Separate opinion of Judge Tomka

Document Number
091-20070226-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
091-20070226-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

310

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE TOMKA

The Court’s jurisdiction — Court informed FRY in 2003 that it could present
further argument on jurisdiction at merits stage — Court Statute and Rules do
not prohibit objections to jurisdiction at merits stage and Court must examine
such issues proprio motu if necessary — Principle of res judicata does not bar
Court’s reconsideration of its jurisdiction — Court’s Judgment of 11 July 1996

did not address the jurisdictional question now raised (whether FRY was party
to the Statute by virtue of United Nations membership when the Application
was filed in March 1993) and is thus not preclusive — Reviewing jurisdiction de
novo, Court has jurisdiction — Access to the Court under Article 35 distin-
guished from jurisdiction ratione personae — Access requirement now met
because FRY became a Member of the United Nations on 1 November 2000,
and has therefore had access to the Court since that date — Jurisdiction ratione
personae established because FRY has been party to Genocide Convention
since April 1992 under rule of ipso jure succession as applied to cases of State
dissolution — Fact that FRY did not have access to Court when Application
filed is remediable defect which does not, once remedied, preclude exercise of
jurisdiction.

Interpretation of Genocide Convention — Convention primarily instrument of
international criminal law which compels States to undertake to prevent geno-
cide and to punish its perpetrators — Drafting history of Convention does not
support view that States can be criminally responsible for genocide — Court’s
jurisdiction under Article IX encompasses the determination of whether a State
has breached its obligations under the Convention and the international respon-
sibility it incurs, but not the determination of whether the crime of genocide was
committed — Regarding obligation to prevent genocide, evidence has not estab-
lished that FRY authorities knew in advance of plan to execute Bosnian Muslim
men in Srebrenica, and thus could have acted to prevent it — FRY failed to
comply with some of the provisional measures ordered by the Court in 1993.

271311 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs
INTRODUCTION 1-4

I. THE COURT ’SJURISDICTION 5-36

1. Res judicata: What is its scope as far as the 1996 Judgment is
concerned? 11-13
2. Access and jurisdiction 14-15
3. Did the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia have access to the Court
in March 1993? 16-23
4. Ascertaining of the Court’s jurisdiction de novo 24-36

II. THE M ERITS 37-71

A. Interpretation of the Genocide Convention 37-61
1. Article I 40-45

2. Article II 46
3. Article III 47
4. Article IV 48
5. Article VI 49
6. Article IX 50-60

(a) Disputes relating to the fulfilment of the Convention 51-52
(b) Disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for
genocide 53-60

7. Conclusions on the interpretation of the Convention 61
B. Comments on some of the Court’s findings 62-71

1. The obligation to prevent 62-68
2. The responsibility for non-compliance with the Orders indi-
cating provisional measures 69-71

C ONCLUDING R EMARKS 72-73

272312 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

INTRODUCTION

1. The Judgment of the Court closes a particularly tragic case. When
the Court was seised of this case, the fratricidal war in Bosnia and Herze-

govina was raging. Over a period of more than four years, the Parties
now agree, the war claimed about 100,000 human lives, wounded count-
less others, and inflicted enormous material damage. It deeply affected
people in the region, further generating mistrust and sometimes outright
hatred between different ethnic and religious communities. It should

never have happened. Unfortunately, it did.

2. The Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina turned to the Court 14
years ago, in March 1993, in the midst of the bloody conflict which was
ravaging its territory. Among its most serious allegations, the Applicant,

the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, claimed that the Respondent,
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), engaged in multiple violations of
obligations under Articles I to V of the Genocide Convention. The Gov-
ernment of Bosnia and Herzegovina also requested the Court twice in

1993 to indicate provisional measures. The Court did so. Unfortunately,
the measures did not prevent further atrocities from being committed.
The Court has now found that the breach of the obligations under Arti-
cle I of the Genocide Convention occurred in July 1995. Yet, it was
unable to prevent that breach or the ensuing violence.

3. The courts are usually powerless to stop wars. Wars always involve
more than just legal disputes. In the United Nations system of collective
security, it is the Security Council which bears primary responsibility for

the maintenance of international peace and security. Courts usually can
only sort out ex post the legal consequences of the wars provided they
have jurisdiction over the particular case, and always within the strict
limits of such jurisdiction.

4. The dispute before the Court has involved two States, but it is not
only an inter-State dispute. It also has an intra-State dimension within
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs

attempted in 1999 to withdraw the case, and have remained opposed to
its continuance (see Judgment, paras. 19-25). On the day of the opening
of the hearings 27 February 2006 the Court received a letter from
Mr. Paravac, then Member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina

from the Republika Srpska. He informed the Court that the Parliament
of Bosnia and Herzegovina did not approve financing for the expenses of
Bosnia and Herzegovina’s legal team in the case from the federal budget,
and that he had seised the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herze-
govina to decide whether the authorization to institute proceedings in the

International Court of Justice granted in 1993 by President Izetbegovic ´

273313 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

was in conformity with the Constitution. No further communication on
this issue was received by the Court. This dimension of the case however
did not have any bearing on its consideration and adjudication by the

Court.

I. T HE C OURT S JURISDICTION

5. The Court in the Judgment affirms its jurisdiction on the ground
that “the principle of res judicata precludes any reopening of the decision
embodied in the 1996 Judgment” (Judgment, para. 140). I have serious
misgivings about the Court’s reasoning and feel compelled to elaborate

my views thereon. However, because I ultimately find, although on a dif-
ferent ground, that the Court has jurisdiction over this case, I have voted
in favour of the first paragraph of the dispositif.

6. My misgivings are caused by the fact that the Court in 2003, after it
had considered the “Initiative of Serbia and Montenegro to the Court to
Reconsider ex officio Jurisdiction over Yugoslavia”, dated 4 May 2001,
informed the Parties that “[s]hould Serbia and Montenegro wish to
present further argument to the Court on jurisdictional questions during

the oral proceedings on the merits, it w[ould] be free to do so” (letter of
the Registrar of 12 June 2003, the text of which was approved by the
Court, Judgment, para. 82). The Parties were also informed that, “as the
Court has emphasized in the past, [it] is entitled to consider jurisdictional

issues proprio motu”, and “must . . . always be satisfied that it has juris-
diction, and must if necessary go into that matter proprio motu”( Appeal
Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (India v. Pakistan),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 , p. 52, para. 13). Finally the Court assured
the Parties that it “w[ould] not give judgment on the merits in the present

case unless it [was] satisfied that it ha[d] jurisdiction” (Judgment, para. 82).

7. The Court thus allowed the Respondent to raise the issue of its
jurisdiction at the merits stage despite having upheld its jurisdiction in

1996 (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Prelimi-
nary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 623, para. 47),
and having found the request for revision inadmissible in February 2003

(Application for Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case
concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia),
Preliminary Objections (Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2003 , p. 32, para. 75).

8. The position the Court communicated to the Parties in its June 2003
letter was in conformity with its jurisprudence and practice. For example,
the Court stated in the Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO
Council that

274314 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

“[i]t is certainly to be desired that objections to the jurisdiction of the
Court should be put forward as preliminary objections for separate
decision in advance of the proceedings on the merits” (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 52, para. 13; emphasis added).

The Court’s language indicates that such timing is merely a desideratum,
not a legal requirement. The Court later explained in Avena and Other

Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America) that Article 79
of the Rules of Court, which states that any objection by the Respondent
to the Court’s jurisdiction shall be made within three months of the deliv-
ery of the Memorial, “applies only to preliminary objections, as is indi-
cated by the title of the subsection of the Rules which it constitutes”

(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 , p. 29, para. 24; emphasis added). As the
Court further explained,

“[a]n objection that is not presented as a preliminary objection in
accordance with paragraph 1 of Article 79 does not thereby become
inadmissible” (ibid.).

And it added,
“[h]owever, apart from such circumstances, a party failing to avail

itself of the Article 79 procedure may forfeit the right to bring about
a suspension of the proceedings on the merits, but can still argue the
objection along with the merits” (ibid.; emphasis added).

9. The Court now states that

“once [it] has made a determination . . . on a question of its own
jurisdiction, that determination is definitive both for the parties to
the case, in respect of the case (Article 59 of the Statute), and for the

Court itself in the context of that case” (Judgment, para. 138).
This statement of the Court seems to be a statement of a legal principle.
Was the Court not aware of such a principle — although jura novit

curia — when in June 2003 it informed the Parties that
“[s]hould Serbia and Montenegro wish to present further argument

to the Court on jurisdictional questions during the oral proceedings
on the merits, it w[ould] be free to do so” (Judgment, para. 82;
emphasis added).

Moreover, the Court already in 2003 knew what arguments the Respond-
ent intended to raise since they were developed in the 2001 Initiative. The
key argument of the Court against the reconsideration of its jurisdiction

is now based on the principle of res judicata. I do not believe that the
issue can be resolved so simply.

10. The primary question which requires an answer is whether a party
may raise a series of objections in successive phases of a case. This ques-

tion is particularly relevant in the present case, since the Respondent

275315 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

(called the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia at that time) put forward

in June 1995 seven preliminary objections concerning the Court’s juris-
diction to entertain the case and the Application’s admissibility. The
Court dismissed six of these objections in its Judgment of 11 July 1996;

the remaining one had been withdrawn by the Respondent during the
oral proceedings on the preliminary issues of jurisdiction and admissibil-
ity. The question raised is not regulated by the Statute or the Rules of
Court. But as a leading commentator on the work of the Court has sug-

gested, “in an appropriate case, objections can be raised after the Court
has upheld its jurisdiction in preliminary objection proceedings and after
the proceedings on the merits have been resumed” . In his view, “[t]he
condition for this is that the new objection does not raise issues that have

been decided with the force of res judicata in the judgment on the pre-
liminary objections and does not require a further suspension of the pro-
ceedings on the merits” . I find this view correct and it seems that the
Court’s position in June 2003, as reflected in the Registrar’s letter, lends

a further support to it.

1. Res Judicata: What Is Its Scope as Far as the 1996 Judgment Is
Concerned?

11. This brings me to the second major question — what is the scope
of the res judicata nature of the 1996 Judgment? In that Judgment the
Court rejected the following six preliminary objections of the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia:

(i) that the Application was not admissible because “the events in Bos-

nia and Herzegovina to which [it] refer[red] constituted a civil war”
and therefore “no international dispute exist[ed] within the terms of
Article IX of the 1948 [Genocide] Convention”;

(ii) that the Application was not admissible because “Mr. Alija Izetbe-
govic´ did not serve as the President of the Republic at the time when
he granted the authorization to initiate proceedings” (the Court
however did not specifically address another element of this objec-

tion, namely that “the authorization for the initiation and conduct
of proceedings was granted in violation of the rules of internal law
of fundamental significance”);
(iii) that the Court had no jurisdiction because the Applicant was not a

party to the 1948 Genocide Convention;
(iv) that the Court had no jurisdiction because “the case in point [was]
an internal conflict between three sides in which the FR of Yugosla-

1
S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court , 1920-2005, 4th ed.,
Vo2. II, “Jurisdiction”, 2006, p. 865, para. II. 225 (emphasis added).
Ibid.

276316 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

via was not taking part” and because “the claims contained in the
‘Submissions’ [were] based on allegations of State responsibility
which f[ell] outside the scope of the Convention and of its compro-
missory clause”, and further because “there [was] no international

dispute under Article IX of the 1948 [Genocide] Convention”;

(v) that the Court lacked competence over the case before 14 Decem-
ber 1995, the date on which the two Parties recognized each other,

and alternatively before 29 March 1993, the date on which Bosnia
and Herzegovina’s notification of succession of 29 December 1992,
which the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia considered to be the noti-
fication of accession, could have produced its effect;

(vi) that the Applicant’s claims pertaining to the alleged acts or facts
which occurred prior to 18 March 1993 — the date on which the
Secretary-General of the United Nations sent to the parties of the
Genocide Convention the depository notification informing of Bos-

nia and Herzegovina’s notification of succession — did not fall
within the competence of the Court (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,
pp. 606-608, para. 15).

The Court considered the above-mentioned preliminary objections and
rejected them all, thus finding “that, on the basis of Article IX of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, it

ha[d] jurisdiction to adjudicate upon the dispute” and “the Application . . .
[was] admissible” (ibid., pp. 623-624, para. 47).
12. The conclusions of the Court regarding its jurisdiction are based
on its consideration of the six preliminary objections raised. The principle

of res judicata prevents the Respondent from raising again those issues
which the Court already dealt with when it rejected the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia’s preliminary objections.

It is useful to recall what the Court stated in the said Judgment:

“The Court must, in each case submitted to it, verify whether it

has jurisdiction to deal with the case , and, if necessary, whether the
Application is admissible, and such objections as are raised by the
Respondent may be useful to clarify the legal situation . As matters
now stand, the preliminary objections presented by Yugoslavia have
served that purpose. Having established its jurisdiction under Arti-

cle IX of the Genocide Convention, and having concluded that the
Application is admissible, the Court may now proceed to consider
the merits of the case on that basis.” (Ibid., p. 622, para. 46;
emphasis added.)

Although the Court speaks of its duty to verify that it has jurisdiction,

and notes that the objections raised may be useful for that purpose, the

277317 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

Court has seemingly limited the exercise of its duty of verification to the

consideration and rejection of the Respondent’s preliminary objections.
13. As the Court now acknowledges, “[n]one of these objections was
however founded on a contention that the FRY was not a party to the
Statute at the relevant time; that was not a contention specifically

advanced in the proceedings on the preliminary objections” (Judgment,
para. 106). Apparently this was because:

“Neither party raised the matter before the Court: Bosnia and
Herzegovina as Applicant, while denying that the FRY was a Mem-
ber of the United Nations as a continuator of the SFRY, was assert-
ing before this Court that the FRY was nevertheless a party to the

Statute . . .; and for the FRY to raise the issue would have involved
undermining or abandoning its claim to be the continuator of the
SFRY as the basis for continuing membership of the United
Nations.” (Ibid.)

I am convinced that the Court has not addressed this particular issue
3
whether the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a party to the Statute .
Therefore, in my view, the Court’s 1996 decision can have no preclusive
effect on the consideration of such issue at this stage.

2. Access and Jurisdiction

14. In assessing whether this Court may adjudicate a case, it is impor-
tant to recognize that the concept of access to the Court is not identical

to that of jurisdiction ratione personae.
15. These two distinct concepts are reflected in the Court’s jurispru-
dence. In Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany v. Ice-
land), the Court distinguished between jurisdiction and access to the

Court by ascribing different purposes to two different acts. Specifically,
the Court determined that while the bilateral Exchange of Notes of
19 July 1961 between the Governments of the Federal Republic of Ger-
many and Iceland was “designed to establish jurisdiction of the Court

over a particular kind of dispute”, the declaration of the Federal Repub-
lic of Germany of 29 October 1971, deposited with the Registrar on
22 November 1971, “provide[d] for access to the Court of States which
are not parties to the Statute”, as required by Security Council resolu-

tion 9 of 15 October 1946 (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 53, para. 11).
In its Order of 2 June 1999 in Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v.
Belgium), the Court also distinguished between jurisdiction and access
when it stated that:

3See the joint dissenting opinion of three Members of the Court appended to this Judg-
ment who were the only Members of the current Court also sitting on the Bench when the
Court rendered its 1996 Judgment.

278318 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

“the Court, under its Statute, does not automatically have jurisdic-
tion over legal disputes between States parties to that Statute or
between other States to whom access to the Court has been granted;
whereas the Court has repeatedly stated ‘that one of the fundamen-

tal principles of its Statute is that it cannot decide a dispute between
States without the consent of those States to its jurisdiction’ (East
Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995 ,
p. 101, para. 26); and whereas the Court can therefore exercise juris-
diction only between States parties to a dispute who not only have

access to the Court but also have accepted the jurisdiction of the
Court, either in general form or for the individual dispute con-
cerned” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) ,
p. 132, para. 20; emphasis added).

In its Order of 10 July 2002 in Armed Activities on the Territory of the

Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Rwanda), the Court made the same distinction (Provisional Measures,
I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 241, para. 57).
In the Legality of Use of Force cases, the Court stated that

“a distinction has to be made between a question of jurisdiction that

relates to the consent of a party and the question of the right of a
party to appear before the Court under the requirements of the Stat-
ute, which is not a matter of consent” (Legality of Use of Force
(Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 295, para. 36).

The Court then continued:

“The question is whether as a matter of law Serbia and Montene-
gro was entitled to seise the Court as a party to the Statute at the

time when it instituted proceedings in these cases. Since that ques-
tion is independent of the views or wishes of the Parties, even if they
were now to have arrived at a shared view on the point, the Court
would not have to accept the view as necessarily the correct one.”

(Ibid.; emphasis in the original.)
And the Court concluded with an important dictum:

“The function of the Court to enquire into the matter and reach

its own conclusion is thus mandatory upon the Court irrespective of
the consent of the parties and is in no way incompatible with the
principle that the jurisdiction of the Court depends on consent.”
(Ibid.)

The Court further clarified the relationship between access and juris-
diction in the Legality of Use of Force Judgments when it stated:

279319 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

“The Court can exercise its judicial function only in respect of
those States which have access to it under Article 35 of the Statute.
And only those States which have access to the Court can confer
jurisdiction upon it.

It is the view of the Court that it is incumbent upon it to examine
first of all the question whether the Applicant meets the conditions
laid down in Articles 34 and 35 of the Statute and whether the Court
is thus open to it. Only if the answer to that question is in the
affirmative will the Court have to deal with the issues relating to the

conditions laid down in Articles 36 and 37 of the Statute of the
Court.” (Ibid., p. 299, para. 46.)

3. Did the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Have Access to the Court
in March 1993?

16. The issue of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s access to the
Court was not dealt with by the Court in its 1996 Judgment, either explic-
itly or implicitly. There was no doubt that Bosnia and Herzegovina was a

Member of the United Nations in 1993, and ipso facto a party to the
Statute of the Court. Accordingly the Court was then open to the Appli-
cant. The status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the United
Nations remained unclear and ambiguous. The Court was fully aware of
that situation. In its Order of 8 April 1993 on provisional measures,

having referred to Security Council resolution 777 (1992) and General
Assembly resolution 47/1, as well as to the letter of interpretation of
29 September 1992 by the Legal Counsel of the United Nations (paras. 16
and 17 of the Order), the Court noted that

“while the solution adopted [in the United Nations] is not free from
legal difficulties, the question whether or not Yugoslavia is a Mem-
ber of the United Nations and as such a party to the Statute of the
Court is one which the Court does not need to determine definitively
at the present stage of the proceedings” (I.C.J. Reports 1993,p.14,

para. 18; emphasis added).
But when has the Court definitively determined in the present case

whether or not the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a Member of the
United Nations on 20 March 1993, and as such a party to the Statute? In
its 11 July 1996 Judgment on jurisdiction? I fail to see any paragraph in
that Judgment dealing with this issue. As the Court plainly admits

“[n]othing was stated in the 1996 Judgment about the status of the FRY
in relation to the United Nations, or the question whether it could par-
ticipate in proceedings before the Court” (Judgment, para. 122).

I believe that the Court avoided the determination of that question

since the situation remained unclear and ambiguous and the two compe-

280320 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP .OP .TOMKA )

tent political organs of the United Nations in matters of membership, the

Security Council and the General Assembly, did nothing to further
clarify the membership status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia by
the time the Court rendered its decision in 1996. So, the Court did not

address the issue in order not to pre-empt (or prejudge) the position the
Security Council and the General Assembly might have taken subse-
quently .

17. The Court instead could have relied on its preliminary view
expressed in paragraph 19 of its 8 April 1993 Order. In that paragraph,
after quoting the text of Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute, it stated:

“the Court therefore considers that proceedings may validly be insti-
tuted by a State against a State which is a party to such a special
provision in a treaty in force, but is not party to the Statute, and

independently of the conditions laid down by the Security Council in
its resolution 9 of 1946” (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 14, para. 19).

The Court then continued that “Article IX of the Genocide Conven-
tion relied on by Bosnia-Herzegovina in the present case, could,n ihe
view of the Court, be regarded prima facie as a special provision con-

tained in a treaty in force” (ibid.; emphasis added). The Court concluded,
“accordingly if Bosnia-Herzegovina and Yugoslavia are both parties to
the Genocide Convention, disputes to which Article IX applies are in any

event prima facie within the jurisdiction ratione personae of the Court”
(ibid.).

The text itself indicates that such a view of the Court on Article IX of
the Genocide Convention in its possible relation to Article 35, para-

4 As an informed commentator who served as Legal Adviser of the United Kingdom’s
Permanent Mission to the United Nations between 1991-1994 (writing in his personal
capacity with a usual disclaimer), opined,

“the Council and Assembly have not tied themselves to any particular resolution of
the matter. At some point the political momentum will exist to regularize the FRY’s
position in the United Nations. There would seem to be essentially two ways of doing
this. The FRY could apply for membership as the other former Yugoslav states have
done. This appears to be what was envisaged by the Council and the Assembly in
1992, and in the Legal Counsel’s letter... In the alternative, the relevant organs might
accept continued FRY membership without insisting on a formal application, for

example by reversing the non-participation decisions of 1992 and 1993. This would
probably be explicitly ‘without prejudice to questions of State succession’. It could be
done by a decision of the relevant organs as a pragmatic solution to a difficult situa-
tion.” (M. C. Wood, “Participation of Former Yugoslav States in the United Nations
and in Multilateral Treaties”, in Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law ,
Vol. 1, 1997, pp. 250-251.)

281321 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

graph 2, of the Statute was a provisional one (“prima facie”), and not
conclusive of the matter .5

In these circumstances one would have expected the Court to deal with
the matter in more depth in its 1996 Judgment. But since the matter was
not raised by the Parties, the Court, although aware of its only prima facie
view in the 1993 Order, did not determine the matter definitively. In fact,

no attention was paid to the issue in the text of the 1996 Judgment.

18. The Court did not consider the issue of a “special provision in a
treaty in force” until 2004 when several respondents in the Legality of
Use of Force cases contended that Serbia and Montenegro could not rely

upon the text of Article 35, paragraph 2, and that the view of the Court
on this issue in its Order of 8 April 1993 was only provisional.

The Court therefore considered it appropriate, in the circumstances of

the Legality of Use of Force cases, to examine in detail Article 35, para-
graph 2, of the Statute and interpreted it, on the basis of a detailed study
of the travaux préparatoires, concluding that

“the reference in Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute to ‘the special
provisions contained in treaties in force’ applies only to treaties in

force at the date of the entry into force of the Statute, and not to any
treaties concluded since that date” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia
and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment ,
I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 324, para. 113).

On this reasoning, Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute thus could
not have provided the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia with access to the

Court at any point in time for matters relating to the Genocide Conven-
tion because the Convention was not concluded until after the Court’s
Statute entered into force.
19. The Court has once more recounted the intriguing history of the

status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia vis-à-vis the United Nations
(Judgment, paras. 88-99). But while in the Legality of Use of Force cases
the Court determined that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia “has the
status of membership in the United Nations as from 1 November 2000”

and that “the sui generis position” of the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via, referred to in the Application for Revision Judgment, “could not have
amounted to its membership in the Organization” and, on the basis of
that determination, concluded that

“Serbia and Montenegro was not a Member of the United Nations,

and in that capacity a State party to the Statute of the International
Court of Justice, at the time of filing its Application to institute

5S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-1996, 3rd ed.,
Vol. II, “Jurisdiction”, 1997, p. 630.

282322 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

the...proceedingsbeforetheCourton29April1999”( Legality of
Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2004, pp. 310-311, paras. 78 and 79),

in its current recount, for the purposes of the present case, the Court ends
“the story” with the 2003 Judgment in the Application for Revision case.

20. The majority of the Court is unable to demonstrate that in the
1996 Judgment the Court determined that the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia had access to the Court. The Court itself acknowledged this fact
when it observed in the Judgments rendered on 15 December 2004 in the

Legality of Use of Force cases that “in its Judgment on Preliminary
Objections of 11 July 1996 . . . [t]he question of the status of the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia relation to Article 35 of the Statute was not
raised and the Court saw no reason to examine it”( ibid., para. 82;
emphasis added). Further, in those eight Judgments, it stated that

“[t]he Court did not commit itself into a definitive position on the
issue of the legal status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in
relation to the Charter and the Statute in its pronouncements in inci-

dental proceedings, in the cases [one of them being the present one]
involving this issue which came before the Court during this [1992-
2000] period” (ibid., p. 309, para. 74).

21. Now the Court tells the Parties to accept the determination in the
1996 Judgment “that it had jurisdiction under the Genocide Convention
is...tobeinterpretedasincorporatingadeterminationthatallthecon-

ditions relating to the capacity of the parties to appear before it had been
met” (Judgment, para. 133).

It is so because, in the view of the majority, the finding of the Court

that it has jurisdiction “must as a matter of construction be understood,
by necessary implication, to mean that the Court at that time perceived
the Respondent as being in a position to participate in cases before the
Court” (ibid., para. 132; emphasis added). The reality apparently has no
relevance for the majority; what is decisive is the perception the Court

might have had in 1996, which is now being explained ex post by way of
construction by implication. I am not convinced by this strained reasoning.

22. The Respondent suggested that the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via’s capacity to appear before the Court was merely an “assumption” in
the 1996 Judgment (ibid., para. 134). The majority, while not denying
that assumption, replies that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s “cap-
acity to appear before the Court in accordance with the Statute was ae nle-

ment in the reasoning” of the 1996 Judgment (ibid., para. 135; emphasis

283323 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

added). That element is nowhere to be found in the 1996 Judgment. But
this is of no consequence since, according to the majority, this element
“can and indeed must be read into the judgment” (ibid., para. 135,
emphasis added). The majority operates a distinction between the “judi-

cial truth” and reality. How otherwise can one understand the insistence
on the maxim “res judicata pro veritate habetur , that is to say that the
findings of a judgment are . . . to be taken as correct”, whatever doubt
may be “thrown on them by subsequent events” (ibid., para. 120).

23. The majority now acknowledges only one exception to the finality
of the Court’s judgments, both on jurisdiction and on the merits — that
of a revision procedure under the Statute. The Court, on 3 Febru-
ary 2003, rejected the Respondent’s request for the revision. I remain
puzzled as to why then, on 12 June 2003, it allowed one of the Parties to

raise additional arguments on jurisdiction during the oral proceedings on
the merits of the case. Was it then not aware that such an attempt would
be destined to fail since once the Court determined the “judicial truth”, it
was “subject only to the provision in the Statute for revision of judg-

ments” (Judgment, para. 139)? In my conscience I am unable to follow
such an approach and, to my regret, to subscribe to the reasoning
advanced by the majority.

4. Ascertaining of the Court’s Jurisdiction de novo

24. The Court, in my view, should have determined de novo whether it
has or lacks jurisdiction in the present case. By revisiting the issue of its
jurisdiction the Court would have acted in line with the assurances it gave

to the Parties in June 2003 that it “w[ould] not give judgment on the mer-
its in the present case unless it [was] satisfied that it ha[d] jurisdiction”
(Judgment, para. 82). My point of departure is the Court’s determination
that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia became a Member of the United

Nations as from 1 November 2000 (ibid., para. 83, with reference to
Legality of Use of Force, I.C.J. Reports 2004 , p. 311, para. 79), and that
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s sui generis position, during 1992-
2000, in the United Nations “could not have amounted to its member-
ship in the Organization” (I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 310, para. 78). The

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was thus not a party to the Statute of the
Court during that period and it has become party to it only as from
1 November 2000. As such, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not
a party to the Statute when the Court rendered its 1993 Orders on interim

measures of protection and the 1996 Judgment on jurisdiction and admis-
sibility. What is the source of the binding nature of these Court’s deci-
sions on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia if not the Statute? But when
they were rendered the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not a party
to it.

284324 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

25. The key question is whether the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

was a party to the Genocide Convention in 1993 since the Applicant
claims that the Court has jurisdiction under Article IX of that Conven-
tion. It is the compromissory clause contained therein which confers
jurisdiction on the Court. By being a party to the Statute of the Court a
State does not eo ipso consent to the Court’s jurisdiction. That consent is

to be expressed through a different act. But being a party to the Statute
is an important prerequisite for the exercise of the Court’s jurisdiction
and its judicial function. As the Court explained, it “can exercise its judi-
cial function only in respect of those States which have access to it under
Article 35 of the Statute” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Mon-

tenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment , I.C.J. Reports
2004, p. 299, para. 46). Since the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not
a party to the Statute until 1 November 2000, the Court should not have
exercised, in 1993 or in 1996, its judicial function in relation to the Fed-

eral Republic of Yugoslavia even if it might have had jurisdiction over it.
Since 1 November 2000, the date on which the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia became a Member of the United Nations, and ipso facto
party to the Statute of the Court, there has been no bar for the Court to
exercise its judicial function vis-à-vis the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

(Serbia and Montenegro). Therefore the Court has to determine whether
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was bound by Article IX of the
Genocide Convention on 20 March 1993 when Bosnia and Herzegovina
filed its Application in the present case. If that was the case, and the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia remained bound by the Genocide Conven-

tion through the period relevant to the claims of Bosnia and Herzegovina
(1992-1995), all the conditions would now be fulfilled for the adjudication
of the case on the merits.
26. The Court, of course, always has to satisfy itself that the require-
ments of its Statute are fulfilled for the exercise of its judicial function.

These requirements are mandatory for the Court as a court of law. On
the other side, the Court, like its predecessor the Permanent Court of
International Justice, has on several occasions applied the principle that
it should not penalize a defect in a procedural act which the applicant
could easily remedy, or allow itself to be hampered by a mere defect of

form, the removal of which depends on the party concerned (cf. Certain
German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6,
1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6 , p. 14).
In Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions , the Permanent Court consid-
ered whether the validity of the institution of proceedings could be dis-

puted on the ground that the application was filed before the treaty
instrument relied on by the applicant had become applicable. It stated
that:

“[e]ven assuming that before that time the Court had no jurisdiction

because the international obligation referred to in Article II was not
yet effective, it would always have been possible for the applicant to

285325 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

re-submit his application in the same terms after the coming into

force of the Treaty of Lausanne, and in that case, the argument in
question could not have been advanced. Even if the grounds on
which the institution of proceedings was based were defective for the
reason stated, this would not be an adequate reason for the dismissal
of the applicant’s suit. The Court, whose jurisdiction is interna-

tional, is not bound to attach to matters of form the same degree of
importance which they might possess in municipal law. Even, there-
fore, if the application were premature because the Treaty of
Lausanne had not yet been ratified, this circumstance would now be
covered by the subsequent deposit of the necessary ratifications.”

(Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 34; emphasis added.)

In Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nica-
ragua v. United States of America) , when dealing with the United States
argument that an attempt to adjust the dispute was a prerequisite of its
submission to the Court, as provided for in the compromissory clause,

the Court observed that
“it does not necessarily follow that, because a State has not expressly

referred in negotiations with another State to a particular treaty as
having been violated by conduct of that other State, it is debarred
from invoking a compromissory clause in that treaty. The United
States was well aware that Nicaragua alleged that its conduct was a
breach of international obligations before the present case was insti-

tuted; and it is now aware that specific articles of the 1956 Treaty are
alleged to have been violated. It would make no sense to require
Nicaragua now to institute fresh proceedings based on the Treaty,
which it would be fully entitled to do.” (Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of

America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1984, pp. 428-429, para. 83; emphasis added.)

The Court has also applied this principle in the present case. In its
1996 Judgment, leaving aside now any potential repercussions of the
Respondent’s lack of access to the Court at that time on this decision, the
Court, replying to the preliminary objection of the Respondent based on

the argument that the Convention was not operative between Bosnia and
Herzegovina and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia prior to their
mutual recognition on 14 December 1995, stated that:

“even if it were established that the Parties, each of which was bound
by the Convention when the Application was filed, had only been
bound as between themselves with effect from 14 December 1995,
the Court could not set aside its jurisdiction on this basis, inasmuch

as Bosnia and Herzegovina might at any time file a new application ,
identical to the present one, which would be unassailable in this

286326 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

respect” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-

slavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,
p. 614, para. 26; emphasis added).

27. Applying this principle, as confirmed by the jurisprudence of the
Court, to the present case, Bosnia and Herzegovina could have “resub-
mitted” its application “in the same terms” at any time since 1 Novem-
ber 2000 but “it would make no sense to require [it] now to institute fresh

proceedings . . . which it would be fully entitled to do” and its Applica-
tion “would be unassailable” in respect of access to the Court. And if the
original Application on 20 March 1993 was premature because the
Respondent was not then a party to the Statute and did not have access

to the Court, “this circumstance would now be covered” by the subse-
quent admission of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the United
Nations and its becoming a party to the Statute of the Court.

28. It is true that in eight Legality of the Use of Force cases, once the
Court had concluded that the applicant did not have access to the Court
at the time of the institution of the proceedings, it determined that such
conclusion made it unnecessary to consider the other preliminary objec-

tions filed by the respondent to the jurisdiction of the Court (I.C.J.
Reports 2004, pp. 327-328, para. 127). In those cases, however, whatever
title of jurisdiction the applicant might have invoked, it “could not have
properly seised the Court, . . . for the simple reason that [it] did not have
the right to appear before the Court” (ibid., p. 299, para. 46; emphasis

added). As G. Fitzmaurice wrote,

“if a tribunal has not been duly seised it is incompetent to hear the
case. But it does not follow that because the tribunal is duly seised,
and has therefore the seisin of the case, it possesses on that account
substantive jurisdiction and competence to hear and determine it on

the merits. What seisin6gives is jurisdiction and competence to deter-
mine this very point.”

29. In the present case, the Applicant (Bosnia and Herzegovina) had
access to the Court on 20 March 1993 when it filed its Application and
thus could have “properly seised the Court”. The Court therefore has
competence to determine whether it has jurisdiction under Article IX of

the Genocide Convention. As long as the Respondent was not a party to
the Statute, the Court should not have exercised its function in relation to
that State, even if it might have had jurisdiction. But now that the
Respondent has been, since 1 November 2000, a party to the Statute,

there is no impediment for the exercise of the Court’s function and juris-
diction in a case in which the Applicant seised it properly.

6G. Fitzmaurice, The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice , 1986,
Vol. II, pp. 440-441.

287327 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

30. Furthermore in the Legality of Use of Force cases the principle

that the Court should not penalize a defect in a procedural act which the
Applicant could easily remedy was not resorted to because the Applicant
could have hardly resubmitted its Application since it asserted in its writ-
ten observations on the Respondent’s preliminary objections that “it was
not bound by the Genocide Convention until it acceded to that Conven-

tion (with a reservation to Article IX) in March 2001” (I.C.J. Reports
2004, p. 293, para. 29). Under Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Rules of the
Court, “[t]he application shall specify as far as possible the legal grounds
upon which the jurisdiction of the Court is said to be based”. What
would have been specified as a legal ground for jurisdiction in that new

Application? The Applicant contended that “the position of the FRY
with regard to international organizations and treaties has been a most
intricate and controversial matter”, so that “[o]nly a decision of this
Court could bring clarity” (ibid., p. 295, para. 37). The Court on this

point observed that the function of a decision of the Court is “not to
engage in a clarification of a controverted issue” (ibid., pp. 295-296,
para. 38).

31. The Court in 1996 concluded that the Federal Republic of “Yugo-

slavia was bound by the provisions of the [Genocide] Convention on the
date of the filing of the Application in the present case, namely, on
20 March 1993” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 610, para. 17). Before
reaching that conclusion, the Court first recalled that the Socialist Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia signed the Convention and later, on

29 August 1950, deposited its instrument of ratification, without reserva-
tion. Then it recalled a formal declaration adopted “[a]t the time of the
proclamation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, on 27 April 1992”
(ibid.). In that declaration, it was stated that:

“The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, continuing the State, inter-
national legal and political personality of the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, shall strictly abide by all the commitments

that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia assumed interna-
tionally.” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 610, para. 17.)

The Court remaining neutral, or rather “mute”, on the issue of conti-
nuity of the international legal personality, limited itself to the observa-
tion that:

“This intention thus expressed by Yugoslavia to remain bound by
the international treaties to which the former Yugoslavia was party
was confirmed in an official Note of 27 April 1992 from the Perma-

nent Mission of Yugoslavia to the United Nations, addressed to the
Secretary-General.” (Ibid.; emphasis added.)

The word remain chosen by the Court in 1996, however, can describe
both situations: (a) when there is the continuity in international legal

288328 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP .OP .TOMKA )

personality of a State, such State remains bound by its treaties; but also,

(b) when a succession of a State occurs in cases of separation of parts of
a State, irrespective of whether or not the predecessor State continues to
exist, any treaty in force on the date of the succession of States in respect

of the territory of the predecessor State remains binding in respect of
each successor State. To be more precise, Article 34 of the 1978 Vienna
Convention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties uses the term
“continues in force”.

The Court finally observed that “it has not been contested that Yugo-
slavia was party to the Genocide Convention” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II),
p. 610, para. 17).
32. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s claim of continuing the

international legal personality of the former Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia did not prevail . In fact, by applying in October 2000 for
admission to membership in the United Nations, the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia abandoned that claim. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

thus could not have remained bound by the Genocide Convention on the
basis of continuing the international legal personality of the former
Yugoslavia. Has it remained bound by the Genocide Convention on the

basis of ipso jure succession?
33. Article 34 of the 1978 Vienna Convention on Succession of States
in Respect of Treaties in its first paragraph provides:

“When a part or parts of the territory of a State separate to form
one or more States, whether or not the predecessor State continues

to exist:
(a) any treaty in force at the date of the succession of States in
respect of the entire territory of the predecessor State continues

in force in respect of each successor State so formed.”

Since the Vienna Convention was not yet in force in 1992, when the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s succession occurred, the question to be
asked is that of the nature of the rule of ipso jure succession laid down by
Article 34.

Article 34 of the Convention, under one single heading “Succession of
States in cases of separation of parts of a State”, deals both with the dis-
solution of States, in which the predecessor State ceases to exist, and with
the separation of part (or several parts) of the territory of a State, in

which one or more new States appear but in which the predecessor State
continues to exist.
Sir Francis Vallat, the former Special Rapporteur of the International

7
See B. Stern, “Les questions de succession d’Etats dans l’affaire relative à l’Applica-
tion de la Convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de devant la
Cour internationale de Justice”, Liber Amicorum Judge Shigeru Oda , N. Ando et al.
(eds.), Vol. 1, 2003, pp. 285-305, and her view that “as Yugoslavia was admitted to the
United Nations as a new member, any continuation of the former Yugoslavia was thus
denied” [translation by the Registry] (p. 289).

289329 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP .OP .TOMKA )

Law Commission (ILC) and the Expert Consultant of the Vienna Codi-
fication Conference, explained that, while the 1972 Draft Articles con-
templated the application of the principle of continuity in the event of

dissolution and that of the “clean slate” for the new State emerging from
a secession, the ILC ultimately decided — in the light of the comments by
States on the Draft Articles — to make the two categories subject to one

single régime, that of the ipso jure succession. It found
that there is a,

“legal nexus between the new State and the territory which had
existed prior to the succession, and that it would therefore be con-
trary to the doctrine of the sanctity of treaties to apply the ‘clean
8
slate’ principle except in special circumstances” .

The “special circumstances”, according to the Commission, were those
which characterized the secessions effected in conditions similar to those
of decolonization, but not cases of dissolution of States . 9

In its Commentary, the ILC, as regards to dissolution, stated that:

“It considered that today every dissolution of a State which results

in the emergence of new individual States should be treated on the
same basis for the purpose of the continuance in force of treaties.
The Commission concluded that although some discrepancies might

be found in State practice, still that practice was sufficiently consist-
ent to support the formulation of a rule which, with the necessary
qualifications, would provide that treaties in force at the date of the

dissolution should remain in force ipso jure with respect to each
State emerging from the dissolution. The fact that the situation may
be regarded as one of ‘separation of part or parts of a State’ rather
10
than one of ‘dissolution’ does not alter this basic conclusion.”

At the Conference, the discussions focused on the question whether the
principle of ipso jure succession applies to secession or, as the case may
be, to secession effected in circumstances similar to those of decoloniza-
11
tion, for which certain delegations preferred the “clean slate” principle .
Other delegations proposed that the principle of ipso jure succession
should be extended to include the latter cases also. Many of them indi-

8 United Nations Conference on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties, Vol. II,
47th Meeting, p. 104, para. 36.
9 Ibid., p. 105, para. 1.
10Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1974, Vol. II, Part One, p. 265,
para. 25.
11United Nations Conference on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties, Vol. II,
40th, 42nd, 47th and 49th Meetings, pp. 50 et seq.

290330 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP .OP .TOMKA )

cated that, in their view, the “clean slate” principle only applies in the
event of decolonization.

Although the discussions reveal certain divergences regarding the appli-
cation of the rule of ipso jure succession to treaties to all the very diverse
situations covered by Article 34, the nucleus of this provision concerning

the dissolution of States has not met with any serious objection. There-
fore, in my view, the rule of ipso jure succession to treaties for cases
involving the dissolution of a State may be considered a rule of custom-
12
ary international law .
34. The former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia agreed that
the rule of ipso jure succession, codified in Article 34 of the Vienna Con-
vention, at least for cases of the dissolution of a State (while for cases of

secession it was rather a step in the progressive development of interna-
tional law), shall be the rule to be applied for future cases of succession of
States by signing and later, on 28 April 1980, ratifying the Vienna Con-

vention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties. Perhaps then it
could hardly contemplate that a decade later the issue of succession
would become so relevant to its case. It is true that the Vienna Conven-
tion did not enter into force until 6 November 1996, and by virtue of its

Article 7, paragraph 1, applies only in respect of a succession of States
which has occurred after its entry into force.

All five successor States of the former Yugoslavia notified of their suc-
cession to the Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of
Treaties and are thus parties to it. Serbia and Montenegro did so on

12 March 2001, the same date that it notified of its succession to a great
number of conventions deposited with the Secretary-General of the
United Nations, and selected from the treaties and conventions deposited

with him just one instrument, the Genocide Convention, in relation to
which it deposited concurrently its instrument of accession with a reser-
vation to Article IX.

35. There can be no doubt that this decision to notify of the accession

12A. Zimmermann, in his 960-page Habilitationsschrift, Staatennachfolge in völker-
rechtliche Verträge: Zugleich ein Beitrag zu den Möglichkeiten und Grenzen völkerrech-
tlicher Kodifikation (2000), summarizing his analysis, concluded that:

“With regard to the principle of universal succession for instances of both, separa-
tion or dismemberment, as laid down in Article 34 of the Vienna Convention ..., a
distinction has to be drawn. With regard to complete dismemberments of a State, that
principle had already in 1978 been strongly rooted in State practice. With regard to
separations, however, it has to be qualified as one of the novelties of the convention,
since in most previous cases the States concerned had applied the clean slate rule.”
(Op. cit., p. 860; emphasis in original.)

291331 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

to the Genocide Convention, with a reservation to Article IX and not

succession (where no reservation is allowed) was motivated by the con-
siderations relating to the present case. It was intended to prevent a claim
that Serbia and Montenegro had obligations under the Genocide Con-
vention prior to June 2001 (in particular, substantive obligations in the
period of 1992-1995, relevant for the claims of Bosnia and Herzegovina).

This decision was also intended to avoid the jurisdiction of the Court
under Article IX, not only for that period, but also for the future until
the reservation was eventually withdrawn. Bosnia and Herzegovina timely
objected to the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s notification of accession
to the Genocide Convention with a reservation to Article IX.

That single notification of accession, in my view, was totally inconsist-

ent with the succession by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia — notified
the very same day to the United Nations Secretary-General as accession
to the Genocide Convention — to the Vienna Convention on Succession
of States in Respect of Treaties, which in Article 34 provides that the
treaties of the predecessor State continue in force in respect of each suc-

cessor State. By the latter notification of succession, the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia became a contracting State of the Vienna Convention on
Succession of States in Respect of Treaties as of April 1992. That Con-
vention entered into force on 6 November 1996. Although not formally
applicable to the process of the dissolution of the former Yugoslavia,

which occurred in the 1991-1992 period, in light of the fact that the
former Yugoslavia consented to be bound by the Vienna Convention
already in 1980, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has been a con-
tracting State to that Convention since April 1992, one would not expect,
by analogy to Article 18 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties,

a State which, through notification of its accession, expresses its consent
to be considered as bound by the Vienna Convention on Succession of
States in Respect of Treaties to act in a singular case inconsistently with
the rule contained in Article 34 of that Convention, while in a great
number of other cases to acting in full conformity with that rule. These

considerations, taken together, lead me to the conclusion that the Court
should not attach any legal effect to the notification of accession by the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the Genocide Convention, and should
instead consider it bound by that Convention on the basis of the opera-
tion of the customary rule of ipso jure succession codified in Article 34 as

applied to cases of the dissolution of a State.

36. Since I consider the Respondent to be party to the Genocide Con-
vention since April 1992 and party to the Statute of the Court since
1 November 2000, both conditions (of access and jurisdiction) being thus

fulfilled, I can agree with proceeding to the adjudication of the case on its
merits.

292332 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

II. THE M ERITS

A. Interpretation of the Genocide Convention

37. In order to determine what kind of obligations the Genocide Con-
vention imposes on its parties it is necessary to interpret its provisions.

That interpretation is to be performed in good faith in accordance with
the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the Convention read in
their context and in the light of its object and purpose . Further, as the
Court recalls, recourse may be had to supplementary means of interpre-
tation which include the preparatory work of the Convention and the cir-

cumstances of its conclusion in order either to confirm the meaning
resulting from “terms — context — object — purpose” interpretation or
to remove the ambiguities, obscurity or manifestly absurd or unreason-
able result (cf. Judgment, para. 160).

38. Applying these rules of interpretation, I largely agree with the
majority’s analysis of the provisions contained in Articles V, VI and VII
of the Convention. With respect to some other Articles, however, I am

unable to fully share the Court’s interpretation of certain aspects of the
relevant provisions. Before elaborating on my understanding of these
issues I consider it important to state my views on the purpose of the
Convention.
39. The Genocide Convention belongs to the growing corpus of inter-

national criminal law. Its purpose is to oblige States parties to prevent
the most serious crime — genocide, which is considered to constitute a
crime under international law — from being committed and, where it has
been committed, to punish its perpetrators. It provides a legal definition

of the prohibited act (i.e., genocide), imposes obligations on the States
parties to the Convention to make that crime punishable under their
domestic law, as well as to make punishable conspiracy, incitement and
attempt to commit genocide and complicity in genocide. The States
parties have an obligation to provide effective penalties for perpetrators

of the crime and to enact the necessary legislation to give effect to the
provisions of the Convention (including those relating to the competence
of their national courts to try the alleged perpetrators). The Convention
also contains a provision on the extradition of the alleged perpetrators.

1. Article I

40. I now turn to my reading of Article I of the Genocide Convention.
In Article I, the Parties confirm that genocide, whether committed in time
of peace or in time of war, is a crime under international law. The States

in the same Article undertake to prevent such crime and to punish the
perpetrators in the event that such crime has been committed.
Article I thus, in addition to expressing a legally binding agreement of
the States parties that genocide constitutes a crime under international

293333 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

law, contains two obligations for the States parties : (1) to prevent the

commission of a crime and (2) to punish the perpetrators.

Imposition of the duty of punishment in relation to the crime of geno-
cide implies that this Article contemplates genocide as a crime committed
by a person entailing that person’s individual criminal responsibility. I

cannot imagine that the States parties would have agreed to a duty of one
State to “punish” another State for having committed genocide.

41. I am so far in agreement with what the Court states in para-
graphs 146 to 151 of the Judgment. But then the Court goes on to the

issue “whether the Parties are also under an obligation, by virtue of the
Convention, not to commit genocide themselves” (Judgment, para. 166;
emphasis added). The Court cannot but recognize “that such an obliga-
tion is not expressly imposed by the actual terms of the Convention”

(ibid.). It further states that Article I “does not expressis verbis require
States to refrain from themselves committing genocide. However, . . . tak-
ing into account the established purpose of the Convention, the effect of
Article I is to prohibit States from themselves committing genocide.”
(Ibid.) The Court concludes that “the obligation to prevent genocide

necessarily implies the prohibition of the commission of genocide” (ibid.).
I have doubts whether this is “the ordinary meaning” of the term “pre-
vention” even if interpreted in light of the object and purpose of the Con-
vention, which basically is an international criminal law convention.
Clearly, under international law, States are not free to commit such

atrocities which may amount to genocide. I fully agree on this point with
the Court. The other issue is how States, which elaborated and adopted
the Genocide Convention, intended to achieve this noble aim, “to liberate
mankind from such an odious scourge” (in the words of the Convention’s
Preamble). The majority takes the view that the obligation of States not

to commit genocide is necessarily implied by the obligation to prevent
genocide because any other reading would be paradoxical (ibid.). The
majority further reasons that, because the act of genocide is included in
the list of punishable acts in Article III, its interpretation of Article I
“must also apply to the other acts enumerated in Article III” (ibid.,

para. 167). The majority provides no support for this view from the
travaux préparatoires ; it rather refers to “one unusual feature of the
wording of Article IX” (Judgment, para. 168), which includes within the
jurisdiction of the Court not only disputes relating to the interpretation
and application of the Convention, but also disputes relating to the “ful-

filment of the . . . Convention, including those relating to the responsibil-
ity of a State for genocide or for any of the other acts enumerated in
Article III” (ibid., para. 146). But that is the compromissory clause,
which is usually not the source of substantive obligations. The majority
infers, from that compromissory clause, that

294334 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

“[t]he responsibility of a party for genocide and the other acts enumer-
ated in Article III arises from its failure to comply with the obligations
imposed by the other provisions of the Convention, and in particular . . .
with Article III read with Articles I and II”J(udgment, para. 169).

42. My understanding of the intention of the States when they elabo-
rated and adopted the Genocide Convention is different. In my view,
they intended to achieve the above-mentioned noble aim as set forth in
the Preamble by imposing an absolute duty on States parties to hold

criminally liable individuals who commit such an odious act and to pun-
ish them “whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public
officials or private individuals” (Article IV of the Convention). A State as
an abstract entity cannot act without a concrete person undertaking an
act. Subjecting individuals, including those who exercise governmental

authority, to international criminal responsibility is arguably an effective
way of achieving the goal of the Convention because a State can only act
through the conduct of individuals. This exposure to criminal prosecu-
tion makes it less likely that such individuals would disregard the obliga-

tions of the Genocide Convention, particularly since they may not assert
an “act of State” defence to such violations (see paragraph 48, below).

43. Coming back to the text of Article I and its interpretation, it may

be useful to take into account the text of the Preamble, since it forms part
of the context. The Preamble refers to the declaration made by the Gen-
eral Assembly in its resolution 96 (I) of 11 December 1946 that:

“genocide is a crime under international law which the civilized
world condemns, and for the commission of which principals and
accomplices — whether private individuals, public officials or states-
men, and whether the crime is committed on religious, racial, politi-

cal or any other grounds — are punishable”.

It should be recalled that the proposal of the United Kingdom repre-
sentative in the Sixth Committee, Sir Hartley Shawcross, to replace para-
graph 3 of the original draft resolution with the text that the General

Assembly “[d]eclares that genocide is an international crime, for the com-
mission of which principals and accessories, as well as States, are indi-
vidually responsible” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/83; emphasis added),
was not accepted.

Following the intervention of the French delegate, who referred to the
fact that the French legal system did not provide for the criminal respon-
sibility of States, the Chair of the Subcommittee of the Sixth Committee
entrusted with the task of preparing a draft resolution explained that “the
question of fixing State responsibility, as distinguished from the respon-

sibility of private individuals, public officials, or statesmen, was a matter

295335 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

more properly to be considered at such time as a convention on the sub-
ject of genocide is prepared” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/120).

44. The text of resolution 96 (I) provides no support for the position

that when the General Assembly asked the United Nations Economic
and Social Council (ECOSOC) “to undertake the necessary studies, with
a view to drawing up a draft convention on the crime of genocide”, it
contemplated that such a draft convention should also cover genocide as
a crime committed by the State itself. Rather, several passages in the

resolution, such as “[t]he punishment of the crime of genocide is a matter
of international concern”; or “genocide is a crime under international
law . . . for the commission of which principals and accomplices —
whether private individuals, public officials or statesmen . . . — are pun-
ishable”; or, further, “[i]nvites the Member States to enact the necessary

legislation for the prevention and punishment”; or, finally, “[r]ecom-
mends that international co-operation be organized between States with
a view to facilitating the speedy prevention and punishment of the crime
of genocide”, indicate that what was intended was proclaiming genocide

as a crime under international law and inducing the enactment of its pro-
hibition in internal criminal laws of the States parties which would pro-
vide a necessary legal basis for the punishment of its perpetrators irre-
spective of the position they may have held in the State at the time of the
commission of the crime.

45. All of the above leads me to the conclusion that genocide in Arti-
cle I of the Convention is conceived as a crime of individuals, and not of
a State. The States parties have the obligation to prevent the commission
of such crime and, if it was committed, to punish the perpetrators.

2. Article II

46. Article II contains a legal definition stricto sensu of the crime of
genocide. It is a crime which requires a specific intent (dolus specialis)
“to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious

group, as such”. Article II describes the act itself but not its perpetrators.

3. Article III

47. Article III makes punishable not only the act of genocide itself but

also four forms of participation in the crime (conspiracy, direct and pub-
lic incitement, attempt and complicity). The “punishability” of the pro-
hibited acts, as envisaged in Article III, provides a solid basis for the view
that this Article is limited — ratione personae — to individuals and does
not include States. Otherwise one would have to accept that States are

subject to punishment quod non. The notion of punishment is linked with

296336 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

criminal responsibility, which has not been accepted as applicable to
States.

4. Article IV

48. Article IV of the Convention is limited only to individuals and
their personal responsibility for genocide (“[p]ersons committing
genocide . . . shall be punished . . .”). Moreover they may be held crimi-

nally responsible for the act irrespective of the position they may have
held. Article IV provides that “[p]ersons committing genocide . . . shall be
punished, whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public
officials or private individuals”. No defence based on an act of State can
successfully shield an individual from being held criminally accountable

for his involvement in genocide.
The text of Article IV — for the purposes of its interpretation — is
thus quite unambiguous: it does not contemplate the responsibility of a
State. This conclusion is reinforced by the fact that the United Kingdom

amendment to include the criminal responsibility of a State in the text of
this provision was rejected. In the Sixth Committee, the United Kingdom
proposed to amend draft Article V, as submitted by the Ad Hoc Com-
mittee on Genocide of ECOSOC (now Article IV of the Convention), to
state:

“Criminal responsibility for any act of genocide as specified in
Articles II and IV shall extend not only to all private persons or

associations, but also to States, governments, or organs or authori-
ties of the state or government, by whom such acts are committed.
Such acts committed by or on behalf of States or governments con-
stitute a breach of the present Convention.” (United Nations doc. A/

C.6/236 and Corr.1, in Official Records of the General Assembly,
Part I, Sixth Committee, Annexes , 1948, p. 24; emphasis added.)

The United Kingdom amendment was rejected by 24 votes to 22.
The Court’s observation that “the responsibility of a State for acts of
its organs” is not “excluded by Article IV of the Convention, which con-
templates the commission of an act of genocide by ‘rulers’ or ‘public offi-

cials’” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 616, para. 32) does not alter the
conclusion that the responsibility of a State for genocide is not contem-
plated in Article IV. The subject-matter of Article IV is rather the State’s
duty to punish the perpetrator of genocide irrespective of the position

that person may have within the State.

5. Article VI

49. Article VI is concerned with the jurisdiction in which “[p]ersons

297337 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

charged with genocide . . . shall be tried”. Such persons shall primarily be
tried “by a competent tribunal of the State in the territory of which the
act was committed”.
The Article also contemplates international prosecution of the offender

by providing that he or she shall be tried “by such international penal
tribunal as may have jurisdiction with respect to those Contracting
Parties which shall have accepted its jurisdiction”.
It is useful to recall that the United Kingdom submitted an amendment
to draft Article VII (now Article VI of the Convention). It suggested the

deletion of the draft article “because, in the first place, there is no inter-
national criminal court and secondly, the reference to national courts is
unnecessary in view of Article VI” (Article V of the Convention). Instead,
the following text was proposed by the United Kingdom:

“Where the act of genocide as specified by articles II and IV is, or
is alleged to be the act of the State or government itself or of any
organ or authority of the State or government, the matter shall, at

the request of any other party to the present Convention, be referred
to the International Court of Justice, whose decision shall be final
and binding. Any acts or measures found by the Court to constitute
acts of genocide shall be immediately discontinued or rescinded and

if already suspended shall not be resumed or reimposed.” (United
Nations doc. A/C.6/236 and Corr.1, in Official Records of the Gen-
eral Assembly, Part I, Sixth Committee, Annexes , 1948, p. 25.)

The United Kingdom amendment was not adopted. The amendment
was withdrawn in view of the objections, in particular by the United

States, that it “was not in order, in that it amounted to a proposal to go
back on a decision already taken” referring to the defeat of the United
Kingdom amendment to draft Article V (Article IV of the Convention),
(see para. 48 of this opinion) (United Nations doc. A/633, Official
Records of the General Assembly, Part I, Sixth Committee, 99th meeting,

p. 392). The United Kingdom delegate (Fitzmaurice) eventually withdrew
this amendment in favour of the joint amendment submitted by Belgium
and the United Kingdom to draft Article X (Article IX of the Conven-
tion) (see ibid., p. 394). Fitzmaurice later acknowledged that “[t]he debate
had clearly shown the Committee’s desire to confine the provisions of

Article VII (now Article VI of the Convention) to the responsibility of
individuals” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR.103, p. 430).

6. Article IX

50. Article IX is the key provision for the purposes of the present case.
Its text reads as follows:

“Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpre-

298338 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including
those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any
of the other acts enumerated in Article III , shall be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to

the dispute.” (Emphasis added.)

This jurisdictional clause is, as Judge Oda put it,

“unique as compared with the compromissory clauses found in other
multilateral treaties which provide for submission to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice of such disputes between the Contracting

Parties as relate to the interpretation or application of the treaties in
question” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 627, para. 5; emphasis in the
original).

In fact the draft Convention, as prepared by the Ad Hoc Committee

and submitted to the Sixth Committee, contained the usual compromis-
sory clause, which contemplated the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court
for disputes “relating to the interpretation, or application of the present
Convention”.
What is the meaning of the additional words: “or fulfilment of the

present Convention, including those relating to the responsibility of a
State for genocide”?

(a) Disputes relating to the fulfilment of the Convention

51. The addition of the word “fulfilment” does not appear to the

Court to be significant (Judgment, para. 168). I agree on this point. A
review of the travaux préparatoires convinces me that the word “fulfil-
ment” adds nothing legally relevant to the obligation to apply the Con-
vention. By applying the Convention in good faith, a State party contrib-

utes to the fulfilment of the purpose of the Convention to prevent
genocide, which purpose is clearly stated in the Preamble (“to liberate
mankind from such an odious scourge”, i.e., the crime of genocide) and
in Article I. It was in connection with this undertaking that the word
“fulfilment” was used for the first time in drafting the Genocide Conven-

tion (see the Belgian amendment, United Nations doc. A/C.6/252).
52. In my view the addition of the formulation “fulfilment of the
present Convention” in the compromissory clause does not add anything
to the substantive obligations of the parties to the Convention and does

not expand the jurisdiction ratione materiae of the Court in comparison
with the concept of “application of the Convention” as it appears in Arti-
cle IX (and in a great number of jurisdictional or compromissory clauses
in other instruments). It merely places an additional emphasis on one
aspect of the Convention, namely its overall purpose to prevent the “odi-

ous scourge” of genocide.

299339 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

(b) Disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide

53. It remains to deal with that part of the compromissory clause in
Article IX which contemplates “disputes . . . including those relating to
the responsibility of a State for genocide or any of the other acts enu-

merated in Article III” as falling within the jurisdiction of the Court.

The French version of this clause differs slightly. It reads as follows:
“les différends . . . y compris ceux relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en

matière de génocide ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à
l’article III” (emphasis added).
This particular provision raises a number of issues, specifically that of
its meaning. It can be interpreted in at least three different ways.

54. First, the provision can be understood as simply contemplating the
jurisdiction of the Court to determine the responsibility of a State for the
breach of one its obligations under the Convention. The jurisdiction of

the Court with respect to the application of a treaty however also
includes jurisdiction to determine the consequences for a State resulting
from its non-compliance with treaty obligations, i.e., its international
responsibility (cf. Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8,

1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9 , p. 21). Therefore “it would be superflu-
ous to add [the formula into the compromissory clause] unless the Parties
had something else in mind” (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Alba-
nia), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949 , p. 24). The principle of

effectiveness in treaty interpretation, although not provided for as such in
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties on which the Court rou-
tinely relies, suggests that such interpretation would be too narrow. The
travaux préparatoires, revealing a rather lengthy and sometimes confused

debate (see paragraphs 57 and 58 below), reaffirm that such interpreta-
tion should not be retained.

55. Second, the clause under consideration can also be understood
as empowering this Court to determine that a State has committed
genocide, which is the crime “singled out for special condemnation
and opprobrium”, “horrific in its scope”, constituting a “crime
13
against all of humankind” . But that interpretation would implicate
the criminal responsibility of States in international law — a
concept previously rejected by a significant majority of States, and
more recently abandoned by the ILC, in finalizing the Articles on

13ICTY, Prosecutor v. Radislav Kr´ , IT-98-33-A, Judgment of the Appeals Cham-
ber, 19 April 2004, para. 36.

300340 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts between 1998
and 2001.
56. Third, the clause can also be understood as the power of the Court
to determine that in a particular case a State has to bear the conse-

quences of the crime of genocide, committed by an individual found to be
criminally liable, because a certain relationship existed between the indi-
vidual perpetrator of the genocide and the State in question. In other
words, the Court has been given jurisdiction to determine the responsi-
bility of a State for genocide under the rules of international law, on the

basis of attribution to the State of the genocidal acts perpetrated by per-
sons. It seems to me that this interpretation is the most plausible consid-
ering not only the English text of Article IX (“the responsibility of a State
for genocide”), but also its French text (“la responsabilité d’un Etat en
matière de génocide”), and the sometimes confused debate on the draft in

the Sixth Committee in November 1948.

57. The deliberations and revisions underlying the Sixth Committee’s
drafting process despite their tempered confusion, lend support to this

third and favoured construction. The drafting history of Article IX of the
Convention reveals that the United Kingdom and Belgian delegations
originated this text. It emerged after previous, unsuccessful attempts by
both States to revise other provisions. The United Kingdom failed to
gather sufficient support for its amendments to draft Article V (Article IV

of the Convention) to extend criminal responsibility “also to States, gov-
ernments or organs or authorities of the state or government” (for the
text of the amendment, see paragraph 48 above), and to draft Article VII
(Article VI of the Convention) (for the text of the amendment, see para-
graph 49 above). Likewise, Belgium did not succeed in putting through

its amendment to the United Kingdom amendment to draft Article VII.
Following these non-successes, the two delegations submitted a joint
amendment to draft Article X (now Article IX of the Convention), pro-
posing the following text for that Article (original in English and French):

“Any dispute between the High Contracting Parties relating to the
interpretation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention,
including disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for any of
the acts enumerated in Articles II and IV, shall be submitted to the

International Court of Justice at the request of any of the High Con-
tracting Parties.” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/258, p. 28.)

In French the text reads as follows:

“Tout différend entre les Hautes Parties contractantes relatif à
l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécution de la présente Conven-
tion, y compris les différends relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat

dans les actes énumérés aux articles II et IV, sera soumis à la Cour

301341 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

internationale de Justice, à la requête d’une Haute Partie contract-

ante.” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/258, p. 28.)
58. The ensuing debate in the Sixth Committee reveals the following

pertaining to the joint amendment:
(i) It was discussed at the moment when the reference to “a competent
international tribunal” for the trial of persons charged was deleted

from draft Article VII, so that the only jurisdiction then contem-
plated was a domestic tribunal of the State in the territory in which
the act was committed. The reference to “such international penal
tribunal as may have jurisdiction with respect to those Contracting
Parties which shall have accepted its jurisdiction” was inserted into

Article VI of the Convention only at a late stage in the work of the
Sixth Committee, well after the debate on draft Article X (now Arti-
cle IX of the Convention) was over and decisions on various amend-
ments, including the joint United Kingdom/Belgian amendment,
had been made.

(ii) It was in this setting that some delegations were ready to accept the
joint United Kingdom/Belgian amendment. The French delegate
who had earlier opposed the United Kingdom amendment to draft
Article V seeking to extend criminal responsibility to States, said in
the debate on the joint United Kingdom/Belgian amendment to

draft Article X that:
“[i]t would certainly have been preferable to provide for such pun-
ishment [of the genocide] on the direct basis of criminal law

instead of confining its scope to States alone on the basis of civil
law; but, inadequate as it was, the joint amendment was prefer-
able to the absence of any text confirming competence to an inter-
national court” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR.103, p. 431).

Similarly,
“[t]he delegation of Brazil was prepared to accept the joint amend-
ment, provided the second part of Article X of the draft remained

deleted, so that it would conform to article VII, from which men-
tion of a competent international tribunal had been deleted”
(ibid., p. 432).
Similar views were expressed by Uruguay (ibid., p. 433).

(iii) The responsibility of a State, envisaged by the co-authors of the
joint amendment, was not a criminal one. Fitzmaurice, as the United
Kingdom’s representative, replying to the Canadian delegate’s

request for clarification, said “that the responsibility envisaged by
the joint Belgian and United Kingdom amendment was the interna-
tional responsibility of States following a violation of the conven-
tion”. As he explained, “[t]hat was civil responsibility, not criminal
responsibility” (ibid., p. 440).

(iv) There were several preliminary votes before the vote on the joint

302342 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

amendment as a whole. First, the Sixth Committee, by 30 votes to 9

with 8 abstentions, adopted the Indian amendment to substitute the
words “at the request of any of the parties to the dispute” for the
words “at the request of any of the High Contracting Parties” in the
joint amendment (United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR.104, p. 447).

Second, by 27 votes to 10 with 8 abstentions, the proposal to
delete the word “fulfilment” from the joint amendment was rejected
(ibid.).

Third, the deletion of the words “including disputes relating to
the responsibility of a State for any of the acts enumerated in
Articles II and IV” from the joint amendment was rejected by a
close vote of 19 votes to 17, with 8 abstentions (ibid.).

Finally, the joint amendment of the United Kingdom and Bel-
gium, as amended by India, was adopted by 23 votes to 13, with
8 abstentions (ibid.).
(v) The drafting committee of the Sixth Committee introduced a few
14
stylistic emendations to the joint amendment and renumbered it as
Article IX (United Nations doc. A/C.6/289 and Corr.1).
(vi) India then again attempted unsuccessfully to delete the words
“including those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide

or any of the other acts enumerated in Article III” (for the Indian
amendment, see United Nations doc. A/C.6/299). The United King-
dom, Belgium and the United States proposed an alternative draft
of Article IX. It read as follows (English and French being the origi-

nal texts):
“Disputes between Contracting Parties relating to the interpreta-

tion, application or implementation of this Convention, including
disputes arising from a charge by a Contracting Party that the crime
of genocide or any other of the acts enumerated in Article III has
been committed within the jurisdiction of another Contracting Party ,

shall be submitted to the International Court of Justice at the
request of one of the parties to the dispute.” (United Nations
doc. A/C.6/305; emphasis added.)

In French:

“Les différends entre Parties contractantes relatifs à l’interpréta-
tion, l’application ou l’exécution de la présente Convention, y com-
pris ceux résultant de l’allégation par une Partie contractante que le
crime de génocide ou l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à

l’article III a été commis dans la juridiction d’une autre Partie

14The Drafting Committee deleted the words “Any” at the very beginning of the text
and “High” before “Contracting Parties”; substituted “those” for “disputes” after the
word “including”; and used the language “for genocide or any of the other acts enumer-
ated in Article III” instead of “for any of the acts enumerated in articles II and IV”.

303343 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

contractante, seront soumis à la Cour internationale de Justice, à la
requête d’une partie au différend.” (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/305;

les italiques sont de moi.)
The three co-authors of this amendment did not consider it to be an

amendment of substance, but only “an alternative drafting”, the object of
which “was the deletion of the word ‘responsibility’, which appeared
ambiguous to certain delegations” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR.131,
p. 687). They were of the view that the Indian amendment “was an

amendment of substance” and it was “for the Indian representative alone
to ask for a reconsideration of Article IX” (ibid.). After a prolonged
debate, the Chairman of the Sixth Committee 15

“ruled that the amendment concerned the substance of the article.
Thus it was provided in article IX that those disputes, among others,
which concerned the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any of

the acts enumerated in article III, should be submitted to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice.” I(bid., p. 690.)

He continued that

“According to the joint amendment [of Belgium, the United King-
dom and the United States], on the other hand, the disputes would not
be those which concerned the responsibility of the State but those
which resulted from an accusation to the effect that the crime had been

committed in the territory of one of the contracting parties.” (Ibid.)
He concluded, “[t]hat being so, the Committee could not consider the

joint amendment of Belgium, the United Kingdom and the United States
or the Indian amendment unless it decided in favour of reconsideration
of article IX” (ibid.).
That ruling of the Chairman remained unchallenged. The Chairman

then put to the vote a motion for reconsideration of Article IX. The
motion was not adopted, having failed to obtain the required two-thirds
majority (16 votes in favour of reconsideration, 13 against and 11 absten-
tions) (ibid., p. 690).

59. In light of the drafting history of Article IX of the Genocide Con-
vention, and in light of the ruling of the Chairman of the Sixth Commit-
tee on the joint United Kingdom, Belgian and United States proposal
(United Nations doc. A/C.6/305), it is difficult to conclude that the juris-

diction of the Court under Article IX would also cover a charge “that the
crime of genocide or any other of the acts enumerated in article III has
been committed”.

60. The Court has no criminal jurisdiction. One may wonder how a
Court conceived as a judicial organ for the adjudication of inter-State

15R. J. Alfaro, who later became Judge (1959-1964) and Vice-President (1961-1964) of
the International Court of Justice.

304344 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

disputes, with no criminal jurisdiction, whose procedure (Rules of Court)

is not tailored to the requirements (or needs) of a criminal case, and
which has no Rules of Evidence, could determine that a crime (i.e., geno-
cide, requiring specific intent (dolus specialis)) has been committed. Is it
possible for the commission of a crime to be established within a pro-

cedure which provides for no appeal? These are, in my view, important
considerations which militate against construing Article IX of the Con-
vention so as to enable charges by one State that another has committed
genocide to be brought within the Court’s jurisdiction.

7. Conclusions on the interpretation of the Convention

61. Having analysed and interpreted different provisions of the Geno-

cide Convention it is now appropriate to draw the relevant conclusions.
They are, in my view, as follows:

(i) The Convention was intended as an instrument for the prevention
and punishment of the crime of genocide.
(ii) Genocide, as a crime under international law, is construed in the

Convention as a criminal offence whose perpetrators bear individual
criminal responsibility and shall thus be punished irrespective of
their position.
(iii) The Convention does not conceive genocide as a criminal act of a
16
State .
(iv) The Convention establishes a number of obligations for the States
parties. These are the following obligations:

(a) to prevent genocide (Art. I);
(b) to punish the perpetrator(s) of genocide (Arts. I and IV);
(c) to enact the necessary legislation (Art. V);
(d) to exercise jurisdiction by a competent tribunal of a territorial

State (Art. VI);
(e) to extradite the perpetrator(s) (Art. VII).

(v) The failure of a State to comply with one of the above obligations
stemming from the Convention constitutes an unlawful act and
entails the international responsibility of a State. The jurisdiction of
the Court under Article IX of the Convention encompasses the

determination of whether a State has complied with the above obli-
gations, and of the international responsibility of a State for the
breach of any of the above obligations (see point (iv) (a) to (e)
above).

(vi) The jurisdiction of the Court, as a consequence of the addition of

16One should not lose sight of the fact that the Convention was drafted in the after-
math of the Nuremberg Tribunal. That Tribunal said that “[c]rimes against international
law are committed by men, not by abstract entities” (France et al. v. Goering et al., (1946)
22 IMT, p. 466).

305345 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

the words “including those [disputes] relating to the responsibility of
a State for genocide or for any of the other acts enumerated in arti-
cle III” into the compromissory clause in Article IX, is broader and
it includes the power of the Court to determine international “respon-

sibility of a State for genocide” on the basis of attribution to the
State of the criminal act of genocide perpetrated by a person. This
Court, however, is not the proper forum in which to make a legally
binding pronouncement that a crime of genocide was committed.
Such a finding is to be made within the framework of a criminal pro-

cedure which also provides for a right of appeal. This Court has no
criminal jurisdiction and its procedure is not a criminal one.

B. Comments on Some of the Court’s Findings

1. The obligation to prevent

62. The Court has found that the Respondent breached its obligation

to prevent genocide under Article I of the Genocide Convention. In order
to reach this conclusion, it first qualified this obligation as a kind of “due
diligence” obligation (Judgment, para. 430) and identified “the capacity
to influence effectively the action of persons likely to commit, or already
committing, genocide” (ibid.; emphasis added) as a relevant criterion for

“assessing whether a State has duly discharged the obligation concerned”
(ibid.). The Court considered that “the FRY was in a position of influ-
ence, over the Bosnian Serbs” (ibid., para. 434). Although the Court “has
not found that the information available to the Belgrade authorities indi-
cated, as a matter of certainty, that genocide was imminent . . ., they

could hardly have been unaware of the serious risk of it” (Judgment,
para. 436). The scale of the tragic events, “though it could not have been
foreseen with certainty, might at least have been surmised”( ibid.,
para. 438; emphasis added). The Court found that since “the Respondent

has not shown that it took any initiative to prevent what happened”, it
“violated its obligation to prevent the Srebrenica genocide” (ibid.).I t
does not matter for the Court whether the Respondent “definitely had
the power to prevent the genocide; it is sufficient that it had the means to
do so and that it manifestly refrained from using them” (ibid.). The

Court does not specify what kind of “means” it has in mind, but has
apparently contemplated the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s influence
over the Bosnian Serbs.

63. What is conspicuous in this part of the Judgment is the fact that
scarcely any attention is paid to the arguments of the Parties. I feel com-
pelled to offer my views on the issues they have raised.

64. Serbia and Montenegro argued that “the Genocide Convention

can only apply when the State concerned has territorial jurisdiction or

306346 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

control in the areas in which the breaches of the Convention are alleged

to have occurred” (CR 2006/16, p. 15). It further points out that:
“[t]he duties to mobilize the domestic law of Contracting States, and

to prevent and punish acts of genocide committed by individuals, are
inevitably related to the exercise of legislative and enforcement juris-
diction within State territory, or areas under the control of the State.
The principles of State responsibility require an ability to exercise
control over the area concerned.” (Ibid., p. 19.)

Bosnia and Herzegovina quoted from the Judgment of the Court on
the jurisdiction in the present case “that the obligation each State thus
has to prevent and to punish the crime of genocide is not territorially lim-
ited by the Convention” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 616, para. 31). But

Bosnia and Herzegovina also acknowledged that a State has to exercise
at least some control over the territory or activities in question when it
stated:

“In short, the question that needs to be asked is the following: did
the Respondent, in relation to the territory of Bosnia and Herze-
govina, exercise functions, powers or activities which would have
enabled it to prevent or halt the genocide, or at least attempt to do

so? It is obvious that if . . . the reply to that question were to be
affirmative, it would then follow that the obligation to act in order
to prevent and halt the genocide was fully applicable to the Respond-
ent.” (CR 2006/34, p. 7; emphasis added.)

65. In my view, the dictum of the Court that “the obligation each
State thus has to prevent and to punish the crime of genocide is not ter-
ritorially limited by the Convention” has to be interpreted in a reasonable

way.
First, as the Court now rightly states, “the duty to prevent genocide
and the duty to punish its perpetrators . . . are . . . two distinct yet con-
nected obligations, each of which must be considered in turn” (Judgment,
para. 425). Second, with respect to the territorial scope of these two obli-

gations, I shall start with the obligation of punishment for which one
finds a clearer answer in the text of the Convention and in the travaux
préparatoires leading to its adoption. That obligation is territorially lim-
ited, as the Court now rightly notes (Judgment, para. 184). The principle
of universality for the obligation of punishment, originally envisaged in

Article VII of the Secretariat draft, was abandoned by the Ad Hoc Com-
mittee in its draft Article VII, which opted for the principle of territori-
ality, complemented with the jurisdiction of a competent international
tribunal to be established. This solution was, in principle, retained in
Article VI of the Genocide Convention. Thus, strictly speaking, the Con-

vention imposes the obligation to punish on the State in whose territory
the crime of genocide was committed. On the other side, the practice of

307347 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

States clearly confirms that they recognize a State’s right to exercise its
criminal jurisdiction when the crime of genocide was committed outside

its territory, irrespective of the nationality of the alleged perpetrator(s)
and victims. Regardless of how desirable it may be that a State exercises
its criminal jurisdiction to punish genocide, this does not transform such
a right into a State obligation, unless of course, the genocide was com-

mitted in its territory.
66. Turning now to the obligation of prevention, the debate in the
Sixth Committee is not very illuminating. Not surprisingly the leading
author on genocide wrote that “[p]erhaps the most intriguing phrase in
Article I is the obligation upon States to prevent and punish genocide”.

He continued that:

“while the final Convention has much to say about punishment of
genocide, there is little to suggest what prevention of genocide really

means. Certainly, nothing in the debates about Article I provi17s the
slightest clue as to the scope of the obligation to prevent.”

The Court itself acknowledges that while “the Convention includes
fairly detailed provisions concerning the duty to punish (Articles III to

VII), it reverts to the obligation of prevention, stated as a principle in
Article I, only in Article VIII” (Judgment, para. 426; emphasis added).

The latter Article affirms the possibility for a State to bring to the
attention of the competent organs of the United Nations a situation

which such State views as amounting to genocide or involving a risk lead-
ing to genocide. But, unfortunately, the Article does not establish a firm
obligation for the competent organ to act. It is for these United Nations
organs to consider what action would be appropriate for the prevention

or suppression of genocide, or situations which may degenerate into it.
Any such action is to be based on the Charter of the United Nations.

Article VIII is primarily aimed at the Security Council, which bears

“primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and
security” and is authorized under the Charter to decide what measures
shall be taken to maintain or restore international peace and security.
The other organ possibly contemplated under Article VIII of the Geno-

cide Convention is the General Assembly.
When they adopted the Genocide Convention, States expressed in its
Preamble their conviction that, “in order to liberate mankind from such
an odious scourge [i.e., genocide], international co-operation is required”.

Article VIII of the Convention gives a normative expression to this

17W. A. Schabas, Genocide in International Law , 2000, p. 72.

308348 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

conviction by contemplating a role for the competent United Nations

organs in the prevention and suppression of acts of genocide. This is under-
standable since one of the purposes of the United Nations, as stated in Article 1
of the Charter, is “[t]o be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations
in the attainment of [their] common ends”, among them the maintenance

of international peace and security, the promotion and encouragement
of respect for human rights, and fundamental freedom for all.

But if Article VIII does not impose a legal obligation on the competent
organs to act, can the obligation of prevention in Article I be interpreted
as requiring a State to act outside of its territory in order to prevent or
suppress the acts of genocide? I have serious doubts. Such a broad con-

struction of this obligation would mean that preventative action under-
taken by one State in the territory of another should be viewed as lawful.
But in practice, unilateral or plurilateral actions undertaken without the
authorization of the Security Council still remain controversial. At

present, only actions authorized by the Council are undoubtedly lawful
and legitimate.
67. This said, however, I am convinced that under Article I of the
Genocide Convention the State does have an obligation to prevent geno-

cide outside its territory to the extent that it exercises jurisdiction outside
its territory, or exercises control over certain persons in their activities
abroad. This obligation exists in addition to the unequivocal duty to pre-
vent the commission of genocide within its territory.

68. In this case, it has not been established that the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia exercised jurisdiction in the areas surrounding Srebrenica
where atrocious mass killings took place. Nor has it been established that

it exercised control over the perpetrators who conducted these killings
outside the territory of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
The plan to execute as many as possible of the military aged Bosnian
Muslim men present in the Srebrenica enclave was devised and imple-

mented by the Bosnian Serbs following the takeover of Srebrenica
in July 1995. That was the factual finding of the International Criminal
Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) . It has not been established
as a matter of fact before this Court that the Federal Republic of Yugo-

slavia authorities knew in advance of this plan. In such a situation they
could not have prevented the terrible massacres in Srebrenica.

Thus, to my regret, I cannot support the conclusion of my colleagues

in the majority, although I understand the motives, which, at the end of
the day, may have led them to reaching it.

18ICTY, Prosecutor v. Krst´, IT-98-33-T, Judgment of the Trial Chamber,
2 August 2001, para. 87.

309349 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

2. The responsibility for non-compliance with the Orders indicating

provisional measures

69. In the part of this opinion in which I dealt with the Court’s juris-
diction, I took the position that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was
not a party to the Statute of the Court during the 1992-2000 period and

has become party to it only as from 1 November 2000 (paras. 25-36
above). In my view, these facts have implications both for the 1993 Orders
on interim measures of protection, and for the 1996 Judgment on juris-
diction and admissibility because their binding nature is based on the

Statute (Arts. 41 and 59). I have already explained my views on the prob-
lematic implications for the 1996 Judgment since it was rendered when
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not party to the Statute, and the
consequent need to determine the jurisdiction of the Court de novo

(paras. 16-25 above). It remains to offer a few observations on the Orders
indicating provisional measures.

70. One of the conditions for indicating the requested measures is that
the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to afford a
basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be established. Arti-
cle IX of the Genocide Convention “appear[ed] to the Court to afford a

basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded” (I.C.J.
Reports 1993, p. 16, para. 26).
Orders on provisional measures, rendered on the prima facie ascertain-

ment of the Court’s jurisdiction, produce their effects from the moment
of their notification to the Parties and remain in force until the Court
either by a judgment on preliminary objections finds that it has no juris-
diction to entertain the case or finds the Application inadmissible, or

renders its judgment on the merits, i.e. until the final judgment in the case
is delivered (Art. 41 of the Statute). In its Judgment in the Anglo-Iranian
Oil Co. (United Kingdom v. Iran) case, once the Court found that it
lacked jurisdiction in the case, it observed that it followed from this find-

ing that the Order on the provisional measures rendered earlier “ceased
to be operative [upon the delivery of this Judgment] and that the Provi-
sional Measures lapsed at the same time” (I.C.J. Reports 1952, p. 114) 19
This statement seems to indicate that the lapse of the provisional meas-

ures was prospective; they were not invalidated or declared void ab initio.
Similarly, in the Southern Bluefin Tuna case, the Arbitral Tribunal having
found itself without jurisdiction to rule on the merits decided “that pro-
visional measures in force by Order of the International Tribunal for the

LawoftheSea...[were]revokedfromthedayofthesignatureof[the]

19In the Nuclear Tests cases, the Court, having found that the claims no longer had
any object and it was therefore not called upon to give a decision thereon, with respect to
Orders indicating provisional measures repeated the same formula (I.C.J. Reports 1974,
p. 272, para. 61 and pp. 477-478, para. 64).

310350 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

Award” . The Tribunal explained that the Order prescribing provisional
measures “cease[d] to have effect as of the date of the signing of [the]
Award” 21and added that “[h]owever, revocation of the Order . . . does
22
not mean that the Parties may disregard the effects of that Order” .

71. The Orders of the Court of 8 April and 13 September 1993 have
produced their effects. Rendered on the prima facie ascertainment of juris-
diction, the Parties were to comply with the provisional measures indicated

therein. The 1993-1995 period is relevant for the consideration of the com-
pliance with these measures. At that time, the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia claimed to be a Member of the United Nations and, on that basis,
party to the Statute. Despite the fact that this claim subsequently did not

prevail, at the time the Orders were rendered the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia should have perceived itself as bound by those Orders. The
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not party to the Statute until 1 Novem-

ber 2000 when it was admitted to membership in the United Nations. For-
mally, therefore, it had no legal obligations under the Statute during the
period from 27 April 1992 through 31 October 2000. For that reason, I
believe that the text of the Judgment would have been more accurate had

it employed alternative language, avoiding the term “obligation” (Judg-
ment, paras. 435 and 471 (7)). But since the Orders produced their effects,
and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s authorities did not, during the

relevant period of 1993-1995, take the requirements of those Orders seri-
ously into account, I agree with the conclusions of the majority that the
Respondent failed to comply with some of the provisional measures. I
have therefore voted in favour of paragraph 7 of the operative clause.

* * *

CONCLUDING R EMARKS

72. The Judgment closes a particularly lengthy case. Its intriguing pro-

cedural history which started almost 14 years ago is summarized in the
qualités of the Judgment. The complexity of this case is further reflected
in the most extensive written pleadings in the Court’s history. Views were

expressed that the case had awaited adjudication for too long. In the
meantime, the Trial and Appeals Chambers of the ICTY have rendered a
great number of judgments on which both Parties relied in the present
proceedings. The Court has given serious consideration to the ICTY’s

judgments and to the evidence produced in the trials before its Chambers

20International Law Reports , Vol. 119, p. 556, para. 72.
21Ibid., p. 554, para. 66.
22Ibid., p. 555, para. 67.

311351 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

to which the Parties referred. Without the work accomplished by the
ICTY, it would have been much more difficult for the Court to discharge
its role in the present case. Cases involving the “responsibility of a State

for genocide” are too serious to be adjudicated simply on the basis of the
allegations by the Parties.

73. As the Court observes, “the duality of responsibility continues to
be a constant feature of international law” (Judgment, para. 173). This

Court and the ICTY have two different missions but one common objec-
tive.
The ICTY has to determine the personal guilt and individual criminal
responsibility of those indicted for the crime of genocide, crimes against

humanity and war crimes. It has no jurisdiction over States as such and
thus cannot make any pronouncement on the responsibility of States for
the many serious atrocities committed during the Balkan wars since 1991.

The International Court of Justice has no jurisdiction over the indi-
vidual perpetrators of those serious atrocities. Article IX of the Genocide
Convention confers on the Court jurisdiction to determine whether the
Respondent complied with its obligations under the Genocide Conven-

tion. In making this determination in the present case, the Court was
entitled to draw legal consequences from the judgments of the ICTY,
particularly those which dealt with charges of genocide or any of the
other acts proscribed in Article III. Only if the acts of the persons

involved in the commission of such crimes were attributable to the
Respondent could its responsibility have been entailed.
The activity of the Court has thus complemented the judicial activity
of the ICTY in fulfilling the Court’s role in the field of State responsibil-
ity for genocide, over which the ICTY has no jurisdiction. Hopefully, the

activities of these two judicial institutions of the United Nations, the
Court remaining the principal judicial organ of the Organization, con-
tribute in their respective fields to their common objective — the achieve-
ment of international justice — however imperfect it may be perceived.

(Signed) Peter T OMKA .

312

Bilingual Content

310

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE TOMKA

The Court’s jurisdiction — Court informed FRY in 2003 that it could present
further argument on jurisdiction at merits stage — Court Statute and Rules do
not prohibit objections to jurisdiction at merits stage and Court must examine
such issues proprio motu if necessary — Principle of res judicata does not bar
Court’s reconsideration of its jurisdiction — Court’s Judgment of 11 July 1996

did not address the jurisdictional question now raised (whether FRY was party
to the Statute by virtue of United Nations membership when the Application
was filed in March 1993) and is thus not preclusive — Reviewing jurisdiction de
novo, Court has jurisdiction — Access to the Court under Article 35 distin-
guished from jurisdiction ratione personae — Access requirement now met
because FRY became a Member of the United Nations on 1 November 2000,
and has therefore had access to the Court since that date — Jurisdiction ratione
personae established because FRY has been party to Genocide Convention
since April 1992 under rule of ipso jure succession as applied to cases of State
dissolution — Fact that FRY did not have access to Court when Application
filed is remediable defect which does not, once remedied, preclude exercise of
jurisdiction.

Interpretation of Genocide Convention — Convention primarily instrument of
international criminal law which compels States to undertake to prevent geno-
cide and to punish its perpetrators — Drafting history of Convention does not
support view that States can be criminally responsible for genocide — Court’s
jurisdiction under Article IX encompasses the determination of whether a State
has breached its obligations under the Convention and the international respon-
sibility it incurs, but not the determination of whether the crime of genocide was
committed — Regarding obligation to prevent genocide, evidence has not estab-
lished that FRY authorities knew in advance of plan to execute Bosnian Muslim
men in Srebrenica, and thus could have acted to prevent it — FRY failed to
comply with some of the provisional measures ordered by the Court in 1993.

271 310

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE TOMKA

[Traduction]

Compétence de la Cour — La RFY informée en 2003 par la Cour qu’elle pou-

vait présenter des arguments supplémentaires sur la compétence lors de la phase
de l’examen au fond — Statut et Règlement de la Cour n’interdisant pas que
soient soulevées des exceptions d’incompétence lors de la phase consacrée au
fond, la Cour devant, s’il y a lieu, examiner de telles questions d’office — Prin-
cipe de l’autorité de la chose jugée n’empêchant pas la Cour de se pencher de
nouveau sur sa compétence — Arrêt rendu par la Cour le 11 juillet 1996 n’ayant
pas traité la question de compétence soulevée aujourd’hui (celle de savoir si la
RFY, au moment du dépôt de la requête en mars 1993, était partie au Statut en
vertu de sa qualité de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies) et n’inter-
disant donc pas qu’elle soit examinée — Après réexamen de la question, la Cour
a compétence — Distinction entre accès à la Cour conformément à l’article 35
et compétence ratione personae — Condition de l’accès aujourd’hui remplie car
la RFY est devenue Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies le 1 er no-

vembre 2000 et a par conséquent qualité pour ester devant la Cour depuis cette
date — Compétence ratione personae établie puisque la RFY est partie à la
convention sur le génocide depuis le mois d’avril 1992 en vertu de la règle de
succession ipso jure telle qu’appliquée aux cas de dissolution d’Etat — Fait
que la RFY n’avait pas accès à la Cour au moment du dépôt de la requête
constituant un défaut auquel il peut être remédié et qui, dès lors, ne fait pas
échec à l’exercice de la compétence.
Interprétation de la convention sur le génocide — Convention constituant
avant tout un instrument de droit pénal international qui oblige les Etats à
s’engager à prévenir le génocide et à punir les personnes qui le commettent —
Histoire rédactionnelle de la Convention n’étayant pas la thèse selon laquelle les
Etats peuvent être pénalement responsables de génocide — Compétence confé-
rée par l’article IX à la Cour lui imposant également de déterminer si un Etat a

violé les obligations lui incombant aux termes de la Convention et s’il a engagé
sa responsabilité internationale, mais pas de statuer sur la question de savoir si
le crime de génocide a été commis — Relativement à l’obligation de prévenir le
génocide, éléments de preuve n’ayant pas permis d’établir que les autorités de la
RFY avaient à l’avance connaissance du plan consistant à exécuter les hommes
musulmans de Bosnie à Srebrenica et auraient donc pu prendre des mesures pour
prévenir sa mise en Œuvre — RFY ne s’étant pas conformée à certaines des
mesures conservatoires indiquées par la Cour en 1993.

271311 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs
INTRODUCTION 1-4

I. THE COURT ’SJURISDICTION 5-36

1. Res judicata: What is its scope as far as the 1996 Judgment is
concerned? 11-13
2. Access and jurisdiction 14-15
3. Did the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia have access to the Court
in March 1993? 16-23
4. Ascertaining of the Court’s jurisdiction de novo 24-36

II. THE M ERITS 37-71

A. Interpretation of the Genocide Convention 37-61
1. Article I 40-45

2. Article II 46
3. Article III 47
4. Article IV 48
5. Article VI 49
6. Article IX 50-60

(a) Disputes relating to the fulfilment of the Convention 51-52
(b) Disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for
genocide 53-60

7. Conclusions on the interpretation of the Convention 61
B. Comments on some of the Court’s findings 62-71

1. The obligation to prevent 62-68
2. The responsibility for non-compliance with the Orders indi-
cating provisional measures 69-71

C ONCLUDING R EMARKS 72-73

272 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND. TOMKA ) 311

TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Paragraphes

INTRODUCTION 1-4

I. COMPÉTENCE DE LA C OUR 5-36
1. Autorité de la chose jugée: dans quelle mesure l’arrêt de 1996 en

est-il revêtu? 11-13
2. Accès et compétence 14-15
3. La République fédérale de Yougoslavie avait-elle qualité pour
ester devant la Cour en mars 1993? 16-23
4. Détermination de novo de la compétence de la Cour 24-36

II. FOND 37-71

A. Interprétation de la convention sur le génocide 37-61
1. L’article premier 40-45
2. L’article II 46
3. L’article III 47
4. L’article IV 48

5. L’article VI 49
6. L’article IX 50-60
a) Différends relatifs à l’exécution de la Convention 51-52
b) Différends relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière

de génocide 53-60
7. Conclusions concernant l’interprétation de la Convention 61

B. Commentaires sur certaines conclusions de la Cour 62-71
1. L’obligation de prévenir 62-68
2. Responsabilité pour non-respect des ordonnances en indi-

cation de mesures conservatoires 69-71
O BSERVATIONS FINALES 72-73

272312 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

INTRODUCTION

1. The Judgment of the Court closes a particularly tragic case. When
the Court was seised of this case, the fratricidal war in Bosnia and Herze-

govina was raging. Over a period of more than four years, the Parties
now agree, the war claimed about 100,000 human lives, wounded count-
less others, and inflicted enormous material damage. It deeply affected
people in the region, further generating mistrust and sometimes outright
hatred between different ethnic and religious communities. It should

never have happened. Unfortunately, it did.

2. The Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina turned to the Court 14
years ago, in March 1993, in the midst of the bloody conflict which was
ravaging its territory. Among its most serious allegations, the Applicant,

the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, claimed that the Respondent,
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), engaged in multiple violations of
obligations under Articles I to V of the Genocide Convention. The Gov-
ernment of Bosnia and Herzegovina also requested the Court twice in

1993 to indicate provisional measures. The Court did so. Unfortunately,
the measures did not prevent further atrocities from being committed.
The Court has now found that the breach of the obligations under Arti-
cle I of the Genocide Convention occurred in July 1995. Yet, it was
unable to prevent that breach or the ensuing violence.

3. The courts are usually powerless to stop wars. Wars always involve
more than just legal disputes. In the United Nations system of collective
security, it is the Security Council which bears primary responsibility for

the maintenance of international peace and security. Courts usually can
only sort out ex post the legal consequences of the wars provided they
have jurisdiction over the particular case, and always within the strict
limits of such jurisdiction.

4. The dispute before the Court has involved two States, but it is not
only an inter-State dispute. It also has an intra-State dimension within
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs

attempted in 1999 to withdraw the case, and have remained opposed to
its continuance (see Judgment, paras. 19-25). On the day of the opening
of the hearings 27 February 2006 the Court received a letter from
Mr. Paravac, then Member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina

from the Republika Srpska. He informed the Court that the Parliament
of Bosnia and Herzegovina did not approve financing for the expenses of
Bosnia and Herzegovina’s legal team in the case from the federal budget,
and that he had seised the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herze-
govina to decide whether the authorization to institute proceedings in the

International Court of Justice granted in 1993 by President Izetbegovic ´

273 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND.TOMKA ) 312

INTRODUCTION

1. L’arrêt de la Cour met un terme à une affaire particulièrement tra-
gique. Lorsque la Cour en a été saisie, la guerre fratricide en Bosnie-

Herzégovine faisait rage. Ainsi que les Parties en conviennent aujourd’hui,
elle a, sur une période de plus de quatre ans, coûté la vie à quelque
cent mille personnes, fait d’innombrables blessés et causé des dégâts
matériels considérables. Elle a profondément meurtri les habitants de la
région, attisant la méfiance et, parfois, la haine pure et simple entre dif-

férentes communautés ethniques et religieuses. Tout cela n’aurait jamais
dû se produire. Tout cela s’est malheureusement produit.
2. Le Gouvernement de la Bosnie-Herzégovine s’est tourné vers la
Cour il y a quatorze ans, en mars 1993, alors que le conflit meurtrier
ravageait sur son territoire. Parmi ses accusations les plus graves, le

demandeur, la République de Bosnie-Herzégovine, prétendait que le
défendeur, la Yougoslavie (Serbie-et-Monténégro), se livrait à de nom-
breuses violations des obligations lui incombant en vertu des articles pre-
mieràVdelaconventionsurlegénocide.LeGouvernementdelaBos-

nie-Herzégovine a également prié la Cour, à deux reprises pendant l’année
1993, d’indiquer des mesures conservatoires. La Cour l’a fait. Malheu-
reusement, ces mesures n’ont pas empêché que de nouvelles atrocités
soient commises. La Cour a aujourd’hui établi que le manquement aux
obligations énoncées à l’article premier de la convention sur le génocide

s’était produit en juillet 1995. Cependant, elle n’a pas été en mesure de
prévenir ce manquement ni les violences qui en ont résulté.
3. La justice est généralement impuissante à mettre un terme aux
guerres. Celles-ci dépassent toujours le cadre de différends purement juri-
diques. Dans le système de sécurité collective de l’Organisation des

Nations Unies, c’est le Conseil de sécurité qui exerce la responsabilité
principale en matière de maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internatio-
nales. Les organes judiciaires ne peuvent en général que remédier à pos-
teriori aux conséquences juridiques des guerres, à condition toutefois

qu’ils aient compétence pour connaître de l’affaire en question et toujours
dans les strictes limites de cette compétence.
4. Le différend porté devant la Cour opposait deux Etats, mais il ne
s’agit pas seulement d’un différend interétatique. Il revêt également une
dimension intra-étatique, au sein de la Bosnie-Herzégovine. Des repré-

sentants politiques des Serbes de Bosnie ont, en 1999, tenté de retirer
l’affaire du rôle de la Cour, et ils sont restés opposés à sa poursuite (voir
arrêt, par. 19-25). Le 27 février 2006, jour de l’ouverture des audiences, la
Cour a reçu une lettre de M. Paravac, alors membre de la présidence de

Bosnie-Herzégovine représentant la Republika Srpska. Ce dernier a
informé la Cour que le Parlement de Bosnie-Herzégovine n’avait pas
approuvé le financement par le budget fédéral des dépenses de l’équipe
juridique de Bosnie-Herzégovine en l’affaire, et qu’il avait saisi la Cour
constitutionnelle de Bosnie-Herzégovine pour que celle-ci détermine si

l’autorisation donnée en 1993 par le président Izetbegovic ´ d’introduire

273313 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

was in conformity with the Constitution. No further communication on
this issue was received by the Court. This dimension of the case however
did not have any bearing on its consideration and adjudication by the

Court.

I. T HE C OURT S JURISDICTION

5. The Court in the Judgment affirms its jurisdiction on the ground
that “the principle of res judicata precludes any reopening of the decision
embodied in the 1996 Judgment” (Judgment, para. 140). I have serious
misgivings about the Court’s reasoning and feel compelled to elaborate

my views thereon. However, because I ultimately find, although on a dif-
ferent ground, that the Court has jurisdiction over this case, I have voted
in favour of the first paragraph of the dispositif.

6. My misgivings are caused by the fact that the Court in 2003, after it
had considered the “Initiative of Serbia and Montenegro to the Court to
Reconsider ex officio Jurisdiction over Yugoslavia”, dated 4 May 2001,
informed the Parties that “[s]hould Serbia and Montenegro wish to
present further argument to the Court on jurisdictional questions during

the oral proceedings on the merits, it w[ould] be free to do so” (letter of
the Registrar of 12 June 2003, the text of which was approved by the
Court, Judgment, para. 82). The Parties were also informed that, “as the
Court has emphasized in the past, [it] is entitled to consider jurisdictional

issues proprio motu”, and “must . . . always be satisfied that it has juris-
diction, and must if necessary go into that matter proprio motu”( Appeal
Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (India v. Pakistan),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 , p. 52, para. 13). Finally the Court assured
the Parties that it “w[ould] not give judgment on the merits in the present

case unless it [was] satisfied that it ha[d] jurisdiction” (Judgment, para. 82).

7. The Court thus allowed the Respondent to raise the issue of its
jurisdiction at the merits stage despite having upheld its jurisdiction in

1996 (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Prelimi-
nary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 623, para. 47),
and having found the request for revision inadmissible in February 2003

(Application for Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case
concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia),
Preliminary Objections (Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2003 , p. 32, para. 75).

8. The position the Court communicated to the Parties in its June 2003
letter was in conformity with its jurisprudence and practice. For example,
the Court stated in the Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO
Council that

274 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 313

une instance devant la Cour internationale de Justice était conforme à la
Constitution; la Cour n’a reçu aucune communication ultérieure sur cette
question. Cet aspect de l’affaire n’a cependant eu aucune incidence sur
son examen et son règlement judiciaire par la Cour.

I. COMPÉTENCE DE LA C OUR

5. Dans son arrêt, la Cour dit qu’elle a compétence au motif que «le

principe de l’autorité de la chose jugée interdit toute remise en question
de la décision contenue dans l’arrêt de 1996» (arrêt, par. 140). J’ai de
sérieux doutes sur le raisonnement de la Cour et m’estime obligé de déve-
lopper mes vues sur ce point. Toutefois, ayant en définitive été amené à
considérer, bien que sur un fondement différent, que la Cour avait com-

pétence en la présente affaire, j’ai voté en faveur du premier paragraphe
du dispositif.
6. Mes doutes proviennent du fait que la Cour a, en 2003, après avoir
examiné l’«Initiative présentée [par la Serbie-et-Monténégro] à la Cour

aux fins d’un réexamen d’office de sa compétence» en date du 4 mai 2001,
informé les Parties que, «si la Serbie-et-Monténégro souhait[ait] présen-
ter à la Cour des arguments supplémentaires sur les questions de compé-
tence lors de la procédure orale au fond, elle [était] libre de le faire»
(lettre du greffier en date du 12 juin 2003, dont le texte a été approuvé par

la Cour, arrêt, par. 82). Les Parties ont également été informées que,
«ainsi qu’elle l’a[vait] souligné dans le passé, la Cour a[vait] le droit
d’examiner d’office les questions de compétence», et qu’elle «d[evait] …
toujours s’assurer de sa compétence et … d[evait], s’il y a lieu, l’examiner
d’office» (Appel concernant la compétence du Conseil de l’OACI (Inde

c. Pakistan), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972 , p. 52, par. 13). Enfin, la Cour a
assuré les Parties qu’elle «ne se prononcera[it] sur le fond de la présente
affaire qu’à condition d’avoir pu établir qu’elle a[vait] compétence»
(arrêt, par. 82).

7. La Cour a donc autorisé le défendeur à soulever la question de sa
compétence lors de la phase de l’examen au fond, et ce bien qu’elle ait dit,
en 1996, qu’elle avait compétence (Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) ,

p. 623, par. 47) et qu’elle ait jugé irrecevable, en février 2003, la demande
en revision (Demande en revision de l’arrêt du 11 juillet 1996 en l’affaire
relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répres-
sion du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie),

exceptions préliminaires (Yougoslavie c. Bosnie-Herzégovine), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 32, par. 75).
8. La position que la Cour a fait connaître aux Parties dans sa lettre
de juin 2003 était conforme à sa jurisprudence et à sa pratique. Ainsi,
dans l’Appel concernant la compétence du Conseil de l’OACI , la Cour a

déclaré, que

274314 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

“[i]t is certainly to be desired that objections to the jurisdiction of the
Court should be put forward as preliminary objections for separate
decision in advance of the proceedings on the merits” (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 52, para. 13; emphasis added).

The Court’s language indicates that such timing is merely a desideratum,
not a legal requirement. The Court later explained in Avena and Other

Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America) that Article 79
of the Rules of Court, which states that any objection by the Respondent
to the Court’s jurisdiction shall be made within three months of the deliv-
ery of the Memorial, “applies only to preliminary objections, as is indi-
cated by the title of the subsection of the Rules which it constitutes”

(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 , p. 29, para. 24; emphasis added). As the
Court further explained,

“[a]n objection that is not presented as a preliminary objection in
accordance with paragraph 1 of Article 79 does not thereby become
inadmissible” (ibid.).

And it added,
“[h]owever, apart from such circumstances, a party failing to avail

itself of the Article 79 procedure may forfeit the right to bring about
a suspension of the proceedings on the merits, but can still argue the
objection along with the merits” (ibid.; emphasis added).

9. The Court now states that

“once [it] has made a determination . . . on a question of its own
jurisdiction, that determination is definitive both for the parties to
the case, in respect of the case (Article 59 of the Statute), and for the

Court itself in the context of that case” (Judgment, para. 138).
This statement of the Court seems to be a statement of a legal principle.
Was the Court not aware of such a principle — although jura novit

curia — when in June 2003 it informed the Parties that
“[s]hould Serbia and Montenegro wish to present further argument

to the Court on jurisdictional questions during the oral proceedings
on the merits, it w[ould] be free to do so” (Judgment, para. 82;
emphasis added).

Moreover, the Court already in 2003 knew what arguments the Respond-
ent intended to raise since they were developed in the 2001 Initiative. The
key argument of the Court against the reconsideration of its jurisdiction

is now based on the principle of res judicata. I do not believe that the
issue can be resolved so simply.

10. The primary question which requires an answer is whether a party
may raise a series of objections in successive phases of a case. This ques-

tion is particularly relevant in the present case, since the Respondent

275 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 314

«[i]l [était] assurément souhaitable que les objections visant [s]a com-

pétence … prennent la forme d’exceptions préliminaires sur les-
quelles il est statué à part avant toute procédure sur le fond»
(arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972 , p. 52, par. 13; les italiques sont de moi).

Les termes employés par la Cour indiquent que ce déroulement chrono-
logique est un simple souhait et non une exigence juridique. La Cour a
par la suite expliqué, en l’affaire Avena et autres ressortissants mexicains
(Mexique c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique) , que l’article 79 de son Règlement,

lequel dispose que toute exception à sa compétence doit être présentée
dans les trois mois suivant le dépôt du mémoire, «concern[ait] seulement
les exceptions préliminaires, comme l’indique l’intitulé de la sous-section
du Règlement qu’il constitue» (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 , p. 29, par. 24;
les italiques sont de moi). Ainsi que la Cour l’a en outre précisé,

[u]ne exception qui n’est pas soulevée sous la forme d’une exception
préliminaire conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 79 ne devient

pas pour autant irrecevable» (ibid.).
Et la Cour d’ajouter:

«Mais hors de cette hypothèse, une partie qui n’use pas de la pro-
cédure prévue à l’article 79 perd sans doute le droit d’obtenir la sus-
pension de la procédure sur le fond, mais n’en peut pas moins faire

valoir cette exception en même temps que ses arguments au fond.»
(Ibid.; les italiques sont de moi.)

9. Aujourd’hui, la Cour déclare que,
«dès lors qu[’elle] s’est prononcée … sur une question concernant sa

propre compétence, sa décision à cet égard est définitive, tant pour
les parties en litige dans l’affaire (Statut, art. 59) que pour la Cour
elle-même dans le contexte de cette affaire» (arrêt, par. 138).

Cette déclaration de la Cour apparaît comme l’énoncé d’un principe juri-
dique. N’avait-elle donc pas connaissance de ce principe — quoiqu’il fût
jura novit curia — lorsqu’elle a, en juin 2003, informé les Parties que,

«si la Serbie-et-Monténégro souhait[ait] présenter à la Cour des
arguments supplémentaires sur les questions de compétence lors de la
procédure orale au fond, elle [était] libre de le faire?» (arrêt, par. 82;
les italiques sont de moi).

De surcroît, en 2003, la Cour connaissait déjà les arguments que le défen-
deur avait l’intention de soulever, ceux-ci ayant été exposés dans l’Initia-

tive de 2001. Le principal argument que la Cour invoque aujourd’hui
pour ne pas réexaminer sa compétence est fondé sur le principe de l’auto-
rité de la chose jugée. Selon moi, ce problème ne peut être résolu aussi
simplement.
10. La principale question à laquelle il convient de répondre est celle

de savoir si une partie peut soulever plusieurs séries d’exceptions, lors de
phases distinctes de la procédure — question particulièrement pertinente

275315 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

(called the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia at that time) put forward

in June 1995 seven preliminary objections concerning the Court’s juris-
diction to entertain the case and the Application’s admissibility. The
Court dismissed six of these objections in its Judgment of 11 July 1996;

the remaining one had been withdrawn by the Respondent during the
oral proceedings on the preliminary issues of jurisdiction and admissibil-
ity. The question raised is not regulated by the Statute or the Rules of
Court. But as a leading commentator on the work of the Court has sug-

gested, “in an appropriate case, objections can be raised after the Court
has upheld its jurisdiction in preliminary objection proceedings and after
the proceedings on the merits have been resumed” . In his view, “[t]he
condition for this is that the new objection does not raise issues that have

been decided with the force of res judicata in the judgment on the pre-
liminary objections and does not require a further suspension of the pro-
ceedings on the merits” . I find this view correct and it seems that the
Court’s position in June 2003, as reflected in the Registrar’s letter, lends

a further support to it.

1. Res Judicata: What Is Its Scope as Far as the 1996 Judgment Is
Concerned?

11. This brings me to the second major question — what is the scope
of the res judicata nature of the 1996 Judgment? In that Judgment the
Court rejected the following six preliminary objections of the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia:

(i) that the Application was not admissible because “the events in Bos-

nia and Herzegovina to which [it] refer[red] constituted a civil war”
and therefore “no international dispute exist[ed] within the terms of
Article IX of the 1948 [Genocide] Convention”;

(ii) that the Application was not admissible because “Mr. Alija Izetbe-
govic´ did not serve as the President of the Republic at the time when
he granted the authorization to initiate proceedings” (the Court
however did not specifically address another element of this objec-

tion, namely that “the authorization for the initiation and conduct
of proceedings was granted in violation of the rules of internal law
of fundamental significance”);
(iii) that the Court had no jurisdiction because the Applicant was not a

party to the 1948 Genocide Convention;
(iv) that the Court had no jurisdiction because “the case in point [was]
an internal conflict between three sides in which the FR of Yugosla-

1
S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court , 1920-2005, 4th ed.,
Vo2. II, “Jurisdiction”, 2006, p. 865, para. II. 225 (emphasis added).
Ibid.

276 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND .TOMKA ) 315

en l’espèce, le défendeur (dénommé à l’époque République fédérale de
Yougoslavie) ayant soulevé, en juin 1995, sept exceptions préliminaires à
la compétence de la Cour et à la recevabilité de la requête. Six de ces

exceptions ont été rejetées par la Cour dans son arrêt du 11 juillet 1996,
la septième ayant, quant à elle, été retirée par le défendeur au cours de la
procédure orale consacrée à l’examen des questions préliminaires de com-
pétence et de recevabilité. La question soulevée n’est régie ni par le Statut

ni par le Règlement de la Cour. Cependant, ainsi qu’un éminent com-
mentateur des travaux de la Cour l’a fait observer, «si les circonstances
d’une affaire s’y prêtent, des exceptions peuvent être soulevées après que
la Cour s’est déclarée compétente lors de la phase d’examen des excep-
1
tions préliminaires et une fois entamé l’examen au fond» . Selon cet
auteur, «[l]a condition est que la nouvelle exception ne soulève pas de
questions qui auraient été tranchées avec l’autorité de la chose jugée dans

l’arrêt relatif aux exceptions prélimin2ires et n’impose pas une suspension
de la procédure d’examen au fond» . Selon moi, ce point de vue est exact
et la position de la Cour en juin 2003, telle qu’exprimée dans la lettre du
greffier, semble le conforter.

1. Autorité de la chose jugée: dans quelle mesure l’arrêt de 1996

en est-il revêtu?

11. Cela m’amène à la deuxième question essentielle, celle de savoir
dans quelle mesure l’arrêt de 1996 est revêtu de l’autorité de la chose

jugée. Dans cet arrêt, la Cour a rejeté les six exceptions préliminaires sui-
vantes formulées par la République fédérale de Yougoslavie:

i) celle selon laquelle la requête n’était pas recevable parce que «les évé-
nements auxquels [elle] se référ[ait], qui se sont produits en Bosnie-
Herzégovine, constitu[ai]ent une guerre civile» et que, dès lors, «il

n’exist[ait] aucun différend international selon les termes de
l’article IX de la convention [sur le génocide] de 1948»;
ii) celle selon laquelle la requête n’était pas recevable parce que

«M. Alija Izetbegovic ´ n’occupait pas les fonctions de président de la
république à l’époque où il a donné l’autorisation d’introduire une
instance» (la Cour ne s’est cependant pas spécifiquement penchée sur
un autre élément de cette même exception, à savoir que «l’autorisa-

tion d’introduire et de conduire une instance a[vait] été accordée en
violation de règles de droit interne d’importance fondamentale»);
iii) celle selon laquelle la Cour n’avait pas compétence parce que le
demandeur n’était pas partie à la convention de 1948 sur le génocide;

iv) celle selon laquelle la Cour n’avait pas compétence parce qu’«il y
a[vait] en l’espèce un conflit interne entre trois parties, auquel la

1 S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-2005 ,4éd.,
vol. II, «Jurisdiction», 2006, p. 865, par. II.225; les italiques sont de moi.
2
Ibid.

276316 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

via was not taking part” and because “the claims contained in the
‘Submissions’ [were] based on allegations of State responsibility
which f[ell] outside the scope of the Convention and of its compro-
missory clause”, and further because “there [was] no international

dispute under Article IX of the 1948 [Genocide] Convention”;

(v) that the Court lacked competence over the case before 14 Decem-
ber 1995, the date on which the two Parties recognized each other,

and alternatively before 29 March 1993, the date on which Bosnia
and Herzegovina’s notification of succession of 29 December 1992,
which the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia considered to be the noti-
fication of accession, could have produced its effect;

(vi) that the Applicant’s claims pertaining to the alleged acts or facts
which occurred prior to 18 March 1993 — the date on which the
Secretary-General of the United Nations sent to the parties of the
Genocide Convention the depository notification informing of Bos-

nia and Herzegovina’s notification of succession — did not fall
within the competence of the Court (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,
pp. 606-608, para. 15).

The Court considered the above-mentioned preliminary objections and
rejected them all, thus finding “that, on the basis of Article IX of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, it

ha[d] jurisdiction to adjudicate upon the dispute” and “the Application . . .
[was] admissible” (ibid., pp. 623-624, para. 47).
12. The conclusions of the Court regarding its jurisdiction are based
on its consideration of the six preliminary objections raised. The principle

of res judicata prevents the Respondent from raising again those issues
which the Court already dealt with when it rejected the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia’s preliminary objections.

It is useful to recall what the Court stated in the said Judgment:

“The Court must, in each case submitted to it, verify whether it

has jurisdiction to deal with the case , and, if necessary, whether the
Application is admissible, and such objections as are raised by the
Respondent may be useful to clarify the legal situation . As matters
now stand, the preliminary objections presented by Yugoslavia have
served that purpose. Having established its jurisdiction under Arti-

cle IX of the Genocide Convention, and having concluded that the
Application is admissible, the Court may now proceed to consider
the merits of the case on that basis.” (Ibid., p. 622, para. 46;
emphasis added.)

Although the Court speaks of its duty to verify that it has jurisdiction,

and notes that the objections raised may be useful for that purpose, the

277 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND. TOMKA ) 316

République fédérative de Yougoslavie n’[était] pas partie prenante»,

parce que «les demandes de la Partie requérante figurant dans ses
«conclusions» repos[aient] sur des allégations de responsabilité d’Etat
qui se situ[aient] en dehors du champ d’application de la convention
et de sa clause compromissoire» et, en outre, parce qu’«il n’exist[ait]
aucun différend international en vertu de l’article IX de la conven-

tion [sur le génocide] de 1948»;
v) celle selon laquelle la Cour n’avait pas compétence pour connaître de
l’affaire avant le 14 décembre 1995, date à laquelle les deux Parties
se sont reconnues mutuellement, et, subsidiairement, avant le
29 mars 1993, date à laquelle la notification de succession de la Bos-

nie-Herzégovine du 29 décembre 1992, que la République fédérale de
Yougoslavie considérait comme étant la notification d’adhésion,
aurait pu produire effet;
vi) celle selon laquelle les demandes de la Partie requérante ayant trait

aux actes ou faits allégués antérieurs au 18 mars 1993 — date à
laquelle le Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies a
adressé aux parties à la convention sur le génocide la notification
dépositaire les informant de la notification de succession de la
Bosnie-Herzégovine — n’étaient pas du ressort de la Cour

(C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 606-608, par. 15).

La Cour a examiné les exceptions préliminaires susmentionnées et les a
toutes rejetées, déclarant par conséquent «qu’elle a[vait] compétence, sur
la base de l’article IX de la convention pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide, pour statuer sur le différend» et «que la
requête … [était] recevable» (ibid., p. 623-624, par. 47).

12. Les conclusions formulées par la Cour relativement à sa compé-
tence sont fondées sur son examen des six exceptions préliminaires sou-
levées par le défendeur. Le principe de l’autorité de la chose jugée interdit
à ce dernier de soulever de nouveau ces questions sur lesquelles la Cour a
déjà statué lorsqu’elle a rejeté les exceptions préliminaires de la Répu-

blique fédérale de Yougoslavie.
Il est utile de rappeler ce que la Cour a indiqué dans l’arrêt susmentionné:

«La Cour doit, dans chaque instance introduite devant elle, véri-
fier si elle a compétence pour connaître de l’affaire et, le cas échéant,
si la requête est recevable; les exceptions éventuellement soulevées
par la partie défenderesse peuvent être utiles pour clarifier la situa-

tion juridique. En l’occurrence, les exceptions préliminaires présen-
tées par la Yougoslavie ont eu cette fonction. Ayant établi sa com-
pétence en vertu de l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide, et
ayant conclu à la recevabilité de la requête, la Cour peut désormais
procéder à l’examen du fond de l’affaire sur cette base.» (Ibid.,

p. 622, par. 46; les italiques sont de moi.)

Bien qu’elle évoque son devoir de s’assurer de sa compétence et relève
que les exceptions soulevées peuvent être utiles à cette fin, la Cour s’est

277317 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

Court has seemingly limited the exercise of its duty of verification to the

consideration and rejection of the Respondent’s preliminary objections.
13. As the Court now acknowledges, “[n]one of these objections was
however founded on a contention that the FRY was not a party to the
Statute at the relevant time; that was not a contention specifically

advanced in the proceedings on the preliminary objections” (Judgment,
para. 106). Apparently this was because:

“Neither party raised the matter before the Court: Bosnia and
Herzegovina as Applicant, while denying that the FRY was a Mem-
ber of the United Nations as a continuator of the SFRY, was assert-
ing before this Court that the FRY was nevertheless a party to the

Statute . . .; and for the FRY to raise the issue would have involved
undermining or abandoning its claim to be the continuator of the
SFRY as the basis for continuing membership of the United
Nations.” (Ibid.)

I am convinced that the Court has not addressed this particular issue
3
whether the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a party to the Statute .
Therefore, in my view, the Court’s 1996 decision can have no preclusive
effect on the consideration of such issue at this stage.

2. Access and Jurisdiction

14. In assessing whether this Court may adjudicate a case, it is impor-
tant to recognize that the concept of access to the Court is not identical

to that of jurisdiction ratione personae.
15. These two distinct concepts are reflected in the Court’s jurispru-
dence. In Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany v. Ice-
land), the Court distinguished between jurisdiction and access to the

Court by ascribing different purposes to two different acts. Specifically,
the Court determined that while the bilateral Exchange of Notes of
19 July 1961 between the Governments of the Federal Republic of Ger-
many and Iceland was “designed to establish jurisdiction of the Court

over a particular kind of dispute”, the declaration of the Federal Repub-
lic of Germany of 29 October 1971, deposited with the Registrar on
22 November 1971, “provide[d] for access to the Court of States which
are not parties to the Statute”, as required by Security Council resolu-

tion 9 of 15 October 1946 (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 53, para. 11).
In its Order of 2 June 1999 in Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v.
Belgium), the Court also distinguished between jurisdiction and access
when it stated that:

3See the joint dissenting opinion of three Members of the Court appended to this Judg-
ment who were the only Members of the current Court also sitting on the Bench when the
Court rendered its 1996 Judgment.

278 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .IND .TOMKA ) 317

apparemment cantonnée, dans l’exercice de ce devoir, à l’examen et au
rejet des exceptions préliminaires du défendeur.

13. Pourtant, ainsi que la Cour le reconnaît aujourd’hui, «aucune de
ces exceptions ne reposait sur la thèse selon laquelle la RFY n’aurait pas
été partie au Statut au moment du dépôt de la requête; il ne s’agissait pas
là d’une thèse formulée expressément au stade des exceptions prélimi-

naires» (arrêt, par. 106). Si tel est le cas, c’est apparemment parce que:
«[a]ucune Partie n[’avait] soulev[é] la question devant la Cour: d’un

côté, la Bosnie-Herzégovine, en tant que demandeur, tout en niant
que la RFY fût Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en
qualité de continuateur de la RFSY, assurait devant la Cour que la
RFY était malgré tout partie au Statut…; de l’autre, pour la RFY,

soulever la question aurait affaibli sa prétention à assurer la conti-
nuité de la RFSY — ou l’aurait conduite à l’abandonner —, préten-
tion qui justifiait la continuité de sa qualité de Membre de l’Organi-
sation des Nations Unies» (ibid.).

Je suis convaincu que la Cour ne s’est pas intéressée à la question spé-
cifique de savoir si la République fédérale de Yougoslavie était partie au
3
Statut . Selon moi, la décision rendue par la Cour en 1996 ne saurait
donc empêcher que cette question soit examinée lors de la phase actuelle.

2. Accès et compétence

14. Pour déterminer si la Cour peut se prononcer sur une affaire, il est

important de garder présent à l’esprit que la notion d’accès à la Cour
n’est pas identique à celle de compétence ratione personae.
15. Ces deux notions distinctes se retrouvent dans la jurisprudence de
la Cour. En l’affaire de la Compétence en matière de pêcheries (Répu-

blique fédérale d’Allemagne c. Islande) , la Cour a ainsi distingué entre
compétence et accès à la Cour en attribuant des buts différents à deux
actes différents. Plus précisément, elle a jugé que, si l’échange de notes
du 19 juillet 1961 entre les Gouvernements de la République fédérale d’Al-

lemagne et de l’Islande avait «pour but d’établir la compétence de la Cour
à l’égard d’une catégorie particulière de différends», la déclaration de la
République fédérale d’Allemagne du 29 octobre 1971, déposée au Greffe
le 22 novembre 1971, «concern[ait] l’accès à la Cour d’Etats qui ne sont

pas parties au Statut», en application de la résolution 9 du Conseil de
sécurité du 15 octobre 1946 (C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 53, par. 11).
Dans l’ordonnance qu’elle a rendue le 2 juin 1999 en l’affaire relative à
la Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Belgique) , la Cour a

également distingué entre compétence et qualité pour ester devant elle en
déclarant que

3Voir l’opinion dissidente commune jointe au présent arrêt par trois juges qui sont les
seuls membres actuels de la Cour à avoir également siégé lorsque celle-ci a rendu son arrêt
en 1996.

278318 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

“the Court, under its Statute, does not automatically have jurisdic-
tion over legal disputes between States parties to that Statute or
between other States to whom access to the Court has been granted;
whereas the Court has repeatedly stated ‘that one of the fundamen-

tal principles of its Statute is that it cannot decide a dispute between
States without the consent of those States to its jurisdiction’ (East
Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995 ,
p. 101, para. 26); and whereas the Court can therefore exercise juris-
diction only between States parties to a dispute who not only have

access to the Court but also have accepted the jurisdiction of the
Court, either in general form or for the individual dispute con-
cerned” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) ,
p. 132, para. 20; emphasis added).

In its Order of 10 July 2002 in Armed Activities on the Territory of the

Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v.
Rwanda), the Court made the same distinction (Provisional Measures,
I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 241, para. 57).
In the Legality of Use of Force cases, the Court stated that

“a distinction has to be made between a question of jurisdiction that

relates to the consent of a party and the question of the right of a
party to appear before the Court under the requirements of the Stat-
ute, which is not a matter of consent” (Legality of Use of Force
(Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 295, para. 36).

The Court then continued:

“The question is whether as a matter of law Serbia and Montene-
gro was entitled to seise the Court as a party to the Statute at the

time when it instituted proceedings in these cases. Since that ques-
tion is independent of the views or wishes of the Parties, even if they
were now to have arrived at a shared view on the point, the Court
would not have to accept the view as necessarily the correct one.”

(Ibid.; emphasis in the original.)
And the Court concluded with an important dictum:

“The function of the Court to enquire into the matter and reach

its own conclusion is thus mandatory upon the Court irrespective of
the consent of the parties and is in no way incompatible with the
principle that the jurisdiction of the Court depends on consent.”
(Ibid.)

The Court further clarified the relationship between access and juris-
diction in the Legality of Use of Force Judgments when it stated:

279 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 318

«en vertu de son statut la Cour n’a pas automatiquement compé-

tence pour connaître des différends juridiques entre les Etats parties
audit Statut ou entre les autres Etats qui ont été admis à ester devant
elle; … la Cour a déclaré à maintes reprises «que l’un des principes
fondamentaux de son Statut est qu’elle ne peut trancher un différend
entre des Etats sans que ceux-ci aient consenti à sa juridiction»

(Timor oriental (Portugal c. Australie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995 ,
p. 101, par. 26); … la Cour ne peut donc exercer sa compétence à
l’égard d’Etats parties à un différend que si ces derniers ont non seu-
lement accès à la Cour, mais ont en outre accepté sa compétence,
soit d’une manière générale, soit pour le différend particulier dont il

s’agit» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Belgique),
mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil
1999 (I), p. 132, par. 20; les italiques sont de moi).

Dans l’ordonnance qu’elle a rendue le 10 juillet 2002 en l’affaire des Acti-
vités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle requête: 2002) (Répu-
blique démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda) , la Cour a opéré la même

distinction (exceptions préliminaires, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 , p. 241, par. 57).
Dans les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force , la Cour a
déclaré que

«il y a[vait] lieu d’établir une distinction entre une question de com-
pétence liée au consentement d’une partie et celle du droit d’une par-
tie à ester devant la Cour conformément aux prescriptions du Statut,

qui n’impliquent pas un tel consentement» (Licéité de l’emploi de la
force (Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 , p. 295, par. 36).

La Cour a poursuivi en indiquant ce qui suit:

«La question qui se pose est de savoir sie,n droit, au moment où elle
a introduit les présentes instances, la Serbie-et-Monténégro était habi-
litée à saisir la Cour en tant que partie au Statut. Cette question étant
indépendante des vues ou des souhaits des Parties, la Cour ne serait

pas, quand bien même les Parties partageraient à présent le même point
de vue à cet égard, tenue pour autant de considérer ce dernier comme
nécessairement exact.» I(bid.; les italiques sont dans l’original.)

Et la Cour de conclure par un important dictum:

«Ainsi la Cour se doit-elle d’examiner la question pour tirer ses
propres conclusions indépendamment du consentement des parties,
ce qui n’est en aucun cas incompatible avec le principe selon lequel la
compétence de la Cour est subordonnée à un tel consentement.»
(Ibid.)

La Cour a en outre précisé le rapport entre accès et compétence dans

ses arrêts rendus en les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la
force, en indiquant:

279319 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

“The Court can exercise its judicial function only in respect of
those States which have access to it under Article 35 of the Statute.
And only those States which have access to the Court can confer
jurisdiction upon it.

It is the view of the Court that it is incumbent upon it to examine
first of all the question whether the Applicant meets the conditions
laid down in Articles 34 and 35 of the Statute and whether the Court
is thus open to it. Only if the answer to that question is in the
affirmative will the Court have to deal with the issues relating to the

conditions laid down in Articles 36 and 37 of the Statute of the
Court.” (Ibid., p. 299, para. 46.)

3. Did the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Have Access to the Court
in March 1993?

16. The issue of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s access to the
Court was not dealt with by the Court in its 1996 Judgment, either explic-
itly or implicitly. There was no doubt that Bosnia and Herzegovina was a

Member of the United Nations in 1993, and ipso facto a party to the
Statute of the Court. Accordingly the Court was then open to the Appli-
cant. The status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the United
Nations remained unclear and ambiguous. The Court was fully aware of
that situation. In its Order of 8 April 1993 on provisional measures,

having referred to Security Council resolution 777 (1992) and General
Assembly resolution 47/1, as well as to the letter of interpretation of
29 September 1992 by the Legal Counsel of the United Nations (paras. 16
and 17 of the Order), the Court noted that

“while the solution adopted [in the United Nations] is not free from
legal difficulties, the question whether or not Yugoslavia is a Mem-
ber of the United Nations and as such a party to the Statute of the
Court is one which the Court does not need to determine definitively
at the present stage of the proceedings” (I.C.J. Reports 1993,p.14,

para. 18; emphasis added).
But when has the Court definitively determined in the present case

whether or not the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a Member of the
United Nations on 20 March 1993, and as such a party to the Statute? In
its 11 July 1996 Judgment on jurisdiction? I fail to see any paragraph in
that Judgment dealing with this issue. As the Court plainly admits

“[n]othing was stated in the 1996 Judgment about the status of the FRY
in relation to the United Nations, or the question whether it could par-
ticipate in proceedings before the Court” (Judgment, para. 122).

I believe that the Court avoided the determination of that question

since the situation remained unclear and ambiguous and the two compe-

280 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND. TOMKA ) 319

«La Cour ne peut exercer sa fonction judiciaire qu’à l’égard des

seuls Etats auxquels elle est ouverte en vertu de l’article 35 du Statut.
Et seuls les Etats auxquels la Cour est ouverte peuvent lui conférer
compétence.
Aussi la Cour est-elle d’avis qu’il lui appartient d’examiner tout
d’abord la question de savoir si le demandeur remplit les conditions

énoncées aux articles 34 et 35 du Statut et si, de ce fait, la Cour lui
est ouverte. Ce n’est que si la réponse à cette question est affirmative
que la Cour aura à examiner les questions relatives aux conditions
énoncées aux articles 36 et 37 du Statut de la Cour.» (Ibid., p. 299,
par. 46.)

3. La République fédérale de Yougoslavie avait-elle qualité pour ester
devant la Cour en mars 1993?

16. La question de la qualité de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie
pour ester devant la Cour n’a pas été traitée par cette dernière dans son
arrêt de 1996, ni explicitement ni implicitement. Il ne faisait alors aucun
doute que la Bosnie-Herzégovine était Membre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies en 1993 et, de ce fait, partie au Statut de la Cour. En

conséquence, cette dernière était, à l’époque, ouverte au demandeur. En
revanche, le statut de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie vis-à-vis de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies demeurait incertain et ambigu. La
Cour était tout à fait consciente de cette situation. Dans son ordonnance
en indication de mesures conservatoires du 8 avril 1993, après s’être réfé-

rée à la résolution 777 (1992) du Conseil de sécurité et à la résolution 47/1
de l’Assemblée générale ainsi qu’à la lettre interprétative du 29 sep-
tembre 1992 du conseiller juridique de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
(ordonnance, par. 16 et 17), la Cour a relevé que,

«si la solution adoptée [par l’Organisation des Nations Unies] ne
laiss[ait] pas de susciter des difficultés juridiques, la Cour n’a[vait]
pas à statuer définitivement au stade actuel de la procédure sur la

question de savoir si la Yougoslavie [était] ou non membre de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies et, à ce titre, partie au Statut de la
Cour» (C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 14, par. 18; les italiques sont de moi).

Or, quand la Cour a-t-elle, en la présente espèce, définitivement tran-
ché la question de savoir si la République fédérale de Yougoslavie était
ou non membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies le 20 mars 1993 et,
à ce titre, partie au Statut? Dans son arrêt rendu le 11 juillet 1996 sur la

compétence? Je n’y vois aucun paragraphe traitant de cette question.
Ainsi que la Cour le reconnaît sans détour, «[r]ien n’était dit dans l’arrêt
de 1996 sur le statut de la RFY vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies, ni sur la question de sa capacité à participer à une pro-
cédure devant la Cour» (arrêt, par. 122).

Selon moi, si la Cour s’est gardée de trancher cette question, c’est que
la situation demeurait incertaine et ambiguë et que les deux organes poli-

280320 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP .OP .TOMKA )

tent political organs of the United Nations in matters of membership, the

Security Council and the General Assembly, did nothing to further
clarify the membership status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia by
the time the Court rendered its decision in 1996. So, the Court did not

address the issue in order not to pre-empt (or prejudge) the position the
Security Council and the General Assembly might have taken subse-
quently .

17. The Court instead could have relied on its preliminary view
expressed in paragraph 19 of its 8 April 1993 Order. In that paragraph,
after quoting the text of Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute, it stated:

“the Court therefore considers that proceedings may validly be insti-
tuted by a State against a State which is a party to such a special
provision in a treaty in force, but is not party to the Statute, and

independently of the conditions laid down by the Security Council in
its resolution 9 of 1946” (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 14, para. 19).

The Court then continued that “Article IX of the Genocide Conven-
tion relied on by Bosnia-Herzegovina in the present case, could,n ihe
view of the Court, be regarded prima facie as a special provision con-

tained in a treaty in force” (ibid.; emphasis added). The Court concluded,
“accordingly if Bosnia-Herzegovina and Yugoslavia are both parties to
the Genocide Convention, disputes to which Article IX applies are in any

event prima facie within the jurisdiction ratione personae of the Court”
(ibid.).

The text itself indicates that such a view of the Court on Article IX of
the Genocide Convention in its possible relation to Article 35, para-

4 As an informed commentator who served as Legal Adviser of the United Kingdom’s
Permanent Mission to the United Nations between 1991-1994 (writing in his personal
capacity with a usual disclaimer), opined,

“the Council and Assembly have not tied themselves to any particular resolution of
the matter. At some point the political momentum will exist to regularize the FRY’s
position in the United Nations. There would seem to be essentially two ways of doing
this. The FRY could apply for membership as the other former Yugoslav states have
done. This appears to be what was envisaged by the Council and the Assembly in
1992, and in the Legal Counsel’s letter... In the alternative, the relevant organs might
accept continued FRY membership without insisting on a formal application, for

example by reversing the non-participation decisions of 1992 and 1993. This would
probably be explicitly ‘without prejudice to questions of State succession’. It could be
done by a decision of the relevant organs as a pragmatic solution to a difficult situa-
tion.” (M. C. Wood, “Participation of Former Yugoslav States in the United Nations
and in Multilateral Treaties”, in Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law ,
Vol. 1, 1997, pp. 250-251.)

281 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND . TOMKA ) 320

tiques compétents en matière d’adhésion à l’Organisation des
Nations Unies — le Conseil de sécurité et l’Assemblée générale —

n’avaient rien fait, au moment où la Cour rendit sa décision en 1996,
pour clarifier le statut de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie vis-à-vis
de l’Organisation. La Cour s’est donc abstenue d’examiner cette question

afin de ne pas préjuger de la position que le Conseil de sécurité et
l’Assemblée générale auraient pu adopter par la suite . 4
17. En revanche, la Cour aurait pu se fonder sur la thèse qu’elle avait

exprimée à titre préjudiciel au paragraphe 19 de son ordonnance du
8 avril 1993. Dans ce paragraphe, après avoir cité le texte du para-
graphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut, elle a indiqué que

«en conséquence la Cour estime qu’une instance peut être valable-

ment introduite par un Etat contre un autre Etat qui, sans être partie
au Statut, est partie à une telle disposition particulière d’un traité en
vigueur, et ce indépendamment des conditions réglées par le Conseil

de sécurité dans sa résolution 9 (1946)» (C.I.J. Recueil 1993,p.14,
par. 19).

La Cour a poursuivi en précisant que, «de l’avis de la Cour,… l’ar-

ticle IX de la convention sur le génocide, invoqué par la Bosnie-Herzé-
govine en l’espèce, pourrait être considér[é] prima facie comme une
disposition particulière d’un traité en vigueur» (ibid.; les italiques
sont de moi). Et la Cour de conclure que, «en conséquence, si la Bosnie-

Herzégovine et la Yougoslavie sont toutes deux parties à la convention
sur le génocide, les différends auxquels s’applique l’article IX relèvent en
tout état de cause prima facie de la compétence ratione personae de la

Cour» (ibid.).
Il ressort du texte lui-même que cette thèse formulée par la Cour au
sujet de l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide et de son rapport

4
Ainsi que l’a indiqué un commentateur averti qui a exercé les fonctions de conseiller
juridique de la mission permanente du Royaume-Uni auprès de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies entre 1991 et 1994 (s’exprimant sur ce point à titre personnel avec la
décharge de responsabilité habituelle),
«le Conseil et l’Assemblée n’ont pas clairement privilégié l’une ou l’autre solution à

ce problème. Le moment viendra où les conditions politiques seront réunies pour
régulariser la situation de la RFY vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations Unies. Il
semblerait qu’il y ait essentiellement deux moyens de le faire. La RFY, comme l’ont
fait les autres Etats de l’ex-Yougoslavie, pourrait présenter une demande d’admis-
sion. C’est ce qui paraît avoir été prévu par le Conseil et l’Assemblée en 1992, ainsi
que dans la lettre du conseiller juridique… L’autre solution consisterait à ce que les
organes compétents acceptent la continuité de la qualité de Membre de la RFY sans
exiger qu’une demande formelle soit présentée, en revenant par exemple sur les déci-
sions de non-participation de 1992 et 1993. Cela se ferait sans doute explicitement
«sans préjudice des questions de succession d’Etats», et pourrait prendre la forme
d’une décision des organes compétents visant à apporter une solution pragmatique à
une situation délicate.» (M. C. Wood, «Participation of Former Yugoslav States in
the United Nations and in Multilateral Treaties», Max Planck Yearbook of United
Nations Law, vol. 1, 1997, p. 250-251.)

281321 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

graph 2, of the Statute was a provisional one (“prima facie”), and not
conclusive of the matter .5

In these circumstances one would have expected the Court to deal with
the matter in more depth in its 1996 Judgment. But since the matter was
not raised by the Parties, the Court, although aware of its only prima facie
view in the 1993 Order, did not determine the matter definitively. In fact,

no attention was paid to the issue in the text of the 1996 Judgment.

18. The Court did not consider the issue of a “special provision in a
treaty in force” until 2004 when several respondents in the Legality of
Use of Force cases contended that Serbia and Montenegro could not rely

upon the text of Article 35, paragraph 2, and that the view of the Court
on this issue in its Order of 8 April 1993 was only provisional.

The Court therefore considered it appropriate, in the circumstances of

the Legality of Use of Force cases, to examine in detail Article 35, para-
graph 2, of the Statute and interpreted it, on the basis of a detailed study
of the travaux préparatoires, concluding that

“the reference in Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute to ‘the special
provisions contained in treaties in force’ applies only to treaties in

force at the date of the entry into force of the Statute, and not to any
treaties concluded since that date” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia
and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment ,
I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 324, para. 113).

On this reasoning, Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute thus could
not have provided the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia with access to the

Court at any point in time for matters relating to the Genocide Conven-
tion because the Convention was not concluded until after the Court’s
Statute entered into force.
19. The Court has once more recounted the intriguing history of the

status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia vis-à-vis the United Nations
(Judgment, paras. 88-99). But while in the Legality of Use of Force cases
the Court determined that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia “has the
status of membership in the United Nations as from 1 November 2000”

and that “the sui generis position” of the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via, referred to in the Application for Revision Judgment, “could not have
amounted to its membership in the Organization” and, on the basis of
that determination, concluded that

“Serbia and Montenegro was not a Member of the United Nations,

and in that capacity a State party to the Statute of the International
Court of Justice, at the time of filing its Application to institute

5S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-1996, 3rd ed.,
Vol. II, “Jurisdiction”, 1997, p. 630.

282 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND. TOMKA ) 321

éventuel avec le paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut l’était à titre pro-
5
visoire («prima facie»), et ne tranchait pas définitivement la question .
Dès lors, on aurait pu s’attendre à ce que la Cour l’examinât plus en
profondeur dans son arrêt de 1996. Cette question n’ayant cependant pas

été soulevée par les Parties, la Cour, quoique consciente du caractère
uniquement prima facie de sa thèse formulée dans l’ordonnance de 1993,
ne l’a pas tranchée de manière définitive. En fait, elle n’a pas même été
évoquée dans le texte de l’arrêt de 1996.

18. La Cour ne s’est penchée sur la question d’une «disposition parti-
culière d’un traité en vigueur» qu’en 2004, lorsque plusieurs défendeurs
en les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force ont soutenu que
la Serbie-et-Monténégro ne pouvait pas se fonder sur le texte du para-

graphe 2 de l’article 35, et que la thèse formulée par la Cour sur cette
question dans son ordonnance du 8 avril 1993 n’était que provisoire.
La Cour a par conséquent estimé qu’il convenait, dans le contexte des
affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force , d’examiner en détail

le paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut et de l’interpréter, à la lumière
d’un examen approfondi des travaux préparatoires. Elle a conclu que

«la référence faite au paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut aux «dis-
positions particulières des traités en vigueur» ne s’appliqu[ait] qu’aux
traités en vigueur à la date de l’entrée en vigueur du Statut et non

aux traités conclus depuis cette date» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force
(Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2004, p. 324, par. 113).

Si l’on suit ce raisonnement, le paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut ne
pouvait donc à aucun moment donner à la République fédérale de You-

goslavie accès à la Cour s’agissant des questions relatives à la convention
sur le génocide, dans la mesure où cette dernière n’avait été conclue
qu’après l’entrée en vigueur du Statut de la Cour.
19. La Cour a, une fois encore, retracé l’étonnante histoire du statut

de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies (arrêt, par. 88-99). Cependant, après avoir, dans les
affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force , déterminé que la

République fédérale de Yougoslavie «a[vait] le statutere Membre de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies depuis le 1 novembre 2000» et
que «la situation sui generis » de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie,
évoquée dans l’arrêt relatif à la Demande en revision, «ne pouvait être

regardée comme équivalant à la qualité de Membre de l’Organisation»,
et avoir, en se fondant sur cette décision, conclu que

«la Serbie-et-Monténégro n’était pas membre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies, ni en cette qualité partie au Statut de la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice, au moment où elle a déposé sa requête intro-

5 e
S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-1993 éd.,
vol. II, «Jurisdiction», 1997, p. 630.

282322 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

the...proceedingsbeforetheCourton29April1999”( Legality of
Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2004, pp. 310-311, paras. 78 and 79),

in its current recount, for the purposes of the present case, the Court ends
“the story” with the 2003 Judgment in the Application for Revision case.

20. The majority of the Court is unable to demonstrate that in the
1996 Judgment the Court determined that the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia had access to the Court. The Court itself acknowledged this fact
when it observed in the Judgments rendered on 15 December 2004 in the

Legality of Use of Force cases that “in its Judgment on Preliminary
Objections of 11 July 1996 . . . [t]he question of the status of the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia relation to Article 35 of the Statute was not
raised and the Court saw no reason to examine it”( ibid., para. 82;
emphasis added). Further, in those eight Judgments, it stated that

“[t]he Court did not commit itself into a definitive position on the
issue of the legal status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in
relation to the Charter and the Statute in its pronouncements in inci-

dental proceedings, in the cases [one of them being the present one]
involving this issue which came before the Court during this [1992-
2000] period” (ibid., p. 309, para. 74).

21. Now the Court tells the Parties to accept the determination in the
1996 Judgment “that it had jurisdiction under the Genocide Convention
is...tobeinterpretedasincorporatingadeterminationthatallthecon-

ditions relating to the capacity of the parties to appear before it had been
met” (Judgment, para. 133).

It is so because, in the view of the majority, the finding of the Court

that it has jurisdiction “must as a matter of construction be understood,
by necessary implication, to mean that the Court at that time perceived
the Respondent as being in a position to participate in cases before the
Court” (ibid., para. 132; emphasis added). The reality apparently has no
relevance for the majority; what is decisive is the perception the Court

might have had in 1996, which is now being explained ex post by way of
construction by implication. I am not convinced by this strained reasoning.

22. The Respondent suggested that the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via’s capacity to appear before the Court was merely an “assumption” in
the 1996 Judgment (ibid., para. 134). The majority, while not denying
that assumption, replies that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s “cap-
acity to appear before the Court in accordance with the Statute was ae nle-

ment in the reasoning” of the 1996 Judgment (ibid., para. 135; emphasis

283 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND.TOMKA ) 322

duisant [l’]instance devant la Cour, le 29 avril 1999» (Licéité de

l’emploi de la force (Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2004, p. 310-311, par. 78-79),

la Cour, en la retraçant aujourd’hui, considère que cette «histoire» se ter-
mine avec l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en 2003 en l’affaire de la Demande en
revision.
20. La majorité de la Cour n’est pas en mesure de démontrer que, dans

son arrêt rendu en 1996, la Cour a déterminé que la République fédé-
rale de Yougoslavie avait qualité pour agir devant elle. La Cour elle-
même l’a reconnu en relevant, dans les arrêts rendus le 15 décembre
2004 en les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force , que,
«dans l’arrêt qu’elle rendit le 11 juillet 1996 sur les exceptions pré-

liminaires … [l]a question du statut de la République fédérale de Yougo-
slavie au regard de l’article 35 du Statut ne fut pas soulevée et la Cour
ne vit aucune raison de procéder à son examen »( ibid., par. 82; les ita-
liques sont de moi). Dans ces huit arrêts, la Cour a en outre indiqué

que

«[elle] n’adopta aucune position définitive sur la question du statut
juridique de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie au regard de la
Charte et du Statut, lorsque, dans les affaires [l’une d’entre elles
étant la présente espèce] qui lui furent soumises au cours de cette
période [1992-2000], la question se posa et qu’elle se prononça dans

le cadre de procédures incidentes» (ibid., p. 309, par. 74).

21. Aujourd’hui, la Cour demande aux Parties d’accepter la décision à
laquelle elle est parvenue dans l’arrêt de 1996, décision «selon laquelle
elle avait compétence en vertu de la convention sur le génocide [et qui]
doit … être interprétée comme comprenant implicitement la conclusion
que toutes les conditions relatives à la capacité des Etats à se présenter

devant elle étaient remplies» (arrêt, par. 133).
S’il en est ainsi, c’est parce que, du point de vue de la majorité de la
Cour, la décision de cette dernière selon laquelle elle a compétence «doit
nécessairement s’interpréter comme signifiant en toute logique que la
Cour estimait à l’époque que le défendeur avait qualité pour participer

à des affaires portées devant elle» (ibid., par. 132; les italiques sont
de moi). Aux yeux de la majorité, la réalité est donc, semble-t-il, dépour-
vue de pertinence; l’élément déterminant est ce que la Cour estimait
en 1996, et qui est à présent expliqué ex post comme devant s’inter-
préter en toute logique. Ce raisonnement alambiqué ne me convainc

pas.
22. Le défendeur a laissé entendre que la capacité de la République
fédérale de Yougoslavie de se présenter devant la Cour était, dans l’arrêt
de 1996, fondée sur un simple «postulat» (ibid., par. 134). La majorité,
sans toutefois nier ce postulat, répond que «la capacité [de la République

fédérale de Yougoslavie] de se présenter devant la Cour en vertu du Sta-
tut constitue un élément du raisonnement» suivi dans l’arrêt de 1996

283323 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

added). That element is nowhere to be found in the 1996 Judgment. But
this is of no consequence since, according to the majority, this element
“can and indeed must be read into the judgment” (ibid., para. 135,
emphasis added). The majority operates a distinction between the “judi-

cial truth” and reality. How otherwise can one understand the insistence
on the maxim “res judicata pro veritate habetur , that is to say that the
findings of a judgment are . . . to be taken as correct”, whatever doubt
may be “thrown on them by subsequent events” (ibid., para. 120).

23. The majority now acknowledges only one exception to the finality
of the Court’s judgments, both on jurisdiction and on the merits — that
of a revision procedure under the Statute. The Court, on 3 Febru-
ary 2003, rejected the Respondent’s request for the revision. I remain
puzzled as to why then, on 12 June 2003, it allowed one of the Parties to

raise additional arguments on jurisdiction during the oral proceedings on
the merits of the case. Was it then not aware that such an attempt would
be destined to fail since once the Court determined the “judicial truth”, it
was “subject only to the provision in the Statute for revision of judg-

ments” (Judgment, para. 139)? In my conscience I am unable to follow
such an approach and, to my regret, to subscribe to the reasoning
advanced by the majority.

4. Ascertaining of the Court’s Jurisdiction de novo

24. The Court, in my view, should have determined de novo whether it
has or lacks jurisdiction in the present case. By revisiting the issue of its
jurisdiction the Court would have acted in line with the assurances it gave

to the Parties in June 2003 that it “w[ould] not give judgment on the mer-
its in the present case unless it [was] satisfied that it ha[d] jurisdiction”
(Judgment, para. 82). My point of departure is the Court’s determination
that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia became a Member of the United

Nations as from 1 November 2000 (ibid., para. 83, with reference to
Legality of Use of Force, I.C.J. Reports 2004 , p. 311, para. 79), and that
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s sui generis position, during 1992-
2000, in the United Nations “could not have amounted to its member-
ship in the Organization” (I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 310, para. 78). The

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was thus not a party to the Statute of the
Court during that period and it has become party to it only as from
1 November 2000. As such, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not
a party to the Statute when the Court rendered its 1993 Orders on interim

measures of protection and the 1996 Judgment on jurisdiction and admis-
sibility. What is the source of the binding nature of these Court’s deci-
sions on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia if not the Statute? But when
they were rendered the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not a party
to it.

284 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .IND .TOMKA ) 323

(arrêt, par. 135; les italiques sont de moi). Or cet élément est introuvable
dans ledit arrêt. Cela est cependant sans conséquence, dans la mesure où,
selon la majorité, cet élément «peut — et même doit — … être sous-en-

tendu dans celui-ci» (ibid., par. 135; les italiques sont de moi). La majo-
rité établit une distinction entre la «vérité judiciaire» et la réalité. Com-
ment expliquer autrement l’insistance sur la maxime «res judicata pro
veritate habetur, ce qui signifie que les conclusions d’un arrêt doivent …
être considérées comme exactes», quels que soient les doutes «que des

événements postérieurs feraient planer sur elles» (ibid., par. 120)?
23. Aujourd’hui, la majorité ne reconnaît — tant en matière de com-
pétence que sur le fond — qu’une seule exception au caractère définitif
des arrêts de la Cour, à savoir celle d’une procédure en revision confor-

mément au Statut. Or la Cour a, le 3 février 2003, rejeté la demande en
revision du défendeur. La raison pour laquelle elle a, dans ce cas, le
12 juin 2003, autorisé l’une des Parties à présenter des arguments supplé-
mentaires sur la compétence lors de la procédure orale sur le fond de

l’affaire me laisse perplexe. La Cour n’était-elle donc pas consciente que
cette tentative serait vouée à l’échec puisque, dès lors qu’elle avait déter-
miné la «vérité judiciaire», celle-ci demeurait, «sous la seule réserve de la
disposition du statut concernant la revision des arrêts» (arrêt, par. 139)?
En mon âme et conscience, je ne peux souscrire à une telle approche ni,

bien que je le déplore, au raisonnement formulé par la majorité.

4. Détermination de novo de la compétence de la Cour

24. Selon moi, la Cour aurait dû statuer de novo sur la question de savoir
si elle avait ou non compétence en la présente espèce. En réexaminant la
question de sa compétence, la Cour se serait conformée aux assurances
qu’elles a données aux Parties en juin 2003, à savoir qu’elle «ne se pronon-
cera[it] sur le fond de la présente affaire qu’à condition d’avoir pu établir

qu’elle a[vait] compétence» (arrêt, par. 82). Le point de départ de mon rai-
sonnement est la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle la République fédérale
de Yougoslavie est devenue Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies le
1 novembre 2000 (ibid., par. 83, référence étant faite aux affaires relatives

àl Licéité de l’emploi de la force, C.I.J. Recueil 2004, p. 311, par. 79) et
selon laquelle la situationsui generis de la République fédérale de Yougo-
slavie vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations Unies pendant la période 1992-
2000 «ne pouvait être regardée comme équivalant à la qualité de Membre de

l’Organisation» (C.I.J. Recueil 2004, p. 310, par. 78). La République fédé-
rale de Yougoslavie n’était donc pas partie au Statut de la Cour durant cette
période, et elle n’y est devenue partie que le 1novembre 2000. Dès lors, elle
n’était pas partie au Statut lorsque la Cour a rendu ses ordonnances de 1993
en indication de mesures conservatoires ainsi que son arrêt de 1996 sur la

compétence et la recevabilité de la requête. Or, n’est-ce pas précisément du
Statut que découle le caractère obligatoire de ces décisions de la Cour pour
la République fédérale de Yougoslavie? Et pourtant, lorsque ces décisions
ont été rendues, la République fédérale de Yougoslavie n’y était pas partie.

284324 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

25. The key question is whether the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

was a party to the Genocide Convention in 1993 since the Applicant
claims that the Court has jurisdiction under Article IX of that Conven-
tion. It is the compromissory clause contained therein which confers
jurisdiction on the Court. By being a party to the Statute of the Court a
State does not eo ipso consent to the Court’s jurisdiction. That consent is

to be expressed through a different act. But being a party to the Statute
is an important prerequisite for the exercise of the Court’s jurisdiction
and its judicial function. As the Court explained, it “can exercise its judi-
cial function only in respect of those States which have access to it under
Article 35 of the Statute” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Mon-

tenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment , I.C.J. Reports
2004, p. 299, para. 46). Since the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not
a party to the Statute until 1 November 2000, the Court should not have
exercised, in 1993 or in 1996, its judicial function in relation to the Fed-

eral Republic of Yugoslavia even if it might have had jurisdiction over it.
Since 1 November 2000, the date on which the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia became a Member of the United Nations, and ipso facto
party to the Statute of the Court, there has been no bar for the Court to
exercise its judicial function vis-à-vis the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

(Serbia and Montenegro). Therefore the Court has to determine whether
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was bound by Article IX of the
Genocide Convention on 20 March 1993 when Bosnia and Herzegovina
filed its Application in the present case. If that was the case, and the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia remained bound by the Genocide Conven-

tion through the period relevant to the claims of Bosnia and Herzegovina
(1992-1995), all the conditions would now be fulfilled for the adjudication
of the case on the merits.
26. The Court, of course, always has to satisfy itself that the require-
ments of its Statute are fulfilled for the exercise of its judicial function.

These requirements are mandatory for the Court as a court of law. On
the other side, the Court, like its predecessor the Permanent Court of
International Justice, has on several occasions applied the principle that
it should not penalize a defect in a procedural act which the applicant
could easily remedy, or allow itself to be hampered by a mere defect of

form, the removal of which depends on the party concerned (cf. Certain
German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6,
1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6 , p. 14).
In Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions , the Permanent Court consid-
ered whether the validity of the institution of proceedings could be dis-

puted on the ground that the application was filed before the treaty
instrument relied on by the applicant had become applicable. It stated
that:

“[e]ven assuming that before that time the Court had no jurisdiction

because the international obligation referred to in Article II was not
yet effective, it would always have been possible for the applicant to

285 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 324

25. Etant donné que le demandeur affirme que la Cour a compétence en
vertu de l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide, la question essentielle
est de savoir si la République fédérale de Yougoslavie était partie à cette

convention en 1993. C’est la clause compromissoire contenue dans cet ins-
trument qui confère compétence à la Cour, dans la mesure où, en étant
partie au Statut de cette dernière, un Etat n’accepte paseo ipso sa compé-
tence. Cette acceptation doit être exprimée dans un acte différent. Le fait
d’être partie au Statut constitue cependant un préalable important à l’exer-

cice par la Cour de sa compétence et de sa fonction judiciaire. Ainsi que la
Cour l’a indiqué, elle «ne peut exercer sa fonction judiciaire qu’à l’égard
des seuls Etats auxquels elle est ouverte en vertu de l’article 35 du Statut»
(Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), excep-

tions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004, p. 299, par. 46). Dès lors que
la République fédérale de Yougoslavie n’était pas partie au Statut avant le
1 novembre 2000, la Cour n’aurait pas dû, en 1993 ou en 1996, exercer sa
fonction judiciaire à son égard, quand bien même elle aurait eu compé-
er
tence la concernant. Depuis le 1 novembre 2000, date à laquelle la Répu-
blique fédérale de Yougoslavie est devenue Membre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies et, de ce fait, partie au Statut de la Cour, rien n’empêche
plus cette dernière d’exercer sa fonction judiciaire vis-à-vis de la Répu-
blique fédérale de Yougoslavie (Serbie-et-Monténégro). La Cour doit par

conséquent déterminer si la République fédérale de Yougoslavie était liée
par l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide le 20 mars 1993, lorsque la
Bosnie-Herzégovine a déposé sa requête en la présente espèce. Si tel était le
cas, et si la République fédérale de Yougoslavie est restée liée par la

convention sur le génocide tout au long de la période pertinente au regard
des demandes de la Bosnie-Herzégovine (1992-1995), toutes les conditions
seraient désormais remplies pour qu’il soit statué sur le fond en l’espèce.
26. Naturellement, la Cour doit toujours s’assurer, aux fins d’exercer
sa fonction judiciaire, qu’il a été satisfait aux dispositions de son Statut.

Celles-ci sont impératives pour la Cour en tant que juridiction. Tout
comme sa devancière, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, elle a
cependant appliqué à plusieurs reprises le principe selon lequel elle ne
devait pas sanctionner un défaut contenu dans un acte de procédure

auquel le demandeur pouvait aisément remédier, ou s’arrêter à un défaut
de forme qu’il dépendrait de la seule partie intéressée de faire disparaître
(voir Certains intérêts allemands en Haute-Silésie polonaise, compétence,
arrêt n 6, 1925, C.P.J.I. série A/B n° 6, p. 14).

En l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine , la Cour per-
manente s’est penchée sur la question de savoir si la validité de l’introduc-
tion d’une instance pouvait être contestée au motif que la requête avait
été déposée avant que l’instrument contractuel sur lequel le demandeur se
fondait soit devenu applicable. La Cour a déclaré que,

«[m]ême si, avant cette époque, la juridiction de la Cour n’existait
pas pour la raison que l’obligation internationale visée à l’article II
n’était pas encore en vigueur, il aurait été toujours possible, pour la

285325 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

re-submit his application in the same terms after the coming into

force of the Treaty of Lausanne, and in that case, the argument in
question could not have been advanced. Even if the grounds on
which the institution of proceedings was based were defective for the
reason stated, this would not be an adequate reason for the dismissal
of the applicant’s suit. The Court, whose jurisdiction is interna-

tional, is not bound to attach to matters of form the same degree of
importance which they might possess in municipal law. Even, there-
fore, if the application were premature because the Treaty of
Lausanne had not yet been ratified, this circumstance would now be
covered by the subsequent deposit of the necessary ratifications.”

(Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 34; emphasis added.)

In Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nica-
ragua v. United States of America) , when dealing with the United States
argument that an attempt to adjust the dispute was a prerequisite of its
submission to the Court, as provided for in the compromissory clause,

the Court observed that
“it does not necessarily follow that, because a State has not expressly

referred in negotiations with another State to a particular treaty as
having been violated by conduct of that other State, it is debarred
from invoking a compromissory clause in that treaty. The United
States was well aware that Nicaragua alleged that its conduct was a
breach of international obligations before the present case was insti-

tuted; and it is now aware that specific articles of the 1956 Treaty are
alleged to have been violated. It would make no sense to require
Nicaragua now to institute fresh proceedings based on the Treaty,
which it would be fully entitled to do.” (Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of

America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1984, pp. 428-429, para. 83; emphasis added.)

The Court has also applied this principle in the present case. In its
1996 Judgment, leaving aside now any potential repercussions of the
Respondent’s lack of access to the Court at that time on this decision, the
Court, replying to the preliminary objection of the Respondent based on

the argument that the Convention was not operative between Bosnia and
Herzegovina and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia prior to their
mutual recognition on 14 December 1995, stated that:

“even if it were established that the Parties, each of which was bound
by the Convention when the Application was filed, had only been
bound as between themselves with effect from 14 December 1995,
the Court could not set aside its jurisdiction on this basis, inasmuch

as Bosnia and Herzegovina might at any time file a new application ,
identical to the present one, which would be unassailable in this

286 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND. TOMKA ) 325

partie défenderesse, de présenter à nouveau sa requête , dans les
mêmes termes, après l’entrée en vigueur du Traité de Lausanne; et
alors on n’aurait pu lui opposer le fait en question. Même si la base
de l’introduction d’instance était défectueuse pour la raison men-

tionnée, ce ne serait pas une raison suffisante pour débouter le
demandeur de sa requête. La Cour, exerçant sa juridiction interna-
tionale, n’est pas tenue d’attacher à des considérations de forme la
même importance qu’elles pourraient avoir dans le droit interne.
Dans ces conditions, même si l’introduction avait été prématurée,

parce que le Traité de Lausanne n’était pas encore ratifié, ce fait
aurait été couvert par le dépôt ultérieur des ratifications requises.»
(Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt n o 2, 1924, C.P.J.I.
série A n° 2, p. 34; les italiques sont de moi.)

En l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et
contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique) , lorsqu’elle a exa-

miné l’argument des Etats-Unis d’Amérique selon lequel une tentative de
règlement du différend était, conformément à la clause compromissoire,
une condition préalable à sa saisine, la Cour a fait observer que,

«parce qu’un Etat ne s’est pas expressément référé, dans des négo-
ciations avec un autre Etat, à un traité particulier qui aurait été violé
par la conduite de celui-ci, il n’en découle pas nécessairement que le
premier ne serait pas admis à invoquer la clause compromissoire

dudit traité. Les Etats-Unis savaient avant l’introduction de la pré-
sente instance que le Nicaragua affirmait que leur comportement
constituait une violation de leurs obligations internationales; ils
savent maintenant qu’il leur est reproché d’avoir violé des articles
précis du traité de 1956. Il n’y aurait aucun sens à obliger maintenant

le Nicaragua à entamer une nouvelle procédure sur la base du traité
— ce qu’il aurait pleinement le droit de faire.» (Activités militaires et
paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-
Unis d’Amérique), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt , C.I.J. Recueil

1984, p. 428-429, par. 83; les italiques sont de moi.)
La Cour a également appliqué ce principe en la présente espèce. Dans

son arrêt de 1996, laissant de côté toutes les éventuelles conséquences sur
sa décision du fait qu’elle n’était pas, à l’époque, ouverte au défendeur,
elle a, en répondant à l’exception préliminaire de ce dernier fondée sur
l’argument selon lequel la Convention n’était pas en vigueur entre la Bos-
nie-Herzégovine et la République fédérale de Yougoslavie avant leur

reconnaissance mutuelle du 14 décembre 1995, déclaré que,

«quand bien même il serait établi que les Parties, qui étaient liées
chacune par la Convention au moment du dépôt de la requête, ne
l’auraient été entre elles qu’à compter du 14 décembre 1995, la Cour
ne saurait écarter sa compétence sur cette base dans la mesure où la
Bosnie-Herzégovine pourrait à tout moment déposer une nouvelle

requête, identique à la présente, qui serait de ce point de vue inatta-

286326 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

respect” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-

slavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,
p. 614, para. 26; emphasis added).

27. Applying this principle, as confirmed by the jurisprudence of the
Court, to the present case, Bosnia and Herzegovina could have “resub-
mitted” its application “in the same terms” at any time since 1 Novem-
ber 2000 but “it would make no sense to require [it] now to institute fresh

proceedings . . . which it would be fully entitled to do” and its Applica-
tion “would be unassailable” in respect of access to the Court. And if the
original Application on 20 March 1993 was premature because the
Respondent was not then a party to the Statute and did not have access

to the Court, “this circumstance would now be covered” by the subse-
quent admission of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the United
Nations and its becoming a party to the Statute of the Court.

28. It is true that in eight Legality of the Use of Force cases, once the
Court had concluded that the applicant did not have access to the Court
at the time of the institution of the proceedings, it determined that such
conclusion made it unnecessary to consider the other preliminary objec-

tions filed by the respondent to the jurisdiction of the Court (I.C.J.
Reports 2004, pp. 327-328, para. 127). In those cases, however, whatever
title of jurisdiction the applicant might have invoked, it “could not have
properly seised the Court, . . . for the simple reason that [it] did not have
the right to appear before the Court” (ibid., p. 299, para. 46; emphasis

added). As G. Fitzmaurice wrote,

“if a tribunal has not been duly seised it is incompetent to hear the
case. But it does not follow that because the tribunal is duly seised,
and has therefore the seisin of the case, it possesses on that account
substantive jurisdiction and competence to hear and determine it on

the merits. What seisin6gives is jurisdiction and competence to deter-
mine this very point.”

29. In the present case, the Applicant (Bosnia and Herzegovina) had
access to the Court on 20 March 1993 when it filed its Application and
thus could have “properly seised the Court”. The Court therefore has
competence to determine whether it has jurisdiction under Article IX of

the Genocide Convention. As long as the Respondent was not a party to
the Statute, the Court should not have exercised its function in relation to
that State, even if it might have had jurisdiction. But now that the
Respondent has been, since 1 November 2000, a party to the Statute,

there is no impediment for the exercise of the Court’s function and juris-
diction in a case in which the Applicant seised it properly.

6G. Fitzmaurice, The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice , 1986,
Vol. II, pp. 440-441.

287 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .IND .TOMKA ) 326

quable»( Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répres-

sion du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 614,
par. 26; les italiques sont de moi).

27. Si l’on applique ce principe, tel que confirmé par la jurisprudence
de la Cour, à la présente affaire, la Bosnie-Herzégovine aurait pu «pré-
senter à nouveau» sa requête «dans les mêmes termes» à tout moment
er
depuis le 1 novembre 2000, mais «[i]l n’y aurait aucun sens à [l’]obliger
maintenant … à entamer une nouvelle procédure … ce qu’[elle] aurait
pleinement le droit de faire», et sa requête «serait … inattaquable» du
point de vue de l’accès à la Cour. De plus, si la requête intitiale du

20 mars 1993 était prématurée dans la mesure où le défendeur n’était pas,
à l’époque, partie au Statut et n’avait pas accès à la Cour, «ce fait aurait
été couvert» par l’admission ultérieure de la République fédérale de You-
goslavie au sein de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et par le fait qu’elle

est devenue partie au Statut de la Cour.
28. Il est vrai que, dans les huit affaires relatives à la Licéité de
l’emploi de la force, la Cour, ayant conclu que le demandeur n’avait pas
qualité pour ester devant elle au moment de l’introduction de l’instance,

a jugé qu’il n’était pas nécessaire qu’elle examine les autres exceptions
préliminaires à sa compétence soulevées par les différents défendeurs
(C.I.J. Recueil 2004, p. 327-328, par. 127). Dans ces affaires, toutefois,
quel que fût le titre de compétence que le demandeur aurait pu invoquer,

il «n’aurait pu saisir la Cour de manière valable, … pour la simple raison
qu[’il] n’avait pas le droit d’ester devant la Cour» (ibid., p. 299, par. 46;
les italiques sont de moi). Ainsi que l’a écrit G. Fitzmaurice,

«lorsqu’un tribunal n’a pas été dûment saisi, il n’a pas compétence
pour connaître de l’affaire. Cela ne signifie cependant pas que, dès lors

que ce tribunal est dûment saisi, et que l’affaire est donc portée devant
lui, il ait, de ce fait, compétence au fond, et puisse examiner et trancher
l’affaire sur le fond. Ce que la saisine lui confère, c’est précisément la
juridiction et la compétence pour trancher ce point particulier.» 6

29. En la présente espèce, le demandeur (la Bosnie-Herzégovine) avait

qualité pour ester devant la Cour le 20 mars 1993, lorsqu’il a déposé sa
requête, et a donc pu «saisir la Cour de manière valable». Celle-ci a donc
compétence pour déterminer si elle a compétence en vertu de l’article IX de
la convention sur le génocide. Tant que le défendeur n’était pas partie au

Statut, la Cour n’aurait pas dû exercer sa fonction judiciaire à l’égard de
cet Etat, même s’il se pouvait qu’elle eût compétence. En revanche, depuis
que le défendeur est devenu, le 1 novembre 2000, partie au Statut, rien ne
s’oppose plus à l’exercice par la Cour de sa juridiction et de sa compétence

dans une affaire dont elle a été dûment saisie par le demandeur.

6 G. Fitzmaurice, The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice , 1986,
vol. II, p. 440-441.

287327 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

30. Furthermore in the Legality of Use of Force cases the principle

that the Court should not penalize a defect in a procedural act which the
Applicant could easily remedy was not resorted to because the Applicant
could have hardly resubmitted its Application since it asserted in its writ-
ten observations on the Respondent’s preliminary objections that “it was
not bound by the Genocide Convention until it acceded to that Conven-

tion (with a reservation to Article IX) in March 2001” (I.C.J. Reports
2004, p. 293, para. 29). Under Article 38, paragraph 2, of the Rules of the
Court, “[t]he application shall specify as far as possible the legal grounds
upon which the jurisdiction of the Court is said to be based”. What
would have been specified as a legal ground for jurisdiction in that new

Application? The Applicant contended that “the position of the FRY
with regard to international organizations and treaties has been a most
intricate and controversial matter”, so that “[o]nly a decision of this
Court could bring clarity” (ibid., p. 295, para. 37). The Court on this

point observed that the function of a decision of the Court is “not to
engage in a clarification of a controverted issue” (ibid., pp. 295-296,
para. 38).

31. The Court in 1996 concluded that the Federal Republic of “Yugo-

slavia was bound by the provisions of the [Genocide] Convention on the
date of the filing of the Application in the present case, namely, on
20 March 1993” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 610, para. 17). Before
reaching that conclusion, the Court first recalled that the Socialist Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia signed the Convention and later, on

29 August 1950, deposited its instrument of ratification, without reserva-
tion. Then it recalled a formal declaration adopted “[a]t the time of the
proclamation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, on 27 April 1992”
(ibid.). In that declaration, it was stated that:

“The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, continuing the State, inter-
national legal and political personality of the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, shall strictly abide by all the commitments

that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia assumed interna-
tionally.” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 610, para. 17.)

The Court remaining neutral, or rather “mute”, on the issue of conti-
nuity of the international legal personality, limited itself to the observa-
tion that:

“This intention thus expressed by Yugoslavia to remain bound by
the international treaties to which the former Yugoslavia was party
was confirmed in an official Note of 27 April 1992 from the Perma-

nent Mission of Yugoslavia to the United Nations, addressed to the
Secretary-General.” (Ibid.; emphasis added.)

The word remain chosen by the Court in 1996, however, can describe
both situations: (a) when there is the continuity in international legal

288 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 327

30. De plus, dans les affaires relatives à lLicéité de l’emploi de la force,

le principe n’a pas été invoqué selon lequel la Cour ne devrait pas sanction-
ner un défaut contenu dans un acte de procédure auquel le demandeur pour-
rait aisément remédier; en effet, ce dernier aurait été bien en peine de pré-
senter à nouveau sa requête, dès lors qu’il avait avancé, dans ses observations
écrites sur les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par le défendeur, que «la

République fédérale de Yougoslavie n’était pas liée par la convention sur le
génocide avant [d’y accéder] (avec une réserve à l’article IX) en mars 2001»
(C.I.J. Recueil 2004, p. 293, par. 29). Aux termes du paragraphe 2 de l’ar-
ticle 38 du Règlement de la Cour, «[l]a requête indique autant que possible les
moyens de droit sur lesquels le demandeur prétend fonder la compétence de

la Cour». Quel moyen de droit aurait bien pu être indiqué dans une nouvelle
requête pour fonder la compétence de la Cour? Le demandeur a affirmé que
«le statut de la RFY vis-à-vis des organisations internationales et des traités
[était] une question des plus complexes et des plus controversées», et que, en

conséquence, «[s]eule une décision de la Cour pourrait faire la lumière à cet
égard» (ibid., p. 295, par. 37). Sur ce point, la Cour a fait observer que,
lorsqu’elle se prononçait, ce n’était pas «pour procéder à l’élucidation d’une
question controversée» i(bid., p. 295-296, par. 38).
31. En 1996, la Cour a conclu que la République fédérale de «You-

goslavie était liée par les dispositions de la convention [sur le génocide] à
la date du dépôt de la requête en la présente affaire, le 20 mars 1993»
(C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 610, par. 17). Avant de parvenir à cette
conclusion, la Cour a commencé par rappeler que la République fédéra-
tive socialiste de Yougoslavie avait signé la Convention, puis déposé son

instrument de ratification, sans formuler de réserves, le 29 août 1950. La
Cour a ensuite évoqué une déclaration formelle adoptée «[l]ors de la pro-
clamation de la République fédérative de Yougoslavie, le 27 avril 1992»
(ibid.), déclaration dans laquelle il était indiqué que

«[l]a République fédérative de Yougoslavie, assurant la continuité
de l’Etat et de la personnalité politique et juridique internationale de
la République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie, respectera[it]

strictement tous les engagements que la République fédérative
socialiste de Yougoslavie a[vait] pris à l’échelon international»
(C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 610, par. 17).

Restant neutre, ou plutôt «muette», sur la question de la continuité de
la personnalité juridique internationale de la Yougoslavie, la Cour s’est
contentée d’observer que

«[l]’intention ainsi exprimée par la Yougoslavie de demeurer liée par
les traités internationaux auxquels était partie l’ex-Yougoslavie
a[vait] été confirmée dans une note officielle du 27 avril 1992 adres-

sée au Secrétaire général par la mission permanente de la Yougo-
slavie auprès des Nations Unies» (ibid.; les italiques sont de moi).

Le terme demeurer, choisi par la Cour en 1996, peut toutefois être uti-
lisé pour décrire les deux situations suivantes: a) lorsqu’il y a continuité

288328 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP .OP .TOMKA )

personality of a State, such State remains bound by its treaties; but also,

(b) when a succession of a State occurs in cases of separation of parts of
a State, irrespective of whether or not the predecessor State continues to
exist, any treaty in force on the date of the succession of States in respect

of the territory of the predecessor State remains binding in respect of
each successor State. To be more precise, Article 34 of the 1978 Vienna
Convention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties uses the term
“continues in force”.

The Court finally observed that “it has not been contested that Yugo-
slavia was party to the Genocide Convention” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II),
p. 610, para. 17).
32. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s claim of continuing the

international legal personality of the former Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia did not prevail . In fact, by applying in October 2000 for
admission to membership in the United Nations, the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia abandoned that claim. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

thus could not have remained bound by the Genocide Convention on the
basis of continuing the international legal personality of the former
Yugoslavia. Has it remained bound by the Genocide Convention on the

basis of ipso jure succession?
33. Article 34 of the 1978 Vienna Convention on Succession of States
in Respect of Treaties in its first paragraph provides:

“When a part or parts of the territory of a State separate to form
one or more States, whether or not the predecessor State continues

to exist:
(a) any treaty in force at the date of the succession of States in
respect of the entire territory of the predecessor State continues

in force in respect of each successor State so formed.”

Since the Vienna Convention was not yet in force in 1992, when the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s succession occurred, the question to be
asked is that of the nature of the rule of ipso jure succession laid down by
Article 34.

Article 34 of the Convention, under one single heading “Succession of
States in cases of separation of parts of a State”, deals both with the dis-
solution of States, in which the predecessor State ceases to exist, and with
the separation of part (or several parts) of the territory of a State, in

which one or more new States appear but in which the predecessor State
continues to exist.
Sir Francis Vallat, the former Special Rapporteur of the International

7
See B. Stern, “Les questions de succession d’Etats dans l’affaire relative à l’Applica-
tion de la Convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de devant la
Cour internationale de Justice”, Liber Amicorum Judge Shigeru Oda , N. Ando et al.
(eds.), Vol. 1, 2003, pp. 285-305, and her view that “as Yugoslavia was admitted to the
United Nations as a new member, any continuation of the former Yugoslavia was thus
denied” [translation by the Registry] (p. 289).

289 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND . TOMKA ) 328

de la personnalité juridique internationale d’un Etat, celui-ci demeure lié

par ses traités; mais également, b) lorsque se produit une succession
d’Etats dans des cas de séparation de parties d’un Etat, que l’Etat prédé-
cesseur continue ou non d’exister, tout traité en vigueur à la date de la

succession d’Etats à l’égard du territoire de l’Etat prédécesseur demeure
obligatoire à l’égard de chaque Etat successeur. Plus précisément, l’ar-
ticle 34 de la convention de Vienne de 1978 sur la succession d’Etats
en matière de traités emploie l’expression «reste en vigueur».

La Cour a finalement relevé qu’«il n’a[vait] pas été contesté que la
Yougoslavie soit partie à la convention sur le génocide» (C.I.J. Recueil
1996 (II), p. 610, par. 17).
32. La thèse de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie selon laquelle

elle aurait assuré la continuité de la personnalité juridique internationale
de l’ex-République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie n’a pas été rete-
nue . De fait, en présentant, en octobre 2000, sa demande d’admission à
l’Organisation des Nations Unies, la République fédérale de Yougoslavie

a renoncé à cette thèse. Elle n’a donc pas pu rester liée par la convention
sur le génocide au motif qu’elle aurait assuré la continuité de la person-
nalité juridique internationale de l’ex-Yougoslavie. Est-elle restée liée par

cette convention sur la base d’une succession ipso jure?
33. Le paragraphe premier de l’article 34 de la convention de Vienne
de 1978 sur la succession d’Etats en matière de traités dispose:

«Lorsqu’une partie ou des parties du territoire d’un Etat s’en
séparent pour former un ou plusieurs Etats, que l’Etat prédécesseur

continue ou non d’exister:
a) [t]out traité en vigueur à la date de la succession d’Etats à l’égard
de l’ensemble du territoire de l’Etat prédécesseur reste en vigueur

à l’égard de chaque Etat successeur ainsi formé.»

Dès lors que la convention de Vienne n’était pas encore en vigueur en
1992, lorsque a eu lieu la succession de la République fédérale de You-
goslavie, la question qu’il convient de se poser est celle de la nature de la
règle de la succession ipso jure énoncée à l’article 34.

Cet article traite, sous l’intitulé unique «Succession d’Etats en cas de
séparation de parties d’un Etat», aussi bien des cas de dissolution d’Etats
dans lesquels l’Etat prédécesseur cesse d’exister que des cas de séparation
d’une partie (ou de plusieurs parties) du territoire d’un Etat dans lesquels

un ou plusieurs nouveaux Etats sont formés, mais où l’Etat prédécesseur
continue d’exister.
Francis Vallat, l’ancien rapporteur spécial de la Commission du droit

7
Voir B. Stern, «Les questions de succession d’Etats dans l’affaire relative à l’Applica-
tion de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de gdevant la
Cour internationale de Justice», Liber Amicorum Judge Shigeru Oda , N. Ando et al. (dir.
publ.), vol. 1, 2003, p. 285-305, et la thèse de cet auteur selon laquelle «la Yougoslavie a
été admise comme nouveau Membre des Nations Unies, toute continuation avec l’ex-
Yougoslavie étant ainsi niée» (p. 289).

289329 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP .OP .TOMKA )

Law Commission (ILC) and the Expert Consultant of the Vienna Codi-
fication Conference, explained that, while the 1972 Draft Articles con-
templated the application of the principle of continuity in the event of

dissolution and that of the “clean slate” for the new State emerging from
a secession, the ILC ultimately decided — in the light of the comments by
States on the Draft Articles — to make the two categories subject to one

single régime, that of the ipso jure succession. It found
that there is a,

“legal nexus between the new State and the territory which had
existed prior to the succession, and that it would therefore be con-
trary to the doctrine of the sanctity of treaties to apply the ‘clean
8
slate’ principle except in special circumstances” .

The “special circumstances”, according to the Commission, were those
which characterized the secessions effected in conditions similar to those
of decolonization, but not cases of dissolution of States . 9

In its Commentary, the ILC, as regards to dissolution, stated that:

“It considered that today every dissolution of a State which results

in the emergence of new individual States should be treated on the
same basis for the purpose of the continuance in force of treaties.
The Commission concluded that although some discrepancies might

be found in State practice, still that practice was sufficiently consist-
ent to support the formulation of a rule which, with the necessary
qualifications, would provide that treaties in force at the date of the

dissolution should remain in force ipso jure with respect to each
State emerging from the dissolution. The fact that the situation may
be regarded as one of ‘separation of part or parts of a State’ rather
10
than one of ‘dissolution’ does not alter this basic conclusion.”

At the Conference, the discussions focused on the question whether the
principle of ipso jure succession applies to secession or, as the case may
be, to secession effected in circumstances similar to those of decoloniza-
11
tion, for which certain delegations preferred the “clean slate” principle .
Other delegations proposed that the principle of ipso jure succession
should be extended to include the latter cases also. Many of them indi-

8 United Nations Conference on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties, Vol. II,
47th Meeting, p. 104, para. 36.
9 Ibid., p. 105, para. 1.
10Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1974, Vol. II, Part One, p. 265,
para. 25.
11United Nations Conference on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties, Vol. II,
40th, 42nd, 47th and 49th Meetings, pp. 50 et seq.

290 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP . IND. TOMKA ) 329

international (CDI) et expert consultant lors de la conférence de codifica-
tion de Vienne, a précisé que, bien qu’il ait été envisagé, dans les projets
d’articles de 1972, d’appliquer le principe de continuité dans le cas d’une

dissolution et celui de la «table rase» au nouvel Etat né d’une sécession,
la CDI avait finalement décidé — à la lumière des commentaires formulés

par les Etats sur les projets d’articles — d’appliquer un régime unique
aux deux catégories, à savoir celui de la successionipso jure. La CDI a
estimé que

«le lien juridique entre le nouvel Etat et le territoire qui existait
avant la succession continuait en principe d’exister et qu’il serait

donc contraire à la doctrine de l’inviolabilité des traités d’appliquer
le principe de la «table rase», si ce n’est dans des circonstances par-
ticulières» .8

Les «circonstances particulières» caractérisaient, selon la Commission,
les sécessions ayant eu lieu dans des conditions similaires à celles de la
9
décolonisation, et non dans les cas de dissolution d’Etats .
Dans son commentaire, la CDI a indiqué, au sujet de la dissolution,

qu’elle estimait

«qu’aujourd’hui tous les cas de dissolution d’un Etat ayant pour

effet de donner naissance à de nouveaux Etats distincts d[evaient]
être mis sur le même pied aux fins du maintien en vigueur des traités.
La CDI a conclu que, bien que l’on puisse relever quelques diver-

gences dans la pratique des Etats, cette pratique était assez uniforme
pour justifier la formation d’une règle qui disposerait, avec les ré-

serves nécessaires, que les traités en vigueur à la date de la dissolu-
tion devraient rester en vigueuripso jure à l’égard de chacun des Etats
issus de la dissolution. Le fait que la situation p[uisse] être considérée

comme un cas de «séparation d’une ou de plusieurs parties d’un
Etat» plutôt que comme un cas de «dissolution» ne porte pas
10
atteinte à cette conclusion fondamentale.»

Lors de la conférence, les débats portèrent surtout sur la question de

savoir si le principe de la succession ipso jure était applicable à la séces-
sion ou, le cas échéant, à la sécession se produisant dans des circon-
stances similaires à celles de la décolonisation, hypothèse dans laquelle
11
certaines délégations privilégiaient le principe de la «table rase» .
D’autres délégations proposaient que le principe de la successionipso jure

8 Conférence des Nations Unies sur la succession d’Etats en matière de traités, vol. II,
47e séance, p. 104, par. 36.
9 Ibid., p. 105, par. 1.
10 Annuaire de la Commission du droit international , 1974, vol. II, première partie,
p. 276, par. 25.
11 Conférence des Nations Unies sur la succession d’Etats en matière de traités, vol. II,
e e e e
40 ,42 ,47 et 49 séances, p. 50 et suiv.

290330 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP .OP .TOMKA )

cated that, in their view, the “clean slate” principle only applies in the
event of decolonization.

Although the discussions reveal certain divergences regarding the appli-
cation of the rule of ipso jure succession to treaties to all the very diverse
situations covered by Article 34, the nucleus of this provision concerning

the dissolution of States has not met with any serious objection. There-
fore, in my view, the rule of ipso jure succession to treaties for cases
involving the dissolution of a State may be considered a rule of custom-
12
ary international law .
34. The former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia agreed that
the rule of ipso jure succession, codified in Article 34 of the Vienna Con-
vention, at least for cases of the dissolution of a State (while for cases of

secession it was rather a step in the progressive development of interna-
tional law), shall be the rule to be applied for future cases of succession of
States by signing and later, on 28 April 1980, ratifying the Vienna Con-

vention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties. Perhaps then it
could hardly contemplate that a decade later the issue of succession
would become so relevant to its case. It is true that the Vienna Conven-
tion did not enter into force until 6 November 1996, and by virtue of its

Article 7, paragraph 1, applies only in respect of a succession of States
which has occurred after its entry into force.

All five successor States of the former Yugoslavia notified of their suc-
cession to the Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of
Treaties and are thus parties to it. Serbia and Montenegro did so on

12 March 2001, the same date that it notified of its succession to a great
number of conventions deposited with the Secretary-General of the
United Nations, and selected from the treaties and conventions deposited

with him just one instrument, the Genocide Convention, in relation to
which it deposited concurrently its instrument of accession with a reser-
vation to Article IX.

35. There can be no doubt that this decision to notify of the accession

12A. Zimmermann, in his 960-page Habilitationsschrift, Staatennachfolge in völker-
rechtliche Verträge: Zugleich ein Beitrag zu den Möglichkeiten und Grenzen völkerrech-
tlicher Kodifikation (2000), summarizing his analysis, concluded that:

“With regard to the principle of universal succession for instances of both, separa-
tion or dismemberment, as laid down in Article 34 of the Vienna Convention ..., a
distinction has to be drawn. With regard to complete dismemberments of a State, that
principle had already in 1978 been strongly rooted in State practice. With regard to
separations, however, it has to be qualified as one of the novelties of the convention,
since in most previous cases the States concerned had applied the clean slate rule.”
(Op. cit., p. 860; emphasis in original.)

291 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND .TOMKA ) 330

s’applique également à ces derniers cas. Nombre de délégations préci-
sèrent que, selon elles, le principe de la «table rase» ne s’appliquait que
dans le cadre de la décolonisation.

Bien que les débats mettent en lumière certaines divergences quant à
l’application de la règle de la succession ipso jure aux traités à l’ensemble
des situations fort différentes visées par l’article 34, l’élément central de

cette disposition relatif à la dissolution d’Etats ne suscita aucune objec-
tion sérieuse. Par conséquent, la règle de la succession ipso jure aux trai-
tés dans les cas de dissolution d’un Etat peut, selon moi, être considérée
12
comme une règle de droit international coutumier .
34. En signant la convention de Vienne sur la succession d’Etats en
matière de traités, puis en la ratifiant le 28 avril 1980, l’ex-République
fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie a convenu que la règle de la succes-

sion ipso jure, codifiée par l’article 34 de la convention de Vienne, devait,
au moins dans les cas de dissolution d’un Etat, constituer à l’avenir la
règle applicable en matière de succession d’Etats (tandis que, dans les

cas de sécession, il s’agissait plutôt d’une étape dans le développement
progressif du droit international). Sans doute la RFSY pouvait-elle
difficilement imaginer à l’époque que, dix ans plus tard, elle serait aussi
directement concernée par la question de la succession. Cela étant, la

convention de Vienne n’est entrée en vigueur que le 6 novembre 1996 et,
en vertu du paragraphe premier de son article 7, elle ne s’applique
que dans le cas d’une succession d’Etats qui s’est produite après cette

date.
Ayant tous notifié leur succession à la convention de Vienne sur la suc-
cession d’Etats en matière de traités, les cinq Etats successeurs de l’ex-
Yougoslavie y sont parties. La Serbie-et-Monténégro l’a fait le 12 mars

2001, date à laquelle elle a également notifié sa succession à un grand
nombre de traités et de conventions déposés auprès du Secrétaire général
de l’Organisation des Nations Unies; parmi ces instruments, elle n’en a

retenu qu’un seul — la convention sur le génocide — à l’égard duquel elle
a déposé un instrument d’adhésion, assorti d’une réserve à l’article IX.

35. A n’en pas douter, cette décision de la Serbie-et-Monténégro consis-

12A. Zimmermann a conclu ainsi, en la résumant, son analyse de neuf cent soixante
pages intitulée Habilitationsschrift, Staatennachfolge in völkerrechtliche Verträge:
Zugleich ein Beitrag zu den Möglichkeiten und Grenzen völkerrechtlicher Kodifikation

(2000):
«Pour ce qui concerne le principe de succession universelle dans les cas de sépara-
tion ou de démembrement, ainsi que l’article 34 de la convention de Vienne le
prévoit …, une distinction doit être établie. S’agissant des démembrements complets
d’Etats, ce principe était déjà, en 1978, profondément enraciné dans la pratique des
Etats. S’agissant des séparations, en revanche, il doit être considéré comme l’une des
innovations de la convention, dans la mesure où, dans la plupart des cas antérieurs,
les Etats concernés avaient appliqué la règle de la table rase.» ( Op. cit., p. 860; les
italiques sont dans l’original.)

291331 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

to the Genocide Convention, with a reservation to Article IX and not

succession (where no reservation is allowed) was motivated by the con-
siderations relating to the present case. It was intended to prevent a claim
that Serbia and Montenegro had obligations under the Genocide Con-
vention prior to June 2001 (in particular, substantive obligations in the
period of 1992-1995, relevant for the claims of Bosnia and Herzegovina).

This decision was also intended to avoid the jurisdiction of the Court
under Article IX, not only for that period, but also for the future until
the reservation was eventually withdrawn. Bosnia and Herzegovina timely
objected to the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s notification of accession
to the Genocide Convention with a reservation to Article IX.

That single notification of accession, in my view, was totally inconsist-

ent with the succession by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia — notified
the very same day to the United Nations Secretary-General as accession
to the Genocide Convention — to the Vienna Convention on Succession
of States in Respect of Treaties, which in Article 34 provides that the
treaties of the predecessor State continue in force in respect of each suc-

cessor State. By the latter notification of succession, the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia became a contracting State of the Vienna Convention on
Succession of States in Respect of Treaties as of April 1992. That Con-
vention entered into force on 6 November 1996. Although not formally
applicable to the process of the dissolution of the former Yugoslavia,

which occurred in the 1991-1992 period, in light of the fact that the
former Yugoslavia consented to be bound by the Vienna Convention
already in 1980, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has been a con-
tracting State to that Convention since April 1992, one would not expect,
by analogy to Article 18 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties,

a State which, through notification of its accession, expresses its consent
to be considered as bound by the Vienna Convention on Succession of
States in Respect of Treaties to act in a singular case inconsistently with
the rule contained in Article 34 of that Convention, while in a great
number of other cases to acting in full conformity with that rule. These

considerations, taken together, lead me to the conclusion that the Court
should not attach any legal effect to the notification of accession by the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the Genocide Convention, and should
instead consider it bound by that Convention on the basis of the opera-
tion of the customary rule of ipso jure succession codified in Article 34 as

applied to cases of the dissolution of a State.

36. Since I consider the Respondent to be party to the Genocide Con-
vention since April 1992 and party to the Statute of the Court since
1 November 2000, both conditions (of access and jurisdiction) being thus

fulfilled, I can agree with proceeding to the adjudication of the case on its
merits.

292 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 331

tant à notifier son adhésion à la convention sur le génocide, assortie
d’une réserve à l’article IX, et non sa succession (qui ne permet aucune
réserve), a été motivée par des considérations relatives à l’espèce. Cette
décision avait pour objet d’éviter qu’il ne soit allégué que la Serbie-et-

Monténégro aurait eu, avant le mois de juin 2001, des obligations en
vertu de la convention sur le génocide (et notamment, au titre de la
période 1992-1995, des obligations de fond pertinentes au regard des
demandes de la Bosnie-Herzégovine). Cette décision visait également à se
soustraire à la juridiction de la Cour en vertu de l’article IX, non seule-

ment au titre de cette période, mais également à l’avenir, jusqu’au moment
où cette réserve serait finalement retirée. La Bosnie-Herzégovine s’est, en
temps voulu, opposée à la notification d’adhésion à la convention sur le
génocide formulée par la République fédérale de Yougoslavie avec une
réserve à l’article IX.

Cette unique notification d’adhésion était, selon moi, en contradiction
totale avec la succession de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie — noti-
fiée au Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies le même
jour que l’adhésion à la convention sur le génocide — à la convention de

Vienne sur la succession d’Etats en matière de traités, laquelle, dans son
article 34, dispose que les traités de l’Etat prédécesseur restent en vigueur
à l’égard de chaque Etat successeur. Par cette notification de succession,
la République fédérale de Yougoslavie est devenue, à compter
d’avril 1992, un Etat partie à la convention de Vienne sur la succession

d’Etats en matière de traités. Cet instrument est entré en vigueur
le 6 novembre 1996. Bien qu’il ne soit pas formellement applicable au
processus de dissolution de l’ex-Yougoslavie — lequel s’est produit au
cours des années 1991-1992 —, l’on pourrait s’attendre, dès lors que l’ex-
Yougoslavie a consenti à être liée par cette convention dès 1980 et que la

République fédérale de Yougoslavie y est devenue partie en avril 1992, à
ce que, par analogie avec l’article 18 de la convention de Vienne sur le
droit des traités, un Etat qui, par la notification de son adhésion, exprime
son consentement à être considéré comme lié par la convention de Vienne

sur la succession d’Etats en matière de traités ne se comporte pas, dans
un cas particulier, de manière incohérente avec la règle énoncée à l’ar-
ticle 34 de cette convention, alors même que, dans un grand nombre
d’autres cas, il agit en parfaite conformité avec cette règle. L’ensemble de
ces observations me portent à conclure que la Cour ne devrait accorder

aucun effet juridique à la notification d’adhésion à la convention sur le
génocide formulée par la République fédérale de Yougoslavie, et devrait
au contraire considérer que cette dernière est liée par ladite Convention
en vertu de l’application aux cas de dissolution d’un Etat de la règle cou-

tumière de succession ipso jure codifiée par l’article 34.
36. Dès lors que je considère le défendeur comme étant partie à la
convention sur le génocide depuis avril 1992 et au Statut de la Cour
depuis le 1 ernovembre 2000, les deux conditions (d’accès et de compé-
tence) étant donc remplies, je peux accepter qu’il soit statué sur le fond de

l’affaire.

292332 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP. TOMKA )

II. THE M ERITS

A. Interpretation of the Genocide Convention

37. In order to determine what kind of obligations the Genocide Con-
vention imposes on its parties it is necessary to interpret its provisions.

That interpretation is to be performed in good faith in accordance with
the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the Convention read in
their context and in the light of its object and purpose . Further, as the
Court recalls, recourse may be had to supplementary means of interpre-
tation which include the preparatory work of the Convention and the cir-

cumstances of its conclusion in order either to confirm the meaning
resulting from “terms — context — object — purpose” interpretation or
to remove the ambiguities, obscurity or manifestly absurd or unreason-
able result (cf. Judgment, para. 160).

38. Applying these rules of interpretation, I largely agree with the
majority’s analysis of the provisions contained in Articles V, VI and VII
of the Convention. With respect to some other Articles, however, I am

unable to fully share the Court’s interpretation of certain aspects of the
relevant provisions. Before elaborating on my understanding of these
issues I consider it important to state my views on the purpose of the
Convention.
39. The Genocide Convention belongs to the growing corpus of inter-

national criminal law. Its purpose is to oblige States parties to prevent
the most serious crime — genocide, which is considered to constitute a
crime under international law — from being committed and, where it has
been committed, to punish its perpetrators. It provides a legal definition

of the prohibited act (i.e., genocide), imposes obligations on the States
parties to the Convention to make that crime punishable under their
domestic law, as well as to make punishable conspiracy, incitement and
attempt to commit genocide and complicity in genocide. The States
parties have an obligation to provide effective penalties for perpetrators

of the crime and to enact the necessary legislation to give effect to the
provisions of the Convention (including those relating to the competence
of their national courts to try the alleged perpetrators). The Convention
also contains a provision on the extradition of the alleged perpetrators.

1. Article I

40. I now turn to my reading of Article I of the Genocide Convention.
In Article I, the Parties confirm that genocide, whether committed in time
of peace or in time of war, is a crime under international law. The States

in the same Article undertake to prevent such crime and to punish the
perpetrators in the event that such crime has been committed.
Article I thus, in addition to expressing a legally binding agreement of
the States parties that genocide constitutes a crime under international

293 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND. TOMKA ) 332

II. FOND

A. Interprétation de la convention sur le génocide

37. Pour déterminer la nature des obligations que la convention sur le
génocide impose aux Etats parties, il est nécessaire d’interpréter ses dis-
positions. Cette interprétation doit se faire de bonne foi, conformément
au sens ordinaire qu’il convient de donner aux termes de la Convention,

lus dans leur contexte, et à la lumière de l’objet et du but de cet instru-
ment. De plus, ainsi que la Cour le rappelle, il peut être recouru à des
moyens complémentaires d’interprétation, tels que les travaux prépara-
toires de la Convention et les circonstances dans lesquelles celle-ci a été

conclue, que ce soit pour confirmer le sens établi à partir de l’interpréta-
tion des «termes, contexte, objet et but», ou pour éliminer des ambigüi-
tés, des points obscurs, ou encore un résultat manifestement absurde ou
déraisonnable (cf. arrêt, par. 160).
38. L’application de ces règles d’interprétation m’amène à souscrire

largement à l’analyse faite par la majorité de la Cour des dispositions
contenues dans les articles V, VI et VII de la Convention. En revanche, je
ne peux partager pleinement l’interprétation que fait la Cour de différents
aspects des dispositions pertinentes de certains autres articles. Avant de
développer mon interprétation en la matière, j’estime important d’indi-

quer mes vues concernant l’objet de la Convention.
39. La convention sur le génocide s’inscrit dans le corpus grandissant
des règles du droit pénal international. Son objet est d’imposer aux Etats
parties de prévenir la perpétration du crime le plus grave — le génocide,

lequel est considéré comme un crime en vertu du droit international — et,
lorsqu’il a été commis, d’en punir les auteurs. La Convention donne une
définition juridique de l’acte prohibé (c’est-à-dire du génocide) et impose
aux Etats parties l’obligation de rendre punissables dans leur droit interne
non seulement ce crime lui-même, mais aussi l’entente en vue de le com-

mettre, l’incitation à le commettre, la tentative de génocide et la compli-
cité dans le génocide. Les Etats parties ont l’obligation de prévoir des
sanctions efficaces pour les auteurs du crime et d’adopter la législation
nécessaire pour assurer l’application des dispositions de la Convention, y

compris celles relatives à la compétence de leurs tribunaux nationaux
pour juger les auteurs présumés. La Convention contient également une
disposition relative à l’extradition de ces derniers.

1. L’article premier

40. J’en viens maintenant à mon interprétation de l’article premier de

la convention sur le génocide. Les Etats parties y affirment que le géno-
cide, qu’il soit commis en temps de paix ou en temps de guerre, est un
crime en vertu du droit international et s’engagent à prévenir ce crime et,
dans l’hypothèse où il aurait été commis, à en punir les auteurs.
Outre qu’il exprime de leur part un accord juridiquement contraignant

sur le fait que le génocide constitue un crime en vertu du droit inter-

293333 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

law, contains two obligations for the States parties : (1) to prevent the

commission of a crime and (2) to punish the perpetrators.

Imposition of the duty of punishment in relation to the crime of geno-
cide implies that this Article contemplates genocide as a crime committed
by a person entailing that person’s individual criminal responsibility. I

cannot imagine that the States parties would have agreed to a duty of one
State to “punish” another State for having committed genocide.

41. I am so far in agreement with what the Court states in para-
graphs 146 to 151 of the Judgment. But then the Court goes on to the

issue “whether the Parties are also under an obligation, by virtue of the
Convention, not to commit genocide themselves” (Judgment, para. 166;
emphasis added). The Court cannot but recognize “that such an obliga-
tion is not expressly imposed by the actual terms of the Convention”

(ibid.). It further states that Article I “does not expressis verbis require
States to refrain from themselves committing genocide. However, . . . tak-
ing into account the established purpose of the Convention, the effect of
Article I is to prohibit States from themselves committing genocide.”
(Ibid.) The Court concludes that “the obligation to prevent genocide

necessarily implies the prohibition of the commission of genocide” (ibid.).
I have doubts whether this is “the ordinary meaning” of the term “pre-
vention” even if interpreted in light of the object and purpose of the Con-
vention, which basically is an international criminal law convention.
Clearly, under international law, States are not free to commit such

atrocities which may amount to genocide. I fully agree on this point with
the Court. The other issue is how States, which elaborated and adopted
the Genocide Convention, intended to achieve this noble aim, “to liberate
mankind from such an odious scourge” (in the words of the Convention’s
Preamble). The majority takes the view that the obligation of States not

to commit genocide is necessarily implied by the obligation to prevent
genocide because any other reading would be paradoxical (ibid.). The
majority further reasons that, because the act of genocide is included in
the list of punishable acts in Article III, its interpretation of Article I
“must also apply to the other acts enumerated in Article III” (ibid.,

para. 167). The majority provides no support for this view from the
travaux préparatoires ; it rather refers to “one unusual feature of the
wording of Article IX” (Judgment, para. 168), which includes within the
jurisdiction of the Court not only disputes relating to the interpretation
and application of the Convention, but also disputes relating to the “ful-

filment of the . . . Convention, including those relating to the responsibil-
ity of a State for genocide or for any of the other acts enumerated in
Article III” (ibid., para. 146). But that is the compromissory clause,
which is usually not the source of substantive obligations. The majority
infers, from that compromissory clause, that

294 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 333

national, l’article premier énonce donc deux obligations incombant aux

Etats parties : 1) celle de prévenir la commission d’un crime et 2) celle
d’en punir les auteurs.
Le fait que cet article impose l’obligation de punir les auteurs du crime
de génocide implique que celui-ci y est considéré comme un crime com-
mis par une personne et mettant en cause la responsabilité pénale indivi-

duelle de cette personne. Je ne puis imaginer que les Etats parties aient
accepté de faire obligation à un Etat de «punir» un autre Etat pour avoir
commis un génocide.
41. Je souscris à ce que la Cour déclare aux paragraphes 146 à 151 de
l’arrêt. Mais elle se demande ensuite «si les parties à la Convention sont

aussi tenues, en vertude celle-ci, de ne pas elles-mêmes commettre de géno-
cide» (arrêt, par. 166; les italiques sont de moi). La Cour ne peut pas ne
pas reconnaître «qu’une telle obligation n’est pas expressément imposée
par les termes mêmes de la Convention»(ibid.). Elle indique en outre que

l’article premier «n’impose pasexpressis verbis aux Etats de s’abstenir de
commettre eux-mêmes un génocide…», ajoutant cependant que, «eu égard
à l’objet de la Convention tel que généralement accepté, l’article premier a
pour effet d’interdire aux Etats parties de commettre eux-mêmes un géno-
cide» (ibid.). Et la Cour de conclure que «l’obligation de prévenir le géno-

cide implique nécessairement l’interdiction de le commettre»(ibid.).J e
doute qu’il s’agisse là du «sens ordinaire» du terme «prévention», même
interprété à la lumière de l’objet et du but de la Convention, laquelle est
avant tout une convention de droit pénal international. Certes, en vertu du
droit international, il est clair que les Etats ne sont pas libres de commettre

des atrocités susceptibles de constituer un génocide. Sur ce point, je par-
tage sans réserve l’opinion de la Cour. Néanmoins, la question est de
savoir de quelle manière les Etats qui ont élaboré et adopté la convention
sur le génocide entendaient atteindre le noble objectif que celle-ci s’était
fixé, consistant à «libérer l’humanité d’un fléau aussi odieux» (selon les

termes du préambule de la Convention). La majorité de la Cour défend la
thèse selon laquelle l’obligation des Etats de ne pas commettre le génocide
résulte nécessairement de l’obligation de le prévenir, dans la mesure où
toute autre interprétation serait paradoxale(ibid.). La majorité soutient
en outre que, dès lors que le génocide figure dans la liste des actes punis-

sables énoncés à l’article III, l’interprétation qu’elle fait de l’article premier
«doit aussi s’appliquer aux autres actes énumérés à l’article III» i( bid.,
par. 167). La majorité ne se fonde aucunement sur les travaux prépara-
toires pour étayer cette thèse; elle évoque au contraire «une particularité
du libellé de l’article IX» (arrêt, par. 168), lequel prévoit la compétence de

la Cour non seulement à l’égard des différends relatifs à l’interprétation
et à l’application de la Convention, mais aussi à l’égard de ceux relatifs à
«l’exécution de la … Convention, y compris ceux relatifs à la responsabi-
lité d’un Etat en matière de génocide ou de l’un quelconque des autres
actes énumérés à l’article III» (ibid., par. 146). Cependant, il s’agit là de la

clause compromissoire, laquelle ne donne généralement pas naissance à des
obligations de fond. La majorité déduit de cette clause compromissoire que

294334 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

“[t]he responsibility of a party for genocide and the other acts enumer-
ated in Article III arises from its failure to comply with the obligations
imposed by the other provisions of the Convention, and in particular . . .
with Article III read with Articles I and II”J(udgment, para. 169).

42. My understanding of the intention of the States when they elabo-
rated and adopted the Genocide Convention is different. In my view,
they intended to achieve the above-mentioned noble aim as set forth in
the Preamble by imposing an absolute duty on States parties to hold

criminally liable individuals who commit such an odious act and to pun-
ish them “whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public
officials or private individuals” (Article IV of the Convention). A State as
an abstract entity cannot act without a concrete person undertaking an
act. Subjecting individuals, including those who exercise governmental

authority, to international criminal responsibility is arguably an effective
way of achieving the goal of the Convention because a State can only act
through the conduct of individuals. This exposure to criminal prosecu-
tion makes it less likely that such individuals would disregard the obliga-

tions of the Genocide Convention, particularly since they may not assert
an “act of State” defence to such violations (see paragraph 48, below).

43. Coming back to the text of Article I and its interpretation, it may

be useful to take into account the text of the Preamble, since it forms part
of the context. The Preamble refers to the declaration made by the Gen-
eral Assembly in its resolution 96 (I) of 11 December 1946 that:

“genocide is a crime under international law which the civilized
world condemns, and for the commission of which principals and
accomplices — whether private individuals, public officials or states-
men, and whether the crime is committed on religious, racial, politi-

cal or any other grounds — are punishable”.

It should be recalled that the proposal of the United Kingdom repre-
sentative in the Sixth Committee, Sir Hartley Shawcross, to replace para-
graph 3 of the original draft resolution with the text that the General

Assembly “[d]eclares that genocide is an international crime, for the com-
mission of which principals and accessories, as well as States, are indi-
vidually responsible” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/83; emphasis added),
was not accepted.

Following the intervention of the French delegate, who referred to the
fact that the French legal system did not provide for the criminal respon-
sibility of States, the Chair of the Subcommittee of the Sixth Committee
entrusted with the task of preparing a draft resolution explained that “the
question of fixing State responsibility, as distinguished from the respon-

sibility of private individuals, public officials, or statesmen, was a matter

295 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND. TOMKA ) 334

«[l]a responsabilité d’une partie pour génocide ou tout autre acte énu-

méré à l’article III naît de son manquement aux obligations que lui
imposent les autres dispositions de la Convention, et notamment …
l’article III, lu conjointement avec les articles I et (rrêt, par. 169).

42. Mon interprétation de l’intention des Etats lorsqu’ils ont élaboré et

adopté la convention sur le génocide est différente. Selon moi, ils enten-
daient atteindre le noble objectif évoqué plus haut et énoncé dans le
préambule en imposant aux Etats parties l’obligation absolue de tenir
pour pénalement responsables les personnes qui commettent cet acte
odieux et de les punir, «qu’elles soient des gouvernants, des fonction-

naires ou des particuliers» (Convention, art. IV). Un Etat, en tantqu’entité
abstraite, ne peut agir sans qu’une personne physique accomplisse un
acte. Le fait d’assujettir des personnes, y compris celles qui exercent une
autorité gouvernementale, à une responsabilité pénale internationale est,

sans doute, un moyen efficace d’atteindre l’objectif de la Convention,
dans la mesure où un Etat ne peut agir qu’à travers la conduite de per-
sonnes. Que ces dernières s’exposent à des poursuites pénales a pour
conséquence qu’elles sont moins enclines à ne pas respecter les obliga-
tions de la convention sur le génocide, dès lors, notamment, qu’elles ne

sauraient se prévaloir d’un «fait de l’Etat» pour se défendre d’avoir com-
mis de telles violations (voir paragraphe 48 ci-dessous).
43. Pour en revenir au texte de l’article premier et à son interprétation,
il peut être utile de s’intéresser au libellé du préambule, lequel fait en effet
partie du contexte. Le préambule se réfère à la déclaration faite par

l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies dans sa résolution 96 (I) en date
du 11 décembre 1946, selon laquelle

«le génocide est un crime de droit des gens que le monde civilisé
condamne, et pour lequel les auteurs principaux et leurs complices,

qu’ils soient des personnes privées, des fonctionnaires ou des
hommes d’Etat, doivent être punis, qu’ils agissent pour des
raisons raciales, religieuses, politiques ou pour d’autres motifs».

Il convient de rappeler que la proposition du représentant du

Royaume-Uni à la Sixième Commission, sir Hartley Shawcross, fut reje-
tée; celle-ci consistait à remplacer le paragraphe 3 du projet de réso-
lution initial par le texte indiquant que l’Assemblée générale «[d]éclare
que le génocide est un crime international dont les auteurs principaux et
les complices, de même que les Etats, sont individuellement responsables»

(Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/83; les italiques sont de moi).
Suite à l’intervention du délégué de la France, qui avait évoqué le fait
que la responsabilité pénale des Etats était inconnue dans l’ordre juri-
dique français, la présidence de la sous-commission de la Sixième Commis-
sion à laquelle avait été confiée la tâche de préparer un projet de résolu-

tion précisa que «la question de déterminer la responsabilité des Etats,
distincte de la responsabilité des particuliers, des fonctionnaires ou des

295335 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

more properly to be considered at such time as a convention on the sub-
ject of genocide is prepared” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/120).

44. The text of resolution 96 (I) provides no support for the position

that when the General Assembly asked the United Nations Economic
and Social Council (ECOSOC) “to undertake the necessary studies, with
a view to drawing up a draft convention on the crime of genocide”, it
contemplated that such a draft convention should also cover genocide as
a crime committed by the State itself. Rather, several passages in the

resolution, such as “[t]he punishment of the crime of genocide is a matter
of international concern”; or “genocide is a crime under international
law . . . for the commission of which principals and accomplices —
whether private individuals, public officials or statesmen . . . — are pun-
ishable”; or, further, “[i]nvites the Member States to enact the necessary

legislation for the prevention and punishment”; or, finally, “[r]ecom-
mends that international co-operation be organized between States with
a view to facilitating the speedy prevention and punishment of the crime
of genocide”, indicate that what was intended was proclaiming genocide

as a crime under international law and inducing the enactment of its pro-
hibition in internal criminal laws of the States parties which would pro-
vide a necessary legal basis for the punishment of its perpetrators irre-
spective of the position they may have held in the State at the time of the
commission of the crime.

45. All of the above leads me to the conclusion that genocide in Arti-
cle I of the Convention is conceived as a crime of individuals, and not of
a State. The States parties have the obligation to prevent the commission
of such crime and, if it was committed, to punish the perpetrators.

2. Article II

46. Article II contains a legal definition stricto sensu of the crime of
genocide. It is a crime which requires a specific intent (dolus specialis)
“to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious

group, as such”. Article II describes the act itself but not its perpetrators.

3. Article III

47. Article III makes punishable not only the act of genocide itself but

also four forms of participation in the crime (conspiracy, direct and pub-
lic incitement, attempt and complicity). The “punishability” of the pro-
hibited acts, as envisaged in Article III, provides a solid basis for the view
that this Article is limited — ratione personae — to individuals and does
not include States. Otherwise one would have to accept that States are

subject to punishment quod non. The notion of punishment is linked with

296 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND.TOMKA ) 335

hommes d’Etat, était un problème qu’il convenait mieux d’examiner au
moment où l’on prépar[er]ait une convention relative au crime de géno-
cide» (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/120).
44. Le texte de la résolution 96 (I) n’étaye en rien la thèse selon

laquelle, lorsque l’Assemblée générale demanda au Conseil économique
et social de l’Organisation des Nations Unies «d’entreprendre les études
nécessaires en vue de rédiger un projet de convention sur le crime de
génocide», elle envisageait que ce projet porte également sur le génocide
en tant que crime commis par l’Etat lui-même. Bien au contraire, plu-

sieurs passages de la résolution — tels que «[l]a répression du crime de
génocide est une affaire d’intérêt international», «le génocide est un
crime de droit des gens … pour lequel les auteurs principaux et leurs
complices, qu’ils soient des personnes privées, des fonctionnaires ou des
hommes d’Etat, doivent être punis», «[i]nvite les Etats Membres à

prendre les mesures législatives nécessaires pour prévenir et réprimer
[ce crime]», ou encore «[r]ecommande d’organiser la collaboration inter-
nationale des Etats en vue de prendre rapidement des mesures préventives
contre le crime de génocide et d’en faciliter la répression» — attestent que

l’intention était de proclamer que le génocide était un crime en vertu du
droit international et d’inciter les Etats parties à inscrire son interdiction
dans leur droit pénal interne, lequel fournirait ainsi la base juridique
nécessaire pour en punir les auteurs, quelles qu’aient pu être leurs fonc-
tions au sein de l’Etat au moment de la commission du crime.

45. L’ensemble des développements qui précèdent me conduisent à
conclure que le génocide, au sens de l’article premier de la Convention,
est conçu comme un crime commis par des personnes et non par des
Etats. Les Etats parties ont l’obligation de prévenir la perpétration de ce
crime et, s’il était commis, d’en punir les auteurs.

2. L’article II

46. L’article II contient une définition juridique stricto sensu du crime
de génocide. Il s’agit d’un crime qui nécessite l’intention spécifique (dolus
specialis) «de détruire, en tout ou en partie, un groupe national,

ethnique, racial ou religieux, comme tel». L’article II décrit l’acte lui-
même, mais pas ses auteurs.

3. L’article III

47. L’article III indique que doivent être punis non seulement l’acte de

génocide lui-même mais également quatre formes de participation à ce
crime (l’entente en vue de le commettre, l’incitation directe et publique à
le commettre, la tentative de génocide et la complicité dans le génocide).
Le fait que les actes prohibés doivent être «punis», ainsi que le prévoit
l’article III, étaye fermement la thèse selon laquelle cet article est limité

ratione personae aux seules personnes et n’inclut pas les Etats. Dans le

296336 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

criminal responsibility, which has not been accepted as applicable to
States.

4. Article IV

48. Article IV of the Convention is limited only to individuals and
their personal responsibility for genocide (“[p]ersons committing
genocide . . . shall be punished . . .”). Moreover they may be held crimi-

nally responsible for the act irrespective of the position they may have
held. Article IV provides that “[p]ersons committing genocide . . . shall be
punished, whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public
officials or private individuals”. No defence based on an act of State can
successfully shield an individual from being held criminally accountable

for his involvement in genocide.
The text of Article IV — for the purposes of its interpretation — is
thus quite unambiguous: it does not contemplate the responsibility of a
State. This conclusion is reinforced by the fact that the United Kingdom

amendment to include the criminal responsibility of a State in the text of
this provision was rejected. In the Sixth Committee, the United Kingdom
proposed to amend draft Article V, as submitted by the Ad Hoc Com-
mittee on Genocide of ECOSOC (now Article IV of the Convention), to
state:

“Criminal responsibility for any act of genocide as specified in
Articles II and IV shall extend not only to all private persons or

associations, but also to States, governments, or organs or authori-
ties of the state or government, by whom such acts are committed.
Such acts committed by or on behalf of States or governments con-
stitute a breach of the present Convention.” (United Nations doc. A/

C.6/236 and Corr.1, in Official Records of the General Assembly,
Part I, Sixth Committee, Annexes , 1948, p. 24; emphasis added.)

The United Kingdom amendment was rejected by 24 votes to 22.
The Court’s observation that “the responsibility of a State for acts of
its organs” is not “excluded by Article IV of the Convention, which con-
templates the commission of an act of genocide by ‘rulers’ or ‘public offi-

cials’” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 616, para. 32) does not alter the
conclusion that the responsibility of a State for genocide is not contem-
plated in Article IV. The subject-matter of Article IV is rather the State’s
duty to punish the perpetrator of genocide irrespective of the position

that person may have within the State.

5. Article VI

49. Article VI is concerned with the jurisdiction in which “[p]ersons

297 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND. TOMKA ) 336

cas contraire, il faudrait accepter que les Etats puissent être punis, ce qui
n’est pas le cas. Or la notion de répression est liée à la responsabilité
pénale, qui n’est pas considérée comme pouvant être engagée par un Etat.

4. L’article IV

48. L’article IV de la Convention ne vise que les individus et leur res-
ponsabilité personnelle pour génocide («[l]es personnes ayant commis le
génocide … seront punies…»). Les intéressés peuvent en outre être tenus

pour pénalement responsables de l’acte en question, quelles que soient les
fonctions qu’ils aient pu occuper. Ainsi, l’article IV dispose que «[l]es
personnes ayant commis le génocide … seront punies, qu’elles soient des
gouvernants, des fonctionnaires ou des particuliers». Aucune défense
fondée sur un fait de l’Etat ne saurait permettre à une personne de ne pas

être tenue pour pénalement responsable d’avoir participé à un génocide.
Le texte de l’article IV — aux fins de son interprétation — est donc
dépourvu de la moindre ambiguïté: il ne prévoit pas la responsabilité de
l’Etat. Cette conclusion est corroborée par le fait que l’amendement du

Royaume-Uni visant à inclure la responsabilité pénale de l’Etat dans le
texte de cette disposition a été rejeté. Au sein de la Sixième Commission,
le Royaume-Uni avait en effet proposé d’amender comme suit le projet
d’article V (devenu l’article IV de la Convention), tel que présenté par le
comité spécial du génocide du Conseil économique et social:

«Seront pénalement responsables de tout acte de génocide spécifié
aux articles II et IV non seulement tous les particuliers ou associa-

tions, mais également les Etats, les gouvernements, ou les organes ou
autorités de l’Etat ou du gouvernement, qui auront commis de tels
actes. Ces actes, lorsqu’ils seront commis par des Etats ou des gou-
vernements, ou en leur nom, constitueront une violation de la pré-

sente convention.» (Nations Unies, Documents officiels de l’Assem-
blée générale, première partie, Sixième Commission, annexes ,
doc. A/C.6/236 et Corr.1, 1948, p. 24; les italiques sont de moi.)

L’amendement du Royaume-Uni fut rejeté par 24 voix contre 22.
L’observation formulée par la Cour selon laquelle «la responsabilité
d’un Etat pour le fait de ses organes» n’est pas «exclue par l’article IV de
la convention, qui envisage la commission d’un acte de génocide par des

«gouvernants» ou des «fonctionnaires»» (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) ,
p. 616, par. 32) ne modifie pas la conclusion selon laquelle la responsa-
bilité d’un Etat pour génocide n’est pas envisagée à l’article IV. Ce der-
nier vise en réalité l’obligation pour un Etat de punir l’auteur du géno-

cide, quelles que soient les fonctions que cette personne occupe au sein de
l’Etat.

5. L’article VI

49. L’article VI porte sur la juridiction devant laquelle «[l]es personnes

297337 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

charged with genocide . . . shall be tried”. Such persons shall primarily be
tried “by a competent tribunal of the State in the territory of which the
act was committed”.
The Article also contemplates international prosecution of the offender

by providing that he or she shall be tried “by such international penal
tribunal as may have jurisdiction with respect to those Contracting
Parties which shall have accepted its jurisdiction”.
It is useful to recall that the United Kingdom submitted an amendment
to draft Article VII (now Article VI of the Convention). It suggested the

deletion of the draft article “because, in the first place, there is no inter-
national criminal court and secondly, the reference to national courts is
unnecessary in view of Article VI” (Article V of the Convention). Instead,
the following text was proposed by the United Kingdom:

“Where the act of genocide as specified by articles II and IV is, or
is alleged to be the act of the State or government itself or of any
organ or authority of the State or government, the matter shall, at

the request of any other party to the present Convention, be referred
to the International Court of Justice, whose decision shall be final
and binding. Any acts or measures found by the Court to constitute
acts of genocide shall be immediately discontinued or rescinded and

if already suspended shall not be resumed or reimposed.” (United
Nations doc. A/C.6/236 and Corr.1, in Official Records of the Gen-
eral Assembly, Part I, Sixth Committee, Annexes , 1948, p. 25.)

The United Kingdom amendment was not adopted. The amendment
was withdrawn in view of the objections, in particular by the United

States, that it “was not in order, in that it amounted to a proposal to go
back on a decision already taken” referring to the defeat of the United
Kingdom amendment to draft Article V (Article IV of the Convention),
(see para. 48 of this opinion) (United Nations doc. A/633, Official
Records of the General Assembly, Part I, Sixth Committee, 99th meeting,

p. 392). The United Kingdom delegate (Fitzmaurice) eventually withdrew
this amendment in favour of the joint amendment submitted by Belgium
and the United Kingdom to draft Article X (Article IX of the Conven-
tion) (see ibid., p. 394). Fitzmaurice later acknowledged that “[t]he debate
had clearly shown the Committee’s desire to confine the provisions of

Article VII (now Article VI of the Convention) to the responsibility of
individuals” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR.103, p. 430).

6. Article IX

50. Article IX is the key provision for the purposes of the present case.
Its text reads as follows:

“Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpre-

298 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 337

accusées de génocide … seront traduites». Ces personnes seront avant
tout traduites devant «les tribunaux compétents de l’Etat sur le territoire
duquel l’acte a été commis».
L’article VI prévoit également que soient engagées des poursuites inter-

nationales contre les auteurs en disposant qu’ils seront traduits «devant
la cour criminelle internationale qui sera compétente à l’égard de celles
des parties contractantes qui en auront reconnu la juridiction».
Il convient de rappeler que le Royaume-Uni avait proposé un amen-
dement au projet d’article VII (devenu l’article VI de la Convention). Il

suggérait que ce projet d’article soit supprimé «parce que … il n’exist[ait]
pas de cour pénale internationale et, … en raison de l’article VI [article V
de la Convention], il [était] inutile de faire mention des tribunaux natio-
naux». Le Royaume-Uni proposait de le remplacer par le texte suivant:

«Lorsque l’un des actes de génocide spécifiés aux articles II et IV
sera le fait de l’Etat ou du gouvernement lui-même ou d’un organe
ou autorité quelconque de l’Etat ou du gouvernement, ou qu’il sera

présenté comme tel, l’affaire, à la demande de toute autre partie à la
présente Convention, sera soumise à la Cour internationale de Jus-
tice, dont la décision sera définitive et obligatoire. Tous actes, toutes
mesures dont la Cour jugera qu’ils constituent des actes de génocide

seront respectivement interrompus ou annulés immédiatement; si
leur exécution a déjà été suspendue, ces actes ne seront pas repris ni
ces mesures imposées à nouveau.» (Nations Unies, Documents offi-
ciels de l’Assemblée générale, première partie, Sixième Commission,
annexes, doc. A/C.6/236 et Corr.1, 1948, p. 25.)

L’amendement du Royaume-Uni ne fut pas adopté. Il fut retiré en rai-
son de l’objection — formulée en particulier par les Etats-Unis d’Amé-

rique — selon laquelle il «n’[était] pas recevable, étant donné qu’il équi-
v[alait] à une motion tendant à revenir sur une décision déjà prise»,
argument qui faisait référence à l’échec de l’amendement au projet d’ar-
ticle V (l’article IV de la Convention) proposé par le Royaume-Uni (voir
présente opinion, par. 48) (Nations Unies, Documents officiels de l’Assem-
e
blée générale, première partie, Sixième Commission ,9 9 séance, doc.
A/633, p. 392). Le délégué du Royaume-Uni (Fitzmaurice) retira finale-
ment cet amendement au profit de l’amendement commun au projet d’ar-
ticle X (l’article IX de la Convention) présenté par la Belgique et le
Royaume-Uni (voir ibid., p. 394). Par la suite, Fitzmaurice reconnut que

«[d]urant les débats, il était apparu clairement que la Commission désirait
limiter les dispositions de l’article VII [devenu l’article VI de la Convention] à
la responsabilité des individus» (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/SR.103, p. 430).

6. L’article IX

50. L’article IX est la disposition essentielle aux fins de la présente
espèce. Il se lit comme suit:

«Les différends entre les Parties contractantes relatifs à l’interpré-

298338 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including
those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any
of the other acts enumerated in Article III , shall be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to

the dispute.” (Emphasis added.)

This jurisdictional clause is, as Judge Oda put it,

“unique as compared with the compromissory clauses found in other
multilateral treaties which provide for submission to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice of such disputes between the Contracting

Parties as relate to the interpretation or application of the treaties in
question” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 627, para. 5; emphasis in the
original).

In fact the draft Convention, as prepared by the Ad Hoc Committee

and submitted to the Sixth Committee, contained the usual compromis-
sory clause, which contemplated the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court
for disputes “relating to the interpretation, or application of the present
Convention”.
What is the meaning of the additional words: “or fulfilment of the

present Convention, including those relating to the responsibility of a
State for genocide”?

(a) Disputes relating to the fulfilment of the Convention

51. The addition of the word “fulfilment” does not appear to the

Court to be significant (Judgment, para. 168). I agree on this point. A
review of the travaux préparatoires convinces me that the word “fulfil-
ment” adds nothing legally relevant to the obligation to apply the Con-
vention. By applying the Convention in good faith, a State party contrib-

utes to the fulfilment of the purpose of the Convention to prevent
genocide, which purpose is clearly stated in the Preamble (“to liberate
mankind from such an odious scourge”, i.e., the crime of genocide) and
in Article I. It was in connection with this undertaking that the word
“fulfilment” was used for the first time in drafting the Genocide Conven-

tion (see the Belgian amendment, United Nations doc. A/C.6/252).
52. In my view the addition of the formulation “fulfilment of the
present Convention” in the compromissory clause does not add anything
to the substantive obligations of the parties to the Convention and does

not expand the jurisdiction ratione materiae of the Court in comparison
with the concept of “application of the Convention” as it appears in Arti-
cle IX (and in a great number of jurisdictional or compromissory clauses
in other instruments). It merely places an additional emphasis on one
aspect of the Convention, namely its overall purpose to prevent the “odi-

ous scourge” of genocide.

299 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 338

tation, l’application ou l’exécution de la présente convention, y com-
pris ceux relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide
ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l’article III , seront
soumis à la Cour internationale de Justice, à la requête d’une partie

au différend.» (Les italiques sont de moi.)

Ainsi que le juge Oda l’a indiqué, cette clause de juridiction est

«unique si on la compare aux clauses compromissoires d’autres trai-
tés multilatéraux qui prévoient la soumission à la Cour internatio-
nale de Justice des différends entre les parties contractantes ayant

trait à leur interprétation ou application »( C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) ,
p. 627, par. 5; les italiques sont dans l’original).

En fait, le projet de convention, tel qu’élaboré par le comité spécial et

présenté à la Sixième Commission, contenait la clause compromissoire
habituelle, laquelle prévoyait la compétence obligatoire de la Cour pour
des différends «relatifs à l’interprétation ou à l’application de la présente
convention».
Quel est donc le sens des termes qui y ont été ajoutés: «ou l’exécution

de la présente convention, y compris ceux relatifs à la responsabilité d’un
Etat en matière de génocide»?

a) Différends relatifs à l’exécution de la Convention

51. L’adjonction du terme «exécution» n’apparaît pas significative à la

Cour (arrêt, par. 168). Je partage ce point de vue. A la lumière des tra-
vaux préparatoires, je suis convaincu que ce terme n’ajoute aucun élé-
ment juridiquement pertinent à l’obligation d’appliquer la Convention.
En effet, en appliquant cet instrument de bonne foi, un Etat partie contri-

bue à la réalisation de son but qui est de prévenir le génocide, but clai-
rement énoncé dans le préambule («libérer l’humanité d’un fléau aussi
odieux», à savoir le crime de génocide) et à l’article premier. C’est en rap-
port avec cet engagement que le terme «exécution» a été utilisé pour la
première fois dans la rédaction de la convention sur le génocide (voir

l’amendement de la Belgique, Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/252).
52. A mon sens, l’adjonction de l’expression «exécution de la présente
Convention» à la clause compromissoire n’ajoute rien aux obligations de
fond des parties à la Convention et n’étend pas la compétence ratione

materiae de la Cour qui résulte de la notion d’«application de la Conven-
tion» figurant à l’article IX (ainsi que dans un grand nombre de clauses
attributives de compétence ou compromissoires d’autres instruments).
Elle met simplement un accent supplémentaire sur l’un des aspects de la
Convention, à savoir son but général, qui est de prévenir ce «fléau aussi

odieux» qu’est le génocide.

299339 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

(b) Disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide

53. It remains to deal with that part of the compromissory clause in
Article IX which contemplates “disputes . . . including those relating to
the responsibility of a State for genocide or any of the other acts enu-

merated in Article III” as falling within the jurisdiction of the Court.

The French version of this clause differs slightly. It reads as follows:
“les différends . . . y compris ceux relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en

matière de génocide ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à
l’article III” (emphasis added).
This particular provision raises a number of issues, specifically that of
its meaning. It can be interpreted in at least three different ways.

54. First, the provision can be understood as simply contemplating the
jurisdiction of the Court to determine the responsibility of a State for the
breach of one its obligations under the Convention. The jurisdiction of

the Court with respect to the application of a treaty however also
includes jurisdiction to determine the consequences for a State resulting
from its non-compliance with treaty obligations, i.e., its international
responsibility (cf. Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8,

1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9 , p. 21). Therefore “it would be superflu-
ous to add [the formula into the compromissory clause] unless the Parties
had something else in mind” (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Alba-
nia), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949 , p. 24). The principle of

effectiveness in treaty interpretation, although not provided for as such in
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties on which the Court rou-
tinely relies, suggests that such interpretation would be too narrow. The
travaux préparatoires, revealing a rather lengthy and sometimes confused

debate (see paragraphs 57 and 58 below), reaffirm that such interpreta-
tion should not be retained.

55. Second, the clause under consideration can also be understood
as empowering this Court to determine that a State has committed
genocide, which is the crime “singled out for special condemnation
and opprobrium”, “horrific in its scope”, constituting a “crime
13
against all of humankind” . But that interpretation would implicate
the criminal responsibility of States in international law — a
concept previously rejected by a significant majority of States, and
more recently abandoned by the ILC, in finalizing the Articles on

13ICTY, Prosecutor v. Radislav Kr´ , IT-98-33-A, Judgment of the Appeals Cham-
ber, 19 April 2004, para. 36.

300 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .IND .TOMKA ) 339

b) Différends relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de

génocide

53. Il nous reste à examiner cette partie de la clause compromissoire de
l’article IX qui dispose que les «différends … y compris ceux relatifs à la
responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide ou de l’un quelconque

des autres actes énumérés à l’article III» relèvent de la compétence de la
Cour.
La version anglaise de cette clause est légèrement différente. Elle se lit
comme suit: «disputes … including those relating to the responsibility of

a State for genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in Article III»
(les italiques sont de moi).
Cette disposition soulève un certain nombre de questions, à commen-
cer par celle de son sens. Elle peut être interprétée d’au moins trois

manières.
54. Premièrement, cette disposition peut être comprise comme pré-
voyant la compétence de la Cour aux seules fins d’établir la responsabilité
d’un Etat pour violation de l’une des obligations lui incombant en vertu

de la Convention. La compétence de la Cour s’agissant de l’application
d’un traité englobe néanmoins aussi sa compétence aux fins d’établir les
conséquences pour un Etat du non-respect des obligations lui incombant
en vertu du traité en question, à savoir sa responsabilité internationale
o
(Usine de Chorzów, compétence, arrêt n 8, 1927, C.P.J.I. série A n° 9 ,
p. 21). Dès lors, «il aurait été superflu d’ajouter [cette expression dans la
clause compromissoire], à moins que dans l’esprit des Parties ce point
visât quelque chose de plus» (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni c. Alba-

nie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949 , p. 23-24). Bien que la convention
de Vienne sur le droit des traités — sur laquelle la Cour s’appuie régu-
lièrement — ne prévoie pas en tant que tel le principe de l’effet utile aux
fins de l’interprétation des traités, celui-ci tend à indiquer qu’une telle

interprétation serait par trop restrictive. Les travaux préparatoires, qui
démontrent que les débats ont été relativement longs et parfois confus
(voir paragraphes 57 et 58 ci-dessous), viennent d’ailleurs confirmer
qu’une telle interprétation ne devrait pas être retenue.

55. Deuxièmement, la clause considérée peut aussi être comprise
comme conférant compétence à la Cour pour établir qu’un Etat a com-
mis un génocide, crime qui se «singularise par la réprobation particulière
et l’opprobre», crime «horrible de par son ampleur» et qui constitue un
13
«crime contre le genre humain dans son intégralité» . Une telle inter-
prétation impliquerait toutefois que les Etats puissent être pénalement
responsables en vertu du droit international, notion déjà rejetée par une
importante majorité d’Etats, et plus récemment abandonnée par la CDI

13TPIY, Le procureur c. Radislav K´ , affaire IT-98-33-A, chambre d’appel, arrêt du
19 avril 2004, par. 36.

300340 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts between 1998
and 2001.
56. Third, the clause can also be understood as the power of the Court
to determine that in a particular case a State has to bear the conse-

quences of the crime of genocide, committed by an individual found to be
criminally liable, because a certain relationship existed between the indi-
vidual perpetrator of the genocide and the State in question. In other
words, the Court has been given jurisdiction to determine the responsi-
bility of a State for genocide under the rules of international law, on the

basis of attribution to the State of the genocidal acts perpetrated by per-
sons. It seems to me that this interpretation is the most plausible consid-
ering not only the English text of Article IX (“the responsibility of a State
for genocide”), but also its French text (“la responsabilité d’un Etat en
matière de génocide”), and the sometimes confused debate on the draft in

the Sixth Committee in November 1948.

57. The deliberations and revisions underlying the Sixth Committee’s
drafting process despite their tempered confusion, lend support to this

third and favoured construction. The drafting history of Article IX of the
Convention reveals that the United Kingdom and Belgian delegations
originated this text. It emerged after previous, unsuccessful attempts by
both States to revise other provisions. The United Kingdom failed to
gather sufficient support for its amendments to draft Article V (Article IV

of the Convention) to extend criminal responsibility “also to States, gov-
ernments or organs or authorities of the state or government” (for the
text of the amendment, see paragraph 48 above), and to draft Article VII
(Article VI of the Convention) (for the text of the amendment, see para-
graph 49 above). Likewise, Belgium did not succeed in putting through

its amendment to the United Kingdom amendment to draft Article VII.
Following these non-successes, the two delegations submitted a joint
amendment to draft Article X (now Article IX of the Convention), pro-
posing the following text for that Article (original in English and French):

“Any dispute between the High Contracting Parties relating to the
interpretation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention,
including disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for any of
the acts enumerated in Articles II and IV, shall be submitted to the

International Court of Justice at the request of any of the High Con-
tracting Parties.” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/258, p. 28.)

In French the text reads as follows:

“Tout différend entre les Hautes Parties contractantes relatif à
l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécution de la présente Conven-
tion, y compris les différends relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat

dans les actes énumérés aux articles II et IV, sera soumis à la Cour

301 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND. TOMKA ) 340

lors de la finalisation, entre 1998 et 2001, des articles sur la responsabilité

de l’Etat pour fait internationalement illicite.
56. Troisièmement, cette clause peut également être comprise comme
désignant la faculté qu’a la Cour d’établir que, dans une affaire donnée,
un Etat doit assumer les conséquences du crime de génocide commis par
un individu considéré comme pénalement responsable, et ce en raison de

l’existence d’une relation particulière entre l’individu auteur du génocide
et l’Etat en question. En d’autres termes, la Cour se serait vu attribuer
compétence aux fins d’établir la responsabilité d’un Etat pour génocide
en vertu des règles du droit international, sur le fondement de l’attribu-
tion à l’Etat des actes génocides perpétrés par des individus. Cette inter-

prétation me semble la plus plausible non seulement au regard du texte
anglais de l’article IX («the responsibility of a State for genocide»), mais
également de la version française («la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière
de génocide»), ainsi que du débat parfois confus sur le projet de conven-

tion au sein de la Sixième Commission en novembre 1948.
57. En dépit de leur relative confusion, les délibérations et revisions
qui ont émaillé le processus rédactionnel de la Sixième Commission
étayent cette troisième interprétation, plus plausible. Il ressort de l’his-
toire rédactionnelle de l’article IX de la Convention que les délégations

du Royaume-Uni et de la Belgique sont à l’origine de ce texte, lequel a vu
le jour après plusieurs tentatives infructueuses des deux Etats de reviser
d’autres dispositions. Le Royaume-Uni n’était pas parvenu à obtenir un
soutien suffisant pour que soit adopté son amendement aux projets
d’article V (article IV de la Convention) visant à étendre la responsabilité

pénale aux «Etats, [aux] gouvernements, ou [aux] organes ou autorités de
l’Etat ou du gouvernement» (pour le texte de l’amendement, voir para-
graphe 48 ci-dessus), et d’article VII (article VI de la Convention) (pour
le texte de l’amendement, voir paragraphe 49 ci-dessus). De la même
manière, la Belgique n’était pas parvenue à faire adopter son amende-

ment à l’amendement du Royaume-Uni au projet d’article VII. Compte
tenu de ces tentatives infructueuses, les deux délégations présentèrent un
amendement commun à l’article X (devenu l’article IX de la Convention),
qui se lisait comme suit (le texte original est en anglais et en français):

«Tout différend entre les Hautes Parties contractantes relatif à
l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécution de la présente Conven-

tion, y compris les différends relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat
dans les actes énumérés aux articles II et IV, sera soumis à la Cour
internationale de Justice, à la requête d’une Haute Partie contrac-
tante.» (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/258, p. 28.)

En anglais, le texte se lisait comme suit:

«Any dispute between the High Contracting Parties relating to the
interpretation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention,

including disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for any of
the acts enumerated in Articles II and IV, shall be submitted to the

301341 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

internationale de Justice, à la requête d’une Haute Partie contract-

ante.” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/258, p. 28.)
58. The ensuing debate in the Sixth Committee reveals the following

pertaining to the joint amendment:
(i) It was discussed at the moment when the reference to “a competent
international tribunal” for the trial of persons charged was deleted

from draft Article VII, so that the only jurisdiction then contem-
plated was a domestic tribunal of the State in the territory in which
the act was committed. The reference to “such international penal
tribunal as may have jurisdiction with respect to those Contracting
Parties which shall have accepted its jurisdiction” was inserted into

Article VI of the Convention only at a late stage in the work of the
Sixth Committee, well after the debate on draft Article X (now Arti-
cle IX of the Convention) was over and decisions on various amend-
ments, including the joint United Kingdom/Belgian amendment,
had been made.

(ii) It was in this setting that some delegations were ready to accept the
joint United Kingdom/Belgian amendment. The French delegate
who had earlier opposed the United Kingdom amendment to draft
Article V seeking to extend criminal responsibility to States, said in
the debate on the joint United Kingdom/Belgian amendment to

draft Article X that:
“[i]t would certainly have been preferable to provide for such pun-
ishment [of the genocide] on the direct basis of criminal law

instead of confining its scope to States alone on the basis of civil
law; but, inadequate as it was, the joint amendment was prefer-
able to the absence of any text confirming competence to an inter-
national court” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR.103, p. 431).

Similarly,
“[t]he delegation of Brazil was prepared to accept the joint amend-
ment, provided the second part of Article X of the draft remained

deleted, so that it would conform to article VII, from which men-
tion of a competent international tribunal had been deleted”
(ibid., p. 432).
Similar views were expressed by Uruguay (ibid., p. 433).

(iii) The responsibility of a State, envisaged by the co-authors of the
joint amendment, was not a criminal one. Fitzmaurice, as the United
Kingdom’s representative, replying to the Canadian delegate’s

request for clarification, said “that the responsibility envisaged by
the joint Belgian and United Kingdom amendment was the interna-
tional responsibility of States following a violation of the conven-
tion”. As he explained, “[t]hat was civil responsibility, not criminal
responsibility” (ibid., p. 440).

(iv) There were several preliminary votes before the vote on the joint

302 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND.TOMKA ) 341

International Court of Justice at the request of any of the High

Contracting Parties.» (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/258, p. 28.)
58. Les débats qui se déroulèrent ensuite au sein de la Sixième Com-

mission révèlent ce qui suit au sujet de l’amendement commun:
i) Celui-ci fut débattu lorsque la référence à une «Cour criminelle inter-
nationale» pour juger les personnes accusées fut supprimée du projet

d’article VII, de sorte que la seule juridiction alors envisagée était
celle de l’Etat sur le territoire duquel l’acte serait commis. La réfé-
rence à «la Cour criminelle internationale qui sera compétente à
l’égard de celles des parties contractantes qui en auront reconnu la
juridiction» ne fut inscrite à l’article VI de la Convention qu’à un

stade tardif des travaux de la Sixième Commission, bien après que le
débat relatif au projet d’article X (devenu l’article IX de la Conven-
tion) eut été achevé et que la question de divers amendements eut été
tranchée, y compris celle de l’amendement commun du Royaume-
Uni et de la Belgique.

ii) C’est dans ce contexte que certaines délégations étaient prêtes à
accepter l’amendement commun du Royaume-Uni et de la Belgique.
Le délégué français, qui s’était auparavant opposé à l’amendement
du Royaume-Uni au projet d’article V visant à étendre la responsa-
bilité pénale aux Etats, indiqua, lors du débat sur l’amendement com-

mun du Royaume-Uni et de la Belgique au projet d’article X, que,
[c]ertes, il eût mieux valu organiser cette représentation directe-
ment sur le plan pénal, au lieu d’en restreindre la portée aux seuls

Etats dans le domaine civil, mais, si insuffisant qu’il soit, l’amen-
dement commun est préférable à l’absence de tout texte attributif
de compétence à une juridiction internationale» (Nations Unies,
doc. A/C.6/SR.103, p. 431).

De la même manière,
[l]a délégation du Brésil [était] prête à accepter l’amendement com-
mun, à condition que la suppression de la seconde partie de l’ar-

ticle X du projet soit maintenue, pour le mettre en harmonie avec
l’article VII, dans lequel la mention d’un tribunal international
compétent a été éliminée» (ibid., p. 432).
Des vues similaires furent exprimées par l’Uruguay (ibid., p. 433).

iii) La responsabilité de l’Etat envisagée par les coauteurs de l’amende-
ment commun n’était pas une responsabilité pénale. Fitzmaurice, en
sa qualité de représentant du Royaume-Uni, indiqua, en réponse à la

demande de clarification formulée par le délégué canadien, «que la
responsabilité envisagée dans l’amendement commun de la Belgique
et du Royaume-Uni [était] la responsabilité internationale des Etats à
la suite d’une violation de la convention», ajoutant qu’il s’agissait là
«d’une responsabilité civile et non pas d’une responsabilité pénale»

(ibid., p. 440).
iv) Plusieurs votes préliminaires eurent lieu avant que ne soit mis aux

302342 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

amendment as a whole. First, the Sixth Committee, by 30 votes to 9

with 8 abstentions, adopted the Indian amendment to substitute the
words “at the request of any of the parties to the dispute” for the
words “at the request of any of the High Contracting Parties” in the
joint amendment (United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR.104, p. 447).

Second, by 27 votes to 10 with 8 abstentions, the proposal to
delete the word “fulfilment” from the joint amendment was rejected
(ibid.).

Third, the deletion of the words “including disputes relating to
the responsibility of a State for any of the acts enumerated in
Articles II and IV” from the joint amendment was rejected by a
close vote of 19 votes to 17, with 8 abstentions (ibid.).

Finally, the joint amendment of the United Kingdom and Bel-
gium, as amended by India, was adopted by 23 votes to 13, with
8 abstentions (ibid.).
(v) The drafting committee of the Sixth Committee introduced a few
14
stylistic emendations to the joint amendment and renumbered it as
Article IX (United Nations doc. A/C.6/289 and Corr.1).
(vi) India then again attempted unsuccessfully to delete the words
“including those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide

or any of the other acts enumerated in Article III” (for the Indian
amendment, see United Nations doc. A/C.6/299). The United King-
dom, Belgium and the United States proposed an alternative draft
of Article IX. It read as follows (English and French being the origi-

nal texts):
“Disputes between Contracting Parties relating to the interpreta-

tion, application or implementation of this Convention, including
disputes arising from a charge by a Contracting Party that the crime
of genocide or any other of the acts enumerated in Article III has
been committed within the jurisdiction of another Contracting Party ,

shall be submitted to the International Court of Justice at the
request of one of the parties to the dispute.” (United Nations
doc. A/C.6/305; emphasis added.)

In French:

“Les différends entre Parties contractantes relatifs à l’interpréta-
tion, l’application ou l’exécution de la présente Convention, y com-
pris ceux résultant de l’allégation par une Partie contractante que le
crime de génocide ou l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à

l’article III a été commis dans la juridiction d’une autre Partie

14The Drafting Committee deleted the words “Any” at the very beginning of the text
and “High” before “Contracting Parties”; substituted “those” for “disputes” after the
word “including”; and used the language “for genocide or any of the other acts enumer-
ated in Article III” instead of “for any of the acts enumerated in articles II and IV”.

303 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .IND .TOMKA ) 342

voix l’amendement commun dans son ensemble. Tout d’abord, la

Sixième Commission, par 30 voix contre 9 et 8 abstentions, adopta
l’amendement de l’Inde tendant à remplacer, dans l’amendement
commun, les termes «à la requête d’une Haute Partie contractante»
par les termes «à la requête d’une partie au différend» (Nations Unies,

doc. A/C.6/SR.104, p. 447).
Ensuite, par 27 voix contre 10 et 8 abstentions, la proposition de
suppression du mot «exécution» figurant dans l’amendement com-
mun fut rejetée (ibid.).

Puis, la suppression de l’expression «y compris les différends rela-
tifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat dans les actes énumérés aux
articles II et IV» contenue dans l’amendement commun fut rejetée
par une courte majorité de 19 voix contre 17 et 8 abstentions (ibid.).

Enfin, l’amendement commun du Royaume-Uni et de la Belgique,
tel que modifié selon la proposition de l’Inde, fut adopté par 23 voix
contre 13, avec 8 abstentions (ibid.).
v) Le comité de rédaction de la Sixième Commission y apporta quelques
14
modifications stylistiques et le rebaptisa article IX (Nations Unies,
doc. A/C.6/289 et Corr.1).
vi) L’Inde essaya de nouveau, sans succès, d’obtenir la suppression de
l’expression «y compris ceux relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en

matière de génocide ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés
à l’article III» (pour l’amendement de l’Inde, voir Nations Unies,
doc. A/C.6/299). Le Royaume-Uni, la Belgique et les Etats-Unis pro-
posèrent un autre projet d’article IX, lequel se lisait comme suit (les

versions française et anglaise étant les textes originaux):
«Les différends entre Parties contractantes relatifs à l’interpré-

tation, l’application ou l’exécution de la présente Convention, y com-
pris ceux résultant de l’allégation par une Partie contractante que le
crime de génocide ou l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à
l’article III a été commis dans la juridiction d’une autre Partie

contractante, seront soumis à la Cour internationale de Justice, à la
requête d’une partie au différend.» (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/305;
les italiques sont de moi.)

Et en anglais:

«Disputes between Contracting Parties relating to the interpreta-
tion, application or implementation of this Convention, including
disputes arising from a charge by a Contracting Party that the crime
of genocide or any other of the acts enumerated in Article III

has been committed within the jurisdiction of another Contracting

14Le comité de rédaction remplaça les mots «Tout différend» par «Les différends» au
tout début du texte et supprima «Hautes» avant «Parties contractantes», remplaça «y
compris les différends» par «y compris ceux» et, enfin, utilisa l’expression «de génocide
ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l’article III» en lieu et place de «dans
les actes énumérés aux articles II et IV».

303343 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

contractante, seront soumis à la Cour internationale de Justice, à la
requête d’une partie au différend.” (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/305;

les italiques sont de moi.)
The three co-authors of this amendment did not consider it to be an

amendment of substance, but only “an alternative drafting”, the object of
which “was the deletion of the word ‘responsibility’, which appeared
ambiguous to certain delegations” (United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR.131,
p. 687). They were of the view that the Indian amendment “was an

amendment of substance” and it was “for the Indian representative alone
to ask for a reconsideration of Article IX” (ibid.). After a prolonged
debate, the Chairman of the Sixth Committee 15

“ruled that the amendment concerned the substance of the article.
Thus it was provided in article IX that those disputes, among others,
which concerned the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any of

the acts enumerated in article III, should be submitted to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice.” I(bid., p. 690.)

He continued that

“According to the joint amendment [of Belgium, the United King-
dom and the United States], on the other hand, the disputes would not
be those which concerned the responsibility of the State but those
which resulted from an accusation to the effect that the crime had been

committed in the territory of one of the contracting parties.” (Ibid.)
He concluded, “[t]hat being so, the Committee could not consider the

joint amendment of Belgium, the United Kingdom and the United States
or the Indian amendment unless it decided in favour of reconsideration
of article IX” (ibid.).
That ruling of the Chairman remained unchallenged. The Chairman

then put to the vote a motion for reconsideration of Article IX. The
motion was not adopted, having failed to obtain the required two-thirds
majority (16 votes in favour of reconsideration, 13 against and 11 absten-
tions) (ibid., p. 690).

59. In light of the drafting history of Article IX of the Genocide Con-
vention, and in light of the ruling of the Chairman of the Sixth Commit-
tee on the joint United Kingdom, Belgian and United States proposal
(United Nations doc. A/C.6/305), it is difficult to conclude that the juris-

diction of the Court under Article IX would also cover a charge “that the
crime of genocide or any other of the acts enumerated in article III has
been committed”.

60. The Court has no criminal jurisdiction. One may wonder how a
Court conceived as a judicial organ for the adjudication of inter-State

15R. J. Alfaro, who later became Judge (1959-1964) and Vice-President (1961-1964) of
the International Court of Justice.

304 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 343

Party, shall be submitted to the International Court of Justice at the
request of one of the parties to the dispute.» (United Nations

doc. A/C.6/305; emphasis added.)
Les trois coauteurs de cet amendement ne le considéraient pas comme

un amendement de fond, mais simplement comme «une variante», dont
l’objet était «d’éliminer le mot «responsabilité» qui para[issait] ambigu à
certaines délégations» (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/SR.131, p. 687). Ils
estimaient que l’amendement de l’Inde constituait «une modification de

fond» du texte et «qu’il appart[enait] aux représentants de l’Inde seuls de
demander un nouvel examen de l’article IX» (ibid). Après un débat pro-
longé, le président de la Sixième Commission 15

«décid[a] que cet amendement port[ait] sur le fond même de l’article.
En effet, l’article IX prévo[yai]t que ser[aie]nt soumis à la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice, entre autres, les différends relatifs à la res-

ponsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide ou de l’un des actes
énumérés à l’article III.» (Ibid., p. 690.)

Il précisa que

«tandis que d’après l’amendement commun [de la Belgique, du
Royaume-Uni et des Etats-Unis], il ne s’agirait pas de différends
portant sur la responsabilité de l’Etat mais résultant d’une accusa-
tion aux termes de laquelle l’acte criminel a été commis sur le terri-

toire d’une des parties contractantes» (ibid.).
Le président conclut que «[l]a Commission ne pourra[it] donc prendre

en considération l’amendement commun de la Belgique, du Royaume-
Uni et des Etats-Unis, ainsi que l’amendement de l’Inde, que si elle se
pronon[çait] en faveur d’un nouvel examen de l’article IX» (ibid.).
Sa décision ne fut pas contestée. Il mit ensuite aux voix une motion

tendant à ce que l’article IX fasse l’objet d’un nouvel examen. Celle-ci ne
fut pas adoptée, n’ayant pas obtenu la majorité requise des deux tiers
(16 voix pour, 13 contre et 11 absentions) (ibid. p. 690).

59. A la lumière de l’histoire rédactionnelle de l’article IX de la conven-
tion sur le génocide et de la décision du président de la Sixième Commis-
sion relative à la proposition commune de la Belgique, du Royaume-Uni
et des Etats-Unis (Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/305), il est difficile de

conclure que la compétence de la Cour en vertu de l’article IX vaut
également dans l’hypothèse où il est allégué que «le crime de géno-
cide ou l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l’article III a été
commis».

60. La Cour n’a pas de compétence pénale. Comment — peut-on se
demander — une cour conçue comme un organe judiciaire chargé de tran-

15R. J. Alfaro devint par la suite juge (1959-1964), puis vice-président (1961-1964) de la
Cour internationale de Justice.

304344 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

disputes, with no criminal jurisdiction, whose procedure (Rules of Court)

is not tailored to the requirements (or needs) of a criminal case, and
which has no Rules of Evidence, could determine that a crime (i.e., geno-
cide, requiring specific intent (dolus specialis)) has been committed. Is it
possible for the commission of a crime to be established within a pro-

cedure which provides for no appeal? These are, in my view, important
considerations which militate against construing Article IX of the Con-
vention so as to enable charges by one State that another has committed
genocide to be brought within the Court’s jurisdiction.

7. Conclusions on the interpretation of the Convention

61. Having analysed and interpreted different provisions of the Geno-

cide Convention it is now appropriate to draw the relevant conclusions.
They are, in my view, as follows:

(i) The Convention was intended as an instrument for the prevention
and punishment of the crime of genocide.
(ii) Genocide, as a crime under international law, is construed in the

Convention as a criminal offence whose perpetrators bear individual
criminal responsibility and shall thus be punished irrespective of
their position.
(iii) The Convention does not conceive genocide as a criminal act of a
16
State .
(iv) The Convention establishes a number of obligations for the States
parties. These are the following obligations:

(a) to prevent genocide (Art. I);
(b) to punish the perpetrator(s) of genocide (Arts. I and IV);
(c) to enact the necessary legislation (Art. V);
(d) to exercise jurisdiction by a competent tribunal of a territorial

State (Art. VI);
(e) to extradite the perpetrator(s) (Art. VII).

(v) The failure of a State to comply with one of the above obligations
stemming from the Convention constitutes an unlawful act and
entails the international responsibility of a State. The jurisdiction of
the Court under Article IX of the Convention encompasses the

determination of whether a State has complied with the above obli-
gations, and of the international responsibility of a State for the
breach of any of the above obligations (see point (iv) (a) to (e)
above).

(vi) The jurisdiction of the Court, as a consequence of the addition of

16One should not lose sight of the fact that the Convention was drafted in the after-
math of the Nuremberg Tribunal. That Tribunal said that “[c]rimes against international
law are committed by men, not by abstract entities” (France et al. v. Goering et al., (1946)
22 IMT, p. 466).

305 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .IND .TOMKA ) 344

cher des différends interétatiques, dépourvue de compétence pénale, dont la

procédure (le Règlement de la Cour) n’est pas adaptée aux exigences (ou
besoins) d’une affaire pénale, et qui ne dispose pas d’un règlement de
preuve, peut-elle établir qu’un crime (à savoir, le génocide, lequel nécessite
une intention spécifique(dolus specialis)) a été commis? Peut-on établir

qu’un crime a été commis dans le cadre d’une procédure ne prévoyant
aucune possibilité de recours? Il s’agit-là, selon moi, de questions impor-
tantes qui vont à l’encontre d’une interprétation de l’article IX de la
Convention selon laquelle la Cour aurait compétence pour connaître d’accu-

sations de génocide formulées par un Etat à l’encontre d’un autre Etat.

7. Conclusions concernant l’interprétation de la Convention

61. Après avoir analysé et interprété diverses dispositions de la conven-

tion sur le génocide, il convient à présent de tirer les conclusions
pertinentes. Celles-ci sont, selon moi, les suivantes:

i) La Convention a été conçue comme un instrument visant à la préven-
tion et à la répression du crime de génocide.
ii) Le génocide, en tant que crime en vertu du droit international, est

présenté dans la Convention comme un crime engageant la respon-
sabilité pénale individuelle de ses auteurs, lesquels doivent, partant,
être punis quelle que soit la fonction qu’ils occupent.
iii) La Convention ne conçoit pas le génocide comme un acte criminel
16
commis par un Etat .
iv) La Convention établit un certain nombre d’obligations pour les Etats
parties, qui sont tenus:

a) de prévenir le génocide (art. I);
b) de punir les personnes ayant commis le génocide (art. I et IV);
c) de prendre les mesures législatives nécessaires (art. V);
d) d’assurer l’exercice de la juridiction d’un tribunal compétent de

l’Etat territorial (art. VI);
e) d’extrader les auteurs (art. VII).

v) Le fait pour un Etat de ne pas se conformer à l’une des obligations
susmentionnées découlant de la Convention est un acte illicite qui
engage sa responsabilité internationale. En vertu de l’article IX, la
Cour a compétence pour établir qu’un Etat s’est ou non conformé

aux obligations susmentionnées, et qu’il a engagé sa responsabilité
internationale pour manquement à l’une quelconque d’entre elles
(voir point iv) a) à e) ci-dessus).

vi) La compétence de la Cour, en raison de l’ajout des mots «y compris

16L’on ne doit pas perdre de vue que la Convention a été rédigée au lendemain du
procès de Nuremberg. Le Tribunal a indiqué que «[c]e sont des hommes, et non des
entités abstraites, qui commettent les crimes» (France et consorts c. Göring et consorts ,
TMI (1946), vol. 22, p. 466).

305345 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

the words “including those [disputes] relating to the responsibility of
a State for genocide or for any of the other acts enumerated in arti-
cle III” into the compromissory clause in Article IX, is broader and
it includes the power of the Court to determine international “respon-

sibility of a State for genocide” on the basis of attribution to the
State of the criminal act of genocide perpetrated by a person. This
Court, however, is not the proper forum in which to make a legally
binding pronouncement that a crime of genocide was committed.
Such a finding is to be made within the framework of a criminal pro-

cedure which also provides for a right of appeal. This Court has no
criminal jurisdiction and its procedure is not a criminal one.

B. Comments on Some of the Court’s Findings

1. The obligation to prevent

62. The Court has found that the Respondent breached its obligation

to prevent genocide under Article I of the Genocide Convention. In order
to reach this conclusion, it first qualified this obligation as a kind of “due
diligence” obligation (Judgment, para. 430) and identified “the capacity
to influence effectively the action of persons likely to commit, or already
committing, genocide” (ibid.; emphasis added) as a relevant criterion for

“assessing whether a State has duly discharged the obligation concerned”
(ibid.). The Court considered that “the FRY was in a position of influ-
ence, over the Bosnian Serbs” (ibid., para. 434). Although the Court “has
not found that the information available to the Belgrade authorities indi-
cated, as a matter of certainty, that genocide was imminent . . ., they

could hardly have been unaware of the serious risk of it” (Judgment,
para. 436). The scale of the tragic events, “though it could not have been
foreseen with certainty, might at least have been surmised”( ibid.,
para. 438; emphasis added). The Court found that since “the Respondent

has not shown that it took any initiative to prevent what happened”, it
“violated its obligation to prevent the Srebrenica genocide” (ibid.).I t
does not matter for the Court whether the Respondent “definitely had
the power to prevent the genocide; it is sufficient that it had the means to
do so and that it manifestly refrained from using them” (ibid.). The

Court does not specify what kind of “means” it has in mind, but has
apparently contemplated the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s influence
over the Bosnian Serbs.

63. What is conspicuous in this part of the Judgment is the fact that
scarcely any attention is paid to the arguments of the Parties. I feel com-
pelled to offer my views on the issues they have raised.

64. Serbia and Montenegro argued that “the Genocide Convention

can only apply when the State concerned has territorial jurisdiction or

306 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 345

[les différends] relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de

génocide ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l’ar-
ticle III» à la clause compromissoire de l’article IX, est plus large et
implique que celle-ci a le pouvoir d’établir la «responsabilité [inter-
nationale] d’un Etat en matière de génocide» sur la base de l’attribu-
tion à cet Etat de l’acte criminel de génocide perpétré par un indi-

vidu. Toutefois, la Cour n’est pas l’instance adéquate pour établir
par une décision juridiquement contraignante qu’un crime de géno-
cide a été commis. Une telle décision doit être rendue dans le cadre
d’une procédure pénale prévoyant également un droit de recours. La
Cour n’est pas une juridiction pénale et sa procédure n’est pas pénale.

B. Commentaires sur certaines conclusions de la Cour

1. L’obligation de prévenir

62. La Cour a jugé que le défendeur avait violé l’obligation lui incom-
bant de prévenir le génocide en vertu de l’article premier de la convention
sur le génocide. Pour parvenir à cette conclusion, elle a tout d’abord qua-

lifié cette obligation d’obligation de«due diligence» (arrêt, par. 430) et jugé
que «la capacité … àinfluencer effectivement l’action des personnes suscep-
tibles de commettre, ou qui sont en train de commettre, un génocide»
(ibid.; les italiques sont de moi) était un critère pertinent pour «apprécier si
un Etat s’[était] correctement acquitté de l’obligation en cause(»ibid.).La

Cour a estimé que «la RFY se trouvait, à l’égard des Serbes de Bosnie …,
dans une position d’influence» i(bid., par. 434). Bien qu’elle «n’a[it] pas …
jugé que les informations dont disposaient les autorités de Belgrade indi-
quaient de manière certaine l’imminence du génocide …, ces dernières ne
pouvaient pas ne pas être conscientes du risque sérieux qui existait à cet

égard» (arrêt, par. 436). L’ampleur de ces tragiques événements «était
sinon prévisible avec certitude, du moinssoupçonnable»( ibid., par. 438; les
italiques sont de moi). La Cour a jugé que, dans la mesure où «le défendeur
n’a[vait] établi l’existence d’aucune initiative à des fins préventives», il
«a[vait] violé son obligation de prévenir le génocide de Srebrenica( »ibid.).

La Cour n’estime pas nécessaire qu’il soit prouvé que le défendeur «[ait eu]
le pouvoir d’empêcher certainement le génocide; il suffit qu’il ait eu des
moyens d’agir en ce sens, et qu’il se soit manifestement abstenu de les
mettre en Œuvre»(ibid.). La Cour ne précise pas quel type de «moyens»
elle vise, mais a, semble t-il, pris en compte l’influence de la République

fédérale de Yougoslavie sur les Serbes de Bosnie.
63. Ce qui est flagrant dans cette partie de l’arrêt, c’est qu’il n’est pour
ainsi dire accordé aucune attention aux arguments des Parties. Je me sens
donc contraint d’exprimer mon point de vue sur les questions soulevées
par celles-ci.

64. La Serbie-et-Monténégro a fait valoir que «la convention sur le
génocide ne p[ouvait] s’appliquer que lorsque l’Etat concerné exer[çait] une

306346 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

control in the areas in which the breaches of the Convention are alleged

to have occurred” (CR 2006/16, p. 15). It further points out that:
“[t]he duties to mobilize the domestic law of Contracting States, and

to prevent and punish acts of genocide committed by individuals, are
inevitably related to the exercise of legislative and enforcement juris-
diction within State territory, or areas under the control of the State.
The principles of State responsibility require an ability to exercise
control over the area concerned.” (Ibid., p. 19.)

Bosnia and Herzegovina quoted from the Judgment of the Court on
the jurisdiction in the present case “that the obligation each State thus
has to prevent and to punish the crime of genocide is not territorially lim-
ited by the Convention” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 616, para. 31). But

Bosnia and Herzegovina also acknowledged that a State has to exercise
at least some control over the territory or activities in question when it
stated:

“In short, the question that needs to be asked is the following: did
the Respondent, in relation to the territory of Bosnia and Herze-
govina, exercise functions, powers or activities which would have
enabled it to prevent or halt the genocide, or at least attempt to do

so? It is obvious that if . . . the reply to that question were to be
affirmative, it would then follow that the obligation to act in order
to prevent and halt the genocide was fully applicable to the Respond-
ent.” (CR 2006/34, p. 7; emphasis added.)

65. In my view, the dictum of the Court that “the obligation each
State thus has to prevent and to punish the crime of genocide is not ter-
ritorially limited by the Convention” has to be interpreted in a reasonable

way.
First, as the Court now rightly states, “the duty to prevent genocide
and the duty to punish its perpetrators . . . are . . . two distinct yet con-
nected obligations, each of which must be considered in turn” (Judgment,
para. 425). Second, with respect to the territorial scope of these two obli-

gations, I shall start with the obligation of punishment for which one
finds a clearer answer in the text of the Convention and in the travaux
préparatoires leading to its adoption. That obligation is territorially lim-
ited, as the Court now rightly notes (Judgment, para. 184). The principle
of universality for the obligation of punishment, originally envisaged in

Article VII of the Secretariat draft, was abandoned by the Ad Hoc Com-
mittee in its draft Article VII, which opted for the principle of territori-
ality, complemented with the jurisdiction of a competent international
tribunal to be established. This solution was, in principle, retained in
Article VI of the Genocide Convention. Thus, strictly speaking, the Con-

vention imposes the obligation to punish on the State in whose territory
the crime of genocide was committed. On the other side, the practice of

307 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND. TOMKA ) 346

compétence territoriale dans les régions où les violations de la convention

se seraient produites» (CR2006/16, p. 15). Elle a par ailleurs souligné que:
«[l]es obligations des Parties contractantes de faire appel à leur droit

interne ainsi que de prévenir et de punir les actes de génocide perpé-
trés par des particuliers se rattachent inévitablement à l’exercice de
la compétence législative et coercitive sur le territoire de l’Etat en
question, ou dans les zones relevant de son contrôle. Pour que les
principes de la responsabilité des Etats puissent s’appliquer, il faut

que l’Etat en cause ait la capacité d’exercer son contrôle sur le ter-
ritoire concerné» (ibid., p. 19).

La Bosnie-Herzégovine a cité un passage de l’arrêt de la Cour sur la com-
pétence en la présente espèce, selon lequel «l’obligation qu’a ainsi chaque
Etat de prévenir et de réprimer le crime de génocide n’est pas limitée ter-
ritorialement par la Convention» (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 616,

par. 31). Elle a cependant reconnu, dans le passage qui suit, qu’un Etat
devait au moins exercer un certain contrôle sur les territoires ou les acti-
vités en question:

«En somme, la question correcte à poser est la suivante: le défen-
deur exerçait-il, par rapport au territoire de la Bosnie-Herzégovine ,
des fonctions, pouvoirs ou activités qui lui auraient permis de préve-
nir le génocide ou de l’arrêter, ou tout au moins de s’engager dans

cette action? Il est évident que, si … la réponse à cette question
devait être positive, il s’ensuivrait que l’obligation d’agir pour
prévenir et arrêter le génocide était parfaitement applicable au
défendeur.» (CR2006/34, p. 7; les italiques sont de moi.)

65. Il me semble que le prononcé de la Cour selon lequel «l’obligation
qu’a ainsi chaque Etat de prévenir et de réprimer le crime de génocide
n’est pas limitée territorialement par la Convention» doit être interprété

avec mesure.
Premièrement, ainsi que la Cour l’indique aujourd’hui à juste titre,
«l’obligation de prévenir le génocide et celle d’en punir les auteurs [sont]
deux obligations distinctes, quoique reliées entre elles, qui doivent être
examinées successivement» (arrêt, par. 425). Deuxièmement, s’agissant

de la portée territoriale de ces deux obligations, j’évoquerai en premier
lieu celle de punir, laquelle est expliquée plus clairement par le texte de la
Convention et les travaux préparatoires ayant mené à son adoption.
Cette obligation est territorialement limitée, ainsi que la Cour le relève
aujourd’hui à juste titre (arrêt, par. 184). Le principe de l’universalité de

l’obligation de punir, initialement envisagé à l’article VII du projet du
Secrétariat, fut abandonné par le comité spécial, dont le projet d’ar-
ticle VII retint finalement le principe de la territorialité, associé à la juridic-
tion d’un tribunal international compétent appelé à être créé. Cette solu-
tion fut reprise dans son principe à l’article VI de la convention sur le

génocide. Ainsi, stricto sensu, la Convention impose une obligation de
punir à l’Etat sur le territoire duquel le crime de génocide a été commis.

307347 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP.TOMKA )

States clearly confirms that they recognize a State’s right to exercise its
criminal jurisdiction when the crime of genocide was committed outside

its territory, irrespective of the nationality of the alleged perpetrator(s)
and victims. Regardless of how desirable it may be that a State exercises
its criminal jurisdiction to punish genocide, this does not transform such
a right into a State obligation, unless of course, the genocide was com-

mitted in its territory.
66. Turning now to the obligation of prevention, the debate in the
Sixth Committee is not very illuminating. Not surprisingly the leading
author on genocide wrote that “[p]erhaps the most intriguing phrase in
Article I is the obligation upon States to prevent and punish genocide”.

He continued that:

“while the final Convention has much to say about punishment of
genocide, there is little to suggest what prevention of genocide really

means. Certainly, nothing in the debates about Article I provi17s the
slightest clue as to the scope of the obligation to prevent.”

The Court itself acknowledges that while “the Convention includes
fairly detailed provisions concerning the duty to punish (Articles III to

VII), it reverts to the obligation of prevention, stated as a principle in
Article I, only in Article VIII” (Judgment, para. 426; emphasis added).

The latter Article affirms the possibility for a State to bring to the
attention of the competent organs of the United Nations a situation

which such State views as amounting to genocide or involving a risk lead-
ing to genocide. But, unfortunately, the Article does not establish a firm
obligation for the competent organ to act. It is for these United Nations
organs to consider what action would be appropriate for the prevention

or suppression of genocide, or situations which may degenerate into it.
Any such action is to be based on the Charter of the United Nations.

Article VIII is primarily aimed at the Security Council, which bears

“primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and
security” and is authorized under the Charter to decide what measures
shall be taken to maintain or restore international peace and security.
The other organ possibly contemplated under Article VIII of the Geno-

cide Convention is the General Assembly.
When they adopted the Genocide Convention, States expressed in its
Preamble their conviction that, “in order to liberate mankind from such
an odious scourge [i.e., genocide], international co-operation is required”.

Article VIII of the Convention gives a normative expression to this

17W. A. Schabas, Genocide in International Law , 2000, p. 72.

308 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .IND .TOMKA ) 347

Mais la pratique des Etats confirme par ailleurs clairement que ceux-ci
reconnaissent le droit d’un Etat d’exercer sa juridiction pénale lorsque le

crime de génocide a été commis en dehors de son territoire, quelle que
soit la nationalité des auteurs et des victimes présumés. Aussi souhaitable
qu’il soit qu’un Etat puisse exercer sa juridiction pénale pour réprimer le
génocide, cela ne transforme pas ce droit en une obligation à sa charge, à

moins, bien sûr, que le génocide ait été commis sur son territoire.
66. S’agissant à présent de l’obligation de prévention, les débats au
sein de la Sixième Commission ne sont guère éclairants. Il n’est guère sur-
prenant que l’auteur le plus fécond sur la question du génocide ait écrit
que «la phrase la plus étonnante de l’article premier est sans doute celle

énonçant l’obligation qui incombe aux Etats de prévenir et réprimer le
génocide». Et celui-ci d’ajouter que,

«alors que le texte final de la Convention traite abondamment de la
répression du génocide, il ne contient que peu d’éléments permettant

de savoir ce que recouvre réellement la prévention du génocide. Et
rien dans les débats relatifs à l’article premier ne fournit la moindre
indication quant à la portée de l’obligation de prévenir.» 17

La Cour elle-même reconnaît que, si «la Convention comporte … des
dispositions plus ou moins détaillées concernant l’obligation de répres-

sion (les articles III à VII), elle ne revient sur l’obligation de prévenir,
au-delà de son affirmation de principe à l’article premier, qu’à l’ar-
ticle VIII» (arrêt, par. 426; les italiques sont de moi).
Ce dernier article affirme la possibilité pour un Etat de porter à l’atten-
tion des organes compétents de l’Organisation des Nations Unies une

situation qu’il considère comme constitutive d’un génocide ou comme ris-
quant de mener à un génocide. Malheureusement, l’article n’impose pas
expressément d’obligation d’agir à l’organe compétent. Il incombe à ces
organes de l’Organisation des Nations Unies d’examiner quelles actions

seraient appropriées pour prévenir ou faire cesser le génocide ou les situa-
tions risquant de dégénérer en génocide. Toute action de cette nature doit
néanmoins être fondée sur la Charte des Nations Unies.
L’article VIII concerne essentiellement le Conseil de sécurité, qui a «la

responsabilité principale du maintien de la paix et de la sécurité inter-
nationales» et qui est autorisé, aux termes de la Charte, à décider des
mesures à prendre pour maintenir ou rétablir la paix et la sécurité inter-
nationales. L’autre organe qui pourrait être visé par l’article VIII

de la convention sur le génocide est l’Assemblée générale.
Lorsqu’ils ont adopté la convention sur le génocide, les Etats ont indi-
qué dans son préambule qu’ils étaient convaincus que «pour libérer
l’humanité d’un fléau aussi odieux [à savoir le génocide] la coopération

internationale [était] nécessaire».
L’article VIII de la Convention traduit en termes normatifs cette

17W. A. Schabas, Genocide in International Law , 2000, p. 72.

308348 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

conviction by contemplating a role for the competent United Nations

organs in the prevention and suppression of acts of genocide. This is under-
standable since one of the purposes of the United Nations, as stated in Article 1
of the Charter, is “[t]o be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations
in the attainment of [their] common ends”, among them the maintenance

of international peace and security, the promotion and encouragement
of respect for human rights, and fundamental freedom for all.

But if Article VIII does not impose a legal obligation on the competent
organs to act, can the obligation of prevention in Article I be interpreted
as requiring a State to act outside of its territory in order to prevent or
suppress the acts of genocide? I have serious doubts. Such a broad con-

struction of this obligation would mean that preventative action under-
taken by one State in the territory of another should be viewed as lawful.
But in practice, unilateral or plurilateral actions undertaken without the
authorization of the Security Council still remain controversial. At

present, only actions authorized by the Council are undoubtedly lawful
and legitimate.
67. This said, however, I am convinced that under Article I of the
Genocide Convention the State does have an obligation to prevent geno-

cide outside its territory to the extent that it exercises jurisdiction outside
its territory, or exercises control over certain persons in their activities
abroad. This obligation exists in addition to the unequivocal duty to pre-
vent the commission of genocide within its territory.

68. In this case, it has not been established that the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia exercised jurisdiction in the areas surrounding Srebrenica
where atrocious mass killings took place. Nor has it been established that

it exercised control over the perpetrators who conducted these killings
outside the territory of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
The plan to execute as many as possible of the military aged Bosnian
Muslim men present in the Srebrenica enclave was devised and imple-

mented by the Bosnian Serbs following the takeover of Srebrenica
in July 1995. That was the factual finding of the International Criminal
Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) . It has not been established
as a matter of fact before this Court that the Federal Republic of Yugo-

slavia authorities knew in advance of this plan. In such a situation they
could not have prevented the terrible massacres in Srebrenica.

Thus, to my regret, I cannot support the conclusion of my colleagues

in the majority, although I understand the motives, which, at the end of
the day, may have led them to reaching it.

18ICTY, Prosecutor v. Krst´, IT-98-33-T, Judgment of the Trial Chamber,
2 August 2001, para. 87.

309 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND. TOMKA ) 348

conviction en conférant aux organes compétents de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies un rôle dans la prévention et la cessation des actes de

génocide, ce qui est compréhensible puisque l’un des objets de l’Organi-
sation des Nations Unies, ainsi qu’indiqué à l’article premier de la
Charte, est d’«[ê]tre un centre où s’harmonisent les efforts des nations
vers [leurs] fins communes», notamment en maintenant la paix et

la sécurité internationales et en développant et encourageant le
respect des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales pour
tous.
Cependant, si l’article VIII n’impose pas aux organes compétents une
obligation juridique d’agir, peut-on interpréter l’obligation de prévention

figurant à l’article premier comme imposant à un Etat d’agir en dehors de
son territoire afin de prévenir et de réprimer les actes de génocide? J’en
doute fort. Une interprétation aussi large de cette obligation signifierait
qu’une action préventive menée par un Etat sur le territoire d’un autre

Etat serait considérée comme licite. Or, en pratique, les actions, unilaté-
rales ou multilatérales, menées sans l’autorisation du Conseil de sécurité
demeurent controversées. A l’heure actuelle, seules les actions autorisées
par le Conseil sont incontestablement licites et légitimes.

67. Cela étant, je suis néanmoins convaincu que, aux termes de l’ar-
ticle premier de la convention sur le génocide, l’Etat a bien l’obligation
de prévenir le génocide en dehors de son territoire dans la mesure où il
exerce sa juridiction en dehors de son territoire, ou un contrôle sur cer-

taines personnes dans le cadre des activités qu’elles mènent à l’étranger.
Cette obligation vient s’ajouter à l’obligation non équivoque de prévenir
la perpétration du génocide sur son propre territoire.
68. En l’espèce, il n’a pas été établi que la République fédérale de You-

goslavie exerçait sa juridiction dans les zones aux alentours de Srebre-
nica, zones où d’atroces massacres ont eu lieu. Il n’a pas non plus été
établi qu’elle exerçait un contrôle sur les personnes ayant commis ces
crimes en dehors de son territoire.

Le projet d’exécuter le plus grand nombre possible d’hommes musul-
mans de Bosnie en âge de porter les armes se trouvant dans l’enclave de
Srebrenica a été conçu et mis en Œuvre par les Serbes de Bosnie après la
prise de l’enclave de Srebrenica en juillet 1995. Telle a été la conclusion

de fait form18ée par le Tribunal pénal international pour l’ex-Yougosla-
vie (TPIY) . Il n’a pas été factuellement établi devant la Cour que les
autorités de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie auraient eu à l’avance
connaissance de ce projet. Elles ne pouvaient, dès lors, prévenir les
terribles massacres de Srebrenica.

Ainsi ne puis-je, à mon grand regret, me prononcer en faveur de la
conclusion formulée par la majorité de mes collègues, et ce bien que je
comprenne les raisons qui ont pu, en fin de compte, les y conduire.

18TPIY, Le procureur c. Kr´ , affaire IT-98-33-T, jugement du 2 août 2001, par. 87.

309349 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP. OP. TOMKA )

2. The responsibility for non-compliance with the Orders indicating

provisional measures

69. In the part of this opinion in which I dealt with the Court’s juris-
diction, I took the position that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was
not a party to the Statute of the Court during the 1992-2000 period and

has become party to it only as from 1 November 2000 (paras. 25-36
above). In my view, these facts have implications both for the 1993 Orders
on interim measures of protection, and for the 1996 Judgment on juris-
diction and admissibility because their binding nature is based on the

Statute (Arts. 41 and 59). I have already explained my views on the prob-
lematic implications for the 1996 Judgment since it was rendered when
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not party to the Statute, and the
consequent need to determine the jurisdiction of the Court de novo

(paras. 16-25 above). It remains to offer a few observations on the Orders
indicating provisional measures.

70. One of the conditions for indicating the requested measures is that
the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to afford a
basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be established. Arti-
cle IX of the Genocide Convention “appear[ed] to the Court to afford a

basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded” (I.C.J.
Reports 1993, p. 16, para. 26).
Orders on provisional measures, rendered on the prima facie ascertain-

ment of the Court’s jurisdiction, produce their effects from the moment
of their notification to the Parties and remain in force until the Court
either by a judgment on preliminary objections finds that it has no juris-
diction to entertain the case or finds the Application inadmissible, or

renders its judgment on the merits, i.e. until the final judgment in the case
is delivered (Art. 41 of the Statute). In its Judgment in the Anglo-Iranian
Oil Co. (United Kingdom v. Iran) case, once the Court found that it
lacked jurisdiction in the case, it observed that it followed from this find-

ing that the Order on the provisional measures rendered earlier “ceased
to be operative [upon the delivery of this Judgment] and that the Provi-
sional Measures lapsed at the same time” (I.C.J. Reports 1952, p. 114) 19
This statement seems to indicate that the lapse of the provisional meas-

ures was prospective; they were not invalidated or declared void ab initio.
Similarly, in the Southern Bluefin Tuna case, the Arbitral Tribunal having
found itself without jurisdiction to rule on the merits decided “that pro-
visional measures in force by Order of the International Tribunal for the

LawoftheSea...[were]revokedfromthedayofthesignatureof[the]

19In the Nuclear Tests cases, the Court, having found that the claims no longer had
any object and it was therefore not called upon to give a decision thereon, with respect to
Orders indicating provisional measures repeated the same formula (I.C.J. Reports 1974,
p. 272, para. 61 and pp. 477-478, para. 64).

310 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .IND .TOMKA ) 349

2. Responsabilité pour non-respect des ordonnances en indication

de mesures conservatoires

69. Dans la partie de la présente opinion que j’ai consacrée à l’examen
de la compétence de la Cour, j’ai défendu la thèse selon laquelle la Répu-
blique fédérale de Yougoslavie n’était pas partie au Statut de la Cour

perdant la période allant de 1992 à 2000 et ne l’était devenue que le
1 novembre 2000 (voir par. 25-36 ci-dessus). Cette réalité n’est pas,
selon moi, dépourvue de conséquences tant sur les ordonnances en indi-
cation de mesures conservatoires de 1993 que sur l’arrêt de 1996 relatif à

la compétence et à la recevabilité, dès lors que le caractère obligatoire de
ces décisions est fondé sur le Statut (art. 41 et 59). J’ai d’ores et déjà
exprimé mes vues s’agissant des difficultés qui en découlent à mon sens
pour l’arrêt de 1996, ce dernier ayant été rendu alors que la République

fédérale de Yougoslavie n’était pas partie au Statut; j’ai alors évoqué la
nécessité qui en découlait de déterminer de novo la compétence de la
Cour (voir par. 16-25). Il me reste à formuler quelques observations
concernant les ordonnances en indication de mesures conservatoires.

70. L’une des conditions pour indiquer les mesures demandées est que
les dispositions invoquées par le demandeur semblent, prima facie, cons-
tituer une base sur laquelle la compétence de la Cour pourrait être fon-
dée. L’article IX de la convention sur le génocide «sembl[ait] …, de l’avis

de la Cour, constituer une base sur laquelle la compétence de [cette der-
nière] pourrait être fondée» (C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 16, par. 26).
Les ordonnances en indication de mesures conservatoires, qui sont ren-

dues sur la base d’une déterminationprima facie de la compétence de la
Cour, produisent leurs effets à partir du moment où elles sont notifiées aux
parties et restent en vigueur jusqu’à ce que la Cour soit décide, par un arrêt
sur les exceptions préliminaires, qu’elle n’a pas compétence pour connaître

de l’affaire ou que la requête est irrecevable, soit se prononce sur le fond;
autrement dit, elles restent en vigueur jusqu’à ce que l’arrêt définitif en
l’affaire soit rendu (Statut, art. 41). Dans son arrêt en l’affaire deAln’glo-
Iranian Oil Co. (Royaume-Uni c. Iran) , la Cour, après avoir jugé qu’elle

n’avait pas compétence en l’espèce, précisa qu’il s’ensuivait que l’ordon-
nance en indication de mesures conservatoires qu’elle avait rendue aupara-
vant «cess[ait] de produire ses effets [dès le prononcé de l’arrêt] et que les
mesures conservatoires [étaient] en même temps frappées de caducité»
19
(C.I.J. Recueil 1952, p. 114) . Cette déclaration semble indiquer que les
mesures conservatoires étaient désormais frappées de caducité, mais qu’elles
n’étaient pas infirmées ou déclarées nullea sb initio. De la même manière, en
l’affaire duThon à nageoire bleue, le tribunal arbitral, s’étant déclaré incom-

pétent pour statuer au fond, jugea «que les mesures conservatoires indiquées

19En l’affaire des Essais nucléaires, après avoir jugé que les demandes n’avaient plus
d’objet et qu’il ne lui fallait par conséquent plus rendre de décision les concernant, la
Cour, s’agissant des ordonnances en indication de mesures conservatoires, reprit la même
formule (C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 272, par. 61, et p. 477-478, par. 64).

310350 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

Award” . The Tribunal explained that the Order prescribing provisional
measures “cease[d] to have effect as of the date of the signing of [the]
Award” 21and added that “[h]owever, revocation of the Order . . . does
22
not mean that the Parties may disregard the effects of that Order” .

71. The Orders of the Court of 8 April and 13 September 1993 have
produced their effects. Rendered on the prima facie ascertainment of juris-
diction, the Parties were to comply with the provisional measures indicated

therein. The 1993-1995 period is relevant for the consideration of the com-
pliance with these measures. At that time, the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia claimed to be a Member of the United Nations and, on that basis,
party to the Statute. Despite the fact that this claim subsequently did not

prevail, at the time the Orders were rendered the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia should have perceived itself as bound by those Orders. The
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not party to the Statute until 1 Novem-

ber 2000 when it was admitted to membership in the United Nations. For-
mally, therefore, it had no legal obligations under the Statute during the
period from 27 April 1992 through 31 October 2000. For that reason, I
believe that the text of the Judgment would have been more accurate had

it employed alternative language, avoiding the term “obligation” (Judg-
ment, paras. 435 and 471 (7)). But since the Orders produced their effects,
and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s authorities did not, during the

relevant period of 1993-1995, take the requirements of those Orders seri-
ously into account, I agree with the conclusions of the majority that the
Respondent failed to comply with some of the provisional measures. I
have therefore voted in favour of paragraph 7 of the operative clause.

* * *

CONCLUDING R EMARKS

72. The Judgment closes a particularly lengthy case. Its intriguing pro-

cedural history which started almost 14 years ago is summarized in the
qualités of the Judgment. The complexity of this case is further reflected
in the most extensive written pleadings in the Court’s history. Views were

expressed that the case had awaited adjudication for too long. In the
meantime, the Trial and Appeals Chambers of the ICTY have rendered a
great number of judgments on which both Parties relied in the present
proceedings. The Court has given serious consideration to the ICTY’s

judgments and to the evidence produced in the trials before its Chambers

20International Law Reports , Vol. 119, p. 556, para. 72.
21Ibid., p. 554, para. 66.
22Ibid., p. 555, para. 67.

311 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .IND .TOMKA ) 350

par l’ordonnance du Tribunal international du droit de la mer … [étaient]
rapportées à partir de la date de la signature de la sentence». Le tribunal
précisa que l’ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires «cess[ait]
21
de produire effet à compter de la date de la signature de la sentence» ,
ajoutant que, «[t]outefois, le fait que l’ordonnance soit rapportée … ne
signifi[ait] pas que les parties puissent ne pas tenir compte de ses effets» 22.

71. Les ordonnances de la Cour du 8 avril et du 13 septembre 1993 ont
produit leurs effets. Elles ont été rendues sur la base d’une détermination
prima facie de la compétence de la Cour, et les Parties étaient tenues de se

conformer aux mesures conservatoires qui y étaient indiquées. La période
pertinente aux fins d’apprécier le respect de ces mesures est celle allant de
1993 à 1995. A l’époque, la République fédérale de Yougoslavie préten-
dait être Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et, de ce fait, par-

tie au Statut. Quoique cette thèse n’ait pas été retenue par la suite, la
République fédérale de Yougoslavie, au moment où les ordonnances ont
été rendues, aurait dû s’estimer liée par elles. La République fédérale de
er
Yougoslavie n’est devenue partie au Statut que le 1 novembre 2000,
lorsqu’elle a été admise au sein de l’Organisation des Nations Unies. For-
mellement, elle n’avait par conséquent, pendant la période comprise entre
le 27 avril 1992 et le 31 octobre 2000, aucune obligation juridique décou-

lant du Statut. Pour cette raison, je considère que le texte de l’arrêt aurait
été plus précis s’il avait été formulé autrement, sans employer le terme
«obligation» (arrêt, par. 435 et 471, point 7)). Ce nonobstant, dès lors

que les ordonnances ont produit leurs effets et que les autorités de la
République fédérale de Yougoslavie n’ont pas, au cours de la période
pertinente allant de 1993 à 1995, pris sérieusement en compte leurs pres-
criptions, je souscris aux conclusions de la majorité selon lesquelles le

défendeur ne s’est pas conformé à certaines des mesures conservatoires.
J’ai donc voté en faveur du paragraphe 7 du dispositif.

* * *

O BSERVATIONS FINALES

72. Le présent arrêt met un terme à une affaire particulièrement

longue. L’étonnant historique de sa procédure, laquelle a débuté il y a près
de quatorze ans, est résumé dans les qualités de l’arrêt. La complexité de
cette affaire ressort par ailleurs du fait qu’elle a donné lieu aux écritures

les plus volumineuses de l’histoire de la Cour. D’aucuns ont estimé que
son règlement judiciaire avait pris trop de temps. Dans l’intervalle, les
chambres de première instance et d’appel du TPIY ont rendu un grand
nombre de décisions sur lesquelles les deux Parties se sont fondées en la

présente instance. La Cour a examiné ces décisions avec attention, ainsi

20International Law Reports , vol. 119, p. 556, par. 72.
21Ibid., p. 554, par. 66.
22Ibid., p. 555, par. 67.

311351 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (SEP.OP .TOMKA )

to which the Parties referred. Without the work accomplished by the
ICTY, it would have been much more difficult for the Court to discharge
its role in the present case. Cases involving the “responsibility of a State

for genocide” are too serious to be adjudicated simply on the basis of the
allegations by the Parties.

73. As the Court observes, “the duality of responsibility continues to
be a constant feature of international law” (Judgment, para. 173). This

Court and the ICTY have two different missions but one common objec-
tive.
The ICTY has to determine the personal guilt and individual criminal
responsibility of those indicted for the crime of genocide, crimes against

humanity and war crimes. It has no jurisdiction over States as such and
thus cannot make any pronouncement on the responsibility of States for
the many serious atrocities committed during the Balkan wars since 1991.

The International Court of Justice has no jurisdiction over the indi-
vidual perpetrators of those serious atrocities. Article IX of the Genocide
Convention confers on the Court jurisdiction to determine whether the
Respondent complied with its obligations under the Genocide Conven-

tion. In making this determination in the present case, the Court was
entitled to draw legal consequences from the judgments of the ICTY,
particularly those which dealt with charges of genocide or any of the
other acts proscribed in Article III. Only if the acts of the persons

involved in the commission of such crimes were attributable to the
Respondent could its responsibility have been entailed.
The activity of the Court has thus complemented the judicial activity
of the ICTY in fulfilling the Court’s role in the field of State responsibil-
ity for genocide, over which the ICTY has no jurisdiction. Hopefully, the

activities of these two judicial institutions of the United Nations, the
Court remaining the principal judicial organ of the Organization, con-
tribute in their respective fields to their common objective — the achieve-
ment of international justice — however imperfect it may be perceived.

(Signed) Peter T OMKA .

312 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. IND.TOMKA ) 351

que les éléments de preuve présentés dans le cadre des procédures devant
les chambres du Tribunal auxquels les Parties se sont référées. Sans le tra-
vail accompli par le TPIY, il aurait été bien plus difficile pour la Cour de
s’acquitter de sa mission en la présente espèce. Une affaire mettant en

cause la «responsabilité d’un Etat pour génocide» est en effet trop grave
pour être tranchée sur la seule base des allégations des Parties.
73. Ainsi que la Cour le fait observer, la «dualité en matière de res-
ponsabilité continue à être une constante du droit international» (arrêt,
par. 173). La Cour et le TPIY ont deux missions différentes mais un

objectif commun.
Il incombe au TPIY de déterminer la culpabilité personnelle et la res-
ponsabilité pénale individuelle des personnes accusées du crime de géno-
cide, de crimes contre l’humanité et de crimes de guerre. Le TPIY n’a pas
compétence à l’égard des Etats en tant que tels, et ne peut donc se pro-

noncer sur la responsabilité de ces derniers à raison des nombreuses atro-
cités qui ont été commises à partir de 1991 au cours des guerres dans les
Balkans.
La Cour internationale de Justice, quant à elle, n’a pas compétence à

l’égard des personnes ayant commis ces atrocités. L’article IX de la
convention sur le génocide lui confère compétence pour déterminer si le
défendeur s’est conformé aux obligations lui incombant en vertu de cette
convention. En se prononçant sur ce point en la présente affaire, la Cour
était fondée à tirer des conséquences juridiques des décisions du TPIY, en

particulier de celles relatives aux accusations de génocide ou de tout autre
acte prohibé par l’article III. Ce n’était que si les actes des personnes
ayant participé à la commission de tels crimes étaient attribuables au
défendeur que sa responsabilité pouvait être engagée.
Le travail de la Cour, laquelle s’est acquittée de sa mission dans le

domaine de la responsabilité des Etats en matière de génocide, domaine
dans lequel le TPIY n’a pas compétence, est donc venu compléter l’acti-
vité judiciaire de ce dernier. Il est à espérer que, si imparfaits qu’ils
puissent paraître, les travaux de ces deux institutions judiciaires de l’Or-

ganisation des Nations Unies, la Cour demeurant son organe
judiciaire principal, contribueront, dans leurs domaines respectifs, à
leur objectif commun: l’administration de la justice internationale.

(Signé) Peter T OMKA .

312

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Tomka

Links