Dissenting Opinion by Judge Klaestad

Document Number
018-19550406-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
018-19550406-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE KLAESTAD

1 consider that the case should have been adjourned for the
following reasons :

The present Judgment deals with one of the three pleas in bar
which, in this second phase of the proceedings, have been invoked
by the Government of Guatemala. This plea in bar by that
Government is based on the ground that the naturalization granted
to Mr. Nottebohm by Liechtenstein is invalid because it is incon-
sistent with the national law of Liechtenstein as well as with
international law.

1. As to the national law of Liechtenstein, it is argued that
the authorities of that State, in applying their NationaliLaw of
4th January, 1934 ,ave not observed its provisions, but in various
respects departed therefrom, particularly with regard to the
prescribed order in which Government, Diet and Commune were
to deal with the application for naturalization. On this ground,
the Court is invited to declare that Mr. Nottebohm has not
properly acquired Liechtenstein nationality in accordance with
the law of the Principality.
It is generally recognized that questions of naturalization of
aliens are, in the absence of conventionalules, in principle within
the exclusive competence of States, and that international law

has kft it to the States themselves to regulate in what manner
and under what conditions their nationality may be conferred
upon aliens. But if a State has in principle the exclusive competence
to regulate questions of nationality by its own legislation without
interference by other States, it is difficult to see on what ground
its own interpretation and application of this same legislation
could be open to challenge by other States. Such a challenge is
possible in theory on the ground that the legislation or the
application thereof is inconsistent with international law ; but
the question now under consideration is only whether the author-
ities of Liechtenstein have applied their local law in a manner
consistent with the provisions of that local law.

The Permanent Court of International Justice has on several
occasions considered what attitude the Court should take with
regard to the national law of States, such as in Judgments No. 7
concerning Gerrnaninterests in Polisk Upper Silesia and Nos. 14
and 15 in the Serbian and Brazilian Loans Cases. In accordance

with the view expressed in those Judgments, it may be said that
it would not be in conformity with the function for which the
28Court is established if it proceeded to examine and decide whether
the competent authorities of Liechtenstein have applied the various
provisions of their Nationality Law of 1934 in a correct manner.
The Court is not deemed to know the national law of the different

States. It would hardly be possible for it to place its own construc-
tion upon the provisions of the Liechtenstein Nationhlity Law
and to disregard the interpretation and application made by the
competent local authorities. By so doing, the Court would substitute
itself forhese local authorities and pronounce upon matters which
have no bearing on international law, and which therefore are
solely within the competence of these authorities.

What the Court, in my opinion, can and must do with regard to
the application of the Liechtenstein Nationality Law, is to
ascertain whether the naturalization in question was in fact granted
by the authority to which that law has attributed this competence.
Article 12 prescribes that it is the Reigning Prince who alone is
entitled to grant the nationality of the Principality. On the evidence
submitted to the Court, 1am satisfied that the Prince did in fact
give his consent to the naturalization of Mr. Nottebohm.

II. The Government of Guatemala further contends that the

naturalization was not granted in accordance with international
law. It invokes the fact that Mr. Nottebohm had not established
his residence in Liechtenstein before he applied for naturalization,
andthat he left the country soon after it was granted. Apart from
conventional rules, international law does not, however, require
previous residence in the country as a condition for naturalization,
nor does it presuppose a subsequent residence there. This is shown
by the fact that the national laws of a great number of States
have-though generally providing for previous residence in the
country-allowed dispensation from that requirement. Thenational
law of Liechtenstein equally requires such previous residence
(para. 6 (d)'of the Nationality Law of 1934) but provides that this
requirement may be dispensed with, as in fact it was in the present
case. To exercise this discretionary power of dispensation is
a matter solely within the competence of the Government of
Liechtenstein.

The validity of the naturalization of Mr. Nottebohm is also
contested on the ground that the Government of Liechtenstein has
not proved the loss of his German nationality, as required by
paragraph 6 (c) of the same Law of 1934. But this requirement also
may be dispensed with according to that provision. It appears,
however, that such dispensation was considered unnecessary in
view of the provisions of Article 25 of the German Nationality
Law of 1913, according to which he would lose his German nation-
ality by acquiring the nationality of Liechtenstein. That he there-by in fact lost his German nationality was, on 15th June, 1954,
certified by the Senate of Hamburg.

III. The view has been expressed that the relationship estab-
lished between State and individual by naturalization must pre-
suppose the existence of a physical or real link or a substantial
connection attaching the individual to the State. It is thereby
implied that a mere common and effective will, not vitiated by
fraud, is not sufficient for the creation of the relationship ofion-
ality. It may be questioned whether this view is a true expression
of a binding rule of intemational law.
When the Court, in the Asylum case, was confronted with a
contention relating to an alleged right of a unilateral and definitive
qualification of the offencecommitted by the refugee, it based itself
on the principle of State sovereignty and held that a party which
relies on a custom derogating from that principle must prove that
the rule invoked is in accordance with a constant and uniform
State practice accepted as law. The same method would seem to be
applicable in the present case. Having to base oneself on the ground

that questions of naturalization are in principle within the exclusive
competence of States, one should, as in the Asylum case, enquire
whether a rule derogating from that principle is established in such
a manner that it has become binding on Liechtenstein. The Govem-
ment of Guatemala would have to prove that such a custom is in
accordance with a constant and uniform State practice "accepted
as law" (Article 38, para. I (b) of the Court's Statute). But no
evidence is produced by that Govemment purporting to establish
the existence of such a custom.

IV. The present Judgment does not decide the question, in
dispute between the Parties, whether the naturalization granted
to Mr. Nottebohm was valid or invalid either under the national
law of Liechtenstein or under international Iaw. Leaving this
question open, it decides that the Govemment of Liechtenstein is
not, under international law, entitled to extend its protection to
him as against Guatemala.
A solution upon these lines-severance of diplomatic protection
from the question of nationality, and restriction of the right of
protection-was never invoked by the Govemment of Guatemala,
nor discussed by the Government of Liechtenstein. It does not
conform with the argument and evidence which the Parties have
submitted to the Court, and the Govemment of Liechtenstein has
had no occasion to define its attitude and prove its eventual conten-
tionswith regard to this solution, whereby its claim isnowdismissed.

In such circumstances, it is difficult to discuss the merits of such
a solution except on a theoretical basis; but1 shall mention some
facts which show how necessary it would have been, in the interest
30of a proper administration of justice, to afford to the Parties an
opportunity to argue this point before it is decided.

Mr. Nottebohm went to Liechtenstein in 1946 after having been
liberated from his internment in the United States of America.
It is seen from Annex 5, paragraph 18, and Annex 6,paragraph 20,
of the Memorial, and paragraph 106 of the Rejoinder, that he must
have arrived in Liechtenstein before May 6th, 1946. He estab-
lished his residence in that country and has lived there ever since.

The record of this case shows that a number of measures were
taken by the Government of Guatemala against property of
Mr. Nottebohm at a time when he was permanently residing in
Liechtenstein. When expropriation measures were taken against
his property by virtue of the Legislative Decree No. 630 of
25th May, 1949, he had been living in Liechtenstein for more
than three years.
As the Judgment has not decided that the naturalization granted
to Mr. Nottebohm on 13th October, 1939,is invalid under Liechten-
stein law, one must, for the purpose of deciding the present plea
in bar, assume that it is valid. In such circumstances, it is difficult
to see on what legal basis the Government of Liechtenstein could
be considered as being debarred from affording diplomatic pro-
tection to him in respect of measures taken by the Government
of Guatemala against his property at a time when he was a
permanent resident in Liechtenstein. His link or connection with

that country was at that time of such a character that the reasons
relied on in the Judgment should constitute a solid ground for
the recognition of the right of the Government of Liechtenstein
to extend its protection to him as against Guatemala in respect
of all measures taken against his property during his permanent
residence in Liechtenstein.

V. It is alleged by the Government of Guatemala that the
Government of Liechtenstein, by granting its nationality to a
German national at a time when Germany was at war, has com-
mitted an abuse of right or a fraud. For the purpose of the present
case, it is unnecessary to express any views as to the possible
applicability of the notion of abuse of right in international law.
Al11 need say is that it would, if so applicable, in my view presup-
pose the infliction of some kind of injury upon the legitimate
interests of Guatemala by the naturalization of Mr. Nottebohm.
But it is not shown that an injury of any kind was thereby inflictecl

upon Guatemala, which at that time was a neutral State.

As to the contention that fraud was committed by the Govern-
ment of Liechtenstein, it suffices to Saythat no evidence has been
produced in support of such a contention. The various irregularities
31in the naturalization procedure of which the Government of Guate-
mala has complained, andthe financial conditions fixed for the grant
of naturalization, cannot be considered as involving a fraud.

VI. The Government of Guatemala has finally contended that
fraud was comrnitted by Mr. Nottebohm when he applied for and
obtained Liechtenstein nationality. It was argued that he fraudu-
lently sought this naturalization solely for the purpose of escaping
from the consequences of his German nationality under the shield
of the nationality of a neutral State. As no documentary evidence

in support of this contention was produced in the course of the
written proceedings, the Agent of Guatemala, after the closure
of those proceedings and a few days before the oral hearing, sub-
mitted to the Court a considerable number of new documents.
The Agent of Liechtenstein having objected to the production of
these documents, the Court on February qth, 1955, decided to
permit the production of all these new documents, stating that it :
"Reserves to the Agent of the Government of Liechtenstein the
right, if he soesires, to avail himself of the opportunity provided
for in the second paragraph of Article 48 of the Rules of Court,
after hearing the contentions of the Agent of the Government of
Guatemala based on these documents, and after such lapse of time
as the Court rnay, on his request, deem just."

On the basis of these new documents, Counsel for Guatemala
submitted at the oral hearing the new allegation that part of the
property of the firm Nottebohm Hermanos of Guatemala, which
the Government of Liechtenstein now claims on behalf of Mr. Notte-
bohm, in reality belonged to the firm Nottebohm & Co. of Ham-
burg, and that Mr. Nottebohm, by obtaining Liechtenstein nation-
ality, attempted in a fraudulent manner to protect German
property from the consequences of the war. Counsel qualified the
case as a "cloaking case".
These allegations of fraud, which now appear to constitute the
main aspect of this case, affect the plea in bar concerning nationality
as well as the merits. In its final Submissions as to the merits,
the Government of Liechtenstein requests the Court :

"(5) to adjourn the oral pleadings for not less than three months
in order that the Govemment of Liechtenstein may obtain
documents produced by the Government of Guatemala."e new

A consideration of the merits would render previous compliance
with this request necessary. Not only has the Government of Liech-
tenstein acquired a right, by virtue ofArticle 48, paragraph 2,of the
Rules of Court, to submit documents in support of its comments
upon the new documents produced by the Agent of Guatemala,
but this right was expressly reserved to the Agent of Liechtenstein
by the Court's decision of February 14th. A finding on the plea

32in bar concerning nationality (diplomatic protection) presupposes,
in my opinion, a consideration of the merits;it depends, as 1 have
attempted to show, on the question whether Mr. Nottebohm
committed a fraud when he applied for and obtained Liechten-

stein nationality. This question of fraud is so closely connected
with the merits of the case that it cannot be decided apart from
them and without any appraisal of the various relevant facts which
may be disclosed by a consideration of the merits, including the
new documen\ts produced by the Govemment of Guatemala and
the documents which the Government of Liechtenstein has become
entitled to produce.
This procedural situation also affects the two other pleas in bar
invoked by the Government of Guatemala. The plea as to the
alleged necessity of previous diplomatic negotiations could only
arise if it were held that Mr. Nottebohm has validly acquired
Liechtenstein nationality. Only in that case would the Government
of Liechtenstein be qualified to present his claim to the Court.
Only then could a relevant question arise as to negotiations betqeen
the two Govemments concerning the claim. Similar consideration9
apply to the plea in bar as to the exhaustion of local remedies.
If it were held that Mr. Nottebohm has not validly acquired the
nationality of Liechtenstein, the question whether he has exhausted
remedies in Guatemala could not arise before the Court.

For these reasons 1 have voted for the adjoumment of the case.

(Signed) Helge KLAESTAD.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE KLAESTAD

1 consider that the case should have been adjourned for the
following reasons :

The present Judgment deals with one of the three pleas in bar
which, in this second phase of the proceedings, have been invoked
by the Government of Guatemala. This plea in bar by that
Government is based on the ground that the naturalization granted
to Mr. Nottebohm by Liechtenstein is invalid because it is incon-
sistent with the national law of Liechtenstein as well as with
international law.

1. As to the national law of Liechtenstein, it is argued that
the authorities of that State, in applying their NationaliLaw of
4th January, 1934 ,ave not observed its provisions, but in various
respects departed therefrom, particularly with regard to the
prescribed order in which Government, Diet and Commune were
to deal with the application for naturalization. On this ground,
the Court is invited to declare that Mr. Nottebohm has not
properly acquired Liechtenstein nationality in accordance with
the law of the Principality.
It is generally recognized that questions of naturalization of
aliens are, in the absence of conventionalules, in principle within
the exclusive competence of States, and that international law

has kft it to the States themselves to regulate in what manner
and under what conditions their nationality may be conferred
upon aliens. But if a State has in principle the exclusive competence
to regulate questions of nationality by its own legislation without
interference by other States, it is difficult to see on what ground
its own interpretation and application of this same legislation
could be open to challenge by other States. Such a challenge is
possible in theory on the ground that the legislation or the
application thereof is inconsistent with international law ; but
the question now under consideration is only whether the author-
ities of Liechtenstein have applied their local law in a manner
consistent with the provisions of that local law.

The Permanent Court of International Justice has on several
occasions considered what attitude the Court should take with
regard to the national law of States, such as in Judgments No. 7
concerning Gerrnaninterests in Polisk Upper Silesia and Nos. 14
and 15 in the Serbian and Brazilian Loans Cases. In accordance

with the view expressed in those Judgments, it may be said that
it would not be in conformity with the function for which the
28 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. KLAESTAD

[Traduction]
J'estime que cette affaire aurait dû faire l'objet d'un ajour-
nement pour les raisons suivantes :

L'arrêt actuel traite de l'une des fins de non recevoir qui ont
étéinvoquées par le Gouvernement du Guatemala dans cette
deuxième phase de la procédure. Cette fin de non recevoir a été
fondée par ce Gouvernement sur le motif que la naturalisation
consentieà M. Nottebohm par le Liechtenstein n'est pas valable
parce qu'elle est incompatible avec la loi interne du Liechtenstein
aussi bien qu'avec le droit international.

1. Quant à la loi, interne du Liechtenstein, on prétend que les
autorités de cet Etat, en appliquant leur propre loi sur la
nationalité du 4 janvier 1934, n'ont pas respecté ses dispositions,
mais s'en sont écartées à plusieurs points de vue, en particulier
en ce qui concerne l'ordre prescrit dans lequel le Gouvernement,
la Diète et la commune devaient traiter de la demande de natu-
ralisation. Sur ce motif, on demande à la Cour de déclarer que
M. Nottebohm n'a pas valablement acquis la nationalité du
Liechtenstein conformément à la loi de la Principauté.
Il est généralement admis que les questions de naturalisation
des étrangers sont en principe, et en l'absence de règles,conven-
tionnelles, du domaine de la compétence exclusive des Etats, et

que le droit international a laissé aux États eux-mêmesle soin
de réglerla manière et les conditions dans lesqu~llesleur nationalité
peut être conféréeaux étrangers. Mais si un Etat, en principe, a
compétence exclusive pour régler les questions de nationalité par
sa propre législation sans intervention des autres Etats, il est
difficile de voir pour quel motif sa propre interprétation et sa
propre application de cette même loipeuvent prêter à contestation
par d'autres États. Cette contestation est possible, en théorie,
pour le motif que la loi ou son application sont incompatibles
avec le droit international. Mais la question que nous examinons
maintenant est uniquement de savoir si les autorités du Liech-
tenstein ont appliqué leur loi interne d'une manière compatible
avec les dispositions de cette loi interne.
La Cour permanente de Justice internationale, à plusieurs
reprises, a examiné l'attitude qu'elle 'devrait prendre à l'égard
de la loi nationale des Etats, par exemple, dans l'arrêt no 7,
sur les Intérétsallemands en Haute-Silésie polonaise, et les arrêts

nos 14 et 15, dans les affaires des Emprunts serbes et brésiliens.
Conformément à l'opinion exprimée dans ces jugements, on peut
dire qu'il ne serait pas conforme à la fonction pour laquelle la
28Court is established if it proceeded to examine and decide whether
the competent authorities of Liechtenstein have applied the various
provisions of their Nationality Law of 1934 in a correct manner.
The Court is not deemed to know the national law of the different

States. It would hardly be possible for it to place its own construc-
tion upon the provisions of the Liechtenstein Nationhlity Law
and to disregard the interpretation and application made by the
competent local authorities. By so doing, the Court would substitute
itself forhese local authorities and pronounce upon matters which
have no bearing on international law, and which therefore are
solely within the competence of these authorities.

What the Court, in my opinion, can and must do with regard to
the application of the Liechtenstein Nationality Law, is to
ascertain whether the naturalization in question was in fact granted
by the authority to which that law has attributed this competence.
Article 12 prescribes that it is the Reigning Prince who alone is
entitled to grant the nationality of the Principality. On the evidence
submitted to the Court, 1am satisfied that the Prince did in fact
give his consent to the naturalization of Mr. Nottebohm.

II. The Government of Guatemala further contends that the

naturalization was not granted in accordance with international
law. It invokes the fact that Mr. Nottebohm had not established
his residence in Liechtenstein before he applied for naturalization,
andthat he left the country soon after it was granted. Apart from
conventional rules, international law does not, however, require
previous residence in the country as a condition for naturalization,
nor does it presuppose a subsequent residence there. This is shown
by the fact that the national laws of a great number of States
have-though generally providing for previous residence in the
country-allowed dispensation from that requirement. Thenational
law of Liechtenstein equally requires such previous residence
(para. 6 (d)'of the Nationality Law of 1934) but provides that this
requirement may be dispensed with, as in fact it was in the present
case. To exercise this discretionary power of dispensation is
a matter solely within the competence of the Government of
Liechtenstein.

The validity of the naturalization of Mr. Nottebohm is also
contested on the ground that the Government of Liechtenstein has
not proved the loss of his German nationality, as required by
paragraph 6 (c) of the same Law of 1934. But this requirement also
may be dispensed with according to that provision. It appears,
however, that such dispensation was considered unnecessary in
view of the provisions of Article 25 of the German Nationality
Law of 1913, according to which he would lose his German nation-
ality by acquiring the nationality of Liechtenstein. That he there-Cour a étéinstituée qu'elle examine et décide si les autorités
compétentes du Liechtenstein ont correctement appliqué les

diverses dispositions de leur loi de 1934 sur la nationalité. La
Cour n'est pas censée connaître la loi nationale des différents
Etats. Il ne lui serait guèrepossible de donner sa propre interpréta-
tion des dispositions de la loi du Liechtenstein sur la nationalité
et de négliger l'interprétation qui en a étédonnéeet l'application
qui en a été faitepar les autorités locales compétentes. Ce faisant,
la Cour se substituerait à ces autorités locales et statueraitsur
des questions qui sont sans rapports avec le droit international
et qui par conséquent rentrent uniquement dans la compétence
de ces autorités.
Ce que la Cour peut et doit faire, en ce qui est de l'application
de la loi du Liechtenstein sur la nationalité, c'est, mon avis, de
s'assurer que la naturalisation en question a étéconsentie en fait
par l'autorité à laquelle cette loi a donnécompétence. L'article12
dispose que c'est le Prince régnant qui est seul compétent pour
conférer la nationalité de la Principauté. Sur la base des preuves
présentées à la Cour, il est selon moi démontré que le Prince a en
fait donnéson consentement à la naturalisation de M. Nottebohm.

II. Le Gouvernement du Guatemala soutient, en outre, que la
naturalisation n'a pas étéconsentie conformément au droit inter-
national. On invoque le fait que M. Nottebohm n'avait pas établi
sa résidence au Liechtenstein avant d'avoir demandé la natura-
lisation et qu'il a quitté le pays peu de temps après l'avoir obtenue,
En l'absence de règles conventionnelles, le droit international
n'exige cependant pas la résidence préalable dans le pays comme
condition de la naturalisation, non plus qu'il ne présuppose la
résidence postérieure dans ce pays. Cela est démontrépar le fait
que les lois nationales d'un grand nombre dlEtats - tout en
disposant généralement qu'il y ait eu une résidencepréalable dans
le pays - prévoient des dispenses de cette condition. La loi
nationale du Liechtenstein, elle aussi, exige une résidenceantérieure
(paragraphe 6 d) de la loi de 1934 sur la nationalité), mais elle
prévoit des dispenses de cette condition, et c'est en fait ce qui s'est
produit dans le cas actuel. L'exercice de cette faculté discrétionnaire

de dispense relève exclusivement de la compétence du Gouverne-
ment du Liechtenstein.
La validité de la naturalisation de M. Nottebohm est aussi
contestée pour le motif que le Gouvernement du Liechtenstein n'a
pas prouvé la perte de la nationalité allemande comme le veut le
paragraphe 6 c) de cette même loi de 1934. Mais d'après cette
disposition, il est possible d'êtreégalement dispenséde cette condi-
tion. Il apparaît cependant que cette dispense a étéjugée inutile
en raison des dispositions de l'article25 de la loi allemande sur
la nationalité de1913 d,'aprèslaquelle il aurait perdu ça nationalité
allemande par l'acquisition de la nationalité du Liechtenstein. Leby in fact lost his German nationality was, on 15th June, 1954,
certified by the Senate of Hamburg.

III. The view has been expressed that the relationship estab-
lished between State and individual by naturalization must pre-
suppose the existence of a physical or real link or a substantial
connection attaching the individual to the State. It is thereby
implied that a mere common and effective will, not vitiated by
fraud, is not sufficient for the creation of the relationship ofion-
ality. It may be questioned whether this view is a true expression
of a binding rule of intemational law.
When the Court, in the Asylum case, was confronted with a
contention relating to an alleged right of a unilateral and definitive
qualification of the offencecommitted by the refugee, it based itself
on the principle of State sovereignty and held that a party which
relies on a custom derogating from that principle must prove that
the rule invoked is in accordance with a constant and uniform
State practice accepted as law. The same method would seem to be
applicable in the present case. Having to base oneself on the ground

that questions of naturalization are in principle within the exclusive
competence of States, one should, as in the Asylum case, enquire
whether a rule derogating from that principle is established in such
a manner that it has become binding on Liechtenstein. The Govem-
ment of Guatemala would have to prove that such a custom is in
accordance with a constant and uniform State practice "accepted
as law" (Article 38, para. I (b) of the Court's Statute). But no
evidence is produced by that Govemment purporting to establish
the existence of such a custom.

IV. The present Judgment does not decide the question, in
dispute between the Parties, whether the naturalization granted
to Mr. Nottebohm was valid or invalid either under the national
law of Liechtenstein or under international Iaw. Leaving this
question open, it decides that the Govemment of Liechtenstein is
not, under international law, entitled to extend its protection to
him as against Guatemala.
A solution upon these lines-severance of diplomatic protection
from the question of nationality, and restriction of the right of
protection-was never invoked by the Govemment of Guatemala,
nor discussed by the Government of Liechtenstein. It does not
conform with the argument and evidence which the Parties have
submitted to the Court, and the Govemment of Liechtenstein has
had no occasion to define its attitude and prove its eventual conten-
tionswith regard to this solution, whereby its claim isnowdismissed.

In such circumstances, it is difficult to discuss the merits of such
a solution except on a theoretical basis; but1 shall mention some
facts which show how necessary it would have been, in the interest
30 fait qu'il a perdu sa nationalité allemande par suite de sa natu-
ralisation au Liechtenstein a étécertifié le 15 juin 1954 par le
Sénat de Hambourg.

III. On a prétendu que le rapport entre l'État et l'individu
établi par une naturalisation présupposenécessairementl'existence
d'un lien physique ou réel ou d'une relation substantielle ratta-
chant l'individu à 1'Etat. On indique implicitement par là que la
seule volonté commune et effective, non viciée de fraude, ne
suffit pas créerlerapport de nationalité. Ily a lieu de se demander
si cette opinion est bien l'expression d'une règleobligatoire du droit
international.
Quand la Cour, dans l'affaire du Droit d'asile, s'est trouvée en face

de l'allégation se rapportant à un prétendu droit de qualification
unilatérale et définitive de l'infraction commisepar le réfugié,elle
s'est fondéesur le principe de la souveraineté de 1'Etat et a déclaré
que celui qui invoque une coutume dérogeant à ce principe doit
prouver quela règleinvoquée est conforme àune pratique constante
et uniforme des États acceptéecomme étant le droit. Il semble qu'il
faut appliquer la même méthodedans le cas actuel. Ayant à se
fonder sur la base que les questions de ,naturalisation relèvent en
principe de la compétence exclusive des Etats, il faudrait examiner,
comme dans l'affaire de l'Asile, la question de savoir si une règle
dérogeant à ce principe est établie de manière à êtreopposable
au Liechtenstein. Il faudrait que le Gouvernement du Guatemala
prouve que cette coutume est conforme à une pratique constante

et uniforme des Etats « acceptéecomme étant le droit »(article 38,
paragraphe I b), du Statut de la Cour). Mais ce Gouvernement
n'a apporté aucune preuve tendant à établir l'existence d'une
pareille coutume.
IV. L'arrêt actuel ne décide pas la question, en litige entre
les Parties, de savoir si la naturalisation consentieM. Nottebohm
était valable ou non valable, soit selon le droit interne du Liech-

tenstein, soit selon le droit international.Laissant cette question
entière, il décide que le Gouvernement du Liechtenstein n'est pas
fondé en droit international à étendre sa protection à M. Notte-
bohm contre le Guatemala.
Une solution sur une telle base - dissociation de la protection
diplomatique de la question denationalité, et limitation du droit de
protection - n'a jamais étéinvoquée par le Gouvernement du
Guatemala, ni discutée par le Gouvernement du Liechtenstein.
Elle n'est conforme ni à l'argumentation ni aux preuves que les
Parties ont présentées à la Cour, et le Gouvernement du Liechten-
stein n'a pas eu l'occasion de définirson attitude et de prouver les
allégations qu'il aurait dû faire valoir le cas échéant à propos de
cette solution, par laquelle sa réclamation est aujourd'hui rejetée.
Dans ces conditions, il est difficile de discuter le fond d'une

pareille solution si ce n'est sur une base théorique. Mais je vaisof a proper administration of justice, to afford to the Parties an
opportunity to argue this point before it is decided.

Mr. Nottebohm went to Liechtenstein in 1946 after having been
liberated from his internment in the United States of America.
It is seen from Annex 5, paragraph 18, and Annex 6,paragraph 20,
of the Memorial, and paragraph 106 of the Rejoinder, that he must
have arrived in Liechtenstein before May 6th, 1946. He estab-
lished his residence in that country and has lived there ever since.

The record of this case shows that a number of measures were
taken by the Government of Guatemala against property of
Mr. Nottebohm at a time when he was permanently residing in
Liechtenstein. When expropriation measures were taken against
his property by virtue of the Legislative Decree No. 630 of
25th May, 1949, he had been living in Liechtenstein for more
than three years.
As the Judgment has not decided that the naturalization granted
to Mr. Nottebohm on 13th October, 1939,is invalid under Liechten-
stein law, one must, for the purpose of deciding the present plea
in bar, assume that it is valid. In such circumstances, it is difficult
to see on what legal basis the Government of Liechtenstein could
be considered as being debarred from affording diplomatic pro-
tection to him in respect of measures taken by the Government
of Guatemala against his property at a time when he was a
permanent resident in Liechtenstein. His link or connection with

that country was at that time of such a character that the reasons
relied on in the Judgment should constitute a solid ground for
the recognition of the right of the Government of Liechtenstein
to extend its protection to him as against Guatemala in respect
of all measures taken against his property during his permanent
residence in Liechtenstein.

V. It is alleged by the Government of Guatemala that the
Government of Liechtenstein, by granting its nationality to a
German national at a time when Germany was at war, has com-
mitted an abuse of right or a fraud. For the purpose of the present
case, it is unnecessary to express any views as to the possible
applicability of the notion of abuse of right in international law.
Al11 need say is that it would, if so applicable, in my view presup-
pose the infliction of some kind of injury upon the legitimate
interests of Guatemala by the naturalization of Mr. Nottebohm.
But it is not shown that an injury of any kind was thereby inflictecl

upon Guatemala, which at that time was a neutral State.

As to the contention that fraud was committed by the Govern-
ment of Liechtenstein, it suffices to Saythat no evidence has been
produced in support of such a contention. The various irregularities
31mentionner quelques faits qui montrent combien il eût éténéces-
saire, dans l'intérêt d'une bonne administration de la justice,
d'accorder aux Parties l'occasion de discuter ce point avant qu'il
soit décidé.
M. Nottebohm s'est rendu au Liechtenstein en 1946 après avoir
étélibéréde son internement aux Etats-Unis d'Amérique. Il res-
sort de I'annexe 5, paragraphe 18, et de I'annexe 6, paragraphe 20,
au mémoire, et du paragraphe 106 de la duplique, qu'il a dû
arriver au Liechtenstein avant le 6 mai 1946. Il a établi sa rési-
dence dans ce pays et y a vécudepuis lors.
Le dossier de l'affaire montre quele Gouvernementdu Guatemala
a pris certaines mesures contre les biens de M. Nottebohm, à
une époque où celui-ci résidait en permanence au Liechtenstein.
Lors des mesures d'expropriation prises contre ses biens en

application du décret législatif no 630 du25 mai 1949, il vivait au
Liechtenstein depuis plus de trois ans.

Comme l'arrêt n'a pas décidéque la naturalisation consentie
à M. Nottebohm le 13 octobre 1939 est non valable selon la loi
du Liechtenstein, il faut, pour statuer sur laprésente fin de non
recevoir, la présumer valable. Dans ces conditions, il est difficile
de voir sur quelle base légale le Gouvernement du Liechtenstein
pourrait être considérécomme empêchéd'accorder sa protection
diplomatique à M. Nottebohm, pour ce qui est des mesures prises
par le Gouvernement du Guatemala contre ses biens,à une époque
où il résidait en permanence au Liechtenstein. A cette époque, son
lien ou ses rapports avec ce pays étaient de telle nature que les
raisons invoquées dans l'arrêtdevraient fournir des motifs solides
pour reconnaître au Gouvernement du Liechtenstein le droit
d'étendresa protection à luià l'égarddu Guatemala, pour ce qui est
de toutes les mesures prises contre ses biens pendant sa résidence
permanente au Liechtenstein.

V. Le Gouvernement du Guatemala prétend que le Gouverne-
ment du Liechtenstein, en accordant sa nationalité à un ressor-
tissant allemand à une époque où l'Allemagne était en guerre, a
commis un abus de droit ou une fraude. Pour les besoins de la
présente affaire, il est inutile d'exprimer uneopinion quelconque
sur la possibilité d'appliquer en droit international la notion de
l'abus de droit. Tout ce que j'aià dire, c'est qu'à mon sens, si elle
est applicable, elle présuppose qu'une sorte de dommage a été
causé aux intérêtslégitimes du Guatemala par la naturalisation
de M. Nottebohm. Mais on n'a pas démontré qu'un dommage
quelconque ait éte causé de ce fait au Guatemala qui, à cette
époque, était un Etat neutre.
Quant à l'allégation que le Gouvernement du Liechtenstein
a commis une fraude, il suffit de dire qu'aucune preuve n'a été
produite à l'appui d'une telle allégation. Les diverses irrégularitésin the naturalization procedure of which the Government of Guate-
mala has complained, andthe financial conditions fixed for the grant
of naturalization, cannot be considered as involving a fraud.

VI. The Government of Guatemala has finally contended that
fraud was comrnitted by Mr. Nottebohm when he applied for and
obtained Liechtenstein nationality. It was argued that he fraudu-
lently sought this naturalization solely for the purpose of escaping
from the consequences of his German nationality under the shield
of the nationality of a neutral State. As no documentary evidence

in support of this contention was produced in the course of the
written proceedings, the Agent of Guatemala, after the closure
of those proceedings and a few days before the oral hearing, sub-
mitted to the Court a considerable number of new documents.
The Agent of Liechtenstein having objected to the production of
these documents, the Court on February qth, 1955, decided to
permit the production of all these new documents, stating that it :
"Reserves to the Agent of the Government of Liechtenstein the
right, if he soesires, to avail himself of the opportunity provided
for in the second paragraph of Article 48 of the Rules of Court,
after hearing the contentions of the Agent of the Government of
Guatemala based on these documents, and after such lapse of time
as the Court rnay, on his request, deem just."

On the basis of these new documents, Counsel for Guatemala
submitted at the oral hearing the new allegation that part of the
property of the firm Nottebohm Hermanos of Guatemala, which
the Government of Liechtenstein now claims on behalf of Mr. Notte-
bohm, in reality belonged to the firm Nottebohm & Co. of Ham-
burg, and that Mr. Nottebohm, by obtaining Liechtenstein nation-
ality, attempted in a fraudulent manner to protect German
property from the consequences of the war. Counsel qualified the
case as a "cloaking case".
These allegations of fraud, which now appear to constitute the
main aspect of this case, affect the plea in bar concerning nationality
as well as the merits. In its final Submissions as to the merits,
the Government of Liechtenstein requests the Court :

"(5) to adjourn the oral pleadings for not less than three months
in order that the Govemment of Liechtenstein may obtain
documents produced by the Government of Guatemala."e new

A consideration of the merits would render previous compliance
with this request necessary. Not only has the Government of Liech-
tenstein acquired a right, by virtue ofArticle 48, paragraph 2,of the
Rules of Court, to submit documents in support of its comments
upon the new documents produced by the Agent of Guatemala,
but this right was expressly reserved to the Agent of Liechtenstein
by the Court's decision of February 14th. A finding on the plea

32 dans la procédure de naturalisation dont se plaint le Gouverne-
ment du Guatemala, et les conditions financières établies pour
l'octroi de la naturalisation,ne sauraient êtreconsidéréescomme
impliquant fraude.
VI. Le Gouvernement duGuatemala soutient enfin que M.Notte-
bohm a commis une fraude quand il a demandé et obtenu la natio-

nalité du Liechtenstein. On a prétendu qu'il avait frauduleusement
recherché cette naturalisation dans le seul but d'échapper aux
conséquences de ,sa nationalité allemande, sous le couvert de la
nationalité d'un Etat neutre. Aucune preuve documentaire n'ayant
étéproduite à l'appui de cette thèse au cours de la procédure
écrite, l'agent du Guatemala, après la clôture de cette procédure et
quelques jours avant les audiences, a présenté à la Cour un nombre
considérable de documents nouveaux. L'agent du Liechtenstein,
ayant fait une objection à la production de ces documents, la
Cour a décidé, le 14 février 1955, de permettre la production de
tous ces documents nouveaux, déclarant qu'elle

«réserve à l'agent du Gouvernement du Liechtenstein le droit de
se prévaloir, s'ille désire, de la faculté pràvl'article 48, para-
graphe 2, du Règlement, après avoir entendu l'exposéde l'agent
du Gouvernement du Guatemala relatif à ces documents et après
tel délai que sur sa demande la Cour jugerait équitable de lui
accorder».
Sur la base de ces documents nouveaux, le conseil du Guatemala
a présenté à l'audience l'allégation nouvelle qu'une partie des biens
de la firme Nottebohm Hermanos au Guatemala, que le Gouverne-
ment du Liechtenstein réclame maintenant pour le compte de
M. Nottebohm, appartenait en réalitéà la firme Nottebohm & Co
de Hambourg, et que M. Nottebohm, en obtenant la nationalité

du Liechtenstein, a essayé de protéger frauduleusement des biens
allemands contre les conséquences de la guerre. Le conseil a
qualifié l'affaire decccloaking case».
Ces allégations de fraude, qui semblent maintenant constituer
l'aspect principal de l'affaire, touchenta fin de non recevoir visant
la nationalité aussi bien qu'au fond. Dans ses conclusions finales
sur le fond, le Gouvernement du Liechtenstein demande àla Cour
«5) d'ajourner la procédure orale pour au moins trois mois pour
permettre au Gouvernement de Liechtenstein d'obtenir et de
réunir des documents à l'appui de commentaires sur les nou-
veaux documentsproduitspar leGouvernement duGuatemala. ))

L'examen du fond rendrait nécessaire l'octroi préalable de cette
demande. Non seulement le Gouvernement du Liechtenstein a
acquis le droit, en vertu de l'article, paragraphe 2,du Règlement
de la Cour, de présenter des documents à l'appui de ses commen-
taires sur les documents nouveaux produits par l'agent du Guate-
mala, mais encore ce droit a étéexpressément réservéà l'agent du
Liechtenstein par la décision de la Cour du 14 février. ,4 mon avis,in bar concerning nationality (diplomatic protection) presupposes,
in my opinion, a consideration of the merits;it depends, as 1 have
attempted to show, on the question whether Mr. Nottebohm
committed a fraud when he applied for and obtained Liechten-

stein nationality. This question of fraud is so closely connected
with the merits of the case that it cannot be decided apart from
them and without any appraisal of the various relevant facts which
may be disclosed by a consideration of the merits, including the
new documen\ts produced by the Govemment of Guatemala and
the documents which the Government of Liechtenstein has become
entitled to produce.
This procedural situation also affects the two other pleas in bar
invoked by the Government of Guatemala. The plea as to the
alleged necessity of previous diplomatic negotiations could only
arise if it were held that Mr. Nottebohm has validly acquired
Liechtenstein nationality. Only in that case would the Government
of Liechtenstein be qualified to present his claim to the Court.
Only then could a relevant question arise as to negotiations betqeen
the two Govemments concerning the claim. Similar consideration9
apply to the plea in bar as to the exhaustion of local remedies.
If it were held that Mr. Nottebohm has not validly acquired the
nationality of Liechtenstein, the question whether he has exhausted
remedies in Guatemala could not arise before the Court.

For these reasons 1 have voted for the adjoumment of the case.

(Signed) Helge KLAESTAD. AFFAIRE NOTTEBOHM (OPIN.DISS. DE M. KLAESTAD) 33

une décision sur la fin de non recevoir concernant la nationalité
(protection diplomatique) présuppose l'examen du fond. Elle
dépend, comme j'ai essayéde le montrer, de la question de savoir
si M. Nottebohm a commis une fraude lorsqu'il a demandé et
obtenu la nationalité du Liechtenstein. Cette questionde fraude
est liée si étroitement au fond de l'affaire qu'elle ne peut être
tranchéeséparémentet sans aucune appréciation des diverséléments
de fait pertinents qui pourraient êtrerévélsar l'examen du fond,

y compris les documents nouveaux produits par le Gouvernement
du Guatemala et ceux que le Gouvernement du Liechtenstein a
acquis le droit de produire.
Cette situation de procédure touche égalementaux deux autres
fins de non recevoir invoquées par le Gouvernement du Guatemala.
La fin de non recevoir visant la prétendue nécessitéde négocia-
tions diplomatiques antérieures ne peut se poser que s'il est établi
que M. Nottebohm a valablement acquis la nationalité du Liechten-
stein. C'est dans ce cas seulement que le Gouvernement du Liech-
tenstein serait qualifiéà présenter sa réclamation à la Cour.
C'est alors seulement que se poserait une questionpertinente sur
les négociations entre les deux Gouvernements au sujet de la
réclamation. Des considérations du mêmeordre s'appliquent à la
fin de non recevoir du non-épuisement des recours internes. Si l'on

jugeait queM. Nottebohm n'a pas valablement acquis la nationalité
du Liechtenstein, la question de savoir s'il a épuisé des recoursau
Guatemala ne pourrait se poser devant la Cour.
C'estpour ces raisons que j'ai votépour l'ajournement de l'affaire.

(Signé H)elge KLAESTAD.

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Dissenting Opinion by Judge Klaestad

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