Dissenting Opinion of Vice-President Al-Khasawneh

Document Number
091-20070226-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
091-20070226-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

241

DISSENTING OPINION OF VICE-PRESIDENT
AL-KHASAWNEH

The Court’s jurisdiction is established — Serious doubts that already settled
question of jurisdiction should have been re-examined — SFRY’s United Nations
membership could only have been suspended or terminated pursuant to Articles

5 or 6 of the Charter; Security Council and General Assembly resolutions did
not have the effect of terminating the SFRY’s United Nations membership —
The FRY’s admission to the United Nations in 2000 did not retroactively change
its position vis-à-vis the United Nations between 1992 and 2000 — Between
1992 and 2000, the FRY was the continuator of the SFRY, and after its admis-
sion to the United Nations, the FRY was the SFRY’s successor — The Court’s
Judgment in the Legality of Use of Force cases on the question of access and
“treaties in force” is not convincing and regrettably has led to confusion and
contradictions within the Court’s own jurisprudence — The Court should not
have entertained the Respondent’s highly irregular 2001 “Initiative” on access
to the Court, nor should it have invited the Respondent to renew its jurisdic-
tional arguments at the merits phase.

Serbia’s involvement, as a principal actor or accomplice, in the genocide that
took place in Srebrenica is supported by massive and compelling evidence —
Disagreement with the Court’s methodology for appreciating the facts and
drawing inferences therefrom — The Court should have required the Respon-
dent to provide unedited copies of its Supreme Defence Council documents, fail-
ing which, the Court should have allowed a more liberal recourse to inference —
The “effective control” test for attribution established in the Nicaragua case is
not suitable to questions of State responsibility for international crimes com-
mitted with a common purpose — The “overall control” test for attribution
established in the Tad´ case is more appropriate when the commission of inter-
national crimes is the common objective of the controlling State and the non-
State actors — The Court’s refusal to infer genocidal intent from a consistent
pattern of conduct in Bosnia and Herzegovina is inconsistent with the estab-
lished jurisprudence of the ICTY — The FRY’s knowledge of the genocide set to
unfold in Srebrenica is clearly established — The Court should have treated the
Scorpions as a de jure organ of the FRY — The statement by the Serbian Coun-

cil of Ministers in response to the massacre of Muslim men by the Scorpions
amounted to an admission of responsibility — The Court failed to appreciate
the definitional complexity of the crime of genocide and to assess the facts
before it accordingly.

1. I feel that I should explain the nature of my dissent before explain-
ing the reasons for it. I am not in total disagreement with the majority:

202242 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL KHASAWNEH )

regarding jurisdiction, I come to the same conclusion contained in para-

graph 1 of the dispositif that the Court’s jurisdiction is established,
although I have serious doubts whether, in terms of the proper adminis-
tration of justice, the already settled question of jurisdiction should have

been re-examined in the Judgment.

2. I, likewise, concur with the findings (paragraphs 5-7 of the disposi-
tif) dealing respectively with Serbia’s violation of its obligations under

the Genocide Convention to prevent genocide in Srebrenica and to
cooperate fully with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former
Yugoslavia; and its failure to comply with the two Orders on provisional
measures issued by the Court in 1993.

3. Where, however, my learned colleagues and I part company is with
respect to the central question of Serbia’s international responsibility
incurred as a consequence of its involvement — as a principal actor or an

accomplice — in the genocide that took place in Bosnia and Herze-
govina. Such involvement is supported, in my opinion, by massive and
compelling evidence. My disagreement with the majority, however, relates

not only to their conclusions but also to the very assumptions on which
their reasoning is based and to their methodology for appreciating the
facts and drawing inferences therefrom, and is hence profound. There-
fore, notwithstanding my agreement with some parts of the Judgment,

and much to my regret, I am duty and conscience bound to dissent. In
explanation of this position I append the present opinion.

I. T HE C OURT S JURISDICTION

4. The jurisdictional issues in the present case have revolved around
the international status of the Respondent and its membership in the
United Nations. Those issues, which permeated all phases of this case
and other related cases, can be traced to the State succession arising out

of the process of disintegration of the Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (SFRY) which took place in the early 1990s. Briefly described,
that process — for it has to be emphasized that there was no agreed point
in time when the SFRY could be said to have been extinguished — 1

started when both Slovenia and Croatia seceded from the SFRY on
25 June 1991. Macedonia did the same on 17 September 1991 and Bosnia
and Herzegovina, the last to secede, followed on 6 March 1992. Only two

constituent republics, Serbia and Montenegro, were left in the old Yugo-
slavia and on 27 April 1992 they joined to form the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (FRY) which claimed to be the continuator of the SFRY and
declared its intention “to strictly abide by all the international commit-

1
As was the case, for example, with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

203243 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS .OP .AL -KHASAWNEH )

ments” of the SFRY as well as to remain “bound by all obligations to
international organizations and institutions whose member it is” . 2

5. While the four Republics that emerged from the SFRY were
admitted to United Nations membership in 1992 and 1993, the FRY’s
claim to continuity was noted by the Security Council on 30 May 1992 as
3
a claim that “has not been generally accepted” . Again the Security
Council, on 19 September 1992, considered that the SFRY had ceased
to exist, recalled its earlier resolution, and considered that the FRY

“cannot continue automatically the membership of the former Social-
ist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the United Nations; and
therefore recommend[ed] to the General Assembly that it decide that

the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) should
apply for membership in the United Nations and that it shall not
4
participate in the work of the General Assembly” .

Two days later the General Assembly adopted a resolution in which inter
alia it decided that the FRY “should apply for membership in the United

Nations and 5hat it shall not participate in the work of the General
Assembly” .
6. Both the language of the resolutions and their negotiating history

suggest that they were compromise resolutions that fell short of termi-
nating or suspending SFRY membership in the United Nations . In fact 6
under the United Nations Charter, there is no way in which the SFRY

membership could have been terminated given the veto power of the per-
manent members, some of whom were as opposed to such a termination
as others were keen on it. In any case, the requirements for suspension

(Charter, Art. 5) or expulsion (Charter, Art. 6) were never invoked by the
Security Council nor put into motion. The FRY clung to its membership
claim with the result that

“the only practical consequence that [General Assembly resolu-
tion 47/1] draws is that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia
and Montenegro) shall not participate in the work of the General

Assembly” (letter of the Under-Secretary-General and Legal Coun-
sel of the United Nations; incidentally the only legal authority to

2 United Nations doc. A/46/915 (1992), 7 May 1992, Ann. II.
3 Security Council resolution 757 (1992), 30 May 1992.
4 Security Council resolution 777 (1992), 19 September 1992.
5 General Assembly resolution 47/1 (1992), 22 September 1992.
6 See Michael Scharf, “Musical Chairs: The Dissolution of States and Membership in
the United Nations”, Cornell International Law Journal , 1995, Vol. 28, pp. 58-62.

204244 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL -KHASAWNEH )

appraise the matter in what was an otherwise blatantly political

process).

That letter from the Legal Counsel of the United Nations left no room
for doubt. It went on to state “on the other hand, the resolution neither
terminates nor suspends Yugoslavia’s membership”.

7. Important as this letter is, we should not be content with it, nor
with the language and negotiating history of Security Council resolu-
tions 757 and 777 and General Assembly resolution 47/1, nor with the
undisputed fact that no measures were adopted to affect the termination

or suspension of SFRY membership — all of which point unmistakably
to continued SFRY membership in the United Nations. We should, addi-
tionally, ask a basic question: was the SFRY a United Nations Member
in the first place? The answer to that question is also clearly in the

affirmative, for it would be recalled that the SFRY had been a founding
Member of the United Nations and already in 1947 the Sixth Committee
of the General Assembly had formulated the principle that:

“As a general rule, it is in accordance with principle to assume
that a State which is a Member of the United Nations does not cease
to be a Member from the mere fact that its constitution or frontiers

have been modified, and to consider the rights and obligations which
that State possesses as a Member of the United Nations as ceasing to
exist only with its extinction as a legal person internationally recog-
nized as such.” 7

8. At no time was the SFRY extinguished as a legal person interna-

tionally recognized as such. There were always States that continued to
recognize the FRY as the continuator of the SFRY though there were
others who took the opposite view. This state of affairs is typical of the
relativism inherent in the constitutive theory of recognition and in itself

prevents the drawing of any firm inferences. The only way to ascertain
whether there was continuity or extinction of the SFRY is by reference to
the actual or legal elements surrounding the succession of States which
can be measured against an objective yardstick. It is indisputable, for

example, that the capital of the SFRY was still within the borders of the
FRY and that Serbia (an ancient kingdom) and Montenegro formed the
historic nucleus of Yugoslavia and continued even after the loss of the
four Republics — which happened at different times — to have 40 per

cent of the land mass of the former Yugoslavia and 45 per cent of its

7United Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixth Committee,
Second Session, 43rd meeting, 1947, pp. 38-39.

205245 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL -KHASAWNEH )

population . Moreover, it is also factually indisputable that in the Forty-
sixth Session of the General Assembly, the SFRY, even after Slovenia,
Croatia and Macedonia had broken away, was still considered a United

Nations Member and the credentials of its representatives were not chal-
lenged. Of equal importance is that even in the Forty-seventh Session of
the General Assembly no challenge to the credentials of its representa-
9
tives was made . In other words, the rump Yugoslavia, later the FRY,
was treated as a continuator of the SFRY. There was nothing out of the
ordinary in this. It was supported by the classic models of the succession

of India and Pakistan from the Commonwealth of India; then later
the Pakistan/Bangladesh succession; and the dissolution of the Union
of the Soviet Socialist Republics; and it accorded with the principle
adopted by the Sixth Committee referred to above. Moreover, the nature

of Security Council resolutions 757 and 777 and General Assembly
resolution 47/1, appreciated contextually, lends strong credence
to the claim that their main aim was in the nature of sanctions.

It should not be overlooked in this respect that news of the atrocities
committed in Croatia and Bosnia were being carried world-wide to a
shocked international public opinion and blame for the most part was
being laid on the doorstep of the government of Mr. Miloševic ´

and hence sanctions were started even when the SFRY was still in
existence .0

9. Whatever may have been the case with regard to the intended or

unintended effects of those resolutions, the decisive fact is that once
SFRY membership in the United Nations had been ascertained and that
this membership had survived the breakaway of Croatia, Slovenia and

Macedonia which was indisputably the case in the Forty-sixth Session of
the General Assembly, and of Bosnia which was similarly the case in the
Forty-seventh Session of the General Assembly, the Security Council and

General Assembly resolutions adopted did not, and more importantly,
could not, have terminated or suspended that existing membership. Only
the SFRY, of its own volition, could give up its original membership and
it was naturally not inclined to do so, given not only the strength of its

claim, but additionally, because, had it abandoned its membership, it
would have put itself at the mercy of the “peace-loving formula” (United
Nations Charter, Art. 4, para. 1) which, contextually, it had ample

reason to believe some, including some in the Security Council, would
not easily apply to it. As already stated, the FRY clung to its membership

8See Michael Scharf, op. cit., p. 53.
9Yehuda Blum, “UN Membership of the ‘New’ Yugoslavia: Continuity or Break”,
American Journal of International Law , 1992, Vol. 86, p. 830.
10Security Council resolution 713 (1991), 25 September 1991, para. 6.

206246 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS .OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

and suffered only the sanction of non-participation in the work of the
General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
where a similar resolution was adopted . 11

10. Indeed there is post-Dayton evidence to suggest that had the FRY
persisted in its claim as a continuator, it would have triumphed. For we

can glean, for example, acceptance of that claim from the treaties that it
entered into with Croatia, Bosnia and Macedonia . The acceptance by
the successor States of that claim is especially significant given their close-
ness to the process of succession. This thesis, however, could not be fully

tested because the nascent normalcy was shattered by Mr. Miloševic ´’s
attack on Kosovo in 1999 resulting in disastrous consequences for the
FRY and, not least, for Mr. Miloševic ´ as evidenced by his fall from

power. A new Government replaced him and decided to embark on a
new course. It applied to the United Nations as a new Member and was
accepted as such in 2000, thereby abandoning of its own will the claim of
continuity. From that moment on and only from that moment on it

became a successor of the SFRY and not its continuator.

11. Curiously, the fact of FRY admission to the United Nations in
2000 was viewed as retroactively clarifying the Respondent’s hitherto

amorphous status vis-à-vis the United Nations in favour of the conclu-
sion that in the period 1992 to 2000 it was not a United Nations Member.
It was also argued that the FRY’s admission “revealed” a lack of United

Nations membership and toppled the assumption which was based on the
existence of an amorphous situation, making it now impossible to ignore
the question of the FRY’s access to the Court. Nothing could be more
debatable. The logic of the argument seems at first glance to be straight-

forward: admission as a new Member means that the FRY was not a
Member before the date of admission. But here we are not dealing with a
State that had never been a United Nations Member. Rather we are
faced with a State that assiduously maintained it was the continuator of

an original United Nations Member and which had to relinquish a strong
claim to continuity and apply as a new Member in the sense of a succes-
sor State. The distinction therefore is not between a “new Member” and

a “non-Member”, but between a “new Member” and an “old Member”.
Seen from this angle, the act of admission does not lead to the conclusion

11Security Council resolution 821 (1993), 28 April 1993, para. 1.
12See, e.g., Article IV of the Joint Declaration of the President of the Republic of Ser-
bia and the President of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which stipulates that
“Bosnia and Herzegovina accepts the State continuity of the Federal Republic of Yugo-

slavia”, United Nations doc. A/51/461-S/1996/830 (1996), 7 October 1996.

207247 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL KHASAWNEH )

that the FRY was not a United Nations Member. Rather, the act of
admission confirms that it had been an old member by way of continuity
until it abandoned that claim and took on the status of a successor.
Therefore the FRY was a continuator in 1992 to 2000 and a successor

after its admission in 2000. Furthermore, to argue that the SFRY was
extinguished in 1992 and that the FRY was a successor of the SFRY in
2000 without first being its continuator creates a legal void in the inter-
vening period of eight years, which is absurd.

12. In the post-2000 period, the claim that the FRY was not a United
Nations Member and therefore lacked access to the Court became
pivotal in jurisdictional rounds and ploys aimed at undoing the Court’s

clearly-established jurisdiction in its 1996 Judgment on Preliminary Objec-
tions (in paragraph 34 of that Judgment, the Court indicated that it had
jurisdiction rationae personae, rationae materiae and rationae temporis).
Denying that the Respondent had been a United Nations Member in

1992 to 2000 was a necessary first step to the argument that it lacked
“access” to the Court via that membership under Article 35, paragraph 1,
of the Statute. Furthermore, this access was said to be independent from
jurisdiction, even jurisdiction rationae personae, and, unlike it, was objec-
tive and could not be established simply because there was consent to

jurisdiction but should always be ascertained, if need be, by the Court
acting propio motu. Thus, the modest idea of access (concerned primarily
with granting access to States and denying it to non-States and ensuring
equality for Members and non-Members) was elevated to heights that its
drafters never imagined. In its latest incarnation, the concept of access

could circumvent the principle of res judicata by either overturning it or
by being outside the scope of the res judicata of the Court’s jurisdiction
in the 1996 Judgment on Preliminary Objections (CR2006/45, 9 May
2006, pp. 10-18.). I shall revert to these issues of jurisdiction and access to

propound the view that differences between them are greatly exagger-
ated. I shall first, however, give an overall description of the major devel-
opments that took place after 2000. In the Respondent’s Application for
revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 and its Initiative, both submit-
ted to the Court in 2001, and the Court’s 2004 Legality of Use of Force

Judgments, the question of the FRY’s access to the Court (including
access under Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute) played a central role
in jurisdictional arguments. Already in 2004, acting counsel for Belgium
described how the Legality of Use of Force cases were being used by Ser-

bia as “effectively . . . the fifth round in the jurisdictional contest of the
Genocide Convention case which stretches back to 1993” (Legality of Use
of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), CR 2004/15, para. 10).
When one adds to that two attempts by Serbian members of the Bosnian
Presidium to discontinue the Genocide Convention case, and the latest

round of jurisdictional arguments in 2006, that jurisdictional contest

208248 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL KHASAWNEH )

reached eight rounds — which is unprecedented in the history of this
Court or of its Predecessor.

1. The Application for Revision Judgment (2003) and the Legality of

Use of Force Judgments (2004)

13. In its Application for revision, the Respondent had not based its
request strictly on new facts as required by Article 61 of the Statute but
on the legal consequences relating to its United Nations membership

flowing from facts already known to the parties at the time of the 1996
Judgment. This being the case, the Court dismissed the request because
the alleged new facts were not new. There was no need, therefore, for the
Court to decide on the question of the Respondent’s United Nations
membership. The Court stated that the General Assembly resolution on

admission:

“cannot have changed retroactively the sui generis position which
the FRY found itself in vis-à-vis the United Nations over the period
1992-2000 or its position in relation to the Statute of the Court and
the Genocide Convention” (Application for Revision of the Judg-

ment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning Application of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections
(Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

2003, p. 31, para 71).
14. By contrast, in the Legality of Use of Force cases, the caution that

had for better or worse always characterized the Court’s approach to the
issue of Yugoslavia’s membership was thrown to the wind. Free from the
constraints of res judicata, the majority found in those closely related
cases an escape route which was used notwithstanding the impact that

this would have on the present case. As stated in Judge Higgins’s separate
opinion: “Its relevance can lie, and only lie, in another pending case.”
(Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Prelimi-
nary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 487, para. 18, sepa-
rate opinion of Judge Higgins.)

15. Be that as it may, what interests us more for the present is the

209249 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

reasoning followed in the Legality of Use of Force Judgments. The

Court started by noting — correctly — that the aforementioned passage
in the Application for Revision Judgment did not imply any decision on
the status of the FRY within the United Nations before 2000. The Court

went on to say that the fact of admission brought to an end the sui
generis position of FRY membership — which is also correct for the
future. But the Court went further and sought to derive new legal conse-
quences — for the past — namely lack of United Nations membership

between 1992 and 2000 from the fact of the FRY’s admission whereas in
the 2003 Application for Revision Judgment, the Court had found it
impossible to derive, from the same fact, any consequences for the past . 13
The only basis for doing so was the observation that the term sui generis

is a descriptive and not a prescriptive term. But this is hardly evidence or
argument for nothing turns on that observation. As the joint declaration
in the Legality of Use of Force cases observes, the proposition that the
FRY’s United Nations membership was retroactively clarified is “far

from self-evident and we cannot trace the steps of the reasoning” (Legal-
ity of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 , p. 334, para. 12, joint decla-

ration of Vice-President Ranjeva, Judges Guillaume, Higgins, Kooij-
mans, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal and Elaraby). This, with great respect,
is one of the reasons why the Court’s logic in the Legality of Use of Force
Judgments does not perhaps represent the zenith of legal reasoning. This

is so in addition of course to its negative and regrettable impact on the
broad consistency of the Court’s jurisprudence.

16. Our present Judgment considers the 2003 Application for Revision
Judgment and the 2004 Legality of Use of Force Judgments in para-
graphs 105-113 under the heading “Relevant Past Decisions of the Court”,

but fails to address the contradiction between its inability to draw find-
ings as to FRY United Nations membership in its 2003 Judgment, and its
drawing conclusions from the same facts in its 2004 Judgment.

17. Apart from access via United Nations membership (Statute,
Art. 35, para. 1) non-Members may, as is well known, have access to the

13See Maria Chiara Vitucci, “Has Pandora’s Box Been Closed?: The Decision on the
Legality of Use of Force Cases in Relation to the Status of the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia (Serbia and Montenegro) within the United Nations”, Leiden Journal of Interna-
tional Law, 2006, Vol. 19, p. 114.

210250 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

Court under Article 35, paragraph 2. The crucial question in the second
route is whether the term “treaties in force” is to be interpreted to mean
those treaties in force at the time of the institution of proceedings (the
liberal interpretation) or those that were already in force when the ICJ

Statute itself had come into force (the narrow interpretation).

18. It will be recalled that, in its Order of 8 April 1993, the Court
opted for the liberal interpretation. It did so expressly in paragraph 19 of

that Order. Indeed, given that it did not find the need to pronounce
definitively on FRY membership in the United Nations, the liberal inter-
pretation of Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute, was the sole or main
ground for its provisional jurisdiction. Though not definitive, this finding
carries considerable weight and should not have been lightly reversed.

Moreover, this assumption was, by necessary logic, at the heart of the
Court’s finding in the 1996 Judgment on Preliminary Objections that it
had jurisdiction. Yet the 2004 Legality of Use of Force Judgments did
not hesitate to unnecessarily reverse it. The same seven judges appending

a joint declaration to that Judgment felt it

“astonishing that the Court found it necessary to rule on the scope
of Article 35, paragraph 2, whereas the Applicant did not invoke this
text” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium)
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 ,p .3 ,

para. 11, joint declaration of Vice-President Ranjeva, Judges
Guillaume, Higgins, Kooiijmans, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal
and Elaraby).

19. But beyond this, the reasoning followed by the Court in the 2004
Legality of Use of Force Judgments leads to the collapse of the unity of
purpose of Articles 35, 36 and 37 of the Statute — for in Articles 35 and

36 the term “treaties in force” indisputably means in force at the time of
the institution of proceedings. No justification for such a result is offered.

20. The Court’s conclusion in the Legality of Use of Force Judgment
is based mainly on the travaux préparatoires of Article 35, paragraph 2,

of the Statute of the Permanent Court, its own Statute’s travaux prépara-
toires yielding no firm conclusions. All that need be said in this regard is
that the conclusion of the Court is at best possible but not conclusive.

21. Moreover, it is disconcerting that whilst the Court was more than
ready to delve into the travaux préparatoires of a bygone era and draw
conclusions by analogy (though such analogy is open to doubts given
that there were no general peace treaties after the Second World War),

there is no reference to the much more relevant fact that the FRY,

211251 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

whether or not a Member of the United Nations, was a party to the

Genocide Convention. The FRY’s 27 April 1992 declaration accepting
the SFRY treaty obligations amounts to its acceptance of the Genocide
Convention obligations. In this respect, reference should be made to the
fact that the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs considers that Gen-

eral Assembly resolution 43/138 (1988) amounts to a general invitatio14to
non-Members to become a party to the Genocide Convention . The
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea’s instrument of accession to the
Genocide Convention was accepted on 31 January 1989 (more than two

years before it became a United Nations Member) on this basis. No
special invitation to become a party to the Genocide Convention was
addressed to the DPRK by the General Assembly. In other words, given
the FRY’s express acceptance of the obligations set forth in the Genocide

Convention in 1992, neither its purported non-Member status nor the
failure of the General Assembly to specifically invite the FRY to become
a party acts as a bar to finding that the FRY was a party to the Genocide
Convention at the time it filed the Application.

2. The Initiative

22. The Court’s Statute admits of only two ways for States unhappy
with its judgments to deal with them: revision under Article 61 with all
the attendant limitations and conditions wisely designed to safeguard the

stability and integrity of judgments and/or a request for interpretation
under Article 60 which can only explain but not change that which the
Court has already settled with binding force.

23. The Respondent sought revision unsuccessfully in 2003 and could
have sought interpretation — indeed the nature of its claims regarding
the meaning of jurisdiction and access would lend themselves to resolu-
tion through such a request. Instead, simultaneously with its 2001 Appli-

cation for revision, the Respondent presented an “Initiative” to the Court
to reconsider its jurisdiction ex officio. Curiously, the reasoning and
contents of the Initiative were virtually identical with the Application
for revision. While the Court rejected the Application for revision on 3

February 2003, the same Court, some four months later, invited the
Respondent to present new jurisdictional arguments at the merits phase.
(Letter from the Registrar to the Respondent dated 12 June 2003.) This,
notwithstanding that the Court itself had some seven years earlier satis-

fied itself that: “having established its jurisdiction under Article IX of the

14Paragraph 5 of General Assembly resolution 43/138 (8 December 1988) urges those
States which have not yet become parties to the Convention to ratify it or accede thereto
without further delay.

212252 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS .OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

Genocide Convention. . . it may now proceed to consider the merits of

the case on that basis” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 622, para. 46).

24. It is plain that the “Initiative” was irregular and had no place

under the Statute of the Court, not because the Court could not make
mistakes or refuse to rectify them, but because its Statute struck the right
compromise between the fallibility of men and courts on the one hand
and the need to safeguard the reasonable and legitimate expectations

regarding the integrity and stability of its judgments on the other. That
compromise was struck, as already mentioned, by allowing for the pos-
sibility of seeking interpretation and/or revision. It is of course true that
“[t]he Court must however always be satisfied that it has jurisdiction. . .”

(Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (India v. Paki-
stan), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 , p. 52, para. 13). But, that satisfac-
tion, no doubt motivated by a need to be meticulous in dispensing justice,
must be achieved in an orderly and timely manner. Once the Court has

satisfied itself that it has jurisdiction, it should move on to consider the
merits — which was exactly what the Court said in 1996.

25. The serious misgivings I have, in principle, about the irregular

“Initiative” are reinforced by the fact that there is nothing in the Court’s
jurisprudence to support the proposition that jurisdictional issues that
have been decided with the force of res judicata may be reopened. Thus,
in the ICAO Council case, there was no separate preliminary objections

phase, nor any question of “re-examining” what had already been decided.
In that case, Pakistan simply raised an objection very late in the oral pro-
ceedings after it had exhausted its ability to raise preliminary objections.
The decision on jurisdiction, which was made under the Court’s general

powers, did not amount to re-examining jurisdiction because it had never
been previously examined.

26. Similarly, in another case cited by the proponents of the objective
access theory: South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa), Second
Phase, the Court found that the standing of the Applicant before the
Court itself, i.e., the locus standi ratione personae , which had been the

subject of the Court’s decision in 1962 could not be reopened, but that the
Applicant’s standing regarding the subject-matter of the case and there-
fore the merits could be reopened. In other words the Court avoided
reopening what had been decided . 15

27. This conclusion is not weakened by the claim, in fact made by the

15For an analysis of other cases supporting the proposition that decided jurisdictional
matters may not be reopened see in particular paragraphs 127-128 of the Judgment.

213253 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

Respondent, that it was making a new jurisdictional argument. One

would expect any respondent in the same position to claim that it was not
repeating old arguments. Again, if those new arguments are about crucial
unknown facts, the Court’s Statute designates a procedure to deal
with them; if there is obscurity in the Judgment, interpretation under

Article 60 of the Court’s Statute can cure it.

28. This being the case, it was curious and, with great respect to my
colleagues, regrettable, that the Court should have acceded — in an

unprecedented move — to the Respondent’s irregular request to present
additional jurisdictional arguments at the merits phase. By doing so, the
Court contributed to a further delay in justice regarding something so
shocking to decent people as allegations of genocide. Moreover, the mis-

conceived idea of allowing the Respondent to make new jurisdictional
arguments at the merits phase, after jurisdiction had been decided with
the force of res judicata has, together with its 2004 Legality of Use of
Force Judgments, contributed to confusion and contradictions between

its different cases and indeed the different phases in the present case with
the result that, with the contagion spreading, and those contradictions
being quoted back at the Court, the only thing the present Judgment
could do was to take refuge in the formalism of res judicata, para-

graphs 129-138 being a case in point.

29. Before ending this part on jurisdiction, I should say a few words

about the concept of “access”. I believe that the most important applica-
tion of this concept is with regard to the lack of capacity of non-State
actors and unrecognized entities to appear before the Court. This is of
course to be expected in an international community made up of States.

The debates in the Security Council and the General Assembly regarding
non-Member States becoming parties to the Court’s Statute centred on
the requirement that the relevant entity be a State 16 — and not on the
conditions for participation in the Statute. Apart from the need to ensure

equality for the parties before the Court, I fail to see that the distinction
between access and jurisdiction entails any significant consequences. Thus,
a court is required to ascertain its jurisdiction independently of the con-
sent of the parties, for example when one party does not appear. More-

over, it is not insignificant that while the Respondent was arguing in
terms of lack of access, its submission was made in terms of lack of juris-
diction. A contextual approach based on common sense rather than dia-
lectic reasoning should be the guiding criterion in these matters.

16Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-2005 ,
Vol. II, p. 599.

214254 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

II. M ERITS

30. I am of the opinion that the involvement or implication of the
FRY in the genocide that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the
1990s was both more serious in nature and more extensive in territorial
scope than the mere failure to prevent genocide in Srebrenica conveys.

31. This implies that the charge that genocide took place also in other
parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina and that the FRY was responsible not
only for its failure to prevent genocide but for being actively involved in

it either as a principal or alternatively as an accomplice or by way of con-
spiracy or incitement would in all probability have been proven had the
Court not adopted the methodology discussed below.

32. It implies also that the fact of FRY responsibility for genocide in
Srebrenica was proven to a satisfactory standard.
33. In stating this, I am not oblivious to the fact that the ICTY has

not, so far, established that the crime of genocide or the other ancillary
crimes enumerated in the Genocide Convention have taken place in
Bosnia and Herzegovina (apart from Srebrenica) and consequently that
genocide is more difficult, though not impossible, to prove. Neither am I

unaware that additional difficulties in this regard stem from the elusive-
ness of the elements of genocidal intent dolus specialis and from the need
to apply high standards of proof given the gravity of the charge of
genocide.

34. I believe, however, that the Court could have found genocide and
FRY responsibility therefor had it followed a different methodology
without of course in any way detracting from the high standard of proof
or the rigour of its reasoning.

35. In the first place, the Court was alerted by the Applicant to the
existence of “redacted” sections of documents of the Supreme Defence
Council of the Respondent. Regrettably, the Court failed to act although,
under Article 49 of its Statute, it has the power to do so. It is a reasonable
expectation that those documents would have shed light on the central

questions of intent and attributability. The reasoning given by the Court
in paragraph 206 of the Judgment, “[o]n this matter, the Court observes
that the Applicant has extensive documentation and other evidence avail-
able to it, especially from the readily accessible ICTY records. . .”, is

worse than its failure to act. To add to this, at the end of paragraph 206,
the Court states:

“Although the Court has not agreed to either of the Applicant’s
requests to be provided with unedited copies of the documents,ti

215255 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

has not failed to note the Applicant’s suggestion that the Court may

be free to draw its own conclusions. ” (Emphasis added.)

It should be observed that Article 49 of the Statute provides that “formal
note should be taken of any refusal” and not of the Applicant’s sugges-
tion. In addition to this completely unbalanced statement that does not
meet the requirement of Article 49, no conclusions whatsoever were

drawn from noting the Respondent’s refusal to divulge the contents of
the unedited documents. It would normally be expected that the conse-
quences of the note taken by the Court would be to shift the onus
probandi or to allow a more liberal recourse to inference as the Court’s

past practice and considerations of common sense and fairness would
all demand. This was expressed very clearly by the Court in its Corfu
Channel Judgment:

“On the other hand, the fact of this exclusive territorial control

exercised by a State within its frontiers has a bearing upon the
methods of proof available to establish the knowledge of that State
as to such events. By reason of this exclusive control, the other
State, the victim of a breach of international law, is often unable

to furnish direct proof of facts giving rise to responsibility. Such a
State should be allowed a more liberal recourse to inferences of fact
and circumstantial evidence. This indirect evidence is admitted in
all systems of law, and its use is recognized by international deci-

sions. It must be regarded as of special weight when it is based on
a series of facts linked together and leading logically to a single con-
clusion.” (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949 , p. 18.)

36. Secondly, the Court applied the effective-control test to a situation
different from that presented in the Nicaragua case. In the present case,
there was a unity of goals, unity of ethnicity and a common ideology,
such that effective control over non-State actors would not be necessary.

In applying the effective control test, the Court followed Article 8 of the
International Law Commission Articles on State Responsibility (Judg-
ment, paras. 402-407).

37. However, with great respect to the majority, a strong case can be
made for the proposition that the test of control is a variable one. It
would be recalled that some ILC members drew attention to the fact of
there being varying degrees of sufficient control required in specific legal
17
contexts . The ICTY Appeals Chamber decision in the Tadic ´ case, as

17Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Fiftieth Session,
United Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-third Session, Supple-
ment No. 10, United Nations doc. A/53/10 and Corr.1, para. 395.

216256 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

reaffirmed in the Celebici case, takes this approach. In the Celebici case,
the Appeals Chamber held that:

“the ‘overall control’ test could thus be fulfilled even if the armed
forces acting on behalf of the ‘controlling state’ had autonomous
choices of means and tactics although participating in a common
strategy along with the controlling State” (Prosecutor v. Delalic,

ICTY Appeals Chamber, 20 February 2001, para. 47).

38. In rejecting the ICTY’s context-sensitive approach, the ILC Com-
mentary to Article 8 does little more than note a distinction between the
rules of attribution for the purposes of State responsibility on the one

hand, and the rules of international humanitarian 18w for the purposes of
individual criminal responsibility on the other . However, it should be
recalled that the Appeals Chamber in Tadic ´ had in fact framed the ques-
tion as one of State responsibility, in particular whether the FRY was

responsible for the acts of the VRS, and therefore considered itself to be
applying the rules of attribution under international law (Tadic ´, ICTY
Judgment, IT-94-1-A, 15 July 1999, para. 98).

39. Unfortunately, the Court’s rejection of the standard in the Tadic ´
case fails to address the crucial issue raised therein — namely that differ-
ent types of activities, particularly in the ever-evolving nature of armed
conflict, may call for subtle variations in the rules of attribution. In the
Nicaragua case, the Court noted that the United States and the Contras

shared the same objectives — namely the overthrowing of the Nicara-
guan Government. These objectives, however, were achievable without
the commission of war crimes or crimes against humanity. The Contras
could indeed have limited themselves to military targets in the accom-

plishment of their objectives. As such, in order to attribute crimes against
humanity in furtherance of the common objective, the Court held that the
crimes themselves should be the object of control. When, however, the
shared objective is the commission of international crimes, to require

both control over the non-State actors and the specific operations in the
context of which international crimes were committed is too high a
threshold. The inherent danger in such an approach is that it gives States
the opportunity to carry out criminal policies through non-state actors or

surrogates without incurring direct responsibility therefore. The state-
ment in paragraph 406 of the Judgment to the effect that the “‘overall
control’ test is unsuitable, for it stretches too far, almost to breaking
point, the connection which must exist between the conduct of a State’s

organs and its international responsibility” is, with respect, singularly
unconvincing because it fails to consider that such a link has to account

18J. Crawford, International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility: Intro-
duction, Text and Commentaries , 2002, p. 112.

217257 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS .OP .AL -KHASAWNEH )

for situations in which there is a common criminal purpose. It is also
far from self-evident that the overall control test is always not proxi-
mate enough to trigger State responsibility.

40. Thirdly, the Court has refused to infer genocidal intent from the

consistent pattern of conduct in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In its reason-
ing, the Court relies heavily on several arguments, each of which is
inadequate for the purpose, and contradictory to the consistent juris-

prudence of the international criminal tribunals.

41. The Court first considers whether the Strategic Goals of the Ser-
19
bian People in Bosnia and Herzegovina evidence genocidal intent, but
concludes that the goals “were capable of being achieved by the displace-
ment of the population and by territory being acquired” (Judgment,

para. 372). The Court further notes that the motive of creating a Greater
Serbia “did not necessarily require the destruction of the Bosnian Mus-
lims and other communities, but their expulsion” (ibid.). The Court

essentially ignores the facts and substitutes its own assessment of how the
Bosnian Serbs could have hypothetically best achieved their macabre
Strategic Goals. The Applicant is not asking the Court to evaluate

whether the Bosnian Serbs were efficient in achieving their objectives.
The Applicant is asking the Court to look at the pattern of conduct and
draw the logically necessary inferences. The jurisprudence of the interna-

tional criminal tribunals on this point is less amenable to artificial dis-
tinctions between the intent relevant to genocide and that relevant to
ethnic cleansing than the Court. The Appeal Chamber in Krstic ´ has

clearly held that the pattern of conduct known as ethnic cleansing may be
relied on as evidence of the mens rea of genocide . Coupled with popula-
tion transfers, what other inference is there to draw from the overwhelm-

ing evidence of massive killings systematically targeting the Bosnian

19
The Strategic Goals were as follows: (1) separation as a state from the other two
ethnic communities; (2) a corridor between Semberija and Krajina; (3) the establishment
of a corridor in the Drina River valley, i.e., the elimination of the border between Serbian
states; (4) the establishment of a border on the Una and Neretva rivers; and (5) the divi-
sion of the city of Sarajevo into a Serbian part and a Muslim part, and the establishment
of effective State authorities within each part (Judgment, para. 371).

20Krsti´, IT-98-33-A, para. 34. On this basis, the Appeal Chamber held that

“[s]ome other members of the VRS Main Staff harboured the same intent to carry
out forcible displacement, but viewed this displacement as a step in the accomplish-
ment of their genocidal objective. [To some other members of the VRS Main Staff],
the forcible displacement was a means of advancing the genocidal plan.” (Ibid.,
para. 133.)

See also Krajisnik, IT-00-39-T, Judgment of 27 September 2006, para. 854.

218258 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

Muslims than genocidal intent? If the only objective was to move the
Muslim population, and the Court is willing to assume that the Bosnian
Serbs did only that which is strictly necessary in order to achieve this
objective, then what to make of the mass murder? If the Court cannot

ignore that population transfer was one way of achieving the Strategic
Goals, then why should it ignore that, in fact, the Bosnian Serbs used this
method as one of many — including massive killings of members of the
protected group.

42. The second argument the Court relies on bears on the conduct of
the ICTY’s Prosecutor and the Tribunal’s jurisprudence on genocide.

The Court rejects the Applicant’s argument that the pattern of atrocities
committed over many communities demonstrates the necessary intent
because it “is not consistent with the findings of the ICTY relating to
genocide or with the actions of the Prosecutor, including decisions not to

charge genocide offences in possibly relevant indictments, and to enter
into plea agreements” (Judgment, para. 374). That the ICTY has not
found genocide based on patterns of conduct in the whole of Bosnia is
of course not in the least surprising. The Tribunal only has jurisdiction to
judge the individual criminal liability of particular persons accused before

it, and the relevant evidence will therefore be limited to the sphere of
operations of the accused. In addition, prosecutorial conduct is often
based on expediency and therefore no conclusions can be drawn from the
prosecution’s acceptance of a plea bargain or failure to charge a particu-
lar person with genocide. While the Court is intent on adopting the bur-

den of proof relevant to criminal trials, it is not willing to recognize that
there is a fundamental distinction between a single person’s criminal trial
and a case involving State responsibility for genocide. The Court can
look at patterns of conduct throughout Bosnia because it is not con-

strained by the sphere of operations of any particular accused — and it
should have done so.

43. The consistent jurisprudence of the international criminal tribunals
is clear on the permissibility (and even the necessity) of relying on facts
and circumstances from which to infer genocidal intent. The ICTY
Appeal Chamber held that proof of specific genocidal intent

“may, in the absence of direct explicit evidence, be inferred from a
number of facts and circumstances, such as the general context, the
perpetration of other culpable acts systematically directed against

the same group, the scale of atrocities committed, the systematic

219259 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL -KHASAWNEH )

targeting of victims on account of their membership of a particular
21
group, or the repetition of destructive and discriminatory acts” .

44. Relying on the decision in Jelisic ´, the Appeal Chamber in Krstic ´

also held that “[w]hen direct evidence of genocidal intent is absent, the 22
intent may still be inferred from the factual circumstances of the crime” .
45. The ICTR has also consistently relied on inference as a means of

establishing the requisite genocidal mens rea.I nRutaganda , the ICTR
Appeal Chamber affirmed the Trial Chamber’s approach to inferring
genocidal intent:

“The Chamber considers that it is possible to deduce the genocidal
intent inherent in a particular act charged from the general context

of the perpetration of other culpable acts systematically directed
against that same group, whether these acts were committed by the
same offender or by others. Other factors, such as the scale of atroci-

ties committed, their general nature, in a region or a country, or
furthermore, the fact of deliberately and systematically targeting vic-
tims on account of their membership of a particular group, while

excluding the members of other groups, can enable the Chamber to
infer the genocidal intent of a particular act.” 23

46. The ICTR Appeal Chamber also held that, while making anti-
Tutsi utterances or being affiliated to an extremist anti-Tutsi group is not
a sine qua non for establishing the dolus specialis of genocide, establishing
24
such a fact may, nonetheless, facilitate proof of specific intent .n I
Musema, the ICTR Appeal Chamber held that “in practice, intent can

be, on a case-by-case basis, inferred from the material evidence submitted
to the Chamber, including the evidence which demonstrates a consistent
pattern of conduct by the Accused” . Finally, in Kayishema (the reason-
26
ing of which the Appeal Chamber affirmed) , the ICTR held that

“[t]he perpetrator’s actions, including circumstantial evidence, how-
ever may provide sufficient evidence of intent. . . The Chamber finds
that the intent can be inferred either from words or deeds and may

21 Jeli´, IT-95-10-A, Judgment of 5 July 2001, para. 47; J´, IT-95-10, Judgment of
14 December 1999, para. 73.
22 Krst´, supra footnote 20, para. 34.
23 Akayesu, ICTR-96-4, Judgment of 2 September 1998, para. 523, and Georges Ruta-
ganda, ICTR-96-3, Judgment of 6 December 1999, para. 398, both as affirmed in Georges

Ru24ganda, ICTR-96-3-A, Judgment of 26 May 2003, para. 528.
25 Georges Rutaganda, ICTR-96-3-A, Judgment of 26 May 2003, para. 525.
Musema, ICTR-96-13-A, Judgment of 27 January 2000, para. 167.
26 Kayishema, ICTR-95-1-A, Judgment of 1 June 2001, para. 148.

220260 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL -KHASAWNEH )

be demonstrated by a pattern of purposeful action. In particular, the
Chamber considers evidence such as the physical targeting of the
group or their property; the use of derogatory language toward

members of the targeted group; the weapons employed and the
extent of bodily injury; the methodical way of planning, the system-
atic manner of killing. Furthermore, the number of victims from the
group is also important.” 27

47. It is regrettable that the Court’s approach to proof of genocidal
intent did not reflect more closely this relevant jurisprudence.

48. Fourthly, genocide is definitionally a complex crime in the sense
that unlike homicide it takes time to achieve, requires repetitiveness, and
is committed by many persons and organs acting in concert. As such, it

cannot be appreciated in a disconnected manner. Unfortunately, there
are instances in the Judgment where this happens, including on crucial
issues such as FRY responsibility for the genocide at Srebrenica.

49. Belgrade’s knowledge of the more general operations in Srebrenica
28
— those geared toward “taking the town” — is amply established .In
addition, Carl Bildt (European negotiator) met twice with President
Miloševic´ and General Mladic ´ together in the midst of the takeover of
29
Srebrenica and the subsequent massacre . As regards General Mladic ´,
it is accepted that his promotion to the rank of Colonel General was
handled in Belgrade, and the Respondent’s claim that this was no more

than some administrative confirmation of a decision made in Pale is
unconvincing. The Secretary-General’s report on the fall of Srebrenica
relates that Mr. Bildt was joined in his meeting with President Milo-

ševi´ on 14 July by General Mladic ´ — which is the period during which the
Court determined that the decision to eliminate physically the whole
of the adult male population of the Muslim community of Srebrenica

was taken (Judgment, para. 423). The Report also highlights that President
Karadžic ´ (President of the Republika Srpska) was unaware of the
meetings between Mr. Bildt, President Miloševic ´ and General Mladic ´ .

27Kayishema, ICTR-95-1, Judgment of 21 May 1999, para. 93.
28Netherlands Institute for War Documentation, Srebrenica — a ‘safe’ area. Recon-
struction, background, consequences and analyses of the fall of the Safe Area , 10 April 2002,
Chap. 7.
29Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35,

“The Fall of Srebrenica”, United Nations doc. A/54/549 (1999), p. 81, para. 372.
30
Ibid., p. 82, paras. 373-376.

221261 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS .OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

50. Finally, in regard specifically to the massacres in Srebrenica,

General Clark testified in Miloševic ´’s trial to the following conversation
he had with the President of the FRY:

“Well, all I can confirm, Your Honour, is the discussion that I

had. I went to Miloševic ´ and I asked him. I said, ‘If you have so
much influence over these Serbs, how could you have allowed Gen-
eral Mladic´ to have killed all those people at Srebrenica?’ And he
looked to me — at me. His expression was very grave. He paused

before he answered, and he said, ‘Well, General Clark, I warned him
not to do this, but he didn’t listen to me.’ And it was in the context
of all of the publicity at the time about the Srebrenica massacre.
Now, I did not use the word ‘massacre’, and I did not specifically use

the word ‘civilian’, but the context of the conversation was extremely
clear and timely at that point.” 31

51. General Mladic ´’s decisive role in the Srebrenica genocide, the close

relationship between General Mladic ´ and President Miloševic ´, the influ-
ential part President Miloševic ´ played in negotiations regarding Sre-
brenica (both before and after the genocide), and his own statements as
set forth above, each taken alone, might not amount to proof of Presi-

dent Miloševic ´’s knowledge of the genocide set to unfold in Srebrenica.
Taken together, these facts clearly establish that Belgrade was, if not fully
integrated in, then fully aware of, the decision-making processes regarding

Srebrenica, while the Republika Srpska itself was excluded. Even after
the fact, negotiations following the fall of Srebrenica and the genocide
committed there were held simultaneously with General Mladic ´ and
President Miloševic ´ . There can be no doubt that President Miloševic ´

was fully appraised of General Mladic ´’s (and the Bosnian Serb army’s)
activities in Srebrenica throughout the takeover and massacres.

52. An even more disturbing feature in the Court’s reasoning is
evident in its treatment of the Serbian paramilitary units known as
the “Scorpions” (Judgment, paras. 289, 389 and 395).

53. Thus, paragraph 389 of the Judgment considers two documents
presented by the Applicant, in which there is reference to the “Scorpions”

31
Prosecutor v. Miloše´, ICTY Judgment, No. IT-02-54, Transcript of 16 Decem-
be322003, pp. 30494-30495.
Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35,
“The Fall of Srebrenica”, United Nations doc. A/54/549 (1999), p. 85, para. 392.

222262 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

as “MUP of Serbia” and a “unit of Ministry of Interiors of Serbia”. The
paragraph notes that the authenticity of the documents was disputed by
the Respondent presumably because “they were copies of intercepts, but
not originals”. But it is plain that if the Court insisted on original docu-

ments, it would never be able to render any judgments. Be this as it may,
the other reason advanced to undermine the importance of these docu-
ments is that they are not addressed to Belgrade, the senders being “offi-
cials of the police forces of the Republika Srpska”. But this in itself does
not deny their probative value. When an official of the Republika Srpska

sends a telegram to his superior in which the Scorpions are described as
“MUP of Serbia” or “a unit of Ministry of Interiors of Serbia”, there is
no reason to doubt the veracity of this statement.

54. Consequently, we have here a case of a unit which had been incor-
porated into the forces of the Respondent — though the date for that
incorporation is in dispute — yet the Court concludes that they are not to

be treated as de jure organs of the Respondent in 1995, notwithstanding
evidence that they were perceived to be such by the Republika Srpska
officials. Equally surprising is the Court’s treatment of the statement by
the Government of Serbia and Montenegro — after President Miloševic ´’s
fall from power — to the effect that what happened in Srebrenica was not

the work of Serbia, but of the ousted régime. This statement was in fact
occasioned by the showing, on national and international television, of
the shocking images of the brutal execution of six Muslim prisoners in
Trnovo, near Srebrenica, by the Scorpions. The Court failed to take
account of this closely connected fact in its appreciation of the status of

the Scorpions.

55. Lastly, with regard to the Scorpions, the Court goes on in para-
graph 389 to say:

“Furthermore, the Court notes that in any event the act of an
organ placed by a State at the disposal of another public authority
by a state shall not be considered an act of that State if the organ
was acting on behalf of the public authority at whose disposal it

had been placed.”

However, while the spirit of Article 6 of the ILC’s Articles on State
Responsibility is faithfully reflected, it must be noted that on this impor-

tant question of fact, there is no evidence that the Scorpions were placed
at the disposal of another public authority.
56. Fifthly, the Court’s treatment of the statement by the Government
of Serbia and Montenegro alluded to above leaves much to be desired. In
view of the importance of this statement, it bears being recalled in full:

223263 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

“Those who committed the killings in Srebrenica, as well as those

who ordered and organized that massacre represented neither Serbia
nor Montenegro, but an undemocratic régime of terror and death,
against whom the great majority of citizens of Serbia and Monte-

negro put up the strongest resistance.
Our condemnation of crimes in Srebrenica does not end with the
direct perpetrators. We demand the criminal responsibility of all
who committed war crimes, organized them or ordered them, and

not only in Srebrenica.
Criminals must not be heroes. Any protection of the war crimi-
nals, for whatever reason, is also a crime.”

57. The Court has concluded that this statement was of a political
nature and does not amount to an admission of Serbian responsibility for
the massacres in Srebrenica. To support its refusal to take at face value

the plain language of the Serbian Council of Ministers, the Court invokes
its decisions in the Nuclear Tests and Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/
Republic of Mali) cases. These Judgments, however, are neutral in their
support for the conclusions the Court draws in paragraph 378. In these

Judgments the Court held that declarations made by way of unilateral
acts, in particular by highly placed government officials , can have bind-
ing legal consequences. In determining these consequences, the Court has
consistently considered whether the language employed reveals a clear

intention (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 473, para. 47; see also Temple of Preah Vihear (Cam-
bodia v. Thailand), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1961, pp. 31-32). And intention must be considered in the context in
which the statements were made (the Court is not to presume that the
statements were not made in vacuo)( Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v.
France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 474, para. 52)), and in the

general framework of international discourse.

58. Indeed, the opposite conclusion from that reached by the Court in
paragraph 378 is supported by the cited jurisprudence. To the extent that

the effect of a unilateral act depends on the intent behind it and the con-
text within which it was made, one need only consider this: the Serbian
Government at the time was attempting to distance itself — as a new and
democratic régime — from the régime which had come before it, in light

of the revelation of horrible crimes committed by paramilitary units (the

33In Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), the Court specifically holds that

“there can be no doubt, in view of [the French President’s] functions, that his public
communications or statements, oral or written, as Head of State, are in international
relations acts of the French State” (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 474, para. 51).

224264 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

Scorpions) on national Serbian and international television. The intent
was to acknowledge the previous régime’s responsibility for those crimes,
and to make a fresh start by distancing the new régime therefrom. A
clearer intention to “admit” past wrongs cannot be had.

59. Of equal note is the Court’s failure to address its decisions in Nica-
ragua and Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda — both of which
were invoked in the Applicant’s pleadings on this subject (CR2006/11,

pp. 10-15 (Condorelli)). In Nicaragua, the Court considered what legal
consequences could be drawn from the United States characterization of
its conduct in Nicaragua as “self-defence”. In so doing, the Court had
this to say:

“statements of this kind, emanating from high-ranking official politi-

cal figures, sometimes indeed of the highest rank, are of particular
probative value when they acknowledge facts or conduct unfavour-
able to the State represented by the person who made them. They
may then be construed as a form of admission.” (Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United

States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 ,p .1,
para. 64; emphasis added.)
“Among the legal effects which such declarations may have is that

they may be regarded as evidence of the truth of facts , as evidence
that such facts are attributable to the State the authorities of which
are the authors of these declarations, and, to a lesser degree, as evi-
dence for the legal qualification of these facts.” (Ibid., p. 43, para. 71;

emphasis added.)
60. The Court’s reasoning in Nicaragua is highly relevant in its appli-

cation to the statement made by the Serbian Council of Ministers. The
Council of Ministers unambiguously admits that the previous Govern-
ment of Serbia and Montenegro (internationally recognized and unques-
tionably acting on behalf of the Serbian State for the purposes of State

responsibility) had “ordered and organized” the killings in Srebrenica.
Given the continuity of State responsibility, despite the change in régime,
this statement certainly acknowledge[s] facts or conduct unfavourable to
the State making the statement , and on the basis of Nicaragua thereby
amounts to a form of admission, or at the very least, evidence of the truth

of the facts it asserts. This conclusion is in keeping with the Court’s
recent decision in Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda, in which
the Court observed that it would

“give particular attention to reliable evidence acknowledging facts or
conduct unfavourable to the State represented by the person making

them. . .” (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Demo-

225265 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

cratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2005, p. 201, para. 61.)

61. The Court’s lack of application of the jurisprudence it does invoke,
and failure to invoke jurisprudence more directly on point is unfortunate.

The Serbian Council of Ministers’ statement, taken in the context of the
other evidence available to the Court, certainly amounts to an admission
of the responsibility of President Miloševic´’s régime for the massacres in
Srebrenica, which the Court has determined amount to genocide.

III. CONCLUSION

62. The Court has absolved Serbia from responsibility for genocide in
Bosnia and Herzegovina -— save for responsibility for failure to prevent
genocide in Srebrenica. It achieved this extraordinary result in the face of

vast and compelling evidence to the contrary. This result was however a
product of a combination of methods and techniques the Court adopted
that could not but have led to this result. In the first place the Court
refused to inform itself regarding the twin questions of intent and attri-

butability, the most elusive points in proving the crime of genocide and
engaging State responsibility for it. At the same time, the Court refused
to translate its taking note of the refusal to divulge redacted materials
into concrete steps regarding the onus and standard of proof, thereby
putting the Applicant at a huge disadvantage. If this was not enough, it

required in addition too high a threshold for control and one that did not
accord with the facts of this case nor with the relevant jurisprudence of
the ICTY. The Court likewise failed to appreciate the definitional com-
plexity of the crime of genocide and the need for a comprehensive

approach in appreciating closely related facts, the role of General Mladic´
and the Scorpions in Srebrenica being a prime example. Moreover, where
certain facts did not fit the Court’s conclusions, they were dismissed with
no justification, the statement of the new Government of Serbia being

also a case in point. I am certain that as far as Srebrenica is concerned,
FRY responsibility as a principal or as an accomplice is satisfied on the
facts and in law. I am of the opinion also that with regard to other parts
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, had the Court followed more appropriate

methods for assessing the facts, there would have been, in all probability,
positive findings as to Serbia’s international responsibility.

(Signed) Awn Shawkat A L -KHASAWNEH .

226

Bilingual Content

241

DISSENTING OPINION OF VICE-PRESIDENT
AL-KHASAWNEH

The Court’s jurisdiction is established — Serious doubts that already settled
question of jurisdiction should have been re-examined — SFRY’s United Nations
membership could only have been suspended or terminated pursuant to Articles

5 or 6 of the Charter; Security Council and General Assembly resolutions did
not have the effect of terminating the SFRY’s United Nations membership —
The FRY’s admission to the United Nations in 2000 did not retroactively change
its position vis-à-vis the United Nations between 1992 and 2000 — Between
1992 and 2000, the FRY was the continuator of the SFRY, and after its admis-
sion to the United Nations, the FRY was the SFRY’s successor — The Court’s
Judgment in the Legality of Use of Force cases on the question of access and
“treaties in force” is not convincing and regrettably has led to confusion and
contradictions within the Court’s own jurisprudence — The Court should not
have entertained the Respondent’s highly irregular 2001 “Initiative” on access
to the Court, nor should it have invited the Respondent to renew its jurisdic-
tional arguments at the merits phase.

Serbia’s involvement, as a principal actor or accomplice, in the genocide that
took place in Srebrenica is supported by massive and compelling evidence —
Disagreement with the Court’s methodology for appreciating the facts and
drawing inferences therefrom — The Court should have required the Respon-
dent to provide unedited copies of its Supreme Defence Council documents, fail-
ing which, the Court should have allowed a more liberal recourse to inference —
The “effective control” test for attribution established in the Nicaragua case is
not suitable to questions of State responsibility for international crimes com-
mitted with a common purpose — The “overall control” test for attribution
established in the Tad´ case is more appropriate when the commission of inter-
national crimes is the common objective of the controlling State and the non-
State actors — The Court’s refusal to infer genocidal intent from a consistent
pattern of conduct in Bosnia and Herzegovina is inconsistent with the estab-
lished jurisprudence of the ICTY — The FRY’s knowledge of the genocide set to
unfold in Srebrenica is clearly established — The Court should have treated the
Scorpions as a de jure organ of the FRY — The statement by the Serbian Coun-

cil of Ministers in response to the massacre of Muslim men by the Scorpions
amounted to an admission of responsibility — The Court failed to appreciate
the definitional complexity of the crime of genocide and to assess the facts
before it accordingly.

1. I feel that I should explain the nature of my dissent before explain-
ing the reasons for it. I am not in total disagreement with the majority:

202 241

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE AL-KHASAWNEH,
VICE-PRÉSIDENT

[Traduction]

La compétence de la Cour est établie — De sérieux doutes quant à la décision
de procéder à un réexamen de la question déjà tranchée de la compétence — Il
n’aurait été possible de suspendre l’appartenance de la RFSY à l’Organisation

des Nations Unies ou d’y mettre fin qu’en application des articles 5 et 6 de la
Charte; les résolutions du Conseil de sécurité et de l’Assemblée générale n’ont
pas eu pour effet de mettre fin à l’appartenance de la RFSY à l’Organisation des
Nations Unies — L’admission de la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies en
2000 n’a pas changé rétroactivement sa situation vis-à-vis de l’Organisation
entre 1992 et 2000 — Entre 1992 et 2000, la RFY assurait la continuité de la
RFSY et, après son admission à l’Organisation des Nations Unies, elle était suc-
cesseur de la RFSY — L’arrêt rendu par la Cour dans les affaires relatives à la
Licéité de l’emploi de la force sur la question de l’accès et des «traités en
vigueur» n’est pas convaincant et a, de manière regrettable, été à l’origine d’une
confusion et de contradictions dans la propre jurisprudence de la Cour — La
Cour n’aurait pas dû examiner l’«Initiative» tout à fait irrégulière que le défen-
deur a présentée en 2001 sur l’accès à la Cour, pas plus qu’elle n’aurait dû invi-
ter le défendeur à présenter de nouveau, à la phase du fond, des arguments sur
la compétence.

L’implication de la Serbie, en tant qu’auteur principal ou complice, dans le
génocide commis à Srebrenica est étayée par des éléments de preuve abondants
et solides — Désaccord sur la méthode suivie par la Cour pour apprécier les
faits et en tirer des conclusions — La Cour aurait dû exiger du défendeur qu’il
lui fournisse des copies non occultées des documents du Conseil suprême de la
défense, à défaut de quoi la Cour aurait dû permettre un recours plus libéral à la
présomption — Le critère du «contrôle effectif» aux fins de l’imputabilité établi
dans l’affaire Nicaragua ne convient pas pour les questions de la responsabilité
de l’Etat en matière de crimes de droit international commis dans un but com-
mun — Le critère du «contrôle effectif» aux fins de l’imputabilité établi dans
l’affaire Tadi´ est plus approprié, lorsque la commission de crimes de droit
international est le but commun de l’Etat qui exerce un contrôle et des acteurs
non étatiques — Le refus de la Cour de déduire l’intention génocidaire d’une
ligne de conduite systématique en Bosnie-Herzégovine n’est pas conforme à la
jurisprudence bien établie du TPIY — Il est clairement établi que la RFY avait
connaissance du génocide qui allait se dérouler à Srebrenica — La Cour aurait

dû traiter les Scorpions en tant qu’organe de jure de la RFY — La déclaration
par laquelle le Conseil des ministres serbe a réagi au massacre d’hommes musul-
mans par les Scorpions équivalait à une admission de responsabilité — La Cour
n’a pas mesuré la difficulté qu’il y a à définir le crime de génocide à raison de la
complexité de celui-ci et n’a pas, partant, procédé à une appréciation des faits
qui lui ont été soumis.

1. J’estime devoir expliquer la nature de mon dissentiment avant d’en
exposer les raisons. Je ne suis pas en total désaccord avec la majorité: en

202242 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL KHASAWNEH )

regarding jurisdiction, I come to the same conclusion contained in para-

graph 1 of the dispositif that the Court’s jurisdiction is established,
although I have serious doubts whether, in terms of the proper adminis-
tration of justice, the already settled question of jurisdiction should have

been re-examined in the Judgment.

2. I, likewise, concur with the findings (paragraphs 5-7 of the disposi-
tif) dealing respectively with Serbia’s violation of its obligations under

the Genocide Convention to prevent genocide in Srebrenica and to
cooperate fully with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former
Yugoslavia; and its failure to comply with the two Orders on provisional
measures issued by the Court in 1993.

3. Where, however, my learned colleagues and I part company is with
respect to the central question of Serbia’s international responsibility
incurred as a consequence of its involvement — as a principal actor or an

accomplice — in the genocide that took place in Bosnia and Herze-
govina. Such involvement is supported, in my opinion, by massive and
compelling evidence. My disagreement with the majority, however, relates

not only to their conclusions but also to the very assumptions on which
their reasoning is based and to their methodology for appreciating the
facts and drawing inferences therefrom, and is hence profound. There-
fore, notwithstanding my agreement with some parts of the Judgment,

and much to my regret, I am duty and conscience bound to dissent. In
explanation of this position I append the present opinion.

I. T HE C OURT S JURISDICTION

4. The jurisdictional issues in the present case have revolved around
the international status of the Respondent and its membership in the
United Nations. Those issues, which permeated all phases of this case
and other related cases, can be traced to the State succession arising out

of the process of disintegration of the Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (SFRY) which took place in the early 1990s. Briefly described,
that process — for it has to be emphasized that there was no agreed point
in time when the SFRY could be said to have been extinguished — 1

started when both Slovenia and Croatia seceded from the SFRY on
25 June 1991. Macedonia did the same on 17 September 1991 and Bosnia
and Herzegovina, the last to secede, followed on 6 March 1992. Only two

constituent republics, Serbia and Montenegro, were left in the old Yugo-
slavia and on 27 April 1992 they joined to form the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (FRY) which claimed to be the continuator of the SFRY and
declared its intention “to strictly abide by all the international commit-

1
As was the case, for example, with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

203 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP.DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 242

ce qui concerne la compétence, la conclusion à laquelle je parviens est la

même que celle exposée au point 1 du dispositif, à savoir que la compé-
tence de la Cour est établie, même si j’éprouve un sérieux doute quant à
l’opportunité, aux fins d’une bonne administration de la justice, de pro-
céder dans l’arrêt au réexamen de la question déjà tranchée de la compé-

tence.
2. Je souscris, de même, aux conclusions (dispositif, points 5-7) por-
tant respectivement sur la violation, par la Serbie, des obligations lui
incombant, en vertu de la convention sur le génocide, de prévenir le géno-

cide à Srebrenica et de coopérer pleinement avec le Tribunal pénal inter-
national pour l’ex-Yougoslavie, et sur le non-respect, par cet Etat, des
deux ordonnances en indication de mesures conservatoires rendues par la
Cour en 1993.

3. Je suis toutefois en désaccord avec mes éminents collègues sur la
question centrale de la responsabilité internationale encourue par la Ser-
bie du fait de sa participation — en tant qu’auteur principal ou en tant
que complice — au génocide commis en Bosnie-Herzégovine. Cette par-

ticipation a, selon moi, été abondamment et en toute certitude prouvée.
Mon désaccord avec la majorité porte non seulement sur les conclusions
auxquelles elle est parvenue, mais aussi sur les postulats sous-tendant son
raisonnement et la méthode suivie pour apprécier les faits et en tirer des

conclusions: il s’agit donc d’un désaccord profond. En conséquence,
même si je souscris à certaines parties de l’arrêt, le devoir et ma cons-
cience m’imposent, à mon grand regret, d’exprimer mon dissentiment. Je
joins à l’arrêt la présente opinion pour expliquer ma position.

I. LA COMPÉTENCE DE LA C OUR

4. Les questions de compétence ont, en l’espèce, tourné autour du sta-
tut international du défendeur et de sa qualité de Membre de l’Organisa-

tion des Nations Unies. Ces questions, qui ont imprégné toutes les phases
de cette affaire et d’autres affaires connexes, trouvent leur origine dans le
problème de la succession d’Etat qu’a soulevé le processus de désintégra-
tion de la République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie (RFSY) au

début des années quatre-vingt-dix. En bref, ce processus — car il convient
de souligner qu’il n’existe pas d’accord sur la date à laquelle remonterait
l’extinction de la RFSY — commença lorsque la Slovénie et la Croatie
firent sécession le 25 juin 1991. La Macédoine fit de même le 17 sep-

tembre 1991, et la Bosnie-Herzégovine, dernière des républiques à faire
sécession, le 6 mars 1992. Ne restaient plus, au sein de l’ancienne Yougo-
slavie, que deux républiques constitutives, la Serbie et le Monténégro,
et le 27 avril 1992 celles-ci s’unirent pour former la République fédérale

de Yougoslavie (RFY), qui prétendit assurer la continuité de la RFSY et

1Contrairement à ce qui fut, par exemple, le cas pour l’Union des Républiques
socialistes soviétiques.

203243 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS .OP .AL -KHASAWNEH )

ments” of the SFRY as well as to remain “bound by all obligations to
international organizations and institutions whose member it is” . 2

5. While the four Republics that emerged from the SFRY were
admitted to United Nations membership in 1992 and 1993, the FRY’s
claim to continuity was noted by the Security Council on 30 May 1992 as
3
a claim that “has not been generally accepted” . Again the Security
Council, on 19 September 1992, considered that the SFRY had ceased
to exist, recalled its earlier resolution, and considered that the FRY

“cannot continue automatically the membership of the former Social-
ist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the United Nations; and
therefore recommend[ed] to the General Assembly that it decide that

the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) should
apply for membership in the United Nations and that it shall not
4
participate in the work of the General Assembly” .

Two days later the General Assembly adopted a resolution in which inter
alia it decided that the FRY “should apply for membership in the United

Nations and 5hat it shall not participate in the work of the General
Assembly” .
6. Both the language of the resolutions and their negotiating history

suggest that they were compromise resolutions that fell short of termi-
nating or suspending SFRY membership in the United Nations . In fact 6
under the United Nations Charter, there is no way in which the SFRY

membership could have been terminated given the veto power of the per-
manent members, some of whom were as opposed to such a termination
as others were keen on it. In any case, the requirements for suspension

(Charter, Art. 5) or expulsion (Charter, Art. 6) were never invoked by the
Security Council nor put into motion. The FRY clung to its membership
claim with the result that

“the only practical consequence that [General Assembly resolu-
tion 47/1] draws is that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia
and Montenegro) shall not participate in the work of the General

Assembly” (letter of the Under-Secretary-General and Legal Coun-
sel of the United Nations; incidentally the only legal authority to

2 United Nations doc. A/46/915 (1992), 7 May 1992, Ann. II.
3 Security Council resolution 757 (1992), 30 May 1992.
4 Security Council resolution 777 (1992), 19 September 1992.
5 General Assembly resolution 47/1 (1992), 22 September 1992.
6 See Michael Scharf, “Musical Chairs: The Dissolution of States and Membership in
the United Nations”, Cornell International Law Journal , 1995, Vol. 28, pp. 58-62.

204 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 243

exprima dans une déclaration son intention de «respect[er] strictement
tous les engagements que la République fédérative socialiste de Yougo-
slavie a[vait] pris à l’échelon international», ainsi que de demeurer «liée

par toutes ses obligations vis-à-vis des organisations et institutions inter-
nationales auxquelles elle appart[enait]t» . 2
5. Alors que les quatre républiques issues de la RFSY furent admises à

l’Organisation des Nations Unies en qualité de Membres en 1992 et 1993,
le Conseil de sécurité nota, le 30 mai 1992, que l’affirmation de la RFY
selon laquelle elle assurait la continuité de la RFSY «n’a[vait] pas été
3
généralement acceptée» . De nouveau, le 19 septembre 1992, le Conseil
de sécurité estima que la RFSY avait cessé d’exister, rappela sa résolution
précédente et considéra que la RFY

«ne p[ouvait] pas assurer automatiquement la continuité de la qua-

lité de Membre de l’ancienne République fédérative socialiste de
Yougoslavie aux Nations Unies et par conséquent recommand[ait] à
l’Assemblée générale de décider que la République fédérative de

Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro) dev[ait] présenter une demande
d’adhésion aux Nations Unies et qu’elle ne participera[it] pas aux
travaux de l’Assemblée générale» . 4

Trois jours plus tard, l’Assemblée générale adopta une résolution dans

laquelle elle décidait, notamment, que la RFY «dev[ait] présenter une
demande d’admission à l’Organisation et qu’elle ne participera[it] pas
aux travaux de l’Assemblée générale» . 5

6. Il ressort de leur libellé comme de leur genèse que ces résolutions
étaient des résolutions de compromis, qui n’allaient pas jusqu’à mettre fin
à l’appartenance de la RFSY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies ni à la
6
suspendre . De fait, sur la base de la Charte des Nations Unies, il n’exis-
tait pas de moyen de mettre fin à la qualité de Membre de la RFSY,
compte tenu du droit de veto dont disposent les Membres permanents,

dont certains étaient autant opposés à cette mesure que d’autres y étaient
favorables. Quoi qu’il en soit, les conditions d’une suspension (Charte,
art. 5) ou d’une exclusion (Charte, art. 6) ne furent jamais invoquées par

le Conseil de sécurité ni mises en Œuvre. La RFY persista dans sa préten-
tion à la qualité de Membre, de sorte que

«l’unique conséquence pratique de cette résolution [la résolution 47/1
de l’Assemblée générale] [fut] que la République fédérative de You-

goslavie (Serbie et Monténégro) ne participera[it] pas aux travaux de
l’Assemblée générale» (lettre du Secrétaire général adjoint et
conseiller juridique de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, lequel fut

2 Nations Unies, doc. A/46/915 (1992), 7 mai 1992, annexe II.
3 Résolution 757 (1992) du Conseil de sécurité, 30 mai 1992.
4 Résolution 777 (1992) du Conseil de sécurité, 19 septembre 1992.
5 Résolution 47/1 de l’Assemblée générale (1992), 22 septembre 1992.
6 Voir Michael Scharf, «Musical Chairs: The Dissolution of States and Membership in
the United Nations», Cornell International Law Journal , 1995, vol. 28, p. 58-62.

204244 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL -KHASAWNEH )

appraise the matter in what was an otherwise blatantly political

process).

That letter from the Legal Counsel of the United Nations left no room
for doubt. It went on to state “on the other hand, the resolution neither
terminates nor suspends Yugoslavia’s membership”.

7. Important as this letter is, we should not be content with it, nor
with the language and negotiating history of Security Council resolu-
tions 757 and 777 and General Assembly resolution 47/1, nor with the
undisputed fact that no measures were adopted to affect the termination

or suspension of SFRY membership — all of which point unmistakably
to continued SFRY membership in the United Nations. We should, addi-
tionally, ask a basic question: was the SFRY a United Nations Member
in the first place? The answer to that question is also clearly in the

affirmative, for it would be recalled that the SFRY had been a founding
Member of the United Nations and already in 1947 the Sixth Committee
of the General Assembly had formulated the principle that:

“As a general rule, it is in accordance with principle to assume
that a State which is a Member of the United Nations does not cease
to be a Member from the mere fact that its constitution or frontiers

have been modified, and to consider the rights and obligations which
that State possesses as a Member of the United Nations as ceasing to
exist only with its extinction as a legal person internationally recog-
nized as such.” 7

8. At no time was the SFRY extinguished as a legal person interna-

tionally recognized as such. There were always States that continued to
recognize the FRY as the continuator of the SFRY though there were
others who took the opposite view. This state of affairs is typical of the
relativism inherent in the constitutive theory of recognition and in itself

prevents the drawing of any firm inferences. The only way to ascertain
whether there was continuity or extinction of the SFRY is by reference to
the actual or legal elements surrounding the succession of States which
can be measured against an objective yardstick. It is indisputable, for

example, that the capital of the SFRY was still within the borders of the
FRY and that Serbia (an ancient kingdom) and Montenegro formed the
historic nucleus of Yugoslavia and continued even after the loss of the
four Republics — which happened at different times — to have 40 per

cent of the land mass of the former Yugoslavia and 45 per cent of its

7United Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Sixth Committee,
Second Session, 43rd meeting, 1947, pp. 38-39.

205 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 244

— relevons-le au passage — l’unique autorité juridique à exprimer
un avis sur la question, dans un processus limité autrement au seul

domaine politique).
Cette lettre du conseiller juridique de l’Organisation ne laissait aucune

place au doute. Elle se poursuivait en ces termes: «D’un autre côté, la
résolution ne met pas fin à l’appartenance de la Yougoslavie à l’Organi-
sation et ne la suspend pas.»
7. Aussi importante qu’elle soit, nous ne devons pas nous contenter de

cette lettre. Nous ne devons pas davantage nous contenter du libellé et de
la genèse des résolutions 757 et 777 du Conseil de sécurité ou de la résolu-
tion 47/1 de l’Assemblée générale, ni du fait, incontesté, qu’il ne fut pris
aucune mesure en vue de mettre fin à l’appartenance de la RFSY à

l’Organisation ou de la suspendre — autant d’éléments qui indiquent très
clairement que la RFSY continuait d’être Membre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies. Nous devons en outre nous poser une question essen-
tielle: tout d’abord, la RFSY était-elle Membre de l’Organisation des

Nations Unies? La réponse à cette question est, elle aussi, clairement
affirmative, car l’on se rappellera que la RFSY avait été un Membre fon-
dateur de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et que, en 1947 déjà, la
Sixième Commission de l’Assemblée générale avait posé le principe

suivant:
«En règle générale, il est conforme aux principes de présumer

qu’un Etat qui est Membre des Nations Unies ne cesse pas d’en être
Membre du simple fait que sa constitution ou ses frontières ont subi
des modifications, et de considérer les droits et obligations que pos-
sède cet Etat en sa qualité de Membre des Nations Unies comme ne

cessant d’exister que par l’extinction de cet Etat en tant que per- 7
sonne juridique reconnue comme telle dans l’ordre international.»

8. A aucun moment la RFSY ne s’éteignit en tant que personne juri-
dique reconnue comme telle dans l’ordre international. Des Etats conti-
nuaient toujours de reconnaître à la RFY la qualité de successeur de la
RFSY, même s’il en existait d’autres qui avaient un point de vue contraire.

Cette situation est caractéristique du relativisme inhérent à la théorie
accordant à la reconnaissance valeur constitutive et empêche en soi de
tirer toute conclusion solide. La seule façon de déterminer s’il y eut conti-
nuité ou extinction de la RFSY est de s’appuyer sur les paramètres fac-

tuels ou juridiques de la succession d’Etats mesurables à l’aune d’un
critère objectif. Il est, par exemple, incontestable que la capitale de la
RFSY demeurait à l’intérieur des frontières de la RFY, que la Serbie (un
ancien royaume) et le Monténégro constituaient le noyau historique de la

Yougoslavie, et qu’ils continuaient de représenter, même après la perte —
survenue à des dates différentes — des quatre républiques, 40% du terri-

7Nations Unies, Documents officiels de la deuxième session de l’Assemblée générale,
Sixième Commission, quarante-troisième séance, 1947, p. 38-39.

205245 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL -KHASAWNEH )

population . Moreover, it is also factually indisputable that in the Forty-
sixth Session of the General Assembly, the SFRY, even after Slovenia,
Croatia and Macedonia had broken away, was still considered a United

Nations Member and the credentials of its representatives were not chal-
lenged. Of equal importance is that even in the Forty-seventh Session of
the General Assembly no challenge to the credentials of its representa-
9
tives was made . In other words, the rump Yugoslavia, later the FRY,
was treated as a continuator of the SFRY. There was nothing out of the
ordinary in this. It was supported by the classic models of the succession

of India and Pakistan from the Commonwealth of India; then later
the Pakistan/Bangladesh succession; and the dissolution of the Union
of the Soviet Socialist Republics; and it accorded with the principle
adopted by the Sixth Committee referred to above. Moreover, the nature

of Security Council resolutions 757 and 777 and General Assembly
resolution 47/1, appreciated contextually, lends strong credence
to the claim that their main aim was in the nature of sanctions.

It should not be overlooked in this respect that news of the atrocities
committed in Croatia and Bosnia were being carried world-wide to a
shocked international public opinion and blame for the most part was
being laid on the doorstep of the government of Mr. Miloševic ´

and hence sanctions were started even when the SFRY was still in
existence .0

9. Whatever may have been the case with regard to the intended or

unintended effects of those resolutions, the decisive fact is that once
SFRY membership in the United Nations had been ascertained and that
this membership had survived the breakaway of Croatia, Slovenia and

Macedonia which was indisputably the case in the Forty-sixth Session of
the General Assembly, and of Bosnia which was similarly the case in the
Forty-seventh Session of the General Assembly, the Security Council and

General Assembly resolutions adopted did not, and more importantly,
could not, have terminated or suspended that existing membership. Only
the SFRY, of its own volition, could give up its original membership and
it was naturally not inclined to do so, given not only the strength of its

claim, but additionally, because, had it abandoned its membership, it
would have put itself at the mercy of the “peace-loving formula” (United
Nations Charter, Art. 4, para. 1) which, contextually, it had ample

reason to believe some, including some in the Security Council, would
not easily apply to it. As already stated, the FRY clung to its membership

8See Michael Scharf, op. cit., p. 53.
9Yehuda Blum, “UN Membership of the ‘New’ Yugoslavia: Continuity or Break”,
American Journal of International Law , 1992, Vol. 86, p. 830.
10Security Council resolution 713 (1991), 25 September 1991, para. 6.

206 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP.DISS .AL KHASAWNEH ) 245

toire de l’ex-Yougoslavie et de regrouper 45% de sa population . A cela
s’ajoute qu’il est tout autant incontestable, du point de vue des faits, que
(à la quarante-sixième session de l’Assemblée générale) la RFSY, même

après la sécession de la Slovénie, de la Croatie et la Macédoine, resta
considérée comme un Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et
que les lettres de créance de ses représentants ne furent pas mises en

cause. Non moins important est le fait que, à la quarante-septième ses-
sion de l’Assemblée générale, elles ne le furent pas davantage .E 9 n
d’autres termes, ce qui restait de la Yougoslavie, devenu par la suite la

RFY, fut considéré comme assurant la continuité de la RFSY. Rien
d’extraordinaire à cela: cette manière de voir trouvait un appui dans le
schéma classique de la succession de l’Inde et du Pakistan au Com-
monwealth des Indes, puis de la succession Pakistan/Bangladesh et de

la dissolution de l’Union des Républiques socialistes soviétiques. Elle
était en outre conforme au principe posé par la Sixième Commission,
mentionné ci-dessus. De plus, la nature des résolutions 757 et 777 du

Conseil de sécurité et de la résolution 47/1 de l’Assemblée générale,
appréciées dans leur contexte, tend fortement à accréditer l’idée
qu’elles avaient pour but principal d’imposer une sorte de sanction.
Il convient de ne pas perdre de vue, à cet égard, que les nouvelles

concernant les atrocités commises en Croatie et en Bosnie étaient
portées dans le monde entier à la connaissance d’une opinion
publique internationale sous le choc, la responsabilité de ces atrocités

étant principalement attribuée au gouvernement de Miloševic ´ et que
des sanctions avaient de ce fait déjà commencé d’être prises du temps de
la RFSY . 10
9. Quels qu’aient pu être les effets, recherchés ou non, de ces résolu-

tions, le fait décisif est que, dès lors que l’appartenance de la RFSY à
l’Organisation des Nations Unies avait été établie, et qu’elle avait survécu
à la sécession de la Croatie, de la Slovénie et de la Macédoine — ce qui

était incontestablement le cas lors de la quarante-sixième session de
l’Assemblée générale —, et de la Bosnie — ce qui l’était lors de la qua-
rante-septième session de l’Assemblée générale —, les résolutions adop-

tées par le Conseil de sécurité et par l’Assemblée générale ne mirent pas
fin et, ce qui est plus important, ne purent mettre fin à cette appartenance
à l’Organisation ni ne la suspendirent. Seule la RFSY pouvait, de sa
propre initiative, renoncer à sa qualité de Membre originaire, ce qu’elle

n’était bien évidemment pas encline à faire, compte tenu non seulement
de la solidité de sa prétention mais, aussi, parce qu’une telle renonciation
l’aurait laissée à la merci de la «clause des Etats pacifiques» (Charte des

Nations Unies, art. 4, par. 1); or, elle avait, dans le contexte de l’époque,
d’amples raisons de penser que certains Etats, dont certains membres du

8Voir Michael Scharf, op. cit.,p.53.
9Yehuda Blum, «UN Membership of the «New» Yugoslavia: Continuity or Break»,
American Journal of International Law , 1992, vol. 86, p. 830.
10Résolution 713 (1991) du Conseil de sécurité, 25 septembre 1991, par. 6.

206246 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS .OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

and suffered only the sanction of non-participation in the work of the
General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
where a similar resolution was adopted . 11

10. Indeed there is post-Dayton evidence to suggest that had the FRY
persisted in its claim as a continuator, it would have triumphed. For we

can glean, for example, acceptance of that claim from the treaties that it
entered into with Croatia, Bosnia and Macedonia . The acceptance by
the successor States of that claim is especially significant given their close-
ness to the process of succession. This thesis, however, could not be fully

tested because the nascent normalcy was shattered by Mr. Miloševic ´’s
attack on Kosovo in 1999 resulting in disastrous consequences for the
FRY and, not least, for Mr. Miloševic ´ as evidenced by his fall from

power. A new Government replaced him and decided to embark on a
new course. It applied to the United Nations as a new Member and was
accepted as such in 2000, thereby abandoning of its own will the claim of
continuity. From that moment on and only from that moment on it

became a successor of the SFRY and not its continuator.

11. Curiously, the fact of FRY admission to the United Nations in
2000 was viewed as retroactively clarifying the Respondent’s hitherto

amorphous status vis-à-vis the United Nations in favour of the conclu-
sion that in the period 1992 to 2000 it was not a United Nations Member.
It was also argued that the FRY’s admission “revealed” a lack of United

Nations membership and toppled the assumption which was based on the
existence of an amorphous situation, making it now impossible to ignore
the question of the FRY’s access to the Court. Nothing could be more
debatable. The logic of the argument seems at first glance to be straight-

forward: admission as a new Member means that the FRY was not a
Member before the date of admission. But here we are not dealing with a
State that had never been a United Nations Member. Rather we are
faced with a State that assiduously maintained it was the continuator of

an original United Nations Member and which had to relinquish a strong
claim to continuity and apply as a new Member in the sense of a succes-
sor State. The distinction therefore is not between a “new Member” and

a “non-Member”, but between a “new Member” and an “old Member”.
Seen from this angle, the act of admission does not lead to the conclusion

11Security Council resolution 821 (1993), 28 April 1993, para. 1.
12See, e.g., Article IV of the Joint Declaration of the President of the Republic of Ser-
bia and the President of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which stipulates that
“Bosnia and Herzegovina accepts the State continuity of the Federal Republic of Yugo-

slavia”, United Nations doc. A/51/461-S/1996/830 (1996), 7 October 1996.

207 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.AL -KHASAWNEH ) 246

Conseil de sécurité, ne seraient pas prêts à lui appliquer aisément cette
clause. Comme je l’ai déjà indiqué, la RFY s’accrochait à sa qualité de
Membre et ne subit pour toute sanction que la non-participation aux tra-

vaux de l’Assemblé11générale et, après l’adoption d’une résolution ana-
logue en ce sens , à ceux du Conseil économique et social (ECOSOC).
10. De fait, certains éléments postérieurs aux accords de Dayton
donnent à penser que, si elle avait persisté dans sa prétention à assurer

la continuité de la RSFY, la RFY serait parvenue à ses fins. On peut en
effet déduire, par exemple, une acceptation de cette prétention du fait que
la Croatie, la Bosnie et la Macédoine avaient conclu des traités avec
elle . L’acceptation de cette prétention par les Etats successeurs revêt

une importance particulière, compte tenu de l’implication de ces derniers
dans le processus de succession. Cette thèse ne put, cependant, être entiè-
rement vérifiée: le début de normalité fut en effet brutalement interrompu

lorsque Miloševic ´ attaqua le Kosovo en 1999; l’attaque eut des consé-
quences désastreuses pour la RFY et pas moins pour Miloševic ´ lui-même,
ainsi que l’atteste sa chute. Un nouveau gouvernement lui succéda et
décida de s’engager dans une autre voie. Il présenta alors une demande

d’adhésion à l’Organisation des Nations Unies, pour en devenir un nou-
veau Membre, et la RFY fut admise en tant que tel en 2000, renonçant
ainsi d’elle-même à sa prétention à assurer la continuité de la RFSY.

C’est à partir de ce moment-là, et de ce moment-là seulement, qu’elle
devint un Etat successeur de la RFSY et non le continuateur de celle-ci.
11. Curieusement, le fait que la RFY ait été admise à l’Organisation
des Nations Unies en 2000 fut perçu comme clarifiant rétrospectivement

le statut, jusque-là indéterminé, du défendeur vis-à-vis de l’Organisation,
la conclusion retenue étant qu’il n’en a pas été membre, dans la période
allant de 1992 à 2000. Il a également été soutenu que l’admission de la

RFY avait «révélé» que celle-ci n’était pas membre de l’Organisation et
avait balayé le postulat fondé sur l’existence d’une situation incertaine, ce
qui ne permettait plus de faire abstraction de la question de l’accès de la
RFY à la Cour. Rien n’est plus discutable. A première vue, la logique de

l’argument semble imparable: si la RFY a été admise en qualité de nou-
veau Membre, c’est qu’elle n’était pas membre avant la date de son
admission. Mais nous n’avons pas ici affaire à un Etat qui n’aurait jamais
auparavant été membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies. Bien au

contraire, nous avons affaire à un Etat qui a, avec constance, soutenu
qu’il était le continuateur d’un Membre originaire de l’Organisation, qui
a dû renoncer à une prétention à assurer la continuité de la RFSY et a dû

présenter une demande d’adhésion comme nouveau Membre, au titre
d’Etat successeur. La distinction à établir n’est donc pas entre «nouveau

11Résolution 821 (1993) du Conseil de sécurité, 28 avril 1993, par. 1.
12Voir, par exemple, l’article IV de la déclaration conjointe du président de la Répu-
blique de Serbie et du président de la Bosnie-Herzégovine, indiquant que «[l]a Bosnie-
Herzégovine accepte la continuité de l’Etat de la République fédérative de Yougoslavie»,

Nations Unies, doc. A/51/461-S/1996/830 (1996), 7 octobre 1996.

207247 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL KHASAWNEH )

that the FRY was not a United Nations Member. Rather, the act of
admission confirms that it had been an old member by way of continuity
until it abandoned that claim and took on the status of a successor.
Therefore the FRY was a continuator in 1992 to 2000 and a successor

after its admission in 2000. Furthermore, to argue that the SFRY was
extinguished in 1992 and that the FRY was a successor of the SFRY in
2000 without first being its continuator creates a legal void in the inter-
vening period of eight years, which is absurd.

12. In the post-2000 period, the claim that the FRY was not a United
Nations Member and therefore lacked access to the Court became
pivotal in jurisdictional rounds and ploys aimed at undoing the Court’s

clearly-established jurisdiction in its 1996 Judgment on Preliminary Objec-
tions (in paragraph 34 of that Judgment, the Court indicated that it had
jurisdiction rationae personae, rationae materiae and rationae temporis).
Denying that the Respondent had been a United Nations Member in

1992 to 2000 was a necessary first step to the argument that it lacked
“access” to the Court via that membership under Article 35, paragraph 1,
of the Statute. Furthermore, this access was said to be independent from
jurisdiction, even jurisdiction rationae personae, and, unlike it, was objec-
tive and could not be established simply because there was consent to

jurisdiction but should always be ascertained, if need be, by the Court
acting propio motu. Thus, the modest idea of access (concerned primarily
with granting access to States and denying it to non-States and ensuring
equality for Members and non-Members) was elevated to heights that its
drafters never imagined. In its latest incarnation, the concept of access

could circumvent the principle of res judicata by either overturning it or
by being outside the scope of the res judicata of the Court’s jurisdiction
in the 1996 Judgment on Preliminary Objections (CR2006/45, 9 May
2006, pp. 10-18.). I shall revert to these issues of jurisdiction and access to

propound the view that differences between them are greatly exagger-
ated. I shall first, however, give an overall description of the major devel-
opments that took place after 2000. In the Respondent’s Application for
revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 and its Initiative, both submit-
ted to the Court in 2001, and the Court’s 2004 Legality of Use of Force

Judgments, the question of the FRY’s access to the Court (including
access under Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute) played a central role
in jurisdictional arguments. Already in 2004, acting counsel for Belgium
described how the Legality of Use of Force cases were being used by Ser-

bia as “effectively . . . the fifth round in the jurisdictional contest of the
Genocide Convention case which stretches back to 1993” (Legality of Use
of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), CR 2004/15, para. 10).
When one adds to that two attempts by Serbian members of the Bosnian
Presidium to discontinue the Genocide Convention case, and the latest

round of jurisdictional arguments in 2006, that jurisdictional contest

208 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.AL -KHASAWNEH )247

Membre» et «non membre», mais plutôt entre «nouveau Membre» et
«ancien Membre». Considéré sous cet angle, l’acte d’admission ne conduit
pas à la conclusion que la RFY n’était pas membre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies. Au contraire, l’acte d’admission confirme qu’elle en était

un ancien Membre par le jeu de la continuité, jusqu’à ce qu’elle ait
renoncé à cette prétention et accepté le statut de successeur. La RFY fut
donc le continuateur de la RFSY entre 1992 et 2000 et l’un de ses suc-
cesseurs après son admission en 2000. De surcroît, l’affirmation selon
laquelle la RFSY avait cessé d’exister en 1992, et que la RFY lui succéda

en 2000 sans avoir auparavant assuré une continuité, crée un vide juri-
dique dans cet intervalle de huit années, ce qui est absurde.
12. Dans la période faisant suite à 2000, la thèse selon laquelle la RFY
n’était pas membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et ne pouvait,
dès lors, accéder à la Cour a alors occupé une place centrale dans les

phases de la procédure consacrées à la compétence et les stratagèmes visant
à obtenir la remise en question de la compétence de la Cour, clairement
établie par son arrêt de 1996 sur les exceptions préliminaires (au para-
graphe 34 duquel la Cour se déclarait compétenterationae personae, ratio-

nae materiae et rationae temporis). Nier que le défendeur ait été Membre
de l’Organisation entre 1992 et 2000 constituait une nécessaire première
étape avant de pouvoir arguer qu’il n’avait pas «accès» à la Cour par la
voie de la qualité de Membre au titre du paragraphe 1 de l’article 35 du
Statut. En outre, cet accès était présenté comme indépendant de la ques-

tion de la compétence, et même de la compétence rationae personae ;àla
différence de celle-ci, le droit d’ester serait une notion objective et ne
pourrait être établi du seul fait qu’il y avait acceptation de la compétence,
la Cour devant toujours, le cas échéant, s’assurer d’office qu’elle a com-
pétence. Ainsi la modeste notion de l’accès (répondant essentiellement au

besoin de donner accès aux Etats et de le dénier aux non-Etats, ainsi que
d’assurer l’égalité entre Membres et non membres) fut-elle élevée à des
sommets que ses auteurs n’avaient jamais imaginés. Dans sa dernière
incarnation, la notion de l’accès pourrait permettre de contourner le prin-

cipe de l’autorité de la chose jugée, soit parce qu’elle l’emporterait sur ce
principe, soit parce qu’elle se trouverait hors du champ d’application de
l’autorité de la chose jugée dont est revêtu, à l’égard de la compétence de
la Cour, l’arrêt de 1996 sur les exceptions préliminaires (CR2006/45,
p. 10-18). Je reviendrai sur ces questions de compétence et d’accès à la

Cour pour développer l’idée que les distinctions établies entre elles sont
largement exagérées. Je commencerai, cependant, par un exposé général
des principaux faits survenus après 2000. Dans la demande en revision de
l’arrêt du 11 juillet 1996 et l’Initiative, soumises l’une et l’autre par le

défendeur en 2001, et dans les arrêts rendus en 2004 sur la Licéité de
l’emploi de la force, la question de l’accès de la RFY à la Cour (y compris
au titre du paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut) occupait une place cen-
trale dans les arguments relatifs à la compétence. En 2004 déjà, le conseil
de la Belgique décrivait la manière dont la Serbie utilisait les affaires rela-

tives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force de «fait [comme] la cinquième

208248 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL KHASAWNEH )

reached eight rounds — which is unprecedented in the history of this
Court or of its Predecessor.

1. The Application for Revision Judgment (2003) and the Legality of

Use of Force Judgments (2004)

13. In its Application for revision, the Respondent had not based its
request strictly on new facts as required by Article 61 of the Statute but
on the legal consequences relating to its United Nations membership

flowing from facts already known to the parties at the time of the 1996
Judgment. This being the case, the Court dismissed the request because
the alleged new facts were not new. There was no need, therefore, for the
Court to decide on the question of the Respondent’s United Nations
membership. The Court stated that the General Assembly resolution on

admission:

“cannot have changed retroactively the sui generis position which
the FRY found itself in vis-à-vis the United Nations over the period
1992-2000 or its position in relation to the Statute of the Court and
the Genocide Convention” (Application for Revision of the Judg-

ment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning Application of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections
(Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

2003, p. 31, para 71).
14. By contrast, in the Legality of Use of Force cases, the caution that

had for better or worse always characterized the Court’s approach to the
issue of Yugoslavia’s membership was thrown to the wind. Free from the
constraints of res judicata, the majority found in those closely related
cases an escape route which was used notwithstanding the impact that

this would have on the present case. As stated in Judge Higgins’s separate
opinion: “Its relevance can lie, and only lie, in another pending case.”
(Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Prelimi-
nary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004, p. 487, para. 18, sepa-
rate opinion of Judge Higgins.)

15. Be that as it may, what interests us more for the present is the

209 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 248

manche du tournoi sur la compétence en l’affaire de l’Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide , qui
remonte à 1993» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Serbie-et-Monténégro

c. Belgique), CR2004/15, par. 10). Si l’on ajoute à cela les deux tentatives
de désistement par des membres serbes de la présidence bosniaque de
l’affaire de la Convention sur le génocide et le dernier tour de plaidoiries
consacré à la compétence en 2006, ce sont huit «manches» qu’aura
comptées ce tournoi sur la compétence — ce qui est sans précédent dans

l’histoire de la Cour ou de sa devancière.

1. L’arrêt de 2003 sur la Demande en revision et les arrêts de 2004 sur

la Licéité de l’emploi de la force

13. Dans sa demande en revision, le défendeur n’avait pas à propre-
ment parler fondé sa demande sur des faits nouveaux, ainsi que le
requiert l’article 61 du Statut, mais sur les conséquences juridiques décou-

lant de sa qualité de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, telles
qu’elles résultaient de faits déjà connus des Parties au moment où l’arrêt
de 1996 a été rendu. Cela étant, la Cour a rejeté la demande parce que les
prétendus faits nouveaux ne l’étaient pas. Il n’était pas besoin, par consé-
quent, pour la Cour de se prononcer sur la question de l’appartenance du

défendeur à l’Organisation des Nations Unies. La Cour a dit que la réso-
lution de l’Assemblée générale sur l’admission

«ne p[ouvait] avoir rétroactivement modifié la situation sui generis
dans laquelle se trouvait la RFY vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies pendant la période 1992-2000, ni sa situation à l’égard
du Statut de la Cour et de la convention sur le génocide» (Demande

en revision de l’arrêt du 11 juillet 1996 en l’affaire relative à l’ Appli-
cation de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime
de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préli-
minaires (Yougoslavie c. Bosnie-Herzégovine), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil

2003, p. 31, par. 71).
14. En revanche, dans les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la

force, la prudence qui avait toujours caractérisé, pour le meilleur ou pour
le pire, la démarche suivie par la Cour sur la question de la qualité de
Membre de la Yougoslavie a été emportée par le vent. Débarrassée des
contraintes qu’impose l’autorité de la chose jugée, la majorité a trouvé

une échappatoire dans ces affaires étroitement liées, smes tenir compte de
l’incidence que cela aurait sur la présente espèce. M le juge Higgins a
dit dans son opinion individuelle à propos de l’analyse à laquelle a pro-
cédé la Cour: «Elle ne peut présenter d’intérêt, et c’est le seul cas pos-
sible, qu’à l’égard d’une autre affaire pendante.» (Licéité de l’emploi de

la force (Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, me
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 , p. 487, par. 18, opinion individuelle de M le
juge Higgins.)
15. Quoi qu’il en soit, ce qui importe le plus ici, c’est le raisonnement

209249 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

reasoning followed in the Legality of Use of Force Judgments. The

Court started by noting — correctly — that the aforementioned passage
in the Application for Revision Judgment did not imply any decision on
the status of the FRY within the United Nations before 2000. The Court

went on to say that the fact of admission brought to an end the sui
generis position of FRY membership — which is also correct for the
future. But the Court went further and sought to derive new legal conse-
quences — for the past — namely lack of United Nations membership

between 1992 and 2000 from the fact of the FRY’s admission whereas in
the 2003 Application for Revision Judgment, the Court had found it
impossible to derive, from the same fact, any consequences for the past . 13
The only basis for doing so was the observation that the term sui generis

is a descriptive and not a prescriptive term. But this is hardly evidence or
argument for nothing turns on that observation. As the joint declaration
in the Legality of Use of Force cases observes, the proposition that the
FRY’s United Nations membership was retroactively clarified is “far

from self-evident and we cannot trace the steps of the reasoning” (Legal-
ity of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 , p. 334, para. 12, joint decla-

ration of Vice-President Ranjeva, Judges Guillaume, Higgins, Kooij-
mans, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal and Elaraby). This, with great respect,
is one of the reasons why the Court’s logic in the Legality of Use of Force
Judgments does not perhaps represent the zenith of legal reasoning. This

is so in addition of course to its negative and regrettable impact on the
broad consistency of the Court’s jurisprudence.

16. Our present Judgment considers the 2003 Application for Revision
Judgment and the 2004 Legality of Use of Force Judgments in para-
graphs 105-113 under the heading “Relevant Past Decisions of the Court”,

but fails to address the contradiction between its inability to draw find-
ings as to FRY United Nations membership in its 2003 Judgment, and its
drawing conclusions from the same facts in its 2004 Judgment.

17. Apart from access via United Nations membership (Statute,
Art. 35, para. 1) non-Members may, as is well known, have access to the

13See Maria Chiara Vitucci, “Has Pandora’s Box Been Closed?: The Decision on the
Legality of Use of Force Cases in Relation to the Status of the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia (Serbia and Montenegro) within the United Nations”, Leiden Journal of Interna-
tional Law, 2006, Vol. 19, p. 114.

210 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 249

suivi dans les arrêts rendus en les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi

de la force. La Cour a commencé par relever — à juste titre — que le
passage cité ci-dessus de l’arrêt sur la Demande en revision n’emportait
aucune décision sur le statut de la RFY vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des

Nations Unies avant 2000. Elle a poursuivi en disant que l’admission en
tant que fait avait mis un terme — ce qui était également vrai — à la
situation sui generis de la qualité de Membre de la RFY pour le futur.
Mais la Cour est allée plus loin et a cherché à tirer de nouvelles consé-

quences juridiques — pour le passé —, à savoir le défaut de qualité de
Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies entre 1992 et 2000 à raison
de l’admission intervenue par la suite, alors que, dans l’arrêt rendu en
2003 sur la Demande en revision, elle avait dit qu’il était impossible de
13
déduire du même fait quelque conséquence que ce soit pour le passé .Le
seul motif avancé se résume à l’observation selon laquelle l’expression sui
generis est descriptive et non prescriptive. Cependant cette observation ne
constitue guère une preuve ni un argument. Comme l’ont dit les juges qui

ont joint une déclaration commune aux arrêts rendus dans les affaires
relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force , la proposition selon laquelle
la qualité de Membre de la RFY au sein de l’Organisation des Nations

Unies a été clarifiée rétroactivement est «loin d’être évidente et nous
n’avons pu identifier les étapes de raisonnement adopté» (Licéité de
l’emploi de la force (Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions pré-
liminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 , p. 334, par. 12, déclaration com-

mune dmeM. le juge Ranjeva, vice-président, et de M. le juge Guillaume,
de M le juge Higgins, et de MM. les juges Kooijmans, Al-Khasawneh,
Buergenthal et Elaraby). Avec tout le respect que je dois à la Cour, il
s’agit-là d’une des raisons pour lesquelles la logique suivie par la Cour

dans les arrêts sur la Licéité de l’emploi de la force ne représente proba-
blement pas le summum du raisonnement juridique. Cela s’ajoute bien
entendu à l’incidence fâcheuse et regrettable dudit raisonnement sur la
cohérence générale de la jurisprudence de la Cour.

16. Dans le présent arrêt, aux paragraphes 105 à 113, sous l’intitulé
«Décisions pertinentes passées de la Cour», celle-ci se penche sur l’arrêt
rendu en 2003 en l’affaire de la Demande en revision et sur les arrêts ren-

dus en 2004 dans les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force ,
mais ne dit rien de la contradiction qui existe entre l’incapacité dans
laquelle elle se trouvait de se prononcer dans son arrêt de 2003
sur l’appartenance de la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies

et les conclusions qu’elle a tirées des mêmes faits dans l’arrêt rendu en
2004.
17. S’ils ne peuvent avoir accès à la Cour par la voie de la qualité de
Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies (Statut, art. 35, par. 1), les

13Voir Maria Chiara Vitucci, «Has Pandora’s Box Been Closed?: The Decision on
the Legality of Use of Force Cases in Relation to the Status of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) within the United Nations», Leiden Journal of
International Law, 2006, vol. 19, p. 114.

210250 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

Court under Article 35, paragraph 2. The crucial question in the second
route is whether the term “treaties in force” is to be interpreted to mean
those treaties in force at the time of the institution of proceedings (the
liberal interpretation) or those that were already in force when the ICJ

Statute itself had come into force (the narrow interpretation).

18. It will be recalled that, in its Order of 8 April 1993, the Court
opted for the liberal interpretation. It did so expressly in paragraph 19 of

that Order. Indeed, given that it did not find the need to pronounce
definitively on FRY membership in the United Nations, the liberal inter-
pretation of Article 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute, was the sole or main
ground for its provisional jurisdiction. Though not definitive, this finding
carries considerable weight and should not have been lightly reversed.

Moreover, this assumption was, by necessary logic, at the heart of the
Court’s finding in the 1996 Judgment on Preliminary Objections that it
had jurisdiction. Yet the 2004 Legality of Use of Force Judgments did
not hesitate to unnecessarily reverse it. The same seven judges appending

a joint declaration to that Judgment felt it

“astonishing that the Court found it necessary to rule on the scope
of Article 35, paragraph 2, whereas the Applicant did not invoke this
text” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium)
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 ,p .3 ,

para. 11, joint declaration of Vice-President Ranjeva, Judges
Guillaume, Higgins, Kooiijmans, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal
and Elaraby).

19. But beyond this, the reasoning followed by the Court in the 2004
Legality of Use of Force Judgments leads to the collapse of the unity of
purpose of Articles 35, 36 and 37 of the Statute — for in Articles 35 and

36 the term “treaties in force” indisputably means in force at the time of
the institution of proceedings. No justification for such a result is offered.

20. The Court’s conclusion in the Legality of Use of Force Judgment
is based mainly on the travaux préparatoires of Article 35, paragraph 2,

of the Statute of the Permanent Court, its own Statute’s travaux prépara-
toires yielding no firm conclusions. All that need be said in this regard is
that the conclusion of the Court is at best possible but not conclusive.

21. Moreover, it is disconcerting that whilst the Court was more than
ready to delve into the travaux préparatoires of a bygone era and draw
conclusions by analogy (though such analogy is open to doubts given
that there were no general peace treaties after the Second World War),

there is no reference to the much more relevant fact that the FRY,

211 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 250

Etats non membres peuvent, comme cela est bien connu, avoir accès à la
Cour en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 35. La question cruciale qui se
pose, s’agissant de la seconde voie, est celle de savoir si l’expression «trai-

tés en vigueur» est à interpréter comme signifiant les traités en vigueur au
moment de l’introduction de l’instance (interprétation libérale) ou ceux
qui l’étaient déjà lorsque le Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice est
lui-même entré en vigueur (interprétation restrictive).
18. Il convient de rappeler que dans son ordonnance du 8 avril 1993 la

Cour a opté pour l’interprétation libérale. Elle a expressément agi ainsi au
paragraphe 19 de l’ordonnance. En vérité, du fait qu’elle n’a pas jugé
nécessaire de se prononcer de manière définitive sur l’appartenance de la
RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies, l’interprétation libérale du para-

graphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut était la seule ou la principale base de sa
compétence provisoire. Même si cette conclusion n’était pas définitive, elle
revêt un poids considérable et n’aurait pas dû être infirmée à la légère. De
plus, cette hypothèse était, par nécessité logique, au cŒur même de la

conclusion tirée par la Cour dans son arrêt de 1996 sur les exceptions pré-
liminaires, selon laquelle elle avait compétence. La Cour n’a cependant
pas hésité, dans les arrêts de 2004 sur laLicéité de l’emploi de la force,à
infirmer sans nécessité cette conclusion. Les mêmes sept juges qui ont joint
une déclaration commune audit arrêt se sont étonnés que

«la Cour ait cru nécessaire de se prononcer sur la portée du para-

graphe 2 de l’article 35 alors que l’Etat demandeur ne se prévalait
pas de ce texte» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Serbie-et-Monténé-
gro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 ,
p. 333, par. 11, déclaration commune de M. le juge Ranjeva, vice-
président, de M. le juge Guillaume, de M me le juge Higgins, et de

MM. les juges Kooijmans, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal et Elaraby).
19. Mais il y a plus: le raisonnement suivi par la Cour dans les arrêts de

2004 sur la Licéité de l’emploi de la force a pour conséquence de ruiner
l’unité d’intention que traduisent les articles 35, 36 et 37 du Statut, étant
donné que dans les articles 35 et 36 l’expression «traités en vigueur» signi-
fie incontestablement les traités en vigueur au moment de l’introduction

de l’instance. Aucune justification n’est donnée concernant pareil résultat.
20. La conclusion à laquelle la Cour est parvenue dans les arrêts sur la
Licéité de l’emploi de la force est fondée principalement sur les travaux
préparatoires du paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut de la Cour per-

manente, les travaux préparatoires de son propre Statut ne permettant
pas de prendre fermement position. Tout ce qu’il y a lieu de dire à cet
égard, c’est que la conclusion de la Cour est, au mieux, du domaine du
possible, mais qu’elle n’est pas décisive.
21. En outre, il est déconcertant de voir que, alors que la Cour était plus

que disposée à fouiller dans des travaux préparatoires datant d’une ère
révolue et à tirer des conclusions par analogie (bien que pareille analogie
soit discutable, puisqu’il n’y pas eu de traités de paix généraux après la
seconde guerre mondiale), elle ne fait aucune mention du fait beaucoup plus

211251 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

whether or not a Member of the United Nations, was a party to the

Genocide Convention. The FRY’s 27 April 1992 declaration accepting
the SFRY treaty obligations amounts to its acceptance of the Genocide
Convention obligations. In this respect, reference should be made to the
fact that the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs considers that Gen-

eral Assembly resolution 43/138 (1988) amounts to a general invitatio14to
non-Members to become a party to the Genocide Convention . The
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea’s instrument of accession to the
Genocide Convention was accepted on 31 January 1989 (more than two

years before it became a United Nations Member) on this basis. No
special invitation to become a party to the Genocide Convention was
addressed to the DPRK by the General Assembly. In other words, given
the FRY’s express acceptance of the obligations set forth in the Genocide

Convention in 1992, neither its purported non-Member status nor the
failure of the General Assembly to specifically invite the FRY to become
a party acts as a bar to finding that the FRY was a party to the Genocide
Convention at the time it filed the Application.

2. The Initiative

22. The Court’s Statute admits of only two ways for States unhappy
with its judgments to deal with them: revision under Article 61 with all
the attendant limitations and conditions wisely designed to safeguard the

stability and integrity of judgments and/or a request for interpretation
under Article 60 which can only explain but not change that which the
Court has already settled with binding force.

23. The Respondent sought revision unsuccessfully in 2003 and could
have sought interpretation — indeed the nature of its claims regarding
the meaning of jurisdiction and access would lend themselves to resolu-
tion through such a request. Instead, simultaneously with its 2001 Appli-

cation for revision, the Respondent presented an “Initiative” to the Court
to reconsider its jurisdiction ex officio. Curiously, the reasoning and
contents of the Initiative were virtually identical with the Application
for revision. While the Court rejected the Application for revision on 3

February 2003, the same Court, some four months later, invited the
Respondent to present new jurisdictional arguments at the merits phase.
(Letter from the Registrar to the Respondent dated 12 June 2003.) This,
notwithstanding that the Court itself had some seven years earlier satis-

fied itself that: “having established its jurisdiction under Article IX of the

14Paragraph 5 of General Assembly resolution 43/138 (8 December 1988) urges those
States which have not yet become parties to the Convention to ratify it or accede thereto
without further delay.

212 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP.DISS .AL KHASAWNEH ) 251

pertinent que la RFY, qu’elle fût ou non Membre de l’Organisation des

Nations Unies, était partie à la convention sur le génocide. La déclaration
du 27 avril 1992 par laquelle la RFY acceptait les obligations convention-
nelles de la RFSY équivaut à une acceptation des obligations découlant de
la convention sur le génocide. A cet égard, mention aurait dû être faite de ce

que le bureau des affaires juridiques de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
considère que la résolution 43/138 (1988) de l’Assemblée générale équivaut
à une invitation générale adressée aux Etats non membres à devenir parties
à la convention sur le génocide . L’instrument d’adhésion de la Répu-

blique populaire démocratique de Corée à la convention sur le génocide a été
acceptée le 31 janvier 1989 sur cette base (plus de deux années avant que ce
pays ne devienne Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies). Aucune
invitation particulière à devenir partie à la convention sur le génocide

n’avait été adressée par l’Assemblée générale à la République populaire
démocratique de Corée. En d’autres termes, compte tenu de l’acceptation
expresse par la RFY en 1992 des obligations énoncées dans la convention
sur le génocide, ni son prétendu statut de non-membre, ni le fait que

l’Assemblée générale n’ait pas invité de manière spécifique la RFY à deve-
nir partie à la convention n’empêche de conclure que la RFY était partie à
la convention sur le génocide au moment où elle a déposé sa requête.

2. L’Initiative

22. Le Statut de la Cour n’autorise les Etats qui ne sont pas satisfaits de
ses arrêts à revenir sur lesdits arrêts que de deux manières: la revision en
vertu de l’article 61, avec toutes les limitations et conditions dont elle est

assortie et qui ont été conçues avec beaucoup de sagesse pour protéger la
stabilité et l’intégrité des arrêts et/ou une demande en interprétation en vertu
de l’article 60, qui ne peut consister qu’en une explication, mais non en une
modification, de ce que la Cour a déjà tranché avec force obligatoire.

23. Le demandeur a cherché à obtenir, sans succès, une revision en
2003 et aurait pu demander une interprétation — de fait, la nature de ses
demandes concernant la signification de la compétence et de l’accès se
prêterait à une telle requête. Au lieu de cela, outre sa demande en revision

de 2001, le demandeur a présenté une «Initiative» à la Cour aux fins d’un
réexamen d’office par celle-ci de sa compétence. Curieusement, le raison-
nement suivi dans l’Initiative et la teneur de ce document étaient prati-
quement identiques à ceux de la demande en revision. La Cour a rejeté la

demande en revision le 3 février 2003 et la même Cour, quelque quatre
mois plus tard, a invité le défendeur à présenter à la phase au fond de
nouveaux arguments relatifs à la compétence. (Lettre en date du 12 juin
2003 adressée au défendeur par le greffier.) Cela, nonobstant le fait que la

Cour elle-même avait, quelque sept ans auparavant, conclu que, «[a]yant

14Le paragraphe 5 de la résolution 43/138 (8 décembre 1988) de l’Assemblée générale
prie instamment les Etats qui ne sont pas encore parties à la convention de ratifier celle-ci
ou d’y adhérer sans plus tarder.

212252 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS .OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

Genocide Convention. . . it may now proceed to consider the merits of

the case on that basis” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 622, para. 46).

24. It is plain that the “Initiative” was irregular and had no place

under the Statute of the Court, not because the Court could not make
mistakes or refuse to rectify them, but because its Statute struck the right
compromise between the fallibility of men and courts on the one hand
and the need to safeguard the reasonable and legitimate expectations

regarding the integrity and stability of its judgments on the other. That
compromise was struck, as already mentioned, by allowing for the pos-
sibility of seeking interpretation and/or revision. It is of course true that
“[t]he Court must however always be satisfied that it has jurisdiction. . .”

(Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (India v. Paki-
stan), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 , p. 52, para. 13). But, that satisfac-
tion, no doubt motivated by a need to be meticulous in dispensing justice,
must be achieved in an orderly and timely manner. Once the Court has

satisfied itself that it has jurisdiction, it should move on to consider the
merits — which was exactly what the Court said in 1996.

25. The serious misgivings I have, in principle, about the irregular

“Initiative” are reinforced by the fact that there is nothing in the Court’s
jurisprudence to support the proposition that jurisdictional issues that
have been decided with the force of res judicata may be reopened. Thus,
in the ICAO Council case, there was no separate preliminary objections

phase, nor any question of “re-examining” what had already been decided.
In that case, Pakistan simply raised an objection very late in the oral pro-
ceedings after it had exhausted its ability to raise preliminary objections.
The decision on jurisdiction, which was made under the Court’s general

powers, did not amount to re-examining jurisdiction because it had never
been previously examined.

26. Similarly, in another case cited by the proponents of the objective
access theory: South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa), Second
Phase, the Court found that the standing of the Applicant before the
Court itself, i.e., the locus standi ratione personae , which had been the

subject of the Court’s decision in 1962 could not be reopened, but that the
Applicant’s standing regarding the subject-matter of the case and there-
fore the merits could be reopened. In other words the Court avoided
reopening what had been decided . 15

27. This conclusion is not weakened by the claim, in fact made by the

15For an analysis of other cases supporting the proposition that decided jurisdictional
matters may not be reopened see in particular paragraphs 127-128 of the Judgment.

213 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 252

établi sa compétence en vertu de l’article IX de la convention sur le géno-

cide, ... la Cour p[ouvait] désormais procéder à l’examen du fond de
l’affaire sur cette base» (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1996 (II), p. 622, par. 46).
24. Il est évident que l’«Initiative» était irrégulière et que sa présenta-

tion n’est pas prévue dans le Statut de la Cour, non que celle-ci ne pour-
rait commettre d’erreurs ou refuser de les rectifier, mais parce que son
Statut a ménagé le bon compromis entre la faillibilité des hommes et des
cours de justice, d’une part, et la nécessité de répondre aux attentes rai-

sonnables et légitimes concernant l’intégrité et la stabilité des arrêts, de
l’autre. Ce compromis repose, ainsi qu’il a déjà été mentionné, sur la pos-
sibilité de demander une interprétation et/ou une revision. Il est bien
entendu vrai que «[l]a Cour doit toujours s’assurer qu’elle a

compétence...» (Appel concernant la compétence du Conseil de l’OACI
(Inde c. Pakistan), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972 , p. 52, par. 13). Mais,
même si, indubitablement, il faut agir de la sorte et de manière méticu-
leuse pour rendre la justice, il n’en reste pas moins que l’on doit parvenir

à ce résultat de façon ordonnée et opportune. Dès lors que la Cour s’est
assurée qu’elle a compétence, elle doit passer à l’examen de l’affaire au
fond, ce qui est précisément ce que la Cour avait dit en 1996.
25. Les sérieux doutes que j’éprouve par principe, quant au caractère

irrégulier de l’«Initiative», sont renforcés par le fait que rien dans la juris-
prudence de la Cour ne vient à l’appui de la proposition suivant laquelle
les questions de compétence sur lesquelles a été rendue une décision ayant
la force de la chose jugée peuvent être rouvertes. Ainsi, dans l’affaire du

Conseil de l’OACI, il n’y a pas eu de phase distincte consacrée aux excep-
tions préliminaires, pas plus qu’il n’a été question de «réexaminer» ce qui
avait déjà été tranché. En ladite affaire, le Pakistan avait simplement sou-
levé une exception très tardive à l’audience, alors qu’il n’était plus habi-

lité à soulever des exceptions préliminaires. La décision sur la compé-
tence, que la Cour avait rendue en vertu des pouvoirs généraux qui lui
sont conférés, n’équivalait pas à un réexamen de sa compétence, parce
que celle-ci n’avait jamais encore fait l’objet d’un examen.

26. De même, dans une autre affaire citée par les tenants de la théorie
de l’accès objectif, celle du Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du
Sud), deuxième phase, la Cour a dit que la question de la qualité du
demandeur pour ester devant elle, à savoir le locus standi ratione perso-

nae, qui avait été l’objet de la décision de 1962, ne pouvait être rouverte,
mais que la question de la qualité du demandeur à l’égard de l’objet de
l’affaire, et par conséquent le fond de celle-ci, pouvait l’être. En d’autres
termes, la Cour a évité de rouvrir ce qui avait déjà été tranché . 15

27. Cette conclusion n’est pas affaiblie par l’affirmation — émanant en

15Pour une analyse des autres affaires qui viennent à l’appui de la proposition suivant
laquelle les questions de compétence déjà tranchées ne peuvent pas être rouvertes, voir en
particulier les paragraphes 127 et 128 de l’arrêt.

213253 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

Respondent, that it was making a new jurisdictional argument. One

would expect any respondent in the same position to claim that it was not
repeating old arguments. Again, if those new arguments are about crucial
unknown facts, the Court’s Statute designates a procedure to deal
with them; if there is obscurity in the Judgment, interpretation under

Article 60 of the Court’s Statute can cure it.

28. This being the case, it was curious and, with great respect to my
colleagues, regrettable, that the Court should have acceded — in an

unprecedented move — to the Respondent’s irregular request to present
additional jurisdictional arguments at the merits phase. By doing so, the
Court contributed to a further delay in justice regarding something so
shocking to decent people as allegations of genocide. Moreover, the mis-

conceived idea of allowing the Respondent to make new jurisdictional
arguments at the merits phase, after jurisdiction had been decided with
the force of res judicata has, together with its 2004 Legality of Use of
Force Judgments, contributed to confusion and contradictions between

its different cases and indeed the different phases in the present case with
the result that, with the contagion spreading, and those contradictions
being quoted back at the Court, the only thing the present Judgment
could do was to take refuge in the formalism of res judicata, para-

graphs 129-138 being a case in point.

29. Before ending this part on jurisdiction, I should say a few words

about the concept of “access”. I believe that the most important applica-
tion of this concept is with regard to the lack of capacity of non-State
actors and unrecognized entities to appear before the Court. This is of
course to be expected in an international community made up of States.

The debates in the Security Council and the General Assembly regarding
non-Member States becoming parties to the Court’s Statute centred on
the requirement that the relevant entity be a State 16 — and not on the
conditions for participation in the Statute. Apart from the need to ensure

equality for the parties before the Court, I fail to see that the distinction
between access and jurisdiction entails any significant consequences. Thus,
a court is required to ascertain its jurisdiction independently of the con-
sent of the parties, for example when one party does not appear. More-

over, it is not insignificant that while the Respondent was arguing in
terms of lack of access, its submission was made in terms of lack of juris-
diction. A contextual approach based on common sense rather than dia-
lectic reasoning should be the guiding criterion in these matters.

16Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-2005 ,
Vol. II, p. 599.

214 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.AL -KHASAWNEH ) 253

fait du défendeur — selon laquelle celui-ci avançait un nouvel argument
d’ordre juridictionnel. L’on pourrait s’attendre à voir tout défendeur se

trouvant dans la même situation affirmer qu’il ne répète pas des argu-
ments déjà avancés. Là aussi, si ces nouveaux arguments portaient sur des
faits inconnus d’importance cruciale, le Statut de la Cour prévoit une pro-
cédure pour en traiter; lorsqu’il y a obscurité dans l’arrêt, l’interprétation

prévue à l’article 60 du Statut de la Cour peut permettre d’y remédier.
28. Cela étant, il est curieux et, avec tout le respect que je dois à mes
collègues, regrettable de voir la Cour accéder — dans une démarche sans
précédent — à la requête irrégulière du demandeur tendant à présenter
des arguments d’ordre juridictionnel supplémentaires à la phase du fond.

En agissant de la sorte, la Cour a contribué à retarder davantage la jus-
tice au sujet d’une chose aussi atroce aux yeux des personnes raisonnables
que des allégations de génocide. En outre, l’idée erronée consistant à per-
mettre au défendeur de présenter de nouveaux arguments d’ordre juridic-

tionnel à la phase du fond, alors que la question de la compétence avait
déjà été tranchée avec la force de la chose jugée par les arrêts rendus en
2004 dans les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force, a
contribué à aggraver la confusion et à créer une contradiction entre ces

différentes affaires et, de fait, entre les différentes phases de la présente
affaire; le résultat en est que, la contagion aidant et lesdites contradic-
tions étant citées de nouveau à la Cour, la seule chose qui pouvait être
faite dans le présent arrêt a été de chercher refuge dans le formalisme de

la chose jugée, les paragraphes 129 à 138 étant un exemple à cet égard.
29. Avant d’en terminer avec cette partie sur la compétence, je dirai
quelques mots sur la notion de l’«accès». Je pense que l’application la
plus importante de cette notion a trait au fait que les acteurs non étatiques

et les entités non reconnues ne sont pas admis à ester devant la Cour. Cela
n’est, bien évidemment, guère étonnant dans une communauté internatio-
nale composée d’Etats. Les débats au Conseil de sécurité et à l’Assemblée
générale sur la possibilité pour des Etats non membres de devenir parties

au Statut de 16 Cour ont été centrés sur l’exigence que l’entité compétente
soit un Etat — et non sur les conditions de la participation au Statut.
Hormis la nécessité d’assurer une égalité entre les parties admises à ester
devant la Cour, je ne parviens pas à déceler de conséquence significative

dans la distinction entre accès et compétence. Ainsi un tribunal est-il dans
l’obligation de s’assurer qu’il a compétence, cela indépendamment du
consentement des parties, par exemple lorsqu’une des parties ne compa-
raît pas devant lui. De surcroît, il n’est pas indifférent de noter que, alors
qu’il formulait des arguments relatifs au défaut d’accès, le défendeur plai-

dait dans ses conclusions le défaut de compétence. Tenir compte du
contexte et s’appuyer sur le bon sens plutôt que sur un raisonnement dia-
lectique devrait être la marche à suivre en ces matières.

16Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-2005 ,
vol. II, p. 599.

214254 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

II. M ERITS

30. I am of the opinion that the involvement or implication of the
FRY in the genocide that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the
1990s was both more serious in nature and more extensive in territorial
scope than the mere failure to prevent genocide in Srebrenica conveys.

31. This implies that the charge that genocide took place also in other
parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina and that the FRY was responsible not
only for its failure to prevent genocide but for being actively involved in

it either as a principal or alternatively as an accomplice or by way of con-
spiracy or incitement would in all probability have been proven had the
Court not adopted the methodology discussed below.

32. It implies also that the fact of FRY responsibility for genocide in
Srebrenica was proven to a satisfactory standard.
33. In stating this, I am not oblivious to the fact that the ICTY has

not, so far, established that the crime of genocide or the other ancillary
crimes enumerated in the Genocide Convention have taken place in
Bosnia and Herzegovina (apart from Srebrenica) and consequently that
genocide is more difficult, though not impossible, to prove. Neither am I

unaware that additional difficulties in this regard stem from the elusive-
ness of the elements of genocidal intent dolus specialis and from the need
to apply high standards of proof given the gravity of the charge of
genocide.

34. I believe, however, that the Court could have found genocide and
FRY responsibility therefor had it followed a different methodology
without of course in any way detracting from the high standard of proof
or the rigour of its reasoning.

35. In the first place, the Court was alerted by the Applicant to the
existence of “redacted” sections of documents of the Supreme Defence
Council of the Respondent. Regrettably, the Court failed to act although,
under Article 49 of its Statute, it has the power to do so. It is a reasonable
expectation that those documents would have shed light on the central

questions of intent and attributability. The reasoning given by the Court
in paragraph 206 of the Judgment, “[o]n this matter, the Court observes
that the Applicant has extensive documentation and other evidence avail-
able to it, especially from the readily accessible ICTY records. . .”, is

worse than its failure to act. To add to this, at the end of paragraph 206,
the Court states:

“Although the Court has not agreed to either of the Applicant’s
requests to be provided with unedited copies of the documents,ti

215 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 254

II. FOND

30. Mon opinion est que la participation de la RFY au génocide com-
mis en Bosnie-Herzégovine dans les années quatre-vingt-dix et son impli-
cation dans ce génocide étaient à la fois plus graves par leur nature et
plus étendues d’un point de vue territorial que le simple manquement à
l’obligation de prévenir le génocide à Srebrenica.

31. Cela signifie que l’accusation selon laquelle il y a eu génocide
dans d’autres parties de la Bosnie-Herzégovine et que la responsabilité
de la RFY était engagée non seulement pour son manquement à l’obli-
gation de prévenir le génocide mais aussi pour y avoir pris une part
active, soit en tant qu’auteur principal, soit, à titre subsidiaire, en tant

que complice, en s’entendant avec d’autres pour commettre le génocide,
ou encore en incitant à la commission du génocide, aurait en toute pro-
babilité été prouvée, si la Cour n’avait pas adopté la méthode exposée
ci-dessous.

32. Cela signifie également que la responsabilité de la RFY dans le
génocide commis à Srebrenica a été prouvée de manière satisfaisante.
33. En disant cela, je n’oublie pas le fait que le TPIY n’a, jusqu’ici, pas
établi que le crime de génocide ou les autres crimes connexes énumérés
dans la convention sur le génocide ont été commis en Bosnie-Herzégovine

(ailleurs qu’à Srebrenica) et que, par conséquent, il est plus difficile,
même si ce n’est pas impossible, de prouver qu’il y a eu génocide. Je ne
suis pas non plus sans savoir qu’une difficulté supplémentaire à cet égard
tient au caractère vague des éléments relatifs à l’intention dolus specia-
lis de génocide et à la nécessité d’appliquer des critères d’établissement

de la preuve plus stricts, compte tenu de la gravité de l’accusation de
génocide.
34. Je pense, toutefois, que la Cour aurait pu conclure au génocide et
à la responsabilité de la RFY par conséquent, eût-elle suivi une méthode

différente, sans bien entendu renoncer au niveau élevé de preuve ni à la
rigueur du raisonnement requis.
35. Tout d’abord, le demandeur a appelé l’attention de la Cour sur
l’existence de parties «occultées» dans des documents du Conseil supé-
rieur de la défense de la RFY. La Cour, et c’est regrettable, n’a pas agi,

bien que, en vertu de l’article 49 de son Statut, elle dispose du pouvoir de
le faire. L’on peut s’attendre raisonnablement à ce que lesdits documents
eussent jeté une lumière sur les questions centrales de l’intention et de
l’imputabilité. Le raisonnement développé par la Cour au paragraphe 206
de l’arrêt, à savoir que, «[à] cet égard, la Cour relève que le demandeur

dispose d’abondants documents et autres éléments de preuve provenant
notamment des dossiers facilement accessibles du TPIY...», est pis encore
que son inaction. S’ajoute à cela ce que dit la Cour à la fin du para-
graphe 206:

«Bien que la Cour n’ait fait droit à aucune de ces demandes ten-

dant à l’obtention de copies non occultées des documents,elle n’a pas

215255 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

has not failed to note the Applicant’s suggestion that the Court may

be free to draw its own conclusions. ” (Emphasis added.)

It should be observed that Article 49 of the Statute provides that “formal
note should be taken of any refusal” and not of the Applicant’s sugges-
tion. In addition to this completely unbalanced statement that does not
meet the requirement of Article 49, no conclusions whatsoever were

drawn from noting the Respondent’s refusal to divulge the contents of
the unedited documents. It would normally be expected that the conse-
quences of the note taken by the Court would be to shift the onus
probandi or to allow a more liberal recourse to inference as the Court’s

past practice and considerations of common sense and fairness would
all demand. This was expressed very clearly by the Court in its Corfu
Channel Judgment:

“On the other hand, the fact of this exclusive territorial control

exercised by a State within its frontiers has a bearing upon the
methods of proof available to establish the knowledge of that State
as to such events. By reason of this exclusive control, the other
State, the victim of a breach of international law, is often unable

to furnish direct proof of facts giving rise to responsibility. Such a
State should be allowed a more liberal recourse to inferences of fact
and circumstantial evidence. This indirect evidence is admitted in
all systems of law, and its use is recognized by international deci-

sions. It must be regarded as of special weight when it is based on
a series of facts linked together and leading logically to a single con-
clusion.” (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949 , p. 18.)

36. Secondly, the Court applied the effective-control test to a situation
different from that presented in the Nicaragua case. In the present case,
there was a unity of goals, unity of ethnicity and a common ideology,
such that effective control over non-State actors would not be necessary.

In applying the effective control test, the Court followed Article 8 of the
International Law Commission Articles on State Responsibility (Judg-
ment, paras. 402-407).

37. However, with great respect to the majority, a strong case can be
made for the proposition that the test of control is a variable one. It
would be recalled that some ILC members drew attention to the fact of
there being varying degrees of sufficient control required in specific legal
17
contexts . The ICTY Appeals Chamber decision in the Tadic ´ case, as

17Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of its Fiftieth Session,
United Nations, Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-third Session, Supple-
ment No. 10, United Nations doc. A/53/10 and Corr.1, para. 395.

216 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 255

manqué de noter l’argument du demandeur selon lequel elle était libre

d’en tirer ses propres conclusions.» (Les italiques sont de moi.)

Il convient de relever que l’article 49 du Statut dispose que, «en cas de
refus, elle [la Cour] en prend acte» et qu’il ne s’agit pas de prendre acte de
ce que le demandeur donne à entendre. Outre cette déclaration totale-

ment déséquilibrée qui ne satisfait pas aux prescriptions de l’article 49, il
y a le fait qu’aucune conclusion, quelle qu’elle soit, n’a été tirée après que
la Cour eut noté le refus du défendeur de divulguer le contenu des docu-
ments occultés. L’on pourrait normalement s’attendre à ce que les consé-

quences de ce que la Cour a relevé eussent été de renverser l’onus pro-
bandi ou de recourir de manière plus libérale à des présomptions comme
l’exigeraient à la fois la pratique passée de la Cour et les considérations
de bon sens et d’équité. C’est ce qui a été très clairement dit par la Cour

dans l’arrêt en l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou :

«En revanche, le contrôle territorial exclusif exercé par l’Etat dans
les limites de ses frontières n’est pas sans influence sur le choix des
modes de preuve propres à démontrer cette connaissance. Du fait de
ce contrôle exclusif, l’Etat victime d’une violation internationale se

trouve souvent dans l’impossibilité de faire la preuve directe des faits
d’où découlerait la responsabilité. Il doit lui être permis de recourir
plus largement aux présomptions de fait, aux indices ou preuves cir-

constancielles (circumstantial evidence) . Ces moyens de preuve indi-
recte sont admis dans tous les systèmes de droit et leur usage est
sanctionné par la jurisprudence internationale. On doit les considé-
rer comme particulièrement probants quand ils s’appuient sur une

série de faits qui s’enchaînent et qui conduisent logiquement à une
même conclusion.» (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni c. Albanie),
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949 , p. 18.)

36. Deuxièmement , la Cour a appliqué le critère du contrôle effectif
à une situation différente de celle qui existait en l’affaire Nicaragua.

Dans la présente affaire, il y avait unité d’objectifs, unité ethnique et
idéologie commune, de sorte qu’un contrôle effectif sur des acteurs non
étatiques n’était pas nécessaire. En appliquant le critère du contrôle
effectif, la Cour s’est inspirée de l’article 8 des articles de la Commis-

sion du droit international (CDI) sur la responsabilité de l’Etat (arrêt,
par. 402-407).
37. Toutefois, avec tout le respect que je dois à la majorité, l’on peut
soutenir sans aucun doute la proposition selon laquelle le critère du contrôle

est un critère variable. Il conviendrait de rappeler que certains membres de
la CDI ont appelé l’attention sur le fait qu’il existe des degrés variables du
contrôle suffisant selon les différents contextes juridiques spécifiques .La17

17
Rapport de la Commission du droit international sur les travaux de sa cinquan-
tième session, Nations Unies, Documents de l’Assemblée générale, cinquante-troisième
session, supplément n10, doc. A/53/10 et Corr.1, par. 395.

216256 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

reaffirmed in the Celebici case, takes this approach. In the Celebici case,
the Appeals Chamber held that:

“the ‘overall control’ test could thus be fulfilled even if the armed
forces acting on behalf of the ‘controlling state’ had autonomous
choices of means and tactics although participating in a common
strategy along with the controlling State” (Prosecutor v. Delalic,

ICTY Appeals Chamber, 20 February 2001, para. 47).

38. In rejecting the ICTY’s context-sensitive approach, the ILC Com-
mentary to Article 8 does little more than note a distinction between the
rules of attribution for the purposes of State responsibility on the one

hand, and the rules of international humanitarian 18w for the purposes of
individual criminal responsibility on the other . However, it should be
recalled that the Appeals Chamber in Tadic ´ had in fact framed the ques-
tion as one of State responsibility, in particular whether the FRY was

responsible for the acts of the VRS, and therefore considered itself to be
applying the rules of attribution under international law (Tadic ´, ICTY
Judgment, IT-94-1-A, 15 July 1999, para. 98).

39. Unfortunately, the Court’s rejection of the standard in the Tadic ´
case fails to address the crucial issue raised therein — namely that differ-
ent types of activities, particularly in the ever-evolving nature of armed
conflict, may call for subtle variations in the rules of attribution. In the
Nicaragua case, the Court noted that the United States and the Contras

shared the same objectives — namely the overthrowing of the Nicara-
guan Government. These objectives, however, were achievable without
the commission of war crimes or crimes against humanity. The Contras
could indeed have limited themselves to military targets in the accom-

plishment of their objectives. As such, in order to attribute crimes against
humanity in furtherance of the common objective, the Court held that the
crimes themselves should be the object of control. When, however, the
shared objective is the commission of international crimes, to require

both control over the non-State actors and the specific operations in the
context of which international crimes were committed is too high a
threshold. The inherent danger in such an approach is that it gives States
the opportunity to carry out criminal policies through non-state actors or

surrogates without incurring direct responsibility therefore. The state-
ment in paragraph 406 of the Judgment to the effect that the “‘overall
control’ test is unsuitable, for it stretches too far, almost to breaking
point, the connection which must exist between the conduct of a State’s

organs and its international responsibility” is, with respect, singularly
unconvincing because it fails to consider that such a link has to account

18J. Crawford, International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility: Intro-
duction, Text and Commentaries , 2002, p. 112.

217 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP.DISS .AL KHASAWNEH ) 256

décision rendue par la chambre d’appel du TPIY en l’affaireTadic ´, telle
que réaffirmée dans l’affaireCelebici, est fondée sur la même approche.

Dans l’affaire Celebici, la chambre d’appel a dit ce qui suit:

«Le critère du «contrôle global» pourrait être rempli, même si les
forces armées agissant au nom de «l’Etat exerçant le contrôle»
avaient, tout en participant à une stratégie établie d’un commun
accord avec ledit Etat, le choix des moyens et de la tactique.» (Le

procureur c. Delalic, arrêt du 20 février 2001, par. 47.)

38. En rejetant l’approche tenant compte du contexte qu’a adoptée le
TPIY, la CDI fait dans son commentaire de l’article 8 plus que se conten-
ter de relever une distinction entre les règles de l’imputabilité aux fins de la

responsabilité de l’Etat, d’une part, et les règles du droit international
humanitaire aux fins de l’établissement de la responsabilité pénale indivi-
duelle, de l’autre . Il conviendrait toutefois de rappeler que dans l’affaire
Tadic´ la chambre d’appel avait en fait posé la question en tant que ques-

tion se rapportant à la responsabilité de l’Etat, en particulier pour savoir si
la RFY était responsable des actes de la VRS; la chambre se considérait,
en conséquence, comme appliquant les règles du droit international en
matière d’imputabilité (Tadic ´, IT-94-1-A, arrêt du 15 juillet 1999, par. 98).

39. Malheureusement, le rejet par la Cour du critère retenu dans l’affaire
Tadic´ ne permet pas d’aborder la question cruciale qui est soulevée dans
ladite affaire, à savoir que différents types d’activités peuvent, compte tenu
notamment de la nature toujours changeante d’un conflit armé, imposer
des variations subtiles dans les règles de l’imputabilité. Dans l’affaiNica-

ragua, la Cour a noté que les Etats-Unis d’Amérique et lescontras parta-
geaient le même objectif, à savoir le renversement du Gouvernement nica-
raguayen. Cet objectif pouvait toutefois être atteint sans la commission de
crimes de guerre ou de crimes contre l’humanité. Lescontras auraient pu

ne s’en prendre qu’à des cibles militaires dans la poursuite de leurs objec-
tifs. Ainsi, pour pouvoir attribuer des crimes contre l’humanité commis
dans la poursuite d’un objectif commun, la Cour avaitdit que les crimes
eux-mêmes devaient être l’objet du contrôle. Lorsque, toutefois, il y a

objectif commun et commission de crimes de droit international, exiger
l’exercice d’un contrôle à la fois sur les acteurs non étatiques et sur des
opérations spécifiques dans le cadre desquelles des crimes de droit interna-
tional ont été commis revient à fixer un seuil trop élevé. Le danger inhérent

à pareille approche réside dans le fait qu’elle offre aux Etats la possibilité
de mener des politiques criminelles par l’entremise d’acteurs non étatiques
ou d’auxiliaires sans encourir de responsabilité directe par conséquent. Ce
que la Cour dit au paragraphe 406 de l’arrêt à cet effet, à savoir que «le

critère du «contrôle global» est inadapté, car il distend trop, jusqu’à le
rompre presque, le lien qui doit exister entre le comportement des organes

18J. Crawford, International Law Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility: Intro-
duction, Text and Commentaries , 2002, p. 112.

217257 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS .OP .AL -KHASAWNEH )

for situations in which there is a common criminal purpose. It is also
far from self-evident that the overall control test is always not proxi-
mate enough to trigger State responsibility.

40. Thirdly, the Court has refused to infer genocidal intent from the

consistent pattern of conduct in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In its reason-
ing, the Court relies heavily on several arguments, each of which is
inadequate for the purpose, and contradictory to the consistent juris-

prudence of the international criminal tribunals.

41. The Court first considers whether the Strategic Goals of the Ser-
19
bian People in Bosnia and Herzegovina evidence genocidal intent, but
concludes that the goals “were capable of being achieved by the displace-
ment of the population and by territory being acquired” (Judgment,

para. 372). The Court further notes that the motive of creating a Greater
Serbia “did not necessarily require the destruction of the Bosnian Mus-
lims and other communities, but their expulsion” (ibid.). The Court

essentially ignores the facts and substitutes its own assessment of how the
Bosnian Serbs could have hypothetically best achieved their macabre
Strategic Goals. The Applicant is not asking the Court to evaluate

whether the Bosnian Serbs were efficient in achieving their objectives.
The Applicant is asking the Court to look at the pattern of conduct and
draw the logically necessary inferences. The jurisprudence of the interna-

tional criminal tribunals on this point is less amenable to artificial dis-
tinctions between the intent relevant to genocide and that relevant to
ethnic cleansing than the Court. The Appeal Chamber in Krstic ´ has

clearly held that the pattern of conduct known as ethnic cleansing may be
relied on as evidence of the mens rea of genocide . Coupled with popula-
tion transfers, what other inference is there to draw from the overwhelm-

ing evidence of massive killings systematically targeting the Bosnian

19
The Strategic Goals were as follows: (1) separation as a state from the other two
ethnic communities; (2) a corridor between Semberija and Krajina; (3) the establishment
of a corridor in the Drina River valley, i.e., the elimination of the border between Serbian
states; (4) the establishment of a border on the Una and Neretva rivers; and (5) the divi-
sion of the city of Sarajevo into a Serbian part and a Muslim part, and the establishment
of effective State authorities within each part (Judgment, para. 371).

20Krsti´, IT-98-33-A, para. 34. On this basis, the Appeal Chamber held that

“[s]ome other members of the VRS Main Staff harboured the same intent to carry
out forcible displacement, but viewed this displacement as a step in the accomplish-
ment of their genocidal objective. [To some other members of the VRS Main Staff],
the forcible displacement was a means of advancing the genocidal plan.” (Ibid.,
para. 133.)

See also Krajisnik, IT-00-39-T, Judgment of 27 September 2006, para. 854.

218 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS. AL -KHASAWNEH ) 257

de l’Etat et la responsabilité internationale de ce dernier» est, avec tout le
respect que je lui dois, particulièrement peu convaincant, parce que cela
consiste à ne pas considérer qu’un tel lien est nécessaire lorsqu’il s’agit de

situations où existe un but criminel commun. Il est également loin d’être
évident que le critère du contrôle global est toujours insuffisamment précis
pour donner naissance à la responsabilité de l’Etat.
40. Troisièmement, la Cour a refusé de déduire une intention génoci-

daire du comportement constant et systématique adopté par le défendeur
en Bosnie-Herzégovine. Dans son raisonnement, elle a invoqué avec
insistance plusieurs arguments, dont chacun est inadéquat aux fins de

l’espèce et se trouve en contradiction avec la jurisprudence constante des
tribunaux pénaux internationaux.
41. La Cour examine d’abord le point de savoir si les objectifs straté-
19
giques de la population serbe de Bosnie-Herzégovine témoignent d’une
intention génocidaire, mais conclut que les objectifs «pouvaient être
atteints par le déplacement de populations et l’acquisition de territoires»

(arrêt, par. 372). La Cour note en outre que les mobiles sous-tendant la
création d’une grande Serbie «n’exigeai[en]t pas nécessairement la des-
truction des Musulmans de Bosnie ni d’autres communautés, mais leur

expulsion» (ibid.). La Cour, pour l’essentiel, laisse de côté les faits et leur
substitue sa propre évaluation de la manière dont les Serbes de Bosnie
pouvaient par hypothèse parvenir à leurs objectifs stratégiques macabres.

Le demandeur ne requiert pas de la Cour qu’elle se prononce sur le point
de savoir si les Serbes de Bosnie ont fait preuve d’efficacité dans la pour-
suite de leurs objectifs. Le demandeur prie la Cour de se pencher sur le

type de comportement adopté et d’en tirer les conclusions logiques qui
s’imposent. La jurisprudence des tribunaux pénaux internationaux
montre moins d’indulgence que la Cour sur ce point et ne procède pas à

des distinctions artificielles entre intention génocidaire et nettoyage eth-
nique. La chambre d’appel en l’affaire Krstic ´ a clairement conclu que le
type de comportement connu sous le nom de «nettoyage ethnique» peut
20
être invoqué en tant que preuve de la mens rea de génocide . Cela s’ajou-

19
Les objectifs stratégiques étaient les suivants: 1) la séparation [du peuple serbe] des
deux autres communautés ethniques et sa constitution en Etat; 2) l’établissement d’un
corridor entre la Semberija et la Krajina; 3) l’établissement d’un corridor dans la vallée de
la Drina, c’est-à-dire la suppression de la frontière entre les Etats serbes; 4) l’établissement
d’une frontière suivant l’Una et la Neretva; et 5) la partition de la ville de Sarajevo en un
secteur serbe et un secteur musulman, et la mise en place d’autorités étatiques véritables
dans chacun d’entre eux (arrêt, par. 371).
20Krsti´, IT-98-33-A, par. 34. Sur cette base, la chambre d’appel a conclu que le
général Krst´c

«entendait procéder à un déplacement forcé, comme d’autres membres de l’état-ma-
jor principal de la VRS, mais ceux-ci l’envisageaient comme un premier pas vers le
génocide. [Pour certains membres de l’état-major principal de la VRS], le déplace-
ment forcé était un moyen de faire avancer leur projet de génocide.» (Ibid., par. 133.)

Voir également Krajisnik, IT-00-39-T, arrêt du 27 septembre 2006, par. 854.

218258 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

Muslims than genocidal intent? If the only objective was to move the
Muslim population, and the Court is willing to assume that the Bosnian
Serbs did only that which is strictly necessary in order to achieve this
objective, then what to make of the mass murder? If the Court cannot

ignore that population transfer was one way of achieving the Strategic
Goals, then why should it ignore that, in fact, the Bosnian Serbs used this
method as one of many — including massive killings of members of the
protected group.

42. The second argument the Court relies on bears on the conduct of
the ICTY’s Prosecutor and the Tribunal’s jurisprudence on genocide.

The Court rejects the Applicant’s argument that the pattern of atrocities
committed over many communities demonstrates the necessary intent
because it “is not consistent with the findings of the ICTY relating to
genocide or with the actions of the Prosecutor, including decisions not to

charge genocide offences in possibly relevant indictments, and to enter
into plea agreements” (Judgment, para. 374). That the ICTY has not
found genocide based on patterns of conduct in the whole of Bosnia is
of course not in the least surprising. The Tribunal only has jurisdiction to
judge the individual criminal liability of particular persons accused before

it, and the relevant evidence will therefore be limited to the sphere of
operations of the accused. In addition, prosecutorial conduct is often
based on expediency and therefore no conclusions can be drawn from the
prosecution’s acceptance of a plea bargain or failure to charge a particu-
lar person with genocide. While the Court is intent on adopting the bur-

den of proof relevant to criminal trials, it is not willing to recognize that
there is a fundamental distinction between a single person’s criminal trial
and a case involving State responsibility for genocide. The Court can
look at patterns of conduct throughout Bosnia because it is not con-

strained by the sphere of operations of any particular accused — and it
should have done so.

43. The consistent jurisprudence of the international criminal tribunals
is clear on the permissibility (and even the necessity) of relying on facts
and circumstances from which to infer genocidal intent. The ICTY
Appeal Chamber held that proof of specific genocidal intent

“may, in the absence of direct explicit evidence, be inferred from a
number of facts and circumstances, such as the general context, the
perpetration of other culpable acts systematically directed against

the same group, the scale of atrocities committed, the systematic

219 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP.DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 258

tant aux transferts de populations, quelle autre conclusion faudrait-il
tirer des meurtres de masse qui prirent systématiquement pour cible les
Musulmans de Bosnie, si ce n’est l’existence d’une intention génocidaire?
Si l’objectif était seulement de transférer la population musulmane ailleurs

— et la Cour veut présumer que les Serbes de Bosnie se sont contentés
strictement de faire ce qui était nécessaire à cette fin —, alors que dire des
meurtres de masse? Si la Cour ne peut pas ne pas prêter attention au fait
que les transferts de populations constituaient un moyen de réaliser les
objectifs stratégiques, alors pourquoi ne tient-elle aucun compte du fait

que, en réalité, les Serbes de Bosnie ont utilisé cette méthode parmi beau-
coup d’autres, y compris les meurtres de masse de membres du groupe
protégé?
42. Le deuxième argument qu’invoque la Cour repose sur la conduite
du procureur du TPIY et sur la jurisprudence du Tribunal en matière de

génocide. La Cour rejette l’argument du demandeur selon lequel le type
d’atrocité commis contre plusieurs communautés démontre la nécessaire
intention, au motif que «cette thèse n’est pas conforme aux conclusions
du TPIY sur le génocide ni aux décisions du procureur, parmi lesquelles

celles de ne pas inclure le chef de génocide dans des actes d’accusation où
il aurait éventuellement pu le faire et de conclure des accords sur la plai-
doirie» (arrêt, par. 374). Que le TPIY n’ait pas conclu à un génocide sur
la base des types de comportement adoptés dans l’ensemble de la Bosnie
n’est, évidemment, guère surprenant. Le Tribunal n’a compétence que

pour juger la responsabilité pénale individuelle de particuliers traduits
devant lui en tant qu’accusés et les éléments de preuve pertinents seront
dès lors limités à la sphère des actes de l’accusé. En outre, la conduite de
l’accusation est souvent dictée par des considérations d’opportunité et,
par conséquent, aucune conclusion ne saurait être tirée de l’acceptation

par l’accusation d’un accord sur la plaidoirie ou du fait qu’elle n’ait pas
inclus le chef de génocide dans un acte d’accusation visant une personne
particulière. Alors que la Cour manifeste l’intention de s’inspirer de la
charge de la preuve appliquée dans les procès pénaux, elle refuse de

reconnaître qu’il existe une distinction fondamentale entre le procès pénal
d’une personne et une affaire mettant en cause la responsabilité de l’Etat
pour génocide. La Cour peut examiner les types de comportement adop-
tés dans l’ensemble de la Bosnie, parce que son examen peut aller au-delà
de la sphère des actes d’un accusé particulier, et elle aurait dû le faire.

43. La jurisprudence constante des tribunaux pénaux internationaux
est claire sur la possibilité (voire la nécessité) de se fonder sur des faits et
circonstances pour en déduire une intention génocidaire. La chambre
d’appel du TPIY a dit que la preuve d’une intention génocidaire

spécifique

«p[ouvait], à défaut d’éléments de preuve directs et explicites, procé-
der d’un certain nombre de faits et circonstances, tels que le contexte
général, la perpétration d’autres actes répréhensibles systématique-

ment dirigés contre le même groupe, l’ampleur des atrocités com-

219259 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL -KHASAWNEH )

targeting of victims on account of their membership of a particular
21
group, or the repetition of destructive and discriminatory acts” .

44. Relying on the decision in Jelisic ´, the Appeal Chamber in Krstic ´

also held that “[w]hen direct evidence of genocidal intent is absent, the 22
intent may still be inferred from the factual circumstances of the crime” .
45. The ICTR has also consistently relied on inference as a means of

establishing the requisite genocidal mens rea.I nRutaganda , the ICTR
Appeal Chamber affirmed the Trial Chamber’s approach to inferring
genocidal intent:

“The Chamber considers that it is possible to deduce the genocidal
intent inherent in a particular act charged from the general context

of the perpetration of other culpable acts systematically directed
against that same group, whether these acts were committed by the
same offender or by others. Other factors, such as the scale of atroci-

ties committed, their general nature, in a region or a country, or
furthermore, the fact of deliberately and systematically targeting vic-
tims on account of their membership of a particular group, while

excluding the members of other groups, can enable the Chamber to
infer the genocidal intent of a particular act.” 23

46. The ICTR Appeal Chamber also held that, while making anti-
Tutsi utterances or being affiliated to an extremist anti-Tutsi group is not
a sine qua non for establishing the dolus specialis of genocide, establishing
24
such a fact may, nonetheless, facilitate proof of specific intent .n I
Musema, the ICTR Appeal Chamber held that “in practice, intent can

be, on a case-by-case basis, inferred from the material evidence submitted
to the Chamber, including the evidence which demonstrates a consistent
pattern of conduct by the Accused” . Finally, in Kayishema (the reason-
26
ing of which the Appeal Chamber affirmed) , the ICTR held that

“[t]he perpetrator’s actions, including circumstantial evidence, how-
ever may provide sufficient evidence of intent. . . The Chamber finds
that the intent can be inferred either from words or deeds and may

21 Jeli´, IT-95-10-A, Judgment of 5 July 2001, para. 47; J´, IT-95-10, Judgment of
14 December 1999, para. 73.
22 Krst´, supra footnote 20, para. 34.
23 Akayesu, ICTR-96-4, Judgment of 2 September 1998, para. 523, and Georges Ruta-
ganda, ICTR-96-3, Judgment of 6 December 1999, para. 398, both as affirmed in Georges

Ru24ganda, ICTR-96-3-A, Judgment of 26 May 2003, para. 528.
25 Georges Rutaganda, ICTR-96-3-A, Judgment of 26 May 2003, para. 525.
Musema, ICTR-96-13-A, Judgment of 27 January 2000, para. 167.
26 Kayishema, ICTR-95-1-A, Judgment of 1 June 2001, para. 148.

220 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS .AL -KHASAWNEH ) 259

mises, le fait de viser systématiquement certaines victimes en raison

de leur appartenance à un groupe particulier, ou la récurrence d’actes
destructifs et discriminatoires» . 21

44. S’appuyant sur la décision rendue en l’affaire Jelisic ´, la chambre

d’appel a dit dans l’affaire Krstic ´ que «l’intention génocidaire p[ouvait], à 22
défaut de preuve directe, s’inférer des circonstances factuelles du crime» .
45. Le TPIR s’est également constamment appuyé sur la présomption

en tant que moyen permettant d’établir la mens rea génocidaire requise.
En l’affaire Rutaganda, la chambre d’appel du TPIR a confirmé l’ap-
proche adoptée par la chambre de première instance consistant à

déduire l’intention génocidaire:

«La chambre estime qu’il est possible de déduire l’intention géno-
cidaire ayant prévalu à la commission d’un acte particulier incriminé

de l’ensemble des actes et propos de l’accusé, ou encore du contexte
général d’autres actes répréhensibles systématiquement dirigés contre
le même groupe, que ces actes soient commis par le même agent ou

par d’autres agents. D’autres facteurs, tels que l’échelle des atrocités
commises, leur caractère général, dans une région ou un pays, ou
encore le fait de délibérément et systématiquement choisir les vic-

times en raison de leur appartenance à un groupe particulier, tout
en excluant les membres d’autres groupes, peuvent permettre à la
23
chambre de déduire une intention génocidaire.»

46. La chambre d’appel du TPIR a conclu également que, si faire des
déclarations anti-tutsi ou être affilié à un groupe anti-tutsi extrémiste ne
permet pas d’établir sine qua non le dolus specialis de génocide, détermi-

ner pareil fait peut, néanmoins, faciliter l’établissement de la preuve de
l’intention spécifique . En l’affaire Musema, la chambre d’appel du

TPIR a dit que, «en pratique, l’intention p[ouvait], au cas par cas, être
déduite des éléments de preuve soumis à la chambre, y compris les élé-
ments qui démontrent un type de comportement constant de la part de
25
l’accusé» . Enfin, en l’affaire Kayishema (la chambre d’appel ayant
confirmé le raisonnement adopté en première instance) , le TPIR a dit
que l’intention de détruire le groupe

«p[ouvait] être établie de manière convaincante à partir des actes de
l’auteur, y compris au moyen de preuves indirectes. De l’avis de la
chambre, l’intention peut être déduite soit des propos, soit des actes

21 Jeli´, IT-95-10-A, arrêt du 5 juillet 2001, par. 47; Je´, IT-95-10, jugement du
14 décembre 1999, par. 73.
22 Krst´, voir ci-dessus note 20, par. 34.
23 Akayesu, ICTR-96-4, arrêt du 2 septembre 1998, par. 523, et Georges Rutaganda,
ICTR-96-3, arrêt du 6 décembre 1999, par. 398, tous deux tels que confirmés en l’affaire

Ge24ges Rutaganda, ICTR-96-3-A, arrêt du 26 mai 2003, par. 528.
25 Georges Rutaganda, ICTR-96-3-A, arrêt du 26 mai 2003, par. 525.
Musema, ICTR-96-13-A, arrêt du 27 ernvier 2000, par. 167.
26 Kayishema, ICTR-95-1-A, arrêt du 1 juin 2001, par. 148.

220260 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .AL -KHASAWNEH )

be demonstrated by a pattern of purposeful action. In particular, the
Chamber considers evidence such as the physical targeting of the
group or their property; the use of derogatory language toward

members of the targeted group; the weapons employed and the
extent of bodily injury; the methodical way of planning, the system-
atic manner of killing. Furthermore, the number of victims from the
group is also important.” 27

47. It is regrettable that the Court’s approach to proof of genocidal
intent did not reflect more closely this relevant jurisprudence.

48. Fourthly, genocide is definitionally a complex crime in the sense
that unlike homicide it takes time to achieve, requires repetitiveness, and
is committed by many persons and organs acting in concert. As such, it

cannot be appreciated in a disconnected manner. Unfortunately, there
are instances in the Judgment where this happens, including on crucial
issues such as FRY responsibility for the genocide at Srebrenica.

49. Belgrade’s knowledge of the more general operations in Srebrenica
28
— those geared toward “taking the town” — is amply established .In
addition, Carl Bildt (European negotiator) met twice with President
Miloševic´ and General Mladic ´ together in the midst of the takeover of
29
Srebrenica and the subsequent massacre . As regards General Mladic ´,
it is accepted that his promotion to the rank of Colonel General was
handled in Belgrade, and the Respondent’s claim that this was no more

than some administrative confirmation of a decision made in Pale is
unconvincing. The Secretary-General’s report on the fall of Srebrenica
relates that Mr. Bildt was joined in his meeting with President Milo-

ševi´ on 14 July by General Mladic ´ — which is the period during which the
Court determined that the decision to eliminate physically the whole
of the adult male population of the Muslim community of Srebrenica

was taken (Judgment, para. 423). The Report also highlights that President
Karadžic ´ (President of the Republika Srpska) was unaware of the
meetings between Mr. Bildt, President Miloševic ´ and General Mladic ´ .

27Kayishema, ICTR-95-1, Judgment of 21 May 1999, para. 93.
28Netherlands Institute for War Documentation, Srebrenica — a ‘safe’ area. Recon-
struction, background, consequences and analyses of the fall of the Safe Area , 10 April 2002,
Chap. 7.
29Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35,

“The Fall of Srebrenica”, United Nations doc. A/54/549 (1999), p. 81, para. 372.
30
Ibid., p. 82, paras. 373-376.

221 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 260

de l’auteur et peut être établie par la mise en évidence de l’existence

d’une ligne de conduite délibérée. De manière plus concrète, la
chambre considère comme preuve d’une telle intention le fait de
s’attaquer physiquement au groupe ou à ses biens; l’usage de termes

insultants à l’égard des membres du groupe visé; les armes utilisées
et la gravité des blessures subies par les victimes; le caractère métho-
dique de la planification et le caractère systématique du crime. A cela

s’ajoute un élément non moins important, à savoir le nom27e des
membres du groupe victimes de l’acte incriminé.»

47. Il est regrettable que l’approche adoptée par la Cour pour prouver

l’intention génocidaire n’ait pas davantage tenu compte de cette jurispru-
dence pertinente.
48. Quatrièmement, le génocide est par définition un crime complexe,

en ce sens que, contrairement à l’homicide, il faut beaucoup de temps
pour le commettre, qu’il exige une répétition des actes et qu’il est commis
par plusieurs personnes et organes agissant de concert, de sorte que l’on

ne saurait l’évaluer de manière parcellaire. Malheureusement, c’est ce qui
est fait dans certains passages de l’arrêt, y compris sur des questions
cruciales telles que la responsabilité de la RFY pour le génocide commis à

Srebrenica.
49. La connaissance par Belgrade des opérations de nature générale qui
se déroulaient à Srebrenica — celles visant à «prendre la ville» — est
28
amplement établie . En outre, Carl Bildt (le négociateur européen) a ren-
contré deux fois ensemble le président Miloševic ´ et le général Mladic ´ au
moment de la prise de Srebrenica et du massacre qui s’ensuivit . S’agis-
sant du général Mladic ´, il est admis que sa promotion au rang de général-

colonel a été réglée à Belgrade, et l’affirmation du défendeur selon laquelle
il ne s’est agi que d’une simple confirmation administrative de la décision
prise à Pale n’est pas convaincante. Le rapport du Secrétaire général por-

tant sur la chute de Srebrenica indique que M. Bildt a été rejoint par le
général Mladic ´ dans sa réunion avec le président Miloševic ´ le 14 juillet —
ce qui correspond à la période au cours de laquelle, selon ce que la Cour

a établi, la décision d’éliminer physiquement l’ensemble de la population
mâle adulte de la communauté musulmane de Srebrenica a été prise (arrêt,
par. 423). Le rapport met également en lumière le fait que le président

Karadžic ´ (président de la Republika Srpska) n’était pas informé des réu-
nions entre Carl Bildt, le président Miloševic ´ et le général Mladic ´ .

27
28Kayishema, ICTR-95-1, jugement du 21 mai 1999, par. 93.
Institut néerlandais pour la documentation sur la guerre, Srebrenica — une zone de
«sécurité». Reconstruction, contexte, conséquences et analyses de la chute de la zone de
sé29rité, 10 avril 2002, chap. 7.
Rapport présenté par le Secrétaire général en application de la résolution 53/35 de
l’Assemblée générale, «La chute de Srebrenica», Nations Unies, doc. A/54/549 (1999),
p. 81, par. 372.
30 Ibid., p. 82, par. 373-376.

221261 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS .OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

50. Finally, in regard specifically to the massacres in Srebrenica,

General Clark testified in Miloševic ´’s trial to the following conversation
he had with the President of the FRY:

“Well, all I can confirm, Your Honour, is the discussion that I

had. I went to Miloševic ´ and I asked him. I said, ‘If you have so
much influence over these Serbs, how could you have allowed Gen-
eral Mladic´ to have killed all those people at Srebrenica?’ And he
looked to me — at me. His expression was very grave. He paused

before he answered, and he said, ‘Well, General Clark, I warned him
not to do this, but he didn’t listen to me.’ And it was in the context
of all of the publicity at the time about the Srebrenica massacre.
Now, I did not use the word ‘massacre’, and I did not specifically use

the word ‘civilian’, but the context of the conversation was extremely
clear and timely at that point.” 31

51. General Mladic ´’s decisive role in the Srebrenica genocide, the close

relationship between General Mladic ´ and President Miloševic ´, the influ-
ential part President Miloševic ´ played in negotiations regarding Sre-
brenica (both before and after the genocide), and his own statements as
set forth above, each taken alone, might not amount to proof of Presi-

dent Miloševic ´’s knowledge of the genocide set to unfold in Srebrenica.
Taken together, these facts clearly establish that Belgrade was, if not fully
integrated in, then fully aware of, the decision-making processes regarding

Srebrenica, while the Republika Srpska itself was excluded. Even after
the fact, negotiations following the fall of Srebrenica and the genocide
committed there were held simultaneously with General Mladic ´ and
President Miloševic ´ . There can be no doubt that President Miloševic ´

was fully appraised of General Mladic ´’s (and the Bosnian Serb army’s)
activities in Srebrenica throughout the takeover and massacres.

52. An even more disturbing feature in the Court’s reasoning is
evident in its treatment of the Serbian paramilitary units known as
the “Scorpions” (Judgment, paras. 289, 389 and 395).

53. Thus, paragraph 389 of the Judgment considers two documents
presented by the Applicant, in which there is reference to the “Scorpions”

31
Prosecutor v. Miloše´, ICTY Judgment, No. IT-02-54, Transcript of 16 Decem-
be322003, pp. 30494-30495.
Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to General Assembly resolution 53/35,
“The Fall of Srebrenica”, United Nations doc. A/54/549 (1999), p. 85, para. 392.

222 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. AL-KHASAWNEH ) 261

50. Enfin, s’agissant en particulier des massacres commis à Srebrenica,

le général Clark a affirmé, au cours de la déposition qu’il a faite au procès
de première instance de Miloševic ´, avoir eu la conversation suivante avec
le président de la RFY:

«Bien, tout ce que je peux confirmer, votre honneur, c’est la dis-

cussion que j’ai eue avec lui. Je suis allé voir Miloševic ´ et lui ai posé
la question. J’ai dit: «Si vous avez autant d’influence sur ces Serbes,
comment avez-vous pu permettre au général Mladic ´ de tuer autant
de personnes à Srebenica?» Et il m’a regardé. Son expression était

très grave. Il a observé une pause avant de répondre en disant: «Eh
bien, général Clark, je lui ai dit de ne pas le faire, mais il ne m’a pas
écouté.» Et cela se passait dans le contexte de toute la publicité qui
était faite à l’époque autour du massacre de Srebrenica. Certes, je

n’ai pas employé le terme de «massacre» et je n’ai pas employé de
manière spécifique les termes «populations civiles», mais le contexte
de la conversation était parfaitement clair et les choses étaient dites
de manière précise et opportune.» 31

51. Le rôle décisif joué par le général Mladic ´ dans le génocide de Sre-

brenica, les relations étroites entre le général Mladic ´ et le président Milo-
ševi´, la part d’influence que le président Miloševic ´ a exercée dans les
négociations concernant Srebrenica (tant avant qu’après le génocide) et
ses propres déclarations, telles que rapportées ci-dessus, sont autant de

faits qui, pris individuellement, pourraient équivaloir à la preuve que le
président Miloševic ´ avait connaissance du génocide qui allait se dérouler
à Srebrenica. Pris ensemble, ces faits établissent clairement que Belgrade

était — sinon pleinement impliquée dans les décisions concernant Srebre-
nica — du moins pleinement informée de ces décisions, à un moment où
la Republika Srpska elle-même était tenue à l’écart. Même après les évé-
nements, les négociations qui ont suivi la chute de Srebrenica et le géno-

cide qui y avait été commis ont été32enues simultanément avec le général
Mladic ´ et le président Miloševic´ . Il ne peut y avoir de doute que le pré-
sident Miloševic ´ était pleinement informé des activités du général Mladic ´
(et de l’armée des Serbes de Bosnie) à Srebrenica tout au long de la prise

de la ville et des massacres.
52. Un aspect encore plus préoccupant du raisonnement de la Cour
apparaît clairement dans le traitement que la Cour a réservé aux unités
paramilitaires serbes connues sous le nom de «Scorpions» (arrêt, par. 289,

389 et 395).
53. Ainsi la Cour procède-t-elle au paragraphe 389 de l’arrêt à l’ana-
lyse de deux documents présentés par le demandeur, dans lesquels il est

31
Le procureur c. Miloše´ , IT-02-54, comptes rendus d’audiences, 16 décembre 2003,
p.320494-30495.
Rapport présenté par le Secrétaire général en application de la résolution 53/35 de
l’Assemblée générale, «La chute de Srebrenica», Nations Unies, doc. A/54/549 (1999),
p. 85, par. 392.

222262 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

as “MUP of Serbia” and a “unit of Ministry of Interiors of Serbia”. The
paragraph notes that the authenticity of the documents was disputed by
the Respondent presumably because “they were copies of intercepts, but
not originals”. But it is plain that if the Court insisted on original docu-

ments, it would never be able to render any judgments. Be this as it may,
the other reason advanced to undermine the importance of these docu-
ments is that they are not addressed to Belgrade, the senders being “offi-
cials of the police forces of the Republika Srpska”. But this in itself does
not deny their probative value. When an official of the Republika Srpska

sends a telegram to his superior in which the Scorpions are described as
“MUP of Serbia” or “a unit of Ministry of Interiors of Serbia”, there is
no reason to doubt the veracity of this statement.

54. Consequently, we have here a case of a unit which had been incor-
porated into the forces of the Respondent — though the date for that
incorporation is in dispute — yet the Court concludes that they are not to

be treated as de jure organs of the Respondent in 1995, notwithstanding
evidence that they were perceived to be such by the Republika Srpska
officials. Equally surprising is the Court’s treatment of the statement by
the Government of Serbia and Montenegro — after President Miloševic ´’s
fall from power — to the effect that what happened in Srebrenica was not

the work of Serbia, but of the ousted régime. This statement was in fact
occasioned by the showing, on national and international television, of
the shocking images of the brutal execution of six Muslim prisoners in
Trnovo, near Srebrenica, by the Scorpions. The Court failed to take
account of this closely connected fact in its appreciation of the status of

the Scorpions.

55. Lastly, with regard to the Scorpions, the Court goes on in para-
graph 389 to say:

“Furthermore, the Court notes that in any event the act of an
organ placed by a State at the disposal of another public authority
by a state shall not be considered an act of that State if the organ
was acting on behalf of the public authority at whose disposal it

had been placed.”

However, while the spirit of Article 6 of the ILC’s Articles on State
Responsibility is faithfully reflected, it must be noted that on this impor-

tant question of fact, there is no evidence that the Scorpions were placed
at the disposal of another public authority.
56. Fifthly, the Court’s treatment of the statement by the Government
of Serbia and Montenegro alluded to above leaves much to be desired. In
view of the importance of this statement, it bears being recalled in full:

223 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.AL -KHASAWNEH )262

fait mention des «Scorpions» en tant que «MUP de Serbie» et qu’«unité
du ministère serbe de l’intérieur». La Cour relève dans le paragraphe que
l’authenticité du document a été mise en doute par le défendeur, vraisem-
blablement parce qu’il s’agissait «des copies de communications intercep-

tées et non des originaux». Mais il est clair que, si la Cour insistait pour
obtenir des originaux de documents, elle ne pourrait jamais rendre de
jugements. Quoi qu’il en soit, l’autre motif avancé par la Cour pour mini-
miser l’importance de ces documents est que ceux-ci ne sont pas adressés
à Belgrade, les expéditeurs en étant «de hauts responsables des forces de

police de la Republika Srpska». Mais cela en soi ne prive pas ces docu-
ments de leur valeur probante. Lorsqu’un haut responsable de la Repu-
blika Srpska adresse à son supérieur un télégramme dans lequel les Scor-
pions sont décrits en tant que «MUP de Serbie» ou qu’«unité du ministère
serbe de l’intérieur», il n’y a aucune raison de mettre en doute la véracité

de pareille affirmation.
54. Il s’agit ici par conséquent d’une unité qui avait été incorporée
dans les forces du défendeur — même si la date de cette incorporation est
contestée —, et la Cour conclut néanmoins que les membres de cette

unité ne doivent pas être traités en tant qu’organes de jure du défendeur
en 1995, nonobstant les éléments de preuve qui établissent qu’ils étaient
perçus comme tels par les hauts responsables de la Republika Srpska.
Egalement surprenant est le traitement que la Cour réserve à la déclara-
tion du Gouvernement de la Serbie-et-Monténégro — après la chute du

président Miloševic ´ —, selon laquelle ce qui s’était passé à Srebrenica
avait été le fait non pas de la Serbie, mais du régime déchu. Cette déclara-
tion avait été de fait provoquée par la diffusion, sur les écrans de télévi-
sion en Serbie et dans le monde, des terribles images de l’exécution bru-
tale par les Scorpions de six prisonniers musulmans à Trnovo, près de

Srebrenica. La Cour n’a pas pris en considération ce fait, qui a un lien
très direct avec son analyse du statut des Scorpions.
55. Enfin, s’agissant des Scorpions, la Cour poursuit son raisonnement
au paragraphe 389 en ces termes:

«De plus, la Cour relève qu’en tout état de cause les actes d’un
organe mis par un Etat à la disposition d’une autre autorité publique
ne peuvent être considérés comme des actes de l’Etat en question si
cet organe agit pour le compte de l’autorité publique à la disposition

de laquelle il se trouve.»

Si l’esprit de l’article 6 des articles de la CDI sur la responsabilité de
l’Etat se trouve fidèlement reflété, il convient de noter toutefois que, sur

cette importante question de fait, il n’existe aucune preuve que les Scor-
pions aient été mis à la disposition d’une autre autorité publique.
56. Cinquièmement, le traitement que la Cour a réservé à la déclara-
tion du Gouvernement de la Serbie-et-Monténégro à laquelle il est fait
allusion ci-dessus laisse beaucoup à désirer. Compte tenu de l’importance

de cette déclaration, il convient de la rappeler dans son intégralité:

223263 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

“Those who committed the killings in Srebrenica, as well as those

who ordered and organized that massacre represented neither Serbia
nor Montenegro, but an undemocratic régime of terror and death,
against whom the great majority of citizens of Serbia and Monte-

negro put up the strongest resistance.
Our condemnation of crimes in Srebrenica does not end with the
direct perpetrators. We demand the criminal responsibility of all
who committed war crimes, organized them or ordered them, and

not only in Srebrenica.
Criminals must not be heroes. Any protection of the war crimi-
nals, for whatever reason, is also a crime.”

57. The Court has concluded that this statement was of a political
nature and does not amount to an admission of Serbian responsibility for
the massacres in Srebrenica. To support its refusal to take at face value

the plain language of the Serbian Council of Ministers, the Court invokes
its decisions in the Nuclear Tests and Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/
Republic of Mali) cases. These Judgments, however, are neutral in their
support for the conclusions the Court draws in paragraph 378. In these

Judgments the Court held that declarations made by way of unilateral
acts, in particular by highly placed government officials , can have bind-
ing legal consequences. In determining these consequences, the Court has
consistently considered whether the language employed reveals a clear

intention (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 473, para. 47; see also Temple of Preah Vihear (Cam-
bodia v. Thailand), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1961, pp. 31-32). And intention must be considered in the context in
which the statements were made (the Court is not to presume that the
statements were not made in vacuo)( Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v.
France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 474, para. 52)), and in the

general framework of international discourse.

58. Indeed, the opposite conclusion from that reached by the Court in
paragraph 378 is supported by the cited jurisprudence. To the extent that

the effect of a unilateral act depends on the intent behind it and the con-
text within which it was made, one need only consider this: the Serbian
Government at the time was attempting to distance itself — as a new and
democratic régime — from the régime which had come before it, in light

of the revelation of horrible crimes committed by paramilitary units (the

33In Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), the Court specifically holds that

“there can be no doubt, in view of [the French President’s] functions, that his public
communications or statements, oral or written, as Head of State, are in international
relations acts of the French State” (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 474, para. 51).

224 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS .AL -KHASAWNEH ) 263

«Les auteurs des tueries de Srebrenica et ceux qui ont ordonné et

organisé le massacre ne représentaient ni la Serbie ni le Monténégro,
mais un régime antidémocratique de terreur et de mort, contre lequel
la grande majorité des citoyens de Serbie-et-Monténégro ont opposé

la plus vive résistance.
Notre condamnation ne s’arrête pas aux exécutants directs. Nous
demandons que soient poursuivis tous ceux qui, non seulement à
Srebrenica mais ailleurs, ont commis, organisé ou ordonné des

crimes de guerre.
Des criminels ne sauraient être traités en héros. Toute protection des
criminels de guerre, quelle qu’en soit la raison, est aussi un crime.»

57. La Cour a conclu que cette déclaration était de nature politique et
qu’elle n’équivalait pas à une admission d’une responsabilité serbe pour les
massacres commis à Srebrenica. A l’appui de son refus de prendre au pied

de la lettre la déclaration du Conseil des ministres serbe, la Cour invoque
les décisions qu’elle a rendues dans les affaires desEssais nucléaires et du
Différend frontalier (Burkina Faso/République du Mali). Ces arrêts, tou-
tefois, sont sans pertinence et ne peuvent venir au soutien des conclusions

que la Cour tire au paragraphe 378. Dans lesdits arrêts, la Cour avait
conclu que des déclarations faites sous la forme d’actes unilatéraux, en
particulier par de hauts responsables du gouvernement , pouvaient pro-
duire des conséquences juridiques obligatoires. En déterminant lesdites

conséquences, la Cour a constamment recherché si les termes utilisés révé-
laient une intention claire (Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 473, par. 47; voir égalementTemple de Préah

Vihéar (Cambodge c. Thaïlande), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1961, p. 31-32). Et l’intention doit être appréciée en tenant compte
du contexte dans lequel les déclarations ont été faites (la Cour n’a pas à
présumer que les déclarations ont été faitesin vacuo)( Essais nucléaires

(Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 474, par. 52))
et du cadre général de propos tenus sur le plan international.
58. De fait, une conclusion inverse de celle à laquelle la Cour est par-
venue au paragraphe 378 trouve un appui dans la jurisprudence qui vient

d’être citée. Dans la mesure où l’effet d’un acte unilatéral dépend de
l’intention qui le sous-tend et du contexte dans lequel l’acte est accompli,
l’on ne doit se préoccuper que de ce qui suit: le Gouvernement serbe de
l’époque essayait de prendre ses distances — en tant que nouveau régime

démocratique — avec le régime qui l’avait précédé, à la suite de la révéla-

33Dans l’affaire des Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France) , la Cour a plus pré-
cisément dit ce qui suit:

«Etant donné [l]es fonctions [du président de la République française], il n’est pas
douteux que les communications ou déclarations publiques, verbales ou écrites, qui
émanent de lui en tant que chef de l’Etat, représentent dans le domaine des relations
internationales des actes de l’Etat français.» (Arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 474,
par. 51.)

224264 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. AL-KHASAWNEH )

Scorpions) on national Serbian and international television. The intent
was to acknowledge the previous régime’s responsibility for those crimes,
and to make a fresh start by distancing the new régime therefrom. A
clearer intention to “admit” past wrongs cannot be had.

59. Of equal note is the Court’s failure to address its decisions in Nica-
ragua and Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda — both of which
were invoked in the Applicant’s pleadings on this subject (CR2006/11,

pp. 10-15 (Condorelli)). In Nicaragua, the Court considered what legal
consequences could be drawn from the United States characterization of
its conduct in Nicaragua as “self-defence”. In so doing, the Court had
this to say:

“statements of this kind, emanating from high-ranking official politi-

cal figures, sometimes indeed of the highest rank, are of particular
probative value when they acknowledge facts or conduct unfavour-
able to the State represented by the person who made them. They
may then be construed as a form of admission.” (Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United

States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 ,p .1,
para. 64; emphasis added.)
“Among the legal effects which such declarations may have is that

they may be regarded as evidence of the truth of facts , as evidence
that such facts are attributable to the State the authorities of which
are the authors of these declarations, and, to a lesser degree, as evi-
dence for the legal qualification of these facts.” (Ibid., p. 43, para. 71;

emphasis added.)
60. The Court’s reasoning in Nicaragua is highly relevant in its appli-

cation to the statement made by the Serbian Council of Ministers. The
Council of Ministers unambiguously admits that the previous Govern-
ment of Serbia and Montenegro (internationally recognized and unques-
tionably acting on behalf of the Serbian State for the purposes of State

responsibility) had “ordered and organized” the killings in Srebrenica.
Given the continuity of State responsibility, despite the change in régime,
this statement certainly acknowledge[s] facts or conduct unfavourable to
the State making the statement , and on the basis of Nicaragua thereby
amounts to a form of admission, or at the very least, evidence of the truth

of the facts it asserts. This conclusion is in keeping with the Court’s
recent decision in Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda, in which
the Court observed that it would

“give particular attention to reliable evidence acknowledging facts or
conduct unfavourable to the State represented by the person making

them. . .” (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Demo-

225 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.AL -KHASAWNEH )264

tion sur les écrans de télévision, en Serbie et dans le monde, des crimes
horribles commis par des unités paramilitaires (les Scorpions). L’intention
était de reconnaître la responsabilité du régime précédent pour ces crimes
et de marquer l’avènement d’une ère nouvelle en montrant que le nouveau

régime prenait ses distances avec les crimes en question. L’on ne saurait
trouver intention plus claire d’«admettre» des actes illicites passés.
59. Le fait que la Cour n’a pas pris en compte les décisions qu’elle a
rendues dans les affaires Nicaragua et République démocratique du Congo
c. Ouganda — deux affaires qui ont été invoquées dans les plaidoiries du

demandeur sur cette question (CR2006/11, p. 10-15 (Condorelli)) — est à
mettre sur le même plan. Dans l’affaire Nicaragua, la Cour a examiné les
conséquences juridiques qui pourraient être tirées de la qualification par
les Etats-Unis de leur comportement au Nicaragua en tant que «légitime
défense». Elle a dit ce qui suit:

«[D]es déclarations de cette nature, émanant de personnalités

politiques officielles de haut rang, parfois même du rang le plus
élevé, possèdent une valeur probante particulière lorsqu’elles recon-
naissent des faits ou des comportements défavorables à l’Etat que
représente celui qui les a formulées. Elles s’analysent alors en une
sorte d’aveu.» ( Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et

contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 41, par. 64; les italiques sont de moi.)
«L’un des effets juridiques qui peuvent s’attacher à ces déclara-

tions est qu’elles peuvent être considérées comme établissant la maté-
rialité de faits, leur imputabilité aux Etats dont les autorités ont fait
les déclarations et, dans une moindre mesure, la qualification juri-
dique desdits faits.» (Ibid., p. 43, par. 71; les italiques sont de moi.)

60. Le raisonnement de la Cour dans l’affaire Nicaragua est particu-

lièrement pertinent lorsqu’il est appliqué à la déclaration du Conseil des
ministres serbe. Celui-ci admet sans ambiguïté que le Gouvernement pré-
cédent de la Serbie-et-Monténégro (reconnu internationalement et sans
conteste comme agissant au nom de l’Etat serbe aux fins de la responsa-

bilité d’Etat) avait «ordonné et organisé» les tueries à Srebrenica. Compte
tenu de la continuité de la responsabilité de l’Etat, par-delà le change-
ment de régime, cette déclaration, à n’en pas douter, reconnaît des faits
ou un comportement défavorables à l’Etat dont émane la déclaration ,et
sur la base de l’affaire Nicaragua, équivaut dès lors à une sorte d’aveu,

ou, à tout le moins, à la preuve de la véracité des faits sur lesquels elle
porte. Cette conclusion est conforme à la décision rendue récemment en
l’affaire République démocratique du Congo c. Ouganda , dans laquelle la
Cour a fait observer qu’elle prêterait

«une attention toute particulière aux éléments de preuve dignes de
foi attestant de faits ou de comportements défavorables à l’Etat que

représente celui dont émanent lesdits éléments» (Activités armées sur

225265 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.AL -KHASAWNEH )

cratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2005, p. 201, para. 61.)

61. The Court’s lack of application of the jurisprudence it does invoke,
and failure to invoke jurisprudence more directly on point is unfortunate.

The Serbian Council of Ministers’ statement, taken in the context of the
other evidence available to the Court, certainly amounts to an admission
of the responsibility of President Miloševic´’s régime for the massacres in
Srebrenica, which the Court has determined amount to genocide.

III. CONCLUSION

62. The Court has absolved Serbia from responsibility for genocide in
Bosnia and Herzegovina -— save for responsibility for failure to prevent
genocide in Srebrenica. It achieved this extraordinary result in the face of

vast and compelling evidence to the contrary. This result was however a
product of a combination of methods and techniques the Court adopted
that could not but have led to this result. In the first place the Court
refused to inform itself regarding the twin questions of intent and attri-

butability, the most elusive points in proving the crime of genocide and
engaging State responsibility for it. At the same time, the Court refused
to translate its taking note of the refusal to divulge redacted materials
into concrete steps regarding the onus and standard of proof, thereby
putting the Applicant at a huge disadvantage. If this was not enough, it

required in addition too high a threshold for control and one that did not
accord with the facts of this case nor with the relevant jurisprudence of
the ICTY. The Court likewise failed to appreciate the definitional com-
plexity of the crime of genocide and the need for a comprehensive

approach in appreciating closely related facts, the role of General Mladic´
and the Scorpions in Srebrenica being a prime example. Moreover, where
certain facts did not fit the Court’s conclusions, they were dismissed with
no justification, the statement of the new Government of Serbia being

also a case in point. I am certain that as far as Srebrenica is concerned,
FRY responsibility as a principal or as an accomplice is satisfied on the
facts and in law. I am of the opinion also that with regard to other parts
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, had the Court followed more appropriate

methods for assessing the facts, there would have been, in all probability,
positive findings as to Serbia’s international responsibility.

(Signed) Awn Shawkat A L -KHASAWNEH .

226 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.AL KHASAWNEH ) 265

le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo c.
Ouganda), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005 , p. 201, par. 61).

61. Il est regrettable que la Cour n’ait pas appliqué la jurisprudence
qu’elle invoque et qu’elle ne se soit pas appuyée sur une jurisprudence
plus directement pertinente. La déclaration du Conseil des ministres

serbe, prise dans le contexte des autres éléments de preuve dont disposait
la Cour, équivaut indéniablement à une admission de la responsabilité du
régime du président Miloševic´ dans les massacres de Srebrenica, qui cons-
tituent un génocide, comme l’a déterminé la Cour.

III. C ONCLUSIONS

62. La Cour a absous la Serbie de responsabilité pour le génocide en

Bosnie-Herzégovine — sauf en ce qui concerne sa responsabilité pour
manquement à l’obligation de prévenir le génocide à Srebrenica. Elle est
parvenue à ce résultat extraordinaire en dépit d’éléments de preuve par-
ticulièrement probants allant dans un sens contraire. Elle y est toutefois

parvenue en recourant à une combinaison de méthodes et de techniques
qui ne pouvait que conduire à ce résultat. Tout d’abord, la Cour a refusé
de s’informer sur les questions interdépendantes de l’intention et de
l’imputabilité, éléments les plus difficiles à établir lorsqu’il s’agit de prou-

ver le crime de génocide et d’engager la responsabilité de l’Etat à son
sujet. Dans le même temps, la Cour a refusé de traduire sa constatation
du refus de divulguer des parties de documents occultées en des mesures
concrètes relatives à la charge et au critère de la preuve, mettant ainsi le
demandeur dans une position particulièrement désavantageuse. Comme

si cela ne suffisait pas, elle a exigé en outre un seuil trop élevé de contrôle,
qui n’est pas en accord avec les faits de la cause ni avec la jurisprudence
pertinente du TPIY. La Cour n’a pas, non plus, tenu compte de la com-
plexité de la définition du crime de génocide et de la nécessité d’adopter

une approche globale lorsque l’on analyse des faits étroitement liés, le
rôle du général Mladic´ et des Scorpions à Srebrenica étant à ce propos un
exemple particulièrement éloquent. En outre, lorsque certains faits ne
corroboraient pas les conclusions de la Cour, ils ont été écartés sans
justification, la déclaration du nouveau Gouvernement serbe étant un

exemple à cet égard. Je suis convaincu que, s’agissant de Srebrenica,
la responsabilité de la RFY en tant qu’auteur principal ou en tant que
complice est établie sur la base des faits et du droit. Mon opinion est
également que, pour ce qui concerne d’autres parties de la Bosnie-Herzé-

govine, si la Cour avait adopté des méthodes plus appropriées pour éva-
luer les faits, elle serait, en toute probabilité, parvenue à une conclusion
positive quant à la responsabilité internationale de la Serbie.

(Signé) Awn Shawkat A L-K HASAWNEH .

226

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