 1959,
p. 57, 77-78, 116-117).
On remarquera aussi que dans le cadre régional,il est arrivépar exemple
à la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme d'appliquer le principe de
divisibilitéen invalidant des réserves formuléesà l'encontre de certaines
stipulations de la convention européenne des droits de l'homme et des
libertésfondamentales, sans invalider dans leur totalité les déclarations
d'acceptation de la compétencede la Cour de Strasbourg au sujet des dif-
férendsconcernant ladite convention (voir affaire Loizidou c. Turquie,

exceptions préliminaires,arrêtdu 23 mars 1995).
On notera enfin,à titre de comparaison, que le principe de séparabilité
est parfaitement accueilli en matière d'arbitrage commercial internatio-
nal, dans la mesure où le sort de la clause d'arbitrage est considéré
comme indépendant de celui des autres stipulations du contrat.

IV. LA QUESTION DE LA DÉFINITION DES ((MESURES DE GESTION
ET DE CONSERVATION ))

62. La question du ((droit applicable))pour définir l'expression«me-
sures de gestion et de conservation)) a pris une grande importance dans
la présenteaffaire.
63. L'Espagne soutient qu'il existe entre elle et le Canada non pas un
différendsur la pêche,mais un litige relatif au titre juridique du Canada
à prendre en haute mer des «mesures» contre des bateaux espagnols,
sous le prétexted'exécuter des((mesuresde gestion et de conservation)).
Le demandeur doute que le défendeurpossède un tel titre juridique et
attend de la Cour qu'elle passe à l'examen du fond pour donner sa
réponse à la question. De plus, l'Espagne considèreque la réserved) ne

fait pas obstacle à la compétence dela Cour, car elle n'exclut de cette
compétenceque les ((mesucesde gestion et de conservation))et non point
la question d'un titre du Canada en haute mer. Pour le Canada au
contraire les mesures en question comprennent toutes les mesures de ges-
tion et de conservation, quel que soit le lieu géographiquede leur impact,
c'est-à-dire, en fin de compte, qu'elles soient ou non conformes au droit
international.
64. On voit bien ainsitoute l'étenduede la divergencede vues entre les
parties et du mêmecoup toute l'importance que revêtla définition des
«mesures de gestion et de conservation)).Pour faire court, disons que le
Canada a estiméque cette expression a une signification purement tech-

nique relevant du sens commun, tandis que l'Espagne a soutenu la néces-
sitéde l'entendre dans la signification que lui confère désormaisle droit
international.the NorwegianLoans and Interhandel cases, and somejudges have evoked
and accepted the principle of separability (cf.wegian Loans, I.C.J.
Reports 1957, p. 55-59; Interhandel, I.C.J. Reports 1959, pp. 57, 77-78,
116-117).
At the regional level too, the European Court of Human Rights, for
example, has found occasion to apply the principle of separability by
striking down reservations in respect of certain provisions in the-
pean Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms, without invalidating in their totality declarations ofpt-

ance of the jurisdiction of the Strasbourg Court in respect of disputes
concerning the Convention (cf.Loizidou v. Turkey, Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment of 23 March 1995).
By way of comparison, it should also be observed that the principle of
separabilitys fully accepted in international commercial arbitration, in
so far as treatment of the arbitration clause is deemed to be independent
of that of the other provisions in the agreement.

IV. THEDEFINITIO NF "CONSERVATI OND MANAGEMEN MTEASURES"

62. The question of the "applicable law" for purposes of defining the
expression "conservation and management measures" has taken on great
importance in this case.
63. Spain argues that there is no dispute between itself and Canada
about fishing, rather that the case concernsCanada's legal entitlement to
take "measures" on the highseas against Spanish vessels, on the pretext
of enforcing "conservation and management measures". The applicant
State doubts whether the Respondent has any such entitlement and asks
the Court toconsider the merits of the case in order to answer the ques-
tion. Moreover, Spain considers that reservation (d) does not constitute

a bar to the Court's jurisdiction, sinceit excludes only "conservation and
management measures" from such jurisdiction, and not the issue of
Canada's title to act on the higheas. For Canada, on the other hand,
such measures include al1conservation and management measures, what-
ever the geographical location where their impact is felt, which is ulti-
mately to say, whether or not they are in accordance with international
law.
64. The extent of this conflict of viewsbetween the parties is evident,
as is the significance of the definition of "conservation and management
measures". In short, Canada takes the view that this expression has a
purely technical,common-sense meaning, whereas Spain contends that it

must be given the meaning now attaching to it under international law. 65. Pour ma part, je suis conforté dans l'idéeque l'expression consi-
déréene saurait être interprétée autrement que dansle cadre du droit
international. Et comme dans ces conditions la définitionet le contenu de
cette expression ne peuvent apparaître pleinement qu'à la phase du fond,
il en résulteque la Cour ne pourra clairement savoirqu'à cemoment-là si
la législationcanadienne et les actes contre les bateaux espagnolsqui en
ont résultérentrent dans la définitioninternationale de ces mesures et de
leur exécution,et du mêmecoup s'ils échappent à la compétence dela
Cour en vertu de la réserved). C'est dire qu'il y aurait eu place icipour
l'application des dispositions de l'article9, paragraphe 7, qui recom-
mande de renvoyer à la phase du fond l'examen de la définition et du
contenuprécisdes ((mesuresde conservationet de gestion)),qui n'ont pas
un caractère exclusivementpréliminaire.

66. On ne peut que se féliciter deconstater que l'arrêt,en son para-
graphe 69,déclarequel'expressionen cause doit êtredéfinie «à la lumière
du droit international)). Mais malheureusement, sitôt cette affirmation
faite, il en revient définir l'expressionpar ses caractéristiques techni-
ques, telles que le Canada les avait d'ailleurs invoquées,de sorte que l'on
revient au point de départ. Je regretteà cet égard que la Cour ait cru
pouvoir considérerqu'ellepourrait, dès cette phase de l'affaire consacrée
à la compétence,tirer des conclusions hâtives quant aux ((critèresfactuels
et scientifiques))qui caractériseraient l'expression ((mesures de gestion et
de conservation))et cela à partir de sources disparates, dont des législa-
tions nationales qui n'ont fait l'objet ni d'une présentation systématique,
ni d'une analyseapprofondie. L'objectif de la Cour aura été ainside don-

ner une satisfactionpurement verbale àsa minorité et de s'entenirà une
définitiontechnique qui permettait de vider, en la phase présente,la ques-
tion de l'exclusion de la compétencede la Cour pour les mesures prises
contre l'Estai et d'autres navires. Le paragraphe 70 de l'arrêtpréciseen
fin de compte qu'«il suffit)) qu'une «mesure» ait pour objet de géreret de
conserver les ressources biologiques et qu'elle possèdecertaines caracté-
ristiques techniques, pour qu'elle soit une ((mesure de gestion et de
conservation))au sens de la réserved) du Canada. C'est là en réalitéune
approche non pasjuridique, mais purement «factuelle)), qui a peà voir
avec le droit international que la Cour s'étaitpourtant promise d'appli-
quer.

67. La réserved) du Canada visedes ((mesuresde gestion et de conser-
vation)),prises ou exécutéespar luià l'égardde bateaux de pêchedans la
«zone de réglementationde 170PANO». La Cour devait donc interpréter
l'expression pour pouvoir identifier le champ d'application de la
réserved) .Rappelons, à toutes finsutiles, que le Canada avait formuléen 65. For my part, 1remain convinced that the term can be interpreted

only within the framework of international law. And since, in these cir-
cumstances, the definition and content of the phrase can be fully ascer-
tained only at the merits stage, it follows that only then would the Court
be in a position to determine whether the Canadian legislation and the
resultant actions against Spanish vessels come within the international
definitionof suchmeasures and their enforcement,and henceare excluded
from the Court's jurisdiction by virtue of reservation (d). In other words,
this is a case whereArticle 79, paragraph 7, should have been applied,
with the result that examination of the definition and precise content of
"conservation and management measures" would have been postponedto
the merits stage, these being matters not having an exclusively prelimi-
nary character.

66. 1 welcome the statement by the Judgment, in paragraph 69, that
the expressionmust be defined "in the light of international law". Unfor-
tunately, having said this, the Judgment then falls back on a definition
based on technicalcharacteristics, aspropounded by Canada, thus return-

ing us to the starting-point. 1 regret that the Court felt able to take the
view that it was entitled, at thejurisdiction stage of the case, to arrive at
hasty conclusions concerning the "factual and scientificcriteria" said to
characterize the expression "conservation and management measures",
and to do so on the basis of widelydiffering sources,including legislation
from various countries which was neither presented systematically nor
analysed in any depth. The Court's purpose here was to seekto satisfyits
minority with a mere form of words, confining itself to a technical defini-
tion that allowed it, at this stage of the proceedings, to dispose of the
issue of the exclusionfrom the Court's jurisdiction of the measures taken
against the Estai and other vessels.Paragraph 70 of the Judgment states
that for a measure to be a "conservation and vnanagement measure"
within the meaning of the Canadian reservation (d), "it is sufficient" that
the purpose of the "measure" is to conserve and manage living resources
and that it satisfiesarious technicalrequirements. This, in reality, is not
a legal approach but a purely 'ffactual" one, that has little to do with
international law, which the Court is pledged to apply.

67. Canada's reservation (d) refers to "conservationand management
measures" taken or enforced by it in relation to fishing vessels in the
"NAFO Regulatory Area". The Court thus had to interpret this expres-
sion in order to define the scope of reservation (d). It may be helpful to
recall that in1970Canada made a similar albeit not identicalreservation 1970une réserve, un peu similairemais pas tout à fait identique, au sujet
de l'Arctique et s'était réféàé«la conservation, la gestion ou l'exploita-
tion des ressources biologiques de la mer».
68. Pour définir l'expression((mesures de gestion et de conservation»
dans sa réserve d), le Canada n'a pas renvoyé à sa législationinterne,
nouvellement modifiée.Il est vrai que celle-ci était postérieurede deux
jours au dépôtde sa nouvelle déclaration contenant cette réserve. Mais
cela ne constituait pas en réalité unempêchementtechnique si leCanada

avait vraiment voulu se référer à cette législationdont on sait qu'il avait
déposéle projet en mêmetemps qu'il notifiait sa nouvelle déclaration.En
fait, il n'a donné danssa réserveaucune définitiondes mesures considé-
rées.En revanche, pour déterminerle champ d'application géographique
de cette réserve,il s'est référéà un traité international,la convention
OPANO. Cela représentedéjà un indiceque les ((mesuresde gestion et de
conservation», qui constituent un des objectifsessentiels de cetteconven-
tion, devraient en toute cohérences'apprécieren fonction du droit inter-
national.
69. On peut aussi noter à cet égard qu'une((commissiondespêches)),

créée par la conventionOPANO, opèreaussidans la mêmezone de régle-
mentation qu'elle définit. Ainsi,aux ((mesures de gestion et de conserva-
tion)) prises par cet organe international, s'ajoutent cellesadoptées par le
Canada dans la mêmeaire géographique. On ne peut donc pas se référer
au droit canadien - d'ailleurs nullement visédans la réserve - wour
définirces mesures lorsque le Canada les prend, alors mêmeque des me-
sures identiques, dans la mêmezone d'intervention, doivent s'apprécier
en fonction du droit international lorsqu'il s'agit de l'activitéde la ((corn-
mission des pêches»de 1'OPANO. Il faut observer en passant - mais

c'est un problème dont la solution relèvedu fond - qu'il se pose appa-
remment là aussi un problème de titre juridique du Canada à prendre
de telles mesures, semble-t-il confiéespar traitéà un organe internatio-
nal. La convention OPANO, qui reconnaît à 1'Etat le droit de faire
opposition aux mesures que la commission adopterait, ne porte d'aucune
manière atteinte aux droits de 1'Etat du pavillon dans la zone de régle-
mentation de I'OPANO, puisqu'aussi bien lesdites mesures sont prises en
coopération avec les Etats intéressés. Ily a là une indication claire qu'il
n'est pas possible d'interpréter les ((mesuresde gestion et de conserva-
tion» prises par le Canada de manière tout à fait différente decelle par

laquelle on interpréterait les mêmesmesures prises dans la mêmezone
par les organes de 1'OPANO.
70. Par ailleurs, le Canada, comme je l'ai soulignéplus haut, n'a pas
définidans sa réserved) ce qu'il entend par ((mesures de gestion et de
conservation)). Si l'on s'en tient donc à l'intention objective de 1'Etat
déclarant,il ne serait pas déraisonnable de considérerqu'il a voulu attri-
buer à cette expression le sens qu'elle possède en droit international,
d'autant plus que, il nefaudrait pas le perdre de vue, le Canada s'adresse
là, dans sa réserve, la communauté des autres Etats déclarants du ((sys-

tème» de la clause facultative. De plus, pour donner son sens à l'expres-in relation to the Arctic, which referred to the "conservation, manage-
ment or exploitation of the living resources of the sea".

68. In defining the expression "conservation and management meas-
ures" contained in its reservation (d), Canada did not refer to its newly

amended domestic legislation.Admittedly, that legislation was adopted
two days after Canada had deposited its new declaration containing the
reservation. This however posed no technical obstacle,had Canada genu-
inely wished to refer to this legislation - which in Bill form was tabled
simultaneously with its notification of the new declaration. In fact, the
reservation contains no definition of the measures in question. By con-
trast, in defining the geographical scope of the reservation, Canada
referred to an international treaty, the NAFO Convention. This was

already an indication that the expression "conservation and management
measures" - a vital objective of the Convention - should in the inter-
ests of consistency be construed in the light of international law.

69. It should also be noted in this regard that a "Fisheries Commis-
sion", set up under the NAFO Convention, operates within the Regula-
tory Area defined in that Convention. Hence the "conservation and man-
agement measures" adopted by Canada in that same geographical area
are additional to those adopted by this international body. It therefore

cannot be right to have recourse to Canadian law - which is not men-
tioned at al1in the reservation - in order to define such measures where
they have been taken by Canada, whilst identical measures in the same
area fa11to be interpreted by reference to international law when they
result from the activity of the NAFO Fisheries Commission. We may
note in passing - although this is an issue whose solution is for the mer-
its of the case- that here too Canada's legal title to take such measures
appears to be in question, since this is a matter apparently entrusted by

treaty to an international body. The NAFO Convention, which gives
Statesthe right to objectto any measuresto be adopted by the Commission,
does not in any way encroach upon the rights offlag Statesin the NAFO
Regulatory Area, since such measures are taken in CO-operationwith the
Statesconcerned.This is a clear indication that it is not possible to inter-
pret the "conservation and management measures" taken by Canada in a
manner totally differentfrom that applicable to similar measures taken in
the same zone by NAFO bodies.

70. Moreover, as 1 have already pointed out, Canada did not specify
in reservation (d) what it meant by "conservation and management
measures". If we accordingly look simply to the objectiveintention of the
declarant State, it would not be unreasonable to take the view that it
wished this expression to have the meaning that it has in international
law - al1the more so, we must remember, in that this reservation by
Canada was addressed to the community of those other declarant States

participating in the optional clause "system". Furthermore, in seeking tosion considérée,le Canada s'est lui-même réfép rar analogie à la juris-
prudence du Plateau continental de lamer Egée,dans laquellel'expression

((statut territorial)) avait étéinterprétée non paspar référenceau droit
interne grec, mais d'aprèsle droit international.

71. Le conceptde ((mesuresde gestion et de conservation)) ne peut pas
renvoyer, contrairement à ce qu'affirme l'arrêtà quelque chose de sim-
plement «factuel» ou «technique», mais à des types de mesures que le
((nouvelordrejuridique de lamer» a peu à peu réglementést,ant et sibien
que les mesures considéréesreprésentent aujourd'hui une catégorie juri-
dique objectivene pouvant relever que du droit international. L'expres-
sion ((mesuresde gestion et de conservation)) des ressources biologiques
de la haute mer a étéconsacréetout au long de la troisième conférence
des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer et a bénéficid'un droit de cité

dans le texte définitif dela convention deontego Bay du 10décembre
1982,plus précisémentdans les articles 116 à 120 de ladite convention,
auxquels s'ajoutent l'article 63 relatif aux stocks chevauchants, ainsi que
les articles 6467. C'estdonc dans ce que le préambule de la convention
de Montego Bay appelle le nouvel «ordre juridique des mers et des
océans))que l'expression((mesuresde conservation et de gestion» a reçu
sa consécrationinternationale. Et c'estcenouvel ordre qui, travers cette
convention de 1982et son complément, a étéconsidéré,par la jurispru-
dence internationale et par la pratique des Etats, comme l'expression
actuelle del'opiniojuris.
72. Or cette conventionde Montego Bay, qui n'a certes pasété ratifiée
à cejour par le Canada, mais àlaquelle il ne s'estpas moins réfédevant
la Cour (laquelle y a aussi recouru, notamment au paragraphe 70 de son
arrêt) disposeen son article2, paragraphe 4, que «les lois et règlements))
édictéspar 1'Etatcôtier en matière de conservation pour sa zone écono-

mique exclusive doiventrester conformes à sespropres dispositions. Ainsi
le droit international de la mer sepréoccupede la nature des ((mesuresde
gestion et de conservation)) mêmelorsqu'il s'agit d'une zone de pêche
placéesous la juridiction del'Etat côtier. Une telle disposition ne serait
pas cohérentesi par ailleurs, en haute mer,1'Etatcôtier étaitlaissélibre
de prendre des ((mesures de gestion et de conservation» non conformes
au droit international. De fait les articles 11719de la convention de
Montego Bay contiennent des règlesdétaillées concernant la coopération
entre Etats pour la mise au point de telles mesures en haute mer et faci-
litant l'organisation et lefonctionnement de cettecoopération.C'estdonc
par référenceau droit international de la mer que les ((mesuresde gestion
et de conservation))doivent s'entendre dans la réserved) du Canada.

73. La définition, oudes éléments essentieldse définition, des((mesuresgive this expression the meaning which it claimed for it, Canada itself
cited the decision in the Aegean Sea Continental Shelf case, in which

the term "territorial status" was interpreted not by reference to Greek
domestic law but in accordance with international law.

71. Contrary to what the Judgment States,the notion of "conservation
and management measures" cannot be confined to simple "factual" or
"technical" matters, but has to be taken to refer to those types of meas-
ure which the "new legal order of the sea" has been gradually regulating,
with the result that such measures now constitute an objective legal cat-
egory which cannot be other than part of international law. The expres-
sion "conservation and management measures" of the living resources of
the high seas was the accepted one throughout the Third United Nations
Conference on the Law of the Sea and was enshrined in the final text
of the Montego Bay Convention of 10 December 1982, specifically in
Articles 116 to 120, and also in Article 63 on straddling stocks and

Articles 64 to 67. The expression "conservation and management meas-
ures" thus received international recognition in what the preamble to the
Montego Bay Convention calls the new "legal orderfor the seas and
oceans". And it is this new order which, through the 1982 Convention
and its supplementing instruments, has been treated by international
jurisprudence and by State practice as the current expression of the
opiniojuris .

72. The Montego Bay Convention, which admittedlyhas not yet been
ratified by Canada but to which it nonetheless referred before the Court
(which itself also referred to it, in particular in paragraph 70 of the Judg-
ment) provides in Article 62, paragraph 4, that the "laws and regula-
tions" enacted by a coastal State for conservation purposes in its exclu-
sive economic zone must respect the rules of the Convention itself. Thus
the international law of the sea does concern itself with the nature of
"conservation and management measures", even in relation to a fishing
zone which is under the jurisdiction of a coastal State. Such a provision
would lack consistency if, on the high seas, a coastal State remained free

to take "conservation and management measures" which conflicted with
international law. Articles 117to 119of the Montego Bay Convention do
in fact contain detailed rules for CO-operationamong States in establish-
ing such measures for the high seas and for promoting its organization
and functioning. It is therefore by reference to the international law of
the sea that we must view the "conservation and management measures"
of the Canadian reservation (d) .

73. A definition of "conservation and management measures", ordegestionet deconservation))setrouvent dans denombreux textes interna-
tionaux, venus après la convention de Montego Bay de 1982.

74. Mais, avant de lesciter icà titre illustratif, il ne faut pas perdre de
vue que les élémentsdéfinitionnelsdc eesmesures et lesconditions de leur
exécution(par voie de coopération)figuraient déjàen 1978 (à une époque
où la liberté de la pêche ehaute mer étaitmoins limitée)dans la conven-
tion OPANO elle-même,dont le mandat est, selon l'article 11.1 «de
contribuer,par la consultation et la coopérationà l'utilisationoptimaleà
lagestion rationnelleet cila conservation desressourceshalieutiques de la
Zone de la convention)).
75. Je rappellerai d'abord l'accord visanta favoriser le respectpar les
navires depêche eh naute mer des mesures internationales de conservation
et de gestion,approuvéle 24 novembre 1993par la résolution 15/93de la
vingt-septièmesession de la conférence dela FAO. L'article 1b) dispose
que :

«par ((mesures internationales de conservation et de gestion)) on
entend les mesures visant à conserver ou à gérer uneou plusieurs
espèces de ressources biologiques marines, qui sont adoptées et
appliquées conformémentaux règlespertinentes du droit internatio-
nal telles que reflétéesdans la convention des Nations Unies sur
le droit de la mer de 1982.Ces mesures peuvent être adoptéessoit
par des organisations mondiales, régionalesou sous-régionales s'oc-
cupant des pêches,sous réserve des droits et obligations de leurs

membres, soit par accord international)) (les italiques sont de moi).
76. Cet article offre ainsi les éléments définitionnels t contenu des
mesures en mêmetemps qu'ildésignel'auteur de tellesmesures. Apparem-
ment, un raisonnement a contrariopermet de penser que cet article exclut
toute possibilitépour 1'Etatde prendre lui-même cesmesures par référence
à son propre droit interne dèslors qu'il en destinel'applicatiànla haute

mer que cet accord vise.L'Etat peut «recevoir» dans son droit interne ces
mesuresinternationalement définieset doit en assurer l'exécution.Cepoint
de vue est confirmé,ce qui est intéressant a relever en l'espèce,dans le
deuxièmeparagraphe du préambule decet accord, qui préciseque c'est «en
vertu du droit international))que ((tousles Etats)) prennent «les mesures
nécessairespour assurer la conservationet la gestion des ressourcesbiolo-
giques de la haute mer» (lesitaliques sont de moi).
77. L'article XI, paragraphe 3, du mêmeaccord, consacré au règle-
ment des différends,se réfère expressémena tux ((règlesde droit interna-
tional relativeà la conservation des ressourcesbiologiques marines)). Et
c'est un peu partout que le texte de l'accord qualifie les mesures dont
nous parlons de ((mesures internationales de conservation et de gestion))
(voir les sixième et huitième considérants du préambule, et les ar-
ticles V.l, VI.8 a) et b), VIII.2 et VIII.3).

78. Quant au Code de conduitepour unepêcheresponsable,adoptépar
la conférencede la FA0 à sa sessionsuivante,la vingt-huitième,le 31octo-
bre 1995,il se présenteà la lecture avec les caractéristiques suivantes: essential elements of it, appears in numerous international instruments
subsequent to the Montego Bay Convention of 1982.
74. However, before 1 cite them to illustrate my point, we must not
forget that the definitional elements of these measures and the conditions
for their enforcement (through CO-operation) were already present in
1978 - at a time when freedom of fishing on the high seas was less
restricted - in the NAFO Convention itself, whose object, as stated in
Article II (l), is "to contribute through consultation and cooperation to
the optimum utilization, rational management and conservation of the
Jishery resources of the Convention Area".
75. 1would refer first to the Agreement to Promote Compliance with
International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Ves-
sels on the High Seas, adopted by the FA0 Conference on 24 November

1993at its twenty-seventh session in resolution 15/93.Article 1 (b) pro-
vides that :
"'international conservation and management measures' means
measures to conserve or manage one or more species of living
marine resources that are adopted and applied in accordance with

the relevant rules of international law as reflected in the 1982United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Such measures mav be
adopted either by global, regional or subregional fisheries orgakiza-
tions, subject to the rights and obligations of their members, or by
treaties or other international agreements" (emphasis added).

76. This provision thus not only supplies both the definitionalelements

and the content of such measures, but also States who may adopt them.
Arguing a contrario,this provision would appear to preclude a State alto-
gether from taking such measures itself on the basis of its own domestic
law, where it intends them to be applied on the high seas, which is gov-
erned by the Agreement. A State may "receive" such internationally
definedmeasures into its domestic law and must provide for their enforce-
ment. It is interesting to note, for purposes of the present case, that this
position finds confirmation in the second paragraph of the preamble to
the Agreement, which provides that it is "under international law" that
"al1States" are to take "such measures . . .as may be necessary for the
conservationof the living resourcesof the high seas" (emphasis added).
77. In Article IX of the Agreement, "Settlement of Disputes", there is
an express reference in paragraph 3 to the "rules of international law

relating to the conservation of living marine resources". Moreover, scat-
tered references throughout the Agreement describe the measures which
concern us here as "international conservation and management meas-
ures" (seethe sixth and eighth recitals of the preamble and Articles V (l),
VI (8) (a) and (b), VI11(2) and VI11(3).
78. As regards the Code of Conductfor Responsible Fisheries,adopted
by the FA0 Conferenceat itsfollowing(twenty-eighth) sessionon 31Octo-
ber 1995,a reading of the text reveals the followingcharacteristics: 79. a) Tout le code est bâti sur l'idéemotrice que I'Etat ne peut
prendre de mesures de conservation et de gestion que dans les zones
sous sajuridiction; pour la haute mer, ces mesures sont dites «internatio-
nales)) et ne s'apprécient pas par rapport au droit interne d'un Etat.
C'est ce code international qui définitces mesures de conservation ou de
gestion. Les citations ci-après,parmi d'autres, du mêmecode, le montrent
clairement :

«Le présentcode déjinitdesprincipes et des normes internationalesde
comportement ...en vue d'assurer effectivement la conservation, la
gestion et le développementdes ressources bio-aquatiques. » (Préam-
bule.)
«Le présentcode est facultatif. Cependant certainesparties de celui-ci
sont baséessur des règlespertinentes du droit international,y compris
celles qui sont reflétéesdans la convention des Nations Unies sur le
droit de la mer du 10décembre1982 ..(et dans) d'autresinstruments
juridiques, tels que l'accord de1993visant à favoriser le respect par les
navires de pêche en haute mer des mesures internationalesde conser-
vation et de gestion, qui, conformément à la résolution no 15/93,
paragraphe 3, de la conférence dela FAO, est une partie intégrante
du code» (art. 1.1).

«Le code a une portéemondiale))(art. 1.2)et ((contient desprincipes
et des normes applicables à l'aménagement etau développement de
toutes les pêcheries))(art. 1.3).
Plus généralement,les objectifs du code sont articulés comme suit:
((établir,conformémentaux normes de droit internationalpertinentes,
des principes [de] pêche»(art. 2 a)) et ((servir d'instrument de réfé-
rencepour aider les Etats à mettre en place ou améliorerle cadrejuri-
dique et institutionnel que requiert l'exercice de la pêcherespon-
sable» (art. 2 c)). (Tous les italiques sont de moi.)

80. b) Le code déclare, àmaints endroits, que les ((mesuresde conser-
vation et de gestion des ressources halieutiques »sont des ((mesuresinter-
nationales» établies((conformémentau droit international)) :

Les mesures considéréessont des ((mesuresinternationales de conser-
vation et de gestion» (art. 7.8).
Evoquant la coopération interétatique, le code parle de ((normes
internationales portant ...sur la conservation et la gestion des res-
sources halieutiques ainsi que (de) l'application effective de ces nor-
mes» (art. 11.2.11). Il préciseque «les Etat devraient, conformément
au droit international,coopérer ...pour mettre en place des systèmes
de suivi, de contrôle et de surveillance, ainsi que d'exécution des
mesures applicables ...» (art. 8.1.4).
A l'article 6, ((Principesgénéraux))f,igure une disposition tout à fait
éclairante et utile pour le présentarrêt:

((6.10. Dans les limites de leurs compétencesrespectiveset confor-
mémentau droit international, les Etats devraient assurer le respect 79. (a) The entire Code is built around the guidingprinciple that the
State cannot take conservation and management measures except in
areas under its jurisdiction; in the case of the high seas, such measures
are described as "international" and they are not to be construed by ref-
erence to a State's domestic law. It is the international Code which
definessuch conservationand managementmeasures. The followingquo-

tations from the Code - inter alia - clearly demonstrate this:
- "This Code sets out principles and international standards of behav-
iour . .. with a view to ensuring the effective conservation, manage-
ment and development of living aquatic resources." (Preamble.)

- "This Code is voluntary. However, certain parts of it are based on
relevant rules of international law, including those reflected in the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December
1982 . . [and in] other . . .legal instruments. . .such as the Agree-
ment to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and
Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas, 1993,
which, according to FA0 Conference resolution 15/93,paragraph 3,
forms an integral part of the Code" (Art. 1.1).

- "The Code isglobal inscope" (Art. 1.2)and "provides principles and
standards applicable to the . . .management and development of al1
fisheries" (Art. 1.3).

- More generally,the objectivesof the Code areto "establishprinciples,
in accordancewith the relevant rules of international law,for ... fish-
ing" (Art. 2.1) and "serve as an instrument of referenceto help States
to establish or to improve the legal and institutional framework
required for the exerciseof responsible fisheries" (Art. 2.3). (Empha-
sis added in each case.)

80. (b) The Code states on numerous occasions that measures for
"conservation and management of fisheriesresources" are "international
rneasures"established "in accordance with international law".

- The measures concerned are "international conservation and manage-
ment measures" (Art. 7.8).
- In regard to CO-operationamong States, the Code speaks of "inter-
national standardsfor ... living aquatic resources conservation" and
of their "effective implementation" (Art. 11.2.11). It provides that
"States should, in accordancewith international law, .. .cooperate to
establish systems for monitoring, control, surveillance and enforce-
ment of applicable measures .. ." (Art. 8.1.4).

- Article 6, "General Principles", contains an illuminating and helpful
provision in relation to the present Judgment:

"6.10. Within their respective competence and in accordancewith
international law . . . States should ensure compliance with and et l'application des mesures de conservation et de gestion et mettre
au point des mécanismesefficaces, lorsqu'il y a lieu, pour surveiller
et contrôler les activités des naviresde pêche ..»
Et, à l'article 6.12, le code invite les Etatà coopérerdans les mêmes
limitesjuridiques et surtout leur recommande de limiter leur pouvoir de

prendre des mesures sur le plan interne pour veiller à leur compatibilité
avec les mesures internationales concernant la haute mer:
((6.12. Les Etats devraient, dans les limites de leurs compétences
respectives et conformément au droit international,coopérer ...pour
promouvoir la conservation et la gestion ...dans toute leur aire de

distribution, compte tenu de la nécessitéde prendre des mesures
compatibles s'étendant à l'intérieuret au-delà des limites de la juri-
diction nationale. ))(Les italiques sont de moi.)
C'est la mêmeidéequi prévaut pour la question spéciale des ((stocks
chevauchants », poissons «grands migrateurs » et poissons «de la haute
mer» :

7.3.2...lesmesures de conservation et de gestion établiespour ces
stocks, conformémentaux compétencesrespectivesdes Etats concer-
nés,devraient êtrecompatibles. Cette compatibilitédevrait êtreréa-
liséede manière conforme aux droits, compétences et intérêts des
Etats concernés. » (Les italiques sont de moi.)

81. c) Le code va jusqu'à préciserla méthode d'interprétation (ainsi
d'ailleurs que la méthode d'exécution)qu'il y a lieu de lui appliquer et
qu'il désigne commedevant êtrela méthodede ((droit international)) :

- «3.1. Le code s'interprèteet s'appliqueconformémentaux règlesper-
tinentes du droit international ..»
- ((3.2. Le code s'interprète et s'applique également
a) de manièrecompatibleavec les dispositionspertinentesde l'accord
aux fins d'application des dispositions de la convention (de Mon-

tego Bay) relatives à la conservation et à la gestion des stocks de
poissons ..chevauchants et des stocks de poissons grands migra-
teurs;
b) Conformémentaux autres normes applicables dedroit internatio-
nal;
c) à la lumière de la déclarationde Cancun de 1992,de la déclara-
tion de Rio de 1992sur l'environnement etle développement et du
Programme d'action 21, adopté par la conférence des Nations
Unies sur l'environnement et le développement(CNUED), ainsi
que d'autres déclarationset instruments internationaux. »(Les ita-
liques sont de moi.)

Tout l'arsenal juridique servant à l'interprétation (autant d'ailleurs
qu'à l'exécution)du concept demesuresdites ((internationales))de conser-
vation et de gestion, relèvedonc du droit international. enforcement of conservation and na nage mentmeasures and estab-
lish effectivemechanisms, as appropriate, to monitor and control the
activities of fishing vessels. .."
And in Article 6.12 the Code invites States to CO-operatesubject to the
same limits of the law, and in particular recommends them to curb their

power to take domestic measures, so as to ensure their compatibility with
international measures for the high seas:
"6.12. States should, within their respective competence and in
accordancewith international law, cooperate ... to promote conser-
vation and management . . .of living aquatic resources throughout
their rangeof distribution, taking into account the needfor compat-
ible measures in areas within and beyond national jurisdiction."
(Emphasisadded.)

The same notion governs the special issue of "straddling stocks",
"highly migratory" fish stocks and "high seas" fish stocks:

"7.3.2. . .. conservation and management measures established
for such stocks in accordancewith the respective competence of rele-
vant States . . . should be compatible. Compatibility should be
achieved in a manner consistent with the rights, competence and
interests of the States concerned." (Emphasis added.)

81. (c) The Code even specifiesthe means to be employed in its inter-
pretation (and also in its application), which, it States,is to be that result-
ing from "international law" :
- "3.1. The Code is to be interpreted and appliedin conformity with the
relevant rules of international law . . ."
- "3.2. the Code is also to be interpreted and applied:

(a) in a manner consistent with the relevant provisionsof the Agree-
ment for the Implementation of the [Montego Bay] Convention
Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling
Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks;

(b) in accordance with other applicable rules of international
law . ..;
(c) in the light of the 1992 Declaration of Cancun, the 1992 Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development,and Agenda 21
adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) . . . and other .. . declarations and
international instruments." (Emphasis added.)

Hence the entire arsenal of legal weapons employed in interpreting
(and equally in applying)the notion of so-called "international" conser-
vation and management measures derives from international law. 82. d) Restealors à vérifiermaintenant comment lecode déjnitconcrè-
tement et interprèteces mesures de conservationet de gestion. Le code se
réfèrebien évidemmentaux aspects techniques par lesquels se définissent
internationalement de telles mesures, mais il y ajoute d'autres facteurs
définitionnels, telsque les élémentssociaux, économiqueset institution-
nels, qui dépassentles aspects purement techniques, ce qui donne à la
définitionun caractère nécessairementinternational tenant compte de la
diversité desfacteurssociaux, économiqueset institutionnels de tous les
Etats concernés,auxquels s'ajoutent les aspects techniques uniformisés.
Ce n'estque lorsqu'on parvient à la lecturede l'article 7.6.9qu'il est ques-
tion des ((dispositions techniques concernant la taille des poissons, les

maillages ou les engins, lesrejets, les périodes etzones de fermeture de la
pêche,les zones réservées à des pêcheries spécifiques)l), protection des
((juvénileset des reproducteurs», ainsi que, d'une manièreplus générale,
la ((performance des engins techniques et pratiques)) (art. 7.6.4) dont
l'utilisation doit être((sélective,rentable et respectueuse de l'environne-
ment ». Et mêmeces mesures techniques ne sauraient êtredéfiniesunila-
téralement car elles sont le produit de la pratique des Etats et de leur
coopération(voir l'article 8.5 sur la sélectivitédes engide pêche).C'est
par cette coopération entre les Etats qu'ont étédéfinieset arrêtées ces
normes techniques internationalement uniformisées(voir l'article 8.5.4
relatif au programme de recherche sur la sélectivitdes engins de pêcheet
les ((méthodes stratégiques de pêche)), ainsi que sur «la diffusion des
résultats desdits programmes et le transfert de technologie)).
83. Et avant de se référer à tous ces aspects techniques, qui entrent

naturellement dans une définition des((mesuresde conservation et de
gestion)), définitionqui ne peut êtrequ'internationale eu égard à la pra-
tique et à la coopération des Etats pour l'élaborerpeu à peu, l'article
7.2.2du code,consacréaux objectifsde la gestiondes ressources, livreles
autres aspects de la définition deces mesures, qui comporte la prise en
compte des «considévationséconomiques))(art. 7.2.2 b)), des ((intérêts
des pêcheurs)) (7.2.2 c)), de la ((diversitébiologique des habitats et des
écosystèmesaquatiques» (7.2.2 d)), des ((effets sur l'environnement pré-
judiciables aux ressources))(7.2.2f)), de((la nécessité de réduiaru mini-
mum lapollution, legaspillage», etc. (7.2.2g)), pendant que l'article 7.4.5
met l'accent sur les((objectifssociaux et économiques»et sur les facteurs
((sociaux, économiques etinstitutionnels)).
84. En d'autres termes, la définition des((mesures de conservation et
de gestion))qui, qualifiéesou non expressément d'internationales,sont de

nature internationale de toutes lesfaçons,comporte deux aspects, l'un de
caractère technique, élaboré internationalementpeu à peu sous l'effetde
la pratique des Etats et uniformiséet systématisé grâce à la coopération
entre eux, et l'autre de caractère ((social,économique et institutionnel))
qui prend en compte les spécificitédses différentsEtats concernés,le tout
étant fondu dans une approche nécessairementinternationale desdites
mesures de conservations de gestion.
85. On notera au passage que c'est tout à fait dans le mêmeesprit 82. (d) It now remains to be seenhow the Code definessuch conserva-
tion and management measures in practice and how it interprets them.
Obviously, it refers to the technical characteristics whereby such meas-
ures are defined internationally, but it also includesin the definition mat-
ters of a social, economic or institutional nature, which go beyond the
purely technical aspects, thereby necessarily making the definition an
international one, having regard to the diversity of social, economic and

institutional factors in the various States concerned, which it then sup-
plements with the standardized technical elements.Not until Article 7.6.9
is there any mention of "technical measures related to fish size, meshsize
or gear, discards, closed seasons and areas and zones reservedfor selected
fisheries", protection of "juveniles and spawners", and in more general
terms the "performance of . . .fishing gear, methods and practices"
(Art. 7.6.4),the use of which must be "selective,environmentally safe and
cost effective".And even these technical measures cannot be defined uni-
laterally, since they are the outcome of State practice and CO-operation
(seeArticle 8.5 on fishing gear selectivity).It is this CO-operationamong
States that has been instrumental in defining and agreeing these inter-
nationally standardized technical norms (see Article 8.5.4 relating to
research programmes for fishing gear selectivity and "fishing methods
and strategies", and to "dissemination of the results of such researchpro-

grammes and the transfer of technology").

83. Before referring to these various technical aspects - these being
natural components of any definition of "conservation and management
measures", a definition which can only be international, givenits gradua1
emergence out of State practice and CO-operation - the Code, in
Article 7.2.2, which deals with resource management objectives, sets out
the other aspects of the definition ofsuchmeasures: "economicconsidera-
tions" (Art. 7.2.2 (b)), "interests offishers" (7.2.2 (c)), "biodiversity of
aquatic habits and ecosystems" (7.2.2 (d)), "adverse environmental
impacts on the resources" (7.2.2 (f)) and the need to minimize 'pollution,
waste" etc. (7.2.2 (g)); while Article 7.4.5 lays emphasis on the "social
and economic objectives" and the "social, economic and institutional"
factors.

84. In other words the definition of "conservation and management
measures" - which are in any event international, whether or not
expressly described as such - has two aspects: one technical, gradually
developedinternationally through State practice and standardized in sys-
tematic fashion through State CO-operation;the other "social, economic
and institutional", taking account of the particular characteristics of the
various States concerned; and the whole combines to produce a neces-
sarily international approach to such conservation and management
measures.
85. It may be noted in passing that exactly the same spirit governs the qu'ont étépris la ((déclarationet [le]plan d'action de Kyoto sur la contri-
bution durable des pêches à la sécuritéalimentaire)) du 9 décembre1995.
Nous y lisons que:

((Nous les 95 Etats réunisà Kyoto du 4 au 9 décembre1995 ...

Déclarons que nous devrions, sans porter préjudiceaux droits et
obligations des Etats conformémentau droit international ...

5. Prendre les mesures nécessairespour l'application du code de
conduite pour la pêcheresponsable de la FA0 ...et envisager de
devenir partie ... de l'accord visantà promouvoir le respect par les
navires pêchanten haute mer des mesures internationales de conser-

vation et d'aménagement,et instituer en conséquencela législation et
la réglementation nationales appropriées en temps opportun. »
86. Cette mêmedéclaration demande aue. dans la définition des me-
LA
sures en question, les Etats éprouvent«un plus grand respect et une plus
grande compréhension des différences sociales,économiques et cultu-
relles qui existent entre les Etats et les régionsconcernant l'utilisation
des ressources aquatiques vivantes et en particulier la diversité culturelle
des habitudes alimentaires, en conformité avec les objectifs de gestion)).
Et, ce qui nous éloignebeaucoup des simples aspects techniques de la
définition desdites mesures, la mêmedéclaration estime qu'il faut tenir
compte de «iii) l'amélioration du bien-êtreéconomiqueet social)) et de
«iv) l'équitéau sein d'une générationet entre les générations)).
87. On pourrait citer encore de nombreux autres instruments interna-
tionaux ou régionaux. Par exemple la conférence diplomatique des
12-14décembre1994,tenue en Crète «sur la coopérationdes Etats pour la

conservation des ressources en Méditerranée)),s'est référée à ce qu'elle a
appelé un ((systèmede conservation et de gestion harmonisé)),lequel ne
peut pas seconcevoir dans une définitionpurement propre au droit interne
d'un Etat particulier. Et la déclaration de Barcelone sur la coopération
euro-méditerranéennedu 28 novembre 1995 s'est référée à son tour à ce
«système»pour prévoir «une action de suiviappropriée ...dans le domaine
juridique...)) On se bornera à n'évoquer encorequ'un autre instrument
ré"ional. la((déclarationsolennelle des 27-29 novembre 1996de l'Union
européennesur la conservation et la gestion des ressources halieutiques en
Méditerranée)), quicite à son tour un nombre assez considérable de
conventions et déclarations internationales qui montrent toute la richesse

des efforts de réglementation internationale. Cette ((déclaration solen-
nelle))de l'Union européennea estimé ((indispensable d'assurerle respect
des mesures internationales en matière de conservation et de gestion des
ressources halieutiques des organisations régionales de gestion compéten-
tes» et, en son paragraphe 6, elle a viséelle aussi l'élaboration'un sys-
tèmede conservation et de g"stion harmonisé» à l'échelleméditerranéenne
et a nommé à cet effet «un groupe d'experts juridiques et techniques)).Kyoto Declaration and Plan of Action of 9 December 1995on the sus-
tainable contribution of fisheriesto food security, which reads:

"We the 95 States meeting in Kyoto from 4 to 9 December
1995.. .
Declare that we should, without prejudice to the rights and obli-
gations of States under international law . ..
.............................

5. Take steps for effectiveapplication of the FA0 Code of Con-
duct for Responsible Fisheries, and consider becoming parties to
the .. .Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Con-
servation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the
High Seas, and enact, correspondingly, appropriate domestic legis-
lation and regulations in a timely manner."

86. The Declaration calls on States, in defining the measures in ques-
tion, to increase "respect and understanding of social, economic and cul-
tural differences among States and regions in the use of living aquatic
resources, especially cultural diversity in dietary habits, consistent with
management objectives7'.And, moving well away from the purely tech-
nical element in the definition of such measures,the Declaration calls for
attention to be given to "(iii) improvement in economic and social well-
being" and "(iv) inter- and intra-generational equity".

87. Numerous other international and regional instruments might be
cited. For example, the diplomatic conference held in Crete from 12 to
14December 1994on CO-operationamong States for the conservation of
resources in the Mediterranean referred to what it called a harmonized
system of conservation and management, something which cannot be

envisaged under a definition solelyin terms of the domestic law of a par-
ticular State. And the Barcelona declaration of 28 November 1995 on
Euro-Mediterranean CO-operationitself referred to that system in a pro-
vision for "appropriate follow-up action in the legal sphere". 1shall con-
fine myself to citing only one further regional instrument, the solemn
declaration of 27-29November 1996bythe European Union on the con-
servation and management of fisheries resources in the Mediterranean,
which itself refers to a very large number of international conventions
and declarations, revealing the wealth of efforts being made towards
international regulation. This solemn declaration of the European Union
considered it "essential to secure respect for international measures for
conservation and management of fisheriesresources taken by competent
regional management organizations" and, in paragraph 6, it too referred
to the development "of a harmonized system for conservation and man-
agement" at the Mediterranean level, and for that purpose it set up "a
group of legal and technical experts". 88. On constate ainsi, à travers tous les instruments internationaux
analysés ci-dessus, quela communauté internationale a ressenti de plus
en plus le besoin de rationaliser et d'harmoniser les mesures de conserva-
tion et de gestion pour qu'elles soient compatibles entre cellesprises par
1'Etat pour ses zones maritimes et celles adoptées par la communauté
internationale pour les zones libres de la haute mer. Un appel est lancé
travers ces instruments à tous les Etats pour que dans leur législationils
se conforment à des critèrescommuns dégagéset harmonisés par lesdits
instruments.
89. La convention des Nations Unies sur les stocks chevauchants et
poissons grands migrateurs, adoptée le 4 août 1995,n'est certes toujours

pas encoreentréeen vigueur, mais ellea étésignéetant par l'Espagne que
par le Canada, respectivement le 3 décembre1996et le 4 décembre1995.
L'article premier, paragraphe 1 b), de cette convention a définiles me-
sures de conservation et de gestion comme étant ((les mesures qui sont
adoptées ouappliquéesde manière compatibleavec les règlespertinentes
du droit international tellesqu'ellesressortent de la convention et dupré-
sent accord..»
90. On constate ainsi, et une fois de plus, que la définitionne se réduit
pas à des éléments techniques, maisqu'elle intègre aussi l'élémentfort
important, qui est la conformité au droit international,et qui constitue la
condition essentielle pour qualifier juridiquement les mesures de conser-
vation et de gestion. L'arrêt en son paragraphe 70 dissocie les éléments
techniques de l'élémentde conformité au droit international public, en
écartantce dernier sous prétexte qu'il soulèvele problème de la licéitde

ces mesures que la Cour s'interdit d'examiner en la présentephase. C'est
là une opération réductricetotalement injustifiée.Certes cet élément pose
le problème de la licéitédes mesures, mais ce n'est absolument pas une
raison pour l'écarter de la définition,alors mêmeque le législateurinter-
national déclare dans un très grand nombre d'instruments internatio-
naux, comme la convention des Nations Unies de 1995 ci-dessus, qu'il
reconnaît ces mesures dites d'ailleurs ((internationales))de conservation
et de gestionà différentsfacteurs, tant techniques quejuridiques. Que ces
derniersposent un problème delicéité esstans pertinence aucune pour les
rejeter de la définition,qui sert ici de simplentijîcation de cesmesures.

9 1. La Cour procèdelà de surcroît par une simple affirmation, et c'est
là le point sans doute le plus faible de son arrêt,lorsqu'elle affirme que

((l'autorité dont[ces] mesures émanent,la zone qu'elles affectent et la
manièredont leur exécutionest prévuenefont pas partie des caractéris-
tiques essentielles inhérentàsla notion mêmede mesures degestion et de
conservation)).La Cour évacue à bon compte, ce faisant, tout l'objet du
différend.
92. En amputant de tout ce qui estjuridique une définition qu'ellepré-
tend vouloir pourtant ((juridique)), la Cour semble dire que les mesures
canadiennes sont des mesures techniques courantes acceptéeset suivies
partout dans le monde. C'est une affirmation grave. Car alors il suffità 88. The various international instruments discussed above are evi-
dence that the international community has increasingly felt the need to
rationalize and harmonize conservation and management measures in
order to ensure that those taken by a State in respect of its maritime
zones are compatible with those adopted by the international community
in respect of the free zones of the high seas. These instruments appeal to
al1States to see to it that their legislation conforms to common criteria,
identified and harmonized by those instruments.

89. The United Nations Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and
Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, adopted on 4 August 1995, has not of
course entered into force, but it was signed by both Spain and Canada,
on 3 December 1996and 4 December 1995respectively. Article 1, para-
graph 1 (b), of the Convention defined conservation and management
measures as "measures to conserve and manage one or more species of
living marine resources that are adopted and applied consistent with the
relevant rules of international law as reflected in the Convention and this
Agreement".

90. Thus once again we find that the definition is not confined to tech-
nical elements but also incorporates the very important element of con-
formity with international law, which constitutes the prerequisite for the
legalcharacterization ofconservation and managementmeasures. In para-
graph 70 the Judgrnent divorces the technical aspectsfrom the element of
conformity with public international law, dismissing the latter on the pre-
text that it raises the problem of the legality of such measures, which the
Court cannot consider in the present phase. This reductionist approach is
totally unjustified. The element of conformity does indeed raise the prob-
lem of the legality of the measures, but that is absolutely no reason for
excluding it from the definition, at a time when a very substantial body of
international instruments, includingthe 1995United Nations Convention

mentioned above, demonstrates that the international legislator recog-
nizes such conservation and management measures - which are morë-
over referred to as "international" - in light of various factors, both
technical and legal. The fact that the latter raise an issue of legality is
totally irrelevant to whether or not they should be included in the defini-
tion, which here serves simply to identify the measures in question.
91. What is more, the Court's approach to this issue consists in a
simple assertion - and this is undoubtedly the weakest point in its Judg-
ment - that "the authority from which such measures derive, the area
affected by them, and the way in which they are to be enforced do not
belong to the essential attributes intrinsic to the very concept of conserva-

tion and management measures". In this way the Court quietly disposes
of the entire subject-matter of the dispute.
92. In emptying of al1legal content a definition which it seeks none-
theless to present as a "legal" one, the Court appears to be saying that
the Canadian measures are routine technical measures which are accepted
and adopted worldwide. That is a serious assertion. For if this is whatn'importe quel Etat, côtier ou non, pour pouvoir agir comme il l'entend
dans n'importe quelle zone, de haute mer ou sous juridiction nationale,
de se conformer aux prescriptions techniques identifiées dans l'arrêt
(nature des filets, sélection des pêchese,tc.). Que restera-t-il alors de la
liberté de la haute mer? Car si la Cour se déclareincompétente, elle
n'aura jamais l'occasion de passer au stade du fond, celui de la licéit. 'il
y a un domaine où l'aspect ((ratione loci)) a le plus d'importance, c'est
dans celui du droit de la mer. Ce n'est pas à proprement parler la ques-
tion de la licéitque j'évoqueici, en m'exposant trop facilement à la cri-
tique de vouloir prématurémentexaminer le fond. C'est plutôt l'élément
ratione materiae, c'est-à-dire la définitiondes mesures de gestion et de
conservation qui m'importe ici.

93. L'arrêt donnedes mesures de conservation et de gestion une défini-
tion incomplèteet partielle qui se contredit par la pratique internationale
des Etats sur laquelle il a cherché à se fonder. L'arrêtne tient pas non
plus assez compte de l'approche nouvelle de la notion internationale des
((mesuresde conservation et de gestion)), telle qu'elle était déjàpercep-
tible au cours de la première conférence desNations Unies sur le droit de
la mer avec la ((convention sur la pêcheet la conservation des ressources
biologiques», puis telle qu'elle s'est concrétiséedans la convention de
Montego Bay, et telle enfinqu'ellea été décritedéjàen 1974par l'arrêtde
la Cour en l'affaire des pêcheries,qui déclare:

«L'un des progrès dont le droit international maritime est rede-
vable à l'intensification de la pêcheest que,à l'ancienne attitude de
laisser faire l'égarddes ressources biologiques de la haute mer, se
substituedésormaisla reconnaissance qu'il existeun devoir de prêter
une attention suffisante aux droits d'autres Etats ainsi qu'aux impé-
ratifs de la conservation dans l'intérêd te tous» (Compétence en
matière de pêcheries(Royaume- Uni c. Islande), fond, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1974, p. 31, par. 72; les italiques sont de moi).

94. Il est touà fait clair que cette nouvelle approche ne pouvait être,
et n'a été enfait, qu'une approche internationale, sans quoi on aurait
substituéau désordre de la surpêche,un autre désordre, celui créépar
chaque Etat de prendre à sa guise et en tout lieu les mesures de conserva-
tion et de gestion qu'il veut. Limiter ce progrèsàune simple harmonisa-
tion des élémentstechniques de la pêche, commel'a fait l'arrêt,c'est

ignorer tout le renouveau juridique qui, désormais, et depuis deux ou
trois décennies,entoure ces mesures de conservation et de gestion et qui
exprimejuridiquement un besoinprofond des Etats de clarijîcation,d'har-
monisation et de coopération. Ces mesures ne peuvent donc pas être
réduites à n'importe quel acte que prendrait un Etat sur le plan des seuls
choix techniquesde conservation, en oubliant qu'ellesdoivent désormais
s'insérerdans un réseauinternational de droits et d'obligations que les
Etats se sont créé.La logique économiqueet la logiquejuridique doivent
ici se conjuguer,et se conjuguent enfait dans tous les instruments inter-they are, any State, whether coastal or not, in order to be able to act as
and wherever it wishes, whether on the high seas or in areas under
national jurisdiction, will merely have to satisfy the technical require-
ments which are identified in the Judgrnent (type of nets, regulation of
catches,etc.).What will then be left of the freedom of the high seas? For,
once the Court finds that it lacks jurisdiction, it will never have the
opportunity to move on to the merits stage, the issue of legality. If there
is any sphere of law in which the ratione loci aspect is of the greatest

importance, it is the law of the sea. It is not the issue of legality as such
that 1 seek to raise here; that would lay me open al1too easily to the
charge of pre-empting an examination of the merits. What concerns me
rather is the ratione materiae aspect, that is to Say,the definition of con-
servation and management measures.
93. The Judgment gives an incomplete and partial definition of con-
servation and management measures which is contradicted by the inter-
national practice of States in which it sought its basis. Nor does the
Judgment take sufficient account of the new approach embodied in the
international concept of "conservation and management measures", an
approach which was already evident at the First United Nations Confer-

ence on the Law of the Sea and resulted in the Convention on Fishing
and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas; it was then
formalized in the Montego Bay Convention, and had in fact been
described as early as 1974in the Court's Judgment in the fisheries case:
"It is one of the advances in maritime international law, resulting

from the intensification of fishing, that the former laissez-faire treat-
ment of the living resources of the sea in the high seas has been
replaced by a recognition of a duty to have due regard to the rights
of other States and the needs of conservationfor the beneJitof all."
(Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Merits, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 31, para. 72; emphasis added.)

94. It is perfectly clear that this new approach could only be - and
indeed has been - an international one; otherwise the chaos created by
overfishingwould have been replaced by chaos of a differentkind - that
produced by each State taking, as and wherever it thought fit, whatever
conservation and management measures it wished. To limit this advance
to a simple harmonization of the technical aspects of fishing, as the Judg-
ment has done, is to ignore the entire development, both now and over
the last two or three decades, in the law on conservation and manage-
ment measures, a process which givesjudicial expression to a profound

need on the part of States for clar$cation, harmonization and CO-opera-
tion. Such measures cannot therefore simply be reduced to any act done
by a State with regard to its choice of conservation techniques, whilst
ignoring the fact that these measures now have to be incorporated into
an international network of rights and obligations which States have cre-
ated for themselves. Here, economiclogic andlegal logichave to combinenationaux pour éviterle désordreaussi bien d'unesurpêche sauvage que
d'uneréglementationillicite. La question de la conformitéau droit inter-
national fait partie intégrante de la définitioninternationale des mesures
de conservation et de gestion; elle est ((built in». Il ne s'agit pas ici de
juger au fond et de prononcer quelqueresponsabilitéque ce soit. Il s'agit
simplement de dire que l'interprétation de l'expression ((mesures de
conservation et de gestion» conduit à écarter laréserve.

95. Le paragraphe 70 de l'arrêta l'ambition de donner la définition
que le «droit international» offre de la notion de ((mesuresde gestion et
de conservation)), puisqu'il commencepar la formule: ((Selon le droit

international, ..» Mais le paragraphe s'achève curieusement par un
alinéadans lequel l'arrêt écarte de cette définition c,enséepourtant être
de ((droit international», tout ce qui se réfèreaux caractéristiquesjuridi-
ques (comme la qualitéou l'identité de l'auteurdesdites mesures ou la
nature des espacesmaritimes concernéspar elles),pour ne retenir que les
aspects techniqueset scientiJiquesde cesmesures. Comment le droit inter-
national peut-il livrerune définition aussi incomplètqui, priseà la lettre,
semblerait autoriser la violationdu principe le mieux établide ce même
droit international, celuide la liberté dela haute mer? Je ne puisme lais-
ser convaincre queje touche là à une question defond, celle de la licéité.
Je reste en réalitéen deçà, au seuil de cette question,pour observersim-
plement que, àsuivre l'arrêtl,e droit international s'autodétruiten livrant
une définitionquipermet de le transgresseraussifrontalement. Comment
pourrait-on ainsi opposer demanière aussiJEagrantele droit international

à lui-même?
96. C'est d'une telle approche que souffre l'arrêt, notammenten tous
sesparagraphes qui écartenttrop commodémentla question de la licéité,
et spécialementses paragraphes 54, 56, 79, 80, 85 et 87. A ne m'en tenir
qu'au paragraphe 79 de l'arrêt,je regrette que la Cour y ait affirmé
qu'«aucune règled'interprétationn'exigeque des réservessoientinterpré-
téescomme visant uniquement des actes compatibles avec le droit inter-
national ...[C]eserait là confondre licéitédes actes et consentement à la
juridiction..» Ce serait parfaitement exact s'il nes'étaitagi que d'inter-
prétation. Maisici, on ne saurait interpréter un élément constitutifd'une
définitioninternationale à l'exclusiond'un autre, faisant pourtant partie
de la mêmedéfinitionpar la volonté d'unlégislateurinternational. Tous
ces éléments sont préalablesà la démarche d'interprétation qui doitles
viser tous, sans écarter aucun d'entre eux.
97. Il n'est donc pas possible d'interpréter les mesures canadiennes

visant la haute mer en fonction de l'ordre juridique interne du Canada,
car c'est bien cela que l'arrêta fait en réalité, puisque ladéfinition des
mesures de conservation et de gestion que celui-ciprétend tirer du droit
international s'est finalementtrouvée réduite à une définitiontechnique
courante, la mêmequi inspire précisémentles législationet réglementa-
tion canadiennes,sanségard pour le respect du principede la libertéde la
haute mer. Sur la base de sa réserveainsi interprétéepar l'arrêt,le- as indeed they do in al1international instruments - in order to avoid
the chaos both of uncontrolled overjishingand of illegalregulation. Com-
patibility with international law is an integral part of the international
definition of conservation and management measures; it is "built in".
This is not to adjudicate on the merits or to make any ruling on respon-

sibility; it is simply to state that, on a true interpretation of the expres-
sion "conservation and management measures", the reservation cannot
be upheld.
95. Paragraph 70 ofthe Judgment sets out to give the definition to be
found in "international law" of the concept of "conservation and man-
agement measures", since it begins with the words: "According to inter-
national law, .. .". But, strangely,it ends with a paragraph in which the
Judgment removes from that definition - notwithstanding its claim to be
a definition under "international law" - al1references to the legal ele-
ments (such as the status or identity of the author of the measures or the

nature of the maritime area affected by them), retaining only the techni-
cal and scientiJic aspects. How could international law possibly supply
such an incomplete dejinition, which, taken literally, would appear to
authorize the violation of the most jirmly established principle of this
same international law, namelyfreedom of the high seas?I cannot beper-
suaded that I am touching here upon an issue goingto the merits, that of
legality. Zn reality I have stopped short of that, and wouldsimply point
out that, on the basis of the Judgment, international law is bent on a
courseof self-destruction in supplying a definition whichallows it to be so

directly violated. How is itpossible to turn international law against itself
in sojîagrant a manner ?
96. It is this kind of approach which flawsthe Judgment, including al1
those paragraphs in which the issue of legality is so conveniently dis-
missed, and especially paragraphs 54, 56, 79, 80, 85 and 87. Even con-
fining myself to paragraph 79, 1 find regrettable the Court's assertion
that "there is no rule of interpretation which requires that reservations
be interpreted so as to cover only acts compatible with international
law . . [Tlhis is to confuse the legality of the acts with consent to juris-
diction . . ."That would be perfectly correct if interpretation alone had

been involved.Here, though, it should not be the case that one constituent
element of an international definition is interpreted to the exclusion
of another, when an international legislatorhas made the latter a part of
the definition. Al1these elements areprerequisites for the process of inter-
pretation, which must look at them all, without exception.
97. It follows, therefore, that the Canadian measures relating to the
high seas cannot be interpreted on the basis of Canada's own interna1
legal order - for this in effectis what the Judgment has done - sincethe
definition of conservation and management measures which the Judg-

ment claims to draw from international law has ultimately been reduced
to a commonplace technical definition - the very same that underlies the
Canadian legislation and its implementing rules - without any regard
for respect of the principle of freedom of the high seas. On the basis of itsCanada est protégé contrela sanction du juge. Mais en véritlesmesures
de conservation et de gestion ne peuvent s'apprécier qu'au regarddu
droit international. S'ilen est ainsi, et il ne peut pas en aller autrement, la
Cour devait alors se déclarer compétenteàce stade et déterminer lors de
l'examendu fond si les mesures prises contre les bateaux espagnols cons-
tituaient effectivement des mesures de gestion et de conservation (voir
l'article9, paragraphe 7, du Règlement).

(SignéM ) ohammed BEDJAOUI.reservation as thus interpreted by the Judgment, Canada is protected
against judicial scrutiny. In reality, however, conservation and manage-
ment measures fa11to be assessed solelyby reference to international law.
If this is so and it cannot be othenvise - then the Court was bound to

declare itself competent at this stage and to undertake an examination of
the merits in order to determine whether the measures taken against the
Spanish vesselswere in fact conservation and management measures (see
Article 79, paragraph 7, of the Rules of Court).

(Signed) Mohammed BEDJAOUI.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Bedjaoui (translation)

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