Separate opinion of Judge Sir Robert Jennings

Document Number
070-19841126-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
070-19841126-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SIR ROBERT JENNINGS

Whilst agreeing with the Court's decision that it hasjurisdiction under
the 1956Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation, in respect of

any breaches of the provisions of that Treaty, and that suchclaims arealso
admissible, 1regret that 1am unable to concur with the Court's decision
that it hasjurisdiction under Article 36,paragraph 2,of the Court's Statute.
1shall explain my reasons, as briefly as may be.

First 1 shall consider whether the Nicaraguan Declaration of 24 Sep-
tember 1929is,by operation of Article 36, paragraph 5, of the Statute of
this Court, to be deemed to be an acceptance of the compulsory jurisdic-
tion of this Court ;second, 1shall consider the effect of the United States
letter to the Court (the "Shultz letter" of 6 April 198; third, the effect of
the United States multilateral treaty reservation ; and lastly, the position
under the Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaty.

The question here is whether the Nicaraguan Declaration of 24 Sep-
tember 1929,accepting "unconditionally" the compulsory jurisdiction of

the Permanent Court of International Justice is to be counted as one
coming within Article 36, paragraph 5, of the present Court's Statute.

In order to be a party to the Statute of the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice it was necessary both to sign and to ratify the Protocol of
Signature of the Statute (seeP.C.I.J., SerieD, No. 6,p. 19).Nicaragua has
formally admitted in its Memorial (para. 47) that, although it was a
signatory of the Protocol, it "never completed ratification of the old
Protocol of Signature. ..".The finding of the Court in its Judgment is to
the sameeffect. SoNicaragua, it must be assumed, was neveraparty to the
Statute of the Permanent Court.
To appreciate the full significanceof this failure to ratify the Protocol of
Signature of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, it
is necessary to examine the form and content of the instrument by which
that Court was established (the most convenient reference for consulting
the essential portions of them is probably P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 5,
pp. 58-62). A resolution, of 13December 1920,of the First Assemblyof the League
of Nations, approved the Statute of the Court, prepared by the Council in
accordance with Article 14 of the League oi Nations Covenant, and
recorded that the Statute would be submitted to Members of the League
"for adoption in the form of a Protocol duly ratified and declaring their
recognition of this Statute". TheStatute wouldenter into forceassoonas it
had been ratified by amajority of the Members of the League.The Statute
of the Court was thus integral with the Protocol, the purpose of which was

precisely to be the vehicle of adoption of the Statute by Members of the
League. The Protocol of Signature is dated 16December 1920.By it, the
signatories recognized the Statute of the Court. The Protocol refers to the
resolution of 13 December, and provides :

"The present Protocol, which has been drawn up in accordance
with the decision taken by the Assembly of the League of Nations on
the 13 December, 1920,is subject to ratification. Each Power shall
send its ratification to the Secretary-General of the League of

Nations ; the latter shall take the necessary steps to notify such
ratification to the other signatory Powers. The ratification shall be
deposited in the archives of the Secretariat of the League of
Nations."
Next it is important to realize that Article 36 of the Statute, which then
as now was thejurisdictional article, contained, beginning with its second
(but then unnumbered) paragraph the following clause concerning "Op-
tional Clause" jurisdiction, which is obviously the progenitor of the pres-
ent Article 36, but also somewhat differently worded, not least in its
reference to joinder to the Protocol.

"The Members of the League of Nations and the Statesmentioned
in theAnnextotheCovenant may,either when signingor ratifyingthe
Protocol to which the present Statute is adjoined, or at a later
moment, declare that they recognize as compulsory ipso facto and
without special agreement, in relation to any other Member or State
accepting the same obligation, the jurisdiction of the Court in al1or
any of the classes of legal disputes concerning :

(a)The interpretation of the treaty.
(b) Any question of international law.
(c) The existenceof anyfact which, if established, would constitute a
breach of an international obligation.
(d) The nature or extent of the reparation tobe madeforthebreach of
an international obligation.
The declaration referred to above may be made unconditionally or
on condition of reciprocity on the part of several or certain Members
or States, or for a certain time.

In the event of a dispute as to whether the Court has jurisdiction, the matter shall be settledby the decision of the Court." (Collectionof
Texts GoverningtheJurisdictionof the Court,P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 5,
p. 61.)

But in addition to the second paragraph of Article 36 there was, as part
of this same instrument containing the Protocol and the Statute, and set
out as a separate item, a "disposition facultative". In other words, there
was an actual "Optional Clause", which parties could sign if they so

desired. This of courseiswhyone still speaks of the "Optional Clause" asa
loose way of referring to jurisdiction under the present Article 36, para-
graph 2, even though the actual Optional Clause is now in the past.

The dispositionfacultative,or Optional Clause, provided :

"The undersigned, being duly authorized thereto, further declare,
on behalf of their Government, that, from this date, they accept as
compulsory ipsofacto and without specialconvention, thejurisdiction
of the Courtin conformity withArticle 36,paragraph 2,of the Statute
of the Court, under the following conditions : [Herefollow the decla-
rations made by the signatories]."

There were thus two things normally done by a State subscribing to
compulsoryjurisdiction :the signingof the declaration set out in standard
form in the Optional Clause, and the adding of any needed declaration

saying whether the undertaking was unconditional or subject to stated
reservations. In a few cases the signing of the Optional Clause itself was
made by the State concerned, subject to a ratification. But this was not
required '.It sufficed to signtheClause and of course to ratify signature of
the Protocol, to which both Statute and Optional Clause werejoined to
form the one instrument. But a State which signed and ratified the Pro-
tocol, though it became thus a party to the Statute, did not subject itself to
compulsoryjurisdiction unless at sometime it signed the Optional Clause.
Nicaragua signed the Protocol on 14 September 1929(together with the
RevisionProtocol), andthe signingofthe Optional Clausewasofcourse24
September. She never, however, ratified the Protocol.

The signing of the "Optional Clause" of the Protocol and Statute of the
Permanent Court was something rather different, as has been seen, from

the making of a declaration under Article 36 of the Statute of the Inter-
national Court of Justice. Thelatter declaration is a quite separate instru-
ment which is to be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United

' See Table on page 55 of the P.C.I.J., SerD,sNo. 6 :note 2 to the column for
ratification of a declaration,es,"La ratification n'est en effet pas exigéepar le texte
de la Disposition facultative".Nations, "who shall transmit copies thereof to the parties to the Statute
and to the Registrar of the Court".

The question, therefore, is whether Article 36, paragraph 5, of the
present Court's Statute had the effect of transferring to the new Court,
Nicaragua's subscription to the Optional Clause of the Protocol of Sig-
nature and the Statute of the Permanent Court, which entire instrument

required ratification ; but which was never ratified, with the admitted
consequence that Nicaragua never became obligated by the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court ?
The answer would seem to be placed beyond doubt according to the
English text of Article 36, paragraph 5, which is :
"Declarations made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nentCourt of International Justice and which are stillin force shallbe

deemed, as between the parties to the present Statute, to be accep-
tances of the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of
Justice for the period which they still have to run and in accordance
with their terms."
Thus the declarations which are by that provision to be deemed to be
acceptances of the compulsory jurisdiction of the new Court are those
"which are stillin force". And sincetheNicaraguan Declaration wasnever
"in force" in respect of theold Court, it would seemto followthat it cannot

be held to be "still in force" for the purposes of Article 36, paragraph 5.

Furthermore, thisresult isinconformity withwhat thepreparatory work
shows to have been the purpose and intention of the provision. The
provision, as is well known, was the result of a British proposa1 made in,
and accepted by, asubcommittee of the Cornmittee of Jurists which met in
Washington in 1945.The very expert subcommittee (Fahy, Fitzmaurice,
Krylov, Novikov, Spiropoulos) reported as follows :

"The subcommittee calls attention to the fact that many nations
haveheretoforeacceptedcompulsoryjurisdiction under the 'Optional
Clause'.The subcommittee believesthat provision should be made at
the San Francisco Conferencefor a special agreement for continuing
these acceptances in forcefor the purpose of this Statute." (UNCIO,
Vol. XIV, p. 289.)

The proposal, therefore, was to achieve the transfer, that is to Say the
continuity, of already existing obligations. It could hardly be expected to
have been otherwise ;certainly not to create a new obligation where none
existed before.
This purpose was faithfully pursued at San Francisco, where the present
text of Article 36,paragraph 5,reproduced above, eventually emerged asa
part of the Statute of the Court. The Language Question

Article 36,paragraph 5,necessarilyappears in the fiveequally authentic
languages of the United Nations Charter, Chinese, English, French, Rus-
sian and Spanish (Art. 111).The Chinese, Russian and Spanish versions
apparently translate the English formulation of the criterion of transfer,
viz. "and which are still in force ...". The French text was, of course,
drafted alongside the English text at SanFrancisco. Nevertheless, thefinal
version ofArticle 36,paragraph 5,both French and English,wasproposed
by the French delegation at the 19thmeeting of the committee on 7 June,
when thecommittee adopted what are now the Frenchand English textsof
the Article (UNCIO, Vol. XIII, pp. 485 and 486). In this final French
proposal, the English "which are stillin force" remained, but there was an

alteration of theFrench version of that phrase. Sincethe Court's Judgment
apparently finds this change in the language of the French version, sig-
nificant,it isnecessarybriefly to examinethisfinalvariation of the French
text. The change proposed by the French delegation, to the French text,
was this :where the original French text used the phrase "encore en
vigueur" to correspond to the English "still in force", the proposa1was to
substitute "pour une duréequi n'est pas encore expirée"for "encore en
vigueur7'.According to the officia1report of the meeting :

"The French Representative stated that the changes suggested by
him in paragraph 4 [asArt. 36,par. 5, then was]werenot substantive
ones, but were intended to improve the phraseology." (Ibid.,
p. 284.)
The text, both in English and French, of Article 36,paragraph 5,was then
unanimously adopted.
The statement of the French representative that the change was con-
cerned with phraseology and was not substantive must of course be
accepted. Moreover, the French proposa1 was introduced by the French

delegation coupled with and alongside the English version using "still in
force". If it were possible that the two texts were capable of different
meanings, the rule in Article 33,paragraph 4,of the Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties requires that : "the meaning which best reconciles the
texts, having regard to the object and purpose of the treaty, shall be
adopted". It isnot possible to reconcile this requirement with any solution
which seeks to give a special meaning to the French text, which meaning
cannot be collected from the Chinese, the English, the Russian and the
Spanish.
It isinteresting nevertheless to speculate on thequestion whytheFrench
delegation at San Francisco, in seeking the French equivalent of "still in
force", eventually preferred "pour une duréequi n'estpas encore expirée"
to the simple "en vigueur" which is used in the immediately following
Article 37of the Statute asequivalent to the English "in force" (in this caseof coursereferringnot to declarationsbut to treaties) ; and, indeed, is also
used in the first paragraph of Article 36.
The comparison ofArticle 36,paragraph 5,with Article 36,paragraph 1,
and with Article 37,suggests a possible answer to the question. In Article
36,paragraph 1,which deals with treaties or conventionsconferring juris-
dictionon theInternational Court ofJustice ;and inArticle 37,concerning
treaties and conventions providing for reference to any tribunal to have

been instituted by the League of Nations, or to the Permanent Court of
International Justice, the only requirement of the treaty or convention is
that it shall be "in force", "en vigueur", at the moment the question of
jurisdiction arises. But Article 36, paragraph 5, is different. Whereas the
keyphrase of Article 36,paragraph 1,and Article 37,is "in force", the key
phraseinArticle 36,paragraph 5(inthe Englishversion), is "still in force".
To haveused thephrase "still in force" in eitherArticle 36,paragraph 1,or
Article 37would have been otiose. In Article 36,paragraph 5,on the other
hand, the word "still" conveys, to my mind, the idea of something which
wasin forcefor the old Court,and is therefore tobe deemed"still in force"
for the new Court. There is thus an important difference between "in
force7'and "still in force".
The French delegation at San Francisco must have had some good
reason for introducing their change to the French text. That reason, con-
sidering that they said the change was one of phraseology only, and
consideringthat they proposed no change to the English text, could only
have been that they considered the new French version to convey, more
clearly than the originalFrench text did, the meaning and purpose of the
English "still in force". The new French version, therefore, seizesupon the

notion ofcontinuity as theessentialcriterion.Whatmatters isnot only that
a declaration is "in force" in its terms, but that it has beenin force for the
old Court and was expressed for a period that continues and is still not
expired. For the French version retains that important qualifying word,
"encore".
One can do no more than speculateon the purpose of the changein the
French text, for the records are sparse. So one is left with the rule that if
there be, which 1doubt, material difference between the meaning of the
texts, the one which best reconciles thedifferent language versions, al1five
of them that isto Say,isto be preferred. For thepresentcase at leastthere is
no great difficulty in doing that. A declaration of acceptance of compul-
soryjurisdiction, which declaration never came into operation under the
old Statute, certainly cannot be said, under the new Statute, to be "still in
force", which is the language used in four of the versions of the Statute ;
and is the meaningconsonant with what was said to be the purpose of the
provision,namelythecarry over to the new Court of obligationscreatedin
respect of the old Court.
There is no difficulty in collecting the same meaning in the French
formula :pour une duréequi n'estpas encoreexpiréeW . hat is referred to by
that formula is surely a declaration by which the compulsory jurisdiction

of the Permanent Court was actually established. A declaration to which, owing to failure to ratify the Protocol, no date of commencement of the
obligation in respect of the Permanent Court could be assigned, cannot be
said to be pour uneduréequi n'estpas encoreexpirée.That which never
began cannot be said to have had a duration at all.

TheAerial Incident Case

The meaning of Article 36,paragraph 5,is clarified by the Judgment of
this Court in the Aerial Incidentcase (I.C.J. Reports 1959,p. 127).In that
caseIsrael, theApplicant State, reliedupon the allegedoperation ofArticle
36,paragraph 5,in respect of Bulgaria'sDeclaration of 29July 192 1,which
has been made unconditionally, and which had certainly come into effect
in respect of the Permanent Court of International Justice because Bul-
garia had indeed ratified the Protocol of Signature of the Statute of that
Court. The International Court of Justice found, nevertheless, that it did
not have compulsory jurisdiction under Article 36, paragraph 5, of its
Statute because, by the time Bulgaria, which was not present at San
Francisco, had become a member of the United Nations in 1955, the
Permanent Court of International Justicehad ceased to exist.Accordingly,
Bulgaria'sDeclaration, eventhough stated in its terms tobeunconditional
and thereforewithout a time-limit, had, it washeld, lapsed with the dernise
of the Court. Thus, the question asked by the Court was whether the
declarationcouldproperlybe said to be "still in force" in respect to the old
Court at the time when Bulgaria became subject to the Statute of the new

Court, and in particular to Article 36,paragraph 5? Any notion that, for
the effect of Article 36,paragraph 5,one was entitled to look merely to the
terms of thedeclaration itself, abstracted fromitsstatus with respect to the
Permanent Court, was rejected. If adeclaration which had come into effect
for the Permanent Court, and in its own terms was still running, was not
caught by Article 36,paragraph 5, because the obligation to the old Court
must have ceased when the Court itself ceased to exist, then one would
suppose that, a fortiori, a declaration which never at any time actually
created an obligation in respect of theold Court,cannot be carried over to
the new Court by Article 36, paragraph 5.

There isonepassageof theJudgmentthat ismost apposite to thepresent
case.TheCourt isconsidering the caseof those States, like Bulgaria,which
did not become parties to the Charter and to the Statute of the new Court,
until after the dissolution of the Permanent Court.

"Accordingly, the question of the transformation of an existing
obligation could no longer arisesofar as theywereconcerned :al1that
could be envisaged in their case was the creation of a new obligation binding upon them. To extend Article 36,paragraph 5,to those States

would be to allow that provision to do in their case something quite
different from what it did in the case of signatory States." (I.C.J.
Reports 1959, p. 138.)
In this passage the Court denied that there could be any possibility of
Article 36, paragraph 5, creating a new obligation, not existing under the
old Court - which is preciselywhat the present Judgment does in respect

of Nicaragua.
For al1these reasonsit seems to me that to say that the effect of Article
36,paragraph 5,was to createforNicaragua an obligationin respect of the
newCourt, whichneverinfact existedin respect of thePermanentCourt, is
straining the language of that Article beyond what it can bear.

The Yearbooks of the Court

Considerable weight has been attached by Nicaragua to the fact that in
al1the Yearbooksof the present Court it has been listed among the States
bound by Optional-Clausejurisdiction. The Judgment of the Court also
regards the Yearbooks and other publications as a factor confirming its
interpretation of the effect of Article 36,paragraph 5 ;if not an indepen-
dent source ofjurisdiction for the Court. In my view, thus to allow con-
siderable, and even decisive,effect, to statements in the Court's Yearbook
is mistaken in general principle ; and is in any event not sufficiently
supported by the facts in the present case.

It is to my mind wrong in principle because the Court should always
distinguish between its administrative functions - including the compila-
tion of the Yearbookby the Registrar on the Court's instructions - and its
judicial functions. When there is a dispute between Statesas to the Court's
jurisdiction, that dispute may be, as in the present case, submitted to the
Court fordetermination in itsjudicial capacity. To hold,afterthe exchange
ofvoluminouswrittenpleadingsand after tworounds of oralproceedings,
that the matter was,before al1this,virtuallysettled as aresult of the action
of theRegistraracting on behalf oftheCourt inits administrativecapacity,
andwithoutbenefit ofjudicial argument andprocedure, isnotfreefrom an
element of absurdity. For theCourt's administrative organization to make

somenecessary assessment of a legal question for purposes of an annually
published reference book ;and for the full Court in itsjudicial capacity,
after its fulljudicial procedure, includinghearing arguments of both par-
ties, to make a decision on the same matter ; are two entirely different
things which should never be confused.

It is of course to prevent any such confusion that every Yearbook isprefaced by the followingwarning and disclaimer in the general "Preface"

to the volume. In the first Yearbook (1946-1947)it read :

"It isto beunderstood that the Yearbookof theInternational Court
of Justice is prepared and published by the Registrar and in no way
involves the responsibility of the Court."

Later Yearbooks somewhat expanded the disclaimer typically as fol-
lows :

"The Yearbookis prepared by the Registry and in no way involves
the responsibility of the Court ;in particular, the summaries ofjudg-
ments, advisory opinions and orders contained in Chapter VI cannot
be quoted against the actual texts of thosejudgments, advisory opin-
ions and orders and do not constitute an interpretation of them."

For the Court, nevertheless, to attach important legal consequences to
entries in the Yearbookis to destroy the clear effect of the disclaimer ;as
well as, in my view, being wrong in principle.

But even apart from the objections of principle, the Yearbooksdo not at
al1yield any certain message on the status of theNicaraguan declaration ;
on the contrary they consistently - each one of them - alert the attentive
reader to the existence of doubts.

The first Yearbookis that for 1946-1947.There are two entries concern-
ing Nicaragua. First, there is a part giving the actual text of "communi-
cations and declarations of States which are still bound by their adherence
to the Optional Clause of the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice" (p. 207) '.In this section, on page 210(p. 206of the French
edition) the actual text of the Nicaraguan Declaration of 24 September
1929 is set out verbatim, and with a reference to a footnote which
reads :

"According to a telegram dated November 29th, 1939,addressed to
the League of Nations, Nicaragua had ratified the Protocol of Sig-
nature of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice
(December 16th, 1920), and the instrument of ratification was to
follow.Notification concerning the deposit of the said instrument has
not, however, been received by the Registry."

This then was the Yearbook in whch the actual text of the Nicaraguan

version),farfromlendingsupport to Nicaragua'srelianceon thenYearbooks,showswhyrench
successiveRegistrars had doubts whether Nicaragua should have been listed or not.542 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (SEPO. P.JENNINGS)

Declaration was to be found, thepractice of the following Yearbooksbeing
to give a reference back for those who wished to consult the text.

The second entry for Nicaragua in this same Yearbook1946-1947is in
the complete list (which also features in subsequent Yearbooks),of Op-
tional-Clause States. In this list the date and conditions of the State's
acceptanceare setout,but not theactual text of thecommunication. In the

Yearbook1946-1947list, Nicaragua appears, in its alphabetical order, on
page 226, as having made an "unconditional" declaration on "24 IX 29".
There is, however, a footnote giving a referenceback to page 210 for the
actual text of the declaration. The whole of this list appears under the
bold-letter heading :

"List of States which have recognized the compulsoryjurisdiction

of the International Court of Justice or which are still bound by the
acceptance of the Optional Clause of the Statute of the Permanent
Court of International Justice (Article 36 of the Statute of the Inter-
national Court of Justice)."
Thus, one certain message that can be collectedfrom these Yearbooks(for
the same heading continues through several subsequent volumes) is that
the Registrars at least understood the "still in force" of Article 36, para-

graph 5, as being equivalent to "still bound".
The Yearbooksfrom 1947-1948to 1954-1955,in accord with thenormal
Yearbookpractice, simply reproduced this Nicaraguan entry in the list in
exactly the same form as in the Yearbook1946-4947.Nicaragua seemed to
attach someimportance to the absencein these subsequent volumes of the
footnoteabout thenon-receiptinGeneva of anyNicaraguan instrument of
ratification of the Protocol of Signature of the Statute of the Permanent
Court of International Justice. But as mentioned above that note did not
appear either, in the Yearbook 1946-1947 in its list and summary of
declarations ; it appeared where the actual text of the Nicaraguan decla-
ration was reproduced. Furthermore there is also in al1these Yearbooks
between 1947-1948and 1954-1955,at the beginning of the "instruments"
section, a list of Stateshavingmade declarations.Nicaragua isincludedin
that list, always with a reference back to page 210 (p. 206 of the French
version) of the Yearbook1946-1947for the text of the declaration where of

course the warning footnote is to be found. Soit is not the position that in
this series of seven Yearbooksthere is nothing to suggest any doubt about
the Nicaraguan declaration :on the contrary, the carefulreader is always
guided back to the text of the declaration in the Yearbook1947-1948,and
there he finds the cautionary footnote.

From the Yearbookof 1955-1956onwards there is a change. There is
again the same list of States whichrefers thereader back to page 210of the Yearbook1946-1947andits footnote. The change isin the summary list of
States "which are still bound by their declarations accepting the compul-
soryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice". There
Nicaragua now appears with a new footnote, which however reproduces
the 1946-1947footnote with a change in the second sentence making it
rather stronger. The whole note reads :

"According toa telegram dated November 29th, 1939,addressed to
the League of Nations, Nicaragua had ratified the Protocol of Sig-
nature of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice
(December 16th, 1920), and the instrument of ratification was to
follow.It doesnot appear, however,that theinstrument of ratification
was ever received by the League of Nations."

Thus from 1955-1956onwards,thereader waswarnedin twoplaces about
the doubts :first by the usual reference back, in the introductory list of
Optional-Clause States, to the text of the declaration in the 1946-1947
volume, with its cautionary footnote, and second by a new note for the
Nicaraguan entry in the summary of declarations of States "which arestill
bound by their declarations accepting the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
Permanent Court of International Justice", which note reinforces the

original note.

There isalsoanothercaution to thecarefulreader. Thus, for example, on
page 207 of Yearbook 1956-1957 we find the following very important
note :
"The texts ofdeclarations setout in this Chapterare reproducedfor
convenience of reference only.The inclusion of a declarationmade by
any State should not be regarded as an indication of the view enter-

tained by the Registry or,afortiori,by theCourt,regardingthenature,
scope or validity of the instrument in question."

This twofold reference to cautionary notes could have been prompted by
the Registrar, as we know from the Pleadings of the Parties, having had
letters of inquiry from Professor Manley Hudson, who was then advising
Honduras about the issuewhichlater camebefore this Courtinthe Arbitral

Award Made by the King of Spain case (I.C.J. Reports 1960, p. 192 ;
Professor Hudson, whodiedin 1960,didnot survivetotake part ascounsel
in the case, however). But the new note might also have been in anticipa-
tion of thenewformat of the Yearbookentries from 1956-1957onwards, by
which there were no longer two lists of these States, one for Article 36,
paragraph 2, declarations and one for Article 36, paragraph 5 ;but only
one general section in which the texts of the instruments are reproduced.
There is thus, after 1956-1957up to and including the latest Yearbook,no
need for a list referring back to the Yearbook in which the text of a
declaration isreproduced, because inthe newformat the text isto be foundset out eachyear in this section ;it was, therefore, essential that the note
warning of the doubts about the status of Nicaragua's declaration should
appear against its entry in this, now, single list ; as, indeed, it invariably
does.

Thepoint needs to bemade withemphasisthat the successiveRegistrars
who compiled the Yearbook,which as the Preface saysin every Yearbook,
"in no way involves the responsibility of the Court" ', acted in the only
correctwayin simplystatingthefacts and makingno attemptto purport to
decide Nicaragua's statusone way or the other ; this would have been for
theRegistrar to act ultravires.Thus in everyYearbookthe more than casual
reader is led to the fact that a Nicaraguan ratification of the Protocol of
Signatureof the Statute of thePermanent Court appeared not tohavebeen
receivedat the Leagueof Nations. The Registrarcouldnothave done more
or lesswithout exceedinghisauthority. He had simply toinform thereader
that there was indeed a Nicaraguan declaration of acceptance of compul-
soryjurisdiction andtoadd notice of thefact that the necessaryratification
of the Protocol had not been received. The disclaimer note cited above
warns that the Yearbookentry is not to be regarded as involving even the
Registrar's own views. For the Court now to give such weight to these
entries isindeed startling. It is contrary to principle. It is at odds with the
noticesof disclaimerineach Yearbook,usuallyin more than one place.It is
in any event not supported by any more than a superficialreading of the
Yearbook entries.

Other publications, mainly governmental collections of treaties, were
mentioned by Nicaragua ; but these almost certainly use the Yearbookas
their source and usually Sayso. The ancillary notion that the Court is in
some way bound by the inclusion of Nicaragua in the list of States
accepting compulsoryjurisdiction in the Court's Annual Reports to the
General Assembly, can be dealt with shortly. It is an astonishing propo-
sition that the result of a fulladjudication of a difficult legalquestion,can
be in somewayforeclosedby a listin routine reports madeby the Court in
its administrative capacity. The purpose of that part of the Reports is to
givethe General Assembly a more or less accurate idea of the state of the
Optional-Clause jurisdiction from time to time ; it is certainly not to
prejudice, much less to decide, a dispute between Nicaragua and the

' Theseintroductory remarks signed personallyby the Registrar ceasedto have the
heading "Preface" with the 1961-1962volume.hey are always,however,printed ona
separate page irnrnediatelyfollowing the title-page. 545 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITiES (SEPO. P.IENNINGS)

United States. The wholelist isin twoshortparagraphs, pointing out that a
number of States have madereservations,but with no indication which, or

the nature of anyreservations. For those who wish to know more, it givesa
reference to the Yearbook.Nobody should be able to fa11into the error of
supposing the list definitive. Nobody concerned with the law involved in
the present case would regard it as other than difficult ; it would be
extraordinary to allow its decision tobe prejudiced by a side-wind from a
routine, administrative report.

II. THELETTER OF 6 APRIL1984 FROM SECRETAR YF STATESHULTZ

Sincein my opinionArticle 36,paragraph 5,of the Court's Statute isnot
applicable to Nicaragua's 1929Declaration, and since, accordingly, Nica-
ragua does not in my viewhave standing to prosecute this case before the
Court without the special agreement of the United States,there is strictly
no need to consider any of the other matters in contention between the
Parties. As, however, the Court has decided that it hasjurisdiction under
Article 36, paragraph 2, it may be convenient briefly to indicate my own
view upon the effect of the Shultz letter, as well as of the effect of the
United States multilateral treaties reservation. The text of the letter of
6April 1984from Secretary of State Shultz is as follows :

"1have thehonor on behalf of theGovernment of theUnited States
of America to refer to the Declaration of my Govemment of August
26, 1946,conceming the acceptance by the United States of America
of the compulsoryjurisdiction of the International Court of Justice,

and to state that the aforesaid declaration shallnot apply to disputes
with any Central American stateor ansingout of or related to events
in Central America, any of which disputes shall be settled in such
manner as the parties to them may agree.

Notwithstanding the terms of the aforesaid declaration, thispro-
viso shall take effect immediately and shall remain in force for two
years, so as to foster the continuing regional dispute settlement pro-
cess which seeks a negotiated solution to the interrelated political,
economic and security problems of Central America."

This raises many questions, but perhaps the most important one -
certainly from the point of view of the general law goveming Optional-Clause acceptances - is the effect in law of the manifest contradiction
between the 1946United StatesDeclaration of acceptance of compulsory
jurisdiction for "five years and thereafter subject to six months' notice",
and the Shultz letter, which is expressed to take effect irnrnediately and to
remain in force for two years, notwithstanding the terms of the 1946
Declaration.

Beforeattempting to answerthis question,it may be useful to make two
preliminary observations.First, the discussion in the oral proceedings of
whether or not the legalposition ofdeclarations under the Optional Clause
is,or isnot, governed by the lawof treaties, 1foundnot entirely helpful and
in any event inconclusive. The fact of the matter must surely be that the

Optional-Clause régimeis sui generis.Doubtless some parts of the law of
treaties may be applied by useful analogy ; but so may the law governing
unilateraldeclarations ;and so, most certainly, may the law deriving frcm
the practice of States in respect of such declarations.

The second prelirninary observation is that 1 do not think one need
spend much time on the somewhat theoreticalquestion whether theShultz
letter amounts to amodificationora substitution of the 1946Declaration.
The major problems of principle would apply to either. (See also Right of
PassageoverIndian Territory,Preliminaty Objections,I.C.J. Reports1957,
pp. 143-144.)It looksontheface of it likeamodification since the original
declaration is untouched for most States and disputes and there seems to
be neither reason nor profit in attempting to go behnd the United States

own assertionthat it was notintended asawithdrawal,but asa temporary
modification or partial suspension.

Coming now to the question of the contradiction between the terms
rationetemporisof the 1946Declaration,and the terms of the Shultz letter,
it is of course established law - the so-called rule in the Nottebohm case
(I.C.J. Reports 1953,p. 123) - that the critical moment for the determi-
nation whether ornot there isjurisdiction in respect of aparticular case,is
the moment when the Court becomes seised of that case, which is the
moment of seisin. In consequence of this rule it is not possible in law for a
government effectively to change its declaration, after seisin, in any way
that might purport to deprive the Court ofjurisdiction. Thus, in the Right

ofPassageover Indian Territorycase(I.C.J. Reports1957,p. 142)theCourt
said :
"It is a rule of law generally accepted,as well asone acted upon in
thepast by theCourt,that, once theCourthas been validly seisedof a
dispute, unilateral action by the respondent State in terminating its
Declaration,in whole or in part, cannot divest the Court ofjurisdic-

tion."
But the problem in the present case is quite different : it is whether a

158547 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTiVITIES (SEP .P. TENNINGS)

government canlawfully and effectivelychangetheterms ofits declaration
before seisin ; in the present case, indeed, only hours before seisin and in
direct contemplation of the particular case of which the Court is seised.
This question seems to be, for the Court, a matter prima impressionis ;

though it is naturally one that has attracted the attention of commen-
tators.
Obviously, the making of a declaration under the Optional Clause
establishes some sort of relationship with other States that have made
declarations ;although it is not easy to Saywhat kind of legalrelationship
it is.It isa relationshipcreated by agreatvariety of unilateral declarations,
al1 having, however, the common element of being made within the
framework of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Court's Statute. The decla-
rations are statements of intention ;and statements of intention madein a
quite forma1way. Obviously, however, they do not amount to treaties or
contracts ;or, at least, if one says they are treaties, or contracts, one im-
mediately has to go on to Saythey are a special kind of treaty, or contract,

partaking only of some of the rules normally applicable to such matters.
Thus, however one starts, one ends by treating them as more or less sui
generis. In short, it seemsto me that, interestingasit might be to speculate
about thejuridical taxonomy of Optional-Clause declarations, it is better
to begin the inquiry not from a label but from the actual practice and
expectation of States today.

Law develops by precedent, and it is that which givesit consistencyand
predictability. But legalprecedentslikeanyother must be seenin the Light
ofhistory and ofchanging times. In theperiod of the PermanentCourt and
even in 1946when the United StatesDeclaration was made, an important
proportion of Stateshad subscribed to the Optional-Clause system.Today

that is no longer the case. The Optional-Clause States are distinctlyin the
rninority and very many of the most important and powerful States have
not accepted compulsoryjurisdiction and show little indication of any
ambition to do so. Any assessment of the position in contemporary prac-
ticemust take into accounttheposition of this majority of States which do
not subscribe to the Optional-Clause system. It is well described by Wal-
dock in his well-known article :

"A State which is a party to the Statute of the Court but does not
make a declaration under the Optional Clause is in a highly favoured
position. Acceptance of the Statute by itself carries no liability to
appear in front of the Court in acontentiouscase at thesuit of another
State. Beforeit can come under anyliability to appear asdefendant in
acase,aState must specificallyhave acceptedtheCourt's contentious
jurisdiction either by treaty or by unilateral declaration under the
Optional Clause. On the other hand, the mere fact that a State is a
party to the Statute givesit the power, under the Optional Clause, at
any moment to put itself into the position of being able instantly to bring before the Court any States which have already subscribed to
theOptional Clausein any case covered by the terms of their decla-
rations. Being a party to the Statute, it has the right under the
Optional Clause at any time and without reference to any other

Stateto make a declaration recognizing the compulsoryjurisdiction
of the Court in relation to States which also subscribe to the Optional
Clause ...

There is, in consequence, a glaring inequality in the position of a
State whichdoes andaState whichdoes not make a declaration under
the Optional Clause. The former State, for practical purposes, is
continuouslyliable to be broughtbeforethe Court compulsorily at the
suit of the latter, whereas the latter is not liable to be brought before
the Courtat thesuit of theformer unless and until it chooses toinitiate
proceedings before the Court as plaintiff and makes a declaration
under the Optional Clause ad hoc expressly for that purpose."
(BYBIL, 1955-1956,pp. 244 ff., at p. 280.)

It is,therefore, at leastin part inthelight ofwhat Waldock goesonto cal1
"this fundamental lackofreciprocity between thepositions of States which
do and States which do not make declarations", that the answer to the
question of the legal effect of declarations should be given. It is this
position of inequality and lack of reciprocity that has inevitablyproduced
reservations by which the declarant State can withdraw or alter a decla-

ration with immediate effect. Even so there remains inequality with those
Stateswhichhave chosen not to make any declaration at all. In thisclimate
it would in my viewbe asimpracticable as it would be inequitable to hold
that a State whose declaration, like that of the United States, is expressed
as subject to sixmonths' notice, is bound by that statement of intention in
respect of al1 corners, including those very many States which have
declined to risk even a potential liability to jurisdiction ;though it is of
course bound once an application has been made.

A solution whichhas the attraction of compromise isanovel application
to relations even before seisin of the principle of reciprocity. This is the
solution which was espoused by the United States in its argument before
the Court. It has the merit of involving a principle - the idea of States
"accepting the same obligation" - which is written into the express terms

of Article 36, paragraph 2, itself, and which al1previous practice and
doctrine has regarded as the very basis andjustification of the Optional-
Clause system.
This reciprocity test applied before seisinwould presumably mean that
if one took, for example, the relationship of a StateA with a declaration
subject to 12 months' notice of cesser, and a State B with a declaration
subject to 6 months' notice of cesser, StateA would be entitled to give 6
months' notice ofcesseras against StateB ; though it isnot easyto imagine circumstances in which State Awould be much benefited by indulging this
right. There would, however, be obvious practical benefits where State B
has reserved the right to withdraw or alter at any time ; for then State A

would be able to justify, in relation to State B, a withdrawal with imme-
diate effect, presumably even when made in face of an anticipated appli-
cation by State B. This is the way in which the United States thought it
should be applied in the present case ; though their argument needs the
further proposition that Nicaragua's "unconditional" declaration is one
which could itself be withdrawn or altered at any time with immediate
effect.

Leaving on one side for the moment whether or not it would in the

present case have the particular result for which the United States con-
tends, it may be accepted that some such application of a doctrine of
pre-seisinreciprocity is a possible and practicable solution of the problem,
that has considerable attraction.
The idea of applying reciprocity before 'seisinrather than after - or
rather at seizin - is, however, not free from difficulty and would be
somethng of an innovation. At seisin there are three factors, not two,
which enter into the calculation whether or not the Court hasjurisdiction ;
there are the terms of the declarations of the two States concerned, but
there is also the terms of the application in the case. It is the latter which

makes practicable the search for a coincidence between the two declara-
tions ; and makes it practicable because the necessary coincidence is
limited to coincidence in respect of the subject-matter of the application.
As the Court said in the Right of Passage overIndian Territory case :

"When a case is subrnitted to the Court, it is always possible to
ascertain what are, at the moment, the reciprocal obligations of the
Parties in accordance with their respective Declaration." (I.C.J.
Reports 1957, p. 143.)

It isalmost an implication of this dictumthat it isnot possible to makethat
ascertainment other than at the moment when a case is submitted to the
Court ;at any ratenot in quite the same way. Moreover, in that case, the
Court apparently saw no objection to the existence of a degree of uncer-
tainty in the reciprocal rights and obligations before an application has
been made (ibid., p. 143).

Nevertheless, what is sought to be "ascertained" at seisin - namely
jurisdiction in respect of the subject-matter of the application - is quite
different from what is in issue here :namely whether, or to what extent, a

State can withdraw or alter its declaration, contrary to the terms of the
declaration, before seisin.The situation ismaterially different in respect of
the very question at issue, for whereas after seisin even the most flexible
declaration may not be altered in itsimpact on the case,there are, even on viously,sincea State need not acceptcompulsoryjurisdiction at all,it may
accept compulsory jurisdiction subject to conditions, including even a
power ofinstant denunciation. Butitisequally arguable that, givennow so
many express reservations of a right of immediate denunciation or modi-
fication, the express stipulation made in a unilateral and voluntary decla-
ration isinserted to maketheposition clear, or in order to recite modalities
of withdrawal or alteration ; and that this body of practice supports the
proposition that the right is now, whatever may have been the position at

an earlier period, one generally available.

In many waysthe most striking of the examples of Statesclaiming such a
right are the withdrawals or modifications by those States, which, often
without having expressly reserved such a right, have made thechange with
immediate effect and with the obvious intention - asin thepresent case -
or frustrating an anticipated case,or a classof cases.There are no lessthan
11 instances of modifications made in the absence of any expressly
reserved right to do so ;three examples have been provided by the United
Kingdom (2 June 1955 ;31 October 1955 ; 18 April 1957) ; France has
produced two examples (10 July 1959 ; 20 May 1966) ; other States that
have resorted to this device, once, are Australia, on 6 February 1954 ;
South Africa, 13September 1955 ;Canada, 7April 1970 ; Philippines, 18
January 1972 ;India, 18April 1974.Sixof these were certainly in order to

avoid applications on subjects which the State concerned wished to avoid
litigating. The Australian modification of 1954,for example, was made to
frustrate a possible Japanese application regarding pearl fisheries in the
seas between Australia and Japan. The United Kingdom twice narrowed
the scope of its declaration ;once specificallyto avoid an application over
its dispute with SaudiArabia over the Buraimi Oasis (after the breakdown
of the attempted arbitration). Canada's new reservation to its declaration
in 1970was specifically to avoid any application questioning the lawful-
ness of Canada's 1970legislation establishing an anti-pollution zone of
claimed Canadian jurisdiction extending 100miles off its northern Coast
into Arctic waters. The Prime Minister of Canada stated to the press
that,

"it wasimportant to make the reservation the moment weintroduced
the law for fear that at any moment there may be some litigation
begun which we would be too late to withdraw from" (ILM, 9-
600).

In none of thesecaseswas therea forma1protest whch questioned the right
of an exclusory modification with immediate effect and in the absence of
an expressly reserved right to modify. In the Canadian case, the United
States vigorouslyprotested the lawfulnessof the Canadian legislation. Yet
far from denyingCanada's right to modify itsOptional-Clauseacceptance,
the United Statesaccepted its effect.A PressReleaseof 15Apnl 1970(No. 121), setting out a "Department of State Statement on Government of
Canada's Bills on Limits of the Territorial Sea", contains the following
passage:

"If, however, the Canadian Government is unwilling to await
international agreement, wehaveurged that in the interest of avoiding
a continuing dispute and undermining Our efforts to achieve inter-
national agreement, that we submit Ourdifferences regarding pollu-

tion and exclusivefisheriesjurisdiction beyond 12miles to the Inter-
national Court of Justice, the forum where disputes of this nature
should rightfully be settled. Canada's action last week excluded such
disputes from its acceptance of the International Court'scompulsory
jurisdiction. However,such action only prevents Canada from being
forced intothe Court.It does not preclude Canada voluntarilyjoining
with us in subrnitting these disputes to the Court or an appropriate
chamber of the Court." (ILM, 9-606 ;emphasis supplied.)

There are other well-known instances of modifications such as El Sal-
vador's 1973 change in its 1921 Declaration, which was protested by
Honduras but by no other State ;and Israel's 1984 modification of its
declaration, which declaration provided for denunciation but not for
modification. This is an impressive body of practice, considering the
present total "constituency" of the Optional Clause is but 47.

Another relevant consideration is certainly the labours of the Interna-

tional Law Commission in its work on the law of treaties, and its view
reached, after careful investigation, that treaties of arbitration, concilia-
tion orjudicial settlement are amongst those which,even in the absence of
adenunciation clause, are by reason of the nature of the treaty, terminable
by notice. Such treaties are of course quite different in their legal nature
from the Optional-Clause system. But the significant point is that Sir
Humphrey Waldock, the distinguished Special Rapporteur on the law of
treaties, in examining the position of such treaties, arguedfrom the analogy
of the Optional-Clause system. He said :

"Taken as a whole, State practice under the Optional Clause, and
especially the modern trend toward declarations terminable upon
notice, seem only to reinforce the clear conclusion to be drawn from
treaties of arbitration, conciliation andjudicial settlement, thatthese
treaties are regarded as essentially of a terminable character." (ILC
Yearbook, 1963,Vol. 2, p. 68.)553 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (SEPO . P.JENNINGS)

In faceof the unmistakable trend ofrecent developments, 1feelbound to

conclude that States now - though the position was probably different
during the earlier, more prornising period of the Optional Clausejurisdic-
tion- have the right,before seisinof the Court, to withdraw or alter their
declarations of acceptance, with immediate effect, and, moreover, even in
anticipation of aparticular case or classofcases.If thisisso,then it follows
that the Shultz letter was effective to deprive the Court of jurisdiction
under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Court's Statute.

It remainsto add that, if theaboveviewof Statepractice and expectation
iscorrect,it must alsofollowthat Nicaragua's "unconditional" declaration
could also be withdrawn or altered at any time before seisin. Indeed 1

should be constrained to this view even applying the terms of the Nica-
raguan declaration itself :for it is impossible to believe that an uncondi-
tional declaration is made in perpetuity. A declaration that is made for an
indefinite period, without other condition, is surely one that can at any
timebe made definite. And althougha need togivenotice of withdrawal or
alteration isimplied, itisimpossiblein the lightof modernpractice in these
matters to deny that the notice may be expressed to have immediate effect.
The practice of the States that have accepted Optional-Clausejurisdiction
suggests strongly that notice with immediate effect is reasonable notice.
Accordingly if, contrary to my own inclination, some sort of rule of
reciprocity, in the matter of notice of change or withdrawal, were to be
applied to relations between Optional-Clause States before seisin, my
answer to the case of Nicaragua would be the same.

It is necessary to add one further and final point about the effect of the
letter of 6 April 1984.Any doubt in a case of this kind should in principle
be resolved in favour of a respondent State denyingjurisdiction. As this
Court has pronounced on a former occasion :

"Finally, if any doubt remained, the Court, in order to interpret
Article 36,paragraph 5,should consider it initscontext and bearing in
mind the general schemeof the Charterand the Statute which founds
thejurisdiction of the Court on the consent of States. It should, as it
said in the case of the Monetary GoldRemovedfrom Rome in 1943,be

careful not to 'run counter to a well-established principle of interna-
tional lawembodied in theCourt's Statute, namely, that the Court can
only exercisejurisdiction over a State with its consent' (I.C.J. Reports
1954, p. 32)." (Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 (Israel v. Bulgaria),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959,p. 142.) III. THE UNITEDSTATES MULTILATERA TLREATIES RESERVATION

The United States has pleaded the third of the reservations made to its
Declaration of 26 August 1946,sometimes called the multilateral treaties

reservation and sometimes the Vandenberg Resemation. It reserves from
jurisdiction :
"disputes arising under a multilateral treaty, unless (1) a11parties to
the treaty affected by the decision are also parties to the case before
the Court, or (2) the United States of America specially agrees to
jurisdiction".

The resemation is important in more than the context of the present case,
for it served as the paradigm for reservations later made by other coun-
tries ;someof them, however,simpler inthat they are lessqualified, but by
the same token wider in their effect.
1am unable to accept theargument, nor indeed does the Courtappear to
accept, that this reservation is "mere surplusage", and that it does no more
than protect the interests of absent States already protected by Article 59
of the Statute. No doubt both that Article and the resemation are con-
cerned with States not parties to the case ;but 1am unable to see how an
instrument which protects those States from being bound by the decision
can be said to cover the same ground as one which reservesjurisdiction

unless those States are parties.

The meaning of the words, "unless al1parties to the treaty ... are also
parties to the casebefore the Court", could hardly beplainer. The prospect
of perhaps some scores of parties to a case may be bizarre ;but a State is
clearly entitled to make such a reservation, and the practical result is, no
jurisdiction in theabsence of specialagreement. There can be no doubt, for
example, that a State may, if it so desires, reserve against any case what-
soever involving a treaty to which it is Party.

The principal, though certainly not the only, difficulty with the United
Statesmultilateral treaty reservation, is the qualifying words, "affected by
the decision". But the difficulty is one of interpretation ; and it is one not
verydifferent from the one faced in applications to intervene under Article
62of the Statute. In any event,if thereservation may be made without such
a qualification, it may surely be made subject to a qualification which on
any view of its meaning must be a considerable qualification. As to the
possible suggestion that the difficulty of establishingthe right meaningof

those words makes thewholereservation sovaguethat itcan be discarded :
this immediately runs into the difficulty that it would then have to be
considered whether, since the reservation rnight not be severable, it might
render the entire United Statesacceptance void ;in whichcasethere would
clearly be no jurisdiction under Article 36, paragraph 2, and the other
aspects of this question need hardly have been considered at al1(see the individual opinion of Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpachtin CertainNonvegian
Loans, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1957,pp. 9 ff., at p. 34, and especially,
pp. 55 ff.).
It is, however, possible to exaggerate the difficulties of the phrase,
"affected by the decision". The United States has indicated which States it
believes are affected; and, having regard to the United States argument
based upon theproposition ofcollectiveself-defence,it cannot be said that
this interpretation of the reservationis manifestly an impossible one.

But Nicaragua has in turn made the very important, and very interest-
ing, counter-argument that its case as stated in the Application is based
upon customary law as well as, perhaps as much as, upon multilateral
treaty law. This raises some fundamental questions about the nature of
international law, and its sources ; which is to say that it is a matter of

substance. 1fail to seehow ths question could be fully considered at the
present stage of proceedings. 1am, therefore, in agreement withthe Court
that the argument based on the multilateral treaties reservation is one
which at this stage should, in the words of Article 79,paragraph 7, of the
Court's Rules, be neither upheld nor rejected, but declared to be an
objection which "does not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an
exclusivelypreliminary character" ;and should be dealt with accordingly
in the "further proceedings" for which the Court will presumably now
proceed to "fix time-limits" in accordance with that paragraph of
Rule 79.

IV. THEFRIENDSHIP C,OMMERCE AND NAVIGATIOT NREATY
OF 21 JANUARY 1956

Nicaragua, in its Memorial, has alleged breach by the United States of
severalarticles of this treaty, which isin force:Articles 1;XIV (2) ;XVII
(3) ;XX ; XIX (1)and (3) ;and XXI (2).Nicaragua adds that :"The proof
of these violations must await the proceedings on the merits." There is a
jurisdiction clause in Article XXIV (2) :

"Any dispute between the Parties as to the interpretation or
application of thepresent Treaty, not satisfactorilyadjusted by diplo-
macy, shallbe submitted to the International Court of Justice, unless
the Parties agree to settlement by some other pacific means."

Thisjurisdiction clauseis,asamatter offact, the same,wordfor word, as
Article XXI (2)of theTreaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and ConsularRights of 1955between the United States and Iran, on which this Court
relied in the UnitedStates Diplornaticand ConsularStaff in Tehran case
(1.C.J. Reports1980,p. 26,para. 50).There the Iranian Government had
refused "to enter into any discussion of the matter". In consequence, said
the Court, there existed

'hot only a dispute but, beyond any doubt, a 'dispute .. .not satis-
factorily adjusted by diplomacy' within the meaning of Article XXI
(2) of the 1955 Treaty ; and this dispute comprised, inter alia, the
matters that are the subject of the United States claims under that
Treaty" (ibid., p. 27, para. 5 1).

In the present case, the United States claims that Nicaragua has made no
attempt to settlethe matters, the subject of the application, by diplomacy.
But the qualifyingclausein question merely requires that the dispute be
one "not satisfactorilyadjusted by diplomacy". Expressed thus, in apurely
negative form, it is not an exigent requirement. It seems indeed to be
cogently arguable that al1that is required is, as the clause precisely States,
that the claims have not in fact alreadybeen "adjusted" by diplomacy. In
short it appears to be intended todono more than to ensure that disputes
that have already been adequatelydealt with by diplomacy,shouldnot be
reopened before the Court. However that may be, the facts in the present
case disclose that Nicaragua brought the subject of the application before
the Security Council, where they were met with the United States exer-
cising its veto. The United Nations Organization, not least the Security
Council,must now surely be an orthodox forum for diplomacy. It would
seem,therefore, that the requirements of Article XXIV are most fully met
in this matter.

A crucial aspect for present purposes of the Judgment in the United
States Diplornaticand ConsularStaff in Tehran case, however, is the deci-
sion that, whilst thejurisdictional article did not provide in express terms

that eitherparty might bring a caseto the Court by unilateral application,
"it is evident, as the United Statescontended in its Memorial, that this is
what thepartiesintended" (ibid.).Sincethejurisdictional clausesinthe two
treaties, the one with Iran and the one with Nicaragua, are identical, the
same conclusion must apply in the present case.

As to making good these allegations,and demonstrating that they cover
some, certainly not all, of the content of the Application :this, as Nica-
ragua itself has said, "must await the proceedings on the merits".

Accordingly, although 1 must dissent on the question of jurisdiction
under Article 36,paragraph 2and paragraph 5,of theCourt's Statute, 1am
in agreement with the Court that it does havejurisdiction over the Appli-
cation in so far as it may involve the question of alleged breaches of theTreaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation of 1956.Moreover, since
theTreaty is bilateral, thisjurisdiction would not involveany effect of the
United States multilateral treaties reservation. It may be a question how
far Nicaragua would be able to bring the seriesof allegations whichform
the gravamen ofitsApplication within theframework ofwhat isessentially
the normal form of commercial treaty ; more particularly because of the
possible effectof the "preclusion" provisions of Article XXI,whch, inter

dia, provides that the Treaty "shall not preclude" the application of
measures :
"(d) ... necessary to fulfill the obligations of a Party for the main-
tenance or restoration of international peace and security, or neces-
sary to protect its essential security interests".

On the other hand, Nicaragua has itself made clear that it believes that
important aspects of the Application can be brought within the scope of
the Treaty ; so jurisdiction under Article XXIV of the Treaty is not
unimportant.
For the exercise ofjurisdiction over allegations of breaches of specific
provisionsof theTreaty, no questions of admissibility appear to arise.And
sincein my viewthe Court does not havejurisdiction in any respect other
than under theTreaty,there isno need toconsider thedifficult questions of
adrnissibility further, at this stage.

(Signed) Robert Y. JENNINGS.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SIR ROBERT JENNINGS

Whilst agreeing with the Court's decision that it hasjurisdiction under
the 1956Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation, in respect of

any breaches of the provisions of that Treaty, and that suchclaims arealso
admissible, 1regret that 1am unable to concur with the Court's decision
that it hasjurisdiction under Article 36,paragraph 2,of the Court's Statute.
1shall explain my reasons, as briefly as may be.

First 1 shall consider whether the Nicaraguan Declaration of 24 Sep-
tember 1929is,by operation of Article 36, paragraph 5, of the Statute of
this Court, to be deemed to be an acceptance of the compulsory jurisdic-
tion of this Court ;second, 1shall consider the effect of the United States
letter to the Court (the "Shultz letter" of 6 April 198; third, the effect of
the United States multilateral treaty reservation ; and lastly, the position
under the Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaty.

The question here is whether the Nicaraguan Declaration of 24 Sep-
tember 1929,accepting "unconditionally" the compulsory jurisdiction of

the Permanent Court of International Justice is to be counted as one
coming within Article 36, paragraph 5, of the present Court's Statute.

In order to be a party to the Statute of the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice it was necessary both to sign and to ratify the Protocol of
Signature of the Statute (seeP.C.I.J., SerieD, No. 6,p. 19).Nicaragua has
formally admitted in its Memorial (para. 47) that, although it was a
signatory of the Protocol, it "never completed ratification of the old
Protocol of Signature. ..".The finding of the Court in its Judgment is to
the sameeffect. SoNicaragua, it must be assumed, was neveraparty to the
Statute of the Permanent Court.
To appreciate the full significanceof this failure to ratify the Protocol of
Signature of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice, it
is necessary to examine the form and content of the instrument by which
that Court was established (the most convenient reference for consulting
the essential portions of them is probably P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 5,
pp. 58-62). OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE SIR ROBERT JENNINGS

[Traduction]

Sije m'associe àla décisionde la Cour en ce qu'elle affirme sa compé-
tence sur la base du traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de navigation de 1956,
relativement à toute violation desdispositions dudit traité,et en ce qu'elle
déclarerecevableslesdemandes présentées à cetitre,je regrette par contre

d'être en désaccord avecelleencequ'elleaffirmesacompétencesurlabase
de l'article36,paragraphe 2, du Statut. Je m'expliquerai aussi brièvement
que possible.
Je m'attacherai tout d'abord à la question de savoir si la déclaration
nicaraguayenne du 24 septembre 1929 doit êtreconsidérée commeune
acceptation de lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour actuelle en vertu de
l'article 36,paragraphe 5,du Statut. J'examinerai ensuite l'effetde la lettre
des Etats-Unis du 6 avril 1984 (la << lettre Shultz )));puis l'effet de la
réservedesEtats-Unis relative aux traités multilatéraux ;et enfin, l'étatde
la question pour ce qui est du traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de naviga-
tion.

La question est ici de savoir si la déclarationdu 24 septembre 1929par
laquelleleNicaragua aaccepté<< sanscondition )lajuridiction obligatoire
de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale doit êtreconsidérée
comme entrant dans lechamp de l'article36,paragraphe 5,du Statut de la

Cour actuelle.
Pour êtreparties au Statut de la Cour permanente les Etats devaient
signer et ratifier le protocole de signature du Statut (voir C.P.J.Z. sérieD
no 6, p. 19). Or le Nicaragua a expressémentadmis dans son mémoire
(par. 47) que, bien qu'il eût signé leprotocole, il <<n'ajamais parachevé
la ratification de l'ancien protocole de signature ...))La conclusion de la
Cour dans son arrêtva dans le même sens.On doit donc présumerque le
Nicaragua n'ajamais étépartie au Statut de la Cour permanente.

Il importe cependant, pour apprécier toute la portée de cette non-

ratification du protocole de signature du Statut de la Cour permanente,
d'analyser laformeetlateneur del'instrument qui avait instituécette Cour
(l'ouvrage le plus commode pour se reporter aux textes essentiels est
probablement le recueil C.P.J.I. sérieD no5, p. 58-62). A resolution, of 13December 1920,of the First Assemblyof the League
of Nations, approved the Statute of the Court, prepared by the Council in
accordance with Article 14 of the League oi Nations Covenant, and
recorded that the Statute would be submitted to Members of the League
"for adoption in the form of a Protocol duly ratified and declaring their
recognition of this Statute". TheStatute wouldenter into forceassoonas it
had been ratified by amajority of the Members of the League.The Statute
of the Court was thus integral with the Protocol, the purpose of which was

precisely to be the vehicle of adoption of the Statute by Members of the
League. The Protocol of Signature is dated 16December 1920.By it, the
signatories recognized the Statute of the Court. The Protocol refers to the
resolution of 13 December, and provides :

"The present Protocol, which has been drawn up in accordance
with the decision taken by the Assembly of the League of Nations on
the 13 December, 1920,is subject to ratification. Each Power shall
send its ratification to the Secretary-General of the League of

Nations ; the latter shall take the necessary steps to notify such
ratification to the other signatory Powers. The ratification shall be
deposited in the archives of the Secretariat of the League of
Nations."
Next it is important to realize that Article 36 of the Statute, which then
as now was thejurisdictional article, contained, beginning with its second
(but then unnumbered) paragraph the following clause concerning "Op-
tional Clause" jurisdiction, which is obviously the progenitor of the pres-
ent Article 36, but also somewhat differently worded, not least in its
reference to joinder to the Protocol.

"The Members of the League of Nations and the Statesmentioned
in theAnnextotheCovenant may,either when signingor ratifyingthe
Protocol to which the present Statute is adjoined, or at a later
moment, declare that they recognize as compulsory ipso facto and
without special agreement, in relation to any other Member or State
accepting the same obligation, the jurisdiction of the Court in al1or
any of the classes of legal disputes concerning :

(a)The interpretation of the treaty.
(b) Any question of international law.
(c) The existenceof anyfact which, if established, would constitute a
breach of an international obligation.
(d) The nature or extent of the reparation tobe madeforthebreach of
an international obligation.
The declaration referred to above may be made unconditionally or
on condition of reciprocity on the part of several or certain Members
or States, or for a certain time.

In the event of a dispute as to whether the Court has jurisdiction, La première Assembléede la Société desNations, par une résolutiondu
13décembre1920,approuva le Statutde la Cour qu'avait établileConseil

aux termes de l'article 14du pacte de la Société des Nations, en précisant
que ledit Statut serait soumis aux Membres de la Sociétédes Nations
<(pour adoption sous forme de protocole dûment ratifiéconstatant qu'ils
reconnaissent ce Statut >> I.étaitprévuque le Statut entrerait en vigueur
dèsqu'il aurait été ratifié par la majoritédes Membres de la SociétéL . e
Statut dela Cour formait donc un tout avecleprotocole, dont l'objet était
précisémentde servir d'instrument pour l'adoption du Statut par les
Membres de la Société desNations. Leprotocole de signature porte la date
du 16décembre1920,etlesEtats, enlesignant,reconnaissaient leStatutde
la Cour. Le protocole citait la résolution du 13 décembre, et spécifiait

que :
Leprésent protocole, dresséconformément à la décisionde l'As-
sembléede la Société des Nations du 13décembre1920,sera ratifié.
Chaque Puissance adresserasaratification au Secrétariatgénérad lela

Sociétédes Nations, par les soinsduquel ilen sera donnéavis à toutes
les autres Puissances signataires. Les ratifications resteront déposées
dans les archives du Secrétariatde la Sociétédes Nations.

Il faut bien voir ensuite que l'article 36 du Statut, qui était déjàle texte
définissantles bases de compétencede la Cour, comportait au deuxième
paragraphe - alors non numéroté - la clause suivante, relative à lajuri-
diction sur la base de la <disposition facultative >> qui, si elle a de toute
évidenceinspirél'actuel article 36, étaittoutefois rédigéede façon assez
différente,notamment pour ce qui concerne lajonction au protocole :

<Les Membres de la Sociétéet Etats mentionnés à l'annexe au
Pacte pourront, soit lors de la signature ou de la ratification du
protocole, auquel leprésentActe estjoint, soitultérieurement, décla-
rer reconnaître dès à présentcomme obligatoire, de plein droit et sans
convention spéciale,vis-à-visdetout autre Membre ou Etat acceptant
la même obligation, lajuridiction de la Cour sur toutes ou quelques-
unes des catégories de différends d'ordre juridique ayant pour
objet :

a) l'interprétation d'untraité ;
b) tout point de droit international ;
c) la réalitéde tout fait qui, s'ilétait établi, constitueraitla violation
d'un engagement international ;
d) la nature ou l'étenduede la réparation due pour la rupture d'un
engagement international.

La déclaration ci-dessus viséepourra être faite purement et sim-
plement ou souscondition de réciprocitéde la part de plusieurs ou de
certains Membres ou Etats, ou pour un délai déterminé.
En cas de contestation sur le point de savoir si la Cour est com- the matter shall be settledby the decision of the Court." (Collectionof
Texts GoverningtheJurisdictionof the Court,P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 5,
p. 61.)

But in addition to the second paragraph of Article 36 there was, as part
of this same instrument containing the Protocol and the Statute, and set
out as a separate item, a "disposition facultative". In other words, there
was an actual "Optional Clause", which parties could sign if they so

desired. This of courseiswhyone still speaks of the "Optional Clause" asa
loose way of referring to jurisdiction under the present Article 36, para-
graph 2, even though the actual Optional Clause is now in the past.

The dispositionfacultative,or Optional Clause, provided :

"The undersigned, being duly authorized thereto, further declare,
on behalf of their Government, that, from this date, they accept as
compulsory ipsofacto and without specialconvention, thejurisdiction
of the Courtin conformity withArticle 36,paragraph 2,of the Statute
of the Court, under the following conditions : [Herefollow the decla-
rations made by the signatories]."

There were thus two things normally done by a State subscribing to
compulsoryjurisdiction :the signingof the declaration set out in standard
form in the Optional Clause, and the adding of any needed declaration

saying whether the undertaking was unconditional or subject to stated
reservations. In a few cases the signing of the Optional Clause itself was
made by the State concerned, subject to a ratification. But this was not
required '.It sufficed to signtheClause and of course to ratify signature of
the Protocol, to which both Statute and Optional Clause werejoined to
form the one instrument. But a State which signed and ratified the Pro-
tocol, though it became thus a party to the Statute, did not subject itself to
compulsoryjurisdiction unless at sometime it signed the Optional Clause.
Nicaragua signed the Protocol on 14 September 1929(together with the
RevisionProtocol), andthe signingofthe Optional Clausewasofcourse24
September. She never, however, ratified the Protocol.

The signing of the "Optional Clause" of the Protocol and Statute of the
Permanent Court was something rather different, as has been seen, from

the making of a declaration under Article 36 of the Statute of the Inter-
national Court of Justice. Thelatter declaration is a quite separate instru-
ment which is to be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United

' See Table on page 55 of the P.C.I.J., SerD,sNo. 6 :note 2 to the column for
ratification of a declaration,es,"La ratification n'est en effet pas exigéepar le texte
de la Disposition facultative". pétente, laCour décide. ))(Collection destextes gouvernant lacompé-
tence de la Cour, C.P.J.I. série D no5, p. 61 .)

Mais,outre cedeuxièmeparagraphe de l'article36,ilexistait, entantque
partie intégrante de l'instrument composé du protocole et du Statut,
quoique sous la forme d'un acte distinct, une (<Disposition facultative o.
En d'autres termes, il existait une véritableclause facultative, que les
partiespouvaient signer sielleslesouhaitaient. C'estévidemmentlaraison

pour laquelle on continue à parler couramment de ((clause facultative )>
lorsqu'on pense à la compétence fondée surl'actuel article 36, para-
graphe 2, bien que la véritableclause facultative appartienne désormais
au passé.
Cette ((Disposition facultative ))étaitainsi conçue :

Les soussignés,dûment autorisés,déclarent en outre, au nom de
leur gouvernement, reconnaître dès à présent, commeobligatoire, de
plein droit et sans convention spéciale,la juridiction de la Cour
conformément à l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour, et
dans les termes suivants ))(suiventles déclarations faitespar lessigna-

taires).

L'adhésiond'un Etat à la juridiction obligatoire supposait donc nor-
malement l'accomplissement de deux formalités :la signature de la décla-
ration typefigurant dans la dispositionfacultative, etl'addition, éventuel-
lement, d'une déclaration précisantsi cet engagement de l'Etat devait
s'entendre sans condition ou sous certaines réserves expresses. Parfois,la

signature de la (<Disposition facultative ))elle-mêmeétaitfaite par 1'Etat
intéressésous réservede ratification. Mais ce n'étaitpas là une obliga-
tion ' :il suffisait de signer la disposition et, bien sûr, de ratifier la signa-
ture du protocole, qui, avec le Statut et la ((Disposition facultative )),
constituait un seul instrument. Mais un Etat qui signait et ratifiait le

protocole, s'ildevenait par là mêmepartie au Statut,ne se soumettait à la
juridiction obligatoire que s'ilsignait à un moment quelconque la disposi-
tion facultative. Le Nicaragua, pour sa part, a signé leprotocole le 14sep-
tembre 1929(en mêmetemps que leprotocole de revision) et,comme on le
sait, il a signéla Disposition facultative ))le 24 septembre. Par contre, il
n'ajamais ratifié le protocole.

La signature de la ((Disposition facultative P,du protocole et du Statut
de la Cour permanente était, on vient de le voir, une opération sensible-
ment différentede la signature des déclarations faites sur la base de l'ar-
ticle 36 du Statut de la Cour actuelle. Actuellement, la déclaration est un
instrument totalement distinct, déposéauprès du Secrétairegénéraldes

'Voir C.P.J.I.sérieD no6, tableau p. 55 : lanote 2afférenteàlacolonne relative àla
ratification desdéclarationsétaitainsirédigée:(La ratification n'est eneffetpas exigée
par le texte de la Disposition facultative.Nations, "who shall transmit copies thereof to the parties to the Statute
and to the Registrar of the Court".

The question, therefore, is whether Article 36, paragraph 5, of the
present Court's Statute had the effect of transferring to the new Court,
Nicaragua's subscription to the Optional Clause of the Protocol of Sig-
nature and the Statute of the Permanent Court, which entire instrument

required ratification ; but which was never ratified, with the admitted
consequence that Nicaragua never became obligated by the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Permanent Court ?
The answer would seem to be placed beyond doubt according to the
English text of Article 36, paragraph 5, which is :
"Declarations made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nentCourt of International Justice and which are stillin force shallbe

deemed, as between the parties to the present Statute, to be accep-
tances of the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of
Justice for the period which they still have to run and in accordance
with their terms."
Thus the declarations which are by that provision to be deemed to be
acceptances of the compulsory jurisdiction of the new Court are those
"which are stillin force". And sincetheNicaraguan Declaration wasnever
"in force" in respect of theold Court, it would seemto followthat it cannot

be held to be "still in force" for the purposes of Article 36, paragraph 5.

Furthermore, thisresult isinconformity withwhat thepreparatory work
shows to have been the purpose and intention of the provision. The
provision, as is well known, was the result of a British proposa1 made in,
and accepted by, asubcommittee of the Cornmittee of Jurists which met in
Washington in 1945.The very expert subcommittee (Fahy, Fitzmaurice,
Krylov, Novikov, Spiropoulos) reported as follows :

"The subcommittee calls attention to the fact that many nations
haveheretoforeacceptedcompulsoryjurisdiction under the 'Optional
Clause'.The subcommittee believesthat provision should be made at
the San Francisco Conferencefor a special agreement for continuing
these acceptances in forcefor the purpose of this Statute." (UNCIO,
Vol. XIV, p. 289.)

The proposal, therefore, was to achieve the transfer, that is to Say the
continuity, of already existing obligations. It could hardly be expected to
have been otherwise ;certainly not to create a new obligation where none
existed before.
This purpose was faithfully pursued at San Francisco, where the present
text of Article 36,paragraph 5,reproduced above, eventually emerged asa
part of the Statute of the Court.Nations Unies, qui en transmettra copie aux parties au présent Statut
ainsi qu'au Greffier de la Cour D.

La question est doncde savoir si l'article 36,paragraphe 5,du Statut de
la Cour actuelle a pu avoir pour effet de transférer à fa muvek Cour
l'adhésion du Nicaragua à la disposition facultative du protocole de
signatureet du Statutde laCour permanente, instrument uniquerequérant
ratification, maisn'ayant cependant jamais étératifié, d'oùla conséquence

incontestéequeleNicaragua n'ajamais été liépar lajuridiction obligatoire
de la Cour permanente.
La réponsesemble ne faire aucun doute si l'on sereporte à la version
anglaise de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, du présent Statut :

<(Declarations made under Article 36 of the Statute of the Perma-
nent Court of International Justice and which are stillin force shallbe
deemed, as between the parties to the present Statute, to be accep-
tances of the compulsoryjurisdiction of the International Court of
Justice for the period which they still have to run and in accordance
with their terms. ))

Il ressort en effet de ce texte que les déclarations qui doivent êtreconsi-
déréescomme comportant acceptation de lajuridiction obligatoire de la
nouvelle Cour sont celles which are still in force o. Et, vu que la décla-
ration duNicaragua n'ajamais été <in force ))pour cequi est de l'ancienne
Cour, elle ne peut êtreconsidéréecomme <(still in force)) aux fins de

l'article 36, paragraphe 5.
Ce résultats'accorde de surcroît avec l'esprit et le but de cette disposi-
tion, tels qu'ils ressortent des travaux préparatoires. Ce texte, comme
chacun le sait, est en effet issu d'une proposition britannique qui fut faite
au seind'un sous-comitédu comitédejuristes réuni à Washington en 1945,
et qui fut acceptéepar ledit sous-comité.Or le compte rendu du sous-
comité,composéde spécialistesparticulièrement éminents (Fahy, Fitz-

maurice, Krylov, Novikov et Spiropoulos) relate :
Le sous-comitéattire l'attention sur le fait que plusieurs nations
ontjusqu'ici acceptélaclause de (compétenceobligatoire ))Lesous-
comitéestime que la conférencede San Francisco devrait prévoir un

accord spécialpour maintenir cesacceptationsen vigueur, auxfins du
présent Statut. ))(Conférencedes Nations Unies sur l'organisation
internationale, vol. XIV, p. 290.)

L'objet de la proposition était donc de réaliserle transfert, c'est-à-dire la
continuitéd'obligations déjà existantes.On ne pouvait guères'attendre à
autre chose, et certainement pas à la création d'obligationsnouvelles là où
il n'en existait pas.
Ce but fut scrupuleusement poursuivi à SanFrancisco,où letexte actuel
del'article36,paragraphe 5,ci-dessusreproduit, fut finalementinsérédans
le Statut de la Cour. The Language Question

Article 36,paragraph 5,necessarilyappears in the fiveequally authentic
languages of the United Nations Charter, Chinese, English, French, Rus-
sian and Spanish (Art. 111).The Chinese, Russian and Spanish versions
apparently translate the English formulation of the criterion of transfer,
viz. "and which are still in force ...". The French text was, of course,
drafted alongside the English text at SanFrancisco. Nevertheless, thefinal
version ofArticle 36,paragraph 5,both French and English,wasproposed
by the French delegation at the 19thmeeting of the committee on 7 June,
when thecommittee adopted what are now the Frenchand English textsof
the Article (UNCIO, Vol. XIII, pp. 485 and 486). In this final French
proposal, the English "which are stillin force" remained, but there was an

alteration of theFrench version of that phrase. Sincethe Court's Judgment
apparently finds this change in the language of the French version, sig-
nificant,it isnecessarybriefly to examinethisfinalvariation of the French
text. The change proposed by the French delegation, to the French text,
was this :where the original French text used the phrase "encore en
vigueur" to correspond to the English "still in force", the proposa1was to
substitute "pour une duréequi n'est pas encore expirée"for "encore en
vigueur7'.According to the officia1report of the meeting :

"The French Representative stated that the changes suggested by
him in paragraph 4 [asArt. 36,par. 5, then was]werenot substantive
ones, but were intended to improve the phraseology." (Ibid.,
p. 284.)
The text, both in English and French, of Article 36,paragraph 5,was then
unanimously adopted.
The statement of the French representative that the change was con-
cerned with phraseology and was not substantive must of course be
accepted. Moreover, the French proposa1 was introduced by the French

delegation coupled with and alongside the English version using "still in
force". If it were possible that the two texts were capable of different
meanings, the rule in Article 33,paragraph 4,of the Vienna Convention on
the Law of Treaties requires that : "the meaning which best reconciles the
texts, having regard to the object and purpose of the treaty, shall be
adopted". It isnot possible to reconcile this requirement with any solution
which seeks to give a special meaning to the French text, which meaning
cannot be collected from the Chinese, the English, the Russian and the
Spanish.
It isinteresting nevertheless to speculate on thequestion whytheFrench
delegation at San Francisco, in seeking the French equivalent of "still in
force", eventually preferred "pour une duréequi n'estpas encore expirée"
to the simple "en vigueur" which is used in the immediately following
Article 37of the Statute asequivalent to the English "in force" (in this case La question linguistique
L'article 36, paragraphe 5, existe nécessairementdans les cinq langues

de la Charte des Nations Unies qui font égalementfoi : chinois, anglais,
français, russe et espagnol (art. 111).Les textes chinois, russe et espagnol
semblent traduire littéralementlaformuleutiliséeenanglaispour définirle
critère du transfert : <<and which are still in force ... Quant au texte
français, comme on le sait, il a étérédigéparallèlement au texte anglais
à San Francisco. Il n'en reste pas moins que la version définitivede l'ar-
ticle 36, paragraphe 5, tant en français qu'en anglais, est issue d'une
proposition de la délégation française faite à la dix-neuvième séancedu
comité, le 7 juin, date à laquelle le comité adopta ce qui constitue
aujourd'hui le texte français et le texte anglais de l'article (CNUOI,

vol. XIII, p. 485 et 486). Or, dans cette ultime proposition française, si
l'expression anglaise << which are still in force ne changeait pas, le
texte français correspondant était modifié.Et puisque la Cour, dans son
arrêt,juge apparemment importante cette modification du texte fran-
çais, il convient de s'attarder un instant sur ce dernier avatar dudit texte.
La délégationfrançaise proposait d'apporter au texte français la modifi-
cation suivante :substituer à la formule <encore en vigueur ))du texte
initial, correspondant à l'anglais <still in forc))l'expression pour une
duréequi n'est pas encore expirée D.Je cite le compte rendu officiel de la
séance :

<LereprésentantdelaFrance déclarequeleschangements dont ila
proposé l'introduction au paragraphe 4 [devenu l'article 36, para-
graphe 51 ne visaient pas le fond mais tendaient a améliorer la
rédaction. >)(Ibid., p. 290.)

Aprèsquoi lesdeux textes, anglais etfrançais, de l'article36,paragraphe 5,
furent adoptés à l'unanimité.
Il va de soi que l'affirmation du représentant de la France, disant que
cette modification était de forme et non de fond, doit être acceptée. En
outre, la proposition française avait étéprésentéepar la délégationde la
France commefaisant pendant à la version anglaise où figure l'expression

<<still in forco. A supposer donc que le sens des deux textes diffère,la
règleposée à l'article 33, paragraphe 4, de la convention de Vienne sur le
droit des traitésest formelle : <on adoptera le sens qui, compte tenu de
l'objet etdu but du traité,concilielemieuxcestextes - règle àlaquelle ne
saurait correspondre une solution tendant à donner au texte français un
sensparticulier, différentde celuiqui sedégagedes textes anglais, chinois,
espagnol et russe.

Il est néanmoins intéressantde s'interroger sur les raisons pour les-
quelles la délégationfrançaise à San Francisco, recherchant l'équivalent

français de <stillin forceO,afinalementpréféré <<pour une duréequin'est
pas encore expirée )aux simples termes << en vigueur )),qui sont employés
pour traduire << in force immédiatement après, à l'article 37 du Statutof coursereferringnot to declarationsbut to treaties) ; and, indeed, is also
used in the first paragraph of Article 36.
The comparison ofArticle 36,paragraph 5,with Article 36,paragraph 1,
and with Article 37,suggests a possible answer to the question. In Article
36,paragraph 1,which deals with treaties or conventionsconferring juris-
dictionon theInternational Court ofJustice ;and inArticle 37,concerning
treaties and conventions providing for reference to any tribunal to have

been instituted by the League of Nations, or to the Permanent Court of
International Justice, the only requirement of the treaty or convention is
that it shall be "in force", "en vigueur", at the moment the question of
jurisdiction arises. But Article 36, paragraph 5, is different. Whereas the
keyphrase of Article 36,paragraph 1,and Article 37,is "in force", the key
phraseinArticle 36,paragraph 5(inthe Englishversion), is "still in force".
To haveused thephrase "still in force" in eitherArticle 36,paragraph 1,or
Article 37would have been otiose. In Article 36,paragraph 5,on the other
hand, the word "still" conveys, to my mind, the idea of something which
wasin forcefor the old Court,and is therefore tobe deemed"still in force"
for the new Court. There is thus an important difference between "in
force7'and "still in force".
The French delegation at San Francisco must have had some good
reason for introducing their change to the French text. That reason, con-
sidering that they said the change was one of phraseology only, and
consideringthat they proposed no change to the English text, could only
have been that they considered the new French version to convey, more
clearly than the originalFrench text did, the meaning and purpose of the
English "still in force". The new French version, therefore, seizesupon the

notion ofcontinuity as theessentialcriterion.Whatmatters isnot only that
a declaration is "in force" in its terms, but that it has beenin force for the
old Court and was expressed for a period that continues and is still not
expired. For the French version retains that important qualifying word,
"encore".
One can do no more than speculateon the purpose of the changein the
French text, for the records are sparse. So one is left with the rule that if
there be, which 1doubt, material difference between the meaning of the
texts, the one which best reconciles thedifferent language versions, al1five
of them that isto Say,isto be preferred. For thepresentcase at leastthere is
no great difficulty in doing that. A declaration of acceptance of compul-
soryjurisdiction, which declaration never came into operation under the
old Statute, certainly cannot be said, under the new Statute, to be "still in
force", which is the language used in four of the versions of the Statute ;
and is the meaningconsonant with what was said to be the purpose of the
provision,namelythecarry over to the new Court of obligationscreatedin
respect of the old Court.
There is no difficulty in collecting the same meaning in the French
formula :pour une duréequi n'estpas encoreexpiréeW . hat is referred to by
that formula is surely a declaration by which the compulsory jurisdiction

of the Permanent Court was actually established. A declaration to which,(dans lecas des traités,il est vrai, et non des déclarations), ainsi d'ailleurs
qu'à l'article 36, paragraphe 1.
La comparaison de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, avec l'article 36, para-
graphe 1,et avec l'article 37, indique une réponsepossible à la question.

A l'article 36, paragraphe 1,relatif aux traités ou conventions conférant
compétence à laCourinternationale de Justice, et àl'article37,concernant
les traités et conventions prévoyantle renvoi auxjuridictions que devait
instituer la Sociétédes Nations ou à la Cour permanente de Justice inter-
nationale,la seulecondition est eneffet quel'instrument considérésoit <in
force D, (en vigueur )>au moment où se pose leproblème de compétence.
Mais l'article 36, paragraphe 5, est différent. Alors que le pivot de l'ar-

ticle 36, paragraphe 1,et de l'article 37 est l'expression <<in force O,celui
de l'article 36, paragraphe 5 (dans le texte anglais), est ((still in force)>.
L'emploides mots ((still in force dans l'article 36,paragraphe 5,et dans
l'article 37 eût étésuperflu. A l'article 36, paragraphe 5, en revanche, le
terme <<still)>évoque à mon sens l'idéede quelque chose qui était en
vigueur au temps de l'ancienne Cour et qui, pour cette raison, doit être
considéré comme encore en vigueur à l'égardde la nouvelle Cour. Il y a

donc une différenceimportante entre << in force >>et still in forc>>.
La délégationfrançaise à San Francisco avait sans doute de bonnes
raisons de proposer la modification du texte français. Cette raison, eu
égard àsonaffirmation selonlaquelle lechangement étaitde pure formeet
à l'absence de proposition de sa part tendant à modifier le texte anglais,
était probablement le sentiment que la nouvelle version française reflétait
plus nettement que le texte initial le sens et l'objet de l'anglais <still in

force )).La nouvelle version française insistait donc sur le critèreessentiel
de la continuité.Cequi importe n'est plus seulement le fait qu'une décla-
ration est en vigueur d'aprèsses termes, mais qu'elle était en vigueur au
regard de l'ancienne Cour et qu'ellea étéfaitepour unepériodequicourt
encore et n'estpas encore expirée. D'où l'emplod i e cet adverbe important
- <<encore )>- dans le texte français.
On en est réduit aux conjectures sur l'objet du changement apportéau

texte français, car les documents sont rares. Reste donc la règlequi veut
que, s'ily a - ce dont je doute - une différenceréellede sens entre les
textes, on adopte celui qui concilie le mieux les textes dans les différentes
langues, c'est-à-dire les cinq versions. Dans le cas présent,tout au moins,
cette opération ne présente pas de grandes difficultés.Une déclaration
d'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire qui n'est jamais entrée en

vigueur sous le régimede l'ancien Statut ne peut certainement pas être
considérée, sous le nouveauStatut, comme (<still in force)>selon la for-
muleutiliséedans quatre desversions du Statut, et selonlesenscompatible
avec le propos déclaréde cette disposition, qui était de transférer à la
nouvelle Cour les obligations créées à l'égardde sa devancière.
Il n'estpas difficile de tirer le mêmesens de la formule française pour
une durée qui n'est pas encore expirée )>Ce que vise cette formule est

certainement une déclaration ayant effectivement institué la juridiction
obligatoire de la Cour permanente. Une déclaration à propos de laquelle, owing to failure to ratify the Protocol, no date of commencement of the
obligation in respect of the Permanent Court could be assigned, cannot be
said to be pour uneduréequi n'estpas encoreexpirée.That which never
began cannot be said to have had a duration at all.

TheAerial Incident Case

The meaning of Article 36,paragraph 5,is clarified by the Judgment of
this Court in the Aerial Incidentcase (I.C.J. Reports 1959,p. 127).In that
caseIsrael, theApplicant State, reliedupon the allegedoperation ofArticle
36,paragraph 5,in respect of Bulgaria'sDeclaration of 29July 192 1,which
has been made unconditionally, and which had certainly come into effect
in respect of the Permanent Court of International Justice because Bul-
garia had indeed ratified the Protocol of Signature of the Statute of that
Court. The International Court of Justice found, nevertheless, that it did
not have compulsory jurisdiction under Article 36, paragraph 5, of its
Statute because, by the time Bulgaria, which was not present at San
Francisco, had become a member of the United Nations in 1955, the
Permanent Court of International Justicehad ceased to exist.Accordingly,
Bulgaria'sDeclaration, eventhough stated in its terms tobeunconditional
and thereforewithout a time-limit, had, it washeld, lapsed with the dernise
of the Court. Thus, the question asked by the Court was whether the
declarationcouldproperlybe said to be "still in force" in respect to the old
Court at the time when Bulgaria became subject to the Statute of the new

Court, and in particular to Article 36,paragraph 5? Any notion that, for
the effect of Article 36,paragraph 5,one was entitled to look merely to the
terms of thedeclaration itself, abstracted fromitsstatus with respect to the
Permanent Court, was rejected. If adeclaration which had come into effect
for the Permanent Court, and in its own terms was still running, was not
caught by Article 36,paragraph 5, because the obligation to the old Court
must have ceased when the Court itself ceased to exist, then one would
suppose that, a fortiori, a declaration which never at any time actually
created an obligation in respect of theold Court,cannot be carried over to
the new Court by Article 36, paragraph 5.

There isonepassageof theJudgmentthat ismost apposite to thepresent
case.TheCourt isconsidering the caseof those States, like Bulgaria,which
did not become parties to the Charter and to the Statute of the new Court,
until after the dissolution of the Permanent Court.

"Accordingly, the question of the transformation of an existing
obligation could no longer arisesofar as theywereconcerned :al1that
could be envisaged in their case was the creation of a new obligationfaute de ratification du protocole, aucune date ne peut êtreassignéeau
début de l'obligation relativement à la Cour permanente ne peut être
considérée commefaite <<pour uneduréequin'estpas encoreexpirée o.Ce
qui n'a jamais commencéne peut avoir de durée.

L'affaire de l'Incident aérien

Le sens de l'article 36, paragraphe 5, est précisé par l'dte la Cour
dans l'affaire de l'Incidentaérien(C.I.J. Recueil59,p. 127).Dans cette
affaire, le demandeur, l'Etat d'Israël, prétendait en cette occasion faire
jouer l'article36,paragraphe 5, l'égarddela déclarationdela Bulgariedu
29juillet 1921,déclaration qui avait été faitesans condition et qui était
incontestablement entrée en vigueur à l'égardde la Cour permanente,
puisque la Bulgarie avait ratifiéle protocole de signature du Statut. Or la
Cour a conclu qu'elle n'avaitpasjuridiction obligatoire en vertu de l'ar-
ticle 36, paragraphe5, au motif qu'à l'époqueoù la Bulgarie, qui n'était

pas présente à la conférencede San Francisco, était devenueMembre de
l'organisation desNations Unies, en 1955,laCourpermanente avait cessé
d'exister. LadéclarationdelaBulgarie,bien qu'elleeût,d'aprèssespropres
termes,étéfaite sanscondition et,partant, sanslimite de durée,était donc
devenue caduque avecla disparition de la Cour permanente. La question
poséepar la Cour était ainsi de savoir si la déclaration pouvait être
considérée comme <<stillin forc)à l'égarddel'ancienneCour aumoment
oùla BulgarieavaitétéadmiseaubénéficeduStatut delanouvelleCour,et
notamment del'article 36,paragraphe 5.La Cour a catégoriquementrejeté
l'idéequ'aux fins de l'article6, paragraphe 5, on pût se borner à tenir
comptedes termesdela déclaration,enfaisant abstraction de la validitéde
cette dernièrepar rapportà la Cour permanente. Sidonc une déclaration,

entrée en vigueur à l'égardde la Cour permanente et qui, d'après ses
propres termes, n'était paspériméen, 'entre pas dans le champ d'applica-
tion de l'article 36, paragraphe, pour la raison que l'obligation qu'elle
avait fait naîtrel'égardde l'ancienne Cour a nécessairementprisfin en
mêmetemps que ladite Cour, on est fondé à supposer, àfortiori, qu'une
déclarationquin'ajamaiscréé d'obligation àl'égarddel'ancienne Courne
peut être reportée sur la nouvelle Cour par le jeu de l'article 36, para-
graphe 5. -
L'arrêt précité contient un passage qui s'applique parfaitement à la
présente affaire.Considérantle cas des Etats, telle la Bulgarie,quine sont
devenus parties à la Charte et au Statut de la nouvelle Cour qu'aprèsla
dissolution de la Cour permanente, la Cour affirmait :

<<Dèslors, la question d'une transformation d'une obligation exis-
tante ne pouvait plus seposer pour eux:seulepouvait êtreenvisagée
lacréationd'uneobligation nouvelle àleurcharge.Etendre àcesEtats binding upon them. To extend Article 36,paragraph 5,to those States

would be to allow that provision to do in their case something quite
different from what it did in the case of signatory States." (I.C.J.
Reports 1959, p. 138.)
In this passage the Court denied that there could be any possibility of
Article 36, paragraph 5, creating a new obligation, not existing under the
old Court - which is preciselywhat the present Judgment does in respect

of Nicaragua.
For al1these reasonsit seems to me that to say that the effect of Article
36,paragraph 5,was to createforNicaragua an obligationin respect of the
newCourt, whichneverinfact existedin respect of thePermanentCourt, is
straining the language of that Article beyond what it can bear.

The Yearbooks of the Court

Considerable weight has been attached by Nicaragua to the fact that in
al1the Yearbooksof the present Court it has been listed among the States
bound by Optional-Clausejurisdiction. The Judgment of the Court also
regards the Yearbooks and other publications as a factor confirming its
interpretation of the effect of Article 36,paragraph 5 ;if not an indepen-
dent source ofjurisdiction for the Court. In my view, thus to allow con-
siderable, and even decisive,effect, to statements in the Court's Yearbook
is mistaken in general principle ; and is in any event not sufficiently
supported by the facts in the present case.

It is to my mind wrong in principle because the Court should always
distinguish between its administrative functions - including the compila-
tion of the Yearbookby the Registrar on the Court's instructions - and its
judicial functions. When there is a dispute between Statesas to the Court's
jurisdiction, that dispute may be, as in the present case, submitted to the
Court fordetermination in itsjudicial capacity. To hold,afterthe exchange
ofvoluminouswrittenpleadingsand after tworounds of oralproceedings,
that the matter was,before al1this,virtuallysettled as aresult of the action
of theRegistraracting on behalf oftheCourt inits administrativecapacity,
andwithoutbenefit ofjudicial argument andprocedure, isnotfreefrom an
element of absurdity. For theCourt's administrative organization to make

somenecessary assessment of a legal question for purposes of an annually
published reference book ;and for the full Court in itsjudicial capacity,
after its fulljudicial procedure, includinghearing arguments of both par-
ties, to make a decision on the same matter ; are two entirely different
things which should never be confused.

It is of course to prevent any such confusion that every Yearbook is l'article 36,paragraphe 5,serait admettre que celui-cia fait pour eux
tout autre chose quece qu'il a fait pour les Etats signataires. (C.I.J.
Recueil 1959,p. 138.)

Par ces mots, la Cour déniait à l'article 36, paragraphe 5, le pouvoir de
créer une obligationnouvelle,n'existant pas sous le régimede l'ancienne
Cour, c'est-à-dire précisémentce que fait le présent arrêt à propos du
Nicaragua.
Pour toutes les raisons que je viens d'énoncer, dire que l'article36,
paragraphe 5, a eu pour effet de créer pourle Nicaragua, à l'égardde la
Cour actuelle,une obligation qui en fait n'a jamais existéà l'égardde la

Courpermanente, équivaut,me semble-t-il, à forcer demanièreabusivele
texte de l'article au-delà de ce qui est permis.

Les Annuaires de la Cour

Le Nicaragua attache une importance considérable au fait que tous les
Annuaires de la Cour actuellel'ont incluparmi les Etats liéspar la clause
facultative.Et la Cour, dans son arrêt,voit elleaussi dans lesAnnuaireset
certainesautrespublications un élémenc tonfirmant son interprétation de
l'article 36, paragraphe 5, sinon une source autonome de compétence.
Selonmoi, c'estune erreur de principe que d'accorder un poids important,
voiredécisif,auxmentionsfigurant dans lesAnnuairesdelaCour ;deplus,
cette démarchen'est pas suffisamment étayéepar les faits de l'espèce.

C'estune erreur de principe, parce quela Cour devrait toujours distin-
guer entre ses fonctions administratives - y compris la rédaction de
l'Annuairepar le Greffier, agissant sur instructions de la Cour - et ses
fonctions judiciaires. Lorsqu'il y a désaccord entre deux Etats sur la
compétencedela Cour,cedésaccordpeut,commedans lecasprésent,être
soumis à la Cour pour qu'elle statue dans le cadre de ses fonctionsjudi-
ciaires. Mais il y a quelquechosed'absurde a conclure, aprèsl'échangede

volumineuses piècesécriteset deux tours deprocédure orale, quela ques-
tion était pratiquement régléeavant tout cela par l'action menéepar le
Greffier pour le compte de la Cour, dans l'exercice desfonctions admi-
nistratives de celle-ci,et sanséchanged'argumentsni procédurejudiciaire.
La nécessaireévaluationpar les servicesadministratifs dela Cour del'état
d'une questionjuridique, en vue de la publication d'un ouvrageannuel de
référence,etla décision prise sur cette mêmequestion par la Cour elle-
mêmed , ans lecadre de sesfonctionsjudiciaires etl'issued'uneprocédure
judiciaire complète,avec audition des deux parties, sont choses entière-
ment différentes, età nejamais confondre.
C'estd'ailleurs pour prévenir toute confusion sur cepoint que la pré-prefaced by the followingwarning and disclaimer in the general "Preface"

to the volume. In the first Yearbook (1946-1947)it read :

"It isto beunderstood that the Yearbookof theInternational Court
of Justice is prepared and published by the Registrar and in no way
involves the responsibility of the Court."

Later Yearbooks somewhat expanded the disclaimer typically as fol-
lows :

"The Yearbookis prepared by the Registry and in no way involves
the responsibility of the Court ;in particular, the summaries ofjudg-
ments, advisory opinions and orders contained in Chapter VI cannot
be quoted against the actual texts of thosejudgments, advisory opin-
ions and orders and do not constitute an interpretation of them."

For the Court, nevertheless, to attach important legal consequences to
entries in the Yearbookis to destroy the clear effect of the disclaimer ;as
well as, in my view, being wrong in principle.

But even apart from the objections of principle, the Yearbooksdo not at
al1yield any certain message on the status of theNicaraguan declaration ;
on the contrary they consistently - each one of them - alert the attentive
reader to the existence of doubts.

The first Yearbookis that for 1946-1947.There are two entries concern-
ing Nicaragua. First, there is a part giving the actual text of "communi-
cations and declarations of States which are still bound by their adherence
to the Optional Clause of the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice" (p. 207) '.In this section, on page 210(p. 206of the French
edition) the actual text of the Nicaraguan Declaration of 24 September
1929 is set out verbatim, and with a reference to a footnote which
reads :

"According to a telegram dated November 29th, 1939,addressed to
the League of Nations, Nicaragua had ratified the Protocol of Sig-
nature of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice
(December 16th, 1920), and the instrument of ratification was to
follow.Notification concerning the deposit of the said instrument has
not, however, been received by the Registry."

This then was the Yearbook in whch the actual text of the Nicaraguan

version),farfromlendingsupport to Nicaragua'srelianceon thenYearbooks,showswhyrench
successiveRegistrars had doubts whether Nicaragua should have been listed or not.face ))généralede tous lesAnnuaires comprend une mise en garde déga-
geant la responsabilitéde la Cour, qui, dans le premier Annuaire (1946-
1947),étaitrédigée comme suit :

<<L'Annuaire de la Cour internationale de Justice est élaboréet
publié sousla direction du Greffier. Soncontenu n'engageen aucune
manière la Cour. ))

Cet avertissement a, de manière significative,étéprécisécomme suit
dans lesAnnuaires ultérieurs :

<<L'Annuaire, rédigépar le Greffe, n'engage en aucune façon la
Cour. En particulier les résumés d'arrêts,avis consultatifs et ordon-
nances figurant au chapitre VI ne sauraient êtrecités àl'encontre du
texte mêmedes arrêts,avis consultatifs et ordonnances, dont ils ne
constituent pas une interprétation. ))

En attribuant malgré cela des conséquencejsuridiques de poids aux men-
tionsdel'Annuaire,laCour détruitl'effet explicitedel'avertissement,et,de
plus, commet ce qui, à mon avis, est une erreur de principe.

Mais indépendamment mêmede ces objections de principe, les An-
nuairesnepermettent aucunement d'établir aveccertitude la validitéde la
déclarationnicaraguayenne :bien aucontraire, ilséveillenttous,l'unaprès
l'autre,l'attention du lecteur vigilant et l'amènent àdétecterl'existencede

certains doutes.
Le premier Annuaire est celui de 1946-1947.Le Nicaragua y apparaît
sous deux rubriques. La première se trouve dans la partie consacréeau
texte des <(communications et déclarationsdes Etats qui sont encore liés
par leur adhésion à la Disposition facultative du Statut de la Cour per-
manente de Justice internationale ))(p. 203)'. Le texte de la déclaration
nicaraguayenne du 24 septembre 1929y figure in extenso, à la page 206

(page210del'édition anglaise),accompagné d'unrenvoi à unenotede bas
de page rédigée comme suit :
<<Suivant un télégramme du 29novembre 1939,adressé àla Société

des Nations, le Nicaragua avait ratifiéle Protocole de signature du
Statut de la Cour permanente de Justiceinternationale (16 décembre
1920),l'instrument de ratification devant suivre.Cependant, ledépôt
de cet instrument n'a pas éténotifiéau Greffe. ))

Voilà donc pour l'Annuairedans lequel on pouvait trouver le texte même

' ta présencedans ce titre des mots<encore liés (<(still bounD),loin d'étayer
Greffiers successifs doutaient si le Nicaragua devait ou non figurer sur cette liste.542 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (SEPO. P.JENNINGS)

Declaration was to be found, thepractice of the following Yearbooksbeing
to give a reference back for those who wished to consult the text.

The second entry for Nicaragua in this same Yearbook1946-1947is in
the complete list (which also features in subsequent Yearbooks),of Op-
tional-Clause States. In this list the date and conditions of the State's
acceptanceare setout,but not theactual text of thecommunication. In the

Yearbook1946-1947list, Nicaragua appears, in its alphabetical order, on
page 226, as having made an "unconditional" declaration on "24 IX 29".
There is, however, a footnote giving a referenceback to page 210 for the
actual text of the declaration. The whole of this list appears under the
bold-letter heading :

"List of States which have recognized the compulsoryjurisdiction

of the International Court of Justice or which are still bound by the
acceptance of the Optional Clause of the Statute of the Permanent
Court of International Justice (Article 36 of the Statute of the Inter-
national Court of Justice)."
Thus, one certain message that can be collectedfrom these Yearbooks(for
the same heading continues through several subsequent volumes) is that
the Registrars at least understood the "still in force" of Article 36, para-

graph 5, as being equivalent to "still bound".
The Yearbooksfrom 1947-1948to 1954-1955,in accord with thenormal
Yearbookpractice, simply reproduced this Nicaraguan entry in the list in
exactly the same form as in the Yearbook1946-4947.Nicaragua seemed to
attach someimportance to the absencein these subsequent volumes of the
footnoteabout thenon-receiptinGeneva of anyNicaraguan instrument of
ratification of the Protocol of Signature of the Statute of the Permanent
Court of International Justice. But as mentioned above that note did not
appear either, in the Yearbook 1946-1947 in its list and summary of
declarations ; it appeared where the actual text of the Nicaraguan decla-
ration was reproduced. Furthermore there is also in al1these Yearbooks
between 1947-1948and 1954-1955,at the beginning of the "instruments"
section, a list of Stateshavingmade declarations.Nicaragua isincludedin
that list, always with a reference back to page 210 (p. 206 of the French
version) of the Yearbook1946-1947for the text of the declaration where of

course the warning footnote is to be found. Soit is not the position that in
this series of seven Yearbooksthere is nothing to suggest any doubt about
the Nicaraguan declaration :on the contrary, the carefulreader is always
guided back to the text of the declaration in the Yearbook1947-1948,and
there he finds the cautionary footnote.

From the Yearbookof 1955-1956onwards there is a change. There is
again the same list of States whichrefers thereader back to page 210of the de la déclaration nicaraguayenne, la pratique étant, dans les Annuaires
suivants,derenvoyer àcepremierAnnuaireleslecteurs désireuxdeconsul-
ter ce texte.
La deuxièmerubrique faisant mention du Nicaragua dans ce même
Annuaire pour 1946-1947est la liste complète(que l'on retrouvedans les
Annuaires ultérieurs) desEtats ayant adhéré à la clause facultative. Cette

listecomporte,pour chaque Etat, la date de l'acceptation etlesconditions
qui s'y attachent, mais non le texte de la communication. Le Nicaragua
apparaît sur la liste de l'Annuairepour 1946-1947,page 222, àla place qui
lui revient dans l'ordre alphabétique,comme ayant fait une déclaration
<sans condition >)le <<24 IX 29 >).Une note en bas de page renvoie
toutefoisà la page 206pour letexte de la déclaration.Etla listeelle-même
est coifféepar le titre suivant, en caractères gras :

((Liste des Etats qui ont reconnu comme obligatoire lajuridiction
dela Courinternationale deJustice ouquisont encoreliés (stillbound)
par leur adhésion à la Disposition facultative du Statut de la Cour
permanente de Justice internationale (article 36du Statutde la Cour
internationale de Justice). ))

Il y a donc une conclusion sûre que l'onpeut tirer de cesAnnuaires (car le
mêmetitre revient dans plusieurs des volumes suivants) : c'est que les
Greffiers, àtout lemoins,considéraientl'expression ((stillin forc))del'ar-

ticle 36, paragraphe 5, comme l'équivalentde ((still bound >(encoreliés).
Conformément à lapratique usuelleen lamatière,la mention relative au
Nicaragua portée sur la liste figurant dans les Annuaires 1947-1948 à
1954-1955est tout simplement la reproduction exacte de cellequi figurait
dans l'Annuaire1946-1947.Le Nicaragua a paru attacher quelqueimpor-
tance à l'absence,dans cesvolumesultérieurs,de lanote indiquant qu'au-
cun instrument nicaraguayen de ratification du protocole de signature du
Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale n'avait été reçu à
Genève. Mais, commeje l'ai signalé plushaut, cette note ne figurait pas

davantage dans la liste, assortie d'un résumédes déclarations,de l'An-
nuaire 1946-1947 :elle apparaissait dans la section où était reproduit le
textemême deladéclarationnicaraguayenne. De plus,on trouve dans tous
les Annuaires allant de 1947-1948 à 1954-1955,au début de la section
consacréeaux (instruments O, une liste des Etats ayant fait des déclara-
tions. Or le Nicaragua y figure, mais toujours avec un renvoi priant le
lecteur de se reporter à la page 206 (page 210 de la version anglaise) de

l'Annuaire 1946-1947pour cequi est du texte de la déclaration,où figurait
évidemmentlanotedebas depage. Iln'estdoncpas exactdedirequecette
sériede sept Annuaires ne comportait aucun élémentde nature à susciter
des doutes au sujet de la déclaration nicaraguayenne : au contraire, le
lecteur attentif étaittoujours ramené autexte de la déclaration figurant
dans l'Annuaire1947-1948,où se trouvait la note debas depage qui devait
l'inciterà la prudence.
A partir de l'Annuaire 1955-1956, il se produit un changement. On

retrouve la même liste d'Etats renvoyant le lecteur à la page 206 de Yearbook1946-1947andits footnote. The change isin the summary list of
States "which are still bound by their declarations accepting the compul-
soryjurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice". There
Nicaragua now appears with a new footnote, which however reproduces
the 1946-1947footnote with a change in the second sentence making it
rather stronger. The whole note reads :

"According toa telegram dated November 29th, 1939,addressed to
the League of Nations, Nicaragua had ratified the Protocol of Sig-
nature of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice
(December 16th, 1920), and the instrument of ratification was to
follow.It doesnot appear, however,that theinstrument of ratification
was ever received by the League of Nations."

Thus from 1955-1956onwards,thereader waswarnedin twoplaces about
the doubts :first by the usual reference back, in the introductory list of
Optional-Clause States, to the text of the declaration in the 1946-1947
volume, with its cautionary footnote, and second by a new note for the
Nicaraguan entry in the summary of declarations of States "which arestill
bound by their declarations accepting the compulsoryjurisdiction of the
Permanent Court of International Justice", which note reinforces the

original note.

There isalsoanothercaution to thecarefulreader. Thus, for example, on
page 207 of Yearbook 1956-1957 we find the following very important
note :
"The texts ofdeclarations setout in this Chapterare reproducedfor
convenience of reference only.The inclusion of a declarationmade by
any State should not be regarded as an indication of the view enter-

tained by the Registry or,afortiori,by theCourt,regardingthenature,
scope or validity of the instrument in question."

This twofold reference to cautionary notes could have been prompted by
the Registrar, as we know from the Pleadings of the Parties, having had
letters of inquiry from Professor Manley Hudson, who was then advising
Honduras about the issuewhichlater camebefore this Courtinthe Arbitral

Award Made by the King of Spain case (I.C.J. Reports 1960, p. 192 ;
Professor Hudson, whodiedin 1960,didnot survivetotake part ascounsel
in the case, however). But the new note might also have been in anticipa-
tion of thenewformat of the Yearbookentries from 1956-1957onwards, by
which there were no longer two lists of these States, one for Article 36,
paragraph 2, declarations and one for Article 36, paragraph 5 ;but only
one general section in which the texts of the instruments are reproduced.
There is thus, after 1956-1957up to and including the latest Yearbook,no
need for a list referring back to the Yearbook in which the text of a
declaration isreproduced, because inthe newformat the text isto be found l'Annuaire1946-1947et à lanoteenbas depage,mais avecunremaniement
delalisteanalytique desEtats <(quisontencore liéspar leuracceptationde
la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour permanente de Justice internatio-
nale )):lamention relativeauNicaragua estmaintenant complétéeparune
nouvelle note de bas de page, qui reprend le texte de celle de 1946-1947,
avectoutefois,dans la deuxièmephrase, une modificationqui en renforce
le sens. La note se lit désormaiscomme suit :

(<Par télégrammedatédu 29 novembre 1939,adressé à la Société
des Nations, le Nicaragua avait ratifiéle protocole de signature du
Statut dela Courpermanente de Justiceinternationale (16 décembre
19201,et l'instrument de ratification devait suivre. Cependant, il

semble que ledit instrument de ratification ne soitjamais arrivé à la
Société desNations. ))
Ainsi donc, depuis 1955-1956,le lecteur est averti à deux repises qu'ily a
doute :d'abord, par le renvoi habituel,dans la listeintroductive des Etats

ayantadhéré à la clausefacultative, au texte deladéclarationfigurantdans
l'Annuaire 1946-1947,c'est-à-dire au texte assorti en note d'un avertisse-
ment ; et ensuite, par la nouvelle note dont s'accompagne la mention
réservée au Nicaragua dans la liste analytique des déclarationsdes Etats
(<quisont encoreliéspar leuracceptationdelajuridiction obligatoire dela
Courpermanente deJusticeinternationale O,notequirenforce lesensdela
- note originale.
Le lecteurattentif ne peut manquer de relever une autre mise en garde.
Aux pages 205-206de l'Annuaire 1956-1957on trouve deux phrases très

importantes, ainsi rédigées :
Les textes des déclarationsénoncées dans ce chapitre sontrepro-
duits uniquement pour la commodité du lecteur. L'inclusion de la
déclarationémanantd'un Etat quelconquene saurait être considérée

comme l'indication des vues du Greffe ni, à fortiori, de celles de la
Cour, sur la nature, la portée ou la validité de l'instrument en ques-
tion.))
Il se peut que cette double référenceait eu pour origine les demandes de

renseignements qui, comme la procédure écrite l'a montré,ont été adres-
séesau Greffierpar Manley Hudson, conseillerdu Honduras dans lelitige
quela Cour fut ultérieurementappelée à trancher souslenom d'affaire de
laSentencearbitrale renduepar leroid'Espagnele23décembre 1906(C.I.J.
Recueil1960,p. 192 ;Hudsonmouruttoutefoisl'annéedel'arrêt sans avoir
pu prendre part à la procédure en qualitéde conseil). Mais le but de la
nouvelle note était peut-être ausside préparer lanouvelle présentationde
l'Annuaire 1956-1957,année à partir de laquelle on ne trouve plus deux
listesd'Etats, se rapportant l'une aux déclarations faites au titre de l'ar-

ticle 36, paragraphe 2, et l'autre à l'article 36, paragraphe 5, mais une
sectiongénérale unique,reproduisant lestextesdesinstruments.C'estdire
qu'iln'yavait pas lieu,à partir de 1956-1957etjusqu'au dernier Annuaire
compris, de publier de liste renvoyant à l'Annuaire dans lequel étaitset out eachyear in this section ;it was, therefore, essential that the note
warning of the doubts about the status of Nicaragua's declaration should
appear against its entry in this, now, single list ; as, indeed, it invariably
does.

Thepoint needs to bemade withemphasisthat the successiveRegistrars
who compiled the Yearbook,which as the Preface saysin every Yearbook,
"in no way involves the responsibility of the Court" ', acted in the only
correctwayin simplystatingthefacts and makingno attemptto purport to
decide Nicaragua's statusone way or the other ; this would have been for
theRegistrar to act ultravires.Thus in everyYearbookthe more than casual
reader is led to the fact that a Nicaraguan ratification of the Protocol of
Signatureof the Statute of thePermanent Court appeared not tohavebeen
receivedat the Leagueof Nations. The Registrarcouldnothave done more
or lesswithout exceedinghisauthority. He had simply toinform thereader
that there was indeed a Nicaraguan declaration of acceptance of compul-
soryjurisdiction andtoadd notice of thefact that the necessaryratification
of the Protocol had not been received. The disclaimer note cited above
warns that the Yearbookentry is not to be regarded as involving even the
Registrar's own views. For the Court now to give such weight to these
entries isindeed startling. It is contrary to principle. It is at odds with the
noticesof disclaimerineach Yearbook,usuallyin more than one place.It is
in any event not supported by any more than a superficialreading of the
Yearbook entries.

Other publications, mainly governmental collections of treaties, were
mentioned by Nicaragua ; but these almost certainly use the Yearbookas
their source and usually Sayso. The ancillary notion that the Court is in
some way bound by the inclusion of Nicaragua in the list of States
accepting compulsoryjurisdiction in the Court's Annual Reports to the
General Assembly, can be dealt with shortly. It is an astonishing propo-
sition that the result of a fulladjudication of a difficult legalquestion,can
be in somewayforeclosedby a listin routine reports madeby the Court in
its administrative capacity. The purpose of that part of the Reports is to
givethe General Assembly a more or less accurate idea of the state of the
Optional-Clause jurisdiction from time to time ; it is certainly not to
prejudice, much less to decide, a dispute between Nicaragua and the

' Theseintroductory remarks signed personallyby the Registrar ceasedto have the
heading "Preface" with the 1961-1962volume.hey are always,however,printed ona
separate page irnrnediatelyfollowing the title-page. reproduit le texte des déclarations, puisque, dans l'Annuaire, nouvelle
présentation, ce texte figure chaque annéedans la section considérée ;il
était,en revanche,indispensable que la note faisant étatdes doutes sur la
validitédeladéclarationnicaraguayenneapparût enregard de la rubrique
consacréeau Nicaraguadans cette liste désormaisunique - cequi, main-
tenant, est invariablement le cas.
Il convient de souligner que les Greffiers successifsqui ont établil'An-
nuaire - lequel, pour reprendre les termes de la préface insérée dans
chacun d'entre eux, <n'engage en aucune façon la Cour >) ' se sont
comportés de la seule façon qui fût correcte, en se bornant à donner les

faits, sans vouloir trancher dela position du Nicaragua dans un sens ou un
autre ;en procédant autrement, ils auraient excédé leurs attributions. De
cettefaçon, lelecteur un tant soitpeuaverti estamené ànoter, dans chacun
des Annuaires, que la Société desNations ne semble pas avoir reçu de
ratification nicaraguayennedu protocoledesignaturedu Statut dela Cour
permanente. Les Greffiersne pouvaient faireni moins ni plus sans outre-
passer leurs pouvoirs. Leur rôle se bornait à informer le lecteur qu'il
existait bien une déclaration nicaraguayenne d'acceptation de la juridic-
tion obligatoire, en ajoutant que la nécessaireratification du protocole
n'avaitpas été reçue. La miseen gardecitéeplushaut avertitlelecteur que

les mentions figurant dans l'Annuaire ne doivent pas êtreconsidérées
comme l'expression de vues particulières, fût-ce celles du Greffier. 11est
doncplus quesurprenant devoir laCour attacher maintenant un tel poids
à cesmentions. Celava à l'encontre desprincipes admis. Celacontredit les
avertissementsinsérésdans chaque Annuaire, généralement en plusd'un
endroit. Enfin celan'estpas confirmépar une lecture un peu attentive des
Annuaires.

Le Nicaragua a fait étatd'autres publications, dont la plupart sont des

recueils de traités publiéspar divers pays qui presque certainement pren-
nent l'Annuaire comme source et, en général,le disent expressément.
Quant à l'idée avancée à titre subsidiaire que la Cour serait en quelque
façon liéepar la mention du Nicaragua dans la listedes Etats acceptant la
juridiction obligatoire qui figure dans les Rapports annuels de la Cour à
l'Assembléegénérale j, ne m'yattarderai pas. L'hypothèsequ'uneliste fi-
gurant dans lesrapports depureroutinefaitspar la Cour dans l'exercicede
ses fonctions administratives puisse en quelque sorte préjugerles conclu-
sions auxquelles elle pourrait parvenir, au terme d'une procédure judi-
ciaire, sur une difficilequestion juridique, nelaisse pas d'être surprenante.

L'objetde cettesectiondes Rapportsde la Cour àl'Assembléegénérale est

' Ces observations liminaires signées personnellement par le Greffier ont cessé
d'apparaître sousle ti<Préface>)àcompter de l'Annuairepour 1961-1962.Ellesont
continuétoutefoisà figurer sur une page distincte suivant immédiatement la page de
titre. 545 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITiES (SEPO. P.IENNINGS)

United States. The wholelist isin twoshortparagraphs, pointing out that a
number of States have madereservations,but with no indication which, or

the nature of anyreservations. For those who wish to know more, it givesa
reference to the Yearbook.Nobody should be able to fa11into the error of
supposing the list definitive. Nobody concerned with the law involved in
the present case would regard it as other than difficult ; it would be
extraordinary to allow its decision tobe prejudiced by a side-wind from a
routine, administrative report.

II. THELETTER OF 6 APRIL1984 FROM SECRETAR YF STATESHULTZ

Sincein my opinionArticle 36,paragraph 5,of the Court's Statute isnot
applicable to Nicaragua's 1929Declaration, and since, accordingly, Nica-
ragua does not in my viewhave standing to prosecute this case before the
Court without the special agreement of the United States,there is strictly
no need to consider any of the other matters in contention between the
Parties. As, however, the Court has decided that it hasjurisdiction under
Article 36, paragraph 2, it may be convenient briefly to indicate my own
view upon the effect of the Shultz letter, as well as of the effect of the
United States multilateral treaties reservation. The text of the letter of
6April 1984from Secretary of State Shultz is as follows :

"1have thehonor on behalf of theGovernment of theUnited States
of America to refer to the Declaration of my Govemment of August
26, 1946,conceming the acceptance by the United States of America
of the compulsoryjurisdiction of the International Court of Justice,

and to state that the aforesaid declaration shallnot apply to disputes
with any Central American stateor ansingout of or related to events
in Central America, any of which disputes shall be settled in such
manner as the parties to them may agree.

Notwithstanding the terms of the aforesaid declaration, thispro-
viso shall take effect immediately and shall remain in force for two
years, so as to foster the continuing regional dispute settlement pro-
cess which seeks a negotiated solution to the interrelated political,
economic and security problems of Central America."

This raises many questions, but perhaps the most important one -
certainly from the point of view of the general law goveming Optional- dedonner acelle-ciuneidéplusou moinsexacte dela position concernant
laclausefacultative ; il n'estcertainementpas depréjuger,etmoinsencore
de trancher, l'issued'un différendentre leNicaragua et les Etats-Unis. La
liste se composed'ailleurs de deux courts paragraphes signalant que cer-
tains Etats ont émisdes réserves,sans indiquer quels sont ces Etats, ni
quelle est la nature de leurs réserves. Elle renvoieceux qui voudraient en
savoirplus àl'Annuaire.Nul ne peut commettrel'erreur decroire que cette
listeépuiselesujet.Quant àla présente affaire,tousceux qui s'intéressent
auxquestionsdedroit qu'ellemet enjeu conviendront de sadifficulté ; et il

serait singulier que la Cour, pour la trancher, se laisse détourner de sa
course par un banal rapport administratif.

II. LA LETTRE DU 6 AVRIL 1984 DE M. SHULTZ ,ECRÉTAIRE D'ÉTAI

Etant donné qu'à mon avis l'article 36, paragraphe 5, du Statut de la
Cour n'est pas applicable a la déclaration du Nicaragua de 1929et qu'en
conséquencele Nicaragua n'a pas qualité pour introduire cette instance
devant la Cour sans l'accord formel des Etats-Unis, il n'est pasa stricte-
ment parler nécessairede considérerles autres points de désaccordentre
les Parties. Cependant, comme la Cour a décidéqu'ellea compétenceen
vertu del'article 36,paragraphe 2, de son Statut, peut-être convient-ilque
j'indique brièvement maposition quant àl'effetdela lettre de M.Shultzet
dela réservedesEtats-Unis relativeauxtraités mulilatéraux.Letexte dela

lettre en date du 6 avril 1984de M. Shultz, secrétaired'Etat, est le sui-
vant :
<<Au nom du Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d'Amérique, et me
référantà ladéclarationque mongouvernement afaite le26août 1946
au sujetde l'acceptation par les Etats-Unis d'Amériquede lajuridic-

tion obligatoirede la Courinternationale de Justice,j'ai l'honneur de
faire savoir que ladite déclaration ne sera pas applicable aux diffé-
rends avec l'un quelconque des Etats de l'Amériquecentrale ou
découlantd'événementsenAmériquecentralo eu s'yrapportant, tous
différends qui seront réglésde la manièredont les parties pourront
convenir.
Nonobstant lestermesde ladéclaration susmentionnée,laprésente
notification prendra effet immédiatement et restera en vigueur pen-
dant deux ans, de manière a encourager le processus continu de
règlementdes différends régionaux quivise à une solution négociée

des problèmes interdépendants d'ordre politique, économique etde
sécurité quise posent en Amérique centrale. ))
Cette lettre soulèvedenombreusesquestions, mais laplus importante -
en tout cas au point de vue du droit généralquirégitlesacceptations delaClause acceptances - is the effect in law of the manifest contradiction
between the 1946United StatesDeclaration of acceptance of compulsory
jurisdiction for "five years and thereafter subject to six months' notice",
and the Shultz letter, which is expressed to take effect irnrnediately and to
remain in force for two years, notwithstanding the terms of the 1946
Declaration.

Beforeattempting to answerthis question,it may be useful to make two
preliminary observations.First, the discussion in the oral proceedings of
whether or not the legalposition ofdeclarations under the Optional Clause
is,or isnot, governed by the lawof treaties, 1foundnot entirely helpful and
in any event inconclusive. The fact of the matter must surely be that the

Optional-Clause régimeis sui generis.Doubtless some parts of the law of
treaties may be applied by useful analogy ; but so may the law governing
unilateraldeclarations ;and so, most certainly, may the law deriving frcm
the practice of States in respect of such declarations.

The second prelirninary observation is that 1 do not think one need
spend much time on the somewhat theoreticalquestion whether theShultz
letter amounts to amodificationora substitution of the 1946Declaration.
The major problems of principle would apply to either. (See also Right of
PassageoverIndian Territory,Preliminaty Objections,I.C.J. Reports1957,
pp. 143-144.)It looksontheface of it likeamodification since the original
declaration is untouched for most States and disputes and there seems to
be neither reason nor profit in attempting to go behnd the United States

own assertionthat it was notintended asawithdrawal,but asa temporary
modification or partial suspension.

Coming now to the question of the contradiction between the terms
rationetemporisof the 1946Declaration,and the terms of the Shultz letter,
it is of course established law - the so-called rule in the Nottebohm case
(I.C.J. Reports 1953,p. 123) - that the critical moment for the determi-
nation whether ornot there isjurisdiction in respect of aparticular case,is
the moment when the Court becomes seised of that case, which is the
moment of seisin. In consequence of this rule it is not possible in law for a
government effectively to change its declaration, after seisin, in any way
that might purport to deprive the Court ofjurisdiction. Thus, in the Right

ofPassageover Indian Territorycase(I.C.J. Reports1957,p. 142)theCourt
said :
"It is a rule of law generally accepted,as well asone acted upon in
thepast by theCourt,that, once theCourthas been validly seisedof a
dispute, unilateral action by the respondent State in terminating its
Declaration,in whole or in part, cannot divest the Court ofjurisdic-

tion."
But the problem in the present case is quite different : it is whether a

158clausefacultative - est sans doute l'effet que peut avoir en droit la con-
tradiction manifeste entre la déclaration par laquelle les Etats-Unis ont
acceptéen 1946la juridiction obligatoire <(pour une durée de cinq ans
[étantentendu qu'elle restera] en vigueur de plein droit )),sauf préavisde
six mois, et la lettre de M. Shultz qui, est-il précisé,doit prendre effet
immédiatement et rester en vigueur pendant deux ans, nonobstant les
termes de la déclaration de 1946.
Avant toutefois d'essayer de répondre à cette question, peut-être est-il

bon defaire deux observationsliminaires. Tout d'abord, je n'ai pas trouvé
trèsutiles les débatsde la procédure orale sur la question de savoir si la
valeur juridique des déclarations faites au titre de la clause facultative
relèveou non du droit des traités ;et ces débats, en tout cas, ne m'ont pas
paru concluants. En réalité, sans doute le régimede la clausefacultative
est-il un régimesui generis.On peut certes appliquer par analogiecertains
élémentsdu droit des traités ;mais on peut appliquer tout aussi bien
certainsélémentsdudroit qui régit lesdéclarations unilatérales,et,mieux
encore, du droit découlant de la pratique des Etats en la matière.

Ma seconde observation est que je ne crois pas nécessaire d'examiner
longuementlaquestion, assezthéorique,de savoirsi lalettre de M. Shultz a
pour objet de modifier ou de remplacer la déclaration de1946.Dans l'un et
l'autre cas, les mêmesgrands problèmes de principe se poseraient (voir
aussi l'affaire du Droit depassage sur territoire indien,exceptionsprélimi-
naires, C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 143-144). A première vue, il semble qu'il
s'agisse d'une modification, puisque la déclaration originale subsiste
inchangéepour ce qui est de laplupart des Etatset des différends,et il ne
paraît ni raisonnable ni utile de chercher plus loin que l'affirmation des

Etats-Unis d'après laquelle cette lettre n'a pas pour but de dénoncer leur
déclaration,mais seulement de la modifier temporairement ou de la sus-
pendre partiellement.
Pour en venir à la question de la contradiction entre les termes ratione
temporisde la déclarationde 1946et les termes de la lettre de M. Shultz, il
est évidemmentétablien droit - c'estla règledite de l'affaire Nottebohm
(C.I.J. Recueil 1953,p. 123) - que le moment critique à considérer pour
déterminersilaCour aou non compétencepour une espèceparticulièreest
le moment où la Cour est saisie de l'affaire, c'est-à-dire la date de la

saisine ;le corollairede cette règleétantqu'iln'est pas possible en droit à
un gouvernement de modifier valablement sa déclaration après la saisine
pour exclure la compétencede la Cour. C'est ainsi que, dans l'affaire du
Droitdepassagesur territoire indien(C.I.J. Recueil1957,p. 142),la Cour a
affirmé :

<C'estune règlede droit généralementacceptéeet appliquée dans
le passé par la Cour qu'une fois la Cour valablement saisie d'un
différend,l'action unilatérale de1'Etatdéfendeur, dénonçant toutou
partie de sa déclaration, ne peut retirer compétence à la Cour. >)

Mais leproblèmeenl'espèceest tout à fait différent:ils'agitde savoirsiun547 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTiVITIES (SEP .P. TENNINGS)

government canlawfully and effectivelychangetheterms ofits declaration
before seisin ; in the present case, indeed, only hours before seisin and in
direct contemplation of the particular case of which the Court is seised.
This question seems to be, for the Court, a matter prima impressionis ;

though it is naturally one that has attracted the attention of commen-
tators.
Obviously, the making of a declaration under the Optional Clause
establishes some sort of relationship with other States that have made
declarations ;although it is not easy to Saywhat kind of legalrelationship
it is.It isa relationshipcreated by agreatvariety of unilateral declarations,
al1 having, however, the common element of being made within the
framework of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Court's Statute. The decla-
rations are statements of intention ;and statements of intention madein a
quite forma1way. Obviously, however, they do not amount to treaties or
contracts ;or, at least, if one says they are treaties, or contracts, one im-
mediately has to go on to Saythey are a special kind of treaty, or contract,

partaking only of some of the rules normally applicable to such matters.
Thus, however one starts, one ends by treating them as more or less sui
generis. In short, it seemsto me that, interestingasit might be to speculate
about thejuridical taxonomy of Optional-Clause declarations, it is better
to begin the inquiry not from a label but from the actual practice and
expectation of States today.

Law develops by precedent, and it is that which givesit consistencyand
predictability. But legalprecedentslikeanyother must be seenin the Light
ofhistory and ofchanging times. In theperiod of the PermanentCourt and
even in 1946when the United StatesDeclaration was made, an important
proportion of Stateshad subscribed to the Optional-Clause system.Today

that is no longer the case. The Optional-Clause States are distinctlyin the
rninority and very many of the most important and powerful States have
not accepted compulsoryjurisdiction and show little indication of any
ambition to do so. Any assessment of the position in contemporary prac-
ticemust take into accounttheposition of this majority of States which do
not subscribe to the Optional-Clause system. It is well described by Wal-
dock in his well-known article :

"A State which is a party to the Statute of the Court but does not
make a declaration under the Optional Clause is in a highly favoured
position. Acceptance of the Statute by itself carries no liability to
appear in front of the Court in acontentiouscase at thesuit of another
State. Beforeit can come under anyliability to appear asdefendant in
acase,aState must specificallyhave acceptedtheCourt's contentious
jurisdiction either by treaty or by unilateral declaration under the
Optional Clause. On the other hand, the mere fact that a State is a
party to the Statute givesit the power, under the Optional Clause, at
any moment to put itself into the position of being able instantly togouvernementpeut légitimementet valablement modifier les termes de sa

déclaration avant la saisine ;et mêmequelquesheures seulementavant la
saisine, et en prévisionde l'affaire particulièredont la Cour va êtresaisie.
Apparemment, c'est lapremière fois que la Cour a à s'occuper d'un tel
problème,qui cependant n'a évidemmentpas manquéd'attirer l'attention
des commentateurs.
Manifestement, une déclaration faite au titre de la clause facultative
établitunecertainerelation aveclesautresEtats déclarants,encorequ'ilne
soit pas facile de préciserlegenrede relationjuridique dont il s'agit.C'est
en tout cas une relation résultant d'une grande variétéde déclarations
unilatérales,mais ayant toutes la qualité commune d'avoir étéfaites en
application de l'article 36,paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour. Ces décla-
rations sont desdéclarations d'intention ; et, même,desdéclarations d'in-

tention faites d'une façon très formelle. Mais il est évident qu'elles ne
constituent ni destraitésni des contrats ;ou du moins, sion les qualifie de
traitésou de contrats, il faut immédiatement ajouter qu'il s'agitde traités
ou de contrats d'un genre particulier, qui ne font jouer qu'une partie des
règlesnormalement applicables. Ainsi, d'où qu'onparte, il faut bien finir
par admettre que lesdéclarationssontd'uncaractèresuigeneris. Bref,pour
intéressantqu'ilpuisse êtrede spéculersurla nature juridique exactedes
déclarations d'acceptation de la clausefacultative, il me semble qu'il y a
intérêt àfonder l'analyse,non pas sur une définition abstraite, mais sur la
pratique réelleet sur ce qu'attendent aujourd'hui les Etats.
Ledroit progresse par précédents,etc'est cequi luiconfèrecohérenceet
prévisibilité. Mais, endroit comme ailleurs, les précédents doiventêtre
considérés à lalumièrede l'histoireetdel'évolutiondesmŒurs.Al'époque

de la Cour permanente, et même en 1946, date de la déclaration des
Etats-Unis, nombreuxétaient les Etats souscrivantausystème de la clause
facultative. Ce n'est plus le.cas aujourd'hui :les Etats ayant acceptéla
clausefacultative sont nettement en minorité,et, parmi les Etats les plus
puissants et lesplus importants, beaucoup n'ont pas acceptélajuridiction
obligatoirede la Cour et ne paraissent guèreenclins à le faire. Il convient
donc, pour porter un jugement sur la pratique contemporaine, de tenir
compte de la position de cette majorité d'Etats qui n'ont pas adhéréau
systèmede la clausefacultative. Comme le disait fort bien sir Humphrey
Waldock dans une étude connue de tous :

(<Un Etat qui estpartie au Statut de laCour,maisqui n'apasfait de
déclaration acceptant la clausefacultative, se trouve dans une situa-
tion toutà fait privilégiée.Eneffet,l'adhésion auStatut n'entraîne en
soi aucuneobligation de comparaître devant la Cour dans une affaire
contentieuse introduitepar un autre Etat :pour encourirl'obligation
de se présenteren qualitéde défendeurdans une affaire donnée, un
Etat doit avoir expressémentacceptélajuridiction contentieuse de la
Cour, soit par un traité, soit par une déclaration unilatérale d'accep-

tation faiteconformément à la clausefacultative.Parcontre,lesimple
fait d'être partieau Statut donne à l'Etat, en vertu de la clause bring before the Court any States which have already subscribed to
theOptional Clausein any case covered by the terms of their decla-
rations. Being a party to the Statute, it has the right under the
Optional Clause at any time and without reference to any other

Stateto make a declaration recognizing the compulsoryjurisdiction
of the Court in relation to States which also subscribe to the Optional
Clause ...

There is, in consequence, a glaring inequality in the position of a
State whichdoes andaState whichdoes not make a declaration under
the Optional Clause. The former State, for practical purposes, is
continuouslyliable to be broughtbeforethe Court compulsorily at the
suit of the latter, whereas the latter is not liable to be brought before
the Courtat thesuit of theformer unless and until it chooses toinitiate
proceedings before the Court as plaintiff and makes a declaration
under the Optional Clause ad hoc expressly for that purpose."
(BYBIL, 1955-1956,pp. 244 ff., at p. 280.)

It is,therefore, at leastin part inthelight ofwhat Waldock goesonto cal1
"this fundamental lackofreciprocity between thepositions of States which
do and States which do not make declarations", that the answer to the
question of the legal effect of declarations should be given. It is this
position of inequality and lack of reciprocity that has inevitablyproduced
reservations by which the declarant State can withdraw or alter a decla-

ration with immediate effect. Even so there remains inequality with those
Stateswhichhave chosen not to make any declaration at all. In thisclimate
it would in my viewbe asimpracticable as it would be inequitable to hold
that a State whose declaration, like that of the United States, is expressed
as subject to sixmonths' notice, is bound by that statement of intention in
respect of al1 corners, including those very many States which have
declined to risk even a potential liability to jurisdiction ;though it is of
course bound once an application has been made.

A solution whichhas the attraction of compromise isanovel application
to relations even before seisin of the principle of reciprocity. This is the
solution which was espoused by the United States in its argument before
the Court. It has the merit of involving a principle - the idea of States
"accepting the same obligation" - which is written into the express terms

of Article 36, paragraph 2, itself, and which al1previous practice and
doctrine has regarded as the very basis andjustification of the Optional-
Clause system.
This reciprocity test applied before seisinwould presumably mean that
if one took, for example, the relationship of a StateA with a declaration
subject to 12 months' notice of cesser, and a State B with a declaration
subject to 6 months' notice of cesser, StateA would be entitled to give 6
months' notice ofcesseras against StateB ; though it isnot easyto imagine facultative, la faculté de se mettre à tout moment en mesure de
traduire immédiatement devant la Cour tout Etat ayant déjà accepté
la clause facultative, dans toute affaire à laquelle s'appliquent les

termesde sa déclaration.Etant partie au Statut, cet Etat a le droit, en
vertu de la clause facultative, de faireà tout moment, et sans men-
tionner un Etat déterminé, une déclaration reconnaissantla juridic-
tion obligatoire de la Cour à l'égarddes Etats qui ont également
souscrit à la clause facultativ...
En conséquence,un Etat qui a fait une déclaration en vertu de la
clausefacultative et un Etat qui n'en a pas fait se trouvent dans une
situation de flagrante inégalité. toutes fins pratiques, lepremier de
ces Etats peut toujours êtreobligatoirement traduit devant la Cour
dans une instance introduitepar le second,alors que celui-ci ne peut

pas êtretraduit devant la Cour à la demande du premier tant qu'iln'a
pas choisi d'introduire lui-même une instance devant la Cour en
qualité de demandeur et qu'il n'a pas fait, en vertu de la clause
facultative,une déclaration d'acceptation à cette fin expresse.>)(Bri-
tish Year Book of International Law, 1955-1956,p. 280.)

C'est donc, au moins en partie, en tenant compte de ce que Waldock
qualifieensuite d7(<absencefondamentale deréciprocitéentre lesEtatsqui
ont fait une déclaration et ceux qui n'en ont pas fait >)qu'il convient de
répondre à la question de l'effet juridique des déclarations. C'est cette
inégalité, ce manquede réciprocité,qui incite inévitablement les Etats
déclarants à seréserverledroit de dénoncerou de modifierleurdéclaration
avec effet immédiat ; encore subsiste-t-il une inégalité par rapport aux
Etats qui ont choisi de ne pas faire de déclaration du tout. Dans ce
contexte, il me paraît aussi difficilequ'inéquitable de vouloir qu'un Etat
dont la déclaration,comme celle des Etats-Unis, envisage d'un préavisde

six mois, soit liépar cette déclaration d'intention à l'égardde tout un
chacun,etnotamment àl'égarddestrèsnombreux Etats qui sesont refusés
à accepter toute obligation,même éventuelle,de sesoumettre àlajuridic-
tion de la Cour - étantentendu évidemmentque ledit Etat est ainsi liédès
qu'il y a eu dépôt de requête.
Ilestune solutionquiprésente lesattraits d'un compromis,et qui repose
sur une application nouvelle du principe de réciprocité aux relations exis-
tant mêmeavant la saisine : c'est cellequia étépréconiséedevant la Cour
par les Etats-Unis. Elle a l'avantage de faire jouer un principe - l'idée
d'Etats ((acceptant la mêmeobligation H - qui est expressément inscrit

dans les termes de l'article6,paragraphe 2,et où lapratique etladoctrine
dans leur ensemblevoient lefondement mêmeetlajustification du système
de la clause facultative.
Cecritèrederéciprocitéappliqué avantla saisinesignifieraitsans doute
que,sil'onconsidèrepar exemplelarelation entre un Etat A, ayantfait une
déclarationstipulant un préavisde dénonciationde douze mois, et un Etat
B,ayant fait une déclaration stipulant un préavisde dénonciation de six
mois,1'EtatA aurait ledroit de dénoncersa déclarationavecpréavisde six circumstances in which State Awould be much benefited by indulging this
right. There would, however, be obvious practical benefits where State B
has reserved the right to withdraw or alter at any time ; for then State A

would be able to justify, in relation to State B, a withdrawal with imme-
diate effect, presumably even when made in face of an anticipated appli-
cation by State B. This is the way in which the United States thought it
should be applied in the present case ; though their argument needs the
further proposition that Nicaragua's "unconditional" declaration is one
which could itself be withdrawn or altered at any time with immediate
effect.

Leaving on one side for the moment whether or not it would in the

present case have the particular result for which the United States con-
tends, it may be accepted that some such application of a doctrine of
pre-seisinreciprocity is a possible and practicable solution of the problem,
that has considerable attraction.
The idea of applying reciprocity before 'seisinrather than after - or
rather at seizin - is, however, not free from difficulty and would be
somethng of an innovation. At seisin there are three factors, not two,
which enter into the calculation whether or not the Court hasjurisdiction ;
there are the terms of the declarations of the two States concerned, but
there is also the terms of the application in the case. It is the latter which

makes practicable the search for a coincidence between the two declara-
tions ; and makes it practicable because the necessary coincidence is
limited to coincidence in respect of the subject-matter of the application.
As the Court said in the Right of Passage overIndian Territory case :

"When a case is subrnitted to the Court, it is always possible to
ascertain what are, at the moment, the reciprocal obligations of the
Parties in accordance with their respective Declaration." (I.C.J.
Reports 1957, p. 143.)

It isalmost an implication of this dictumthat it isnot possible to makethat
ascertainment other than at the moment when a case is submitted to the
Court ;at any ratenot in quite the same way. Moreover, in that case, the
Court apparently saw no objection to the existence of a degree of uncer-
tainty in the reciprocal rights and obligations before an application has
been made (ibid., p. 143).

Nevertheless, what is sought to be "ascertained" at seisin - namely
jurisdiction in respect of the subject-matter of the application - is quite
different from what is in issue here :namely whether, or to what extent, a

State can withdraw or alter its declaration, contrary to the terms of the
declaration, before seisin.The situation ismaterially different in respect of
the very question at issue, for whereas after seisin even the most flexible
declaration may not be altered in itsimpact on the case,there are, even onmois à l'égardde YEtat B, encore qu'il ne soit pas facile d'imaginer les
circonstances où 1'EtatA aurait grand avantage à user de ce droit. Il y
aurait en revanchedesavantagespratiques évidents dans lecas où l'Etat B
se serait réservéle droit de dénoncer ou de modifier à tout moment sa
déclaration ;car 1'EtatA pourrait alorsjustifier à l'égardde 1'EtatB un
retrait aveceffet immédiat,même, if laut lesupposer,devantlaprobabilité
del'introduction d'une instance par 1'EtatB.C'est ainsique lesEtats-Unis
pensent que le principe de réciprocité devrait s'appliquer en l'espèce -
encore que leur position doive êtreétayéepar l'argument supplémentaire

quela déclaration << sanscondition ))du Nicaragua peut être dénoncée ou
modifiée à tout moment avec effet immédiat.
En laissant de côtépour le moment la question de savoir si, dans la
présenteespèce,le résultat serait effectivement celui que recherchent les
Etats-Unis, il faut reconnaître qu'une telle application de la doctrine de la
réciprocité avant la saisineest une solution possible et commode du pro-
blème,et qui n'est pas sans attraits.
L'idéed'appliquer la réciprocité avant la saisineet non pas après - ou

plutôt, de l'appliquer avant la date de la saisineet non pas à cette date-
n'estcependantpas exempte de difficulté,et seraitjusqu'à un certainpoint
une innovation. Au moment de la saisine, en effet, il y a trois facteurs, et
non deux, qui entrent en ligne de compte pour déterminer si la Cour a
compétenceou non :il y a les termes des déclarations des deux Etats
intéressésm, ais il a aussiles termes de la requêteintroductive d'instance.
Ce sont ceux-ci qui permettent de rechercher la coïncidence nécessaire
entre lesdeuxdéclarations ; etilslepermettent parcequecettecoïncidence
ne saurait êtrequ'une coïncidenceconcernant l'objet mêmede la requête.
Comme l'a dit la Cour dans l'affaire du Droit de passage sur territoire

indien :
<<Quand uneaffaire est soumise àlaCour,il est toujours possible de
déterminerquelles sont, à cemoment, les obligationsréciproquesdes

Parties en vertu de leurs déclarations respectives. ))(C.I.J. Recueil
1957, p. 143.)
Ce prononcé a pour ainsi dire pour corollaire qu'il n'est pas possible de
procéder àcettedétermination à un autre moment que celuioù l'affaire est

soumise à la Cour ; ou du moins qu'à un autre moment cela n'est pas
possible de lamêmefaçonexactement. De plus, dans l'affairecitée,laCour
n'a apparemment pas vu d'objection à l'existence d'un certain élément
d'incertitude quant aux droits et obligationsréciproquesexistant avant le
dépôt de la requête(ibid., p. 143).
Cependant,ce quel'on cherche à <<déterminer ))aumoment de lasaisine
- lacompétenceparrapport à l'objetde larequête - est trèsdifférentde ce
qui est enjeu ici: àsavoir si,ou dans quelle mesure, un Etat peut retirer ou
modifier sa déclaration, contrairement aux termes de celle-ci, avant la

saisine.La situation elle-mêmeestsubstantiellementdifférente. Sieneffet,
après la saisine, la déclaration, aussi flexible soit-elle,ne peut plus être
modifiéedans ses effets sur l'espèce, ilexiste, mêmeselon la concep-tion la plus rigoureuse, certaines possibilités au moins de modifier la

déclaration avant la saisine - par exemple, conformément à ses termes
mêmes.

Toutefois, la conclusionà laquelleje suisarrivéest que, quels que soient
les avantages de la réciprocitépour la solution de ce problème, le fait est
que la pratique des Etats - en tout cas, la pratique récente desEtats - a
déjàdépassé cestade.Toutindique eneffet quelesEtatsqui ont souscrit au
régimede la clause facultative en sont venus dans leur ensemble à consi-
dérerqu'ils peuvent légitimentdénoncerou modifier àleur gré leur décla-

ration d'acceptation, à la seule condition de le faire avant la saisine. Les
précédentsnemanquentpas où cela a étéfaitsanssusciter de protestation
effective,et mêmed , ans des cas récents,sans susciter aucuneprotestation.
Mais je m'arrêteraibrièvement sur certains aspects de cette pratique
moderne.
Les exemples de changements apportés aux déclarations avant la
seconde guerre mondiale (Colombie, 1936 ;Paraguay, 1938 ;Australie,
Canada, France, Inde, Nouvelle-Zélande,Afrique du Sud et Royaume-
Uni, 1939)n'ont qu'un lien assez lointain avec la question actuellement
soumise à la Cour : àcette époque,lacommunautéinternationale des na-

tions était relativement restreinte, et la plupart de ces nations avaient
acceptéle systèmede la clause facultative, de sorte qu'il n'yavait ni l'iné-
galiténi l'absence de réciprocité qu'onobserve de nosjours, où un grand
nombre d7Etats n'ont pas adhéréa ce système. La seuleobservation à
propos de ces premiers exemples est peut-êtreque les protestations,
relativement peu nombreuses, restèrent sans aucun effet, et que les décla-
rations subsistèrent telles que modifiées.
Pour ce qui est de la pratique plus récente, qui est beaucoup plus
abondante, l'élément lp elus significatià maints égardsest lenombre(par
rapport au nombre des Etats déclarants)d'Etats qui ont maintenant fait
desdéclarationsenseréservant expressément le droitde lesdénonceroude

les modifier avec effet immédiat. Cedroit a été reconnu par la Cour dans
l'affaire du Droit depassage sur territoireindien, où elle évoquele

droit pour de nombreux signataires de la disposition facultative,

l'Inde y comprise, de mettre fin àleur déclaration d'acceptation par
simple notification sans préavisobligatoire )>(C.I.J. Recueil 1957,
p. 143).
Et il appertquepas moinç.dequinzedéclarationsréserventaujourd'hui un

droit de modification avec effet immédiat :Australie, Botswana, Canada,
ElSalvador,Kenya, Malawi, Malte, Maurice, Norvège,Nouvelle-Zélande,
Portugal,Royaume-Uni, Somalie,SwazilandetTogo - soitprès d'untiers
des déclarations actuellement en vigueur. Peut-être dira-t-onque cela ne
fait que démontrer la possibilité de réserver expressémentIe droit de viously,sincea State need not acceptcompulsoryjurisdiction at all,it may
accept compulsory jurisdiction subject to conditions, including even a
power ofinstant denunciation. Butitisequally arguable that, givennow so
many express reservations of a right of immediate denunciation or modi-
fication, the express stipulation made in a unilateral and voluntary decla-
ration isinserted to maketheposition clear, or in order to recite modalities
of withdrawal or alteration ; and that this body of practice supports the
proposition that the right is now, whatever may have been the position at

an earlier period, one generally available.

In many waysthe most striking of the examples of Statesclaiming such a
right are the withdrawals or modifications by those States, which, often
without having expressly reserved such a right, have made thechange with
immediate effect and with the obvious intention - asin thepresent case -
or frustrating an anticipated case,or a classof cases.There are no lessthan
11 instances of modifications made in the absence of any expressly
reserved right to do so ;three examples have been provided by the United
Kingdom (2 June 1955 ;31 October 1955 ; 18 April 1957) ; France has
produced two examples (10 July 1959 ; 20 May 1966) ; other States that
have resorted to this device, once, are Australia, on 6 February 1954 ;
South Africa, 13September 1955 ;Canada, 7April 1970 ; Philippines, 18
January 1972 ;India, 18April 1974.Sixof these were certainly in order to

avoid applications on subjects which the State concerned wished to avoid
litigating. The Australian modification of 1954,for example, was made to
frustrate a possible Japanese application regarding pearl fisheries in the
seas between Australia and Japan. The United Kingdom twice narrowed
the scope of its declaration ;once specificallyto avoid an application over
its dispute with SaudiArabia over the Buraimi Oasis (after the breakdown
of the attempted arbitration). Canada's new reservation to its declaration
in 1970was specifically to avoid any application questioning the lawful-
ness of Canada's 1970legislation establishing an anti-pollution zone of
claimed Canadian jurisdiction extending 100miles off its northern Coast
into Arctic waters. The Prime Minister of Canada stated to the press
that,

"it wasimportant to make the reservation the moment weintroduced
the law for fear that at any moment there may be some litigation
begun which we would be too late to withdraw from" (ILM, 9-
600).

In none of thesecaseswas therea forma1protest whch questioned the right
of an exclusory modification with immediate effect and in the absence of
an expressly reserved right to modify. In the Canadian case, the United
States vigorouslyprotested the lawfulnessof the Canadian legislation. Yet
far from denyingCanada's right to modify itsOptional-Clauseacceptance,
the United Statesaccepted its effect.A PressReleaseof 15Apnl 1970(No.modificationimmédiate ;car,manifestement, siles Etats ne sont pas tenus
d'accepter lajuridiction obligatoire, ils peuvent l'accepter sous certaines
conditions, ycompris mêmelafacultédedénonciation immédiate.Maison
pourrait égalementsoutenir que, vu les nombreuses réserves expressesdu

droit de dénonciation ou de modification immédiate, le fait d'introduire
dans une déclaration unilatéraleet volontaireune stipulation dans ce sens
apour objet de mieuxpréciserlaposition de 1'Etatdéclarant ou d'indiquer
les modalitésde dénonciation ou de modification ;et que cette pratique
fréquente confirmel'idéeque cedroit est maintenant généralementadmis,
quelle qu'ait pu êtrela situation auparavant.
A maints égards, lesexemplesplus marquants sont lesdénonciations ou
modifications notifiéespar des Etats qui,souvent sans s'être expressément
réservé untel droit, ont annoncéces changements avec effet immédiat et
dans l'intention manifeste - comme c'est le cas en l'espèce - de prévenir
l'ouverture d'une instance, ou d'une catégorie d'instances particulière.Il
n'existe pas moins de onze exemples de modifications faites sans que ce

droit eût étéexpressément réservé : le Royaume-Uni l'a fait trois fois
(2juin 1955,31 octobre 1955,18avril 1957),la France deux fois (IOjuillet
1959,20mai 1966),etlesEtats suivantsune fois :Australie (6février1954),
Afrique du Sud (13 septembre 1955),Canada (7 avril 1970),Philippines
(18janvier 1972)et Inde (18 avril 1974). Sixde ces modifications ont été
faites, celaest avérép,our éviterdesrequêtesconcernant desquestionsque
1'Etatintéressésouhaitait soustraireau règlementjudiciaire. La modifica-
tion australienne de 1954, par exemple, avait pour objet d'écarter une
éventuellerequête japonaise sur les pêcheriesde perles dans les mers
situéesentre l'Australie etleJapon. Le Royaume-Uni a restreint par deux
fois la portéede sa déclaration,dans le but exprès d'éviterune requête sur
son différendavecl'Arabie Saoudite concernant l'oasisde Buraimi (après

l'échecdes efforts d'arbitrage). La nouvelle réserveapportéeen 1970 à la
déclaration canadienne étaitexpressémentdestinée à évitertoute requête
pouvant mettre en cause la légitimitédes textes législatifsde 1970 par
lesquels le Canada avait instauré dans les eaux arctiques une zone anti-
pollution de juridiction canadienne s'étendant à 100 milles de sa côte
septentrionale. D'après le premier ministre canadien lui-même,parlant à
la presse,

il importait de faire cette réserveau moment où nous avons pro-
mulgué la loi,de crainte qu'une procédure judiciaire ne puisse être
engagéetrop tard pour que nous réussissions à nous y soustraire ))
(International Legal Materials, 9-600).

Dans aucun de ces cas, il n'y a eu de protestation formelle mettant en
causeledroitdefaire une modification restrictive aveceffetimmédiatet en
l'absence d'une réserve expresse du droit de modification. Dans le cas du
Canada, les Etats-Unis ont énergiquement contesté la légitimitéde la
législationcanadienne. Pourtant, loin de nier au Canada le droit de modi-
fier son adhésion à la clause facultative, les Etats-Unis en ont accepté 121), setting out a "Department of State Statement on Government of
Canada's Bills on Limits of the Territorial Sea", contains the following
passage:

"If, however, the Canadian Government is unwilling to await
international agreement, wehaveurged that in the interest of avoiding
a continuing dispute and undermining Our efforts to achieve inter-
national agreement, that we submit Ourdifferences regarding pollu-

tion and exclusivefisheriesjurisdiction beyond 12miles to the Inter-
national Court of Justice, the forum where disputes of this nature
should rightfully be settled. Canada's action last week excluded such
disputes from its acceptance of the International Court'scompulsory
jurisdiction. However,such action only prevents Canada from being
forced intothe Court.It does not preclude Canada voluntarilyjoining
with us in subrnitting these disputes to the Court or an appropriate
chamber of the Court." (ILM, 9-606 ;emphasis supplied.)

There are other well-known instances of modifications such as El Sal-
vador's 1973 change in its 1921 Declaration, which was protested by
Honduras but by no other State ;and Israel's 1984 modification of its
declaration, which declaration provided for denunciation but not for
modification. This is an impressive body of practice, considering the
present total "constituency" of the Optional Clause is but 47.

Another relevant consideration is certainly the labours of the Interna-

tional Law Commission in its work on the law of treaties, and its view
reached, after careful investigation, that treaties of arbitration, concilia-
tion orjudicial settlement are amongst those which,even in the absence of
adenunciation clause, are by reason of the nature of the treaty, terminable
by notice. Such treaties are of course quite different in their legal nature
from the Optional-Clause system. But the significant point is that Sir
Humphrey Waldock, the distinguished Special Rapporteur on the law of
treaties, in examining the position of such treaties, arguedfrom the analogy
of the Optional-Clause system. He said :

"Taken as a whole, State practice under the Optional Clause, and
especially the modern trend toward declarations terminable upon
notice, seem only to reinforce the clear conclusion to be drawn from
treaties of arbitration, conciliation andjudicial settlement, thatthese
treaties are regarded as essentially of a terminable character." (ILC
Yearbook, 1963,Vol. 2, p. 68.)l'effet. Un communiquéde presse du 15avril 1970(no 121),reproduisant
une <déclarationdu départementd'Etat sur lesprojets de loi du Gouver-
nement canadien concernant les limites de la mer territoriale ))contient le
passage suivant :

<<Si toutefois le Gouvernement canadien n'est pas disposé à atten-
dre la conclusion d'un accord international, nous avons insisté,afin
d'éviterde prolonger le différend et de compromettre nos efforts en
vue d'arriver àun règlementinternational, pour que nos divergences
de vues concernant la pollution et la juridiction exclusive sur les

pêcheriesau-delà de 12millessoient soumises à la Courinternationale
de Justice, qui est l'instance normale pour réglerles litiges de cette
nature. L'initiative prisela semaine dernièrepar leCanada exclut les
différendsdecettenaturedeson acceptation de lajuridiction obligatoire
dela Courinternationale. Toutefois, cette initiativepermet seulemen atu
Canada d'éviter d'êtr oebligéa comparaître devant la Cour.Elle ne
l'empêche pas de sejoindre volontairement à nous pour soumettre ces
différends àla Cour ou àune chambreappropriéede laCour. )>(ILM,
9-606 ; les italiques sont de moi.)

Il y a d'autres exemples connus de modifications, tels que la modifica-
tion de 1973de la déclaration salvadoriennede 1921,quifut contestéepar
le Honduras, mais par nul autre Etat ;ou la modification de 1984de la
déclarationisraélienne,dont les termes prévoyaientla dénonciation mais
non paslamodification. Il s'agitdonc d'unepratiquefort convaincante, vu
qu'à l'heure actuelle<(l'affiliatio))àla clausefacultative ne concerne que
quarante-sept Etats.
Un autre élément ess tans doute àprendre enconsidération :ce sont les
travaux de la Commission du droit international sur le droit des traités,et

la conclusion à laquelle elle est arrivée,après examen approfondi, selon
laquelle les traités d'arbitrage,de conciliation ou de règlementjudiciaire
figurent parmi les instruments qui, même en l'absenced'une clause de
dénonciation, sont,par leur nature même,révocablep sar notification. Ces
traitéssont évidemmenttrèsdifférents,surleplanjuridique, du systèmede
la clause facultative. Mais le fait important est que l'éminentrapporteur
spécialsur le droit des traités, sir Humphrey Waldock, à propos des
instruments, raisonnait dans les termes suivants, par analogie avec le
systèmede la clause facultative :

<Il semble que, dans son ensemble, la pratique suiviepar les Etats
en ce qui concerne la clause facultative et notamment la tendance
actuellequi consiste àpréférerlesdéclarationssujettes à dénonciation
par notification autorisent à conclure encore plus nettement que les
traités d'arbitrage,de conciliation et de règlementjudiciaire doivent
êtreconsidéréscomme étantessentiellement susceptibles de dénon-
ciation.>)(Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 1963,
vol. 2, p. 71.)553 MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES (SEPO . P.JENNINGS)

In faceof the unmistakable trend ofrecent developments, 1feelbound to

conclude that States now - though the position was probably different
during the earlier, more prornising period of the Optional Clausejurisdic-
tion- have the right,before seisinof the Court, to withdraw or alter their
declarations of acceptance, with immediate effect, and, moreover, even in
anticipation of aparticular case or classofcases.If thisisso,then it follows
that the Shultz letter was effective to deprive the Court of jurisdiction
under Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Court's Statute.

It remainsto add that, if theaboveviewof Statepractice and expectation
iscorrect,it must alsofollowthat Nicaragua's "unconditional" declaration
could also be withdrawn or altered at any time before seisin. Indeed 1

should be constrained to this view even applying the terms of the Nica-
raguan declaration itself :for it is impossible to believe that an uncondi-
tional declaration is made in perpetuity. A declaration that is made for an
indefinite period, without other condition, is surely one that can at any
timebe made definite. And althougha need togivenotice of withdrawal or
alteration isimplied, itisimpossiblein the lightof modernpractice in these
matters to deny that the notice may be expressed to have immediate effect.
The practice of the States that have accepted Optional-Clausejurisdiction
suggests strongly that notice with immediate effect is reasonable notice.
Accordingly if, contrary to my own inclination, some sort of rule of
reciprocity, in the matter of notice of change or withdrawal, were to be
applied to relations between Optional-Clause States before seisin, my
answer to the case of Nicaragua would be the same.

It is necessary to add one further and final point about the effect of the
letter of 6 April 1984.Any doubt in a case of this kind should in principle
be resolved in favour of a respondent State denyingjurisdiction. As this
Court has pronounced on a former occasion :

"Finally, if any doubt remained, the Court, in order to interpret
Article 36,paragraph 5,should consider it initscontext and bearing in
mind the general schemeof the Charterand the Statute which founds
thejurisdiction of the Court on the consent of States. It should, as it
said in the case of the Monetary GoldRemovedfrom Rome in 1943,be

careful not to 'run counter to a well-established principle of interna-
tional lawembodied in theCourt's Statute, namely, that the Court can
only exercisejurisdiction over a State with its consent' (I.C.J. Reports
1954, p. 32)." (Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 (Israel v. Bulgaria),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959,p. 142.) Devant cette tendance récente et indubitable, je suis obligéde conclure
que les Etats ont aujourd'hui - mêmesi la situation était sans doute
différente à l'époque précédentee ,t plus prometteuse, de la juridiction
découlantde la clause facultative - ledroit,avant la saisine de la Cour,de
retirer ou de modifier leur déclaration d'acceptation avec effet immédiat,
et, qui plus est, mêmeen prévisiond'une affaire ou d'une catégorie d'af-

faires particulière. S'ilen est ainsi, il s'ensuit que la lettre de M. Shultz
excluait valablement la juridiction de la Cour en vertu de l'article 36,
paragraphe 2, du Statut.
Il faut encoreajouter que, sicette interprétationde la pratique des Etats
et des résultatsqu'ils en attendent est correcte, il en découle aussique la
déclaration ((sans condition ))du Nicaragua pouvait, de son côté, être
retiréeou modifiée à tout moment avant la saisine.Les termes de la décla-
ration nicaraguayenne elle-mêmesuffiraient d'ailleurs à m'amener à cette
opinion, car ilest impossible d'imaginer qu'une déclaration sanscondition

puisse être faite à perpétuité.Une déclaration faite pour une période
indéfinie,sans autre condition, est assurémentune déclarationdont l'ex-
piration peut êtredéfinie àtoutmoment.Et, mêmesilanécessité de donner
notification du retrait ou de la modification est implicite, on ne saurait
nier, àla lumièrede la pratique récente en la matière, que la notification
peut êtrelibelléedefaçon àavoir effetimmédiat.Lapratique desEtats qui
ont acceptélajuridictionautitrede la clausefacultative indique nettement
qu'une notification avec effet immédiatest une notification raisonnable.
Par conséquent,si, contrairement à mon avis personnel, on devait appli-

quer en matière de notification une règlequelconque de réciprocité aux
relations entreEtats déclarants antérieures à la saisine, ma réponsedans le
cas du Nicaragua demeurerait inchangée.
Une dernière observation au sujet de l'effetde la lettre du 6 avril 1984:
tout doute, dansun cas de cegenre, doit par principe êtrerésoluen faveur
de 1'Etatdéfendeurcontestant lajuridiction. Comme l'a dit la Cour dans
une affaire précédente :

(Enfin, si quelque doute subsistait, la Cour,pour interpréter l'ar-

ticle36,paragraphe 5, devrait replacer celui-ci dans son contexte et,
pour cela, s'inspirer du système générad le la Charte et du Statut qui
fonde la juridiction de la Cour sur le consentement des Etats. Elle
devrait,ainsi qu'elle l'aditdans l'affairede l'Ormonétairepris à Rome
en 1943, se garder d'(<agir à l'encontre d'un principe de droit inter-
national bien établietincorporédans leStatut, àsavoir quela Courne
peut exercer sa juridiction à l'égardd'un Etat si ce n'est avec le
consentement de ce dernier o.(C.I.J. Recueil 1954,p. 32.) )(Incident

aériendu 27juillet 1955(Israël c.Bulgarie),arrêtC , .1.J. Recueil 1959,
p. 142.) III. THE UNITEDSTATES MULTILATERA TLREATIES RESERVATION

The United States has pleaded the third of the reservations made to its
Declaration of 26 August 1946,sometimes called the multilateral treaties

reservation and sometimes the Vandenberg Resemation. It reserves from
jurisdiction :
"disputes arising under a multilateral treaty, unless (1) a11parties to
the treaty affected by the decision are also parties to the case before
the Court, or (2) the United States of America specially agrees to
jurisdiction".

The resemation is important in more than the context of the present case,
for it served as the paradigm for reservations later made by other coun-
tries ;someof them, however,simpler inthat they are lessqualified, but by
the same token wider in their effect.
1am unable to accept theargument, nor indeed does the Courtappear to
accept, that this reservation is "mere surplusage", and that it does no more
than protect the interests of absent States already protected by Article 59
of the Statute. No doubt both that Article and the resemation are con-
cerned with States not parties to the case ;but 1am unable to see how an
instrument which protects those States from being bound by the decision
can be said to cover the same ground as one which reservesjurisdiction

unless those States are parties.

The meaning of the words, "unless al1parties to the treaty ... are also
parties to the casebefore the Court", could hardly beplainer. The prospect
of perhaps some scores of parties to a case may be bizarre ;but a State is
clearly entitled to make such a reservation, and the practical result is, no
jurisdiction in theabsence of specialagreement. There can be no doubt, for
example, that a State may, if it so desires, reserve against any case what-
soever involving a treaty to which it is Party.

The principal, though certainly not the only, difficulty with the United
Statesmultilateral treaty reservation, is the qualifying words, "affected by
the decision". But the difficulty is one of interpretation ; and it is one not
verydifferent from the one faced in applications to intervene under Article
62of the Statute. In any event,if thereservation may be made without such
a qualification, it may surely be made subject to a qualification which on
any view of its meaning must be a considerable qualification. As to the
possible suggestion that the difficulty of establishingthe right meaningof

those words makes thewholereservation sovaguethat itcan be discarded :
this immediately runs into the difficulty that it would then have to be
considered whether, since the reservation rnight not be severable, it might
render the entire United Statesacceptance void ;in whichcasethere would
clearly be no jurisdiction under Article 36, paragraph 2, and the other
aspects of this question need hardly have been considered at al1(see the III. LARÉSERVE DES ÉTATS-UNI RELATIVE AUX TRAITÉS MULTILATÉRAUX

Les Etats-Unis ont invoquéla troisièmedes réserves à leur déclaration
du 26 août 1946 - dite tantôt réserverelativeaux traités multilatéraux
et tantôt ((réserveVandenberg ))Aux termes de cette réserve,lajuridic-
tion de la Cour ne s'étendpas :

<<aux différends résultant d'un traité multilatéral, à moins que
1) toutes les parties au traité que la décision concerne soient éga-
lement parties à l'affaire soumise à la Cour, ou que 2) les Etats-
Unis d'Amérique acceptent expressément la compétence de la
Cour D.

L'importance decette réservene selimitepas àlaprésenteaffaire,carellea
servideparadigmepour lesréservesfaitesultérieurementpar d'autres pays
- certaines, il est vrai, plus simples parce qu'assorties de moins de res-

trictions, mais, de ce fait même,plus larges dans leur application.
Je ne puis admettre l'argument - que la Cour elle-mêmene semble
d'ailleurs pas accueillir- qui voudrait voir dans cette réserveune clause
purement surpefétatoire,n'ayant d'autre effet que de protégerles intérêts
desEtats absents,queprotègedéjàl'article 59du Statut. Certes,l'article 59
du Statutetla réserveVandenberg visent l'un etl'autrelesEtatsqui nesont
pas parties à l'instance; maisje ne vois pas comment on peut dire qu'un
instrument quiprotège cesEtats contre unedécisionobligatoire ala même

application qu'un instrument qui exclut lajuridiction de la Cour à moins
que les mêmesEtats ne soienpt arties à l'instance.
Le sens des mots à moins que toutes les parties au traité ...soient
égalementparties à l'affaire>)ne saurait être plusclair. Peut-êtrey a-t-il
quelque chose debizarre dans l'idéede plusieursdizaines d'Etats partiesà
une instance ;mais l'Etat déclaranta manifestementle droit de faire une
telle réserve, avecpour résultat pratique I'exclusion de compétence,sauf
compromis. Il n'y a pas de doute, par exemple, que l'Etat déclarant peut,

s'illesouhaite,formulerune réservecontretoute affaire,quelle qu'ellesoit,
qui mette enjeu un traité auquelil est partie.
La principaledifficulté- maisnon pas la seule - queposela réservedes
Etats-Unis relativeaux traités multilatéraux vient des mots (quela déci-
sion concerne 1)Encore s'agit-ild'une difficultéd'interprétation, et quine
diffèreguère decelle que soulèventles demandes d'intervention faites en
vertu de l'article 62 du Statut. En tout étatdecause, si la réservepeut être
faite sans cette condition, elle peut certainement êtresubordonnée à une

condition qui, quelle que soit l'interprétation qu'onlui donne, doit avoir
deseffetssubstantiels. Quant à l'idéequela difficultéde donner àcesmots
un sensprécis rendrait la réservetout entière vague au point qu'on puisse
l'écarter,elle seheurte immédiatement à un obstacle :c'estque,la réserve
n'étant pas séparabledu restede la déclaration des Etats-Unis, il faudrait
alors sedemander siellen'annule pas celle-cidans sonensemble - auquel
cas il n'y aurait évidemmentpas dejuridiction en vertu de l'article 36,
paragraphe 2, et les autres aspects de la question n'auraient pas à être individual opinion of Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpachtin CertainNonvegian
Loans, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1957,pp. 9 ff., at p. 34, and especially,
pp. 55 ff.).
It is, however, possible to exaggerate the difficulties of the phrase,
"affected by the decision". The United States has indicated which States it
believes are affected; and, having regard to the United States argument
based upon theproposition ofcollectiveself-defence,it cannot be said that
this interpretation of the reservationis manifestly an impossible one.

But Nicaragua has in turn made the very important, and very interest-
ing, counter-argument that its case as stated in the Application is based
upon customary law as well as, perhaps as much as, upon multilateral
treaty law. This raises some fundamental questions about the nature of
international law, and its sources ; which is to say that it is a matter of

substance. 1fail to seehow ths question could be fully considered at the
present stage of proceedings. 1am, therefore, in agreement withthe Court
that the argument based on the multilateral treaties reservation is one
which at this stage should, in the words of Article 79,paragraph 7, of the
Court's Rules, be neither upheld nor rejected, but declared to be an
objection which "does not possess, in the circumstances of the case, an
exclusivelypreliminary character" ;and should be dealt with accordingly
in the "further proceedings" for which the Court will presumably now
proceed to "fix time-limits" in accordance with that paragraph of
Rule 79.

IV. THEFRIENDSHIP C,OMMERCE AND NAVIGATIOT NREATY
OF 21 JANUARY 1956

Nicaragua, in its Memorial, has alleged breach by the United States of
severalarticles of this treaty, which isin force:Articles 1;XIV (2) ;XVII
(3) ;XX ; XIX (1)and (3) ;and XXI (2).Nicaragua adds that :"The proof
of these violations must await the proceedings on the merits." There is a
jurisdiction clause in Article XXIV (2) :

"Any dispute between the Parties as to the interpretation or
application of thepresent Treaty, not satisfactorilyadjusted by diplo-
macy, shallbe submitted to the International Court of Justice, unless
the Parties agree to settlement by some other pacific means."

Thisjurisdiction clauseis,asamatter offact, the same,wordfor word, as
Article XXI (2)of theTreaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular examinés(voirl'opinion individuellede Hersch Lauterpacht dans l'affaire
de Certains emprunts norvégiens, arrêtC ,.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 55 et
suiv.).
Il ne faut d'ailleurspas exagérerles difficultésque soulève l'expression
(que la décisionconcerne )): les Etats-Unis ont indiqué quels sont,

d'après eux, les Etats que concernera la décisionde la Cour ; et, vu
l'exception que les Etats-Unis tirent de la notion de légitimedéfense
collective,on ne peut pas dire que cette interprétation de la réserve soit
manifestement impossible.
LeNicaragua, de soncôté,aréponduparun argument trèsimportant et
trèsintéressant : àsavoirque seschefsdedemandes, telsqueformulésdans
la requête,ne sont pas seulement fondés sur ledroit des traités multila-
téraux,mais aussi, et peut êtretout autant, sur le droit coutumier. Cela

soulèvecertains problèmes fondamentaux sur la nature du droit interna-
tional et ses sources; question de fond, par conséquent.Dans ces condi-
tions,je ne voispas comment une tellequestion aurait pu êtreexaminéeen
détaildans la phase actuelle de l'instance,etje pense, comme la Cour, que
l'exception tiréede la réserve relativeaux traités multilatérauxest une
exception qui, au stade actuel, et pour reprendre les termes de l'article 79,
paragraphe 7, du Règlementde la Cour,ne doit êtreni retenue ni rejetée,

maisdéclarée [n'avoir p]as dans lescirconstances del'espèceun caractère
exclusivementpréliminaire )); et qu'ildevra donc y êtrerépondu pendant
la (<suite de la procédure ))pour laquelle la Cour fixera sans doute les
délais prévusau mêmeparagraphe de l'article 79.

IV. LE TRAITÉ D'AMITIÉ D,E COMMERCE ET DE NAVIGATION
DU 21 JANVIER 1956

Dans son mémoire, leNicaragua accusait lesEtats-Unis d'avoir violéles
articles ci-aprèsde ce traité, envigueur à cejour : articles 1,XIV, para-
graphe 2, XVII, paragraphe 3, XX, XIX, paragraphes 1 et 3, et XXI,

paragraphe 2.Et ilajoutait : <Lapreuve decesviolationssera apportéeau
stade de la procédure sur lefond. ))Ce traitécontient à l'article XXIV,
paragraphe 2, une clause compromissoire ainsi rédigée :

(Tout différend qui pourrait s'éleverentre les parties quant à
l'interprétation ou à l'application du présent traitéet qui ne pourrait
pas êtrerégléd'une manière satisfaisantepar la voie diplomatique
sera porté devant la Cour internationale de Justice, à moins que
les parties ne conviennent de le réglerpar d'autres moyens paci-
fiques. ))

Ce texte, on le remarquera, est identique, mot pour mot, à celui de
l'article XXI, paragraphe 2, du traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de droitsRights of 1955between the United States and Iran, on which this Court
relied in the UnitedStates Diplornaticand ConsularStaff in Tehran case
(1.C.J. Reports1980,p. 26,para. 50).There the Iranian Government had
refused "to enter into any discussion of the matter". In consequence, said
the Court, there existed

'hot only a dispute but, beyond any doubt, a 'dispute .. .not satis-
factorily adjusted by diplomacy' within the meaning of Article XXI
(2) of the 1955 Treaty ; and this dispute comprised, inter alia, the
matters that are the subject of the United States claims under that
Treaty" (ibid., p. 27, para. 5 1).

In the present case, the United States claims that Nicaragua has made no
attempt to settlethe matters, the subject of the application, by diplomacy.
But the qualifyingclausein question merely requires that the dispute be
one "not satisfactorilyadjusted by diplomacy". Expressed thus, in apurely
negative form, it is not an exigent requirement. It seems indeed to be
cogently arguable that al1that is required is, as the clause precisely States,
that the claims have not in fact alreadybeen "adjusted" by diplomacy. In
short it appears to be intended todono more than to ensure that disputes
that have already been adequatelydealt with by diplomacy,shouldnot be
reopened before the Court. However that may be, the facts in the present
case disclose that Nicaragua brought the subject of the application before
the Security Council, where they were met with the United States exer-
cising its veto. The United Nations Organization, not least the Security
Council,must now surely be an orthodox forum for diplomacy. It would
seem,therefore, that the requirements of Article XXIV are most fully met
in this matter.

A crucial aspect for present purposes of the Judgment in the United
States Diplornaticand ConsularStaff in Tehran case, however, is the deci-
sion that, whilst thejurisdictional article did not provide in express terms

that eitherparty might bring a caseto the Court by unilateral application,
"it is evident, as the United Statescontended in its Memorial, that this is
what thepartiesintended" (ibid.).Sincethejurisdictional clausesinthe two
treaties, the one with Iran and the one with Nicaragua, are identical, the
same conclusion must apply in the present case.

As to making good these allegations,and demonstrating that they cover
some, certainly not all, of the content of the Application :this, as Nica-
ragua itself has said, "must await the proceedings on the merits".

Accordingly, although 1 must dissent on the question of jurisdiction
under Article 36,paragraph 2and paragraph 5,of theCourt's Statute, 1am
in agreement with the Court that it does havejurisdiction over the Appli-
cation in so far as it may involve the question of alleged breaches of theconsulaires conclu en 1955 par les Etats-Unis et l'Iran, que la Cour a
invoquédans son arrêt enl'affairedu Personnel diplomatiqueet consulaire
desEtats-Unis à Téhéran (C.I.J. Recueil 1980,p. 26, par. 50). En l'occur-
rence,leGouvernement del'Iran ayant (refusétoute discussion O,la Cour
a conclu qu'il existait

<non seulement un différendmais, sans aucun doute, (un diffé-
rend ..quine [pouvait]pas êtreréglé d'une manière satisfaisantepar
la voie diplomatique >>au sens de l'article XXI, paragraphe 2, du
traité de 1955 ; et ce différendportait notamment sur les matières

faisant l'objet des demandes présentéespar les Etats-Unis en vertu
de ce traité ))(ibid., p. 27,par. 51).
Dans laprésenteespèce,lesEtats-Unis objectent queleNicaragua n'a rien

fait pour réglerpar lavoiediplomatique lesquestions qui font l'objetde sa
requête.Cependant, le traité de1955secontente d'exigerque le différend
n'aitpas été (réglé d'unemanière satisfaisantepar lavoiediplomatique )).
Ainsi exprimée,sous une forme purement négative, ce n'estpas là une
condition trèsstricte. On pourrait mêmesoutenir, semble-t-il,que tout ce
qui est requis est que, comme le texte le dit avec précision, lesreproches
entre les parties n'aient pas d'ores et déjàété <(réglés par la voie diplo-

matique. Bref,il sembleque lesrédacteursdu traitéaient seulement voulu
éviterque les différends déjàréglésde façon satisfaisante par la voie
diplomatique ne soientrouverts devant la Cour. Quoi qu'ilen soit, lesfaits
delaprésenteespècemontrent que leNicaragua a soumislesquestions qui
font l'objet de sa requêteau Conseil de sécuritéo ,ù il s'estheurtéau veto
des Etats-Unis. Et il ne saurait faire de doute que l'organisation des
Nations Unies, et en particulier le Conseil de sécurité,est une instance
diplomatique parfaitement régulièreA . pparemment, donc, les conditions

de l'article XXIV sont parfaitement remplies sur ce point.
Cependant, l'arrêt rendudans l'affaire du Personnel diplomatiqueef
consulairedesEiats-Unis à Téhérac nontient unélémend t 'unintérêt crucial
aux fins de la présente espèce : c'est la conclusion de la Cour d'après
laquelle,mêmesilaclausecompromissoireenquestion neprévoyaitpas en
termes exprèsque l'une ou l'autre des parties pût la saisir par requête
unilatérale,ilétait ((évidentque,comme lesEtats-Unis l'ont soutenu dans

leur mémoire,c'est bien ainsi que les parties l'entendaient (ibid.). Les
clauses compromissoires des deux traités,celui avecl'Iran et celui avecle
Nicaragua, étantidentiques, la mêmeconclusion doitjouer dans la pré-
sente espèce.
Pour ce qui est de la preuve de ces allégations,et de la démonstration
qu'ellesrépondent à une partie desquestions qui font l'objetde la requête
(maiscertainement pas à toutes), cette preuve, comme l'adit leNicaragua

lui-même, (sera apportéeau stade de la procédure surle fond )).
Dans ces conditions, sije ne puis me rallier à l'avisde la Cour sur la
question de sa compétenceen vertu de l'article 36,paragraphes 2 et 5, de
son Statut,je suispar contre d'accord surl'idéequela Cour a compétence
pour connaîtrede larequêtedans lamesureoù celle-cipeut s'appliquer auxTreaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation of 1956.Moreover, since
theTreaty is bilateral, thisjurisdiction would not involveany effect of the
United States multilateral treaties reservation. It may be a question how
far Nicaragua would be able to bring the seriesof allegations whichform
the gravamen ofitsApplication within theframework ofwhat isessentially
the normal form of commercial treaty ; more particularly because of the
possible effectof the "preclusion" provisions of Article XXI,whch, inter

dia, provides that the Treaty "shall not preclude" the application of
measures :
"(d) ... necessary to fulfill the obligations of a Party for the main-
tenance or restoration of international peace and security, or neces-
sary to protect its essential security interests".

On the other hand, Nicaragua has itself made clear that it believes that
important aspects of the Application can be brought within the scope of
the Treaty ; so jurisdiction under Article XXIV of the Treaty is not
unimportant.
For the exercise ofjurisdiction over allegations of breaches of specific
provisionsof theTreaty, no questions of admissibility appear to arise.And
sincein my viewthe Court does not havejurisdiction in any respect other
than under theTreaty,there isno need toconsider thedifficult questions of
adrnissibility further, at this stage.

(Signed) Robert Y. JENNINGS.violations présumées du traitéd'amitié,de commerce et de navigation de
1956.De plus, commece traitéest un traité bilatéral, cette compétencene
tomberait pas sous la réservedes Etats-Unis relative aux traités multila-
téraux.On peut certessedemanderjusqu'à quelpoint leNicaragua pourra
faire entrer la série d'allégatsuiforment la matièrede sa requêtedans
le cadre de ce qui est pour l'essentiel un traitéde commerce tradition-
nel, étant donné notammentl'effet possibledes exclusions prévues à l'ar-
ticle XXI, qui dispose notamment que le traité <ne fera pas obstacle>)à
l'application des mesures :

d) nécessairesà l'exécutiondesobligations de l'uneou l'autrepartie
relatives au maintien ou au rétablissementde la paix et de la sécurité
internationales ouàlaprotection desintérêtsvitaux de cette partie en
ce qui concerne sa sécuritéD.

Cependant le Nicaragua a lui-mêmeaffirméque, selon lui, certains
aspects importants de sa requête pouvaiententrer dans le champ d'appli-
cation du traité lacompétenceenvertu del'article XXIVde celui-cin'est
donc pas dénuée d'intérêt.
Il ne semble pas que la compétencede la Cour pour connaître des
violations alléguéesà certaines dispositions du traité soulève des pro-
blèmes de recevabilité.Considérant quant à moi que la Cour n'a pas

d'autre base de compétenceque celle que lui donne le traité,il me paraît
inutile pour le moment d'entrer plus avant dans l'examen des questions
difficiles liéesla recevabilité.

(Signé R)obert Y. JENNINGS.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Sir Robert Jennings

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