Separate opinion of Vice-President Oda

Document Number
078-19930614-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
078-19930614-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATEOPINIONOFVICE-PRESIDENTODA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs
1-3

PART1. DENMARK' SISUNDERSTAND IF CERTAIN CONCEPT SF
THE LAW OF THE SEAAS REFLECTE DITSSUBMISSIONS 4-46

1. The submissions ofenmark 4-5
2. Problem 1:The fishery zone (howevercalled) is not identical to
the exclusiveeconomic zone 6-23
(a) Theperiod priortothe 1950s

(b) UNCLOS 1(1958)

(c) The 12-mile fishery zone in the period following
UNCLOS 1 12-15
(d) Emergence of the new concept of the exclusive economic
zone 16
(e) Claimsto a 200-milefisheryzone sincethe mid-1970s 17-19

Ifl"Fisheryzone" nota legalconcept 20-22
(g) TheCourt's position onthe 200-mileoffshore fisheries 23

3. Problem2 :Therégimeofthe continental shelfisindependent of
the concept ofthe exclusiveeconomiczone 24-39

(a) Emergence and evolution of the legal concept of the conti-
nental shelf 26-28
(b) Post-UNCLOS 1 29-32

(c) Transition to a new situation due to new technological
developments 33-34
(d) Transformation ofthe definition ofthe continental shelf 35-37
(e) Ignorance of the transformation of the concept of the con-
tinental shelf and the parallel existence of the exclusive
economiczone and the continental shelf 38-39

4. Problem 3:Confusion of title to the exclusive economic zone
and the continental shelf with the question of delimitation of
overlapping entitlements 40-46

(a) Denmark's entitlement to an exclusive economiczone and
a continental shelfin respect of Greenland 41
(b) Norway's entitlement to an exclusive economiczone and a
continental shelf in respect ofJan Mayen 42-43
(c) Overlapping of entitlements or claims 44-46PART II. THEPOSSIBLFEUNCTIO NFTHE COURT IN CASESOF MARITIME
DELIMITATION

1. Law of maritime delimitation in the 1958Convention on the
Continental Shelf
(a) Delimitation of fisheries jurisdiction not at issue at
UNCLOS 1

(b) UNCLOS 1:Adoption of the Convention on the Continen-
tal Shelf
(c) The North Seaas apractical case-study
(d) Implications of the Judgment in the NorthSea Continental
Shelfcases
(e) Article 6 of the 1958Convention not applicable tothe pres-
ent case

2. The rules for maritime delimitation discussed at the Sea-Bed
Committee and UNCLOS III, and their adoption in the 1982
United Nations Convention

(a) Drafting of Articles74and 83ofthe 1982Convention
(b) Interpretation ofthe provisions of Articles74and 83
(c) Oneor two delimitation lines?
3. Role of the third party in settling disputes conceming maritime
delimitation

(a) Infinite variety ofpotential delimitation lines
(b) Role of the third party in the delimitation of maritime
boundaries
(c) Arbitration exaequoet bono
(d) Limited function of the International Court of Justice in a
maritime delimitation
(e) Effecting a delimitation exaequoetbono

PARTIII. LACK OF VALIDGROUNDS FOR THE LINEDRAWN IN THE
JUDGMENT

(a) Unsatisfactory "justification" by special (relevant) circum-
stances
(b) Unjustified choice ofthe line
(c) Mistaken definition of a singlemaritime boundary
(d) Conclusion 1. 1am somewhatconcerned by the rather incorrect manner in which
Denmark formulated its Application and submissions and the way in
whichthe Court responded to them. 1willaccordinglybegin my opinion
by pointing out thatDenmark appears to have misunderstood certain
conceptsofthe lawofthe sea,suchasthe exclusiveeconomiczone and the
continental shelf, as reflected in its submissions (Parts opinion).
2. However, the principal reason why 1 am inclined to criticize the
Judgment liesinmybeliefthat, asamatterofprinciple, the delimitationof
maritime boundaries, whether of the exclusive economic zone or of the
continental shelf,oes not fa11within the sphere of competence of the
Court unless the Court is specifically requested, by agreement of the

parties, to effect a delimitation of that kind, applying equity within the
law or determining a solution ex aequoetno.Hence 1believethat the
Application unilaterally submitted byDenmark in the present case
should have been dismissed (Part II).
3. Evenassumingthatthe Court iscompetentto draw a line or linesof
delimitation of the exclusiveeconomiczone or the continental shelf, the
single line drawn in the Judgment (paras. 91-92)s not appear to be
supported by any cogent reasoning, although of course that line or
another line could have been decided by agreement of the Parties
(PartIII).

PART1. DENMARKM 'SISUNDERSTAND OFNGERTAIN CONCEPT SF THE
LAW OF THE SEAAS REFLECTE IDITSSUBMISSIONS

1. TheSubmissionsof Denmark

4. In itsApplication of 16August 1988,Denmark asked the Court
"to decide, in accordance with international law,where a singleline
of delimitation shall be drawn between Denmark's and Nonvay's

fishing zones and continental shelf areas in the waters between
Greenland andJan Mayen" (emphasisadded).
In its submissions ofJuly 1989contained in the Mernorial, Denmark
asked the Court

"(1) To adjudge and declare that Greenland is entitled to a full
200-milefishery zoneand continental shelfareavis-à-visthe islandof
Jan Mayen; and consequently
(2) Todraw a singlelineofdelimitation ofthefishingzone and the continental shelfarea ofGreenland inthe waters betweenGreenland
and Jan Mayen at a distance of 200 nautical miles measured from
Greenland's baseline" (emphasisadded).

In the submissionspresented on 31 January 1991in its Reply, Denmark
added concrete map referencestosubmission (2).Afurther request, dated
25January 1993,wasadded inthefinal submissionspresented at the close
of the oral phase, to the effect that

"(3) If the Court,for anyreason, does not find itpossible to draw
the line of delimitation requested in paragraph (2), Denmark
requests the Court to decide, in accordance with international law
and in light of the facts and arguments developed by the Parties,
where the line of delimitation shall be drawn between Denmark's
and Nonvay's fisheries zones and continental shelf areas in the
waters between Greenland and Jan Mayen, and to draw that line"
(emphasisadded).

5. Itappears to methat Denmark failstoappreciatecertain concepts of
the law of the sea. In thefirstplace, it does not seem to grasp the proper
concept of the exclusive economic zone, the concept adopted in the
1982United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. As a matter of
fact,this misunderstanding is not only displayed by Denmark but is also
to be observed in the position taken by Nonvay in these proceedings as
well as by some other countries in various contexts (Sec. 2 below).
Secondly,Denmark seems topay littleheed to the régimeofthe continen-
tal shelfwhich isfated- atleast under thecontemporary lawofthe sea -
to exist inparallel with the régimeof the exclusiveeconomiczone (Sec.3
below). Thirdly,Denmark seemsto confuse titletothecontinental shelf or
the exclusive economiczone with the concept of delimitationof overlap-

ping sea-areas (Sec.4below).

2. Problem1 : TheFisheïyZone(HoweverCalled)Is Not Identical
to theExclusive EconomiZ cone
6. What exactlyismeant bythe "fishing zone", "fishery zone" or "fish-

eries zone" extending "200 miles from the coast", to which Denmark
refers in its Application and submissions? Denmark indeed claimed
a 200-mile"fishing territory" in its Act No. 597of 1976,but it has never
relied upon the concept of the exclusive economic zone, which was
adopted in the 1982United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
This consideration leads me to present some reflections on the develop-
ment of the coastal State's exerciseofjurisdiction over offshore areas.

(a) ïheperiodprior to the1950s

7. Until the time of UNCLOS 1in 1958,neither Denmark nor Nonvay
had ever considered the possibility ofurisdiction over, or controlof, off-shorefisheriesbeyond a distance of 1league (3nautical miles)or at most
4 nautical milesfromthe coast.

8. While the post-war claims of some Latin American countries to
wider offshore areas of maritime sovereignty(extendingover a 200-mile
distance from the coast) for exploitation as their own fishing grounds
wereeventuallyasserted jointly inthe SantiagoDeclaration of 1952,both
Denmark and Norway lodged their respective protests at the position
being taken by those countries. The areas claimed by those Latin Ameri-
can countries were sometimesreferred to as "fishery zones" or "fishing
zones", but they never gained universalrecognition in international law.

(b) UNCLOS1 (1958)

9. One of the most important issues at UNCLOS 1(a conference con-
vened in 1958in Geneva after being prepared over several years by the
International Law Commission) consisted in the determination of the
limit ofthe territorialea.Thisproblem was characterized at the Confer-
ence as a confrontation between the narrower limit (3or 4 miles)and the

wider limit (12 miles), and the concept of a "fishery zone" to be estab-
lished outside the territorial sea but within 12miles from the coast was
proposed by Statesfavouring the narrower territorial-sea limit as a com-
promise to be offered those wanting a 12-milelimitwithin whichto exer-
ciseexclusiveoffshorefishing rights.

10. Theveryconcept ofthe "fishery zone"wasthus proposed as a sub-
stitute for the extension of the territorial sea to 12miles, which was not
then acceptable to some States (mostly the Western States), and it is
important to note thatthe outer limitofthe fisheryzone thus mooted was
to be 12miles from the coast. It cannot be over-emphasized,moreover,
thatthe concept ofthe fisheryzonediscussedat UNCLOS 1wasdifferent
innature from that ofthe maritime sovereigntystraightforwardlyclaimed
around 1950 bythe Latin American States, to cover 200-mile offshore

areas.

11. UNCLOS 1narrowlyfailed initsattemptto fixthe limitoftheterri-
torial sea,and forthat reason there wereno further referencesto the con-
cept of the fishery zone, which had been put forward only in that
connection.

(c) The12-milefisheryzoneintheperiodfollowingUNCLOSI

12. In the upshot, UNCLOS 1neither fixed a 12-milelimitto theterri-
torial sea in the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the ContiguousZone, nor introduced the concept of the 12-milefisheryzone as compen-
sation for the retention of the narrower territorialea. Nevertheless, the
concept of the 12-mile"fishery zone" which had not been recognized in
1958began to take root in the period afterUNCLOS 1.
13. One afterthe other,both Denmark and Norway unilaterally estab-
lished a 12-milezone for fishery purposes. However, the unilateral estab-
lishment of such a fisheryzone at that time was, of course,not limitedto

Denmark and Norway. Indeed, Statesbeganincreasingly to agreeamong
themselves that they should be entitled to establish such a zone. The
1964FisheriesConventionconcludedamong European countries includ-
ing Denmark (but not Norway), represented a type of such an agreement
in which eachcontractingState recognized the right ofanyothercontract-
ingparty to establish a belt 6 miles widein which the coastal Statewould
have the exclusive right to fish and exclusive jurisdiction in matters of
fisheries, together with anouter 6-mile belt in which the continuation of
traditional foreignfishingwould be guaranteed.
14. Theconcept ofthe 12-milefisheryzone,which was never accepted
at UNCLOS 1,had thus rapidly gained general recognition. Bythe mid-
1970s,that same fishery zone, while not provided for in any of the uni-
versa1 documents conceming the law of the sea, existed as a firmly
establishedinstitution.

15. Iceland was unique in claiming a 50-mile fishery limit by its
1971policy statement and the 1972resolution adopted by the Althing.
That Icelandic claim occasioned objections by the Federal Republic of
Germany and the United Kingdom, and was in issue in proceedings
before the International Court of Justice in the FisheriesJurisdiction
(United Kingdomv.Iceland)and FisheriesJurisdiction(FederalRepublicof
Germanyv. Iceland)cases.In itsJudgments, the Court foundthatthe uni-
lateral extension of the exclusive fishing rights of Iceland to 50 miles
was "not opposable to" the United Kingdom or the Federal Republic
(I.C.J.Reports1974,pp. 34and 205).

(d) Emergence of the new concept of te heclusiveeconomiczone

16. One of the new trends in UNCLOS III during the 1970swas that
the claim to a 200-mile zone (which had been advanced by some
Latin American nationsas an area ofmaritimesovereigntyinthepost-war
period but had met with strenuous objectionsfrom other countries),had
now become recognized - but only in the form of the "exclusive econ-
omic zone". In comparison with the progressmade by the concept of the
200-mile "exclusive economic zone", which rapidly gained world-wide
support, the concept of a 12-mile"fishery zone" lost al1its significance.
However,the concept ofthe "exclusive economic zone", which ontheone
hand was much wider in scope than that ofthe fisheryzone because ofthe
inclusion ofcontrol bythe coastalStatenot onlyoverfishing but also over
various other activities, did on the other hand envisage for the coastalState certain obligations concerning the control and management of
fisheries.

(e) Claimstoa 200-milefishery zonesincethemid-1970s

17. While the régimeenvisaged for the exclusiveeconomiczone was
stillin a chaoticstate atthe earlystagesofUNCLOS III (theCaracas ses-
sion in 1974and the Geneva session in 1975),a number of States,which

had discernedthe generaltrend of expansion of coastaljurisdiction over
extendedoffshore areas,viedwith eachother,prior tothe adoption ofthe
Convention at the Conference in 1982,in bluntly claiming their fishery
interests inthose areas.

18. Denmark establisheda 200-mile"fisheryterritory" by ActNo. 597
of 17December1976to replaceitsAct No.207 of1964,and Norway estab-
lished a 200-mile "economic zone" by its Act No. 91 of 17 December
1976and its Royal Decreeofthe samedate.OtherStates weremeanwhile
making haste to declare a 200-milefisheryzonein order to secure exclu-
sivecontrol of fishingin their respectiveoffshore areas, disregardingthe
concept of the exclusive economiczone (which was to be suggested at
UNCLOS III for incorporation into the as yet unfinalized Convention).

19. Thisunilateral process does not alterthe fact that, under the 1982
United Nations Convention on the Law ofthe Sea, whose mles in most

respects arewidelyheld to have supersededearlier law,the claimto adis-
tance of200miles ispermissibleonlyinrespectofthe exclusiveeconomic
zone(definedin detail and in strict terms in Part Vofthe Convention),in
whichdue consideration isgiventothe common interest ofthe rest ofthe
world - that is, to the conservation and optimum utilization of fishery
resources.

(f) "Fisheryzone"nota legalconcept

20. There is certainlyno provision inthe 1982Conventionthat relates
to a 200-mile "fishery zone" as such. The "fishing zone" (or "fishery
zone") which Denmark and Nonvay established respectively(and which
Denmark mentionsinitsApplication) is notthe exclusiveeconomiczone
asdefined in that Convention.

21. However, it is undeniable that today a number of States have
claimed a 200-mile "fishery zone" or "economic zone" - but not an
"exclusive economic zone". These States include Canada, Germany,
Japan, the Netherlands and the United States, al1of which would have
been stronglyopposed tothe exerciseofexclusivefishingrights bycoastal Statesin offshore areas beyond the limit of the territorial sea even if the
latter had been extended from its traditional 3-mile to a 12-milelimit. It
may for this reason be contended that, thanks to these repeated claims

made by certain States,including both developed and developing coun-
tries (many ofwhich havebeen asserted during the past decade), the con-
cept ofthe 200-milefisheryzonehas become customaryinternational law
quite independently of the 1982Convention.

22. It is noted that the respondent State,Nonvay, has also and in the
same manner laid claim to a 200-mile"fishing zone". Thus 1am readyto
accept thatthe Court wasbound,in theseproceedings, to proceed withthe
"fishery zone" as an establishedconcept,setting aside that of the "exclu-
siveeconomic zone".

(g) TheCourt'spositionon the200-mileoffshorefisheries

23. Asthe concept ofthe "fishery zone" has no standing,at leastinthe
1982Convention, and still remains a merely political concept, 1 would
have liked theCourt to have taken a clearstance withrespect tothe confu-
sion (bynot only the Applicantbut by both Parties)between the concepts
ofthe "exclusive economic zone" and the "fishery zone". Itsfailure todo
so leads me to wonder what will become in future of the concept of the
exclusiveeconomiczone,asprovided for in that Convention. 1am afraid
that the concept ofthe "exclusive economic zone" willappear completely
obsolete, even before the 1982Conventionhas come into force.

3. Problem2: TheRégime of the Continenta SlhelfIs Independent of the
Conceptof theExclusive EconomiZ cone

24. In itsApplication, Denmark asked the Courtto"decide.. where a
single line of delimitation shall be drawn between Denmark's and Nor-
way'sfishingzones and continental shelfareas" and in itssubsequent sub-
missions requested the Court "to draw a single line of delimitation of the
fishingzone and the continental shelf area of Greenland. ..at...".

25. How is it possible for Denmark to presuppose the identity of the
boundary ofthe exclusiveeconomiczone(for that iswhat it really alludes
to)withthat ofthe continentalshelf, whenboth régimesoriginatedagainst
differentbackgrounds and existinparallel? 1sitthe intention ofDenmark
to contend thatthe original, or proper, régimeofthe continental shelf has
completely crumbled away,to bereplaced bythe newrégimeofthe exclu-
sive economic zone? An examination of the emergence and evolution of
the concept of the continental shelf may be in order, given these con-
siderations.(a) Emergenceand evolutionof the legac lonceptof thecontinentalshelf

26. There can be no doubt that the politicalconcept of the continental
shelf was initiated by the Truman Proclamation of 1945.At that time,
neither Denmark nor Norway indicated any specific attitude either for
or against it. In other words, they appeared indifferent to the problem of
the continental shelf.
27. It was UNCLOS 1that produced the legalconcept ofthe continen-
tal shelf,defined as :

"the sea-bed and subsoil of the submarine areas adjacent to the
Coast. ..to a depth of 200metres or,beyond that limit,to wherethe
depth of the superjacent waters admits of the exploitation of the
natural resources of the said areas" (Convention on the Conti-

nental Shelf,Art. 1).

(In the last-quoted phrase, the word "admits" has been generally inter-
pretedas meaning"ceasesto admit", whichisofcoursea necessarygloss.)
Later, the definition of the continental shelf seemsto have been further
affectedby the 1969Judgmentsin the NorthSea ContinentalShelfcases,
in which it was seen as constitutinga "natural prolongation of [the]land
territoryinto and under the sea" (I.C.J. Reports1969,p. 53).

28. Thefact isthat fewStatesat UNCLOS 1had anyfirmidea concern-
ingthe concept ofthe "exploitabilitytest", and may wellhaveentertained
nothing more than a very vague notion that the exploitation of the sub-
marine areas should be pennitted somewhere - evenbeyond a depth of
200metres - if the development oftechnology wereto allowthat possi-
bility,andthat it shouldremain subjectto somedegreeofnational control.
If there was any question of delimitationat that time, what was really at
issue related simply to submarine areas up to the 200-metreisobath. In
1958,at any rate, few delegates realized where the novel introduction of
submarine technology into the debate mightultimately lead.

29. TheGenevaConvention onthe Continental Shelfbecame effective
in June 1964; Denmark had ratifiedit in 1963and Norway accededto itin
1971.In 1968,Denmark also ratified the Optional Protocol of Signature
concerningthe Compulsory SettlementofDisputes ;Norway neither rati-
fied nor acceded to the Optional Protocol.
30. Theconcept ofthecontinental shelfasageographical entitysubject
to aspecialrégimerapidlybecameestablishedincustomaryinternational 98 MARITIME DELIMITATION (SEP.OP. ODA)

law. Atal1events,the actual institution in law ofthe continental shelf has

not been challenged since the adoption of the Convention.

31. Whether the national continental shelf requires the specific claim
of each State, or whether it now exists ipsojure in intemational law,
remains to be examined. In 1963 Denmark issued a "Royal Decree con-
ceming the Exercise of Danish sovereignty over the Continental Shelf",
using terms similarto those used inthe 1958Convention:in the sameyear
Norwayissued a "Royal Decreerelating to the Sovereign Rights of Nor-
way overthe Sea-Bedand Subsoiloutside the NorwegianCoast", an "Act
No. 12relating to Exploration and Exploitation of SubmaGne Natural
Resources" and an "Act No. 12 relating to Scientific Research and
Exploration for and Exploitation of Resources other than Petroleum
Resources".

32. 1must add at this juncture, and it cannot be over-emphasized, that
in the mid-1960sthere did not existanyidea thatthearea between Green-
land and Jan Mayen wouldconstitute apart ofthe continental shelfofany

State.

(c) Transitiontoa newsituation duetonewtechnologicaldevelopments

33. In the mid-1960s,when itbecame apparentthat the rapid develop-
ment of technology would accelerate the exploitation of minera1
resources beyond the 200-metre isobath and that the whole submarine
area ofthe vast ocean might eventuallybecomeexploitable,two opposite
interpretations were presented for the definition of the "exploitability
test". One wasthat, as the whole area of the ocean would become exploit-
able (thus becoming a continental shelf within the meaning of the
1958Convention), it should be divided by a median line throughout the
world. The other idea was that, with the gradua1advancement of techno-
logy throughout the world, the continental shelf of each State would
gradually extend further, thus meeting the continental shelf of the oppo-
site side at the deepestpoint.

34. In response to the median-line theory and the deepest-trench
theory, which had in common their understanding that, in theory, the
whole area of the world's ocean would, owing to the development of
advanced technologies,soon havethe status ofthe continental shelfof any
and every State, Ambassador Pardo of Malta, in his epoch-making
statement to the General Assembly on 1November 1967,appealed for a
halt to that expansion of the continental shelf, by suggesting that the
sea-bed of the vast ocean should be considered as the "common heritage
of mankind". Theworktowards a newrégimeofthe ocean wasaccordingly
launched at the United Nations Sea-Bed Committee between 1968and
1973,and was followed up by UNCLOS III, which commenced in 1974
in Caracas. (d) Transformationof the definitionof the continentalhelf

35. Inparallel withtheappearance ofthenewconcept ofthe "exclusive
economic zone", the definition of the continental shelf also undenvent a
complete transformation. In order to apply a brake to the unlimited
expansion ofthe continental shelfinterms ofthe "exploitabilitytest", the
outer edge of the continental margin as the natural prolongation of land
territory in accordance with topographical and geologicalconcepts (i.e.,
the original concept) was fixed as the outer limit of the "continental

shelf".
36. On the other hand, the distance criterion of the 200-mile limit,
whichwas quiteirrelevanttothe originalconcept and had beenadvocated
onlyfor fisheriespurposes, wasintroduced into the field ofthe continen-
tal shelf although it had no relevanceto submarine topography and geo-
logy - except in so far as that shelf could be further extended. The new
definition ofthe continental shelf,asincorporated intothe 1982Conven-
tion, was simply the product of a compromise between the self-serving,
and therefore conflicting,interests of each State at UNCLOS III.

37. Thus the concept ofthe continental shelfasthe "natural prolonga-
tion of[the]land territory into and under the sea",whichthe International
Court of Justice had properly applied in its 1969Judgment to define the
"continental shelf" (and which had originallyfeatured in the 1958Con-
vention),had beencompletelytransformed bythenewintroduction ofthe
200-mile-distancecriterion andthe continental shelfhad outgrownits ori-

ginalsignificancewithinthe meaning ofthat Convention. It is,however,a
remarkable fact (and a most unfortunate one)that, whilethe continental
shelfwas thus redefined (Art. 76),that transformation ofthe concept was
scarcelydiscussedat UNCLOS III, sothatthe essentialprovisions inthe
1958Convention relevant to the basic concept of that area remained
unaffected (Arts.77-81).

(e) Ignorance ofthetransformation ofthe conceptof the continentalshelf
and theparallel existence of the exclusiveconomiczoneand theconti-
nental shelf

38. Theconcept ofthe continental shelfasunderstood today isnot the
sameastheone whichwasadopted inthe 1958Convention and prevailed
prior toUNCLOS III. Thesea area indisputein the present casebetween
Greenland and Jan Mayen (or the area defined as the "relevant area" in
the Judgment (para. 20))is notthe "continental shelf"within the meaning
ofthe 1958Convention,but may wellbe the continental shelfreferred to
inthe 1982United Nations Convention, orinthe customaryinternational
lawwhich may nowbe reflectedinthat Convention.This is animportant
point, but one whichboth the Applicant and the Court, in myview,have
failedto appreciate fully. 39. Furthermore, throughout the meetings of the United Nations Sea-
Bed Committee and UNCLOS III in the 1970s,the exclusiveeconomic
zone as.anew concept and the continental shelf as a concept transformed
fromthe 1958Convention wereconsidered asseparate régimes,to be pro-
vided for in parallel in the final text ofthe Convention. In this respect the
Danish submissions in its Application were misguided when the Court
was asked "to decide . ..where a single line of delimitation shall be
drawn", because Denmark presupposed a line which could not apriori
exist.This is another point which did not receivethe due attention of the
Applicantand the Court.

4. Problem3: ConfusionofTitleto theExclusiveEconomicZoneandthe

ContinentalShelfand theQuestionofDelimitation of Overlapping
Entitlements
40. Denmark, in submission (1) in the Memorial and the Reply, asks
the Court to declare its entitlement"to a full 200-mile fishery zone and
continental shelf area vis-à-vis the island of Jan Mayen". In my view,
whentitle to an area ofmaritimejurisdiction exists - beit to acontinental

shelf or(arguendo)to a fisheryzone - it exists erga omnes,i.e.,is oppos-
able to al1Statesunder international law and isnot limited to any specific
geographical component of any one State. That being understood, it
appears to me necessary to point to a certain conceptual confusion that
emergesfrom Denmark's presentation of its claim.

(a) Denmark's entitlementtoan exclusiveeconomiczone ana d continental
shelfin respectof Greenland

41. Whether "Greenland" is entitled "to a full 200-mile fishery zone
and continental shelf area" is a general question concerning Denmark's
title tothose areas. It is accordingly different from the question of the
extent of the area in which its entitlement may be claimed and which
needs to be delimited as it overlaps with the opposing entitlement of
another State.What Denmark reallyseeksinsubmission (1),initsrelation
"vis-à-visthe island ofJan Mayen", is that the Court should effect a deli-
mitation making noabatement ofwhatwould be itsmaximumtheoretical
entitlement in the absence of any competing title; submission (1)has no
effective meaning if read on its own, i.e., without any reference to sub-
mission (2).

(b) Nonvay'sentitlement toan exclusiveeconomiczone and a continental
shelfin respect ofJanMayen
42. In the light of the drafting process of the 1958and 1982Conven-
tions,the entitlements ofJan Mayen(or rather of Nonvay on itsbehalf) tothe 200-mileexclusiveeconomiczone and/or continental shelfneed not,
1 submit, have been taken for granted. In the present case, however,
Denmark did not dispute the entitlements of Jan Mayen as a singular
islandofsmallerdimensionsto an exclusiveeconomiczone and/or a con-
tinental shelf.
43. Denmark only questioned the extent of the area to which Jan
Mayen'sentitlements extend. It is important to note, however,that Nor-
way claimedtheoretical entitlement up to the full 200-mileextent forthe
exclusiveeconomiczone and continental shelfofJan Mayenbut, taking a
rather modest approach, simply refrained from asserting its full entitle-
ment vis-à-visGreenland.

(c) Overlappingofentitlementsorclaims

44. As can be seen from its submissions, Denmark does not seem to
grasp that, where the entitlements of two opposite States overlap in an

area less than 400 miles apart, the question of delimitation arises in the
area of overlappingentitlements of the two States.Unlike Nonvay, Den-
mark was not ready to have the area of overlap delimited but simply
claimed the whole potential area of its entitlement.Denmark appears to
believe that the possession of a maximum entitlement (in respect of
Greenland) implies that the line of delimitationshould be drawnwithout
any regard to the maximum entitlement of Nonvay (in respect of
Jan Mayen). In this respect, Denmark tends to ignore the distinction
between determining the limits of entitlements to sea areas and the divi-
sion of overlapping claims.

45. The Court likewisepays insufficent heed to this distinction. Des-
pitethe factthat at onepoint it suggeststhe "area ofoverlappingpotential
entitlement" as one of the three areas designated as relevant for the pur-
pose of the Judgment (para. 19),it scarcely makes use of this area in its
reasoning but relies mainly on the "area of overlapping claims", Le.,the

overlapping of the maximum entitlement of Greenland, presented as a
claim, and the modest claim made on behalf of Jan Mayen (Judgment,
para. 18),in order tojustify the line which ithas drawn.

46. 1 am afraid that this Judgment, which barely paid the requisite
attention to Jan Mayen's potential entitlement and was too much con-
cerned with the "area of overlapping claims" could well lead a state, at
some future time, to claim its maximum entitlement in the initial stage
of negotiations with its neighbouring State for the delimitation of mari-
timeboundaries, either ofthe exclusiveeconomiczone orthe continental
shelf. PART II. THEPOSSIBLF EUNCTIO NF THECOURT IN CASES OFMARITIME
DELIMITATION

47. To define what roles it may or may not be open to the Court to
assumein matters of maritime delimitation, it is necessaryto review the
principles on the subject that have evolved in international law.

1. Law ofMaritime Delimitationinthe1958Convention
ontheContinentalShelf

(a) Delimitationoffisheriesjurisdictinotat issueat UNCLOSI

48. The offshore areas dealt with in UNCLOS 1 were primarily
either the territorial sea or the contiguous zone. Agreement on the
width of the territorial sea was not reached, except in theense that
it should not exceed 12miles - the distance fixed for the contiguous
zone. In such circumstances, the delimitation of the territorial sea
andthe contiguouszone asbetween adjacent or opposite States inrather
narrow areas was not seen as a new or very significant issue. The focus
in UNCLOS 1wasuponthe delimitation ofthe continental shelf, extend-
ing further than those narrower areas but, in principle, as far as the
200-metre isobath. However, 1 must repeat that for fisheries purposes
there didnot exist any concept of further jurisdiction of the coastal State
beyond 12miles from the Coast.

(b) UNCLOS1:Adoption oftheConventionon theContinentalShelf

49. It isnot necessary to followthe whole of the draftingprocess lead-
ingto Article 6ofthe Convention governing the delimitation ofthe conti-
nental shelf.NCLOS 1acceptedthe need forthe insertion into theCon-
vention of aprovision on the continental shelf, the text of which had been

prepared by the International Law Commission in deliberations over a
period ofseveral years in the mid-195:s

"Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories of
two or more States [(a)whose coasts are opposite each other],[(b)the
territories of two adjacent States],the boundary of the continental
shelf ... shall be determined by agreement between them. In the
absence of agreement, and unless anotherboundary line isjustified
by specialcircumstances, [(a)the boundary isthe median line][(b)the boundary ofthe continental shelfshallbedetermined byapplication
of the principle of equidistance from the nearestpoints of the base-
line]..." (Conventionon the Continental Shelf,Art. 6.)

50. Itisimportant to note,firstly,that whenthe delimitation ofthe con-
tinental shelfwas under consideration prior to or at UNCLOS 1,the area
beyond the 200-metreisobath was scarcelyconsidered.Thispreliminary
understanding is essential when one is interpreting Article 6 of the Con-
vention.

51. Secondly,the provisionthat "the boundary ... shallbe determined
by agreementbetween [theStatesconcerned]"may wellhavethe status of
a legalprinciple but it does not indicate any criteria for determiningthe
boundaries of the (legal)continental shelf. In addition,the suggestionto

employ as the boundary line, "in the absence of agreement[and] unless
anotherboundaryline isjustified byspecialcircumstances",(i)"a median
line[inthe caseofthe opposite States]"and (ii)alineto "be determinedby
the principle of equidistance [inthe caseof adjacent States]" gavenotthe
slightestclueas to the "circumstances" whichwould be so "special" asto
"justify" a lineother than a median line(orthe equidistance line).

52. Certainly,one State might have the viewthat no other linebut the
median line(orthe equidistanceline) would bejustified inthe absence of
any "special circumstances" and the other State might point to the exis-
tence ofsomespecialcircumstances which,initsview,didjustify a depar-
ture from the median line (or the equidistance line). The question
remained as to whether any legal criteria would have to be met by such
justifying special circumstances.

(c) fie NorthSea as apractical case-study

53. Thequestion ofthe delimitation ofthe continental shelfbecame of
imminent importance in the mid-1960s,particularly in the areas of the
North Sea. The discovery of reserves of oil or natural gas in this region
necessitated the division, early in the 1960s,of the sea-bed of these
shallow waters among the surrounding nations. The whole area of
the North Seaisshallowerthan 200metres(withthe exception ofthe Nor-
wegian Trough) and there was no doubt about the area being a conti-
nental shelf within the meaning of the 1958Convention, irrespective of
any interpretation of the definition of its "exploitability" as provided
forin the Convention.

54. A number of bilateral agreements were successively concluded
in the period 1964-1966among States of the region, including Denmark
and Norway, on the basis of a general application of the equidistance
orthe median line(Netherlands-United Kingdom, 1965 ;Norway-United

Kingdom, 1965 ;Denmark-Germany, 1965 ;Germany-Netherlands, 1965 ;Denmark-United Kingdom, 1966; Denmark-Netherlands, 1966). It is
important tobear inmindthatthe 1965Agreementbetween Denmark and
Norway, which has been much discussedin the present case,was simply
one of a numberl. As has already been stated (para. 32 above), in those
daysthe area between Greenland and Jan Mayenwasneverdeemedto be
onecoveredbytheconcept ofthecontinental shelf,soitisobviousthat the
1965Agreement did not apply to that area.

55. In 1967the delimitation between Germany on the one hand and
Denmark and the Netherlands on the other, which exceptfor someareas
extending over a short distance from their coasts had not been agreed
uponthrough diplomaticnegotiations, wasbroughtjointly to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice. The North Sea ContinentalShelfcases should be
understood in the context of a chain of bilateral negotiations in the
North Sea region inthe 1960s.

56. Germany viewed the mechanical application of the equidistance-
line rule asbeing unfavourable to its own interestsin respect of the adja-
cent coasts of Denmark and the Netherlands. In that case before the

Court, Germanypresented various argumentscontesting Denmark's/the
Netherlands' positionsbased on the application of the equidistance-line
rule. It was argued by Germany that, while the equidistance line was
applicable, the base for measuring the distance should be determined
in the case of adjacent Statesin such a way as to take account of macro-
geographical factors, by taking a rectified coastline, that is, the coastal
frontor "coastal façade" (seeI.C.J. Pleadings,NorthSea Continental Shelf;
Vol.II, p. 193).

57. The International Court of Justice stated, in its 1969Judgment,
that:

"delimitation isto beeffectedbyagreementin accordance with equi-
tableprinciples, and takingaccount ofal1therelevant circumstances,
in such a wayasto leave as much as possible to each Party al1those
parts ofthe continental shelfthat constituteanaturalprolongation of

itsland territoryinto andunder the sea,withoutencroachment onthe
naturalprolongation ofthelandterritory ofthe other" (I.C.J.Reports
1969,p. 53,para. 101(C) (l)).,
Thanks tothat Judgment ofthe Court,the delimitationin the south-east-

Ashasbeenpointedout,NorwayisseparatedfromthemainpartoftheNorthSea
continentalshelfbyadeeptrench,knownas theNorwegianTrough.Itwasreallyremark-
ablethatNorway, inspiteof theexistenceof thattrench,couldparticipateinthedivi-
sion of the continentalshelfof the North Seaby applying in general thef the
terof pureconjecturebut itseemsto methat thereexistedsomegeneralfeelingamong
the countriesof the North Seaegionthat Nonvay ought notto be isolatedin this
respect.ern part ofthe North Seawassubsequently agreedin 1971between Den-
mark and Germany, as well as between the Netherlands and Germany.

(d) Implications oftheJudgmentintheNorth SeaContinental Shelf cases

58. Thereareafewpoints whichmustbegivendueconsideration when
the Judgment in the North Sea ContinentalShelf cases is interpreted.
Firstly,the Judgment referred to a sea not exceeding200metresin depth,
hence oneunderlain bya continental shelfofthemostunambiguous kind,
and wasdeliveredin 1969,at atimewhenjurists continued to conceiveof
the shelf primarily in a geological and topographical sense - hence in
terms (to quote the Judgment) of the "natural prolongation of [the]land
territory into andunder the sea".

59. Secondly,the suggestionof dividingthe shelf in :

"such a way as to leave as much as possible to each Party al1those
parts ofthe continental shelfthat constituteanatural prolongation of
itslandterritory. . .without encroachment on the natural prolonga-
tion ofthe land territory ofthe other"

did not contain any concrete indication for the delimitationof the area
and did not go beyond the simple suggestionof an "equitable solution",
the expression later employed in the 1982United Nations Convention.

60. ïhirdly,one should try to be precise about the status ofthe indica-
tion givenbythe Court asto "the factorstobe taken into account ...inthe
course ofthe negotiation". Did this indication simplyconstitute a sugges-
tion put forward by the Court in order to assistnegotiations between the
Parties, or did it amount to a determination of law on the basis of
Article38,paragraph 1,ofthe Court's Statute?

(e) Article6ofthe1958Conventionnot applicablteo thepresentcase

61. As has already been explained (para. 50 above), Article 6 of the
1958Convention is applicable to the continental shelf in an orthodox

sense, Le., the sea-bed areas inside the 200-metre isobath. The area
between Greenland and Jan Mayen is not a continental shelf in that
sense, though it certainly is taken to be a continental shelf in accor-
dance with the transformed concept. This is a point of which, in
my view, the Applicant and the Court were not sufficiently aware.
It seems to me that the Parties to this case and the Court erred in
taking the 1958 Convention as the rule with regard to the delimi-
tation of the continental shelf while the rule of the 1982 Convention
is valid for the delimitation of the exclusive economic zone. Whatapplies today to the delimitation of either the exclusive economic
zone or the continental shelf is the 1982 United Nations Conven-
tion - or customary international law which may be reflected in that
Convention.

2. TheRulesfor Maritime Delimitation Discussedat theSea-BedCommit-
tee and UNCLOS III, and neir Adoption in the 1982 United Nations
Convention

(a) Drafting ofArticles74and 83of the1982 Convention

62. As has already been said (para. 16above),the new concept of the
exclusive economic zone has its own background and exists in parallel
with the transformed concept of the continental shelf.The delimitations

to be effectedunder each régimecould havebeen separate. Nevertheless,
asthey had in commonat least the 200-miledistancecriterion (qualified,
inthe caseofthe continentalshelf,bythepossibilityofafurther extension
asfaras the outer edgeofthe continentalslope),the delimitationissues of
these two separate régimes werediscussed together by the delegates at
UNCLOS III. Article 74(for the delimitation of the exclusive economic
zone) and Article 83(for the delimitation of the continental shelf) were
drafted inthe samefashioninthe 1982United Nations Convention onthe
Lawofthe Sea.

63. A detailed analysis ofthe background to these provisions may not
be necessary,asonlyminimuminformation isrequired inthisinstance. In
1978,the conflictofthe twoschoolsofthought had become apparent with

regard to the question ofthe delimitation ofboth the exclusiveeconomic
zone or the continental shelf at UNCLOS III. The median-line school
proposed the followingdraft :

"The delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone [Continental
Shelflbetweenadjacent or opposite Statesshallbe effected byagree-
ment employing,as a general principle, the median or equidistance
line,takingintoaccountanyspecialcircumstances wherethisisjusti-
fied

and the equitable-principle schoolproposed that :

"The delimitation of the exclusive economic zone [continental
shelflbetween adjacent or/and opposite Statesshall be effected by
agreement, in accordance with equitable principles taking into account al1 relevant circumstances and employing any methods,
where appropriate, to lead to an equitable solution."

64. The effort to reach a compromise between these two schools of
thought was not successfull. In 1981, at the tenth session, Ambas-

Mr. Manner, Chairman of Negotiating Group 7, reported in the course of the
seventh session (28March-19 May 1978) :

"No compromise on this point did materialize during the discussions held,
although one mav note. that there aDDearstobe general agreement as regards two
of the iarious eGmen& of delimitâtion: first, &nsensus-seems to prev>il to the
effect that anv measure of delimitation should be effected bv agreement. and
second, al1théproposals presented refer to relevant or speciafcir&mstances as
factors to be taken into account in the process of delimitation." (UNCLOS III,
Offial Records, Vol.X, p. 124.)

He also reported at the resumed seventh session(21August-15September 1978):

"During the discussions general understanding seemed to emerge to the effect
that the final solutioncould contain the followingfour elements :(1)a referenceto
the effect that any measure of delimitation should be effected by agreement; (2)a
reference tothe effectthat al1relevant or special circumstances aretobe taken into
account in the process of delimitation; (3)in some form, a reference to equity or
equitable principles; (4) in some form, a reference to the median or equidistance
line." (Ibid.,p. 171.)
In his statement on 24 April 1979to the Sewnd Committee of the Conference at the
eighth session, he stated that"[dlespiteintensive negotiations, the Group had not suc-
ceeded in reaching agreement on any of the texts before it" (ibid.,Vol. XI, p. 59)but
suggested as a possible basis for compromise the followingtext :

"The delimitation of the exclusive economic zone (or of the continental shelf)
between States with opposite or adjacent coasts shall be effected by agreement
between the parties concemed, taking into account al1 relevant criteria and
special circumstances in order to arrive at a solution in accordance with equi-
table principles, applying the equidistance rule or such other means asare appro-
priate in each specific case." (Ibid.)
Mr.Manner againin his Report on 22August 1979,atthe resumed eighthsession,stated
that
"[als before, the discussions on delimitation criteria were characterized by the
opposing positions of, on the one hand, delegations advocating the equidistance
rule and, on the otherhand, those specificallyemphasizing delimitation inaccord-
ance with equitable principles" (ibid.,Vol.XII, p. 107).

On 24March 1980atthe ninth sessionhe suggestedhis assessmentofaltematives which
might,in time, secure a consensus at the conference:
"Article 74 [83].1.The delimitation of the exclusiveeconomic zone [continental
shelfl between States with opposite or adjacent coasts shall be effected by agree-
ment in conformity with intemational law. Such an agreement shall be in accord-
ance with equitable principles, employing the median or equidistance line, where
appropriate, and taking account of al1circumstances prevailing in the area con-
cemed." (Ibid.,Vol.XIII, p. 77.)

This draft was incorporated in the Informa1Composite Negotiating Text/Revision 2
(11April1980) by a decision ofthe "collegium" but wasnot agreeableto both groupsat
the plenary meetingson 28July 1980atthe resumed ninthsession; Negotiating Group 7
had, by that time, been dissolved. 108 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEPO. P.ODA)

sador Koh of Singapore, who became President of UNCLOS III on the
death of Ambassador Amerasinghe of Sri Lanka,held meetings withthe
chairmen ofeachgroup and then, on 28August 1981atthe resumedtenth
session,formulated aproposa1for a solution. In the plenary meetingsthe
chairmen of the two groups gave their respective support and that text
constituted the provisionsinthefinal version ofthe Draft Convention on
the Law of the Sea (28 August 1981)which was finally adopted as Ar-
ticles74and 83ofthe 1982United Nations Convention, which read :

"The delimitation of [theexclusiveeconomic zone][thecontinen-
talshelfl between States with opposite or adjacent coasts shall be
effectedbyagreementonthe basisofinternational law,asreferredto
in Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in
order to achievean equitable solution."

Whether Articles 74 and 83 of the 1982Convention (which has not yet
entered into force)haveanyvalidityascustomaryinternational lawornot
may stillbe arguable,but this is a differentproblem.

(b) InterpretationoftheprovisionsofArticles74and 83

65. It is not easy to givea proper interpretation to a text which, after
the failure of negotiations over a lengthyperiod at the Conference, was
drafted by one person (i.e.,the President of UNCLOS III) and adopted
without any further discussion. However,there can be no doubt that the
wholeconcept of Articles74and 83originated from Article6ofthe 1958
Convention and was a product of a compromise between the two
opposite schools of thought, the median-line school and the equitable-
principle school. Against this background, 1would make the following
suggestions.
66. Firstly,thewords"in orderto achievean equitablesolution" cannot

be interpreted as indicating anythingmore than the target ofthe negotia-
tiontoreach an agreement.Thetext mayindicateaframe ofmind,but itis
not expressive of a rule of law. It must be borne in mind that, while the
reference to "special circumstances" in the 1958Convention or to "al1
relevant circumstances" in the negotiations at UNCLOS III was finally
dropped, those concepts were well reflected in the provision quoted
above. In other words, the consideration of some relevant or special cir-
cumstancesmaybe required if one isto arrive at an "equitable solution".

67. Secondly,whatisthe meaningofthisprovisionthat agreementmust
bereached "on thebasis ofinternational law,asreferredto inArticle38 of
the Statute of the International Court of Justice"? Agreement between
Statesis simplya result of diplomatic negotiations and is reached by the 109 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP .P.ODA)

free will ofthe States concemed (cf.the doctrine of liberty of contract).
The decidingfactorsin such diplomaticnegotiations aresimply negotiat-
ingpowersand the skillsof each State'snegotiatoras wellasthe position,
geographical and other, of each State.

68. It may be contended that there can be a legal framework within
which - and onlywithinwhich - the content of an agreement isjustifi-
ableunder internationallaw and that anyagreementcontrarytojus cogens
should be regarded as invalid. For example, an agreement obtained by

duressmightbe opento challenge.Except inthat verygeneralsense,there
does not in my view exist anyjus cogensgoveming the delimitation of
overlappingmaritime titles.Theparties canfreelynegotiate and canreach
an agreementon whatevertheywish,employingal1possibleelements and
factorsto strengthentheir own position. In other words,there is nolegal
constraint,hence no rule, which guides the negotiations on delimitation,
even though the negotiations should be directed "to achiev[ing]an equi-
table solution". Disagreement overthe points arising during the effort to
reach agreement cannot constitute a "legal dispute", because law is not
involvedin choosingthe line among infinite possibilities.

69. Thirdly,in spite of the practical identity between Article 74 and

Article 83,there is, of course, no guarantee that the delimitation of the
exclusiveeconomiczone and the delimitation ofthe continental shelfwill
necessarilybe identical.The "equitable solution" tobe reached by nego-
tiation inthe delimitation ofthe exclusiveeconomiczones and that ofthe
continental shelfareascan certainlybe different,asthe "special" or"rele-
vant" circumstancesto be taken into account when defining a delimita-
tion line may wellbe different in each case.

(c) Oneor two delimitation lines?

70. Whetherthe boundary ofthe continentalshelfareasandthe bound-
ary of the exclusiveeconomic zone are or are not identical will depend
quite simplyonthe resultofeachdelimitation,which canwellbedifferent
with respect to the two different areas. In the absence of an agreement

between the States concemed, one cannot presuppose a singledelimita-
tion for two separate and independent régimes,the exclusive economic
zone and the continental shelf, although the possibility of an eventual
coincidence ofthe two lines maynot be excluded.
71. 1have howeversomesympathy with the Danish attitude and with
the Court's tendencyto prefer a single maritime boundary, since, if the
acceptance of wider claimsto coastaljurisdiction overoffshore fisheries
had been seen asinevitable,those two régimesshould havebeen amalga-
mated inthe newlawofthe sea.Whatisdeplorable aboutthe neworder in
the oceans (whichwasbeingprepared in UNCLOS III) isthe factthat animmatureconcept ofthe exclusiveeconomiczonehasbeen introduced to
coexist with the previously accepted concept of the continental shelf
whichhas been re-defined and thus transformed, and that the concept of
the exclusiveeconomiczonehas in fact hadthe effectof oustingthe latter
concept.Article 56,paragraph 3,which provides that

"[tlherightssetoutinthisarticle[rights,jurisdiction and dutiesofthe
coastal Stateinthe exclusiveeconomiczone]withrespectto the sea-
bed and subsoilshallbe exercisedin accordance with Part VI[conti-
nental shelfl",

which was incorporated without discussion, seems to be an extremely
misguidedprovision and is difficultto understand.
72. IfUNCLOS III was set upon instituting the exclusive economic
zone, it ought frankly to have first wound up the original concept of the
continental shelf. Thus the régimeunder the 1982Convention remains
immature in some respects, such as the exclusiveeconomiczone and the
continentalshelf.At al1events,thetransformed concept ofthe continental
shelfespoused bythe 1982Convention stillremainsunclear, particularly
in its relation to the parallel régimeof the exclusiveeconomiczone, and
does not stand up to criticism from a purely legal standpoint. As has
already been said (para. 37 above), the continental shelf (which should
have been examined more cautiously with the introduction of its new
definition) was scarcelydiscussed at UNCLOS III.

73. However,in spiteofal11havesaid,the two régimesofthe exclusive

economiczone and the continental shelf existseparately and inparallelin
the 1982United Nations Convention,hence inexistinginternational law,
and the delimitation for each is different.

74. Having said al1this, 1do not mle outthe possibilitythat, from the
practical standpoint of the exercise of their respectivejurisdictions over
the offshore areas for the purpose of the control of maritime resources,
Statesinnegotiation maypreferto havea singleboundary rather than two
separateboundaries, but then theyshouldbe in agreementonthispoint as
in the case concerning the Delimitationof theMaritimeBoundaryin the
GulfofMaine Area.

3. Role ofthemird Party inSettling DisputesconcerningMaritime
Delimitation

(a) Infinitevarietyofpotentialdelimitationlines
75. While the entitlement to areas is erga omnes,the delimitation of

areas is solely related to the drawing of a line between two conflicting
entitlements, which remains a matter for the States concerned. This iswhy the 1958Convention provides in the case of the continental shelf
that "the boundary of the continental shelf appertaining to . ..States

shall be determined by agreement between them" (Art. 6) and the 1982
United Nations Convention providesin relationto the exclusive economic
zone and the continental shelf that "[tlhe delimitation of [the exclusive
economic zone] [the continental shelfl between States with opposite
or adjacent coasts shallbe effected by agreement"(Arts. 74and 83).
76. In realitythe delimitation ofalineto be effectedbyagreementmay
Varyin an infinite number of wayswithin a certain range, and the choos-
ing of one of these variations after consideration of "special circum-
stances", "relevant circumstances" or "factors to be taken into account"
etc.,does not belong to the function of law. No line thus drawn can be
illegalor contraryto rules ofinternational law.

O> ) ole ofthethirdpartyinthedelimitation of maritime boundaries
77. When a question is to be resolvedby agreement,if that agreement
cannot be achieved because of a divergenceofviewson various relevant

elements governing the negotiation, that failure to reach agreement -
assuminggoodfaith - willnot havebeen dueto a differencein the inter-
pretation ofinternational lawbut to a differencein the concepts ofequity
upheld by each party.

78. The function of the third party in assisting the parties in dispute
couldbeeitherto suggestconcreteguidelinesforthe evaluation ofeachof
the above-mentioned relevant elementsin order to assignthem a proper
place in the negotiations orto proceed itselfto choose a line by weighing
up the relevant factors or elements from among an infinite variety of
possibilitiessothat an equitable solution maybe reached.

79. Themostthat canbe donebythisCourt, asajudicialtribunalapply-
ing internationallaw,is to declare that the lines of delimitation for the
exclusiveeconomiczone and the continental shelf, respectively,must be
drawn by agreement between the Parties, as provided for in the
1982United Nations Convention, from among the infinite possibilities
lyingsomewherebetweenthelineaskedforbyDenmark andthe otherline
asked for by Nonvay. This is, however, not what Denmark asked the
Courtto do in the present case.Denmark asked the Courtto draw "a. ..
lineofdelimitation. ..atadistance of 200nautical miles"(submission(2))
orto draw simply"the line of delimitation" (submission (3)).

(c) Arbitrationexaequo etbon0

80. The delimitation of a maritime boundary line which "shall be
effectedby agreement" isnot a matter to be decided bythe InternationalCourt of Justice unless it isjointly requested to do so by the States con-
cerned. Withthe exception ofthe AegeanSea ContinentalShelfcase which
wasalsoconcerned withthe title ofislandstoacontinental shelfbutwhich
did not proceedto the meritsphase,this isthefirstcase inthe history ofthe
Court concerning maritime delimitation to have been brought by uni-
lateral application.

81. The Court is competent under Article36,paragraph 1,to be seised
of "al1cases which the parties refer to it", but does not have jurisdiction
under Article 36,paragraph 2,to deal with a dispute ofthis kind, which is
neither "the interpretation of atreaty" nor "any question of international
law". Letme,forthe sake ofargument,assume(in the light ofthedifferent
ways in which Norway, as a respondent State,argued its casebefore the

Court)that Norway had consented to join Denmark inaskingthe Courtto
drawa boundary line and thatthe present casetherefore fellto be consid-
eredas onein whichthe Court had beenrequested jointly bythe Parties to
decide on maritime delimitation.

82. Here it is once again important to be clear about the distinction
between the invocation of declarations made under Article 36, para-
graph 2, of the Statute, which cannot enlarge the Court's powers beyond
the strictapplication oflawtothe caseconcerned, and the submission ofa
case by specialagreement - one ofthe methods of seisinavailable under
Article 36, paragraph 1 - which does enable the parties, by consent, to
confer onthe Court an arbitral, i.e., quasi-political,role whereby equity
may be applied where no law exists.

83. It may be interesting to note that the initial draft of the provision

relevant to the delimitation of the continental shelf, that is,the provision
adopted by the International Law Commission in 1951,read as follows :

"Two or more States to whose territories the same continental
shelfiscontiguousshouldestablish boundariesinthearea ofthe con-
tinental shelfby agreement.Failingagreement, the parties are under
the obligation to have theboundary fixed by arbitration",

and the commentaryattached to thisprovisionread, in part :

"It isnot feasibleto lay downanygeneral rule whichStatesshould
follow ;.. .It isproposed ...that ifagreement cannot be reached and
aprompt solution isneeded, the interestedStatesshouldbe under an
obligation to submit to arbitration exaequo et bono. Theterm 'arbi-

tration' isused in the widest sense, and includespossiblerecourse to the International Court of Justice." (Yearbookof the International
LawCommission,1951,Vol.II, p. 143 l.)

84. Another important factor to be remembered is that in the 1982
United Nations Convention,an independent part of which contains the
detailed provisions on dispute settlement, disputes concerning the inter-
pretation or application of Articles 74 and 83 relating to sea boundary
delimitations may,by the declaration of a State Party, be excluded from
compulsory procedures entailing binding decisions, provided that the
matter is submittedto conciliationas provided in Annex Vof that Con-
vention.

(d) Limitedfunction of the International Courtof Justicein a maritime
delimitation

85. Accordingly,and on the premise that there are in fact no rules of
law for effectinga maritime delimitationin the presence of overlapping
titles (not overlapping daims),it followsthat ifthe Court is requested by
the parties to decide on a maritime delimitation in accordance with

Article36,paragraph 1,ofthe Statute,it willnot be expectedto applyrules
of international lawbut willsimply"decide a case exaequoetbono".

86. In other words,the presentation of a caseofmaritimedelimitation
by agreementbetweenthe Statesin dispute in accordance withArticle36,
paragraph 1, means by implication that the parties are requesting the
Court "to decide a case exaequoet bono"in accordance with Article38,
paragraph 2,ofthe Statute. Forinstance, in myview,the Judgment ofthe
Court in the case concerningthe ContinentalShelf(LibyanArabJamahi-
riya/Malta) must be interpreted ashaving been givenonthat basis, even
thoughthe Court neverexpresslystatedas much. It certainly isnot a con-
vincingexposition ofthe law.
87. However,there isno escapingthe fact that the rendering of a deci-
sion exaequoet bon0 is only admissible with the consent of the parties.
Thiswas not a big problemin earlierdelimitation cases, because the con-
sent derived or couldbe inferred from the specialagreementconcerned.
Butifthe Court intended inthiscaseto applyequitableconsiderations, it

' This textdidnotappearin thelater(i.e.,post-1953)textdrawnupbytheInterna-
tional LawCommission.After1953,the InternationalLawCommissionprepared an
independentarticle concerningdisputesettlement, to covernot only delimitationbut
alsoother aspectsof thecontinentalshelf,whichfinallybecametheoptionalprotocol
forthesettiementofdisputesattachedtothe fourGenevaConventionsonthelawofthe
seaadoptedatUNCLOS1.should, in my view,first have decided that the submissions or, alterna-
tively,the arguments of the Parties, in particular Norway, permitted the
conclusionthat aconsenthad emergedbetweenthemamountingto a spe-
cial agreement to the effect that the Court was not bound to adhere to
strict law. In this waythe case could conceivably have been, so to speak,
transferred fromthe ambitofArticle36,paragraph 2,to that ofArticle36,
paragraph 1, as averyspecialcase oforumprorogatum.

(e) Effectinga delimitationexaequo etbon0

88. Onlyin a caseinwhichthe parties in dispute haveasked the Court
byagreementto effectamaritimedelimitation exaequoetbonoisitquali-
fied to examinewhat factors or elementsshould betaken into account as
relevant,and to what degreeuch factorsor elementsshouldbe evaluated
when it is determining the line to be drawn or indicating a concrete line
based on its own evaluation ofthe relevantfactors and elements.

89.1must add furthermore that, if a singlemaritime delimitation for
the continental shelfandthe exclusiveeconomiczone isto be effectedby
the Courtin responseto ajoint request bythe parties in dispute, then the
parties havetoagreewhichfactorsorelementsrelevantto eitherthe exclu-
siveeconomiczone orthe continental shelf (or,inother words,relevantto
eitherfisheryresources orminera1resources),areto begivenpriority.The

Court is not competent even as an arbitrator todecide the priority of
either the exclusive economic zone or the continental shelf unless
expresslyrequested todo soby the parties.

PART 111.LACK OF VALID GROUND SOR THE LINEDRAWN IN THE
JUDGMENT

90. The Court has drawn "the delimitation line that dividesthe conti-
nental shelfand fisheryzones oftheingdom of Denmark andthe King-
domof Norway". Holdingas 1dotheviewthatthe Court isnot competent
to determine the delimitation line at al1unless requested jointly by the

Partiesto decidethecase exaequoetbono,1aminno positionto comment
on the actual course ofthe delimitation effected by the Court.

91. 1am concerned, however,that, evensupposing that the Court had
been requested by agreement to draw a singlemaritime boundary on the
basis ofArticle38,paragraph 2,ofthe Statute,it did not present any con-
vincing statement of its reasons for having drawn the particular single
maritimeboundary lineshown on sketch-mapNo.2attached to the Judg-
ment.Theline drawn by the Court maywellbe one of an infinite number
ofpossibilitieswhich could havebeen indicated ifthe Court had thoughtany one ofthem would lead to an equitablesolution. However,in choos-
ingthislinerather than anyother,the Court seemsto have taken apurely
arbitrary decision.

(a) UnsatisfactoryJiustiJicatio" byspecial(relevant)circumstances

92. Firstly,the Court seems to take the view that the disparity in the
lengths of the coastlines of the opposite States must necessarily be re-
flected in an adjustment or shifting of the median line taken as a line of
departure. However,the Courtappearsto overlookonegeometricalfact,

namely that, in the case of opposite coasts of disparate lengths, even an
unadjusted median line leaves a greater portion to the State with the
longer coastline.What ismore,the Court does not indicatethe reasoning
that has led it toonclude that the longercoastlineshould automatically
lead to an evenlargerportion ofthe maritimearéa.

93. Even supposing that the State with the longer coastline is to be
entitled to amuch largerportion than the median line would confer,the
drawing of the line connecting points A, O, N and M, as proposed
in sketch-map No. 2 in the Judgment, is not, in my view, supported by
anyreasons that can be describedas objectiveor convincing.
94. Secondly,1can acceptthat,just asinthe NorthSea ContinentalShelf
caseswherethe "naturalresources ofthecontinental shelfareasinvolved
weresuggestedasafactortobe taken intoaccount,the "fishing resources"

maywellbearelevantfactorinthedelimitation ofthe exclusiveeconomic
zone. However,no reason is givenin the Judgment asto why "equitable
access" to the fishing resources is a relevant factor and the Court does
not explain what the words "equitable" access can be taken to mean.
Does the Court intend that Greenland's inhabitants or Danish fisher-
men, together with Norwegian fishermen (there are no inhabitants
on Jan Mayen), should be entitled to "equitable access" to the fishing
resources in one specific area, the area east of the median line, a long
way from Greenland but close to Jan Mayen? Why is only that specific
area taken up for the consideration of "equitable access to the fishing
resources"? In fact capelin fishing has been controlled under an inter-
national arrangement without any reference to the division of the sea
areas concerned.

95. In spiteofrepeated referencestotheconcept of"equitable accessto
the fishingresources",the Court does not givethe slightesthint in itsrea-
soningas to whythe median lineasalineofdeparture should be adjusted
or shifted so asto allot one-half ofthe southern part of the "area of over-
lapping claims"to Greenland(or Denmark)whileleavingtheother halfto
Jan Mayen (or Norway).(b) Unjustifiedchoiceof theline

96. In taking not only "the disparity ofcoastallengths" but also "equi-
table accessto the fishing resources" as factorsfor the purpose of adjust-
ing or shifting the median line as a line of departure, the Court was too
much concemed with"the area ofoverlappingclaims"whenitdividedthe
area between Greenland and Jan Mayen. The Court was incorrect in
unduly concerning itself with the "area of overlapping claims" while
neglecting the rest of the "relevant area", when allocating the areas to
each State.

97. Thetask confronting the Court was not to delimitthe boundary of
the "area ofoverlappingclaims"but todoso ofthemaritimeareabetween
Greenland and Jan Mayen,in other wordsthe "relevant area" as defined

inthe Judgment (para. 20),althoughtheline had ofcoursetobe located in
the "area of overlapping claims". Its manipulation of the delimitation
line,choosingpoints M,N and O on aratio of 1 :1or 1 :2betweenthe two
lines, Le.,the maximum 200-mileline of the Danish entitlement and the
median line,thelineof Norway'smodestassertion, can onlybe described
as misguided.

98. 1acceptthatthe median linemaybetaken asalineofdeparture and
then adjusted or shifted,with special(relevant)circumstances or relevant
factors(elements)being givendue consideration. Inmyconcept ofequity,
it is not merelythe simpledisparity of opposite coastlines which must be
taken into account but also disparity of geographical (natural or socio-
economic) situations, for example, population, socio-economic activity,
existence of communities behind the coastline and the distance of an
uninhabited island from the nearest community of the mainland or main
territory. The existence,quality and quantity of marine resources(either

fishery or mineral) are relevant,but equitysurelyrequires that any deci-
sionasto howtheseresourcesshouldbe allotted to eachparty shouldtake
account not only of such relatively objectiveecologicalfactsbut also of
their relativesignificance,perhaps amountingto dependence,to the com-
munities appertaining to eitherparty. Certainly, it isimpossibleto calcu-
late and balance up these elementsmathematically in order to drawaline
with total objectivity.hus the drawing of a line must depend upon the
conscientiousbut infinitelyvariable assessment of those drawing it.

(c) Mistakendefinition ofa single maritimebounda~y

99. 1must also add that the Court failed to discem the possible differ-
ences in the special(relevant)circumstances which need to be taken intoconsideration in order to achieve an equitable solution, depending on
whether one is effectingthe delimitation of the exclusiveeconomiczone
or that ofthe continental shelf.Ifthe marine resourcesconstitutea factor
to betaken intoaccount,itisunthinkabletodrawa singlemaritimebound-
arywithout havingaclearideaasto whichparticular circumstancesought
to predominate (Le.,those relatingeither tothe exclusiveeconomiczone
orto the continental shelf).The Court doesnot giveanygoodreason why
equitable access to the "fishing resources" should have also been taken
into account when it drewthe line constituting the boundary not only of
the exclusiveeconomiczone but also of the continental shelf.The Court
has apparently erred in this respect afteraking it for granted that there
ought to be such a singleboundary.

(d) Conclusion

100. As1have alreadypointed out,the lineconnectingpoints M, N, O
and A,which is drawn eastwards ofthe median line as a result of adjust-
ment and shifting, cannot be categorized as mistaken because it rep-
resents one choicefrom an infinite number ofpotential lines of delimita-
tion inthis area,but 1venture to suggestthat it was drawn in an arbitrary
manner, unsupported by any sufficiently profound analysis. That the
effort of the Court was conscientiouslydirectedtowardsthe finding of an
equitable solution is something which, however, 1readily acknowledge.

(Signed) Shigem ODA.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATEOPINIONOFVICE-PRESIDENTODA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs
1-3

PART1. DENMARK' SISUNDERSTAND IF CERTAIN CONCEPT SF
THE LAW OF THE SEAAS REFLECTE DITSSUBMISSIONS 4-46

1. The submissions ofenmark 4-5
2. Problem 1:The fishery zone (howevercalled) is not identical to
the exclusiveeconomic zone 6-23
(a) Theperiod priortothe 1950s

(b) UNCLOS 1(1958)

(c) The 12-mile fishery zone in the period following
UNCLOS 1 12-15
(d) Emergence of the new concept of the exclusive economic
zone 16
(e) Claimsto a 200-milefisheryzone sincethe mid-1970s 17-19

Ifl"Fisheryzone" nota legalconcept 20-22
(g) TheCourt's position onthe 200-mileoffshore fisheries 23

3. Problem2 :Therégimeofthe continental shelfisindependent of
the concept ofthe exclusiveeconomiczone 24-39

(a) Emergence and evolution of the legal concept of the conti-
nental shelf 26-28
(b) Post-UNCLOS 1 29-32

(c) Transition to a new situation due to new technological
developments 33-34
(d) Transformation ofthe definition ofthe continental shelf 35-37
(e) Ignorance of the transformation of the concept of the con-
tinental shelf and the parallel existence of the exclusive
economiczone and the continental shelf 38-39

4. Problem 3:Confusion of title to the exclusive economic zone
and the continental shelf with the question of delimitation of
overlapping entitlements 40-46

(a) Denmark's entitlement to an exclusive economiczone and
a continental shelfin respect of Greenland 41
(b) Norway's entitlement to an exclusive economiczone and a
continental shelf in respect ofJan Mayen 42-43
(c) Overlapping of entitlements or claims 44-46 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ODA, VICE-PRÉSIDENT

[Traduction]

Paragraphes
1-3

PREMIBR PERTIE. L'INTERPRÉTATIONERRONB DEDANEMAR D E CER-
TAINESNOTIONSDU DROITDE LA MERTELLEQU'ELLERESSORTDE SES
CONCLUSIONS 4-46
1. Les conclusions du Danemark 4-5

2. Problème 1 :La zone de pêche (quelleque soit son appellation)
n'estpas identique àlazone économiqueexclusive 6-23
a) Avantlesannéescinquante 7-8
b) La première conférence des Nations Uniessur le droit dela
mer (1958) 9-11
c) La zone de pêchede 12millespendant la périodequi a suivi
la première conférence 12-15

d) L'apparition du nouveau concept de zone économique
exclusive 16
e) Lesrevendications d'une zone de pêchede 200millesdepuis
lemilieudes annéessoixante-dix 17-19
fl La «zone de pêche»n'estpas un conceptjuridique 20-22
g) La position de la Cour en ce qui concerne la pêchedans la
limitedes 200milles 23
3. Problème2: Le régimedu plateau continental est indépendant
du concept de zone économiqueexclusive
24-39
a) L'apparition et l'évolutiondu concept juridique du plateau
continental 26-28
b) Les suites de la première conférence desNations Unies sur
ledroit de lamer 29-32
c) La situation nouvelleprogressivementissue du progrès tech-
nologique 33-34
d) Latransformation dela définitionduvlateau continental 35-37
e) Méconnaissancedela transformationdu concept de plateau

continental et de l'existence varallèlede lazoneéconomiaue
exclusiveet duplateau continental 38-39
4. Problème 3:la confusion entre le tiàrune zone économique
exclusiveet àun plateau continental et la question de la délimi-
tation detitres 40-46

a) Le droit du Danemark à une zone exclusive eàun plateau
continentalen cequi concerne le Groenland 41
b) Ledroit dela Norvègeà une zoneéconomiqueexclusiveet à
un plateau continentalen cequi concerne Jan Mayen 42-43
c) Lechevauchement destitres oudes revendications 44-46PART II. THEPOSSIBLFEUNCTIO NFTHE COURT IN CASESOF MARITIME
DELIMITATION

1. Law of maritime delimitation in the 1958Convention on the
Continental Shelf
(a) Delimitation of fisheries jurisdiction not at issue at
UNCLOS 1

(b) UNCLOS 1:Adoption of the Convention on the Continen-
tal Shelf
(c) The North Seaas apractical case-study
(d) Implications of the Judgment in the NorthSea Continental
Shelfcases
(e) Article 6 of the 1958Convention not applicable tothe pres-
ent case

2. The rules for maritime delimitation discussed at the Sea-Bed
Committee and UNCLOS III, and their adoption in the 1982
United Nations Convention

(a) Drafting of Articles74and 83ofthe 1982Convention
(b) Interpretation ofthe provisions of Articles74and 83
(c) Oneor two delimitation lines?
3. Role of the third party in settling disputes conceming maritime
delimitation

(a) Infinite variety ofpotential delimitation lines
(b) Role of the third party in the delimitation of maritime
boundaries
(c) Arbitration exaequoet bono
(d) Limited function of the International Court of Justice in a
maritime delimitation
(e) Effecting a delimitation exaequoetbono

PARTIII. LACK OF VALIDGROUNDS FOR THE LINEDRAWN IN THE
JUDGMENT

(a) Unsatisfactory "justification" by special (relevant) circum-
stances
(b) Unjustified choice ofthe line
(c) Mistaken definition of a singlemaritime boundary
(d) Conclusion1. Le droit de la délimitation maritime dans la convention de 1958
sur leplateau continental

a) La délimitationde la juridiction sur les pêches n'était pasen
cause lors de la première conférence des Nations Unies sur le
droit de la mer
b) La première conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la
mer :adoptiondela convention sur leplateau continental
c) Lamer du Nord comme étudede casconcret
d) Les incidences de l'arrêt rendudans les affaires du Plateau
continentaldelamerduNord
e) L'article 6 de la convention de 1958n'est pas applicable à la
présente affaire

2. Les règlesde délimitation maritime examinéespar le comité des
fonds marins et lors de la troisième conférencedes Nations Unies
sur le droitdela mer, etl'adoption de cesrèglesdans le cadrede la
conventiondesNations Unies de 1982
ai Rédaction desarticles74et 83dela convention de 1982
bj Interprétation desdispositions desarticles 74et 83

c) Uneseuleligne de délimitationoudeux?
3. Le rôle de la tierce partie dans le règlementdes différends concer-
nant ladélimitationmaritime
a) Variété infinie deslignes de délimitationpotentielles

b) Lerôle dela tierce partie dans la délimitationmaritime

c) Arbitrage exaequoet bono
d) Fonctions limitéesde la Cour internationale de Justice dans
une délimitationmaritime
e) Réalisation d'une délimitationexaequoetbono

a) La ((justification» en fonction des circonstancesspéciales(per-
tinentes) n'estguèreconvaincante
b) Lechoix dela ligne estinjustifié
c) La définition d'une délimitationmaritime uniqueest erronée
dj Conclusion 1. 1am somewhatconcerned by the rather incorrect manner in which
Denmark formulated its Application and submissions and the way in
whichthe Court responded to them. 1willaccordinglybegin my opinion
by pointing out thatDenmark appears to have misunderstood certain
conceptsofthe lawofthe sea,suchasthe exclusiveeconomiczone and the
continental shelf, as reflected in its submissions (Parts opinion).
2. However, the principal reason why 1 am inclined to criticize the
Judgment liesinmybeliefthat, asamatterofprinciple, the delimitationof
maritime boundaries, whether of the exclusive economic zone or of the
continental shelf,oes not fa11within the sphere of competence of the
Court unless the Court is specifically requested, by agreement of the

parties, to effect a delimitation of that kind, applying equity within the
law or determining a solution ex aequoetno.Hence 1believethat the
Application unilaterally submitted byDenmark in the present case
should have been dismissed (Part II).
3. Evenassumingthatthe Court iscompetentto draw a line or linesof
delimitation of the exclusiveeconomiczone or the continental shelf, the
single line drawn in the Judgment (paras. 91-92)s not appear to be
supported by any cogent reasoning, although of course that line or
another line could have been decided by agreement of the Parties
(PartIII).

PART1. DENMARKM 'SISUNDERSTAND OFNGERTAIN CONCEPT SF THE
LAW OF THE SEAAS REFLECTE IDITSSUBMISSIONS

1. TheSubmissionsof Denmark

4. In itsApplication of 16August 1988,Denmark asked the Court
"to decide, in accordance with international law,where a singleline
of delimitation shall be drawn between Denmark's and Nonvay's

fishing zones and continental shelf areas in the waters between
Greenland andJan Mayen" (emphasisadded).
In its submissions ofJuly 1989contained in the Mernorial, Denmark
asked the Court

"(1) To adjudge and declare that Greenland is entitled to a full
200-milefishery zoneand continental shelfareavis-à-visthe islandof
Jan Mayen; and consequently
(2) Todraw a singlelineofdelimitation ofthefishingzone and the 1. Je suis quelque peu troublépar la formulation assez erronéede la
requêteet desconclusions du Danemark, etpar la façon dont la Courya
répondu. Je m'efforcerai donc de montrer d'abord que le Danemark
sembleavoirmalinterprétécertainesnotionsdu droit dela mer,tellesque
la zone économiqueexclusive et le plateau continental,à en juger du
moins par sesconclusions(premièrepartie de la présente opinion).

2. Cependant, sije suisenclià critiquerl'arrê,'estsurtout parce que
j'ailaconviction- etc'estunequestion deprincipe - queladélimitation
d'espaces maritimes,qu'il s'agissedelazoneéconomiqueexclusiveoudu
plateau continental, n'entre dans le domaine de compétencede la Cour
quesilesparties sontd'accord pour luidemanderexpressémentdeprocé-
der àune telle délimitation,en appliquant l'équdans le cadre du droit
ou en statuant ex aequo etbono.J'estimedonc que la requête présentée
unilatéralementpar le Danemark dans la présente affaire auraitdû être
rejetée(deuxièmepartie).

3. Même àsupposer quela Cour aiteu compétencepour tracer uneou
plusieurs lignes de délimitationde la zone économiqueexclusiveou du
plateau continental, la ligne unique tracée dans l'arrêt(par. 91-92) ne
paraît étayéepar aucun raisonnement convaincant, ce qui,bien entendu,
n'empêche pasque cette ligne, ou une autre, aurait pu être déterminée
d'un commun accord par les Parties (troisièmepartie).

PREMIÈR EARTIE. L'INTERPRÉTATION ERRONÉE DU DANEMARK
DE CERTAINES NOTIONS DU DROIT DE LA MER ,ELLE QU'ELLE RESSORT
DE SES CONCLUSIONS

1. LesconclusionsduDanemark

4. Dans sa requêtedu 16août 1988,le Danemark demandait àla Cour
«de dire, conformémentau droit international, où une ligneunique
dedélimitationdevraêtretracéeentrle eszonesdepêcheetdu plateau
continental du Danemark et delaNorvègedansleseauxquiséparent

le Groenland etJan Mayen »(lesitaliques sontde moi).
Dans ses conclusions du 31juillet 1989,contenues dans le mémoire,il a
demandé à la Cour

«1) De dire etjuger que leGroenland a droiàune zoneentièrede
pêcheet de plateau continental de 200 milles faceà l'île de Jan
Mayen; et en conséquence
2) Detracer une ligneunique dedélimitationdela zonedepêcheet continental shelfarea ofGreenland inthe waters betweenGreenland
and Jan Mayen at a distance of 200 nautical miles measured from
Greenland's baseline" (emphasisadded).

In the submissionspresented on 31 January 1991in its Reply, Denmark
added concrete map referencestosubmission (2).Afurther request, dated
25January 1993,wasadded inthefinal submissionspresented at the close
of the oral phase, to the effect that

"(3) If the Court,for anyreason, does not find itpossible to draw
the line of delimitation requested in paragraph (2), Denmark
requests the Court to decide, in accordance with international law
and in light of the facts and arguments developed by the Parties,
where the line of delimitation shall be drawn between Denmark's
and Nonvay's fisheries zones and continental shelf areas in the
waters between Greenland and Jan Mayen, and to draw that line"
(emphasisadded).

5. Itappears to methat Denmark failstoappreciatecertain concepts of
the law of the sea. In thefirstplace, it does not seem to grasp the proper
concept of the exclusive economic zone, the concept adopted in the
1982United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. As a matter of
fact,this misunderstanding is not only displayed by Denmark but is also
to be observed in the position taken by Nonvay in these proceedings as
well as by some other countries in various contexts (Sec. 2 below).
Secondly,Denmark seems topay littleheed to the régimeofthe continen-
tal shelfwhich isfated- atleast under thecontemporary lawofthe sea -
to exist inparallel with the régimeof the exclusiveeconomiczone (Sec.3
below). Thirdly,Denmark seemsto confuse titletothecontinental shelf or
the exclusive economiczone with the concept of delimitationof overlap-

ping sea-areas (Sec.4below).

2. Problem1 : TheFisheïyZone(HoweverCalled)Is Not Identical
to theExclusive EconomiZ cone
6. What exactlyismeant bythe "fishing zone", "fishery zone" or "fish-

eries zone" extending "200 miles from the coast", to which Denmark
refers in its Application and submissions? Denmark indeed claimed
a 200-mile"fishing territory" in its Act No. 597of 1976,but it has never
relied upon the concept of the exclusive economic zone, which was
adopted in the 1982United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
This consideration leads me to present some reflections on the develop-
ment of the coastal State's exerciseofjurisdiction over offshore areas.

(a) ïheperiodprior to the1950s

7. Until the time of UNCLOS 1in 1958,neither Denmark nor Nonvay
had ever considered the possibility ofurisdiction over, or controlof, off- DÉLIMITATION MARITIME(OP. IND. ODA) 92

du plateau continental du Groenland dans les eaux situéesentre le

Groenland et Jan Mayen à une distance de 200 milles mesuréeà
partirde la ligne debase du Groenland. »(Lesitaliquessont de moi.)
Dans les conclusions présentéesle 31janvier 1991dans sa réplique,le
Danemark a ajouté à sa conclusion 2 des références cartographiques
précises.Une nouvelle demande, datée du 25janvier 1993,a été ajoutée

dans les conclusionsfinalesprésentées à la clôture de la procédure orale,
dans lestermessuivants :
((3) Si, pour quelque raison que ce soit, la Cour se trouve dans
l'impossibilitéde tracer la ligne de délimitation demandéeau para-
graphe 2,le Danemark prie la Cour de décider,enconformitéavecle

droit international età la lumière des faits et des arguments mis en
avant par lesParties,oùla ligne de délimitationdoit êtretracéeentre
les zones de pêche et le plateau continental du Danemark et de la
Norvègedans les eaux comprisesentre le Groenland et Jan Mayen,
et de tracer cette ligne.Les italiquessont de moi.)

5. Il me semble que le Danemark n'interprète pas très bien certaines
notions du droit de la mer. Premièrementi,l ne paraît pas saisir ce qu'est
véritablement la zone économique exclusive, concept adopté dans la
convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer de 1982.Ce malen-
tendu n'est d'ailleurs paspropre au Danemark :on le retrouve aussi dans
lapositionprise par la Norvègedans cetteaffaire etpar d'autres paysdans
divers contextes (sect.2ci-après).Deuxièmementl,e Danemark ne semble
pas accorder beaucoup d'attention au régimedu plateau continental qui
estvoué - du moins dans l'état actueldudroitdelamer - a existerparal-
lèlement au régimede la zone économique exclusive (sect. 3 ci-après).
Troisièmementl,e Danemark semble confondre le titreau plateau conti-
nental ou à la zoneéconomique exclusiveet le concept de délimitation de

zonesmaritimes qui sechevauchent (sect.4 ci-après).

2. Problème1 :Lazone depêche (quellequesoitson appellation)
n'estpas identiqueàlazone économiqueexclusive

6. Quefaut-ilentendre exactement par la « zone de pêche»s'étendant
à 200milles à partir de la côte »,dont le Danemark faitmention dans sa
requêteet dans ses conclusions? L,eDanemark a en effet revendiqué un
«territoire de pêche»de 200milles dans sa loi no597de 1976,mais il n'a
jamais invoqué le concept de zone économique exclusive qui avait été
adoptédanslaconvention de 1982surledroit delamer.Cela meconduit à
présenter quelques réflexionssur le développement de l'exercice de la
juridiction de1'Etatcôtier sur les zones situéesau large de son littoral.

a) Avant les années cinquante
7. Jusqu'à la première conférencedes Nations Unies sur le droit de la

mer, en 1958,ni le Danemark ni la Norvègen'avaient jamais envisagélashorefisheriesbeyond a distance of 1league (3nautical miles)or at most
4 nautical milesfromthe coast.

8. While the post-war claims of some Latin American countries to
wider offshore areas of maritime sovereignty(extendingover a 200-mile
distance from the coast) for exploitation as their own fishing grounds
wereeventuallyasserted jointly inthe SantiagoDeclaration of 1952,both
Denmark and Norway lodged their respective protests at the position
being taken by those countries. The areas claimed by those Latin Ameri-
can countries were sometimesreferred to as "fishery zones" or "fishing
zones", but they never gained universalrecognition in international law.

(b) UNCLOS1 (1958)

9. One of the most important issues at UNCLOS 1(a conference con-
vened in 1958in Geneva after being prepared over several years by the
International Law Commission) consisted in the determination of the
limit ofthe territorialea.Thisproblem was characterized at the Confer-
ence as a confrontation between the narrower limit (3or 4 miles)and the

wider limit (12 miles), and the concept of a "fishery zone" to be estab-
lished outside the territorial sea but within 12miles from the coast was
proposed by Statesfavouring the narrower territorial-sea limit as a com-
promise to be offered those wanting a 12-milelimitwithin whichto exer-
ciseexclusiveoffshorefishing rights.

10. Theveryconcept ofthe "fishery zone"wasthus proposed as a sub-
stitute for the extension of the territorial sea to 12miles, which was not
then acceptable to some States (mostly the Western States), and it is
important to note thatthe outer limitofthe fisheryzone thus mooted was
to be 12miles from the coast. It cannot be over-emphasized,moreover,
thatthe concept ofthe fisheryzonediscussedat UNCLOS 1wasdifferent
innature from that ofthe maritime sovereigntystraightforwardlyclaimed
around 1950 bythe Latin American States, to cover 200-mile offshore

areas.

11. UNCLOS 1narrowlyfailed initsattemptto fixthe limitoftheterri-
torial sea,and forthat reason there wereno further referencesto the con-
cept of the fishery zone, which had been put forward only in that
connection.

(c) The12-milefisheryzoneintheperiodfollowingUNCLOSI

12. In the upshot, UNCLOS 1neither fixed a 12-milelimitto theterri-
torial sea in the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguouspossibilité d'exercer leurjuridiction ou leurautorité surdes terrains de
pêcheau-delàd'une distance deunelieue(3millesmarins) outout auplus
4 millesmarins à partir de la côte.
8. Tandis quelesrevendicationsexpriméesaprèslaguerrepar certains
paysd'Amérique latineenvued'étendre leursouveraineté surdesespaces
maritimes (jusqu'à200millesdela côte)afinde lesexploiter commeleurs
propres terrains de pêcheont finalement été proclamées conjointement
dans la déclarationde Santiago de 1952,aussibien le Danemark que la
Norvègeontprotestécontrelaposition prisepar lesditspays. Lesespaces
revendiquéspar ces pays d'Amérique latine étaient parfois qualifiése

«zones de pêche»,mais ilsn'ont jamais étéuniversellementreconnusen
droit international.

b) Lapremièreconférencd eesNationsUniessurledroitdela mer(1958)

9. L'un des principaux points examinés à la première conférence des
Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer (convoquéeen1958 àGenèveaprès
plusieurs annéesde préparationpar la Commission du droit internatio-
nal) étaitcelui qui consistaitéterminer lalimite de la mer territoriale.
Lors de cette conférence,le problèmea étécaractérisépar un affronte-
ment entre lestenants delalimiteétroite(3ou 4milles)etceuxdelalimite
large (12 milles) et l'idéed'unezone de pêche»qui serait établieen
dehors dela merterritoriale maisdans la limitedes 12milleàpartir de la

côte a été proposépear des Etats qui étaient favorablesa définition la
plus étroitede la mer territoriale, en tant que solution de compromis
offriràceuxquiétaientpartisans d'une zonede 12millesdans laquelleils
souhaitaient avoir l'exercice exclusifdesdroits de pêche.
10. Le concept mêmede «zone de pêche »a donc étéproposé comme
un succédané de l'extensionde la merterritoriale12milles,qui à l'épo-
que n'étaitpas acceptable pour certains Etats (principalement les Etats
occidentaux), et il est important de noter que la limite extérieurede la
zone de pêche qui était l'objete cette controverse allait être placée
12millesde la côte. D'autrepart, on ne saurait trop insistersur lefait que
le concept de zone de pêchedont il a étéquestion àla conférence était
foncièrementdifférentdeceluidelasouverainetémaritimepure etsimple
revendiquéevers les années cinquantepar les Etats d'Amérique latineet

qui devaits'étendreà200millesdes côtes.
11. La première conférencesur le droit de la mer n'a pas toutà fait
réussiàfixerla limitede la merterritoriale, etpour cetteraison iln'aplus
été questionde la notion de zone de pêche,qui n'avait été proposéeue
dans le cadre de cettediscussion.

c) La zonedepêche de 12millespendantlapériodequia suivi lapremière
conférence

12. En fin de compte, la conférence n'avait ni fixéune limite de
12millesàlamerterritoriale dans laconventionsurla merterritoriale etlaZone, nor introduced the concept of the 12-milefisheryzone as compen-
sation for the retention of the narrower territorialea. Nevertheless, the
concept of the 12-mile"fishery zone" which had not been recognized in
1958began to take root in the period afterUNCLOS 1.
13. One afterthe other,both Denmark and Norway unilaterally estab-
lished a 12-milezone for fishery purposes. However, the unilateral estab-
lishment of such a fisheryzone at that time was, of course,not limitedto

Denmark and Norway. Indeed, Statesbeganincreasingly to agreeamong
themselves that they should be entitled to establish such a zone. The
1964FisheriesConventionconcludedamong European countries includ-
ing Denmark (but not Norway), represented a type of such an agreement
in which eachcontractingState recognized the right ofanyothercontract-
ingparty to establish a belt 6 miles widein which the coastal Statewould
have the exclusive right to fish and exclusive jurisdiction in matters of
fisheries, together with anouter 6-mile belt in which the continuation of
traditional foreignfishingwould be guaranteed.
14. Theconcept ofthe 12-milefisheryzone,which was never accepted
at UNCLOS 1,had thus rapidly gained general recognition. Bythe mid-
1970s,that same fishery zone, while not provided for in any of the uni-
versa1 documents conceming the law of the sea, existed as a firmly
establishedinstitution.

15. Iceland was unique in claiming a 50-mile fishery limit by its
1971policy statement and the 1972resolution adopted by the Althing.
That Icelandic claim occasioned objections by the Federal Republic of
Germany and the United Kingdom, and was in issue in proceedings
before the International Court of Justice in the FisheriesJurisdiction
(United Kingdomv.Iceland)and FisheriesJurisdiction(FederalRepublicof
Germanyv. Iceland)cases.In itsJudgments, the Court foundthatthe uni-
lateral extension of the exclusive fishing rights of Iceland to 50 miles
was "not opposable to" the United Kingdom or the Federal Republic
(I.C.J.Reports1974,pp. 34and 205).

(d) Emergence of the new concept of te heclusiveeconomiczone

16. One of the new trends in UNCLOS III during the 1970swas that
the claim to a 200-mile zone (which had been advanced by some
Latin American nationsas an area ofmaritimesovereigntyinthepost-war
period but had met with strenuous objectionsfrom other countries),had
now become recognized - but only in the form of the "exclusive econ-
omic zone". In comparison with the progressmade by the concept of the
200-mile "exclusive economic zone", which rapidly gained world-wide
support, the concept of a 12-mile"fishery zone" lost al1its significance.
However,the concept ofthe "exclusive economic zone", which ontheone
hand was much wider in scope than that ofthe fisheryzone because ofthe
inclusion ofcontrol bythe coastalStatenot onlyoverfishing but also over
various other activities, did on the other hand envisage for the coastalzone contiguë, ni introduit la notion de zone de pêchede 12milles en
compensation du maintien de la mer territoriale dans seslimitesétroites.
Néanmoins,l'idéed'une «zone depêche »de 12milles,qui n'avaitpas été
reconnue en 1958,a commencé àserépandreaprès la conférence.
13. L'un après l'autre, le Danemark et la Norvègeont établiunilatéra-
lementune zone de 12millesauxfins delapêche.Beaucoupd'autres Etats
ont fait de même.Les Etats ont mêmeeu de plus en plus tendance à
s'entendre sur lefait qu'ilsdevraientavoir ledroit d'établir unetellezone.
La convention de 1964 sur la pêche conclue entre pays européens, y
compris le Danemark (mais non la Norvège),a consacréun accord de ce

genre, par lequel chacun des Etats reconnaissait aux autres parties
contractantes le droit d'établir une zone de milles dans laquelle 1'Etat
riverain aurait le droit exclusif de pêche etune juridiction exclusive en
matièrede pêche, ainsi qu'une zone extérieurede 6 milles dans laquelle
lesnavires étrangerspourraient continuerà pêchers'ilsavaientl'habitude
de le faire.
14. Le concept d'une zone de pêchede 12milles, qui n'avaitjamais été
accepté à la première conférence,s'étaitainsi rapidement imposé. Au
milieu desannéessoixante-dix,cette mêmezone de pêche,bien qu'ellene
fût mentionnée dans aucun desdocuments universels concernant le droit
de la mer, existaiten tant qu'institution solidementétablie.
15. L'Islande a été leseul Etatà revendiquer une zone de pêchede
50 milles, dans sa déclaration de 1971 et la résolution adoptée par

1'Althingen 1972.Cette revendication islandaise a été contestéepar la
République fédéraled'Allemagne et le Royaume-Uni, et elle a éportée
devant la Cour internationale de Justice dans deux affaires relativesa
Compétenceen matièredepêcheries(Royaume-Unic.Islande), d'une part,
et Compétenceen matièrede pêcheries(République fédérale düllemagne
c. Islande), d'autre part. Dans ses arrêts, laCour a dit que l'extension
unilatérale des droits de pêcheexclusifs de l'Islande jusqu'à 50 milles
n'était«pas opposable » au Royaume-Uni ou à la République fédérale
(C.I.J. Recueil974,p. 34et 205).

d) L'apparitiondu nouveauconceptdezone économique exclusive

16. Une des nouvelles tendances de la troisième conférence des

Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, au cours des années soixante-dix,a
étéque la revendicationd'une zone de 200milles (qui avaitétéémisepar
quelques pays d'Amérique latine en tant que zone de souverainetémari-
time dans la période d'après-guerre mais qui s'étaitheurtéeà une vive
opposition delapart d'autrespays) étaitmaintenantreconnue, mais seule-
ment sous la forme de «zone économique exclusive». Par rapport au
progrèsdu concept de «zone économiqueexclusive » de 200 milles, qui
avait vitetrouvédesappuis dans le monde entier, le concept d'une «zone
de pêche» de 12milles se trouva privé de signification. Cependant, le
concept de «zone économiqueexclusive »,qui,d'une part, étaitbeaucoup
plus largeque celui de zone de pêche parce que l'autoritéde'EtatcôtierState certain obligations concerning the control and management of
fisheries.

(e) Claimstoa 200-milefishery zonesincethemid-1970s

17. While the régimeenvisaged for the exclusiveeconomiczone was
stillin a chaoticstate atthe earlystagesofUNCLOS III (theCaracas ses-
sion in 1974and the Geneva session in 1975),a number of States,which

had discernedthe generaltrend of expansion of coastaljurisdiction over
extendedoffshore areas,viedwith eachother,prior tothe adoption ofthe
Convention at the Conference in 1982,in bluntly claiming their fishery
interests inthose areas.

18. Denmark establisheda 200-mile"fisheryterritory" by ActNo. 597
of 17December1976to replaceitsAct No.207 of1964,and Norway estab-
lished a 200-mile "economic zone" by its Act No. 91 of 17 December
1976and its Royal Decreeofthe samedate.OtherStates weremeanwhile
making haste to declare a 200-milefisheryzonein order to secure exclu-
sivecontrol of fishingin their respectiveoffshore areas, disregardingthe
concept of the exclusive economiczone (which was to be suggested at
UNCLOS III for incorporation into the as yet unfinalized Convention).

19. Thisunilateral process does not alterthe fact that, under the 1982
United Nations Convention on the Law ofthe Sea, whose mles in most

respects arewidelyheld to have supersededearlier law,the claimto adis-
tance of200miles ispermissibleonlyinrespectofthe exclusiveeconomic
zone(definedin detail and in strict terms in Part Vofthe Convention),in
whichdue consideration isgiventothe common interest ofthe rest ofthe
world - that is, to the conservation and optimum utilization of fishery
resources.

(f) "Fisheryzone"nota legalconcept

20. There is certainlyno provision inthe 1982Conventionthat relates
to a 200-mile "fishery zone" as such. The "fishing zone" (or "fishery
zone") which Denmark and Nonvay established respectively(and which
Denmark mentionsinitsApplication) is notthe exclusiveeconomiczone
asdefined in that Convention.

21. However, it is undeniable that today a number of States have
claimed a 200-mile "fishery zone" or "economic zone" - but not an
"exclusive economic zone". These States include Canada, Germany,
Japan, the Netherlands and the United States, al1of which would have
been stronglyopposed tothe exerciseofexclusivefishingrights bycoastals'exerçait non seulement sur la pêche mais aussisur d'autres activités,
prévoyait,d'autrepart,pour 1'Etatcôtiercertainesobligationsconcernant

le contrôle et la gestion de la pêche.

e) Lesrevendicationsd'unezonedepêche de200millesdepuislemilieudes
annéessoixante-dix

17. Tandis que le régime envisagépour la zone économique exclusive
était encoreinformelorsdespremièresphases de la troisièmeconférence
(à la session de Caracas en 1974età celle de Genèveen 1975),un certain
nombre dYEtats,quiavaientdiscernélatendance généraleàl'extension de
lajuridiction côtière àdeszones étendues vers le large, ont rivaliséentre
eux, avant l'adoption de la convention lors de la conférence de 1982,
pour affirmer ouvertement leurs intérêts en matièrede pêchedans ces
zones.

18. Le Danemark a établiun ((territoirede pêche »de 200millespar la
loi no 597 du 17décembre 1976remplaçant la loi no 207 de 1964,et la
Norvègea établiune«zone économique »de 200millespar saloi no91du
17 décembre 1976 et le décret royal de mêmedate. En mêmetemps,
d'autres Etats se sont empressés de proclamer une zone de pêchede
200milles afinde s'assurer le contrôle exclusif de la pêchedans leszones
situéesau large de leurs côtes respectives, sans s'intéresserau concept de
zone économique exclusive (dont l'introduction dans la convention,
encore à l'étatde projet, allait êtresuggérdans le cadre de la troisième
conférence).
19. Ce processusunilatéral ne change rien au fait qu'aux termes de la
convention des Nations Unies de 1982sur le droit de la mer, dont il est
largement admis que les règles ont dans la plupart des cas remplacé

le droit antérieur,la revendication d'une distance de 200 milles n'est ad-
missible que s'ils'agitde la zone économique exclusive(définie en détail
et en termes stricts dans la cinquième partie de la convention), dans la-
quelle il est dûmenttenu compte de l'intérêt commun du reste du monde
- à savoirla préservationet l'utilisation optimale des ressourceshalieu-
tiques.

f) La «zonedepêche» n'estpasunconceptjuridique

20. Il estcertain que laconvention de 1982ne contient aucune disposi-
tionrelativeà une «zone de pêche»entant quetelle. La «zone de pêche»
établie respectivementpar le Danemark et la Norvège (et que le Dane-
mark mentionne dans sa requête)n'est pas la zone économique exclusive

telle que la convention l'adéfinie.
21. Il est toutefois indéniable qu'à l'heure actuelle un certain nombre
d'Etats ontrevendiquéune «zone depêche » ou une «zone économique D
de 200 milles - mais pas une «zone économiqueexclusive». Ces pays
comprennent l'Allemagne, leCanada, les Etats-Unis, leJapon etlesPays-
Bas, qui auraient tous été fermement opposés à l'exercice de droits de Statesin offshore areas beyond the limit of the territorial sea even if the
latter had been extended from its traditional 3-mile to a 12-milelimit. It
may for this reason be contended that, thanks to these repeated claims

made by certain States,including both developed and developing coun-
tries (many ofwhich havebeen asserted during the past decade), the con-
cept ofthe 200-milefisheryzonehas become customaryinternational law
quite independently of the 1982Convention.

22. It is noted that the respondent State,Nonvay, has also and in the
same manner laid claim to a 200-mile"fishing zone". Thus 1am readyto
accept thatthe Court wasbound,in theseproceedings, to proceed withthe
"fishery zone" as an establishedconcept,setting aside that of the "exclu-
siveeconomic zone".

(g) TheCourt'spositionon the200-mileoffshorefisheries

23. Asthe concept ofthe "fishery zone" has no standing,at leastinthe
1982Convention, and still remains a merely political concept, 1 would
have liked theCourt to have taken a clearstance withrespect tothe confu-
sion (bynot only the Applicantbut by both Parties)between the concepts
ofthe "exclusive economic zone" and the "fishery zone". Itsfailure todo
so leads me to wonder what will become in future of the concept of the
exclusiveeconomiczone,asprovided for in that Convention. 1am afraid
that the concept ofthe "exclusive economic zone" willappear completely
obsolete, even before the 1982Conventionhas come into force.

3. Problem2: TheRégime of the Continenta SlhelfIs Independent of the
Conceptof theExclusive EconomiZ cone

24. In itsApplication, Denmark asked the Courtto"decide.. where a
single line of delimitation shall be drawn between Denmark's and Nor-
way'sfishingzones and continental shelfareas" and in itssubsequent sub-
missions requested the Court "to draw a single line of delimitation of the
fishingzone and the continental shelf area of Greenland. ..at...".

25. How is it possible for Denmark to presuppose the identity of the
boundary ofthe exclusiveeconomiczone(for that iswhat it really alludes
to)withthat ofthe continentalshelf, whenboth régimesoriginatedagainst
differentbackgrounds and existinparallel? 1sitthe intention ofDenmark
to contend thatthe original, or proper, régimeofthe continental shelf has
completely crumbled away,to bereplaced bythe newrégimeofthe exclu-
sive economic zone? An examination of the emergence and evolution of
the concept of the continental shelf may be in order, given these con-
siderations.pêcheexclusifs par les Etats côtiers dans des zones du large au-delà
de la limite de la mer territoriale, même si celle-ciavait étéportée de sa
largeur traditionnelle de3 milles jusqu'à une limite de 12milles. Aussi
peut-on soutenirque,grâce àcesrevendicationsrépétéesémanand te cer-
tains Etats,comprenant à la foisdespaysdéveloppéset despays en déve-
loppement (dont beaucoup ont étéavancées au cours de la dernière
décennie),leconcept dezone depêchede 200millesest entrédans ledroit
international coutumier tout à fait indépendamment de la convention
de 1982.
22. On a noté que1'Etatdéfendeur, laNorvège,a aussi et de la même
manièrerevendiquéune «zone de pêche »de 200milles.Je suisdonc prêt
à admettreque,danscetteaffaire,la Cour étaittenue detraiterla «zonede

pêche» comme un concept établi, en laissant de côtécelui de «zone
économiqueexclusive B.

g) La position de la Couren ce qui concerne la pêch dans la limite des
200milles

23. Puisquele concept de «zone depêche»n'apas de statut, du moins
dans la convention de 1982,et demeure encore une notion purement poli-
tique,j'aurais souhaité que laCour prît clairementposition au sujet de la
confusion (commise non seulement par le demandeur mais par les deux
Parties) entre le concept de «zone économique exclusive » et celui de
«zone de pêche».Mais la Cour ne l'a pas fait,et je me demande ce qu'il
adviendra demain du concept de zoneéconomiqueexclusive,tel qu'il est
définidans cette convention. Je crains que le concept de «zone écono-
mique exclusive »n'apparaisse complètementpérimé,avantmêmeque la
convention de 1982ne soitentrée envigueur.

3. Problème2:Le régimeduplateau continental est indépendant
duconceptdezone économiqueexclusive

24. Dans sa requête,le Danemark a demandéàlaCour de«dire ..où
une ligneunique dedélimitationdevraêtretracéeentreles zones depêche
et de plateau continental du Danemark et de la Norvège» et, dans ses
conclusions ultérieures, il a demandé à la Cour «de tracer une ligne
unique de délimitationde la zone de pêcheet du plateau continental du
Groenland ...à..»
25. Comment le Danemark peut-il présupposer l'identité de la limite
de lazoneéconomiqueexclusive(car c'estréellementce àquoi ilfaitallu-
sion) et de celledu plateau continental,alors que lesdeux régimesont des
origines trèsdifférentesetexistentparallèlement LeDanemarkentend-il
soutenir que le régimeoriginel, celui du plateau continental proprement
dit, s'esttotalement écroulé,pour être remplacépar un régimenouveau,
celui de la zone économique exclusive? Dans ces conditions, il semble
utile d'examiner l'apparition du concept de plateau continental et son
évolution.(a) Emergenceand evolutionof the legac lonceptof thecontinentalshelf

26. There can be no doubt that the politicalconcept of the continental
shelf was initiated by the Truman Proclamation of 1945.At that time,
neither Denmark nor Norway indicated any specific attitude either for
or against it. In other words, they appeared indifferent to the problem of
the continental shelf.
27. It was UNCLOS 1that produced the legalconcept ofthe continen-
tal shelf,defined as :

"the sea-bed and subsoil of the submarine areas adjacent to the
Coast. ..to a depth of 200metres or,beyond that limit,to wherethe
depth of the superjacent waters admits of the exploitation of the
natural resources of the said areas" (Convention on the Conti-

nental Shelf,Art. 1).

(In the last-quoted phrase, the word "admits" has been generally inter-
pretedas meaning"ceasesto admit", whichisofcoursea necessarygloss.)
Later, the definition of the continental shelf seemsto have been further
affectedby the 1969Judgmentsin the NorthSea ContinentalShelfcases,
in which it was seen as constitutinga "natural prolongation of [the]land
territoryinto and under the sea" (I.C.J. Reports1969,p. 53).

28. Thefact isthat fewStatesat UNCLOS 1had anyfirmidea concern-
ingthe concept ofthe "exploitabilitytest", and may wellhaveentertained
nothing more than a very vague notion that the exploitation of the sub-
marine areas should be pennitted somewhere - evenbeyond a depth of
200metres - if the development oftechnology wereto allowthat possi-
bility,andthat it shouldremain subjectto somedegreeofnational control.
If there was any question of delimitationat that time, what was really at
issue related simply to submarine areas up to the 200-metreisobath. In
1958,at any rate, few delegates realized where the novel introduction of
submarine technology into the debate mightultimately lead.

29. TheGenevaConvention onthe Continental Shelfbecame effective
in June 1964; Denmark had ratifiedit in 1963and Norway accededto itin
1971.In 1968,Denmark also ratified the Optional Protocol of Signature
concerningthe Compulsory SettlementofDisputes ;Norway neither rati-
fied nor acceded to the Optional Protocol.
30. Theconcept ofthecontinental shelfasageographical entitysubject
to aspecialrégimerapidlybecameestablishedincustomaryinternationala) L'apparitionet l'évolutioduconceptjuridiqueduplateau continental

26. Ilestindéniableque leconceptpolitique du plateau continental est
issu de la proclamation Truman de 1945. A l'époque, ni le Danemark
ni la Norvègen'ont expriméde position particulière pour ou contre ce
concept.End'autrestermes,cespayssemblaientindifférentsauproblème

du plateau continental.
27. C'est la première conférence des NationsUnies sur le droit de la
mer qui a élaboréle concept juridique du plateau continental, défini
comme :

«le lit de la mer et le sous-sol des régionssous-marines adjacentes
aux côtes ..jusqu'à une profondeur de 200 mètres ou, au-delà de
cette limite,jusqu'au point où la profondeur des eaux surjacentes
permet l'exploitation des ressources naturelles desdites régions»
(convention sur le plateau continental, art. 1).

(Dans ledernier membredephrase cité,lemot «permet »agénéralement
etéinterprétécomme signifiant ((cesse de permettre)), ce qui est bien
entendu une explicationnécessaire.) Parla suite,la définitiondu plateau
continental sembleavoir été modifiéepar les arrêts rendus en1969dans
les affaires du Plateau continentalde la merdu Nord,où il était conçu
comme un ((prolongement naturel du territoire sous la mer» (C.I.J.
Recueil1969,p. 53).
28. Il est certain qu'à la première conférencedes NationsUnies sur le
droit de la mer peu d7Etats avaient une notion précise du «critère

d'exploitabilité», sinon seulement peut-être la très vague idéeque
l'exploitation des zones sous-marines devrait êtreermisequelque part
- mêmeau-delàd'une profondeur de 200mètres - si l'évolutionde la
technologiedevaitla rendre possible, et qu'elledevrait être soumise un
certaincontrôlenational.Toutequestion dedélimitationsusceptibledese
poser à l'époquene concernait en réalitéque les zones sous-marines
situéesjusqu'à l'isobathede200mètres.En 1958,detoute manière,peude
délégationsavaienu tne idéenettedesconséquencesquepourrait avoiren
définitivecetteintroduction nouvellede latechnologiesous-marine dans
le débat.

b) Les suitesde lapremière conférend ces Nations Uniessurledroitde la

mer

29. La convention de Genève surle plateau continental est entrée en
vigueur enjuin 1964;le Danemark l'aratifiéeen 1963et la Norvègey a
adhéréen1971.En 1968, leDanemark aaussiratifiéleprotocole designa-
ture facultative concernant le règlementobligatoire des différends; la
Norvège n'apas ratifiéceprotocole et n'ya pas adhéré.
30. Le concept du plateau continental en tant qu'entité géographique
soumise à un régimespécials'estrapidement implanté endroit internatio- 98 MARITIME DELIMITATION (SEP.OP. ODA)

law. Atal1events,the actual institution in law ofthe continental shelf has

not been challenged since the adoption of the Convention.

31. Whether the national continental shelf requires the specific claim
of each State, or whether it now exists ipsojure in intemational law,
remains to be examined. In 1963 Denmark issued a "Royal Decree con-
ceming the Exercise of Danish sovereignty over the Continental Shelf",
using terms similarto those used inthe 1958Convention:in the sameyear
Norwayissued a "Royal Decreerelating to the Sovereign Rights of Nor-
way overthe Sea-Bedand Subsoiloutside the NorwegianCoast", an "Act
No. 12relating to Exploration and Exploitation of SubmaGne Natural
Resources" and an "Act No. 12 relating to Scientific Research and
Exploration for and Exploitation of Resources other than Petroleum
Resources".

32. 1must add at this juncture, and it cannot be over-emphasized, that
in the mid-1960sthere did not existanyidea thatthearea between Green-
land and Jan Mayen wouldconstitute apart ofthe continental shelfofany

State.

(c) Transitiontoa newsituation duetonewtechnologicaldevelopments

33. In the mid-1960s,when itbecame apparentthat the rapid develop-
ment of technology would accelerate the exploitation of minera1
resources beyond the 200-metre isobath and that the whole submarine
area ofthe vast ocean might eventuallybecomeexploitable,two opposite
interpretations were presented for the definition of the "exploitability
test". One wasthat, as the whole area of the ocean would become exploit-
able (thus becoming a continental shelf within the meaning of the
1958Convention), it should be divided by a median line throughout the
world. The other idea was that, with the gradua1advancement of techno-
logy throughout the world, the continental shelf of each State would
gradually extend further, thus meeting the continental shelf of the oppo-
site side at the deepestpoint.

34. In response to the median-line theory and the deepest-trench
theory, which had in common their understanding that, in theory, the
whole area of the world's ocean would, owing to the development of
advanced technologies,soon havethe status ofthe continental shelfof any
and every State, Ambassador Pardo of Malta, in his epoch-making
statement to the General Assembly on 1November 1967,appealed for a
halt to that expansion of the continental shelf, by suggesting that the
sea-bed of the vast ocean should be considered as the "common heritage
of mankind". Theworktowards a newrégimeofthe ocean wasaccordingly
launched at the United Nations Sea-Bed Committee between 1968and
1973,and was followed up by UNCLOS III, which commenced in 1974
in Caracas.na1 coutumier. De toute manière, la réalité juridique de la notion de
plateau continental n'a pas été contestéedepuis l'adoptionde la conven-
tion.
31. Il restàexaminer sileplateau continental national doit obligatoi-
rement avoir été expressément revendiquépar chaque Etat, ou s'il

a maintenant une existence ipsojure en droit international. En 1963,le
Danemark a promulgué un «décret royal concernant l'exercice de la
souverainetédanoise sur le plateau continental »,rédigédans destermes
analogues àceux de la convention de 1958;la mêmeannéel,a Norvègea
promulguéun ((décretroyal relatif aux droits souverains de la Norvège
sur lelitde la mer etle sous-sol au large de la côtenorvégienneune «loi
no 12relative à l'exploration et àl'exploitation des ressourcesnaturelles
sous-marines »et une «loi no 12relativeà la recherche scientifique ainsi
qu'à l'exploration et l'exploitation des ressources autres que les res-
sourcespétrolières ».
32. Je dois ajouteà ce stade, et ce point ne saurait êtretrop souligné,
qu'on ne pensait absolument pas, au milieu des années soixante, que la
zone situéeentrele Groenland etJan Mayen puisse constituer unepartie
du plateau continental d'un Etat quelconque.

c) Lasituationnouvelleprogressivementissueduprogrèstechnologique

33. Aumilieu des années soixante,quand il est apparu que le progrès
rapide de la technologie accéléreraitl'exploitation des ressourcesminé-
rales au-delà de l'isobathe de 200 mètres etque la totalité de la surface
sous-marine des vastes océans pourrait tôt ou tard devenir exploitable,
deux interprétations opposées ont été proposées pour la définition du
«critèred'exploitabilité».L'uned'ellesétaitque latotalitéde cettesuper-
ficieallant devenirexploitable (devenantainsi un plateau continental au
sens de la convention de 1958),elle devrait être diviséepar une ligne
médianedans lemondeentier.L'autre étaitqu'aveclesprogrèsde latech-
nologie partout dans le monde le plateau continental de chaque Etat
s'étendrait progressivement de plus en plus loin, pour rencontrer le
plateau continental du côtéopposéaupoint de plus grande profondeur.
34. En réponse àlathéoriedelalignemédianeet à lathéoriedelafosse
des plus grandes profondeurs, qui avaient en commun la notion qu'en
théorie tous les fonds marins du monde, du fait de la mise au point de
technologies de pointe, auraient bientôt le statut de plateau continental

d'un Etat ou d'un autre, M.Pardo, représentantde Malte, dans sonreten-
tissant discours du le' novembre 1967devant l'Assembléegénérale,a
lancéunappelpour qu'ilsoit misun terme àl'extension du plateau conti-
nental, enproposant que le fond des vastes océanssoitconsidérécomme
le ((patrimoine commun de l'humanité ». L'élaboration d'un nouveau
régimedes océans a donc été entreprise entre1968et 1973au sein du
comité desfonds marins, dont les travaux ont été poursuivispar la troi-
sièmeconférencedesNations Uniessur ledroit dela merqui s'estouverte
en 1974 à Caracas. (d) Transformationof the definitionof the continentalhelf

35. Inparallel withtheappearance ofthenewconcept ofthe "exclusive
economic zone", the definition of the continental shelf also undenvent a
complete transformation. In order to apply a brake to the unlimited
expansion ofthe continental shelfinterms ofthe "exploitabilitytest", the
outer edge of the continental margin as the natural prolongation of land
territory in accordance with topographical and geologicalconcepts (i.e.,
the original concept) was fixed as the outer limit of the "continental

shelf".
36. On the other hand, the distance criterion of the 200-mile limit,
whichwas quiteirrelevanttothe originalconcept and had beenadvocated
onlyfor fisheriespurposes, wasintroduced into the field ofthe continen-
tal shelf although it had no relevanceto submarine topography and geo-
logy - except in so far as that shelf could be further extended. The new
definition ofthe continental shelf,asincorporated intothe 1982Conven-
tion, was simply the product of a compromise between the self-serving,
and therefore conflicting,interests of each State at UNCLOS III.

37. Thus the concept ofthe continental shelfasthe "natural prolonga-
tion of[the]land territory into and under the sea",whichthe International
Court of Justice had properly applied in its 1969Judgment to define the
"continental shelf" (and which had originallyfeatured in the 1958Con-
vention),had beencompletelytransformed bythenewintroduction ofthe
200-mile-distancecriterion andthe continental shelfhad outgrownits ori-

ginalsignificancewithinthe meaning ofthat Convention. It is,however,a
remarkable fact (and a most unfortunate one)that, whilethe continental
shelfwas thus redefined (Art. 76),that transformation ofthe concept was
scarcelydiscussedat UNCLOS III, sothatthe essentialprovisions inthe
1958Convention relevant to the basic concept of that area remained
unaffected (Arts.77-81).

(e) Ignorance ofthetransformation ofthe conceptof the continentalshelf
and theparallel existence of the exclusiveconomiczoneand theconti-
nental shelf

38. Theconcept ofthe continental shelfasunderstood today isnot the
sameastheone whichwasadopted inthe 1958Convention and prevailed
prior toUNCLOS III. Thesea area indisputein the present casebetween
Greenland and Jan Mayen (or the area defined as the "relevant area" in
the Judgment (para. 20))is notthe "continental shelf"within the meaning
ofthe 1958Convention,but may wellbe the continental shelfreferred to
inthe 1982United Nations Convention, orinthe customaryinternational
lawwhich may nowbe reflectedinthat Convention.This is animportant
point, but one whichboth the Applicant and the Court, in myview,have
failedto appreciate fully.d) La transformationdela définition duplateau continental
35. Parallèlement à l'apparition du nouveau concept de la «zone

économiqueexclusive », la définitiondu plateau continental a subi une
transformation complète. Pour mettre un frein à l'extensionillimitéedu
plateau continental enapplication du «critèred'exploitabilité»,lerebord
externe de la marge continentale en tant que prolongement naturel du
territoireterrestre,délimitésuivantdesconceptstopographiquesetgéolo-
giques (c'est-à-direle concept initial),a été défini commée tantla limite
externe du «plateau continental ».
36. D'autrepart, lecritèrededistance de200milles,quiétaittout àfait
dénuéde pertinence pour le concept initial et n'avait été avancé qu'aux
fins des activitésde pêche, a été introduit ecne qui concerne le plateau
continentalbien que sansrapport aveclatopographie etla géologiesous-
marines - sicen'estenrelationavecuneextensionsupplémentairedudit
plateau. Lanouvelledéfinitiondu plateau continental,tellequ'elle figure

dans la convention de 1982,n'était quele résultat d'un compromis entre
les intérêtsparticuliers, tonc divergents,de chaque Etat à la troisième
conférencedes Nations Uniessur le droit de la mer.
37. Ainsi,le concept du plateau continental conçu comme le prolon-
gement naturel du territoire sous la mer», que la Cour internationale de
Justice avaità juste titre appliquédans son arrêtde 1969pour définir le
«plateau continental )>(etquiavaitfiguréinitialementdans laconvention
de 1958),avait été complètementtransformé par l'introduction nouvelle
du critèrede distance de 200 milles et le plateau continental s'étendait
désormaisau-delàde sa définition initialeau sens de cetteconvention. Il
est cependant remarquable (et très regrettable)quetandis que le plateau
continental était ainsi redéfini (art.76), cette transformation de son
concept ait à peine été examiné e la troisième conférence des Nations

Unies sur le droit de la mer,de telle sorteque lesdispositionsessentielles
de la convention de 1958relatives au concept fondamental de cettezone
n'ontpas étémodifiées(ar7 t.7-81).

e) Méconnaissancd ee la transformationdu conceptdeplateau continental
et de l'existenceparallèlee la zoneéconomique exclusiveet duplateau
continental

38. Le concept du plateau continental tel qu'on l'entend aujourd'hui
estdifférentdeceluiquiavaitétéadoptédanlsaconventionde 1958etqui
avaitprévalu avantlatroisièmeconférencedesNations Uniessurledroit
delamer.LazonemaritimesituéeentreleGroenland etJan Mayenquiest
en litige dans la présente affaire (ou la zone appelée zone pertinente»
dans l'arrêt (par.20) n'estpas le «plateau continental» au sens de la
convention de 1958mais peut bien êtrele plateau continental dont il est
question dans la convention des Nations Unies de 1982,ou dans le droit
international coutumier dont cette convention peut maintenant être
l'expression.Cepoint estimportant maislaCour, selon moi,etledeman-
deur semblentl'avoirun peu perdu de vue. 39. Furthermore, throughout the meetings of the United Nations Sea-
Bed Committee and UNCLOS III in the 1970s,the exclusiveeconomic
zone as.anew concept and the continental shelf as a concept transformed
fromthe 1958Convention wereconsidered asseparate régimes,to be pro-
vided for in parallel in the final text ofthe Convention. In this respect the
Danish submissions in its Application were misguided when the Court
was asked "to decide . ..where a single line of delimitation shall be
drawn", because Denmark presupposed a line which could not apriori
exist.This is another point which did not receivethe due attention of the
Applicantand the Court.

4. Problem3: ConfusionofTitleto theExclusiveEconomicZoneandthe

ContinentalShelfand theQuestionofDelimitation of Overlapping
Entitlements
40. Denmark, in submission (1) in the Memorial and the Reply, asks
the Court to declare its entitlement"to a full 200-mile fishery zone and
continental shelf area vis-à-vis the island of Jan Mayen". In my view,
whentitle to an area ofmaritimejurisdiction exists - beit to acontinental

shelf or(arguendo)to a fisheryzone - it exists erga omnes,i.e.,is oppos-
able to al1Statesunder international law and isnot limited to any specific
geographical component of any one State. That being understood, it
appears to me necessary to point to a certain conceptual confusion that
emergesfrom Denmark's presentation of its claim.

(a) Denmark's entitlementtoan exclusiveeconomiczone ana d continental
shelfin respectof Greenland

41. Whether "Greenland" is entitled "to a full 200-mile fishery zone
and continental shelf area" is a general question concerning Denmark's
title tothose areas. It is accordingly different from the question of the
extent of the area in which its entitlement may be claimed and which
needs to be delimited as it overlaps with the opposing entitlement of
another State.What Denmark reallyseeksinsubmission (1),initsrelation
"vis-à-visthe island ofJan Mayen", is that the Court should effect a deli-
mitation making noabatement ofwhatwould be itsmaximumtheoretical
entitlement in the absence of any competing title; submission (1)has no
effective meaning if read on its own, i.e., without any reference to sub-
mission (2).

(b) Nonvay'sentitlement toan exclusiveeconomiczone and a continental
shelfin respect ofJanMayen
42. In the light of the drafting process of the 1958and 1982Conven-
tions,the entitlements ofJan Mayen(or rather of Nonvay on itsbehalf) to 39. Qui plus està toutes les réunions ducomitédes fonds marins et à
toutes lesséancesdela troisièmeconférencedes Nations Unies surledroit
de la mer pendant les années soixante-dix,la zone économiqueexclusive
qui étaitun concept nouveau et le plateau continental dont le concept
s'étaittransformépar rapport à la convention de 1958ont étéconsidérés
commerelevant derégimesdifférentsquidevraientfaire l'objetdedisposi-
tions parallèlesdans le texte final de la convention.et égard,le Dane-
mark, dans sa requête,s'est fourvoyé dans ses conclusions quand il a
demandé àla Cour de «dire ..où une ligne unique de délimitationdevra
êtretracée»,car ilprésupposaitunelignequi àpriori ne pouvaitpas exis-
ter. C'està un autrepoint auquel le demandeur etla Cour n'ont pasporté
une attentionsuffisante.

4. Problème3: La confusionentrele titreà unezone économique exclusive
età unplateau continentalet laquestionde ladélimitationde titres

40. Le Danemark, dans la conclusion 1de son mémoire etde sa répli-
que, prie la Courdedire etjuger qu'iladroit«àunezoneentière de pêche

et de plateau continental de 200 milles facel'îlede Jan Mayen ».Selon
moi, lorsque existe un titre une zone de juridiction maritime - qu'il
s'agissed'un plateau continental ou(arguendo)d'une zone de pêche - ce
titre existe erga omnes,c'est-à-dire est opposable en droit internatiànal
tous les Etatset ne se limitepaàune composantegéographiqueparticu-
lièred'un Etat. Cela dit, il me semblenécessairede relever une certaine
confusionconceptuellequisedégage de laprésentationpar le Danemark
de sa revendication.

a) LedroitduDanemark à unezoneexclusiveet à unplateaucontinentalen
cequiconcerneleGroenland

41. Le droit du «Groenland » à une «zone entière de pêcheet de
plateau continental de200milles »estune questiongénéralequiconcerne
letitre du Danemark à ceszones. Elleestdonc différentede celledel'éten-
due de la zone sur laquelle ce titre peut être revendiquéet qui doit être
délimitéecarellechevauchecellecouverte par letitre d'un autre Etat. Ce
que le Danemark demande réellementdans sa conclusion 1,«face àl'île
deJan Mayen »,estque laCour effectueune délimitationquinecomporte
aucune amputation de ce que serait son droit maximum théorique en

l'absenced'un titreconcurrent; laconclusion1estdénuéedesignification
réelle sion l'envisage en elle-même,c'est-à-dire indépendamment de la
conclusion 2.

b) Le droitde la Norvège à unezone économiqueexclusiv età unplateau
continentalencequiconcerne JanMayen

42. Le droit de Jan Mayen (ou plutôt de la Norvège par le biais de
Jan Mayen) a une zone économique et/ou àun plateau continental dethe 200-mileexclusiveeconomiczone and/or continental shelfneed not,
1 submit, have been taken for granted. In the present case, however,
Denmark did not dispute the entitlements of Jan Mayen as a singular
islandofsmallerdimensionsto an exclusiveeconomiczone and/or a con-
tinental shelf.
43. Denmark only questioned the extent of the area to which Jan
Mayen'sentitlements extend. It is important to note, however,that Nor-
way claimedtheoretical entitlement up to the full 200-mileextent forthe
exclusiveeconomiczone and continental shelfofJan Mayenbut, taking a
rather modest approach, simply refrained from asserting its full entitle-
ment vis-à-visGreenland.

(c) Overlappingofentitlementsorclaims

44. As can be seen from its submissions, Denmark does not seem to
grasp that, where the entitlements of two opposite States overlap in an

area less than 400 miles apart, the question of delimitation arises in the
area of overlappingentitlements of the two States.Unlike Nonvay, Den-
mark was not ready to have the area of overlap delimited but simply
claimed the whole potential area of its entitlement.Denmark appears to
believe that the possession of a maximum entitlement (in respect of
Greenland) implies that the line of delimitationshould be drawnwithout
any regard to the maximum entitlement of Nonvay (in respect of
Jan Mayen). In this respect, Denmark tends to ignore the distinction
between determining the limits of entitlements to sea areas and the divi-
sion of overlapping claims.

45. The Court likewisepays insufficent heed to this distinction. Des-
pitethe factthat at onepoint it suggeststhe "area ofoverlappingpotential
entitlement" as one of the three areas designated as relevant for the pur-
pose of the Judgment (para. 19),it scarcely makes use of this area in its
reasoning but relies mainly on the "area of overlapping claims", Le.,the

overlapping of the maximum entitlement of Greenland, presented as a
claim, and the modest claim made on behalf of Jan Mayen (Judgment,
para. 18),in order tojustify the line which ithas drawn.

46. 1 am afraid that this Judgment, which barely paid the requisite
attention to Jan Mayen's potential entitlement and was too much con-
cerned with the "area of overlapping claims" could well lead a state, at
some future time, to claim its maximum entitlement in the initial stage
of negotiations with its neighbouring State for the delimitation of mari-
timeboundaries, either ofthe exclusiveeconomiczone orthe continental
shelf.200 milles ne peut pas, à mon avis, être tenu comme allantde soi à la
lumièredel'historiquedelarédaction desconventionsde 1958etde 1982.
Dans cetteaffaire,cependant, le Danemark n'apas contestélesdroits de

Jan Mayen, une île singulièrede dimension réduite, à une zone écono-
mique exclusiveet/ou à un plateau continental.
43. Le Danemark a seulement contesté l'étenduede la zone couverte
par les droits de Jan Mayen. Il importe cependant d'observer que la
Norvègea revendiquépour Jan Mayen le droit théorique à une zone
économiqueexclusive et à un plateau continental entier de 200 milles
maisque,adoptantuneattitude assezmodérée,ells e'estsimplementabste-
nue d'enrevendiquerl'intégralitéfaceau Groenland.

c) Lechevauchementdes titresoudesrevendications

44. Ainsi qu'il ressort de ses conclusions, le Danemark ne semble
pas saisir que, lorsque les titres de deux Etats dont les côtes se font

face se chevauchent dans une zone de largeur inférieure à 400 milles,
il se pose une question de délimitation dans la zonede chevauchement
des titres des deux Etats.A la différencede la Norvège, leDanemark
n'envisageait pas une délimitationde la zone de chevauchement mais
revendiquait simplement l'intégralitéde la zone correspondant à son
titre potentiel. Le Danemark semblepenser que la possession d'un titre
maximum (en ce qui concerne le Groenland) implique que la ligne de
délimitation doit être tracée sans égaradu titre maximum de la Nor-
vège(en ce qui concerne Jan Mayen). Sur ce point, le Danemark tend
à ignorer la distinction entre la détermination des limitesdes tàtdes
zones maritimes et le partage des zones de chevauchement des reven-
dications.
45. La Cour ne prêtepas non plus une attention suffisante à cette
distinction. Bienqu'ellementionne enun endroit la «zone de chevauche-

ment des titres potentiels parmi les trois zones pertinentes aux fins de
l'arrêt (par.9),cette zone intervienà peine dans son raisonnement où
elle emploie principalement la «zone de chevauchement des revendica-
tions»,c'est-à-direlazoneoùsechevauchentletitremaximum du Groen-
land revendiqué en l'occurrenceet la revendication modérée formulée
pour lecomptedeJan Mayen(arrêt,par. 18),pourjustifier lalignequ'elle
a tracée.
46. Je crains que cet arrêt, qui n'accorde guère l'attenqu'ilmérite
au potentiel deJan Mayen ets'esttrop préoccupé de la«zone de chevau-
chement des revendications »,ne risque fort un jour d'inciter un Etaà
revendiquer son titre maximum au stade initial de ses négociations avec
un Etatvoisinenvuedela délimitationd'espaces maritimes,qu'il s'agisse
de la zone économiqueexclusiveou du plateau continental. PART II. THEPOSSIBLF EUNCTIO NF THECOURT IN CASES OFMARITIME
DELIMITATION

47. To define what roles it may or may not be open to the Court to
assumein matters of maritime delimitation, it is necessaryto review the
principles on the subject that have evolved in international law.

1. Law ofMaritime Delimitationinthe1958Convention
ontheContinentalShelf

(a) Delimitationoffisheriesjurisdictinotat issueat UNCLOSI

48. The offshore areas dealt with in UNCLOS 1 were primarily
either the territorial sea or the contiguous zone. Agreement on the
width of the territorial sea was not reached, except in theense that
it should not exceed 12miles - the distance fixed for the contiguous
zone. In such circumstances, the delimitation of the territorial sea
andthe contiguouszone asbetween adjacent or opposite States inrather
narrow areas was not seen as a new or very significant issue. The focus
in UNCLOS 1wasuponthe delimitation ofthe continental shelf, extend-
ing further than those narrower areas but, in principle, as far as the
200-metre isobath. However, 1 must repeat that for fisheries purposes
there didnot exist any concept of further jurisdiction of the coastal State
beyond 12miles from the Coast.

(b) UNCLOS1:Adoption oftheConventionon theContinentalShelf

49. It isnot necessary to followthe whole of the draftingprocess lead-
ingto Article 6ofthe Convention governing the delimitation ofthe conti-
nental shelf.NCLOS 1acceptedthe need forthe insertion into theCon-
vention of aprovision on the continental shelf, the text of which had been

prepared by the International Law Commission in deliberations over a
period ofseveral years in the mid-195:s

"Where the same continental shelf is adjacent to the territories of
two or more States [(a)whose coasts are opposite each other],[(b)the
territories of two adjacent States],the boundary of the continental
shelf ... shall be determined by agreement between them. In the
absence of agreement, and unless anotherboundary line isjustified
by specialcircumstances, [(a)the boundary isthe median line][(b)the DEUXIÈM EARTIE. LA FONCTION QUIPEUT BTRE CELLE DELA COUR
DANS LES AFFAIRESDE D~LIMITATIONMARITIME

47. Pourdéfinirlesrôlesquepeut ounepeutpasjouer la Courdans des
affaires de délimitation maritime,il faut passer en revue l'évolutiondu
droit international en ce qui concerne les principes applicables en la
matière.

1. Le droitde ladélimitation maritime

dansla conventionde 1958surleplateaucontinental

a) La délimitationdelajuridictionsurlespêchens'étaitpasencauselorsde
lapremière conférend cesNationsUniessurledroitdelamer

48. Les zones maritimes au large des côtes dont s'est occupée la
première conférence des NationsUnies sur le droit de la mer étaient
principalement la mer territoriale ou la zone contiguë. L'accord ne
s'estpas fait sur la largeur de la mer territoriale, sinon qu'elle ne devrait
pas excéder12milles - la distance fixéepour la zone contiguë. Dans
ces conditions, la délimitationde la mer territoriale et de la zone con-
tiguë entre des Etats limitrophes ou dont les côtes se font face dans des
zones relativement étroites n'étaitpas considérée commeune question
nouvelle ou très importante. A la première conférence des Nations
Unies sur le droit de la mer,l'attention aporté surtout surla délimitation
du plateau continental, qui s'étendait au-delàde ces zones plus étroites

mais, en principe, jusqu'à l'isobathe de 200 mètres. Je dois répéter
cependant qu'il n'existaitaucune notion d'uneextension delajuridiction
de 1'Etatcôtier à plus de 12 milles de ses côtes pour ce qui concerne
la pêche.

b) Lapremière conférend cesNations Uniessurledroitdelamer:adoption
delaconventionsur leplateaucontinental

49. Il estinutile deretracer tout ledéroulementdu processus de rédac-
tion qui aabouti àl'article6de la conventionrégissantla délimitationdu
plateau continental. La première conférence des Nations Uniessur le
droit de la mer a reconnu la nécesside faire figurer dans la convention
une disposition relative au plateau continental, dont le texte avait été

préparépar la Commission du droit international au cours de plusieurs
annéesde délibérations au milieu desannées cinquante :
«Dans le cas où un mêmeplateau continental est adjacent aux

territoires de deux ou plusieurs Etats)dont les côtesse font face],
[b) aux territoires de deux Etats limitrophes], la délimitation du
plateau continental ..est déterminéepar accord entre ces Etats. A
défaut d'accord,età moins que des circonstancesspécialesnejusti-
fient une autre délimitation,[a) celle-ci est constituéepar la ligne boundary ofthe continental shelfshallbedetermined byapplication
of the principle of equidistance from the nearestpoints of the base-
line]..." (Conventionon the Continental Shelf,Art. 6.)

50. Itisimportant to note,firstly,that whenthe delimitation ofthe con-
tinental shelfwas under consideration prior to or at UNCLOS 1,the area
beyond the 200-metreisobath was scarcelyconsidered.Thispreliminary
understanding is essential when one is interpreting Article 6 of the Con-
vention.

51. Secondly,the provisionthat "the boundary ... shallbe determined
by agreementbetween [theStatesconcerned]"may wellhavethe status of
a legalprinciple but it does not indicate any criteria for determiningthe
boundaries of the (legal)continental shelf. In addition,the suggestionto

employ as the boundary line, "in the absence of agreement[and] unless
anotherboundaryline isjustified byspecialcircumstances",(i)"a median
line[inthe caseofthe opposite States]"and (ii)alineto "be determinedby
the principle of equidistance [inthe caseof adjacent States]" gavenotthe
slightestclueas to the "circumstances" whichwould be so "special" asto
"justify" a lineother than a median line(orthe equidistance line).

52. Certainly,one State might have the viewthat no other linebut the
median line(orthe equidistanceline) would bejustified inthe absence of
any "special circumstances" and the other State might point to the exis-
tence ofsomespecialcircumstances which,initsview,didjustify a depar-
ture from the median line (or the equidistance line). The question
remained as to whether any legal criteria would have to be met by such
justifying special circumstances.

(c) fie NorthSea as apractical case-study

53. Thequestion ofthe delimitation ofthe continental shelfbecame of
imminent importance in the mid-1960s,particularly in the areas of the
North Sea. The discovery of reserves of oil or natural gas in this region
necessitated the division, early in the 1960s,of the sea-bed of these
shallow waters among the surrounding nations. The whole area of
the North Seaisshallowerthan 200metres(withthe exception ofthe Nor-
wegian Trough) and there was no doubt about the area being a conti-
nental shelf within the meaning of the 1958Convention, irrespective of
any interpretation of the definition of its "exploitability" as provided
forin the Convention.

54. A number of bilateral agreements were successively concluded
in the period 1964-1966among States of the region, including Denmark
and Norway, on the basis of a general application of the equidistance
orthe median line(Netherlands-United Kingdom, 1965 ;Norway-United

Kingdom, 1965 ;Denmark-Germany, 1965 ;Germany-Netherlands, 1965 ; médiane][b)celle-cis'opèrepar application du principe de l'équidis-
tance despoints lesplus proches des lignesde base]..»(Convention

sur leplateau continental, art. 6.)
50. Il importede noter,premièrement,que lors de l'examende la ques-
tion de la délimitation du plateau continental avant ou pendant la
première conférencedes NationsUnies sur le droit de la mer, on ne s'est
guère préoccupé de la zone situéeau-delà de l'isobathe de 200 mètres.
Cette précision préliminaireest essentielle pour l'interprétationde l'ar-
ticle6 de la convention.
51. Deuxièmement,la disposition suivant laquelle «la délimitation ...

est déterminée par accord [entre les Etats concernés]»peut certes avoir
la valeur d'un principe juridique mais elle n'indique aucun critèrepour
déterminerles limites du plateau continental (au sens juridique). De
plus, la suggestion d'utiliser pour la délimitation,à défautd'accord,
et àmoins que des circonstancesspécialesnejustifient une autre délimi-
tation »,i) «la ligne médiane [dansle cas des Etats dont les côtes se font
face]» et ii) une délimitation opérée «par application du principe de
l'équidistance [dans le casd'Etats limitrophes]» ne fournissait pas le
moindreindice quant aux«circonstances »quiseraient assez«spéciales»
pour «justifier» une délimitation autre qu'une lignemédiane (ouque la
ligned'équidistance).
52. Assurément,un Etat pourrait estimerqu'aucune ligneautre que la
lignemédiane (ou la ligned'équidistance)ne seraitjustifiée en l'absence
de «circonstances spéciales» et l'autre Etat pourrait faire valoir l'exis-
tence de quelque circonstancespécialequi, selonlui,justifierait que1'011
s'écartede la ligne médiane (oude la ligne d'équidistance).La question
restait poséede savoir si ces circonstancesspécialesjustificatives étaient

soumises àdes critèresjuridiques.

c) La merdu Nordcommeétudedecasconcret
53. La question de la délimitationdu plateau continental a commencé
à revêtirune importance immédiateau milieu des années soixante,en
particulier dans leszones de la mer du Nord. La découvertede réserves
de pétrole oude gaz naturel dans cette régiona nécessitéa ,u début des

années soixante,la répartition entreles Etats riverains des fonds marins
de ces eauxpeu profondes. Toute la mer du Nord a moins de 200mètres
de profondeur (à l'exception de la fosse de Norvège), etil ne faisait
aucun doute que la zone étaitun plateau continental au sens de la
convention de 1958,indépendammentde la manièredonton interprétait
la définition de l'«exploitabilité» de cette zone qui figurait dans la
convention.
54. Uncertainnombred'accords bilatérauxontété conclusavecsuccès
au cours de lapériode1964-1966entre les Etats de la région,ycomprisle
Danemark etla Norvège,surlabase d'uneapplicationgénérale delaligne
d'équidistance oude la ligne médiane(Pays-Bas -Royaume-Uni, 1965 ;
Norvège-Royaume-Uni,1965 ; Danemark-Allemagne, 1965 ; Allemagne-Denmark-United Kingdom, 1966; Denmark-Netherlands, 1966). It is
important tobear inmindthatthe 1965Agreementbetween Denmark and
Norway, which has been much discussedin the present case,was simply
one of a numberl. As has already been stated (para. 32 above), in those
daysthe area between Greenland and Jan Mayenwasneverdeemedto be
onecoveredbytheconcept ofthecontinental shelf,soitisobviousthat the
1965Agreement did not apply to that area.

55. In 1967the delimitation between Germany on the one hand and
Denmark and the Netherlands on the other, which exceptfor someareas
extending over a short distance from their coasts had not been agreed
uponthrough diplomaticnegotiations, wasbroughtjointly to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice. The North Sea ContinentalShelfcases should be
understood in the context of a chain of bilateral negotiations in the
North Sea region inthe 1960s.

56. Germany viewed the mechanical application of the equidistance-
line rule asbeing unfavourable to its own interestsin respect of the adja-
cent coasts of Denmark and the Netherlands. In that case before the

Court, Germanypresented various argumentscontesting Denmark's/the
Netherlands' positionsbased on the application of the equidistance-line
rule. It was argued by Germany that, while the equidistance line was
applicable, the base for measuring the distance should be determined
in the case of adjacent Statesin such a way as to take account of macro-
geographical factors, by taking a rectified coastline, that is, the coastal
frontor "coastal façade" (seeI.C.J. Pleadings,NorthSea Continental Shelf;
Vol.II, p. 193).

57. The International Court of Justice stated, in its 1969Judgment,
that:

"delimitation isto beeffectedbyagreementin accordance with equi-
tableprinciples, and takingaccount ofal1therelevant circumstances,
in such a wayasto leave as much as possible to each Party al1those
parts ofthe continental shelfthat constituteanaturalprolongation of

itsland territoryinto andunder the sea,withoutencroachment onthe
naturalprolongation ofthelandterritory ofthe other" (I.C.J.Reports
1969,p. 53,para. 101(C) (l)).,
Thanks tothat Judgment ofthe Court,the delimitationin the south-east-

Ashasbeenpointedout,NorwayisseparatedfromthemainpartoftheNorthSea
continentalshelfbyadeeptrench,knownas theNorwegianTrough.Itwasreallyremark-
ablethatNorway, inspiteof theexistenceof thattrench,couldparticipateinthedivi-
sion of the continentalshelfof the North Seaby applying in general thef the
terof pureconjecturebut itseemsto methat thereexistedsomegeneralfeelingamong
the countriesof the North Seaegionthat Nonvay ought notto be isolatedin this
respect.Pays-Bas, 1965; Danemark-Royaume-Uni, 1966; Danemark-Pays-Bas,
1966).Il importe de ne pas perdre de vue que l'accord de 1965entre le
Danemark et la Norvège, dont on a beaucoup parlé dans la présente

affaire, n'était qu'un accord parmi d'autres1. Comme on l'a déjà dit
(par. 32 ci-dessus),nul ne considérait alors que la zone située entre le
Groenland et Jan Mayen relevait du concept de plateau continental, de
sorte qu'à l'évidencel'accord de 1965ne s'appliquait pas àcette zone.
55. En 1967,la délimitation entre l'Allemagne d'une part et le Dane-
mark etlesPays-Basd'autrepart, qui,hormiscertaineszoness'étendant à
peu de distance de leurs côtes, n'avait pas été convenuepar la voie de
négociations diplomatiques, a étéportéeconjointement devant la Cour

internationale de Justice. Les affaires du Plateau continental de la mer du
Norddoiventêtrecomprisesdans lecontexte d'unenchaînement denégo-
ciations bilatérales dans la région de la mer du Nord au cours des
années soixante.
56. L'Allemagne considérait l'application mécaniquede la règlede la
ligne d'équidistancecomme défavorable à sespropres intérêts ence qui
concernait les côtes limitrophes du Danemark et des Pays-Bas. Devant la
Cour, l'Allemagne a invoqué divers arguments contestant le bien-fondé
des positions adoptées par le DanemarWles Pays-Bas sur la base de

l'application de la règlede la ligned'équidistance. Elle a fait valoir que,
bien que la ligne d'équidistance fût applicable, la base à retenir pour
mesurer la distance devait être déterminée,dans le cas d'Etats limi-
trophes, de manière à tenir compte de facteurs macrogéographiques, en
retenant un littoralrectifié,c'est-à-direla(façade côtière»(coastalfront,
((coastalfaçade))) (voir C.I.J. Mémoires,Plateau continental de la mer du
Nord,vol. II, p. 193).
57. Dans son arrêtde 1969,la Cour internationale de Justice a déclaré

ce qui suit:
((ladélimitationdoits'opérerpar voie d'accord conformément àdes

principes équitableset comptetenu detoutes lescirconstancesperti-
nentes, de manière à attribuer, dans toute la mesure du possible,à
chaque Partielatotalité deszones du plateau continental qui consti-
tuent le prolongement naturel de son territoire sous la mer et
n'empiètent passur leprolongementnaturel du territoire de l'autre »
(C.I.J. Recueil1969,p. 53,par. 101C 1).

Grâce à cet arrêtde la Cour, la délimitation,dans la partie sud-est de la

continentalde la merdu Nord parune profonde dépression,connue sousle nom deu
fosse de Norvège.11étaitàvraidireremarquablequelaNorvège,malgrél'existence de
cettefosse, aitpu participeràla divisionduplateau continental dela merdu Nord en
appliquanten généralla règle dela ligne médianeou de la ligne d'équidis. aceL
raison sous-jacenà cette solution ne peut êavancéeque de manièrepurement
conjecturale,maisilme semblequelesentimentgénéral irégnatarmilespaysdela
région delamerdu Nord était uela Norvègene devait pasêtriesoléeàcetégard.ern part ofthe North Seawassubsequently agreedin 1971between Den-
mark and Germany, as well as between the Netherlands and Germany.

(d) Implications oftheJudgmentintheNorth SeaContinental Shelf cases

58. Thereareafewpoints whichmustbegivendueconsideration when
the Judgment in the North Sea ContinentalShelf cases is interpreted.
Firstly,the Judgment referred to a sea not exceeding200metresin depth,
hence oneunderlain bya continental shelfofthemostunambiguous kind,
and wasdeliveredin 1969,at atimewhenjurists continued to conceiveof
the shelf primarily in a geological and topographical sense - hence in
terms (to quote the Judgment) of the "natural prolongation of [the]land
territory into andunder the sea".

59. Secondly,the suggestionof dividingthe shelf in :

"such a way as to leave as much as possible to each Party al1those
parts ofthe continental shelfthat constituteanatural prolongation of
itslandterritory. . .without encroachment on the natural prolonga-
tion ofthe land territory ofthe other"

did not contain any concrete indication for the delimitationof the area
and did not go beyond the simple suggestionof an "equitable solution",
the expression later employed in the 1982United Nations Convention.

60. ïhirdly,one should try to be precise about the status ofthe indica-
tion givenbythe Court asto "the factorstobe taken into account ...inthe
course ofthe negotiation". Did this indication simplyconstitute a sugges-
tion put forward by the Court in order to assistnegotiations between the
Parties, or did it amount to a determination of law on the basis of
Article38,paragraph 1,ofthe Court's Statute?

(e) Article6ofthe1958Conventionnot applicablteo thepresentcase

61. As has already been explained (para. 50 above), Article 6 of the
1958Convention is applicable to the continental shelf in an orthodox

sense, Le., the sea-bed areas inside the 200-metre isobath. The area
between Greenland and Jan Mayen is not a continental shelf in that
sense, though it certainly is taken to be a continental shelf in accor-
dance with the transformed concept. This is a point of which, in
my view, the Applicant and the Court were not sufficiently aware.
It seems to me that the Parties to this case and the Court erred in
taking the 1958 Convention as the rule with regard to the delimi-
tation of the continental shelf while the rule of the 1982 Convention
is valid for the delimitation of the exclusive economic zone. Whatmer du Nord, a été ensuite arrêtéde'un commun accord en 1971entre le
Danemark et l'Allemagne,ainsiqu'entre les Pays-Bas et l'Allemagne.

d) Les incidencesde l'arrêt rendd uanslesaffairesduPlateau continental
delamer du Nord

58. Il y a un certain nombre de points qu'il faut dûment prendre en
considération quand on interprète l'arrêt rendudans les affaires du

PlateaucontinentadlelamerduNord.Premièrementl,'arrêt concernaitune
mer qui n'a pas plus de 200 mètresde profondeur, c'est-à-dire une mer
recouvrant un plateau continental de l'espècelamoinsambiguë, etila été
rendu en 1969, à une époque où les juristes continuaient à concevoir
le plateau principalement dans un sens géologique et topographique
- donc à yvoir (pourciterl'arrêt)le((prolongementnaturel [du]territoire
sousla mer )).
59. Deuxièmementl,a suggestionconcernant la divisiondu plateau

«de manière à attribuer, danstoute la mesure du possible,àchaque
Partie la totalité des zones du plateau continental qui constituent le
prolongement naturel de son territoire ...et n'empiètent pas sur le
prolongementnaturel du territoire de l'autreD

ne comportait aucune indication concrète pour la délimitationde la zone
et ne faisait tout simplement que suggérerune «solution équitable)),
expressionemployéepar lasuitedanslaconventiondesNations Unies de
1982.
60. Troisièmementi,l faut essayer d'être précisau sujet de la valeur
qu'il faut accorder à l'indication donnée par la Cour quant aux «fac-
teurs à prendre en considération » «au cours des négociations». Cette

indication constituait-elle simplement une suggestion formulée par la
Cour afin de faciliter les négociations entre les parties, ou revenait-elle
à dire le droit sur la base du paragraphe 1de l'article 38 du Statut de la
Cour?

e) L'article6 de la conventionde 1958 n'estpas applicable à la présente
affaire

61. Comme il a déjà été expliqué (par5 .0 ci-dessus), l'article 6 de la
convention de 1958est applicable au plateau continental lui-même au
sensorthodoxe, c'est-à-dire aux zones des fonds marins en deçà de l'iso-

bathe de 200mètres.La zone comprise entrele Groenland et Jan Mayen
n'est pas un plateau continental dans ce sens-là,bien qu'elle soit certes
considérée commeétant un plateau continental selon l'acception modi-
fiée.C'estlà un point dont,àmon avis,le demandeur et laCour n'ont pas
étésuffisammentconscients. Il me semble que les Partieàcetteaffaire et
la Couront faiterreur enprenant laconvention de 1958commerègleence
qui concernela délimitation du plateau continental, tandisque la règlede
la convention de 1982est valable pour la délimitationde la zone écono-applies today to the delimitation of either the exclusive economic
zone or the continental shelf is the 1982 United Nations Conven-
tion - or customary international law which may be reflected in that
Convention.

2. TheRulesfor Maritime Delimitation Discussedat theSea-BedCommit-
tee and UNCLOS III, and neir Adoption in the 1982 United Nations
Convention

(a) Drafting ofArticles74and 83of the1982 Convention

62. As has already been said (para. 16above),the new concept of the
exclusive economic zone has its own background and exists in parallel
with the transformed concept of the continental shelf.The delimitations

to be effectedunder each régimecould havebeen separate. Nevertheless,
asthey had in commonat least the 200-miledistancecriterion (qualified,
inthe caseofthe continentalshelf,bythepossibilityofafurther extension
asfaras the outer edgeofthe continentalslope),the delimitationissues of
these two separate régimes werediscussed together by the delegates at
UNCLOS III. Article 74(for the delimitation of the exclusive economic
zone) and Article 83(for the delimitation of the continental shelf) were
drafted inthe samefashioninthe 1982United Nations Convention onthe
Lawofthe Sea.

63. A detailed analysis ofthe background to these provisions may not
be necessary,asonlyminimuminformation isrequired inthisinstance. In
1978,the conflictofthe twoschoolsofthought had become apparent with

regard to the question ofthe delimitation ofboth the exclusiveeconomic
zone or the continental shelf at UNCLOS III. The median-line school
proposed the followingdraft :

"The delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone [Continental
Shelflbetweenadjacent or opposite Statesshallbe effected byagree-
ment employing,as a general principle, the median or equidistance
line,takingintoaccountanyspecialcircumstances wherethisisjusti-
fied

and the equitable-principle schoolproposed that :

"The delimitation of the exclusive economic zone [continental
shelflbetween adjacent or/and opposite Statesshall be effected by
agreement, in accordance with equitable principles taking intomique exclusive. Ce qui s'applique aujourd'hui à la délimitation de la
zone économique exclusive comme du plateau continental, c'estla con-
vention des Nations Unies de 1982 - ou le droit intqrnational coutumier
qui peut êtrereflétédans cetteconvention.

2. Les règlesde délimitation maritime examinép easr le comitédesfonds
marins et lors de la troisièmeconférencedes Nations Unies surle droit
de la mer,et l'adoptionde ces règlesdans le cadre de la conventiondes
Nations Uniesde 1982

a) Rédactiondesarticles74et 83delaconventionde 1982

62. Comme iladéjàétédit(par1 .6ci-dessus),lenouveau concept de la
zone économique exclusive a ses propres antécédentset existe parallèle-
ment avec le concept modifiédu plateau continental. Les délimitationsà
effectuer au titre de chaque régimeauraientpu êtreséparées.Néanmoins,
comme elles avaient en commun au minimum le critèrede la distance de
200milles (sous réserve,dans le cas du plateau continental, de la possibi-
lité d'une nouvelle extensionjusqu'au bord extérieurdu talus continen-
tal), les problèmes de délimitation relatifsces régimesséparés furent
examinésensemblepar lesdélégationslorsde latroisièmeconférencedes
Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer. L'articleconcernant la délimita-
tion dela zoneéconomiqueexclusive)etl'article83(concernant la délimi-
tation du plateau continental) ont étérédigésde mêmemanière dans la

conventiondes Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer adoptéeen 1982.
63. Une analyse détaillée des antécédentsde ces dispositions n'est
peut-êtrepas nécessaire,car il suffit d'un minimum d'information en
l'espèce.En 1978, àlatroisièmeconférencedesNations Uniessur ledroit
de la mer, le conflit entre les deux écolesde penséesur la question de la
délimitationà lafois de lazoneéconomiqueexclusiveet du plateau conti-
nental étaitapparu au grandjour. L'écolefavorable à la ligne médianea
présentéle projet suivant:

«La délimitation de la zone économique exclusive [du plateau
continental]entre Etats dont les côtes sont adjacentesou sefont face
est effectuéepar voie d'accord enrecourant,àtitre de principe géné-

ral,à la ligne médiane ou ligne d'équidistance, compte tenu de
circonstancesspécialeslà ou cela estjustifi0,

tandis que les partisans des principes équitables ont soumis le projet ci-
après :

«La délimitation de la zone économique exclusive [du plateau
continental]entre Etats dont les côtes sont adjacentesu/et se font
face est effectuéepar voie d'accord, conformément àdes principes account al1 relevant circumstances and employing any methods,
where appropriate, to lead to an equitable solution."

64. The effort to reach a compromise between these two schools of
thought was not successfull. In 1981, at the tenth session, Ambas-

Mr. Manner, Chairman of Negotiating Group 7, reported in the course of the
seventh session (28March-19 May 1978) :

"No compromise on this point did materialize during the discussions held,
although one mav note. that there aDDearstobe general agreement as regards two
of the iarious eGmen& of delimitâtion: first, &nsensus-seems to prev>il to the
effect that anv measure of delimitation should be effected bv agreement. and
second, al1théproposals presented refer to relevant or speciafcir&mstances as
factors to be taken into account in the process of delimitation." (UNCLOS III,
Offial Records, Vol.X, p. 124.)

He also reported at the resumed seventh session(21August-15September 1978):

"During the discussions general understanding seemed to emerge to the effect
that the final solutioncould contain the followingfour elements :(1)a referenceto
the effect that any measure of delimitation should be effected by agreement; (2)a
reference tothe effectthat al1relevant or special circumstances aretobe taken into
account in the process of delimitation; (3)in some form, a reference to equity or
equitable principles; (4) in some form, a reference to the median or equidistance
line." (Ibid.,p. 171.)
In his statement on 24 April 1979to the Sewnd Committee of the Conference at the
eighth session, he stated that"[dlespiteintensive negotiations, the Group had not suc-
ceeded in reaching agreement on any of the texts before it" (ibid.,Vol. XI, p. 59)but
suggested as a possible basis for compromise the followingtext :

"The delimitation of the exclusive economic zone (or of the continental shelf)
between States with opposite or adjacent coasts shall be effected by agreement
between the parties concemed, taking into account al1 relevant criteria and
special circumstances in order to arrive at a solution in accordance with equi-
table principles, applying the equidistance rule or such other means asare appro-
priate in each specific case." (Ibid.)
Mr.Manner againin his Report on 22August 1979,atthe resumed eighthsession,stated
that
"[als before, the discussions on delimitation criteria were characterized by the
opposing positions of, on the one hand, delegations advocating the equidistance
rule and, on the otherhand, those specificallyemphasizing delimitation inaccord-
ance with equitable principles" (ibid.,Vol.XII, p. 107).

On 24March 1980atthe ninth sessionhe suggestedhis assessmentofaltematives which
might,in time, secure a consensus at the conference:
"Article 74 [83].1.The delimitation of the exclusiveeconomic zone [continental
shelfl between States with opposite or adjacent coasts shall be effected by agree-
ment in conformity with intemational law. Such an agreement shall be in accord-
ance with equitable principles, employing the median or equidistance line, where
appropriate, and taking account of al1circumstances prevailing in the area con-
cemed." (Ibid.,Vol.XIII, p. 77.)

This draft was incorporated in the Informa1Composite Negotiating Text/Revision 2
(11April1980) by a decision ofthe "collegium" but wasnot agreeableto both groupsat
the plenary meetingson 28July 1980atthe resumed ninthsession; Negotiating Group 7
had, by that time, been dissolved. équitablestenant compte de toutes les circonstances pertinentes et

employanttoutesméthodes,làoù celaestapproprié,pourparvenir à
une solution équitable.»

64. Lesefforts entrepris pour parvenir à un compromisentre cesdeux
écolesde pensée ont été vains '.En 1981, à la dixièmesession,l'ambassa-

l M. Manner, présidentdu groupe de négociation 7,adéclaréce quisuitau cours de
la septième session(28mars-19mai 1978):

((Aucun compromis ne s'estdégagésur ce point au cours des débats, même si
l'on apu constater qu'il semblait yavoiraccord généracloncernantdeux desdivers
élémentisntervenant dans la délimitation:premièrement,ilsemble yavoir consen-
sussurlefait que toute décisionen matièrede délimitationdoit êtreprisepar voie
d'accord; et deuxièmement,toutes les propositions soumises font référenceaux
«circonstances pertinentes » ou aux facteurs particuliers » devant êtrepris en
considération lorsdu processus de délimitation.» (Nations Unies, Documents
offcielsde la troisièmeconférencedes Nations Uniessur le droit de la mer,vol. X,
p. 147.)
Il a aussi indiquéàla reprise de la septième session(21août-15septembre 1978):
Pendant la discussion, il semble que l'on se soit accordéreconnaître que la
solution définitivepourrait comprendre les quatre éléments suivant:1)une réfé-
rence à la nécessitéde prendre toute mesure de délimitationpar voie d'accord;
2)une référenceàla nécessité de tenir compte de toutes les circonstances particu-
lièresdans le processus de délimitation;3) une référence,ous une forme ou une
autre, àl'équitou àdes principes équitables;4)une référence, sousuneforme ou
une autre, àla ligne médianeou àla ligne d'équidistance.»(Zbid.,p. 202.)

Dans la déclarationqu'il afaite le 24 avril 1979devant la deuxième commission de la
conférenceàsahuitième session,ilaprécisé que ((malgrédesnégociations intensives,le
groupe n'apu parvenir àun accord suraucun destextesdont ilétaitsaisi»(ibid.,vol.XI,
p. 63)mais a présenté le texte suivant, ui constituait à ses yeux une base possible de
compromis :
La délimitationdela zone économiqueexclusive(ou du plateau continental)
entre des Etats dont les côtes sont limitrophes ou se font face est effectuéepar
accord entre les parties intéressées,comptetenu de tous les critèrespertinents et
des circonstances spécialesafin d'arriveràune solution, conformémentàdesprin-
cipes équitables,en appliquant la règlede l'équidistanceou tout autre moyen,
selon qu'il convient,danschaque cas particulier. »(Zbid.)
Dans le rapport qu'il aprésentéle 22 août 1979, à la reprise de la huitième session,
M. Manner a déclaréque
commepar lepassé, des discussions relativesaux critèresde délimitationont été
caractériséespar les positions contradictoires des délégationsqui appuyaient la
règlefondée sur laligne d'équidistanceet de celles qui préconisaientla délimita-
tion selon desprincipes équitables»(ibid.,vol. XII, p. 112).

Le24mars 1980, àla neuvièmesession,ila exPo&commesuitson évaluation despossi-
bilitésqui s'offraientla conférence d'aboutir,en temps voulu, àun consensus:
((Article741831.1.La délimitationde lazone économiqueexclusiveentre Etats
dont les côtes se font face ou entre Etats adjacents est effectuéepar voie d'accord,
conformémentau droit international. Un telaccord sefaitselon desprincipes équi-
tables, en utilisant, le cas échéant, laligne médianeou la ligne d'équidistance et
compte tenu de tous les aspects de la situation dans la zone concernée.» (Zbid.,
vol. XIII, p. 86.)
Ce projet a étincorporéàla deuxièmeversion reviséedu texte de négociationcompo-
siteofficieux (11avril 1980)àla suite d'unedécisiondu «collège»maisn'apas rencon-
trél'agrémentdes deux groupes aux séances plénières tenues le 28 juillet 1980à la
reprise de laneuvièmesession; àcettedate, legroupe denégociation 7avaitété dissous. 108 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEPO. P.ODA)

sador Koh of Singapore, who became President of UNCLOS III on the
death of Ambassador Amerasinghe of Sri Lanka,held meetings withthe
chairmen ofeachgroup and then, on 28August 1981atthe resumedtenth
session,formulated aproposa1for a solution. In the plenary meetingsthe
chairmen of the two groups gave their respective support and that text
constituted the provisionsinthefinal version ofthe Draft Convention on
the Law of the Sea (28 August 1981)which was finally adopted as Ar-
ticles74and 83ofthe 1982United Nations Convention, which read :

"The delimitation of [theexclusiveeconomic zone][thecontinen-
talshelfl between States with opposite or adjacent coasts shall be
effectedbyagreementonthe basisofinternational law,asreferredto
in Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, in
order to achievean equitable solution."

Whether Articles 74 and 83 of the 1982Convention (which has not yet
entered into force)haveanyvalidityascustomaryinternational lawornot
may stillbe arguable,but this is a differentproblem.

(b) InterpretationoftheprovisionsofArticles74and 83

65. It is not easy to givea proper interpretation to a text which, after
the failure of negotiations over a lengthyperiod at the Conference, was
drafted by one person (i.e.,the President of UNCLOS III) and adopted
without any further discussion. However,there can be no doubt that the
wholeconcept of Articles74and 83originated from Article6ofthe 1958
Convention and was a product of a compromise between the two
opposite schools of thought, the median-line school and the equitable-
principle school. Against this background, 1would make the following
suggestions.
66. Firstly,thewords"in orderto achievean equitablesolution" cannot

be interpreted as indicating anythingmore than the target ofthe negotia-
tiontoreach an agreement.Thetext mayindicateaframe ofmind,but itis
not expressive of a rule of law. It must be borne in mind that, while the
reference to "special circumstances" in the 1958Convention or to "al1
relevant circumstances" in the negotiations at UNCLOS III was finally
dropped, those concepts were well reflected in the provision quoted
above. In other words, the consideration of some relevant or special cir-
cumstancesmaybe required if one isto arrive at an "equitable solution".

67. Secondly,whatisthe meaningofthisprovisionthat agreementmust
bereached "on thebasis ofinternational law,asreferredto inArticle38 of
the Statute of the International Court of Justice"? Agreement between
Statesis simplya result of diplomatic negotiations and is reached by thedeur Koh (Singapour),quiavaitassurélaprésidencedela conférence àla
mort de l'ambassadeurArnerasinghe(SriLanka),a eudesentretiensavec
les présidentsde chaque groupe et, àla reprise de la dixième session,le
28 août 1981,a ensuite formuléune proposition de solution. En séance
plénièrel,esprésidentsdesdeuxgroupesontsignifiéleurappui, etcetexte
a constituéles dispositionsde la version définitivedu projet de conven-
tion sur le droit de la mer (28août 1981),qui ont éfinalement adoptées
entant qu'articles74et83delaconventiondesNations Unies de 1982.Ce
texte se lit commesuit:

«La délimitation[de la zone économiqueexclusive][du plateau
continental]entre Etats dont lescôtessontadjacentesou sefont face
est effectuéepar voie d'accord conformémentaudroit international
tel qu'il est visé'article38 du Statut de la Cour internationale de
Justice, afin d'aboutirune solution équitable.»

Il sepeut que la question de savoirsilesarticles74et 83de la convention
de 1982(qui n'estpas encore entrée envigueur)ont ou n'ont pas de vali-
dité entant que droit international coutumier soit de cellesdont on peut
encoredébattre,mais c'est là un problème différent.

b) Interprétationdesdispositionsdesarticles74 et83

65. Il n'est pas facile de donner une interprétationappropriée à un
texte qui, aprèsl'échecdes négociationsquis'étaient sliongtempspour-
suiviesà la conférence,a étérédig péarune seulepersonne (c'est-à-direle
président)et qui a étéadopté sansautrediscussion.Toutefois, il ne peut
faire aucun doute que tout le concept à la base des articles74 et 83a eu
pour origine l'article de la convention de 1958et a été le résultat d'un
compromisentre lesdeux écolesde penséeopposées,l'une favorable à la
ligne médianeet l'autre aux principes équitables. Compte tenu de cet
historique,je ferai lessuggestionsci-après.
66. Premièrement,les mots «afin d'aboutir a une solution équitable»

ne peuvent pas êtreinterprété csommeindiquant quoi que cesoit de plus
quel'objectifdelanégociationvisant à parvenirà un accord. Ilsepeut que
letexte indique un état d'esprit, maisil n'exprime pasune règlede droit.
Il faut garder à l'esprit le fait que, si la mention des «circonstances
spéciales))dans la convention de 1958ou de atoutes les circonstances
pertinentes)) lors des négociations à la troisième conférencesur le
droit de la mer a été finalement abandonnée,ces concepts ont été bien
reflétés dansla disposition citée plushaut. En d'autres termes, la prise
en considération de telle ou telle circonstance pertinente ou spéciale
peut être indispensablesi l'on veut parvenir à une «solution équi-
tablen.

67. Deuxièmement,quel est le sens de cette disposition selon laquelle
l'accord doit être effectué conformémea nt droit international tel qu'il
estviséà l'article38du Statut dela Cour internationale deJustic))?Tout
accord entre Etats est simplement le résultatde négociations diploma- 109 MARITIMEDELIMITATION (SEP .P.ODA)

free will ofthe States concemed (cf.the doctrine of liberty of contract).
The decidingfactorsin such diplomaticnegotiations aresimply negotiat-
ingpowersand the skillsof each State'snegotiatoras wellasthe position,
geographical and other, of each State.

68. It may be contended that there can be a legal framework within
which - and onlywithinwhich - the content of an agreement isjustifi-
ableunder internationallaw and that anyagreementcontrarytojus cogens
should be regarded as invalid. For example, an agreement obtained by

duressmightbe opento challenge.Except inthat verygeneralsense,there
does not in my view exist anyjus cogensgoveming the delimitation of
overlappingmaritime titles.Theparties canfreelynegotiate and canreach
an agreementon whatevertheywish,employingal1possibleelements and
factorsto strengthentheir own position. In other words,there is nolegal
constraint,hence no rule, which guides the negotiations on delimitation,
even though the negotiations should be directed "to achiev[ing]an equi-
table solution". Disagreement overthe points arising during the effort to
reach agreement cannot constitute a "legal dispute", because law is not
involvedin choosingthe line among infinite possibilities.

69. Thirdly,in spite of the practical identity between Article 74 and

Article 83,there is, of course, no guarantee that the delimitation of the
exclusiveeconomiczone and the delimitation ofthe continental shelfwill
necessarilybe identical.The "equitable solution" tobe reached by nego-
tiation inthe delimitation ofthe exclusiveeconomiczones and that ofthe
continental shelfareascan certainlybe different,asthe "special" or"rele-
vant" circumstancesto be taken into account when defining a delimita-
tion line may wellbe different in each case.

(c) Oneor two delimitation lines?

70. Whetherthe boundary ofthe continentalshelfareasandthe bound-
ary of the exclusiveeconomic zone are or are not identical will depend
quite simplyonthe resultofeachdelimitation,which canwellbedifferent
with respect to the two different areas. In the absence of an agreement

between the States concemed, one cannot presuppose a singledelimita-
tion for two separate and independent régimes,the exclusive economic
zone and the continental shelf, although the possibility of an eventual
coincidence ofthe two lines maynot be excluded.
71. 1have howeversomesympathy with the Danish attitude and with
the Court's tendencyto prefer a single maritime boundary, since, if the
acceptance of wider claimsto coastaljurisdiction overoffshore fisheries
had been seen asinevitable,those two régimesshould havebeen amalga-
mated inthe newlawofthe sea.Whatisdeplorable aboutthe neworder in
the oceans (whichwasbeingprepared in UNCLOS III) isthe factthat antiques et il est réalisépar la libre volonté des Etats concernés (voir la
doctrine de la liberté contractuelle). Les facteurs décisifsdans ces négo-
ciations diplomatiques sont simplement les pouvoirs de négociation
et l'habiletédu négociateurde chaque Etat ainsi que la position, géogra-
phique et autre, de chaque Etat.
68. On peut soutenir qu'il peut y avoir un cadre juridiquà l'intérieur
duquel - et seulement àl'intérieur duquel- le contenu d'un accord est

justifiable au regard du droitinternational,et que tout accordcontraire au
jus cogensdoit êtreconsidérécommenul. Par exemple, un accord obtenu
par la contrainte pourra êtreremis en question. Sauf dans ce sens très
générali,l n'y a pas, selon moi, deus cogensrégissantla délimitationde
titres maritimes qui se chevauchent. Les parties peuvent négocierlibre-
ment et s'entendre sur n'importe quoi, en utilisant tous les éléments
et facteurs possibles afin de renforcer leur propre position. Autre-
ment dit, il n'y a aucunecontrainte, et donc aucune règle juridique,
devant inspirer les négociations relatives à la délimitation, mêmesi
celles-ci doivent tendreà ((aboutirà une solution équitable D.Un désac-

cord sur les points qui surgissent au cours des efforts visantà parvenir
à un accord ne peut pas constituer un ((différendd'ordre juridique)),
car iln'appartient pas au droit de choisir une ligne parmides possibilités
infinies.
69. Troisièmementb ,ien que les articles 74 et 83 soient pratiquement
identiques, il n'existeévidemmentaucunegarantie quela délimitation de
lazoneéconomiqueexclusiveetcelledu plateau continentalsoient néces-
sairementidentiques. La solutionéquitable » àréaliserpar voiede négo-
ciationdans ladélimitationdeszoneséconomiques exclusivesetcelledes
secteurs du plateau continentalpeut certesêtredifférente,carlescircons-
tances ((spécialesB ou ((pertinentes » à prendre en considération pour

définirla ligne de délimitation peuvent fort bien être différentesdans
chaque cas.

c) Uneseulelignededélimitation ou deux?

70. Que la ligne de délimitationdeszones du plateau continental et la
ligne de délimitationde lazoneéconomiqueexclusivesoientou noniden-
tiques,cela dépendratout simplement du résultatdechaque délimitation,
qui peut fort bien différerpour ces deux zones différentes.En l'absence
d'accord entre les Etats concernés,on ne peut présupposer une délimita-
tion unique pour deux régimesséparés etindépendants, la zone écono-

mique exclusiveet le plateau continental, même sil'onne saurait exclure
la possibilitéque les deux lignes coïncident en définitive.
71. Cela dit, j'ai quelque sympathie pour l'attitude du Danemark et
pour la tendance de la Cour àpréférerunelignede délimitationmaritime
unique, car, si l'acceptation de revendications plus étendues de juridic-
tion côtièresur lapêcheenmeravaitétéconsidéréecommeinévitabc le,s
deux régimesauraient dû êtreamalgaméd sans lenouveaudroit dela mer.
Ce qui est déplorable dans le nouvel ordre des océans (qui se préparaitimmatureconcept ofthe exclusiveeconomiczonehasbeen introduced to
coexist with the previously accepted concept of the continental shelf
whichhas been re-defined and thus transformed, and that the concept of
the exclusiveeconomiczonehas in fact hadthe effectof oustingthe latter
concept.Article 56,paragraph 3,which provides that

"[tlherightssetoutinthisarticle[rights,jurisdiction and dutiesofthe
coastal Stateinthe exclusiveeconomiczone]withrespectto the sea-
bed and subsoilshallbe exercisedin accordance with Part VI[conti-
nental shelfl",

which was incorporated without discussion, seems to be an extremely
misguidedprovision and is difficultto understand.
72. IfUNCLOS III was set upon instituting the exclusive economic
zone, it ought frankly to have first wound up the original concept of the
continental shelf. Thus the régimeunder the 1982Convention remains
immature in some respects, such as the exclusiveeconomiczone and the
continentalshelf.At al1events,thetransformed concept ofthe continental
shelfespoused bythe 1982Convention stillremainsunclear, particularly
in its relation to the parallel régimeof the exclusiveeconomiczone, and
does not stand up to criticism from a purely legal standpoint. As has
already been said (para. 37 above), the continental shelf (which should
have been examined more cautiously with the introduction of its new
definition) was scarcelydiscussed at UNCLOS III.

73. However,in spiteofal11havesaid,the two régimesofthe exclusive

economiczone and the continental shelf existseparately and inparallelin
the 1982United Nations Convention,hence inexistinginternational law,
and the delimitation for each is different.

74. Having said al1this, 1do not mle outthe possibilitythat, from the
practical standpoint of the exercise of their respectivejurisdictions over
the offshore areas for the purpose of the control of maritime resources,
Statesinnegotiation maypreferto havea singleboundary rather than two
separateboundaries, but then theyshouldbe in agreementonthispoint as
in the case concerning the Delimitationof theMaritimeBoundaryin the
GulfofMaine Area.

3. Role ofthemird Party inSettling DisputesconcerningMaritime
Delimitation

(a) Infinitevarietyofpotentialdelimitationlines
75. While the entitlement to areas is erga omnes,the delimitation of

areas is solely related to the drawing of a line between two conflicting
entitlements, which remains a matter for the States concerned. This islors de la troisièmeconférencedes Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer),
c'estqu'un conceptpeu mûrde zoneéconomiqueexclusivea été introduit
de manière àcoexisteravecla notion précédemment acceptéede plateau
continental qui a été redéfinie et ainsitransformée, etque le concept de
zone économique exclusive a en réalité eupour effet de chasser cette
dernière.Le paragraphe 3 de l'article 56,qui prévoitque

«les droits relatifsaux fonds marins eàleur sous-solénoncésdans
le présent article [droits,juridiction et obligations detatcôtier
dans la zone économique exclusive]s'exercent conformément à la
partieVI [plateaucontinental] »,

qui a été incorporé au texte sans discussion, paraît êtreune disposition
extrêmementmalaviséeet est difficile àcomprendre.
72. Sila troisièmeconférencedes Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer
était résolueà instituer la zone économique exclusive, elle aurait dû
commencer franchement par en terminer avec le concept originaire du
plateau continental. Ainsi, le régimemis en place par la convention de
1982restedépourvude maturité à certains égards,telsque la zoneécono-
mique exclusive et le plateau continental. Quoi qu'il en soit, le concept
modifié de plateau continental retenu dans la convention de 1982
demeure peu clair,en particulier dans ses rapports avecle régimeparal-
lèlede lazoneéconomiqueexclusive,et il ne résistepas àla critique d'un

point de vue purement juridique. Comme on l'a déjà dit (par. 37 ci-
dessus), le plateau continental (qui aurait dû être examid'un Œilplus
prudent étant donné sa nouvelle définition) a à peine fait l'objet d'un
débat à la troisièmeconférence.
73. Cependant, malgré tout ce que j'ai dit, les deux régimesde la
zone économique exclusive et du plateau continental existent séparé-
ment et parallèlement dans la convention des Nations Unies de 1982,
donc dans le droit international existant, et la délimitation,pour chacun,
est différente.
74. Ayantdit tout cela,je n'excluspaslapossibilitéque,du point devue
pratique de l'exercice de leurs juridictions respectives sur les zones du
largeenmatièred'exploitation desressourcesmarines,lesEtats qui négo-
cient préfèrent avoir affaire à une seule ligne de délimitation qu'à

deux,maisilsdevraientalorss'entendre sur cepoint, comme dans l'affaire
concernant la Délimitationde lafrontièremaritimedanslarégiondugolfe
duMaine.

3. Le rôledela tiercepartie danslerèglementdesdfférends
concernant ladélimitation maritime

a) Variétéinfiniedeslignesdedélimitationpotentielles

75. Alors que le titre relatàftelles ou telles zones est erga omnes,la
délimitationdeszones consisteuniquement à tracer une ligneentre deux
titres concurrents, ce qui demeure l'affaire des Etats concernés. C'estwhy the 1958Convention provides in the case of the continental shelf
that "the boundary of the continental shelf appertaining to . ..States

shall be determined by agreement between them" (Art. 6) and the 1982
United Nations Convention providesin relationto the exclusive economic
zone and the continental shelf that "[tlhe delimitation of [the exclusive
economic zone] [the continental shelfl between States with opposite
or adjacent coasts shallbe effected by agreement"(Arts. 74and 83).
76. In realitythe delimitation ofalineto be effectedbyagreementmay
Varyin an infinite number of wayswithin a certain range, and the choos-
ing of one of these variations after consideration of "special circum-
stances", "relevant circumstances" or "factors to be taken into account"
etc.,does not belong to the function of law. No line thus drawn can be
illegalor contraryto rules ofinternational law.

O> ) ole ofthethirdpartyinthedelimitation of maritime boundaries
77. When a question is to be resolvedby agreement,if that agreement
cannot be achieved because of a divergenceofviewson various relevant

elements governing the negotiation, that failure to reach agreement -
assuminggoodfaith - willnot havebeen dueto a differencein the inter-
pretation ofinternational lawbut to a differencein the concepts ofequity
upheld by each party.

78. The function of the third party in assisting the parties in dispute
couldbeeitherto suggestconcreteguidelinesforthe evaluation ofeachof
the above-mentioned relevant elementsin order to assignthem a proper
place in the negotiations orto proceed itselfto choose a line by weighing
up the relevant factors or elements from among an infinite variety of
possibilitiessothat an equitable solution maybe reached.

79. Themostthat canbe donebythisCourt, asajudicialtribunalapply-
ing internationallaw,is to declare that the lines of delimitation for the
exclusiveeconomiczone and the continental shelf, respectively,must be
drawn by agreement between the Parties, as provided for in the
1982United Nations Convention, from among the infinite possibilities
lyingsomewherebetweenthelineaskedforbyDenmark andthe otherline
asked for by Nonvay. This is, however, not what Denmark asked the
Courtto do in the present case.Denmark asked the Courtto draw "a. ..
lineofdelimitation. ..atadistance of 200nautical miles"(submission(2))
orto draw simply"the line of delimitation" (submission (3)).

(c) Arbitrationexaequo etbon0

80. The delimitation of a maritime boundary line which "shall be
effectedby agreement" isnot a matter to be decided bythe Internationalpourquoi la convention de 1958prévoitdans le cas du plateau que «la
délimitationdu plateau continentalentre [lesEtatsintéressése ]stdétermi-
néepar accordentre cesEtats »(art. 6)etlaconventiondesNations Unies
de 1982prévoiten ce qui concerne la zone économique exclusive et le
plateau continental que «la délimitation[de la zone économique exclu-
sive][duplateau continental]entreEtats dont les côtes sont adjacentesou
sefont face est effectuéepar voie d'accord» (art. 74 et 83).
76. Enréalité,ladélimitationd'une ligne,àeffectuer par voied'accord,
peut varier à l'infinià l'intérieur d'un certain champ, et le choix de
l'une de ces variantes après examen des «circonstances spéciales », des

«circonstances pertinentes » ou des «facteurs à prendre en considéra-
tion)), etc., n'appartient pasà la mission du droit. Aucune ligne ainsi
tracée ne peut être illégale ou contraire auxrègles du droit interna-
tional.

b) Le rôlede la tiercepartie dans ladélimitationmaritime
77. Lorsqu'une question doit être résoluepar voie d'accord et que

l'accord ne peut s'effectuer en raison d'une divergence de vues sur
tel ou tel élémentpertinent régissant la négociation, l'absence d'accord
- en présumant qu'ily ait eu bonne foi - ne sera pas dû à une diver-
gence dans l'interprétation du droit international mais à une diver-
gence dans les conceptions de l'équitéqui sont défendues par chaque
partie.
78. Lafonction delatiercepartiepour cequi estd'assisterlesparties au
différend pourrait être soitde suggérerdes principes directeurs concrets
pour l'appréciation de chacun des éléments pertinents susmentionnés
afin d'assigner à ces derniers la place qui leur revient dans les négocia-
tions, soit de procéder elle-mêmeau choix d'une ligne en pesant les
facteursou élémentspertinents parmiune diversitéinfiniede possibilités
desorte qu'une solution équitable puisse êtreréalisée.

79. Le plus que puisse faire la Cour internationale de Justice,n tant
quetribunaljudiciaireappliquantledroitinternational,c'estde déclarerque
leslignes de délimitationpour lazoneéconomiqueexclusiveet leplateau
continentalrespectivementdoiventêtretracéespar voied'accord entre les
Parties, comme prévudans la convention des Nations Unies de 1982,en
choisissantparmi les possibilitésinfinies se situantquelquepart entre la
lignequifaitl'objet de la demandedu Danemark et l'autre ligne,objet de
lademande dela Norvège.Or,cen'estpas ceque leDanemark ademandé
à la Cour dans la présente affaire. Le Danemark a demandé àla Cour de
tracer «une ligne ...de délimitation ...à une distance de 200 milles
marins » (conclusion 2) ou de tracer simplement «la ligne de délimita-
tion»(conclusion 3).

c) Arbitrageex aequo et bon0

80. Ladéterminationd'unelignede délimitationmaritime qui doitêtre
((effectuéepar voie d'accord » n'est pas une question qui doit êtretran-Court of Justice unless it isjointly requested to do so by the States con-
cerned. Withthe exception ofthe AegeanSea ContinentalShelfcase which
wasalsoconcerned withthe title ofislandstoacontinental shelfbutwhich
did not proceedto the meritsphase,this isthefirstcase inthe history ofthe
Court concerning maritime delimitation to have been brought by uni-
lateral application.

81. The Court is competent under Article36,paragraph 1,to be seised
of "al1cases which the parties refer to it", but does not have jurisdiction
under Article 36,paragraph 2,to deal with a dispute ofthis kind, which is
neither "the interpretation of atreaty" nor "any question of international
law". Letme,forthe sake ofargument,assume(in the light ofthedifferent
ways in which Norway, as a respondent State,argued its casebefore the

Court)that Norway had consented to join Denmark inaskingthe Courtto
drawa boundary line and thatthe present casetherefore fellto be consid-
eredas onein whichthe Court had beenrequested jointly bythe Parties to
decide on maritime delimitation.

82. Here it is once again important to be clear about the distinction
between the invocation of declarations made under Article 36, para-
graph 2, of the Statute, which cannot enlarge the Court's powers beyond
the strictapplication oflawtothe caseconcerned, and the submission ofa
case by specialagreement - one ofthe methods of seisinavailable under
Article 36, paragraph 1 - which does enable the parties, by consent, to
confer onthe Court an arbitral, i.e., quasi-political,role whereby equity
may be applied where no law exists.

83. It may be interesting to note that the initial draft of the provision

relevant to the delimitation of the continental shelf, that is,the provision
adopted by the International Law Commission in 1951,read as follows :

"Two or more States to whose territories the same continental
shelfiscontiguousshouldestablish boundariesinthearea ofthe con-
tinental shelfby agreement.Failingagreement, the parties are under
the obligation to have theboundary fixed by arbitration",

and the commentaryattached to thisprovisionread, in part :

"It isnot feasibleto lay downanygeneral rule whichStatesshould
follow ;.. .It isproposed ...that ifagreement cannot be reached and
aprompt solution isneeded, the interestedStatesshouldbe under an
obligation to submit to arbitration exaequo et bono. Theterm 'arbi-

tration' isused in the widest sense, and includespossiblerecourse to .D~LIMITATION MARITIME (OP.IND. ODA) 112

chéepar la cou; internationale de Justice à moins que celle-ci ne soit
conjointement priéede le faire par les Etats concernés.A l'exceptionde
l'affairedu Plateaucontinentaldela merEgée,qui concernaitaussiletitre
de certaines îles un plateau continental maisqui n'enestpas arrivée àla
phase de l'examenau fond, la présente affairede délimitation maritime
est,dans l'histoirede la Cour,lapremièrequi aitfaitl'objet d'une requête
unilatérale.
81. LaCoura compétenceenvertu du paragraphe 1del'article36pour
connaître de «toutes lesaffairesquelesparties luisoumettront »maispas,
aux termes du paragraphe 2 du même article,d'un différendde ce type,
qui ne concerne ni l'ainterprétation d'un traité», ni un «point de droit
international».Je vais maintenant, pour les besoins de l'argumentation,
supposer (comptetenu des différentesmanièresdontla Norvège,entant

qu'Etat défendeur,a plaidésa cause devant la Cour) que la Norvègeait
consenti à s'associerau Danemark pourdemander à laCour detracer une
ligne de délimitationet que la présente affaire,en conséquence, en soit
arrivée à être considérée commuene affaire dans laquelle la Cour était
priéeconjointementparlesParties deprendre une décisionsurladélimita-
tion maritime.
82. Ilimporte làaussid'être clairurladistinctionentrel'invocationde
déclarations faites en vertudu paragraphe 2 de l'article 36 du Statut -
qui ne peuvent étendreles pouvoirs de la Cour internationale de Justice
au-delà de la stricte application du droit à l'affaire en caus- et I'in-
troduction d'une instance par compromis - l'un des modes de saisine
prévuspar le paragraphe 1 de l'article 3-, formule qui, elle, permet
aux parties, d'un commun accord, de conférer àla Cour un rôle arbitral,

c'est-à-direquasi politique, l'autorisant appliquer l'équité en l'absence
de règlede droit.
83. Ilpeut êtreintéressandtenoter quelepremierprojet dedisposition
concernant la délimitation du plateau continental, c'est-à-dire celle
qu'avait adoptéela Commission du droit international en 1951,se lisait
commesuit:

«Deux ou plusieurs Etats, dont le territoire est contigu au même
plateau continental, devraient fixer, par voie d'accord, les limites
de leurs zones respectives dans le plateau continental. A défaut
d'accord, les parties seront tenues de faire fixer les limitespar arbi-
trageD,

et le commentaire accompagnant cette disposition précisait notam-
ment :

«Il n'est pas possible de poser de règlegénéraleque les Etats
devraient suivre..La Commission propose ...que si un accord ne
peut pas être réaliséet si une prompte solution s'impose, lesEtats
intéressés soient tenusde soumettre le différend à un arbitrage ex
aequoetbono.Leterme «arbitrage»a étéemployé ensonsensleplus the International Court of Justice." (Yearbookof the International
LawCommission,1951,Vol.II, p. 143 l.)

84. Another important factor to be remembered is that in the 1982
United Nations Convention,an independent part of which contains the
detailed provisions on dispute settlement, disputes concerning the inter-
pretation or application of Articles 74 and 83 relating to sea boundary
delimitations may,by the declaration of a State Party, be excluded from
compulsory procedures entailing binding decisions, provided that the
matter is submittedto conciliationas provided in Annex Vof that Con-
vention.

(d) Limitedfunction of the International Courtof Justicein a maritime
delimitation

85. Accordingly,and on the premise that there are in fact no rules of
law for effectinga maritime delimitationin the presence of overlapping
titles (not overlapping daims),it followsthat ifthe Court is requested by
the parties to decide on a maritime delimitation in accordance with

Article36,paragraph 1,ofthe Statute,it willnot be expectedto applyrules
of international lawbut willsimply"decide a case exaequoetbono".

86. In other words,the presentation of a caseofmaritimedelimitation
by agreementbetweenthe Statesin dispute in accordance withArticle36,
paragraph 1, means by implication that the parties are requesting the
Court "to decide a case exaequoet bono"in accordance with Article38,
paragraph 2,ofthe Statute. Forinstance, in myview,the Judgment ofthe
Court in the case concerningthe ContinentalShelf(LibyanArabJamahi-
riya/Malta) must be interpreted ashaving been givenonthat basis, even
thoughthe Court neverexpresslystatedas much. It certainly isnot a con-
vincingexposition ofthe law.
87. However,there isno escapingthe fact that the rendering of a deci-
sion exaequoet bon0 is only admissible with the consent of the parties.
Thiswas not a big problemin earlierdelimitation cases, because the con-
sent derived or couldbe inferred from the specialagreementconcerned.
Butifthe Court intended inthiscaseto applyequitableconsiderations, it

' This textdidnotappearin thelater(i.e.,post-1953)textdrawnupbytheInterna-
tional LawCommission.After1953,the InternationalLawCommissionprepared an
independentarticle concerningdisputesettlement, to covernot only delimitationbut
alsoother aspectsof thecontinentalshelf,whichfinallybecametheoptionalprotocol
forthesettiementofdisputesattachedtothe fourGenevaConventionsonthelawofthe
seaadoptedatUNCLOS1. large, et comprend le recours éventuel à la Cour internationale de
Justice.»(Nations Unies,DocumentsofficielsdeI'Assembléegénérale,
sixième sessions,upplémenn t o9(A/1858), ((Rapport de la Commis-
sion du droit international sur lestravaux de sa troisièmesessiondu
16mai au 27juillet 1951 »,p. 25l.)

84. Un autre facteur important dont il faut se souvenir est que la
conventiondesNations Unies surledroit delamerde 1982,quicomporte
une partieindépendanteréunissantlesdispositionsdétaillées relativesau
règlementdesdifférends,stipulequelesdifférendsconcernant i'interpré-
tation ou l'application des articles 74 et 83 relatàfla délimitationde
zones maritimes peuvent, en application de la déclaration d'un Etat
partie, ne pas êtrejusticiables des procédures obligatoires aboutissant
des décisionsobligatoires, àcondition que l'affaire soit soumisà conci-
liation selonla procédure prévue à l'annexeVàcetteconvention.

d) Fonctionslimitéesdela Courinternationale deJusticedansunedélimita-
tionmaritime

85. Par conséquent, et dans l'hypothèse oùil n'existe en fait aucune
règlede droit permettant d'effectuer une délimitationmaritime en casde
chevauchementde titres(etnon d'un chevauchementde revendications)i,l
s'ensuit quesila Cour estinvitéeparlesparties àdécider d'une délimita-
tionmaritimeconformémentauparagraphe 1del'article36du Statut,elle
n'estpas censéeappliquer les règlesdu droit international, mais simple-
ment «statuer exaequoet bono».
86. Autrement dit, lorsqu'une affaire de délimitation maritime est

introduite d'un commun accord par les Etats en litige conformémentau
paragraphe 1 de l'article36,celaimpliqueque lesparties demandent à la
Cour de «statuer ex aequoet bono))conformémentau paragraphe 2 de
l'article38 du Statut. Par exemple,àmon sens,l'arrêt rendupar la Cour
dans l'affaire du Plateau continental (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte)
doit s'interprétercomme ayant été prononcé sur cette base, mêmesi la
Cour ne l'a jamais expressément déclaré. Cn e'est certainement pas un
exposéconvaincantde la règlede droit.
87. Iln'en restepas moinsqu'une décisionexaequoetbon0nepeut être
rendue qu'avec l'assentiment des parties. Cela ne posait guère de
problème dans les affaires antérieures de délimitation, parce que le

consentement découlait ou pouvait être déduit du compromis.Maissi la
Cour seproposait d'appliquer desconsidérationsd'équité danslaprésente

la Commission du droit international. Après 1953,la Commission a rédigéun ar-tablipar
ticle indépendant concernantle règlement des différends,pour couvrir non seulement
la délimitation maisaussid'autresaspects du plateau continental, qui devintfinalement
le protocole facultatif sur le règlement des différends, jointaux quatre conventions de
Genèvesurledroit delameradoptéesàlapremière conférencedesNations Uniessurle
droit de la mer.should, in my view,first have decided that the submissions or, alterna-
tively,the arguments of the Parties, in particular Norway, permitted the
conclusionthat aconsenthad emergedbetweenthemamountingto a spe-
cial agreement to the effect that the Court was not bound to adhere to
strict law. In this waythe case could conceivably have been, so to speak,
transferred fromthe ambitofArticle36,paragraph 2,to that ofArticle36,
paragraph 1, as averyspecialcase oforumprorogatum.

(e) Effectinga delimitationexaequo etbon0

88. Onlyin a caseinwhichthe parties in dispute haveasked the Court
byagreementto effectamaritimedelimitation exaequoetbonoisitquali-
fied to examinewhat factors or elementsshould betaken into account as
relevant,and to what degreeuch factorsor elementsshouldbe evaluated
when it is determining the line to be drawn or indicating a concrete line
based on its own evaluation ofthe relevantfactors and elements.

89.1must add furthermore that, if a singlemaritime delimitation for
the continental shelfandthe exclusiveeconomiczone isto be effectedby
the Courtin responseto ajoint request bythe parties in dispute, then the
parties havetoagreewhichfactorsorelementsrelevantto eitherthe exclu-
siveeconomiczone orthe continental shelf (or,inother words,relevantto
eitherfisheryresources orminera1resources),areto begivenpriority.The

Court is not competent even as an arbitrator todecide the priority of
either the exclusive economic zone or the continental shelf unless
expresslyrequested todo soby the parties.

PART 111.LACK OF VALID GROUND SOR THE LINEDRAWN IN THE
JUDGMENT

90. The Court has drawn "the delimitation line that dividesthe conti-
nental shelfand fisheryzones oftheingdom of Denmark andthe King-
domof Norway". Holdingas 1dotheviewthatthe Court isnot competent
to determine the delimitation line at al1unless requested jointly by the

Partiesto decidethecase exaequoetbono,1aminno positionto comment
on the actual course ofthe delimitation effected by the Court.

91. 1am concerned, however,that, evensupposing that the Court had
been requested by agreement to draw a singlemaritime boundary on the
basis ofArticle38,paragraph 2,ofthe Statute,it did not present any con-
vincing statement of its reasons for having drawn the particular single
maritimeboundary lineshown on sketch-mapNo.2attached to the Judg-
ment.Theline drawn by the Court maywellbe one of an infinite number
ofpossibilitieswhich could havebeen indicated ifthe Court had thoughtaffaire,elleaurait dàmon avis,déciderd'abordque lesconclusionsdes
Parties, ouàdéfaut leurs arguments, en particulier ceuxde la Norvège,
permettaient deconclurequ'il existaitentreellesun consentementéquiva-
lantà un compromis,à l'effet quela Cour n'étaitpas obligéedes'entànir
larèglededroitstricte.De cettefaçon,l'affaireaurait bien pu êtretransfé-
rée,pour ainsi dire, du cadre du paragraphe de l'article3à celui du
paragraphe 1de l'article36 comme un castrès spécialdeforumproroga-

tum.

e) Réalisationd'unedélimitatioexaequo etbon0

88. Ce n'est que dans une affaire où les parties à un différend ont
demandé à la Cour, par compromis, d'effectuer une délimitation mari-
time exaequoet bon0qu'elleest habilitéeàconsidérer quels facteurs ou
élémentssont à prendre en compte comme pertinents, et dans quelle
mesure il y a lieu de les évaluer afin dedéterminerla ligneracer ou

d'indiquer une ligneconcrètefondéesurson appréciation desfacteurset
élémentspertinents.
89. Je doisajouter encore que, sila Cour doit procàdune délimita-
tion maritime unique pour le plateau continental et la zone économique
exclusiveenréponse à une requête conjointedespartiesau différend,ces
dernières doivent s'entendresur les facteurs ou élémentspertinents, soit
pour la zone économique exclusive, soit pour le plateau continental
(autrementdit,pertinents ou pour lesressourceshalieutiques,ou pour les
ressourcesminérales),auxquelsilfaut accorder la priorité.La Cour n'est
pas compétente,mêmecommearbitre, pour accorder la prioritésoit àla

zone économiqueexclusive,soit au plateau continental,moins que les
parties ne lelui aient expressémentdemandé.

TROISI~M PARTIE.ABSENC DE MOTIFSVALABLES
POURLA LIGNETRACÉEDANS L'ARRÊT

90. La Cour a tracé«la ligne de délimitation divisant le plateau con-
tinental et leszones de pêchedu Royaume du Danemark et du Royaume
de Norvège B.Commej'estime que la Cour n'a pas du tout compétence

pour déterminer la lignede délimitation moins que les Parties ne lui
demandent conjointement de statuer ex aequoet bono,je ne saurais me
prononcer sur le tracé proprement ditde la délimitation effecpar la
Cour.
91. Ce qui me préoccupe néanmoinsc'est que, même à supposer
que la Cour ait étéinvitéepar un compromis à tracer une délimitation
maritime unique sur la base du paragraphe 2 de l'article 38 de son
Statut, elle n'a présentéaucun exposé convaincant des motifspour les-
quels elle a choisiprécisément la lignede délimitation maritime unique
qui figure sur le croquiso 2 joint à l'arrêt.Celle-ci est certainement

l'une des innombrables lignes possibles dont les Parties auraient puany one ofthem would lead to an equitablesolution. However,in choos-
ingthislinerather than anyother,the Court seemsto have taken apurely
arbitrary decision.

(a) UnsatisfactoryJiustiJicatio" byspecial(relevant)circumstances

92. Firstly,the Court seems to take the view that the disparity in the
lengths of the coastlines of the opposite States must necessarily be re-
flected in an adjustment or shifting of the median line taken as a line of
departure. However,the Courtappearsto overlookonegeometricalfact,

namely that, in the case of opposite coasts of disparate lengths, even an
unadjusted median line leaves a greater portion to the State with the
longer coastline.What ismore,the Court does not indicatethe reasoning
that has led it toonclude that the longercoastlineshould automatically
lead to an evenlargerportion ofthe maritimearéa.

93. Even supposing that the State with the longer coastline is to be
entitled to amuch largerportion than the median line would confer,the
drawing of the line connecting points A, O, N and M, as proposed
in sketch-map No. 2 in the Judgment, is not, in my view, supported by
anyreasons that can be describedas objectiveor convincing.
94. Secondly,1can acceptthat,just asinthe NorthSea ContinentalShelf
caseswherethe "naturalresources ofthecontinental shelfareasinvolved
weresuggestedasafactortobe taken intoaccount,the "fishing resources"

maywellbearelevantfactorinthedelimitation ofthe exclusiveeconomic
zone. However,no reason is givenin the Judgment asto why "equitable
access" to the fishing resources is a relevant factor and the Court does
not explain what the words "equitable" access can be taken to mean.
Does the Court intend that Greenland's inhabitants or Danish fisher-
men, together with Norwegian fishermen (there are no inhabitants
on Jan Mayen), should be entitled to "equitable access" to the fishing
resources in one specific area, the area east of the median line, a long
way from Greenland but close to Jan Mayen? Why is only that specific
area taken up for the consideration of "equitable access to the fishing
resources"? In fact capelin fishing has been controlled under an inter-
national arrangement without any reference to the division of the sea
areas concerned.

95. In spiteofrepeated referencestotheconcept of"equitable accessto
the fishingresources",the Court does not givethe slightesthint in itsrea-
soningas to whythe median lineasalineofdeparture should be adjusted
or shifted so asto allot one-half ofthe southern part of the "area of over-
lapping claims"to Greenland(or Denmark)whileleavingtheother halfto
Jan Mayen (or Norway).convenirafin deparvenir àune solutionéquitable.Pourtant, enlachoisis-
sant de préférence àtoute autre, la Cour semble avoir pris une décision
purement arbitraire.

a) La c(justzj?cation»enfonction des circonstances spéciales (pertinentes)
n'estguèreconvaincante

92. Premièrement,la Cour semble êtred'avis que la disparité des
longueurs des côtes des Etats se faisant face doit nécessairementse
traduire par un ajustement ou un déplacementde la lignemédiane,prise
comme ligne de départ.Toutefois, la Cour semble négligerun point de
géométrie, à savoirque, dans le cas de côtes de longueurs différentes qui

se font face, une ligne médiane,mêmenon ajustée, laisseune part plus
grande à1'Etatqui a le littoral le plus long. De surcroît, la Cour n'a pas
indiquélesmotifsquil'ont amenée àconclurequelapossession delacôte
la plus longue doit automatiquement conférer une part encore plus
grande desespacesmaritimes.
93. Mêmeàsupposerque 1'Etatqui possèdela côte la plus longue ait
droit à une part beaucoup plus grande que ne lui conféreraitla ligne
médiane,letracéde la lignereliant lespointsA, O, N et M,indiquésurle
croquisno2del'arrêt, n'es ptasàmonavis,appuyépar desmotifsquel'on
puisse qualifier d'objectifs oude convaincants.
94. Deuxièmement,jepeux admettre que, tout commedans lesaffaires
du Plateau continentaldela merdu Nord,où les«ressources naturelles des
zones de plateau continental en cause ont été présentées commu en
facteuràprendreenconsidérationl,es«ressourceshalieutiques»pourraient

fort bien êtreun élémentpertinent pour la délimitation de la zone
économiqueexclusive. Cependant, dans son arrêt,la Cour n'explique
pas pourquoi un «accès équitable » aux ressources halieutiques est un
facteurpertinent ni cequ'elleentend par leterme «équitable».La Cour
veut-elle dire que les habitants du Groenland ou les pêcheurs danois,
tout comme les pêcheurs norvégiens(Jan Mayen étant inhabitée),
devraient avoir le droità un «accès équitable» aux ressources halieu-
tiques d'une zone déterminée,la zone situéeà l'estde la ligne médiane,
qui est très éloignédu Groenland mais proche de Jan Mayen? Pour-
quoi seule cette zone déterminée a-t-elle étprise en considérationau
regard de 1'«accès équitableaux ressources halieutiques »? De fait, la
pêcheau capelan a étéréglementéepar un accord international sans

qu'il soit nullement fait référencela division des zones maritimes en
question.
95. Bienqu'elleait évoquéplusieurs foisla notion d'aaccèséquitable
aux ressources halieutiques »,la Cour n'a pas donnéla moindre indica-
tion, dans ses motivations, sur les raisons pour lesquelles la ligne
médianeen tant que ligne de départdevrait être ajustéeou déplacéede
sorte que la moitiéde la partie méridionalede la ((zone de chevauche-
ment des revendications » soit allouéeau Groenland (ou au Danemark)
et l'autre moitié laisséean Mayen (ou àla Norvège).(b) Unjustifiedchoiceof theline

96. In taking not only "the disparity ofcoastallengths" but also "equi-
table accessto the fishing resources" as factorsfor the purpose of adjust-
ing or shifting the median line as a line of departure, the Court was too
much concemed with"the area ofoverlappingclaims"whenitdividedthe
area between Greenland and Jan Mayen. The Court was incorrect in
unduly concerning itself with the "area of overlapping claims" while
neglecting the rest of the "relevant area", when allocating the areas to
each State.

97. Thetask confronting the Court was not to delimitthe boundary of
the "area ofoverlappingclaims"but todoso ofthemaritimeareabetween
Greenland and Jan Mayen,in other wordsthe "relevant area" as defined

inthe Judgment (para. 20),althoughtheline had ofcoursetobe located in
the "area of overlapping claims". Its manipulation of the delimitation
line,choosingpoints M,N and O on aratio of 1 :1or 1 :2betweenthe two
lines, Le.,the maximum 200-mileline of the Danish entitlement and the
median line,thelineof Norway'smodestassertion, can onlybe described
as misguided.

98. 1acceptthatthe median linemaybetaken asalineofdeparture and
then adjusted or shifted,with special(relevant)circumstances or relevant
factors(elements)being givendue consideration. Inmyconcept ofequity,
it is not merelythe simpledisparity of opposite coastlines which must be
taken into account but also disparity of geographical (natural or socio-
economic) situations, for example, population, socio-economic activity,
existence of communities behind the coastline and the distance of an
uninhabited island from the nearest community of the mainland or main
territory. The existence,quality and quantity of marine resources(either

fishery or mineral) are relevant,but equitysurelyrequires that any deci-
sionasto howtheseresourcesshouldbe allotted to eachparty shouldtake
account not only of such relatively objectiveecologicalfactsbut also of
their relativesignificance,perhaps amountingto dependence,to the com-
munities appertaining to eitherparty. Certainly, it isimpossibleto calcu-
late and balance up these elementsmathematically in order to drawaline
with total objectivity.hus the drawing of a line must depend upon the
conscientiousbut infinitelyvariable assessment of those drawing it.

(c) Mistakendefinition ofa single maritimebounda~y

99. 1must also add that the Court failed to discem the possible differ-
ences in the special(relevant)circumstances which need to be taken intob) Le choixdela ligneest injustifié

96. En retenant non seulement «la disparité des longueurs des
côtes»maisaussi l'aaccèséquitableauxressourceshalieutiques »comme
facteurs à prendre en considération pour ajuster ou déplacer la ligne
médianeprise commeligne de départ,la Coura trop tenu compte de «la
zone de chevauchementdes revendications » lorsqu'elle a diviséla zone
entre leGroenland etJan Mayen. La Couraeu tort de sepréoccuperindû-
ment de la«zone de chevauchementdesrevendications »en négligeantle
reste de la «zone pertinente», dans l'attribution des partà chacun des
Etats.
97. Latâche dela Cour n'étaitpasdetracerlaligne dedélimitationdela
«zone de chevauchement des revendications » mais de tracer cellede la

zone maritime entre le Groenland et Jan Mayen, en d'autres termes, la
«zone pertinente »telle qu'elle estdéfiniedansl'arrêt (par.0),mêmesila
ligne devaitnaturellement se situer dans lazone de chevauchementdes
revendications ».La façon dont la Cour a manipulé la lignede délimita-
tion, en choisissant les points M, N et O dans un rapport de 1:1ou 1 :2
entre les deux lignes,savoirla lignemaximale de 200milles correspon-
dant au titre du Danemark et la ligne médiane, la ligne revendiquée
plus modestement par la Norvège,ne peut être considérée que comme
malavisée.
98. J'admets que la ligne médiane peut être prise commeligne de
départ puis ajustée ou déplacée,en tenant dûment compte de circons-
tances spéciales(pertinentes) ou de facteurs (éléments)pertinents. Telle
que je conçois l'équité,ce n'est pas la simpledisparité des longueurs de

côtes qui se font face qui doit être prise en considération mais aussi la
disparité des situations géographiques (naturelles ou socio-économi-
ques),par exemplelapopulation, l'activitésocio-économique,l'existence
de communautésvivant à l'intérieurdu littoral et la distance entre une île
inhabitéeet la communautéla plus proche du continent ou du territoire
principal. L'existence, la qualité et la quantité de ressources de la mer
(halieutiques ou minérales) sont pertinentes, mais l'équité exige assuré-
ment que toute décision concernant l'allocation de ces ressources à
chaque partie doive tenir compte non seulement de ces faits écologiques
relativementobjectifs mais aussi de leurvaleur relative, que l'onpourrait
peut-être qualifier de dépendance, pour les communautés relevant de
chacune desparties. Certes, il est impossible de calculer et de compenser
cesélémentsd'une manièremathématique pour tracer une ligneentotale

objectivité. Ainsi,le tracéd'une ligne doit dépendred'une appréciation
consciencieuse mais infiniment variable de la part de ceux qui l'effec-
tuent.

c) La définitiond'une délimitationmaritimeuniqueesterronée

99. Je doisajouteraussiquela Coura omis de discerner lesdifférences
possiblesentre lescirconstancesspéciales(pertinentes)quidoivententrerconsideration in order to achieve an equitable solution, depending on
whether one is effectingthe delimitation of the exclusiveeconomiczone
or that ofthe continental shelf.Ifthe marine resourcesconstitutea factor
to betaken intoaccount,itisunthinkabletodrawa singlemaritimebound-
arywithout havingaclearideaasto whichparticular circumstancesought
to predominate (Le.,those relatingeither tothe exclusiveeconomiczone
orto the continental shelf).The Court doesnot giveanygoodreason why
equitable access to the "fishing resources" should have also been taken
into account when it drewthe line constituting the boundary not only of
the exclusiveeconomiczone but also of the continental shelf.The Court
has apparently erred in this respect afteraking it for granted that there
ought to be such a singleboundary.

(d) Conclusion

100. As1have alreadypointed out,the lineconnectingpoints M, N, O
and A,which is drawn eastwards ofthe median line as a result of adjust-
ment and shifting, cannot be categorized as mistaken because it rep-
resents one choicefrom an infinite number ofpotential lines of delimita-
tion inthis area,but 1venture to suggestthat it was drawn in an arbitrary
manner, unsupported by any sufficiently profound analysis. That the
effort of the Court was conscientiouslydirectedtowardsthe finding of an
equitable solution is something which, however, 1readily acknowledge.

(Signed) Shigem ODA.en ligne de compte pour parvenir à une solution équitable, selonque la
délimitationporte sur la zone économiqueexclusive ou sur le plateau

continental. Silesressourcesmarines constituent un facteur quidoit être
pris en considération,il est impensable de tracer une délimitationmari-
time unique si l'onne voit pas clairement quellescirconstances particu-
lièresdevraientprédominer (à savoircellesquiconcernent oubienlazone
économiqueexclusive,ou bien le plateau continental). La Cour n'a pas
donnéde bonne raison qui expliquerait pourquoi l'accèséquitable aux
ressourceshalieutiquesDa dû aussiêtreprisen considérationlorsqu'elle
a tracéla ligne constituant la délimitation non seulement de la zone
économiqueexclusive mais aussi du plateau continental. La Cour est
apparemment dans l'erreur à cet égard, ayanttenu pour acquis qu'une
telle délimitationunique devrait êteffectuée.

d) Conclusion

100. Commeje l'aidéjàfaitobserver,lalignereliantlespoints M, N,O
etA,quiesttracée à l'estdelalignemédianepar suitedel'ajustementetdu
déplacementde cettedernière, nepeut pas être qualifiéd'erronéeparce
qu'ellereprésenteunepossibilitéparmiunnombreinfini delignesdedéli-
mitation potentielles dans cettezone,mais j'iraijusqu'à dire qu'elle a été
tracéede manière arbitraire, sans être étayépar une analyse suffisam-
ment approfondie. Toutefois,j'admets volontiersque, dans sesefforts,la
Cour a cherché consciencieusement à aboutir à une solution équitable.

(Signé)ShigeruODA.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Vice-President Oda

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