Dissenting Opinion of M. Guggenheim, Judge « ad hoc »

Document Number
018-19550406-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
018-19550406-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF M. GUGGENHEIM,

JUDGE "AD HOC"
[Translation]

Having, to my regret, been unable to concur in the Judgment of
the Court 1feel it my duty to state my dissenting opinion.
In my view, the submission of the Govemment of Guatemala
that the claim of Liechtenstein should be declared inadmissible on
the ground that F. Nottebohm does not possess Liechtenstein
nationality should have been joined to the Merits and the pro-
ceedings adjourned to enable the Govemment of Liechtenstein to
obtain and collect documents in support of its observations on
the new documents produced by Guatemala. 1 have reached this
conclusion for the following reasons :

I.Every legal system itself lays down the requisite conditions
for the validity of municipal legal acts. This also applies to the
legal system of Liechtenstein with respect to the grant of its
nationality ;from the point of view of the Court, that is a procedure
under municipal law. Naturalization is a fact which has to be
proved for the purposes of international proceedings and the Court
is entitled to ascertain, at least up to a certain point, whether the
facts relied upon correspond to the real and effective situation,

that is to Say whether the naturalization is genuine and effective
from the point of view of municipal law. The power of enquiring
into the circumstances of a naturalization is not therefore limited
to an examination of certain conditions, as was maintained, for
example, in the Salemcase in the dissenting opinion of the American
arbitrator, Nielsen, who considered that the researches of an
international tribunal should be confined exclusively to the question
whether the certificate of naturalization was obtained by fraud or
favour (see Reports of InternationalArbitral Awards, United Nations,
Volume II, pp. 1204 et sqq.). According to the prevailing view in
international judicial decisions, there is no doubt that an inter-
national tribunal is entitled to investigate the circumstances in
which a certificate of nationality has been granted. This view was
adopted in the decision of the German-Rumanian Mixed Arbitral
Tribunal, of November 6th, 1924, in the case of Meyer-Wildermann
v. Stinnes heirs and others (Reports of the Decisions of the Mixed
Arbitral Tribunais, Volume IV, p. 842). Indeed the Tribunal in
this case expressly reserved its right to investigate the circum-
stances of the official recognition of nationality. Among the many
decisions supporting the right of international courtsand arbitral

50 tribunals to examine certificates of nationality, reference may also
be made to the decision of Commissioner Nielsen in the case of
Hatton v. United Mexican States (Reports of International
ArbitralAwards, United Nations, September 26th, 1928,Volume IV,
p. 331) which rightly places emphasis on the obligation to furnish
proof of nationality. "Convincing proof of nationality is requisite
not only from the standpoint of international law, but as juris-
dictional requirement ."
2. These decisions are in accordance with a more general rule :
the rule requiring proof of nationality is only a particular applica-
tion of the rule that an international tribunal is competent to
decide upon the validity of a rule or an act under municipal law
if such rule or act is relevant to the international dispute under
examination. The rule or act under municipal law is to be regarded

merely as a fact but such facts may be proved "by means of any
researches which the Court may think fit to undertake or to cause
to be undertaken". (P.C.I. J., Brazilian Loans case, Series A zo/z~,
p. 124). Moreover the same decision states : "al1 that can be said
in this respect is that the Court may possibly be obliged to obtain
knowledge regarding the municipal law which has to be applied".
Cf. also P.C.I. J., Series A, No. 7, p. 19 ; Series A, Nos. zol21,
p. 46 ; Series A/B, No. 62, p. 22 ;Series A/B, No. 76, p. 19.

3. An international tribunal is not therefore bound to confine
itself to the statements of national authorities relating to their
application of the des of municipal law. Accordingly it may
consider the facts in a manner different from that of municipal
courts. But an international tribunal must never lose sight of
the fact that it is called upon to consider municipal law for the
purpose of exercising a competence conferred on it by inter-
national law. .It is not its function to decide upon the domestic

validity of municipal law, that is to say, to exercise the powers
of a court of appeal with regard to municipal law. What then is
its function ? An international tribunal must only be concemed
with municipal law and, in particular, with nationality, as a
fact determining the admissibility of a claim brought before an
international judicial organ. The plaintiff must therefore prove
that nationality has been conferred by means of a valid act in
accordance with the municipal law of the clairnant State ; and
the defendant, if he disputes this, must establish the contrary
(P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 5, p. 30).
4. 1 have reached the conclusion that it was for the Court to
determine whether F. Nottebohm validly and effectively acquired
nationality in accordance with the municipal law of Liechtenstein
in such a manner that the validity and effectiveness of the natura-
lization cannot be the subject of any doubt. In this connexion, however, the Court must confine itself within
certain clearly defined limits. This limitation upon the cornpetence
of the Court is based on two entirely different considerations : on
the one hand, when investigating the application of the municipal
law by the municipal authorities, the Court must confine itself
to examining whether such application is in accordance with the
obligations which international law imposes on the State in
question ; on the other hand, having regard to the fact that,
according to the practice of international law, municipal law does
not form part of the body of legal rules which it applies directly,
the Court is obliged to reach a decision in regard to municipal
law on the basis of evidence submitted to it in the proceedings.
It cannot freely examine the application and interpretation of
municipal law but can merely enquire into the application of
municipal law as a question of fact, alleged or disputed by the

parties and, in the light of its own knowledge, in order to determine
whether the facts are correct or incorrect.
5. Since the law of Liechtenstein applies primarily within the
national sphere, it is the competent State authorities, and these
authorities alone, which are entitled to determine whether the
law relating to naturalization has been correctly applied, that is
to Say, whether, in the present case, sufficient reasons existed for
waiving the requirement that the applicant must have "ordinarily
resided in the territory of the Principality of Liechtenstein at

least three years" and whether the application for naturalization
was "deserving [of] special consideration" and also whether the
applicant could be exempted from this requirement "by way of
exception" (see Art. 6 of the Liechtenstein Law on the Acquisition
and Loss of Nationality of 4th January, 1934). Even the State
Court of Liechtenstein is incompetent to review the considerations
of expediency upon which legal acts, decided upon and applied
by virtue of a discretionary power of the administrative authorities,
are based. This is in accordance with the generally recognized
principles of Swiss and German administrative law. It has,
moreover, received confirmation in the judicial decisions of the
State Court of the Principality, as is shown by its decision of
20th July, 1950, concerning the grant of a concession for a hotel
( Gastbewerbelzaus-Konzession ) (See Rapport de Gestion of the
Princely Government to the Diet for the year 1950, pp. 83 et sqq.)
It was there stated that, in accordance with Article 40 of the
Law relating to the State Court, the latter could only give decisions

on questions of law and not with regard to the discretionary
pouier of administrative authorities. In my opinion the Court is
not entitled to assume the functions of a supervisory judicial
body which does not exist under the domestic law.
6. If the question ofF. Nottebohni's acquisition of Liechtenstein
nationality is considered from this angle, it is beyond doubt that

52 he rnust be regarded as a national of the Principality. A naturaliza-
tion to which the suprerne organs of the Principality, the Reigning
Prince and the Diet, have given their consent, in accordance with
Article 12 of the Law on the Acquisition and Loss of Nationality-
as they did in the case of F. Nottebohm-is a valid naturalization.
Moreover there is also a presumption jurisand de jure in favour of
the validity of the acts ofthese suprerne authorities, since Liechten-
stein law does not provide for the judicial control of acts performed
by these authorities in the exercise of their discretionary power.

7. Moreover, in order to determine the validity of a naturaliza-
tion, an international tribunal must also bear in mind that, from
the moment of his naturalization, Liechtenstein has never ceased to
regard F. Nottebohm as one of its nationals ; this attitude was like-
wise adopted by Switzerland, the Power representing Liechtenstein
interests abroad, as appears from the Certificate of the Swiss Clear-
ing Officeof 24th July, 1946 (Reply, Annex 18, p. go), and probably
also by Guatemala, at least until a date which it is difficult to deter-
mine frorn the documents. Finally, F. Nottebohm, who in fact lost
his Gerrnan nationality in consequence of his naturalization, has
never invoked the protection of anyState other than Liechtenstein ;
hereturned to Liechtenstein in 1946and never changed bis residence

thereafter.

I. In addition to the question whether Liechtenstein nationality
was validly and effectively granted to F. Nottebohm according to
Liechtenstein law, a further question arises, as is stated in one of
the Conclusions of Guatemala, namely, whether Liechtenstein
nationality was granted to F. Nottebohm in accordance with the
generally recognized principles in regard to nationality. In my
opinion, however, it is not thisabstract problem which calls for con-
sideration in the present case, but rather the more concrete problem
of deterrnining whether diplomatic protection resulting from the
grant of Liechtenstein nationality can be relied upon as against
Guatemala in virtue of the general rules of international law.

2. For this diplornatic protection by Liechtenstein rnight be
inoperative for two different reasons which rnust be clearly distin-
guished. In the first place, the nationality ofF. Nottebohm rnay not
in itself bevalid on the international level and this would entail its
invalidity, with the result that Liechtenstein could not exercise its
right of diplornatic protection. Alternatively, it is possible that the
nationality of F. Nottebohm rnight, in itself, be valid from the inter-
national standpoint but could not be relied upon as against States
in regard to which Liechtenstein rnight seek to exercise diplornatic
protection in the same circumstances as in regard to Guatemala. 3. International law furnishes examples of situations in ~vliichthe
grant of nationality is invalid, with the direct consequence that it
cannot form the basis of diplomatic protection. The inadmissibility
of a claim on the ground that diplomatic protection cannot be
invoked is then merely the result of the absence of the effects of
nationality on the international level. This also gives rise to other

consequences, such as the non-recognition of the personal status
which, being claimed on the basis of the grant of nationality, is held
to be nul1 and voici, or the loss of the right to daim the benefit of
treaty rights reserved to nationals of the State concerned. If, on the
international level, we examine the cases in which the absence of a
valid bond between the State and the individual to whom the State
has granted its nationalityhas been recognized in practice, it will be
found that such a bond has only been held to be lacking when the
person concerned possessed a second nationalityor when his State of
adoption has granted its nationality by compulsion, that is to Say,
without the consent of the person concerned, or without the State
whose nationality is to be lost having consented to the withdrawal
of its own nationalitv.
Itis in such circumstances and in such circumstances alone, where
the bond between the State and the individual is lacking to so great
an extent, that thirdStates are notbound to recognize the naturaliza-
tion nor to accede to a claim to the ripht to exercise ~rotection.
Thus third States are not bound to consyder the Children of foreign
diplomats born in the territory of a State which attributes its

nationality to theni as nationals of that State (cf. Article 12 of The
Hague Convention of 1930 on Certain Questions relating tothe Con-
flict of Nationality Laws). The ownership of land is not by itself a
sufficient legal title for the grant of nationality (cf. the awards of the
German-Mexican Claims Commission, American Journal of Inter-
national Law, 1933, p. 69). The Ordinance of the German Reich of
August zyd, 1942, which authorized the grant of German nation-
ality to certain classes of the population in territoriesnot subject to
Gernian sovereignty but occupied by Germany, was not bound to be
recognized by third States because it was contrary to certain obli-
gations binding on Germany under general international law (cf.
Annuaire suisse de droit international, Vol. 1,1944, pp. 79 et sqq.).
The compulsory reintegration of a former national resident abroad
is unlawful if the person concerned has lost his nationality by its
withdrawal and if a new bond has not been created between him
and the State wishing to reintegrate him in his former nationality
(Jugdments of the Swiss Federal Court, Vol. 72,I, p. 410; Vol. 74,I,

PP.Al1 these situations are, however, somewhat exceptional. In the

case of F. Nottebohm, the grant of Liechtenstein nationality didnot fa11within any of these categories, al1 the more so since he
voluntarily acquired Liechtenstein nationality and by so doing
automatically lost his German nationality by virtue of Article 25

of the German Nationality Law of 22nd July, 1913, a fact which is,
in my opinion, of vital importance for determining the "effective-
ness" of Liechtenstein naturalization on the international level.
No proof has been furnished in the proceedings to the effect that
F. Nottebohm availed himself of the right granted by this Article,
according to which nationality was not lost by a person who,
before acquiring a foreign nationality, obtained from the competent
authorities of his State a written authorization to retain his original
nationality. On the contrary, the certificate of the Senate of the
Free Hanseatic City of Hamburg of 15th June, 1954. attests the
loss of German nationality by F. Nottebohm in consequence of his
naturalization in Liechtenstein (Reply, Annex 19, p. gr).

4. Are there other situations, apart from those which have been
referred to, in which third States are entitled to regard the natura-
lization of a foreign national as inoperative when the foreign
nationalhas agreed to the grant of nationality and when his former
nationality has not been retained ? To be justified in saying so, it
would be necessary to point to repeated and recurrent acts on the
international level, which would establish that, in circumstances
identical with or similar to those in which naturalization was
granted to F. Nottebohm by Liechtenstein, third States have
refused to recognize the naturalization so that it can be said that
an established usage has developed displaying the characteristics
of a general practice accepted as law (Article 38, paragraph I (b),
of the Statute of the Court and P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 10, p. 28 ;
I.C.J. Asylum case, RePorts 1950, PP. 276 et sqq.).NO evidence of
such a custom, which would forbid the grant of nationality in the

circumstances in which Liechtenstein granted her nationality to
F. Nottebohm, has been given in these proceedings. It is not suiffi-
cient for this purpose merely to affirm-without any evidence-that
there is no other State law permitting naturalization in the circum-
stances in which it was granted to F. Nottebohm.
5. Moreover, none of the attempts made to define the "bond of
attachment" according to criteria other than those which have just

been mentioned and which are in accordance with existing inter-
national law, has succeeded. This failure to arrive at such a defini-
tion is not fortuitous. It arises from the fact that in order to define
the bond necessary to make naturalization binding, it is sought to
supplement the objective criteria (absence of compulsion in relation
to the applicant ;dual nationality ; the grant of nationality with-
out withdrawal of nationality by the State to which the naturalized
person formerly belonged) by subjective considerations such as the
"genuineness of the application", "loyalty to the new State",
"creation of a centre of economic interests in the new State", "the
55intention to become integrated in the national community" ; or,
again, rules are stated which are in no way in accordance with
present international practice, or vague principles are formulated
which would open the door to arbitrary decisions. International law
does not, for example, in any way prohibit a State from claiming
as its nationals, at the moment of their birth, the descendants of
its nationals who have been resident abroad for centuries and
whose only link with the State which grants its nationality is to be
found in descent, without the requirement of any other element
connecting them with that State, such as religion, language, social
,conceptions,traditions, manners, way of life, etc. (see,for example,

Swiss Civil Code, Art. 263, para. I,270, 324, para. I ; and Art. IO
of the Federal Law on the Acquisition and Loss of SwissNationality
of September qth, 1952 ; Art. 4 of the Liechtenstein Law on the
Acquisition and Loss of Nationality). It is difficult to see how it
can be maintained that the conditionsnecessary to render naturali-
zation valid and effective on the international level have only been
complied with if at the time of application for naturalization there
existed one of those subjective bonds of attachment which have
just been referred to.

6. In order to judge as to the bond between the State and its
national, that is to Say, in order to ascertain whether this bond is
real and effective and not merely fictitious, international law only
has regard to the external elements of legal facts to which it attaches
certain consequences, without concerning itself with the mental
attitude ofthe legal person responsible for a juridical act such as the
act of naturalization, and without considering the motives (whichit
isvery difficult to determine), which have led the individual to apply
for nzturalization. This view is in no way inconsistent with the pro-
visions of Article I of the Convention on Certain Questions relating
to the Conflict of Nationality Laws adopted by the Conference for
the Codification of International Law, held at The Hague in 1930.
According to this Article, the law enacted by a State for determining
who are its nationals "shall be recognized by other States in so far
as it is consistent with...international custom and the principles of
law generally recognized with regard to nationality". This rule, the
correct interpretation of which has been the subject of dispute
among writers, contains no criterion requiring an "effective" bond in

the case of nationality. It merely refers to the rules of international
.custom and the principles of lawgenerally recognized with regard to
nationality, principles which do not forbid the grant of nationality
in the circumstances in which Liechtenstein granted its nationality
to F. Nottebohm.
7. Nor isit possible to maintain that the bond established between
a State and its national is in al1 circumstances closer than that
existing between a State and an individual connected with it by
some other link, as, for example, permanent residence. When the

56development of modern law in civilized States is closely considered,
it iseven possible to affirm that the rights and duties of an individual
vis-à-vis the State of his permanent residence, are frequently more
numerous than those which link him to the State of which he is a
national. There are certain rules of private law governing conflicts
of law which clearly illustrate this situation. In these circumstances,
the assertion that there exists an especially close link between the
State and its national can hardly bear the absolute character which

is frequently attributed to it. This link is, in any case, weakened
when nationality becomes dissociated from permanent residence as
well as in the case of dual nationality, where two or several States
claim a right to the attachment of the individual in question and
require him to fulfil the duties inherent in nationality, a situation
which is in no way contrary to general international law. Moreover,
international law contains no mle which makes the effectiveness of
nationality dependent upon a sentimental bond between the natur-
alizing State and the naturalized individual.

8. It has, however, been asserted, both in the written and oral
proceedings, that it is necessary to consider the problem of the
validity of the act of naturalization apart from the existence of a
specific rule of customary law prohibiting Liechtenstein from natur-
alizing F. Nottebohm in such circumstances, but that a more
general complaint could be levelled against Liechtenstein on the one
hand and Nottebohm on the other, namely, the absence of a real

and genuine intent which is a condition for the validity of legal acts
in international law. Nevertheless, it cannot be contended that the
naturalization of F. Nottebohm was vitiated by the absence of a
genuine intent on the part of Liechtenstein to naturalize him or on
the part of F. Nottebohm himself. The reality of the naturalization
cannot be called in question. There was no question of a fictitious
marriage between Liechtenstein and Nottebohm. In this connexion
it is necessary to have regard to the subsequent conduct of Notte-
bohm, which never varied after naturalization. He always behaved
exclusively as a Liechtenstein national and, in taking up the caseof
its national, the Principality has shown the serious character of the
bond linking it with its national. The extent to which the Court can
consider the "genuineness" of naturalization as an element of proof
in regard to the reality and effectiveness of naturalization, isconfined
within the limits which have just been stated.

Since F. Nottebohm was not himself subject to any duties based
on the principles of international law, it is also unnecessary to

consider whether he acted in "good faith" when he applied for
naturalization. No rule of general international law-that is to Say,
no customary rule nor general principle of law recognized by
civilized nations within the meaning of Article 38, I (b) and (c),of the Statute of the Court-lays down such a requirement and no
international responsibility can be incurred by the Principality for
not having considered the application for naturalization from this
point of view, which would render the naturalization wholly or
partly inoperative as against Guatemala, a neutral country at the
time of the naturalization of Nottebohm. It would be inadmissible
to seek to impose a requirement in this respect, that the naturalizing
State or applicant for naturalization should foresee uncertain events
which might take place in the future with a greater or lesser degree
of probability.

9. Even if it were admitted that the Court is entitled to enquire
into the motives which led F. Nottebohm to apply for Liechten-
stein nationality, it is necessary to point out that F. Nottebohm
in no way failed to observe the principles of good faith as defined
by the municipal law of civilized States andin particular by Arti-
cle 2 of the Civil Code of Liechtenstein of 1926.F. Nottebohm did
not conceal any essential or subordinate element for the considera-
tion of his application bythe Liechtenstein authorities which could
therefore decide uppn the application with full knowledge of the
facts. There was therefore no "lack of loyalty" on the part of
F. Nottebohm, no failure to keep his word which, in certain circum-
stances, could render the legal act irregular for the purposes of
the application and interpretation of the Liechtenstein Law on the
Acquisition and Loss of Nationality. Only if it could be proved

that F. Nottebohm acted in a fraudulent manner, for example,
by concealing German property with the help of the naturalization,
might it be possible, if certain conditions were fulfilled, to speak
of a failure on the part of F. Nottebohm to observe the principle
of g~od faith vis-à-vis the Principality and perhaps also vis-à-vis
Guatemala. Such concealment might, as 1 shall show, justify the
non-recognition of Liechtenstein nationality. In such a case, how-
ever, it would not be the absence of good faith which would be the
decisive element in the fact that Liechtenstein nationality could
not be invoked, but the wrongful character of the fraudulent
transaction of concealment of which the acquisition of Liechten-
stein nationality would only be one of the constituent elements.

IO. 1s it possible to accept the validity of F. Nottebohm's
nationality for the purposes of the municipal law of Liechtenstein
and yet to affirm that this nationality does not deploy al1its inter-
national effects and that Liechtenstein is not, therefore, entitled
to exercise diplomatic protection should the latter be disputed by
Guatemala ? International law is indeed conversant with situations
in which the municipal effects and even some of the international
effects of nationality are recognized but in which diplomntic 9rotec-
tion exercised on the basis of the acquired nationality may be
successfully disputed. Thus, the individual who possesses two

58 nationalities can only avail himself of the diplomatic protection
of one of the States of which he is a national vis-à-vis the other
and this is so wherever he may be resident. According to the pre-
vailing view, a State can only grant its diplomatic protection to
an individual who possessed its nationality at the time when the
event giving rise to the diplomatic protection took place, and who
has retained such nationality uninterruptedly up to the time when
the claim is presented. This dissociation of nationality from diplo-
matic protection is normally confined to situations in which the
individual has two nationalities-either cumulatively or in

succession-with the result that the right of protection may always
be exercised by one State, thus preserving the possibility of a claim
being asserted on the international level.

II. Nor is this statement of the position inconsistent with the
fact that the courts of third States and international tribunals
have, on many occasions, had to settle disputes in which two
States claimed the same individual as their national and that in
such cases the prevailing tendency has been to give preference to
the real and effective nationality, a view which forms the basis
of Article 5 of the Convention of 1930 relating to the Conflict of
Nationality Laws. The test of eflectiveconnection with respect to
nationality has only been laid down for the purpose of resolving
conflicts arising out of dual nationality, in regard to which third
States must choose between one nationality, held to be the more real
and effective one, and a second nationality held to be the less real
and effective. The test has also been applied between two States
each of which wishes to exercise diplomatic protection 011 behalf

of the same person.
As for the Bancroft Treaties, which were invoked during the
course of the proceedings, 1 consider it incorrect to regard these
Treaties as constituting a precedent for the case of F. Nottebohm.
Apart from the fact that these were bilateral treaties concluded in
1868between the United States of America on the one hand and the
States of Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Baden, Hesse and the North German
Confederation on the other, they were abrogated on 6th April,
1917 (see Hackworth, Digestof International Law, Vol. III,p. 384),
at the time of the entry of the United States of America into the
first World \Var and cannot therefore be regarded as reflecting the
rules of general international law, since these provisions were
mainly concerned with the lossofnationality and the Americandiplo-
matic protection of persons of German origin,naturalized in the Uni-
ted States and taking up their residence again in Germany without
the intention of returning to the United States. The main purpose
of these treaties was to annul the effects of American nationality

granted to persons who had no ~vislito reside in the LTnitedStates
and who returned to their country of origin frequently in order
to evade the obligations of military service. As regards persons possessing dual nationality-American nationality and the nation-
ality of one of the German States in question-the Bancroft
Treaties sought to give effect to the nationality of the country
of habitua1 residence (cf. Moore, A Dicest of International Law,
Vol. III, pp. 358 et sqq.). "
The ~resent case is entirelv different. F. Nottebohm was not a
~iechtektein national who went to Guatemala and was naturalized

in that country and thereafter returned to Liechtenstein in order
to take up residence there. Moreover, no conflict of dual nationality
arises in his case. To allow Guatemala to hold that Liechtenstein's
claim to exercise diplomatic protection is inadmissible against
Guatemala would lead to the consequence that F. Nottebohm,
having lost his German nationality by acquiring the nationality of
Liechtenstein, would no longer be able to invoke the diplomatic
protection of any State. Such a dissociation of nationality frorn
diplomatic protection is not supported by any customary rule nor
by any general principle of law recognized by civilized nations,
within the meaning of Article 38 (1) (b) and (c)of the Statute of
the Court. I consider that such a rule of international law could
only be applied, in the present case, especially on consideration
of a preliminary objection, with the consent of both parties, in
accordance with Article 38 (2) of its Statute.

12. Moreover, to dissociate the question of the validity-of nation-

ality from that of diplornatic protection leaves a further problem
unsolved. Is the question one of the general non-validity of the
naturalization on the international level, thus going beyond the
limited right of third States to deny the claim to exercise diplo-
matic protection, or does such non-validity merely affect the right
of Liechtenstein to exercise diplomatic protection as against
Guatemala ?
Since the reasons invoked for the purpose of denying the claim
to exercise diplomatic protection are inevitably based on the
manner in which F. Nottebohm acquired Liechtenstein nationality,
and not on any special reasons which Guatemala may have had
for refusing to recognize the effects of the nationality in the field
of diplornatic protection, any third State will be in a position to
draw conclusions going beyond the narrow limits of the right to
exercise diplomatic protection and will thus be led to disregard
other consequences, other effects of nationality on the interna-

tional level. There would, for example, be nothing to prevent them
from saying that the persona1 status of F. Nottebohm is that of a
stateless person, Nottebohm having in fact lost German nationality
without having validly acquired Liechtenstein nationality for
international purposes. The fact that the Judgment only applies to
the particular case and that the resjudicata is not binding on third
States in no way detracts from the force of these considerations.The scope of the judicial decision extends beyond the effects
provided for in Article 59 of theStatute.

13. On the other hand, the reasons relied on-namely the ab-
sence of a sufficient bond of attachment, which debarred Liechten-
stein from exercising diplomatic protection as against Guate-
mala-affect the claims relating to damage caused at the time
when F. Nottebohm had not yet established a permanent resi-
dence in the Principality. Even if these grounds are admitted,
however, 1 consider that there is nothing to prevent Liechtenstein
from putting fonvard claims relating to the period when F. Notte-
bohm took up permanent residence at Vaduz as from 1946 (see
Rejoinder, p. 45). Since the events giving rise to the damage
suffered by F. Nottebohm in respect of his property-as to which
damage, claims have been put fonvardagainst Guatemala-occurred
within the period subsequent to 1946, and in particular since

Liechtenstein's application was presented to the Court on 17th De-
cember, 1951, and since the expropriation measures in regard to
which reparation is claimed by the Principality were only applied
after the year 1949, and in particular after the enactment of Legis-
lative Decree No. 630 of 13th July, 1949, relating to the Law on
the Liquidation of Matters arising out of the War (see Counter-
Memorial, Annex 39, p. 126), there is nothing to prevent F. Notte-
bohm's nationality deploying its ordinary effects as against Guate-
mala, even if it is considered that factual ties stronger than those
created in 1939 by naturalization, are essential for the purpose
of enabling a State to exercise diplomatic protection on behalf of
its nationals.
It cannot be denied, if this reasoning, which 1 consider goes
beyond the requirement of general intemational law, is adopted,
that F. Nottebohm, after a permanent residence of more than
three years in Liechtenstein, is entitled to put fonvard certain of
his claims against Guatemala, and that Liechtenstein is entitled
to take up the case of its national. Since F. Nottebohm certainly
had Liechtenstein nationality, which was supported by a "bond"
of residence at the time when the claim was addressed to Guatemala
(1951)~Liechtenstein, in this connexion, fulfils al1the requirements
which, in international practice, have been the subject of dispute,
as to the date which is to be preferred, that is to Say, the date when

the national Government espouses the claim, the date when the
claim is presented to a representative of the defendant Govem-
ment, the date when it is brought before an international tribunal,
or even the date when the claim is settl7d (cf. E. Borchard,
Protection di$lomatiquedes Nationaux à Z'Etranger,Annuaire de
l'Institut de droit international, 1931, Vol. 1, p. 284).

On the other hand there is no doubt that the events giving
rise to the dispute, that is to Say, the damage suffered in respect
61of expropriated property, occurred at a time subsequent to the
final establishment of F. Nottebohm in Liechtenstein. In this
connexion it is also necessary to point out that all the strict tests
laid down for the purpose of determining the national character
of a claim, which were considered during the preliminary discus-
sions for the 1930 Conference on the Codification of International
Law, were complied with in the precent case (cf.League of Nations,
Doc. C.75.M.69.192g.V., pp. 140 et sqq.).
The fact that the Guatemalan Law of 1949 on the Liquidation
of llatters arising out of the War, in accordance with Article 7
of Legislative Decree No. 630, regarded as enemy nationals those

perçons who possessed the nationality of any of the States with
which Guatemala was at war or who had such nationality on
7th October, 1938, although they claimed to have acquired another
nationality after that date, does not further modify the essential
elements of the question under consideration, that is to Say, that
the events giving rise to the dispute occurred at a time when
F. Nottebohm was a Liechtenstein national. It is not for a third
Stateto decide the validity of a foreign nationality for the purpose
of rendering inoperative the exercise of diplomatic protection,
with the possible exception of the special case of concealment of
enemy property, which will be dealt with under III below and
which, being a matter concemed with the merits of the case,
cannot be considered in connexion with a plea in bar.
Since no final measure of expropriation, in respect of which a
claim for reparation has been put forward by Liechtenstein, was
ado~ted before F. Nottebohm's return to the State. of which he

was a national, in 1946, and since al1 these measures were only
carried out after he took up permanent residence in Liechtenstein,
1 fail to see how it is possible to invoke the absence of any
bond of attachment between Liechtenstein and F. Nottebohm
(even if in this connexion one were to admit the existence of
requirements going beyond what is laid down by general inter-
national law on this question) for the purpose of denying that
Liechtenstein had the right to take up the case of its national
in 1951 with respect to unlawful acts alleged to have been com-
mitted after 1946.

14. A decision that Liechtenstein's application is inadmissible
on the ground that F.Nottebohm does not possess effective nation-
ality, and that therefore the applicant State is not entitled to
exercise the right of diplomatic protection as against Guatemala
would involve three important consequences :

-(a) The nile of international law that nationality should not be
dissociated from diplomatic protection in cases where the
protected person has only one nationality, and where the
facts giving rise to the dispute have occurred after the grant
of such nationality, would be modified retroactively sixteen
62 years after F. Nottebohm's naturalization in Liechtenstein.
This situation is al1 the more serious since the main facts
giving rise to the dispute only occurred after 1949, three
years after F. Nottebohm finally established himself in
Liechtenstein and, by prolonged residence there, created solid
bonds of attachment, the absence of which has been relied
upon bythe respondent party in the written and oral proceed-
ings as a ground for the view that Liechtenstein is not
entitled to exercise diplomatic protection in favour of
F. Nottebohm against Guatemala. 1 consider that even if one
shared this view, one must at least recognize the right to
exercise diplomatic protection as regards the injury suffered
by F. Nottebohm after 1946, especially the injury resulting
from the measures taken following the enactment of Legis-
lative Decree No. 630 of July 13th, 1949.

(b) Even if it be admitted that nationality can be dissociated
from diplomatic protection in the present case, there remains
the question as to what are the consequences of the total or
partial invalidity under international law of a nationality
validly acquired under municipal law. 1s the invalidity
confined to the sphere of diplomatic protection, or does it
extend tothe other effects of nationality on the international
level, for example, treaty rights enjoyed by the nationals
of a particular State in regard to monetary exchange, estab-
lishment and access to the municipal courts of a third
State, etc. ?

(c) A refusa1 to recognize nationality and therefore the right to
exercise diplomatic protection, would render the application
of the latter-the only protection available to States under
general international law enabling them to put forward the
claims of individuals against third States-even more
difficult then it already is.
If the right of protection is abolished, it becomes impos-
sible to consider the merits of certain claims .alleging a
violation of the rules of international law. If no other
State is in a position to exercice diplomatic protection, as
in the present case, claims put forward on behalf of an
individual, whose nationality is disputed or held to be inope-
rative on the international level and who enjoys no other
nationality, would have to be abandoned. The protection of

the individual which is so precarious under existing interna-
tionallaw would be weakened even further and 1consider that
this would be contrary to the basic principle embodied in
Article 15 (1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on
December 8th, 1948, according to which everyone has the
right to a nationality. Furthermore,refusa1to exercise protec-
63 tion is not in accordance with the frequent attempts made at
the present time to prevent the increase in the number of
cases of stateless persons and to provide protection against

acts violating the fundamental human rights recognized by
international law as aminimum standard, without distinction
as to nationality, religion or race.

15. The finding that the Application is not admissible on the
grounds of nationality prevents the Court from considering the merits
of the case and thus from ,deciding whether the respondent State
is or is not guilty of an unlawful act as regards Liechtenstein and
its national, who has no other legal means of protection at his
disposal. Moreover, a preliminary objection must be strictly inter-
preted. It must not prevent justice from being done.

III

As regards the criticism made during the written and oral
proceedings, that F. Nottebohm had sought Liechtenstein nation-
ality for the purpose of changing his status from a subject of a
belligerent State to that of a subject of a neutral State, it is neces-
sary to make the following observations :

I. There is no rational principle or judicial decision in either
private or public international law to justify the view that a new
nationality which has been acquired for the purpose of avoiding,
in the future, certain effects of a former nationality should be
regarded as invalid. Even if it were admitted, although this has
not been proved, that F. Nottebohm became aLiechtenstein national

with the object of evading the consequences of his German nation-
ality, it is necessary to point out that this change in his status
was not effected during the War between Guatemala and Germany
but long before that time. It is therefore impossible to speak of a
change in the status of a person from that of an enemy national
to that of a neutral national which might, in certain circumstances,
have been the case had the naturalization taken place while Guate-
mala and Germany were in a state of war.

2. On the other hand, could it be said that Nottebohm's nation-
ality was fraudulent and defective if it had been proved that he
applied for naturalization in Liechtenstein, for the purpose of
using such naturalization as a cloak for the property of enemy
nationals in Guatemala ? It might be considered that a nationality
acquired for the sole purpose of claiming the diplomatic protection
of a neutral State cannot be involïed vis-A-visthe belligerent Statc
against which the acts of concealment of enenly property were

64directed, on the ground that a legal act may be vitiated by fraud
and that the respondent party is therefore justified in alleging
that it is a nullity.
The acquisition of nationality in such cases forms part of a
transaction which is to be regarded as generally fraudulent, with
the possible result that the injured belligerent State may refuse
to recognize the change of nationality, and not merely that diplo-
matic protection cannot be relied upon. Nevertheless, it will
always be difficult to prove the existence of such a fraudulent
operation.

3. Moreover, whatever the solution of this problem may be, it
would have been necessary, for the purpose of examining it and of
arriving at a solution, to consider the merits of the dispute. In
this connexion, the Court should have given the applicant party
the opportunity of collecting al1 the evidence with the object of
enabling the Court to ascertain whether, in the particular case,
the allegation of concealing property was justified and that there-
fore Guatemala was not bound to recognize the Liechtenstein
nationality of F. Nottebohm. Since proof of concealment of property
has not been adduced, 1 consider that the Court should have joined
the objection to the admissibility on the ground of nationality to
the merits. This should also have been the case as regards the two
other grounds of inadmissibility, since their fate is bound up with
the objection based on nationality. Indeed, if the latter objection
is upheld, it becomesunnecessary to consider Guatemala's objection

to the admissibility on the ground of prior diplomatic negotiations
and non-exhaustion of local remedies.
4. Moreover, the decision of the Court given at the public sitting
of February 14th, 1955, expressly reserved the right of Liechten-
stein, under Article 48, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, to
submit documents insupport of its comments on the new documents
produced by the other Party. The Court should therefore have
granted the application for an adjournment made by the Govern-
ment of the Principality of Liechtenstein.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. GUGGENHEIM,

JUGE «AD HOC »-

N'ayant pu, à mon regret, me rallier à l'arrêtde la Cour, j'estime

devoir exposer mon opinion dissidente.
A mon avis, la conclusion du Gouvernement du Guatemala
tendant à déclarer le Liechtenstein non recevable du fait que
F. Nottebohm n'a pas la nationalité liechtensteinoise, aurait dû
êtrejointe au fond et la procédure ajournée pour permettre au
Gouvernement du Liechtenstein d'obtenir et de réunir des docu-
ments à l'appui des commentaires sur les nouveaux documents.
produits par le Guatemala, et ceci pour les raisons suivantes :

I. Chaque ordre juridique établit lui-même les conditions
requises pour la validité des actes juridiques internes. C'est aussi
le cas pour l'ordre juridique Iiechtensteinois en ce qui concerne
l'octroi de sa nationalité. Pour la Cour, il s'agit à ce sujet d'une
procédure de droit national. La naturalisation est un fait qui
doit êtreprouvé dans le cadre de la procédure internationale et
la Cour a certes le droit d'examiner, au moins jusqu'à un certain

point, si les faits avancés correspondent à la réalitéet à I'effec-
tivité, c'est-à-dire si la naturalisation estréelle et effective du
point de vue du droit national. Le pouvoir de vérification que
comporte la naturalisation ne se limite donc pas à I'examen de
certaines conditions, comme on l'a affirmépar exemple à l'occasion
de l'affaire Salem, dans l'opinion dissidente de l'arbitre américain
Nielsen qui a prétendu que l'examen du tribunal international-
porte uniquement sur la question de savoir si le certificat de
naturalisation a étéobtenu par fraude ou par faveur (voir Recueil
des sentences arbitrales, Nations Unies, tome II, pp. 1204 et ss.).
Selon l'opinion dominante de la jurisprudence internationale, il
n'est pas douteux que le tribunal international soit autorisé à
examiner les conditions dans lesquelles un certificat de nationalité
a étéaccordé. On trouve cette réponse dans la décision Meyer-
Wildermann c. Hoirie Stinnes et consorts, rendue par le tribunal
arbitral germano-roumain, le 6novembre 1924(Recueildesdécisions
destribuna.tlxarbitraax mixtes, t. IV, p.842). En effet, le tribunal
arbitrals'y est réservéexplicitement le droit devérifierlesconditions

de la reconnaissance officielle de la nationalité. Parmi les nom-
breuses décisions favorables au contrôle judiciaire et arbitral
international du certificat de nationalité, citons encore celle du DISSENTING OPINION OF M. GUGGENHEIM,

JUDGE "AD HOC"
[Translation]

Having, to my regret, been unable to concur in the Judgment of
the Court 1feel it my duty to state my dissenting opinion.
In my view, the submission of the Govemment of Guatemala
that the claim of Liechtenstein should be declared inadmissible on
the ground that F. Nottebohm does not possess Liechtenstein
nationality should have been joined to the Merits and the pro-
ceedings adjourned to enable the Govemment of Liechtenstein to
obtain and collect documents in support of its observations on
the new documents produced by Guatemala. 1 have reached this
conclusion for the following reasons :

I.Every legal system itself lays down the requisite conditions
for the validity of municipal legal acts. This also applies to the
legal system of Liechtenstein with respect to the grant of its
nationality ;from the point of view of the Court, that is a procedure
under municipal law. Naturalization is a fact which has to be
proved for the purposes of international proceedings and the Court
is entitled to ascertain, at least up to a certain point, whether the
facts relied upon correspond to the real and effective situation,

that is to Say whether the naturalization is genuine and effective
from the point of view of municipal law. The power of enquiring
into the circumstances of a naturalization is not therefore limited
to an examination of certain conditions, as was maintained, for
example, in the Salemcase in the dissenting opinion of the American
arbitrator, Nielsen, who considered that the researches of an
international tribunal should be confined exclusively to the question
whether the certificate of naturalization was obtained by fraud or
favour (see Reports of InternationalArbitral Awards, United Nations,
Volume II, pp. 1204 et sqq.). According to the prevailing view in
international judicial decisions, there is no doubt that an inter-
national tribunal is entitled to investigate the circumstances in
which a certificate of nationality has been granted. This view was
adopted in the decision of the German-Rumanian Mixed Arbitral
Tribunal, of November 6th, 1924, in the case of Meyer-Wildermann
v. Stinnes heirs and others (Reports of the Decisions of the Mixed
Arbitral Tribunais, Volume IV, p. 842). Indeed the Tribunal in
this case expressly reserved its right to investigate the circum-
stances of the official recognition of nationality. Among the many
decisions supporting the right of international courtsand arbitral

50commissaire Nielsen dans l'affaire Hatton c. United Mexican
States (Recaeil des sentences arbitrales des Nations Unies du
26 septembre 1928, t. IV, p. 331), qui met, avec raison, l'accent
sur l'obligation de prouver la nationalité. « Convincing proof of
nationality is requisite not only from the standpoint of interna-
tional law, but as a jurisdictional requirement. ))

C
2. Cette jurisprudence est conforme à une règle plus générale :
la règle de l'obligation de la preuve de la nationalité n'est qu'une
norme particulière de la règle qui accorde au juge international
la compétence d'apprécier la validité d'une règle ou d'un acte de
droit interne, si cette règle ou cet acte revêt une importance au
regard du litige international en cause. La règle ou l'acte de droit
interne doivent être considéréscomme de simples faits mais
ces faits sont à mêmed'êtreprouvés et cela «à l'aide de toutes

recherches auxquelles la Cour jugera convenable de procéder-gu
de faire procéder » (C. P. J. I., affaire des Emprunts brésiliem,
sérieA, nos20/21, p. 124).La mêmedécision précise d'ailleurs: t-out
ce qu'on peut admettre à cet égard, c'est qu'elle [la Cour] pour-
rait être éventuellement obligée de se procurer la connaissance
du droit interne qu'il y a lieu d'appliquer ». Cf. aussi C. P. J. I.,
série A, no 7, p. 19 ; sérieA, nos 20/21, p. 46 ; série A/B, no 62,
p. 22 ; sérieA/B, no 76, p. 19.

3. Le tribunal international ne doit donc pas s'en tenir aux
constatations des autorités nationales quant à l'application qu'elles
font des règles de droit interne. Il.peut, en conséquence,apprécier
les faits autrement que les instances de droit interne. Mais le juge
international ne doit jamais oublier qu'il est amené à prendre en
considération le droit interne, en vue d'exercer une compétence
que le droit des gens lui reconnaît. Il ne s'agit pas pour lui de se
prononcer sur la validité du droit interne dans l'ordre national,
c'est-à-dire d'exercer les pouvoirs d'une instance d'appel et de
cassation à l'égard du droit interne. Quel est donc son rôle ? Le
juge international doit uniquement se préoccuper du droit interne
et, en particulier, de la nationalité comme d'un fait constitutif de
la recevabilité de la demande portée devant la juridiction inter:
nationale. Il s'agit donc, pour le demandeur, de prouver que la

nationalité est un acte valable, conforme au droit interne de l'État
demandeur, et pour le défendeur, s'il le conteste, de prouver le
contraire (cf. C.P. J. I.,sérieA, no 5, p.30).

4. J'arrive à la conclusion qu'il incombait à la Cour de se rendre
compte si F. Nottebohm a valablement et effectivement acquis la
nationalité, en conformité du droit interne liechtensteinois, et cela
de telle manière que la validité et l'effectivitéde la naturalisation
ne puissent êtremises en doute.

51 tribunals to examine certificates of nationality, reference may also
be made to the decision of Commissioner Nielsen in the case of
Hatton v. United Mexican States (Reports of International
ArbitralAwards, United Nations, September 26th, 1928,Volume IV,
p. 331) which rightly places emphasis on the obligation to furnish
proof of nationality. "Convincing proof of nationality is requisite
not only from the standpoint of international law, but as juris-
dictional requirement ."
2. These decisions are in accordance with a more general rule :
the rule requiring proof of nationality is only a particular applica-
tion of the rule that an international tribunal is competent to
decide upon the validity of a rule or an act under municipal law
if such rule or act is relevant to the international dispute under
examination. The rule or act under municipal law is to be regarded

merely as a fact but such facts may be proved "by means of any
researches which the Court may think fit to undertake or to cause
to be undertaken". (P.C.I. J., Brazilian Loans case, Series A zo/z~,
p. 124). Moreover the same decision states : "al1 that can be said
in this respect is that the Court may possibly be obliged to obtain
knowledge regarding the municipal law which has to be applied".
Cf. also P.C.I. J., Series A, No. 7, p. 19 ; Series A, Nos. zol21,
p. 46 ; Series A/B, No. 62, p. 22 ;Series A/B, No. 76, p. 19.

3. An international tribunal is not therefore bound to confine
itself to the statements of national authorities relating to their
application of the des of municipal law. Accordingly it may
consider the facts in a manner different from that of municipal
courts. But an international tribunal must never lose sight of
the fact that it is called upon to consider municipal law for the
purpose of exercising a competence conferred on it by inter-
national law. .It is not its function to decide upon the domestic

validity of municipal law, that is to say, to exercise the powers
of a court of appeal with regard to municipal law. What then is
its function ? An international tribunal must only be concemed
with municipal law and, in particular, with nationality, as a
fact determining the admissibility of a claim brought before an
international judicial organ. The plaintiff must therefore prove
that nationality has been conferred by means of a valid act in
accordance with the municipal law of the clairnant State ; and
the defendant, if he disputes this, must establish the contrary
(P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 5, p. 30).
4. 1 have reached the conclusion that it was for the Court to
determine whether F. Nottebohm validly and effectively acquired
nationality in accordance with the municipal law of Liechtenstein
in such a manner that the validity and effectiveness of the natura-
lization cannot be the subject of any doubt. La Cour ne doit cependant pas dépasser à ce sujet un cadre
nettement circonscrit. Cette limitation de la compétence de la Cour
résulte de deux données entièrement différentes ;d'une part, en
examinant l'application du droit interne par les autorités nationales.
la Cour se borne à vérifiersi ellesest conforme aux obligations que
le droit international impose à 1'Etat en question ; d'autre part, vu
que, selon la pratique du droit international, le droit interne
n'appartient pas au corps des règles juridiques qu'elle applique
directemrnt, la Cour se trouve obligéede prendre position à l'égard
du droit national dans le cadre d'une procédure probatoire. Elle

ne peut pas examiner librement l'application et l'interprétation du
droit interne, mais seulement vérifierl'application du droit interne
au titre des faits alléguésou contestés par les parties et par sa
propre connaissance, afin de déterminer si ceux-ci sont exacts ou
inexacts.

5. Comme la loi liechtensteinoises'applique en premier lieu dans
le cadre national, ce sont les autorités étatiques compétentes, et
celles-ci exclusivement, qui ont qualité pour apprécier si la loi
relative à la naturalisation est appliquée correctement, c'est-à-dire
si, dans le cas d'espèce, suffisamment d'élémentssont réunis pour
permettre de faire abstraction du « domicile légal sur le territoire
de la Principauté depuis au moins trois ans », de considérer la
demande de naturalisation ((particulièrement digne d'intérêt 1)et
aussi, « à titre exceptionnel », de dispenser le candidat de cette
condition (voir art. 6 de la loi du 4 janvier 1934 sur l'acquisition
et ,la perte de la nationalité liechtensteinoise). Mêmele Conseil
d'Etat liechtensteinois n'a pas le pouvoir de revoir l'opportunité
des actes juridiques décidéset exécutésen vertu du pouvoir dis-

crétionnaire des autorités administratives. Cette manière de voir
correspond aux principes généraux du droit administratif suisse
et allemand. Elle trouve sa consécration dans la jurisprudence du
Conseil dJEtat de la Principauté, ainsi qu'en témoigne sa décision
du 20 juillet 1950, relative à l'octroi d'une concession pour un
hôtel (Gastbewerbehazls-Konzession ) (Voir rapport de Gestion du
Gouvernement princier adresséà la Diète pour l'année 1950,pp. 83
et 3s.) Il y est dit qu'en vertu de l'article 40 de la loi sur le Conseil
d'Etat, ce dernier ne se prononce que sur la question de droit et
non sur le pouvoir discrétionnaire des autorités administratives. La
Cour n'a pas, à mon avis, qualité pour se substituer à une instance
de contrôle inexistante dans le droit national.

6. Si l'on examine sous cet angle la question de l'acquisition
de la nationalité liechtensteinoise par F. Nottebohm, il n'y a pas In this connexion, however, the Court must confine itself within
certain clearly defined limits. This limitation upon the cornpetence
of the Court is based on two entirely different considerations : on
the one hand, when investigating the application of the municipal
law by the municipal authorities, the Court must confine itself
to examining whether such application is in accordance with the
obligations which international law imposes on the State in
question ; on the other hand, having regard to the fact that,
according to the practice of international law, municipal law does
not form part of the body of legal rules which it applies directly,
the Court is obliged to reach a decision in regard to municipal
law on the basis of evidence submitted to it in the proceedings.
It cannot freely examine the application and interpretation of
municipal law but can merely enquire into the application of
municipal law as a question of fact, alleged or disputed by the

parties and, in the light of its own knowledge, in order to determine
whether the facts are correct or incorrect.
5. Since the law of Liechtenstein applies primarily within the
national sphere, it is the competent State authorities, and these
authorities alone, which are entitled to determine whether the
law relating to naturalization has been correctly applied, that is
to Say, whether, in the present case, sufficient reasons existed for
waiving the requirement that the applicant must have "ordinarily
resided in the territory of the Principality of Liechtenstein at

least three years" and whether the application for naturalization
was "deserving [of] special consideration" and also whether the
applicant could be exempted from this requirement "by way of
exception" (see Art. 6 of the Liechtenstein Law on the Acquisition
and Loss of Nationality of 4th January, 1934). Even the State
Court of Liechtenstein is incompetent to review the considerations
of expediency upon which legal acts, decided upon and applied
by virtue of a discretionary power of the administrative authorities,
are based. This is in accordance with the generally recognized
principles of Swiss and German administrative law. It has,
moreover, received confirmation in the judicial decisions of the
State Court of the Principality, as is shown by its decision of
20th July, 1950, concerning the grant of a concession for a hotel
( Gastbewerbelzaus-Konzession ) (See Rapport de Gestion of the
Princely Government to the Diet for the year 1950, pp. 83 et sqq.)
It was there stated that, in accordance with Article 40 of the
Law relating to the State Court, the latter could only give decisions

on questions of law and not with regard to the discretionary
pouier of administrative authorities. In my opinion the Court is
not entitled to assume the functions of a supervisory judicial
body which does not exist under the domestic law.
6. If the question ofF. Nottebohni's acquisition of Liechtenstein
nationality is considered from this angle, it is beyond doubt that

52de doute qu'il doive être considéré comme ressortissant de la
Principauté. Une naturalisation à laquelle les organes suprêmes,
le Prince régnant et la Diète, ont donné leur assentiment, confor-
mément à l'article 12 de la loi sur l'acquisition et la perte de la
nationalité, comme ce fut le cas pour F. Nottebohm, est une
naturalisation valable. Une présomption juris et de jure existe
d'ailleurs en faveur de la validitédes actes de ces autorités suprêmes,
le droit liechtensteinois ne connaissant pas de contrôle judiciaire
des actes établis en vertu du pouvoir discrétionnaire desdites
autorités.

7. En outre, en vue d'apprécier la validité de la naturalisation,
le juge international doit encore tenir compte du fait que, depuis
le moment de sa naturalisation, le Liechtenstein n'a jamais cessé
de considérer F. Nottebohm comme l'un de ses ressortissants, de
mêmeque la Suisse, représentant les intérêtsliechtensteinois à
l'étranger, ainsi qu'il ressort du certificat de l'Officesuisse de com-
pensation du 24 juille1946 (réplique,annexe 18, p. go),et probable-
ment aussi le Guatemala, du moins jusqu'à une date qui n'est
guère facile à déterminer d'après le dossier. Enfin, F. Nottebohm,
ayant effectivement perdu sa nationalité allemande, par suite de
sa naturalisation, n'a jamais invoqué la protection d'aucun autre
État que le Liechtenstein et il est retourné au Liechtenstein en
1946 sans plus changer de résidence.

I. Outre la question de savoir si la nationalité liechtensteinoise
a étéoctroyée à F. Nottebohm d'une manière valable et effective
selon l'ordre juridique liechtensteinois, ise pose, comme l'affirme
une des conclusions du Guatemala, la question de savoir si la

nationalité du Liechtenstein a étéaccordée à F. Nottebohm en
conformité avec les principes généralement reconnus en matière
de nationalité. Dans le cas soumis devant la Cour, il ne s'agit
cependant pas, à mon avis, de ce problème abstrait, mais de celui,
plus concret, qui consiste à déterminer sila protection diplomatique
résultant de l'octroi de la nationalité liechtensteinoiseest opposable
au Guatemala en vertu des règlesgénéralesdu droit international.
2. En effet, cette protection diplomatique liechtensteinoise
pourrait êtreinopérante pour deux raisons différentes entre les-
quelles il y a lieu d'établir une nette distinction. D'une part, parce
que la nationalité de F.Nottebohm en elle-mêmeserait non valable

dans l'ordre international, ce qui entraînerait sa non-validité, et
aurait pour conséquence que le Liechtenstein ne pourrait exercer
son droit de protection diplomatique. D'autre part, il est aussi
possible que la nationalité de F. Nottebohm soit en elle-même
valable au point de vue international, mais qu'elle soit inopposable
aux Etats à l'égarddesquels le Liechtenstein viendrait à exercer he rnust be regarded as a national of the Principality. A naturaliza-
tion to which the suprerne organs of the Principality, the Reigning
Prince and the Diet, have given their consent, in accordance with
Article 12 of the Law on the Acquisition and Loss of Nationality-
as they did in the case of F. Nottebohm-is a valid naturalization.
Moreover there is also a presumption jurisand de jure in favour of
the validity of the acts ofthese suprerne authorities, since Liechten-
stein law does not provide for the judicial control of acts performed
by these authorities in the exercise of their discretionary power.

7. Moreover, in order to determine the validity of a naturaliza-
tion, an international tribunal must also bear in mind that, from
the moment of his naturalization, Liechtenstein has never ceased to
regard F. Nottebohm as one of its nationals ; this attitude was like-
wise adopted by Switzerland, the Power representing Liechtenstein
interests abroad, as appears from the Certificate of the Swiss Clear-
ing Officeof 24th July, 1946 (Reply, Annex 18, p. go), and probably
also by Guatemala, at least until a date which it is difficult to deter-
mine frorn the documents. Finally, F. Nottebohm, who in fact lost
his Gerrnan nationality in consequence of his naturalization, has
never invoked the protection of anyState other than Liechtenstein ;
hereturned to Liechtenstein in 1946and never changed bis residence

thereafter.

I. In addition to the question whether Liechtenstein nationality
was validly and effectively granted to F. Nottebohm according to
Liechtenstein law, a further question arises, as is stated in one of
the Conclusions of Guatemala, namely, whether Liechtenstein
nationality was granted to F. Nottebohm in accordance with the
generally recognized principles in regard to nationality. In my
opinion, however, it is not thisabstract problem which calls for con-
sideration in the present case, but rather the more concrete problem
of deterrnining whether diplomatic protection resulting from the
grant of Liechtenstein nationality can be relied upon as against
Guatemala in virtue of the general rules of international law.

2. For this diplornatic protection by Liechtenstein rnight be
inoperative for two different reasons which rnust be clearly distin-
guished. In the first place, the nationality ofF. Nottebohm rnay not
in itself bevalid on the international level and this would entail its
invalidity, with the result that Liechtenstein could not exercise its
right of diplornatic protection. Alternatively, it is possible that the
nationality of F. Nottebohm rnight, in itself, be valid from the inter-
national standpoint but could not be relied upon as against States
in regard to which Liechtenstein rnight seek to exercise diplornatic
protection in the same circumstances as in regard to Guatemala.sa protection diplomatique, dans les mêmesconditions qu'à l'égard
du Guatemala.

3. Le droit international connaît des situations où l'octroi de la
nationalité n'est pas valable, ce qui a pour conséquence directe
qu'elle ne peut donner lieu à la protection diplomatique. L'irrece-
vabilité d'une demande du chef d'absence de protection diplo-
matique n'est alors qu'une conséquence de l'absence des effets de
la nationalité dans les relations internationales. D'autres consé-

quences en découlent comme, par exemple, la non-reconnaissance
du statut personnel qui, revendiqué à la suite de l'octroi de la
nationalité, est déclarénul, ainsi que la perte de la faculté de
demander l'application des droits conventionnels réservés aux
ressortissants de l'État en cause. Si, dans l'ordre international,
l'on examine les cas dans lesquels la pratique a reconnu l'inexistence
d'un lien valable entre l'État et l'individu auquel le premier a
octroyé sa nationalité, on constate que cette absence de liens a
étéreconnue uniquement lorsque l'individu en question possédait
une seconde nationalité, ou que 1'Etat d'adoption avait octroyé
sa nationalité par contrainte, c'est-à-dire sans que l'individu ait
donné son consentement, ou sans que l'État de la perte ait donné
son accord sur le retrait de sa propre nationalité.
C'est dans ces conditions, et dans ces conditions seulement, où
le lien entre 1'Etat et l'individu fait à tel point défaut, que les

États tiers ne sont pas tenus de reconnaître la naturalisatiqn ni
de faire droit à la demande de protection. C'est ainsi que les Etats
tiers ne devront pas considérer lesenfants des diplomates étrangers
qui naîtront sur le territoire d'un Etat qui leur attribue sa natio-
nalité comme des ressortissants de ce dernier (cf. article 12 de
la convention de La Haye concernant certaines questions relatives
aux conflits de lois sur la nationalité, de 1930). La propriétéfon-
cière seule n'est pas un titre juridique suffisant pour l'octroi de
la nationalité (cf. les décisionsde la commission mixte germano-
mexicaine, American Journal of International Law, 1933, p. 69).
L'ordonnance du Reich allemand, du 23 août 1942, autorisant
l'octroi de la nationalité allemande à certains groupes de popu-
lations sur des territoires étrangers à la souveraineté allemande,
mais, occupés par l'Allemagne, ne devait pas être reconnue par

les Etats tiers parce qu'elle est contraire à certaines obligations
imposées à l'Allemagne, par le droit international général (cf.
Annuaire suisse de droit international, tome 1, 1944, pp. 79 et ss.).
La réintégrationobligatoire d'un ancien national établi àl'étranger
est illicite si l'intéresséa perdu sa nationalité par retrait et si un
nouveau lien n'est pas établi entre lui et 1'Etat qui veut le réin-
tégrer dans sa nationalité antérieure (arrêts du Tribunal fédéral
suisse, t. 72, 1, p. 410 ; t. 74, 1, pp. 346 et ss.).
Toutes ces situations sont pourtant assez exceptionnelles. Dans
le cas de F. Nottebohm, l'octroi de la nationalité liechtensteinoise

54 3. International law furnishes examples of situations in ~vliichthe
grant of nationality is invalid, with the direct consequence that it
cannot form the basis of diplomatic protection. The inadmissibility
of a claim on the ground that diplomatic protection cannot be
invoked is then merely the result of the absence of the effects of
nationality on the international level. This also gives rise to other

consequences, such as the non-recognition of the personal status
which, being claimed on the basis of the grant of nationality, is held
to be nul1 and voici, or the loss of the right to daim the benefit of
treaty rights reserved to nationals of the State concerned. If, on the
international level, we examine the cases in which the absence of a
valid bond between the State and the individual to whom the State
has granted its nationalityhas been recognized in practice, it will be
found that such a bond has only been held to be lacking when the
person concerned possessed a second nationalityor when his State of
adoption has granted its nationality by compulsion, that is to Say,
without the consent of the person concerned, or without the State
whose nationality is to be lost having consented to the withdrawal
of its own nationalitv.
Itis in such circumstances and in such circumstances alone, where
the bond between the State and the individual is lacking to so great
an extent, that thirdStates are notbound to recognize the naturaliza-
tion nor to accede to a claim to the ripht to exercise ~rotection.
Thus third States are not bound to consyder the Children of foreign
diplomats born in the territory of a State which attributes its

nationality to theni as nationals of that State (cf. Article 12 of The
Hague Convention of 1930 on Certain Questions relating tothe Con-
flict of Nationality Laws). The ownership of land is not by itself a
sufficient legal title for the grant of nationality (cf. the awards of the
German-Mexican Claims Commission, American Journal of Inter-
national Law, 1933, p. 69). The Ordinance of the German Reich of
August zyd, 1942, which authorized the grant of German nation-
ality to certain classes of the population in territoriesnot subject to
Gernian sovereignty but occupied by Germany, was not bound to be
recognized by third States because it was contrary to certain obli-
gations binding on Germany under general international law (cf.
Annuaire suisse de droit international, Vol. 1,1944, pp. 79 et sqq.).
The compulsory reintegration of a former national resident abroad
is unlawful if the person concerned has lost his nationality by its
withdrawal and if a new bond has not been created between him
and the State wishing to reintegrate him in his former nationality
(Jugdments of the Swiss Federal Court, Vol. 72,I, p. 410; Vol. 74,I,

PP.Al1 these situations are, however, somewhat exceptional. In the

case of F. Nottebohm, the grant of Liechtenstein nationality didéchappe d'autant plus à ces catégories qu'il a acquis volontaire-
ment la nationalité liechtensteinoise et que, de ce fait, il a auto-
matiquement perdu la nationalité allemande en vertu de l'article 25
de la loi allemande sur la nationalité, du 22 juillet 1913, ce qui est,
à mon avis, d'une importance capitale pour l'appréciation de
1'((ffectivité» de la naturalisation liechtensteinoise dans le cadre
de l'ordre international. Aucune preuve n'a étéapportée dans la
procédure que F. Nottebohm ait fait usage de la faculté prévue
au mêmearticle 25 de cette loi, selon lequel la nationalité n'est
pas perdue par celui qui, avant d'acquérir la nationalité étrangère,
s'est procuréauprès des autorités compétentes de son Etat l'auto-

risation écrite de conserver sa nationalité d'origine. Au contraire,
le certificat de la ville libre hanséatique de Hambourg, du 15 juin
1954, atteste la perte de la nationalité allemande par suite de sa
naturalisation au Liechtenstein (réplique, annexe 19, p. 91).
4. Y a-t-il d'autres situations, en dehors de celles que nous avons
indiquées, qui permettent à des États tiers de déclarer sans effet
la naturalisation d'un ressortissant étranger consentant et qui n'a

pas conservé sa nationalité antérieure ? Pour l'affirmer valable-
ment, il faudrait pouvoir relever, dans les relations internationales,
des faits répétés, suivis,démontrant que, dans des circonstances
identiques ou analogues à celles de la naturalisation de F. Notte-
bohm par le Liechtenstein, des Etats tiers ont refuséde reconnaître
la naturalisation, de telle manière que l'on puisse admettre qu'un
usage permanent s'est créé,avec les caractéristiques d'une pratique
généraleacceptée comme étant le droit (article 38, litt. 1, b), du
Statut de la Cour, ainsi que C. P.J. I.,sérieA, noIO,p. 28; C. 1.J.,
affaire colombo-péruvienne, Recuei 1l950 ,p. 276 et ss.). La preuve
d'une telle coutume interdisant l'octroi de la nationalité dans les
conditions où le Liechtenstein a octroyé la sienne à F. Nottebohm,
n'a pas étéapportée dans cette procédure. Il ne suffit pas, à cet
effet, d'affirmer- sans aucune preuve d'ailleurs - qu'il n'existe
aucune autre loi étatique qui permette la naturalisation dans les

conditions accordéesà F. Nottebohm.

5. D'ailleurs, aucune des tentatives faites en vue de définir le
clien de rattachement » selon des critères autres que ceux que nous
venons d'indiquer et qui sont conformes au droit international en
vigueur, n'a réussi. Cet échecn'est pas un pur hasard. Il provient

du fait que si, pour définirle lien nécessairepour rendre la naturali-
sation obligatoire, on ajoute, aux critères objectifs (absence de
contrainte à l'égard du candidat, double nationalité, octroi de la
nationalité sans retrait de la nationalité par 1'Etat auquel l'individu
naturalisé appartenait antérieurement), des éléments subjectifs tels
que csincérité dela demande »,« fidélitéau nouvel État »,« créa-
tion d'un centre d'intérêtéconomiquedans le nouvel Etat »,(inten-
tion de s'intégrer dans la communauté nationale »,ou bien on posenot fa11within any of these categories, al1 the more so since he
voluntarily acquired Liechtenstein nationality and by so doing
automatically lost his German nationality by virtue of Article 25

of the German Nationality Law of 22nd July, 1913, a fact which is,
in my opinion, of vital importance for determining the "effective-
ness" of Liechtenstein naturalization on the international level.
No proof has been furnished in the proceedings to the effect that
F. Nottebohm availed himself of the right granted by this Article,
according to which nationality was not lost by a person who,
before acquiring a foreign nationality, obtained from the competent
authorities of his State a written authorization to retain his original
nationality. On the contrary, the certificate of the Senate of the
Free Hanseatic City of Hamburg of 15th June, 1954. attests the
loss of German nationality by F. Nottebohm in consequence of his
naturalization in Liechtenstein (Reply, Annex 19, p. gr).

4. Are there other situations, apart from those which have been
referred to, in which third States are entitled to regard the natura-
lization of a foreign national as inoperative when the foreign
nationalhas agreed to the grant of nationality and when his former
nationality has not been retained ? To be justified in saying so, it
would be necessary to point to repeated and recurrent acts on the
international level, which would establish that, in circumstances
identical with or similar to those in which naturalization was
granted to F. Nottebohm by Liechtenstein, third States have
refused to recognize the naturalization so that it can be said that
an established usage has developed displaying the characteristics
of a general practice accepted as law (Article 38, paragraph I (b),
of the Statute of the Court and P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 10, p. 28 ;
I.C.J. Asylum case, RePorts 1950, PP. 276 et sqq.).NO evidence of
such a custom, which would forbid the grant of nationality in the

circumstances in which Liechtenstein granted her nationality to
F. Nottebohm, has been given in these proceedings. It is not suiffi-
cient for this purpose merely to affirm-without any evidence-that
there is no other State law permitting naturalization in the circum-
stances in which it was granted to F. Nottebohm.
5. Moreover, none of the attempts made to define the "bond of
attachment" according to criteria other than those which have just

been mentioned and which are in accordance with existing inter-
national law, has succeeded. This failure to arrive at such a defini-
tion is not fortuitous. It arises from the fact that in order to define
the bond necessary to make naturalization binding, it is sought to
supplement the objective criteria (absence of compulsion in relation
to the applicant ;dual nationality ; the grant of nationality with-
out withdrawal of nationality by the State to which the naturalized
person formerly belonged) by subjective considerations such as the
"genuineness of the application", "loyalty to the new State",
"creation of a centre of economic interests in the new State", "the
55des règles qui ne sont nullement conformes à la pratique interna-
tionale actuelle, ou bien on formule des principes vagues ouvrant
ainsi la porte aux appréciations arbitraires. Le droit international
ne défend par exemple nullement à un État de se rattacher, au
moment de leur naissance, les descendants de ses ressortissants
établis à l'étranger depuis des siècles et dont l'unique lien avec
l'État qui octroie sa nationalité consiste dans la filiation, sans
qu'aucun autre élémentde rattachement comme, par exemple, la
religion, la langue, les conceptions sociales, les traditions, mŒurs,
genre de vie, etc., puisse êtreexigé. (Voir,par exemple, Code civil
suisse, art. 263, al.1,270, 324, al. 1, et art.IO de la loi fédéralesur

l'acquisition et la perte de la nationalité suisse du 29 septembre
1952; art. 4 de la loi liechtensteinoise sur l'acquisition et la perte
de la nationalité.) On ne voit pas très bien comment on peut
affirmer que les conditions nécessaires pour que la naturalisation
soit valable et effective dans le domaine des relations internatio-
nales, ne sont réaliséesque s'il existe à l'époque dela demande de
naturalisation un de ces liens de rattachement subjectif que nous
venons de mentionner.

6. En vue d'apprécier le lien entre l'État et son ressortissant,
c'est-à-dire de savoir si ce lien est réel,effectif et non fictif, le droit
international ne tient compte que des élémentsextérieurs des faits
juridiques auxquels il rattache des effets déterminés, sans se
préoccuper du processus psychique du sujet de droit qui édicte
un acte juridique comme l'acte de naturalisation, et sans prendre
en considération les motifs (très difficilement décelables) qui ont
engagé un individu à faire sa demande de naturalisation. Cette

manière de voir n'est nullement démentie par les dispositions de
l'article premier de la convention relative aux conflits des lois,
adoptéeà la Conférencepour la codification du droit international,
tenue à La Haye en 1930, dispositions énonçant que la législation
édictéepar un État pour déterminer quels sont ses nationaux
((doit êtreadmise par les autres États, pourvu qu'elle soit en accord
avec ....la coutume internationale et les principes de droit géné-
ralement reconnus en matière de nationalité 1).Cette règle, dont
l'interprétation appropriée fait l'objet de controverses dans la
doctrine, ne contient aucun critère exigeant le rattachement
(effectif))à la nationalité. Elle renvoie tout simplement aux règles

de la coutume internationale et aux principes de droit généralement
reconnus en matière de nationalité, principes qui n'interdisent pas
l'octroi de la nationalité dans les conditions auxquelles le Liechten-
stein a accordéla sienne à F. Nottebohm.
7. On ne peut davantage affirmer que le lien qui se crée entre

un État et son ressortissant soit dans toutes les circonstances plus
étroit que celui qui existe entre un État et un individu qui lui est
rattaché par un autre lien comme, par exemple, la résidence
56intention to become integrated in the national community" ; or,
again, rules are stated which are in no way in accordance with
present international practice, or vague principles are formulated
which would open the door to arbitrary decisions. International law
does not, for example, in any way prohibit a State from claiming
as its nationals, at the moment of their birth, the descendants of
its nationals who have been resident abroad for centuries and
whose only link with the State which grants its nationality is to be
found in descent, without the requirement of any other element
connecting them with that State, such as religion, language, social
,conceptions,traditions, manners, way of life, etc. (see,for example,

Swiss Civil Code, Art. 263, para. I,270, 324, para. I ; and Art. IO
of the Federal Law on the Acquisition and Loss of SwissNationality
of September qth, 1952 ; Art. 4 of the Liechtenstein Law on the
Acquisition and Loss of Nationality). It is difficult to see how it
can be maintained that the conditionsnecessary to render naturali-
zation valid and effective on the international level have only been
complied with if at the time of application for naturalization there
existed one of those subjective bonds of attachment which have
just been referred to.

6. In order to judge as to the bond between the State and its
national, that is to Say, in order to ascertain whether this bond is
real and effective and not merely fictitious, international law only
has regard to the external elements of legal facts to which it attaches
certain consequences, without concerning itself with the mental
attitude ofthe legal person responsible for a juridical act such as the
act of naturalization, and without considering the motives (whichit
isvery difficult to determine), which have led the individual to apply
for nzturalization. This view is in no way inconsistent with the pro-
visions of Article I of the Convention on Certain Questions relating
to the Conflict of Nationality Laws adopted by the Conference for
the Codification of International Law, held at The Hague in 1930.
According to this Article, the law enacted by a State for determining
who are its nationals "shall be recognized by other States in so far
as it is consistent with...international custom and the principles of
law generally recognized with regard to nationality". This rule, the
correct interpretation of which has been the subject of dispute
among writers, contains no criterion requiring an "effective" bond in

the case of nationality. It merely refers to the rules of international
.custom and the principles of lawgenerally recognized with regard to
nationality, principles which do not forbid the grant of nationality
in the circumstances in which Liechtenstein granted its nationality
to F. Nottebohm.
7. Nor isit possible to maintain that the bond established between
a State and its national is in al1 circumstances closer than that
existing between a State and an individual connected with it by
some other link, as, for example, permanent residence. When the

56 permanente. Lorsqp'on examine de près l'évolution du droit
moderne dans les Etats civilisés, on peut même affirmerque les

droits et devoirs incombant à un individu dans l'État de sa rési-
dence permanente sont souvent plus nombreux que ceux qui le
rattachent à 1'Etat de sa nationalité. Certaines règles régissent les
conflits de loi en droit privé et elles illustrent bien cette situation.
Dans ces conditions, I'affirmatipn selon laquelle il existe un lien
particulièrement étroit entre 1'Etat et son national ne peut guère
avoir le caractère absolu qu'on lui prête souvent. Il est en tout
cas affaibli lorsqu'il y a dissociation entre nationalité et résidence
permanente ainsi qye dans le cas de double nationalité, où deux
et mêmeplusieurs Etats se disputent un droit à l'attachement de
l'individu considéréet exigent de lui qu'il accomplisse les devoirs

inhérents à la nationalité, situation qui n'est nullement contraire
au droit international commun. Le droit international ne contient
d'ailleurs aucune règle qui fasse dépendre I'effectivitéde la natio-
nalité d'un lien sentimental entre 1'Etat naturalisant et l'individu
naturalisé.

8. Cependant,il a étéaffirmé,aussi bien au cours de la procédure
écrite qu'au cours de la procédure orale, qu'il y avait lieu d'exa-
miner le problème de la validité de l'acte de naturalisation indépen-
damment de l'existence d'une règle concrète du droit coutumier
interdisant au Liechtenstein de naturaliser F. Nottebohm dans de
telles conditions, mais qu'on devrait retenir à l'égarddu Liechten-

stein d'une part, et de F. Nottebohm d'autre part, le reprocheplus.
général,celui de l'absence d'une volontéréelleet dépourvue de vice,
qui est une condition de validité des actes juridiques en droit inter-
national. Toutefois, on ne peut prétendre que la naturalisation de
F. Nottebohm était viciéepar I'absence d'une volonté réellede la
part du Liechtenstein de le naturaliser, ou de la part de F. Notte-
bohm lui-même.La réalitéde la naturalisation ne peut êtremise
en doute. II ne s'agit pas d'un mariage fictif entre le Liechtenstein
et Nottebohm. A cet égard, il convient de tenir compte du compor-
tement subséquent de ce dernier qui, après la naturalisation, n'a
jamais varié. Il s'est toujours comporté exclusivement comme res-

sortissant du Liechtenstein et, en prenant fait et cause pour son
ressortissant, la Principauté a démontréle caractère sérieux du lien
qui la rattache à son ressortissant. Le contrôle de la ((sincérité))de
la naturalisation, que la Cour peut exiger dans le cadre de la procé-
dure de preuve relative à la réalitéetà l'effectivité dela naturalisa-
tion, se limite aux constatations que nous venons de faire.
Comme F. Nottebohm n'avait pas de devoirs propres, résultant
pour lui des principes du droit international, il n'est pas non plus
nécessaire d'examiner s'il agissait avec a bonne foi ))lorsqu'il a
demandé sa naturalisation. Aucune règle de droit international
commun, c'est-à-dire aucune règle coutumière ni aucun principe
généralde droit reconnu par les nations civilisées, au sens de

57development of modern law in civilized States is closely considered,
it iseven possible to affirm that the rights and duties of an individual
vis-à-vis the State of his permanent residence, are frequently more
numerous than those which link him to the State of which he is a
national. There are certain rules of private law governing conflicts
of law which clearly illustrate this situation. In these circumstances,
the assertion that there exists an especially close link between the
State and its national can hardly bear the absolute character which

is frequently attributed to it. This link is, in any case, weakened
when nationality becomes dissociated from permanent residence as
well as in the case of dual nationality, where two or several States
claim a right to the attachment of the individual in question and
require him to fulfil the duties inherent in nationality, a situation
which is in no way contrary to general international law. Moreover,
international law contains no mle which makes the effectiveness of
nationality dependent upon a sentimental bond between the natur-
alizing State and the naturalized individual.

8. It has, however, been asserted, both in the written and oral
proceedings, that it is necessary to consider the problem of the
validity of the act of naturalization apart from the existence of a
specific rule of customary law prohibiting Liechtenstein from natur-
alizing F. Nottebohm in such circumstances, but that a more
general complaint could be levelled against Liechtenstein on the one
hand and Nottebohm on the other, namely, the absence of a real

and genuine intent which is a condition for the validity of legal acts
in international law. Nevertheless, it cannot be contended that the
naturalization of F. Nottebohm was vitiated by the absence of a
genuine intent on the part of Liechtenstein to naturalize him or on
the part of F. Nottebohm himself. The reality of the naturalization
cannot be called in question. There was no question of a fictitious
marriage between Liechtenstein and Nottebohm. In this connexion
it is necessary to have regard to the subsequent conduct of Notte-
bohm, which never varied after naturalization. He always behaved
exclusively as a Liechtenstein national and, in taking up the caseof
its national, the Principality has shown the serious character of the
bond linking it with its national. The extent to which the Court can
consider the "genuineness" of naturalization as an element of proof
in regard to the reality and effectiveness of naturalization, isconfined
within the limits which have just been stated.

Since F. Nottebohm was not himself subject to any duties based
on the principles of international law, it is also unnecessary to

consider whether he acted in "good faith" when he applied for
naturalization. No rule of general international law-that is to Say,
no customary rule nor general principle of law recognized by
civilized nations within the meaning of Article 38, I (b) and (c),l'article 38, littI b) et c), du Statut de la Cour, ne pose pareille
exigence, et aucune responsabilité internationale ne peut être
encourue de la part de la Principauté pour n'avoir pas examinéla
demande de naturalisation sous cet angle, qui rendrait la naturalisa-
tion totalement ou partiellement sans effet à l'égarddu Guatemala,
pays neutre à l'époquede la naturalisation de Nottebohm. Il serait
inadmissible de vouloir exiger à ce sujet que 1'Etat naturalisant ou
le candidat à la naturalisation prévoient des événements incertains,
qui pourraient se produire à l'avenir avec plus ou moins de proba-
bilité.

9. Mêmesi I'on admettait que la Cour a le droit d'examiner les
motifs qui ont conduit F. Nottebohm à demander la nationalité
liechtensteinoise, il y a lieu de constater que F. Nottebohm n'a
nullement manqué aux principes de la bonne foi, tels qu'ils sont
définisdans le droit interne des Etats civilisés,et en particulier dans
l'article2 du code civil du Liechtenstein, de 1926. F. Nottebohm
n'a dissimuléaucun élément essentielni accessoire pour l'apprécia-
tion de sa demande par les autorités liechtensteinoises, qui ont donc
pu statuer en pleine connaissance de cause sur la requête.Il n'y a
donc de la part de F. Nottebohm aucun ((manque de loyauté »,

aucun manquement à la parole donnée qui, dans certaines condi-
tions, pourraient rendre l'acte juridique irrégulier aux fins de l'ap-
plication et de l'interprétation de la loi liechtensteinoise concernant
l'acquisition et la perte de la nationalité. C'est seulement dans le
cas où I'on pourrait prouver un agissement dolosif de la part de
F. Nottebohm, par exemple la dissimulationde biens allemandsgrâce
à la naturalisation, que l'on pourrait éventuellement, et si certaines
conditions étaient réalisées,parler aussi d'un manquement au prin-
cipe de la bonne foi de la part de F. Nottebohm à l'égard dela Prin-
cipauté et peut-être aussi àl'égarddu Guatemala, dissimulation qui
pourrait justifier, comme nous le démontrerons ci-dessous, la non-
reconnaissance de la nationalité liechtensteinoise. Dans ce cas, ce
ne serait toutefois pas le manquement à la bonne foi qui serait
l'élémentdéterminant pour cette non-opposabilité de la nationalité
liechtensteinoise, mais le caractère dolosif de l'opération fraudu-
leuse de dissimulation, dont l'acquisition de la nationalité liechten-
steinoise ne serait qu'un des éléments constitutifs.

IO. Est-il possible d'admettre la validité de la nationalité de
F. Nottebohm aux termes du droit national liechtensteinois et
d'affirmer, d'autre part, que cette nationalité ne déploiepas tous ses
effetsinternationaux et que le Liechtensteinne peut, en conséquence,
exercer valablement sa protection diplomatique si cette dernière est
contestéepar le Guatemala ?En effet, le droit international connaît
des situations dans lesquelles les effets internes et mêmecertains
effets internationaux de la nationalité sont reconnus, mais dans
lesquelles laprotectiondiplomatique, exercée en raison de la natio-

nalité acquise, peut faire l'objet de contestations valables. C'est
58of the Statute of the Court-lays down such a requirement and no
international responsibility can be incurred by the Principality for
not having considered the application for naturalization from this
point of view, which would render the naturalization wholly or
partly inoperative as against Guatemala, a neutral country at the
time of the naturalization of Nottebohm. It would be inadmissible
to seek to impose a requirement in this respect, that the naturalizing
State or applicant for naturalization should foresee uncertain events
which might take place in the future with a greater or lesser degree
of probability.

9. Even if it were admitted that the Court is entitled to enquire
into the motives which led F. Nottebohm to apply for Liechten-
stein nationality, it is necessary to point out that F. Nottebohm
in no way failed to observe the principles of good faith as defined
by the municipal law of civilized States andin particular by Arti-
cle 2 of the Civil Code of Liechtenstein of 1926.F. Nottebohm did
not conceal any essential or subordinate element for the considera-
tion of his application bythe Liechtenstein authorities which could
therefore decide uppn the application with full knowledge of the
facts. There was therefore no "lack of loyalty" on the part of
F. Nottebohm, no failure to keep his word which, in certain circum-
stances, could render the legal act irregular for the purposes of
the application and interpretation of the Liechtenstein Law on the
Acquisition and Loss of Nationality. Only if it could be proved

that F. Nottebohm acted in a fraudulent manner, for example,
by concealing German property with the help of the naturalization,
might it be possible, if certain conditions were fulfilled, to speak
of a failure on the part of F. Nottebohm to observe the principle
of g~od faith vis-à-vis the Principality and perhaps also vis-à-vis
Guatemala. Such concealment might, as 1 shall show, justify the
non-recognition of Liechtenstein nationality. In such a case, how-
ever, it would not be the absence of good faith which would be the
decisive element in the fact that Liechtenstein nationality could
not be invoked, but the wrongful character of the fraudulent
transaction of concealment of which the acquisition of Liechten-
stein nationality would only be one of the constituent elements.

IO. 1s it possible to accept the validity of F. Nottebohm's
nationality for the purposes of the municipal law of Liechtenstein
and yet to affirm that this nationality does not deploy al1its inter-
national effects and that Liechtenstein is not, therefore, entitled
to exercise diplomatic protection should the latter be disputed by
Guatemala ? International law is indeed conversant with situations
in which the municipal effects and even some of the international
effects of nationality are recognized but in which diplomntic 9rotec-
tion exercised on the basis of the acquired nationality may be
successfully disputed. Thus, the individual who possesses two

58ainsi que l'individu qui possède deux nationalités ne peut jouir de
la protection diplomatique que de l'un des Etats dont il est ressor-
tisçant au regard de l'autre - et cela quel que soit son domicile.
L'Etat ne peut accorder sa protection diplomatique selon l'opinion
dominante qu'à une personne qui possédaitsa nationalité àl'époque
où le fait générateur dela protection diplomatique est né et qui
l'a conservéesans interruption jusqu'à l'époque dela réclamation.
Cette dissociation de la nationalité et de la protection diplomatique
se réduit ordinairement à des situations où l'individu a deux
nationalités, cumulatives ou successives, entraînant la conséqu~nce
que le titre à la protection peut toujours être exercépar un Etat,
qui assure ainsi la possibilité de faire valoir une demande dans le
domaine international.

II. Cette affirm~tion n'est pas contredite non plus par le fait
que le juge de 1'Etat tiers ou l'arbitre international ont eu, en
maintes occasions, à trancher des conflits dans lesquels deux États
revendiquaient le mêmeindividu comme leur propre national, et
qu'à ces occasions la tendance prédominante est de faire prévaloir
la nationalité effective, conception dont s'est aussiinspirél'artic5e
de la convention de 1930 relative aux conflits des lois en matière
de nationalité. Le critère du rattachementefectif de la nationalité
a été établiuniquement en vue de conflits résultant de la double
nationalité, à l'occasion desquels les États tiers doivent choisir
entre une nationalité qualifiée de plus _effective et une autre de
moins effective, ainsi qu'entre deux Etats dont chacun désire
exercer la protection diplomatique en faveur du mêmeindividu.

Quant aux traités Bancroft, qui ont étéinvoqués au cours de la
procédure, c'est, à mon avis, à tort qu'on les considère comme un

précédent pourla solution du cas de F. Nottebohm. Indépendam-
ment du fait q$il s'agit de conventions bilatérales, conclues en
1868 entre les Etats-Unis d'Amérique d'une part, les États de
Wurtemberg, de Bavière, de Bade, de Hesse et la Confédération
de l'Allemagne du Nord d'autre part, elles furent abrogées le
6 avril 1917 (voir Hackwoch, Digest of International Law, t. III,
p. 384),lors de l'entrée des Etats-Unis d'Amériquedans la première
guerre mondiale, et ne peuvent dès lors êtreconsidéréescomme
reflétant les règles du droit international général, leur objet prin-
cipal se rapportait à la perte de la nationalité et de la protection
diplomatique américaine par les personnes d'origine allemande
naturalisées aux États-unis, renouvelant leur résidence en Alle-
magne sans intention de retourner aux Etats-Unis. Ces traités
avaient pour but essentiel d'annuler les effets de la nationalité
américaine de personnes n'ayant aucun désir de résideraux Etats-
Unis et qui rentraient dans leur pays d'origine, souvent pour éluder
les obligations du service militaire. A l'égard des personnes de nationalities can only avail himself of the diplomatic protection
of one of the States of which he is a national vis-à-vis the other
and this is so wherever he may be resident. According to the pre-
vailing view, a State can only grant its diplomatic protection to
an individual who possessed its nationality at the time when the
event giving rise to the diplomatic protection took place, and who
has retained such nationality uninterruptedly up to the time when
the claim is presented. This dissociation of nationality from diplo-
matic protection is normally confined to situations in which the
individual has two nationalities-either cumulatively or in

succession-with the result that the right of protection may always
be exercised by one State, thus preserving the possibility of a claim
being asserted on the international level.

II. Nor is this statement of the position inconsistent with the
fact that the courts of third States and international tribunals
have, on many occasions, had to settle disputes in which two
States claimed the same individual as their national and that in
such cases the prevailing tendency has been to give preference to
the real and effective nationality, a view which forms the basis
of Article 5 of the Convention of 1930 relating to the Conflict of
Nationality Laws. The test of eflectiveconnection with respect to
nationality has only been laid down for the purpose of resolving
conflicts arising out of dual nationality, in regard to which third
States must choose between one nationality, held to be the more real
and effective one, and a second nationality held to be the less real
and effective. The test has also been applied between two States
each of which wishes to exercise diplomatic protection 011 behalf

of the same person.
As for the Bancroft Treaties, which were invoked during the
course of the proceedings, 1 consider it incorrect to regard these
Treaties as constituting a precedent for the case of F. Nottebohm.
Apart from the fact that these were bilateral treaties concluded in
1868between the United States of America on the one hand and the
States of Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Baden, Hesse and the North German
Confederation on the other, they were abrogated on 6th April,
1917 (see Hackworth, Digestof International Law, Vol. III,p. 384),
at the time of the entry of the United States of America into the
first World \Var and cannot therefore be regarded as reflecting the
rules of general international law, since these provisions were
mainly concerned with the lossofnationality and the Americandiplo-
matic protection of persons of German origin,naturalized in the Uni-
ted States and taking up their residence again in Germany without
the intention of returning to the United States. The main purpose
of these treaties was to annul the effects of American nationality

granted to persons who had no ~vislito reside in the LTnitedStates
and who returned to their country of origin frequently in order
to evade the obligations of military service. As regards personsnationalité double - la nationalité américaine et celle d'un des
États allemands en question - les traités Bancroft cherchaient à
faire prévaloir la nationalité du pays de la résidence effective
(cf. Moore, A Digest of International Law, t. III,pp. 358 et ss.).

Le cas d'espèce est tout différent. F. Nottebohm n'était pas
un Liechtensteinois d'origine se rendant au Guatemala et natu-
ralisé dans ce pays pour retourner et résider ensuite au Liechten-
stein. En outre, aucun conflit de double nationalité ne se présente
dans son cas. En permettant au Guatemala de déclarer inopposable
la demande du Liechtenstein d'exercer sa protection diplomatique,
il en résulte que F. Nottebohm, ayant perdu sa nationalité alle-
mande par l'acquisition de la nationalité liechtensteinoise, n'a

plus la possibilité d'invoquer aucune protection diplomatique.
Une telle dissociation entre nationalité et protection diplomatique
ne trouve aucune base ni dans une règle coutumière ni dans un
principe général de droit reconnu par les nations civilisées, au
sens de l'article38, litt.I b) et c), du Statut de la Cour. Il s'agit
donc d'une règlede droit international qui ne peut êtreappliquée
dans le cas d'espèce, surtout dans le cadre de l'examen d'une
exception préliminaire, à mon avis, qu'avec le consentement des
deux parties en cause, conformément à l'article 38, litt.2, de
son Statut.

12. La dissociation de la validité de la nationalité et de la
protection diplomatique laisse d'ailleurs un autre problème sans
solution. S'agit-il d'une non-validité généralede la naturalisation
dans l'ordre juridique international, dépassant ainsi le droit
limit'edes États tiers de dénierla protection diplomatique exercée,

ou cette non-validité vise-t-elle uniquement le droit du Liechten-
stein à exercer la protection diplomatique à l'égard du Guatemala ?

Étant donné que les motifs invoqués pour dénier la protection
diplomatique se rapportent forcément au mode d'acquisition de
la nationalité liechtensteinoise par F. Nottebohm et non à des
raisons particulières qu'aurait le Guatemala de ne pas reconnaître
les effets de la nationalité dans le domaine de la protection diplo-
matique, n'importe quel État tiers sera en mesure de tirer des
conclusions dépassant le cadre restreint du droit de protection
diplomatique et ainsi amené à ne pas reconnaître d'autres effets
de la nationalité dans le domaine international. Rien ne les
empêchera, par exemple, de dire que le statut personnel de F.
Nottebohm est celui d'un apatride, F. Nottebohm ayant vala-
blement perdu la nationalité allemande sans avoir valablement
acquis la nationalité liechtensteinoise dans le domaine inter-

national. Le fait que l'arrêtne se rapporte qu'au cas d'espèce et
que la res j~dicata est sans effet à l'égarddes États tiers n'infirme
aucunement les considérations que je viens de développer. La
60 possessing dual nationality-American nationality and the nation-
ality of one of the German States in question-the Bancroft
Treaties sought to give effect to the nationality of the country
of habitua1 residence (cf. Moore, A Dicest of International Law,
Vol. III, pp. 358 et sqq.). "
The ~resent case is entirelv different. F. Nottebohm was not a
~iechtektein national who went to Guatemala and was naturalized

in that country and thereafter returned to Liechtenstein in order
to take up residence there. Moreover, no conflict of dual nationality
arises in his case. To allow Guatemala to hold that Liechtenstein's
claim to exercise diplomatic protection is inadmissible against
Guatemala would lead to the consequence that F. Nottebohm,
having lost his German nationality by acquiring the nationality of
Liechtenstein, would no longer be able to invoke the diplomatic
protection of any State. Such a dissociation of nationality frorn
diplomatic protection is not supported by any customary rule nor
by any general principle of law recognized by civilized nations,
within the meaning of Article 38 (1) (b) and (c)of the Statute of
the Court. I consider that such a rule of international law could
only be applied, in the present case, especially on consideration
of a preliminary objection, with the consent of both parties, in
accordance with Article 38 (2) of its Statute.

12. Moreover, to dissociate the question of the validity-of nation-

ality from that of diplornatic protection leaves a further problem
unsolved. Is the question one of the general non-validity of the
naturalization on the international level, thus going beyond the
limited right of third States to deny the claim to exercise diplo-
matic protection, or does such non-validity merely affect the right
of Liechtenstein to exercise diplomatic protection as against
Guatemala ?
Since the reasons invoked for the purpose of denying the claim
to exercise diplomatic protection are inevitably based on the
manner in which F. Nottebohm acquired Liechtenstein nationality,
and not on any special reasons which Guatemala may have had
for refusing to recognize the effects of the nationality in the field
of diplornatic protection, any third State will be in a position to
draw conclusions going beyond the narrow limits of the right to
exercise diplomatic protection and will thus be led to disregard
other consequences, other effects of nationality on the interna-

tional level. There would, for example, be nothing to prevent them
from saying that the persona1 status of F. Nottebohm is that of a
stateless person, Nottebohm having in fact lost German nationality
without having validly acquired Liechtenstein nationality for
international purposes. The fact that the Judgment only applies to
the particular case and that the resjudicata is not binding on third
States in no way detracts from the force of these considerations.portée dela décision judiciaire dépasseleseffetsprévusàl'article 59
du Statut.

13. D'autre part, les motifs invoqués en se fondant sur l'absence
d'un lien de rattachement suffisant en vue de dénier l'exercice
de la protection diplomatique par le Liechtenstein à l'égard du
Guatemala visent les réclamations relatives aux dommages causés
à l'époque où F. Nottebohm n'avait pas encore sa résidence per-
manente dans la Principauté. En revanche, mêmedans ce système,
rien n'empêche, à mon avis, le Liechtenstein de faire valoir les
réclamations qui se rapportent à l'époque où F. Nottebohm a
établi sa résidence permanente à Vaduz, où il s'est fixéen 1946
(voir duplique, p. 45). Comme les faits générateursdu dommage
causéaux biens de F. Nottebohm, pour lesquels des réclamations
ont étéformulées à l'égard du Guatemala, se situent dans la

période postérieureà 1946, et qu'en particulier la requêteadressée
à la Cour par le Liechtenstein est du 17 décembre 1951 et que
les procédures d'expropriation pour lesquelles réparation est
demandée par la Principauté n'ont étéexécutéesque postérieure-
ment à l'année 1949, surtout après la mise en vigueur du décret
législatif no630 du 13 juillet 1949 relatif à la loi de liquidation
des affaires de guerre (voir contre-mémoire, annexe 39, p. 126),
rien n'empêcheque la nationalité de F. Nottebohm déploie ses
effets ordinaires à l'égard du Guatemala, mêmesi on considère
que les liens de fait, plus forts que ceux créés en 1939 par la
naturalisation, sont indispensables pour permettre à un État de
faire valoir sa protection diplomatique en faveur de ses ressor-
tissants.

Il n'est pas possible de nier - si on adopte ce système qui va,
à mon avis, au delà des exigences que pose le droit international
général - que F. Nottebohm, après une résidence permanente
de plus de trois ans au Liechtenstein, puisse faire valoir certaines
de ses réclamations à l'égarddu Guatemala et que le Liechtenstein
soit en mesure de prendre fait et cause pour sonressortissant. Comme
F. Nottebohm avait certainement la nationalité liechtensteinoise,
consacrée par le « lien))de la résidenceau moment où la demande
a étéadresséeau Guatemala (1951)~le Liechtenstein remplit à ce
sujet toutes les conditions qui ont donné lieu dans la pratique
internationale à des controverses en vue de savoir quelle date doit
avoir la préférence, à savoir celle où le Gouvernement national
((épouse ))la demande, celle à laquelle la demande a étéprésentée
à l'agent du Gouvernement défendeur, celle à laquelle elle a été

présentéeau tribunal international, ou bien la date du règlement
de la demande (cf. E. Borchard, Protection diplomatique des Natio-
naux à l'Étranger, Annuaire de l'Institut de droit international,
1931, t. 1, p.284).
D'autre part, il est indubitable que les faits générateurs du
litige, c'est-à-dire le préjudice subi quant aux biens expropriés, se
61The scope of the judicial decision extends beyond the effects
provided for in Article 59 of theStatute.

13. On the other hand, the reasons relied on-namely the ab-
sence of a sufficient bond of attachment, which debarred Liechten-
stein from exercising diplomatic protection as against Guate-
mala-affect the claims relating to damage caused at the time
when F. Nottebohm had not yet established a permanent resi-
dence in the Principality. Even if these grounds are admitted,
however, 1 consider that there is nothing to prevent Liechtenstein
from putting fonvard claims relating to the period when F. Notte-
bohm took up permanent residence at Vaduz as from 1946 (see
Rejoinder, p. 45). Since the events giving rise to the damage
suffered by F. Nottebohm in respect of his property-as to which
damage, claims have been put fonvardagainst Guatemala-occurred
within the period subsequent to 1946, and in particular since

Liechtenstein's application was presented to the Court on 17th De-
cember, 1951, and since the expropriation measures in regard to
which reparation is claimed by the Principality were only applied
after the year 1949, and in particular after the enactment of Legis-
lative Decree No. 630 of 13th July, 1949, relating to the Law on
the Liquidation of Matters arising out of the War (see Counter-
Memorial, Annex 39, p. 126), there is nothing to prevent F. Notte-
bohm's nationality deploying its ordinary effects as against Guate-
mala, even if it is considered that factual ties stronger than those
created in 1939 by naturalization, are essential for the purpose
of enabling a State to exercise diplomatic protection on behalf of
its nationals.
It cannot be denied, if this reasoning, which 1 consider goes
beyond the requirement of general intemational law, is adopted,
that F. Nottebohm, after a permanent residence of more than
three years in Liechtenstein, is entitled to put fonvard certain of
his claims against Guatemala, and that Liechtenstein is entitled
to take up the case of its national. Since F. Nottebohm certainly
had Liechtenstein nationality, which was supported by a "bond"
of residence at the time when the claim was addressed to Guatemala
(1951)~Liechtenstein, in this connexion, fulfils al1the requirements
which, in international practice, have been the subject of dispute,
as to the date which is to be preferred, that is to Say, the date when

the national Government espouses the claim, the date when the
claim is presented to a representative of the defendant Govem-
ment, the date when it is brought before an international tribunal,
or even the date when the claim is settl7d (cf. E. Borchard,
Protection di$lomatiquedes Nationaux à Z'Etranger,Annuaire de
l'Institut de droit international, 1931, Vol. 1, p. 284).

On the other hand there is no doubt that the events giving
rise to the dispute, that is to Say, the damage suffered in respect
61 placent à une époque postérieure à l'établissement définitif de
F. Nottebohm au Liechtenstein. A ce sujet, il y a aussi lieu de
.retenir que tous les critères sévères envue de déterminer le carac-
tère national d'une réclamation, qui ont été pris en considération
lors des discussions préalables de la Conférencepour la codification
du droit international de 1930, sont remplis dans le cas d'espèce
(cf. Sociétédes Nations, doc. C.75.M.69.19zg.V., pp. 140 et ss.).

Le fait que la loi guatémaltèque de liquidation des affaires de
guerre de 1949, en vertu de l'article 7 du décret législatif no 630,
qualifie d'ennemies les personnes physiques qui ont eu la nationa-
lité de l'un ou l'autre des pays avec lesquels le Guatemala a été
en guerre, ou qui l'avaient le 7 octobre 1938, bien qu'elles aient
prétendu avoir acquis par la suite une autre nationalité, ne modifie
pas davantage les élémentsessentiels de la question en discussion,

c'est-à-dire que les faits générateurs du litige se placent à une
époque à laquelle F. Nottebohm était ressortissant du Liechten-
stein. Or, il n'appartient pas à un Etat tiers de trancher la question
de la validité d'une nationalité étrangère en vue de rendre sans
effet l'exercice de la protection diplomatique, exception faite
peut-êtredu cas particulier de dissimulation de biens ennemis, qui
sera traité sous III et qui, appartenant au fond du litige, ne peut
donc êtreexaminé dans le cadre d'une exception préliminaire.

Comme aucune mesure d'expropriation définitive, pour laquelle
une demande de réparation a étéformulée par le Liechtenstein,
n'a étéprise avant le retour de F. Nottebohm dans son Etat
national en 1946, et que toutes ces mesures n'ont étéréalisées
qu'après son établissement permanent au Liechtenstein, je ne vois
pas comment on peut invoquer l'absence de tout lien de rattache-
ment entre le Liechtenstein et F. Nottebohm, mêmesi on admet

à ce sujet des exigences allant au delà de ce que demande le droit
international commun à ce sujet, en vue de nier que cet Etat a
le droit de prendre fait et cause pour son ressortissant en 1951,
concernant des actes illicites qui auraient étécommis à une époque
postérieure à 1946.

14. Les conséquences d'une décision déclarant la requête du
Liechtenstein non recevable pour absence de nationalité valable
dans la personne de F. Nottebohm, et interdisant à 1'Etat deman-
deur de faire valoir le droit de protection diplomatique à l'égarddu
Guatemala, entraînent trois conséquences importantes :
a. La règle du droit international, qui veut que la nationalité et
la protection diplomatique ne soient pas dissociéesdans le
cas où la personne protégée n'aqu'une nationalité et où les
faits générateurs du litige sont nés après l'octroi de cette

nationalité, se trouvera modifiée avec effet rétroactif, seize
62of expropriated property, occurred at a time subsequent to the
final establishment of F. Nottebohm in Liechtenstein. In this
connexion it is also necessary to point out that all the strict tests
laid down for the purpose of determining the national character
of a claim, which were considered during the preliminary discus-
sions for the 1930 Conference on the Codification of International
Law, were complied with in the precent case (cf.League of Nations,
Doc. C.75.M.69.192g.V., pp. 140 et sqq.).
The fact that the Guatemalan Law of 1949 on the Liquidation
of llatters arising out of the War, in accordance with Article 7
of Legislative Decree No. 630, regarded as enemy nationals those

perçons who possessed the nationality of any of the States with
which Guatemala was at war or who had such nationality on
7th October, 1938, although they claimed to have acquired another
nationality after that date, does not further modify the essential
elements of the question under consideration, that is to Say, that
the events giving rise to the dispute occurred at a time when
F. Nottebohm was a Liechtenstein national. It is not for a third
Stateto decide the validity of a foreign nationality for the purpose
of rendering inoperative the exercise of diplomatic protection,
with the possible exception of the special case of concealment of
enemy property, which will be dealt with under III below and
which, being a matter concemed with the merits of the case,
cannot be considered in connexion with a plea in bar.
Since no final measure of expropriation, in respect of which a
claim for reparation has been put forward by Liechtenstein, was
ado~ted before F. Nottebohm's return to the State. of which he

was a national, in 1946, and since al1 these measures were only
carried out after he took up permanent residence in Liechtenstein,
1 fail to see how it is possible to invoke the absence of any
bond of attachment between Liechtenstein and F. Nottebohm
(even if in this connexion one were to admit the existence of
requirements going beyond what is laid down by general inter-
national law on this question) for the purpose of denying that
Liechtenstein had the right to take up the case of its national
in 1951 with respect to unlawful acts alleged to have been com-
mitted after 1946.

14. A decision that Liechtenstein's application is inadmissible
on the ground that F.Nottebohm does not possess effective nation-
ality, and that therefore the applicant State is not entitled to
exercise the right of diplomatic protection as against Guatemala
would involve three important consequences :

-(a) The nile of international law that nationality should not be
dissociated from diplomatic protection in cases where the
protected person has only one nationality, and where the
facts giving rise to the dispute have occurred after the grant
of such nationality, would be modified retroactively sixteen
62 ans après la naturalisation deF. Nottebohm au Liechtenstein.
Cette situation est d'autant plus grave que les principaux
faits générateurs du litige n'ont étéréalisésqu'après 1949,
trois ans après que F. Nottebohm se fût définitivement
établi au Liechtenstein ety eût, par une résidence prolongée,
noué des liens solides de rattachement dont l'absence a été
alléguéepar la partie défenderesse dans la procédure écrite
et orale, ce qui, son avis, interdit l'exercice de la protection
diplomatique du Liechtenstein en faveur de F. Nottebohm
à l'égard du Guatemala. A mon avis, mêmesi l'on partage
cette opinion, on doit admettre au moins la protection diplo-
matique en ce qui concerne les dommages causés à F.

Nottebohm après 1946, surtout ceux mis à exécution à la
suite de la promulgation du décret législatifno 630 du 13 juil-
let1949.
b. Mêmeen admettant la dissociation entre nationalité et protec-
tion diplomatique dans le cas d'espèce,il reste la question de
savoir quelles sont les conséquences de l'invalidation totale
ou partielle en droit international d'une nationalité valable
en droit national. La non-validité se limite-t-elle au domaine

de la protection diplomatique ou s'étend-elle aux autres
effets de la nationalité dans le domaine international, par
exemple aux droits conventionnels dont peuvent jouir les
ressortissants d'un État en ce qui concerne les échanges moné-
taires, le droit d'établissement, l'accèsaux tribunaux internes
d'un État tiers, etc. ?
c. En refusant de reconnaître la nationalité et, en conséquence,
le droit de protection diplomatique, on rend l'application de

cette dernière - unique protection mise par le droit inter-
national généralà la disposition des États pour faire valoir
les prétentions des individus contre les États tiers - encore
plus difficile qu'elle ne l'était déjà.
En supprimant le droit à la protection, l'examen quant au
fond de certaines réclamations alléguant une violation des
règles du droit international devient impossible. Si aucun
autre État n'est en mesure d'exercer la protection diploma-
tique - comme dans le cas d'espèce -, les réclamations
faites au nom d'un individu dont la nationalité est contestée
ou déclaréesans effet dans le domaine international, alors
qu'il ne bénéficiepas d'une autre nationalité, se trouvent
abandonnées. La protection de l'individu, déjà organisée
d'une manière si précaire dans le droit international actuel,
se trouvera encore affaiblie et ce serait, mon avis, contraire
au principe fondamental inscrit dans l'article15, litt.1, de

la déclaration universelle des Droits de l'homme, approuvée
le 8 décembre 1948 par l'Assemblée généraledes Nations
Unies, selon lequel tout individu a droit à une nationalité.
63 years after F. Nottebohm's naturalization in Liechtenstein.
This situation is al1 the more serious since the main facts
giving rise to the dispute only occurred after 1949, three
years after F. Nottebohm finally established himself in
Liechtenstein and, by prolonged residence there, created solid
bonds of attachment, the absence of which has been relied
upon bythe respondent party in the written and oral proceed-
ings as a ground for the view that Liechtenstein is not
entitled to exercise diplomatic protection in favour of
F. Nottebohm against Guatemala. 1 consider that even if one
shared this view, one must at least recognize the right to
exercise diplomatic protection as regards the injury suffered
by F. Nottebohm after 1946, especially the injury resulting
from the measures taken following the enactment of Legis-
lative Decree No. 630 of July 13th, 1949.

(b) Even if it be admitted that nationality can be dissociated
from diplomatic protection in the present case, there remains
the question as to what are the consequences of the total or
partial invalidity under international law of a nationality
validly acquired under municipal law. 1s the invalidity
confined to the sphere of diplomatic protection, or does it
extend tothe other effects of nationality on the international
level, for example, treaty rights enjoyed by the nationals
of a particular State in regard to monetary exchange, estab-
lishment and access to the municipal courts of a third
State, etc. ?

(c) A refusa1 to recognize nationality and therefore the right to
exercise diplomatic protection, would render the application
of the latter-the only protection available to States under
general international law enabling them to put forward the
claims of individuals against third States-even more
difficult then it already is.
If the right of protection is abolished, it becomes impos-
sible to consider the merits of certain claims .alleging a
violation of the rules of international law. If no other
State is in a position to exercice diplomatic protection, as
in the present case, claims put forward on behalf of an
individual, whose nationality is disputed or held to be inope-
rative on the international level and who enjoys no other
nationality, would have to be abandoned. The protection of

the individual which is so precarious under existing interna-
tionallaw would be weakened even further and 1consider that
this would be contrary to the basic principle embodied in
Article 15 (1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on
December 8th, 1948, according to which everyone has the
right to a nationality. Furthermore,refusa1to exercise protec-
63 Le refus de protection va en outre à l'encontre des nombreuses
tentatives contemporaines en vue de combattre l'augmen-

tation des cas d'apatridie et de remédierà l'absence de protec-
tion contre les actes violant les droits fondamentaux les plus
élémentaires que le droit des gens reconnaît à l'homme,
indépendamment de sa nationalité, de sa religion et de sa
race.

15. L'admission de la conclusion de non-recevabilité du chef de
la nationalité empêchela Cour d'examiner le fond de l'affaire et,
ainsi, de se prononcer, sur l'existence ou l'inexistence d'un acte
illicite de la part de 1'Etat défendeur à l'égarddu Liechtenstein et
de son ressortissant qui n'a aucun autre moyen de protection juri-
dique à sa disposition. Une exception préliminaire doit d'ailleurs
êtreinterprétée d'une manière étroite. Elle ne doit pas empêcher
que justice soit faite.

III

Quant au reproche fait à F. Nottebohm au cours de la procédure
écrite et orale d'avoir sollicité la nationalité du Liechtenstein en
vue de substituer à sa qualité de sujet d'un Etat belligérant la qua-
lité de sujet d'un État neutre, il y a lieu de faire les observations

suivantes :
I. 11n'existe ni en droit international privé, ni en droit interna-
tional public, aucun principe raisonnable, aucune décision judi-
ciaire qui permette de déclarer sans effet une nouvelle nationalité

qui aurait étéacquise en vue d'éviter, dans l'avenir, certains effets
de l'ancienne nationalité. Si mêmeon admettait, sans que d'ailleurs
la preuve en ait étéfaite, que F. Nottebohm est devenu liechten-
steinois dans le but d'échapper aux conséquencesde sa nationalité
allemande, la constatation s'impose que le changement de son
statut n'a pas étéeffectuéau cours de la guerre entre le Guatemala
et l'Allemagne, mais bien avant. On ne peut donc parler d'une
modification du statut d'une personne de nationalité ennemie en
celui d'une personne de nationalité neutre, comme cela aurait peut-
être été le cas, dans certaines conditions, si la naturalisation était
intervenue au cours de l'état de guerre entre le Guatemala et
l'Allemagne.

2. D'autre part, peut-on affirmer que la nationalité de F. Notte-
bohm serait dolosive, vicieuse, s'il était prouvé qu'en demandant la
naturalisation au Liechtenstein, Nottebohm ait voulu de ce fait
dissimuler des avoirs appartenant à des ressortissants ennemis au
Guatemala ? L'on pourrait considérer qu'une nationalité acquise
uniquement dans le but de bénéficierde la protection diplomatique
d'un Etat neutre n'est pas opposable à l'État belligérant contre
lequel les actes de dissimulation des biens ennemis sont dirigés, si

64 tion is not in accordance with the frequent attempts made at
the present time to prevent the increase in the number of
cases of stateless persons and to provide protection against

acts violating the fundamental human rights recognized by
international law as aminimum standard, without distinction
as to nationality, religion or race.

15. The finding that the Application is not admissible on the
grounds of nationality prevents the Court from considering the merits
of the case and thus from ,deciding whether the respondent State
is or is not guilty of an unlawful act as regards Liechtenstein and
its national, who has no other legal means of protection at his
disposal. Moreover, a preliminary objection must be strictly inter-
preted. It must not prevent justice from being done.

III

As regards the criticism made during the written and oral
proceedings, that F. Nottebohm had sought Liechtenstein nation-
ality for the purpose of changing his status from a subject of a
belligerent State to that of a subject of a neutral State, it is neces-
sary to make the following observations :

I. There is no rational principle or judicial decision in either
private or public international law to justify the view that a new
nationality which has been acquired for the purpose of avoiding,
in the future, certain effects of a former nationality should be
regarded as invalid. Even if it were admitted, although this has
not been proved, that F. Nottebohm became aLiechtenstein national

with the object of evading the consequences of his German nation-
ality, it is necessary to point out that this change in his status
was not effected during the War between Guatemala and Germany
but long before that time. It is therefore impossible to speak of a
change in the status of a person from that of an enemy national
to that of a neutral national which might, in certain circumstances,
have been the case had the naturalization taken place while Guate-
mala and Germany were in a state of war.

2. On the other hand, could it be said that Nottebohm's nation-
ality was fraudulent and defective if it had been proved that he
applied for naturalization in Liechtenstein, for the purpose of
using such naturalization as a cloak for the property of enemy
nationals in Guatemala ? It might be considered that a nationality
acquired for the sole purpose of claiming the diplomatic protection
of a neutral State cannot be involïed vis-A-visthe belligerent Statc
against which the acts of concealment of enenly property were

64l'on admet que le do1 est en mesure de vicier l'acte juridique et

ainsi que la partie défenderesseest fondéeà en alléguerla nullité.

L'acquisition de la nationalité fait alors partie d'une transaction
devant être qualifiée dans son ensemble de dolosive, entraînant
éventuellement la non-reconnaissance du changement. de natio-
nalité par l'État belligérant lésé,et non pas uniquement l'inop-
posabilitéde la protection diplomatique. Cependant, il sera toujours
difficile de prouver l'existence d'une telle transaction dolosive.

3. Quelle que soit d'ailleurs la solution à apporter à ce problème,
il aurait fallu, pour l'examiner et le résoudre, aborder le fond du
litige.A cet effet, la Cour aurait dû accorder la possibilité à la
partie demanderesse de réunir tous les éléments de preuve en vue
de lui permettre de se rendre compte si, dans le cas d'espèce, le
reproche de la dissimulation de biens était justifié,de telle manière
que le Guatemala n'avait pas l'obligation de reconnaître la natio-

nalité liechtensteinoise de F. Nottebohm. La preuve de la dissi-
mulation des biens n'étant pas faite, la Cour aurait dû, à mon
avis, joindre au fond l'exception d'irrecevabilité du chef de la
nationalité. Cela aurait également dû être le cas pour les deux
autres chefs d'irrecevabilité, car leur sort est lié à l'exception
d'irrecevabilité quant à la nationalité. En effet, si cette dernière
est admise, l'examen de la demande d'irrecevabilité du Guatemala
du chef de l'absence de négociations diplomatiques et du non-
épuisement des instances internes devient inutile.

4. La décision énoncéepar la Cour à l'audience publique du
14 février1955 a d'ailleurs explicitement réservé le droit du Liech-
tenstein, en vertu de l'article 48, paragraphe 2, du Règlement,
de soumettre tous documents à l'appui des observations sur les
nouveaux documents soumis par la partie adverse. La Cour aurait

donc dû faire droit à la demande d'ajournement soumise par le
Gouvernement de la Principauté de Liechtenstein.

(SignéG )UGGENHEIM.directed, on the ground that a legal act may be vitiated by fraud
and that the respondent party is therefore justified in alleging
that it is a nullity.
The acquisition of nationality in such cases forms part of a
transaction which is to be regarded as generally fraudulent, with
the possible result that the injured belligerent State may refuse
to recognize the change of nationality, and not merely that diplo-
matic protection cannot be relied upon. Nevertheless, it will
always be difficult to prove the existence of such a fraudulent
operation.

3. Moreover, whatever the solution of this problem may be, it
would have been necessary, for the purpose of examining it and of
arriving at a solution, to consider the merits of the dispute. In
this connexion, the Court should have given the applicant party
the opportunity of collecting al1 the evidence with the object of
enabling the Court to ascertain whether, in the particular case,
the allegation of concealing property was justified and that there-
fore Guatemala was not bound to recognize the Liechtenstein
nationality of F. Nottebohm. Since proof of concealment of property
has not been adduced, 1 consider that the Court should have joined
the objection to the admissibility on the ground of nationality to
the merits. This should also have been the case as regards the two
other grounds of inadmissibility, since their fate is bound up with
the objection based on nationality. Indeed, if the latter objection
is upheld, it becomesunnecessary to consider Guatemala's objection

to the admissibility on the ground of prior diplomatic negotiations
and non-exhaustion of local remedies.
4. Moreover, the decision of the Court given at the public sitting
of February 14th, 1955, expressly reserved the right of Liechten-
stein, under Article 48, paragraph 2, of the Rules of Court, to
submit documents insupport of its comments on the new documents
produced by the other Party. The Court should therefore have
granted the application for an adjournment made by the Govern-
ment of the Principality of Liechtenstein.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of M. Guggenheim, Judge « ad hoc »

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