Joint declaration of Judges Shi and Koroma

Document Number
091-20070226-JUD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
091-20070226-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

279

JOINT DECLARATION OF JUDGES SHI AND KOROMA

Serious doubts regarding interpretation of the Genocide Convention “by
implication” that a State could be held directly to have committed crime of
genocide — Convention envisages the trial and punishment of individuals for the

crime of genocide rather than the criminal responsibility of the State as a State
— Task of treaty interpretation is to determine meaning of its provisions as
intended at the time of the treaty’s negotiation and conclusion — Article 31 of
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: a treaty should be interpreted in
accordance with the ordinary meaning of its terms in their context and in the
light of its object and purpose — Convention binds States Parties to undertake
to prevent and to punish persons responsible for committing genocide.

Intrinsic humanitarian value of the Judgment’s conclusion and the overriding
legal imperative established by Article I of the Convention for a State to do
what it properly can, within its means and the law, to try to prevent genocide
when there is a serious danger of its occurrence of which the State is or should
be aware — Obligation to prevent requires identification of a clear missed
moment of opportunity to act — Chapter VII Security Council resolutions
clearly warned of the imminent and serious humanitarian risk posed by any

advance of Bosnian Serb paramilitary units on Srebrenica and its surroundings
— Mr. Miloševic´ could and should have exerted whatever pressure he had at his
disposal to try to prevent the genocide at Srebrenica.

1. We entertain more than serious doubts regarding the interpretation
given to the Genocide Convention in the Judgment to the effect that a

State can be held directly to have committed the crime of genocide. This
interpretation is not only highly questionable but also inconsistent with
the object and purpose of the Convention, as well as its wording and
plain meaning. As an international criminal instrument, the Convention
envisages the trial and punishment of individuals for the crime of geno-
cide. It does not impose criminal responsibility on the State as a State.

Indeed, it could not have done so at the time it was adopted given that
the notion of crime of State was not part of international law and even
today general international law does not recognize the notion of the
criminal responsibility of the State. We therefore do not subscribe to an
expansive interpretation of the Convention producing an outcome which

is contrary to its plain meaning. The Court has stressed that “[i]nterpreta-
tion must be based above all upon the text of the treaty” (Territorial Dis-
pute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994 ,
p. 22, para. 41). It should be further emphasized that the purpose of
interpreting a treaty is to determine the meaning of its provisions which

240280 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (JOINT DECL .)

the parties must be taken to have intended at the time the treaty was
negotiated and concluded, and not to achieve a desired outcome. Accord-

ingly, it is not within the power of the Court to give an arbitrary and
subjective interpretation to a treaty contrary to its plain meaning and the
intention of the parties.
2. According to the canons of interpretation reflected in Article 31 of
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, a treaty should be inter-

preted in accordance with the ordinary meaning of its terms in their con-
text and in the light of its object and purpose. Those same rules give
primacy to the intention of the parties at the time the treaty was con-
cluded, and in particular the meaning attached by them to the words and
phrases at the time. According to Jennings and Watts:

“A treaty is to be interpreted in the light of general rules of inter-
national law in force at the time of its conclusion — the so-called

inter-temporal law. This follows from the general principle that a
juridical fact must be appreciated in the light of the law contempo-
rary with it. Similarly, a treaty’s terms are normally to be interpreted
on the basis of their meaning at the time the treaty was concluded,
and in the light of circumstances then prevailing.
Nevertheless, in some respects the interpretation of a treaty’s pro-

visions cannot be divorced from developments in the law subsequent
to its adoption. Thus, even though a treaty when concluded did not
conflict with any rule of jus cogens, it will become void if there sub-
sequently emerges a new rule of jus cogens with which it is in con-
flict. Similarly, the concepts embodied in a treaty may be not static

but evolutionary, in which case their ‘interpretation cannot remain
unaffected by the subsequent development of law . . . Moreover, an
international instrument has to be interpreted and applied within the
framework of the entire legal system prevailing at the time of the
interpretation.’

While these considerations may in certain circumstances go some
way towards negating the application of the inter-temporal law, that
law will still, even in such circumstances, provide at least the start-
ing-point for arriving at the proper interpretation of the treaty.”
(Oppenheim’s International Law , Vol. I, 1992, pp. 1281-1282; foot-

notes omitted.)
3. The object and purpose of the Genocide Convention is to prevent
and to punish the crime of genocide, and, reflecting the Nuremberg prin-

ciples, the Convention is directed against individuals and not the State.
The Convention binds States parties to punish persons responsible for
committing genocide and genocidal acts. Article II of the Convention
defines the crime of genocide, while Article III sets out the punishable
offences in relation to the crime. Article IV provides for the punishment

of persons committing any of the acts enumerated in Article III, be they
constitutionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals.
The Convention thus contemplates the prosecution and punishment of

241281 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (JOINT DECL .)

individuals, rather than the State. States parties’ responsibilities are
spelled out in different terms, regarding which Article V requires the

parties to enact the necessary legislation to give effect to the provisions of
the Convention and, in particular, to provide effective penalties for per-
sons guilty of genocide or other acts set out in Article III. Article VI
requires that persons charged with genocide or any other such punishable
acts shall be tried by competent national or international tribunals. Arti-

cle VII states that genocide is not to be considered a political crime and
requires parties to extradite the accused, while Article VIII provides that:

“Any Contracting Party may call upon the competent organs of
the United Nations to take such action under the Charter of the
United Nations as they consider appropriate for the prevention and
suppression of acts of genocide or any of the other acts enumerated
in Article III.”

4. It is with respect to these specific provisions concerning legislation,
extradition, trial, and punishment of individuals alleged to have com-
mitted the crime of genocide that the State party may be held to be in

breach of the Convention. States parties’ obligations, as well as the
object and purpose of the Convention, thus are aimed at preventing and
punishing individuals who commit the crime of genocide and there was
no intention that a State party should punish itself for the crime of geno-
cide. According to Hersch Lauterpacht:

“The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide approved by the General Assembly in 1948 lays down

that genocide, whether committed in time of peace or war, is a crime
under international law which the Parties undertake to prevent and
to punish and that the persons responsible for that crime shall be
punished ‘whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public
officials or private individuals’. The Convention thus subjected indi-

viduals to the direct obligation and sanction of international law. ”
(International Law and Human Rights , 1950, p. 44; emphasis added;
footnote omitted.)

Hence, Article I of the Convention has to be interpreted in the light of
Article VI and the attempt in the Judgment to sever Article I of the Con-
vention from Articles IV, V, VI, VII and VIII, in order to reach the out-
come stated in the Judgment, is to us legally unsustainable and contrary
to the object and purpose of the Convention, the meaning of the text of the

Convention and the real intention of the parties. It is contrary to the inten-
tion of the Contracting Parties when the Judgment interprets Article I
of the Convention to mean by implication or logic (paragraph 166 of
the Judgment) that the Convention imposes upon a State the obligation
not to commit genocide. If a State can commit the crime of genocide,

then surely it would have to be viewed as being able to commit other
crimes, including murder. But such a situation is neither acceptable nor
recognized as part of present-day international law. As stated earlier,

242282 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION JOINT DECL .)

“interpretation” by implication or logic cannot replace the overriding
rule that primary regard must be given to the intention of the parties at

the time the treaty was concluded. Moreover, in our view, if the Conven-
tion was intended to establish an obligation of such grave import as one
that could entail some form of criminal responsibility or punishment of a
State by an international tribunal such as this Court for genocide, this
would have been expressly stipulated in the Convention, but the Conven-

tion did not do so. We take the view that it is in order to avoid attri-
buting genocide to the State itself that the Convention provides in
Article IV, “[p]ersons committing genocide or any of the other acts enu-
merated in Article III shall be punished, whether they are constitutionally
responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals”, thus putting

the responsibility for the crime on the individual. A proposed amendment
to the effect that such acts committed by individuals acting on behalf of
the State would be considered a breach of the Convention, and that such
cases should be submitted to the International Court of Justice, which
would order the cessation of the acts and payment of reparation to the
victims, was rejected during the drafting negotiations on the basis of the

view that the purpose of the Convention was to punish genocide, and any
other responsibility than criminal would be out of place in such a conven-
tion. The Court is not vested with penal jurisdiction, nor is it equipped to
exercise such jurisdiction in this case. In other words, the Convention
does not entitle the Court to hold a criminal trial, nor impose on the

State an obligation to pay damages (punitive or otherwise) or to provide
for them in its domestic legislation. Hence, an earlier attempt — like that
made in the present Judgment — to transform the essentially individual
criminal concept of genocide, as was conceived in the Convention, into
one whereunder a State may be held responsible for committing genocide

was rejected during the negotiation of the Convention (see United
Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Third Session, Part I,
Sixth Committee, Annex, doc. A/C.6/236 and Corr.1). Such an important
obligation, in our view, would have been expressly stated in the Conven-
tion if such had been the intention of the Contracting Parties.

**

5. Notwithstanding our disagreement with the interpretation reached
“by implication” that Article I of the Convention imposes an obligation
on the State not to commit genocide, we have voted in favour of the find-

ings regarding the prevention of genocide in Srebrenica in July 1995, as
we believe in the intrinsic humanitarian value of the conclusion reached
by the Court and recognize the overriding legal imperative established by
Article I of the Convention, namely: the duty of a State to do what it
properly can, within its means and the law, to try to prevent genocide

when there is a serious danger of its occurrence of which the State is or
should be aware. (See also Reservations to the Convention on the Preven-
tion and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J.

243283 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (JOINT DECL.)

Reports 1951, p. 23: “[t]he principles underlying the Convention are prin-
ciples which are recognized by civilized nations as binding on States, even

without any conventional obligation”.)
6. We believe that the conclusion reached in the Judgment in connec-
tion with the prevention obligation would have been legally secure if
anchored on the relevant Security Council resolutions, instead of the
various hypotheses put forward in the Judgment. The present formula-

tions do not clearly specify what opportunities the Respondent had to
prevent the genocide, while the Security Council had in fact very clearly
warned of the imminent and serious humanitarian risk posed by any
advance of Bosnian Serb paramilitary units on Srebrenica and its sur-
roundings. That finding a breach of the obligation to prevent requires the

identification of a clear missed moment of opportunity to act has been
underscored by the European Court of Human Rights in its interpreta-
tion of the positive obligation to protect human life contained in Article 2,
paragraph 1, of the European Convention for the Protection of Human
Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (see Osman v. United Kingdom,
Judgment of 28 October 1998, Reports 1998-VIII, p. 3159). With regard

to the relevant Security Council resolutions, we would recall that the
Security Council, in resolution 819 (16 April 1993), noted the provisional
measures ordered by the Court in 1993, stating, inter alia, that the FRY
should take all measures within its power to prevent the commission of
the crime of genocide. Resolution 819 went on to condemn “ethnic

cleansing” and to express specific concern over the “pattern of hostilities”
by Bosnian Serb paramilitary units that by “direct consequence” had led
to an ongoing “tragic humanitarian emergency” in Srebrenica. Acting
under Chapter VII, the Council then demanded that “Srebrenica and its
surroundings” be treated as a safe area free from any attack and that the

besieged population be permitted to receive appropriate humanitarian
relief. The Council’s decision with respect to “Srebrenica and its sur-
roundings”, together with its specific concern about war crimes and the
deteriorating humanitarian situation in Srebrenica, certainly suggests
some real opportunities for the Bosnian Serb leadership to have acted to

try to prevent the genocide. Awareness of a specific risk may have been
raised as early as 2 July 1995 (the date of the plan to reduce “the enclave
to the urban area”), or on 6 July when the attack on Srebrenica’s sur-
roundings actually began. A specific risk undeniably existed by 12 July
when Srebrenica had fallen but the mass killings had not yet begun and
the Security Council, acting under Chapter VII, passed resolution 1004

(1995) demanding that the Bosnian Serb forces cease their offensive and
withdraw from the Srebrenica safe area immediately and that all parties
respect the Agreement of 18 April 1993 (essentially implementing resolu-
tion 819) (1993).

244284 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (JOINT DECL .)

7. Mr. Miloševic ´, even though it has not been proved that he had

effective control over the Bosnian Serb leadership, could and should have
exerted whatever pressure he had at his disposal, given the humanitarian
directives concerning Srebrenica that were the focus of Chapter VII Secu-

rity Council decisions in resolutions 819 (16 April 1993) and 1004 (12 July
1995).

(Signed) S HIJiuyong.

(Signed) Abdul G. K OROMA .

245

Bilingual Content

279

JOINT DECLARATION OF JUDGES SHI AND KOROMA

Serious doubts regarding interpretation of the Genocide Convention “by
implication” that a State could be held directly to have committed crime of
genocide — Convention envisages the trial and punishment of individuals for the

crime of genocide rather than the criminal responsibility of the State as a State
— Task of treaty interpretation is to determine meaning of its provisions as
intended at the time of the treaty’s negotiation and conclusion — Article 31 of
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: a treaty should be interpreted in
accordance with the ordinary meaning of its terms in their context and in the
light of its object and purpose — Convention binds States Parties to undertake
to prevent and to punish persons responsible for committing genocide.

Intrinsic humanitarian value of the Judgment’s conclusion and the overriding
legal imperative established by Article I of the Convention for a State to do
what it properly can, within its means and the law, to try to prevent genocide
when there is a serious danger of its occurrence of which the State is or should
be aware — Obligation to prevent requires identification of a clear missed
moment of opportunity to act — Chapter VII Security Council resolutions
clearly warned of the imminent and serious humanitarian risk posed by any

advance of Bosnian Serb paramilitary units on Srebrenica and its surroundings
— Mr. Miloševic´ could and should have exerted whatever pressure he had at his
disposal to try to prevent the genocide at Srebrenica.

1. We entertain more than serious doubts regarding the interpretation
given to the Genocide Convention in the Judgment to the effect that a

State can be held directly to have committed the crime of genocide. This
interpretation is not only highly questionable but also inconsistent with
the object and purpose of the Convention, as well as its wording and
plain meaning. As an international criminal instrument, the Convention
envisages the trial and punishment of individuals for the crime of geno-
cide. It does not impose criminal responsibility on the State as a State.

Indeed, it could not have done so at the time it was adopted given that
the notion of crime of State was not part of international law and even
today general international law does not recognize the notion of the
criminal responsibility of the State. We therefore do not subscribe to an
expansive interpretation of the Convention producing an outcome which

is contrary to its plain meaning. The Court has stressed that “[i]nterpreta-
tion must be based above all upon the text of the treaty” (Territorial Dis-
pute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994 ,
p. 22, para. 41). It should be further emphasized that the purpose of
interpreting a treaty is to determine the meaning of its provisions which

240 279

DEuCLARATION COMMUNE DE MM. LES JUGES SHI
ET KOROMA

[Traduction]

Doutes sérieux concernant l’interprétation «par implication» de la convention
contre le génocide selon laquelle un Etat peut être considéré comme ayant direc-
tement commis le crime de génocide — La Convention envisage le jugement et le

châtiment d’individus pour le crime de génocide et non la responsabilité pénale
de l’Etat en tant que tel — L’objet de l’interprétation d’un traité est de déter-
miner le sens de ses dispositions entendu au moment où il a été négocié et conclu
— Article 31 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités: un traité doit
être interprété suivant le sens ordinaire à attribuer à ses termes dans leur
contexte et à la lumière de son objet et de son but — La Convention oblige les
Etats parties à s’engager à prévenir la commission d’un génocide et à punir les
personnes qui en sont responsables.
Valeur humanitaire intrinsèque de la conclusion de l’arrêt et impératif juri-
dique primordial établi à l’article I de la Convention obligeant l’Etat à faire ce
qu’il peut, selon ses moyens et le droit, pour essayer, lorsqu’il sait ou devrait
savoir qu’il existe un risque grave qu’un génocide soit commis, d’empêcher qu’il
le soit — L’obligation de prévention requiert l’identification claire d’une occa-
sion manquée d’agir — Dans ses résolutions adoptées en vertu du chapitre VII,
le Conseil de sécurité a clairement averti de l’imminence du risque humanitaire

grave posé par toute avance des unités paramilitaires des Serbes de Bosnie sur
Srebrenica et ses environs — M. Miloševic´ aurait pu et aurait dû exercer les
pressions qu’il était en mesure d’exercer pour essayer d’empêcher le génocide à
Srebrenica.

1. Nous doutons plus que sérieusement de l’interprétation donnée
dans l’arrêt à la convention contre le génocide, à savoir qu’un Etat peut

être considéré comme ayant directement commis le crime de génocide.
Cette interprétation est non seulement hautement contestable, mais aussi
incompatible avec l’objet et le but de la Convention ainsi qu’avec son
libellé et son sens ordinaire. Instrument de droit pénal international, la
Convention envisage le jugement et le châtiment d’individus pour le
crime de génocide. Elle n’impose aucune responsabilité pénale à l’Etat en

tant qu’Etat. De fait, elle n’aurait pu le faire lorsqu’elle a été adoptée car
à l’époque la notion de crime d’Etat ne faisait pas partie du droit inter-
national, et même aujourd’hui le droit international général ne reconnaît
pas la responsabilité pénale de l’Etat. Nous ne souscrivons donc pas à
cette interprétation large de la Convention qui aboutit à un résultat

contraire au sens ordinaire de celle-ci. La Cour a souligné que «[l]’inter-
prétation doit être fondée avant tout sur le texte du traité lui-même»
(affaire du Différend territorial (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Tchad), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1994, p. 22, par. 41). Il convient aussi de souligner que le
but de l’interprétation d’un traité est de déterminer le sens que les parties

240280 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (JOINT DECL .)

the parties must be taken to have intended at the time the treaty was
negotiated and concluded, and not to achieve a desired outcome. Accord-

ingly, it is not within the power of the Court to give an arbitrary and
subjective interpretation to a treaty contrary to its plain meaning and the
intention of the parties.
2. According to the canons of interpretation reflected in Article 31 of
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, a treaty should be inter-

preted in accordance with the ordinary meaning of its terms in their con-
text and in the light of its object and purpose. Those same rules give
primacy to the intention of the parties at the time the treaty was con-
cluded, and in particular the meaning attached by them to the words and
phrases at the time. According to Jennings and Watts:

“A treaty is to be interpreted in the light of general rules of inter-
national law in force at the time of its conclusion — the so-called

inter-temporal law. This follows from the general principle that a
juridical fact must be appreciated in the light of the law contempo-
rary with it. Similarly, a treaty’s terms are normally to be interpreted
on the basis of their meaning at the time the treaty was concluded,
and in the light of circumstances then prevailing.
Nevertheless, in some respects the interpretation of a treaty’s pro-

visions cannot be divorced from developments in the law subsequent
to its adoption. Thus, even though a treaty when concluded did not
conflict with any rule of jus cogens, it will become void if there sub-
sequently emerges a new rule of jus cogens with which it is in con-
flict. Similarly, the concepts embodied in a treaty may be not static

but evolutionary, in which case their ‘interpretation cannot remain
unaffected by the subsequent development of law . . . Moreover, an
international instrument has to be interpreted and applied within the
framework of the entire legal system prevailing at the time of the
interpretation.’

While these considerations may in certain circumstances go some
way towards negating the application of the inter-temporal law, that
law will still, even in such circumstances, provide at least the start-
ing-point for arriving at the proper interpretation of the treaty.”
(Oppenheim’s International Law , Vol. I, 1992, pp. 1281-1282; foot-

notes omitted.)
3. The object and purpose of the Genocide Convention is to prevent
and to punish the crime of genocide, and, reflecting the Nuremberg prin-

ciples, the Convention is directed against individuals and not the State.
The Convention binds States parties to punish persons responsible for
committing genocide and genocidal acts. Article II of the Convention
defines the crime of genocide, while Article III sets out the punishable
offences in relation to the crime. Article IV provides for the punishment

of persons committing any of the acts enumerated in Article III, be they
constitutionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals.
The Convention thus contemplates the prosecution and punishment of

241 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (DÉCL . COMMUNE ) 280

sont réputées avoir eu l’intention de lui donner lorsqu’elles l’ont négocié

et conclu, et non de parvenir à un résultat souhaité. C’est pourquoi il
n’est pas du pouvoir de la Cour de donner à un traité une interprétation
arbitraire et subjective qui va à l’encontre du sens ordinaire de ses termes
et de l’intention des parties.
2. Selon les règles d’interprétation énoncées à l’article 31 de la conven-

tion de Vienne sur le droit des traités, un traité doit être interprété de
bonne foi suivant le sens ordinaire à attribuer à ses termes dans leur
contexte et à la lumière de son objet et de son but. Les mêmes règles
donnent la primauté à l’intention des parties au moment où le traité
a été conclu, et en particulier au sens qu’elles donnaient aux mots et

expressions à l’époque. Selon Jennings et Watts:

«Un traité doit être interprété à la lumière des règles générales du
droit international en vigueur au moment où il a été conclu — le droit
dit intertemporel. Cela découle du principe général selon lequel un fait
juridique doit être apprécié à la lumière du droit qui lui est contem-
porain. De même, les termes d’un traité doivent normalement être

interprétés selon la signification qu’ils avaient au moment où le traité
a été conclu, et à la lumière des circonstances qui prévalaient alors.
Néanmoins, à certains égards, l’interprétation des dispositions
d’un traité ne peut être dissociée de l’évolution du droit postérieur à
son adoption. Ainsi, même si lorsqu’il a été conclu un traité n’était

pas en conflit avec une règle du jus cogens, il sera caduc si ultérieu-
rement apparaît une nouvelle règle du jus cogens avec laquelle il est
en conflit. De même, les concepts consacrés dans un traité peuvent
n’être pas statiques mais évoluer, auquel cas leur «interprétation ne
peut pas ne pas être affectée par le développement ultérieur du

droit... De plus, un instrument international doit être interprété et
appliqué dans le cadre de l’ensemble de l’ordre juridique qui prévaut
au moment où il est interprété.»
Si dans certaines circonstances ces considérations peuvent neutra-
liser dans une certaine mesure l’application du droit intertemporel,

ce droit n’en continuera pas moins de fournir, même dans de telles
circonstances, au moins un point de départ pour aboutir à l’inter-
prétation correcte du traité.» (Oppenheim’s International Law , vol. I,
1992, p. 1281-1282; notes de bas de page omises.)

3. L’objet et le but de la convention contre le génocide sont de préve-
nir et de réprimer le crime de génocide et, en tant qu’elle reflète les prin-
cipes de Nuremberg, la Convention est dirigée contre les individus et non

contre l’Etat. La Convention oblige les Etats parties à punir les personnes
responsables d’un génocide, et l’article III énumère les infractions punis-
sables en relation avec ce crime. L’article IV prévoit que les personnes
ayant commis l’un quelconque des actes énumérés à l’article III seront
punies, qu’elles soient des gouvernants, des fonctionnaires ou des parti-

culiers. Les responsabilités des Etats parties sont énoncées en des termes
différents, et l’article V les oblige à cet égard à prendre les mesures légis-

241281 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (JOINT DECL .)

individuals, rather than the State. States parties’ responsibilities are
spelled out in different terms, regarding which Article V requires the

parties to enact the necessary legislation to give effect to the provisions of
the Convention and, in particular, to provide effective penalties for per-
sons guilty of genocide or other acts set out in Article III. Article VI
requires that persons charged with genocide or any other such punishable
acts shall be tried by competent national or international tribunals. Arti-

cle VII states that genocide is not to be considered a political crime and
requires parties to extradite the accused, while Article VIII provides that:

“Any Contracting Party may call upon the competent organs of
the United Nations to take such action under the Charter of the
United Nations as they consider appropriate for the prevention and
suppression of acts of genocide or any of the other acts enumerated
in Article III.”

4. It is with respect to these specific provisions concerning legislation,
extradition, trial, and punishment of individuals alleged to have com-
mitted the crime of genocide that the State party may be held to be in

breach of the Convention. States parties’ obligations, as well as the
object and purpose of the Convention, thus are aimed at preventing and
punishing individuals who commit the crime of genocide and there was
no intention that a State party should punish itself for the crime of geno-
cide. According to Hersch Lauterpacht:

“The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide approved by the General Assembly in 1948 lays down

that genocide, whether committed in time of peace or war, is a crime
under international law which the Parties undertake to prevent and
to punish and that the persons responsible for that crime shall be
punished ‘whether they are constitutionally responsible rulers, public
officials or private individuals’. The Convention thus subjected indi-

viduals to the direct obligation and sanction of international law. ”
(International Law and Human Rights , 1950, p. 44; emphasis added;
footnote omitted.)

Hence, Article I of the Convention has to be interpreted in the light of
Article VI and the attempt in the Judgment to sever Article I of the Con-
vention from Articles IV, V, VI, VII and VIII, in order to reach the out-
come stated in the Judgment, is to us legally unsustainable and contrary
to the object and purpose of the Convention, the meaning of the text of the

Convention and the real intention of the parties. It is contrary to the inten-
tion of the Contracting Parties when the Judgment interprets Article I
of the Convention to mean by implication or logic (paragraph 166 of
the Judgment) that the Convention imposes upon a State the obligation
not to commit genocide. If a State can commit the crime of genocide,

then surely it would have to be viewed as being able to commit other
crimes, including murder. But such a situation is neither acceptable nor
recognized as part of present-day international law. As stated earlier,

242 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (DÉCL .COMMUNE ) 281

latives nécessaires pour assurer l’application des dispositions de la

Convention, et notamment à prévoir des sanctions pénales efficaces contre
les personnes coupables de génocide ou de l’un quelconque des actes énu-
mérés à l’article III. L’article VI dispose que les personnes accusées de
génocide ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes punissables seront tra-
duites devant les tribunaux nationaux ou internationaux compétents.

L’article VII stipule que le génocide n’est pas considéré comme un crime
politique et exige des parties qu’elles accordent l’extradition, tandis que
l’article VIII dispose:

«Toute Partie contractante peut saisir les organes compétents de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies afin que ceux-ci prennent, confor-
mément à la Charte des Nations Unies, les mesures qu’ils jugent

appropriées pour la prévention et la répression des actes de génocide
ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l’article III.»

4. C’est en ce qui concerne ces dispositions spécifiques concernant la
législation, l’extradition, et le jugement et le châtiment des individus
accusés d’avoir commis le crime de génocide qu’un Etat partie peut être
considéré comme ayant violé la Convention. Les obligations des Etats
parties, conformément à l’objet et au but de la Convention, visent ainsi à

prévenir le génocide et à punir les individus qui commettent le crime de
génocide et il n’y a aucune intention qu’un Etat partie se punisse lui-
même pour ce crime. Selon Hersch Lauterpacht:

«La convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de
génocide approuvée par l’Assemblée générale en 1948 dispose que le
génocide, qu’il soit commis en temps de paix ou de guerre, est un
crime au regard du droit international que les parties s’engagent à

prévenir et à réprimer, et que les personnes responsables de ce crime
seront punies «qu’elles soient des gouvernants, des fonctionnaires ou
des particuliers». La Convention assujettit ainsi des individus à une
obligation directe et à la sanction du droit international. »( Interna-
tional Law and Human Rights , 1950, p. 44; les italiques sont de

nous; note de bas de page omise.)
Ainsi, l’article I de la Convention doit être interprété à la lumière de

l’article VI et la tentative faite dans l’arrêt, afin d’aboutir au résultat
énoncé dans celui-ci, pour séparer l’article I de la Convention des ar-
ticles IV, V, VI, VII et VIII est pour nous juridiquement indéfendable
et contraire à l’objet et au but de la Convention, au sens du texte de celle-
ci et à l’intention réelle des parties. L’arrêt va à l’encontre de l’intention des

parties contractantes lorsqu’il interprète l’article I de la Convention
comme impliquant ou signifiant logiquement (paragraphe 166 de l’arrêt)
que la Convention impose à l’Etat l’obligation de ne pas commettre de
génocide. Si un Etat peut commettre le crime de génocide, force est de
considérer qu’il peut aussi commettre d’autres crimes, notamment un

meurtre. Mais une telle position n’est ni acceptable ni admise en droit
international positif. Comme on l’a déjà dit, l’«interprétation» par impli-

242282 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION JOINT DECL .)

“interpretation” by implication or logic cannot replace the overriding
rule that primary regard must be given to the intention of the parties at

the time the treaty was concluded. Moreover, in our view, if the Conven-
tion was intended to establish an obligation of such grave import as one
that could entail some form of criminal responsibility or punishment of a
State by an international tribunal such as this Court for genocide, this
would have been expressly stipulated in the Convention, but the Conven-

tion did not do so. We take the view that it is in order to avoid attri-
buting genocide to the State itself that the Convention provides in
Article IV, “[p]ersons committing genocide or any of the other acts enu-
merated in Article III shall be punished, whether they are constitutionally
responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals”, thus putting

the responsibility for the crime on the individual. A proposed amendment
to the effect that such acts committed by individuals acting on behalf of
the State would be considered a breach of the Convention, and that such
cases should be submitted to the International Court of Justice, which
would order the cessation of the acts and payment of reparation to the
victims, was rejected during the drafting negotiations on the basis of the

view that the purpose of the Convention was to punish genocide, and any
other responsibility than criminal would be out of place in such a conven-
tion. The Court is not vested with penal jurisdiction, nor is it equipped to
exercise such jurisdiction in this case. In other words, the Convention
does not entitle the Court to hold a criminal trial, nor impose on the

State an obligation to pay damages (punitive or otherwise) or to provide
for them in its domestic legislation. Hence, an earlier attempt — like that
made in the present Judgment — to transform the essentially individual
criminal concept of genocide, as was conceived in the Convention, into
one whereunder a State may be held responsible for committing genocide

was rejected during the negotiation of the Convention (see United
Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Third Session, Part I,
Sixth Committee, Annex, doc. A/C.6/236 and Corr.1). Such an important
obligation, in our view, would have been expressly stated in the Conven-
tion if such had been the intention of the Contracting Parties.

**

5. Notwithstanding our disagreement with the interpretation reached
“by implication” that Article I of the Convention imposes an obligation
on the State not to commit genocide, we have voted in favour of the find-

ings regarding the prevention of genocide in Srebrenica in July 1995, as
we believe in the intrinsic humanitarian value of the conclusion reached
by the Court and recognize the overriding legal imperative established by
Article I of the Convention, namely: the duty of a State to do what it
properly can, within its means and the law, to try to prevent genocide

when there is a serious danger of its occurrence of which the State is or
should be aware. (See also Reservations to the Convention on the Preven-
tion and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J.

243 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (DÉCL .COMMUNE ) 282

cation ou déduction logique ne peut remplacer la règle primordiale selon

laquelle l’intention des parties au moment où le traité a été conclu doit
être la considération dominante. De plus, selon nous, si la Convention
visait à établir une obligation lourde au point d’entraîner l’attribution
d’une responsabilité pénale à l’Etat ou le prononcé d’une peine à son
encontre par un tribunal international comme la Cour pour génocide, elle

le stipulerait expressément, or elle ne le fait pas. Nous estimons que c’est
pour éviter d’attribuer un génocide à l’Etat lui-même que la Convention
dispose, en son article IV, que «[l]es personnes ayant commis le génocide
ou l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l’article III seront punies,
qu’elles soient des gouvernants, des fonctionnaires ou des particuliers»,

attribuant ainsi la responsabilité du crime aux individus qui le com-
mettent. Un amendement visant à ce que de tels actes commis par des
individus agissant au nom de l’Etat soient considérés comme violant la
Convention et à ce que les affaires y relatives soient soumises à la Cour

internationale de Justice afin qu’elle ordonne la cessation de ces actes et le
paiement de réparations aux victimes a été rejeté durant les négociations
au motif que le but de la Convention était de réprimer le génocide, et que
toute responsabilité autre que pénale n’avait pas sa place dans un tel ins-
trument. La Cour n’a pas de compétence pénale, pas plus qu’elle n’est

équipée pour exercer une telle compétence en l’espèce. En d’autres
termes, la Convention n’habilite pas la Cour à tenir un procès pénal, ni à
imposer à l’Etat l’obligation de verser des dommages-intérêts (punitifs ou
autres) ou de prévoir de tels dommages dans sa législation interne. C’est
pourquoi une tentative antérieure — comme celle faite dans le présent

arrêt — visant à transformer la notion pénale essentiellement individuelle
de génocide consacrée dans la Convention en une notion permettant de
considérer un Etat comme responsable de la commission d’un génocide a
été rejetée durant la négociation de la Convention (voir Nations Unies,
Documents officiels de l’Assemblée générale, troisième session, première

partie, Sixième Commission, annexe, doc. A/C.6/236 et corr.1). Une obli-
gation aussi importante, selon nous, aurait été expressément énoncée
dans la Convention si telle avait été l’intention des parties contractantes.

**

5. Nonobstant notre désaccord avec l’interprétation selon laquelle l’ar-
ticle I de la Convention «implique» une obligation à la charge de l’Etat de
ne pas commettre de génocide, nous avons voté en faveur des dispositions
de l’arrêt concernant la prévention du génocide à Srebrenica en juillet

1995 parce que nous croyons à la valeur intrinsèquement humanitaire de
la conclusion à laquelle la Cour est parvenue et reconnaissons l’impératif
juridique primordial établi à l’article I de la Convention, à savoir le devoir
de l’Etat de faire ce qu’il peut, selon ses moyens et le droit, pour essayer
d’empêcher qu’un génocide soit commis lorsqu’il sait ou devrait savoir

qu’il existe un risque grave qu’il le soit. (Voir égalementRéserves à la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide, avis

243283 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (JOINT DECL.)

Reports 1951, p. 23: “[t]he principles underlying the Convention are prin-
ciples which are recognized by civilized nations as binding on States, even

without any conventional obligation”.)
6. We believe that the conclusion reached in the Judgment in connec-
tion with the prevention obligation would have been legally secure if
anchored on the relevant Security Council resolutions, instead of the
various hypotheses put forward in the Judgment. The present formula-

tions do not clearly specify what opportunities the Respondent had to
prevent the genocide, while the Security Council had in fact very clearly
warned of the imminent and serious humanitarian risk posed by any
advance of Bosnian Serb paramilitary units on Srebrenica and its sur-
roundings. That finding a breach of the obligation to prevent requires the

identification of a clear missed moment of opportunity to act has been
underscored by the European Court of Human Rights in its interpreta-
tion of the positive obligation to protect human life contained in Article 2,
paragraph 1, of the European Convention for the Protection of Human
Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (see Osman v. United Kingdom,
Judgment of 28 October 1998, Reports 1998-VIII, p. 3159). With regard

to the relevant Security Council resolutions, we would recall that the
Security Council, in resolution 819 (16 April 1993), noted the provisional
measures ordered by the Court in 1993, stating, inter alia, that the FRY
should take all measures within its power to prevent the commission of
the crime of genocide. Resolution 819 went on to condemn “ethnic

cleansing” and to express specific concern over the “pattern of hostilities”
by Bosnian Serb paramilitary units that by “direct consequence” had led
to an ongoing “tragic humanitarian emergency” in Srebrenica. Acting
under Chapter VII, the Council then demanded that “Srebrenica and its
surroundings” be treated as a safe area free from any attack and that the

besieged population be permitted to receive appropriate humanitarian
relief. The Council’s decision with respect to “Srebrenica and its sur-
roundings”, together with its specific concern about war crimes and the
deteriorating humanitarian situation in Srebrenica, certainly suggests
some real opportunities for the Bosnian Serb leadership to have acted to

try to prevent the genocide. Awareness of a specific risk may have been
raised as early as 2 July 1995 (the date of the plan to reduce “the enclave
to the urban area”), or on 6 July when the attack on Srebrenica’s sur-
roundings actually began. A specific risk undeniably existed by 12 July
when Srebrenica had fallen but the mass killings had not yet begun and
the Security Council, acting under Chapter VII, passed resolution 1004

(1995) demanding that the Bosnian Serb forces cease their offensive and
withdraw from the Srebrenica safe area immediately and that all parties
respect the Agreement of 18 April 1993 (essentially implementing resolu-
tion 819) (1993).

244 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (DÉCL .COMMUNE ) 283

consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 23: «les principes qui sont à la base de

la Convention sont des principes reconnus par les nations civilisées comme
obligeant les Etats même en dehors de tout lien conventionnel».)
6. Nous pensons que la conclusion à laquelle la Cour aboutit dans son
arrêt en ce qui concerne l’obligation de prévention aurait été juridique-
ment sûre si la Cour l’avait fait reposer sur les résolutions pertinentes du

Conseil de sécurité au lieu des diverses hypothèses avancées dans l’arrêt.
Les formulations actuelles n’indiquent pas clairement quelles possibilités
le défendeur a eu de prévenir le génocide, alors que le Conseil de sécurité
avait en fait très clairement donné l’alarme au sujet de l’imminence du
grave danger humanitaire que représentait toute avance des unités para-

militaires des Serbes de Bosnie sur Srebrenica et ses environs. Le fait que
la constatation de la violation de l’obligation de prévention exige que soit
clairement identifiée une occasion manquée d’intervenir a été soulignée
par la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme dans son interprétation de

l’obligation de protéger le droit de chacun à la vie énoncé au para-
graphe 1 de l’article 2 de la convention de sauvegarde des droits de l’homme
et des libertés fondamentales (voir Osman c. Royaume-Uni, arrêt du
28 octobre 1998, Recueil 1998-VIII, p. 3159). En ce qui concerne les résolu-
tions pertinentes du Conseil de sécurité, nous rappellerons que le Conseil,

dans sa résolution 819 (1993) du 16 avril 1993, a noté les mesures conser-
vatoires indiquées par la Cour en 1993, déclarant notamment que la
République fédérative de Yougoslavie devait prendre toutes les mesures
en son pouvoir afin de prévenir la perpétration du crime de génocide. Le
Conseil poursuivait en condamnant le «nettoyage ethnique» et se décla-

rait notamment préoccupé par les «hostilités systématiques» que menaient
les unités paramilitaires serbes de Bosnie et qui avaient eu pour «consé-
quence directe» une «situation humanitaire d’urgence tragique» à Sre-
brenica. Le Conseil exigeait ensuite, en vertu du chapitre VII, que la zone
de «Srebrenica et ses environs» soit traitée comme une zone de sécurité à

l’abri de toute attaque armée et que la population assiégée puisse recevoir
les secours humanitaires voulus. La décision du Conseil en ce qui concerne
«Srebrenica et ses environs», ainsi que sa préoccupation spécifique au
sujet des crimes de guerre et de la détérioration de la situation humani-
taire à Srebrenica donnent assurément à penser que la direction des

Serbes de Bosnie a eu des occasions réelles d’agir pour essayer de prévenir
le génocide. La prise de conscience de l’existence d’un risque spécifique
aurait pu se produire dès le 2 juillet 1995 (la date du plan visant à réduire
«l’enclave de la zone urbaine»), ou le 6 juillet, jour où l’attaque contre les
environs de Srebrenica a effectivement commencé. Un risque spécifique

existait indéniablement le 12 juillet lorsque Srebrenica était tombée mais
que les meurtres collectifs n’avaient pas encore commencé et que le
Conseil de sécurité, agissant en vertu du chapitre VII, a adopté la résolu-
tion 1004 (1995) dans laquelle il exigeait que les forces des Serbes de Bos-
nie mettent fin à leur offensive et se retirent immédiatement de la zone de

sécurité de Srebrenica et que toutes les parties respectent l’accord du
18 avril 1993 (donnant pour l’essentiel effet à la résolution 819 (1993)).

244284 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (JOINT DECL .)

7. Mr. Miloševic ´, even though it has not been proved that he had

effective control over the Bosnian Serb leadership, could and should have
exerted whatever pressure he had at his disposal, given the humanitarian
directives concerning Srebrenica that were the focus of Chapter VII Secu-

rity Council decisions in resolutions 819 (16 April 1993) and 1004 (12 July
1995).

(Signed) S HIJiuyong.

(Signed) Abdul G. K OROMA .

245 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (DÉCL .COMMUNE ) 284

7. M. Miloševic ´, même s’il n’a pas été prouvé qu’il contrôlait effecti-
vement la direction des Serbes de Bosnie, aurait pu et aurait dû exercer
les pressions qu’il était en mesure d’exercer, étant donné les directives

humanitaires concernant Srebrenica qui étaient au cŒur des décisions
prises par le Conseil de sécurité en vertu du chapitre VII dans ses résolu-
tions 819 (1993), du 16 avril 1993, et 1004 (1995), du 12 juillet 1995.

(Signé) S HIJiuyong.
(Signé) Abdul G. K OROMA .

245

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Joint declaration of Judges Shi and Koroma

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