Dissenting opinion of Judge Oda

Document Number
075-19920911-JUD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
075-19920911-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ODA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs
1. INTRODUCTIO NI. SEIN RESPECT OF THLEGALSITUATIO OF
THEMARITIMS EPACEOF THEGULFOF FONSECA 1-6

II. "BAYOR "HISTORIBCAY":LEGALCONCEPT UNDER THELAW OF
THESEA 7-26

1. The legal status of abay towardstheturn of this centu7-13
2. The concept of a bay throughout the codification process of
thelaw of the sea 14-21
(i) The 1930League of NationsCodification Conference14-18

(ii) The United Nations Conferences onthe Law ofthe Sea-21
3. The contemporaryconcept of a bay or hist:the legal
status of itbeing interna1waters of a single riparian State

111.THETERM"HISTORIC BAY" ASMISAPPLIE DO THE GULF OF
FONSECA IN THE1917 JUDGMEN TF THECENTRAL AMERICAN
COURT OFJUSTICEND IN THPRESENJTUDGMENT 27-34

1. Impact of the misapplication of the"historic bay" in
the 1917Judgment 27-31
2. The 1917Judgment re-examined 32-34

IV. THELEGAL STATU SF THEWATER SF THEGULF OFFONSECA AS
MISCONCEIVE IDTHE 1917 JUDGMEN TND IN THE PRESENT
JUDGMENT 35-44

VI. THE ~GHTS OF HONDURA SlTHlN AND OUTSIDE THGULF OF
FONSECA 51-55

(i) Within the Gulf 51-52
(ii) Outside theGulf 52-55 1. I regret that I am unable to share the view of the Chamber with
regard tothe legal situation ofthe maritime spaces within and outside the
Gulf of Fonseca. My dissent is a result of my understanding of the con-
temporary as well as the traditional law of the sea, an understanding
which seems tobe greatly at variance with the views underlying the pres-
ent Judgment.
2. The Chamber defines the Gulf of Fonseca as "an historic bay"

(Judgment,para. 432(1)).In my view,however, the Gulf of Fonseca is not
a "bay" as conceived in the law of the sea, since the concept of a "pluri-
State bay" which the Chamber employs to characterize the Gulf has no
existence as a legalinstitution. Neither does the Gulf of Fonseca actually
fa11into the category of a "historic bay", despite what the Chamber
assumes.
3. The decision of the Chamber concerning the legal status of the
waters in the Gulf, reading that
"the waters ofthe Gulf. ..were ...held in sovereignty by the Repub-
lic of El Salvador, the Republic of Honduras, and the Republic of
Nicaragua, jointly, and continue to be so held ...but excluding a

belt ...extending 3 miles (1 marine league) from the littoral of each
ofthethree States, such belt being under the exclusive sovereignty of
the coastal State ..." (ibid.)

seemsto betotally unfounded. 1believe, on the contrary, that the waters in
theGulf of Fonseca offtheshores ofthe three riparian States, ElSalvador,
Honduras and Nicaragua, constitute, under general mles ofthe law ofthe
sea (that is, international lawitself),the sum of the distinct territorial seas
of each respective State.
4. Under the mles of the law of the sea, the sea-waters adjacent to the
coasts of States are inprinciple territorial sea. Somecoasts, satisfying cer-
tain geographical requirements concerning coastal configuration, form

under those rules a "bay", the waters of which constitute "internal
waters". It is, however, essential to note that the concept of a "bay" does
not immediately denote the legal status of the waters but is meant first to
specify the geographical circumstances which allow the waters therein to
be "internal waters" instead ofterritorial sea.The "historic bay" - acon-
cept which emerged only towards the end of the last century in parallel
with the new idea of giving special legal significance to the notion of a
"bay", and aterm used only since the beginningofthiscentury - does not
exist in a régimesuigeneris, that is,a régimeapplying mles different from
those applicable to anormal "bay". "Historic bays" arethose bay-like fea-
tures (in ageographical sense) which, because of their greater width at the
mouth or their lack of penetration intothe landmass, could not normally
be classified legally as bays but can for historical reasons be given thesame legal status as "bays". The words "historic bay" are certainly not
meant to suggest that the legal status of the waters concerned is anything
other than that of "internal waters" of the coastal State,as inthe case of a

normal Cjuridical)"bay". Under the contemporary concept of the law of
the sea,the sea-waters adjacent tothe coasts of States are either territorial
sea or, otherwise,internal waters. There cannot be any other category for
such offshore sea-waters '.

5. In this respect, 1am afraid that the Chamber, in definingtheGulf of
Fonseca andthe legalstatus of itswaters, obscures theproper understand-

ing of the law of the sea. The concepts which the Chamber employs to
denominate the area of the Gulf of Fonseca, or the legal status of its
waters2,are all, in differing degrees, extraneous to the law of the sea pre-
vailing forthe past century andas itstandstoday.Thetraditionaland cur-
rent tenets of the law of the sea, as 1 understand them, thus offer no
support to the considerations advanced by the Chamber, with the aid of

those terms, in defining the legal situation of the maritime spaces of the
Gulf.

' 1must add here the newly emerging concept of archipelagic waters, which 1put
aside for later comment (cf. para. 43 of this opinion).
1refer specifically to the followingexpression: "an historic bay, and...the waters
of it accordingly historic waters" (Judgment, para. 383), "the maritime belt in a pluri-
"an historic bay that constitutes an enclosed sea entirely within the territory of a single
State" (para.395),"an enclosed pluri-State bay" (ibid.),"an historicbay and therefore a
'closed sea'"(ibid.),"historic waters.. subject to a joint sovereignty ofthe three coastal
States" (para. 404), "pluri-State historic bay" (para. 412), "the littoral maritime belts
subject to the single sovereignty of each of the coastal States, but withtual rights of
innocent passage" (ibid.),"internal waterssubject to a special and particular régime,not
only ofjoint sovereignty but of rights of passage" (ibid.),"the waters of the Gulf [being]
the subject of thecondominium or CO-ownership"(ibid.),"intemal watersin a qualified
sense" (ibid.),"intemal waters...subject to certainrights ofpassage" (ibid.),"the area of
joint sovereignty[in 19171"(para. 413),"the 3-milebelt of exclusivejurisdiction enjoyed
by each of the States along its coast" (ibid.),"the joint sovereignty in al1that area of
waters" (vara. 414)."the 3-milemaritime littoral belt of exclusive iurisdiction within the
Gulf' (Gra. 415),"'thelittoralmaritime belts of 1marine league ;long the coastlines of
the Gulf' (para.416),"the inner littoralmaritime belts.. notterritorial seasinthe sense
of the modem law" (ibid.),"the internal waters of the coastal State, not being subject to
the joint sovereignty, and even though subject ...to rights of innocent passage" (ibid.),
belts...mlimited to 3miles inbreadth" (ibid.),"intemal waters subject to a single, exclu-
sive sovereignty" (ibid.),"an historic bay" (ibid.),"the waters internal to [the]bay...
subject to a threefold joint sovereignty" (ibid.),"the legal situation [being]one of joint
sovereignty" (para. 420). 6. To explain my view in full, it is necessary for me to begin with a
somewhat detailed outline ofboth the traditional and the contemporary
law of the sea relevant to the present case (Part of this opinion). 1will
then show why, in my opinion,the 1917Judgment of the Central Arneri-
can Court ofJustice, upon which the Chamber seemsto rely heavily, was
seriously misguided initsapplication ofthe concept ofa "historic bay" to
the Gulf. As a result of that Judgment,the status of the Gulf of Fonseca
has been misinterpreted by some scholars, and even misrepresented in
official documents of the United Nations (Part III).1shall then go on to
show how both the 1917Judgment and the present Judgment are in error
in finding, where the legal status of the waters of the Gulfconcerned,
that 3-milebelts may be left to eachriparian State while the central part
remains in condominium or joint ownership. The present Judgment

appearsto meto misapply the concept of condominium and to misunder-
stand the concept of "historic waters"(Part IV).Afterthat, 1shallexpound
the legal status which 1 hold to be correctly applicable to the Gulf of
Fonseca, that is, as constituting the sum of thearate territorial seas of
the threeriparian States(Part V).Lastly 1shall consider what rights Hon-
duras, whose territorial sea isbottled up in theGulf, may be entitled to in
the maritime spaces within and outside the Gulf (Part VI).

II. "BAY" OR "HISTORIC BAY" :LEGAL CONCEPT SNDER THE
LAW OF THE SEA

1. ne LegalStatus ofa Bay towardstheTurnof this Century

7. The parallel régimes ofthe open seas, free from the control of any
State,and ofthe waters which lieunder theterritorial sovereigntyof coas-
ta1States - theterritorial waters inthetraditional sens-, are centuries
old and have not until recent times, when the concepts of the continental
shelf and the exclusive economic zone emerged, been placed in doubt.
The problem ofthe wayin whichthe borders ofthesetwo parallel régimes
were to be drawn involved, as a preliminary issue, the question of the
breadth ofthe coastalmaritime beltaround oralongside theland.The mle
of the range of cannon-shot, which had prevailed inthe last century, was
aboutto be replaced by some fixed limits when the régimefor territorial
jurisdiction over coastal waters extending over a breadth of 1 marine
league wasemerging in parallel withthe 1878Territorial Waters Jurisdic-

tion Act of Great Britain.

8. The legalconcept ofa "bay" emergedonly inparallel withthis devel-
opment as an exception to the régimeof 1marine league territorial juris-
diction. While there would not have been any problem in a case whereopposite headlands at the mouth of a geographical bay were less than
2marine leagues apart (evenwhen itscentre was atagreaterdistance than

1marine league from either coast) some slightly wider distances between
the headlands, reflecting the real range of cannon-shot at that time, were
proposed aspermittingthe entire waters ofabaytobe underthe territorial
jurisdiction of a singleriparian State.

9. In 1894the Institut de droit international, under the Presidency of
Louis Renault and with the assistance of Thomas Barclay as Rapporteur,
adopted the following rules :
"Pour les baies, la mer territoriale suit les sinuositésde la côte,

sauf qu'elle estmesurée à partir d'une ligne droite tirée entravers de
labaie dansla partie laplus rapprochéede l'ouverture verslamer,où
l'écartentre les deux côtes de la baie est de douze milles marins de
largeur, à moins qu'un usage continu et séculairen'ait consacréune
largeur plus grande." (Règlessur la définition etle régimede la mer
territoriale, Art. 3,nnuairede l'Institutde droit international,XIII,
1894-1895,p. 329.)
In the year that followed, the International Law Association (Thomas
Barclay being the Secretary of the Special Committee on Territorial
Waters) adopted the same provision, with the exception that the distance

of 12miles wouldbereplaced by 10miles(International LawAssociation,
Report of theSeventeenthConference,1895,p. 109).These ideas are well
reflected by Oppenheim, whofirstpublished in 1905hismost well-known
treatise on international law :
"[TerritorialGulfsand Bays]

It isgenerally admitted that such gulfs and bays as are enclosed by
theland of oneand the same ri~arian State.and whose entrance from
the sea isnarrow enough to be 'commandedby coast batteries erected
on one or both sides of the entrance, belong to the territory of the
riparian State even ifthe entrance is wider than two marine leagues,
or sixmiles." (L.Oppenheim, InternationalLaw,Vol. 1,1sted., 1905,
p. 246,para. 191 .)

The IO-mile rule was confirmed in the Award given in 1910 by the
Permanent Court of Arbitration in the North Atlantic Coast Fisheries
case (UNRIAA,Vol.XI,pp. 167,199).1am suggestingnot thatthe 1O-mile
rule had then become established but that the concept of a bay was about
to be realized as constituting an exception to the 1-marine-league terri-
torial sea in the caseof special configurations of thecoast forming a geo-
graphical bay.

10. It is further important to note that a riparian State's continued or
long-standing usage of the waters in a geographical bay was made a fur-
ther source of derogatiun from the rule based on a maximum width of
mouth, sothatthe whole ofthe waters in abaycharacterized bysuch usagecould beplaced, asa unity, under theterritorial jurisdiction ofthe State in
question. Some national practice, involving a claim to territoriality over
certain bays on the ground of continued or long-standing usage, had
been reported. In the case of Delaware Bayin the United States (which is
10miles across at its entrance and 40 miles long from its entrance to the

mouth of the Delaware River),Attorney-General Randolph, in 1793,ren-
dered (in the case of the capture of the British vessel Grangeby a French
frigate) an opinion to the effect that the bay was within thejurisdiction of
the United States, and Secretary of State Jefferson took action accord-
ingly. As forChesapeake Bay(which is 12miles across at its entrance), its
status was considered in 1885by the Second Court of Commissioners of
Alabama Claims in the case of the Alleganean,a vessel which had been
sunk in the waters of the bay by the Confederate forces, and the Court
held that this bay was entirely within the territorial jurisdiction of the
United States. In Reginav. Cunninghamin 1859,Chief Justice Cockburn
held that the part of the sea in the Bristol Channel (thewidth of its mouth
being slightlymore than 10miles),where wounding of a seaman on board
the Gleanerhad occurred, formed part of the County of Glamorgan. A
claim by Great Britain to Conception Bay in Newfoundland (which is
20miles across at its entrance) was upheld in 1877bythe Privy Council in
the case of TheDirect UnitedStates CableCo.Ltd. v. TheAnglo-American

TelegraphCompany.

I1. These four cases simply present examples of the practice whereby
States claimed exceptions to the geographical requirements governing a
bay on the basis of their historic exercise of authority. These examples of
national practice, among others, were reported in most of the leading
treatises of international law towards the turn of the last century. 1
quote again, asone example, from Oppenheim's 1905work:

"[TerritorialGuys and Bays]
Some writers maintain that gulfs and bays whose entrance iswider
than ten miles, or three and a third marine leagues, cannot belong to
the territory of the riparian State, and the practice of some States
accords with this opinion. But the practice of other countries,
approved bymanywriters, goesbeyondthis limit.Thus Great Britain

holds the Bay of Conception in Newfoundland to be territorial,
although itgoes forty miles into the land and has an entrance fifteen
miles wide. And the United States claim the Chesapeake and Dela-
ware Bays,as well as other inlets ofthe same character, as territorial,
although many European writers oppose this claim." (Op.cit.,Vol. 1,
1905,para. 191 .)738 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AISS).P. ODA)

Those bays weregiventhe name "historic bay", probably forthe first time,
in the 1910 Arbitral Award in the North Atlantic Coast Fisheriescase
(UNRIAA, Vol. XI, pp. 167, 197).The term "historic bay" was found in
hardly any document prior to 1910.

12. Exceptas regards bays such asthose listed above, the legalrule gov-
erning a bay-feature was well expressed by the opinion of the Institut de
droit international in 1894,which was partly quoted above, to the effect
that "[plour les baies, la mer territoriale suit les sinuositésde la côte". It
should alsobe noted that, according to Oppenheim (1905),

"[Non-territorialGulfsand Bays]
Gulfs and bays surrounded by theland of one and the same ripar-

ian State whose entrance is so wide that it cannot be commanded by
coast batteries, and, further, al1gulfsand bays enclosed bytheland of
more than one riparian State, however narrowtheir entrance maybe,
are non-territorial. They are parts of the Open Sea, the marginal belt
inside the gulfs and bays excepted." (Op. cit.,para. 192.)

13. To conclude,ageographical bay which wasbordered bytheland of
two or more riparian Statescould not, asone area, be accorded any spe-
cial status inthe law of thesea; thus the waters inside such a bay were left
asbeing the maritime belt (theterritorial sea) and theopen sea (high seas).
One can hardly find any scholar towards the beginning of this century
who had ever argued the case of a "pluri-State bay", to use the Chamber's
term. In addition, while claims to the territoriality of a bay the mouth of
which spanned more than a certain fixed limit (say 10miles) had been
made on grounds of immemorial usage, or for historical reasons, as the
examples givenabove indicate, itiscertain that no such claim was ever,or
could have been, made in respect of any bay the coast of which was
divided among two or more States.

2. TheConcept ofa Bay throughoutthe Codification
Processof theLaw of theSea

(i) The1930League of Nations Codification Conference

14. What 1explained above may also be verified by scrutinizing the
process of codification of the relevant provisions of the law of the seaat
the 1930Conference for the Codification of International Law,convened
by the League of Nations, where the subject of territorial waters was one
of the three major items discussed.rior tothe Conference,Governmentswererequested to provide information on various points, such as interalia
Point IV, "Determination of the Base Line for Measurement of the
Breadth of Territorial Waters", and Point VIII, "Line of Demarcation
between Inland Waters and Territorial Waters" (Conference for the
Codification of International Law, Bases of Discussion,Vol. II, pp. 35
and 61).
15. Mr. Walther Schücking, Rapporteur of the Committee of Experts
for the subject of "Territorial Waters", had already in 1927drawn up a
memorandum and a draft convention (Committee of Experts for the Pro-
gressive Codification of International Law, Report to the Councilof the
League of Nationson the Questions whichAppear Ripefor International
Regulation, 1927, pp. 29 and 39). The text of the draft convention,
amended by Mr.Schückingin consequence ofthe discussions inthe Com-
mittee of Experts and submitted to the Preparatory Committee in 1929,
stated interalia:

"Article 4.

Bays.
Inthe case of bays which arebordered by the territory of a single
State, the territorial sea shall follow the sinuosities of the coast,
except that it shallbe measured from a straight line drawn across the
bay at thepart nearest tothe opening towards the sea where the dis-
tance between thetwoshores ofthe bay isten marine miles 'unlessa
greater distance hasbeen established bycontinuous and immemorial
usage. The waters of such bays are to be assimilated to internal
waters.
In the case of bays which are bordered by the territory of two or
more States, the territorial sea shall follow the sinuosities of the
coast." (Conference for the Codification of International Law, Bases
of Discussion,Vol.II, p. 193.)

Mr.Schückinghad suggestedthe IO-milelengthforthe mouth ofabaybut
had been prepared to recognize an exception in cases of continuous and
immemorial usage. He had conceived that the legal concept of a bay
would be applicable solely to a single-State bay. The "right of pacific
passage" would have been guaranteed only through the "territorial
sea" (Art. 7)but not a bay "assimilated tointernal waters".

16. In 1929,after examination of the replies and, presumably, of the
draft convention drawn up by Mr.Schücking,the Preparatory Committee
for the Conference drafted Bases of Discussion for the use of the pro-
posed conference which read interalia

' Inthe originaldraftof 1927this distancewasfixed at 12miles, not10miles.740 DISPUTE (EL SALVADOR/HONDUR (AISS). P.ODA)

"Limitsof theTerritorialWaters
.............................

Basis of Discussion No. 7
In the case of bays the coasts of which belong to a single State, the
belt of territorial waters shall bemeasured from a straightline drawn
across the opening of the bay. If the opening of the bay is more than
ten miles wide, the line shall be drawn at the nearest point to the
entranceat which the opening does not exceed ten miles.

Basis of Discussion No. 8
The belt ofterritorial waters shall be measured from a straight line
drawn across the entrance of abay, whatever its breadth maybe, ifby
usage the bay issubject tothe exclusiveauthority ofthe coastalState :
the onus of proving such usage is upon the coastal State.

Basis of Discussion No. 9
If two or more States touch the coast of a bay or estuary of which
the opening does not exceed ten miles, the territorial waters of each
coastalState are measured from the line of low-water mark along the
coast.
...........................

Basis of Discussion No. 18
Thebase line from which the belt of territorial waters ismeasured
in front of bays, ... forms the line of demarcation between inland
[nowcalled interna1waters]and territorial waters [nowcalled territo-
rial sea]." (Conference for the Codification of International Law,

BasesofDiscussion,pp. 45 and 63 '.)
"Inland waters" would certainly have been differentiated from "territo-
rial waters" in thesense thatthe right of innocentpassage of foreign ships
should be guaranteed only inthe latter, as stated:

"Foreignshipspassing through territorial waters
Basis of Discussion No. 19

Acoastal State isbound to allow foreign merchant shipsa right of
innocent passage through its territorial waters ..." (Zbid.,p. 7.)

17. During the course of the Conference from 13 March to 12April
1930,somedelegations presented observations and amendments regard-

' Thetextofthe Basesof Discussionwasalsoquoted inActsofthe Conferencfeor the
Codificationof InternationalLaw,VolIIIp. 179,andit is onlytherethatthe titlesare
given.ing those bases of discussion in the Second Committee (Territorial
Waters). A report adopted by the Second Committee on 10April 1930
(with Mr. J. P.A. François as Rapporteur), disclosed an absence of agree-
ment as to the breadth of the territorial sea, and announced a failure to
conclude a convention on the territorial sea mainly for that reasonl. It

read as follows :

"The absence of agreement as to the breadth of the territorial sea
affected to an evengreater extenttheaction tobetaken onthe Second
Sub-Committee's report. The questions which that Sub-Committee
hadto examine are socloselyconnected withthebreadth ofthe terri-
torial sea that the absence of an agreement on that matter prevented
the Committee from taking even a provisional decision on the arti-
cles drawn up by the Sub-Committee. These articles, nevertheless,
constitute valuable material for the continuation of the study of the

question, and aretherefore also attached to the present report." (Acts
of the Conferencefor the Codificationof International Law, Vol. III,
p. 211.)

The draft articles proposed by the Second Sub-Committee, which though
not adopted were appended to the Report of the Committee itself, read :

" Bays

In the case ofbays the coasts of which belong to a single State,the
belt ofterritorial watersshallbe measured from astraightline drawn
across the opening of the bay. If the opening of the bay is more than
ten miles wide, the line shall be drawn at the nearest point to the

entrance at which the opening does not exceed ten miles." (Ibid.,
Vol.III, p. 217; see also Vol. 1,p. 131.)

In parallel, the draft articles prepared by the First Sub-Committee were
provisionally approved by the Committee. In them it was stated that the

It is only since the 1930 Codification Conference that the wording "territorial
seas" (whichwere often termed "territorial waters") hasbeen uniformly used to denom-
inate the coastal maritime belt (see Report of the Second Committee: TerritorialSea
(Rapporteur: Mr. François), Appendix 1, Art. 1, Observations; Acts, Vol. 1, p. 126;
Vol. III, p. 213).The relevant passage reads:
"There wassomehesitation whether itwould bebetter to usethe term 'territorial
waters' orthe term 'territorial sea'.The use of the first term, which was employed
bythe Preparatory Comrnittee,maybe saidtobe moregeneral and itisemployed in
several international conventions. There can,however,be no doubt thatthis term is
likelyto lead - and indeed has led - to confusion, owing to the fact that it is also
waters' inthe restricted sense of this latter term. For these reasons, the expression
'territorial sea' has beenadopted.""right of innocent passage" would be guaranteed to foreign commercial
vesselsin a belt of seacalled the "territorial sea".

18. Thedraft articles did not, however, includeany provision concern-
ingbays bordered by the land of two or more States. If, in these draftarti-
cles containedin the Report of the Committee, no rule or regulation was
suggested in regard to multi-State bays,this wasdoubtless because itstood
to reason that such cases would be amenable to the general rule whereby
theterritorial sea of each riparian State ismeasuredfrom that State'sown
coastline. Furthermore,the lack of a reference to a historic bay in those
draft articles was presumably dueto the difficulty of generalizing histori-
cal elements that could have justified givingthe status of a bay to certain
coastal configurations which would othenvise not be regarded as bays
because of their larger measurement at the mouth. Though this lack of
reference may not,admittedly, be interpreted as meaning thatthe concept
of a "historic bay" was denied,the fact remains that there was never any
suggestion that it could be applicable to a "pluri-State bay".

(ii) TheUnitedNationsConferencesontheLawof theSea

19. At the United Nations International Law Commission Mr. J. P.A.
François,nominated as Special Rapporteur on the subjects ofthe territo-
rial seas and of the high seas,making hisfirst reportin 1952onthe territo-
rial sea, proposed the same provision concerninga bay asthat endorsed
by the 1930 Codification Conference (ILC Yearbook,1952, II, p. 34).
Mr. François's second report in 1953followed the same lines (ILC Year-
book,1953,II, p. 56).Incorporating the suggestions made by thegroup of
experts on the geographical and technical aspects of the territorial sea,
Mr. François in his third report in 1954submitteda more detailed propo-
sa1inwhich,while the IO-milewidth was maintained fora closing-lineof a
bay, it was specified that the dimensions of a bay should not be smaller
than a semi-circle constructed with that closing-line as diameter
(ZLC Yearbook,1954,II, p. 4). The draft articles on the "Régimeof the
Territorial Sea" prepared by the International Law Commission in 1955
provided forthe first time forthe detaileddefinition of a "bay", themouth
ofwhich wouldnotbe more than 25milesinwidth,taking intoaccount the
then prevailing trend in favour of a 12-mileterritorial sea (instead of a
3-mile limit), while the waters within a single-State bay would be con-
sidered "internal waters" (Art. 7, paras. 3 and 4; ILC Yearbook,1955,
II, p. 36). It was also stated that "the provision laid downin paragraph 4
[concerning the 25-mile rule] [should]not apply to so-called 'historical'

bays ..."(Art. 7, para. 5). It may be added that the 1955draft articles on
the "Régimeof the High Seas" provided that there would, apart from the
high seas, be only territorial sea or internal waters of a State (Art. 1 ;743 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AIS)S.P.ODA)

ILC Yearbook,1955,II, p. 21).The 1956"Articles concerning the Law of
the Sea" followed those of 1955(combiningthe two sets of draft articles),
except that the width ofthe mouth of a - juridical- bay was reduced to
15miles (Art. 7, para. 3; ILC Yearbook,1956,II, p. 268)because it was
recognized that the presumption of a 12-milelimit forthe territorial sea
would at that time be difficult to maintain. This was the text of the draft

used asthe basis for discussion atUNCLOS 1.

20. At UNCLOS 1in 1958,a distance of 24miles as the limit for the
mouth of a bay was adopted as Article 7 of the 1958Convention on the
Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone on the basis of a recommenda-
tion included in a joint proposal submitted by the USSR, Bulgaria and
Poland (AICONF. 13/C. 1/L. 103).Although the Conference failed to fix
the limit of the territorial sea,the trend towards a 12-milelimit could not

be ignored and the mouth of a bay could not be fixed ata distance shorter
than twice the length of that limit. At the same time a proposa1presented
by Japan to define the term "historic bays" as meaning

"those bays over which coastal State or Stateshave effectivelyexer-
cised sovereign rights continuously for a period of long standing,
with explicit or implicit recognition of such practice by foreign
States" (MCONF. 13/C.1/L.104)
was withdrawn in favour of a proposal by India and Panama, recom-

mending that "the General Assembly should make appropriate arrange-
ments for the study of the juridical régime ofhistoric waters including
historic bays" (NCONF. 13/C.l/L. 158/Rev.l), which was adopted by
the Conference as a resolution on the "Régimeof Historic Waters" l.The
"historic" bay was thus not defined in clear terms in the Convention,
which states in paragraph 6 of Article 7(assuggestedin the 1956draft of
the International Law Commission), that "[tlhe foregoing provisions
[relatingto abay]shallnot apply to so-called'historic' bays..."Apropo-
sa1by the United Kingdom to insert a new paragraph reading that the
provisions concerning a bay "relate[s] only to bays the coasts of which
belong to a single State" (A/CONF.13/C.I/L.62) was adopted by

' In 1962, pursuantto the resolutionadopted by UNCLOS 1 and General As-
semblyresolution1453(XIV)of 1959the UnitedNationsSecretariatpreparedanoteon
the "Juridical Régimof Historic Waters,including HistoricBays"/CN.4/143;
ILCYearbook,1962,II,p. l), whichitis not necessaryto quotehere.28votes to 21 with 20abstentions and became paragraph I of Article 7 of
the 1958Convention.

21. The subject of a "bay" was barely touched upon in UNCLOS III.
The only proposa1 relating to bays was submitted by Colombia at the
fourth session in 1976and wasto the effectthatthe 24-milerule of the bay
should "not apply to so-called'historic' baysortobays the coasts ofwhich
belong to more than one State" (A/CONF.62/C.2/L.91). Colombia also
proposed another article stating

"2. A bay the coasts of which belong to two or more States and
which satisfies the requirements laid down in paragraph 1 of this
article [concerning the demonstration of the sole possession of
the waters of the bay continuously, peaceably and for a long time,
and the tacit acceptance of that situation by third States] shall be
regarded as historic only when there is agreement between the
coastal States tothat effect." (Ibid.)

There isno record indicating that this Colombian proposa1was discussed
atthe meetings of the Conference. In view of the fact that al1the debates
in that session were considered to be informal negotiations and, for that
reason, not placed on record, there is no reason to think that that pro-
posa1was not discussed: yet the texts which were successively prepared
bytheConference, such as ICNT(Informa1 Composite NegotiatingText)
(1977), ICNT/Rev.l (1979), ICNT/Rev.2 (1980) and the Draft Conven-
tion (1980),were al1identical to the relevant text inthe 1958Convention.
The provisions of the 1982United Nations Convention on the Lawof the
Sea concerning a bay remain practically identical to those of the
1958GenevaConvention, except that they "do not", instead of "shall not"
apply to "so-called 'historic'bays".

3. ne ContemporaryConceptofa Bay orHistoricBay: the Legal
Status oflt BeingInterna1Watersofa SingleRiparianState

22. Thecontemporary lawofthe sea isas follows.Aterritorial sea,over
which theterritorial jurisdiction of the coastal Statextends for a 12-mile
distance ',is measured in principle from the baselines of the Coast.The

' The 12-mileruleis provided forin the 1982United Nations Conventi(Art.3),
which maynow properlybe considered as having confirmed theom.baselines for measuring the breadth of the territorial seaare in principle
the "normal baselines", i.e.,those that closelyfollowthe configuration of
the coast. They can, however, be "straight baselines" in the exceptional
cases of "localitieswhere the coastline isdeeply indented and cut into,or
ifthere isa fringe of islandsalongthe coast in itsimmediate vicinity", and
of the "closing line" for a bay as specifically defined in terms of the
breadth of its mouth, its features and the degree of its landward penetra-
tion. The waters within such straight baselines of the territorial sea are
regarded as "internal waters of the State". These principles are clearly
stated in the 1982United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(Arts. 3,4,7,8 and IO),which are practicallyidentical to the relevant pro-
visions of the 1958Geneva Convention on the Territorial Sea and the
Contiguous Zone and may legitimately be considered as expressing cus-
tomary international law today. Immediate offshore sea-waters are thus
either territorialsea orinternal waters,both included intheterritory ofthe
coastal Statebut subjected to some conditions (in particular, the right of

innocent passage to be granted to forei n?commercial vesselsin the terri-
torial sea),but cannot be anything else .

23. Inthe case of a "bay", the waterswithinit are treated as an expanse
of "internal waters" andtheterritorial seaismeasuredfrom thebay'sclos-
ing-line as a baseline. That point has gone undisputed throughout the
development of the contemporary law of the sea since the 1930Codifica-
tion Conference. As 1mustrepeat, iftherehasbeenanyuncertainty inthis
respect, it relates only to the kind of features, geographically or histori-
cally,that could constitute criteria for classifyingaparticular coastalcon-
figuration as a "bay", hence asenclosinginternalwaters ofthe state where
the right of innocent passage isnot granted.

24. It may be concluded that the simple outcome of this study of the
development ofthe lawofthe sea isthat there did not and stilldoes not(or,
even,cannot) existany suchlegalconcept asa"pluri-State bay" the waters
of which are internal waters. It isnotsurprising thatno rule covering such
a pluri-State bay has ever been presented in international law. The very
concept of "internal waters", which only appeared - under the term of
"inland waters" - in parallel with the fixing ofthe limit of the territorial
waters (sea), implies, as a nom, the enclosure or semi-enclosure of the
watersconcerned within the embrace ofa given jurisdiction. Thiselement

notbe directlyrelevantto the presetase(cf. footnotep.734, above).,whichmayofembracement isabsent or disappears when theshores ofageographical
bay areso divided up between Statesasto render the criteria and rationale
of a legal bay incapable of fulfilment. This is tacitly confirmed by the
absence of any provision concerning the delimitation or division of inter-
na1waters either in the 1958or the 1982Conventions; the internal waters
of one State cannot abut the internal waters of another State.

25. Someexemptions fromthe geographical criteria normally required
for a (juridical) bay have been justified on historical grounds for certain
topographical features, and the contemporary law of the sea admits the
concept of a "historic bay". The words used in the 1958and 1982Conven-
tions to the effect that the provisions defining a (single-State)bay "shall
not apply" or "do not apply" to "so-called 'historic' bays"(1982Conven-
tion, Art. 10,para. 6) are meant to suggest that the geographical criteria
servingto define a bay for legal purposes, such asthe width of the mouth
or thedepth of penetration into the landmass,arenot in those cases strict
conditions of "bayhood".

26. 1 must mention two points. First, a bay whose shores are divided
among two or more States cannot be a bay in the legal sense of the Con-
ventions, that isto Say,cannot even belong tothe legal category to which,
in any event, "historic bays" do not conform '.Secondly, the waters of a
"historic bay" are nothing other than "internal waters". 1 must recallthat,
for the purpose of denoting the status of offshore waters, the only con-
cepts available under the law of the sea are "territorial sea" or "internal
waters" (the new concept of archipelagic waters excepted). In other

words, such concepts as"an historic bay, and. ..the waters of itareaccor-
dinglyhistoric waters" (Judgment, para. 383),"an historicbaythat consti-
tutes an enclosed sea entirely within the territory of a single State"
(para. 399, "an historic bay and therefore a 'closedsea"' (ibid.),"historic
waters ... subject to a joint sovereignty of the three coastal States"
(para. 404),"internal waters subject to a specialand particular régime,not
only ofjoint sovereigntybut of rights of passage" (para. 412),"the waters
of the Gulf [being]the subject of the condominium or CO-ownership"

' 1must add inthis respect that somebaysnamed "historic bays" in classicaltreatises
since early this century are now regarded asnormal "bays" owingto the enlargement of
the distance criterion required for theing-line of a bay from a rather narrow dis-
1982United Nations Convention (see para.3 below).n onthe Territorial Seaand the(para.412),"internal watersina qualified sense" (ibid.),"interna..waters.
subject to certain rights of passage" (ibid.),"the area ofjoint sovereignty
[in19171"(para. 413), "the joint sovereignty in al1that area of waters"
(para. 414), "a condominium of the waters of the Gulf' (para. 418),"the
waters internal to [the]bay..subject to a threefold joint sovereignty"
(ibid.),"the legal situation [being]one of joint sovereignty" (para. 420),
"the waters ...subject to the ...entitlement of al1 three States"

(para. 432(1)) al1of which concepts are suggestedby the present Judg-
ment to define the legal status of the waters of th- Gare in no way
indicative of that status.

111.THETERM "HISTORICBAY" AS MISAPPLIE TOTHE GULF OF FONSEC AN

THE 1917JUDGMEN TF THECENTRA ALMERICA COURT OF JUSTIC END IN
THE PRESENJT UDGMENT

1. Impactofthe Misapplication of the Term "HistoricBay"
inthe1917Judgment

27. The Gulf of Fonseca appeared forthe first time on the legal stage
clothed as "a historicbay possessed ofthe characteristics of a closed sea"
in the 1917Judgment of the Central Arnerican Court of Justice (trans.
AJIL,Vol. 11,p. 716).It was not until the rendering ofthat Judgment that
the Gulf of Fonsecabegan to bementioned in any ofthe treatises ofinter-
national law. Hardly any scholar of international lawor to 1917had
thoughtthat the Gulf of Fonseca, surrounded bythree States, had become
a Cjuridical)bay, whether ordinary or historic, and was thus entitled to
some special legal status. (There was no mention of the Gulf of Fonseca

even inthe eight volumes of Moore'sigestofInternationalLawin 1906,
or 7heSovereigntyoftheSea,Fulton'sclassicwork,in 191.)Eventheterm
"historic bay" itselfseemsvertohavebeen employed inajudicial deter-
mination or a scholarly work prior to 1917, except in the 1910Award of
the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the North AtlanticCoastFisheries
case, in which theTribunal

"recognize[d]that the conventions and established usages might be
considered as the basis for claiming as territorialbays [single-
Statebays,including Delaware Bayand others]which on this ground
might be called historic bays"NRIAA,Vol.XI, pp. 167, 197).

TheGulf of Fonseca,a baybordered bytheland ofthethree littoral States,748 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AIS)S. P.ODA)

was certainlynot uppermostintheminds ofthe members ofthe 1910Arbi-

tralTribunal.
28. In contrast, practically al1scholars dealing with the law of the sea
after 1917have been in accordinechoing the concept of a "historic bay"
employed in the 1917Judgment solelyto define the Gulf of Fonseca, asthe
present Judgment admittedly notices (see paras. 383, 394). Yetthe fact
must be faced thatthe authors of the treatises in question simply gavethe
name "historic bay" to the Gulf of Fonseca, as a unique case in which the
Coastbelongs to two or more States, solely on theground thatthe Central
American Court of Justice, in 1917,had passed a Judgment employing
that term. Having never suggested any specific régimefor even a single-
State "historic bay", they afortiorinever contended that the rules or regu-
lations established for such a régimeshouldapply to this bay surrounded
by three States.This is so even in the case of Oppenheim, since he picked
up that Gulf only in his third edition, published in 1920(International
Law,3rd ed., 1920,p. 344,para. 192,n. 4),referring to itas an exception to
"[non-territorial] gulfs and bays enclosed by the land of more than one
littoral State". Fauchille in 1925(Traitédedroitinternationalpublic, Vol.,
2nd Part, 8th ed., 1925,p. 308 :in Bonfils' Manuel de droit international

public edited by Fauchille (5th ed.) in 1908the Gulf of Fonseca was not
mentioned at all);Jessupin 1927(ne Lawof Territorial Watersand Mari-
timeJurisdiction, 1927,p.398);Wheatonin 1929(ElementsofInternational
Law, 6th English ed., 1929,p. 365: in his 5th English edition in 1916no
mention wasmade oftheGulf of Fonseca) ;Gidel in 1934(Ledroitinterna-
tional public de la mer, Vol. III, 1934,p. 604), and others, al1followed
Oppenheim. These scholars after 1917who referred to the Gulf of Fon-
seca as a Uuridical) bay never presented any justification for this label
outside the fact that the 1917Judgment hadso styledthe Gulf. Their state-
ments thus cany littlecumulative value.

29. Some United Nations documents supplied in preparation for
UNCLOS 1 in 1958also referred to the Gulf of Fonseca as a "historic

bay", though as a unique case of one bordered by the land of two or more
States. In the Memorandum entitled "Historic Bays" (A/CONF. 13/ 1 ;
UNCLOS 1,OfficialRecords,Vol. 1,p. 1)drawn up by the United Nations
Secretariat in 1957, this Gulf was the only example given in Part 1,
Section 1("The Practice of States: Some Examples of Historic Bays"),
under sub-section B,"Bays the Coasts of Which Belong to Two or More
States", but the explanations given therein did not go beyond a simple
reference to the 1917 Judgment. The Gulf similarly appeared again,
only with the explanation of the 1917Judgment, in Part II, Section 1
("Legal Status of the Waters of Bays Regarded as Historic Bays"), under
sub-section B,"Historic Baysthe Coasts of Which Belongto Two or MoreStates '.The writersofthe United Nations documents seemtohavegiven
that Gulf a somewhat special treatment without offering any sufficiently
convincing reasons, and did not suggest that the rules governing a "his-
toric bay", if any, would apply in the particular case of pluri-State bays.
Although the application of the tenn "historic bay" was extended to the
altogether unique case of the Gulf of Fonseca, no rule was suggested for
pluri-State bays as such.This isnot surprising, sincea unique case cannot
be governed by the rules of a category :it requires the application of gen-
eral principles.

30. Likewise, in the present case, the two Parties and the intervening
State gave the narne of "historic bay" to the Gulf of Fonseca simply
because the 1917Judgrnent so called it. But they never proved any estab-
lished rules governing a "historic bay" bordered by the land of two or
more States,oreventhat a concept ofa"historic bay" covering suchacase
exists.Thethree Statesonly concurredin maintaining that, because of its
alleged historical background as well as its geographical features, some
exceptional rulesunder international lawshould be applicable totheGulf
of Fonseca.They didnot shareany clearpicture of the Gulf in spite ofthe
common denomination of the term "historic bay". They showed a total
lack ofagreement orevenofreciprocal understanding asto what elements
could constitute a "historic bay" and what reallywastheconcept ofa "his-
toric bay". Each of these three Statesseemed to sketch its own imagejust

frornthe name "historic bay".

31. The Chamber, indefiningthe legalstatus ofthe waters of theGulf,
seemsto depend greatly upon the 1917Judgment oftheCentral American
Court of Justice, which it

"should take ... into account as a relevant precedent decision of a
competent court, and as, in the words of Article 38 of the Court's
Statute, 'a subsidiarymeans for the determination of rules of law"'
(Judgment,para. 403).

' The Gulf of Fonseca is also referred to in another United Nations document
prepared forUNCLOS 1: "A Brief Geographical and Hydrographic Study of Bays
and Estuaries, the Coasts of Which Belong to Different States", by Commander
R. H. Kennedy (A/CONF.17/15; UNCLOS 1,OSficiR alcords V,ol. 1,p.198)which
does not require any explanalion here.The Chamber, relying simply upon the 1917Judgment, Statesthat "[tlhis
unanimous finding that the Gulf of Fonseca is an historic bay with the
character of a closed sea presents now no great problem" (para. 394)and
decides that "the Gulf of Fonseca is an historic bay ..." (para. 432(1)).It
ishardly necessary for meto repeatthat, from thestandpoint of the devel-
opment of the legal concepts of a bay or historic bay (as explained in
Part II, above), the Gulf of Fonseca cannot, under the law of the sea, fa11
into the category of a bay or historic bay, the legal status of the waters of
which must be a united body constituting "interna1 waters" of a single
riparian State. Bythe same token, the Chamber's decision that

"the waters [ofthe Gulfj ...continue to be .. .held [insovereignty by
thethree littoral States,jointly]...but excludinga belt ... extending
3 miles (1marine league) fromthe littoral of each of the three States,
such belt being under the exclusive sovereignty of the coastal
State ..." (Judgment, para. 432(1))

is clearly incompatible with the Chamber's description of the Gulf as a
"historic bay", which descriptioncannot, afortiori,be used to sustain that
decision.This point willbe developed later in paragraph 38,below.

2. fie 1917Judgment Re-examined

32. How did the Central Arnerican Court of Justice proceed in order
to characterize the Gulf of Fonseca as "a historic bay possessed of the
characteristics of a closed sea" (trans. AJIL, Vol. Il, p. 716)? It simply
drew its conclusion on the basis of the replies givenby each judge of that
Court in response to some questionnaires prepared in advance, among
which one question read :
"Ninthquestion - Taking into consideration the geographic and
historic conditions, as wellas the situation,extent and configuration
of the Gulf of Fonseca, what is the international legal status of that
Gulf?" (Ibid.,p. 693.)
It is also noted that"[tlhejudges answered unanimously that [theGulf of
Fonseca] isan historic bay possessed ofthe characteristicsofa closed sea"

(ibid.).No ground except for these answers of the judges is to be found in
the 1917Judgment which could justify the contention that the Gulf of
Fonseca was a "historic bay", a concept hardly known to international
law except in relation to a number of (geographical) bays where the
authority of a single coastal State was for some historical reasons exer-
cised even beyond range of cannon-shot (such as Delaware Bay, the Bris-
tol Channel, etc.), and a term rarely used prior to the 1910Award in the
NorthAtlanticCoast Fisheriescase. 33. Certainly the Central American Court of Justice did not demon-
strate why the concept of a "historic bay", previously applied solely to
somesingle-Statebays,shouldapplyin 1917tothe unique caseofthe Gulf
of Fonseca, enclosed by morehan one littoral State. It seemsto have mis-

interpreted both the 1910Award of the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
which used the term "historic bay" only in the cases of a single-State bay
referred to in many historical documents (as mentioned in paragraph 28
above), and Judge Drago'sdissenting opinionappended thereto, which in
this respect did notepart from the Award itself (UNRZAA,Vol. XI,
pp. 167,203).

34. Does the factthat the fivejudges ofthe Central American Court of
Justice unanimously agreed that the Gulf of Fonseca was a "historic bay
possessed of the characteristics of a closed sea" help us now to ascertain
the positivelegalstatus ofthat Gulf? Whateverrespect maybe owedtothe
1917 Judgment, it seems a needless self-restriction on the part of the
Chamber to have refrained from any critical inspection of its contents.
Due account should have been taken of the following points in that
1917Judgment. Firstly,itwasdelivered ina casebetween El Salvador and
Nicaragua only, a case to which Honduras was not a Party. Secondly,

that Court was constituted by agreement between five Centralrican
nations, including Honduras. Thirdly, Honduras had earlier lodged its
objection tothe proceedingsbefore thatCourt, on thegrounds that ithad
not been invited to participate. Fourthly, Honduras itself expressed its
objection to theecision of the 1917Judgment that the Gulf of Fonseca
constituted a condominium, which concept,according to that Judgment,
wasa logical consequence ofthe use ofthe term "historic bay". Lastly,the
legal status of the waters of the Gulf as betweenhreeriparianStates
wasnot, at al1events,necessarily at issue inthe particular dispute submit-

ted tothe Central American Court. Thesevarious factorsshouldbe taken
into account in considering the contention to the effect that the Gulf of
Fonseca isnow a "historicbay possessed ofthe characteristics of a closed
sea".The most important factatthat timewasthat the concept of"historic
bay = condominium" was introduced mainly in order to buttress El Sal-
vador's contention that the building of a United States naval base on
Nicaraguan territory, facing theGulf, should not be permitted.

IV. THELEGAL STATUS OF THE WATER SF THEGULF OFFONSEC AS
MISCONCEIV NDTHE 1917JUDGMEN AND IN THE PRESENJTUDGMENT

35. The 1917Judgment suggested that the waters within the closing-
lineoftheGulf, which wasa "historic bay possessed ofthe characteristicsof a closed sea", were subject to a condominium created byjoint inherit-
ance of an area which had been a unity in its entire history previous to the
succession in 1821and, being neither territorial sea nor interna1 waters,
had been the object either of the joint ownership or of a condominium of
thethree riparian States since 1821.It is important, however, to notethat
in that Judgment the 1-marine-league belt would be excluded from that
régime,the waters ofthat belt thus beingdivided between the three respec-
tive riparian States. In the concreteterms suggested bytheCentral Ameri-
can Court of Justice,

"this Court has held[the Gulf of Fonseca]to belong to the category of
historicbaysand to bepossessed ofthe characteristics of a closedsea"
(trans.AJIL,Vol. 11,p. 707)

and
"[tlhe legal status of the Gulf of Fonseca havingbeen recognized by
this Courtto be that of a historic bay possessed of the characteristics
of a closed sea, the three riparian States of El Salvador, Honduras
and Nicaragua are, therefore, recognized as coowners of its waters,
exceptas to the littoral marine league which isthe exclusive property
of each ..." (ibid.,p. 716).

Likewise,the present Judgment findsthat "the Gulfwaters, other than the
3-milemaritime belts, are historic waters and subject to ajoint sovereignty
ofthethree coastal States" (para. 404).It alsodeems the waters oftheGulf
to be "the subject of [a]condominium or CO-ownership"(para. 412).Thus
the Chamber decides that
"the Gulf of Fonseca is an historic bay the waters whereof, having
previously to 1821been under the single control of Spain, and from
1821to 1839ofthe Federal Republic of Central America, werethere-

after succeeded to and held in sovereignty by [the three littoral
States],jointly, and continue to be soheld . ..,but excludinga belt ...
extending 3 miles (1 marine league) from the littoral of each of the
three States, such belt being under the exclusive sovereignty of the
coastal State, ..."(para. 432(1)).
36. This decision of the present Judgment which 1have just quoted
above (and similarly that of the 1917Judgment) is the part of the whole
Judgment which 1find most difficult to understand. Does the Chamber
suggest that the Gulf of Fonseca, as a historic bay claimed to have been
inherited in 1821or 1839by ElSalvador, Honduras and Nicaragua from
Spain or the Federal Republic of Central America as a condominium
without any division amongthem, isnow composed ofthe (minimal) cen-
tral part of the waters, which remains subject to the joint sovereignty of

three States, while a 3-mile coastal belt alongthe entire coastline in the
Gulf (actually occupyingmost of theGulf) isapportioned individually to
each of them respectively ? 37. Topography and history indicate that, prior to 1821,the Gulf of
Fonseca was surrounded by the territory of Spain, as a single State, and
then until 1839by the Federal Republic of Central America. Spain, and
subsequently the Federal Republic of Central America,might have exer-
cised a certain authority and control in itsoffshore waters. Yetthere isno
ground for believing that at times prior to 1821or 1839Spain or the Fed-
eral Republic of Central America had any control in the sea-waters
beyond the traditionally accepted mle of the range of cannon-shot in the
Gulf. Both the 1917Judgment and the present Judgment depend on the
hidden assumption that the maritime area in question was, prior to 1821
or 1839,not only "single and undivided" but also initsentirety(as a bay)
withinthe territorial jurisdiction of a singleiparian State.Theyoverlook
the basic fact that, in 1821or 1839,there did not atthe time exist anycon-

cept of a bay defined as a united body of waters in terrns of geographical
features and of the applicable legal status.

38. Another thesis implicit in the 1917Judgment and the present Judg-
ment, which heavily relies upon its predecessor, is - in the words of the
latter- that "there seems no reason in principle why a succession should
not create ajoint sovereigntywhere a singleand undivided maritime area
passes totwo ormorenew States"(Judgment,para. 399).Thisprompts the
question: if the assumption of unitary status for the entire waters in the
Gulf had beencorrect in 182 1or 1839,whyshould the 1917Judgment and
the present Judgment not have preferred the far more natural interpreta-
tion that, once the territory over which a singleState,Spain, and later the
Federal Republic of Central America, had sovereignty was divided into
fiveStates asaresultoftheir independence, theauthority overand control
of the offshore waters (which had always been considered as appurte-
nances of the land) might have been divided correspondingly to the

divided territories of those newly independent States, and that the three
riparian States of El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua each inherited
authority over and control oftheir respectiveoffshorewaters oftheir own
land territory in the Gulf of Fonseca? Indeed, the 1917Judgment itself
had recognized "the littoral marine league which is theexclusiveproperty
of each[State]" (trans. AJIZ, Vol. 11,p. 716; emphasis added), and the
present Judgment recognizes

"a belt, as at present established,extending 3miles (1marine league)

fromthe littoral of each ofthe three States, such belt being under the
exclusivesovereignty of the coastal State" (Judgment, para. 432(1)).

39. The Central American Court ofJusticeseems to havecontradicted
itself in suggesting at one and the same time the concept of "a single and
undivided maritime area [havingpassed] to two or more new States, [thus]creat[ing] a joint sovereignty" and that of "the littoral marine league
which is the exclusive property of each [State]". It appearsto me that the
1917Judgment was based upon a local illusion as concernsthe historical
background of law and fact. If 1may be allowed to add my view,the pres-
ent Judgment perpetuates an error in depending on the 1917Judgment
and proposingin parallel "the waters ofthe Gulf. ..held in sovereigntyby
the Republic of El Salvador, the Republic of Honduras, and the Republic
of Nicaragua, jointly" and "a belt, as at present established, extending
3miles (1marine league) fromthe littoral of each of thethree States,such
beltbeing under the exclusivesovereigntyofthe coastal State" (Judgment,
para. 432(1)).

40. My query continues :what isthe legalstatus ofthe watersdescribed
by the Judgment as follows: "the maritime belt in a pluri-State bay"
(para. 392), "the 3-mile maritime belts of exclusive jurisdiction"

(para. 393),"the littoral maritime belts subject to the single sovereignty of
each of the coastal States, but with mutual rights of innocent passage"
(para. 412), "the 3-mile belt of exclusivejurisdiction enjoyed by each of
the States along itscoast" (para. 413),"the 3-mile maritime littoral belt of
exclusive jurisdiction within the Gulf' (para. 415),"the littoral maritime
belts of 1marine league along the coastlines of the Gulf' (para. 416),"the
inner littoral maritime belts...notterritorial seasinthe senseofthemod-
ern law" (ibid.),"the internal waters of the coastal State, not being subject
to the joint sovereignty, and even though subject ...to rights of innocent
passage" (ibid.),"the exclusive littoral maritime belts...limited to 3miles
in breadth" (para. 418), "internal waters subject to a single, exclusive
sovereignty" (ibid.)?After all,what isthe 3-milecoastal belt intheconcept
of the Judgment? 1simply believe thatthe Chamber confuses the law of
the sea in applying such unusual concepts.

41. With regard to theconcept ofcondominium(or CO-ownership)orof
ajoint sovereignty, which the Central American Court of Justice and the
Chamber employed to define the waters of theGulf of Fonseca excluding
the 3-milecoastal belt (not ofthe whole area oftheGulf !)itmustbenoted
that Honduras itself denies that the Gulf constitutes a condominium of
the three riparian States of Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua and
refers to the absence of an agreement between the States concerned. 1
agree that a condominium may be created by the consent of the States
concerned with respect to the area to which those States could have ori-
ginally been entitled. 1am not suggestingany general mle thatthe concept
of a condominium should not be applicable in maritime areas. The pres-
ent Judgment refers to the case of the Baie du Figuier, where there has
existed a zone of condominium possessed jointly by France and Spain
since 1879(Judgment, para. 401).This precedent does not, however, give
any ground for justifying the status of a condominium for the Gulf of755 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AIS)S. P.ODA)

Fonseca, inconnection with which no agreementbetween the States con-
cerned has everexisted.The rationale underlying the Baiedu Figuiersolu-

tion was that France and Spain agreed to keep the small area in that bay
(which itself is so small, theouth of it being about 3,000metres across,
that it could by the mere distancecriterion have been under the jurisdic-
tion of eitherState) under theirjoint administrationforthe common useof
the anchorages in the roadsteads therein located (Déclaration pour la
délimitationde lajuridiction de la France etl'Espagne dans leseaux de la
baie du Figuier, 1879,Ministèredes Affaires Etrangères, Traitéset conven-
tionsenvigueurentre laFranceet lespuissancesétrangères, Second Volume,
1919,p. 141);the question of separate title thus yielded to practicality. It
is very evident that in the present case other considerations prevail.

42. 1must alsorefer in thisinstance to the factthat, whilethe 1917Judg-
ment didnot use the term, the Chamber alone attempts to rely on the con-
cept of "historic waters" in order to define the waters of the Gulf of
Fonseca. 1 must confess that 1am extremely confused asto whether the
Chamber is talking of "historic waters" forthe whole area of the Gulf or
the (minimal)central part of the Gulf excluding "the three-milemaritime
belt". The Chamber States: that "[the Gulf of Fonseca] is an historic
bay, . . the waters of it are accordingly historic waters" (Judgment,
para. 383),that "[wlhatdoes present aproblem ...isthe precise character
of the sovereignty which the three coastal States enjoy in these historic

waters" (para. 399, that "[tlheessence ofthe 1917decision concerning the
legal status ofthe waters oftheGulf was ...that these historic waters were
then subject to a 'CO-ownership'(condominio)of the three coastal States"
(para. 398), that "the maritime area in question had long been historic
waters under a single State's sovereignty" (para. 401),and that "the Gulf
waters, other than the 3-mile maritime belts, are historic waters and sub-
ject to a joint sovereignty of the three coastal States" (para. 404). The
Chamber seems simply to add confusion by its misconception of what
constitutes "historic waters".

43. "Historic waters" were defined in the Fisheriescase of 1951 as
meaning "waters which are treated as intemal waters but which would not
have that character were it not forthe existence of an historic title".C.J.
Reports 1951,p. 130).In fact, waters in the situation of those disputed in
the 1951case are by now enclosed as "intemal waters" by an application
of the new concept ofstraight baselines under the 1958and 1982Conven-
tions, sothat their "historic" backgroundhas become a superfluous refer-
ence. Similarly,aclaim to a"historic bay" couldhavebeenjustified bythe
status of its waters as "historic waters", but by now most bays known as
"historic bays", such as Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, the Bristol
Channel or Conception Bay,have become, as 1already stated above, ordi-
nary bays because of the new rule of the 24-mile closing-line. Further-
more, some "historic waters" in arather different situation havealsobeenthe subject of a parallel evolution. In the course of the preparation for
UNCLOS III, the delegate of the Philippines introduced a draft article
concerning "historic waters" reading that "historic rights or title
acquired by a State in a part ofthe sea adjacent to itsts shallbe recog-
nized and safeguarded" (A/AC.l38/SC.II/L.46) and another draft arti-
cleon "breadth ofterritorial sea" reading that "the maximum limit[ofthe
territorial sea]shall not apply to historic waters held by any State as its

territorial sea"(A/CONF.138/SC.II/L.47/ TRheve.pr)posals by
the Philippines didnot appear in any ofthe texts which were later brought
to UNCLOS III. In fact, the waters which the Philippines intended to
claim on grounds of historic rights or titles would have been brought
under the jurisdiction of the coastal State in terms of the new concept of
"archipelagic waters" under the 1982Convention, which would have a
suigenerisstatus similar tothat of territorial sea but not, however, tothat
of internal waters'.In other words, the concept of "historic waters" has
become irrelevant inthe case ofthe Philippinesbecause of the agreed new
concept of archipelagic waters.

44. In sum,the concept of "historic waters" has become practically a
redundancy, which isperhaps why itdoes not appear in either the 1958or
the 1982Conventions. In fact, it is not soch a concept asa description
expressive of thehistoric title on the basis of which a claim to a particular
statusfor certain waters has been made.Thus, firstly in the 1951Fisheries
case a claim to "historic waters" was used to justify the status of internal

waters,secondly a claim to "historic waters" forthe watersof abay could
havejustified a concept of a "historic bay" the waters of which arenter-
na1waters", and thirdly in another instance, i.e.,in the case of the Philip-
pines, ithas been used tojustify only the status of territorialsea, resulting
in the emergence of a new sui generisconcept of archipelagic waters. It
follows, therefore, that "historic waters" have no special legal status dif-
ferent from the categories which have longbeen recognized, that is,either
internal waters or territorial sea (or the newly recognized archipelagic
waters) :inother words, "historic waters" assuchdid not and do not exist
asan independent institution inthe lawofthe sea. 1have to add this expla-
nation because the essentialimplications ofthisterminologyseem to have
been overlooked in the present Judgment, particularly when 1note in the
Judgment the presumption that, the Gulf of Fonseca being "[a]historic

' The referenceto "archipelagicinternal in the presentJudgment(para3.93)
is thusmisleading.757 DISPUTE(ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AIS)S.P.ODA)

bay, ... the waters of it are accordingly historic waters" (Judgment,
para. 383;emphasis added).

V. THETRUELEGAL STATU SFTHE WATER SFTHE GULF OFFONSEC A
THE WATER OSF THEGULF OFFONSECC AONSISTIN GFTHE TERRITORIA SLAS
OFEACH OF THERIPARIAS NTATES

45. Since the time when the rather vague concept of the territorial
waters or the coastal belt first emerged inthe last century, the three ripar-
ian States of the Gulf of Fonseca had in principle maintained 1league

(3miles)asthe limitoftheir territorial seas and there was no evidence that
their claims to territorial seas in the Gulf differed from their relevant
claims elsewhere. Inaddition, the threearian States seemto have exer-
cised certain police powers for inspection beyond their respective
1-1eagueterritorial seas. ElSalvadorprovided, initsCivilCode of 1860,in
addition to the 1-leagueterritorial sea, that police powers shouldbe exer-
cised outside the territorial sea to a distance of 4 leagues from the Coast
(UnitedNations LegislativeSeries,Vol.;ST/LEG/SER.B/ 1,p.71).This
claim was repeated in the 1933Navigation and Maritime Act (ibid.; see

also Vol. VI; ST/LEG/SER.B/6, p. 126).Honduras likewise claimed in
its 1906Civil Code (ibid., ST/LEG/SER.B/l, p. 71), in addition to the
1-leagueterritorial sea,a Cleague belt for the exerciseof itspolice power.
Nicaragua isreportedto have taken the sameposition. Such acompetence
on the part of the coastal State has been generally accepted since
World War 1,particularly throughthe new régimeof the contiguouszone
which the United Statesinitiated in the bilateraltreaties that it concluded
with a number of States. Inch circumstances, no objection by any State

has ever been lodged against those three riparian States in connection
with their additional claims to exercise police powers beyond the territo-
rialsea.

46. Apart from those territorial claims over the waters of the Gulf, the
three riparian States could early in this century have been united in con-
sidering that the small expanse of sea represented by the waters of the

Gulf - whichwould inany eventbe covered bytheir respective territorial
seas and police zone- should not remain opento free use by any State
other than themselves. It would not have been surprising if the Gulf of
Fonseca had politically been the subject of acommon interest of the three
riparian States, thus precluding unwished-for use or participation by
other States, or if their attitudes in 1917had featured a common confi-
dence in rejecting the then prevailing "open seas" doctrine as applicableto the waters of the Gulf of Fonseca. No evidence has been shown that

they actually voiced such a rejection, or asserteda corresponding historic
claim,jointly, and thus proposed for the Gulf a sui generisrégime.Yet a
tacit implication tothat effectled El Salvadorthen to raise an objection to
the establishment of a United States naval base on Nicaraguan territory,
and alsolentimpetus to theCentral American Court ofJustice in naming
the Gulf of Fonseca as a "historic bay" and in consecrating the idea of
shared ownership of non-territorial waters. This has also led the three
riparian States in the present case to unitedly denominate that Gulf as a
"historic bay", even though,as I have suggested, this particular term has
been used erroneously to describe the Gulf of Fonseca.

47. Whether or not any precise delimitation of the territorial sea and/
or the zone for police powers was needed at any givenmoment for practi-
cal purposes, these waters in the Gulf could undoubtedly have been
properly divided by boundary lines and, in fact, a boundary line was
adopted in 1900by a mixed commission established by Nicaragua and

Honduras, a line extending an approximate distance of 20nautical miles
to a central point of the Gulf equidistant from the coasts of Honduras
(El Tigre)and Nicaragua, which are more than 10nautical milesapart. It
isnot known ifthe Governments either of Honduras or of Nicaragua had
any clearidea ofthe status ofthe watersthey were then dividing.Yet Hon-
duras could certainly have proceeded to the same exercise of drawing a
boundary in relation to El Salvador,though thiswould in practical terms
have been more difficult owing tothe existence of scattered islands in the
western part of the Gulf.

48. In thelight of the claims made in the post-war period by the Latin
American States to a distance of 12milesforthe territorial sea,and given
the universally agreed 12-milelimit to the territorial sea under the new
régimeof the law of the sea, the Gulf of Fonseca must now be deemed to
be totally covered by the territorial seas of the three riparian States. It
cannot, moreover, be disputed that the area which had previously been
claimed by each of these States forthe exercise of its police powers has
been completely absorbed in the extended 12-mileterritorial sea in the

Gulf. Thus 1 conclude that the waters within the Gulf of Fonseca now
consist of the territorialeas of three riparian States, without leaving any
maritime space beyond the 12-miledistance from any part of the coasts.
This, to my mind, isthe legal status of those waters.

49. Asto any morespecificdecision, the Chamber isnot inaposition to
make any delimitation of the territorial sea ofthese three riparian States
in the Gulf (Judgment, para. 432(2)).Nevertheless, Article 15ofthe 1982
United Nations convention cannot be ignored: "Where the coasts of two States are opposite or adjacent to each
other, neither ofthe two States isentitled, failing agreement between
them to the contrary, toxtend itsterritorial seabeyond the median
lineeverypoint ofwhich isequidistant fromthe nearestpoints on the
baselines from which thebreadth ofthe territorialeas ofeach ofthe
two States is measured. The above provision does not apply, how-
ever, where it is necessary by reason of historic title or other special
circumstances to delimit the territorialsofthe two Statesin away
which is at variance therewith."

In other words, the equidistance method isthe rule in delimitation of the
territorial sea of the neighbouring States either opposite or adjacent to
each other, and the shape of theCoastas a baseline is of importance for
measuring the territorialsea. 1do not see that any historic title or other
special circumstances have been advanced by either El Salvador or
Honduras which would justify any departure from the application of
the general rule of the "equidistance line". In the particular instance of
the Gulf of Fonseca, the terminal points of the land boundaries between
El Salvador and Honduras, and between Honduras and Nicaragua, are of
cmcial significance forthe delimitation of the respective territorial seas.
The Chamber has determined that the terminal point of the territorial

boundary between El Salvador and Honduras is north-west of the
Islas Ramaditas atthe mouth of the river Goascoran. In addition, sover-
eigntyover the islandslocated in the Gulf isone of the factors to be taken
into account, and the islands of Meanguera and Meanguerita are deter-
mined by the Chamber as being under the sovereignty of El Salvador.
50. It seems to be clear from the geographicalpoint of viewthat Hon-
duras, sandwiched between ElSalvador and Nicaragua in theGulf, isnot
entitled to claim any territorial sea beyond the meeting point somewhere
in the Gulf of the respective territorialas of the three riparian States,
which may well be determined, if necessary, by agreement among them-
selvesor by any other means that they may deem fit. 1must emphasize at
thisjuncture that, while the delimitation of the exclusive economic zone
and the continental shelf between the neighbouring States should be

effected "in order to achieve an equitable solution" (1982United Nations
Convention, Arts. 74 and 83), application of the equidistance method
remains a rule in the delimitation of the territorial sea.

VI. THERIGHTS OF HONDURA WSITHIN AND OUTSIDE
THE GULF OF FONSECA

(i) Withinthe Gulf

51. It cannot be overlooked that Honduras, whose territorial title to
waters in the Gulf is locked within the Gulf itself,has always enjoyed the760 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AISS). P.ODA)

right ofinnocent passage throughthe traditional 3-mileterritorial sea and
certainly willalso be guaranteed thisright through the now expanded ter-
ritorial seas of theother two riparian States, El Salvador and Nicaragua,
which territorial seas meet within theGulf. The Chamber, in definingthe
legal status of the waters of theGulf, seemsto be motivated by its concern
about the passage of vessels, whether of Honduras or of other foreign
nations, to and from the PacificOcean, but the right of innocent passage
is,inany event,protected by international laweveninthe territorial sea of

any State.

52. 1must add, furthermore, that given the large measure of mutual
understanding displayed by the three riparian States in respect of the
common interest derived from their geographical location bordering on
the Gulf, it may be possible (under a new concept enshrined in the 1982
United Nations Convention) for them, as "States bordering an enclosed
or semi-enclosed sea", to accept their obligation of "[CO-operation]with
each other in the exercise of their rights and in the performance of their
duties under this Convention", as provided for under Part IX of the 1982
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, entitled "Enclosed or

Semi-Enclosed Sea" (Art. 123).

(ii)Outsidethe Gulf

53. 1believethat 1have sufficiently demonstrated the reasons why 1am
unable to associate myself with the present Judgment's finding to the
effect that, since acondominium ofthree States extends upto the closing-
line of the Gulf, Honduras, as one of the three, is entitled to claim an
exclusive economic zone and continental shelf outside the Gulf. Such a
finding ishardlytenable in the light of anyrule, traditional or contempor-

ary, of the law of the sea. Because of its geographicalsituation, Honduras
cannot lay claim, in the offshore areas of the Pacific Coastoutside the
Gulf,to any territorial title in terms of the territorial sea, the continental
shelf or the exclusive economic zone. This is a geographical reality of
nature which - if1may adoptthe Court's dictum inthe North Sea Conri-
nental Shelfcases - there "can never be any question of completely
refashioning" (Z.C.J.Reports 1969,p. 49,at para. 91).

54. Of course, as 1have already stated, Honduras is fully guaranteed
accessto the high seas ofthe PacificOcean outside theGulf of Fonseca by
the unchallenged concept of innocent passage through the territorial seas

of the two neighbouring Statesboth within and without the Gulf.

55. The concept of the continental shelf and the exclusive economic
zone has recently been developed to extend coastal jurisdiction to vast
offshore areas which had traditionally been regarded as a part of the high761 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AISS). P.ODA)

seas. Thus the interests of the coastal State have been strengthened and
expanded - albeit atthe expense of the general and common interestsof
the international community to be enjoyed on the high seas - and the

general interests capable of being asserted by the international commu-
nity on the high seas are now diminished (althoughthe navigation inter-
estsofnon-coastalnations remainunaffected inthose expanded areas). In
return for that sacrifice, land-locked States and geographically disadvan-
taged nationsareassured, under the 1982United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea, of:

"the right to participate, on an equitable basis, in the exploitation
of an appropriate part of the surplus of the living resources of the

exclusive economic zones of coastal States of the same sub-region or
region. .." (Art. 69,para. 1,and Art. 70, para. 1).
The "geographically disadvantaged States" aremeant to include :

"States bordering enclosed or semi-enclosed seas, whose geographi-
cal situation makesthem dependent upon the exploitation of the liv-
ing resources of the exclusive economic zones of other States in the
subregion or region for adequate supplies of fish for the nutritional
purposes of their populations or parts thereof, and coastal States
which can claim no exclusive economic zones of their own" (Art. 70,
para. 2).

This new concept of the "right to fish" in the exclusive economic zone of
the neighbouring State was introduced into the new régimeof the seas to
compensate geographically disadvantaged States which might otherwise
have suffered owing to the expanded coastaljurisdiction of these neigh-
bouring Statesplaced geographically in a betterposition. 1should refrain
at this juncture from taking any interpretative position on the question
whether, in view of the fact that it has a long coastline on the Atlantic
side - thus enabling it to claim its own exclusive economic zone in that
region -, Honduras falls within the definition of "geographically disad-
vantaged States", which would enable itto claim in the Pacific Oceanthe
rights of "geographically disadvantaged States" under the 1982United
Nations Convention. 1 would simply suggest that the possibility of Hon-
duras claiming or being granted such a right in the exclusive economic

zones in the Pacific of its two neighbouring States may not be excluded.

(Signed Sh)igeru ODA.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE ODA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs
1. INTRODUCTIO NI. SEIN RESPECT OF THLEGALSITUATIO OF
THEMARITIMS EPACEOF THEGULFOF FONSECA 1-6

II. "BAYOR "HISTORIBCAY":LEGALCONCEPT UNDER THELAW OF
THESEA 7-26

1. The legal status of abay towardstheturn of this centu7-13
2. The concept of a bay throughout the codification process of
thelaw of the sea 14-21
(i) The 1930League of NationsCodification Conference14-18

(ii) The United Nations Conferences onthe Law ofthe Sea-21
3. The contemporaryconcept of a bay or hist:the legal
status of itbeing interna1waters of a single riparian State

111.THETERM"HISTORIC BAY" ASMISAPPLIE DO THE GULF OF
FONSECA IN THE1917 JUDGMEN TF THECENTRAL AMERICAN
COURT OFJUSTICEND IN THPRESENJTUDGMENT 27-34

1. Impact of the misapplication of the"historic bay" in
the 1917Judgment 27-31
2. The 1917Judgment re-examined 32-34

IV. THELEGAL STATU SF THEWATER SF THEGULF OFFONSECA AS
MISCONCEIVE IDTHE 1917 JUDGMEN TND IN THE PRESENT
JUDGMENT 35-44

VI. THE ~GHTS OF HONDURA SlTHlN AND OUTSIDE THGULF OF
FONSECA 51-55

(i) Within the Gulf 51-52
(ii) Outside theGulf 52-55 OPIh.ION DISSIDENTE DE M. ODA

[Traduction]

TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Paragraphes
1. INTRODUCTIO DN!ACCORD CONCERNANT LA SITUATIONJURIDIQUE
DES ESPACESMARITIMESDU GOLFE DEFONSECA 1-6

II. LESCONCEPTS JURIDIQUES DE<<BAIE>OU <BAIE HISTORIQUE)EN
DROIT DE LAMER 7-26

1. Lestatutjuridique d'unebaie versledébutduXXesiècle 7-13
2. Leconcept de baie pendant tout le processus de codification
du droit de la ml:r 14-21

i) La conférencede codification convoquée en 1930sous
lesauspices de la Socides Nations 14-18
ii) Lesconférericesdes Nations Unies sur ledroit de la mer 19-21

3. Le concept contemporain de baie ou de baie histori:ses
eaux ont le statut juridique d'eaux intérieuresd'un seul Etat
riverain 22-26

III. C'ESTÀ TORT QUE L'ARR~T DE 1917 DE LA COUR DE JUSTICE
CENTRAM~RICAINEIITLE PR~SENT ARR~TAPPLIQUENT L'EXPRESSION
<<BAIEHISTORIQUE>AU GOLFE DEFONSECA 27-34

1. Impact de I'apy~licationerronéede l'expression «baie histo-
rique))dans I'airêtde 1917 27-31
2. Réexamende I',irrête 1917 32-34

IV. LE STATUTJURIDIQIJE DES EAUX DU GOLFDE FONSEC AEL QU'IL A
ÉTBINTERPRBTÉÀ Tl3RT DANS L'ARR~TDE1917 ET DANS LE PRÉSENT
ARR~T 35-44

V. LE STATUTJURIDIQUE RÉEL DES EAUX DU GOLFE DE FONSECA LES
EAUXDU GOLFE DE I~ONSEC SECOMPOSENT DESMERSTERRITORIALES
DE CHACUN DES ETATS RIVERAINS 45-50

VI. LES DROITS DU HONDURA ÀSL'INT~R~EUR ET À L'EXT~RIEUR DU
GOLFE DE FONSECA 51-55

i) Al'intérieurdu golfe 51-52
ii) Al'extérieurdiigolfe 52-55 1. I regret that I am unable to share the view of the Chamber with
regard tothe legal situation ofthe maritime spaces within and outside the
Gulf of Fonseca. My dissent is a result of my understanding of the con-
temporary as well as the traditional law of the sea, an understanding
which seems tobe greatly at variance with the views underlying the pres-
ent Judgment.
2. The Chamber defines the Gulf of Fonseca as "an historic bay"

(Judgment,para. 432(1)).In my view,however, the Gulf of Fonseca is not
a "bay" as conceived in the law of the sea, since the concept of a "pluri-
State bay" which the Chamber employs to characterize the Gulf has no
existence as a legalinstitution. Neither does the Gulf of Fonseca actually
fa11into the category of a "historic bay", despite what the Chamber
assumes.
3. The decision of the Chamber concerning the legal status of the
waters in the Gulf, reading that
"the waters ofthe Gulf. ..were ...held in sovereignty by the Repub-
lic of El Salvador, the Republic of Honduras, and the Republic of
Nicaragua, jointly, and continue to be so held ...but excluding a

belt ...extending 3 miles (1 marine league) from the littoral of each
ofthethree States, such belt being under the exclusive sovereignty of
the coastal State ..." (ibid.)

seemsto betotally unfounded. 1believe, on the contrary, that the waters in
theGulf of Fonseca offtheshores ofthe three riparian States, ElSalvador,
Honduras and Nicaragua, constitute, under general mles ofthe law ofthe
sea (that is, international lawitself),the sum of the distinct territorial seas
of each respective State.
4. Under the mles of the law of the sea, the sea-waters adjacent to the
coasts of States are inprinciple territorial sea. Somecoasts, satisfying cer-
tain geographical requirements concerning coastal configuration, form

under those rules a "bay", the waters of which constitute "internal
waters". It is, however, essential to note that the concept of a "bay" does
not immediately denote the legal status of the waters but is meant first to
specify the geographical circumstances which allow the waters therein to
be "internal waters" instead ofterritorial sea.The "historic bay" - acon-
cept which emerged only towards the end of the last century in parallel
with the new idea of giving special legal significance to the notion of a
"bay", and aterm used only since the beginningofthiscentury - does not
exist in a régimesuigeneris, that is,a régimeapplying mles different from
those applicable to anormal "bay". "Historic bays" arethose bay-like fea-
tures (in ageographical sense) which, because of their greater width at the
mouth or their lack of penetration intothe landmass, could not normally
be classified legally as bays but can for historical reasons be given the DIFFÉREND (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (OAS.)ISS.ODA) 733

1. Je regrette de nc:pas pouvoir partager l'avisde la Chambreen cequi
concerne la situatioiijuridique des espaces maritimes à l'intérieur eà
l'extérieurdu golfede Fonseca.Mondésaccordrésultede lafaçon dont je

conçois le droit de la mer aussi bien coritemporain que traditionnel,
conceptionqui mesembles'écarterbeaucoup desvuesquisous-tendent le
présent arrêt.
2. La Chambre définit le golfe de Fonseca comme étant une «baie
historique »(arrêt,par.432,l). Amon avis,cependant, legolfede Fonseca
n'estpas une «baie xau sens du droit de la mer, car le concept de «baie
dont plusieurs Etats sont riverains» auquel la Chambre a recours pour
qualifier le golfe n'existes en tant qu'institution juridique. Le golfe de
Fonsecane relèvepasnon plus de lacatégoriedes«baies historiques »,en
dépitde ce que présiipposela Chambre.
3. La décisionde la Chambre concernant le statut juridique des eaux
du golfe,à savoir que

«[l]eseaux du golfe ..ont ...été..soumises à la souverainetéde la
République d'E,1Salvador, de la République du Honduras et de la
Républiquedu Nicaragua conjointement, et continuent de l'être ...
mais à l'exclusion d'une ceinture...s'étendantsur une distance de
3milles (1lieuemarine) àpartir du littoral de chacun destrois Etats,
cetteceintureét.antsoumise àlasouverainetéexclusivede 1'Etatrive-
rain..» (ibid.)

sembleêtre totalementdénuée defondement. Je crois, au contraire, que
les eaux du golfe de Fonseca au large des côtes des trois Etats riverains,
El Salvador, le Honduras et le Nicaragua,constituent au regarddes règles
généralesdu droit de la mer (c'est-à-diredu droit international lui-même)
la sommedes mers tc:rritoriales distinctes de chacun des Etats.
4. En vertu des règlesdu droit de la mer, les eaux adjacentesaux côtes
des Etats constitueni:en principe la mer territoriale. Quelques côtes,qui
satisfontà certaines exigencesgéographiquespour ce qui est de la confi-
guration du littoral,lorment en vertu desdites règlesune «baie »dont les
eaux constituent des «eaux intérieures)).Toutefois, il est essentiel de
noter que le concepi:de «baie » ne dénotepas immédiatement le statut
juridique des eaux niais vise au premier cheà spécifierles circonstances

géographiques qui permettent de considérerces eaux commedes «eaux
intérieures» et non comme une partie de la mer territoriale. La «baie
historique » - concept qui n'a vu lejour que vers la fin du XIXesiècle
parallèlement à l'idéenouvelleconsistant àdonnerune significationjuri-
diquespéciale à lanation de «baie »ettermeemployéseulementdepuis le
débutdu XXesiècle - n'existepas en tant que régimesuisgeneris,c'est-
à-dire entantque régimequiemporterait application de règlesdifférentes
de celles s'appliquant à une «baie » normale. Les «baies historiques »
sont des configurations du littoral pouvant être assimiléàsune baie (ausame legal status as "bays". The words "historic bay" are certainly not
meant to suggest that the legal status of the waters concerned is anything
other than that of "internal waters" of the coastal State,as inthe case of a

normal Cjuridical)"bay". Under the contemporary concept of the law of
the sea,the sea-waters adjacent tothe coasts of States are either territorial
sea or, otherwise,internal waters. There cannot be any other category for
such offshore sea-waters '.

5. In this respect, 1am afraid that the Chamber, in definingtheGulf of
Fonseca andthe legalstatus of itswaters, obscures theproper understand-

ing of the law of the sea. The concepts which the Chamber employs to
denominate the area of the Gulf of Fonseca, or the legal status of its
waters2,are all, in differing degrees, extraneous to the law of the sea pre-
vailing forthe past century andas itstandstoday.Thetraditionaland cur-
rent tenets of the law of the sea, as 1 understand them, thus offer no
support to the considerations advanced by the Chamber, with the aid of

those terms, in defining the legal situation of the maritime spaces of the
Gulf.

' 1must add here the newly emerging concept of archipelagic waters, which 1put
aside for later comment (cf. para. 43 of this opinion).
1refer specifically to the followingexpression: "an historic bay, and...the waters
of it accordingly historic waters" (Judgment, para. 383), "the maritime belt in a pluri-
"an historic bay that constitutes an enclosed sea entirely within the territory of a single
State" (para.395),"an enclosed pluri-State bay" (ibid.),"an historicbay and therefore a
'closed sea'"(ibid.),"historic waters.. subject to a joint sovereignty ofthe three coastal
States" (para. 404), "pluri-State historic bay" (para. 412), "the littoral maritime belts
subject to the single sovereignty of each of the coastal States, but withtual rights of
innocent passage" (ibid.),"internal waterssubject to a special and particular régime,not
only ofjoint sovereignty but of rights of passage" (ibid.),"the waters of the Gulf [being]
the subject of thecondominium or CO-ownership"(ibid.),"intemal watersin a qualified
sense" (ibid.),"intemal waters...subject to certainrights ofpassage" (ibid.),"the area of
joint sovereignty[in 19171"(para. 413),"the 3-milebelt of exclusivejurisdiction enjoyed
by each of the States along its coast" (ibid.),"the joint sovereignty in al1that area of
waters" (vara. 414)."the 3-milemaritime littoral belt of exclusive iurisdiction within the
Gulf' (Gra. 415),"'thelittoralmaritime belts of 1marine league ;long the coastlines of
the Gulf' (para.416),"the inner littoralmaritime belts.. notterritorial seasinthe sense
of the modem law" (ibid.),"the internal waters of the coastal State, not being subject to
the joint sovereignty, and even though subject ...to rights of innocent passage" (ibid.),
belts...mlimited to 3miles inbreadth" (ibid.),"intemal waters subject to a single, exclu-
sive sovereignty" (ibid.),"an historic bay" (ibid.),"the waters internal to [the]bay...
subject to a threefold joint sovereignty" (ibid.),"the legal situation [being]one of joint
sovereignty" (para. 420). DIFFBREN (DLSALVADOR/HONDUR (APSD)ISS.ODA) 734

sens géographique) qui, du fait de leur plus grande largeur à l'ouverture

oudu fait qu'elles nepénètrentpas dans lesterres, ne pourraient normale-
ment pas, d'un poiiit de vue juridique, être considérées comme des
baies mais qui, pour des raisons historiques, peuvent se voir accorder le
mêmestatut juridique que les «baies 1)L'expression «baie historique »
n'implique nullement que le satut juridique des eaux en question soit
autre, en quoi que ce:soit, que celui d'aeaux intérieures » de 1'Etatrive-
rain, comme dans le cas d'une «baie» normale (au sensjuridique). Au

sens dudroit de la mc:rcontemporain, leszonesmaritimesadjacentesaux
côtes des Etats font !partiesoit de la mer territoriale, soit des eaux inté-
rieures. Il ne peut pai;y avoird'autres catégoriespour ces eauxsituéesau
largedes côtes1.
5. Acepropos, je crains que laChambre,danssadéfinition du golfe de
Fonseca et du statutjuridique de ses eaux, n'obscurcisse la façon dont le
droit de la mer doit réellement être interprété L.es concepts auxquels la

Chambre a recours pour qualifier le secteur que représente le golfe de
Fonseca ou le statut juridique de seseaux2 sont tous, à des degrésdivers,
étrangersau droit de lamertel qu'ila prévaluau cours du siècledernier et
tel qu'il estaujourd'kiui.Lespréceptestraditionnels et actuels du droit de
la mer,tels queje les conçois,n'étayent doncpas lesconsidérationsavan-
céespar la Chambre, à l'aide desdites expressions, pour définir la situa-
tionjuridique desespacesmaritimes du golfe.

' Je dois ajouter ici le concept naissant d'eaux archipélagiques,dont je remets le
commentaire a plus tard (voirparagraphe 43de la présente opinion).
J'aispécifiquementi l'esprit les expressionssuivantes: «une baie historique dont
les eaux sont, en conséqiience,des eaux historiquesarrêt, par.383),«ceinture mari-
time, dans une baie dont plusieurs Etats étaient riverains»(par. 392),«ceintures mari-
timesdejuridiction excliisivede 3millespar. 393)« une baie historique qui constitue
une mer ferméeentieretrientsituéea l'intérieur du territoired'un seul Etat » (par. 395),
«une baie ferméedont plusieurs Etats sont riverains » (ibid.),«une baie historique et
par conséquent une «mer fermée » (ibid.),«eaux historiqu..soumises a la souverai-
neté conjointe des trois Etats riverains)) (par. 404), «baie historique qui baigne
unique de chacun [destrois riverains],mais avecdes droits réciproquesde passage inof-té
fensif» (ibid.),«eaux inttirieures soumises a un régimespécial et particulier,non seule-
ment de souverainetéccnjointe mais de droits de passage » (ibid«eaux du golfe ...
soumises au condominiiim ou a la copropriété» (ibid.),«eaux intérieuresen un sens
limité» (ibid.),«eaux intcxieu..soumisesàcertainsdroits de passage »(ibid.),«zone
de souveraineté conjointe [en19171))(par. 413), ((ceinture de 3 milles de juridiction
exclusiveet absolue appartenant à chacun des Etats le long de son littorald.),«la
souveraineté conjointedanslatotalitédeseaux»(par.414),«ceinturemaritime littorale
dejuridiction exclusivecle3millesà l'intérieur dugolfe»(par.415),((lesceinturesmari-
times littorales d'une lieiiemarine le long des côtes du golfe»(par. 416),«lesceintures
droit moderne » (ibid.),a eaux intérieuresde 1'Etatcôtier qui ne sont pas soumises a la
souveraineté conjointe,bien qu'elles restent suj..a des droits de passage inoffen-
sif»(par. 416),«un contlominium des eaux du golfe»(par. 418),«ceintures maritimes
littorales exclusiv...1mitéesa une largeur de 3 milles» (ibid.), «eaux intérieures
soumises a une souverailletéunique exclusive» (ibid.),«baie historique » (ibid.),«eaux
intérieuresde [la]baie.soumises a une souveraineté conjointedestrois Etats» (ibid.),
«la situationjuridique..est celle de la souveraineté conjointe» (par. 420). 6. To explain my view in full, it is necessary for me to begin with a
somewhat detailed outline ofboth the traditional and the contemporary
law of the sea relevant to the present case (Part of this opinion). 1will
then show why, in my opinion,the 1917Judgment of the Central Arneri-
can Court ofJustice, upon which the Chamber seemsto rely heavily, was
seriously misguided initsapplication ofthe concept ofa "historic bay" to
the Gulf. As a result of that Judgment,the status of the Gulf of Fonseca
has been misinterpreted by some scholars, and even misrepresented in
official documents of the United Nations (Part III).1shall then go on to
show how both the 1917Judgment and the present Judgment are in error
in finding, where the legal status of the waters of the Gulfconcerned,
that 3-milebelts may be left to eachriparian State while the central part
remains in condominium or joint ownership. The present Judgment

appearsto meto misapply the concept of condominium and to misunder-
stand the concept of "historic waters"(Part IV).Afterthat, 1shallexpound
the legal status which 1 hold to be correctly applicable to the Gulf of
Fonseca, that is, as constituting the sum of thearate territorial seas of
the threeriparian States(Part V).Lastly 1shall consider what rights Hon-
duras, whose territorial sea isbottled up in theGulf, may be entitled to in
the maritime spaces within and outside the Gulf (Part VI).

II. "BAY" OR "HISTORIC BAY" :LEGAL CONCEPT SNDER THE
LAW OF THE SEA

1. ne LegalStatus ofa Bay towardstheTurnof this Century

7. The parallel régimes ofthe open seas, free from the control of any
State,and ofthe waters which lieunder theterritorial sovereigntyof coas-
ta1States - theterritorial waters inthetraditional sens-, are centuries
old and have not until recent times, when the concepts of the continental
shelf and the exclusive economic zone emerged, been placed in doubt.
The problem ofthe wayin whichthe borders ofthesetwo parallel régimes
were to be drawn involved, as a preliminary issue, the question of the
breadth ofthe coastalmaritime beltaround oralongside theland.The mle
of the range of cannon-shot, which had prevailed inthe last century, was
aboutto be replaced by some fixed limits when the régimefor territorial
jurisdiction over coastal waters extending over a breadth of 1 marine
league wasemerging in parallel withthe 1878Territorial Waters Jurisdic-

tion Act of Great Britain.

8. The legalconcept ofa "bay" emergedonly inparallel withthis devel-
opment as an exception to the régimeof 1marine league territorial juris-
diction. While there would not have been any problem in a case where 6. Pour expliquer pleinementmon opinion, il me faut commencerpar
donner un aperçu assez détaillédu droit de la mer aussibien traditionnel
que contemporain eii rapport avec la présente affaire (deuxième partie
de cette opinion). Je montrerai alors pourquoi, a mon avis, l'arrêt rendu
en 1917par la Cour de justice centraméricaine, sur lequel la Chambre
semble beaucoup s'appuyer, s'est sérieusement fourvoyé enappliquant

le concept de «baie historique))au golfe. Du fait de cet arrêt,le statut
du golfe de Fonseca a ensuite été malinterprétépar certains auteurs et
même malexposédans des documents officiels de l'organisation des
Nations Unies (troisièmepartie ci-après).Je montrerai ensuite comment
c'esta tort qu'aussi bien l'arrêtde 1917que le présent arrêt parviennenta
la conclusion, s'agissant du statut juridique des eaux du golfe, que les
ceintures de 3milles peuvent êtrelaisséesa chaque Etat riverain tant que
le secteur central continue de faire l'objet d'un condominium ou d'un
régimede coproprieté. Le présent arrêt,me semble-t-il,se trompe dans
sonapplication du concept de condominium etdans soninterprétation du

concept d'a eaux historiques » (quatrième partie). Puis j'exposerai le
statut juridique que ,jeconsidère être réellement applicableau golfe de
Fonseca,c'est-à-dire le statut constituant la sommedes eauxterritoriales
distinctesdestrois Etatsriverains(cinquièmepartie). Enfin,j'étudierai la
question de savoirquels sont lesdroits que le Honduras, dont la merterri-
toriale estemboutei1:léedans le golfe,peut revendiquer dans les espaces
maritimes àl'intérieuretà l'extérieur dugolfe (sixièmepartie).

II. LESCONCEPI'S JURIDIQUES DE (<BAIE>>OU ((BAIE HISTORIQUE »
EN DROIT DE LA MER

1. Lestatutjuridique d'unebaieversledébutduXXesiècle

7. Lesrégimesparallèles applicables à la haute mer, libre du contrôle
de tout Etat, et aux€:auxqui relèventde la souverainetéterritoriale des
Etats côtiers- les eaux territoriales au senstraditionnel- remontent à
plusieurs siècles etcc:n'est que tout récemment,lorsque les concepts de
plateau continental et de zone économiqueexclusiveont vu lejour, qu'ils
ont étémis en question. Le problème posépar la question de savoir

comment devaient être tracéesles limites de ces deux régimesparallèles
soulevait,en tant que questionpréliminaire, celle de la largeur de la cein-
ture maritimecôtière entourant ou longeant laterre. La règlede la portée
de canon,quiavait p16valuau XIXesiècle,étaitsur lepoint d'être rempla-
céepar des limitesfixes,sousuneformeou une autre,lorsque lerégimede
juridiction territoriale sur les eaux côtièress'étendant surieue marine
de large est apparuail moment ou la Grande-Bretagne aadopté,en 1878,
la loi intituléeTerrirorialWaters JurisdictionAct (loi relativeà la juri-
diction sur les eauxtcmitoriales).
8. Leconceptjuridiquede «baie » n'estapparu que dans lecontexte de

cette évolution, en tant qu'exception au régimede la juridiction terri-
torialede l lieuemarine. Aucunproblèmen'était a prévoirdans le cas oùopposite headlands at the mouth of a geographical bay were less than
2marine leagues apart (evenwhen itscentre was atagreaterdistance than

1marine league from either coast) some slightly wider distances between
the headlands, reflecting the real range of cannon-shot at that time, were
proposed aspermittingthe entire waters ofabaytobe underthe territorial
jurisdiction of a singleriparian State.

9. In 1894the Institut de droit international, under the Presidency of
Louis Renault and with the assistance of Thomas Barclay as Rapporteur,
adopted the following rules :
"Pour les baies, la mer territoriale suit les sinuositésde la côte,

sauf qu'elle estmesurée à partir d'une ligne droite tirée entravers de
labaie dansla partie laplus rapprochéede l'ouverture verslamer,où
l'écartentre les deux côtes de la baie est de douze milles marins de
largeur, à moins qu'un usage continu et séculairen'ait consacréune
largeur plus grande." (Règlessur la définition etle régimede la mer
territoriale, Art. 3,nnuairede l'Institutde droit international,XIII,
1894-1895,p. 329.)
In the year that followed, the International Law Association (Thomas
Barclay being the Secretary of the Special Committee on Territorial
Waters) adopted the same provision, with the exception that the distance

of 12miles wouldbereplaced by 10miles(International LawAssociation,
Report of theSeventeenthConference,1895,p. 109).These ideas are well
reflected by Oppenheim, whofirstpublished in 1905hismost well-known
treatise on international law :
"[TerritorialGulfsand Bays]

It isgenerally admitted that such gulfs and bays as are enclosed by
theland of oneand the same ri~arian State.and whose entrance from
the sea isnarrow enough to be 'commandedby coast batteries erected
on one or both sides of the entrance, belong to the territory of the
riparian State even ifthe entrance is wider than two marine leagues,
or sixmiles." (L.Oppenheim, InternationalLaw,Vol. 1,1sted., 1905,
p. 246,para. 191 .)

The IO-mile rule was confirmed in the Award given in 1910 by the
Permanent Court of Arbitration in the North Atlantic Coast Fisheries
case (UNRIAA,Vol.XI,pp. 167,199).1am suggestingnot thatthe 1O-mile
rule had then become established but that the concept of a bay was about
to be realized as constituting an exception to the 1-marine-league terri-
torial sea in the caseof special configurations of thecoast forming a geo-
graphical bay.

10. It is further important to note that a riparian State's continued or
long-standing usage of the waters in a geographical bay was made a fur-
ther source of derogatiun from the rule based on a maximum width of
mouth, sothatthe whole ofthe waters in abaycharacterized bysuch usagelesterres sefaisant faceàl'embouchure d'une baieau sensgéographique
étaient séparéep sarinoins de 2lieuesmarines (mêmelorsque lecentre de
labaiesetrouvait àplus de 1lieuemarine de l'une oude l'autre côte),mais
il a été proposé que, même lorsqule es terres étaient séparéespar des
distances légèremenip .lus grandes, correspondant à la portéeréelled'un
canon à l'époque, l'ensembledes eaux d'une baie puisse être soumis à la
juridiction territoriale'unseulEtat riverain.
9. En 1894, 1'Insi.itutde droit international, sous la présidence de
Louis Renault et avec l'assistance de Thomas Barclay en qualité de
rapporteur, a adopté les règlesci-après:

((Pour les baies, la mer territoriale suit les sinuositésde la côte,
sauf qu'elle estnesurée àpartir d'une lignedroite tirée entraversde
labaie dans lap artielaplus rapprochéede l'ouverture verslamer,où
l'écartentre les deux côtes de la baie est de douze milles marins de
largeur,a moins qu'un usage continu et séculaire n'ait consacré une
largeur plus grande.» (Règlessur la définition et lerégimede la mer
territoriale, art. Annuairede l'Institutde droit international,XIII,
1894-1895,p. 329.)
L'année suivante,l'Ii1ternationalLawAssociation(Thomas Barclayétant
alors secrétaireducclmitéspécialdeseauxterritoriales) a adoptéla même

disposition,à celaprèsque ladistance de 12millesavaitétéremplacép ear
une distance de 10milles (International Law Association, Report of the
Seventeenth Confere,we,1895,p. 109).Ces idéessont bien reflétées par
Oppenheim, quia publiéen 1905la première éditionde son célèbretraité
de droit international:
(([Golfeset baiesoumis àlajuridiction territoriale]

11est généralementadmis que les golfes et les baies qui sont
entourés par le territoire d'un seul et mêmeEtat riverain et dont
l'entréeàpartir de lamer estsuffisamment étroitepour êtredominée
par desbatteries côtièresinstalléesd'un côtéde l'entrée ou des deux
appartiennent au territoire de1'Etatriverain mêmesi leur entréea
plus de 2lieues marines ou 6milles de large.(L.Oppenheim, Inter-
national Law,vol. 1,1'=éd.,1905,p. 246,par. 191 .)

La règledes 10mille:;a étéconfirméd eans lasentence rendue en 1910par
la Cour permanente d'arbitrage dans l'affaire des Pêcheriesdes côtes
septentrionalesde 12ltlantique(Nations Unies, Receuildes sentences arbi-
trales(RSA), vol. XI.,p. 167,199).Ce que je veux dire, ce n'est pas que la
règledes 10milles soit alors devenue une règle établie, mais plutôt que le
concept de baie étaitsur le point d'être considéré comme constituanutne
exception a la mer territoriale de 1lieue marine lorsque des configura-
tions spécialesde la côteformaient une baie au sens géographique.
10. En outre, il importe de noter que l'usage continu ou séculaire fait
par 1'Etatriverain des eaux d'une baie au sens géographique a été consi-
dérécomme un aut::e motif de dérogerà la règlefondéesur la largeur
maximum de l'embcluchure,de sorte que l'ensemble des eaux d'une baiecould beplaced, asa unity, under theterritorial jurisdiction ofthe State in
question. Some national practice, involving a claim to territoriality over
certain bays on the ground of continued or long-standing usage, had
been reported. In the case of Delaware Bayin the United States (which is
10miles across at its entrance and 40 miles long from its entrance to the

mouth of the Delaware River),Attorney-General Randolph, in 1793,ren-
dered (in the case of the capture of the British vessel Grangeby a French
frigate) an opinion to the effect that the bay was within thejurisdiction of
the United States, and Secretary of State Jefferson took action accord-
ingly. As forChesapeake Bay(which is 12miles across at its entrance), its
status was considered in 1885by the Second Court of Commissioners of
Alabama Claims in the case of the Alleganean,a vessel which had been
sunk in the waters of the bay by the Confederate forces, and the Court
held that this bay was entirely within the territorial jurisdiction of the
United States. In Reginav. Cunninghamin 1859,Chief Justice Cockburn
held that the part of the sea in the Bristol Channel (thewidth of its mouth
being slightlymore than 10miles),where wounding of a seaman on board
the Gleanerhad occurred, formed part of the County of Glamorgan. A
claim by Great Britain to Conception Bay in Newfoundland (which is
20miles across at its entrance) was upheld in 1877bythe Privy Council in
the case of TheDirect UnitedStates CableCo.Ltd. v. TheAnglo-American

TelegraphCompany.

I1. These four cases simply present examples of the practice whereby
States claimed exceptions to the geographical requirements governing a
bay on the basis of their historic exercise of authority. These examples of
national practice, among others, were reported in most of the leading
treatises of international law towards the turn of the last century. 1
quote again, asone example, from Oppenheim's 1905work:

"[TerritorialGuys and Bays]
Some writers maintain that gulfs and bays whose entrance iswider
than ten miles, or three and a third marine leagues, cannot belong to
the territory of the riparian State, and the practice of some States
accords with this opinion. But the practice of other countries,
approved bymanywriters, goesbeyondthis limit.Thus Great Britain

holds the Bay of Conception in Newfoundland to be territorial,
although itgoes forty miles into the land and has an entrance fifteen
miles wide. And the United States claim the Chesapeake and Dela-
ware Bays,as well as other inlets ofthe same character, as territorial,
although many European writers oppose this claim." (Op.cit.,Vol. 1,
1905,para. 191 .)caractériséepar un tel usage puisse êtreplacé,comme un tout, sous la
juridiction territoriale deEtatenquestion.Unepratique nationale,selon
laquelle une juridiction territoriale avait été revendiquée sur certaines
baies pour le motif d'un usage continu ou séculaire, avait été signalée.
Dans le cas de la baie du Delaware, aux Etats-Unis (qui a 10milles de
large à son entréeel 40 milles de long de son entrée à l'embouchure du
Delaware), I'Attornty-GeneralRandolph avait considéré en 1793(dans
l'affaire de la capture du navirebritannique Grangepar une frégatefran-
çaise) que la baie relevait de lajuridiction des Etats-Unis,et le secrétaire
d'Etat Jefferson avait alors agi en conséquence.S'agissant de la baie de
Chesapeake (qui a 12milles de large à son entrée), son statut avait été

analysé en 1885 par la Second Court of Commissioners of Alabama
Claims dans l'affairede I'Alleganean - navirequi avaitétécoulé dans les
eaux delabaie par lesforces delaConfédération - quiétaitparvenue àla
conclusion que cettebaie relevait entièrementde lajuridiction territoriale
des Etats-Unis. Daris l'affaire Regina v. Cunningham de 1859, le Chief
JusticeCockbum aviiitconsidéréquelesecteurmaritimesetrouvant dans
lechenal de Bristol(qui,ensonembouchure, aun peu plus de 10millesde
large), où un matelot avait étéblesséà bord du Gleaner,faisait partie du
comtéde Glamorgaii. Enfin, dans l'affaire TheDirect UnitedStates Cable
Co.Ltd.v. TheAngle-AmericanTelegraph Company,le conseilprivé avait
reconnu en 1877lebien-fondédes prétentionsde la Grande-Bretagnesurla
baie de Conception, i Terre-Neuve(qui a 20millesde large en son entrée).
11. Ces quatre affaires sont simplement des exemples de la pratique

selon laquelle des Etats avaient revendiqué des dérogations aux critères
géographiquesde détermination d'une baiesur labase de l'autoritéqu'ils
y avaient historiquement exercée.Ces exemples, parmi d'autres, de la
pratique nationale étaient signalésdans la plupart des principaux traités
de droit intemationil1 qui existaient vers la fin du XIXe siècle.Je citerai
encore, à titre d'illustration, le passage suivant de l'éditionde 1905de
l'ouvrageprécité d'Oppenheim :

(([Golfeset baiessoumis à lajuridiction territoriale]
Certains auteurs soutiennent que les golfes et les baies dont
l'entréea plus de10milles, ou3 lieues marines et un tiers, de large ne
peuvent pas appartenir au territoire de1'Etatriverain, et la pratique
de certains Etsis est conforme à cette opinion. Mais la pratique

d'autres pays, approuvée par de nombreux auteurs, va au-delà de
cette limite. C'estainsi que la Grande-Bretagne considèrela baie de
Conception, à 'Terre-Neuve,commefaisant partie de son territoire,
alors mêmequ'elle pénètredans les terres sur 40 milles et qu'elle a
une entréede 1.5milles de large. C'est ainsi égalementque les Etats-
Unis revendiquent la baie de Chesapeake et la baie du Delaware,
ainsi que d'aul.res échancrures ayant les mêmescaractéristiques,
comme faisant partie de leur territoire, alors mêmeque nombre
d'auteurs européens s'opposent à cetteprétention. »(Op. cit.,vol.1,
1905,par. 191 .)738 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AISS).P. ODA)

Those bays weregiventhe name "historic bay", probably forthe first time,
in the 1910 Arbitral Award in the North Atlantic Coast Fisheriescase
(UNRIAA, Vol. XI, pp. 167, 197).The term "historic bay" was found in
hardly any document prior to 1910.

12. Exceptas regards bays such asthose listed above, the legalrule gov-
erning a bay-feature was well expressed by the opinion of the Institut de
droit international in 1894,which was partly quoted above, to the effect
that "[plour les baies, la mer territoriale suit les sinuositésde la côte". It
should alsobe noted that, according to Oppenheim (1905),

"[Non-territorialGulfsand Bays]
Gulfs and bays surrounded by theland of one and the same ripar-

ian State whose entrance is so wide that it cannot be commanded by
coast batteries, and, further, al1gulfsand bays enclosed bytheland of
more than one riparian State, however narrowtheir entrance maybe,
are non-territorial. They are parts of the Open Sea, the marginal belt
inside the gulfs and bays excepted." (Op. cit.,para. 192.)

13. To conclude,ageographical bay which wasbordered bytheland of
two or more riparian Statescould not, asone area, be accorded any spe-
cial status inthe law of thesea; thus the waters inside such a bay were left
asbeing the maritime belt (theterritorial sea) and theopen sea (high seas).
One can hardly find any scholar towards the beginning of this century
who had ever argued the case of a "pluri-State bay", to use the Chamber's
term. In addition, while claims to the territoriality of a bay the mouth of
which spanned more than a certain fixed limit (say 10miles) had been
made on grounds of immemorial usage, or for historical reasons, as the
examples givenabove indicate, itiscertain that no such claim was ever,or
could have been, made in respect of any bay the coast of which was
divided among two or more States.

2. TheConcept ofa Bay throughoutthe Codification
Processof theLaw of theSea

(i) The1930League of Nations Codification Conference

14. What 1explained above may also be verified by scrutinizing the
process of codification of the relevant provisions of the law of the seaat
the 1930Conference for the Codification of International Law,convened
by the League of Nations, where the subject of territorial waters was one
of the three major items discussed.rior tothe Conference,GovernmentsCes baies ont reçu l'appellation de «baies historiques »,probablement
pour la première fois, dans la sentence arbitrale rendue en 1910dans
l'affaire desPêcherita des côtes septentrionalesde IAtlantique (Nations
Unies, RSA,vol. XI, p. 197).Avant 1910,aucun document ou presque ne
contenait l'expressioii «baie historique.

12. Sauf dans le cas des baies comme celles qui sont énuméréesci-
dessus, la règlejuridique applicable àune baie a été bien exprimée dans
l'opinion adoptée par l'Institut de droit international en 1894,citéeen
partie ci-dessus,selorilaquelle «[plourlesbaies,la merterritoriale suit les
sinuositésde la côte>) .l convient égalementde noter que, selon Oppen-
heim (1905) :
(([Golfeset baiesnonsoumis à lajuridictionterritoriale]

Les golfes et 11baies entourés parle territoire d'un seul et même
Etat riverain etdont l'entréeest si large qu'ils ne peuvent pas être
dominéspar dei;batteries côtières, de mêmeque tous les golfes et
baies entouréspitrleterritoire de plusd'un Etatriverain, pour étroite
que puisse êtreleur entrée,ne sontpassoumis à lajuridiction territo-
riale. Hormis la ceinture marginale à l'intérieur desgolfes et des
baies, leurseaux font partie de la haute mer.(Op.cit.,par. 192.)

13. En conclusion, une baie au sens géographique qui était entourée
par leterritoire deeux ouplusieursEtatsriverains nepouvaitpas,en tant
que zone spécifique, se voir accorder un statut spécial quelconque au
regard du droit de la mer, et les eaux l'intérieur d'une telle baie consti-
tuaient par conséqueiltsoit la ceinturemaritime,c'est-à-dire la mer terri-
toriale, soitla haute rner.On ne peut guèretrouver d'auteur, au débutdu
XXesiècle,qui ait jarnais défendul'existenced'une «baie dont plusieurs
Etats sont riverains +, pour reprendre l'expression employée par la
Chambre. En outre, si unejuridiction territoriale avaitdéjàétérevendi-
quée sur une baie dorit l'ouverture était plus largeque la limite fixée(par

exemple 10milles)pour desraisons d'usageséculaireoudesraisonshisto-
riques, comme dans les exemples donnés ci-dessus, il est certain, en
revanche,qu'aucune revendication decetype n'avaitjamais étéetn'aurait
pu être formulée con.cernant une baie dont le littoral était diviséentre
deux ou plusieurs Ete~ts.

2. Le conceptde baiependanttoutleprocessusde codification
dudroitde la mer

i) La conférence de codificationconvoquée en 1930sous les auspicesde la
SociétédesNations

14. Cequej'aiexposéci-dessussevérifieaussisil'on analyseleproces-
susdecodificationdesdispositionspertinentes du droit dela merqui a été
suivi lors de laconfcrence pour la codification du droit international
convoquéeen 1930 par la SociétédesNations,lorsde laquelle la question
deseauxterritoriales aété l'un destroisprincipaux thèmes de discussion.wererequested to provide information on various points, such as interalia
Point IV, "Determination of the Base Line for Measurement of the
Breadth of Territorial Waters", and Point VIII, "Line of Demarcation
between Inland Waters and Territorial Waters" (Conference for the
Codification of International Law, Bases of Discussion,Vol. II, pp. 35
and 61).
15. Mr. Walther Schücking, Rapporteur of the Committee of Experts
for the subject of "Territorial Waters", had already in 1927drawn up a
memorandum and a draft convention (Committee of Experts for the Pro-
gressive Codification of International Law, Report to the Councilof the
League of Nationson the Questions whichAppear Ripefor International
Regulation, 1927, pp. 29 and 39). The text of the draft convention,
amended by Mr.Schückingin consequence ofthe discussions inthe Com-
mittee of Experts and submitted to the Preparatory Committee in 1929,
stated interalia:

"Article 4.

Bays.
Inthe case of bays which arebordered by the territory of a single
State, the territorial sea shall follow the sinuosities of the coast,
except that it shallbe measured from a straight line drawn across the
bay at thepart nearest tothe opening towards the sea where the dis-
tance between thetwoshores ofthe bay isten marine miles 'unlessa
greater distance hasbeen established bycontinuous and immemorial
usage. The waters of such bays are to be assimilated to internal
waters.
In the case of bays which are bordered by the territory of two or
more States, the territorial sea shall follow the sinuosities of the
coast." (Conference for the Codification of International Law, Bases
of Discussion,Vol.II, p. 193.)

Mr.Schückinghad suggestedthe IO-milelengthforthe mouth ofabaybut
had been prepared to recognize an exception in cases of continuous and
immemorial usage. He had conceived that the legal concept of a bay
would be applicable solely to a single-State bay. The "right of pacific
passage" would have been guaranteed only through the "territorial
sea" (Art. 7)but not a bay "assimilated tointernal waters".

16. In 1929,after examination of the replies and, presumably, of the
draft convention drawn up by Mr.Schücking,the Preparatory Committee
for the Conference drafted Bases of Discussion for the use of the pro-
posed conference which read interalia

' Inthe originaldraftof 1927this distancewasfixed at 12miles, not10miles. DIFFÉRENC (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (APS) ISSODA) 739

Avant la conférence,les gouvernementsavaient été priésde fournir des
informations sur différentspoints,dont lepoint IV: «Ligne de base pour
calculerl'étendue deseauxterritoriales »,et lepoint VI11:«Délimitation
deseauxintérieures rt deseauxterritoriales »(Conférencepour lacodifi-
cation du droitinternational, Basesde discussion,vol. II, p. 35et 61).

15. M.Walter Schücking,rapporteurdu comitéd'experts pourla ques-
tion des «eaux terri1:oriales», avait déjà, en 1927,élaboré un mémoran-
dum et un projet de convention (comité d'experts pour la codification
progressive du droit international, Rapportau Conseilde la Société des

Nationssur lesquestionsqui semblent mûrespour unesolutionpar voie
d'entente internationale,1927,p. 29 et 39). Le texte du projet de conven-
tion, amendépar M. Schücking à lalumièredesdiscussionsquiavaienteu
lieu au sein du comitéd'expertsetsoumis au comitépréparatoire en1929,
prévoyait notammenitce qui suit :

«Article4.
Baies.

Pour les baie:;qui sont environnéesde terre d'un seul Etat, la mer
territoriale suit les sinuositésde la côte sauf qu'elle est mesuréà
partird'une ligriedroite- entravers de labaie, dans la partie laplus
rapprochéedel'ouverture vers la mer, où l'écart entreles deux côtes
de la baie estde 10milles marins lde largeur, àmoins qu'un usage
continu et séculairen'ait consacréune largeurplusgrande. Leseaux
de cesbaies sont assimiléesà des eauxintérieures.

Pour lesbaie:;qui sont environnéesde terres de deux ou plusieurs

Etats, la merte~ritoriale suit les sinuositésde la côte. » (Conférence
pour la codification du droit international, Bases de discussion,
vol. II, p. 193.)

M. Schückingavait suggéré la distance de 10milles pour l'entrée d'une
baie mais avait été disposé à admettre une exception en cas d'usage
continu et séculaire. Selon lui, le concept juridique de baie n'aurait été
applicable qu'aux baies dont un seul Etat était riverain. Le «droit de
passage inoffensif » (ibid.,art. 7) n'aurait été garantique dans les «mers
territoriales,etnon dans unebaie dont leseauxétaient((assimilées à des
eaux intérieures».
16. En 1929,aprèsavoir examinéles réponseset, sansdoute, le projet
de convention élaborépar M. Schücking, le comité préparatoirede la

conférencea rédigé, à l'intention de la future conférence, des bases de
discussionqui se lisaientnotamment commesuit :

Dans le projetinitialde 1927,cette distance afixéeà 12milles et non pas
10milles.

392740 DISPUTE (EL SALVADOR/HONDUR (AISS). P.ODA)

"Limitsof theTerritorialWaters
.............................

Basis of Discussion No. 7
In the case of bays the coasts of which belong to a single State, the
belt of territorial waters shall bemeasured from a straightline drawn
across the opening of the bay. If the opening of the bay is more than
ten miles wide, the line shall be drawn at the nearest point to the
entranceat which the opening does not exceed ten miles.

Basis of Discussion No. 8
The belt ofterritorial waters shall be measured from a straight line
drawn across the entrance of abay, whatever its breadth maybe, ifby
usage the bay issubject tothe exclusiveauthority ofthe coastalState :
the onus of proving such usage is upon the coastal State.

Basis of Discussion No. 9
If two or more States touch the coast of a bay or estuary of which
the opening does not exceed ten miles, the territorial waters of each
coastalState are measured from the line of low-water mark along the
coast.
...........................

Basis of Discussion No. 18
Thebase line from which the belt of territorial waters ismeasured
in front of bays, ... forms the line of demarcation between inland
[nowcalled interna1waters]and territorial waters [nowcalled territo-
rial sea]." (Conference for the Codification of International Law,

BasesofDiscussion,pp. 45 and 63 '.)
"Inland waters" would certainly have been differentiated from "territo-
rial waters" in thesense thatthe right of innocentpassage of foreign ships
should be guaranteed only inthe latter, as stated:

"Foreignshipspassing through territorial waters
Basis of Discussion No. 19

Acoastal State isbound to allow foreign merchant shipsa right of
innocent passage through its territorial waters ..." (Zbid.,p. 7.)

17. During the course of the Conference from 13 March to 12April
1930,somedelegations presented observations and amendments regard-

' Thetextofthe Basesof Discussionwasalsoquoted inActsofthe Conferencfeor the
Codificationof InternationalLaw,VolIIIp. 179,andit is onlytherethatthe titlesare
given. « Limitesdes eulu:territoriales
.............................
Base de discussion no7

Pour les baie!;dont un seul Etat est riverain, l'étendue des eaux
territoriales sera mesurée à partir d'une ligne droite tirée en travers
de l'ouverture de la baie; si l'ouverture de la baie excède 10milles,
cette ligneseratiréeentraversdelabaie dans la partie laplus rappro-
chéede l'entrét:,au premier point où l'ouverture n'excédera pas
10milles.

Base de discussion no8
L'étenduede:;eaux territoriales sera mesurée à partir d'une ligne
droite tirée en travers de l'ouverture de la baie, quelle que soit la

largeur de celle-ci,si, d'après l'usage, cette baie relèvede la seule
autoritéde I'Etatriverain; la preuve de cet usage incombe à cet Etat.
Base de discussion no9

Si deux ou plusieurs Etats sont riverains d'une baie ou d'un
estuaire dont l'ouverture n'excèdepas 10milles,leseauxterritoriales
dechaque Etat Iiverain semesurent àpartir de la laisse de basse mer
le long de la côti:.

Base de discussion no 18
Laligne de démarcation entreleseauxintérieureset leseauxterri-
toriales [maintenant appeléesmer territoriale] est la ligne qui sert de
base pour la déti:rminationdeseauxterritoriales devant lesbaies ...)
(Conférence pour la codification du droit international, Bases de
discussion, p. 45et 63'.)

Les «eaux intérieures»auraient certainement été distinguéesdes«eaux
territoriales» en ce sens que le droit de passage inoffensif des navires
étrangers ne devait être garanti que dans ces dernières, comme le

prévoyaitle projet :
« Passagedes naviresétrangersa traversleseaux territoriales

Base de discussion no 19
L'Etat riverain doit reconnaître aux navires de commerce étran-
gers le droit de passage inoffensif dans ses eaux territoriales...))
(Zbid.,p. 71.)

17. Pendant la coriférence,qui s'esttenue du 13mars au 12avril 1930,
quelquesdélégationsont soumis à la deuxièmecommission(eaux territo-

Letexte des basesde:discussionaété cité également dansAlcetsesde la conférence
pour lacodificationdurgitinternational,voIIIp. 179,etce n'estquelaque lestitres
sont indiqués.ing those bases of discussion in the Second Committee (Territorial
Waters). A report adopted by the Second Committee on 10April 1930
(with Mr. J. P.A. François as Rapporteur), disclosed an absence of agree-
ment as to the breadth of the territorial sea, and announced a failure to
conclude a convention on the territorial sea mainly for that reasonl. It

read as follows :

"The absence of agreement as to the breadth of the territorial sea
affected to an evengreater extenttheaction tobetaken onthe Second
Sub-Committee's report. The questions which that Sub-Committee
hadto examine are socloselyconnected withthebreadth ofthe terri-
torial sea that the absence of an agreement on that matter prevented
the Committee from taking even a provisional decision on the arti-
cles drawn up by the Sub-Committee. These articles, nevertheless,
constitute valuable material for the continuation of the study of the

question, and aretherefore also attached to the present report." (Acts
of the Conferencefor the Codificationof International Law, Vol. III,
p. 211.)

The draft articles proposed by the Second Sub-Committee, which though
not adopted were appended to the Report of the Committee itself, read :

" Bays

In the case ofbays the coasts of which belong to a single State,the
belt ofterritorial watersshallbe measured from astraightline drawn
across the opening of the bay. If the opening of the bay is more than
ten miles wide, the line shall be drawn at the nearest point to the

entrance at which the opening does not exceed ten miles." (Ibid.,
Vol.III, p. 217; see also Vol. 1,p. 131.)

In parallel, the draft articles prepared by the First Sub-Committee were
provisionally approved by the Committee. In them it was stated that the

It is only since the 1930 Codification Conference that the wording "territorial
seas" (whichwere often termed "territorial waters") hasbeen uniformly used to denom-
inate the coastal maritime belt (see Report of the Second Committee: TerritorialSea
(Rapporteur: Mr. François), Appendix 1, Art. 1, Observations; Acts, Vol. 1, p. 126;
Vol. III, p. 213).The relevant passage reads:
"There wassomehesitation whether itwould bebetter to usethe term 'territorial
waters' orthe term 'territorial sea'.The use of the first term, which was employed
bythe Preparatory Comrnittee,maybe saidtobe moregeneral and itisemployed in
several international conventions. There can,however,be no doubt thatthis term is
likelyto lead - and indeed has led - to confusion, owing to the fact that it is also
waters' inthe restricted sense of this latter term. For these reasons, the expression
'territorial sea' has beenadopted." DIFF~REND (ELSALVADOR/HONDU(R OAP.DISS.ODA) 741

riales) des observationset amendements concernant cesbases de discus-

sion. Un rapport adopté par la deuxième commission le 10 avril 1930
(avec M. J. P. A. François comme rapporteur) faisait apparaître une
absence d'accord quant à la largeur de mer territoriale et signalait qu'il
seraitimpossibledeconclureune conventionsurlamerterritoriale, essen-
tiellement pour cette raison lCe rapport se lisait en partie comme suit:

«Le manque d'un accord concernant l'étenduede la mer territo-
riale a euencore plus d'influence sur la suitàdonner au rapport de
la deuxièmesoils-commission. La relation entre les questions que

cettesous-comniissionavait à examineretl'étendue delamerterrito-
riale est si étroiteque l'absencede règles relatives la largeur de la
zone a empêché la Commissionde seprononcer, même àtitreprovi-
soire, sur les articles élaboréspar cette sous-commission. Ces ar-
ticles, qui cons1:ituentquand mêmeun matériel précieuxpour la
continuation des étudesencettematière,ont été égalementannexés
au présentrapport. » (Actesde la conférencp eour la codzjkationdu

droit international,ol. III, p. 211.)

Les projets d'articles proposés parla deuxième sous-commission, qui,
bien que n'ayant pas été adoptésa ,vaient été jointsau rapport de la
commissionelle-mêmes ,elisaientnotamment commesuit :

«Baies

Pour les baie:;dont un seul Etat est riverain, l'étendue des eaux
territoriales sera mesuréeà partir d'une lignedroite tiréeen travers
de l'ouverture de la baie; sil'ouverture de la baie excèdedixmilles,
cetteligneseratiréeentraversdelabaie dans lapartie laplus rappro-

chéede l'entrée,au premier point où l'ouverture n'excédera pas
dix milles.»(Zbid.,vol. III, p. 217; voirégalementvol. 1,p. 131.)

Parallèlement,lesprojets d'articles établispar la première sous-commis-
sion avaient été prolrisoirementapprouvéspar la commission. Il y était

Ce n'est que depuis la conférencede codification de 1930que l'expression «mer
territoriale »(qui étaitalors souvent appelée«eaux territoriales ») a étéutilisée unifor-
mémentpour désignerla ceinturemaritime littorale (voirleRapportdeladeuxièmesous-
commission:mer territoriale(rapporteur: M. François), app. 1, art. 1, observations;
Actes,vol. 1,p. 126;vol. III, p. 213).Lepassage pertinent se lit comme suit:
«On a hésitentn: lechoix des expressions «eaux territoriales »et «mer territo-
riale. En faveur dii premier terme, qui était employépar le comitépréparatoire,
militent l'usage plus général'emploi dans plusieurs conventions internatio-
nales. Toutefois, on ne saurait contester que ce terme estaprêter- et
prêteen eff-ta der confusions du faitqu'ons'ensert aussipour indiquer leseaux
intérieures, ou bien l'ensemble deseaux intérieures et des eaux ((tD,ritoriales
sion «mer territoriale. »ot. Pour ces raisons, on a donnéla préférenceàI'expres-"right of innocent passage" would be guaranteed to foreign commercial
vesselsin a belt of seacalled the "territorial sea".

18. Thedraft articles did not, however, includeany provision concern-
ingbays bordered by the land of two or more States. If, in these draftarti-
cles containedin the Report of the Committee, no rule or regulation was
suggested in regard to multi-State bays,this wasdoubtless because itstood
to reason that such cases would be amenable to the general rule whereby
theterritorial sea of each riparian State ismeasuredfrom that State'sown
coastline. Furthermore,the lack of a reference to a historic bay in those
draft articles was presumably dueto the difficulty of generalizing histori-
cal elements that could have justified givingthe status of a bay to certain
coastal configurations which would othenvise not be regarded as bays
because of their larger measurement at the mouth. Though this lack of
reference may not,admittedly, be interpreted as meaning thatthe concept
of a "historic bay" was denied,the fact remains that there was never any
suggestion that it could be applicable to a "pluri-State bay".

(ii) TheUnitedNationsConferencesontheLawof theSea

19. At the United Nations International Law Commission Mr. J. P.A.
François,nominated as Special Rapporteur on the subjects ofthe territo-
rial seas and of the high seas,making hisfirst reportin 1952onthe territo-
rial sea, proposed the same provision concerninga bay asthat endorsed
by the 1930 Codification Conference (ILC Yearbook,1952, II, p. 34).
Mr. François's second report in 1953followed the same lines (ILC Year-
book,1953,II, p. 56).Incorporating the suggestions made by thegroup of
experts on the geographical and technical aspects of the territorial sea,
Mr. François in his third report in 1954submitteda more detailed propo-
sa1inwhich,while the IO-milewidth was maintained fora closing-lineof a
bay, it was specified that the dimensions of a bay should not be smaller
than a semi-circle constructed with that closing-line as diameter
(ZLC Yearbook,1954,II, p. 4). The draft articles on the "Régimeof the
Territorial Sea" prepared by the International Law Commission in 1955
provided forthe first time forthe detaileddefinition of a "bay", themouth
ofwhich wouldnotbe more than 25milesinwidth,taking intoaccount the
then prevailing trend in favour of a 12-mileterritorial sea (instead of a
3-mile limit), while the waters within a single-State bay would be con-
sidered "internal waters" (Art. 7, paras. 3 and 4; ILC Yearbook,1955,
II, p. 36). It was also stated that "the provision laid downin paragraph 4
[concerning the 25-mile rule] [should]not apply to so-called 'historical'

bays ..."(Art. 7, para. 5). It may be added that the 1955draft articles on
the "Régimeof the High Seas" provided that there would, apart from the
high seas, be only territorial sea or internal waters of a State (Art. 1 ; DIFF~RENLI (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (OAS.)ISS.ODA) 742

dit que le ((droit dl: passage inoffensif)) serait garanti aux navires de
commerceétrangers dans une ceinture maritimeappelée la «mer territo-
rialeB.
18. Toutefois, les projets d'articles ne comportaient aucune disposi-
tion concernant lesbaies entouréespar le territoire de deux ou plusieurs
Etats. Si,dans cesprojetsd'articles figurantdans lerapport de lacommis-
sion, aucune règle ni aucun règlement n'étaitsuggérépour les baies

dont plusieurs Etatsétaientriverains, c'étaittrèscertainement parce qu'il
tombait sous le sens que de telles situations devraient être soumises la
règlegénérale selon laquellela mer territoriale de chaque Etat riverain
était mesurée à partir du littoral de cet Etat. En outre, l'absence de réfé-
renceauxbaies histc~riquesdans cesprojetsd'articles étaitsansdoutedue
à ladifficultéqu'ily avaià fairedesgénéralisationssurlabase d'éléments
historiques qui auraient pujustifier dedonner lestatut debaieà certaines
configurations côtii:res qui, autrement, n'auraient pas été considérées
comme des baies en raison de la plus grande largeur de leur ouverture.
Bien que ce silence ne puisse certes pas être interprécomme signifiant
que le concept de «baie historique » ait été rejetéi,l n'en demeure pas
moins qu'il n'a jamais été suggérq éue ce concept fût applicable à une
«baie dont plusieuri;Etats sont riverain».

ii) Les conférencesdm Nations Uniessur ledroitde la mer

19. Lorsque M. .I.P. A. François, nommé rapporteur spécialde la
Commission du droitinternational de l'ONU pour lesquestions de la mer
territoriale et de la haute mer, a présentéen 1952son premier rapport
concernant la mer t~:rritoriale,il a proposé d'adopter au sujet des baies
une disposition identique à celle qu'avait approuvée la conférencede
codification de 19313 (Annuaire de la Commissiondu droit international
(ACDI), 1952,II, p. 34). Le deuxième rapport de M. François, en 1953,
allait dans lemêmc:sens (ACDI, 1953, II, p. 56). Dans son troisième
rapport, en 1954,M. François, après avoir tenu compte des suggestions
formuléespar le grouped'experts chargéd'étudierlesaspectsgéographi-

ques et techniques de la mer territoriale, a présentéune proposition plus
détaillée qui, toutriconservant une largeur de 10milles marins pour la
ligne de fermeture cl'unebaie, spécifiaitque la superficie d'une baie ne
devait pas être inférieureà celle d'un demi-cercle ayant pour diamètre
cette ligne de fermeture(ACDI, 1954,II, p. 4). Le projet d'articles sur le
«Régimedelamertc:rritoriale»élaboré par laCommission du droitinter-
national en 1955contenait pour la premièrefois une définition détaillée
des «baies » et stipiilait que l'ouverture d'une baie ne devrait pas avoir
plus de 25millesde largeur,comptetenu de latendance qui semanifestait
alors en faveur d'unr mer territoriale de 12milles (au lieu d'une limite de
3 milles), tandis que:les eaux d'une baie dont un seul Etat était riverain
seraient considéréescomme«eaux intérieures »(art. 7,par. 3 et 4; ACDI,
1955,II, p. 36). Il était diten outre que «la disposition prévue au para-
graphe 4[concernantla règledes25milles][nedevrait]pas s'appliquer à ce743 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AIS)S.P.ODA)

ILC Yearbook,1955,II, p. 21).The 1956"Articles concerning the Law of
the Sea" followed those of 1955(combiningthe two sets of draft articles),
except that the width ofthe mouth of a - juridical- bay was reduced to
15miles (Art. 7, para. 3; ILC Yearbook,1956,II, p. 268)because it was
recognized that the presumption of a 12-milelimit forthe territorial sea
would at that time be difficult to maintain. This was the text of the draft

used asthe basis for discussion atUNCLOS 1.

20. At UNCLOS 1in 1958,a distance of 24miles as the limit for the
mouth of a bay was adopted as Article 7 of the 1958Convention on the
Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone on the basis of a recommenda-
tion included in a joint proposal submitted by the USSR, Bulgaria and
Poland (AICONF. 13/C. 1/L. 103).Although the Conference failed to fix
the limit of the territorial sea,the trend towards a 12-milelimit could not

be ignored and the mouth of a bay could not be fixed ata distance shorter
than twice the length of that limit. At the same time a proposa1presented
by Japan to define the term "historic bays" as meaning

"those bays over which coastal State or Stateshave effectivelyexer-
cised sovereign rights continuously for a period of long standing,
with explicit or implicit recognition of such practice by foreign
States" (MCONF. 13/C.1/L.104)
was withdrawn in favour of a proposal by India and Panama, recom-

mending that "the General Assembly should make appropriate arrange-
ments for the study of the juridical régime ofhistoric waters including
historic bays" (NCONF. 13/C.l/L. 158/Rev.l), which was adopted by
the Conference as a resolution on the "Régimeof Historic Waters" l.The
"historic" bay was thus not defined in clear terms in the Convention,
which states in paragraph 6 of Article 7(assuggestedin the 1956draft of
the International Law Commission), that "[tlhe foregoing provisions
[relatingto abay]shallnot apply to so-called'historic' bays..."Apropo-
sa1by the United Kingdom to insert a new paragraph reading that the
provisions concerning a bay "relate[s] only to bays the coasts of which
belong to a single State" (A/CONF.13/C.I/L.62) was adopted by

' In 1962, pursuantto the resolutionadopted by UNCLOS 1 and General As-
semblyresolution1453(XIV)of 1959the UnitedNationsSecretariatpreparedanoteon
the "Juridical Régimof Historic Waters,including HistoricBays"/CN.4/143;
ILCYearbook,1962,II,p. l), whichitis not necessaryto quotehere.qu'il estconvenu d'i~ppelerles baies «historiques »...» (art. 7, par. 5). Il
convientd'ajouter queleprojetd'articles surle« Régimedelahaute mer»
élaboré en1955prévoyait qu'indépendammentde la haute mer il n'y
aurait que la mer territoriale ou les eaux intérieures d'un Etat(art. ;
ACDI,1955,II, p.21).Les((articlesconcernant ledroit delamer»publiés
en 1956suivaient le textede 1955(en combinant lesdeux sériesde projet
d'articles),celaprèsque la largeur de l'ouverture d'une baie - au sens

juridique - avait été ramené e 15milles(art. 7, par. 3; ACDI, 1956,II,
p. 268),car l'on s'étatendu compte que la présomptiond'une limite de
12millespour lamerterritoriale seraitalorsdifficileàmaintenir. Tela été
le texte du projet qui a servi de base de discussion lors de la première
conférencedes Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer.
20. Ala première conférencedes NationsUnies sur le droit de la mer,
en 1958,ila été déci'dés, r la base d'une recommandation figurant dans
uneproposition conjointeprésentéepar la Bulgarie,la Pologne etl'URSS
(A/CONF.13/C.1/14.103), de fixer à 24 milles la limite de l'ouverture
d'une baie,règlequi figureà l'article7delaconvention de 1958surlamer
territoriale et lane contiguë. Bienque la conférencen'aitpas arrêté les

limites de la mer territoriale, le mouvement en faveur d'une limite de
12millesnepouvait pasêtreignoré etlalargeurd'une baieàsonouverture
ne pouvait pas être fixée à une distance inférieureau double de cette
limite. Simultanémi:nt,une proposition du Japon tendant à définir
l'expression«baies liistoriques»commes'appliquant

«aux baies sur lesquelles 1'Etatriverain ou les Etats riverains exer-
cent effectivementdes droits souverains de façon continue depuis
trèslongtemps,lesautres Etatsayantexplicitementouimplicitement
reconnu cettepratique »(A/CONF. 13/C.1/L.104)
a été retirée enaveur d'une proposition de l'Inde et du Panama recom-
mandant «que la conférencerenvoie la question à l'Assembléegénérale

des Nations Unies en lui demandant de prendre des dispositions appro-
priéespour l'étude tiu régimejuridique des eaux historiques, y compris
les baies historiques» (A/CONF. 13/C.1/L. 158/Rev.1), recommanda-
tion qui a étéadopt15epar la conférencedans une résolutionrelative au
«Régimedeseauxhistoriques 'B. Lesbaies «historiques »n'ontdonc pas
étédéfiniesentermesclairsdans la convention,laquelledispose aupara-
graphe 6 de l'article 7 (comme suggérédans le projet de 1956de la
Commissiondu droitinternational), que «[l]esdispositionsquiprécèdent
[concernant les baies] ne s'appliquent pas aux baies dites ((histori-
ques B..» Une propclsitiondu Royaume-Unitendant àinsérerun nouveau

En 1962,conformémentà la résolutionadoptéepar la premièreconférence des
Nations Uniessurle droitde la meretàla résolution1453(XIV)adoptéeparI'Assem-
bléegénéraleen 1959,leSecrétatel'ONUapréparé unenotesurle«Régime juridi-
quedes eauxhistoriques,y comprislesbaieshistoriques»(A/CN.4/ACDI, 1962,
II,p. l), qu'iln'estpasnécessairede citerici.28votes to 21 with 20abstentions and became paragraph I of Article 7 of
the 1958Convention.

21. The subject of a "bay" was barely touched upon in UNCLOS III.
The only proposa1 relating to bays was submitted by Colombia at the
fourth session in 1976and wasto the effectthatthe 24-milerule of the bay
should "not apply to so-called'historic' baysortobays the coasts ofwhich
belong to more than one State" (A/CONF.62/C.2/L.91). Colombia also
proposed another article stating

"2. A bay the coasts of which belong to two or more States and
which satisfies the requirements laid down in paragraph 1 of this
article [concerning the demonstration of the sole possession of
the waters of the bay continuously, peaceably and for a long time,
and the tacit acceptance of that situation by third States] shall be
regarded as historic only when there is agreement between the
coastal States tothat effect." (Ibid.)

There isno record indicating that this Colombian proposa1was discussed
atthe meetings of the Conference. In view of the fact that al1the debates
in that session were considered to be informal negotiations and, for that
reason, not placed on record, there is no reason to think that that pro-
posa1was not discussed: yet the texts which were successively prepared
bytheConference, such as ICNT(Informa1 Composite NegotiatingText)
(1977), ICNT/Rev.l (1979), ICNT/Rev.2 (1980) and the Draft Conven-
tion (1980),were al1identical to the relevant text inthe 1958Convention.
The provisions of the 1982United Nations Convention on the Lawof the
Sea concerning a bay remain practically identical to those of the
1958GenevaConvention, except that they "do not", instead of "shall not"
apply to "so-called 'historic'bays".

3. ne ContemporaryConceptofa Bay orHistoricBay: the Legal
Status oflt BeingInterna1Watersofa SingleRiparianState

22. Thecontemporary lawofthe sea isas follows.Aterritorial sea,over
which theterritorial jurisdiction of the coastal Statextends for a 12-mile
distance ',is measured in principle from the baselines of the Coast.The

' The 12-mileruleis provided forin the 1982United Nations Conventi(Art.3),
which maynow properlybe considered as having confirmed theom. DIFFÉREND (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (OAS.)ISS.ODA) 744

paragraphe prévoyaiitque les dispositions relatives aux baies ne concer-
naient «que les baies dont un seul Etat est riverain)) (A/CONF.13/
C.l/L.62) a étéadoptée par 28 voix contre 21 avec 20 abstentions, et est
devenue le paragraphe 1de l'article 7de la convention de 1958.
21. La question des «baies »a àpeine étéabordéelors de la troisième
conférencedes Nations Uniessur le droit de la mer. La seuleproposition
relativeauxbaies,soiimisepar laColombielors delaquatrièmesession de
la conférence,en 1976,stipulait que la règledes 24 milles ne serait «pas
applicable aux baies dites ((historiques » ou baies dont les côtes appar-
tiennent àplus d'un Etat» (A/CONF.62/C.2/L.91). La Colombie avait
égalementproposé un autrearticle qui se lisait en partie commesuit

((2. Une baie:dont les côtes appartiennentà deux ou plusieurs
Etats et qui répondaux critèresvisésau paragraphe1du présentar-
ticle [concernantla preuve de la possession exclusive des eaux de la
baie surune basecontinue,paisible etpendant longtemps,etl'accep-
tation tacite de cette situation par les,Etats tiers] n'est considérée
commehistorique que lorsqu'il existeun accord à cet effet entre les
Etats riverains.(Zbid.)

Rien n'indique que c':tteproposition colombienne ait discutéelorsdes
réunionsde la confhence. Comme les discussions qui ont eu lieu lors de
cette session étaient toutes considérées comme des négociations offi-
cieuses et n'ont donc pas étéconsignéesdans les comptes rendus, il n'ya
aucune raison de penser que la proposition en question n'apas été discu-
tée;néanmoins,lestextessuccessifsqui ontiétéélaboré par laconférence,
comme le texte de ntigociation composite officieux en 1977,sa première
revision en 1979,sa deuxième revision en 1980et le projet de convention
en 1980également, ,btaienttous identiques aux dispositions correspon-
dantes de laconveni:ionde 1958.Les dis ositions de la convention des

Nations Unies surle droit de la mer de 19 2relatives auxbaiesdemeurent
virtuellement identiquesà celles qui sV ouvent dans la convention de
Genèvede 1958, à cela prèsqu'elles «nels'appliquent pas - alors que
la convention de 1958stipulait que la disposition correspondante «ne
s'appliquera pas »- «aux baies dites ((historiques ».

3. Le concept coiztemporaidebaie oudebaie historique:ses eaux
ontlestatutjuridique d'eauxintérieures'unseulEtat riverain

22. Ledroit de la inercontemporain estlesuivant. La largeur de la mer
territoriale, surqwlle lajuridiction territoriale de 1'Etatcôtier s'étend
sur une distance de 12mille',est en principe mesuréeà partir des lignes
l

La regle des 12 milles est prévuedans laiconvention des Nations Unies de 1982
(art. 3), qui peut maintrmantvalablementêtreconsidéréeayant confirméla
norme.baselines for measuring the breadth of the territorial seaare in principle
the "normal baselines", i.e.,those that closelyfollowthe configuration of
the coast. They can, however, be "straight baselines" in the exceptional
cases of "localitieswhere the coastline isdeeply indented and cut into,or
ifthere isa fringe of islandsalongthe coast in itsimmediate vicinity", and
of the "closing line" for a bay as specifically defined in terms of the
breadth of its mouth, its features and the degree of its landward penetra-
tion. The waters within such straight baselines of the territorial sea are
regarded as "internal waters of the State". These principles are clearly
stated in the 1982United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(Arts. 3,4,7,8 and IO),which are practicallyidentical to the relevant pro-
visions of the 1958Geneva Convention on the Territorial Sea and the
Contiguous Zone and may legitimately be considered as expressing cus-
tomary international law today. Immediate offshore sea-waters are thus
either territorialsea orinternal waters,both included intheterritory ofthe
coastal Statebut subjected to some conditions (in particular, the right of

innocent passage to be granted to forei n?commercial vesselsin the terri-
torial sea),but cannot be anything else .

23. Inthe case of a "bay", the waterswithinit are treated as an expanse
of "internal waters" andtheterritorial seaismeasuredfrom thebay'sclos-
ing-line as a baseline. That point has gone undisputed throughout the
development of the contemporary law of the sea since the 1930Codifica-
tion Conference. As 1mustrepeat, iftherehasbeenanyuncertainty inthis
respect, it relates only to the kind of features, geographically or histori-
cally,that could constitute criteria for classifyingaparticular coastalcon-
figuration as a "bay", hence asenclosinginternalwaters ofthe state where
the right of innocent passage isnot granted.

24. It may be concluded that the simple outcome of this study of the
development ofthe lawofthe sea isthat there did not and stilldoes not(or,
even,cannot) existany suchlegalconcept asa"pluri-State bay" the waters
of which are internal waters. It isnotsurprising thatno rule covering such
a pluri-State bay has ever been presented in international law. The very
concept of "internal waters", which only appeared - under the term of
"inland waters" - in parallel with the fixing ofthe limit of the territorial
waters (sea), implies, as a nom, the enclosure or semi-enclosure of the
watersconcerned within the embrace ofa given jurisdiction. Thiselement

notbe directlyrelevantto the presetase(cf. footnotep.734, above).,whichmay DIFFÉRENJ~(EL SALVADOR/HONDUR (APS)ISS.ODA) 745

de base de lacôte. Letslignesde baseservantà mesurerlalargeur de la mer
territoriale sont en principe les((lignes de base normales », c'est-à-dire
celles qui suivent dt: près la configuration de la côte. Toutefois, il peut
s'agirde alignes de base droites »dans lescasexceptionnelsdeslocalités
«où la côte est proi'ondémentéchancréeet découpéeou s'il existe un
chapelet d'îles lelong de la côte,proximitéimmédiatede celle-ci»ainsi
quede la «lignede fermeture»d'une baie,telleque celle-ciestspécifique-
mentdéfiniedu pointde vuede lalargeur desonouverture, de sescaracté-
ristiques etdelamesure dans laquellel'échancrure pénètredans lesterres.
Les eaux situées en deçà des lignes de base droites servant àmesurer la
largeur de la mer territoriale «font partie deseaux intérieurese 1'Etat.
Ces principes sont clairement énoncés aux articles 3, 4, 7, 8 et 10 de la

conventiondes Nations Uniessur ledroit de lamer de 1982,qui sont pres-
que identiques aux dispositions correspondantes de la convention de
Genèvede 1958sur la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë et qui peuvent
légitimement êtrecl3nsidéréescomme exprimant aujourd'hui le droit
internationalcoutuniier. Leseauxsituées àproximitéimmédiatedescôtes
font donc partie soit de la mer territoriale, soit des eaux intérieures, qui
sont dans les deux cas incluses dans le territoire de 1'Etatcôtier mais
sujettesà certaines conditions (enparticulier ledroit depassageinoffensif
devantêtre accordé iluxnavires de commerceétrangersdans la mer terri-
toriale), mais ne peuvent constituer rien d'aut'.
23. Dans le cas cl'une «baie», les eaux de celle-ci sont considérées
comme des «eaux intérieures» et la mer territoriale est mesurée à partir
de la ligne de fermeture de la baie, constituant en l'occurrence la ligne de

base. Il s'agit là d'un point qui est demeuré incontestépendant tout le
développement du droit contemporain de la mer intervenu depuis la
conférencede codification de 1930.Et -je dois lerépéter - s'ilasubsisté
une incertitude que11:onque à cepropos, elle ne porte que sur lestypes de
caractéristiques,géc~graphiquesou historiques, qui peuvent constituer
descritèresconduisant a considérerune configuration côtièrespécifique
comme une «baie »c:tdonc àincorporer seseauxaux eaux intérieures de
l'Etat, dans 1esquellc:sle droitde passageinoffensif n'est pas accordé.
24. On peut conclure que le résultatde cette étude dudéveloppement
du droit de la mer est simplement qu'il n'existait pas et qu'il n'existe
toujours pas (ou mi:me qu'il ne peut pas exister) de concept juridique
comme celui de «baiedont plusieurs Etats sont riverains »,dont leseaux
constitueraient des {:auxintérieures. Il n'est pas surprenant qu'aucune
règleapplicable à uiie telle baie dont plusieurs Etats sont riverains n'ait

jamais étéavancée en droit international. Leconcept mêmed'aeauxinté-
rieures» (((interna1.vaters»), qui n'est apparu (sous les termes ((inland
waters))en anglais)quedans lecontexte de lafixation dela limitedeseaux

l Nous ne devonspar.perdrede vuenon plus lenouveauconceptd'eauxarchipéla-
giques,lequeln'estpeut-êtrepas directementapportavec la présente affaire (voir
ci-dessus,note 1,p.734).

398ofembracement isabsent or disappears when theshores ofageographical
bay areso divided up between Statesasto render the criteria and rationale
of a legal bay incapable of fulfilment. This is tacitly confirmed by the
absence of any provision concerning the delimitation or division of inter-
na1waters either in the 1958or the 1982Conventions; the internal waters
of one State cannot abut the internal waters of another State.

25. Someexemptions fromthe geographical criteria normally required
for a (juridical) bay have been justified on historical grounds for certain
topographical features, and the contemporary law of the sea admits the
concept of a "historic bay". The words used in the 1958and 1982Conven-
tions to the effect that the provisions defining a (single-State)bay "shall
not apply" or "do not apply" to "so-called 'historic' bays"(1982Conven-
tion, Art. 10,para. 6) are meant to suggest that the geographical criteria
servingto define a bay for legal purposes, such asthe width of the mouth
or thedepth of penetration into the landmass,arenot in those cases strict
conditions of "bayhood".

26. 1 must mention two points. First, a bay whose shores are divided
among two or more States cannot be a bay in the legal sense of the Con-
ventions, that isto Say,cannot even belong tothe legal category to which,
in any event, "historic bays" do not conform '.Secondly, the waters of a
"historic bay" are nothing other than "internal waters". 1 must recallthat,
for the purpose of denoting the status of offshore waters, the only con-
cepts available under the law of the sea are "territorial sea" or "internal
waters" (the new concept of archipelagic waters excepted). In other

words, such concepts as"an historic bay, and. ..the waters of itareaccor-
dinglyhistoric waters" (Judgment, para. 383),"an historicbaythat consti-
tutes an enclosed sea entirely within the territory of a single State"
(para. 399, "an historic bay and therefore a 'closedsea"' (ibid.),"historic
waters ... subject to a joint sovereignty of the three coastal States"
(para. 404),"internal waters subject to a specialand particular régime,not
only ofjoint sovereigntybut of rights of passage" (para. 412),"the waters
of the Gulf [being]the subject of the condominium or CO-ownership"

' 1must add inthis respect that somebaysnamed "historic bays" in classicaltreatises
since early this century are now regarded asnormal "bays" owingto the enlargement of
the distance criterion required for theing-line of a bay from a rather narrow dis-
1982United Nations Convention (see para.3 below).n onthe Territorial Seaand theterritoriales (mer territoriale), implique,sur leplan normatif,que leseaux
en question se trouvent enfermées ou semi-enferméesdans les limites

d'une juridiction déterminée.Cet élémenetst absent ou disparaît lorsque
le littoral d'une bah: au sens géographique est à tel point diviséentre
plusieurs Etats que les critères auxquels doit répondre une baie au sens
juridique ne peuveni:être satisfaitset que la qualification de baie perd sa
raisond'être.C'est cc:queconfirmetacitement lefait que nila convention
de 1958,ni la convention de 1982,ne contientunedispositionquelconque
touchant la délimitationou la divisiondeseaux intérieures;leseauxinté-
rieures d'un Etat ne peuvent jouxter les eaux intérieuresd'un autre Etat.
25. Quelques dérogations aux critères géographiques qui doivent
normalement êtreremplis pour qu'il existeune baie (au sensjuridique)
ont été justifiéespour des motifs historiques dans le cas de certaines
caractéristiques topographiques, et le droit de la mer contemporain
reconnaît le concept de «baie historique ».Lestermesemployésdans les
conventions de 1958et de 1982,a savoirque les dispositions définissant
une baie (dont un seul Etat est riverain) ne s'appliqueront pas ou «ne
s'appliquent pas » aiix «baies dites ((historiques » (convention de 1982,
art. 10,par. 6), veulent dire que les critères géographiques qui servent a

définirune baie a des finsjuridiques, commela largeur de son ouverture
ou la profondeur de sapénétrationa l'intérieur desterres,ne sont pas, en
pareil cas,des conditions devant rigoureusement être remplies pour que
l'échancrure en question constitue une baie.
26. Je doisreleve~deux points. Premièrement,une baie dont les côtes
sont diviséesentre deux ou plusieurs Etats ne peut pas êtreune baie au
sens juridique des conventions susmentionnées, c'est-à-dire ne peut
mêmepas appartenkr à la catégoriejuridique dont, en tout état cause,les
«baies historiques » ne relèvent pas '.Deuxièmement, les eaux d'une
«baie historique »nt:sont rien d'autre que des «eauxintérieures».Il me
faut rappeler qu'aux fins de la définition du statut des eaux situées au
large des côtes les sc:ulsconcepts disponibles en droit de la mer sont la
«mer territoriale » ou les «eaux intérieures» (si l'on fait abstraction du
nouveau concept d'(:aux archipélagiques). Autrement dit, des concepts
comme «une baiehistorique dont leseauxsont, enconséquence,deseaux
historiques »(arrêt,par. 383),«une baiehistorique qui constitue une mer

fermée entièrement situéeà l'intérieur du territoire d'un seul Etat»
(par. 395), «une baie historique et par conséquent une «mer fermée »
(ibid.),«eaux historiques ..soumises a la souverainetéconjointedestrois
Etats riverains»(par. 404),«eaux intérieuressoumisesa un régimespécial

' Je dois ajoutarce proposque certainesbaies qualifiées de«baies historiques»
dans destraitésclassiqudepuisle début duXXesièclesont maintenantconsidérées
commedes«baies »nonnalesparsuitedei'élargissemendtu critèrededistance auquel
(parexemple 10milles)dans la convention de 1958 sur la territorialeet la zonee
contiguë, a éportéeà 24 milles dans la convention de 1982(voir leparagraphe43
ci-après).(para.412),"internal watersina qualified sense" (ibid.),"interna..waters.
subject to certain rights of passage" (ibid.),"the area ofjoint sovereignty
[in19171"(para. 413), "the joint sovereignty in al1that area of waters"
(para. 414), "a condominium of the waters of the Gulf' (para. 418),"the
waters internal to [the]bay..subject to a threefold joint sovereignty"
(ibid.),"the legal situation [being]one of joint sovereignty" (para. 420),
"the waters ...subject to the ...entitlement of al1 three States"

(para. 432(1)) al1of which concepts are suggestedby the present Judg-
ment to define the legal status of the waters of th- Gare in no way
indicative of that status.

111.THETERM "HISTORICBAY" AS MISAPPLIE TOTHE GULF OF FONSEC AN

THE 1917JUDGMEN TF THECENTRA ALMERICA COURT OF JUSTIC END IN
THE PRESENJT UDGMENT

1. Impactofthe Misapplication of the Term "HistoricBay"
inthe1917Judgment

27. The Gulf of Fonseca appeared forthe first time on the legal stage
clothed as "a historicbay possessed ofthe characteristics of a closed sea"
in the 1917Judgment of the Central Arnerican Court of Justice (trans.
AJIL,Vol. 11,p. 716).It was not until the rendering ofthat Judgment that
the Gulf of Fonsecabegan to bementioned in any ofthe treatises ofinter-
national law. Hardly any scholar of international lawor to 1917had
thoughtthat the Gulf of Fonseca, surrounded bythree States, had become
a Cjuridical)bay, whether ordinary or historic, and was thus entitled to
some special legal status. (There was no mention of the Gulf of Fonseca

even inthe eight volumes of Moore'sigestofInternationalLawin 1906,
or 7heSovereigntyoftheSea,Fulton'sclassicwork,in 191.)Eventheterm
"historic bay" itselfseemsvertohavebeen employed inajudicial deter-
mination or a scholarly work prior to 1917, except in the 1910Award of
the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the North AtlanticCoastFisheries
case, in which theTribunal

"recognize[d]that the conventions and established usages might be
considered as the basis for claiming as territorialbays [single-
Statebays,including Delaware Bayand others]which on this ground
might be called historic bays"NRIAA,Vol.XI, pp. 167, 197).

TheGulf of Fonseca,a baybordered bytheland ofthethree littoral States, DIFFÉREND (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (APS)ISS.ODA) 747

et particulier, non seulement de souverainetéconjointe mais de droits de
passage )>(par. 412), (<eauxdu golf...soumises au condominium ou à la
copropriété» (ibid.), eaux intérieures en un sens limité» (ibid.),«eaux
intérieures ..soumi!ies à certains droits de passage» (ibid.), «zone de
souveraineté conjointe [en 19171» (par. 413), la souveraineté conjointe
dans la totalité des eaux» (par. 414), «un condominium des eaux du
golfe»(par. 418),«eaux intérieuresde[la]baie ..soumises à unesouverai-
netéconjointedes trois EtatH (ibid.),«la situationjuridique ..cellede
la souveraineté conjointe» (par. 420), eaux ..appart[enant] conjointe-
ment aux trois Etats:*(par. 432, 1- tous concepts dont le présent arrêt

donne àentendre qu'ilsdéfinissentlestatutjuridique deseaux du golfe-
ne correspondent aucunement à ce statut.

111.C'EST À TORT QUE L'ARRÊT DE 1917 DE LA COUR DE JUSTICE
CENTRAMÉRICAINE ETLE PRÉSENT ARRÊT APPLIQUENT L'EXPRESSION
«BAIEHISTORIQUE »AU GOLFE DE FONSECA

1. Impact de l'applicationerronéedel'expression«baie historique))
dans l'arrête 1917

27. Dans l'arrêtrendu en 1917par la Cour dejustice centraméricaine,
legolfe de Fonseca estapparu pour lapremièrefoissur la scènejuridique
parédela qualification de «baie historiquepossédant lescaractéristiques
d'une merfermée ».Ce n'estque lors du prononcéde cet arrêt quelegolfe
de Fonseca a commeiicé àêtrementionné dans destraitésde droitinterna-

tional.Avant 1917,il:n'yavaitguèred'internationalistes quipensaient que
le golfe de Fonseca, entouré par trois Etats, était devenu une baie (au
sensjuridique), que ce soit ordinaire ou historique, et pouvait donc pré-
tendre à un quelconque statut juridique spécial.(On ne trouvait aucune
mention du golfe de Fonseca mêmedans les huit volumes du Digest of
InternationalLaw publiépar Moore en 1906ou dans TheSovereigntyof
theSea,ouvrage classiquede Fulton, en 1911 .)Mêmel'expression «baie
historique)) elle-mêmene semble jamais avoir étéemployéedans une
décision judiciaire ciu un ouvrage avant 1917, sauf dans la sentence
rendue en 1910 par la Cour permanente d'arbitrage dans l'affaire des
Pêcheriesdes côtes stptentrionales de IAtlantique, dans laquelle la Cour

avait
«reconnu que lesconventionset lesusages établispeuventêtreconsi-

dérés commele fondement de la revendication d'une juridiction
territoriale sur les baies [baies dont un seul Etat était riverain, y
compris la baie du Delaware et d'autres baies]qui, pour ce motif,
pourraient être qualifiéesde baies historiques)) (Nations Unies,
RSA,vol. XI, p. 197).

Le golfe de Fonseca,baie entourée par le territoire de trois Etats côtiers,748 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AIS)S. P.ODA)

was certainlynot uppermostintheminds ofthe members ofthe 1910Arbi-

tralTribunal.
28. In contrast, practically al1scholars dealing with the law of the sea
after 1917have been in accordinechoing the concept of a "historic bay"
employed in the 1917Judgment solelyto define the Gulf of Fonseca, asthe
present Judgment admittedly notices (see paras. 383, 394). Yetthe fact
must be faced thatthe authors of the treatises in question simply gavethe
name "historic bay" to the Gulf of Fonseca, as a unique case in which the
Coastbelongs to two or more States, solely on theground thatthe Central
American Court of Justice, in 1917,had passed a Judgment employing
that term. Having never suggested any specific régimefor even a single-
State "historic bay", they afortiorinever contended that the rules or regu-
lations established for such a régimeshouldapply to this bay surrounded
by three States.This is so even in the case of Oppenheim, since he picked
up that Gulf only in his third edition, published in 1920(International
Law,3rd ed., 1920,p. 344,para. 192,n. 4),referring to itas an exception to
"[non-territorial] gulfs and bays enclosed by the land of more than one
littoral State". Fauchille in 1925(Traitédedroitinternationalpublic, Vol.,
2nd Part, 8th ed., 1925,p. 308 :in Bonfils' Manuel de droit international

public edited by Fauchille (5th ed.) in 1908the Gulf of Fonseca was not
mentioned at all);Jessupin 1927(ne Lawof Territorial Watersand Mari-
timeJurisdiction, 1927,p.398);Wheatonin 1929(ElementsofInternational
Law, 6th English ed., 1929,p. 365: in his 5th English edition in 1916no
mention wasmade oftheGulf of Fonseca) ;Gidel in 1934(Ledroitinterna-
tional public de la mer, Vol. III, 1934,p. 604), and others, al1followed
Oppenheim. These scholars after 1917who referred to the Gulf of Fon-
seca as a Uuridical) bay never presented any justification for this label
outside the fact that the 1917Judgment hadso styledthe Gulf. Their state-
ments thus cany littlecumulative value.

29. Some United Nations documents supplied in preparation for
UNCLOS 1 in 1958also referred to the Gulf of Fonseca as a "historic

bay", though as a unique case of one bordered by the land of two or more
States. In the Memorandum entitled "Historic Bays" (A/CONF. 13/ 1 ;
UNCLOS 1,OfficialRecords,Vol. 1,p. 1)drawn up by the United Nations
Secretariat in 1957, this Gulf was the only example given in Part 1,
Section 1("The Practice of States: Some Examples of Historic Bays"),
under sub-section B,"Bays the Coasts of Which Belong to Two or More
States", but the explanations given therein did not go beyond a simple
reference to the 1917 Judgment. The Gulf similarly appeared again,
only with the explanation of the 1917Judgment, in Part II, Section 1
("Legal Status of the Waters of Bays Regarded as Historic Bays"), under
sub-section B,"Historic Baysthe Coasts of Which Belongto Two or Moren'était certainementpas au premierplan despréoccupations desmembres
de la Cour permanente d'arbitrage en 1910.
28. En revanche, l~resquetous les auteurs qui se sont occupésdu droit
de la mer après 191'7ont, à l'unisson, repris le concept de «baie histo-
rique »employédans l'arrêtde 1917uniquement pour définir le golfe de
Fonseca, comme, il est vrai, le remarque le présentarrêt(voir par. 383
et 394).Force esttoutefois d'admettre que lesauteurs destraités en ques-
tion ont simplement donnél'appellation «baie historique » au golfe de
Fonseca,en tantque situationunique dans laquelle lelittoral appartient à
deux ou plusieursEtats,uniquement pour le motif que la Cour dejustice
centraméricaine, en 1917, avait rendu un arrêt dans lequel elle avait
employé cette expreijsion. N'ayant jamais suggéréun régimespécifique
qui s'appliquerait nt: serait-ce qu'à une «baie historique» dont un seul

Etat serait riverain, ilsn'ont fortiori jamais soutenu que les règlesou
règlementsétablis pour mettre en place un tel régimedussent s'appliquer
à une baie entourét:par trois Etats. Cela est vrai mêmedans le cas
d'oppenheim, qui n'aabordélaquestion de cegolfe que dans latroisième
éditionde son ouvrage,publiée en 1920(ZnternationalLaw, 3eéd.,1920,
p. 344,par. 192,nott: 4), s'yréféranten tant qu'exception aux «golfes et
aux baies soumis àlajuridiction non territoriale qui sont entouréspar le
territoire de plus'un Etatcôtier ».Fauchilleen 1925(Traitédedroitinter-
nationalpublic,t. 1,deuxièmepartie, 8eéd.,1925,p. 308;dans le Manuelde
droit international publicde Bonfils publiésous la direction de Fauchille
(5eéd.)en 1908,legoIfede Fonsecan'étaitpas mentionnédutout); Jessup
en 1927(The Law qr Territorial Watersand Maritime Jurisdiction, 1927,
p. 398); Wheaton en 1929(Elementsof ZnternationalLaw, 6eéd. anglaise,
1929,p. 365 ;dans sa cinquième édition anglaise, en 1916, le golfe de

Fonsecan'était mentionné nullepart); Gide1en 1934(Le droit internatio-
nalpublic de la mer,1.III, 1934,p. 604); et d'autres encore ont tous suivi
Oppenheim. Les auteurs qui, après 1917, se sont référésau golfe de
Fonsecaen tantque baie (ausensjuridique) n'ontjamais donnédejustifi-
cation quelconque à cetteappellation hormis le fait que le golfe avait été
ainsiqualifiédans l'alrrêdte 1917.Leurs affirmationsn'ont donc, cumula-
tivement, guèrede poids.
29. Certains des documents préparatoires élaboréspar I'ONU en vue
de la première confkrence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, en
1958,mentionnaient également le golfe de Fonseca en tant que «baie
historique »,encore que commeun casunique de baiebordéepar leterri-
toire de deux Etats ou plus. Dans le rapport intituléBaies historiques ))

(A/CONF.13/1; coiiférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer,
Documents officiels, vo1,p. 1)élaborépar le Secrétariatde I'ONU en
1957,le golfe de Foilseca étaitle seul exemple donné dans la première
partie, section 1(«L,apratique des Etats: quelques exemples de baies
historiques »),sous lasous-section B,«Baiesdont lescôtes appartiennent
à deux ou plusieurs 1Etats»,mais les explications donnéesdans ce docu-
ment n'allaient pas au-delà d'une simple référence à l'arrêtde 1917.Le
golfe de Fonseca a,dr même,été citéà nouveau,seulement avecun renvoiStates '.The writersofthe United Nations documents seemtohavegiven
that Gulf a somewhat special treatment without offering any sufficiently
convincing reasons, and did not suggest that the rules governing a "his-
toric bay", if any, would apply in the particular case of pluri-State bays.
Although the application of the tenn "historic bay" was extended to the
altogether unique case of the Gulf of Fonseca, no rule was suggested for
pluri-State bays as such.This isnot surprising, sincea unique case cannot
be governed by the rules of a category :it requires the application of gen-
eral principles.

30. Likewise, in the present case, the two Parties and the intervening
State gave the narne of "historic bay" to the Gulf of Fonseca simply
because the 1917Judgrnent so called it. But they never proved any estab-
lished rules governing a "historic bay" bordered by the land of two or
more States,oreventhat a concept ofa"historic bay" covering suchacase
exists.Thethree Statesonly concurredin maintaining that, because of its
alleged historical background as well as its geographical features, some
exceptional rulesunder international lawshould be applicable totheGulf
of Fonseca.They didnot shareany clearpicture of the Gulf in spite ofthe
common denomination of the term "historic bay". They showed a total
lack ofagreement orevenofreciprocal understanding asto what elements
could constitute a "historic bay" and what reallywastheconcept ofa "his-
toric bay". Each of these three Statesseemed to sketch its own imagejust

frornthe name "historic bay".

31. The Chamber, indefiningthe legalstatus ofthe waters of theGulf,
seemsto depend greatly upon the 1917Judgment oftheCentral American
Court of Justice, which it

"should take ... into account as a relevant precedent decision of a
competent court, and as, in the words of Article 38 of the Court's
Statute, 'a subsidiarymeans for the determination of rules of law"'
(Judgment,para. 403).

' The Gulf of Fonseca is also referred to in another United Nations document
prepared forUNCLOS 1: "A Brief Geographical and Hydrographic Study of Bays
and Estuaries, the Coasts of Which Belong to Different States", by Commander
R. H. Kennedy (A/CONF.17/15; UNCLOS 1,OSficiR alcords V,ol. 1,p.198)which
does not require any explanalion here.à l'arrêtde 1917,dans la deuxièmepartie, section 1 (tStatutjuridique des
eaux considérées c.omme baies historiques »), sous la sous-section B,
«Baies historiques dont les côtes appartiennent à deux ou plusieurs
Etats»l. Les auteurs de ces documents de l'organisation des Nations
Unies semblent avoir accordéau golfe de Fonseca un traitement un peu
spécialsans néanm,oinsoffrirde raisons suffisamment convaincantes, et

ilsn'ont passuggéri:que lesrèglesapplicables à une (baie historique »,si
tant étaitqu'il y en eût, dussent s'appliquer dans le cas particulier des
baies dont plusieui-s Etats étaient riverains. Bien que l'application de
l'expression «baie historique)) ait étéélargie à la situation toutà fait
unique du golfe de Fonseca, aucune règlen'a été suggéré pour lesbaies
dont plusieurs Etats étaient riverains en tant que telles. Cela n'est pas
surprenant, étant dcinnéqu'une situationunique nepeut pas êtrerégiepar
les règlespropres à une catégorie: elle exige l'application de principes
généraux.
30. De même,dans laprésente affaire,lesdeux Parties et1'Etatinterve-

nant n'ont qualifiéle golfe de Fonseca de ((baie historique » que parce
que c'était ainsiqu'il avait été appeldans l'arrêtde 1917.Cependant, ils
n'ont jamais prouvcil'existence de règlesétabliesqui s'appliqueraient à
une ((baie historique » bordéepar le territoire de deux Etats ou plus, ni
mêmed'un concept de «baie historique)) qui s'appliquerait à une telle
situation. Lestrois Eitatsen questionsesontsimplementaccordés à soute-
nir que, du fait de s(:~prétendus antécédents historiques ainsiquede ses
caractéristiquesgéagraphiques, certaines règlesexceptionnelles du droit
international devraient être applicables au golfe de Fonseca. En dépit
de l'appellation coinmune ((baie historique », les Etats en question ne

partagent pas une t:onception claire de la situation du golfe. Ils ont fait
montre d'un manque total d'accord ou mêmed'entente mutuelle quant
aux élémentsqui pc~urraientconstituer une ((baie historique »et quant à
ce que recouvraitréellementle concept de (tbaie historique ».Chacun de
cestrois Etats a sembléne baserl'image qu'il sefaitlui-mêmede la situa-
tion que sur l'appel1ation((baie historique ».
31. La Chambre. dans sa définition du statut juridique des eaux du
golfe,sembleaccorder beaucoup de poids à l'arrêt renduen 1917par la
Cour dejustice centraméricaine, arrêtque la Chambre

(tdoit prendre .en considérationcomme décisionantérieureperti-
nente d'une juridiction compétente et, pour reprendre les termes de
l'article8du Statut de la Cour, commemoyen auxiliaire de déter-
mination des ri:glesde droit »(arrêt,par.403).

' Legolfede Fonsecaestmentionnéaussidansun autredocumentdel'organisation
des NationsUniesétabli ourlapremièreconférencedes Nations Uniessurle droitde
lamer,«Brèveétudegéographique ethydrographiquedesbaiesetdesestuairesdontles
côtes appartiennentàdes Etatsdifféres,parle capitainede frégaR.H. Kennedy
(IVCONF.13/15; prexriièrceonférencedes Nations Uniessurle droitde lamer,Docu-
ments officiels,vol. 1,p. 198),documentquin'appellepas icide commentaire.The Chamber, relying simply upon the 1917Judgment, Statesthat "[tlhis
unanimous finding that the Gulf of Fonseca is an historic bay with the
character of a closed sea presents now no great problem" (para. 394)and
decides that "the Gulf of Fonseca is an historic bay ..." (para. 432(1)).It
ishardly necessary for meto repeatthat, from thestandpoint of the devel-
opment of the legal concepts of a bay or historic bay (as explained in
Part II, above), the Gulf of Fonseca cannot, under the law of the sea, fa11
into the category of a bay or historic bay, the legal status of the waters of
which must be a united body constituting "interna1 waters" of a single
riparian State. Bythe same token, the Chamber's decision that

"the waters [ofthe Gulfj ...continue to be .. .held [insovereignty by
thethree littoral States,jointly]...but excludinga belt ... extending
3 miles (1marine league) fromthe littoral of each of the three States,
such belt being under the exclusive sovereignty of the coastal
State ..." (Judgment, para. 432(1))

is clearly incompatible with the Chamber's description of the Gulf as a
"historic bay", which descriptioncannot, afortiori,be used to sustain that
decision.This point willbe developed later in paragraph 38,below.

2. fie 1917Judgment Re-examined

32. How did the Central Arnerican Court of Justice proceed in order
to characterize the Gulf of Fonseca as "a historic bay possessed of the
characteristics of a closed sea" (trans. AJIL, Vol. Il, p. 716)? It simply
drew its conclusion on the basis of the replies givenby each judge of that
Court in response to some questionnaires prepared in advance, among
which one question read :
"Ninthquestion - Taking into consideration the geographic and
historic conditions, as wellas the situation,extent and configuration
of the Gulf of Fonseca, what is the international legal status of that
Gulf?" (Ibid.,p. 693.)
It is also noted that"[tlhejudges answered unanimously that [theGulf of
Fonseca] isan historic bay possessed ofthe characteristicsofa closed sea"

(ibid.).No ground except for these answers of the judges is to be found in
the 1917Judgment which could justify the contention that the Gulf of
Fonseca was a "historic bay", a concept hardly known to international
law except in relation to a number of (geographical) bays where the
authority of a single coastal State was for some historical reasons exer-
cised even beyond range of cannon-shot (such as Delaware Bay, the Bris-
tol Channel, etc.), and a term rarely used prior to the 1910Award in the
NorthAtlanticCoast Fisheriescase. DIFFÉRENI> (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (APS)ISS.ODA) 750

La Chambre, se fondant simplement sur l'arrêtde 1917, déclare que
«[clette conclusion unanime selon laquelle le golfe de Fonseca est une
baie historique poss.édantle caractère d'une mer ferméene pose mainte-
nant pas de problènie majeur» (par. 394)et décideque «le golfe est une
baie historique»(par. 432, 1).J'aiàpeinebesoin de répéter que,du point
de vue du développement des concepts juridiques de baie ou de baie
historique (comme rxpliquédans la deuxième partie ci-dessus), le golfe
de Fonseca ne peut ]pas,au regard du droit de la mer, appartenià la caté-
gorie d'une baie ou d'une baie historique, dont les eaux, du point de vue

de leur statutjuridi'que, doivent être un tout constituant les «eaux inté-
rieures» d'un seul Etat riverain. De même,la décision de la Chambre
selonlaquelle
«les eaux[du golfe]..continuent del'être [soumise àslasouveraineté
des trois Etats riverains, conjointement].mais àl'exclusion d'une
ceinture ..s'étlzndantsur une distance de 3 milles marins (1 lieue
marine) à partir du littoral de chacun des trois Etats, cette ceinture
étantsoumise a la souverainetéexclusivede 1'Etatriverain..»(arrêt,

par. 432,l)
estmanifestementiricompatibleavecla description de «baie historique »
que la Chambre damnnedu golfe, ladite description ne pouvant pas, à
fortiori, êtreutiliséepour fonder cettedécision.Ce point sera développé
plus loin (voir lea~agraphe 38ci-après).

2. Réexamende l'arrê dte 1917

32. Quelle a été1;idémarchesuivie par la Cour de justice centraméri-
caine pour qualifier legolfe de Fonseca de «baie historique possédant les
caractéristiquesd'unemerfermée »? LaCoura simplementtirésaconclu-
sion sur la base des réponsesdonnées par chacun de sesjuges àcertaines
questionspréparées à l'avance, dont l'une selisaitcommesuit :

((Neuvièmeqruestion - Compte tenu des conditions géographi-
ques et historiclues, ainsi que de la situation, de l'étendueet de la
configuration dlugolfe de Fonseca,quel est le statutjuridique inter-
national de cegolfe? »

Ilestégalementindiquédans l'arrêtde 1917que «[Ilesjuges ontrépondu à
l'unanimitéqu'il s'agit d'une baie historique possédant les caractéris-
tiques d'une mer fermée B.On ne trouvedans l'arrêtde 1917aucun motif,
autre que cesréponsesdesjuges, qui pourraitjustifier l'affirmation selon
laquelle le golfe de Fonseca était une «baie historique», concept guère
connu du droit intelmational sauf dans le contexte d'un certain nombre
de baies (au sens géographique) dans lesquelles un seul Etat riverain
avait, pour uneraisca historique ou une autre, exercéson autoritémême
au-delà de la portéedu canon (comme la baie du Delaware, le chenal de
Bristol, etc.), etpi.essionrarement employéeavant la sentence rendue
en 1910 dans l'affairedes PêcheriedsescôtesseptentrionalesdeIAtlantique. 33. Certainly the Central American Court of Justice did not demon-
strate why the concept of a "historic bay", previously applied solely to
somesingle-Statebays,shouldapplyin 1917tothe unique caseofthe Gulf
of Fonseca, enclosed by morehan one littoral State. It seemsto have mis-

interpreted both the 1910Award of the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
which used the term "historic bay" only in the cases of a single-State bay
referred to in many historical documents (as mentioned in paragraph 28
above), and Judge Drago'sdissenting opinionappended thereto, which in
this respect did notepart from the Award itself (UNRZAA,Vol. XI,
pp. 167,203).

34. Does the factthat the fivejudges ofthe Central American Court of
Justice unanimously agreed that the Gulf of Fonseca was a "historic bay
possessed of the characteristics of a closed sea" help us now to ascertain
the positivelegalstatus ofthat Gulf? Whateverrespect maybe owedtothe
1917 Judgment, it seems a needless self-restriction on the part of the
Chamber to have refrained from any critical inspection of its contents.
Due account should have been taken of the following points in that
1917Judgment. Firstly,itwasdelivered ina casebetween El Salvador and
Nicaragua only, a case to which Honduras was not a Party. Secondly,

that Court was constituted by agreement between five Centralrican
nations, including Honduras. Thirdly, Honduras had earlier lodged its
objection tothe proceedingsbefore thatCourt, on thegrounds that ithad
not been invited to participate. Fourthly, Honduras itself expressed its
objection to theecision of the 1917Judgment that the Gulf of Fonseca
constituted a condominium, which concept,according to that Judgment,
wasa logical consequence ofthe use ofthe term "historic bay". Lastly,the
legal status of the waters of the Gulf as betweenhreeriparianStates
wasnot, at al1events,necessarily at issue inthe particular dispute submit-

ted tothe Central American Court. Thesevarious factorsshouldbe taken
into account in considering the contention to the effect that the Gulf of
Fonseca isnow a "historicbay possessed ofthe characteristics of a closed
sea".The most important factatthat timewasthat the concept of"historic
bay = condominium" was introduced mainly in order to buttress El Sal-
vador's contention that the building of a United States naval base on
Nicaraguan territory, facing theGulf, should not be permitted.

IV. THELEGAL STATUS OF THE WATER SF THEGULF OFFONSEC AS
MISCONCEIV NDTHE 1917JUDGMEN AND IN THE PRESENJTUDGMENT

35. The 1917Judgment suggested that the waters within the closing-
lineoftheGulf, which wasa "historic bay possessed ofthe characteristics 33. La Cour dejiistice centraméricainen'acertainement pas démontré
pourquoi le concept de «baie historique,qui n'avaitétéappliquéprécé-
demment qu'à certaines baies dont un seul Etat était riverain, devrait
s'appliquer en 1917a lasituationunique du golfe de Fonseca,entourépar
le territoire de plus d'un Etat. La Courde justice centraméricaine semble
avoir mal interprétl!aussi bien la sentence rendue en 1910par la Cour

permanente d'arbitrage, laquelle n'avait employé l'expression «baie
historique» que dans les cas de baies dont un seul Etat était riverain
mentionnés dans dr nombreux documents historiques (comme indiqué
auparagraphe 28ci-dessus),que l'opinion dissidente de.Dragojointe à
laditesentence, laqiielle, sur cepoint, ne s'écartait pasde la sentenceelle-
même(Nations Unies, RSA,vol.XI, p. 203).
34. Lefait que le:;cinqjuges delaCour dejusticecentraméricaineaient
été unanimes a reconnaître que legolfe de Fonsecaconstituait une «baie
historique» possédant les caractéristiques d'une mer ferméeest-il pour
nousmaintenant d'iine quelconqueutilitépour déterminer lestatutjuridi-
que positif de ceo1fe? Quel que soit le respect qui puisseêtreàl'arrêt

de 1917,ilsemble que la Chambre sesoitimposéea elle-mêmedesrestric-
tions inutiles en s'abstenant d'analyser la teneurt arrêtd'un Œilcri-
tique.Il aurait fallu tenir dûment compte des aspects ci-après de l'arrêt
de 1917. Premierernent, l'arrêta été rendudans une affaire opposant
El Salvador et le Nicaragua seulement, affaireà laquelle le Honduras
n'était paspartie. Deuxièmement,cetteCour avaitétéconstituée àlasuite
d'un accord intervenu entre cinq Etats d'Amérique centrale, dont le
Honduras. Troisièrriement,le Honduras avaitprécédemmentsoulevéune
objectiona laprocé~luredevantladite Cour, faisantvaloir qu'il n'avaitpas
été invitéà y participer. Quatrièmement, le Honduras lui-même avait
objecté a la décisio~if,igurant dans l'arrêtde 1917,selonlaquelle le golfe

de Fonseca constituait un condominium, concept qui, selon cet arrêt,
découlait logiquement de l'emploi de l'expression «baie historique)).
Enfin, quoi qu'il eri soit, le statut juridique des eaux du golfe en ce qui
concerne les troisElatsriverainsn'étaitpas nécessairementen cause dans
le différend spécifique soumis à la Cour centraméricaine. Ce sont là
autant de facteurs qu'il faudrait prendre en considération pour apprécier
l'affirmation selonlaquelle legolfe de Fonsecaconstituemaintenant une
«baie historique possédant les caractéristiques d'une mer fermée». A
l'époque, lefait le plus important étaitque l'idéede «baie historiq=e
condomimium » avait été introduite principalement pour étayer l'affir-
mationd'El Salvadorselonlaquelle la constructiond'une basenavaledes

Etats-Unis en territoire nicaraguayen,enface du golfe,ne devrait pas être
autorisée.

IV. LE STATUT JURII>IQUEDES EAUX DU GOLFE DE FONSEC AELQU'IL A ÉTÉ
INTERPRÉTÉ A TOFLTDANS L'ARRÊT DE 1917 ET DANS LE PRÉSENT ARRÊT

35. Dans son arriStde 1917,la Cour centraméricainea suggéré que les
eaux en deçà de la ligne de fermeture du golfe,qui constituaite baieof a closed sea", were subject to a condominium created byjoint inherit-
ance of an area which had been a unity in its entire history previous to the
succession in 1821and, being neither territorial sea nor interna1 waters,
had been the object either of the joint ownership or of a condominium of
thethree riparian States since 1821.It is important, however, to notethat
in that Judgment the 1-marine-league belt would be excluded from that
régime,the waters ofthat belt thus beingdivided between the three respec-
tive riparian States. In the concreteterms suggested bytheCentral Ameri-
can Court of Justice,

"this Court has held[the Gulf of Fonseca]to belong to the category of
historicbaysand to bepossessed ofthe characteristics of a closedsea"
(trans.AJIL,Vol. 11,p. 707)

and
"[tlhe legal status of the Gulf of Fonseca havingbeen recognized by
this Courtto be that of a historic bay possessed of the characteristics
of a closed sea, the three riparian States of El Salvador, Honduras
and Nicaragua are, therefore, recognized as coowners of its waters,
exceptas to the littoral marine league which isthe exclusive property
of each ..." (ibid.,p. 716).

Likewise,the present Judgment findsthat "the Gulfwaters, other than the
3-milemaritime belts, are historic waters and subject to ajoint sovereignty
ofthethree coastal States" (para. 404).It alsodeems the waters oftheGulf
to be "the subject of [a]condominium or CO-ownership"(para. 412).Thus
the Chamber decides that
"the Gulf of Fonseca is an historic bay the waters whereof, having
previously to 1821been under the single control of Spain, and from
1821to 1839ofthe Federal Republic of Central America, werethere-

after succeeded to and held in sovereignty by [the three littoral
States],jointly, and continue to be soheld . ..,but excludinga belt ...
extending 3 miles (1 marine league) from the littoral of each of the
three States, such belt being under the exclusive sovereignty of the
coastal State, ..."(para. 432(1)).
36. This decision of the present Judgment which 1have just quoted
above (and similarly that of the 1917Judgment) is the part of the whole
Judgment which 1find most difficult to understand. Does the Chamber
suggest that the Gulf of Fonseca, as a historic bay claimed to have been
inherited in 1821or 1839by ElSalvador, Honduras and Nicaragua from
Spain or the Federal Republic of Central America as a condominium
without any division amongthem, isnow composed ofthe (minimal) cen-
tral part of the waters, which remains subject to the joint sovereignty of

three States, while a 3-mile coastal belt alongthe entire coastline in the
Gulf (actually occupyingmost of theGulf) isapportioned individually to
each of them respectively ?historique possédant les caractéristiques d'une mer fermée)), étaient
soumises à un condominium créépar le fait que les trois Etats riverains
avaient hérité conjointement d'une zone qui avait constitué un tout
pendant l'intégralitéde son histoire avant la succession, en 1821, et,
n'étantni mer territoriale, ni eaux intérieures, avait fait l'objet soit de la
copropriété, soitd'lin condominium desdits Etats en 1821.Toutefois, il
importe de noter que, dans cetarrêt,la ceintured'une lieuemarine de large

serait exclue de ce régime, leseaux de cette ceinture étantainsi divisées
entre lestrois Etatsiverains respectifs. Concrètement,pour reprendre les
termes suggérés par la Cour dejustice centraméricaine,
«la présente cour est parvenue à la conclusion que le golfe de
Fonseca appartient à la catégoriedesbaies historiqueset possèdeles
caractéristiquesd'une merferméen

et

«[l]acour ayant reconnu au golfe de Fonseca le statut juridique de
baie historique possédant les caractères d'une mer fermée,les trois
pays riverains, le Honduras, le Nicaragua et El Salvador, ont été
reconnus en conséquence comme copropriétaires de ses eaux, à
l'exception des eaux comprises à moins d'une lieue marine du litto-
ral,qui sont la propriétéexclusive de chacun d'eux..))

De mêmel,epréseni:arrêt conclutque «les eaux du golfe, hormis lescein-
turesmaritimes de3 milles,sontdeseauxhistoriques et sontsoumises à la
souverainetéconjointedestrois Etatsriverains »(par. 404).L'arrêt consi-
dèreégalementleseaux du golfecomme ((soumisesau condominiumou à
la copropriété))(par. 412).C'estainsique la Chambre décideque
«le golfe de Fonseca est une baie historique dont les eaux, sujettes

jusqu'en 1821iiu seul contrôle de l'Espagne et de 1821 à 1839de la
République fédérale d'Amérique centraleo ,nt ensuite été, parvoie
de succession,soumises à la souveraineté[des trois Etats riverains]
conjointement, et continuent de l'être ...mais à l'exclusion d'une
ceinture...s'éttmdantsur une distance de 3 milles (1lieue marine)à
partir du littorii1de chacun des trois Etats, cette ceinture étant sou-
mise à la souve:rainetéexclusive de 1'Etatriverain..» (par. 432, 1).

36. Cette décisionde la Chambre que je viens de citer(ainsi que celle
figurant dans l'arrêtde 1917)est,detout l'arrêtl,a partie quej'ai leplus de
mal à comprendre. La Chambre suggère-t-elle que le golfe de Fonseca
- entantque baiehistorique dont El Salvador, le Honduras etle Nicara-
gua sont censésavoirhérité en 1821ou 1839de l'Espagne ou de la Répu-
blique fédérale d'Amérique centrale sous formede condominium sans
aucune divisionentre eux - est maintenant composé du secteur central
(minime) des eaux, qui demeure soumis àla souveraineté conjointe des
trois Etats,tandisqu'une ceinturelittorale de 3millestout lelong du litto-
ral du golfe (et occiipant en fait la majeure partie du golfe) est répartie

individuellemententre chacun d'entre eux? 37. Topography and history indicate that, prior to 1821,the Gulf of
Fonseca was surrounded by the territory of Spain, as a single State, and
then until 1839by the Federal Republic of Central America. Spain, and
subsequently the Federal Republic of Central America,might have exer-
cised a certain authority and control in itsoffshore waters. Yetthere isno
ground for believing that at times prior to 1821or 1839Spain or the Fed-
eral Republic of Central America had any control in the sea-waters
beyond the traditionally accepted mle of the range of cannon-shot in the
Gulf. Both the 1917Judgment and the present Judgment depend on the
hidden assumption that the maritime area in question was, prior to 1821
or 1839,not only "single and undivided" but also initsentirety(as a bay)
withinthe territorial jurisdiction of a singleiparian State.Theyoverlook
the basic fact that, in 1821or 1839,there did not atthe time exist anycon-

cept of a bay defined as a united body of waters in terrns of geographical
features and of the applicable legal status.

38. Another thesis implicit in the 1917Judgment and the present Judg-
ment, which heavily relies upon its predecessor, is - in the words of the
latter- that "there seems no reason in principle why a succession should
not create ajoint sovereigntywhere a singleand undivided maritime area
passes totwo ormorenew States"(Judgment,para. 399).Thisprompts the
question: if the assumption of unitary status for the entire waters in the
Gulf had beencorrect in 182 1or 1839,whyshould the 1917Judgment and
the present Judgment not have preferred the far more natural interpreta-
tion that, once the territory over which a singleState,Spain, and later the
Federal Republic of Central America, had sovereignty was divided into
fiveStates asaresultoftheir independence, theauthority overand control
of the offshore waters (which had always been considered as appurte-
nances of the land) might have been divided correspondingly to the

divided territories of those newly independent States, and that the three
riparian States of El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua each inherited
authority over and control oftheir respectiveoffshorewaters oftheir own
land territory in the Gulf of Fonseca? Indeed, the 1917Judgment itself
had recognized "the littoral marine league which is theexclusiveproperty
of each[State]" (trans. AJIZ, Vol. 11,p. 716; emphasis added), and the
present Judgment recognizes

"a belt, as at present established,extending 3miles (1marine league)

fromthe littoral of each ofthe three States, such belt being under the
exclusivesovereignty of the coastal State" (Judgment, para. 432(1)).

39. The Central American Court ofJusticeseems to havecontradicted
itself in suggesting at one and the same time the concept of "a single and
undivided maritime area [havingpassed] to two or more new States, [thus] 37. La topographie et l'histoire confirment qu'avant 1821le golfe de
Fonseca était entouré par le territoire de l'Espagne, en tant qu'Etat
unique, puis, jusqu'en 1839,de la République fédérale d'Amérique cen-
trale. L'Espagne, et ensuite la République fédérale d'Amérique centrale,
auraient pu exercer une certaine autoritéet un certain contrôle dans les
eaux du golfe au large des côtes. Néanmoins, rien ne permet de croire
qu'avant 1821ou 1839l'Espagne ou la République fédérale d'Amérique
centrale ait exercé lin contrôle quelconque sur les zones maritimes du
golfe situéesau-deli de la distancetraditionnellement acceptée,détermi-
néepar la portée ducanon. Aussi bien l'arrêtde 1917que le présent arrêt
reposent sur 1'hypoi.hèsenon avouéeque la zone maritime en question,
avant 1821 ou 183'3,était non seulement une «zone unique et indi-
vise»mais aussi intcggralemen (tn tant que baie) situéeà l'intérieurde la
juridiction territorialled'un seul Etat riverain. L'un et l'autre méconnais-

sent lefait essentielu'en 1821ou 1839iln'existait aucun concept de baie
définieentant qu'erisembled'eaux constituant untout du point de vue de
sescaractéristiques:géographiquesou du régimejuridique applicable.
38. Une autre thkse implicite dans I'arrêtde 1917et dans le présent
arrêt, qui s'inspire1:aucoupdu premier, est - pour reprendre lestermes
de la Chambre - qii'«il n'y a apparemment aucune raison, en principe,
pour qu'une succes~~ion ne crée pasune souveraineté commune dans les
cas où une zone maritime unique et indivise est transmise à deux ou
plusieurs nouveaux Etats» (arrêt,par. 399). Cela conduit à se poser la
questionsuivante :sil'hypothèse d'unstatut unitairequiseserait appliqué
à l'ensembledeseaux du golfeavaitétécorrecteen 1821ou en 1839,pour-
quoi l'arrêtde 1917 c:tle présent arrêt n'auraient-ilspas préféI'interpré-
tation beaucoup plus naturelle selonlaquelle une fois que leterritoire sur
lequel un seul Etat, l'Espagne, puis la République fédérale d'Amérique
centrale, exerçaitUriesouveraineté avait étédiviséen cinq Etats lors de
leurindépendance,I'autoritéetlecontrôle surleseauxsituéesau largedes
côtes,lesquellesavaient toujours été considérées comme relevant du terri-

toire terrestre, auraient pu être divisésde la mêmefaçon et attribués aux
territoires divisésde ces Etats nouvellement indépendants, lestrois Etats
riverains - El Salvador, le Honduras et le Nicaragua - ayant chacun
héritéde I'autorité c:tdu contrôle sur leurs eaux respectives au large de
leur propre territoire terrestre dans legolfe de Fonseca? En fait, I'art e
1917lui-mêmeavaitreconnuque les«eaux comprises à moins d'une lieue
marine ...[étaient alors] la propriétexclusivede chacund'eux[les trois
Etats riverains])) (les italiques sont de moi) et le présentarrêtreconnaît

«une ceinture, telle qu'actuellement établie, s'étendant sur une
distance de 3milles (1lieuemarine) à partirdu littoral de chacun des
troisEtats, cette:ceinture étantsoumiseà lasouverainetéexclusivede
1'Etatriverain »(par. 432, 1).
39. La Cour de justice centraméricaine semble s'êtrecontredite en
suggérant à la fois le concept de «zone maritimeunique et indivise[étant
passée] àdeux ou pliisieurs nouveaux Etats, [cequi avait crééu ]ne souve-creat[ing] a joint sovereignty" and that of "the littoral marine league
which is the exclusive property of each [State]". It appearsto me that the
1917Judgment was based upon a local illusion as concernsthe historical
background of law and fact. If 1may be allowed to add my view,the pres-
ent Judgment perpetuates an error in depending on the 1917Judgment
and proposingin parallel "the waters ofthe Gulf. ..held in sovereigntyby
the Republic of El Salvador, the Republic of Honduras, and the Republic
of Nicaragua, jointly" and "a belt, as at present established, extending
3miles (1marine league) fromthe littoral of each of thethree States,such
beltbeing under the exclusivesovereigntyofthe coastal State" (Judgment,
para. 432(1)).

40. My query continues :what isthe legalstatus ofthe watersdescribed
by the Judgment as follows: "the maritime belt in a pluri-State bay"
(para. 392), "the 3-mile maritime belts of exclusive jurisdiction"

(para. 393),"the littoral maritime belts subject to the single sovereignty of
each of the coastal States, but with mutual rights of innocent passage"
(para. 412), "the 3-mile belt of exclusivejurisdiction enjoyed by each of
the States along itscoast" (para. 413),"the 3-mile maritime littoral belt of
exclusive jurisdiction within the Gulf' (para. 415),"the littoral maritime
belts of 1marine league along the coastlines of the Gulf' (para. 416),"the
inner littoral maritime belts...notterritorial seasinthe senseofthemod-
ern law" (ibid.),"the internal waters of the coastal State, not being subject
to the joint sovereignty, and even though subject ...to rights of innocent
passage" (ibid.),"the exclusive littoral maritime belts...limited to 3miles
in breadth" (para. 418), "internal waters subject to a single, exclusive
sovereignty" (ibid.)?After all,what isthe 3-milecoastal belt intheconcept
of the Judgment? 1simply believe thatthe Chamber confuses the law of
the sea in applying such unusual concepts.

41. With regard to theconcept ofcondominium(or CO-ownership)orof
ajoint sovereignty, which the Central American Court of Justice and the
Chamber employed to define the waters of theGulf of Fonseca excluding
the 3-milecoastal belt (not ofthe whole area oftheGulf !)itmustbenoted
that Honduras itself denies that the Gulf constitutes a condominium of
the three riparian States of Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua and
refers to the absence of an agreement between the States concerned. 1
agree that a condominium may be created by the consent of the States
concerned with respect to the area to which those States could have ori-
ginally been entitled. 1am not suggestingany general mle thatthe concept
of a condominium should not be applicable in maritime areas. The pres-
ent Judgment refers to the case of the Baie du Figuier, where there has
existed a zone of condominium possessed jointly by France and Spain
since 1879(Judgment, para. 401).This precedent does not, however, give
any ground for justifying the status of a condominium for the Gulf ofrainetéconjointe »etceluid'«eauxcomprises a moins d'une lieue marine
du littoral,quisont1,apropriétéexclusivedechacun [desEtatsriverains] P.
Ilmesembleque l'airêtde 1917étaitbasésuruneillusionlocale quant aux
antécédents historiclues, aussi bien juridiques que factuels et, si je peux
me permettre d'ajouter mon avis, le présent arrêt perpétue une erreur
en s'en remettant a I'arrêdte 1917et en proposant parallèlement le con-
cept d'«eaux du golfe ...soumises a la souveraineté de la République
d'El Salvador, de la République du Honduras et de la République du
Nicaragua conjointc:ment » et de ((ceinture,tellequ'actuellement établie,
s'étendantsur une distance de3 milles(1lieuemarine) à partir du littoral
de chacun des trois Etats, cette ceinture étant soumise a la souveraineté
exclusive de 1'Etatriverain »(arrêt, par.432, 1).
40. Je poursuis nia question :quel est le statut juridique des eaux que
I'arrêtdécrit comme suit: «la ceinture maritime, dans une baie dont
plusieursEtatsétaientriverains »(par. 392),((ceinturesmaritimes dejuri-
diction exclusive de 3 milles)) (par. 393), ((ceintures maritimes littorales

soumises a la soulreraineté unique de chacun d'eux [les Etats rive-
rains] mais avec des droits réciproques de passageinoffensif » (par. 412),
«la ceinture de3 milles dejuridiction exclusiveet absolue appartenant à
chacun des Etats le long de son littoral)) (par. 413), «ceinture maritime
littorale de juridict.ion exclusive de 3 milles à l'intérieur du golfe»
(par.415), «ceinturcs maritimes littoralesd'une lieue marine le long des
côtes du golfe» (pal-.416), ((ceinturesmaritimes littoraleà l'intérieur...
ne [constituant] ..pas une mer territoriale au sens du droit moderne))
(ibid.),«eaux intérirures de 1'Etatcôtier qui ne sont pas soumises à la
souveraineté conjointe bien qu'elles restent sujettes ...à des droits de
passage inoffensif)) (ibid.),(ceintures maritimes littorales exclusives à
l'intérieur dugolfe...limitéesa une largeur de 3 milles»(par. 418),«eaux
intérieuressoumise!; à une souverainetéunique exclusive» (ibid.)?Après
tout, que recouvre liaceinture littorale de 3 milles selon la conception de
I'arrêt? Je croistout simplement qu'en appliquant des concepts aussi
inhabituels, la Charnbre introduitune confusion dans le droit de la mer.
41. En cequiconcerne leconcept de condominium(ou de copropriété)
ou de souveraineté conjointe que la Cour dejustice centraméricaine et la

Chambre ontemployépour définirleseaux du golfe de Fonseca à l'exclu-
sion de la ceinture littorale de 3 milles (et non de l'ensemble du golfeil
convient de noter qiie le Honduras lui-mêmenieque legolfeconstitueun
condominium des trois Etatsriverainsque sont le Honduras, El Salvador
et le Nicaragua, et fiiitvaloirl'absence d'accord entre les Etatsintéressés.
Je conviens qu'un condominium peut être créépar le consentement des
Etats intéressés ence qui concerne la zone sur laquelle lesdits Etats
auraient initialemerit pu avoir des droits. Je ne veux pas dire qu'en règle
généralele concept (decondominium ne pourrait pas êtreapplicabledans
des secteurs maritimes. Le présent arrêtse réfèreau cas de la baie du
Figuier, où il exist,r depuis 1879 une zone de condominium relevant
conjointement de la France et de l'Espagne (arrêt,par.401).Néanmoins,
ce précédentne permet pas de justifier l'octroi d'un statut de condomi-755 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AIS)S. P.ODA)

Fonseca, inconnection with which no agreementbetween the States con-
cerned has everexisted.The rationale underlying the Baiedu Figuiersolu-

tion was that France and Spain agreed to keep the small area in that bay
(which itself is so small, theouth of it being about 3,000metres across,
that it could by the mere distancecriterion have been under the jurisdic-
tion of eitherState) under theirjoint administrationforthe common useof
the anchorages in the roadsteads therein located (Déclaration pour la
délimitationde lajuridiction de la France etl'Espagne dans leseaux de la
baie du Figuier, 1879,Ministèredes Affaires Etrangères, Traitéset conven-
tionsenvigueurentre laFranceet lespuissancesétrangères, Second Volume,
1919,p. 141);the question of separate title thus yielded to practicality. It
is very evident that in the present case other considerations prevail.

42. 1must alsorefer in thisinstance to the factthat, whilethe 1917Judg-
ment didnot use the term, the Chamber alone attempts to rely on the con-
cept of "historic waters" in order to define the waters of the Gulf of
Fonseca. 1 must confess that 1am extremely confused asto whether the
Chamber is talking of "historic waters" forthe whole area of the Gulf or
the (minimal)central part of the Gulf excluding "the three-milemaritime
belt". The Chamber States: that "[the Gulf of Fonseca] is an historic
bay, . . the waters of it are accordingly historic waters" (Judgment,
para. 383),that "[wlhatdoes present aproblem ...isthe precise character
of the sovereignty which the three coastal States enjoy in these historic

waters" (para. 399, that "[tlheessence ofthe 1917decision concerning the
legal status ofthe waters oftheGulf was ...that these historic waters were
then subject to a 'CO-ownership'(condominio)of the three coastal States"
(para. 398), that "the maritime area in question had long been historic
waters under a single State's sovereignty" (para. 401),and that "the Gulf
waters, other than the 3-mile maritime belts, are historic waters and sub-
ject to a joint sovereignty of the three coastal States" (para. 404). The
Chamber seems simply to add confusion by its misconception of what
constitutes "historic waters".

43. "Historic waters" were defined in the Fisheriescase of 1951 as
meaning "waters which are treated as intemal waters but which would not
have that character were it not forthe existence of an historic title".C.J.
Reports 1951,p. 130).In fact, waters in the situation of those disputed in
the 1951case are by now enclosed as "intemal waters" by an application
of the new concept ofstraight baselines under the 1958and 1982Conven-
tions, sothat their "historic" backgroundhas become a superfluous refer-
ence. Similarly,aclaim to a"historic bay" couldhavebeenjustified bythe
status of its waters as "historic waters", but by now most bays known as
"historic bays", such as Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, the Bristol
Channel or Conception Bay,have become, as 1already stated above, ordi-
nary bays because of the new rule of the 24-mile closing-line. Further-
more, some "historic waters" in arather different situation havealsobeennium au golfe de Fonseca, à propos duquel il n'y a jamais eu d'accord
entre lesEtats intéressés. esmotifs quiontconduit à retenirlasolutionen
question dans la bail2du Figuierétaientque la France etl'Espagne avaient
décidéde maintenir une petite partie de cettebaie (qui est elle-mêmesi
petite, son ouverture n'ayant environ que 3000mètres,qu'elle aurait pu,
par simple application du critère de distance, être sous la juridiction de
l'unoul'autre Etat) sousleuradministrationconjointe envued'utiliser en
commun les mouills~gessetrouvant dans la rade (déclaration pour la déli-
mitation de lajuridiction de la Franceet de l'Espagne dans les eaux de la
baie du Figuier, 1879,ministèredes affairesétrangères, Traitésetconven-
tions entrela Franceet les puissancesétrangères, tome deuxième, 1919,
p. 141);la question d'un titre distinct a donc cédle pas a des considéra-
tions pratiques. Il est touà fait évident que, dans la présente affaire,ce
sont d'autres consid.érationsqui prévalent.
42. Je dois souligneraussi, en l'occurrence, qu'alors mêmeque l'arrêt
de 1917n'a pas utilisécetteexpression, la Chambre est la seule a essayer
d'invoquer leconcept d'aeauxhistoriques »pour définirleseauxdu golfe

de Fonseca. Je dois avouer que je vois très difficilement si la Chambre,
lorsqu'elle parled'<ceaux historiques »,a à l'esprit l'ensemble de la zone
du golfe ou lapartit: centrale(minime) du golfe à l'exclusion de la «cein-
ture littorale de3 milles.LaChambre affirme que :«[legolfe de Fonseca
est] une baie histoxique dont les eaux sont, en conséquence, des eaux
historiques » (arrêt, par.383),que «[c]equi pose un problème ..c'est la
nature précisede la souverainetédont trois Etatsriverainsjouissent dans
ceseauxhistorique:; »(par. 395),que «[l]adécisionde 1917concernant le
statut juridique des eaux du golfe de Fonsecaétait ..essentiellement que
ces eaux historiques étaient à l'époque une((copropriété» (condominio)
des trois Etats river,ains» (par. 398), que «la zone maritime en question
étaitdepuis longtenipsconstituée par deseaux historiques dépendant de
la souveraineté d'un seul Etat» (par. 401) et que «les eaux du golfe,
hormis les ceinture:maritimes de 3 milles, sont des eaux historiques et
sont soumises a la souveraineté conjointe des trois Etats » (par. 404). La
Chambre paraît simplementaggraverlaconfusion par saconceptionerro-
néede ce que constituentdes «eaux historiques ».

43. L'arrêtrendu en 1951dans l'affaire des Pêcherieasdéfiniles«eaux
historiques)) comme étant des «eaux que l'on traite comme des eaux
intérieures,alorsqu.'enl'absence d'un titrehistorique ellesn'auraient pas
ce caractère» (C.1.J.Recueil19.51,p. 130).En fait, les eaux se trouvant
dans la situation de celles qui étaienten litige dans l'affaire de 1951sont
désormais incluses dans les «eaux intérieures» par l'application du
nouveau concept dl:lignes de base droitesconsacré dans lesconventions
de 1958et de 1982,de sorte que leurs antécédents«historiques» sont
devenus une référence superflue. Demême,la qualification de «baie
historique »aurait pu sejustifier par lefait que leseaux du golfeavaient le
statut d'«eaux historiques)), mais, comme je l'ai dit ci-dessus, le rôle
nouveau joué par 1;iligne de fermeture de 24 milles a maintenant trans-
forméen baies ordinaires la plupart desbaiesconsidéréescomme «baiesthe subject of a parallel evolution. In the course of the preparation for
UNCLOS III, the delegate of the Philippines introduced a draft article
concerning "historic waters" reading that "historic rights or title
acquired by a State in a part ofthe sea adjacent to itsts shallbe recog-
nized and safeguarded" (A/AC.l38/SC.II/L.46) and another draft arti-
cleon "breadth ofterritorial sea" reading that "the maximum limit[ofthe
territorial sea]shall not apply to historic waters held by any State as its

territorial sea"(A/CONF.138/SC.II/L.47/ TRheve.pr)posals by
the Philippines didnot appear in any ofthe texts which were later brought
to UNCLOS III. In fact, the waters which the Philippines intended to
claim on grounds of historic rights or titles would have been brought
under the jurisdiction of the coastal State in terms of the new concept of
"archipelagic waters" under the 1982Convention, which would have a
suigenerisstatus similar tothat of territorial sea but not, however, tothat
of internal waters'.In other words, the concept of "historic waters" has
become irrelevant inthe case ofthe Philippinesbecause of the agreed new
concept of archipelagic waters.

44. In sum,the concept of "historic waters" has become practically a
redundancy, which isperhaps why itdoes not appear in either the 1958or
the 1982Conventions. In fact, it is not soch a concept asa description
expressive of thehistoric title on the basis of which a claim to a particular
statusfor certain waters has been made.Thus, firstly in the 1951Fisheries
case a claim to "historic waters" was used to justify the status of internal

waters,secondly a claim to "historic waters" forthe watersof abay could
havejustified a concept of a "historic bay" the waters of which arenter-
na1waters", and thirdly in another instance, i.e.,in the case of the Philip-
pines, ithas been used tojustify only the status of territorialsea, resulting
in the emergence of a new sui generisconcept of archipelagic waters. It
follows, therefore, that "historic waters" have no special legal status dif-
ferent from the categories which have longbeen recognized, that is,either
internal waters or territorial sea (or the newly recognized archipelagic
waters) :inother words, "historic waters" assuchdid not and do not exist
asan independent institution inthe lawofthe sea. 1have to add this expla-
nation because the essentialimplications ofthisterminologyseem to have
been overlooked in the present Judgment, particularly when 1note in the
Judgment the presumption that, the Gulf of Fonseca being "[a]historic

' The referenceto "archipelagicinternal in the presentJudgment(para3.93)
is thusmisleading.historiques)), comme la baie du Delaware, la baie de Chesapeake, le
chenal de Bristol oii la baie de Conception. En outre, certaines «eaux
historiques» se trouvant dans une situation passablement différente ont
fait l'objetd'une évolutionparallèle.C'estainsiqu'au cours de laprépara-
tion de latroisièmeconférencedesNations Unies sur le droit de la mer le
représentant des Philippines a présenté un projet d'article concernantles
«eaux historiques » qui stipulait que «les droits ou les titres historiques
acquis par un Etat dans un secteur maritime adjacent a ses côtes sont
reconnus et sauvegardés)) (A/AC.138/SC.II/L.46), ainsi qu'un autre
projet d'article sur la ((largeur de la mer territoriale prévoyaitque
«la limite maximuni [de la mer territoriale] ne s'applique pas aux eaux
historiques considéréespar un Etat comme faisant partie de sa mer
territoriale))A/CONF.138/SC.II/L.47/ Res propos.itions des
Philippinesne sont .réapparues dans aucun destextes qui ont ultérieure-
ment été soumis a la.troisièmeconférencedes Nations Unies sur le droit
de la mer. En fait, les eaux que les Philippines avaient l'intention de
revendiquer pour des motifs de droits ou de titres historiques auraient

été incorporées à la zone de juridiction de 1'Etatcôtier par application
du nouveau concepi:d'«eaux archipélagiques» prévupar la convention
de 1982,qui auraient un statut sui generis semblable à celui de la mer
territoriale mais non, toutefois, a celui des eaux intérielAutrement
dit, le concept'«eaux historiques »a perdu toute pertinence dans le cas
des Philippines par suite de l'acceptation du nouveau concept d'eaux
archipélagiques.-
44. En résumé,le concept d'aeaux historiques » est devenu pratique-
ment une redondance, et c'est peut-être pourquoiil ne figure ni dans la
convention de 1958ni dans celle de 1982.En fait, il ne s'agit pas tant
d'un concept que d'une description qui reflète letitre historique sur la
base duquel un statut particulier a été revendiquépour certaines eaux.
C'est ainsi que dans l'affaire des Pêcheri,n 195 1,la revendication sur
des «eaux historiqiies)) a servi à justifier un statut d'eaux intérieures,
qu'ensuite la revendication du statut'aeaux historiques »pour leseaux
d'une baie auraitpi1justifier un concept de «baie historique» dont les
eaux constituent des «eaux intérieures» et que troisièmement, dans un

autre cas,c'est-à-dire dans celui des Philippines, il a étéupour justi-
fier seulement le statut de mer territoriale découlant de l'apparition d'un
nouveau concept surigenerisd'eaux archipélagiques.Il s'ensuitpar consé-
quent que les «eaux historiques » n'ont pas de statut juridique spécial
différent descatégoriesreconnues de longue date, c'est-à-dire soit des
eaux intérieures, soit de la mer territoriale (ou des eaux archipélagiques
récemmentreconnues) :autrement dit, le« eauxhistoriques »en tant que
tellesn'existaientas et n'existent toujours pas comme institution indé-
pendanteau regard du droit de la mer.Je doisajouter cetteexplicationcar

1 La référence faeux «eaux archipélagiques intériesdans le présentarrêt
(par.393)risquedonc d'induireen erreur.

409757 DISPUTE(ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AIS)S.P.ODA)

bay, ... the waters of it are accordingly historic waters" (Judgment,
para. 383;emphasis added).

V. THETRUELEGAL STATU SFTHE WATER SFTHE GULF OFFONSEC A
THE WATER OSF THEGULF OFFONSECC AONSISTIN GFTHE TERRITORIA SLAS
OFEACH OF THERIPARIAS NTATES

45. Since the time when the rather vague concept of the territorial
waters or the coastal belt first emerged inthe last century, the three ripar-
ian States of the Gulf of Fonseca had in principle maintained 1league

(3miles)asthe limitoftheir territorial seas and there was no evidence that
their claims to territorial seas in the Gulf differed from their relevant
claims elsewhere. Inaddition, the threearian States seemto have exer-
cised certain police powers for inspection beyond their respective
1-1eagueterritorial seas. ElSalvadorprovided, initsCivilCode of 1860,in
addition to the 1-leagueterritorial sea, that police powers shouldbe exer-
cised outside the territorial sea to a distance of 4 leagues from the Coast
(UnitedNations LegislativeSeries,Vol.;ST/LEG/SER.B/ 1,p.71).This
claim was repeated in the 1933Navigation and Maritime Act (ibid.; see

also Vol. VI; ST/LEG/SER.B/6, p. 126).Honduras likewise claimed in
its 1906Civil Code (ibid., ST/LEG/SER.B/l, p. 71), in addition to the
1-leagueterritorial sea,a Cleague belt for the exerciseof itspolice power.
Nicaragua isreportedto have taken the sameposition. Such acompetence
on the part of the coastal State has been generally accepted since
World War 1,particularly throughthe new régimeof the contiguouszone
which the United Statesinitiated in the bilateraltreaties that it concluded
with a number of States. Inch circumstances, no objection by any State

has ever been lodged against those three riparian States in connection
with their additional claims to exercise police powers beyond the territo-
rialsea.

46. Apart from those territorial claims over the waters of the Gulf, the
three riparian States could early in this century have been united in con-
sidering that the small expanse of sea represented by the waters of the

Gulf - whichwould inany eventbe covered bytheir respective territorial
seas and police zone- should not remain opento free use by any State
other than themselves. It would not have been surprising if the Gulf of
Fonseca had politically been the subject of acommon interest of the three
riparian States, thus precluding unwished-for use or participation by
other States, or if their attitudes in 1917had featured a common confi-
dence in rejecting the then prevailing "open seas" doctrine as applicable DIFFÉREND (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (OAS.)ISS.ODA) 757

leprésentarrêtmesemble avoirméconnulesconséquencesessentiellesde
cette terminologie, .particulièrement lorsque je relève dans l'arrêt la
présomptionque conime «il s'agitd'une baiehistoriqu..[ses]eauxsont,
enconséquenced ,es eaux historiques »(arrêt,par.38;lesitaliques sont de
moi).

V. LE STATUTJIJRIDIQUE RÉEL DES EAUX DU GOLFE DE FONSEC A
LES EAUX DU GOLFE DE FONSEC AE COMPOSENT DESMERSTERRITORIALES
1)ECHACUN DES ETATS RIVERAINS

45. Depuis que le concept assez vagued'eaux territoriales ou de cein-
ture littorale a vu lejour, au XIXe siècle,lestrois Etats riverains du golfe
de Fonseca ont en principe maintenu à 1lieue marine (3 milles) la limite
de leurs mersterritoriales etrien ne permet de penser que leursrevendica-
tions concernant des mers territoriales dans le golfe différaient de leurs

revendications correispondantesailleurs.Enoutre,lestroisEtatsriverains
semblentavoir exercécertains pouvoirs de police a des fins d'inspection
au-delà de leursmers territoriales respectives de 1lieue de largeur. Dans
son code civil de 1860,El Salvador a stipuléque ces pouvoirs de police
s'exerceraient non seulementdans sa mer territoriale de 1lieue marine de
large, mais aussi, au-delà de la mer territoriale, jusqu'à une distance de
4 lieues marines de la côte (UN LRgislativeSeries, vol. 1; ST/LEG/
SER.B/l, p. 71).Cetteprétention a étéreprisedans la loi de 1933relative
à la navigation et ii la juridiction maritime (ibid., voir également le
volumeVI; ST/LEGr/SER.B/6, p. 126).LeHondurasa luiaussirevendi-

qué, dans son cod~ civil de 1906 (ibid.; ST/LEG/SER.B/I, p. 71),
outre une mer territoriale de 1 lieue, une ceinture de 4 lieues de large
pour l'exercice de ses pouvoirs de police. Le Nicaragua a apparemment
adoptéla mêmeposition. Une telle compétencede la part de 1'Etatcôtier
est généralement acceptée depuis la première guerre mondiale, parti-
culièrement dans le cadre du nouveau régimede zone contiguë dont les
Etats-Unis ont étéles initiateurs dans les traités bilatérauxqu'ils ont
conclusavecun certiiin nombre d'Etats. Celaétant,aucun Etat n'ajamais
élevéd'objections auprès des trois Etats riverains contre leurs préten-
tions accrues touchant l'exercice de pouvoirs de police au-delà de la

mer territoriale.
46. Indépendamment de ces revendications territoriales sur les eaux
du golfe, les Etatsiverains auraient pu, audébutdu XXesiècle,êtreunis
pour considérer que la petite surface de mer que représentaient les eaux
du golfe,quiauraitel1toutétatde cause étécouverte par leursmersterrito-
riales et leurs zones de police respectives, ne resterait pas ouverte
libre utilisation par des Etats tiers. Cela n'aurait pas étésurprenant si le
golfede Fonsecaavaitprésentépolitiquementun intérêtcommun pour les
trois Etatsriverains, ce quiauraitécartétoute utilisation ou participation
jugéeindésirablede la part d'autres Etats,ou sileur attitudeen 1917avait
témoigné d'une conviction communeque la doctrine de la liberté desto the waters of the Gulf of Fonseca. No evidence has been shown that

they actually voiced such a rejection, or asserteda corresponding historic
claim,jointly, and thus proposed for the Gulf a sui generisrégime.Yet a
tacit implication tothat effectled El Salvadorthen to raise an objection to
the establishment of a United States naval base on Nicaraguan territory,
and alsolentimpetus to theCentral American Court ofJustice in naming
the Gulf of Fonseca as a "historic bay" and in consecrating the idea of
shared ownership of non-territorial waters. This has also led the three
riparian States in the present case to unitedly denominate that Gulf as a
"historic bay", even though,as I have suggested, this particular term has
been used erroneously to describe the Gulf of Fonseca.

47. Whether or not any precise delimitation of the territorial sea and/
or the zone for police powers was needed at any givenmoment for practi-
cal purposes, these waters in the Gulf could undoubtedly have been
properly divided by boundary lines and, in fact, a boundary line was
adopted in 1900by a mixed commission established by Nicaragua and

Honduras, a line extending an approximate distance of 20nautical miles
to a central point of the Gulf equidistant from the coasts of Honduras
(El Tigre)and Nicaragua, which are more than 10nautical milesapart. It
isnot known ifthe Governments either of Honduras or of Nicaragua had
any clearidea ofthe status ofthe watersthey were then dividing.Yet Hon-
duras could certainly have proceeded to the same exercise of drawing a
boundary in relation to El Salvador,though thiswould in practical terms
have been more difficult owing tothe existence of scattered islands in the
western part of the Gulf.

48. In thelight of the claims made in the post-war period by the Latin
American States to a distance of 12milesforthe territorial sea,and given
the universally agreed 12-milelimit to the territorial sea under the new
régimeof the law of the sea, the Gulf of Fonseca must now be deemed to
be totally covered by the territorial seas of the three riparian States. It
cannot, moreover, be disputed that the area which had previously been
claimed by each of these States forthe exercise of its police powers has
been completely absorbed in the extended 12-mileterritorial sea in the

Gulf. Thus 1 conclude that the waters within the Gulf of Fonseca now
consist of the territorialeas of three riparian States, without leaving any
maritime space beyond the 12-miledistance from any part of the coasts.
This, to my mind, isthe legal status of those waters.

49. Asto any morespecificdecision, the Chamber isnot inaposition to
make any delimitation of the territorial sea ofthese three riparian States
in the Gulf (Judgment, para. 432(2)).Nevertheless, Article 15ofthe 1982
United Nations convention cannot be ignored:mers quiprévalaitalorsne s'appliquait pas auxeaux du golfe de Fonseca.
Mais aucune preuve n'a été apportée que ces Etats aient effectivement
exprimé le désir d'une telle exclusion ou fait valoir une prétentiàndes
droits historiques correspondants, conjointement, et aient ainsi proposé
pour legolfe un régimesuigeneris. C'estcependant une motivationtacite
à ceteffetqui a,àl'époque, conduitElSalvador à souleverune objection à
l'établissement d'une base navale des Etats-Unis en territoire nicara-
guayen et qui a aussi poussé la Cour de justice centraméricaine à
appeler le golfe de Fonseca «baie historique »età consacrer l'idéed'une
propriété communed'eaux non territoriales. C'estaussi ce qui a conduit
les trois Etats riverains, dans la présente affaire,qualifier ce golfeà
l'unisson, de «baie Iiistorique » alors mêmeque, comme je l'ai déjàdit,
c'est à tort que cette expression a été utilisépour décrire le golfe de
Fonseca.

47. Qu'une délimitationprécisede la mer territorialeet/ou de la zone
dans laquelledes poiivoirs de policeseraient exercésaitou non éténéces-
saireà un moment donné à des fins pratiques, il ne fait aucun douteque
ces eaux du golfe auraient légitimementpu êtrediviséespar des lignes de
délimitationet,enfait, une lignede délimitationa étéadoptéeen 1900par
une commission mixte crééepar le Nicaragua et le Honduras. Il s'agit
d'une ligne qui s'étendsur une longueur d'environ 20 milles marins
jusqu'à un point central du golfe équidistant des côtes du Honduras
(El Tigre)et du Nicaragua, elles-mêmesdistantes l'une de l'autre de plus
de 10 milles. On nt: sait pas si le Gouvernement du Honduras ou le
Gouvernement du Nicaragua avaient alors une idée claire du statut des
eaux qu'ils divisaierit. Cependant, le Honduras aurait certainement pu
procéderau mêmeexercice de tracé d'unelimite par rapport a El Salva-
dor, bien que cela eût été plus difficiledans la pratique en raison de la

présenced'îleséparsesdans la partie occidentale du golfe.
48. Les Etats latirio-américainsayant revendiqué,après la guerre,une
mer territoriale de1:2milles et une mer territoriale de 12milles ayant été
universellement acceptéedans le cadre du nouveau régimedu droit de la
mer, le golfe de Foriseca doit maintenant être considéré comme totale-
ment couvert par les mers territoriales des trois Etats riverains. De plus,
on ne saurait contester que le secteur précédemment revendiquépar
chacun de ces Etats pour l'exercicede sespouvoirs de police a ététotale-
ment absorbépar l'extensiona 12 milles des mers territoriales dans le
golfe. J'en conclus donc que les eaux qui se trouvent dans le golfe de
Fonseca se composf:nt maintenant des mers territoriales des trois Etats
riverains, sans 1aisse:raucun espace maritime au-delà d'une distance de
12milles a partir d'un point quelconque du littoral. Tel eàtmon avis,le
statut juridique de ces eaux.

49. Pour cequi esi:d'une décisionplus spécifique,laChambre n'estpas
en mesure de procétlerà une délimitation quelconque de la mer territo-
riale de ces troist:its riverains dans le golfe (arrêt, par.432, 2). Néan-
moins, on ne saurait passer sous silencel'article 15de la convention des
Nations Unies de 1982,qui se lit comme suit : "Where the coasts of two States are opposite or adjacent to each
other, neither ofthe two States isentitled, failing agreement between
them to the contrary, toxtend itsterritorial seabeyond the median
lineeverypoint ofwhich isequidistant fromthe nearestpoints on the
baselines from which thebreadth ofthe territorialeas ofeach ofthe
two States is measured. The above provision does not apply, how-
ever, where it is necessary by reason of historic title or other special
circumstances to delimit the territorialsofthe two Statesin away
which is at variance therewith."

In other words, the equidistance method isthe rule in delimitation of the
territorial sea of the neighbouring States either opposite or adjacent to
each other, and the shape of theCoastas a baseline is of importance for
measuring the territorialsea. 1do not see that any historic title or other
special circumstances have been advanced by either El Salvador or
Honduras which would justify any departure from the application of
the general rule of the "equidistance line". In the particular instance of
the Gulf of Fonseca, the terminal points of the land boundaries between
El Salvador and Honduras, and between Honduras and Nicaragua, are of
cmcial significance forthe delimitation of the respective territorial seas.
The Chamber has determined that the terminal point of the territorial

boundary between El Salvador and Honduras is north-west of the
Islas Ramaditas atthe mouth of the river Goascoran. In addition, sover-
eigntyover the islandslocated in the Gulf isone of the factors to be taken
into account, and the islands of Meanguera and Meanguerita are deter-
mined by the Chamber as being under the sovereignty of El Salvador.
50. It seems to be clear from the geographicalpoint of viewthat Hon-
duras, sandwiched between ElSalvador and Nicaragua in theGulf, isnot
entitled to claim any territorial sea beyond the meeting point somewhere
in the Gulf of the respective territorialas of the three riparian States,
which may well be determined, if necessary, by agreement among them-
selvesor by any other means that they may deem fit. 1must emphasize at
thisjuncture that, while the delimitation of the exclusive economic zone
and the continental shelf between the neighbouring States should be

effected "in order to achieve an equitable solution" (1982United Nations
Convention, Arts. 74 and 83), application of the equidistance method
remains a rule in the delimitation of the territorial sea.

VI. THERIGHTS OF HONDURA WSITHIN AND OUTSIDE
THE GULF OF FONSECA

(i) Withinthe Gulf

51. It cannot be overlooked that Honduras, whose territorial title to
waters in the Gulf is locked within the Gulf itself,has always enjoyed the «Lorsque lescôtes dedeux Etats sont adjacentesouse font face,ni
l'un ni l'autre de ces Etats n'est en droit, sauf accord contraire entre
eux, d'étendre s.amer territoriale au-delà de la ligne médiane dont
tous lespointssont équidistantsdespoints lesplusprochesdes lignes
de base à partir desquelles est mesuréela largeur de la mer territo-
riale de chacun des deux Etats. Cette disposition ne s'applique
cependant pas d.anslecasoù,en raison del'existencedetitreshistori-

quesoud'autres circonstancesspéciales,ilestnécessairede délimiter
autrement la mer territoriale desdeux Etats.)
Autrement dit,la méi:hodede l'équidistanceest la règlepour délimiterla
mer territorialed'Etats voisins dont les côtes sont adjacentes ou se font

face,et la configuration de la côteen tantque lignedebase estimportante
pour mesurerlalargeur de lamerterritoriale. Je ne sachepas qu'El Salva-
dor ou le Honduras ait invoquél'existenced'un titre historique ou d'une
autre circonstance spéciale quijustifierait de s'écarterde quelque façon
de l'application de la règlegénéralede la «ligne d'équidistanceDans le
cas particulier du golfe de Fonseca, les points terminaux des frontières
terrestres entre El Salvador etleHonduras etentre leHonduras etle Nica-
ragua revêtentune importance capitale pour la délimitation des mers
territorialesespectikes.LaChambre a déterminé que lepoint terminal de
la frontière entre El Salvador et le Honduras se trouve au nord-ouest des

îles Ramaditas, a I'ernbouchure du Goascoran. En outre, la souveraineté
sur lesîles situéesalis le golfe est l'un desfacteàprendre en considé-
ration, et la Chambre a déterminé quelesîles de Meanguera et Meangue-
rita relèventde la soiiverainetéd'El Salvador.
50. Il sembleêtreclair,dupoint devuegéographique,que leHonduras,
pris en sandwich daris le golfe entre El Salvador et le Nicaragua, ne peut
pas revendiquer une mer territoriale au-delà du point où, quelque part
dans le golfe, se rencontrent les mers territoriales respectives des trois
Etatsriverains, dont l'étendue peutfort bienêtredéterminée s,ibesoinest,
par accord entreeux oupartoutautre moyen qu'ilspourront juger appro-

prié.Je tiens à souligner à ce propos que si la délimitation de la zone
économiqueexclusiveetdu plateau continentalentre lesEtats voisinsdoit
être effectuée«afin d'aboutira une solution équitable»(articles74 et 83
de la conventiondes Nations Unies de 1982),l'application de la méthode
de l'équidistancedemeure la règlepour la délimitationde la mer territo-
riale.

VI. LES DROITSDU HONDURA À L'INT~RIEURET AL'EXT~RIEUR
DU GOLFEDE FONSECA

i) A l'intériedu go!fe

51. On ne peut pas méconnaîtrele fait que le Honduras, dont le titre
territorial sur lesux du golfe se trouve enfermé à l'intérieurdu golfe760 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AISS). P.ODA)

right ofinnocent passage throughthe traditional 3-mileterritorial sea and
certainly willalso be guaranteed thisright through the now expanded ter-
ritorial seas of theother two riparian States, El Salvador and Nicaragua,
which territorial seas meet within theGulf. The Chamber, in definingthe
legal status of the waters of theGulf, seemsto be motivated by its concern
about the passage of vessels, whether of Honduras or of other foreign
nations, to and from the PacificOcean, but the right of innocent passage
is,inany event,protected by international laweveninthe territorial sea of

any State.

52. 1must add, furthermore, that given the large measure of mutual
understanding displayed by the three riparian States in respect of the
common interest derived from their geographical location bordering on
the Gulf, it may be possible (under a new concept enshrined in the 1982
United Nations Convention) for them, as "States bordering an enclosed
or semi-enclosed sea", to accept their obligation of "[CO-operation]with
each other in the exercise of their rights and in the performance of their
duties under this Convention", as provided for under Part IX of the 1982
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, entitled "Enclosed or

Semi-Enclosed Sea" (Art. 123).

(ii)Outsidethe Gulf

53. 1believethat 1have sufficiently demonstrated the reasons why 1am
unable to associate myself with the present Judgment's finding to the
effect that, since acondominium ofthree States extends upto the closing-
line of the Gulf, Honduras, as one of the three, is entitled to claim an
exclusive economic zone and continental shelf outside the Gulf. Such a
finding ishardlytenable in the light of anyrule, traditional or contempor-

ary, of the law of the sea. Because of its geographicalsituation, Honduras
cannot lay claim, in the offshore areas of the Pacific Coastoutside the
Gulf,to any territorial title in terms of the territorial sea, the continental
shelf or the exclusive economic zone. This is a geographical reality of
nature which - if1may adoptthe Court's dictum inthe North Sea Conri-
nental Shelfcases - there "can never be any question of completely
refashioning" (Z.C.J.Reports 1969,p. 49,at para. 91).

54. Of course, as 1have already stated, Honduras is fully guaranteed
accessto the high seas ofthe PacificOcean outside theGulf of Fonseca by
the unchallenged concept of innocent passage through the territorial seas

of the two neighbouring Statesboth within and without the Gulf.

55. The concept of the continental shelf and the exclusive economic
zone has recently been developed to extend coastal jurisdiction to vast
offshore areas which had traditionally been regarded as a part of the highlui-même,a toujours joui du droit de passage inoffensif à travers la mer
territorialetraditionn.elle de 3milles et que ce droit lui sera certainement
garanti aussi àtravers les mers territorialesmaintenant élargiesdes deux
autres Etats riverains- El Salvadoret le Nicaragua - quise rencontrent
à l'intérieurdu golfe. La Chambre, en définissant lestatutjuridique des
eaux du golfe, semblg:avoir été motivép ear la préoccupation du passage
des navires, qu'ils battent pavillon hondurien ou pavillon d'autres Etats
étrangers, à destination et en provenance de l'océan Pacifique, mais le
droit de passage inofrensif est, en tout étatde cause, protégépar le droit
international mêmedans la mer territoriale d'un Etat quel qu'il soit.

52. Il mefaut ajoui:er,de surcroît, que lestrois Etatsriverains ayant fait
preuve de beaucoup de compréhension mutuelle dans leur façon de
concevoirl'intérêt commun découlantpoue rux de leur situation géogra-
phique autour du golfe, il peut être possible (en vertu d'un concept
nouveau consacré dails la conventiondes Nations Unies de 1982)D,xrles
Parties, en tant qu'a IEtatsriverains d'une mer ferméeou semi-fermée D,
d'accepter leur obligiition de ((coopérerentre [elles]dans l'exercice des
droits et l'exécution des obligations qui sont les leurs en vertu de la
convention)), commc: prévu dans la partie IX de la convention des
Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer de 1982,intitulée«Mers ferméesou
semi-fermées »(art. 123).

ii)Al'extérieud rugolfe

53. Je croisavoir silffisamment démontrélesraisons pour lesquellesje
ne peux pas m'associer à la conclusion àlaquelleparvient leprésent arrêt
selon laquelle, vu qu'un condominium de trois Etats s'étendjusqu'à la
ligne de fermeture dii golfe, le Honduras, du fait qu'il est l'un des trois,
peut revendiquer une zone économiqueexclusiveetun plateau continen-
tal en dehors du golfe. Une telle conclusion n'est guèredéfendable à la
lumière d'une quelconque règle, traditionnelle ou contemporaine, du
droit de la mer. En raison de sa situation géographique, le Honduras ne
peut pas, dans les secteurs maritimes se trouvant en dehors du golfe au

large du littoral du Pacifique, invoquer un titre territorial quelconque
pour revendiquerune mer territoriale, un plateau continental ou unezone
économique exc1usik.e.Il s'agit là d'une réalité géographiqueque -
s'il m'estpermis d'emprunter les termes employéspar la Cour dans les
affaires du Plateau continentadle lamerduNord - il «n'est jamais ques-
tion de refaire..entii:rement» (C.Z.J.Recueil1969,p. 49,par. 91).
54. Evidemment, ,commeje l'ai déjà dit, le concept incontesté de
passage inoffensif à travers les eaux territoriales des deux Etats voisins,
tant àl'intérieur qu'à l'extérieuru golfe,garantit pleinement au Hondu-
ras l'accès à la haute: mer de l'océan Pacifique, endehors du golfe de
Fonseca.

55. Leconcept de plateau continental et dezoneéconomique exclusive
a récemment été développd ée façon à étendrela juridiction de 1'Etat
côtierà de vastes sect(:ursmaritimes qui étaient traditionnellement consi-761 DISPUTE (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (AISS). P.ODA)

seas. Thus the interests of the coastal State have been strengthened and
expanded - albeit atthe expense of the general and common interestsof
the international community to be enjoyed on the high seas - and the

general interests capable of being asserted by the international commu-
nity on the high seas are now diminished (althoughthe navigation inter-
estsofnon-coastalnations remainunaffected inthose expanded areas). In
return for that sacrifice, land-locked States and geographically disadvan-
taged nationsareassured, under the 1982United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea, of:

"the right to participate, on an equitable basis, in the exploitation
of an appropriate part of the surplus of the living resources of the

exclusive economic zones of coastal States of the same sub-region or
region. .." (Art. 69,para. 1,and Art. 70, para. 1).
The "geographically disadvantaged States" aremeant to include :

"States bordering enclosed or semi-enclosed seas, whose geographi-
cal situation makesthem dependent upon the exploitation of the liv-
ing resources of the exclusive economic zones of other States in the
subregion or region for adequate supplies of fish for the nutritional
purposes of their populations or parts thereof, and coastal States
which can claim no exclusive economic zones of their own" (Art. 70,
para. 2).

This new concept of the "right to fish" in the exclusive economic zone of
the neighbouring State was introduced into the new régimeof the seas to
compensate geographically disadvantaged States which might otherwise
have suffered owing to the expanded coastaljurisdiction of these neigh-
bouring Statesplaced geographically in a betterposition. 1should refrain
at this juncture from taking any interpretative position on the question
whether, in view of the fact that it has a long coastline on the Atlantic
side - thus enabling it to claim its own exclusive economic zone in that
region -, Honduras falls within the definition of "geographically disad-
vantaged States", which would enable itto claim in the Pacific Oceanthe
rights of "geographically disadvantaged States" under the 1982United
Nations Convention. 1 would simply suggest that the possibility of Hon-
duras claiming or being granted such a right in the exclusive economic

zones in the Pacific of its two neighbouring States may not be excluded.

(Signed Sh)igeru ODA. DIFFÉRENCI (ELSALVADOR/HONDUR (APS)ISS.ODA) 761

déréscomme faisant partie de la haute mer. Ainsi, les intérêts de 1'Etat
côtier ont étérenforcéset élargis- mêmesi c'estaux dépensdes intérêts
généraux et commu.nsdont la communauté internationale doit pouvoir
jouir en haute mer -- et les intérêtsde caractère généralque peut faire
valoirla communautéinternationale en haute mer setrouvent maintenant
réduits(bienque lesintérêtsdesEtatn son côtiersen matièredenavigation

demeurent intacts d;ms ces secteursélargis).En contrepartie de ce sacri-
fice, les Etats sansii.tora1et les Etats géographiquement désavantagésse
voieni garantir, conformément à la convention des Nations Unies sur le
droit de la mer de 1982 :
le droit de participer, selon une formule équitableà l'exploitation

d'une part appropriée du reliquat des ressources biologiques des
zoneséconomiquesexclusivesdes Etatscôtiers de lamêmerégionou
sous-région»(art. 69, par. 1,et art. 70,par. 1).
L'expression Etats géographiquement désavantagés ))s'entend notam-

ment :
des Etatscôtiers, ycompris les Etats riverains d'une merferméeou
semi-fermée, qiie leur situation géographique rend tributaires de
l'exploitation des ressources biologiques des zones économiques
exclusives d'autres Etats de la sous-régionou régionpour un appro-

visionnement siiffisant en poisson destiné à l'alimentation de leur
population ou (l'une partie de leur population, ainsi que des Etats
côtiers qui ne peuvent prétendre à une zone économiqueexclusive
propre ))(art. 70,par. 2).

Cenouveau concept de «droit depêche )dans la zone économiqueexclu-
sive de 1'Etatvoisin a.étintroduit dans le nouveau régimedes mers pour
donnerune compensation aux Etatsgéographiquement désavantagésqui
auraient autrement pu pâtir des conséquencesde l'élargissementde la
juridiction côtièredis Etats voisins géographiquement mieux placés.Je
m'abstiendrai, à ce stade, d'adopter une position quelconque au sujet de
la question desavoir si,vuqu'ilaun longlittoral surl'Atlantique, cequi lui
permet de revendiquer sa propre zone économique exclusivedans cette
région,la situation clu Honduras correspond à la définition des« Etats
géographiquement désavantagés », ce qui lui permettrait de revendiquer

dans l'océan Pacifiquelesdroits que reconnaît aux «Etatsgéographique-
ment désavantagés»la convention des Nations Unies de 1982.Je me
bornerai à dire que l'on ne peut pas exclure la possibilité pour le Hon-
duras de revendiquer ou de se voir accorder un tel droit dans les zones
économiques exclusives dans le Pacifique des deux Etats qui sont ses
voisins.

(Signé)Shigeru ODA.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion of Judge Oda

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