Dissenting Opinion of Judge de Castro (translation)

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062-19781219-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
062-19781219-JUD-01-00-EN
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DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE DE CASTRO

[Translation]

1. It is with great regret that 1 have written the present dissenting
opinion. May 1 say that 1find much of the reasoning and many of the
conclusions in theJudgment to beentirely Sound;1am thus relievedof any
duty to deal with these. 1 shall therefore confine myself to discussing a
point which has not been decided by the Judgrnent, and to examining in
detail the subject on which 1 disagree.
1understand the practicalreasons why therehas been a departure from
the logical order, and reservation (b)in Greece's accession to the General
Act has been dealt with first,beforeany decision whether theGeneral Act
is still in force. By taking it as settled that reservation (b) excludes the
Court'sjurisdiction, it has been possible to avoid deciding a very delicate
question.

1am unable to follow the Judgment in this respect, because my inter-
pretation of reservation (b) leads me to find in favour of the Court's
jurisdiction.
2. The veryfirstquestion which 1havehad to consider has been whether
theGeneral Actisstillin force.Thisquestionhas already been raised in the
Nuclear Testscases, and it was then carefully exarnined and discussed by
theCourt. It was notsettled, because in theJudgments givenin 1974it was
consideredthat theApplications had become without object asa result of
the statements made by the French Government. 1think that, despite the
doubts which may still be entertained, it must be admitted that the Act is
still in force, for the reasons which have already been treated inextensoin
the joint dissenting opinion of Judges Onyeama, Dillard, Jiménez de
Aréchagaand Sir Humphrey Waldock (I.C.J. Reports 1974,pp. 327ff.) as

well as in my own dissentingopinion (ibid.,pp. 377ff.)and the dissenting
opinion ofJudge SirGarfield Banvick(ibid.,pp. 405ff.),towhich 1venture
to refer '-1 feel obliged to take this course in order to avoid making this
opinion unnecessarily lengthy.
3. Thereason why1disagree with theJudgment relates toa singlepoint,
but a fundamental one, namely the way in which reservation (b)should be
interpreted. 1think that a rigorous application of theappropriate rules for
interpretation should have been adopted. Since my viewis quite different
from that taken in the Judgment, 1feel obliged to explain the reasons for
my dissent.

' It shouldhoweverbe noted that in thesamecases,Judges Gros (1.C.J. Reports1974,
pp. 296-297)and Petré(ibid p.,02),expressed doubts as to the current validity of the
General Act in their separate opinions, without however giving fully their reasons.

63 AEGEAN SEA (DISS. OP. DE CASTRO)
63
The meaning has to be ascertained of the phrase in the reservation
reading "disputes relating to the territorial status of Greece". Does this

cover disputes over the continental shelf?In order to elucidate this, I shall
endeavour to examine the argumentsin favour of and against such inclu-
sion.
4. It is a well-established principle that the purpose of interpretation is
to ascertain the true will of the parties. The terms used in a declaration of
intention must be regarded asthemeans ("traces", clues,indici tab)e used
in order to reach a conclusion as to the intention of the authors of the

declaration.
When adeclaration of intentionmade aconsiderable time agohas to be
construed, it will always be necessary to verify how the words should be
understood at the present time. The meaning of words may change with
time. In order to interpret anystatement, to ascertain its real meaning, we

must first of al1concentrate on themeaning which it could have had at the
time when it was made. Words have no intrinsic value in themselves. They
are, or represent, sounds (phonema),but their semantic value depends on
the time and the circumstances in which they were uttered 1.
5. Greece's accessionto the General Act is aunilateral declaration, asis
that of Turkey. Each is made in the context of the pacific settlement of
disputes instituted by the Act; these declarations, which tie up with the

declarations of accession made by other States, establish links between
each pair of States acceding to the Act and to the extent that both States
haveentered into the samecommitments. Byvirtue of their accessionto the
General Act, a link was forged between Greece and Turkey, the extent of
which depends upon the two declarations which, by the agreement which
they embody, becomes the common will of the two States 2.

In seeking to ascertain what it was that had become the common willof
Greece and Turkey with regard to themeaning of Greece'sreservation (b),
weare faced with thefact that at the timewhen these two States acceded to
the Act, on 14September 1931and 26June 1934,States in general, and
Greece and Turkey in particular, weretotally unaware that therecould be
problems relating to the continental shelf. It was only much later that

jurists, publicists and technical experts began to concern themselves with
the continental shelf. The Truman Proclamation of 1945can be regarded

1The Court has said that it
"cannot base itself on the purely grammaticai interpretation of the text. It must
seek the interpretation whichis in harmony with a natural and reasonable way of
reading the text,vingdue regardto the intentionof the Government of Iran ut the
tirne when it accepted the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court" (I.C.J.
Reports 1952, p. 104,emphasis added).
2 A situation is thus created which is anaiogous to that of a treaty-a "treaty situ-
ation", an expression 1owe to Sir Geraid Fitzmaurice: "The Law and Procedure of the
International Court of Justice, 1951-1954:Questions of Jurisdiction, Cornpetence and
Procedure", British Year Book of International Luw, XXXIV, 1958,p. 77. as the startingpoint of the law and doctrineon this subject. It is therefore
obvious that at the time of the meeting of wills between Greece and
Turkey, there was not-and could not be-any agreement between their
respective declarations to exclude from thejurisdiction of the Court ques-
tions relating to the continental shelf.
That being so, the followinglegalquestion arises: if thewords "disputes
relating to the territorial status" in Greece's reservation (b) could be
interpreted-which is highly doubtful-as comprising a subject (questions

relating to the continental shelf) which neither Greece nor Turkey had
conceived or were evenin aposition to conceive,should it be held that this
was something which could have constituted the subject of a reserva-
tion?
Legal tradition settles the matter logically, and is condensed in the
principle of interpretation expressed in these terms by the French Civil
Code:

"However general may be the terms in which an agreement is
conceived, it includes only the things on which it appears that the
parties proposed to contract 1."

6. If on the other hand the unilateral nature of reservation (6) is kept in
view,it must be interpretedinthe light ofthe object and purpose ofGreece,
taking into account the circumstances in which the declaration of acces-

sion was made.
As the contemporary practice shows, the purpose of the use of the
expression "territorial status" in the reservations contemplated by para-
graph 2(c)of Article 39of the General Act was the same as that expressed
in other treaties by such terms as "territorial integrity of States", "terri-
torial questions", "questions relating to existingfrontiers". The purpose of
Greece's reservation (b), on the advice of M. Politis (letter of 9 September
1928), was to prevent any questions being brought before the Court relat-

ing to the application or interpretation of the treaties, and the revision of
the frontiers, territorial statuses, and international servitudes(rights over

Article 1163.A basis for thisArticle can be foundin a long-established tradition. It
appears to haveoriginated inafragment ofUlpian (D2.15.9, para. 3, infine), which was
taken up into cornrnon law; in France, by Domat (Les loisciviles,I,1,2, Rule 23, Paris
edition of 1777,Vol. 1, p. 24) and by Pothier (Truitédes ohligutions, Part 1, Chap. 1,
Art. VII, Rule 8, Works,Paris edition of 1818,Vol. III, p. 67).Article 1163ofthe Code
Nupoléonwas followed, almost word for word, by other civil codes; see for example
Article 1283 of the Spanish Civil Code; and Article 1386 of the Civil Code of the;
Netherlands.
It should be observed that the common concept underlying the articles referred to is
also known in the legal systernsof Greece and Turkey ; Article 173of the Greek Civil
Code; Article 18of the SwissFederal Code of Obligations (Parts 1anII of this Code
were taken over by the Turkish Republic on 4 October 1926).
These rulesderive from the verynature of consent. For consent to exist, there must be
a meeting of wills on a subject-matter which must be deterrnined at least as regards its
species (see Art. 1129of the French Civil Code, which expresses general teaching).ports and lines of communication), laid down in the treaties concluded

following the dismantling of the Ottoman Empire.

7. To meet this argument, it has been possible to contend that the
expression "territorial status" is generic or general in nature, and covers
theconcept of continental shelf.It iscorrect to Saythat theterm isageneric
one; the meaning of most words is in fact subject to a certain degree of
flexibility, with the exception of those which refer to individual concrete
objects. This issowithregard to theexpression "territorial status". It refers
to situations which are susceptible of development, whether it be devel-

opment of the status or legal régime (rights, servitudes, restrictions), or
whether it be development of the territory itself (for example, by modi-
fication of frontiers).
However, any term may have a wide meaning or a narrow meaning, a
meaning which is more or less limited. A term which has a meaning of its
own cannot be understood as comprising anything which is foreign to its
ordinaryandnatural meaning 1.In myopinion, it isnot possible, asa result
of differences of essential nature, to regard the term "territorial status" as
capable of applying to the existence, legalrégime,and delimitation of the

continental shelf.
8. There isno doubt that theterm "territorial status" isequivalent to the
term "status of the territory". In order tobe able toconclude either that the
status of the continental shelf (rights, delirnitations) is comprised in "ter-
ritorial status", or on the other hand that it is not, it will be necessary to
ascertain which of the two solutions can be reached in a natural way from
the point of view of status and on that of territory.

The status of territory is something which is clear and welldefined; it is
the status of sovereignty itself. On the other hand, the régimeof the
continental shelf is the result of accelerated development of the law of the
sea, which does not seem to have reached finality with the 1958Geneva
Convention. At the present time, it is made up of narrowly limited rights,
i.e.,nothing more than what are called sovereignor exclusiverights for the
purposes of research and exploration of the shelf and exploitation of its
natural resources.
The territory of a State,in the strict sense of terrafirma (mainland and

islands) is also something which is well defined. On the other hand, the
continental shelf has to be delimited in everycase, and to do this, account
must be taken of various factors (geological structure, distance, geogra-
phical position, depth of the sea, existence and economic value of minera1
resources, etc.).
An example which has been given is that of the following clause in a will: "1
bequeath ail my vehicles to my former chauffeur." Thisprovision may be interpreted as
signifying that the testator leaves to the beneficiary his new Cadillac, but not the
locomotives or trucks of theailway Companyof which he was proprîetor, nor aircraft
from his fleet.On the intention implied in terms of generaiscope,cf.Vattel, Ledroit des
gens,ed. Pradier-Fodéré,Vol. IIChap. XVII, para. 262, p. 249, Paris, 186P.C.I.J.,
Series A/B, No. 50, pp. 377-378. AEGEAN SEA (DISS.OP. DE CASTRO) 66

9. The fact remains that the Court may, as a result of the arguments put
forward in its Judgment in the North Sea ContinentalShelfcase, have sown
some doubt concerning the concept of territory. In that Judgment it is
repeatedly statedthat thecoastal State'scontinental shelfarea"constitutes
a natural prolongation of its.. .territory" (Z.C. RJeports 1969, p. 22,
para. 19)and that:

". ..the submarine areas concerned may be deemed to be actually
part of the territory over which the coastal State already has domin-
ion,-in the sense that, although covered with water, they are a
prolongation orcontinuation of that territory, an extension ofit under
the sea"(ibi d.3,1,para. 43; seealso pp. 34,37 and 47,paras. 51,58
and 85).

These statements notwithstanding, itmust not bethought that the Court
considers the continental shelf to be a real part of the coastal State's
territory, enjoying the same legal status. It seems rather that the Court
wished toexpress,in metaphorical but striking terms,what wasthebasis of
the rights over the shelf, that is toayof the application of the so-called
principle that "the land dominates the sea" '.

The essential difference between the meaning of the term "territorial
status" and that of the term "status of the continental shelf" ishighlighted
in the relations between Turkey and Greece. Turkey has at present no
difficulty in recognizing, asregardstheterritorial status of Greece, that the
Greek islands form, together with mainland Greece, a legal and political
unity. On the other hand, Turkey denies that the Greek islands have a
continental shelf.
10. It can, of course, be supposed that Greece intended, when formu-
lating the reservation, to give the term "territorial status" a meaning so
broad that it could come to comprise the continental shelf as well. How-
ever, that would be to depart from the sphere of interpretation proper,
based on the intention of the declarant as revealed by the natural and

ordinary meaning of the terms employed, and to enter the domain of
imagination or analogy, thereby undermining the stability of the law.
11. It has been observed, and rightly observed, that, in order to delimit
the continental shelf,it willsometimes be necessary to elucidatequestions
concerning the circumstances of the territory and even its status (for
example, thedrawing ofbaselines, the relativeconfiguration of adjacent or

' The Geneva Convention on theTerritorial Sea States,in A:"The sovereignty
of a State extends,eyond ifs /und ferritoy and its intemal waters, to a belt of sea
adjacent to itsast,descrihed as the territorial sea." (Emphasis added.) It is, 1think,
apparent that the term "territorial sea" isdeliberately used herewith thevalue of a legal
fiction.imilarly, when the Court observes, in connection with the continental shelf,
part of the territory, it isemploying a usefulwhich is useful asajustification ofto be a
the rights of the coastal State over the shelf; States have also been able to use this
assimilation inder tojustify their claims to extend or to fortify their rights over the
shelf.opposed territories, historic bays, the extent of territorial waters). But the
fact that it may be necessary to consider questions relating to territory in
order to decide the merits of the case does not transform the dispute
relating to the continental shelf into a dispute relating to territorial status.
If the merits of the case had to be decided, and if questions concerning the
territory had to be taken into account, they would have to be treated as
preliminary questions. Such questions are well known in private interna-
tional law, as is the difficulty which they present. The Court has had
occasion to consider this legal concept in the Nottebohm case. Liechten-
stein had instituted proceedings before the Court for restitution and
compensation on theground that theGovernment of Guatemala had acted
towards Nottebohm, "a citizen of Liechtenstein, in a manner contrary to
international law". In order to decide upon the admissibility of the Appli-
cation, Nottebohm's nationality fell to be considered. The Court treated

this as a preliminary question. It stated:

"The Court does not propose to go beyond the limited scope of the
question which it has to decide, namely whether the nationality
conferred on Nottebohm can be relied upon as against Guatemala in
justification of the proceedings instituted before the Court." (I.C.J.
Reports 1955, p. 17.)(Emphasis added.)

Of course the Court, by finding in favour ofjurisdiction in the present
case, might have come up against great difficulties of this kind, but that
could not constitute a ground for a denial of jurisdiction. The same
problems rnight have arisen if Greece and Turkey had brought the case
before the Court by means of a special agreement or if Greece had with-
drawn, or if it were to withdraw, reservation (b), at an appropriate
time.
12. Such a far-reachingquestion raises the possibility that the meaning
of the terms used in a declaration of intention may alter as a result of the
evolution of law. 1sit possible that the expression "territorial status", as
employed in 1931,haschangeditsmeaning because modern lawattributes
rights over the continental shelf to coastal States?
This question requires some elucidation, with the aid of a few distinc-
tions, before it can be answered.

At the outset we shall have to examine separately, first, the rule of
contemporaneity applicable to the interpretation of declarations of inten-
tion-according to which the words used must be given the meaning
attaching to them at the time when they areemployed-and secondly, that
of intertemporal law,which indicates what is the law to be applied tofacta
praeterita.
To seek to establish what lies behind the use of a term in order to
ascertain the intention of the party which made the declaration is one
thing; to determine the effect which a new legal régime may haveon an
already existing situation is another. AEGEAN SEA (DISS.OP. DE CASTRO) 68

The purpose of interpretation is to ascertain the meaning of the words
used in the declaration, so as to verifywhat could have been theintention
of the declarant and how it may have been understood by the party to
whom thedeclaration was addressed. The evolution of law cannot modify
the meaning which the words had for the authors of the declaration. The

evolution of law can, by establishing new legal rules, confer or withdraw
rights, and can evenchange an entire legalrégime,but it cannotchangethe
meaning of adeclaration: itcannot makethedeclarant saywhat he did not
wish to say or even what he could not have wished to say.
There is even less reason to interpret a unilateral declaration, like
Greece's accession to the General Act in 1931, asincluding a reference to
the continental shelf. It would not be right to attribute to Greece a mani-
festation ofwillconcerning something of whichitwasunaware and which,
for that reason, it could not have intended (nihil cognitum nisipraecogni-

tum).
13. The Vienna Convention has laid down, as a general rule for the
interpretation of treaties, that they must be interpreted in good faith in
accordance with theordinary meaning tobe givento the terms of the treaty
in their context and in the light of itsject and purpose (Art. 31,para. 1).
As a supplementary means of interpretation, it provides that recourse may
be had to the circumstancesin whichthe treaty was concluded(Art. 32);in
other words, the meaning at the time when the treaty was concluded must
be sought. There is everyreason to apply these rules to Greece's accession

tothe GeneralAct. It isnot atthe levelof interpretation that the evolution
of law can have consequences but at another level: if a new peremptory
norm (jus cogens) emerges, the Convention considers that any existing
treaty which is in conflict with that norm becomes void and terminates
(Art. 64) 1.
It therefore seemspermissible to conclude that the task ofinterpretation
is to verifywhat was or could havebeen the willof Greece in 1931when it
used the expression "territorial status" in reservation(6)to its accession to
theGeneralAct. The function of intertemporal lawis different; it is by the

operation of the rules of intertemporal law that new sovereignor exclusive
rights over the continental shelf have been attributed to Greece and
Turkey.
14. It should also be noted, in order to avoid any confusion on other
points, that theinterpretation of treaties and contracts must follow differ-
ent rules from those appropriate t8 the interpretation oflaws.Thelatter, as
sources oflaw,cannot be considered inisolation. Theymust beinterpreted
and applied in the context of the legalsystemin force at the timewhen the
interpretation takes place. This is what is called systematic interpreta-

thatis to saythe pnnciple of non-retroactivity, and theus regitfactuwillhavemporal law,
to be applied to treaties.tion 1.This interpretation procedure is also that applicable to law-making
treaties (Vereinbarungen),as, for instance, the United Nations Charter,

which, being also sources of law, are subject in their interpretation to the
evolution of law 2.

15. Treaties, and declarations made within the framework of a treaty,
have to be interpreted in their context (Vienna Convention, Art. 31,
para. 1); the same applies to Greece's reservation (b).
The Greek accessionto theAct contains declarations oftwotypes: oneis
designed to accept the jurisdiction of the Court in general; the others,

constituted by the reservations, areintended to delimit the subject-matter
of the jurisdiction attributed to the Court. Each of them has its own
purpose and nature.
In accordance with Article 17of the Act, Greece's accession recognizes
thejurisdiction of the Courtfor alldisputeswith regard to which theparties
are in conflict as to their respective rights. The instrument of accession (if,
for the moment, the reservations are disregarded) contains a general and
unlimited reference to any legal dispute which rnight arise between the

parties whichhave acceded to theAct.Consequently, and if reservation (b)
is not taken into consideration, it can be stated beyond any doubtthat the
Court hasjurisdiction in the dispute between Greece and Turkey concern-
ing the Aegean Sea continental shelf.
Reservation (b), on the other hand, is designed to lirnit the Greek
accession to the Act by means of a clearly specified exception whch
establishes a special demarcation in the extensive area covered by the
accession. Outside the specific area of the exception, the general declara-

tion on jurisdiction has effect.
16. Reservation (b) covers in particular a clearly defined special case,
which must be interpreted according to its individual and particular
nature. The General Act stresses that perrnitted reservations are required
to be of this kind. It makes it clear that reservations should be formulated
with regard to disputes relating to particular cases or clearly specified
subject-matters, such as territorialstatus, or disputes falling within clearly

The systematic elementisconsidered to be one of the four elements to be employed
in interpretation, according to Savigny'sgenerally accepted doctrine, especially since
thIn discussingthe evolution of lawit must be remembered that, according to Hobbes's
observation (text cited by Radbruch, "Arten der Interpretation" in Recueil d'études sur
lessourcesdudroitenI'honneurdeFrançoisGeny, 1934,II,p. 218),thelegislator isnot the
person whose authority has made the law for the first time, but the person whose
authonty causes it to continue to be law; this explains the idluence of the evolution of
law as a whole on the interpretation and development of individual laws and law-
making conventions. On the otherhand, in the interpretation of treaties, whose force is
founded on thewillof theparties (puctasunt servanda),no account is tobe taken of a will
extraneous to that of the authors.
I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 31,para. 53; see also my separate opinion, p. 184.defined categories (Art. 39,2, (c)) '.Therefore, and in conformity with the
received rules of interpretation, we must confine ourselves to the strict
meaning of the terms employed in the reservation, and it does not seem
permissible to extend this reservation to questions relating to the conti-
nental shelf. These questions were also aliquis de novo emergentibus;they
are questions which nobody had conceived or could have conceived at the

time when Greece and Turkey acceded to the Act. To read the expression
"disputes relating to territorial status" as comprising "disputes relating to
the continental shelf" would amount to givingthe expression an extensive
interpretation whch does not accord with the intention of the authors of
the unilateral declaration, and runs counter to the meaning whch could be
attributed to it, and in which it was understood, in 1931and 1934.
Moreover, a strict interpretation is generally appropriate for al1reser-

vations. Its very nature as an exception to a declaration of a general
character means that the traditional rule of exceptiostrictissimi interpre-
tationis must be applied to the reservation 2.
17. Beforeconcluding this statement of my opinion, it would seemnot
without interest to consider, in that connection, the so-called principle of
the restrictive interpretation of declarations conferringjurisdiction upon
the Court, the shadow of which isin the background of any discussion of
the Court's jurisdiction.

The interpretation here proposed would lead to the conclusion that the
Court hasjurisdiction in the Aegean Sea Continental Shelfcase. Should it
be rejected by virtue of the principle of restrictive interpretation?
This principleor rule of interpretation isjustified in sofar asit is used to
counter attempts at extensive or analogical interpretation. States are
mistrustful of any restriction on their sovereignty. Instruments referring

the settlement ofdisputes to acourt or arbitral tribunal arejustified in their
view only by virtue of an express declaration whereby they give their
consent.

1With reference to this rule laid down in the General Act, Gallus observes:

"The words employed ('clearly specified subject-matters') and theexample of
territorial status which illustrates them seem to indicate that the questions which
can be excluded must be ~articular auestions havine clear contours. such as the
etc." ("The Gencral Act of Arbitration". Reiuededrorr rt~rernurrot~uldeerlé~isluriot~
comp;rée, 1930,Nos. 1,2 and 4, p. 907.) "

2 In a study which appeared in the same year as that in which Greece acceded to the
Act it is stated, in connection with the interpretation of reservations, that:

"Aninternational tribunal called upon to interpret a reservation isbound by the
rule that exceptions to generalprinciples are to be interpreted restnctively. There-
fore, if a treaty contains the pnnciple of pacific procedure for any dispute what-
narrow sense." (Habicht, Part II,"Analysis of the Treaties", in The Post- Warna
Treutiesfor the Pacific Sertlement of Internutionul Disputes, Cambridge, 1931,
p. 1000). The Charter of the United Nations showsits respect for this idea in the
limitsit laysdown in Article 2,paragraph 7; but the Charter also says that
States parties to a dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger
the maintenance of peace, shall, first of all, seek a solution by peaceful

means, includingjudicial settlement (Art. 33). As a result of this rule, on
25August 1976the Security Council, by consensus, invited the Govern-
ments of Greece and Turkey to
"continue to take into account the contribution that appropriate
judicial means, in particular the International Court of Justice, are

qualified to make to the settlement of any remaining legal differ-
ences".
Support for the theory favouring restrictive interpretation has been
looked for in the text of a number ofjudgments of the two Courts. Indeed,
it has even been stated that the Court will only affirm its jurisdiction

provided that the force of the arguments militating in favour of it is
preponderant. However, a study of these texts as a whole seems to show
that the real concern of the two Courts has been to verifywhether or not it
was the intention of the authors of the declaration to submit their disputes
to theCourt; and, if so, towhat extent, subject to what reservations and on
what conditions 1.
The Court is perfectly right to state that declarations conferring juris-
diction upon it must beinterpreted strictly, by seekingout the intention of
their authors and by sticking closelyto their text and to the circumstances
obtaining at the time when they were issued.
18. The interpretation which 1have ventured to giveto Greece's acces-
sionendeavours tobefaithful to thiscriterion. It consists inconstruingthe
basic text of the accessionin accordance with its own terms-that is to Say,

as covering al1 kinds of legal disputes. The reservation is construed
narrowly, in the sense that it avoids an extensive interpretation which
would be extraneous to the will expressed by Greece in 1931.
It may also be added that the effect of the accessions by States to the
General Act was to create ties of CO-operationamong States for the
purpose of promoting the peaceful settlement of disputes. There is no
reason to look upon them with mistrust, and to include them in the
category of "undesirable" matters which as such should be interpreted res-
trictively (odiosasunt restringenda);on the contrary, there are grounds for
thinking that they are worthy of favor iuris (fuvorabiliasunt amplianda).

(Signed) F. DE CASTRO.

' A theory which holds that a priori declarations confernng jurisdiction upon the
vincing": Roseme, TheL.uwundPructiceof theInternationalCourt, 1965,Vol. 1,p. 408.
In the sarne sense, see De Visscher, Problèmesd'interprétationjudiciaire en droiitnter-
nationalpublic; 1963,p. 201.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. DE CASTRO

1. C'estavecgrand regret quej'ai écritcetteopiniondissidente.Je tiens
àdire queje trouve bien fondésplusieurs desconclusionset des motifs de
l'arrêt;celam'épargnede devoir en traiter. Je mebornerai donc àaborder
un point qui n'a pas ététranché parl'arrêtet àexaminer en détailce sur

quoi porte mon désaccord.

Je comprends lesraisonsd'ordre pratique pour lesquelles,abandonnant
l'ordrelogique,on atraitéd'aborddelaréserve b)del'adhésiondelaGrèce
à l'Actegénéraa lvantd'avoirdécidé sil'Acte générales etncoreenvigueur.
Entenant pour acquis quelaréserve b)exclutlacompétencedelaCour, on
a pu éviterde trancher une question très délicate.

Je nesaurais suivrel'arrêtcetégardparcequemoninterprétationdela
réserve b) fait que je suis en faveur de la compétencede la Cour.

2. La toute premièrequestion que j'ai dû me poser a été desavoir si
l'Actegénéral ese tncore en vigueur. Cette question a déjàétésoulevée à
l'occasion des affaires des Essaisnucléaires,t elle a été alors étudiéeet
discutéeattentivementpar la Cour. Ellen'apas été tranchée,parce qu'ila
étéconsidérédans les arrêts rendus en 1974 que les requêtes étaient
devenuessansobjetenraisondesdéclarationsdu Gouvernementfrançais.
Je pense que, malgrélesdoutes qu'ilest toujours possible d'avoir, on doit
admettre que l'Acteest encore en vigueuret celapour les raisonsqui ont
déjà étéinvoquées in extenso dans l'opinion dissidente commune de
MM. Onyeama,Dillard, Jiménezde Aréchaga etsir Humphrey Waldock

(C.I.J. Recueil1974,p. 327et suiv.)ainsiquedans lesopinionsdissidentes
présentées par moi-même (ibid.,p. 377et suiv.)etpar sirGarfield Banvick
(ibid, p. 405et suiv.),auxquellesje me permets de renvoyer l - ce queje
crois devoir faire pour ne pas alourdir inutilement cette opinion.
3. La raisonpour laquelle je suisen désaccord avecl'arrêt concerneun
seul point, mais fondamental, à savoir la manièredont il convient d'in-
terpréterla réserveb).Je crois qu'ilaurait fallu employer avecrigueur les
règlespropres de l'interprétation.Mon point de vue étanttout autre que
celui de l'arrêtj,e me sens obligédejustifier les motifs de mon dissenti-
ment.

' Ondoitcependantnoterque,danslesmêmea sffaireM. Gros(C.I.J.Recueil1974,
p. 296-297)eM. Petrén(ibid.,p. 302)ontexprdesdoutessurlavalidité actuellede
l'Acte généradlans leurs opinions individuelles, sans néanmoins dévlerurs
rasons. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE DE CASTRO

[Translation]

1. It is with great regret that 1 have written the present dissenting
opinion. May 1 say that 1find much of the reasoning and many of the
conclusions in theJudgment to beentirely Sound;1am thus relievedof any
duty to deal with these. 1 shall therefore confine myself to discussing a
point which has not been decided by the Judgrnent, and to examining in
detail the subject on which 1 disagree.
1understand the practicalreasons why therehas been a departure from
the logical order, and reservation (b)in Greece's accession to the General
Act has been dealt with first,beforeany decision whether theGeneral Act
is still in force. By taking it as settled that reservation (b) excludes the
Court'sjurisdiction, it has been possible to avoid deciding a very delicate
question.

1am unable to follow the Judgment in this respect, because my inter-
pretation of reservation (b) leads me to find in favour of the Court's
jurisdiction.
2. The veryfirstquestion which 1havehad to consider has been whether
theGeneral Actisstillin force.Thisquestionhas already been raised in the
Nuclear Testscases, and it was then carefully exarnined and discussed by
theCourt. It was notsettled, because in theJudgments givenin 1974it was
consideredthat theApplications had become without object asa result of
the statements made by the French Government. 1think that, despite the
doubts which may still be entertained, it must be admitted that the Act is
still in force, for the reasons which have already been treated inextensoin
the joint dissenting opinion of Judges Onyeama, Dillard, Jiménez de
Aréchagaand Sir Humphrey Waldock (I.C.J. Reports 1974,pp. 327ff.) as

well as in my own dissentingopinion (ibid.,pp. 377ff.)and the dissenting
opinion ofJudge SirGarfield Banvick(ibid.,pp. 405ff.),towhich 1venture
to refer '-1 feel obliged to take this course in order to avoid making this
opinion unnecessarily lengthy.
3. Thereason why1disagree with theJudgment relates toa singlepoint,
but a fundamental one, namely the way in which reservation (b)should be
interpreted. 1think that a rigorous application of theappropriate rules for
interpretation should have been adopted. Since my viewis quite different
from that taken in the Judgment, 1feel obliged to explain the reasons for
my dissent.

' It shouldhoweverbe noted that in thesamecases,Judges Gros (1.C.J. Reports1974,
pp. 296-297)and Petré(ibid p.,02),expressed doubts as to the current validity of the
General Act in their separate opinions, without however giving fully their reasons.

63 63 MER ÉGÉE (OP. DISS. DE CASTRO)

Il convient devérifierlesens àdonner aumembre dephrasedela réserve
qui est ainsi conçu: <(les différends ayant trait au statut territorial de la
Grèce )>Cela comprend-il lesdifférendssurleplateau continental ?Pour
éluciderce point,je tâcherai d'examiner les argumentspour et contre une
telle inclusion.

4. C'estunprincipe bien établiquel'interprétationapourbut de vérifier
la véritablevolontédes parties. Les termesemployésdans une déclaration
de volonté sont àconsidérercomme les moyens ((pistes ))clues,indicia)
pour arriver a connaître l'intention des auteurs de la déclaration.

Quand ils'agitd'interpréterune déclarationde volontéancienne, il sera
toujours nécessairede vérifiercomment ces termes doiventêtre compris à
présent.Lesens des motspeut changer avecletemps. Pour interpréter une
déclarationquelconque,pour connaître sonvraisens,ilfaut avanttout s'en
tenir àla significationqu'ellepouvait avoir à ladate où elleaété émise.Les

motspar eux-mêmesn'ont pas une valeur propre. Ilssontou représentent
des sons (phonema),maisleur valeur sémantiquedépenddu moment et des
circonstances où ils ont étéformulés 1.
5. L'adhésion dela Grècea l'Acte général est une déclaration unilaté-
rale, commel'est aussicelledela Turquie.Chacunede cesdéclarationsest

faite dans le cadre du règlement pacifique des différends institué par
l'Acte; ces déclarations qui s'articulent avec les déclarationsd'adhésion
émanant d'autres Etats établissent desliens entre chacun des deux Etats
adhérents et dans la mesure où tous les deux ont souscrit aux mêmes
engagements. Du fait de leuradhésiona l'Actegénéralu ,n lien estnéentre
laGrèceet laTurquie dont l'étenduerésultedesdeux déclarationsqui,par

l'accord qu'elles consacrent, deviennent la volonté commune des deux
Etats 2.
S'agissantde connaître la volonté devenue communea la Grèceet a la
Turquie surle sensdela réserve b)dela Grèce,nousnoustrouvonsdevant
ce fait qu'à l'époquede l'adhésiondes deux Etats à l'Acte général,le

14septembre 1931 et le 26juin 1934,les Etats en général,la Grèceet la
Turquie en particulier, n'avaient aucunement conscience que des problè-
mes ayant trait au plateau continental pouvaient exister. C'est beaucoup
plus tard que lesjuristes, lespublicistes et les techniciens ont commencé à
s'occuper du plateau continental. La proclamation Truman en 1945peut

1 La Cour a dit qu'elle
<ne saurait se fonder sur une interprétation purement grammaticale du texte. Elle
doit rechercher l'intexprétationqui est en harmonie avec la manière naturelle et
raisonnable de lire le texte, eu éàaIintention du Gouvernement de 1'Iranà
l'époqueoù celui-ci a acceptéla compétence obligatoire de la C)(C.I.J. Re-
cueil 1952, p. 104.Les italiques sont de moi.)

2 Ainsi se crée une situation analogue à celle d'un traité,treaty situation, selon
l'expression due a sir Gerald Fitzmauri<(The Law and Procedure of the Interna-
dure >>, rrtish Year Book of International XXXIV,uri1958,p. 77.ompetence and- AEGEAN SEA (DISS. OP. DE CASTRO)
63
The meaning has to be ascertained of the phrase in the reservation
reading "disputes relating to the territorial status of Greece". Does this

cover disputes over the continental shelf?In order to elucidate this, I shall
endeavour to examine the argumentsin favour of and against such inclu-
sion.
4. It is a well-established principle that the purpose of interpretation is
to ascertain the true will of the parties. The terms used in a declaration of
intention must be regarded asthemeans ("traces", clues,indici tab)e used
in order to reach a conclusion as to the intention of the authors of the

declaration.
When adeclaration of intentionmade aconsiderable time agohas to be
construed, it will always be necessary to verify how the words should be
understood at the present time. The meaning of words may change with
time. In order to interpret anystatement, to ascertain its real meaning, we

must first of al1concentrate on themeaning which it could have had at the
time when it was made. Words have no intrinsic value in themselves. They
are, or represent, sounds (phonema),but their semantic value depends on
the time and the circumstances in which they were uttered 1.
5. Greece's accessionto the General Act is aunilateral declaration, asis
that of Turkey. Each is made in the context of the pacific settlement of
disputes instituted by the Act; these declarations, which tie up with the

declarations of accession made by other States, establish links between
each pair of States acceding to the Act and to the extent that both States
haveentered into the samecommitments. Byvirtue of their accessionto the
General Act, a link was forged between Greece and Turkey, the extent of
which depends upon the two declarations which, by the agreement which
they embody, becomes the common will of the two States 2.

In seeking to ascertain what it was that had become the common willof
Greece and Turkey with regard to themeaning of Greece'sreservation (b),
weare faced with thefact that at the timewhen these two States acceded to
the Act, on 14September 1931and 26June 1934,States in general, and
Greece and Turkey in particular, weretotally unaware that therecould be
problems relating to the continental shelf. It was only much later that

jurists, publicists and technical experts began to concern themselves with
the continental shelf. The Truman Proclamation of 1945can be regarded

1The Court has said that it
"cannot base itself on the purely grammaticai interpretation of the text. It must
seek the interpretation whichis in harmony with a natural and reasonable way of
reading the text,vingdue regardto the intentionof the Government of Iran ut the
tirne when it accepted the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court" (I.C.J.
Reports 1952, p. 104,emphasis added).
2 A situation is thus created which is anaiogous to that of a treaty-a "treaty situ-
ation", an expression 1owe to Sir Geraid Fitzmaurice: "The Law and Procedure of the
International Court of Justice, 1951-1954:Questions of Jurisdiction, Cornpetence and
Procedure", British Year Book of International Luw, XXXIV, 1958,p. 77.êtreconsidéréecommelepoint dedépart de l'élaborationdu droit et de la
doctrine dans ce domaine. Il est donc évident qu'aumoment de la coïn-

cidencedesvolontésde la Grèceet de laTurquie, il n'yavaitpas - et il ne
pouvait pas y avoir - d'accord entre ces déclarationspour écarterde la
compétencede la Cour les questions relatives au plateau continental.
Cela étant,la questionjuridique suivante se pose: au cas où les termes

((différendsayant trait au statut territorial ))de la réserveb) de la Grèce
pourraient êtreinterprétés - ce qui est fort douteux - comme englobant
un sujet(questions relativesau plateau continental) auquel ni laGrèceni la
Turquie n'avaientpensénimêmepu penser, doit-onconsidérerquecesujet
pouvait être matièrea réserve ?

La tradition juridique tranche la question d'une manièrelogique et elle
est condenséedans leprincipe d'interprétation recueillien cestermespar le
Code civil français:

<(Quelque généraux que soient lestermes dans lesquelsune conven-
tion est conçue, ellene comprend que leschoses sur lesquellesilparaît

que les parties se sont proposéde contracter 1.>)

6. Sil'onconsidèred'autre part la nature unilatéralede la réserveb),on
doit l'interpréter à la lumièrede l'objet et dubut de la Grèceet en tenant
compte des circonstances dans lesquelles la déclaration d'adhésion a été
émise.

Comme le montre la pratique de l'époque, la réserve envisagée à l'ali-
néa c) de l'article 39,paragraphe 2, de l'Acte général, enemployant l'ex-
pression (<statut territorial )),avait le mêmeobjet que celui qui était
exprimédans d'autres traitéspar les termes (<intégrité territoriale des

Etats )), questions territoriales D, questions qui touchent aux frontières
existantes o. La réserveb) de la Grèce, suivant le conseil de M. Politis
(lettre du 9 septembre 1928), avait pour but d'empêcherqu'on puisse
porter devant la Cour des questions concernant l'application, l'interpré-
tation des traités etla revision des frontières,les statuts territoriaux et les

1Article 1163.Cet article peut s'appuyer sur une longue et ferme tradition. Il semble
avoirsonorigine dans un fragment d'Ulpien (D.2, 15,9par. 3,infine), lequelestrecueilli
par le droit commun; en France par Domat (Les lois civiles,1, 1,2,règle23, éd.Pans.
1777, 1,p. 24) et par Pothier (Trairédes obligutions,première partie, chap. 1,art. VII,
8~règle,Euvres, éd. Paris,1818,III, p. 67).L'article 1163du Code Napoléon est suivi,
presque àlalettre, par d'autres codescivils;voirpar exemplel'article 1138du Code civil
italien de 1865et l'article 1364du Code de 1942,l'article 1283du Code civilespagnol et
l'article 1386du Code civil des Pays-Bas.

Il està noter que l'idéede base commune aux articles cités n'estpas étrangère aux
droits dela Grèce et dela Turquie: article 173du Code civilhellénique ;article 18du
Code suissedes obligations (lesdeux premières parties de ce code ont été reçuespar la
République turque le 4octobre 1926).
Ces règlesdériventde la nature même du consentement. Pour qu'il existe,il faut une
coïncidence des volontéssur un objet, qui devra être déterminé au moinq suant à son
espèce (voir l'article 1129du Code civil français qui consacre la doctrine générale). as the startingpoint of the law and doctrineon this subject. It is therefore
obvious that at the time of the meeting of wills between Greece and
Turkey, there was not-and could not be-any agreement between their
respective declarations to exclude from thejurisdiction of the Court ques-
tions relating to the continental shelf.
That being so, the followinglegalquestion arises: if thewords "disputes
relating to the territorial status" in Greece's reservation (b) could be
interpreted-which is highly doubtful-as comprising a subject (questions

relating to the continental shelf) which neither Greece nor Turkey had
conceived or were evenin aposition to conceive,should it be held that this
was something which could have constituted the subject of a reserva-
tion?
Legal tradition settles the matter logically, and is condensed in the
principle of interpretation expressed in these terms by the French Civil
Code:

"However general may be the terms in which an agreement is
conceived, it includes only the things on which it appears that the
parties proposed to contract 1."

6. If on the other hand the unilateral nature of reservation (6) is kept in
view,it must be interpretedinthe light ofthe object and purpose ofGreece,
taking into account the circumstances in which the declaration of acces-

sion was made.
As the contemporary practice shows, the purpose of the use of the
expression "territorial status" in the reservations contemplated by para-
graph 2(c)of Article 39of the General Act was the same as that expressed
in other treaties by such terms as "territorial integrity of States", "terri-
torial questions", "questions relating to existingfrontiers". The purpose of
Greece's reservation (b), on the advice of M. Politis (letter of 9 September
1928), was to prevent any questions being brought before the Court relat-

ing to the application or interpretation of the treaties, and the revision of
the frontiers, territorial statuses, and international servitudes(rights over

Article 1163.A basis for thisArticle can be foundin a long-established tradition. It
appears to haveoriginated inafragment ofUlpian (D2.15.9, para. 3, infine), which was
taken up into cornrnon law; in France, by Domat (Les loisciviles,I,1,2, Rule 23, Paris
edition of 1777,Vol. 1, p. 24) and by Pothier (Truitédes ohligutions, Part 1, Chap. 1,
Art. VII, Rule 8, Works,Paris edition of 1818,Vol. III, p. 67).Article 1163ofthe Code
Nupoléonwas followed, almost word for word, by other civil codes; see for example
Article 1283 of the Spanish Civil Code; and Article 1386 of the Civil Code of the;
Netherlands.
It should be observed that the common concept underlying the articles referred to is
also known in the legal systernsof Greece and Turkey ; Article 173of the Greek Civil
Code; Article 18of the SwissFederal Code of Obligations (Parts 1anII of this Code
were taken over by the Turkish Republic on 4 October 1926).
These rulesderive from the verynature of consent. For consent to exist, there must be
a meeting of wills on a subject-matter which must be deterrnined at least as regards its
species (see Art. 1129of the French Civil Code, which expresses general teaching). MER ÉGÉE (OP.DISS. DE CASTRO)
65
servitudesinternationales(droits sur les ports et voiesdecommunication)

établis dans les traités qui ont suivi le démantèlementde l'Empire otto-
man.
7. A cela on a pu opposer que l'expression statut territorial)) a un
caractère génériqueou généralet qu'elle englobe la notion de plateau
continental. Il estjuste de dire que l'expression est générique;en véritéle

sens de laplupart desmotsprésente une certaine souplesse,exception faite
de ceux qui visent les objets concrets et individuels. Il en est ainsi de
l'expression <(statut territorial )).Elle vise des situations qui offrent des
possibilités d'évolution,qu'il s'agisse du statut ou du régimejuridique
(droits, servitudes,restrictions), ou qu'il s'agissedu territoire même(par

exemple modification de frontières).

Mais chaque terme peut avoir un sens plus ou moins étendu, plus ou
moins limité. Un terme, qui a sa signification propre, ne peut pas être
entendu comme comprenant un élémentd'une nature étrangère à sonsens
ordinaire et naturel 1.A mon avis ilya desdifférencesdenature essentielle

qui empêchent de considérer que le terme <(statut territorial ))puisse
s'appliquer à l'existence,aurégimejuridique et à ladélimitationduplateau
continental.
8. Il n'estpas douteuxque le terme <(statut territorial))est équivalent à
celui de statut du territoire )>.Pour conclure que le statut du plateau

continental (droits, délimitations) est compris ou non dans le << statut
territorial ))il faudra rechercher à laquelle de ces deux solutionson peut
aboutir d'une manière naturelle du point de vue du statut et de celui du
territoire.
Le statut du territoire est clair et bien défini;c'est celuide la souverai-

netémême.Aucontraire, lerégimedu plateaucontinental estlerésultatde
l'évolution accéléré de droit de la mer,laquellenesemblepas êtreachevée
aveclaconvention de Genèvede 1958.Aujourd'hui, ilestconstituépar des
droits étroitement limités - il s'agit seulement des droits appelés souve-
rains ou exclusifsaux finsdela recherche, de l'exploration du plateau et de
l'exploitation de ses ressources naturelles.

Le territoire d'un Etat, au sensstrictdeterreferme(continent et îles)est
bien définiaussi. En revanche,leplateau continental est à délimiterdans
chaque cas et, pour le faire, on doit tenir compte de données variées
(structure géologique,distance, situation géographique,profondeur de la

mer, existence et valeur économiquedes ressources minérales, etc.).

1On a pu donner l'exemplede la clause testamentaire suivante(Je laisse tous mes
véhicules à mon ancien chauffeur. On peut interpréter cette disposition comme
wagons de la compagnie de chemin de fer dontlil était propriétaireou les avions dela
flotte aui luia~~artenait. Surla volontéim~licitedans destermesd'une ~ortéegénérale.
comp.*~attel; Le droit des gens, éd.~radoier-~odéréI,I, chap. XVII, par.262 p. 249;
Pans, 1863; C.P.J.I. sérieA/B ni50, p. 377-378.ports and lines of communication), laid down in the treaties concluded

following the dismantling of the Ottoman Empire.

7. To meet this argument, it has been possible to contend that the
expression "territorial status" is generic or general in nature, and covers
theconcept of continental shelf.It iscorrect to Saythat theterm isageneric
one; the meaning of most words is in fact subject to a certain degree of
flexibility, with the exception of those which refer to individual concrete
objects. This issowithregard to theexpression "territorial status". It refers
to situations which are susceptible of development, whether it be devel-

opment of the status or legal régime (rights, servitudes, restrictions), or
whether it be development of the territory itself (for example, by modi-
fication of frontiers).
However, any term may have a wide meaning or a narrow meaning, a
meaning which is more or less limited. A term which has a meaning of its
own cannot be understood as comprising anything which is foreign to its
ordinaryandnatural meaning 1.In myopinion, it isnot possible, asa result
of differences of essential nature, to regard the term "territorial status" as
capable of applying to the existence, legalrégime,and delimitation of the

continental shelf.
8. There isno doubt that theterm "territorial status" isequivalent to the
term "status of the territory". In order tobe able toconclude either that the
status of the continental shelf (rights, delirnitations) is comprised in "ter-
ritorial status", or on the other hand that it is not, it will be necessary to
ascertain which of the two solutions can be reached in a natural way from
the point of view of status and on that of territory.

The status of territory is something which is clear and welldefined; it is
the status of sovereignty itself. On the other hand, the régimeof the
continental shelf is the result of accelerated development of the law of the
sea, which does not seem to have reached finality with the 1958Geneva
Convention. At the present time, it is made up of narrowly limited rights,
i.e.,nothing more than what are called sovereignor exclusiverights for the
purposes of research and exploration of the shelf and exploitation of its
natural resources.
The territory of a State,in the strict sense of terrafirma (mainland and

islands) is also something which is well defined. On the other hand, the
continental shelf has to be delimited in everycase, and to do this, account
must be taken of various factors (geological structure, distance, geogra-
phical position, depth of the sea, existence and economic value of minera1
resources, etc.).
An example which has been given is that of the following clause in a will: "1
bequeath ail my vehicles to my former chauffeur." Thisprovision may be interpreted as
signifying that the testator leaves to the beneficiary his new Cadillac, but not the
locomotives or trucks of theailway Companyof which he was proprîetor, nor aircraft
from his fleet.On the intention implied in terms of generaiscope,cf.Vattel, Ledroit des
gens,ed. Pradier-Fodéré,Vol. IIChap. XVII, para. 262, p. 249, Paris, 186P.C.I.J.,
Series A/B, No. 50, pp. 377-378. 9. Il reste que la Cour, pas sesraisonnements dans l'arrêtsurle Plateau
continentalde la mer du Nord, a pu fairenaître des doutes sur la notion de

territoire. Il y est dit d'une manière réitéréq eue la zone du plateau conti-
nental de l'Etat riverain << constitue un prolongement naturel deson terri-
toire )) (C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 22, par. 19) et que:

<<les zones sous-marines en cause peuvent êtreconsidéréescomme
faisant véritablement partie du territoire sur lequel 1'Etat riverain
exerce déjà sonautorité : on peut dire que, tout en étantrecouvertes

d'eau,ellessont un prolongement, une continuation, une extension de
ce territoire sous la mer ))(ibid.,p. 31,par. 43 ;voir aussi p. 34, 37et
47, par. 51, 58 et 85).

Malgréces expressions, il ne faut pas croire que la Cour considère le
plateau continental comme une vraie partie du territoire de 1'Etatriverain,
jouissant du mêmestatut juridique. Il semble plutôt que la Cour ait voulu
exprimer d'une manière métaphorique mais frappante quelle est la base

desdroits surleplateau, c'est-à-direde l'application du soi-disantprincipe
<la terre domine la mer ))1.
La différenceessentielle entre le sensdes termes <(statut territorial ))et
statut du plateau continental )apparaît en pleine lumièredans les rela-

tions entre la Turquie et la Grèce. La Turquie n'a à présent aucune
difficulté à admettre, s'agissantdu statut territorial de laGrèce,que lesîles
grecques forment avec la Grèce continentale une unitéjuridique et poli-
tique. En revanchela Turquie nie l'existenced'un plateau continental des
îles grecques.

10. certes on peut supposer que la Grècea eu l'intention, enétablissant
la réserve,de donner au terme <(statut territorial ))un sens si large qu'ilen
vienne à comprendre aussi le plateau continental. Mais c'est là sortir du
cadre propre de l'interprétation, fondéesur l'intention du déclarant telle

qu'elle est révélépear le sens naturel et ordinaire des termes employés, et
entrer dans ledomaine de l'imagination ou de l'analogie,en sapant ainsi la
sécuritéjuridique.
11. Il a étéobservé, et à juste titre, que pour délimiter le plateau
continental il faudra quelquefois élucider des questions touchant à la

condition du territoire et même à son statut (par exemple fixation des
lignes de base, configuration relative des territoires, adjacents ou opposés,

1La convention de Genèvesur la mer territoriale dit dans son article premier:(La
souverainetéde l'Etat s'étend, au-delàde son territoire et de ses eaux intériàuune,
zone de mer adjacente àsescôtes désignés eouslenomde mer territoriale >)(lesitaliques
sont de moi). On peut voir,je crois, que le termeer territorial))est icidélibérément
employéavecla valeurd'une fictionjuridique. D'une manière semblable, quand la Cour
fait observeràpropos du plateau continental qu'onpeur dire qu'il est un prolongement
du territoire ouu'ilpeut êtreconsidérécommeune partie du territoire, elleemploieune
lation a pu êtreaussi utiliséepar des Etatspourjustifier leurs prétentionsendreouasàimi-
fortifier leurs droits sur le plateau. AEGEAN SEA (DISS.OP. DE CASTRO) 66

9. The fact remains that the Court may, as a result of the arguments put
forward in its Judgment in the North Sea ContinentalShelfcase, have sown
some doubt concerning the concept of territory. In that Judgment it is
repeatedly statedthat thecoastal State'scontinental shelfarea"constitutes
a natural prolongation of its.. .territory" (Z.C. RJeports 1969, p. 22,
para. 19)and that:

". ..the submarine areas concerned may be deemed to be actually
part of the territory over which the coastal State already has domin-
ion,-in the sense that, although covered with water, they are a
prolongation orcontinuation of that territory, an extension ofit under
the sea"(ibi d.3,1,para. 43; seealso pp. 34,37 and 47,paras. 51,58
and 85).

These statements notwithstanding, itmust not bethought that the Court
considers the continental shelf to be a real part of the coastal State's
territory, enjoying the same legal status. It seems rather that the Court
wished toexpress,in metaphorical but striking terms,what wasthebasis of
the rights over the shelf, that is toayof the application of the so-called
principle that "the land dominates the sea" '.

The essential difference between the meaning of the term "territorial
status" and that of the term "status of the continental shelf" ishighlighted
in the relations between Turkey and Greece. Turkey has at present no
difficulty in recognizing, asregardstheterritorial status of Greece, that the
Greek islands form, together with mainland Greece, a legal and political
unity. On the other hand, Turkey denies that the Greek islands have a
continental shelf.
10. It can, of course, be supposed that Greece intended, when formu-
lating the reservation, to give the term "territorial status" a meaning so
broad that it could come to comprise the continental shelf as well. How-
ever, that would be to depart from the sphere of interpretation proper,
based on the intention of the declarant as revealed by the natural and

ordinary meaning of the terms employed, and to enter the domain of
imagination or analogy, thereby undermining the stability of the law.
11. It has been observed, and rightly observed, that, in order to delimit
the continental shelf,it willsometimes be necessary to elucidatequestions
concerning the circumstances of the territory and even its status (for
example, thedrawing ofbaselines, the relativeconfiguration of adjacent or

' The Geneva Convention on theTerritorial Sea States,in A:"The sovereignty
of a State extends,eyond ifs /und ferritoy and its intemal waters, to a belt of sea
adjacent to itsast,descrihed as the territorial sea." (Emphasis added.) It is, 1think,
apparent that the term "territorial sea" isdeliberately used herewith thevalue of a legal
fiction.imilarly, when the Court observes, in connection with the continental shelf,
part of the territory, it isemploying a usefulwhich is useful asajustification ofto be a
the rights of the coastal State over the shelf; States have also been able to use this
assimilation inder tojustify their claims to extend or to fortify their rights over the
shelf.baies historiques, étenduedes eaux territoriales). Mais le besoin que l'on
peut avoir d'aborder des questions relatives au territoire pour décider le
fond de l'affaire netransforme pas le différend sur le plateau continental
en un différendsurlestatut territorial. Dans lecasoù l'onaurait à trancher

au fond et où il faudrait tenir compte de questions connexes au territoire,
ces questions devront êtretraitées commedes questions préalables. Ces
questions et la difficultéqu'elles présentent sont bien connues en droit
international privé. LaCour a eu l'occasion de considérer ce concept
juridique dans l'affaireNottebohm.LeLiechtenstein avait introduitdevant
la Cour une instance tendant au redressement et à la réparationde <me-
sures contraires au droit international ))prises par le Gouvernement du
Guatemala contre Nottebohm, tressortissant du Liechtenstein )).Pour

déciderde la recevabilitéde la requête,il fallait traiter de la nationalitéde
Nottebohm. La Cour a considéré la question comme préalable.Elle a
dit:

t(La Cour n'entend pas sortir du cadre limitédela question qu'illui
faut résoudre, à savoir, si la nationalité conféréeà Nottebohm peut
êtreinvoquée vis-à-d vuiGuatemalapour justifier la présenteprocé-
dure. )>(C.I.J. Recueil 1955, p. 17.Les italiques sont de moi.)

Certes la Cour, en se déclarantcompétenteenla présenteespèce,aurait
pu seheurter àde grandes difficultésde cegenremais cela ne saurait être
une raison pour nier sa compétence.Les mêmesproblèmes auraient pu
naître si la Grèce et la Turquie avaient portél'affaire devant la Cour au
moyen d'uncompromis ou bien sila Grèceavaitrenoncéou siellevenait à
renoncer à la réserveb) en temps opportun.

12. Une question d'une telle envergure soulèvela possibilitéque lesens
des termes d'une déclaration de volontése modifie en conséquence de
l'évolution du droit. L'expression t(statut territorialO, écrite en 1931,
a-t-elle pu changer de sens du fait que le droit moderneattribue aux Etats
riverains des droits sur le plateau continental ?
Pour répondre .àcette question, il convient de l'éclaircir à l'aide de
quelques distinctions.
Avant tout, il faudra examiner séparémentd'une part la règle de la
contemporanéitéqui est applicable à l'interprétationdes déclarations de

volonté - règle selonlaquelleilfaut donner aux mots employés lesens qui
est le leur au moment de leur emploi - et d'autre part le droit intertem-
porel, qui indique quel est le droit à appliquer aux facta praeterita.

Chercher à préciserce que recouvre l'emploid'un terme pour connaître
l'intention de celuiqui afait la déclaration estunechose; déterminerl'effet
que peut avoir un droit nouveau surunesituation déjà existanteen est une
autre.opposed territories, historic bays, the extent of territorial waters). But the
fact that it may be necessary to consider questions relating to territory in
order to decide the merits of the case does not transform the dispute
relating to the continental shelf into a dispute relating to territorial status.
If the merits of the case had to be decided, and if questions concerning the
territory had to be taken into account, they would have to be treated as
preliminary questions. Such questions are well known in private interna-
tional law, as is the difficulty which they present. The Court has had
occasion to consider this legal concept in the Nottebohm case. Liechten-
stein had instituted proceedings before the Court for restitution and
compensation on theground that theGovernment of Guatemala had acted
towards Nottebohm, "a citizen of Liechtenstein, in a manner contrary to
international law". In order to decide upon the admissibility of the Appli-
cation, Nottebohm's nationality fell to be considered. The Court treated

this as a preliminary question. It stated:

"The Court does not propose to go beyond the limited scope of the
question which it has to decide, namely whether the nationality
conferred on Nottebohm can be relied upon as against Guatemala in
justification of the proceedings instituted before the Court." (I.C.J.
Reports 1955, p. 17.)(Emphasis added.)

Of course the Court, by finding in favour ofjurisdiction in the present
case, might have come up against great difficulties of this kind, but that
could not constitute a ground for a denial of jurisdiction. The same
problems rnight have arisen if Greece and Turkey had brought the case
before the Court by means of a special agreement or if Greece had with-
drawn, or if it were to withdraw, reservation (b), at an appropriate
time.
12. Such a far-reachingquestion raises the possibility that the meaning
of the terms used in a declaration of intention may alter as a result of the
evolution of law. 1sit possible that the expression "territorial status", as
employed in 1931,haschangeditsmeaning because modern lawattributes
rights over the continental shelf to coastal States?
This question requires some elucidation, with the aid of a few distinc-
tions, before it can be answered.

At the outset we shall have to examine separately, first, the rule of
contemporaneity applicable to the interpretation of declarations of inten-
tion-according to which the words used must be given the meaning
attaching to them at the time when they areemployed-and secondly, that
of intertemporal law,which indicates what is the law to be applied tofacta
praeterita.
To seek to establish what lies behind the use of a term in order to
ascertain the intention of the party which made the declaration is one
thing; to determine the effect which a new legal régime may haveon an
already existing situation is another. L'interprétation apour but de connaître le sensdesmots employésdans
ladéclaration,de façon à vérifierquelle apu êtrelavolontédu déclarant et
comment elle a pu être comprisepar celui à qui s'adressait la déclaration.
L'évolutiondu droit nepeut pas modifier lesensque les motsavaient pour
les auteurs de la déclaration. L'évolutiondu droit peut en établissant de
nouvelles règlesjuridiques conférer ou retirer des droits et peut même
changer tout un régimejuridique mais elle ne peut pas changer le sens

d'une déclaration, faire dire au déclarant ce qu'il n'a pas voulu dire ou
mêmece qu'il n'apu vouloir dire.
S'agissantd'une déclarationunilatérale,comme l'adhésion dela Grèce à
l'Acte général en1931,on ne saurait encore moins l'interpréter comme
incluant une référence au plateau continental. Il ne serait pas juste d'at-
tribuer à laGrèceunemanifestation de volonté à propos de quelquechose
qu'elle ne connaissait pas et que, pour cette raison, elle ne pouvait pas
vouloir (nihil cognitum nisipraecognitum).
13. La convention de Vienne a établi,comme règlegénérale d'interpré-

tation destraités,qu'ilsdoiventêtreinterprétés debonnefoisuivantlesens
ordinaire à attribuer aux termes du traitédans leur contexteet àlalumière
de sonobjetet de sonbut (art. 31,par. 1).Comme moyen complémentaire
d'interprétation, elle prévoitqu'il peut êtrefait appel aux circonstances
danslesquellesletraitéa été conclu(art. 32); autrement dit, il faut chercher
cesens au moment delaconclusiondu traité. Ilya tout lieud'appliquer ces
règles àl'adhésionde la Grèce à l'ActegénéralS . il'évolutiondu droit peut
avoirdesconséquences,cen'estpas sur leplan del'interprétation maissur
un autre: la convention considère en effet que, si une nouvelle norme

impérative(juscogens)survient, tout traité existant qui est en conflit avec
cette norme devient nul et prend fin (art. 64) 1.

Il semble donc permis de conclurequela tâche de l'interprétationest de
vérifierquelle était ou pouvait être la volontéde la Grèce en 1931quand
elle a utilisé l'expression((statut territoria>)dans la réserveb) à son
adhésion àl'ActegénéralL . afonction du droit intertemporel est autre;par
lejeu de ses règles,la Grèce et la Turquie se voient attribuer des droits
souverains ou exclusifs nouveaux sur le plateau continental.

14. Il convient aussi de noter, pour éviter d'autres confusions, que la
fonction qui consiste à interpréter traités etcontrats devra suivred'autres
règles que celles qui sont propres à l'interprétation des lois. Celles-ci,
commesourcesdedroit, nepeuvent êtreconsidéréesd'une manière isolée.
Elles doivent êtreinterprétées et appliquéesdans le cadre du système
juridique en vigueur au moment où l'interprétation a lieu. C'est ce qu'on

1 AI'exceptionde ceque disposecet article ilsemblequ'ilfaudra appliquer aux traités
le droit intertemporel général, c'est-à-dire le principede la non-rétroactivité etla règle
tempus regit factum. AEGEAN SEA (DISS.OP. DE CASTRO) 68

The purpose of interpretation is to ascertain the meaning of the words
used in the declaration, so as to verifywhat could have been theintention
of the declarant and how it may have been understood by the party to
whom thedeclaration was addressed. The evolution of law cannot modify
the meaning which the words had for the authors of the declaration. The

evolution of law can, by establishing new legal rules, confer or withdraw
rights, and can evenchange an entire legalrégime,but it cannotchangethe
meaning of adeclaration: itcannot makethedeclarant saywhat he did not
wish to say or even what he could not have wished to say.
There is even less reason to interpret a unilateral declaration, like
Greece's accession to the General Act in 1931, asincluding a reference to
the continental shelf. It would not be right to attribute to Greece a mani-
festation ofwillconcerning something of whichitwasunaware and which,
for that reason, it could not have intended (nihil cognitum nisipraecogni-

tum).
13. The Vienna Convention has laid down, as a general rule for the
interpretation of treaties, that they must be interpreted in good faith in
accordance with theordinary meaning tobe givento the terms of the treaty
in their context and in the light of itsject and purpose (Art. 31,para. 1).
As a supplementary means of interpretation, it provides that recourse may
be had to the circumstancesin whichthe treaty was concluded(Art. 32);in
other words, the meaning at the time when the treaty was concluded must
be sought. There is everyreason to apply these rules to Greece's accession

tothe GeneralAct. It isnot atthe levelof interpretation that the evolution
of law can have consequences but at another level: if a new peremptory
norm (jus cogens) emerges, the Convention considers that any existing
treaty which is in conflict with that norm becomes void and terminates
(Art. 64) 1.
It therefore seemspermissible to conclude that the task ofinterpretation
is to verifywhat was or could havebeen the willof Greece in 1931when it
used the expression "territorial status" in reservation(6)to its accession to
theGeneralAct. The function of intertemporal lawis different; it is by the

operation of the rules of intertemporal law that new sovereignor exclusive
rights over the continental shelf have been attributed to Greece and
Turkey.
14. It should also be noted, in order to avoid any confusion on other
points, that theinterpretation of treaties and contracts must follow differ-
ent rules from those appropriate t8 the interpretation oflaws.Thelatter, as
sources oflaw,cannot be considered inisolation. Theymust beinterpreted
and applied in the context of the legalsystemin force at the timewhen the
interpretation takes place. This is what is called systematic interpreta-

thatis to saythe pnnciple of non-retroactivity, and theus regitfactuwillhavemporal law,
to be applied to treaties. 69 MER ÉGÉE (OP.DISS. DE CASTRO)

appelle l'interprétation systématique 1.Cette procédure d'interprétation
est aussi celle qui vaut pour les conventions dites institutionnelles ou
normatives (law-making treaties, Vereinbarungen),lesquelles, étant aussi
des sources de droit (comme par exemple la Charte des Nations Unies),
sont soumises dans leur interprétation à l'évolutiondu droit 2.

15. Lestraitéset lesdéclarations faites dans lecadre d'un traitédoivent
s'entendre dans leur contexte (art. 31,par. 1,de la convention de Vienne);
il en va de mêmepour la réserve b) de la Grèce.
L'adhésionhellénique àl'Actecontient deux types de déclarations:l'une
qui tend à admettre en généralla compétence de la Cour; les autres,
constituées par les réserves,qui ont pour but de délimiter l'objet de la

compétence attribuée à la Cour. Chacune d'elles a son but et sa nature
propres.
Conformément à l'article 17 de l'Acte général,l'adhésionde la Grèce
admet la compétencede la Cour pour tous différendsau sujet desquels les
parties se contesteraient un droit. L'instrument d'adhésion (si I'on fait

pour le moment abstraction des réserves)contient une référencegénérale
et illimitéeàtout différendd'ordrejuridique à naîtreentre lesparties ayant
adhéré à l'Acte.En conséquence, et siI'onneprend pas enconsidération la
réserve b),onpeut sans aucun doute affirmer la compétencede la Cour au
sujet du différendentre la GrèceetlaTurquie sur leplateau continental de
la mer Egée.

La réserve b),tout au contraire, tendà limiter l'adhésion grecque à l'Acte
par une exception bien déterminée, qui établitune démarcation spéciale
dans la sphère si large de l'adhésion. En dehors du champ précis de
l'exception, la déclaration générale sur la compétencejoue.

16. La réserve b) vise notamment, spécialement,un cas d'espèce bien

déterminéet qu'il faut interpréter selon sa nature singulière et spéciale.
L'Acte général souligneetimposecette naturedes réservesadmises. Il fait
ressortir que les réservesdevront êtreformulées à l'égardde différends
portant sur des affaires déterminées ou de matières spécialesnettement
définies, tellesque le statut territorialou rentrant dans des catégoriesbien

1L'élément systématique est considéré comme udnes quatre élémentsà employer
cation dutSysrem des keutigen romischen Rechts (1, par. 33) de Savigny.uis la publi-
Il ne faut pas oublier, au sujet de l'évolutiondu droit, que selon l'observation de
Hobbes (textecitépar Radbruch,<(Arten der Interpretati))dans Recueild'étudessur
lessourcesdudroit enl'honneurde FrunçoisGény,1934,II, p. 218),lelégislateurn'estpas
celui dont l'autorité afait la loi pour la première fois, mais celui dont l'autorité fait
qu'elle continueà être loi:ce qui explique I'inFluencede l'évolution dudroit pour
l'interprétation et le développement des lois et conventions normatives. Au contraire,
dans l'interprétation des traités,dont la forceest fondéesur la volonté desparties
sunt semandu), il n.y a.pas à tenir compte d'une volonté étran-ère à celle des
auteurs.
? C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 31, par. 53, et voir aussi mon opinion individuelle,
par. 184.tion 1.This interpretation procedure is also that applicable to law-making
treaties (Vereinbarungen),as, for instance, the United Nations Charter,

which, being also sources of law, are subject in their interpretation to the
evolution of law 2.

15. Treaties, and declarations made within the framework of a treaty,
have to be interpreted in their context (Vienna Convention, Art. 31,
para. 1); the same applies to Greece's reservation (b).
The Greek accessionto theAct contains declarations oftwotypes: oneis
designed to accept the jurisdiction of the Court in general; the others,

constituted by the reservations, areintended to delimit the subject-matter
of the jurisdiction attributed to the Court. Each of them has its own
purpose and nature.
In accordance with Article 17of the Act, Greece's accession recognizes
thejurisdiction of the Courtfor alldisputeswith regard to which theparties
are in conflict as to their respective rights. The instrument of accession (if,
for the moment, the reservations are disregarded) contains a general and
unlimited reference to any legal dispute which rnight arise between the

parties whichhave acceded to theAct.Consequently, and if reservation (b)
is not taken into consideration, it can be stated beyond any doubtthat the
Court hasjurisdiction in the dispute between Greece and Turkey concern-
ing the Aegean Sea continental shelf.
Reservation (b), on the other hand, is designed to lirnit the Greek
accession to the Act by means of a clearly specified exception whch
establishes a special demarcation in the extensive area covered by the
accession. Outside the specific area of the exception, the general declara-

tion on jurisdiction has effect.
16. Reservation (b) covers in particular a clearly defined special case,
which must be interpreted according to its individual and particular
nature. The General Act stresses that perrnitted reservations are required
to be of this kind. It makes it clear that reservations should be formulated
with regard to disputes relating to particular cases or clearly specified
subject-matters, such as territorialstatus, or disputes falling within clearly

The systematic elementisconsidered to be one of the four elements to be employed
in interpretation, according to Savigny'sgenerally accepted doctrine, especially since
thIn discussingthe evolution of lawit must be remembered that, according to Hobbes's
observation (text cited by Radbruch, "Arten der Interpretation" in Recueil d'études sur
lessourcesdudroitenI'honneurdeFrançoisGeny, 1934,II,p. 218),thelegislator isnot the
person whose authority has made the law for the first time, but the person whose
authonty causes it to continue to be law; this explains the idluence of the evolution of
law as a whole on the interpretation and development of individual laws and law-
making conventions. On the otherhand, in the interpretation of treaties, whose force is
founded on thewillof theparties (puctasunt servanda),no account is tobe taken of a will
extraneous to that of the authors.
I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 31,para. 53; see also my separate opinion, p. 184.70 MER ÉGÉE (OP.DISS. DE CASTRO)

précisées (art. 39, par. 2 c))l. Donc, et conformément aux règles reçues sur
l'interprétation, il faut s'entenir au sens strict destermes employésdans la
réserve etilne semble pas permis d'étendrecette réserveauxquestions qui

serapportent au plateau continental. Ces questions ont étéaussi aliquisde
novoemergentibus,ce sont desquestions auxquelles personne ne pensait et
ne pouvait penser à la date de l'adhésionde la Grèce et de la Turquie à
l'Acte. Entendre l'expression <<différendsayant trait au statut territorial ))
comme comprenant les (<différends sur le plateau continental serait

l'interpréter d'une manièreextensive, qui ne correspond pas à l'intention
des auteurs de la déclaration unilatéraleet va à l'encontre du sens qu'on
pouvait lui attribuer et dans lequel on la comprenait en 1931et 1934.

Qui plus est, l'interprétation stricte est en généralappropriée à toute
réserve. Sanature d'exception à une déclaration de caractère généralfait
qu'on doitappliquer à la réservela règletraditionnelle exceptiostrictissimi
interpretationis2.
17. Avant d'en finir avecl'exposéde mon opinion, il ne me semble pas

inutile d'évoquer leprincipe dit de l'interprétation restrictive des déclara-
tions donnant compétence à la Cour. Son ombre plane toujours lorsqu'on
traite de la compétence de la Cour.

L'interprétation proposée par moi aboutirait à considérer la Ccur

comme compétente dans l'affaire du Plateau continentalde la mer Egée.
Faudrait-il la rejeter en raison du principe de l'interprétation restrictive ?
Ce principe ou règled'interprétation estjustifié dansla seulemesureou
il s'oppose aux tentatives d'une interprétation extensive ou par analogie.

Les Etats se méfientde toute éventuellerestriction de leur souveraineté.
Les actes conférant le soin de trancher des différends à une cour d'arbi-
trage ou judiciaire ne sont justifiés à leurs yeux qu'en vertu d'une décla-
ration expresse par laquelle ils donnent leur consentement.

' Sur cette règle stipuléedans l'Acte général,Gallus déclare:

statut territorial qui les éclaire semblent indiquer que les questions queut
excluredoivent être des questions particulières aux contours nets, tellespar exem-
plelesquestions suivantes: nationalité des individus,policedesétrangers, domma-
ges causéspar des insurrections, douanes, etc.(<<L'Acte général d'arbitra»,
Revue de droit internutional et de législation comparée, 1930, nos 2 et 4,
p. 907.)

Dans une étudeparue l'annéemêmede l'adhésiondela Grèce àl'Acte,ilest dit sur
I'interprétation des réserves:
<(Un tribunal international appelàinterpréter une réserveest liépar la règle
selon laquelle les exceptions aux principes généraux doivent êtreinterprétées
restrictivement.arconséquent si un traité contient le principe de règlement
pacifique pour tout différend quel qu'il soit entre les parties, toute réserve
figurant doit être interpréde façon étroite>(Habicht, partie II,Analysis of
the Treaties, dans Post-Wur Treatiesfor the Pacific Settlement of International
Disputes, Cambridge, 1931,p. 1000.) [ Traduction du Greffe.]defined categories (Art. 39,2, (c)) '.Therefore, and in conformity with the
received rules of interpretation, we must confine ourselves to the strict
meaning of the terms employed in the reservation, and it does not seem
permissible to extend this reservation to questions relating to the conti-
nental shelf. These questions were also aliquis de novo emergentibus;they
are questions which nobody had conceived or could have conceived at the

time when Greece and Turkey acceded to the Act. To read the expression
"disputes relating to territorial status" as comprising "disputes relating to
the continental shelf" would amount to givingthe expression an extensive
interpretation whch does not accord with the intention of the authors of
the unilateral declaration, and runs counter to the meaning whch could be
attributed to it, and in which it was understood, in 1931and 1934.
Moreover, a strict interpretation is generally appropriate for al1reser-

vations. Its very nature as an exception to a declaration of a general
character means that the traditional rule of exceptiostrictissimi interpre-
tationis must be applied to the reservation 2.
17. Beforeconcluding this statement of my opinion, it would seemnot
without interest to consider, in that connection, the so-called principle of
the restrictive interpretation of declarations conferringjurisdiction upon
the Court, the shadow of which isin the background of any discussion of
the Court's jurisdiction.

The interpretation here proposed would lead to the conclusion that the
Court hasjurisdiction in the Aegean Sea Continental Shelfcase. Should it
be rejected by virtue of the principle of restrictive interpretation?
This principleor rule of interpretation isjustified in sofar asit is used to
counter attempts at extensive or analogical interpretation. States are
mistrustful of any restriction on their sovereignty. Instruments referring

the settlement ofdisputes to acourt or arbitral tribunal arejustified in their
view only by virtue of an express declaration whereby they give their
consent.

1With reference to this rule laid down in the General Act, Gallus observes:

"The words employed ('clearly specified subject-matters') and theexample of
territorial status which illustrates them seem to indicate that the questions which
can be excluded must be ~articular auestions havine clear contours. such as the
etc." ("The Gencral Act of Arbitration". Reiuededrorr rt~rernurrot~uldeerlé~isluriot~
comp;rée, 1930,Nos. 1,2 and 4, p. 907.) "

2 In a study which appeared in the same year as that in which Greece acceded to the
Act it is stated, in connection with the interpretation of reservations, that:

"Aninternational tribunal called upon to interpret a reservation isbound by the
rule that exceptions to generalprinciples are to be interpreted restnctively. There-
fore, if a treaty contains the pnnciple of pacific procedure for any dispute what-
narrow sense." (Habicht, Part II,"Analysis of the Treaties", in The Post- Warna
Treutiesfor the Pacific Sertlement of Internutionul Disputes, Cambridge, 1931,
p. 1000). The Charter of the United Nations showsits respect for this idea in the
limitsit laysdown in Article 2,paragraph 7; but the Charter also says that
States parties to a dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger
the maintenance of peace, shall, first of all, seek a solution by peaceful

means, includingjudicial settlement (Art. 33). As a result of this rule, on
25August 1976the Security Council, by consensus, invited the Govern-
ments of Greece and Turkey to
"continue to take into account the contribution that appropriate
judicial means, in particular the International Court of Justice, are

qualified to make to the settlement of any remaining legal differ-
ences".
Support for the theory favouring restrictive interpretation has been
looked for in the text of a number ofjudgments of the two Courts. Indeed,
it has even been stated that the Court will only affirm its jurisdiction

provided that the force of the arguments militating in favour of it is
preponderant. However, a study of these texts as a whole seems to show
that the real concern of the two Courts has been to verifywhether or not it
was the intention of the authors of the declaration to submit their disputes
to theCourt; and, if so, towhat extent, subject to what reservations and on
what conditions 1.
The Court is perfectly right to state that declarations conferring juris-
diction upon it must beinterpreted strictly, by seekingout the intention of
their authors and by sticking closelyto their text and to the circumstances
obtaining at the time when they were issued.
18. The interpretation which 1have ventured to giveto Greece's acces-
sionendeavours tobefaithful to thiscriterion. It consists inconstruingthe
basic text of the accessionin accordance with its own terms-that is to Say,

as covering al1 kinds of legal disputes. The reservation is construed
narrowly, in the sense that it avoids an extensive interpretation which
would be extraneous to the will expressed by Greece in 1931.
It may also be added that the effect of the accessions by States to the
General Act was to create ties of CO-operationamong States for the
purpose of promoting the peaceful settlement of disputes. There is no
reason to look upon them with mistrust, and to include them in the
category of "undesirable" matters which as such should be interpreted res-
trictively (odiosasunt restringenda);on the contrary, there are grounds for
thinking that they are worthy of favor iuris (fuvorabiliasunt amplianda).

(Signed) F. DE CASTRO.

' A theory which holds that a priori declarations confernng jurisdiction upon the
vincing": Roseme, TheL.uwundPructiceof theInternationalCourt, 1965,Vol. 1,p. 408.
In the sarne sense, see De Visscher, Problèmesd'interprétationjudiciaire en droiitnter-
nationalpublic; 1963,p. 201.

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Dissenting Opinion of Judge de Castro (translation)

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