Dissenting opinion of Judge Sir Robert Jennings

Document Number
070-19860627-JUD-01-10-EN
Parent Document Number
070-19860627-JUD-01-00-EN
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528

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SIR ROBERT JENNINGS

Although 1have to disagree with several of the findings of the Court,
particularly on the question of jurisdiction, 1must, at the outset of this
opinion,associate myselfwholly with theCourt's expression of regret over
the United States decision not to appear, or to take anypart,in thepresent
phase of this case. This non-appearance has been particularly unfortunate
- perhaps not least for the United States - in a case which involves
complicated questions of fact ;where, in the merits phase, witnessesgiving
evidence as to the facts were called and examined by counsel for the
Applicant, but their evidence was not tested by cross-examination by
counsel for the Respondent ; and where the Respondent itself provided

neither oral nor documentary evidence.
1also wish to express my regret that, in a Court which by its Statute is
elected in such a way asto assure "the representation of the main forms of
civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world", the United
States in its statement accompanying the announcement of the non-par-
ticipation in thepresentphase of thecaseshouldhave chosen to refer to the
national origins of two of theJudgeswho took part in theearlierphases of
the case.
As to the effects of the United States failure to appear in the merits
phase, and the meaning and application of Article 53 of the Court's
Statute, 1am in entire agreement with theCourt ;and it ishardly necessary
forme to add that 1agreewith the Court that, despite havingchosennot to
appear in the present phase, the United Statesremains a Party to the case,
and is bound by the Judgment of the Court ;just as is also Nicaragua.

In acaselikethe present wherean important question ofjurisdiction had
to be left to be dealt with at the merits stage, it is incumbent upon those
Judges who have felt it necessary to vote "No" to some of the items of the
disposit tifexplain their views, if only briefly. The reason is that the
scheme of the disposiit sinecessarily designed to enable the majority to
express their decision. Even amongst them, reasons for the decision may
differ ; but the actual decision, expressed by the vote "Yes", will be
essentially the same decision for al1of them. Not sofor those voting "No".
An example isthe veryimportant subparagraph (3)ofparagraph 292in the
present case, by which those voting "Yes" express their common viewthat
the respondent Statehas acted in breach of its obligation not to intervene
in the affairs of another State : - a vote, "No", however, might mean that
in the opinion of that Judge, the Respondent's acts did not amount to
intervention ; or that there was a legaljustification by way of collective

self-defence ;or thatthe actionwasjustified asacounter measure ;or that,
as in thecase of the present Judge, the Court had nojurisdiction to decideany of these things, and therefore the vote "No", of itself, expressed no
opinion whatsoever on those other substantive questions.

1shalldeal first with themultilateraltreaty reservation andjurisdiction ;
thenjurisdiction under the 1956FCN Treaty ;and finally make somebrief
comments on the substance of the Judgment.

The multilateral treaty reservation is so oddly drafted that it must give
rise to difficulties of interpretation.1 agree with the Judgment, however,
that, in spite of these difficulties, the Court has to respect it and apply it.
The reason for this could not be clearer. Thejurisdiction of the Court is

consensual, this requirement being an emanation of the independence of
the sovereign State ;which, it is in the present case not without pertinence
tonote, isalsothe basis of the principle of non-intervention.Consequently
the Court, in the exercise under Article 36, paragraph 6, of its Statute of
itscompetenceto decide adispute concerningits jurisdiction, must always
satisfy itself that consent has in fact been accorded, before it can decide
that jurisdiction exists. Moreover, the Court has to be rnindful that a
consent given in a declaration made under Article 36,paragraph 2, - the
"Optional Clause" - is a consent that no State needs to make and that
relatively very fewhave ever done so. Accordingly, any reservation quali-
fying such a consent especially demands caution and respect. 1 have,
therefore, voted "yes" to subparagraph (1) of paragraph 292.

1agree with the decision of the Court,and for the reasons it givesin the
Judgment, that the United States multilateral treaty reservation operates
to exclude the Court's jurisdiction in respect of the several multilateral
treaties with which the dispute between the Parties to this case is con-
cerned :including, most importantly, the Charter of the United Nations
(particularly Art. 2, para. 4, governing the use of force or threat of force,
and Art. 5 1 governing the right of individual and collectiveself-defence) ;
and the Charter of the Organization of American States. 1 am unable,
however, to agree with the Court's persuasion that, whilst accepting the
pertinence of the reservation, it can, nevertheless, decide on the Nicara-
guan Application by applying general customary law, as it were in lieuof
recourse to the relevant multilateral treaties.

Thisproposition raisessomeinterestingproblems about therelationship
ofcustomary lawand theUnited Nations Charter inparticular ; and 1shall
first touch briefly upon these ; but only briefly because, there are twofurther and decisivereasons, which apply not only to the United Nations
Charter but also to other relevant multilateral treaties, and show most
cogently why they cannot be avoided in this case by retreating into cus-

tom.

Let us look first, therefore, at the relationshp between customary
international law, and Article 2,paragraph 4,and Article 5 1of the United
Nations Charter. There is no doubt that there was, prior to the United
Nations Charter, acustomary lawwhich restricted the lawful useof force,
and which correspondingly provided also for a right to use force in self-
defence ; as indeed the use of the term "inherent" in Article 51 of the
United Nations Charter suggests.The proposition, however,that, afterthe
Charter, there exists alongside those Charter provisions on force and
self-defence, an independent customary law that can be applied as alter-

native to Articles 2, paragraph 4, and 51of the Charter, raises questions
about how and when thiscorrespondence came about,and about what the
differences, if any, between customary law and the Charter provisions,
may be.
A multilateral treaty may certainly be declaratory of customary inter-
national law either :

"as incorporating and giving recognition to a rule of customary
international law that existed prior to the conclusion of the treaty or,
on the other hand, as being thefons et origoof a rule of international
law which subsequently secured the general assent of States and
thereby was transformed into customary law" (see Baxter, British
YearBook of International Law,Vol. XLI, 1965-1966, p. 277).

It could hardly be contended that these provisions of the Charter were
merely a codification of the existing customary law. The literature is
replete with statements that Article 2, paragraph 4, - for example in
speaking of "force" rather than war, and providing that even a "threat of
force" may be unlawful - represented an important innovation in the law.
The late Sir Humphrey Waldock, in a passage dealing with matters very
much in issue in the present case, put itthis way :

"The illegalityof recourse to armed reprisalsor other forms of armed
intervention not amountingtowarwasnot establishedbeyondalldoubt
by the lawof the League,or by the Nuremberg and TokyoTrials.That
was brought about by thelawoftheCharter. .."(106CollectedCourses,

Academy of International Law, The Hague (1962-II),p. 231.)

Even Article 51, though referring to an "inherent" and therefore suppos-

edly pre-existing, right of self-defence, introduced a novel concept in speaking of "collective self-defence" '.Article 51was introduced into the
Charter at a late stage for the specificpurpose of clarifying the position in
regard to collective understandings - multilateral treaties - for mutual
self-defence, which were part of the contemporary scene.

If, then, the Charter was not a codification of existing custom about
force and self-defence, the question must then be asked whether a general
customary law, replicating the Charter provisions, has developed as a
result of the influence of the Charter provisions, coupled presumably with
subsequent and consonant States' practice ; so that it might be said that
these Charter provisions :

"generated a rule which,whileonly conventionalor contractual in its
origin, has since passed into the general corpus of international law,
and is now accepted as such by the opiniojuris, so as to have become
binding even for countries which have never, and do not, become
parties to the Convention" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 41, para. 71).

But there are obvious difficulties about extracting even a scintilla of
relevant "practice" on thesemattersfromthe behaviour of those fewStates
which arenot parties to the Charter ;and the behaviour of al1the rest, and
the opiniojuris which it might otherwise evidence, is surely explained by
their being bound by the Charter itself 2.

There is, however, a further problem : the widely recognized special
status of the Charter itself. This is evident from paragraph 6 of Article 2,
that :
"The Organization shall ensure that States which are not Members

of the United Nations act in accordance with thesePrinciples sofar as
may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and
security."
This contemplates obligationsfornon-members arising immediately upon
the coming into operation of the Charter, which obligations could at that
time only be derived, like those for Members, directly from the Charter

itself. Even "instant" custom, if there be such a thing, can hardly be
simultaneous with the instrument from which it develops. There is, there-
fore,no room and no need for the very artificial postulate of a customary
law paralleling these Charter provisions. That certain provisions of the

Cf.~r&ha~a,159CollecredCourses,TheHague(1978-1).atp. 87,andp. % wherehe
goessofarastoassert :"Thesc-caiiedcustomarylaw ofself-defencesupposedlypre-existing
theCharter,and dependenton thissingleword[inherent]simplydid notexist."

Foran assessrnentof this importantquestion,especiallyin relation to theDecla-
rationof Principles of Friendly Relationss.ee Professor Arangio-Ruiz,137Collected
Courses.The Hague(1972-111).Chap. IV. The reader cannot but put to hirnselfthequestion whether theJudgrnent
would, in its main substance, have been noticeably different in its content
and argument, had the application of the multilateral treaty reservation
been rejected.

There isno need topursue further the relationship of the United Nations
Charter and custornary law ; for even if a different viewof this question
could be adopted, there remains, quite independently, a rnost cogent
objection to any atternpt to decide the issues of force and self-defence
without the Charter of the United Nations or other relevant treaties.
Although the rnultilateral treaty reservation qualifies the jurisdiction of
this Court, it does not qualify the substantive lawgoverning the behaviour
of the Parties at the rnaterial times. Article 38of the Court's own Statute
requires it first to apply "international conventions", "general" as well as
"particular" ones, "establishing rules expressly recognized by the contest-
ing States" ;and the relevant provisions of the Charter - and indeed also

of the Charter of the Organization of Arnerican States, and of the Rio
Treaty - have at al1rnaterial times been principal elernents of the ap-
plicable lawgoverningtheconduct, rights and obligations of the Parties. It
seerns, therefore, eccentric, if not perverse, to atternpt to deterrnine the
central issues of the present case, after having first abstracted these prin-
cipal elernents of the law applicable to the case, and which still obligate
both the Parties.

There is yet another reason why it is, in rny view, not possible to
circumvent the multilateral treaty reservation by resort to a residuary
custornary law ; even supposing the latter could be disentangled from
treaty and separately identified as to its content. The multilateral treaty
reservation does not rnerelyreservejurisdiction over a multilateral treaty,
where there is an "affected" party not a party to the case before the
Court ; it reservesjurisdiction over "disputes arising under a rnultilateral
treaty".
Clearly the legalnature of a dispute isdeterrnined by the attitude of the
parties between which the dispute isjoined. Nicaragua eventually, though
not originally, pleaded its case in the duplex forrn of a dispute under
multilateral treaties or, in the alternative, a dispute under custornary law.
But there are at least two sides to a dispute. The United States did not
countenance a dispute arising only under custorn. Its response to the

chargeof the unlawfuluseofforce,wasbased firrnlyon the terrnsofArticle
51of the Charter.One party cannot in effect redefine the response of the
otherparty. If the Respondent reliesonArticle 51,there isadispute arising
under a rnultilateral treaty. Consequently, 1am unable to see how the main elements of this dispute
- the use of force, and collective self-defence - can be characterized as
other than disputes arising under a multilateral treaty. That being so, it
follows from the multilateral treaty reservation, that the Court'sjurisdic-
tion islacking, not merelyin respect of a relevant multilateraltreaty, but in

respect of that dispute.

Accordingly, 1have voted "NO" to subparagraph (2)of paragraph 292 ;
not at al1on grounds of substancebut on theground oflackofjurisdiction.
It follows also that 1have had to vote "No" to subparagraph (4), dealing
with certain direct attacks on Nicaraguan territory, and to subparagraph
(5). dealing with unauthorized overflight of Nicaraguan territory ; again
because of lack of jurisdiction to decide one way or the other on the
question of self-defence.

The question next arises whether there areany claims in theNicaraguan
application, whichcan be severed from disputes arising under multilateral
treaties and can therefore be decided by the Court without trespass upon
that area which the reservation has put outside thejurisdiction conferred
upon it by the United States Declaration under Article 36. paragraph 2 ?
To answer this question requires an exercisein the characterization of the
various issues raised by the application. In particular, it requires some
examination of the applicable law ; for the multilateral treaty reservation
characterizes excluded disputes in terms of the kind of law applicable to
them. The Court could not, therefore, avoid some examination of the
applicable law,evenfor those matters whichitfinally hasnojurisdiction to
decide ; which shows how correct it was for the Court to join the con-
sideration of the multilateral treaties reservation to the merits in 1984.

It will be convenient to examine from the point of viewofjurisdiction,
first the question of intervention ; then the mining of the ports ; then the
breaches of humanitarian law ; and then thedifferent question - different
because it refers to Article 36.paragraph 1,of the Court's Statute - of the
jurisdiction of the Court under the Friendship, Commerce and Navigation
Treaty of 1956.

How far does the multilateral treaty reservation prevent the Court from
deciding the questions concerning the principle of non-intervention ?
There can be no doubt that the principle of non-intervention isan autono-

mous principle of customary law ;indeed it isverymuch older than any ofthe rnultilateral treaty régimes inquestion. It is, rnoreover, a principle of
lawwhich in the inter-American systern hasits own peculiar developrnent,
interpretation and importance.

One is, however, irnrnediately faced with the difficulty that a plea of
collective self-defence is obviously a possiblejustification of intervention
and that this is thejustification which the United States has pleaded. Soit
isagain a dispute arising under Article 51of the UnitedNations Charter. If

one turns to the Inter-Arnerican systern of law, the sarne problern arises.
Article 18of the Charter of the Organization ofArnerican States dealswith
intervention in peculiarly cornprehensive terrns, in that it prohibits inter-
vention "for any reason whatever" ;it also, in Article 21, deals with force
and self-defence, but in specificallytreaty terrns. Thus, by that article, the
Arnerican States "bind thernselvesin their international relations not to
have recourse to the use of force, except in the case of self-defense in
accordancewithexistingtreatiesor infu[fillmentthereof'(emphasis added).

The latter phrase can only mean that self-defencein the inter-Arnerican
systern by definition requires recourse to multilateral treaties ;such as,
obviously, the RioTreaty on Mutual Assistance, as wellas the Principle of
the OAS Charter (Art. 3 (f))that : "An act of aggression against one
Arnerican State is an act of aggression against al1 the other Arnerican
States." In short, 1am wholly unable to see how the issues of intervention

raised in the instant case - intervention indeed by either Party, for each
accuses the other of it - can be categorized as other than a dispute, or
disputes, arising under rnultilateral treaties, and thus caught by the rnul-
tilateral treaty reservation ; at any rate where self-defence has forrnally
been pleaded as ajustification.

A possible way out of the jurisdictional problern which needs to be
investigated isthe following. It iscertain that a respondent State could not
be perrnitted tomakea dispute into one arising under a rnultilateral treaty,
rnerely by rnaking an unsupportable allegation that a treaty was involved.
Suppose, in the present case, itwerernanifest on the face of the rnatter that
there had in fact been no arrned attack to which a plea of collective
self-defence could be a perrnissible response ? In that event it could surely
be said that there was truly no dispute arising under Article 51 of the
Charter.

This, however, is not at al1the position. There is a case to answer. The
Court has carefully exarnined both the law and the fact and has made a
forma1 decision in subparagraph (2) of paragraph 292. In short, there
is no escaping the fact that this is a decision of a dispute arising under
Article 51. Acwrdingly, 1 have had to vote "No" to subparagraph (3) of para-
graph 292 ; not indeed on theground that therehas been no United States
intervention inNicaragua, forit isobvious that therehas been, but because
1 cannot see that the Court hasjurisdiction to decide whether or not the

intervention isjustified as an operation of collective self-defence.

The dispute concerning the responsibility of the United States for the
unnotified mining of Nicaraguan ports, which apparently resulted in
damage to a number of merchant ships, some under the flags of third
States, seems to be a matter which does not arise out of the provisions of
multilateral treaties, and is therefore within thejurisdiction of the Court.
When this Court had to consider the laying of mines in a seaway in the
Corfu Channelcase, it did not find it necessary, in connection with the
responsibility for damage caused by the mines, to invoke the provisions of
the United Nations Charter, but based its decision on the obligation to

notify the existence of the mines "for the benefit of shipping in general" ;
an obligation :
"based, not on the Hague Convention of 1907,No. VIII, which is
applicable in time of war, but on certain general and well-recognized
principles, namely :elementary considerations of humanity, even
more exacting in peace than in war ; the principle of freedom of
maritime communication ; and every State's obligation not to allow
knowingly its territory to be used for acts contrary to the rights of
other States" (I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22).

This lawwould seemto apply afortiori wherea State laysmines in another
State'sports or port approaches, and fails to notify shipping. Nor does this
conclusion depend upon a construction of Article 51 of the Charter, for
even supposing the United States were acting in legitimate self-defence,
failure to notify shipping would still make the mine-laying unlawful.

No doubt that the Court is right, therefore, in finding that the United
States has, in thismatter, acted unlawfully. Accordingly, 1have found my-
self able to vote for subparagraph (8) of the dispositif; and also for sub-
paragraph (7). which refers to the 1956Treaty of Friendship, Commerce
and Navigation, which will be discussed in a following section of this
opinion. 1 am not able, however,to vote "Yes" to subparagraph (6).which
deals with the laying of the mines in terms of a duty of non-intervention,
and also in terms of a violation of sovereignty.This of course again raises
thequestion of possiblejustification of the United States action aspart of acollective self-defence operation ; and on this there is in my view no
jurisdiction to make a finding.

There is, nevertheless, a problem in regard even to the finding that the
laying of unnotified mines was unlawful. With the question of collective
self-defence undecided, it is far from clear that the respondent State is
answerable to Nicaragua for damaging,or impeding its shipping ;and the
third States whose shipping was involved are not before the Court. How-
ever, since the laying of unnotified mines is of itself an unlawful act, it
seemed right nevertheless to vote for subparagraph (8).

Nicaragua claims that the contrashavecommitted violations both of the
law of human rights and of humanitarian law and that the responsibility
for these acts should be attributed to the United States. This is, again, a
question which is not one arising under the Charter of the United Nations
or of the Organization of American States, for such acts obviously are

unlawful even if comrnitted in the course of justified collective self-
defence. On the other hand, it might be objected that the question of
possible breaches of humanitarian law must be a dispute arising under the
1949Geneva multilateral Conventions ;and there must be at least very
seriousdoubts whether thoseconventions could be regarded asembodying
customary law. Even the Court's view that the common Article 3, laying
down a "minimum yardstick" (para. 218) for armed conflicts of a non-
international character, are applicable as "elementary considerations of
humanity", is not a matter free from difficulty. Nevertheless, there is also
the point that there is no third State "affected" by a decision taken under
an Article of the Geneva Conventions ;not at any rate in the way that El
Salvador can be seen to be "affected" by a decision taken under Articles 2,
paragraph 4, and 51 of the United Nations Charter.

It isclear enough that there has been conduct - not indeed confined to
one sideof the civilstrife - that iscontrary to human rights, humanitarian
law and indeed also the most elementary considerations of humanity (see
the Report of Amnesty International, Nicaragua : the Human Rights
Record,March 1986,AMR/43/01/86). To impute any of these actsto the
United States,as acts of the United States - which iswhat Nicaragua asks
the Court to do - would require a double exercise :there must not only be
evidence of the particular acts in question, but the acts must also be
imputable to the United States according to the rules governing StateResponsibility in international law ; which, in short, means that the
unlawful acts of the contras must have been committed in such a way,or in
such circumstances, as to make them in substance the acts of the United
States itself. The Court's finding, made clear in the final phrase of sub-
paragraph (9)of paragraph 292, isthat no such acts can be imputed to the
United States, and that this claim and charge of Nicaragua is rejected.

There remains, however,the matter of the dissemination of the so-called
manual by the United States. This was whollydeplorable ;though it isfair
to remember that, when it came to the notice of the House of Represen-
tatives Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, it was rightly con-
demned by them, the contras were urged to ignore it, and an attempt was
made to recall copies (para. 120). Again, the dissemination of this manual
does not, in international law, make unlawful acts of the contras into acts
imputable to the United States. This is prpmably why the Court's re-
buke is in the non-technical terms of "en ouragement" of unlawful acts.
Nevertheless, a rebuke is appropriate a id 1 have had no hesitation in
voting "Yes" to that part of the Court's decision.

Accordingly, 1 have voted "Yes" to subparagraph (9) of para-
graph 292.

It isnow necessaryto examine how far the Court hasjurisdiction to deal
with anyaspects of thecaseby virtue of thejurisdiction clause(Art. XXIV)
of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation of 21 January
1956, which provides :
"2. Any dispute between the Parties as to the interpretation or
application of thepresent Treaty, not satisfactorily adjusted by diplo-

macy. shall be submitted to the International Court of Justice, unless
the Parties agree to settlement by some other pacific means."

The Court found in the previous phase of the case, that

"to the extent that the claims in Nicaragua's Application constitute a
dispute as to the interpretation or the application of the Articlesof the
Treaty of 1956 .. .the Court hasjurisdiction under that Treaty to
entertain such claims" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 429).

Since that Judgment, the United States has denounced the Treaty by athe Statute ;though that course is not open to me, taking the view1do on
the effect of the multilateral treaty reservation.

It is in any event abundantly clear that the object and purpose of this
particular Treaty could not have anything like so large an ambit as Nica-
ragua contended. The Treaty is, in its preamble, said to be "based in
general upon the principles of national and most-favoured-nation treat-
ment unconditionally accorded" :a strictly technical formula concerned
essentially with commercial relations. Thus, the "object and purpose" of
this Treaty is simply not capable of being stretched in the way Nicaragua
wished.

If one looks, accordingly, at theactual provisions of the Treaty,perhaps
one is struck first by the extent to which many of the terms of the Treaty

have been faithfully observed by both Parties. There ismuch, for example,
concerning the treatment of the nationals of one Party in the territory of
theother (e.g.,Arts. VIII. IX,X and XI) and United States citizens seemto
be able to travel freely to Nicaragua. As to Nicaraguans in the United
States, it was striking that Mr. Chamorro, whose affidavit is much relied
upon by the Court excuses himself from travelling to The Hague to give
oral testimony, because travel outside the United States could possibly, he
had been advised, prejudice his application for leave to establish himself
and his family as permanent residents in the United States.

Nevertheless, there are acts of the United States which appear prima
facie to be breaches of actual provisions of the Treaty. The mining of the

ports very clearly touches Article XIX, which provides that between the
territories of the two parties there shall be freedom of commerce and
navigation. And by declaringa general embargo on trade with Nicaragua
on 1 May 1985,the United States is prima facie in breach of the actual
stipulations of severalarticles, including in particular Article XIX again ;
for the comprehensive trade embargo is repugnant to an undertaking to
establish "freedom of commerce" ;and to the provision of that Article
that :

"3.Vesselsof either Party shall have liberty, on equal terms with
vesselsof the other Party and on equal terms with vesselsof any third
country, to come with their cargoes to al1ports, places and waters of
such other Party open to foreign commerce and navigation."

At this point, however, it is necessary to consider the effect of Arti-
cleXXI which contains a list of provisos - measures which the "present
Treaty shall not preclude the application of" - which qualify the entire
Treaty. The interesting one for present purposes is :541 MlLITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISSO. P.JENNINGS)

"(d)necessary to fulfill theobligations of a Party for the maintenance
or restoration of international peace and security, or necessary to
protect its essential security interests".

The point that immediately occurs to the mind is that measures taken
in individual or collective self-defence, or as counter-measures, are
clearly caught by this proviso as measures necessary to protect essential
security.
The question arising under Article XXI is not, however, whether such
measures arejustified in international law as action taken in self-defence,
or asjustified counter-measures in general international law; the question
iswhether the measures in question are, or are not, in breach of the Treaty.
Any operation that comessquarelywithin Article XXI,asa measure taken
by one party to the Treaty, as being "necessary to protect its essential
security interests", cannot be in breach of the Treaty. 1do not see what
other meaning can be given to a clause which simply States that "The
present Treaty shall not preclude the application" of such measures, and
thus is a proviso to the entire Treaty.

Turning now, therefore, to the "measures" which the Court's decision

treats as breaches of this Treaty, it will be convenient first to consider the
unnotified mining of Nicaraguan ports which, in subparagraph (7) of
paragraph 292, is said to be in breach of the Treaty. This is a question
which 1have not found it at al1easy to resolve.
There is of course, as already mentioned above, no question that the
United States, "by failing to make known the existenceand location of the
mines", has indeed "acted in breach of its obligations under customary
international law" (subpara. 8). The question, however, in relation to the
1956Treaty, is not whether the United Statesacted in breach of "elemen-
tary considerations ofhumanity", but whether it acted alsoin breach of the
bilateral treaty relationship with Nicaragua, having regard to the general
proviso in Article XXI ? Again it must be emphasized that the issuehere is
not simply the lawfulness or unlawfulness of the act in general interna-
tional law, but whether it was also in breach of the terms of the Treaty ?
Certainly it is prima facie a breach of Article XIX,providing for freedom
of navigation ;but is it a "measure" excepted by the proviso clause of

Article XXI ?Although not without some remaining doubts, 1have come
to the conclusion that Article XXI cannot have contemplated a measure
which cannot, under general international law, bejustified even as being
part of an operation in legitimate self-defence. 1 have therefore voted
"Yes" tosubparagraph (8)ofparagraph 292.(Asexplained above, 1cannot
vote in favour of subparagraph (6) because this is dependent upon being
able to vote "Yes" to subparagraph (2).)
Turning now to subparagraph (10) of paragraph 292, the Court finds
that the "attacks on Nicaraguan territory referred to in subparagraph(4)",,
are calculated to deprive the 1956Treaty of its object and purpose. Here,there is, in my view,no need to consider Article XXI, because 1fail to see
how these direct attacks upon Nicaraguan territory have anything to do
with the treaty at all. In fact any examination of whether bombing attacks
are,or arenot, breaches of a treaty "based ingeneral upon the principles of
national and of most-favoured-nation treatment unconditionally accor-

ded", might be thought not wholly free from an element of absurdity.

1have already discussed the question of jurisdiction in relation to the
"object and purpose" ;but here it is the substance of the Court's decision
that causes me unease. Either those actsare breaches of some provision of
the Treaty or they have nothing to do with the Treaty. The "object and
purpose" of a treaty cannot be a concept existing independently of any of
its terms. 1have, therefore, voted "No" to subparagraph (10).

As to the general embargo on trade with Nicaragua of 1May 1985 :this
was instituted by the Executive Order of 1 May 1985, made by the
President of the United States ; it contained a finding that "the policies
and actions of the Government of Nicaragua constitute an unusual and
extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the
United States" ;the Order also declared a "national emergency to deal
with that threat" (see Judgment, para. 125).This statement on national
security made no reference to Article XXI of the 1956Treaty, and was
presumably to servea purpose of domestic United States law.It went on to
prohibit "al1 imports into the United States of goods and services of

Nicaraguan origin" ;and "al1exports from the United States of goods and
services to or destined for Nicaragua, except those destined for the orga-
nized democratic resistance, and transactions relating thereto". There was
alsoa prohibition in general terms on al1air carriers and vessels,the latter
being prohibited from entering United States ports if of Nicaraguan
registry.
There is no difficulty in holding that the total trade embargo, and of air
and sea transit, by theOrder of 1 May 1985,wasaprimafacie breach of the
terms of theTreaty ;and again it isArticle XIX that isdirectly involved. It
seems to me there is equally no difficulty in seeing that these measures
came squarely within Article XXI and therefore are not in breach of the
Treaty.
Accordingly, 1 have voted "No" to subparagraph (11) of para-
graph 292.

Although 1 am of the opinion that, owing to the operation of the

multilateral treaty reservation, the Court has nojurisdiction to pass upon
thequestion of self-defence,it seemsright nevertheless tocomment brieflyupon some passages of the Court's Judgment where it deals with these
matters in a way with which 1 do not find myself entirely in agree-
ment.
The question of what constitutes "armed attack" for the purposes of
Article 51, and its relation to the definition of aggression, are large and
controversial questions in which it would be inappropriate to become
involvedin thisopinion. It isofcourse a fact that collectiveself-defenceisa
concept that lends itself to abuse. One must therefore sympathize with the

anxiety of the Court to define it in terms of some strictness (though it is a
little surprisingthat the Court does not at al1consider theproblems of the
quite different French text :"où un Membre. ..est l'objetd'une agression
armée").There isa question, however,whetherthe Courthas perhaps gone
too far in this direction.

The Court (para. 195)allows that, where a State is involved with the
organization of "armed bands" operating in the territory of another State,
this, "because of its scale and effects", could amount to "armed attack"
under Article 51 ; but that this does not extend to "assistance to rebels in
the form of the provision of weapons or logisticalor othersupport" (ibid.).
Such conduct, the Court goes on to say, rnay not amount to an armed
attack ;but "rnay be regarded as a threat or use of force, or amount to
intervention in the interna1 or external affairs of other States" (ibid.).

It rnay readily be agreed that the mere provision of armscannotbe said
to amount toan armed attack. But theprovision of arms may,nevertheless,
be a very important element in what might be thought to amount to armed
attack,where it iscoupled with otherkinds of involvement.Accordingly, it
seemsto me that to say that the provision of arms, coupled with "logistical
or other support" is not armed attack is going much too far. Logistical
support rnay itself be crucial. According to the dictionary, logisticscovers
the "art of moving, lodging, and supplyingtroops and equipment" (Con-
cise OxfordEnglish Dictionaty, 7th ed., 1982).If there is added to al1this
"other support", it becomes difficult to understand what it is, short of
direct attack by a State's own forces, that rnay not be done apparently
without a lawfulremonse inthe formofcollectiveself-defence :nor indeed
rnaybe responded ;O at al1by the use of force or threat of force,for, to cite
the Court again, "States do not have a right of 'collective'armed response

to acts which do not constitute an 'armed attack' " (see para. 211).

This looks to me neither realistic nor just in the world where power
struggles are in everycontinent carried on by destabilization, interference
in civilstrife,comfort, aid and encouragement to rebels, and the like.The
original scheme of the United Nations Charter, whereby force would bedeployed by the United Nations itself,in accordance withthe provisionsof
Chapter VI1 of the Charter, has never come into effect. Therefore an
essential element in the Charter design istotally rnissing.ln this situation it
seemsdangerous to define unnecessarily strictly the conditions for lawful
self-defence, so as to leave a large area where both a forcible response to

forceisforbidden, and yet the United Nations employment of force,which
was intended to fil1that gap, is absent.

These observations have mainly to do with the Court's statement of the
law.As to the case before theCourt, 1remain somewhat doubtful whether
the Nicaraguan involvement with Salvadorian rebels has not involved
some forms of "other support" besides the possible provision, whether
officially or unofficially, of weapons. There seems to have been perhaps
overmuch concentration on the question of the supply, or transit, ofarms ;
as if that were of itselfcrucial, which it is not. Yet one isbound to observe
that here, where questions of fact may be everybit as important as the law,
the United States can hardlycomplain at the inevitable consequencesof its
failure to plead during the substantive phase of the case. It is true that a
great volume of material about the facts was provided to the Court by the
United States during the earlier phases of the case. Yet a party which fails
at the material stage to appearand expound and explain even the material
that it has already provided, inevitably prejudices the appreciation and
assessment of the facts of the case. There are limits to what the Court can
do, in accordance with Article 53 of the Statute, to satisfy itself about a
non-appearing party's case ;and that is especially so where the facts are

crucial. If this werenot so, itwould be difficult to understand what written
and oral pleadings are about.

Another matter which seems to cal1for brief comment, is the treatment
of collective self-defenceby the Court. The passages beginning with para-
graph 196seem to take a somewhat formalistic viewof the conditions for
the exercise of collective self-defence. Obviously the notion of collective
self-defence is open to abuse and it is necessary to ensure that it is not
employableasa merecoverfor aggressiondisguised asprotection, and the
Court is therefore right to define it somewhat strictly. Even so, it may be
doubted whether it is helpful to suggest that the attacked State must in
somemore or lessforma1wayhave "declared" itself the victimof an attack
and then have, as an additional "requirement", made a forma1request to a
particular third State for assistance. Thus the Court says : "The Court concludes that the requirement of a request by the State

which is the victim of the alleged attack is additional to the require-
ment that such a State should have declared itself to have been
attacked." (Para. 199.)
It may readily be agreed that the victim State must both be in real need of
assistance and mustwant it and that the fulfilment ofboth theseconditions

must be shown. But to ask that these requirements take the form of some
sort of forma1 declaration and request might sometimes be unrealistic.

But there is another objection to this way of looking at collective self-
defence. It seems to be based almost upon an idea of vicarious defence by
champions : that a third State may lawfully come to the aid of an authen-
ticated victim of armed attack provided that the requirements of a decla-
ration of attack and a request for assistance are complied with. But
whatever collective self-defence means, it does not mean vicarious
defence ; for that way the notion is indeed open to abuse. The assisting

State isnot an authorized champion, perrnitted under certain conditionsto
go to the aid of a favoured State. The assisting State surely must, by going
to the victim State's assistance, be also, and in addition to other require-
ments, in some measure defending itself. There should even in "collective
self-defence" be some real element of self linvolved with the notion of
defence. This is presumably also the philosophy which underlies mutual
securityarrangements, such asthe systemof theOrganization of American
States, for which indeed Article 51 was specifically designed. By such a
system of collective security,the security of each member State ismeant to
be involved with the security of the others ; not merely as a result of a
contractual arrangement but by the real consequences of the system and its

organization. Thus, Article 27 of the Charter of the Organization of
American States provides that :

"Every act of aggression by a State against the territorial integrity

or the inviolability of the territory or against the sovereignty or
political independence of an American State shall be considered an
act of aggression against the other American States."
This, 1 believe, should not be regarded as a mere contractual arrangement
for collective defence - a legal fiction used as a device for arranging for

mutual defence - ; it is to be regarded as an organized system of collective
security by which the security of each member is made really and truly to
have become involved with the security of the others, thus providing a true

' It may be objected that the very term "self-defence" isa common law notion, and
that. for instance, the French equivalent of "légitimedéfense"does not mention "self".
Here. however, the French versionis for once. merelyunhelpful;it does no more than
beg the question of what is "légitime".basis for a system of collectiveselfdefence. This underlying philosophy of
collective self-defence is well expressed in a classical definition of that

concept in Lauterpacht's edition of Oppenheim's International Law
(Vol. II, 1952,p. 155) :

"It will be noted that, in a sense, Article 51 enlarges the right of
self-defence as usually understood - and the corresponding right of

recourse to force - by authorising both individual and collective
self-defence. This means that a Member of the United Nations is
permitted to have recourse to action in self-defencenot onlywhen it is
itself the object of armed attack,but alsowhen such attack isdirected
against any other State or States whose safety and independence are
deemed vital to thesafety and independence of the State thus resisting
- or participating in forcible resistance to - the aggressor."

(Signed) R. Y. JENNINGS.

Bilingual Content

528

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SIR ROBERT JENNINGS

Although 1have to disagree with several of the findings of the Court,
particularly on the question of jurisdiction, 1must, at the outset of this
opinion,associate myselfwholly with theCourt's expression of regret over
the United States decision not to appear, or to take anypart,in thepresent
phase of this case. This non-appearance has been particularly unfortunate
- perhaps not least for the United States - in a case which involves
complicated questions of fact ;where, in the merits phase, witnessesgiving
evidence as to the facts were called and examined by counsel for the
Applicant, but their evidence was not tested by cross-examination by
counsel for the Respondent ; and where the Respondent itself provided

neither oral nor documentary evidence.
1also wish to express my regret that, in a Court which by its Statute is
elected in such a way asto assure "the representation of the main forms of
civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world", the United
States in its statement accompanying the announcement of the non-par-
ticipation in thepresentphase of thecaseshouldhave chosen to refer to the
national origins of two of theJudgeswho took part in theearlierphases of
the case.
As to the effects of the United States failure to appear in the merits
phase, and the meaning and application of Article 53 of the Court's
Statute, 1am in entire agreement with theCourt ;and it ishardly necessary
forme to add that 1agreewith the Court that, despite havingchosennot to
appear in the present phase, the United Statesremains a Party to the case,
and is bound by the Judgment of the Court ;just as is also Nicaragua.

In acaselikethe present wherean important question ofjurisdiction had
to be left to be dealt with at the merits stage, it is incumbent upon those
Judges who have felt it necessary to vote "No" to some of the items of the
disposit tifexplain their views, if only briefly. The reason is that the
scheme of the disposiit sinecessarily designed to enable the majority to
express their decision. Even amongst them, reasons for the decision may
differ ; but the actual decision, expressed by the vote "Yes", will be
essentially the same decision for al1of them. Not sofor those voting "No".
An example isthe veryimportant subparagraph (3)ofparagraph 292in the
present case, by which those voting "Yes" express their common viewthat
the respondent Statehas acted in breach of its obligation not to intervene
in the affairs of another State : - a vote, "No", however, might mean that
in the opinion of that Judge, the Respondent's acts did not amount to
intervention ; or that there was a legaljustification by way of collective

self-defence ;or thatthe actionwasjustified asacounter measure ;or that,
as in thecase of the present Judge, the Court had nojurisdiction to decide OPINION DISSIDENTE DE SIR ROBERT JENNINGS

[Truduction]

Sije rejette certaines des conclusions de la Cour, notamment en ce qui
concerne sa compétence, il me faut dire en exorde à la présente opinion
queje partage sans réserve lesregrets qu'elle a exprimésdevant la décision
des Etats-Unis de ne pas comparaître et de ne prendre aucunement part
à la phase actuelle de l'affaire. Cette abstention a été particulièrement

malencontreuse - et elle l'apeut-êtreététoutspécialement pour les Etats-
Unis - vu que cette affaire a soulevéde délicatesquestions de fait et que,
dans la phase de l'examen au fond, des témoinsont étécitéset interrogés
par les conseils du demandeur quant aux faits sans que leur témoignage
ne soit soumis à contre-interrogatoire par les conseils du défendeur,
celui-ci n'ayant lui-n~émefourni aucun témoignage oral ou écrit.

Je déploreaussi que, étantdonnéqu'aux termes du Statut de la Cour ses
membresdoivent êtreélusde façon que soit assurée<< la représentation des
grandes formes de civilisation et des principaux systèmesjuridiques du
monde o.les Etats-Unis. dans la déclaration qu'ils ont faite au moment
d'annoncer qu'ils ne participeraient pas à la phase actuelle de l'affaire,

aient fait allusion à l'origine nationale de deux des juges qui avaient siégé
dans les phases antérieures de I'affaire.
Pour ce qui est des effets de la non-comparution des Etats-Unis dans la
phase sur le fond, ainsi que du sens et de l'application de l'article53 du
Statut de la Cour. je partage entièrement l'avis de la Cour. A peine est-il
besoin d'ajouter queJ'estime comme elle que, bien qu'ils aient décidéde ne

pas comparaître dans la phase actuelle, les Etats-Unis demeurent Partie à
l'affaire et sont liés parl'arrêtde la Cour, tout comme le Nicaragua.
Dans une affaire comme celle-ci. où une importante question de com-
pétencea dû êtrereportéeà I'examen au fond, il incombe auxjuges qui ont
estimédevoir émettreun vote négatifà l'égardde certainsparagraphes du
dispositif d'exp1ique:rpourquoi, ne fût-ce que brièvement. En effet. le

dispositif est nécessairement rédigéde façon à permettre à la majorité
d'exprimer sa décision. Mêmepour lesjuges de la majorité,cette décision
peut être diversement motivée. Toutefois la décision proprement dite.
expriméepar un vote positif. est foncièrement la mêmepour chacun d'eux.
IIn'en va pas de ménnepour lesjuges ayant émisun vote négatif. En ce qui
concerne la présente affaire. je citerai comme exemple la décision très

importante qui est énoncéeau sous-paragraphe 3 du paragraphe 292. Par
cette décision lesjuges émettant un vote positif déclarent conjointement
que I'Etat défendeur a violéson obligation de ne pas intervenir dans les
affaires d'un autre Etat. En revanche, le vote négatif émispar un juge
pourrait signifier. pour cejuge, soit que les actes du défendeur ne cons-

tituaient pas une intervention, soit que ses actes étaient juridiquementany of these things, and therefore the vote "No", of itself, expressed no
opinion whatsoever on those other substantive questions.

1shalldeal first with themultilateraltreaty reservation andjurisdiction ;
thenjurisdiction under the 1956FCN Treaty ;and finally make somebrief
comments on the substance of the Judgment.

The multilateral treaty reservation is so oddly drafted that it must give
rise to difficulties of interpretation.1 agree with the Judgment, however,
that, in spite of these difficulties, the Court has to respect it and apply it.
The reason for this could not be clearer. Thejurisdiction of the Court is

consensual, this requirement being an emanation of the independence of
the sovereign State ;which, it is in the present case not without pertinence
tonote, isalsothe basis of the principle of non-intervention.Consequently
the Court, in the exercise under Article 36, paragraph 6, of its Statute of
itscompetenceto decide adispute concerningits jurisdiction, must always
satisfy itself that consent has in fact been accorded, before it can decide
that jurisdiction exists. Moreover, the Court has to be rnindful that a
consent given in a declaration made under Article 36,paragraph 2, - the
"Optional Clause" - is a consent that no State needs to make and that
relatively very fewhave ever done so. Accordingly, any reservation quali-
fying such a consent especially demands caution and respect. 1 have,
therefore, voted "yes" to subparagraph (1) of paragraph 292.

1agree with the decision of the Court,and for the reasons it givesin the
Judgment, that the United States multilateral treaty reservation operates
to exclude the Court's jurisdiction in respect of the several multilateral
treaties with which the dispute between the Parties to this case is con-
cerned :including, most importantly, the Charter of the United Nations
(particularly Art. 2, para. 4, governing the use of force or threat of force,
and Art. 5 1 governing the right of individual and collectiveself-defence) ;
and the Charter of the Organization of American States. 1 am unable,
however, to agree with the Court's persuasion that, whilst accepting the
pertinence of the reservation, it can, nevertheless, decide on the Nicara-
guan Application by applying general customary law, as it were in lieuof
recourse to the relevant multilateral treaties.

Thisproposition raisessomeinterestingproblems about therelationship
ofcustomary lawand theUnited Nations Charter inparticular ; and 1shall
first touch briefly upon these ; but only briefly because, there are two ACTIVITÉS MILITAIRES ET PARAMILITAIRES (OP.DISSJ.ENNINGS) 529

justifiésen vertu du principe de la légitimedéfensecollective,soit que ses
actes étaientjustifiés en tant que riposte, soit que, comme je l'entends
moi-même, laCour n'avait pas compétence pour statuer sur l'un quel-

conque de ces points et que, par conséquent,un vote négatif n'exprimait
en soi aucune espèced'opinion sur ces autres questions de fond.
Je traiterai d'abord delaréserverelativeauxtraitésmultilatérauxetde la
compétence qu'elle définit, puis de la compétence prévuepar le traité
d'amitié,de commerce et de navigation de 1956. Enfin je formulerai
quelques brèvesobservations sur le fond de l'arrêt.

La réserve relativeaux traités multilatéraux estrédigéed'une façon
tellement bizarre quqellepose forcément des problèmes d'interprétation.
Cependant j'approuve l'arrêtquand il déclareque,malgré ces problèmes,
la Cour est tenue de respecter cette réserveet de l'appliquer. La raison
en est parfaitement claire. La compétencede la Cour est fondée surle
consentement, lequel est exigéen raison de l'indépendance desEtats sou-
verains. Il n'est pas inutile de relever, dans la présente affaire, que c'est
aussi sur leurindépendanceque repose leprincipe de non-intervention. En

conséquence,en application de l'article 36, paragraphe 6, de son Statut,
lequel précisesa compétencepour trancher une contestation sur sajuri-
diction, la Cour doit toujours vérifierqu'un consentement a bien été
donné,avant de déciderqu'elleest compétente. D'autrepart, la Cour doit
tenir compte du faitque leconsentement exprimédansla déclarationvisée
à l'article 36,paragraphe 2- la clausefacultative -, n'estrequis d'au-
cun Etat, et que fort peu d'Etats l'ont donné à cejour. Dès lors, chaque
réserveapportée à un tel consentement requiert tout spécialementpru-
dence et respect. C'lestpourquoi j'ai voté pour le sous-paragraphe 1 du
paragraphe 292.
J'approuve la Cour lorsqu'elle décide,pour les motifs qu'elle indique
dans l'arrêt,que la réservedes Etats-Unis relative auxtraités multilatéraux
a pour effet d'exclure la compétencede la Cour en ce qui concerne les
divers traités multilatérauxauxquels a trait le litige entre les Partàela
présente espèce. Les plus importants d'entre eux sont la Charte des
Nations Unies (voir en particulier l'article 2, paragraphe, concernant la
menace ou l'emploide la force, et l'article51,relatià la légitime défense,
individuelle ou collective) et la charte de l'organisation des Etats améri-

cains. Je ne puis cependant me convaincre, comme lefait la Cour, qu'il lui
estpossible, tout enreconnaissantlapertinence de laréserve,destatuer sur
la requêtedu Nicaragua sur la base du droit coutumier général, lequel
pourrait en quelque sorte êtresubstituéaux dispositions des traitésmul-
tilatéraux pertinents.
Ce point de vue soulèved'intéressantes questions ence qui concerne la
relationexistant entre ledroit coutumier etla Charte desNations Unies en
particulier. Je commencerai par ces questions maisje ne les traiterai quefurther and decisivereasons, which apply not only to the United Nations
Charter but also to other relevant multilateral treaties, and show most
cogently why they cannot be avoided in this case by retreating into cus-

tom.

Let us look first, therefore, at the relationshp between customary
international law, and Article 2,paragraph 4,and Article 5 1of the United
Nations Charter. There is no doubt that there was, prior to the United
Nations Charter, acustomary lawwhich restricted the lawful useof force,
and which correspondingly provided also for a right to use force in self-
defence ; as indeed the use of the term "inherent" in Article 51 of the
United Nations Charter suggests.The proposition, however,that, afterthe
Charter, there exists alongside those Charter provisions on force and
self-defence, an independent customary law that can be applied as alter-

native to Articles 2, paragraph 4, and 51of the Charter, raises questions
about how and when thiscorrespondence came about,and about what the
differences, if any, between customary law and the Charter provisions,
may be.
A multilateral treaty may certainly be declaratory of customary inter-
national law either :

"as incorporating and giving recognition to a rule of customary
international law that existed prior to the conclusion of the treaty or,
on the other hand, as being thefons et origoof a rule of international
law which subsequently secured the general assent of States and
thereby was transformed into customary law" (see Baxter, British
YearBook of International Law,Vol. XLI, 1965-1966, p. 277).

It could hardly be contended that these provisions of the Charter were
merely a codification of the existing customary law. The literature is
replete with statements that Article 2, paragraph 4, - for example in
speaking of "force" rather than war, and providing that even a "threat of
force" may be unlawful - represented an important innovation in the law.
The late Sir Humphrey Waldock, in a passage dealing with matters very
much in issue in the present case, put itthis way :

"The illegalityof recourse to armed reprisalsor other forms of armed
intervention not amountingtowarwasnot establishedbeyondalldoubt
by the lawof the League,or by the Nuremberg and TokyoTrials.That
was brought about by thelawoftheCharter. .."(106CollectedCourses,

Academy of International Law, The Hague (1962-II),p. 231.)

Even Article 51, though referring to an "inherent" and therefore suppos-

edly pre-existing, right of self-defence, introduced a novel concept inbrièvement car il existe deux autres considérations décisivesqui s'appli-
quent non seulement à la Charte des Nations Unies mais aussi àd'autres
traités multilatéraux pertinents, et qui montrent trèsclairement pourquoi
on ne saurait les négligeren l'espèceet se rabattre sur la coutume.

Considérons d'abord la relation existant entre le droit international
coutumier et les articles 2, paragraphe 4, et 51 de la Charte des Nations
Unies. Ilne faitaucun doute qu'il existaitavantI'adoption de la Charte des
Nations Unies un droit coutumier qui limitait l'emploi licitede la force et
prévoyait aussi,par conséquent,le droit d'user de la force comme moyen
de Iégitimedéfense. C'est d'ailleurs cq eue suggèrel'adjectif <<naturel qui
figure àl'article51dela ChartedesNations Unies. Toutefois, lathèseselon
laquelle ilsubsisterait,depuisl'adoption de la Charte, et parallèlement aux
dispositions de celle-ci concernant l'emploi de la force et la légitime

défense, undroit coutumier indépendant qui pourrait êtresubstituéaux
articles 2, paragraphe 4, et 51 de la Charte pose la question de savoir
commentet quand cette équivalenceest néee ,t quelles sont lesdivergences
éventuellesentre le droit coutumier et les dispositions de la Charte.
Certes un traité multilatéral peutêtredéclaratoirededroit international
coutumier, que ce soit :

<(en incorporarit et en reconnaissant une règlede droit international
coutumier existant avant la conclusion du traitéou en constituant la
source premièred'une règlededroit international largement avalisée
ensuite par les Etats et devenue de ce fait règlede droit coutumier ))
(voir Baxter. British Yeur Book oflnternutionul Luw, vol. XLI, 1965-
1966. p. 277).

On ne saurait guère soutenir que lesdites dispositions de la Charte ne
constituaient qu'une codification du droit coutumier existant. Nombreux

sont les auteurs qui ont affirméque I'article 2, paragraphe 4, constituait
une importante innovationjuridique, par exemple parce qu'il seréfère à la
((force et non à la guerre et parce qu'il disposeque même une menace
de la force ))peut êtreillicite. Dans un passage traitant de questions très
pertinentes en l'espèce,sir Humphrey Waldock a déclaréque :

(L'illégalitédu recours aux représailles armées ou à d'autres
formes d'intervention arméen'équivalantpas àla guerre n'a pas été
catégoriquement établiepar le droit de la Sociétédes Nations, ni au
coursdes procèsdeNuremberg et deTokyo. C'estledroitde laCharte
qui l'a établie... (Académie de droit international de La Haye,
Recueil des cours,t. 106(1962-II), p. 231.)

Même l'article 51, qui se réfèr àeun droit naturel de légitime défense
lequel serait donc préexistant, a introduit un concept nouveau en men- speaking of "collective self-defence" '.Article 51was introduced into the
Charter at a late stage for the specificpurpose of clarifying the position in
regard to collective understandings - multilateral treaties - for mutual
self-defence, which were part of the contemporary scene.

If, then, the Charter was not a codification of existing custom about
force and self-defence, the question must then be asked whether a general
customary law, replicating the Charter provisions, has developed as a
result of the influence of the Charter provisions, coupled presumably with
subsequent and consonant States' practice ; so that it might be said that
these Charter provisions :

"generated a rule which,whileonly conventionalor contractual in its
origin, has since passed into the general corpus of international law,
and is now accepted as such by the opiniojuris, so as to have become
binding even for countries which have never, and do not, become
parties to the Convention" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 41, para. 71).

But there are obvious difficulties about extracting even a scintilla of
relevant "practice" on thesemattersfromthe behaviour of those fewStates
which arenot parties to the Charter ;and the behaviour of al1the rest, and
the opiniojuris which it might otherwise evidence, is surely explained by
their being bound by the Charter itself 2.

There is, however, a further problem : the widely recognized special
status of the Charter itself. This is evident from paragraph 6 of Article 2,
that :
"The Organization shall ensure that States which are not Members

of the United Nations act in accordance with thesePrinciples sofar as
may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and
security."
This contemplates obligationsfornon-members arising immediately upon
the coming into operation of the Charter, which obligations could at that
time only be derived, like those for Members, directly from the Charter

itself. Even "instant" custom, if there be such a thing, can hardly be
simultaneous with the instrument from which it develops. There is, there-
fore,no room and no need for the very artificial postulate of a customary
law paralleling these Charter provisions. That certain provisions of the

Cf.~r&ha~a,159CollecredCourses,TheHague(1978-1).atp. 87,andp. % wherehe
goessofarastoassert :"Thesc-caiiedcustomarylaw ofself-defencesupposedlypre-existing
theCharter,and dependenton thissingleword[inherent]simplydid notexist."

Foran assessrnentof this importantquestion,especiallyin relation to theDecla-
rationof Principles of Friendly Relationss.ee Professor Arangio-Ruiz,137Collected
Courses.The Hague(1972-111).Chap. IV.tionnant la ((légitimed:éfense ...collective >)l.Sil'ona introduit l'article51

dans la Charte, vers la fin de l'élaborationde cet instrument, c'est qu'on
voulait bien préciser la situation au regard des traités internationaux
qu'étaient les accords collectifs de légitime défense mutuelle, lesquels
étaient une réalitéde l'époque.
A supposer doncque la Charte n'apas codifiéune règlecoutumièredéjà
existante en matière d'emploi de la force et de légitime défense,il s'agit
maintenant de savoir si un droit coutumier général,correspondant aux

dispositions de la Charte, s'est développé sous l'influence de ces disposi-
tions et grâce aussi s.ansdoute au fait que les Etats ont adoptéensuite une
pratique conforme à ces dispositions. En ce cas, on pourrait dire que
lesdites dispositions de la Charte ont

<servi de base ou de point de départ à une règle qui, purement
conventionnelle ou contractuelle à l'origine, se serait depuis lors
intégrée à l'ensemble du droit international général et serait mainte-
nant acceptée à ce titre par l'opiniojuris, de telle sorte que désormais
elle s'imposerait même aux pays qui ne sont pas et n'ont jamais été

parties à la convention ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 41, par. 71).
Mais il est manifestement difficile de déceler,dans le comportement des
quelques rares Etats qui ne sont pas parties à la Charte, le moindre indice

de pratique ))pertinente enla matière. Enoutre, lecomportement de tous
lesautres Etats, ainsi que l'opiniojuris dont cecomportement pourrait par
ailleurs témoigner, s'expliqueassurémentpar lefait que ces Etats sont liés
par la Charte elle-même *.
Mais un autre problème se pose :il est largement admis que la Charte
elle-mêmeconstitue un cas particulier, ainsi qu'en témoignele para-

graphe 6 de l'article 2, aux termes duquel :
L'Organisation fait en sorte que lesEtatsqui nesontpas membres
des Nations Unies agissent conformément à ces principes dans la

mesure nécessaireau maintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinternatio-
nales. ))
Cette disposition vise des obligations incombant aux Etats non membres
dès l'entréeen vigueur de la Charte, obligations qui, a ce moment-là, ne

pouvaient que découlerdirectement de la Charte elle-mêmeau mêmte itre
que cellesdes Etats Membres. Mêmela coutume immédiate )),si tant est
qu'une telle chose existe, ne saurait coïncider dans le temps avec l'ins-
trument dont elle dérive.Par conséquent,il n'est ni possible ni nécessaire
d'invoquer lepostulat très artificiel d'un droit coutumier correspondant à

VoirAréchagaR . t,cueildes cours,La Haye,t.159(1978-1).p. 87 et p. 96. où cet
auteurvajusqu'à affirmer que <le prétendu droit coutumiedre légitimedéfensequi
serait antérieuàla Charte etquidécouleraitdece seul terme [naturel], n'existait tout
simplement pas )).
Cette importante question aétéétudiéee.n particulier dupoint de vue de la
dans le Recueildes cours,La Haye, t. 137(1972-111).chap. IV.es,par Arangio-Ruizcesdispositions de laCharte. Legrandjuriste Hans Kelsen estparvenu àla
conclusion quecertainesdispositions de laChartefontpartie intégrantedu

droit international général :
II est certain que le paragraphe 6 de l'article 2 a essentiellement

pour but d'élargirla principale fonction de l'organisation, qui est de
maintenir lapaix enprenant des <<mesurescollectivesefficaces ence
quiconcerne lesrelations entre Etats Membres et non membres, ainsi
qu'entre Etats non membres, etde leur imposer ainsil'obligation visée
au paragraphe 4 de I'article2. s(The Law ofthe UnitedNations, 1950,
p. 108.)

Et il ajoute:

<<Compte tenu du droit international actuel, il faut qualifier de
révolutionnaire la tentative d'appliquer la Charte aux Etats qui ne
sont pas parties contractantes à cet instrument. )(Ibid, p. 110.)

Kelsen n'aurait sûrement pas employé leterme de << révolutionnaire s'il
avait estiméqu'il s'agissait là d'une évolutiondu droit coutumier '.
Une lecture rapide de l'arrêt suffit à montrer que la Cour n'a pas

entièrement réussi à faire abstraction de la Charte et d'autres traités
multilatéraux.En l'espèce,il lui a paru impossible d'éviterd'examiner les
dispositions conventionnelles proprement dites. Selon sespropres termes,
la Cour, <(peut et doit les prendre en considération [les traitésmultilaté-
raux] pour déterminerle contenu du droit coutumier que les Etats-Unis
auraient égalementenfreint ))(par. 183).

Ce recours à des (lispositions conventionnelles, en tant que <(preuves 1)
de la coutume, s'effectue sous forme d'interprétation du texte de traités.
Cependant, la Cour elle-mêmereconnaît que, si une distinction peut être
faite entre le droit c:onventionnelet le droit coutumier, c'est précisément
parce qu'ils obéissentchacun à des normes d'interprétation (par. 178).
Lorsque l'on s'autorise à interpréter un traitépour déterminerle contenu

d'une règlecoutumière présupposée,on donne nécessairement à penser
qu'en réalitéon applique le traité lui-mêmesous une forme déguisée.
Certes, cette façon de procéder peut sejustifier quand le texte du traité
devait dèsledébutconstituer une codification de la coutume, ou quand le
traitélui-même est à l'originede la règlecoutumière. Mais, comme nous
l'avons déjà noté,tel ne saurait certainement êtrele cas de I'article 2,
paragraphe 4, ni mi!mede I'article51de la Charte desNations Unies, ni

d'ailleurs de la plupart des dispositions des autres traités multilatéraux
pertinents.

Parla suited'autres auteursse sont prononcés danle mêms eens. (VoirMcNair,
Law of Treuries.1961. p. 217. lequel affirme qulesdites dispositionsde la Charte
présentents uncaractèreconstitutifousemi-législati;et BrownlieInternationalLaw
purement formelle entre le paragraph4 de I'article2 et<(droit internationalgéne-e
rala.Voir aussi Tunkin,Recueil des coursLa Haye. t. 95(1958-111).p. 65-66. The reader cannot but put to hirnselfthequestion whether theJudgrnent
would, in its main substance, have been noticeably different in its content
and argument, had the application of the multilateral treaty reservation
been rejected.

There isno need topursue further the relationship of the United Nations
Charter and custornary law ; for even if a different viewof this question
could be adopted, there remains, quite independently, a rnost cogent
objection to any atternpt to decide the issues of force and self-defence
without the Charter of the United Nations or other relevant treaties.
Although the rnultilateral treaty reservation qualifies the jurisdiction of
this Court, it does not qualify the substantive lawgoverning the behaviour
of the Parties at the rnaterial times. Article 38of the Court's own Statute
requires it first to apply "international conventions", "general" as well as
"particular" ones, "establishing rules expressly recognized by the contest-
ing States" ;and the relevant provisions of the Charter - and indeed also

of the Charter of the Organization of Arnerican States, and of the Rio
Treaty - have at al1rnaterial times been principal elernents of the ap-
plicable lawgoverningtheconduct, rights and obligations of the Parties. It
seerns, therefore, eccentric, if not perverse, to atternpt to deterrnine the
central issues of the present case, after having first abstracted these prin-
cipal elernents of the law applicable to the case, and which still obligate
both the Parties.

There is yet another reason why it is, in rny view, not possible to
circumvent the multilateral treaty reservation by resort to a residuary
custornary law ; even supposing the latter could be disentangled from
treaty and separately identified as to its content. The multilateral treaty
reservation does not rnerelyreservejurisdiction over a multilateral treaty,
where there is an "affected" party not a party to the case before the
Court ; it reservesjurisdiction over "disputes arising under a rnultilateral
treaty".
Clearly the legalnature of a dispute isdeterrnined by the attitude of the
parties between which the dispute isjoined. Nicaragua eventually, though
not originally, pleaded its case in the duplex forrn of a dispute under
multilateral treaties or, in the alternative, a dispute under custornary law.
But there are at least two sides to a dispute. The United States did not
countenance a dispute arising only under custorn. Its response to the

chargeof the unlawfuluseofforce,wasbased firrnlyon the terrnsofArticle
51of the Charter.One party cannot in effect redefine the response of the
otherparty. If the Respondent reliesonArticle 51,there isadispute arising
under a rnultilateral treaty. Le lecteur ne peut s'empêcherde se demander si la Cour aurait, pour
l'essentiel, raisonnéet statuéd'une façon nettement différente au cas où
elle aurait rejetéI'applicabilitéde la réserve relative aux traitésmultila-
téraux.

Ilest inutile de s'appesantir davantage sur la relation entre la Charte des
Nations Unies et le droit coutumier, car mêmesi l'on pouvait adopter un
point de vue différent en la matière il subsisterait, indépendamment de
cela, une objection des plus sérieuses à toute tentative de trancher des
questions d'emploi de la force et de légitimedéfenseendehors de la Charte
des Nations Unies ou des autres traités pertinents. Certes, la réserve
relative aux traités multilatéraux restreint la compétencede la Cour mais
elle n'affecte pas les règles de fond applicables au comportement des

Parties à certains moments décisifs. D'après l'article38 de son propre
Statut, la Cour doit appliquer en premier lieu les <(conventions interna-
tionales, soit générales, soit spéciales, tablissantdes règles expressément
reconnues par lesEtats en litige ))Lesdispositionspertinentes de laCharte
- comme d'ailleurs cellesde la charte de l'organisation des Etats améri-
cainset du traitéde Rio - ont été , tous lesmoments décisifs,deséléments
essentiels du droit applicable au comportement ainsi qu'aux droits et
obligations des Parties. Il paraît donc bizarre, pour ne pas dire erroné,de
tenter de trancher les questions qui sont au cŒur de la présente affaire
aprèsavoir écarté d'embléedesélémentsdu droit applicableen l'espècequi

sont essentiels et s'imposent encore aux deux Parties.

A mon avis, il est encore une autre raison qui empêchede tourner la
réserve relative aux traités multilatérauxen invoquant une règlecoutu-

mière résiduelle, même à supposer que cette règle puisseêtredissociéedu
droit conventionnel et r rés enterun contenu distinct. La réserve relative
aux traitésmultilatérauxne seborne pas àlimiter la compétencede la Cour
enprésenced'un traité multilatéral,lorsqu'unepartie <(affectée n'estpas
partie à l'affaire portée devant la Cour ; elle réservesa compétence en
matière de ((différends résultantd'un traité multilatéral o.
Il est clair que le caractèrejuridique d'un différend est déterminépar
l'attitude des partie:;ce différend. A la fin, mais non au commencement,
le Nicaragua a plaidésa cause sous la double perspective d'un différend

résultantde traités multilatéraux et, subsidiairement, d'un différend rele-
vant du droit coutumier. Mais tout litige présenteau moins deux aspects.
Les Etats-Unis n'ont pas admis qu'il s'agissait d'un différend relevant
uniquement de lacoutume. En réponse à l'accusation d'emploi illicitede la
force, ils se sont fondésavec insistance sur les termes de l'article 51 de la
Charte. Or, une partie ne peut pas redéfinir les moyens de défensede
l'autre partie. Dès lors que le défendeurinvoque I'article 51,il s'agit d'un
différend résultant d'un traité multilatéral. Consequently, 1am unable to see how the main elements of this dispute
- the use of force, and collective self-defence - can be characterized as
other than disputes arising under a multilateral treaty. That being so, it
follows from the multilateral treaty reservation, that the Court'sjurisdic-
tion islacking, not merelyin respect of a relevant multilateraltreaty, but in

respect of that dispute.

Accordingly, 1have voted "NO" to subparagraph (2)of paragraph 292 ;
not at al1on grounds of substancebut on theground oflackofjurisdiction.
It follows also that 1have had to vote "No" to subparagraph (4), dealing
with certain direct attacks on Nicaraguan territory, and to subparagraph
(5). dealing with unauthorized overflight of Nicaraguan territory ; again
because of lack of jurisdiction to decide one way or the other on the
question of self-defence.

The question next arises whether there areany claims in theNicaraguan
application, whichcan be severed from disputes arising under multilateral
treaties and can therefore be decided by the Court without trespass upon
that area which the reservation has put outside thejurisdiction conferred
upon it by the United States Declaration under Article 36. paragraph 2 ?
To answer this question requires an exercisein the characterization of the
various issues raised by the application. In particular, it requires some
examination of the applicable law ; for the multilateral treaty reservation
characterizes excluded disputes in terms of the kind of law applicable to
them. The Court could not, therefore, avoid some examination of the
applicable law,evenfor those matters whichitfinally hasnojurisdiction to
decide ; which shows how correct it was for the Court to join the con-
sideration of the multilateral treaties reservation to the merits in 1984.

It will be convenient to examine from the point of viewofjurisdiction,
first the question of intervention ; then the mining of the ports ; then the
breaches of humanitarian law ; and then thedifferent question - different
because it refers to Article 36.paragraph 1,of the Court's Statute - of the
jurisdiction of the Court under the Friendship, Commerce and Navigation
Treaty of 1956.

How far does the multilateral treaty reservation prevent the Court from
deciding the questions concerning the principle of non-intervention ?
There can be no doubt that the principle of non-intervention isan autono-

mous principle of customary law ;indeed it isverymuch older than any of Par conséquent,je ne vois pas comment les éléments essentielsdu
présent différend - emploi de la force et légitimedéfensecollective -
pourraient êtrequalifiésautrement que comme relevant d'un traitémul-
tilatéral.Celaétant,ilrésultedelaréserverelativeauxtraitésmultilatéraux
que la Cour n'apas compétencenonseulement en cequiconcernele traité

multilatéral pertinent, mais aussi en ce qui concerne le différend lui-
même.
C'estpourquoij'ai votécontre lesous-paragraphe 2du paragraphe 292 ;
je ne l'aipas du tout faitpour desraisons defond, maispour incompétence
de la Cour. C'est aussipourquoi j'ai votécontre lesous-paragraphe 4, qui
concernecertaines at.taquesdirectes effectuéesen territoire nicaraguayen,
et contre le sous-paragraphe 5, qui a trait au survol sans autorisation du
territoire nicaraguayen ; sij'ai voté ainsi, c'est aussiarce que la Cour
n'étaitpas compétentepour seprononcer dansun sensou dans l'autre sur
la légitime défense.

Reste àsavoir silarequêtedu Nicaragua contient desrevendicationsqui
pouvaient êtredissociéesdesdifférends résultantdes traitésmultilatéraux
et sur lesquellesla Cour pouvait donc seprononcer sanss'immiscerdans le
domaine exclupar laréservedont estassortieladéclarationpar laquelle les

Etats-Unis ont acceptéla juridiction obligatoire de la Cour en vertu de
l'article 36,paragraphe 2. Pour pouvoir répondre à cette question, il faut
bien cerner les divers problèmes que pose cette requête. Il importe en
particulier d'examinerledroit applicable car la réserve relativeaux traités
multilatérauxdéfinit.lesdifférends àexclureen sefondant sur ledroit qui
leur est applicable. LaCour ne pouvait doncpas se dispenser d'examiner
dans une certaine mesurele droit applicable, mêmeen ce qui concerne les
matièrespour lesquelleselle n'avaiten fin de compteaucune compétence,
ce qui montre bien combien elle a eu raison, en 1984,dejoindre au fond
l'examen de la réserve relative auxtraités multilatéraux.
Il conviendra d'examiner successivement,du point de vue de la com-
pétence,la question de l'intervention, celledu minage des ports, celledes
violations du droit humanitaire, puis laquestion différente- ellerelèveen
effet del'article36,paragraphe 1,du Statutde la Cour - de lacompétence
de la Cour en vertu du traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de navigation de
1956.

Jusqu'à quel point la réserverelativeaux traitésmultilatéraux empêche-
t-elle la Cour de trancher les questions qui concernent le principe de
non-intervention ?Ilest hors de douteque leprincipe de non-intervention
est un principe autonome du droit coutumier ; c'est mêmeun principethe rnultilateral treaty régimes inquestion. It is, rnoreover, a principle of
lawwhich in the inter-American systern hasits own peculiar developrnent,
interpretation and importance.

One is, however, irnrnediately faced with the difficulty that a plea of
collective self-defence is obviously a possiblejustification of intervention
and that this is thejustification which the United States has pleaded. Soit
isagain a dispute arising under Article 51of the UnitedNations Charter. If

one turns to the Inter-Arnerican systern of law, the sarne problern arises.
Article 18of the Charter of the Organization ofArnerican States dealswith
intervention in peculiarly cornprehensive terrns, in that it prohibits inter-
vention "for any reason whatever" ;it also, in Article 21, deals with force
and self-defence, but in specificallytreaty terrns. Thus, by that article, the
Arnerican States "bind thernselvesin their international relations not to
have recourse to the use of force, except in the case of self-defense in
accordancewithexistingtreatiesor infu[fillmentthereof'(emphasis added).

The latter phrase can only mean that self-defencein the inter-Arnerican
systern by definition requires recourse to multilateral treaties ;such as,
obviously, the RioTreaty on Mutual Assistance, as wellas the Principle of
the OAS Charter (Art. 3 (f))that : "An act of aggression against one
Arnerican State is an act of aggression against al1 the other Arnerican
States." In short, 1am wholly unable to see how the issues of intervention

raised in the instant case - intervention indeed by either Party, for each
accuses the other of it - can be categorized as other than a dispute, or
disputes, arising under rnultilateral treaties, and thus caught by the rnul-
tilateral treaty reservation ; at any rate where self-defence has forrnally
been pleaded as ajustification.

A possible way out of the jurisdictional problern which needs to be
investigated isthe following. It iscertain that a respondent State could not
be perrnitted tomakea dispute into one arising under a rnultilateral treaty,
rnerely by rnaking an unsupportable allegation that a treaty was involved.
Suppose, in the present case, itwerernanifest on the face of the rnatter that
there had in fact been no arrned attack to which a plea of collective
self-defence could be a perrnissible response ? In that event it could surely
be said that there was truly no dispute arising under Article 51 of the
Charter.

This, however, is not at al1the position. There is a case to answer. The
Court has carefully exarnined both the law and the fact and has made a
forma1 decision in subparagraph (2) of paragraph 292. In short, there
is no escaping the fact that this is a decision of a dispute arising under
Article 51.beaucoup plus ancien que tous les régimesinstituéspar les traitésmulti-
latéraux en question. De surcroît, c'est un principe de droit qui, dans le
systèmeinteraméricain, se distingue par l'évolution,qu'il a subie, I'inter-
prétation quien a étédonnéeet l'importance qu'il a revêtue.
Cependant,on se heurte immédiatement àune difficulté :la thèsede la
légitimedéfense collective constitue évidemmentunejustification possible
deI'interventionetc'estcettejustification quelesEtats-Unis ont invoquée.
II s'agit donc encore une fois d'un différendrésultantde l'article 51 de la
Charte des Nations Unies. Si l'on examine ensuite le systèmejuridique
interaméricain,on retrouve lemême problème. L'article 18de la chartede

l'organisation des Et.atsaméricainstraite de la question de I'intervention
en des termes particulièrement généraux ; il interdit I'intervention «pour
quelque motif quecesoit >)Quant à l'article21,qui concerne l'emploide la
forceetla légitimedéfensei,ls'inscrit, lui,dans lecadre spécifiquedu droit
conventionnel. Aux termes de cet article, lesEtats américains <s'engagent
dans leurs relations internationalesà ne pas recourirà l'emploide la force,
si ce n'est dans le cas de légitime défense, conformémentaux traitésen
vigueur,ou dans le cos de l'exécutiondesdits,traités (les italiques sont de
moi).
Tout ce que peut signifier ce dernier membre de phrase, c'est que la
légitime défense, dails le systèmeinteraméricain, exige par définition le
recours a des traitésmultilatéraux, tels que, bien évidemment,le traité

interaméricain d'assistancemutuelle de Rio ainsi que la charte de l'Orga-
nisation des Etats aniéricains,dont l'article 3,alinéf) , nonceleprincipe
suivant : ((L'agression contre un Etat américainconstitue une agression
contre tous lesautresEtats américains. )En bref,je neparvienspasdu tout
a voir comment les questions d'intervention, soulevéesen l'espèce - celle
de I'intervention de l'une et l'autre Parties, puisqu'elles s'en accusent
réciproquement -, peuvent êtreconsidéréesautrement que comme sou-
levant un différend oudes différendsdécoulantde traités multilatéraux,et
comme tombant par conséquent sous le coup de la réserve relative aux
traités multilatéraux, toutau moins lorsque la légitimedéfense a été for-
mellement invoquée entant que justification de I'intervention.
Le problèmejuridictionnel qui se pose peut êtrerésolu d'une manière

qu'ilimporte d'examiner maintenant. Un Etat défendeurne saurait certes
êtreautorisé à faired'undifférendquelconqueun différenddécoulantd'un
traité multilatéral, ense bornant à alléguerde façon indéfendable qu'un
traitéest en cause. Supposons qu'il soit manifeste,en l'espèce,qu'il n'yait
en réalitépas eud'agressionarmée àlaquellepuisseêtreopposéelathèsede
la légitime défense collectiveO. n pourrait certainement affirmer, dans ce
cas, qu'il n'ya vraiment pas de différenddécoulantde l'article 51 de la
Charte.
Or, tel n'est pas le cas.Il existe un différend à trancher. Après avoir
examinéde façon approfondie le droit et les faits, la Cour a pris une
décision formelleail sous-paragraphe 2 du paragraphe 292. On ne peut
donc nier qu'ils'agit.d'une décisionportant sur un différenddécoulantde

l'article 51. Acwrdingly, 1 have had to vote "No" to subparagraph (3) of para-
graph 292 ; not indeed on theground that therehas been no United States
intervention inNicaragua, forit isobvious that therehas been, but because
1 cannot see that the Court hasjurisdiction to decide whether or not the

intervention isjustified as an operation of collective self-defence.

The dispute concerning the responsibility of the United States for the
unnotified mining of Nicaraguan ports, which apparently resulted in
damage to a number of merchant ships, some under the flags of third
States, seems to be a matter which does not arise out of the provisions of
multilateral treaties, and is therefore within thejurisdiction of the Court.
When this Court had to consider the laying of mines in a seaway in the
Corfu Channelcase, it did not find it necessary, in connection with the
responsibility for damage caused by the mines, to invoke the provisions of
the United Nations Charter, but based its decision on the obligation to

notify the existence of the mines "for the benefit of shipping in general" ;
an obligation :
"based, not on the Hague Convention of 1907,No. VIII, which is
applicable in time of war, but on certain general and well-recognized
principles, namely :elementary considerations of humanity, even
more exacting in peace than in war ; the principle of freedom of
maritime communication ; and every State's obligation not to allow
knowingly its territory to be used for acts contrary to the rights of
other States" (I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 22).

This lawwould seemto apply afortiori wherea State laysmines in another
State'sports or port approaches, and fails to notify shipping. Nor does this
conclusion depend upon a construction of Article 51 of the Charter, for
even supposing the United States were acting in legitimate self-defence,
failure to notify shipping would still make the mine-laying unlawful.

No doubt that the Court is right, therefore, in finding that the United
States has, in thismatter, acted unlawfully. Accordingly, 1have found my-
self able to vote for subparagraph (8) of the dispositif; and also for sub-
paragraph (7). which refers to the 1956Treaty of Friendship, Commerce
and Navigation, which will be discussed in a following section of this
opinion. 1 am not able, however,to vote "Yes" to subparagraph (6).which
deals with the laying of the mines in terms of a duty of non-intervention,
and also in terms of a violation of sovereignty.This of course again raises
thequestion of possiblejustification of the United States action aspart of a En conséquence,j'ai dû voter contre le sous-paragraphe 3 du para-
graphe 292, non pas parce qu'iln'ya pas eu d'intervention des Etats-Unis
d'Amérique au Nicaragua - il est en effet évidentqu'ily aeu intervention
de leur part - maisparce queje nepense pasque la Cour avaitcompétence
pour décidersil'intervention sejustifiait ounon dans lecadre de lalégitime
défensecollective.

La controverse sur la responsabilité des Etats-Unis pour le minage
sans notification des ports nicaraguayens, lequel a apparemment eu pour
conséquence d'endommager des navires marchands dont certains bat-
taient pavillon d'Etats tiers, semblene pas releverde dispositions de traités
multilatéraux,sibien qu'elle estdu ressort de laCour. Lorsque celle-ciaeu
à examiner la question du mouillage de mines dans une voie maritime, en
l'affairedu DétroitdeCorfou,ellen'apas estimé nécessaire , propos de la
responsabilité pour les dommages causéspar les mines, d'invoquer les

dispositions de la ChartedesNations Unies, mais elle a fondésa décision
sur I'obligationde faire connaître l'existencedes mines ((dans l'intérêdte
la navigation en général o. Cette obligation étaitde celles qui étaient :
((fondéesnon pas surlaconvention VI11de La Haye, de 1907,qui est
applicable en temps de guerre, mais surcertains principes généraux et

bien reconnus, tels que des considérations élémentaires d'humanité,
plus absolues encore en temps de paix qu'en temps de guerre, le
principe de la liberté des communications maritimes et l'obligation,
pour tout Etat, de ne pas laisser utiliser son territoire aux fins d'actes
contraires aux tlroits d'autres Etats ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 22).

Il semble que cette règledevrait s'appliquer afortiori quand un Etat pose
des minesdans lesports ou dans lesapproches desports d'un autreEtat, et
ne signale pas lefaità la navigation. Cette conclusion ne dépendd'ailleurs
pas non plus d'une interprétationde l'article5 1 de la Charte,car mêmeen
supposant que les Etats-Unis aient agi en état de légitimedéfense le
mouillage des mine:; resterait illicite, faute d'avertissement à la naviga-
tion.
Par conséquent, il est indubitable que la Cour était fondéea conclure
qu'en l'espèceles Etats-Unis avaient agi de façon contraire au droit. C'est
pourquoi j'ai pu voter pour le sous-paragraphe 8 du dispositif. J'ai égale-
ment votépour le sous-paragraphe 7 qui vise le traitéd'amitié,de com-

merce et de navigation de 1956, traitéque j'examinerai dans une autre
section de la présente opinion. En revanche,je n'ai pas pu voter pour le
sous-paragraphe 6, qui considèrele mouillage des mines comme un man-
quement à I'obligation de ne pas intervenir et comme une atteinte à la
souveraineté,ce qui soulèvenaturellement de nouveau la question d'unecollective self-defence operation ; and on this there is in my view no
jurisdiction to make a finding.

There is, nevertheless, a problem in regard even to the finding that the
laying of unnotified mines was unlawful. With the question of collective
self-defence undecided, it is far from clear that the respondent State is
answerable to Nicaragua for damaging,or impeding its shipping ;and the
third States whose shipping was involved are not before the Court. How-
ever, since the laying of unnotified mines is of itself an unlawful act, it
seemed right nevertheless to vote for subparagraph (8).

Nicaragua claims that the contrashavecommitted violations both of the
law of human rights and of humanitarian law and that the responsibility
for these acts should be attributed to the United States. This is, again, a
question which is not one arising under the Charter of the United Nations
or of the Organization of American States, for such acts obviously are

unlawful even if comrnitted in the course of justified collective self-
defence. On the other hand, it might be objected that the question of
possible breaches of humanitarian law must be a dispute arising under the
1949Geneva multilateral Conventions ;and there must be at least very
seriousdoubts whether thoseconventions could be regarded asembodying
customary law. Even the Court's view that the common Article 3, laying
down a "minimum yardstick" (para. 218) for armed conflicts of a non-
international character, are applicable as "elementary considerations of
humanity", is not a matter free from difficulty. Nevertheless, there is also
the point that there is no third State "affected" by a decision taken under
an Article of the Geneva Conventions ;not at any rate in the way that El
Salvador can be seen to be "affected" by a decision taken under Articles 2,
paragraph 4, and 51 of the United Nations Charter.

It isclear enough that there has been conduct - not indeed confined to
one sideof the civilstrife - that iscontrary to human rights, humanitarian
law and indeed also the most elementary considerations of humanity (see
the Report of Amnesty International, Nicaragua : the Human Rights
Record,March 1986,AMR/43/01/86). To impute any of these actsto the
United States,as acts of the United States - which iswhat Nicaragua asks
the Court to do - would require a double exercise :there must not only be
evidence of the particular acts in question, but the acts must also be
imputable to the United States according to the rules governing Stateéventuellejustification de l'action des Etats-Unis d'Amérique envisagée
commes'inscrivantdans uneopérationde légitimedéfense collec?ive.Or, à
mon sens, la Cour n'a pas compétence pour se prononcer sur ce point.

Néanmoins, mêmela conclusion selon laquelle le mouillage de mines
effectuésans notification étaitillicitepose un problème. La question de la
légitimedéfensecollectiven'étant pas tranchéei,ln'estpas du tout évident
que 1'Etatdéfendeursoit responsable envers le Nicaragua des dommages
causésaux navires ou des entraves apportées à la navigation. Et les Etats
tiers dont la navigation est concernéen'ont pas participé à l'instance.
Cependant,étant donné que le mouillage de mines effectuésans notifica-
tion est en soiun acteillicite,ilm'aparujuste de voter quand mêmepour le

sous-paragraphe 8.

LeNicaragua soutient que les contrasont commisdesactes en violation
des droits de l'homme et du droit humanitaire et que la responsabilitéde
ces actes doit êtreimputée aux Etats-Unis. Cette question ne résulte pas
non plus de la Charte des Nations Unies ou de la chartedel'organisation
des Etats américains,car de tels actes sont manifestement illicites même
s'ilsont étécommis dans un cas où la légitimedéfensecollective sejus-
tifiait. En revanche, on pourrait objecter que la question des violations
possibles du droit humanitaire constitue nécessairement un différend

résultantdes conventions multilatérales de Genèvede 1949. On doit tout
au moins tenir pour trèsdouteux que ces conventions puissent êtreconsi-
déréescomme consacrantle droit coutumier. Même le pointde vue de la
Cour selon lequel l'article 3 commun aux quatre conventions énonce un
<(minimum de règles(par. 218) qui sont applicables dans les conflits
armésne présentant pas un caractèreinternational et qui correspondent à
des <considérations élémentaires d'humanité >)n'est pas sans présenter
des difficultés. Par ailleurs,il est noter aussi qu'il n'y a pas d'Etat tiers

<(affecté 1)par une décision priseen considération d'un article des con-
ventions de Genève,tout au moins pas au sens où El Salvador peut être
considérécommeétant <(affecté))par une décision prisecompte tenu des
articles 2, paragraphe 4, et 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies.
Il est constant que les troubles civils se sont accompagnésd'actes con-
traires aux droits de l'homme, au droit humanitaire et même aux consi-
dérationsles plus élémentairesd'humanité, etqu'ils n'ontpas étécommis

par un seulcamp (voirlerapport d'Amnesty International, Nicaragua :the
Human Rights Record, mars 1986,AMR/43/01/86). Pour imputer aux
Etats-Unis l'un quelconque de ces actes - c'est ce que le Nicaragua a
demandé à la Cour clefaire - il faudrait non seulement que l'existencede
cet acte particulier soit établiemais aussi que celui-ci soit imputable aux
Etats-Unis conformément aux règlesqui régissentla responsabilité desResponsibility in international law ; which, in short, means that the
unlawful acts of the contras must have been committed in such a way,or in
such circumstances, as to make them in substance the acts of the United
States itself. The Court's finding, made clear in the final phrase of sub-
paragraph (9)of paragraph 292, isthat no such acts can be imputed to the
United States, and that this claim and charge of Nicaragua is rejected.

There remains, however,the matter of the dissemination of the so-called
manual by the United States. This was whollydeplorable ;though it isfair
to remember that, when it came to the notice of the House of Represen-
tatives Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, it was rightly con-
demned by them, the contras were urged to ignore it, and an attempt was
made to recall copies (para. 120). Again, the dissemination of this manual
does not, in international law, make unlawful acts of the contras into acts
imputable to the United States. This is prpmably why the Court's re-
buke is in the non-technical terms of "en ouragement" of unlawful acts.
Nevertheless, a rebuke is appropriate a id 1 have had no hesitation in
voting "Yes" to that part of the Court's decision.

Accordingly, 1 have voted "Yes" to subparagraph (9) of para-
graph 292.

It isnow necessaryto examine how far the Court hasjurisdiction to deal
with anyaspects of thecaseby virtue of thejurisdiction clause(Art. XXIV)
of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation of 21 January
1956, which provides :
"2. Any dispute between the Parties as to the interpretation or
application of thepresent Treaty, not satisfactorily adjusted by diplo-

macy. shall be submitted to the International Court of Justice, unless
the Parties agree to settlement by some other pacific means."

The Court found in the previous phase of the case, that

"to the extent that the claims in Nicaragua's Application constitute a
dispute as to the interpretation or the application of the Articlesof the
Treaty of 1956 .. .the Court hasjurisdiction under that Treaty to
entertain such claims" (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 429).

Since that Judgment, the United States has denounced the Treaty by a ACTIVITÉS MILITAIRES ET PARAMILITAIRES (OP. DISS.JENNINGS) 538

Etats en droit international. Cela revient à dire, en résumé,que les actes
illicitesdescontras devraient avoir été commis d'une manière oudans des
circonstances telles qu'il s'agisse au fond d'actes des Etats-Unis eux-
mêmes.Selonlaconc:lusionde la Cour sur cepoint, qui est énoncée dans le
derniermembre de phrase du sous-paragraphe 9du paragraphe 292,aucun
acte de cette nature ne peut êtreimputé aux Etats-Unis sibien que ce grief

et cette accusation du Nicaragua sont rejetés.
Reste I'affairede la diffusion du ((manuel rpar les Etats-Unis, laquelle
est tout à fait regrettable. En toute justice, il faut rappeler que, lorsque la
commission permanente restreinte du renseignement de la Chambre des
représentants en a eu connaissance, elle a condamné à juste titre ce
manuel ; d'autre part, on a insistéauprès des contras pour qu'ils n'en
tiennent aucun compte et on a tenté d'en récupérer desexemplaires
(par. 120).La diffusion de ce manuel n'a pas non plus pour effet, en droit
international, de transformer les actes illicites des contras en actes impu-
tables aux Etats-Unis. C'est sans doute pourquoi la Cour a reprochéaux

Etats-Unis d'avoir ((encouragé )l'accomplissementd'actesillicites,terme
qui n'a pas un caractère technique. Il n'en demeure pas moins qu'un
reproche estjustifié, etje n'aipas hésité à voter en faveur de cette partiede
la décisionde la Cour.
En conséquence, j',aivotépour le sous-paragraphe 9 du paragraphe 292.

Il faut examiner maintenant jusqu'à quel point la Cour a compétence
pour connaître d'un aspect quelconque de I'affaire envertu de la clause de
juridiction (art. XXIV)du traitéd'amitiéd ,e commerce etde navigation du
21janvier 1956,qui dispose que :

<(2. Tout différendqui pourrait s'éleverentre les parties quant a
l'interprétationou a l'application du présent traitéet qui ne pourrait
pas êtrerégléd'une manière satisfaisante par la voie diplomatique
sera portédevant la Cour internationale de Justice, à moins que les
parties ne conviennent de le régler par d'autres moyens pacifi-

ques.
Dans la phase antérieure de l'affaire, la Cour a conclu que :

<dans la mesure où les demandes formulées dans la requêtedu
Nicaragua révèlent l'existenced'un différendsur l'interprétation ou
l'application des articles du traitéde 1956 ...la Cour a compétence
pour en connaître en vertu de ce traité (C.1.J Recueil 1984, p. 429).

Depuis que cet arrêt aétérendu. les Etats-Unis d'Amériqueont dénoncé letraitépar unenote en date du lermai 1985,en donnant lepréavis d'unan
qu'exige l'articleXXV, paragraphe 3, du traité. Etant donné que cette
dénonciation est intervenue bien après la question de la jonction, il
demeure en l'espèceun fondement de compétencepossible.
En premier lieu, il faut relever que le traitéde 1956crée,par son ar-
ticleXXIV,un titre decompétenceau sensde I'article 36,paragraphe 1,du
Statut de la Cour, puisqu'il s'agit d'un traité (en vigueur au moment
considéré.C'estune base de compétence différente etindépendantede la
question de la compétence en vertu de la déclaration des Etats-Unis
d'Amériquefaite au titrede I'article36,paragraphe 2,du Statut. C'estdonc
un titre de compétence qui n'est pas affectépar la réserve relative aux

traités multilatéraux,laquelle ne concerne que la déclarationfaite en vertu
de I'article 36,paragraphe 2 ;par conséquent,rien ne s'oppose à ce que la
Cour, lorsqu'elleconnaît de questions viséespar la clausedejuridiction du
traité de 1956, examine et applique, par exemple, les articles 2, para-
graphe 4, et 51de la Charte des Nations Unies ou tout autre traitémul-
tilatéral pertinent. E.neffet, d'après lalettre d) du premier paragraphe de
I'articleXIdu traitéde 1956,qui sera examiné ci-après,il est manifeste
que certaines obligations de l'une ou l'autre partie >) découlant de la
Charte desNations IJnies sont pertinentes auxfins de l'interprétationetde
l'application du traité.
Cela ne signifie pas que le différend principal, qui fait l'objet de la

requêtenicaraguayenne, puisseêtreréglé au titre de laclausedejuridiction
du traité de 1956, iimoins qu'il ne s'agisse d'un différend concernant
directement <(l'interprétation ouI'application desdispositionsdu traité.
Je ne peux pas admettre l'argument du Nicaragua selon lequel la compé-
tence fondée surle traitéest censée s'étendre à des questions qu'on peut,
d'une façon générale, qualifierd'incompatibles avec lebut et l'objet Hdu
traitéde 1956mais qui ne sont pas viséespar desarticles spécifiquesde ce
traité.La clausejuridictionnelle d'un tel traiténe peut pas êtreconsidérée
comme donnant compétence pour trancher des questions étrangères aux
dispositions concrètes du traité,mêmesi ces questions peuvent avoir une
incidence sur I'application de celui-ci. Si des hostilités, ou même une
guerre, éclatent entre des parties à un traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de

navigation. il est alors certain que la Cour, en vertu d'une clausejuridic-
tionnelle, n'a pas compétence pour examiner la question généralede la
licéité du déclenchemendte ces hostilités oude cette guerre, au seul motif
que ces événementssont contraires au but et à l'objet du traité. Il est
cependant évidentque la Cour pourrait êtrecompétentepourdécider,par
exemple, s'ily a guerre H ou <hostilitésO, aux fins d'interpréter et d'ap-
pliquer une clause du traitévisant le cas de guerre. Sinon, il serait appa-
remment possible de dire, de toutes sortes de différends, qu'ils tombent
dans certaines circonstances sous le coup d'une telleclausejuridiction-
nelle. Les parties au traiténe peuvent avoir eu l'intention de conférerune

compétenceaussi fluctuante lorsqu'elles se sont accordéessur la clause
juridictionnelle. L'affirmation par la Cour d'une tellecompétencen'aurait
pu que décourager les parties à des traitésd'amitié,de commerce et dethe Statute ;though that course is not open to me, taking the view1do on
the effect of the multilateral treaty reservation.

It is in any event abundantly clear that the object and purpose of this
particular Treaty could not have anything like so large an ambit as Nica-
ragua contended. The Treaty is, in its preamble, said to be "based in
general upon the principles of national and most-favoured-nation treat-
ment unconditionally accorded" :a strictly technical formula concerned
essentially with commercial relations. Thus, the "object and purpose" of
this Treaty is simply not capable of being stretched in the way Nicaragua
wished.

If one looks, accordingly, at theactual provisions of the Treaty,perhaps
one is struck first by the extent to which many of the terms of the Treaty

have been faithfully observed by both Parties. There ismuch, for example,
concerning the treatment of the nationals of one Party in the territory of
theother (e.g.,Arts. VIII. IX,X and XI) and United States citizens seemto
be able to travel freely to Nicaragua. As to Nicaraguans in the United
States, it was striking that Mr. Chamorro, whose affidavit is much relied
upon by the Court excuses himself from travelling to The Hague to give
oral testimony, because travel outside the United States could possibly, he
had been advised, prejudice his application for leave to establish himself
and his family as permanent residents in the United States.

Nevertheless, there are acts of the United States which appear prima
facie to be breaches of actual provisions of the Treaty. The mining of the

ports very clearly touches Article XIX, which provides that between the
territories of the two parties there shall be freedom of commerce and
navigation. And by declaringa general embargo on trade with Nicaragua
on 1 May 1985,the United States is prima facie in breach of the actual
stipulations of severalarticles, including in particular Article XIX again ;
for the comprehensive trade embargo is repugnant to an undertaking to
establish "freedom of commerce" ;and to the provision of that Article
that :

"3.Vesselsof either Party shall have liberty, on equal terms with
vesselsof the other Party and on equal terms with vesselsof any third
country, to come with their cargoes to al1ports, places and waters of
such other Party open to foreign commerce and navigation."

At this point, however, it is necessary to consider the effect of Arti-
cleXXI which contains a list of provisos - measures which the "present
Treaty shall not preclude the application of" - which qualify the entire
Treaty. The interesting one for present purposes is :navigation de mentionner à l'avenirla Cour dans de telles clausesjuridic-
tionnelles. C'est donc avec plaisir queje constate que la Cour (par. 271)
fonde ici sa compétence sur l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut. encore

queje nepuisse meprononcer dans cesensétantdonnélepoint de vueque
j'ai adoptésur l'effet de la réserve relativeaux traités multilatéraux.
Quoi qu'ilen soit sur le plan général,il est touà fait clair que le but et
I'objet de ce traité particulier ne sauraient avoir une portée aussi large
que leNicaragua lesoutient. Comme ilest dit dans sonpréambule,letraité
est <fondé,d'une faqon générales ,ur les principes du traitement national
et de la nation la plus favorisée,sans clause conditionnelle :c'estlà une
formule strictement technique qui vise essentiellement des relations com-
merciales. Par conséquent, <le but et l'objet u du traité ne sont tout
simplement pas susceptibles d'êtreétendusdans le sens souhaité par le
Nicaragua.
Si l'on examine ensuite les dispositions matériellesdu traité, ce qui
surprend peut-êtrele plus au premier abord c'est de voir à quel point un
grand nombre de clauses du traitéont étéscrupuleusement observéespar
les deux parties. Beaucoup d'entre elles concernent par exemple le traite-
ment desnationaux d'unepartie sur leterritoire de l'autre(art. VIII, IX, X

et XI), et les citoyens des Etats-Unis d'Amériquesemblent pouvoir se
rendre librement au Nicaragua. Pour ce qui est des Nicaraguayens aux
Etats-Unis, il est étonnant que M. Chamorro, qui a fait une déclaration
sous serment sur laquelle la Cour s'est souvent fondée, s'excuse de ne
pouvoir se rendre à La Haye pour venir déposerdevant la Cour, parce que
le fait de quitter le territoire des Etats-Unis, lui a-t-on dit, risquerait de
compromettre sa demande d'obtention du statut de résidentpermanent
pour lui-mêmeet sa famille aux Etats-Unis.
11est cependant des actes des Etats-Unis qui semblent à première vue
être enviolation de dispositions concrètes du traité.Le minage des ports
tombe assurémentsous lecoupde l'article XIX, lequel prévoitqu'ily aura
libertéde commerce et de navigation entre les territoires des deux parties.
En décrétantle lermai 1985un embargo généralsur le commerce avec le
Nicaragua, les Etats-Unis ont apparemment violéles dispositions con-
crètesde plusieurs articles, dont l'article XIXen particulier ;en effet, un
embargo général surlecommerce est contraire à l'engagementd'établir la

libertéde commerce et à la clause dudit article selon laquelle:

<3. Les navires de l'unedes deux parties pourront librement, dans
lesmêmesconditions que les navires de l'autre partie et lesnavires de
tout pays tiers, se rendre avec leur cargaison dans tous les ports,
mouillageset eaux de cette autre partie quisont ouverts au commerce
international et à la navigation internationale.

Ilconvient toutefois d'analyser icileseffetsde l'article XXI,qui contient
un certain nombre de restrictions portant sur les mesures à l'application
desquelles aucune disposition du trait6 ne fait obstacle. Cellesqui présen-
tent de l'intérêetn l'espècesont celles qui sont :541 MlLITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (DISSO. P.JENNINGS)

"(d)necessary to fulfill theobligations of a Party for the maintenance
or restoration of international peace and security, or necessary to
protect its essential security interests".

The point that immediately occurs to the mind is that measures taken
in individual or collective self-defence, or as counter-measures, are
clearly caught by this proviso as measures necessary to protect essential
security.
The question arising under Article XXI is not, however, whether such
measures arejustified in international law as action taken in self-defence,
or asjustified counter-measures in general international law; the question
iswhether the measures in question are, or are not, in breach of the Treaty.
Any operation that comessquarelywithin Article XXI,asa measure taken
by one party to the Treaty, as being "necessary to protect its essential
security interests", cannot be in breach of the Treaty. 1do not see what
other meaning can be given to a clause which simply States that "The
present Treaty shall not preclude the application" of such measures, and
thus is a proviso to the entire Treaty.

Turning now, therefore, to the "measures" which the Court's decision

treats as breaches of this Treaty, it will be convenient first to consider the
unnotified mining of Nicaraguan ports which, in subparagraph (7) of
paragraph 292, is said to be in breach of the Treaty. This is a question
which 1have not found it at al1easy to resolve.
There is of course, as already mentioned above, no question that the
United States, "by failing to make known the existenceand location of the
mines", has indeed "acted in breach of its obligations under customary
international law" (subpara. 8). The question, however, in relation to the
1956Treaty, is not whether the United Statesacted in breach of "elemen-
tary considerations ofhumanity", but whether it acted alsoin breach of the
bilateral treaty relationship with Nicaragua, having regard to the general
proviso in Article XXI ? Again it must be emphasized that the issuehere is
not simply the lawfulness or unlawfulness of the act in general interna-
tional law, but whether it was also in breach of the terms of the Treaty ?
Certainly it is prima facie a breach of Article XIX,providing for freedom
of navigation ;but is it a "measure" excepted by the proviso clause of

Article XXI ?Although not without some remaining doubts, 1have come
to the conclusion that Article XXI cannot have contemplated a measure
which cannot, under general international law, bejustified even as being
part of an operation in legitimate self-defence. 1 have therefore voted
"Yes" tosubparagraph (8)ofparagraph 292.(Asexplained above, 1cannot
vote in favour of subparagraph (6) because this is dependent upon being
able to vote "Yes" to subparagraph (2).)
Turning now to subparagraph (10) of paragraph 292, the Court finds
that the "attacks on Nicaraguan territory referred to in subparagraph(4)",,
are calculated to deprive the 1956Treaty of its object and purpose. Here, <<d)nécessaires àl'exécutiondesobligations de l'uneou l'autre partie
relatives au maintien ou au rétablissement de la paix et de la sécurité
internationales ou à laprotection desintérêtsvitaux de cette partie en

ce qui concerne sa sécurité o.

11apparaît immédiatement que les mesures prises au titre de la légitime
défense,individuelle ou collective,ou à titre decontre-mesures,rentrent de
toute évidencedans cette catégorie,en tant que mesures nécessaires à la
protection d'intérêtsvitaux en matière de sécurité.
La question que pose l'article XXI n'estpas de savoir sicesmesures sont
justifiées en droit international en tant que mesures prises à titre de
légitimedéfense ou en tant que contre-mesures permises par le droit

international général ;il s'agitde savoir sices mesures constituent ou non
une violation du traité.Toute mesure relevant incontestablement de l'ar-
ticleXXI, en tant que mesure qu'une partie au traitéprend parce qu'elle est
nécessaire à la protection des intérêtsvitaux de cette partie en ce qui
concerne sa sécurité :sne saurait constituer une violation du traité.Je ne
vois pas quel autre sens donner à une disposition qui stipule simplement
que le présent traiténe fera pas obstacle à l'application de telles
mesures, et qui apporte ainsi une restriction à l'ensemble du traité.

S'agissant des <(mesures ))que, dans son arrêt,la Cour tient pour des
violations de ce traité,il importe de commencer par examiner le minage
sans notification de ports nicaraguayens, lequel est considéré,au sous-
paragraphe 7 du par.agraphe 292, comme une violation du traité. Cette
question ne m'a pas du tout paru facile à résoudre.
Commeje l'aidéjà indiqué,il ne fait évidemmentaucun douteque les
Etats-Unis, en ne signalantpas l'existenceet I~emplacementdes mines H,
ont effectivement << violéles obligations que le droit international coutu-
mier leur impose )>(sous-par. 8). En ce qui concerne le traitéde 1956,ilne

s'agit pas de savoir si les Etats-Unis ont agi en violation des <considéra-
tions élémentairesd'humanité )),mais s'ilsont agi égalementen violation
de leurs relations conventionnelles bilatérales avec le Nicaragua, compte
tenu de la réservegénérald ee l'article XXI.Il importe de souligner encore
qu'il ne faut pas simplement savoir si l'acte est licite ou illicite en droit
international général ; il faut établirs'ilconstitue une violation des clauses
du traité. A première vue, il s'agit certainement d'une violation de l'ar-
ticle XIX, lequel prévoit la libertéde la navigation, mais s'agit-il d'une

<(mesure relevant de la réserve énoncée à l'article XXI ? Bien qu'ayant
encore quelques doutes,je suisparvenu à laconclusion que l'article XXI ne
peut avoir envisagéune mesure qui ne peut pas, en droit international
général, se justifier mêmc eomme entrant dans le cadre de la légitime
défense.J'ai donc votépour le sous-paragraphe 8 du paragraphe 292.
(Commeje l'ai expliqué plus haut, je n'ai pas pu voter pour le sous-
paragraphe 6 faute d'avoir pu voter pour le sous-paragraphe 2.)
J'en arrive maintenant au sous-paragraphe 10 du paragraphe 292. La
Cour dit que <(les attaques contre le territoire du Nicaragua viséesau

sous-paragraphe 4 )>sont de nature à priver de son but et de son objet lethere is, in my view,no need to consider Article XXI, because 1fail to see
how these direct attacks upon Nicaraguan territory have anything to do
with the treaty at all. In fact any examination of whether bombing attacks
are,or arenot, breaches of a treaty "based ingeneral upon the principles of
national and of most-favoured-nation treatment unconditionally accor-

ded", might be thought not wholly free from an element of absurdity.

1have already discussed the question of jurisdiction in relation to the
"object and purpose" ;but here it is the substance of the Court's decision
that causes me unease. Either those actsare breaches of some provision of
the Treaty or they have nothing to do with the Treaty. The "object and
purpose" of a treaty cannot be a concept existing independently of any of
its terms. 1have, therefore, voted "No" to subparagraph (10).

As to the general embargo on trade with Nicaragua of 1May 1985 :this
was instituted by the Executive Order of 1 May 1985, made by the
President of the United States ; it contained a finding that "the policies
and actions of the Government of Nicaragua constitute an unusual and
extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of the
United States" ;the Order also declared a "national emergency to deal
with that threat" (see Judgment, para. 125).This statement on national
security made no reference to Article XXI of the 1956Treaty, and was
presumably to servea purpose of domestic United States law.It went on to
prohibit "al1 imports into the United States of goods and services of

Nicaraguan origin" ;and "al1exports from the United States of goods and
services to or destined for Nicaragua, except those destined for the orga-
nized democratic resistance, and transactions relating thereto". There was
alsoa prohibition in general terms on al1air carriers and vessels,the latter
being prohibited from entering United States ports if of Nicaraguan
registry.
There is no difficulty in holding that the total trade embargo, and of air
and sea transit, by theOrder of 1 May 1985,wasaprimafacie breach of the
terms of theTreaty ;and again it isArticle XIX that isdirectly involved. It
seems to me there is equally no difficulty in seeing that these measures
came squarely within Article XXI and therefore are not in breach of the
Treaty.
Accordingly, 1 have voted "No" to subparagraph (11) of para-
graph 292.

Although 1 am of the opinion that, owing to the operation of the

multilateral treaty reservation, the Court has nojurisdiction to pass upon
thequestion of self-defence,it seemsright nevertheless tocomment brieflytraitéde 1956.Je ne pense pas qu'il failleiciseréférer à l'articleXXI,parce
que je ne vois pas comment ces attaques directes contre le territoire du
Nicaragua auraient quelque rapportque cesoitavecletraité.D'ailleurs,on
peut estimer qu'ilest légèrementabsurde de sedemander sidesattaques à
la bombe sont, ou ne sont pas, des violations d'un traité (fondé,d'une

façon générale,sur les principes du traitement national et de la nation la
plus favorisée,sans clause conditionnelle )).
J'aidéjà examinélaquestion de lacompétencepar rapport au <(but ))et
à I'<cbjet mais voici en quoi la décisionau fond de la Cour me préoc-
cupe : soit ces actes constituent des violations de quelque disposition
du traité,soit ils n'ont rien à voir avec celui-ci.<(Le but et l'objet ))d'un
traité ne sauraient constituer une notion indépendante du contenu de
ce traité. C'est pourquoi j'ai votécontre le sous-paragraphe 10 du

paragraphe 292.
Quant à l'embargo généraslur le commerce avec le Nicaragua, il a été
décrété par le présidentdes Etats-Unis dans un Executive Order daté du
lermai 1985 ;il concluait que <<la politique et les actesdu Gouvernement
du Nicaragua constituent une menace exceptionnelle et extraordinaire
pour la sécurité nationale et la politique étrangère desEtats-Unis ))et
déclarait <(une urgence nationale pour faire face à cette menace 1)(voir le

paragraphe 125de l'arrêt).Cette déclaration sur la sécurité nationalene
faisait pas référence à l'article XXI du traitéde 1956et elle s'inscrivait
probablement dans l'ordrejuridique interne des Etats-Unis. Elle interdi-
sait <toutes les importations aux Etats-Unis de biens et de servicesd'ori-
gine nicaraguayenne et toutes les exportations à partir des Etats-Unis
de biens et de servicesversleNicaragua ou destinés à cepays, à l'exception
deceux destinés à larésistancedémocratiqueorganiséeetaux opérationsy
relatives w.Elle imposait également uneinterdiction, énoncée entermes

généraux, à tous les aéronefs et navires ; les navires immatriculés au
Nicaragua se voyaient interdire l'entréedes ports des Etats-Unis.
On peut sanspeine admettreque cetembargototal imposéau commerce
ainsi qu'aux transports maritimes et aériensen vertu de 1'ExecutiveOrder
du lcr mai 1985constituait à première vue une violation des clauses du
traité; une fois de plus, l'article XIX est directement en jeu. Il ne me
semble pas non plus difficile d'admettre que ces mesures relevaient direc-

tement de l'article XXI et qu'elles ne violent donc pas le traité.
J'ai donc votécontre le sous-paragraphe 11 du paragraphe 292.

Je suisd'avisque, vu la réserverelativeaux traités multilatéraux,laCour
n'est pas compétente pour se prononcer sur la question de la légitime
défense, maisil me semble bon de formuler quelques brèvesobservationsupon some passages of the Court's Judgment where it deals with these
matters in a way with which 1 do not find myself entirely in agree-
ment.
The question of what constitutes "armed attack" for the purposes of
Article 51, and its relation to the definition of aggression, are large and
controversial questions in which it would be inappropriate to become
involvedin thisopinion. It isofcourse a fact that collectiveself-defenceisa
concept that lends itself to abuse. One must therefore sympathize with the

anxiety of the Court to define it in terms of some strictness (though it is a
little surprisingthat the Court does not at al1consider theproblems of the
quite different French text :"où un Membre. ..est l'objetd'une agression
armée").There isa question, however,whetherthe Courthas perhaps gone
too far in this direction.

The Court (para. 195)allows that, where a State is involved with the
organization of "armed bands" operating in the territory of another State,
this, "because of its scale and effects", could amount to "armed attack"
under Article 51 ; but that this does not extend to "assistance to rebels in
the form of the provision of weapons or logisticalor othersupport" (ibid.).
Such conduct, the Court goes on to say, rnay not amount to an armed
attack ;but "rnay be regarded as a threat or use of force, or amount to
intervention in the interna1 or external affairs of other States" (ibid.).

It rnay readily be agreed that the mere provision of armscannotbe said
to amount toan armed attack. But theprovision of arms may,nevertheless,
be a very important element in what might be thought to amount to armed
attack,where it iscoupled with otherkinds of involvement.Accordingly, it
seemsto me that to say that the provision of arms, coupled with "logistical
or other support" is not armed attack is going much too far. Logistical
support rnay itself be crucial. According to the dictionary, logisticscovers
the "art of moving, lodging, and supplyingtroops and equipment" (Con-
cise OxfordEnglish Dictionaty, 7th ed., 1982).If there is added to al1this
"other support", it becomes difficult to understand what it is, short of
direct attack by a State's own forces, that rnay not be done apparently
without a lawfulremonse inthe formofcollectiveself-defence :nor indeed
rnaybe responded ;O at al1by the use of force or threat of force,for, to cite
the Court again, "States do not have a right of 'collective'armed response

to acts which do not constitute an 'armed attack' " (see para. 211).

This looks to me neither realistic nor just in the world where power
struggles are in everycontinent carried on by destabilization, interference
in civilstrife,comfort, aid and encouragement to rebels, and the like.The
original scheme of the United Nations Charter, whereby force would besur certains passages de l'arrêtde la Cour qui traitent de cette question
d'une manière que je n'approuve pas entièrement.

La question de ce qui constitue une ((agression armée )) aux fins de
l'article 51 et la question du lien entre cet article et la définition de
l'agression sont de vastes questions controversées dont il ne siérait pas de

traiter dans la présente opinion. Certes, la légitimedéfensecollective est
une notion qui se prkte aux abus. On ne peut donc qu'approuver le souci de
la Cour de la définir avec quelque rigueur (encore qu'il soit un peu sur-
prenant que la Cour n'analyse pas du tout les problèmes que pose la

divergence importanteentre lesversions anglaise et française de l'article 51
({(if an armed attack occurs against a Member )); <dans le cas, où un
Membre ...estl'objet d'une agression armée O)).Mais on peut quand même
se demander si la Cour n'est pas peut-être allée trop loin dans cette

direction.
La Cour (par. 195)admet que la participation d'un Etat à l'organisation
de « bandes armées opérant sur le territoire d'un autre Etat peut équi-
valoir, ((par ses dimensions et ses effets )>,à une agression armée au

sens de l'article 51, mais que tel n'est pas le cas d'o une assistance à des
rebelles prenant la forme de fournitured'armements ou d'assistance logis-
tique ou autre )) (ibid.).Un comportement semblable, poursuit la Cour,
n'équivautpeut-êtrepas à une agression armée ;mais ((on peut voir dans

une telle assistance une menace ou un emploi de la force, ou l'équivalent
d'une intervention dans les affaires intérieures ou extérieures d'autres
Etats )>(ibid.).
On conviendra sans peine que la simple fourniture d'armes ne saurait

être considérée comme équivalantà une agression armée. Il reste que la
fourniture d'armes peut constituer un élément extrêmementimportant de
ce qui pourrait être tenu pour une agression armée lorsqu'elle s'accom-
pagne d'autres formes d'assistance. Il me semble donc qu'en disant que la

fourniture d'armes accompagnée d'une assistance logistique ou autre ))
n'est pas une agression armée, on va beaucoup trop loin. L'assistance
logistique en soi peut êtredécisive.Selon le dictionnaire, la logistique est
1'<a<rt of moving, lodging, and supplying troops and equipment ))(Concise

Oxford English Diczionary,7e éd., 1982) (O l'art de déplacer, loger et ravi-
tailler les troupes ainsi que le matériel ))).Si d'o autres formes d'assis-
tance » s'ajoutent à tout cela. on voit mal, sauf àengager ses propres forces
dans une agression directe. ce qu'un Etat ne pourrait apparemment pas

faire sans riposter licitement en recourant à la légitimedéfensecollective,
ni en faitce àquoi ilpourrait riposter en recourant à la forceou àla menace
de la force, car, pour reprendre les termes de la Cour, les Etats n'ont
aucun droit de riposte armée <(collective àdes actes ne constituantpas une

<(agression armée )>(voir par. 21 1).
Cela ne me parait ni réaliste ni juste dans un monde où, sur chaque
continent, des luttes pour le pouvoir s'exercent par voie de déstabilisation,
d'ingérence dans les luttes intestines, de soutien, d'aide et d'encourage-

ment aux rebelles. etc. Le système initialement prévu dans la Charte desdeployed by the United Nations itself,in accordance withthe provisionsof
Chapter VI1 of the Charter, has never come into effect. Therefore an
essential element in the Charter design istotally rnissing.ln this situation it
seemsdangerous to define unnecessarily strictly the conditions for lawful
self-defence, so as to leave a large area where both a forcible response to

forceisforbidden, and yet the United Nations employment of force,which
was intended to fil1that gap, is absent.

These observations have mainly to do with the Court's statement of the
law.As to the case before theCourt, 1remain somewhat doubtful whether
the Nicaraguan involvement with Salvadorian rebels has not involved
some forms of "other support" besides the possible provision, whether
officially or unofficially, of weapons. There seems to have been perhaps
overmuch concentration on the question of the supply, or transit, ofarms ;
as if that were of itselfcrucial, which it is not. Yet one isbound to observe
that here, where questions of fact may be everybit as important as the law,
the United States can hardlycomplain at the inevitable consequencesof its
failure to plead during the substantive phase of the case. It is true that a
great volume of material about the facts was provided to the Court by the
United States during the earlier phases of the case. Yet a party which fails
at the material stage to appearand expound and explain even the material
that it has already provided, inevitably prejudices the appreciation and
assessment of the facts of the case. There are limits to what the Court can
do, in accordance with Article 53 of the Statute, to satisfy itself about a
non-appearing party's case ;and that is especially so where the facts are

crucial. If this werenot so, itwould be difficult to understand what written
and oral pleadings are about.

Another matter which seems to cal1for brief comment, is the treatment
of collective self-defenceby the Court. The passages beginning with para-
graph 196seem to take a somewhat formalistic viewof the conditions for
the exercise of collective self-defence. Obviously the notion of collective
self-defence is open to abuse and it is necessary to ensure that it is not
employableasa merecoverfor aggressiondisguised asprotection, and the
Court is therefore right to define it somewhat strictly. Even so, it may be
doubted whether it is helpful to suggest that the attacked State must in
somemore or lessforma1wayhave "declared" itself the victimof an attack
and then have, as an additional "requirement", made a forma1request to a
particular third State for assistance. Thus the Court says :Nations Unies, selon lequel l'organisation des Nations Unies pourrait
recourir elle-même à la force, conformément aux dispositions du cha-
pitre VI1de laCharte, n'ajamais été misenŒuvre.Un élément essentied l e
ce système fait donc totalement défaut. Dans ces conditions, ilsemble
dangereux de définiravec une rigueur inutile les conditions de l'exercice
licite de la Iégitime défense, etde laisser ainsi un vaste domaine où une
riposte par la force iila force est interdite et où cependant l'organisation
des Nations Unies riepeut employer cette force qui étaitcenséecombler

cette lacune.
Cesobservations valent essentiellement pour l'exposédu droit auquel la
Cour s'estlivrée.S'agissantde la présenteaffaire,je ne suis pas encoretout
afait convaincu que l'aidedu Nicaragua auxrebelles salvadoriens n'ait pas
revêtu,outre la fourniture éventuelle d'armes, officielleou officieuse,
d'((autres formes d'assistance D.On s'estpeut-êtreun peu tropattaché a la
question de la fourniture ou du transit des armes, comme sielleétait ensoi
cruciale, alors qu'ellene l'estpas. Néanmoins,on ne peut manquer de faire
observer àcet égard,sur un point où les questions de fait peuvent êtretout
aussi importantes que les questions de droit, que les Etats-Unis ne sau-
raient se plaindre des conséquences inévitablesde leur non-comparution

au stade du fond. Il est vrai que les Etats-Unis ont soumis àla Cour, lors
des phases antérieuresde laprésenteinstance,une documentation volumi-
neuse sur les faits. Mais la partie qui ne comparaît pas au stade du fond et
s'abstient d'exposer etd'expliquernefût-ce que la documentation qu'ellea
déjà communiquéenuit inévitablement à l'appréciationet à l'évaluation
des faits de l'affaire.Il y a des limites a ce que la Cour peut faire, con-
formément à l'article 53du Statut, pour apprécierlesmoyens d'une partie
défaillante, tout particulièrement lorsque les faits sont très importants.
Sinon. on verrait mal à quoi servent les piècesde procédure et les plai-
doiries.

Il est une autre question qui appelle de brèvesobservations :la manière
dont la Cour a traitéde la Iégitimedéfensecollective. A partir du para-
graphe 196 de l'arrêt, laCour semble analyser de façon quelque peu
formaliste les conditions de l'exercicede la Iégitimedéfensecollective. A
l'évidence, laIégitimedéfensecollectivese prêteaux abus, et il importe de

veillerà ce qu'elle ne serve pas à couvrir tout simplement une agression
déguiséeen protection. A cet égard, laCour a raison de la définirassez
strictement. On peut cependant douter qu'il soit utile d'affirmer que 1'Etat
attaquédoit, en respectant certaines formes, se déclarer ))victime d'une
agression et qu'il doit ensuite- exigence supplémentaire - demander
officiellement l'aide d'un Etat tiers. Aux termes de l'arrêt : "The Court concludes that the requirement of a request by the State

which is the victim of the alleged attack is additional to the require-
ment that such a State should have declared itself to have been
attacked." (Para. 199.)
It may readily be agreed that the victim State must both be in real need of
assistance and mustwant it and that the fulfilment ofboth theseconditions

must be shown. But to ask that these requirements take the form of some
sort of forma1 declaration and request might sometimes be unrealistic.

But there is another objection to this way of looking at collective self-
defence. It seems to be based almost upon an idea of vicarious defence by
champions : that a third State may lawfully come to the aid of an authen-
ticated victim of armed attack provided that the requirements of a decla-
ration of attack and a request for assistance are complied with. But
whatever collective self-defence means, it does not mean vicarious
defence ; for that way the notion is indeed open to abuse. The assisting

State isnot an authorized champion, perrnitted under certain conditionsto
go to the aid of a favoured State. The assisting State surely must, by going
to the victim State's assistance, be also, and in addition to other require-
ments, in some measure defending itself. There should even in "collective
self-defence" be some real element of self linvolved with the notion of
defence. This is presumably also the philosophy which underlies mutual
securityarrangements, such asthe systemof theOrganization of American
States, for which indeed Article 51 was specifically designed. By such a
system of collective security,the security of each member State ismeant to
be involved with the security of the others ; not merely as a result of a
contractual arrangement but by the real consequences of the system and its

organization. Thus, Article 27 of the Charter of the Organization of
American States provides that :

"Every act of aggression by a State against the territorial integrity

or the inviolability of the territory or against the sovereignty or
political independence of an American State shall be considered an
act of aggression against the other American States."
This, 1 believe, should not be regarded as a mere contractual arrangement
for collective defence - a legal fiction used as a device for arranging for

mutual defence - ; it is to be regarded as an organized system of collective
security by which the security of each member is made really and truly to
have become involved with the security of the others, thus providing a true

' It may be objected that the very term "self-defence" isa common law notion, and
that. for instance, the French equivalent of "légitimedéfense"does not mention "self".
Here. however, the French versionis for once. merelyunhelpful;it does no more than
beg the question of what is "légitime". ((La Cour conclut donc que l'exigenced'une demande de 1'Etat
victime de l'agression alléguée s'ajoute à celle d'une déclarationpar

laquelle cet Etat se proclame agressé. (Par. 199.)

On conviendra sans peine que 1'Etatvictime doit à la fois avoir vraiment

besoin d'une aideet lavouloir,et qu'ilfaut prouver que cesdeux conditions
sont remplies. Mais, parfois, il se peut qu'il ne soit pas réaliste d'exiger
que ces conditions se réalisent sous laforme d'une déclaration et d'une
demande formelles.
Mais il existe une autre objection contre cette analyse de la légitime
défensecollective. Cette analyse semble presque reposer sur l'idéed'une

défenseexercéepour autruipar lestenants d'une cause : un Etat tiers peut
légitimement veniren aide a la victime avéréed'une agression armée à
condition que celle-cisesoit déclarée telle et qu'elleait sollicitél'assistance
de cet Etat. Mais, quel que soit lesensqu'on puisse lui donner, la notion de
légitimedéfensecollective ne s'applique pas à la défenseexercéepour
autrui, sans quoi elle se prêterait vraiment à desabus. L'Etat qui apporte

son assistance n'est pas un défenseur autorisé, à qui il est permis, sous
certaines conditions,,de venir en aide à 1'Etatbénéficiaire. Certesl,orsqu'il
vient en aide à 1'Etatvictime, l'autre Etat doit non seulement satisfaire à
certaines exigences mais aussi se défendre lui-mêmedans une certaine
mesure. Mêmela <(légitimedéfense collective ))devrait renfermer cet
élémentde défense personnelle qui est inhérent à la notion de défense.

Telle est probablement l'idéequi sous-tend les accords d'assistance
mutuelle, comme le systèmede l'organisation des Etats américains,pour
lesquels en fait l'article 51 a ététout spécialement conçu. Dans un tel
système de sécuriti:collective, la sécuritéde chaque Etat membre est
réputéeêtreliée à celledes autresEtats membres, non seulement en raison
d'un accord mais aussi parce que c'estlà laconséquencemêmedu système

et de son organisation. Ainsi, l'article27dèla chartedel'organisation des
Etats américainsdi.sposeque :
<(Toute agression exercéepar un Etat contre l'intégrité oul'invio-

labilité du territoire ou contre la souveraineté ou l'indépendance
politique d'un Etat américain, sera considéréecomme une agression
contre les autres Etats américains.

A mon avis, cette disposition ne saurait êtretenue pour un simple arran-
gementcontractuel dedéfensecollective - fictionjuridique utiliséecomme
moyen de mettre sur pied la défensemutuelle ; elle doit êtreconsidérée
comme un système organisé de sécuritécollective en vertu duquel la
sécurité dechaque rnembre est réellementet vraiment liée à la sécuritédes

'On pourraitobjec!.eràcela quel'expression mêm (eself-defenc))est une notion
juridique courante et que,par exemple,on ne retrouvepas dans l'expressioncorres-
pondantefran~aise ((légitimedéfensel'équivalend tu motself.Mais,pour unefois,la
versionfrançaisenepermettout simplementpasd'élucider lp eroblème :ellene faitque
présumer que la défense es<légitimeo.basis for a system of collectiveselfdefence. This underlying philosophy of
collective self-defence is well expressed in a classical definition of that

concept in Lauterpacht's edition of Oppenheim's International Law
(Vol. II, 1952,p. 155) :

"It will be noted that, in a sense, Article 51 enlarges the right of
self-defence as usually understood - and the corresponding right of

recourse to force - by authorising both individual and collective
self-defence. This means that a Member of the United Nations is
permitted to have recourse to action in self-defencenot onlywhen it is
itself the object of armed attack,but alsowhen such attack isdirected
against any other State or States whose safety and independence are
deemed vital to thesafety and independence of the State thus resisting
- or participating in forcible resistance to - the aggressor."

(Signed) R. Y. JENNINGS.autres mcmbres, constituant ainsi la véritable based'un systèmede Iégi-
time défense collective.Cette idée sous-jacente à la Iégitime défense col-
lective se trouve bien expriméedans ladéfinitionclassique de cette notion
donnée par Lauterpacht dans son éditionde Oppenheims'sInternational

Law (vol. II, 1952,p. 155) :
On notera qu'en un sens l'article 51 élargitle droit de Iégitime
défensetelqu'ilest généralementcompris - et le droit quien découle,
celuide recourir à la force - en autorisant à la fois la Iégitimedéfense

individuelle et la Iégitime défense collective. Cela signifie qu'un
Membre des Nations Uniesest habilité àagir sous couvert de Iégitime
défensenon seulement quand il est lui-même l'objet d'une agression
armée, maisencore quand une telle agression est dirigée contre un
autre Etat ou d'autres Etats dont la sécuritéet I'indépendancesont
jugées vitalespour la sécuritéet I'indépendancede 1'Etatqui résiste
ainsi - ou qui participe à la résistance opposée par la force - à
l'agresseur.

(Signé)R. Y. JENNINGS.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion of Judge Sir Robert Jennings

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