Separate Opinion of Vice-President Alfaro

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045-19620615-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
045-19620615-JUD-01-00-EN
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SEPARATE OPINION OF VICE-PRESIDENT ALFARO

The decision rendered by the Court in the present case sets forth
considerations of law and fact in which 1 fully concur, especially
for the reason that its essential basis is a principle of law to
which 1 attribute great weight and which has been frequently
applied by international tribunals, both of justice and arbitration.

This principle, as 1 understand it, is that a State party to an

international litigation is bound .by its previous acts or attitude
when they are in contradiction with its claims in the litigation.
1have no doubt that enunciated in these broad terms, the sound-
nessand justice of therule isgenerally accepted. However, it is mani-
fest that wide divergences exist as to its meaning, its character, its
scope and even its denomination; and inasmuch as a judgment of
the Court could not be expected to deal with these particulars,
1 have thought necessary, as a matter of conscience, to state the
views by which 1 have been guided in the adoption of this decision.
The principle, not infrequently called a doctrine, has been
referred to by the terms of "estoppel", "preclusion", "forclusion",
<acquiescence". 1 abstain from adopting any of these particular
designations, as 1 do not believe that any of them fits exactly to

the principle or doctrine as applied in international cases.

Spanish jurists, showing an objective criterium, cal1it "doctrina
de los actospropios".
Judge Basdevant has given a definition of estoppel in his "Dic-
tionnaire de la terminologiedu droit international"hich is doubtless
very accurate. Here it is:

"Terme de procédureemprunté à la langue anglaisequi désigne
l'obiectionpéremptoirequi s'oppose à ce qu'une partieà un procès
prenneunepositionqui contreditsoitcequ'ellea antérieuremenatdmis
expressémeno tu tacitement,soit ce qu'elleprétendsoutenir dans la
mêmienstance."
However,whencompared with definitions and comments contained
in Anglo-American legal texts we cannot fail to recognize that

while the principle, as above enunciated, underlies the Anglo-
Saxon doctrine of estoppel, there is a very substantial difference
between the simple and clear-cut rule adopted and applied in the
international field and the complicated classificationr;, modalities,
species, sub-species and procedural features of the municipal system.
It thus results that in some international cases the decision may
have nothing in common with the Anglo-saxon esloppel, whileat the same time notions may be found in the latter that are mani-
festly extraneous to international practice and jurisprudence.

Of course, 1 feel bound to mention these designations since they
have been so generally used in international texts, but 1 set them
aside in stating my views with regard to the principle which is the
subject of this separate opinion.
Whatever term or terms be employed to designate this principle
such as it has been applied in the international sphere, its sub-
stance is always the same: inconsistency between claims or alle-
gations put forward by a State, and its previous conduct in con-
nection therewith, is not admissible (allegans contraria non au-
diendus est). Its purpose is always the same: a State must not be
permitted to benefit by its own inconsistency to the prejudice of
another State (nemo potest mutare consilium suum in alterius in-
juriam). A fortiorz',the State must not be allowed to benefit by its
inconsistency when it is through its own wrong or illegal act that
the other party has been deprived of its right or prevented from

exercising it. (Nullus commodum capere de sua injuria propria.)
Finally, the legal effect of the principle is always the same: the
party which by its recognition, its representation, its declaration,
its conduct or its silence has maintained an attitude manifestly
contrary to the right it is claiming before an international tribunal
is precluded from claiming that right (venire contrafactum proprium
nOJl ilalet).
The acts or attitude of a State previous to and in relation with
rightsin dispute with another State may take the form of an express
written agreement, declaration, representation or recognition, or
else that of a conduct which impljes consent to or agreement witfi a
determined factual or juridical situation.

14 State may also be bound by a passive or negative attitude in
respect of rights asserted by another State, which the former
State later on claims to have. Passiveness in front of given facts is

the most general form of acquiescence or tacit consent. Failure of a
State to assert its rjght when that right is openly challenged by
another State can only mean abandonment to that right. Silence
by a State in the presence of facts contrary or prejudicial to rights
later on claimed by it before an international tribunal cm only be
interpreted as tacit recognition given prior to the litigation. This
interpretation obtains especially in the case of a contractual
relationship directly and exclusively affecting two States. Failure
to protest in circumstances when protest is necessary according
to the general practice of States in order to assert, to preserve or
to safeguard a right does likewise signify acquiescence or tacit
recognition: the State concerned must be held barred from claiming
before the international tribunal the rights it failed to assert or
to preserve when they were openly challenged by word or deed.

38 "The absence of protest"-says Lauterpacht-"may, in addition,
in itself becomea source of legal right inasmuch as it is related to-
or forms a constituent element of-estoppel or prescription. Like
these two generally recognized legal principles, the far-reaching
effect of the failure to protest is not a mere artificiality of the law.
It isan essentialrequirement ofstability-a requirement even more
important the international than in other spheres; it is a precept
loose with situations affecting others; and it is in accordance with
equity inasmuch as it protects a State from the contigency of
incurring responsibilities and expense, in reliance on the apparent
acquiescence of others, and being subsequently confronted with a
challenge on the part of those very States." (Sovereigntyove7sub-
marineareasin British Year Book1950.)

The reasoning used and the jurisprudence developed as regards
the subject of failure to yrotest is also applicable in the case of
failure to reserve rights of which a State is legally possessed and
which it is entitled to claim or exercise in 'due course. Such failure
may be and has been interpreted as a waiver of such rights.

The principle that condemns contradiction between previous acts
and siibsequent claims is not to be regarded as a mere rule of evi-

dence or procedure. The substantive character of the rule finds
support in the writtings of several authors. As stated by Sir Frede-
rick Pollock :
"estoppel is often described as a rule of evidence, as indeed it may
be so described. But the wholeconcept ismore correctly viewed as a
substantive mle of law."

In the Notte6oizmcase the Liechtenstein Mernorial stated that:

"It may be noted in this connection that the doctrine of estoppel,
which is similar both in international and municipal law, is not,
notwithstanding its apparent technical connotation, a forma1 and
artificial mle of law. lt is essentially grounded in considerations of
good faith and honest conduct in the relations of States and in-
dividuals alike."

In my judgment, the principle is substantive in character. It
constitutes a presumptioii iztris et dl:jure in virtue of which a State
is held to have abandolied its right if it ever had it, or else that
such a State never felt that it had a clear legal title on which it
could base opposition to the right asserted or claimed by another
State. In short, the legal effects of the principle are so fundamental
that thev decide by themselves alone the matter in dispute and its

39 infraction cannot be loolted upon as a mere incident of the proceed-
ings.

The pnmary foundation of this principle is the good faith that
must prevail in international relations, inasmuch as inconsistency
of conduct or opinion on the part of a State to the prejudice of
another is incompatible with good faith. Again, 1submit that such
inconsistency is especially inadmissible when the dispute arises from
bilateral treaty relations.
A secondary basis of the principle is the necessity for security
in contractual relationships. A State bound by a certain treaty to
another State must rest in the security that a harmonious and
undisturbed exercise of the rights of each party and a faithful
discharge of reciprocal obligations denote a mutually satisfactory
state of things which is permanent in character and is bound to last
as long asthe treaty is in forceA State cannot enjoy such a situation
and at the same time live in fear that some daythe other State may
change its mind or its conduct and jeopardize or deny rights that

for a long time it has never challenged. A continuous and uncon-
troverted fulfilment of a treaty is tantamount to a pledge, a security
renewed day by day that the treaty is valid and effective as signed,
intended and understood bythe parties. Such a security must needs
be upheld as an indispensable element of fruitful harmony in al1
treaty relationships.

It may thus be seen that the rule pacta sunt servanda cannot be
conciliated with the notion of inconsistency in the interpretation
and observance of public treaties. Of course, this notion does not
conflict with the entirely different question of rebztssic stantibus.
Inconsistency condemns two contradictory positions with regard
to the same situation existing at the time the binding acts occurred.
The clause rebussic stantibus contemplates two different situations:
the one existing when the treaty was signed and the new one
created by conditions and circumstances posterior to the treaty.

But even in the case of ordinary, non-contractual relationsbetween
States the rule of consistency must be observed and a State cannot
challenge or injure the rights of another in a manner which is
contrary to its previous acts, conduct or opinions during the main-
tenance of its international relationships.

Finally, it may be averred that, as in the case of prescription,
the principle is also rooted in the necessity of avoiding controversies
as a matter of public policy (interest rei pzthlicaeut sit finis litiunz).
By condemning inconsistency a great deal of litigation is liable to
be avoided and the element of friendship and CO-operation is
strengthened in the international community.
While refraining from discussing the question whether the prin-
ciple of the binding effect of a State's own acts with regard to
rights in dispute with another State is or is not part of customary JUDG31. 15 VI 62 (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE ALFARO)
43
international law, 1 have no hesitation in asserting that this prin-
ciple, known to the world since the days of the Romans, is one of

the "general principles of law recognized by civilized nations" ap-
plicable and in fact frequently applied by the International Court
of Justice in conformity with Article 38, para. I (c), of its Statiite.

Cases in which the International Court of Jzrstice, the Permanent
Court of I?zte~~zationaJlustice or arbifrntion tribunals lzazlenpplied
or recognizedthe principle abovediscz~ssed.

I. Express agreement or recognition

In the case of the Award of the King of Spain, Honduras v.
Xicaragua (1g60), this Court said :

"No question was at any time raised in the arbitral proceedings
before the King with regard either to the validity of his designation
as arbitrator or his jurisdiction as such. Before him, the Parties
followed the procedure that had been agreed upon for submitting
their respective cases. Indeed, the verÿ first occasion ~rlien the
validity of the designation of the King of Spain as arbitrator \vas
challenged was in the Note of the Foreign Minister of Nicaragua
of 19 illarch 1912. In these circumstances the Court is unable to
hold that the designation of the King of Spain as arbitrator to
decide the boundary dispute between the two Parties Kas inralid."

And further on the Court declared:

"In the judgment of the Court, Xicaragua, by express declaration
and by conduct, recognized the Award as valid and it is no longer
open to Nicaragua to go back upon that recognition and to chal-
lenge the validity of the Award." (I.C.J. Rrports,pp. 207, 213.)

In his Separate Opinion in the same case Judge Sir Percy Spender
said :
"1 do not find it necessary to determine whether the King's
appointment involved any non-compliance witli the provisions of

the Treaty. Although 1incline strongly to the view that tlie appoint-
ment was irregular, this contention of Nicaragua fails because that
State is precluded by its conduct prior to and during tlie course of
the arbitration from relying upon any irregularity in tlie appoint-
ment of the King as a ground to invalidate the .An.arcl." (Ibid.,
P 219.1

In the course of its Advisory Opinion concerning the J~rrisdiction

of the European Co~lt?nission oj the Dalz~tb~the Pernlanent Court of
International Justice stated that :
41 "as all the Governments concerned in the present dispute have
signed and ratified both the Treaty of Versailles and the Definitive
Statute, they cannot, as between themselves, contend that some of
Danube Commission under Article 349 of the Treaty of Versailles".
(P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 14,p. 23.)

In the Eastern Greenland case (1933)~ the Permanent Court of
International Justice declared :

"Norway reaffirmed that she recognized the whole of Greenland
as Danish; and thereby she has debarred herself from contesting
Danish sovereignty over the whole of Greenland".
The Court accordingly decided that the "Ihlen declaration" was
binding on Norway and barred a subsequent Norwegian attitude
contrary to its notified intent. (P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 53, pp.

70-71.)
The Serbian Loans case is thus reported by Bowett ("Estoppel
beforeInternational Tribunals", British Year Book of Inter:zational
Law, 1957) :
"In the Se~bian Loans case the question arose whether in accept-
ing payment of interest upon the loans in French francs, as opposed
to 'gold francs', the French bondholderç had represented that they
were prepared to accept payment in French francs. If they had,
despite the derogation from the terms of the loan, it was arguable
that they were henceforth estopped from claiming payrnent accord-
ing tothe strict terms of the loans."

On this point the Permanent Court said:
"...when the requirements of the principle of estoppel to establish a
loss ofright are considered, it isclear that no sufficientbasis has been
shown for applying the principle in this case. There was no clear
and unequivocal representation of the bondholders upon which the
debtor State was entitled to rely and has relied." (P.C.I.J., Series A,
Nos. 20-21, p. 39.)

In the Shufeldt case (1930), the United States contended that
Guatemala, having for six years recognized the validity of the
claimant's contract, and received al1 the benefits to which she was
entitled thereunder, and having allowed Shufeldt to continue to
spend money on the concession, was precluded from denying its
validity, even if the contract had not received the necessary approval
of the Guatemalan legislature. The Arbitrator held the contention
to be "sound and in keeping with the principles of international
law". (Cheng, GenevalPrinciples of Law, Ch. 5, C, p. 143.)

2. Recognition by conductand express agreement
In The Pious Fund of California (1902) it was contended by the
United States that Mexico wasestopped by its conductfromdenyingthe right of the llixed Commission of 1868 to settle the entire
question of the California Fund. They urged that throughout the
whole dispute, both before and after the decision of the umpire,
Mexico impliedly and by a uniform conduct conceded tothat com-

mission full powers of decision. This conduct consisted in the rati-
fication, in 1872 and 1874, of the conventions providing for the
extension of time within which the joint Commission should settle
the claims brought before it, and also in other acts of the agents of
Mexico. (Lauterpacht, Private Law Sources and Analogies of Inter-
national Law, p. 248.)

3. Passiveness before adverse acts. A bafidonment of rights
The binding effect of passiveness orinaction before acts contrary
to what a State believes or pretends to believe to be its right is
vividly set out inthe Grisbadarnacase (1909) between Norway and
Sweden, in which the tribunal made the following considerations
for adjudicating to Sweden the disputed territory:

"The 'circumstance that Suieden has performed various acts in
the Grisbadarna region, especially of late, owing to her conviction
that these regions were Swedish as, for instance, the placing of
beacons, the measurement of the sea, and the installation of a
light-boat, being acts which involved considerable expense and in
doing which she not only thought she was exercising her right but
even more that she was performing her duty; whereas Norway,
according to her ouTnadmission, showed much less solicitude in this
quieta non movere,the tribunal laid further stress on the co-exist-
ence of expenditure and acquiescence, in the followingwords: "iiie
stationing of a light-boat, which is necessary to the safety of navi-
gation in the regions of Grisbadarna, was done by Sweden without
meeting any protest and even at the initiative of ru'orway,and like-
wise a large number of beacons were established there without
giving rise to any protests.'" (Scott, HagzceCourt Reports, 1916,
p. 121.)

Circumstances t-ery similar to those of the Grisbadarna case oc-
curred in the controversy over the islands of Minqz~iersand Ecrehos
(1953). At a later stage of the oral proceedings Sir Gerald Fitz-
maurice advanced the proposition in these terms:

"[Title to territory is abandoned] by letting another country
assume and carry out for many years al1 the responsibilities and
expenses in connection with the territory concerned. Could anything
effect abandonment?vioSuch a course of action, or rather inaction,
disqualifies the country concerned from asserting the continued
existence of the title." (J. C. McGibbon, "Estoppelin International
Law", in Int. and Comp. Law Quavterly,1958, p. jog.) In the Yukon Lz~mbercase a claim was put forward by Great
Britain for the value of some timber cut in trespass upon Canadian
territory, sold subsequently to the Government of the Vnited States,
and used by it in the construction of certain military bridges in
Alaska. The United States contended in reply that Great Britain,
by the course taken by her officials, was estopped from denying
that a full and complete title to the timber had legally vested in
the United States, that the Canadian land and timber agent stood
by silently and watched the American Government acquire this
timber bonafide and continue for six months to pay the instalments
due in respect of it, andthat, accordingly, Great Britain could not

now be heard in a demand that the United States should pay for
the timber which it \vas permitted to acquire under false represen-
tations. This plea in support of which a vast number of English
and American cases on estoppel ivas cited, was fully adopted by
the tribunal. (Lauterpacht, opz~scit., para. 132, p. 280.)

The Arbitrator in the Island of Pallnas arbitration declared with-
out taking into consideration the recognition by the Treaty of
Utrecht of the position in 1714:
"the acquiescence of Spain in the situation created after 1677 ;the
establishment of the Dutch position in Sangi] would deprive her and
her successors of the possibility of still invoking conventional rights
at the present". (J. C. McGibbon, opzdscit., p. 506.)

4. Failure to protest

"The duty to protest", says Lauterpacht, "and the relevance of
the failure to protest, are especiallyconspicuous in the international
sphere where the normal avenues for ascertaining disputed rights
through the compulsory jurisdiction of tribunals are not always
available. "
In this connection he refers to the J7enezztelan Pveferential Clni~ns
(1902) in the following terms:
"The Award, in addition to the effect which it attributed to the
Venezuelanrecognition inprinciple of the justice of the claims of the
Blockading Powers, was largely based upon the effect of acquies-
cence as an estoppel, as the followingreasonsprefacing the operative
part of the Award indicate: 'Whereas the Government of Venezuela
until the end of January, 1903, in no way protested against the
pretension of the Blockading Powers to insist on special securities
for the settlement of their claims... \171iereasthe neutral Powers ..
did not protest against the pretensions of the Blockading Po~vers
to a preferential treatment ..\Vhereas it appears from the negoti-
ations ...that the German and British Governments constantly
insisted on their being given guarantees ...\17hereasthe Plenipoten-
tiary of the (iovernment of Venezuela accepted tliis reservation on the part of the allied Powers without the least protest..For these
nounces unanimously.'th" Tribunal of Arbitration decides and pro-

In the Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries case (1951)~the International
Court of Justice considered that the "prolonged abstention" of
the United Kingdom from protesting against the Nonvegian sys-
tem of straight base lines in delimiting territorial waters was one
of the factors which, together with "the notoriety of the facts, the
general toleration of the international community, Great Britain's

position in the North Sea, her own interest in the question, and her
prolonged abstention would in any case warrant Norways' enforce-
ment of her system against the United Kingdom".

In the case of The Lotus, the Court referred to the several in-
stances, quoted in argument, of criminal proceedings in respect of
collisionsbefore the courts of a country other than that of the flag

of the vesse1 concerned, and stressed the fact that in these cases
the States affected did not object and refrained from protesting.
The Court said :
"This fact is directly opposed to the existence of a tacit consent
on the part of Statesto the exclusive jurisdiction of the State whose
flagis flow...It seemshardly probable,and it would not have been
in accordance with international practice, that the French Govern-
ment in the Ortigia-OncleJ-oseph case and the same Government in
the Ekbatana-West-Hinder case would have omitted to protest
against the exercise of criminal jurisdiction by the Italian and Bel-
gian Courts, if they had really thought that this was a violation of
international law." (P.C.I.J., Series A, NoIO,p. 29.)

5. Failure to reserve rights

In the Russian Indemnity case (1912)Russia claimed interest for
the delayed payment of certain indemnity sums provided for in the
Treaty of Constantinople of 1879.The Ottoman Government main-
tained, andthe accuracy of this assertion appeared clearly from the
correspondence produced before the Court, that although the Rus-
sian Government demanded in 1891 the payment of both interest
and principal, it did not subsequently reserve its rights to interest
on the receipts given by the Embassy or in the notes granting ex-
tension of payment, and that the Embassy did not regard the
received sums as interest. The award said in this connection:48 JUDG~~. 15 VI 62 (SEP. OPIN. JUL)GE ALFARO)

"When the tribunal recognized that, according to the general
principles and the custom of public international law, there was a
similarity between the condition of a State and that of an individual,
which are debtors for a clear and exigible conventional sum, it is
equitable and juridical also to apply by analogy the principles of
private law common to cases where the demand for payment must
as eliminated. In private law, the effects of demand for payment
are eliminated when the creditor, after having made legal demand
upon the debtor, grants one or more extensions for the payment of
the principal obligation, without reserving the rights acqiiired by
the legal demand."

The Tribunal held accordingly that the Ottoman Government
was not liable to pay interest-damages as demanded by Russia.
(Lauterpacht, opus cit., pp. 255-260.)

The case of the Pious Fztnd of California, already mentioned,
affords another example of the damage a State may suffer from
failure to reserve whatever rights may be liable to be affected in
connection with an international agreement. In this case the
United States pointed out that Mexico, embarking, in 1868 and
in the subsequent conventions, upon the litigation, took the risk
of success or failure, and that she could not now, afterhaving lost,
question the jurisdiction of the tribunal. They disclaimed the in-
tention of relying upon a mere technicality, but urged that if one
party to the dispute contemplates the withdrawing of certain claims
from arbitration, it is under the obligation to announce such in-
tention in the beginning in order to enable the opposing party to

make such claims the foundation of a separate convention. (Lauter-
pacht, opz~s cd.,p. 248.)

The Landreau case arbitration (1922) was one in which the rule
relative to the necessity of reserving rights was discussed before

the tribunal but in this case it was found that there was no cause
for applying it to the claimant.
In 1892 Théophile Landreau granted a releaçe to the Peruvian
Government cancelling his rights, and the Commission found that
the Peruvian Government had been notified of the assignment to
his brother Célestin of 30 per cent. of the claim. The Commission
stated:
"Of course if there was anything to show that Célestin knewof
this release at the time of its execution and abstained from putting
forward his claim, he and his representatives would be estopped
from making any claim against the Peruvian Government, but
there is nothing to show that there \vas any such acquiescence in
this transaction by Célestin." The Commission concluded that there was "no sufficient foun-
dation for inferring that Célestin'srepresentatives are estopped by
any conduct on his part from not asserting the right to their 30
per cent. share". (McGibbon, opus cit., p. 505.)

7. Inconsistency
Apart from specific cases of recognition, failure to protest or
to reserve rights, passiveness or any form of express or tacit acquies-

cence, other disputes have been decided against litigant States on
the general basis of inconsistency between the claims of States and
their previous acts. Inconsistency is (and has been for many years)
a practice at which the combined efforts of justice and international
harmony must be directed.

Thus, inthe case of The Mechanic (C. 1862),it was held :

"Ecuador ...having fully recognized and claimed the principle
on which the case now before us turns, whenever from such a recog-
nition rights or advantages were to be derived, could not in honour
and good faith deny the principle when it imposed an obligation."
(Cheng,opus cit., p. 142.)

In the case of The Lisman (1937)~concerning an American vesse1
which was seized in London in June, 1915, the claimant's original
contention before the British Prize Court:

"was not that there wasnot reasonable causeforseizure,or for requi-
the part of the Crownin taking the steps they were entitled to take
as belligerents. In a subsequent arbitration in 1937,which took the
place of diplomatic claims by the United States against Great
Britain, the sole Arbitrator held that:

'By the position he deliberately took in the British Prize Court,
that the seizure of the goods and the detention of the ship were
delay from the failure of the Government to act promptly, undue
claimantafirmed whathe now denies,and therebypreventedhimself
from recoz~erintghereor hereupon the claim he now stands on, that
these acts were unlawful, and constitute the basis of his claim.'"
(Ibid., pp. 142-147.) In the Salvador Commercial Co. case (rgoz), the Arbitral Tribunal,
in dealing with the Salvadorian Government contention that the
Company did not comply with the terms of the concession, held

that :
"It is of course obvious that the Salvador Government should be
estopped from going behind those reports of its own officerson the
subject and from attacking their correctness without supplementary
evidence tending to show that such reports were induced by mistake
or were procured by fraud or undue influence. No evidence of this
kind is introduced." (Cheng,ibid., p. 147.)

It was held in the Chorzo'wFactory case (1927) that one of the
parties was estopped from pleading the Court's lack of jurisdiction
on the ground that :

"it is..a principle generally accepted in the jurisprudence of inter-
national arbitration, as well as by municipal courts, that one party
cannot avail itself of the fact that the other has not fulfilled some
obligation, or has not had recourse to some means of redress, if the
former party has, by some illegal act, prevented the latter from
tribunal which would have been open to him".om having recourse to the

The Representative of the United Kingdom, referring to the
passage from the Chorzo'wFactory case and applying it to the ques-
tion before the Court, said:

"IVhat is involved is really an application of the principle known
in English law as estoppel (or to use what 1believe is the equivalent
French term préclusion)-to which effect has frequently been given
by international tribunals." (McGibbon, opus cit., pp. 480-481.)

Likewise, in the Meuse case (1937), it was held that, where two
States were bound by the same treaty obligations, State A could not
complain of an act by State B of which itself ithad set an example in
the past. Xor indeed may a State, while denying that a certain
treaty is applicable to the case, contend at the same time that the

other party in regard to the matter in dispute has not complied
with certain provisions of that treaty. (P.C.I. J., Series A/B, Ko. 70,
P- 25.)

In the Behring Sea arbitration of 1893 between the Vnited States
and Great Britain, the Arbitrators expressly found against the
Vnited States contention that Great Britain had conceded the
Russian claim to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the fur-se al^
fisheries in the Behring Sea outside territorial waters; and they
were fortified in this conclusion by the fact that the Cnited States,

4sas well as Great Britain, had protested against the Russian Ukase
of 1821 in which this claim was asserted. The proceedings, as Lord
McNair stated:

party to a dispute, by convicting the other State of inconsistency
with an attitude previously adopted".(McGibbon,opuscit.,p. 469.)

In its Judgment in the case concerning the Diversion of Water
from the Meme (1g37), the Permanent Court of International
Justice found it :

"difficult to admit that the Netherlands are now warranted in
complaining of the construction and operation of a lock of which
they themselvesset an example in the past". (P.C.I.J., Series A/B,
NO.70, p. 25.)

The anti-inconsistency rule was also applied by the German-

United States Mixed Claims Commission in the Life-Insurance
Claims case (1g24), when it decided that a State was debarred from
asserting claims which, on general principles of law, its own courts
would not admit, for instance, claims involving damages which its
own municipal courts, in similar cases, would consider too remote.
(Cheng, opus cit.,p. 143.)

There exist many other cases of international jurisprudence which
might be cited as examples of the application of the principle which
rejects allegations that are contrary to a State's own acts. Space
prevents me from citing any more. 1 have accordingly limited my-
self to selecting a few cases which 1 consider can usefully demon-
strate, in the main aspects, the force and flexibility of this principle.

(Signed) R. J. ALFARO.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF VICE-PRESIDENT ALFARO

The decision rendered by the Court in the present case sets forth
considerations of law and fact in which 1 fully concur, especially
for the reason that its essential basis is a principle of law to
which 1 attribute great weight and which has been frequently
applied by international tribunals, both of justice and arbitration.

This principle, as 1 understand it, is that a State party to an

international litigation is bound .by its previous acts or attitude
when they are in contradiction with its claims in the litigation.
1have no doubt that enunciated in these broad terms, the sound-
nessand justice of therule isgenerally accepted. However, it is mani-
fest that wide divergences exist as to its meaning, its character, its
scope and even its denomination; and inasmuch as a judgment of
the Court could not be expected to deal with these particulars,
1 have thought necessary, as a matter of conscience, to state the
views by which 1 have been guided in the adoption of this decision.
The principle, not infrequently called a doctrine, has been
referred to by the terms of "estoppel", "preclusion", "forclusion",
<acquiescence". 1 abstain from adopting any of these particular
designations, as 1 do not believe that any of them fits exactly to

the principle or doctrine as applied in international cases.

Spanish jurists, showing an objective criterium, cal1it "doctrina
de los actospropios".
Judge Basdevant has given a definition of estoppel in his "Dic-
tionnaire de la terminologiedu droit international"hich is doubtless
very accurate. Here it is:

"Terme de procédureemprunté à la langue anglaisequi désigne
l'obiectionpéremptoirequi s'oppose à ce qu'une partieà un procès
prenneunepositionqui contreditsoitcequ'ellea antérieuremenatdmis
expressémeno tu tacitement,soit ce qu'elleprétendsoutenir dans la
mêmienstance."
However,whencompared with definitions and comments contained
in Anglo-American legal texts we cannot fail to recognize that

while the principle, as above enunciated, underlies the Anglo-
Saxon doctrine of estoppel, there is a very substantial difference
between the simple and clear-cut rule adopted and applied in the
international field and the complicated classificationr;, modalities,
species, sub-species and procedural features of the municipal system.
It thus results that in some international cases the decision may
have nothing in common with the Anglo-saxon esloppel, while OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. ALFARO,
VICE-PRÉSIDENT

[Traduction]
L'arrêtrendu par la Cour en la présente affaire se fonde sur des
considérations de droit et de fait auxquelles je souscris entièrement
et tout particulièrement parce qu'elles ont pour base essentielle
un principe de droit auquel j'attribue beaucoup de poids et qui a

souvent étéappliqué par les tribunaux internationaux, tant de
justice que d'arbitrage.
Ce principe, tel que je l'entends, est qu'un État partie à un litige
international est tenu par ses actes ou son attitude antérieure
lorsqu'ils sont en contradiction avec ses prétentions dans ce litige.
Je suis certain que, lorsqu'il est énoncédans cestermesgénéraux,
la sagesse et l'équité dece principe sont admises par tous. Il est
cependant évident qu'il existe des divergences d'opinion consi-
dérables quant à son sens, à son caractère, à sa portée et même
à sa dénomination; et comme on ne peut s'attendre à ce que l'arrêt
de la Cour traite de ces détails, j'ai cru indispensable, en toute con-

science, d'exposer les vues qui m'ont amené àadopter cette décision.
Ce principe, assez souvent appelé doctrine, est invoqué sous le
nom d'ccestoppel », de cpréclusion », cforclusion D, ccacquiesce-
ment ».Je m'abstiendrai d'adopter l'un de ces termes en particulier,
car je ne pense pas qu'aucun d'eux convienne exactement ni au
principe ni à la doctrine, tels qu'ils sont appliqués dans les affaires
internationales.
Les juristes espagnols, témoignant de l'emploi d'un critère ob-
jectif, le désignent par l'expressionc(doctrina de los actospropios ».
Dans son cDictionnaire de la terminologiedu droit international »
RI. Basdevant a donné de l'estoppel une définition qui est sans nul

doute extrêmement exacte. La voici:
((Termede procédureemprunté à la langue anglaisequi désigne
l'objectionpéremptoirequi s'oppose à ce qu'une partieà un procès
prenne une position qui contredit soit ce qu'elle a antérieurement
admis expressémentou tacitement, soit ce qu'elleprétendsoutenir
dans la mêmeinstance. »

Toutefois, si on la compare aux définitions et observations qui
figurent dans les textes juridiques anglo-américains, nous ne pou-
vons manquer de reconnaître que si ce principe, tel qu'il est énoncé
ci-dessus, est bien celui sur lequel repose la doctrine anglo-saxonne
de l'estoppel,il n'en existe pas moins une différencetrès importante

entre la règlesimple et préciseadoptée et appliquée dans le domaine
international et les classifications, modalités, variantes et sous-
variantes et les aspects procéduraux compliquésdu système interne.
Il en résulte que dans certaines affaires internationales la décision
37at the same time notions may be found in the latter that are mani-
festly extraneous to international practice and jurisprudence.

Of course, 1 feel bound to mention these designations since they
have been so generally used in international texts, but 1 set them
aside in stating my views with regard to the principle which is the
subject of this separate opinion.
Whatever term or terms be employed to designate this principle
such as it has been applied in the international sphere, its sub-
stance is always the same: inconsistency between claims or alle-
gations put forward by a State, and its previous conduct in con-
nection therewith, is not admissible (allegans contraria non au-
diendus est). Its purpose is always the same: a State must not be
permitted to benefit by its own inconsistency to the prejudice of
another State (nemo potest mutare consilium suum in alterius in-
juriam). A fortiorz',the State must not be allowed to benefit by its
inconsistency when it is through its own wrong or illegal act that
the other party has been deprived of its right or prevented from

exercising it. (Nullus commodum capere de sua injuria propria.)
Finally, the legal effect of the principle is always the same: the
party which by its recognition, its representation, its declaration,
its conduct or its silence has maintained an attitude manifestly
contrary to the right it is claiming before an international tribunal
is precluded from claiming that right (venire contrafactum proprium
nOJl ilalet).
The acts or attitude of a State previous to and in relation with
rightsin dispute with another State may take the form of an express
written agreement, declaration, representation or recognition, or
else that of a conduct which impljes consent to or agreement witfi a
determined factual or juridical situation.

14 State may also be bound by a passive or negative attitude in
respect of rights asserted by another State, which the former
State later on claims to have. Passiveness in front of given facts is

the most general form of acquiescence or tacit consent. Failure of a
State to assert its rjght when that right is openly challenged by
another State can only mean abandonment to that right. Silence
by a State in the presence of facts contrary or prejudicial to rights
later on claimed by it before an international tribunal cm only be
interpreted as tacit recognition given prior to the litigation. This
interpretation obtains especially in the case of a contractual
relationship directly and exclusively affecting two States. Failure
to protest in circumstances when protest is necessary according
to the general practice of States in order to assert, to preserve or
to safeguard a right does likewise signify acquiescence or tacit
recognition: the State concerned must be held barred from claiming
before the international tribunal the rights it failed to assert or
to preserve when they were openly challenged by word or deed.

38peut n'avoir rien de commun avec l'estoppelanglo-saxon, et qu'en
mêmetemps on rencontre dans celui-ci des notions manifestement

étrangères à la pratique et à la jurisprudence internationales.
Je me suis cru tenu, bien entendu, de mentionner ces dénomi-
nations puisqu'elles sont si communément employées dans les
textes internationaux, mais je les ai écartées enexposant mes vues
touchant le principe qui fait l'objet de cette opinion individuelle.
Quels que soient le ou les termes employés pour désigner le
principe tel qu'il a étéappliqué dans le domaine international, sa
substance est toujours la même:la contradiction entre les récla-
mations ou allégations présentéespar un État et sa consuite anté-
rieure à ce sujet n'est pas admissible (alleganscontrarianon audien-
dus est). Son objectif est toujours le même:un Etat n'est pas auto-
risé à tirer profit de ses propres contradictions au préjudice d'un
autre Etat (nemopotestmutare consilium suum in alteriusinjuriam).
A fortiori, cet Etat ne saurait être admis à profiter de ses contra-
dictions lorsquec'est par l'effetdesa propre action fautive ou illicite
que l'autre partie a étéprivée de son droit ou empêchée de l'exercer
(nullus commodumcaperedesua injuria propria). Enfin, l'effet juridi-
que de ce principe est toujours le même :la partie qui,par sa recon-
naissance, sa représentation, sa déclaration, saconduite ou son silen-
ce,a maintenu une attitude manifestement contraire au droit qu'elle
prétend revendiquer devant un tribunalinternational est irrecevable
à réclamer ce droit (venire contra factum proprium non valet).

Les actes ou l'attitude d'un État,,antérieurement et par rapport
à des droits en litige avec un autre Etat, peuvent prendre la forme
d'un accord écrit,d'une déclaration, d'une représentation ou d'une
reconnaissance exprès, ou bien celle d'une conduite qui implique
un consentement ou un accord tacite quant à une situation déter-
minée de fait ou de droit.
Un État peut être lié aussipar une attityde passive ou négative
à l'égard dedroits affirméspar un autre Etat, que le premier de
ces Etats revendique ultérieurement. La passivité en face de
certains faits est la forme la lus générale de l'acquiescement ou du
consentement tacite. Si un 8 tat n'affirme pas son droit lorsque ce
droit est contesté ouvertement par un autre État, cette carence
ne peut signifier que l'abandon de ce droit. Le silence d'un Etat
en présence de faits contraires ou prAju-iciables à des droits re-
vendiqués ultérieurement par cet État devant un tribunal inter-
national nepeut êtreinterprétéque comme une reconnaissance tacite
donnée antérieurement au litige. Cette interprétation vaut notam-
ment dans le cas de rapports contractuels affectant directement
et exclusivement deux Etats. Si,un État ne proteste pas, alors que
selon la pratique généraledes Etats une protestation apparaîtrait

indispensable pour affirmer, préserver ou sauvegarder un droit,
cette carence signifie aussi acquiescement ou consentement tacite:
l'État en cause doit êtreconsidérécomme irrecevable à revendiquer "The absence of protest"-says Lauterpacht-"may, in addition,
in itself becomea source of legal right inasmuch as it is related to-
or forms a constituent element of-estoppel or prescription. Like
these two generally recognized legal principles, the far-reaching
effect of the failure to protest is not a mere artificiality of the law.
It isan essentialrequirement ofstability-a requirement even more
important the international than in other spheres; it is a precept
loose with situations affecting others; and it is in accordance with
equity inasmuch as it protects a State from the contigency of
incurring responsibilities and expense, in reliance on the apparent
acquiescence of others, and being subsequently confronted with a
challenge on the part of those very States." (Sovereigntyove7sub-
marineareasin British Year Book1950.)

The reasoning used and the jurisprudence developed as regards
the subject of failure to yrotest is also applicable in the case of
failure to reserve rights of which a State is legally possessed and
which it is entitled to claim or exercise in 'due course. Such failure
may be and has been interpreted as a waiver of such rights.

The principle that condemns contradiction between previous acts
and siibsequent claims is not to be regarded as a mere rule of evi-

dence or procedure. The substantive character of the rule finds
support in the writtings of several authors. As stated by Sir Frede-
rick Pollock :
"estoppel is often described as a rule of evidence, as indeed it may
be so described. But the wholeconcept ismore correctly viewed as a
substantive mle of law."

In the Notte6oizmcase the Liechtenstein Mernorial stated that:

"It may be noted in this connection that the doctrine of estoppel,
which is similar both in international and municipal law, is not,
notwithstanding its apparent technical connotation, a forma1 and
artificial mle of law. lt is essentially grounded in considerations of
good faith and honest conduct in the relations of States and in-
dividuals alike."

In my judgment, the principle is substantive in character. It
constitutes a presumptioii iztris et dl:jure in virtue of which a State
is held to have abandolied its right if it ever had it, or else that
such a State never felt that it had a clear legal title on which it
could base opposition to the right asserted or claimed by another
State. In short, the legal effects of the principle are so fundamental
that thev decide by themselves alone the matter in dispute and its

39devant un tribunal international les droits qu'il n'a pas affirmés
ou maintenus lorsqu'ils ont étéouvertement contestés par la parole
ou par l'action.

« L'absence de protestation » - déclareLauterpacht - (peut en
outre devenir en elle-mêmela source d'un droit juridique dans la
mesure où elle se rapporte à l'estoppelou à la prescription ou en
forme un élémentconstitutif. Comme ces deux principes juridiques
généralement reconnus, l'effet à longue portée de l'absence de
protestation n'a pas, en droit, un caractère artificiel. C'est un besoin
fondamental de stabilité - un besoin encore plus important dans
le domaine international que dan? les autres; c'est un précepte de
bonne foi en ce qu'il empêcheles Etats de jpuer un double jeu dans
certaines situations qui affectent +'autres Etats; et il est conforme
à l'équitéen ce qu'il protège un Etat du risque d'encourir des res-
ponsabilitjs et des dépensesen raison de l'acquiescement apparent
d'autres Etats et de se voir ensuite en butte à des contestations de
la part de ces mêmesEtats. » (Sovereigntyoversubmarine areas, dans
British Year Book, 1950.)

Le raisonnement employé et la jurisprudence créée à l'égard de
l'absence de protestation est applicable aussi lorsqu'un Etat ne
réserve pas les droits dont il est juridiquement possesseur et qu'il
a la possibilité de revendiquer et d'exercer le moment 1.enu. crie
telle carence peut être et a étéinterprétée comme un abandon de

ces droits.
Le principe qui condamne la contradiction entre les actes anté-
rieurs et les prétentions subséquentes ne saurait être considéré
comme une simple règle de preuve ou de procédure. Le caractère
substantiel decette règle a étéreconnu par plusieurs auteurs. Comme
l'a dit sir Frederick Pollock:

«l'estoppelest souvent décrit comme une règle de preuve, et peut
l'êtreen effet. Mais il est plus exact de reconnaître dans ce principe
tout entier une règlede fond du droit. ))

Dans l'affaire Nottebohm, le mémoire du Liechtenstein indique
ce qui suit :
«On peut faire observer àcet égardque la doctrine de 1'~estopfie)),
qui est la mêmetant en droit international qu'en droit interne,
n'est pas, nonobstant sa signification technique apparente, une règle
de droit formelle et artificielle.Elle est essentiellement fondée sur des
considérations de bonne foi et d'honnêtetédans les relations entre
Etats comme dans les relations entre individus. ))

A mon avis, c'est un principe de fqnd, une présomption jztris
et de jure en vertu de laquelle un Etat est considéré comme
ayant abandonné son droit, s'il l'a jamais possédé, ou bien comme
n'ayant jamais considéré qu'il possédait un titre juridique certain

sur lequel il pouvait fonder son opposition aux droits affirmés
ou revendiqués par un autre État. En bref, les effets juridiques
du principe sont si fondamentaux qu'ils tranchent seuls, par eux- infraction cannot be loolted upon as a mere incident of the proceed-
ings.

The pnmary foundation of this principle is the good faith that
must prevail in international relations, inasmuch as inconsistency
of conduct or opinion on the part of a State to the prejudice of
another is incompatible with good faith. Again, 1submit that such
inconsistency is especially inadmissible when the dispute arises from
bilateral treaty relations.
A secondary basis of the principle is the necessity for security
in contractual relationships. A State bound by a certain treaty to
another State must rest in the security that a harmonious and
undisturbed exercise of the rights of each party and a faithful
discharge of reciprocal obligations denote a mutually satisfactory
state of things which is permanent in character and is bound to last
as long asthe treaty is in forceA State cannot enjoy such a situation
and at the same time live in fear that some daythe other State may
change its mind or its conduct and jeopardize or deny rights that

for a long time it has never challenged. A continuous and uncon-
troverted fulfilment of a treaty is tantamount to a pledge, a security
renewed day by day that the treaty is valid and effective as signed,
intended and understood bythe parties. Such a security must needs
be upheld as an indispensable element of fruitful harmony in al1
treaty relationships.

It may thus be seen that the rule pacta sunt servanda cannot be
conciliated with the notion of inconsistency in the interpretation
and observance of public treaties. Of course, this notion does not
conflict with the entirely different question of rebztssic stantibus.
Inconsistency condemns two contradictory positions with regard
to the same situation existing at the time the binding acts occurred.
The clause rebussic stantibus contemplates two different situations:
the one existing when the treaty was signed and the new one
created by conditions and circumstances posterior to the treaty.

But even in the case of ordinary, non-contractual relationsbetween
States the rule of consistency must be observed and a State cannot
challenge or injure the rights of another in a manner which is
contrary to its previous acts, conduct or opinions during the main-
tenance of its international relationships.

Finally, it may be averred that, as in the case of prescription,
the principle is also rooted in the necessity of avoiding controversies
as a matter of public policy (interest rei pzthlicaeut sit finis litiunz).
By condemning inconsistency a great deal of litigation is liable to
be avoided and the element of friendship and CO-operation is
strengthened in the international community.
While refraining from discussing the question whether the prin-
ciple of the binding effect of a State's own acts with regard to
rights in dispute with another State is or is not part of customarymêmes,l'objet du différendet qu'on ne saurait considérer comme

un simple incident de la procédure toute infraction à ce principe.
Le fondement essentiel de ce principe est la bonne foi qui doit
régner dans les relations internationales: la contradiction dans
la conduite ou dans l'opinion d'un Etat au préjudice d'un autre
est incompatible avec la bonne foi. Il faut soulignerà nouveau que
la contradiction est particulièrement inadmissible quand ledifférend
découlede rapports reposant sur un traité bilatéral.
Un fondement secondaire de ce principe résideda,ns la nécessité
d'assurer la sécuritédes rapports contractuels. Un Etat liépar un
certain traité à un autre État doit êtreassuré que l'exercice har-
monieux et paisible des droits de chaque partie et l'exercice fidèle
des obligations réciproques dénotent un état de choses satisfaisant
pour les deux parties, de caractère permanent, et voué à durer
aussi longtemps que le traité demeure en vigueur. Un Etat

ne saurait jouir de cette situation et vivre en mêmetemps dans
la crainte qu'un jour l'autre partie puisse changer d'avis et de
conduite et compromettre ou dénier des droits que pendant long-
temps elle n'a jamais contestés. L'exécution continue et indiscutée
d'un traité équivaut à un engagement, à une assurance renouvelée
jour par jour que le traité est valide et effectif tel qu'il a étésigné,
conçu et compris par les parties. Ce sentiment de sécurité doit
êtreconsidérécomme un élément indispensable d'une fructueuse
harmonie dans tous les rapports fondés sur des traités.
On voit donc que la règle pacta sztnt servanda ne saurait être
conciliéeavec des attitudes contradictoires dans l'interprétation et
l'application des traités publics. Sans doute cette règle n'est pas en
conflit avec le problème tout différent de rebus sic stantibus. L'in-
conséquence condamne deux positions contradictoires visant une
mêmesituation existant au moment où se sont produits les actes
ayant caractère obligatoire. La clause rebztssic stantibzts envisage

deux situations différentes: l'une existant lors de la signature du
traité et la situation nouvelle crééepar des conditions et des circons-
tances postérieures au traité. RIais,dans le cas même de rapports
ordinaires, non contractuels, entre Etats,la règlede l'uniformité de
comportement doit êtrerespectée,et un Etat ne peut pas contester
ni attaquer les droits d'un autre Etat d'une manière incompatible
avec ses propres actes, sa conduite ou ses opinions antérieurs dans
ses rapports internationaux.
Enfin on peut affirmer, comme dans le cas de la prescription,
que ce principe se fonde aussi sur la nécessitéd'éviter des contro-
verses dans l'intérêtgénéral (interest rei PubLicaeut sit finis litium).
En réprimant l'inconséquence, on pourra sans doute éviter un
grand nombre de litiges et on renforcera l'amitié et la coopération
au sein de la communauté internationale.
Tout en m'abstenant de discuter le point de savoir si le principe
de l'effet obligatoirees propres actes d'un pays àl'égard desdroits

en litige avec un autre Etat fait ou non partie du droit international JUDG31. 15 VI 62 (SEP. OPIN. JUDGE ALFARO)
43
international law, 1 have no hesitation in asserting that this prin-
ciple, known to the world since the days of the Romans, is one of

the "general principles of law recognized by civilized nations" ap-
plicable and in fact frequently applied by the International Court
of Justice in conformity with Article 38, para. I (c), of its Statiite.

Cases in which the International Court of Jzrstice, the Permanent
Court of I?zte~~zationaJlustice or arbifrntion tribunals lzazlenpplied
or recognizedthe principle abovediscz~ssed.

I. Express agreement or recognition

In the case of the Award of the King of Spain, Honduras v.
Xicaragua (1g60), this Court said :

"No question was at any time raised in the arbitral proceedings
before the King with regard either to the validity of his designation
as arbitrator or his jurisdiction as such. Before him, the Parties
followed the procedure that had been agreed upon for submitting
their respective cases. Indeed, the verÿ first occasion ~rlien the
validity of the designation of the King of Spain as arbitrator \vas
challenged was in the Note of the Foreign Minister of Nicaragua
of 19 illarch 1912. In these circumstances the Court is unable to
hold that the designation of the King of Spain as arbitrator to
decide the boundary dispute between the two Parties Kas inralid."

And further on the Court declared:

"In the judgment of the Court, Xicaragua, by express declaration
and by conduct, recognized the Award as valid and it is no longer
open to Nicaragua to go back upon that recognition and to chal-
lenge the validity of the Award." (I.C.J. Rrports,pp. 207, 213.)

In his Separate Opinion in the same case Judge Sir Percy Spender
said :
"1 do not find it necessary to determine whether the King's
appointment involved any non-compliance witli the provisions of

the Treaty. Although 1incline strongly to the view that tlie appoint-
ment was irregular, this contention of Nicaragua fails because that
State is precluded by its conduct prior to and during tlie course of
the arbitration from relying upon any irregularity in tlie appoint-
ment of the King as a ground to invalidate the .An.arcl." (Ibid.,
P 219.1

In the course of its Advisory Opinion concerning the J~rrisdiction

of the European Co~lt?nission oj the Dalz~tb~the Pernlanent Court of
International Justice stated that :
41coutumier, je n'hésite pas à affirmer que ce principe, reconnu dans
le monde entier depuis le temps des Romains, est un des ((principes
généraux de droit reconnus par les nations civilisées ))applicables

et souvent appliqués par la Cour internationale de Justice en vertu
de l'article 38, paragraphe I (c), de son Statut.

Agaires dans lesquellesla Cour internationale de Justice, la Cour
permanente de Justice internationale ou les tribunaux d'arbitrage ont

appliqz.téou reconnu Leprincipe discutéplus haut.

I. Accord ou reconnaissanceexprès

Dans l'affaire dela Sentencearbitralerendue par le roi d'Espagne,
Honduras c. Nicaragua (1g60), la Cour internationale de Justice
a énoncé ce qui suit:
((Si la validitéde la désignationdu roi comme arbitre ni sa com-
pétence à ce titre n'ont étémises en doute à aucun moment de la
procédure arbitrale qui s'est dérouléedevant lui. Les Parties ont
suivi devant le roi la procédure qui avait étéconvenue pour la
présentation de leurs thèses respectives. Bien plus, ce n'est quedans

la note du ministre des Affaires étrangèresdu Nicaragua en date du
19 mars 1912 que la validité de la désignation du roi d'Espagne
comme arbitre a été contestée pourla première fois.
Dans ces conditions, la Cour ne peut conclure à l'invaliditéde la
désignation du roi d'Espagne comme arbitre pour trancher la
question des limites entre les deux Parties. 1)
Et la Cour a dit plus loin:

((De l'avis de la Cour, le Nicaragua a, par ses déclarations ex-
presses et par son comportement, reconnu le caractère valable de la
sentence et il n'est plus en droit de revenir sur cette reconnaissance
pour contester la validité dela sentence. ))(C.I. J. Recueil,pp. 207,
213.)

Dans son opinion individuelle en la même affaire, sir Percy Spen-
der a dit :
((A mon avis, iln'est pas nécessairede déterminersila désignation
du roi est entachée d'inexécutiondes dispositions du traité. Bien que

je penche fortement à croire que la désignation aétéirrégulière, cet
argument du Nicaragua échoueparce que la conduite de cet Etat,
avant et pendant l'arbitrage, lui interdit d'invoquer une irrégularité
quelconque dans la désignationdu roi comme motif pour invalider la
sentence. ))(Ibid p.219.)

Dans l'avis consultatif concernant la Compétence delaCommission
européenne du Danube,la Cour permanente de Justice internationale
a énoncéque:

41 "as all the Governments concerned in the present dispute have
signed and ratified both the Treaty of Versailles and the Definitive
Statute, they cannot, as between themselves, contend that some of
Danube Commission under Article 349 of the Treaty of Versailles".
(P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 14,p. 23.)

In the Eastern Greenland case (1933)~ the Permanent Court of
International Justice declared :

"Norway reaffirmed that she recognized the whole of Greenland
as Danish; and thereby she has debarred herself from contesting
Danish sovereignty over the whole of Greenland".
The Court accordingly decided that the "Ihlen declaration" was
binding on Norway and barred a subsequent Norwegian attitude
contrary to its notified intent. (P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 53, pp.

70-71.)
The Serbian Loans case is thus reported by Bowett ("Estoppel
beforeInternational Tribunals", British Year Book of Inter:zational
Law, 1957) :
"In the Se~bian Loans case the question arose whether in accept-
ing payment of interest upon the loans in French francs, as opposed
to 'gold francs', the French bondholderç had represented that they
were prepared to accept payment in French francs. If they had,
despite the derogation from the terms of the loan, it was arguable
that they were henceforth estopped from claiming payrnent accord-
ing tothe strict terms of the loans."

On this point the Permanent Court said:
"...when the requirements of the principle of estoppel to establish a
loss ofright are considered, it isclear that no sufficientbasis has been
shown for applying the principle in this case. There was no clear
and unequivocal representation of the bondholders upon which the
debtor State was entitled to rely and has relied." (P.C.I.J., Series A,
Nos. 20-21, p. 39.)

In the Shufeldt case (1930), the United States contended that
Guatemala, having for six years recognized the validity of the
claimant's contract, and received al1 the benefits to which she was
entitled thereunder, and having allowed Shufeldt to continue to
spend money on the concession, was precluded from denying its
validity, even if the contract had not received the necessary approval
of the Guatemalan legislature. The Arbitrator held the contention
to be "sound and in keeping with the principles of international
law". (Cheng, GenevalPrinciples of Law, Ch. 5, C, p. 143.)

2. Recognition by conductand express agreement
In The Pious Fund of California (1902) it was contended by the
United States that Mexico wasestopped by its conductfromdenying (étant donnéque tous les Gouvernements intéressés à l'espèceont
signé et ratifiéle Traité de Versailles comme le Statut définitif, ils
ne sauraient invoquer, l'un contre l'autre, que telle ou telle dispo-
sition du Statut est dépourvue de validité parce qu'elle dépassele
mandat confié à la Conférencedu Danube aux termes de l'article 349
du Traité de Versailles ». (C.P. J. I., SérieB, no 14,p. 23.)

Dans l'affaire du Statut juridique du Groënland oriental (1933)~
la Cour permanente de Justice internationale a déclaré:
(la Norvège a réaffirmé lefait que tout le Groënland est reconnu
par elle comme danois, réaffirmation qui exclut une contestation de
la souveraineté danoise sur l'ensemble du Groënland 1).

La Cour a donc décidéque la (déclaration Ihlen ))était oppo-
sable à la Norvège et empêchait toute action norvégienne subsé-
quente contraire à l'intention notifiée (C. P. J. I., SérieA/B, no 53,

PP. 70-71).
L'affaire des Emprunts serbes est rapportée par Bowett comme
suit («Estoppel before International Tribunals n, British Yearbook
of International Law, 1957) :
«Dans l'affaire des empruntsserbes,la question s'est posée de
savoir si en acceptant le paiement des intérêtsafférentaux emprunts
en francs français, au lieu de ((francs or », les porteurs français
avaient montré qu'ils étaient prêts à accepter le paiement en francs
français. Si oui, en dépit de la dérogationque cette réponsecons-
tituait aux conditions duprêt,on pouvait sedemander s'ilsn'étaient
pas empêchés (estopped)dès lors de réclamer que le paiement soit
effectuéconformémentaux conditions formelles des emprunts. 1)

Sur ce point, la Cour permanente a décidéque

...lorsque l'on examine les conditions requises en vue d'établir
la perte d'un droit en vertu du principe de 1'«estoppel 11,il est très
clair que l'application de ce principeà l'espècemanque de base. Les
porteurs nr90ntpas fait de déclaration claire et non équivoque sur
laquelle 1'Etat débiteur pût à bon droit se fonder et se soit fondé. »
(C.P. J. I., SérieA, nos20-21, p. 39.)
Dans l'affaire Shufeldt (1930). les États-unis ont prétendu que
le Guatemala, ayant reconnu depuis six ans la validité du contrat

du demandeur et reçu tous les avantages auxquels il avait droit
aux termes de ce contrat, et ayant autorisé Shufeldt à continuer à
investir des fonds sur la concession, était empêchéd'en nier la vali-
dité, même si le contrat n'avait pas reçu l'approbation nécessaire
du Parlement guatémaltèque. L'arbitre a déclaréque cette thèse
était ((fondée et conforme aux principes du droit international D.
(Cheng, GeneralPrinciples of Law, ch. 5, C, p. 143.)

2. Reconnaissance par conduiteet accordexprès

Dans l'affaire du Fonds pieux desCalifornies(~goz),les États-unis
ont prétendu que le Mexique était empêchépar sa conduite de
42the right of the llixed Commission of 1868 to settle the entire
question of the California Fund. They urged that throughout the
whole dispute, both before and after the decision of the umpire,
Mexico impliedly and by a uniform conduct conceded tothat com-

mission full powers of decision. This conduct consisted in the rati-
fication, in 1872 and 1874, of the conventions providing for the
extension of time within which the joint Commission should settle
the claims brought before it, and also in other acts of the agents of
Mexico. (Lauterpacht, Private Law Sources and Analogies of Inter-
national Law, p. 248.)

3. Passiveness before adverse acts. A bafidonment of rights
The binding effect of passiveness orinaction before acts contrary
to what a State believes or pretends to believe to be its right is
vividly set out inthe Grisbadarnacase (1909) between Norway and
Sweden, in which the tribunal made the following considerations
for adjudicating to Sweden the disputed territory:

"The 'circumstance that Suieden has performed various acts in
the Grisbadarna region, especially of late, owing to her conviction
that these regions were Swedish as, for instance, the placing of
beacons, the measurement of the sea, and the installation of a
light-boat, being acts which involved considerable expense and in
doing which she not only thought she was exercising her right but
even more that she was performing her duty; whereas Norway,
according to her ouTnadmission, showed much less solicitude in this
quieta non movere,the tribunal laid further stress on the co-exist-
ence of expenditure and acquiescence, in the followingwords: "iiie
stationing of a light-boat, which is necessary to the safety of navi-
gation in the regions of Grisbadarna, was done by Sweden without
meeting any protest and even at the initiative of ru'orway,and like-
wise a large number of beacons were established there without
giving rise to any protests.'" (Scott, HagzceCourt Reports, 1916,
p. 121.)

Circumstances t-ery similar to those of the Grisbadarna case oc-
curred in the controversy over the islands of Minqz~iersand Ecrehos
(1953). At a later stage of the oral proceedings Sir Gerald Fitz-
maurice advanced the proposition in these terms:

"[Title to territory is abandoned] by letting another country
assume and carry out for many years al1 the responsibilities and
expenses in connection with the territory concerned. Could anything
effect abandonment?vioSuch a course of action, or rather inaction,
disqualifies the country concerned from asserting the continued
existence of the title." (J. C. McGibbon, "Estoppelin International
Law", in Int. and Comp. Law Quavterly,1958, p. jog.)contester le droit de la Commission mixte de 1868 de régler l'en-
semble de la question du Fonds des Californies. Ils affirmaient que
pendant tout le différend, avant comme après la décision de l'ar-
bitre, le Mexique, implicitement et par une conduite uniforme,
avait concédé à cette commission pleins pouvoirs de décision. Cette
conduite consistait dans la ratification, en 1872 et 1874, des conven-
tions autorisant l'extension des délais impartis à la Commission
mixte pour régler les demandes qui lui étaient présentées, ainsi
qu'en d'autres actes des agents du Mexique. (Lauterpacht, Private

Law Sources and Analogies of International Law, p. 248.)

3. Passivité en face d'actes contraires.Abandon de droits
L'effet obligatoire d~ la passivité ou de l'inaction en face d'actes
contraires à cequ'un Etat croit ou prétend être ses droits est exposé
très nettement dans l'affaireGrisbadarna (1909) entre la Norvège
et la Suède, dans laquelle la Cour a fait les observations suivantes,

en allouant à la Suède le territoire litigieux:
((La ((circonstanceque la Suède a effectué dans les parages de
Grisbadarna, surtout dans les derniers temps, des actes multiples
émanésdesa conviction que cesparages étaientsuédois,comme,par
exemple, le balisage, le mesurage de la mer et l'installation d'un
bateau-phare, lesquels actes entraînaient des frais considérables et
par lesquels elle ne croyait pas seulement exercer un droit mais bien
plus encoreaccomplirun devoir; tandis que la Norvège,de sonpropre
aveu, sous cesdivers rapports s'est souciéebienmoins ou presque pas
du tout de cesparages ))Aprèsavoir invoquéla maxime quietanon
movere, le tribunal a insisté encore sur la coexistence des dépenses
et del'acquiescement dans lestermes suivants : «...le stationnement
d'un bateau-phare, nécessaire à la sécuritéde la navigation dans
lesparages de Grisbadarna,a été effectuépar la Suèdesansrencontrer
de protestation et sur l'initiative mêmede la Norvège et ...égale-
ment, l'établissement d'un assez grand nombre de balises y a été
opérésans soulever de protestations D.» (Scott, Travaux dela Cour
permanente d'arbitrag deeLa Haye, 1916,pp. 135-136.)

Des conditions très semblables à celles de l'affaire Grisbadarna
se sont retrouvées dans la discussion relative aux îles des Min-
quiers et des Ecréhous (1953). Vers la fin de la procédure orale, sir
Gerald Fitzmaurice a présentécette thèse dans les termes suivants:

« [Un titre sur un territoire est abandonné] quand on laisse un
autre pays assumer et remplir pendant de longues années toutes
les responsabilités et charges se rapportant au territoire envisagé.
Peut-on rien imaginer d'autre qui constitue mieux l'acquiescement,
qui soit en fait l'abandon, et cette attitude, ou plutôt cette inaction
disqualifie le pays intéressé pouraffirmer le maintien de son titre
en existence. » (J. C. McGibbon, ((Estofipelin InternationalLaw )),
dans Int. and Comp.L.awQuartsvly,1958, p. 509.) In the Yukon Lz~mbercase a claim was put forward by Great
Britain for the value of some timber cut in trespass upon Canadian
territory, sold subsequently to the Government of the Vnited States,
and used by it in the construction of certain military bridges in
Alaska. The United States contended in reply that Great Britain,
by the course taken by her officials, was estopped from denying
that a full and complete title to the timber had legally vested in
the United States, that the Canadian land and timber agent stood
by silently and watched the American Government acquire this
timber bonafide and continue for six months to pay the instalments
due in respect of it, andthat, accordingly, Great Britain could not

now be heard in a demand that the United States should pay for
the timber which it \vas permitted to acquire under false represen-
tations. This plea in support of which a vast number of English
and American cases on estoppel ivas cited, was fully adopted by
the tribunal. (Lauterpacht, opz~scit., para. 132, p. 280.)

The Arbitrator in the Island of Pallnas arbitration declared with-
out taking into consideration the recognition by the Treaty of
Utrecht of the position in 1714:
"the acquiescence of Spain in the situation created after 1677 ;the
establishment of the Dutch position in Sangi] would deprive her and
her successors of the possibility of still invoking conventional rights
at the present". (J. C. McGibbon, opzdscit., p. 506.)

4. Failure to protest

"The duty to protest", says Lauterpacht, "and the relevance of
the failure to protest, are especiallyconspicuous in the international
sphere where the normal avenues for ascertaining disputed rights
through the compulsory jurisdiction of tribunals are not always
available. "
In this connection he refers to the J7enezztelan Pveferential Clni~ns
(1902) in the following terms:
"The Award, in addition to the effect which it attributed to the
Venezuelanrecognition inprinciple of the justice of the claims of the
Blockading Powers, was largely based upon the effect of acquies-
cence as an estoppel, as the followingreasonsprefacing the operative
part of the Award indicate: 'Whereas the Government of Venezuela
until the end of January, 1903, in no way protested against the
pretension of the Blockading Powers to insist on special securities
for the settlement of their claims... \171iereasthe neutral Powers ..
did not protest against the pretensions of the Blockading Po~vers
to a preferential treatment ..\Vhereas it appears from the negoti-
ations ...that the German and British Governments constantly
insisted on their being given guarantees ...\17hereasthe Plenipoten-
tiary of the (iovernment of Venezuela accepted tliis reservation on ARRÊT DU T5 VI 62 (OP. INDIV. DE M. ALFARO)
46
Dans l'affaire du Yukon Lumber, la Grande-Bretagne a réclamé
la valeur de certaines coupes de bois pratiquées illicitement en
territoire canadien, vendues ensuite au Gouvernement des Etats-
Onis, et employées par ce Gouvernement, à la construction de
certains ponts militaires en Alaska. Les Etats-Cnis répondaient

que la Grande-Bretagne, en raison des mesures prises par ses
fonctionnaires, était empêchéede contester (estopped) que les Etats-
Unis avaient étéjuridiquement investis d'un titre plein et complet
sur ces coupes, que l'agent forestier canadien n'avait pas protesté,
qu'il avait assisté à leur acquisition par le Gouvernement américain
bonafide,au paiement continué pendant six mois desversements dus
en conséquence, ce pourquoi maintenant la Grande-Bretagne ne
pouvait voir accueiller sa demande touchant le paiement par les

États-~nis de coupes qu'ils avaient pu acheter par erreur. Cette
thèse, qui s'appuyait surun grand nombre de précédents anglais et
américains concernant l'estoppel, a étéentièrement adoptée par le
tribunal. (Lauterpacht, op. cit., par. 132, p. 280.)

L'arbitre en l'affaire de l'Îlede Palmas a tranché sans tenir
compte de la reconnaissance de la situation en 1714 par le traité
d'Utrecht :

(l'acquiescement de l'Espagne à l'état de choses établi après 1677
[l'établissement des Pays-Bas aux Sanghi] la priverait, elle et ses
successeurs, de la possibilité de continuer à invoquer des droits
conventionnels à l'heure actuelleD.(J. C.McGibbon,op. cit., p. 506.)

4. Absence de protestation
(Le devoir de protester »,dit Lauterpacht, (et la pertinence de
l'absence de protestation sont particulièrement remarquables dans

le domaine international où n'existent pas toujours les voies nor-
males pour faire reconnaître des droits contestés par la juridiction
obligatoire d'un tribunal. ))
A cet égard, il se réfère à l'affaire des Réclamations contre le
Veizezuela(1902) dans les termes cuivants:

((L'arbitrage, en dehors de l'effet qu'il attribuaità la reconnais-
sance vénézuélienne en principe, du bien-fondé de la prétention des
puissances bloquantes, se fondait en majeure partie sur l'effet de
l'acceptation d'un estopfiel,comme l'indiquent les raisons suivantes
des considérants précédantle dispositif de la sentence: (considérant
que le Gouvernement du Venezuela jusqu'à la fin de janvier 1903ne
protestait nullement contre la prétention des puissances bloquantes
d'exiger de5gages spéciaux pour le règlement de leurs réclamations
...considérant que les puissances neutres ...n'ont pas protesté
contre la prétention des puissances bloquantes à un traitement
préférentiel...considérant qu'il résulte des négociations diplomati-
ques ...que les Gouvernements allemand et britannique insistaient
constamment sur ce qu'illeur soit donnédes garanties ..considérant
44 the part of the allied Powers without the least protest..For these
nounces unanimously.'th" Tribunal of Arbitration decides and pro-

In the Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries case (1951)~the International
Court of Justice considered that the "prolonged abstention" of
the United Kingdom from protesting against the Nonvegian sys-
tem of straight base lines in delimiting territorial waters was one
of the factors which, together with "the notoriety of the facts, the
general toleration of the international community, Great Britain's

position in the North Sea, her own interest in the question, and her
prolonged abstention would in any case warrant Norways' enforce-
ment of her system against the United Kingdom".

In the case of The Lotus, the Court referred to the several in-
stances, quoted in argument, of criminal proceedings in respect of
collisionsbefore the courts of a country other than that of the flag

of the vesse1 concerned, and stressed the fact that in these cases
the States affected did not object and refrained from protesting.
The Court said :
"This fact is directly opposed to the existence of a tacit consent
on the part of Statesto the exclusive jurisdiction of the State whose
flagis flow...It seemshardly probable,and it would not have been
in accordance with international practice, that the French Govern-
ment in the Ortigia-OncleJ-oseph case and the same Government in
the Ekbatana-West-Hinder case would have omitted to protest
against the exercise of criminal jurisdiction by the Italian and Bel-
gian Courts, if they had really thought that this was a violation of
international law." (P.C.I.J., Series A, NoIO,p. 29.)

5. Failure to reserve rights

In the Russian Indemnity case (1912)Russia claimed interest for
the delayed payment of certain indemnity sums provided for in the
Treaty of Constantinople of 1879.The Ottoman Government main-
tained, andthe accuracy of this assertion appeared clearly from the
correspondence produced before the Court, that although the Rus-
sian Government demanded in 1891 the payment of both interest
and principal, it did not subsequently reserve its rights to interest
on the receipts given by the Embassy or in the notes granting ex-
tension of payment, and that the Embassy did not regard the
received sums as interest. The award said in this connection: que le plénipotentiaire du Gouvernement du Venezuela accepta ces
réservesdela part des Puissances alliéessans la moindre protestation
...pour ces motifs (inter dia) le tribunal d'arbitrage décideet pro-
nonce à l'unanimité )).))

Dans l'affaire anglo-norvégieme des Pêcheries (1951)~ la Cour
internationale de Justice a estimé que ((l'abstention prolongée ))
du Royaume-Uni, qui n'avait pas protesté contre le système de la
délimitation par le moyen de lignes droites, a étél'un des facteurs
qui, en mêmetemps que ((lanotoriétédesfaits, la tolérance générale
de la communauté internationale, la position de la Grande-Bretagne
dans la mer du Nord, son intérêt propre dans la question, son

abstention prolongée, permettraient en tout cas à la Norvège
d'opposer son système au Royaume-Uni 1).

Dans l'affaire du Lotus, la Cour s'est référée aux divers exemples

cités au cours de la discussion de procédures criminelles se rappor-
tant à des collisions poursuivies devant les tribunaux d'un pays
autre que celui du pavillon du navire en question et a souligné le
fait que, dans ces affaires, les États intéressésn'avaient pas soulevé
d'objections et s'étaient abstenus de protester. La Cour a dit:
((Cette circonstance va-directement àl'encontre de l'existence du
conse?tement tacite des Etats en faveur de la compétence exclusive
de YEtat du pavillon.. . Il ne semble guèreprobable, et il ne serait
pas conforme à la pratique internationale, que le Gouvernement
français dans le cas de 1'0rtigia-Oncle-Josephet le Gouvernement
allemand dans celui de YEkbatana-West-Hinder eussent omis de
protester contre l'exercice de la juridiction pénalede la part des
tribunaux italiens et belges, si vraiment ils avaient penséqu'il y
avait là une violation du droit international.)(C.P. J. I., SérieA,
no IO,p. 29.)

5. Absence de réservesde droits

Dans l'affaire des Indemnités russes (I~IZ), la Russieréclamait des
intérêtspour le retard apporté au paiement de certainesindemnités
prévues par le traité de Constantinople de 1879. Le Gouvernement
ottoman soutenait, et l'exactitude de cette affirmation ressortait
clairement de la correspondance produite devant la Cour, que, bien
que le Gouvernement russe ait demandé en 1891 le paiement de
l'intérêtet du capital, il n'avait pas, par la suite, réservéses droits

aux intérêtssur les reçus remis par l'ambassade, ou dans les notes
accordant prorogation de délai de paiement et que l'ambassade
n'avait pas considéréles fonds perçus comme des intérêts. A ce
propos, la sentence avait déclaré:48 JUDG~~. 15 VI 62 (SEP. OPIN. JUL)GE ALFARO)

"When the tribunal recognized that, according to the general
principles and the custom of public international law, there was a
similarity between the condition of a State and that of an individual,
which are debtors for a clear and exigible conventional sum, it is
equitable and juridical also to apply by analogy the principles of
private law common to cases where the demand for payment must
as eliminated. In private law, the effects of demand for payment
are eliminated when the creditor, after having made legal demand
upon the debtor, grants one or more extensions for the payment of
the principal obligation, without reserving the rights acqiiired by
the legal demand."

The Tribunal held accordingly that the Ottoman Government
was not liable to pay interest-damages as demanded by Russia.
(Lauterpacht, opus cit., pp. 255-260.)

The case of the Pious Fztnd of California, already mentioned,
affords another example of the damage a State may suffer from
failure to reserve whatever rights may be liable to be affected in
connection with an international agreement. In this case the
United States pointed out that Mexico, embarking, in 1868 and
in the subsequent conventions, upon the litigation, took the risk
of success or failure, and that she could not now, afterhaving lost,
question the jurisdiction of the tribunal. They disclaimed the in-
tention of relying upon a mere technicality, but urged that if one
party to the dispute contemplates the withdrawing of certain claims
from arbitration, it is under the obligation to announce such in-
tention in the beginning in order to enable the opposing party to

make such claims the foundation of a separate convention. (Lauter-
pacht, opz~s cd.,p. 248.)

The Landreau case arbitration (1922) was one in which the rule
relative to the necessity of reserving rights was discussed before

the tribunal but in this case it was found that there was no cause
for applying it to the claimant.
In 1892 Théophile Landreau granted a releaçe to the Peruvian
Government cancelling his rights, and the Commission found that
the Peruvian Government had been notified of the assignment to
his brother Célestin of 30 per cent. of the claim. The Commission
stated:
"Of course if there was anything to show that Célestin knewof
this release at the time of its execution and abstained from putting
forward his claim, he and his representatives would be estopped
from making any claim against the Peruvian Government, but
there is nothing to show that there \vas any such acquiescence in
this transaction by Célestin." ((Dèsl'instant où le tribunal a reconnu que, d'après les principes
générauxet la coutume en droit international public, il y avait
similitude des situations entre un Etat et un particulier débiteurs
d'une somme conventionnelle liquide et exigible, il est équitable et
juridique d'appliquer aussi par analogie les règles de droit privé
commun aux cas où la demeure doit êtreconsidéréecomme purgée
et le bénéficede celle-ci supprimé. En droit privé, les effets de la
demeure sont supprin~éslorsque le créancier, après avoir constitué
le débiteur en demeure, accorde un ou plusieurs délais pour satis-
faireà l'obligation principale sans réserverles droits acquis par la
demeure. ))

En conséquence, le tribunal avait jugé que le Gouvernement
ottoman n'était pas tenu de payer indemnité pour les intérêtsen
retard réclaméspar la Russie. (Journal de Droit international privé,

1913, t. 40, P. 345.)

L'affaire du Fonds pieux des Californiesdéjà citée offre un autre
exemple du préjudice qu'un Etat peut subir, faute de réserver les
droits susceptible~~d'être affectés par un accord international. En
cette affaire, les Etats-Cnis avaient signalé que le Mexique, en
soulevant le litige en 1868 et dans les conventions ultérieures, avait

assumé les risques du succès ou de l'échecet qu'après avpir perdu,
il ne pouvait contester la compétence du tribunal. Les Etats-Unis
niaient l'intention d'invoquer un point purement technique, mais
soutenaient que si l'une des parties à un différend envisage de
retirer certaines réclamations de l'arbitrage, elle a l'obligation d'an-
noncer cette intention dès le début, pour permettre à l'adversaire
de faire de ces réclamations la base d'une convention séparée.
(Lauterpacht, op. cit., p. 248.)

L'arbitrage de l'affaire Landreazt (1922) est l'une de celles où la
règle visant la nécessité de réserver les droits a étédiscutée à la
barre, mais en cette affaire il a étéjugé qu'il n'y avait pas de motifs
de l'appliquer au demandeur.
En 1892, Théophile Landreau avait donné décharge au Gouver-

nement péruvien, annulant ses droits, et la commission a jugé que
le Gouvernement péruvien avait éténotifié de la cession à son frère
Célestin de 30 % de la réclamation. La Commission a déclaré :

« Sans doute, s'il y avait un élémentde preuve quelconque pour
montrer que Célestinavait connaissance de cette décharge à l'époque
où le contrat avait étépasséet s'était abstenu de présenter sa ré-
clamation, lui et ses représentants seraient irrecevables (estoppeà)
formuler une réclamation quelconque contre le Gouvernement
péruvien, mais rien ne montre qu'il y ait eu pareil acquiescement
dans cette opération conclue par Célestin.))

46 The Commission concluded that there was "no sufficient foun-
dation for inferring that Célestin'srepresentatives are estopped by
any conduct on his part from not asserting the right to their 30
per cent. share". (McGibbon, opus cit., p. 505.)

7. Inconsistency
Apart from specific cases of recognition, failure to protest or
to reserve rights, passiveness or any form of express or tacit acquies-

cence, other disputes have been decided against litigant States on
the general basis of inconsistency between the claims of States and
their previous acts. Inconsistency is (and has been for many years)
a practice at which the combined efforts of justice and international
harmony must be directed.

Thus, inthe case of The Mechanic (C. 1862),it was held :

"Ecuador ...having fully recognized and claimed the principle
on which the case now before us turns, whenever from such a recog-
nition rights or advantages were to be derived, could not in honour
and good faith deny the principle when it imposed an obligation."
(Cheng,opus cit., p. 142.)

In the case of The Lisman (1937)~concerning an American vesse1
which was seized in London in June, 1915, the claimant's original
contention before the British Prize Court:

"was not that there wasnot reasonable causeforseizure,or for requi-
the part of the Crownin taking the steps they were entitled to take
as belligerents. In a subsequent arbitration in 1937,which took the
place of diplomatic claims by the United States against Great
Britain, the sole Arbitrator held that:

'By the position he deliberately took in the British Prize Court,
that the seizure of the goods and the detention of the ship were
delay from the failure of the Government to act promptly, undue
claimantafirmed whathe now denies,and therebypreventedhimself
from recoz~erintghereor hereupon the claim he now stands on, that
these acts were unlawful, and constitute the basis of his claim.'"
(Ibid., pp. 142-147.) La Commission en a conclu qu'il n'y avait «pas de bases suffi-
santes pour déduire que les représentants de Célestin fussent irre-
cevables (estopped), en raison de sa conduite, à exercer leur droit
à leur part de 30 pour IOO )).(McGibbon, op. cit., p.505.)

7. Contradiction
En dehors de cas spécifiques de contradiction, d'absence de pro-
testation ou de réserve des droits, de passivité, ou de toute fornie

d'acquiescemen! exprès ou tacite, d'autres différends ont été tran-
chéscontre les Etats en litige sur la base généralede la contradiction
entre les réclamations des États et leurs actesantérieurs. La contra-
diction est (et a étédepuis longtemps) une pratique à laquelle
doivent s'attaquer les efforts combinés de la justice et de l'harmonie
internationale.

Ainsi, dans l'affaire The Mechanic (C. 1862), il a étéjugé:
« L'Équateur ...avait pleinement reconnu et proclaméle principe
auquel se ramènela décisionde la présenteaffaire, toutes les fois du
moins que des droits et profits devaient en dériverpour lui. Dèslors,
il ne pouvait, en tout honneur et toute bonne foi, nier ce mêmeprin-
cipe quand il avait pour effet demettre à sa charge une obligation.))
(Recueil des Arbitragesinternationaux, Lapradelle et Politis, t. II,
P 436.)

Dans l'affaire The Lisman (1937) concernant un navire américain
saisiàLondres en juin 1915, la thèse primitive du demandeurdevant
la Cour britannique des Prises:
((n'était pas l'absence de motifs raisonnables de prise ou pour
exiger le débarquement des marchandises, mais qu'il y avait eu de
la part de la Couronne un délaiinjustifiépour prendre les mesures
qu'elle était en droit de prendre en tant que belligérant. Dans un
arbitrage ultérieur en 1937, qui a pris la place de réclamations
diplomatiques des Etats-Unis contre la Grande-Bretagne, l'arbitre
unique a déclaré :
« Par la position qu'il a prise délibérémend tevant la Cour des
Prises britannique, en soutenant que la prise des marchandises et
la confiscation du navire étaient licites et qu'il ne s'en plaignait
pas, mais se plaignait uniquement du délai injustifié provenant
de ce que le gouvernement n'avait pas agi rapidement, le deman-
deura afirmécequ'il contesteaujourd'huiet,pour cetteraison, s'est
mis dansl'impossibilitéderecourir devantla présentejuridiction ou
ailZeurssur la réclamationqu'il invoque aujourd'hui et d'après
laquelle ces actes étaient illicites et constituent la base de sa
réclamation. »a (Cheng,op. cit., pp. 142-147.) In the Salvador Commercial Co. case (rgoz), the Arbitral Tribunal,
in dealing with the Salvadorian Government contention that the
Company did not comply with the terms of the concession, held

that :
"It is of course obvious that the Salvador Government should be
estopped from going behind those reports of its own officerson the
subject and from attacking their correctness without supplementary
evidence tending to show that such reports were induced by mistake
or were procured by fraud or undue influence. No evidence of this
kind is introduced." (Cheng,ibid., p. 147.)

It was held in the Chorzo'wFactory case (1927) that one of the
parties was estopped from pleading the Court's lack of jurisdiction
on the ground that :

"it is..a principle generally accepted in the jurisprudence of inter-
national arbitration, as well as by municipal courts, that one party
cannot avail itself of the fact that the other has not fulfilled some
obligation, or has not had recourse to some means of redress, if the
former party has, by some illegal act, prevented the latter from
tribunal which would have been open to him".om having recourse to the

The Representative of the United Kingdom, referring to the
passage from the Chorzo'wFactory case and applying it to the ques-
tion before the Court, said:

"IVhat is involved is really an application of the principle known
in English law as estoppel (or to use what 1believe is the equivalent
French term préclusion)-to which effect has frequently been given
by international tribunals." (McGibbon, opus cit., pp. 480-481.)

Likewise, in the Meuse case (1937), it was held that, where two
States were bound by the same treaty obligations, State A could not
complain of an act by State B of which itself ithad set an example in
the past. Xor indeed may a State, while denying that a certain
treaty is applicable to the case, contend at the same time that the

other party in regard to the matter in dispute has not complied
with certain provisions of that treaty. (P.C.I. J., Series A/B, Ko. 70,
P- 25.)

In the Behring Sea arbitration of 1893 between the Vnited States
and Great Britain, the Arbitrators expressly found against the
Vnited States contention that Great Britain had conceded the
Russian claim to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the fur-se al^
fisheries in the Behring Sea outside territorial waters; and they
were fortified in this conclusion by the fact that the Cnited States,

4s Dans l'affaire Salvador Commercial Co. (I~oz), la Courd'arbitrage,
examinant la thèse du Gouvernement du Salvador selon laquelle la
compagnie ne s'était pas conformée aux termes de la concession,
a déclaré :

((Évidemment, il est clair que le Gouvernement du Salvador de-
vait être irrecevable (estopped) à revenir sur les rapports de ses
propres fonctionnaires sur cette question et à en attaquer l'exac-
titude, sans produire de preuves supplémentaires pour démontrer
que ces rapports avaient étéfondéssur une erreur, ou obtenus par
fraude ou par abus d'influence. Aucune preuve de ce genre n'a été
produite. ))(Cheng, ibid.,p. 147.)

Dans l'affaire de l'Usine de Chorzo'w(1927), il a étéjugé que l'une
des Parties n'était pas fondée (estopped) à plaider l'incompétence de
la Cour pour le motif que:

«C'est, du reste, un principe généralement reconnupar la juris-
prudence arbitrale internationale, aussi bien que par les juridictions
nationales, qu'une Partie ne saurait opposer à l'autre le fait de ne
pas avoir rempli une obligation ou de ne pas s'êtreservi d'un moyen
de recours, si la première, par un acte contraire au droit, a empêché
la seconde de remplir l'obligation en question, ou d'avoir recours à
la juridiction qui lui aurait été ouverte))

Le représentant du Royaume-Uni, se référant au passage de
l'affaire del'Usine de Chorzo'wet l'appliquant à la question soumise
à la Cour, a dit:
((Ce dont il s'agit est en réalité une application du principe
connn en droit anglais sous le nom d'estoppel(ou,pour employer ce
que je crois êtrele terme français équivalent, préclusion)qui a été
fréquemment appliqué parles tribunaux internationaux. » (McGib-
bon, op. cit., pp. 480-481.)

De mêmedans l'affaire des Prises d'eau de la Meuse (1937), il a
étéjugé que, lorsqu~ deux Etats sont liéspar les mêmesobligjxtions
conventionnelles, 1'Etat A ne peut se plaindre d'un acte de 1'Etat B
dont il a lui-même donné l'exemple dans le passé. De même,tout

en niant qu'un certain traité soit applicable à l'affaire, un Etat
ne peut soutenir en mêmetemps qu'en ce qui concerne l'objet du
différend l'autre partie ne s'est pas conformée à certaines disposi-
tions de ce traité. (C. P. J. I.,SérieAIB, no 70, p. 25.)

Dans l'arbitrage de laMer de Behring en 1893entre les États-~nis
et la Grande-Bretagne, les arbitres ont expressément statué contre

la thèse des Etats-Unis que la Grande-Bretagne avait accepté la
prétention russe d'exercer compétence exclusive sur les pêcheries
de phoques à fourrure dans la mer de Behring en dehors des eaux
territoriales, et ils ont été confirmés dans cette conclusion par le
48as well as Great Britain, had protested against the Russian Ukase
of 1821 in which this claim was asserted. The proceedings, as Lord
McNair stated:

party to a dispute, by convicting the other State of inconsistency
with an attitude previously adopted".(McGibbon,opuscit.,p. 469.)

In its Judgment in the case concerning the Diversion of Water
from the Meme (1g37), the Permanent Court of International
Justice found it :

"difficult to admit that the Netherlands are now warranted in
complaining of the construction and operation of a lock of which
they themselvesset an example in the past". (P.C.I.J., Series A/B,
NO.70, p. 25.)

The anti-inconsistency rule was also applied by the German-

United States Mixed Claims Commission in the Life-Insurance
Claims case (1g24), when it decided that a State was debarred from
asserting claims which, on general principles of law, its own courts
would not admit, for instance, claims involving damages which its
own municipal courts, in similar cases, would consider too remote.
(Cheng, opus cit.,p. 143.)

There exist many other cases of international jurisprudence which
might be cited as examples of the application of the principle which
rejects allegations that are contrary to a State's own acts. Space
prevents me from citing any more. 1 have accordingly limited my-
self to selecting a few cases which 1 consider can usefully demon-
strate, in the main aspects, the force and flexibility of this principle.

(Signed) R. J. ALFARO.fait que les États-unis, tout comme la Grande-Bretagne, avaient
protesté contre l'ukase russe de 1821 où cette prétention était
affirmée.Comme l'a dit lord McNair, cette procédure démontrait:
qu'un État partie à un différendpouvait tirer quelque avantage
en convainquant l'autre Etat d'inconséquence parrapport à une
attitude antérieurementadoptée ))(McGibbon, op. cit.p. 469.)

Dans son arrêtconcernant les Prises d'eau de la Meuse (1937 )a~
Cour permanente de Justice internationale:

((estimedifficiled'admettre que les Pays-Bas soient fondéà criti-
quer aujourd'hui la construction et le fonctionnement d'une écluse
dont eux-mêmes avaient antérieurement donné l'exemple ».
(C.P. J. I., SérieA/B, no70, p25.)

La règlequi interdit les contradictions a étéégalement appliquée
par la Commission mixte des réclamations germano-américaines
dans l'affaireLije Insurance Claims (1g24) où, elle a décidéqu'un
État était irrecevable à présenter des réclamations que, d'après les
règlesgénéralesdu droit, ses propres tribunaux n'accepteraient pas,
par exemple des réclamations concernant les dommages que ses
propres tribunaux internes, dans des cassemblables,considéreraient
comme trop indirects. (Cheng, op. cit.,p.143.)

Il existe bien d'autres exemples de jurisprudence internationale

qu'on pourrait citer pour illustrer l'application du principe d'après
lequel il faut rejeter les allégations contraires aux actes d'un même
État. La place me manque pour en citer d'autres. C'est pourquoi
je me suis borné à choisir quelques affaires qui me paraissent
utilement démontrer sous ses aspects principaux la force et la sou-
plesse de ce principe.

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Separate Opinion of Vice-President Alfaro

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