Separate Opinion of Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice

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050-19700205-JUD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
050-19700205-JUD-01-00-EN
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SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SIR GERALD FITZMAURICE

1. Although (if with some reluctance) 1agree and have voted with the
majority of the Court in finding the Belgian claim in this case to be in-
admissible, and broadly for the principal reason on which the Judgment
is based-namely that in respect of an injury done to a company, prima
facie the company's goverriment alone can sustain an international
claim-1 have a somewhat different attitude on various aspects of the
matter, which 1wish to indicate. In particular (a) 1would go consider-
ably further than does the Judgment in accepting limitations on the
principle of the "hegemony" of the company and its government;-
furthermore (b), though 1havefelt bound to vote as 1have, 1nevertheless

hold it to be an unsatisfactory state of the law that obliges the Court to
refrain from pronouncing on the substantive merits of the Belgian claim,
on the basis of what is really-at least in the actud circumstances of this
case-somewhat of a technicality.

2. In addition, there are a number of particular matters, not dealt
with or only touched upon in the Judgment of the Court, which 1should
like to comment on. Although these comments can only be in the nature
of obiter dicta, and cannot have the authority of a judgment, yet since
specific legislative action with direct binding effect is not at present
possible in the international legal field, judicial pronouncements of one
kind or another constitute the principal method by which the law can

find some concrete measure of clarification and development. 1 agree
with the late Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpacht that it is incumbent on
international tribunals to bear in mind this consideration, which places
them in a different position from domestic tribunals as regards dealing
with-or at least commenting on-points that lieoutside the strict ratio
decidendi of the case.

l The necessary references and citations are given in the opening paragraphs of
theseparate Opinion of my colleague Judge Jessup in the present case (q.v.),-and
1 associate myself with the views he expresses in this connection.

65 3. In the next part (II) of this opinion (paragraphs 4-34) 1 propose
to indicate thecriteria on the basis of which 1have felt obliged to concur
in the main conclusion reached by the Court, but 1 shall do so in the
light of my view that certain of the considerations of law which compel
that conclusion prove, in the international field, to be unserviceable as
soon as they are applied to any situation which is out of the ordinary.
In the succeedingpart (III-paragraphs 35and 36),I statethe conclusions
which 1believeought to be drawn from part II as to the place of equitable

considerations in the international legalfield,and the growing need there
for a system of Equity. In the next two parts (IV and V) 1 propose, as
indicated supra in paragraph 2, to comment on a certain number of
matters (also of a more or less preliminary character) which, though not
relevant to the particular point on which the Court's decision turns,
formed part of the long series of questions debated by the Parties in the
course oftheir arguments, and which accounted, or could have accounted,
for individual rejections of the Belgian claim by certain Members of the
Court. Part IV (paragraphs 37-65) will deal with matters affecting the
nationality of the Barcelona Traction Company's shareholders, and Part
V (paragraphs 66-83) with certain other matters having a preliminary
character,-viz. the question of jurisdiction in bankruptcy, and a parti-
cular aspect of the local remedies rule. Finally, in the concluding part
(VI-paragraphs 84-90)-since the subject has evidently given rise to

some misunderstanding-1 discuss the philosophy of the joinder of
preliminary objections to the merits. There is finally a Postscript on the
question of the length of the proceedings in this and other cases, and
certain related matters.

4. Although, as 1have said, 1reach the same final conclusion as in the
Judgment of the Court, my approach is different. In particular 1 do not

base myself as does the Judgment to some extent (vide its paragraphs
33-36),and as figured fairly prominently in the arguments of the Parties,
on any consideration turning on the question of to whom, or to what
entity, was the obligation owed in this case, not to act in a manner

Although 1now agree with my colleague Judge Morelli's view that the question
of Belgium's right to claim on behalf of the Barcelona Traction Company's share-
holders, in so far as Belgian, is really a question of substancenot of capacity (because
the underlying issue is what rights do the shareholders themselves have), it is
standing.t for immediate purposes to treatthe matter as one of Belgian Governmentcontrary to international law. This does not seemto me to bethe right
question to ask where the issue involved is not one of treaty or other

particular obligations, but of general international law obligations in the
sphere of the treatment of foreigners. If in the latter area a State, either
directly or through its agencies or authorities, acts illicitly, it stands in
breach of international law irrespective of whether any other State is
qualified to take the matter up. For instance if an individual were
concerned, he might be stateless. If in the present case there havebeen
contraventions of international law, they are in no way legitimized, nor

do they become any the less illicit, because Canada has not (or even
possibly could not 3, pursue the matter, and because Belgium is held to
possess no locus standi injudicio for doing so. Nor is the question of the
entity to which the obligation is due helpful even for the purpose of
identifying the party entitled to claim, for such entity would itself
previously need to be identified, and the discussion would turn in a circle.

5.The material and onlypertinent question iswho or what entity, if, any
isentitled to claim inrespect of damage accruing to shareholdersin conse-
quence of illicit treatment of the company;-and in order to answer this
since the matter concerns a company and its shareholders-it is above al1
necessary to have regard to the concept and structure of companies
according to the systems of their origin, which are systems of private

or domestic law,-and furthermore to insist on the principle that when
private law concepts are utilized, or private law institutions are dealt
with in the international legal field, they should not there be distorted
or handled in a manner not in conformity with their true character, as it
exists under the system or systems of their creation. But, although this
is so, it is scarcely less important to bear in mind that conditions in the
international field are sometimes very different from what they are in
the domestic, and that rules which these latter conditions fully justify

may be less capable of vindication if strictly applied when transposed
ont0 the international level 4.Neglect of this precaution may result in an
opposite distortion,-namely that qualifications or mitigations of the

i.e., if it were held that no "genuine link" existed between Canada and the
Barcelona Traction Company on the basis of the principle of the Nottebohm case
(vide infra, paragraphs 26-32).
In this respect 1 fully associate myself with the viewsexpressed by Lord McNair
in his South West Africa case (1950) Opinion when, speaking of the United Nations
Trusteeship System, he said (Z.C.J. Reports 1950, at p. 148) that private law in-
stitutions could not be imported intothe international field "lock, stock andl",
just as they were, and that private law rules could only serve as indications of
principle and not as rigid injunctions in the internationalin. However, in the
present case thereis no question of international law setting up a new international
The latter remains a purelyrivate law creation, which international law must take asrule, provided for on the interna1 plane, may fail to be adequately
reflectedon the international,-leading to a resulting situation of paradox,

anomaly and injustice.

6. This is what seems to have occurred in the field of the corporate
entity at the international level. Since the limited liability company with
share capital is exclusively a creation of private law, international law
is obviously bound in principle to deal with companies as they are,-that
is to say by recognizing and giving effect to their basic structure as it

exists according to the applicable private law concepts 5. Fundamental
to the structure of the company is the ascription to it, qua corporate
entity, of a separate personality over and above that of its component
parts, viz. the shareholders, with resulting carefully drawn distinctions
between the sphere, functions and rights of the company as such, acting
through its management or board, and those of the shareholder. These
distinctions must obviously be maintained at the international level:

indeed to do otherwise would be completely to travesty the notion of a
company as a corporate entity. Thus it is that, just as in domestic courts
no shareholder could take proceedings in respect of a tort or breach
of contract committed in respect of the company, but only the latter
could do so, through the action of its management with whom the
decision would lie-a decision which, broadly speaking, the shareholder
must accept,-so also if an illicit act injurious to the company or in-
fringing its rights takes place on the international plane, it is not the

government of the shareholder but, in principle, that of the company
alone, which can make an international claim or bring international
proceedings;-the decision whether to do so or not lying with the latter
government-a decision which again the foreign shareholder must accept,
in the sense that neither he nor his government can require (still less
compel) the company's government to take action.

7. In neither case does it make any difference that the wrong done to
the company recoils or "repercusses" ont0 the shareholder 6, e.g., by

it finds it. The complaint 1am making in this Opinion is that international law has
indeed taken it as it has found it over part of the ground, but not over the rest,
thereby introducing an unjustified distortion.
Itis inevitable that these conceptsshould be referred to herein in very broad and
general terms. Thedetails Varyfrom country to country, and somethings may not be
true or may need considerable qualification for certain countries.

Suppose that by the tortious negligence of a third party the company'sare-
houses are burned down,-the shareholder may indirectly be seriously affected, but
he can have no right of action: the property was not his but the company's. It is the
same if his interest is affected by the failure of a third party to carry out a contract
with the company, for he himself is not a party to the contract.is quite another
matter if the act complained of is directed against, or directly infringes, his specificcausing the market value of his shares to fa11orthe profits of the company
to be diminished-whence lower dividends; or by causing difficulty as to
disposing of the shares-(for want of ready buyers),-for while the
shareholder has a legal right not to have his shares cancelled or confisca-
ted without compensation, he has no legal right that they shall have,
or be maintained at, any particular market value,-and while the share-

holder has a right to receive a dividend if a dividend is declared, he has
no right that it shall be declared, or (if declared) be for any particular
amount 7,-and again, while he has a right freely to dispose of his
shares the law does not guarantee him either a buyer or a price.
8. But at this point it becomes clear that something has gone wrong,-
that the analogy has broken down,-because certain qualifications or
modifications, it might be said mitigations, which, in the domestic field,
affect and as it were alleviate the situation just described, are not, in
the present state of the law, reflected, or not adequately so, in the inter-
national domain;-for whereas at that level this situation is one which,
as the law now seems to stand, may leave the shareholder powerless to

protect his interests, this is not the case on the domestic plane, where
the principle of the "hegemony" of the company is accompanied by
certain balancing elements, acting as a counterweight, which are only
up to a point reflected in the present condition of international law-
(vide infra, paragraph 11 and the footnotes thereto).

9. In order to understand this matter, it is necessary to have regard to
the underlying rationale of the "hegemony principle". This resides in
something more than the purely juridical situation resulting from the

separate legal personality of the company, and the fact that, in the type
of case now in question, the rights infringed are those of the company,
not of the shareholder-though his pocket may be affected, actually or
potentially-(vide supra, paragraph 7 and footnote 6). Nor does it reside
in the practical considerations which, on the domestic plane, at least,
must in al1normal circumstances rule out the possibility of separate and
independent action by shareholders in respect of the treatment of the
company, as such, by third parties.
10. The true rationale (outside but underlying the law) of denying to

rights as a shareholder,-for instance his right freely to dispose of his shares were
illicitly interfered with, or if resolutions duly passed at the general meeting of
shareholders were declareduIl and void, etc.
' ASca general rule, that is. Under wartime or other emergency conditions,ds.
owners of certain kinds of securities., those expressed in foreign currency) might
be required to dispose of them to, or only to, the government or central bank.69 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. FITZMAURICE)

the shareholder the possibility of action in respect of infringernents of
company rights is that, normally, he does not need this. The company

will act and, by so doing, will automatically protect not only its own
interests but those of the shareholders also. That is the assumption;-
namely that the company is both capable of acting and will do so unless
there are cogent reasons why, in the interests of the company and, hence,
indirectly of the shareholders, it should refrain 9,-the decision involved
being one ofpolicy, prima facie forthe determination of the management.
(It is precisely here, however, that the beginnings of a profound difference
between the domestic and the international situations can be discerned,
for if and when a government declines or fails to intervene on behalf of

a company of its nationality detrimentally affected by illicit foreign
action, the reasons will be the government's not the company's 1°,and will
normally have nothing to do with the company's interests, which indeed
are likely to be adversely affected still further by the government's
refusa1 or failure, so that no contingent or long-term advantage, or
avoidance of disadvantage, will result, as might be expected if the
decision were the company's. The motivations involved are quite distinct.
But al1this is to anticipate.)

11. The assurnption that the company will act, or will have good
reasons for not doing so-(reasons which will be in the eventual interests
of the shareholders a1so)-underlies equally the variously expressed
axiom, on the presumed truth of which so much of the applicable law
is based-namely that the fate of the shareholder is bound up with that
of the company; that his fortunes follow the latter's; that having elected
to throw in his lot with the company, he must abide by the consequences,
be they good or bad, so long as he maintains his connection with it,

etc., etc. The idea has been well expressed in a recent work l1as follows
(my translation) :-
"If, in principle, the shareholders must suffer the fate of the

cornpany, this is because the corporate entity is a legal person
capable by its corporate action of protecting the interests which the
shareholders have entrusted to it .. .transferring to the corporate

Because, e.g., too expensive, or likely to have undesirable repercussions, to
offend some powerful interest, interfere with some other objective, involve sorne
awkward revelation, etc.

the claim. For instance a government may well not wish to press a private claim ,of
against another government with which it is conducting difficult negotiations on a
matter of overriding national importance. Many otherinstances could be given.

" Paul De Visscher, "La Protection Diplomatique des Personnes Moralesm-
(Diplomatic Protection of Corporate Entities)-Recueil[i.e., Collecred Courses] of
the Hague Academy of International Law, 1961, Vol. 1, at p. 465. entity a part of their personality and rights, with the object ofthereby
obtaining a better return and a more effective safeguard. But on
that account, if such is the justification for the indivisibility of the
corporate entity, such is also its limit."

The nature and extent of this limit on the international plane will be
considered later. In the domestic sphere it takes two main forms, the

external and the internal-the latter being action within the company
itself by means of its own processes and procedures (vid iefra,paragraph
12).As to the former, most developed systems of law contain provisions
which have been described in very general terms as being

"intended to protect the interests of shareholders if the company's

officers are considering their own interests rather than the interests
of the company, and also to protect the interests of minorities of
shareholders" 12.

Such provisions of course differ from country to country but, without
attempting to particularize, their broad effect is either to enable share-
holders to bring an action in their own names against a third Party, in a

variety of circumstances involving fraud, malfeasance, negligence or

l2Beckett, "Diplomatic Claims in Respect of Injuries to Companies", Trans-
actions of the Grotius Society,ol. 17 (1932), at p. 193, footnote (7), citing (and see
also at p. 192)Dutch, English, French and German law. Beckett also cites a passage
from Halsbury's Laws of England. The same passage as it figures in the later (1954)
edition, after stating thatrmally only the company not shareholders can sue third
parties, continues as follows:

"Where, however, the persons against whom relief is sought hold and control
the majority of the shares, and will not permit an action to be brought in the
company's name, shareholders complaining may bring an action in their own
names and on behalf of the others and they may do so also where the effect of
preventing them so suing would be to enable a company by an ordinary re-
solution to ratify an improperly passed special resolution."

See also Mervyn Jones, "Claims on behalf of Nationals who are Shareholders in
Foreign Companies" in British Year Book of International Law, Vol. XXVI (1949),
at pp. 232-234, citing American, Austrian, Belgian, English, French, Italian,
Norwegian, Swedish and Swiss law.
See further as to German law in "La Personnalité Morale et ses Limitesw-
(The Corporate Entity and its Limits), published by Pichon & Durand-Auzias for
the Institute of Comparative Law of the University of Paris inLibrairie Généralee
Droit et de Jurisprudence,1960, at pp. 43-44 (per Dr. Ulrich Drobnig); and, in ibid.,
at p. 150, the following statement of Swiss law (per Prof. J. M. Grossen-my
toacompel the corporate entity-orely more exactly its management-to [thchange itsers]
attitude."
For analogous provisions of French law see paragraph 11 of my colleague Judge
Gros' separate Opinion. other improper refusa1 or failure on the part of the management to act

for the protection of the company's interests, or else to enable share-
holders to bring proceedings against the management itself to compel it
so to act. In short, generally speaking, domestic law makes at least
some provision for the case where the basic assumption of action by
the company, rendering action by the shareholders unnecessary, ceases
to hold good 13.

12. The other type of possibility which private law affords to share-
holders (or at least to a majority of them; and often even to a minority)
if dissatisfied with the policies of the company-including therefore such
a thing as a failure to proceed against a third party in the protection of
the company's interests-is to take action on the interna1 plane within

the confines of the company itself, and through its normal procedures
(shareholders' meetings, voting of resolutions. etc.), directed to influen-
cing and if necessary changing, those policies or even, in the last resort,
modifying or changing the management itself. In certain circumstances,
reconstructions constitute another possibility.

13. The question that now has to be asked is how far these domestic
law limitations on the exclusive power of the management, allowing of
independent action by the shareholders, are reflected at the international
level, so as correspondingly to qualify the principle of the exclusive right

of the government of the company to intervene, and admitting the
possibility of intervention by that of .the shareholders, even though the
injury is to the company as such, rather than to any independent stricto
sensu shareholding right. This question has to be asked because, if it is

l3 In addition to the passage from Halsbury's Laws of England cited in the first
paragraph of footnote 12 supra, the following sections from the same work also
indicate the positionunder English law (loc. cit., pp. 222-223, omitting references to
footnotes):
"458. Statutory right of members collectively. The members of a company
collectively have statutory rights, some of which are exercisable by a bare
majority, as, for instance, a resolution at the statutory meeting; others by a
particularmajority, as in the case of a reconstruction; aothers by a minority,
as in the case of a requisition for a meeting of shareholders, or of an application
to the Board of Trade to appoint an inspector to investigate the company's
affairs, or of an application by an oppressed minority to the court for relief.

Statutcry rights cannot betaken away or modified by any provisions of the
rne"461. Rights under thegeneral law. The rights of a member under the general
law include his right.. to restrain directors from acting ultra vires the company
or in excess of their own powers or acting unfairly to the members." not right that international law should distort the structure of the
company (an essentially private law concept) by failing to give al1 due
effect to the logic of its separate personality, distinct from that of the

shareholders,-it is no less wrong, and an equaldistortion, if international
law fails to give due effect to the limitations on this principle recognized
by the very system which, mutatis mutandis, it is sought to apply on the
international plane. In short, such application should be integral, not
partial. But is it?-or is it not rather the case that international law,
whilepurporting to base itself on, and to be guided by the relevant fea-
tures of municipal law, really does so only toa certain extent, departing

from it at precisely that point where, under municipal law the manage-
nent of the company can in certain circumstances be compelled by
the shareholders to act?

14. It seems that, actually, in only one category of situation is it more
or less definitely admitted that intervention by the government of foreign
shareholders is allowable, namely where the company concerned has the
nationality l4of the very State responsible for the acts or damage com-

plained of, and these, or the resulting circumstances, are such as to
render the company incapable de facto of protecting its interests and
hence those of the shareholders 15. Clearly in this type of case no inter-
vention or claim on behalf of the company as such can, in the nature of
things, be possible at the international level, since the company has local
not foreign nationality, and since also the very authority to which the
company should be able to look for support or protection is itself the

author of the damage. Consequently, the normal rule of intervention
only on behalf of the company by the company's government becomes
not so much inapplicable as irrelevant or meaningless in the context.
The efficacity of the corporate entity and its capability of useful action
has broken down, and the shareholders become as it were substituted
for the management to protect the company's interests by any method
legally open to them. If some of them have foreign nationality, one

such way is to invoke the intervention of their government, and in
the circumstances this must be regarded as admissible. Thus the same

l4 For present purposes 1am taking the nationality of a company to be that of the
country of incorporation, the laws of which govern the company's constitution and
functioning. However, vide infra paras. 33 and 34.
l5 If the wrong done to the company, or breach of contract with it, cornes not
from another private party but from the authorities of the country, it is again in
principle only the company whichcan take legal action, to the extent that the local
law allows the government to be sued. If however, as happened for instance in the
El Triunfo case (United Nations Reports of International Arbitral Awards, Vol. XV,
p. 464), the action taken against the conlpany by the authorities has the effect of
completely paralyzing it,hen the shareholders can act and, if they are unable to
discussed as being now more or lessenerally recognized, invoke the aid and inter-ere
vention of their government.authority as was cited in paragraph 11 above continues (translation) 16:

". ..From this it necessarily results that if the rational justification
for the mechanism of the corporate entity is brought to a collapse
by the act of the very State whose law governs the status and
allegiance of the corporate entity, its personality is no longer
anything but a fiction void of al1meaning, in which there can now
be seen nothing but a bundle of individual rights."
15. Notwithstanding these cogent considerations of principle, the

validity of this exception to or limitation on the rule of non-intervention
by the government of the shareholders in respect of wrongs done to the
company, is contested on a variety of grounds. Ttis said for instance that
this type of intervention on behalf of foreign shareholders ought only
to be permissible wherethe company itself is also essentially foreign as
to its management and control, and the nature of the interests it covers,
and where its local nationality did notresult from voluntary incorporation
locally, but was imposed on it by the government of the country or by a
provision of its locallawas a condition of operating there, or of receiving
a concession. Tn such cases, it is said, the company's nationality is an
artificial one that does not correspond with the underlying realities,
and for this reason (butfor this reason only) the local government should
not be able to avail itself of the obstacle of its nationality which it has

designedly insisted on interposing between itself and those realities-
pcssibly for the express purpose of preventing foreign intervention.
Where however the local nationality was deliberately assumed by the
company as a matter of choice, then, so it is said, there is no reason for
making any such departure fromthe basic rule of the company screen.

16. It is doubtless true that it is in the case of such "enforced" local
nationality that situations leading to foreign shareholders in the company
invoking the intervention of their government are most liable to arise.
Nevertheless, there does not seem to be any sufficientreason of principle
for drawing the distinction involved. The fact of local incorporation,
but with foreign shareholding, remains the same in both types of case,
whatever the motivations or processes that brought it about. Nor are the
motivations which lead foreign interests to seek or not seek local nation-
ality always easy to assess: they may be very mixed. Nor again is it

always the case that companies with a large foreign shareholding, and
mainly controlled from abroad, do not voluntarily obtain local in-
corporation: they often do, and there may be sound business reasons
for it. Yet they are just as liable in practice to be regarded locally as

l6 Loc. citin footnote 11 supra.

74basically foreign, and to suffer from action which may prevent them,
as companies,from acting for thernselves.

17. Another objection to be urged was that in so far as the doctrine
of a right of intervention on behalf of foreign shareholders in a locally
incorporated company unable to act for itself, or rendered incapable

of so doing, may depend on a number of precedents deriving from cases
decided by international tribunals, itwiHbe found on a careful examina-
tion of those cases that the "company" that was concerned was usually
more in the nature of a firm, partnership, or other similar association
of persons, than of atrue separate corporateentity distinct fromthose per-
sons. Hence, it isobjected, in so far as the latter were admitted, to claim
and their governments to support their claims, they were acting in respect
of damage to specificstricto sensurights of their own in the association
concerned, and not of the rights of the association as such. Where on
the other hand, so it is said, a corporate entity really was involved, the
capacity to claim on behalf of shareholders resulted from the express
terms of the treaty, convention or "compromis" submitting the case to

the tribunal,-consequently these cases cannot be cited as implying
recognition of any general principle of law allowing of such claims.

18. It may be true that the exactrationale of a number of the decisions
concerned is not very easy to determine precisely, and lends itself to
much controversy, as the course of the written and oral proceedings
in both phases of the present case have amply demonstrated. Any
thorough determination would however take up a disproportionate
amount of space here: nor is it necessary,-for the considerations of

principle invoked in previous paragraphs of this Opinion, based on do-
mestic law analogies, are quite sufficient in themselves to justify the
doctrine of a right of intervention on behalf of shareholders "substituted"
for a moribund or incapable company of local nationality, in order to
protect its interests and their own.

19. It is my view therefore, that the legal position is correctly stated
in the following two paragraphs from the same source as was previously
cited 17:

"In sum, in order to weigh the admissibility of the protection of
shareholders, it is necessary to adhere essentially to the idea of the
effectiveness of the corporate entity. It matters little whether,
according to interna1 law criteria, the corporal personality subsists
or not. Even where it does, an international tribunal can admit the
-.
l7LOC.cit. in footnote 11 supra, at p. 477.75 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. FITZMAURICE)

diplomatic protection of shareholders from the moment when it
finds as a fact that the damage caused to the corporate entity has
had the effect of paralysing or sterilising the usefulness that the
mechanism of corporate personality ought normally to bring about
for the benefit of the shareholders.

In that case, an international tribunal, not being bound by interna1
law criteria, 'pierces the corporate veil', as it is said, [but] it would
be more accurate to Saythat it registers the absence of al1effective
personality, of any effectua1intermediary between the shareholders
and the rights infringed."

These two paragraphs moreover, even if only in general terms, almost
exactly describe the situation of the Barcelona Company which, though
still subsisting and formally in existence Ishas, as to its functioning in

Spain, been entirely paralyzed and rendered incapable of further useful
action-a situation not only admitted but, for their own purposes,
considerably insisted upon by the Spanish side. The Company was indeed
crippled to the point where, deprived of al1its Spanish assets and sources
of income, it could no longer find the funds for its legal defence, these
having to be supplied by the very same shareholders whose right to

invoke the diplomaticprotection of their Government, Spain denies.

20. In consequence, had the Company been Spanish by incorporation,
instead of Canadian, 1 should have had no hesitation in holding that a
claim by Belgium on behalf of the Belgian shareholders in the Company

was admissible;-and it is indeed one of the ironies of this case (but not
the only one 14)that the BelgianGovernment would have been ina much
stronger position as regards the admissibility of its claim had the Com-
pany been Spanish rather than Canadian.

l8 1 share the view expressed in the passage just cited that the formal keeping
alive of the Company does not affect the realities of the matter. However, the Belgian
position would (ironically) have been stronger if the Spanish events had resulted not
merely in the "hispanicization" of the undertaking in Spain,but in forcing the
liquidation orwjnding up of Barcelona Traction itself,-fit would then have been
much more diffcult to maintain, through the fiction of the Company's continued
existence, that only theanadian Governrnent could claim.

l9 See previous footnote. It rnay also be thought (see the separate Opinion of my
colleague Judge Gros, paragraph 12) that the Company would have fared better
through an open and avowed nationalisation or expropriation of its Spanishder-
taking, accompanied by the payment of adequate compensation, than it did through
amount of the compensation.cy. But this would have depended on the nature and 21. Must the Canadian nationality of the Company then rule out
the Belgian claim? In the present state of the law it would seem that it
must. In connection with this conclusion, however, a number of points
have to be considered in order to show why, although it is correct on the
basis of extant law, this law itself, as it now stands, is in this respect
unsatisfactory.
22. The first of these points is that, as required by the logic of the
considerations indicated in paragraphs 5 to 13supra, if on the domestic
plane there are circumstances in which some action is open to the share-
holders notwithstanding that it is prima facie the company's position,
rather than (directly) their own, that is in question,-thenin correspond-
ing circumstances the government of the shareholders should, on the

international plane, be entitled to intervene and claim. One such case
has already been discussed supra in paragraphs 14-20: the company
is defunct or paralyzed and there can be no question of intervention
or claim by its government, for the latter is itself the tortfeasor govern-
ment, if wrong there has been. Similarly, if international law is to remain
faithful to the concept of the company and, in dealing with the latter
on the international plane, is to give due effect to its essential elements,
then it must provide for the case where the company's government-
not being the tortfeasor government (but also not being the government
of the majority of the shareho1ders)-for reasons of its own that have
nothing to do with the interests of theCompany(see supra paragraph 10)
refuses or fails to intervene, even though there may be a good, or ap-
parently good case in law for doing so, and the interests of the company
require it. Just as on the domestic plane an analogous failure or refusal
on the part of the management of the company would normally enable
the shareholders to act, either (if the element of dolus or cuba were
present) by legal action against the management, or against the tortfeasor
or contract-breaking third party,-or else through the interna1 processes

of the company;-so also, on the international plane, ought the inaction
of the company's government enable that of the shareholders to act-
(and obviously there would be ways of resolving the practical difficulties
of the company's government subsequently changing its mind-if the
servants of the law cared to work them out;-1 think that in this respect
paragraphs 94-98 of the Court's Judgment make too much of this
matter).

23. In fact, international law does not at present allow of this-
except possibly in the one case of the company's government being
actually disqualified ataw from acting (as to which see infra, paragraphs
26-32).The reasons for this insufficiency-for such it is-may be perfectly
understandable, but this does not alter the fact that international law
is in this respect an under-developed system as compared withprivate
law, and that it fails to provide the recourses necessary for protectingon the international plane the interests not rnerely of the shareholders
but ofthe company itsetfWhat are these reasons? They are of course
that a government is not in the same position as a company and cannot
Semade subject to the same constraints. The management of a company

owes a duty, not only to the company but to the shareholders, and is
bound to act in the best interests of the company, and henm of the
shareholders, basing itself on an informed and well-weighed estimate
of what these are. A government is under no such duty. It is perfectly
free on policy grounds to ignore the interests of the company or even
to act in a manner it knows to be contrary to these; and if it does this,

there are no international means of recourse against it, such as there
would be against the management of a company soacting on the internal
plane. There is no means, internatianally, of proceeding against a gov-
ernment which refuses to intervene on behalf of, or support, the claim
of one of its nationals or national c~rnpanies~~,-nor couid such a
refusal conceivably entai1 the breach of any general international law

obligation. Still Iessof course is there anymeans of changing or repIacing
a government which refuses or fails to act as, internally, the shareholders
may be able to do as regards the company's management.

24. Al1this at present provides an excuse for saying, as the law now
does, that if the company's government does not act no other one can.
Instead, it should constitute a reason for coming to preciselythe opposite
conclusion. An enlightened rule, while recognizing that the national
government of the company can never be requiredto intervene, and that
its reasons for not doing so cannot be questioned even though they may

have nothing to do with the merits of the claim, wouId simply provide
that in such event the government of the shareholders may do so 21-
particularly if, as isfrequentlythe case, it isjust because the shareholding
is rnain1y foreign that the government of the Company feels that no
sufficient national interest exists to warrant intervention on its own

20 Theoretically, the internal law of the country concerned rnight provide a means
of recourse against the government in such circumstances: and political action rnight
be possible. But in neither case would the essential point be affected.

21 1am not greatly impressed by the point which cornes up in several connections
that the Belgian position, with ag block of majority sharehofding, is peculiar, and
that in other cases there might be foreign shareholders ofral nationalities and a
consequent muftipticity of clairns. This would only go to the quantum of reparation
recoverable by thevarious g0vernrnent.s-and once the prineiple of clairns on behalf
of shareholders had been admitted forsuch circurnstances, it woutd not be diRcult
to work out ways of avoiding a multiplicity of proceedings, which is what would
reallymatter.part 22.The law's present attitude is based on predicating for the com-

pany's government not merely a prima facie right (which would be
understandable) but an exclusive one (which is not). There is no reason
of principle why, if the law so wills, failure to utilize a right of action
by the party prima facie entitled to do so should not sanction its exercise
by another party whose material interest in the matter may actually be
greater. Practical difficulties there might be; but this is not a serious
objection where no inherent necessity of the law stands in the way.

That such a situation of primary and secondary (or latent) entitlement
to act can work, if properly regulated, seems to be indicated by the
shareholders' possibilities of action on the domestic plane, as earlier
described.

25. International law must in consequence be regarded as deficient
and underdeveloped in this field because, while retaining the rule of

the "hegemony" of the Company and its government, it fails to provide
those safeguards and alternatives which private law has instituted for
preventing the hegemony of the company's management leading to
abuse. More exactly, what the law enjoins, and the Judgment of the
Court therefore inevitably endorses (see its paragraphs 66-68, 77-83 and
93), is the by-passing of the difficulty by a sort of' "ostrich-act"-a
hiding of the face in the sands of the fiction that so long as it remains

theoretically possible for the company's government to act (and how-
ever little reality there may be about this possibility), no other govern-
ment can do so. Thus the law allows the company's government eternally
to dangle before the foreign shareholder the carrot of a hypothetical
protection that will never be exercised, and tells the hungry fellow that
he must be satisfied with this because, although he will never be allowed

to eat that carrot, it will always remain there to be looked at 23! Inter-
national law has of course to accept the fact that governments cannot

22This is or has been the settled policy of a number of governments. 1 am not
impressed by the argument that those who acquire shares in companies not of their
own nationality must be deemed to know that this risk exists. Thatoes not seem
to me to affect the principle of thetter.
23Or, like the nymph pursued by the ephebus, as depicted in the timeless stasis of
the attic vase that inspired thei Keats' celebrated Ode ondGrecian Urn(verse 2,
lines 7-10):

"Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss,
Though winning near the goal-yet, do not grieve;
Forever wilt thou love, and she be fair!"bliss, be compelled to act or be changed. But it does not have to accept (and
even positively decree) that nevertheless no other government can ever
act-that the carrot must be eternally dangled but never eaten-the
maiden ever pursued but never attained!-(see footnote 23 above).

TheNottebohm case

26. There remains however a quite different order of point, which is
in my view by far the most important to arise on the question of Belgian
locus standi, namely what the situation would be if Canada, instead of
having merely failed to pursue the case, were actually to be unable to
do so because of a legal disability created by international law itself,
disqualifying Canada from acting. It is one thing for the law to predicate,
.on the basis of an exclusive right of action for one government, that
even in the event of its not being exercised, no other government may
exercise it. Such a position may be regrettable, for the reasons 1 have

indicated, but is at least tenable. What would be totally inadmissible
would be for the law simultaneously to confer a right, yet disqualify the
indicated government from exercising it in certain circumstances, and
then, when these arise and the disqualification operates, continue to
maintain the rule of exclusivity and the consequent incapacity of the
governments of other parties whose interest in the matter is undeniable.
Implicitly the Judgment takes the same view because an important part
of it (see preceding paragraph) rests on the basis that so long as it is
possible forthe company's governmentto claim (whether it chooses to do
so or not) the shareholders are not, at least inlaw,deprived of al1chance
of protection.

27. These aspects are particularly important if consideration is given
to what the ground of Canada's possible disqualification would be,
namely (on the basis of certain previous decisions and other elements 23
that there was an absence of a sufficientlycloselink betweenthe Canadian
Government and the Barcelona Company to give the former an action-
able interest at law. Moreover, a major factor would precisely be the
absence of any Canadian shareholding or share capital in the Company
and the fact that most of it was Belgian. In my view,a disqualification-

Reports 1955, p. 4 et seq.; and the Report of the Commission of Arbitration in the
"l'in Alone" case (U.N. Reports of Znterna!ionalArbitral Awards, Vol. III, p. 1614).
The same sort of questions also arise over the use of flags of convenience; supposed
head-offices that are no morean an address anda letter-box; etc.at least if it takes place on those grounds-must in logic and in law
ipsofacto imply legal capacity for the government of the shareholders
whose non-Canadian status has brought the disqualification about.

28. Having regard to the importance of this issue and, consequentiy,
of the possible applicability to the situation of Canada of the Court's

decision in the Nottebohm case 25,which obviously could affect the whole
outcome of this part of the case, I consider that it should not have been
side-tracked on the basis that neither of the Parties contested the exis-
tence of a Canadian right of intervention and claim. In my view they
should have been asked, in the exercise of the Court's power to act
proprio motu, to present full argument on the matter; and the interven-
tion of the Canadian Government under Article 62 of the Court's
Statute should have been sought, in order that its views might be made
known. If for various reasons, it would not have been practicable to do
this during the normal course of the oral hearing, 1 consider that the
Parties should have been recalled later for the purpose, after such interval
as might have been thought appropriate for any necessary written

exchanges on the subject. This was not done: yet the Court's Judgment
(see paragraph 70 and, generally, paragraphs 70-76) not only touches on
the matter, but givesthe reasons whythe Court did not believe that it need
consider the Nottebohm case, viz. that there was no true analogybetween
the situation in that case and this one. At the sametime, theCourt does in
fact findaffirmativelythat thereisa sufficientlink between Canadaand the
Barcelona Company to qualify Canada to sustain aclaimif it chooses to do
so,-and the Court does sowithout going into thecounterarguments to be
derived from the Nottrbohm case.In these circumstances, and without my-
self attempting to pronounce onthe substance of the matter,1 feelobliged
to indicate why the Nottebohm decision unquestionably does have a

bearing on this-one of the main issues dealt with in the Judgment of
the Court; and why indeed there is a strikingly close analogy between
the two cases, so that the principle of theNottebohm decision could well
be regarded as very neatly applying to the situation obtaining in the
present case.

29. In the Nottebohm case, in which Liechtenstein was claiming
against Guatemala, the three main grounds on which the Court found
against Liechtenstein's capacity to put forward the claim of Mr. Notte-
bohm were :

(i) that this Liechtenstein nationality-acquired by naturalization
just before the outbreak of war in 1939,he being then a German

25 See reference in footnote 24 above.

81 national-was purely artificial, in the sense that he had no$
acted from any real desire to identify himself with Liechtenstein
and its fortunes, but with the ulterior object of endeavouring
to divest himself of enemy character by acquiring neutral
status ;
(ii) that his true connection by residence, domicile and business
interests was Guatemalan; and

(iii) that it was precisely against Guatemala that the claim was
being brought.
In these circumstances the Court held that although Mr. Nottebohm

was undoubtedly of Liechtenstein nationality under the law of that
State, such nationality could not be regarded as entitling Liechtenstein
to make a claim on his behalf against Guatemala Z6;-or in other words
his claim was not "opposable" to Guatemala at the instance of Liech-
tenstein, which meant that Liechtenstein was in those particular circum-
stances disqualified.

30. If these tests were now to be applied to the case of the Barcelona
Company, it could very cogently be contended that a similar, if not
almost identical pattern emerged: that the Company obtained Canadian
incorporation not in order to do business in Canada (on the contrary),
but on account of certain particular advantages, fiscal and other, that
this might bring;-that the Company's entire undertaking was in Spain
where, through its subsidiaries, it carried on its sole business, none being
transacted anywhere else;-and finally that it would be precisely against

Spain that the Canadian Government would be claiming if it decided
to intervene. The analogy is clearly striking,-and if to this is added
the shareholding situation in the Barcelona Company's case-namely
that it was not Canadian, thus rendering the link with Canada still
weaker-it becomesmanifest that there was here something that required
to be gone into,-al1 the more so if it is correct to Say that a finding
of Canadian disqualijîcation (if such had been the outcome 27)should

automatically have entailed a recognition of Belgian capacity to claim

26 The Court was extremely careful to limit its finding to the case of a claim
against Guatemala. It did not postulate a general incapacity for Liechtenstein to
claim on behalf of Nottebohm-Le., against some other country. To have done so
would have been virtually to relegate Nottebohm to the category of a stateless person
so far as international claims were concerned.
27 There are of course arguments contra,-butthis only underlines the need for a
full consideration of thematter. It could be asked for instance whether the Nottebohm
case itself was rightly decided, exchanging as it does the certainties of nationality for
the uncertainties of less well-defined criteria?-see Brownlie on the Flegenheimercase
in ThePrinciplesofPubIic InternationalLaw (Oxford, 1966)at p. 328(caseheard before
the Italo-United States Clairns Commission, International Law Reports, 25(1958-I),
p. 91;-and see Brownlie's whole discussion of the Nottebohm decision in loc. cit.,
pp. 334-347. It can also be queried whether that decision is in any event properly on behalf of any person or entity who, at the material times, was both
of Belgian nationality and a shareholder in the Barcelona Company.

31. 1have already indicated (paragraph 28 above) that the Court was
not in my opinion absolved from going into these very fundamental
issues merely because the Parties did not raise them, and did not for the
purposes of these particular proceedingschallenge the ius standi of the
Canadian Government. It is true that in the Nottebohm case the Court

relied to some extent on the fact that Guatemala had never admitted
Liechtenstein's right of intervention,-whereas it can be argued that
Spain has admitted that of Canada, and would now be precluded from
denying it. This may be correct, but the notion does not appear to be
self-evidently well-founded. In the first place it rests on mere Spanish
non-objection to diplomatic representations made by Canada on behalf
of Barcelona Traction some 20 years ago,-whereas it must be at least
doubtfui how far this could operate as a positive admissionof a Canadian
right now to present a diplomatic claim on behalf of the Company
(if that occurred), in such a way as formally to preclude any Spanish
right of objection under this head. In this context, diplomatic representa-
tions-which need not necessarilybe based on or imply a claim of right,
but are often admitted or received in the absence of any such claim or
pretension to it-belong to a different order of international act from
the presentation of a formal claim before an international tribunal.

32. More important is the fact that, if any preclusion operated as a
result of past Spanish non-objection to Canadian intervention (as it
quite possibly might), it could only operate as against Spain in proceed-
ings brought by Canadaagainst the former. It could not possibly operate
against Belgium in proceedings brought by the latter against Spain.
In contrast to the case of Belgium, Spanish non-objection was at least
significant,for Spain at al1times had an interest in objecting to Canada's
intervention, if there were possible legal grounds for so doing. Belgium
did not have any such interest; on the contrary, the true interest of the
Belgian shareholders at al1times lay in Canadian intervention on behalf
of the Company: it is precisely the lack of such intervention since about
1952that has placed the Belgian shareholders in the position in which

applicable to corporate entities as wellas to individuals. These questions, and others,
needed to be gone into. they now find themselves.Consequently no inference adverse to Belgium
can be drawn from the Belgian non-objection to Canada's ius standi,
for this could not be expected in the circumstances, and was not called
for in proceedings in which the Belgian position essentially was (see
paragraph 46 infra) that irrespective ofany Canadian right, Belgiumhad

a right of claim. It was for the Court, acting proprio motu, as it has the
power to do, to go into this cardinal issue, the silence of the Parties
notwithstanding.

33. While on this part of the case, another question which in my
opinion needed to be considered was whether, in ail the circumstances,
the very "nationality" of the Barcelona Company itself should not be
held to be Belgian rather than Canadian. There has, doctrinally, been

much discussion and controversy as to what is the correct test to apply
in order to determine the national status of corporate entities; and
although the better view is that (at least for public as opposed to private
international law and some other purposes) the correct test is that of
the State of incorporation, there is equally no doubt that different
tests have been applied for different purposes, and that an element of
fluidity is still present in this field.This being so, it is surely a highly

tenable proposition that the very circumstances which might lead to the
State of incorporation being held to be disqualified from claiming,-
because of the absence of a "genuine link7'due to the company's owner-
ship and control and main business interests being elsewhere,-might
equally tend to suggest that in such a case a different test of nationality
should be applied 29.There are also certain other aspects of the matter
considered in the opening paragraphs of my colleague Judge Gros'

separate Opinion which are highly pertinent to the question of the
national status of companies.

34. 1 am of course aware that there are difficulties about this view

28See the discussions in Beckett, "Diplomatic Claims in respect of Injuries to
Companies", Transactions of the Grotius Society, Vol. 17 (1932), at pp. 180-188;
Paul De Visscher in Hague Recueil, 1961, Vol. 1, pp. 446-462; van Hecke, "The
Nationality of CompaniesAnalysed"in Netherlands International Law Review, 1961,
Issue 3, pp. 223-239; and Ginther, "Nationality of Corporations" in the Austrian
Public Interndtionai Law Review, 1966, Vol. XVI 1-2, pp. 27-83.
29 Orelsethatthe propertest of the right to claim internationally should be that
of where the real weight of interest lies. On this matter 1 associate myself (de lege
ferenda however) with much that is contained in paragraphs57-70 of my colleague
Judge Jessup'sOpinion.which would doubtless have been brought out had the matter been
properly argued. My purpose here is to indicate that this is what 1
think should have occurred. The Parties should have been requested
to present a full argument on the subject. It was not enough, in my
opinion, to proceed on the basis that since neither Party had contested
the Canadian nationality of the Barcelona Company, and both had
proceeded on the assumption that the Company was Canadian, the
Court was not called upon to speculate otherwise. Such an attitude may
be quite in order in domestic'courts where, normally, appeals or alter-
native procedures exist. It is not appropriateto international proceedings
in which, almost always, there are no possibilities of appeals or other
recourses. In this field the principle of caveat actor can be carried too
far, when the point involved is not at al1merely incidental but could be
of major importance for the outcome of the case.

III

35. The general conclusion to be drawn from the considerations set
out in part II supra, is that in cases of this kind, the results to which
a strict view ofthe law leads-as it stands de lege lata-are not satis-
factory. By means of a partial application of domestic law principles
connected with the inherent structure of the corporate entity, necessary
and correct so far as it goes, but one-sided, international law may give
rise to situations that cannot, or at any rate do not occur in correspond-
ing circumstances on the domestic plane; or which, if they did, would
certainly result in remedial legislative action. By failing to take account
of various other domestic law principles directed to enabling the share-
holders to act in certain kinds of cases where the action of the Company
is unavailable or not forthcoming, or to influenceor change the manage-
ment or its policy, or bytaking account of this situation only to a some-
what limited extent, the present state of international law leads to the
inadmissible ~onse~uencethat important interests may go whollyunpro-
tected, and that what may possibly be grave wrongs will, as a result
not be susceptible even of investigation. As my colleague Judge Jessup
reminded me, it was stated in the award in the Cayuga Indianscase (U.N.
Reports of International Arbitral Awards,Vol. VI, at p. 179)that:

"The same considerations of equity that have repeatedly been
invoked by the courts where strict regard to the personality of a
corporation would lead to inequitable results .. .may be invoked
here. In such cases courts have not hesitated to look behind the
legalperson and consider . ..who were the real beneficiaries."This is consequently surely a situation that calls for the application of
the well-known dictum of President Huber in the much cited Ziat, Ben
Kiran case 30,where what was involved was an entity of the nationality
of the defendant State-a type of case in which the idea of admitting
foreign intervention is really much more startling, conceptually, than it
is in the present type of case. Yet there is a resemblance, and Huber's

dictum is equally apt (my translation):

"International law which, in this field, draws its inspiration essen-
tially from the principles of equity, has not laid down any forma1

criterion for granting or rèfusingdiplomatic protection to national
interests linked to interests belonging to persons of different na-
tionality."
In the present context the equitable considerations to which the Court

refers in paragraphs 92-101 of the Judgment, stress the need for a less
inelastic treatment of certain of the issues of admissibility involved.

36. The matter can however be put on a broader basis than that
merely of the requirements that may exist in this particular field. As
an old authority (Ménignhac) said in terms evenmore applicable today-
"international law is to be applied with equity". There have been a
number of recent indications of the need in the domain of international
law, of a body of rules or principles which can play the same sort of
part internationally as the English system of Equity does, or at least

originally did, in the Comrnon Law countries that have adopted it.
Deciding a case on the basis of rulesof equity, that are part of the general
system of law applicable, is something quite different from giving a
decision ex aequo et bono,as wasindicated by the Court in paragraph 88
of its Judgment in the North Sea ContinentalSheIfcase (I.C.J. Reports
1969, at p. 48), when introducing the considerations which led it to
found its decision in part on equitable considerations, as it might well
have done in the present case also. Be that as it may, 1 should like to
take this opportunity of placing on record in a volume of the Court's
Reports a classic short statement of the way in which, historically, the

need for a system of Equity makes itself felt,-taken from a standard
work 31 current in the country in which Equity as a juridical system
originated,-and in language moreover that might almost have been
devised for the case of international law:

"Equity is that body of rules or principles which form[s] an
appendage or gloss to the general rules of law. It represents the

30 U.N. Reports of International Arbitrai Awards, II,p. 729.
31 Snell's Principles of Equity, 26th edition by R. L. Megarry and F. W. Baker,
1966, pp. 5-6. attempt ...of the ...legal systemto meet a problem which confronts
al1legal systems reaching a certain stage of development. To ensure
the smooth running of Societyit is necessary to formulate general,
rules which work well enough in the majority of cases. Sooner or
later, however, cases arise in which, in some unforeseen setof facts
the general rules produce substantial unfairness. When this occurs,
justice requires either an amendment of the rule or, if...the rule
is not freely changeable, a further rule or body of rules to mitigate
the severity of the rules of law."

It would be difficultto findwords more apt to describe the sort of impasse
that arises in circumstances such as those of the present case, which a
system of Equity should be employed to resolve: and, as the author of
the passage cited points out subsequently, equity is not distinguishable
from law "because it seeks a different end, for both aim at justice ...".
But, it might be added, they can achieve it only if they are allowed to
complement one another.

37. Since in this and the next part (V) of this Opinion, 1 shall be
discussing certain matters (described in the second half of paragraph 3
supra)which, having regard to the particular basis of the Judgment of
the Court, did not arise for decision by it, 1 should like to state what
effect1am intending to giveto my observations concerning these matters.
Evidently it would be impossible to comment on them in total abstrac-
tion from the facts and surrounding circumstances of the case itself.
But although 1 shall be expressing a judicial view on the points of law
involved, and possibly also on some points of fact, 1 do not wish to be

understood (even though 1 may use the language of it) as making any
judicialpronouncements or findings on them. These were matters which,
although the Court considered them, it did not need for the particular
purposes of the Judgment to go into fully. Had a more ample collegiate
discussion taken place 1might have been led to form a different opinion
on some points, and therefore it is by way of analysis that 1 now give
my views. (A) Nationality of Shareholding Claims

38. The third preliminary objection, really had two aspects. The
first, namely whether, in the particular circumstances of this case, a
claim is sustainable at al1 on behalf of shareholders, whatever their
nationality may be, has been answered in the negative by the Judgment,
and this accordingly disposes of the whole claim. Had the answer been
in the affirmative, however, it would still have been necessary, before

the third preliminary objection could be dismissed and the claim be
held to be admissible (so far as this ground of objection was concerned),
that its national character should be established as being that of the
claimant State. The two classic dicta of the Permanent Court may be
recalled :

"... it is the bond of nationality which alone confers upon the State
the right of diplomatic protection . . .32"

and
"By taking up the case of one of its subjects and by resorting to
diplomatic action or international proceedings on his behalf, a

State is in reality asserting its own right, the right to ensure in the
person d its subjects respect for the rules of international law 33."

A true question of capacity as such is here involved 34. for without the
"bond of nationality" and what it entails, the claimant State would lack
the necessary qualification for intervention and claim, since it could not
then be "taking up the case of one of its subjects", in whose person alone
it could be "asserting its own right . ..to ensure ... respect for the rules
of international law".
39. In terms of the present case, this means establishing in respect of
the private parties concerned that, at al1the material dates, and with the

necessary degreeof continuity, they were both (a) Belgian and (b) share-
holders in the Barcelona Traction Company. Implied in this, there
figured in the present case such questions as (i) whether it sufficed for
a shareholder to be a company having Belgian nationality by incorpora-

32 Panevezys-Saldutiskis Railway case (P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 76 (1939), at
p. 16).
33 Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions case (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 (1924), at
p. 12).The passage quoted was repeated in almost identical language in the Panevezys
decision,q.v., loc. cit.
34 As was observed in footnote 2 supra (part 1),the aspect of the third preliminary
objection dealt with in theudgment of the Court is not really one of the capacity of
the claimant State, but of substance: have shareholders any substantive rights at al1
admissibility are involved where the nationality, and the status as shareholders, of
the private parties concerned are in issue. tion, or must it also be shown that the individual shareholdingin that
Company was equally Belgian, or at least predominantly so?-also (ii)
whether a beneficial owner of shares actually vested in nominees or
trustees of non-Belgian nationality, with whom pro tem lies the legal
ownership, still ranks as a "shareholder" while that situation continues;
and, if not, whether thisdoes not entai1such a break in the "ownership of
the claim" as to disqualify the private party concerned, and hence his
government;-and finally (iii) what are the material times at which the
necessary shareholding status and nationality must exist, and did the
latter in fact do so atese times?Clearly,however, the present discussion
must be confined only to those points that were of especial prominence
in the case.

(1) Onus of proof, question of quantum, etc.

40. Ttwas naturally maintained on the Spanish side that presumptions
of share-ownership, even if in themselves strong, do not suffice,and that
affirmative proof is required. This is doubtless true in principle, but
requires some qualification in the light of the particular circumstances.
There was never any real doubt about the existence over the years, and
probably since at least 1920,of a substantial Belgian shareholding, or at
least interest of some kind, in the Barcelona Company. What was con-
troversial was, rather, such matters as (a) was the interest concerned
strictly one of shareholding as such, or was it more a mere beneficial
interest in shares the legal ownership of wbich was vested in non-Belgian
bands?-(b) how big an interest was it,-did it amount to the 88percent.

claimed on the Belgian side?-(c) did it exist at the two crucial dates of
the original Spanish declaration in bankruptcy of the Barcelona Com-
pany, and thedate when proceedings were started before the Court,-and
not merely before or after each or-either of these dates?

41. Much of the argument was rendered irrelevant by a failure to
distinguish clearly between whether, on the one hand, a basis of claim
existedin principle, and, on the other hand, what would be the quantumof
damage or reparation recoverable by the claimant State if such a basis did
exist and the claim was shown to be good. In theory, if it appeared that
there was even one singleprivate party or entity which, at the material
times, both was a shareholder in the Company and had the nationality of
the claimant State, then that State would, in principle, be entitled to
claim, since the validity of the claim-its legal merits in itself-could not
depend on the size of it in terms of the numbers of shareholders, or of the

financialvaluesinvolved. The latter could, in law, only affectthe quantumof reparation or damages recoverable if the claim should be made go~d~~.

This situation, while it does not exactly shift the burden of proof entirely,
does place it in a different light by suggestingthat in some circumstances,
in claims of this kind, the defendant State could only validly contest the
standing of the claimant party if it could show that there was no evidence
of the existenceof evenoneindubitable shareholder of the latter's nation-
ality, and no reasonable presumption of there being any. This isjust the
sort of situation which arises where, as in the present case, the claimant

Party has, over a long period of years, possessed what might be called
a "historic interest" in a case, the existence of which is and always has
been a matter of common knowledge, constantly acted upon by both
parties, implicitly recognized, and scarcely contested, at least formally,
until international legal proceedings are started. In such circumstances
there is an almost irresistible inference that a substantial body of private
interests exists belonging to the State concerned. But as will be seen in a
moment (infra,paragraph 43) the matter does not in any way depend on

inferences or presumptions.

42. In the present case the attempt to maintain that the Belgian
nationality of the shares had not been established, took a particular form,

which involvednot so much denyingthe existence-or proved existence-
of any Belgianshareholding at al1,-as maintaining that the apparent, or
ostensible, Belgian shareholding did not have the requisite character.
Here it is material to note that the shares in the Barcelona Company fa11
into three main categories,-the bearer shares; the registered (i.e., non-
bearer) shares standing in the names ofvarious private persons and entities
other than a Belgian incorporated Companyknown as Sidro 36for short;

and finally the shares registered in the name of this same Sidro, a com-
pany the principal interest in which isowned byanother Belgianregistered
and incorporated company-Sofina 37.Since this last category, which it
will be convenient to designate as the Sidro-(Sofina) interest, comprised
not far short of two-thirds of the entire issued share capital of the Barce-
lona Company, and about five-eighths ofthe shares allegedlyin Belgian
hands,-then, on the basis of the principle of the sufficiencyof "even a
single shareholder", the only practical issue becomes that of deciding on

the character and status of the Sidro-(Sofina) holding;-whereas, the
status of the other shares-the bearer shares and the non-Sidro registered

35 Clearly the fact that in practice a government wouid not normally put forward
a claim in this class of case unless the interests involved were substantial, has no
relevance to the merits of the argument here stated.
36 Standing for "SociétéInternationale d'Energie Hydro-Electrique, S.A.".
37 Standing for "SociétéFinancière de Transports et d'Entreprises Industrielles,
S.A.".shares-would be a secondary matter which, except as to quantum of
damage, would becomeimportant onlyifthe Sidro-(Sofina)holding could

be shown to lack the necessary status and character adequate in itself to
sustain a Belgian claim. It is therefore to this question that 1 shall now
address myself.It has tmo aspects, first what was and is the true national
character of Sidro-(Sofina)?-and secondly, wasthis entity at the material
dates the actual shareholder?

(2) Status of Sidro-(Sofina)

43. Even if it could not otherwise be established, Sidro-(Sofina's)
original ownership of over 1 million of the Barcelona registered shares
(this block was registered in thename of Sidro),constituting a more than
majority holding of the entire Barcelona share issue, is conclusively
proved by the fact that in 1939,in expectation of the outbreak of war,
Sidro transferred the entire block first to an American firm of brokers as
nominees, then to an American Trustee Company known as "Securitas

Ltd." and, after the end of the war, to another American nominee firm,
by whom they were eventually re-transferred to Sidro 38.Since "nemo
darepotest quodnonhabet", and the validity of these transfers has never
been questioned-(indeed the assumption of such validity was basic to
the Spanish argument on this part of the case)-it follows that Sidro-
(Sofina) must, at least originally, have been Barcelona shareholders. The
allegation is, however, that by these transfers Sidro-(Sofina), though
retaining as a matter of law the beneficialinterest in the shares, divested
themselves of the legal ownership-in fact ceased to be the actual share-

holders, so that thenceforth, and until the eventual re-transfer to Sidro
(whichhowever isallegedto have come only after the main critical date in
the case 39)the shareholding in the Barcelona Company was non-Belgian
so far as this block of shares was concerned; and so no Belgian claim
could now be based on them. This matter 1consider infrain paragraphs
48-59, and in the meantime turn to the first question indicated at the end
of paragraph 42 supra-that of the true national character of Sidro-
(Sofina).

38 Thus it seems that during the "Securitas" period (as to which see paragraphs 55-
59 infrathe nominees held for that Company, not Sidro-(Sofina).
39 This was 12 February 1948, the date of the original declaration by a Spanish
difficulty as to the date at which theage to the Company occurred as it tookn
several years to complete. However 1 agree with what Judge Jessup says in para-
graph 75 of his separate Opinion. 44. It was never at any time contended that Sidro and Sofinawere other
than Belgian entities in the sense that they were companies incorporated
under Belgian law, having their registered head officesin Belgium, and
therefore that, according to the most generally received canons 40,not
disputed by either Party, they were companies invested with Belgian

nationality. The objection advanced-a curious one to receive Spanish
sponsorship-was that although Sidro-(Sofina) were Belgian by in-
corporation, yet if the corporate veil was lifted, it would be fouild that
the shareholdinginterest in Sidro-(Sofina) itself was largely non-Belgian.
The relevance of this contention was maintained as existing on two levels,
one of these being that it revealed as being quite unfounded the Belgian
contention that the savings of numerous humble Belgian individuals,
channelled into the Barcelona Company via Sidro-(Sofina), had been
detrimentally affected by the Spanish treatment of the Company,-for,
so it was alleged on the Spanish side, the ultimate interests in Sidro-

(Sofina)were not Belgian, or at least it had not been established that they
were.
45. 1 do not find it necessary to consider this particular aspect of the
metter since the Belgian contention that the savings of hundreds of
small Belgian shareholders were injuriously affected through their
interest in Sidro-(Sofina) goes largely to the moralities rather than the
legalities of the issue. The essential legal question is different-namely
whether (the Belgian status by incorporation of Sidro-(Sofina) itself,
being established and not contested)-there are nevertheless grounds
upon which it can be maintained that the corporate veil must be lifted in
order to see what is the character of the ultimate interests lying behind

this veil. It would certainly seem that whoever else can adopt such an
attitude it cannot be Spain,-that Spain is indeed precluded from doing
so,-because it is precisely Spain which, in relation to the Barcelona
Traction Company maintains that the Canadian nationality of the Com-
pany, by incorporation,is conclusive, and that its corporate veil cannot be
lifted inorder to take account of the non-Canadian shareholding lying
behind it. Yet, paradoxically 41,-that is just what Spain has sought to
maintain in relation to Sidro-(Sofina),-but not Barcelona. On what
basis does this attempt proceed?
46. The argument was that it was Belgiumwhich was precluded from
contesting the lifting of the Sidro-(Sofina) veil, since it was precisely

Belgium which maintained, in relation to the Barcelona Company, that
the veil must be lifted inorder to reveal the true Belgian interests under-
lying the Company. But at this point it becomes clear that the rival
positions, like two mathematical negatives that make a positive, cancel
each other out and leave the objective question of the legitimacy, and

40 See footnote 14 in part 1, supra.
this most paradoxicalof cases. of the many instances of "havingit both ways" in occasions, of lifting the veil still to be determined. Let it be assumed,
notwithstanding, that a purely "tu quoque" argument might have some
validity on a sort of preclusive basis. Accordingly,it is said, the Belgian
case must concede what it claims: just as it claims that the Canadian
nationality of the Barcelona Company is not conclusive, so must it also
concede that the ostensibly Belgian nationality of Sidro-(Sofina) is not
conclusive as to that entity's true character, which must in consequence
be established by reference to the underlying shareholding interests in it.
This seems to me to involve a misunderstanding of the Belgian position,
which does not imply any denial of the Canadian nationality of the
Barcelona Company or the right of the Company and its Government to
claim, but merely asserts (failing such a claim) a "parallel" right of

Belgium also to claim on behalf of any shareholders who are Belgian. If
amongst these shareholders there are companies of Belgian nationality by
incorporation, then Belgium asserts a right to claim on their behalf as
Barcelona shareholders. According to this "parallel right" position, what
would have to be conceded by Belgium is something quite different from
what the Spanishargument maintains. Belgium does not have to concede
that, if it appears that most of the shareholding in Sidro-(Sofina) itself is
non-Belgian, then Belgium is disqualified from claiming on behalf of
Sidro-(Sofina) as an entity,-for she makes no such assertion as regards
Canada's right to claim on behalf of the Barcelona Company, despite its
non-Canadian shareholding. What Belgium wouldhave to concede, and
presumably would have difficulty in conceding, is that if Belgium refused
to claim on behalf of Sidro-(Sofina)-it might be because of non-Belgian
interests in that entity,ust as it may be that Canada does not claim on
behalf of Barcelona because of the non-Canadian interest-then it would
become legitimate, on the "parallel right" basis, for yet other govern-

ments-those of the non-Belgianshareholders in Sidro-(Sofina)-to make
a claim on behalf of those shareholders, in the absence of any Belgian
claim on behalf of Sidro-(Sofina) as such. This is the true analogy, and
only in this sense, and in such circumstances, would Belgium's position
over Barcelona obligeher to concede a lifting of the veil of Sidro-(Sofina).

47. It is of course an entirely different question whether Belgium's
"parallel right" positionis good in law. According to the Judgment of the
Court (which, de ZegeZata1agree),it is not. But within thefour corners of

its premisses, the argument is entirely logical, and it operates to absolve
Belgium from the charge of inconsistency in asserting a right to claim on 93 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP.OP. FITZMAURICE)

behalf of Sidro-(Sofina) as an entity of Belgian nationality by incorpora-
tion, irrespective of its detailed composition. In consequence, the result is
the same whichever way the matter is looked at: namely if a claim on
behalf of shareholders is permissible at all, a Belgian claim on behalf of
Sidro-(Sofina) ispermissib1e;-for according to the basic Spanish position

the veil of a Company can never be lifted save in exceptional circum-
stances not here admitted to exist,-while according to Belgium the veil
can be lifted ifthe company's government refuses to claim on its behalf,-
but Belgium, as the Government of Sidro-(Sofina), is not refusing to
claim on that entity's behalf, so here also there is no occasion to go
behind the corporate façade.

(3) Question of nominees, trustees, etc.
48.The secondmain challenge to thestanding ofSidro-(Sofina)asowners
of the greater part of the Barcelona Traction shares, was based on ob-
jections, not as to the Belgian national character of these entities but as
to their character qua Barcelona shareholders. Over certain periods, it was

pointed out, coveringdates material to the validity ofthe Belgianclaim, the
Sidro-(Sofina)shares werevested in nomidees and/or trhstees ofAmerican
nationality. The fact is admitted. The effect, according to the Spanish
argument, was that Sidro-(Sofina) while retaining the beneficial owner-
ship, or the beneficial interest, ceased to be the legal owners of the shares,
or rather, ceased to be the actual shareholders. Consequently, at the
time when the Belgian claim arose-that is to say at the date when the
alleged injury to the Barcelona Company was inflicted-the shareholders
were not Belgian, but American, and therefore the "bond of nationality"
postulated by the Permanent Court (supra, paragraph 38) as being neces-
sary to found a right to claim, did not exist so far as Belgium was con-

cerned, at least on the basis of this block of shares 42.

49. This Spanish contention is in part related to the "continuity"
question: the transfer of the shares to non-Belgian nominees or trustees
caused a break, covering a material date, in the Belgian ownership or
status. In the next section (B) below certain cornments are made on the
continuity requirement for international claims, namely the requirement
that the claim must be "owned" by a national of the claimant State

(Sofina) registered shares,the Spanish position was that their alleged Belgian
ownership restedon presumptions andhad not been proved.

9494 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP.OP.FITZMAURICE)

both at the time when the act complained of occurred, and continuously
upto thedate when an international claim isput forward and proceedings
are commenced-(and indeed, strictly, according to one view, up to
the date of judgment or award). At this moment 1 shall only discuss
what, in relation to a claim of the present kind, is the correct effect to
be attributed to the transfer of shares to foreign nominees, or to foreign
trustees, as the case may be. In either case,es it deprive the transferor
of his status as shareholder in relation to the claim, and hence deprive
his government of the right (if right otherwise exists) to make the claim
on bis behalf?

50. It should be noted in the first place that from the Belgian stand-
point in the case-which was throughout that the realities must be
looked to rather than the form-the whole question of the nature of
the interest acquired by the American nominees or trustees was irrelevant,
since in any event (and this was common ground between the Parties)
the beneficial ownership of or interest in the shares remained with
Sidro-(Sofina) and, according to the Belgian contention, this was suf-
ficientper se to found a Belgian claim. However, it was also maintained
on the Belgian side that in any event the effect of the transfers was not
to divest Sidro-(Sofina) of the status of shareholder, and it isthis aspect
of the matter that 1wish to consider here.

51. 1 need not set out the facts concerning the vesting of the Sidro
registered shares in American nominees and in the trustee conlpany
"Securitas Ltd.", except .to say that the object was of course (in view
of war and probable enemy occupation) to avoid their falling into
enemy hands. The details of the various transactions are fully set out
in paragraphs 90 et seq. of Judge Jessup's separate Opinion,-and
although 1 do not draw the same conclusion as he does on the question
of the effect of the "Securitas" transaction, 1 can associate myself with
his statement of the facts.1 will however start with the question of the
effect ofthe nominee transactions.

(a) Nominees
52. The Spanish contention was that the effect of putting the shares

intothe names of nominees was to vest in the latter the legal ownership,
and moreover that this result was not affected by the special juridical
position of a nominee, whereby his ownership is, in law, conditioned in
various ways-so that he cannot deal with the shares except by directionof the "real" owner; but equ?lly, must do so upon such direction, etc.
This, it was said, did not alter 'thefact that it is the nominee who appears
on the books of the Company as the registered owner of the shares, and
therefore, if he is thus the registered shareholder, how can someone else
also be the shareholder? Insistence that the real question at issue was
not who "owned" or was the "owner" of the shares, but who was, or was
registered as, the "shareholder", became increasingly prominent during
the course of the oral hearing; but 1 share Judge Jessup's view (para-

graphs 99 etseq. of his Opinion) that the distinction isunreal. If anominee
shareholder were in truth "the shareholder", he would be entitled to
exercise the normal rights of a shareholder,-but in fact he is not so
entitled: he is even, by law, expressly forbidden from doing so. His is in
fact merely a sort of "twilight" status, according to which he is no more
than a pipe-line through which the supposedly merely beneficial owner
continues to exercise al1the rights of legal ownership. In this context the
following propositions of Anglo-American-Canadian law (which is the
system constitutive of the nominee position), and whid have not been
disputed-have indeed been admitted on the Spanish side-are pertinent :

(i) a shareholder can freely dispose of his shares: a nominee
can do so only with the consent of the beneficial owner (in
effecthis "principal") 43 and at his direction;
(ii) a shareholder can exercisehisvoting rights at General Meetings
according to his own views: a nomiriee is obliged to vote
as directed by his principal;

(iii) a shareholder has the right to receive any dividends that are
declared: a nominee must pass these on to the principal, who
also pays the tax on them;
(iv) shares held by a nominee, as nominee, do not figure in any
statement of his assets;
(v) the prin cipal can direct the nominee totake any steps necessary
for the protection of the shares and, under some systems of
law, can himself initiate proceedings for that purpose;

(vi) the principal can at any time replace or eliminate the nominee,
by directing the latter to have the necessary changes made in

the company's register of shareholders (add to this that,
in the case of the transfers made by Sidro, no transfer fee
was payable under the relevant law, because no change of
ownership was deemed to occur).

43 Thereis not of course in theformalsensea relationshipof principal andagent,
but the use here of the term "principal"is convenient and seems justifiedby the
realitiesof the situation.

96 53. The only possible conclusion must bethat even if, as wascontended,
the matter is to be considered not on the basis of who "owns" the shares
but of who is the shareholder, the true shareholder throughout is the
principal, the nominee being shareholder in name only, i.e., as the very
term "nominee" implies, his shareholding is nominal only. He has no
real control over the shares, this remaining with the principal at whose
direction the nominee is bound to act. It follows that apart from dis-
guising the identity of the real owner (which is one of the main purposes
of the nominee device), a nominee is the shareholder only for the purpose
of carrying out his principal's directions,-so that what alters upon
transfer to a nominee is not the control over the shares, but the manner
of its exercise.t is little more than a question of mechanics. It equally
follows that, if for anyurpose the nominee had to establish the existence
of a "genuine link" between himself and the shares-i.e., of something
going beyond the bare fact that the shares are registered in his name,
he would, according to al1the cannons accepted in other fieldsas to what
constitutes a genuine link, beunable to do so.

54. Furthermore, the comparison sometimes made between the posi-
tion of a nominee and that of a trustee is quite illusory, but is for that
reason illuminating,-for a trustee has real rights over the trust property,
which he can assert even against the beneficiary of the trust. Subject to
aily specific term of the trust, and of the general law of trusts, not only
is the trusteeunder no obligation to carry out the instructions or conform
to the directions of the cestui que trust (beneficiary): it is often his legal
duty not to, and to act in a manner quite different from what the latter
wants. The cestztique trust can take legal steps to compel the trustee to
conform to the terms of the trust but, within the scope of those terms,
and of the relevant provisions of trust law, the trustee is completely
independent, and free to act at his own discretion.

(b) "Securitas" Ltd.

55. This brings me to the question of the vesting of the Sidro-(Sofina)
shares in "Securitas" under the various trust deeds described in Judge
Jessup's Opinion. According to the logic of the view just expressed
supra in paragraph 54, 1 ought to hold (as he does) that the vesting in
"Securitas" did indeed transfer the legal ownership, Sidro-(Sofina)
retaining merely the beneficial interest; especially as the object of the
whole transaction was to put "Securitas" in a position of being legallyentitled to refuse to comply with Sidro-(Sofina's) own instructions if
they judged that these were given under enemy pressure. Furthermore,
as Judge Jessup points out, no positive evidence(despite several requests
for it) was produced to show that the trust relationship was determined
before the crucial date of 12 February 1948(when the first step that led
to the eviction of the Barcelona Company from its Spanish interests
was taken),-although it appears that the relationship was duly deter-
mined only two or three months later when (acting on a request from
Sidro) "Securitas" sent the share certificates that had been deposited
with them to the New Jersey firm of nominees henceforth holding for
Sidro-(Sofina). On this basis therefore the shares would, in the absence
of the necessary evidence to the contrary, have to be presumed still
to have been American, not Belgian owned, at the crucial date of 12

February 1948.
56. It seems to me however that, even if one accepts the view (which,
for reasons to be stated later, 1do not) that the effect of the "Securitas"
transaction was to deprive Sidro-(Sofina)pro tem of the status of being
a Barcelona shareholder, a radical change came overthe situation about,
or shortly after the middle of 1946,when the war in Europe had been
over for somewhat more than a year. Although the trust deeds entered
into with "Securitas" were, as Judge Jessup describes, never produced
during the case, they were preceded in time, or at least in operative
effect,by something that was produced, namely a "custodian" agreement
between Sidro and "Securitas" dated 6 September 1939(the war having
then broken out, but Belgium not yet being involved), which figures as
Appendix 2 to Annex 3 of the Belgian Memorial in the case. It is abso-
lutely clear from the terms of this agreement that its object was merely
to get the securities it covered physically out of harm's way, and that
it had no effect whatever on Sidro's status as shareholder. This came
later with the two Trust Deeds,-one also dated 6 September 1939,but
evidently with suspensive effect pending Belgium's actual involvement

in the war; and the other dated February 1940. Because of its inherent
probability,1 see no reason to doubt the Belgian affirmation that these
Trust Deeds were not to become operative unless and until the Brussels
area should pass into enemy occupation, for only then would the danger
of enemy pressure to surrender or procure the surrender of the shares
arise. Itis also 1think unimportant that the modifications effectedin the
first Trust Deed by the second have never been revealed. 1see no reason
to doubt the Belgian assurance that they were technical in character,
intended to take account of certaincontemporary Belgianwar legislation,
which again seems to me inherently probable. But it does not really
matter, because for present purposes one is in any case "assuming the
worst", viz. that between them these two Deeds did transfer the legal
ownership of the shares to "Securitas", for the duration of the war so
to speak.98 BARCELONATRACTION (SEP.OP. FITZMAURICE)

57. This brings me to the third of the inherentprobabilities affecting
this matter, namely that the Trust Deeds would (as Belgium asserts
they did) have contained a clause providing for the termination of the
situation they created, so soon as an agreed period after the end of the
war had elapsed,-for it is hardly credible that Sidro-(Sofina) would,

even to avoid enemy seizure, have signed away al1future control over
their shares without some such guarantee of eventual retrocession. That
there was such a clause, and that it duly operated in the second half of
1946, seemsto me indeed, even apart from inherent probabilities, to be
an inference thatcan reasonably be drawn from the facts given in Judge
Jessup's paragraph 92. The result was the change in the situation to
which 1 refer~edat the beginning of paragraph 56 supra,-namely that
"Securitas"-who in a letter of 14 April 1947to Sidro described them-
selves as having from 31 December 1946 held the shares "in custody
for your account" (not the language of a Trustee)-now reverted to
their original status of being merely custodians, and Sidro-(Sofina)
reverted to being the legal owners and actual shareholders-(that the
shares were still in the name of nominees is immaterial for the reasons
given in paragraphs 52-54 supra). Accordingly, if this view is correct,

the shares were again Belgian owned on the crucial date of 12February
1948. There would have been a break in the continuity of their status
as such, from 1939-1946,but as this occurred before the earliest possible
crucial date, it would not signify.

58. Tt has to be admitted that in the absence of the relevant instru-
ments, the foregoing conclusion can only be conjectural. But it is 1
believea reasonable conjecture, warranted by those facts that are known,
and by the probabilities involved. Of course the Trust Deeds would, if
produced, constitute what is known in Common Law parlance as the
"best" evidence, and unless they could be shown to have been lost or
destroyed, it is unlikely that a municipal court would admit secondary
evidence of their contents. International tribunals are not tied bysuch

firm rules, however, many of which are not appropriate to litigation
between governments. It is by no means in the nature of an inescapable
inference that the reason why the Deeds were not produced was because
they contained material that would have been prejudicial to the Belgian
case. Documents drawn up in contemplation of war, and in the situation
which confronted countries such as Belgium at that time, may well
have contained provisons, or phraseology, which after the lapse of
nearly 30 years-or for other reasons-a government would be reluctant
to make public. In my opinion, weighingthe whole matter up, and having
regard to what seems to be a very reasonable presumption as to whatoccurred, Belgium should be given the benefit of the doubt.

59. And this brings me to a point which 1 consider more important
than any yet mentioned on this particular matter. It is not in my opinion
possible to regard instruments drawn up in emergency circumstances,
for theprotection ofproperty in contemplation of war, and of a singularly
predatory enemy (1am of course speaking of the nazified Reich, not of
Germany or Germans under any normal circumstances) in the same
light asinstrumentsentered into at other times and in the ordinary way
of business. Certainly an international tribunal should not do so. In
my opinion such transactions in shares as those now in question, what-
everthe effectthat would begivento them in municipalcourtsfor interna1
or private law purposes, must, on the international plane, be regarded

as creating between the parties a relationship of a special character,
neither divesting the shares of their pre-existing national character,
nor debarring the transferor's government from sustaining a claim in
respect of them in subsequent international proceedings. Outside of a
mediaeval disputation, if ever there was a case for having regard to the
reality rather than the form, this is surely it.

(B) The "Continuity" of CZaimRequirement

60. 1do not propose to consider herewhetherit was in fact established
that there were Barcelona shares which were continuously in Belgian
hands 44up to at least the date when the present proceedings were com-
menced. As Judge Jessup, who goes into the matter in some detail, says,
the case rests largely on aseries of presumptions, even though it may be
difficult to believe that no shares atal1were continuously Belgian held;

and according to the view propounded earlier (supra paragraph 41) even
one such share would, as far as the theory of the matter goes, sufficeto
constitute a basis of claim. 1want rather to comment on the continuity
doctrine itself.
61. Clearly the "bond of nationality" between the claimant State and
the private party for whom the claim is brought (seesupra,paragraph 38)
must be in existenceat the time when the acts complained of occurred, or
it would not be possible for the claimant State to maintain that it had suf-

44 It is generally accepted that this requirementdoes not involve continuity in the
same individual person or entity, but only in successive personsor entities of the
same nationality. fered a violation of international law "in the person of its national7',-
and although this doctrine has been called the "Vatellian fiction", it
neverthelessseems to constitute an indispensable foundation forthe right
of international claim on behalf of private parties (unless there is some
alternative, e.g., functional, foundation-as when an international orga-

nization claimsin respect of a member of its staff). It is however lessclear
why, as a matter of principle, if the private claimant is duly a national of
the claimant State at the date of the injury, he must remain so, or the
property concerned must do so, or the claim must not pass into the hands
of a national of another State, even after that date,-for the wrong done
to the State in the person of its national arises, and the consequent right
"to ensure ... respect for the rules of international law" accrues, ut the

moment of injury, so that, as was pleaded in the Stevenson case 45 (though
unsuccessfully 46),the claim then becomes indelibly impressed ab initio
with the national character concerned: in short,the injury to the claimant
State is not, so to speak, "de-inflicted" by the fact that the individual
claimant or Company ceases to have its nationality, or that the property
involved passes into the hands of a national of another State 47;-and the

position becomes even slightly absurd when the continuity rule is inter-
preted as even excluding such claims though they subsequently return to
their nationality of origin after a comparatively short interval, as might
well be the case with, precisely, shares.

62. In his dissenting opinion in the Panevezys case 48, Judge van
Eysinga clearly thought that the continuity rule, though a reasonable
stipulation to be inserted by agreement in treaties about claims-(or to be
read into them in consequence of provisions limiting their application to
persons having the nationality of the claimant State at the treaty date)-
was not a rule of customary international law, in which sphere it could

lead to unreasonable results. Thus a rigid application of it, though justified
where necessary to prevent abuses 49,should be eschewed where it would
work injustice, and this view has received support in recent writings con-
tending for a more eclectic application of the rule, so as not to "leave a

45 U.N. Reports of International Arbitral Awards, Vol. IX, p. 494.
46 But in this case the beneficiaries resulting from the change in the nationality of
the claim, not only hadex hypothesi a di'erent nationality from that of the original
claimant, but had the nationality of the defendant State-which created a special
situation. In other ways also the Umpire's finding did not constitute an outright
rejection of the "ab initio" thesis.

arise whether the "damage" had not been made good-but concethis is another matter.t
48 P.C.Z.J., Series AIB, No. 76 (1939) at pp. 33-35.
49 For instance, if, as suggested by Judge van Eysinga, the object were to found
compulsory jurisdiction, where none would otherwise have existed, by seeking out a
State able to invoke a treaty clause to that effect.substantial body of. .. rights without a practical remedy . ..50". A clear
case ofthis would bewhere the change in nationality was involuntary,e.g.,

because of a re-alignment of State boundaries, or because the successorin
title to the affected property, e.g., under a will, happened to have a dif-
ferent nationality from that of the original claimant or owner. Or again,
why should the fact that a former dependent territory attains independ-
ence and becomes a separate State deprive whole categories of claimants
in that State of al1 possibility of redress? Such would however be the

effect of the continuity rule, for there would technically have been a
change in the claimant's nationality, and the former sovereign or pro-
tecting state could no longer sustain the claim, while the new one also
could not or, according to the doctrines involved, should not be able to
do so, because the private claimant was not, at the time of the injury, its
national,-or alternatively because, since the latter State did not then
exist as a separate State, it could not itself, quawhat it now is, have suf-

fered any wrong in the person of its national (This was in fact more or
less the situation that arose in the Panevezys case. The matter ought of
course to be provided for by a rule of the law of State Succession,but it is
somewhat doubtful whether this is yet the case-see the detailed dis-
cussionin O'Connell,State SuccessioninMunicipalLawandInternational
Law (Cambridge, 1967),Vol. 1,pp. 537-541).

63. In short, too rigid and sweeping an application of the continuity

rule can lead to situations in which important interests go unprotected,
claimants unsupported and injuries unredressed, not on account of

ProfessornR. Y.Jenningsin Hague Recueil(Genera1Course of 1967),Vol.p. II,pp. 476-
477, citing Sinclair, British Year Book for 1950, at p. 127 says, that Judge van
Eysinga's view "is in accord with what Mr. Sinclair has shown to be the history of
the development of the rule of nationality of claims: that it was evolved in the
19th century in the context of the interpretation of treaties setting up claims com-
missions and was a product of the ordinaryule that such treaties must be interpreted
strictlyW-Le., it was not really a rule of customary international law.

5L This last point is essentially the same as the one which arose in the Cameroons
case (Z.C.J. Reports 1963) under the head of the "objection ratione temporis" which
1 felt obliged to uphold de lege lata in my separate Opinion, for the reasons given
present context(is dealt with in the first paragraph on p. 129 of the Volume. But 1he
failed then to take account of the possibility that the matter might be regarded as
covered by the law of State Succession, though this is still uncertain-seend of
paragraph 62 supra. 102 BARCELONATRACTION (SEP. OP. FITZMAURICE)

anything relating to their merits, but because purely technical considera-
tions bring it about that no State is entitled to act 52.This situation is the
less defensible at the present date in that what was alwaysregarded as the
other main justification for the continuity rule (and even sometimes

thought to be its realfons et origo),namely the need to prevent the abuses
that would result if claims could be assigned for value to nationals of
powerful States whose governments would compel acceptance of them by
the defendant State, has largely lost its validity. Even powerful States are
not now in a position to act in this way: indeed, for reasons that need not
be gone into here, they are in these days at a positive disadvantage in such
matters.

64. Nor can it plausibly be contended that, if the continuity rule were
not strictly applied, legal objections would arise because, if the claim were
successful,the damages or compensation would be payable to the claimant
State,although the private party concerned was no longer its national, or
the affected property no longer belonged to one of its nationah;-for on

the basis that the State is asserting its own right in making the claim, it is
always the position, and it is well recognized internationally, that any
compensation due is paid to the claimant State,and belongs to it, for use
at its discretion. This was implicit in the viewexpressed by the Permanent
Court in the Chorzbw Factory case, when it said that the damage suf-
fered by the individual could "only afford a convenient scale for the
calculation of the reparation due to the State"-(my italics)53.If there
are any fetters on the State's discretion as to what it does with the com-

pensation awarded, they are imposed by the domestic law concerned. So
faras international law goes, the claimant State can use this compensation
as itpleases: it can keep it for itself (though this naturally is not normally
done) or it can pay it to the private party who was injured, whether (as it
will usually be the case) he is still its national, or has since become the
national of another State, or to the national owner of the affected pro-
perty, or to a foreign owner who may have bought it, or the claim, offthe

former, etc. There is, internationally, neither legal nor practical difficulty
here.

65. If these considerations are applied here, the conclusion would be
that, provided Belgian shareholding existed on 12 February 1948, the

Barcelona Company, for that Company has a government which onedid formerly act,
could have continued to act, andstill could in theory act: whereas according to the
continuityrule, it rnay result that no government can act.

53 P.C.I.J., SerieA,No. 17(1928), p. 28.

103 claim then became once and for al1 indelibly impressed with Belgian
national character, and that any subsequent dealings in the shares were
immaterial, affecting only theantumof the damages eventually payable
if Belgium were successful, or affecting only the identity of the actual
persons or entities whom the Belgian Government would eventually
select to become the recipients of a due share of any damages recovered.

ISSUEC SONNECTE WDITH THE FOURTH PRELIMINAR OBJECTION

66. The Judgment of the Court does not deal with the fourth pre-
liminary objection that had been advanced on the Spanish sideand which,
together with the third, wasoined to the merits by the Judgment which

the Court gave in the preliminary (1964)phase of the case-namely the
question of the exhaustion of local remedies. On the other hand, this
question has had its importance for certain Members of the Court, and
it wasalwayspossiblethat individual rejections of the Belgianclaim might
be based not on Belgium'slack of ius standi but on the view that the
Barcelona Company did not adequately avail itself of the means of
recourse open to it in the Spanishcourts. Inhese circumstances, without
attempting to discuss the fourth preliminary objection generally, 1 con-
siderit legitimate to makecertain limited comments on one or two aspects

of the matter to which 1attach specialimportance (and which are also of
importance for the clarification of the law-see paragraph 2 supra,-
recalling however, as being equally, if not even more applicable here,
what 1said in paragraph 37 above.

(1) The issue ofjurisdiction

67. While the question of Spanish jurisdiction to conduct bankruptcy
proceedings in respect of Barcelona Traction, a Canadian Company,is not
technically part of theourth preliminary objection, which concerns the
exhaustion of local remedies, it is related to it in an important way, as
will be seen; and since it too has a certain prelirninary character, it may
properly receive some consideration here.

68. It appears to me probable that, considered at the international
level54,the declaration of bankruptcy made in respect of the Barcelona

54The question whether there was jurisdiction under law, in the circurn-
stances appertainito the Barcelona Company, is irrelevant or inconclusive for 104 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. FITZMAURICE)

Company did involve an excessof legitimate, or at least normal, Spanish
jurisdiction-internationally. This view is not of course based on the
non-Spanish nationality of the Company,-still less because of doubts

(though these certainly subsist) as to whether the Company did, in the
proper sense of these notions, carry on business in Spain, or own pro-
perty or have a domicile or seat there 55.It is based on the nature of the
alleged default on which the petition in bankruptcy was based, and
acceded to by the court. The point may be illustrated by reference to
Barcelona's subsidiary, Ebro 56, which, although equally a Canadian
company, did undoubtedly carry on business in Spain, owning property,
occupying offices, etc., there. Consequently, had it been Ebro that was

bankrupted, and for non-payment of commercial debts arising out of its
local activities, no question of any excessofjurisdiction could have arisen
despite Ebro's Canadian nationality-for such matters would have been
legitimately of Spanish concern. (It was indeed noticeable that it was
expresslyadmitted on the Belgian side that the bankrupting of Ebro (had
that occurred) would have been quite proper, jurisdictionally.) But
Barcelona was not bankrupted for anything of that kind, as is clear from
the bankruptcy judgment itself. It was bankrupted exclusively for the

non-payment of the interest on its sterling bonds, issued outside Spain,
and also held outside Spain except in so far as certain private Spanish
parties had recently acquired a few of them, apparently for the express
purpose of bringing the bankruptcy proceedings. Yet in respect of these
same bonds, issued under Canadian law, al1the necessary machinery for
theguaranteeing and enforcement ofthe obligation, through a well-known
Canadian institution, the National Trust, had been set up, and existed
for utilization in Canada, where also, in the last resort, the Company

could have been made the subject of proceedings for the appointment of
a receiver.

69. Clearly, if the real cbject had been to obtain payment of the ar-
rears of interest on the bonds, action would have been taken in Canada,-
and not merely would but should, for the step taken by the Spanish

bankruptcy petitioners was in clear breach of the important "no action"
provisions of both the trust deeds-(clauses 44 of the Prior Lien deed
and 35 of the First Mortgage deed-Annex 28 to the Memorial, Vol. 1).
These provisions were of course conditions of the bond obligation, by

international purposes, since the very question at issue in international proceedings
is whether the jurisdiction which a State confers upon its own courts, or otherwise
assumes, is internationally valid.
55 Barcelona was a holding Company, and a holding company is by definirion not an
operuring company. This has been brought out in several decided cases, but is too
often lost sight of.
56 Standing for "EbroIrrigation and PowerCo. Ltd."which the petitioners automatikally became bound on acquiring the
bonds. They provided that no proceedings to obtain payment should be
taken by any bondholder until after the (Canadian) Trustee had, upon a
request to act, refused or neglected to do so.

70. In thesecircumstances theprimary jurisdiction wasclearlyCanadian,
and the Spanishcourts should have declined jurisdiction,-at least in the
first instance and until the remedies available through the Canadian
NationalTrusthad been invoked. It istrue that, under present conditions,
international law does not impose hard and fast rules on States delimiting
spheres of national jurisdiction in such matters (and there are of course
others-for instance in the fields of shipping, "anti-trust" legislation,
etc.), but leaves to Statesa wide discretion in the matter. It does however
(a) postulate the existence of limits-though in any given case it may be
for the tribunal to indicate what these are for the purposes of that case;
and (b) involve for every Statean obligation to exercise moderation and

restraint as to theextent of the jurisdiction assumed by its courts in cases
having a foreign element, and to avoid undue encroachment on a juris-
diction more properly appertaining to, or more appropriately exercisable
by, another State.

71. These considerations apply equally, not only to the initial Spanish
assumption of jurisdiction in bankruptcy, but to various later stages of

the bankruptcy proceedings themselves, and in particular (as part of the
process of finally disposing of the Barcelona Company's Spanish under-
taking) to the purported cancellation of its shares in Ebro (a Canadian
company)-these being at the time under the control of the Canadian
National Trust or of a receiver appointed by the Canadian courts-and
the "replacement" of these by scrip issued in Spain, and subsequently
sold to the new and specially formed Spanish Company, Fecsa 57,without
any reference to the competent Canadian authorities or any action to
procure the enforcement of these measures in Canada, so that there (and
everywhere outside Spain) the original scrip remained and remains
perfectly valid. The same observations apply to the purported transfer of
Ebro's Canadian share register, its Canadian registered offices, and its

very seat itself (also Canadian), to the city of Barcelona,-in disregard of
the fact that these things, which could notphysically be transferred with-
out Ebro's consent or enforcement action in Canada, remained where
they were, and are still there today, not only in actuality but in law,

j7 Standing for "Fuerzas Eléctricasde Cataluïia, S.A."

106seeingthat Ebro is a Canadian Companywhose status, seat and location
of share register and registered officesareal1governed by Canadian law.
In short what really took place appears to have had the character of a
disguised expropriation of the undertaking.

72. If therefore it were necessary to reach a conclusion on this matter,
it could in my view only be in the sense that the whole bankruptcy pro-
ceedings were, for excessofjurisdiction, internationally nul1and void ab
initio,and without effect on the international plane.

(2) Exhaustion of local remedies:the question of notijication

73. The conclusion just indicated would also be of importance as
regards the question of exhausting local remedies, in so far asit might
tend to suggestthat, strictly, this question did not arise atl1,-for there
should be no necessityto exhaust such remediesin respect of proceedings
which, for excess ofjurisdiction were, internationally, a nullity and void
ab initio. At least, in respect of the substance of the proceedings, there
could be no such obligation if-internationally-the proceedings were
vitiated from the start.

74. Be that as it may, there are other considerations which suggest
that the whole issue of the exhaustion of local remediesmay be irrelevant
in such circumstances as those of the present case;-for ifit is the fact
(asto which, videinfra)that the Barcelona Company wasnever,according
to the applicable international standards, properly notijied of the original
bankruptcy declaration, so that, on the international plane, the bank-
ruptcy procedure never began to run against it, the correct conclusion
might wellbe that no obligation to exhaust local remediescould everhave

been generated;-in much the same way that (even if the case is not
entirely on the same plane) a person entitled to diplomatic immunity
doesnot losethat immunity through ignoring proceedingsbrought against
him in the local courts,-nor is it a condition of his government's right
to complain that he should have exhausted local means of recourse in the
assertion or defence of his immunity. Again, the possibility, and even
probability, that the management of the Company did defacto become
aware of the proceedings, in sufficienttime to put in an opposition within
the prescribed period, is clearly irre1evant;-for if a certain kind of
notification is requiredby law, and this is not given, then any time-limits
dependent on it simplydo not,as a matter oflaw, beginto run,-and once
again the whole procedure is vitiated and rendered void. 75. In this connection a clear distinction must be drawn between
proceedings which, if invalid, are so ab initio, and proceedings the com-
plaint as to which concerns their outcome, e.g., that they resulted in a
denial of justice. As regards the latter kind of proceedings, it is evident
that, in principle at least, local remedies must be exhausted. The case is
different, at any rate as regards the substance of the issues involved,
where the allegedvicerelates not to the outcome but to the veryinception
of the proceedings.
76. In considering what kind and, so to speak, degree of notification is
legally requisite, its clearly not sufficient, in cases involving a foreign

element, merely to apply domestic law standards, or to rely on, or rest
content with, the fact that the requirements of the local law concerned
were duly complied with,-if such was indeed the case. Internationally,
it is necessaryto consider whether-objectively-in the case of a foreign
Company having its seat and management abroad-a "notice" which
takes the form of nothing more than a simple press publication of the
adjudication in bankruptcy, suffices,-particularly if this publication is
local only, and not effectedin the country of the company's management
and seat. There is here a direct connection with the question of excessof
jurisdiction already discussed above; and it is important to remember
(seeparagraph 68)that it was not anything to do with the conduct of the
Barcelona Company's Spanish undertaking that was in question in the
bankruptcy proceedings, or which formed the basis of the bankruptcy
adjudication, but a primarily extra-Spanish matter, the servicing of the
sterling bonds-which was directly the concern of the Company in
Canada, and of the bondholders' trustee, the Canadian National Trust.

The very fact that, as was expressly recognized in relation to the Com-
pany's domicile,by the bankruptcy petition itself, namely that "it [the
Company] does not have [a domicile]in Spain, any more than it has any
specific commercial establishment there", must logically lead to the
conclusion that, on the international plane, a notification effected in
Canada, or by Canadian means of some kind, was called for. It is dif-
ficult to see how the apparently admitted non-Spanish domicile of the
Company could possibly lead to the conclusion suggested in the bank-
ruptcy petition, and accepted by the judge, that in these circumstances it
would be "necessary to limit publication to the Officia1Bulletin of Tar-
ragonaM-which thejudge extended to the Officia1Bulletin ofthe province
of Barcelona, but no further.
77. 1fully appreciate that Spanish law, like certain'other historic and
highly developed legal systems, approaches the subject of bankruptcy
mainly fromthe standpoint of thecreditors, and with the object above al1
or at any rate in the first instance, of safeguarding their rights, and hence
ofavoiding sofar aspossibleanypremature disposal, dispersa1or conceal-

ment of the debtor's assets, insuch a way as to prejudice those rights. 1therefore discount the natural reactions of a jurist trained in the com-

mon-law school when confronted with a situation in which a debtor can
be declared bankrupt, or a company liquidated or wound-up, on the
basis ofproceedings, ofwhich no previous notice has been orwillbegiven,
and at which the debtor is not represented or afforded an opportunity to
appear-and this although the declaration takes immediate effect, and
that effect involves for the bankrupt a complete loss of commercial
status and of legalcapacity to act. 1also accept the fact that according to

the philosophy of this point of view, only a very short interval is allowed
in which the bankruptcy can be challenged with a viewto its cancellation
and the reversa1ofits effects.
78. But for these very reasons, it appears to me to be an essential
counterpart of the considerable stringency of such a system that, at the
very least, the debtor, having been declared bankrupt, should receive
actual notice-judicial notice-of the declaration of bankruptcy, and
should do so in a form which must ensure that it is brought directly to the

attention of the person or entity concerned 58.Unless this is done, the
process, viewed as a whole, comes very near to constituting, if not a
species of concealment, at least a serious obstacle to the possibility of a
timely challenge to the bankruptcy ;-so that a procedure already highly
favourable to the creditor interest, becomes loaded against that of the
debtor to an extent difficult to reconcile with the standards of the ad-
ministration of justice required by international law. More especially is

this the case when the only period within which the bankruptcy can be
challenged is a period of eight days running not from the date of notice
but from that of the press publication of the bankruptcy declaration itself,
and failure to observe it apparently has, thenceforth, a permanently
preclusive effect.
79. The pertinence and force of these considerations is of course
greatly increased where, as in the present case, a foreign element is

involved,-where the bankrupt is a foreign entity, with its seat and
management abroad, and where the occasion of the bankruptcy is not the
local commercial activities of that entity, but one affecting its (chiefly
non-local) bondholders. In such circumstances, mere publication in the
local press, and then not in the ordinary newspapers but in journals of a
highly specialized kind, normally little read except by persons having a

the winding-up of a company on the basis of a petition, not only must the existence
of thepetition be advertised (and not merely in the officia1London Gazette but in one
of the ordinarydaily newspapers also) at least seven clear days before the petition is
dueto be heard,-but, in addition, notice of it must be served on the company at its
registered head office, equally before the hearing of the petition, at which of course
the company is entitled to be represented (Halsbury's Laws ofgland, loc. cit.n,
notes 12 and 13supra, pp. 544-549).In the case of foreign companies, notice must
no less be served, and, if this cannot be effected at an address for service or place of
business inEngland leave will be given to effect service abroad (ibid., pp. 842-843).particular reason to do so, can not be regarded as sufficient.It is in fact
doubtful whether press publication sufficesat all, if it is the only measure
taken. But it should at least be effectednot onlyin the local press but also
in that ofthe country or citywhere thebankrupt resides or (ifa company)
has its seat;-and, although the point was never finally resolved, there
is some reason to think that this was in fact what Spanish law itself

really required.

80. However, in my opinion, in the circumstances of cases such as the
present one, even publication of the latter kind is hardly adequate.
Something in the nature ofjudicial notice is necessary and, as mentioned
in the statement of facts given in the early part of the Court's Judgment
(paragraph 15),no such notice was given at the time: indeed it was not
until 15 years later, in June 1963,that the Barcelona Company's long-
standing request for an official copy of the bankruptcy judgment was
acceded to. The reason given in that judgment for publication in the
officialbulletinsofTarragona and Barcelonaonly,namelythatthe domicile
ofthe Company was "unknown", is difficultto reconcile with the fact that
the seat of the company was shown as "Head Office,25 King Street West,
Toronto, Canada" on one of the most important documents which,
togetherwith a translation into Spanish, was furnished to the bankruptcy
judge by the petitioners, as Nos. 3 and 3bis in the dossier of the case,
namelythe report of the council of administration (Board of Directors) of

the Company, covering its balance sheet for 1946,the figures of which
were cited in support of the bankruptcy petition (Annexes to the Me-
morial, Vol. II, p. 258).
81. Even if Spanish law did not require action to be taken in Toronto
in such a case (see end of paragraph 79 above), it certainly in no way
prohibited this. Indeed, such action would have been entirely consistent
with the relevant provisions of that law, and it had been taken by the
Spanish courts in other cases, particularly the Moncayo and Niel-on-
Rupel cases, and was to be taken again in an anaiogous context in the
Namel case a year later by the actual judge who was then in charge of the
Barcelona bankruptcy. There existed at least three or four ways of doing
this: by publication in the Toronto newspapers; through the registered
letter post, with postal certificate of delive;by persona1servicethrough
a Spanishconsulate in Canada, if Canadian law so allowed; or in the last
resort by serviceeffectedthrough the Canadian authorities themseives.

82. It wascontended that serviceor publication in Canada would have
constituted an internationally impermissible act of imperiumcarried out
in foreign territory. But in fact such acts take place every day, and
constitute indeed the usual ways inwhich persons resident or domiciledin
one country are formally apprised of proceedings affecting them, in-
stituted in another country. Local publication, or serviceby post, at least, can involveno act of imperium;and the other forms of servicementioned
above have the actual concurrence, general or specific, of the local
authorities. The Spanish casescited in the preceding paragraph showthat
the Spanishcourts themselves,in other cases, made use of the method of
publication in foreign papers. The truth is that in the present case no
attempt to notify the Barcelona Company in Canada was made.

83. In my opinion this omission-and evenif it could have been the
result only of inadvertence or oversight-wasof such a character as to
vitiate the whole proceedings on the international plane, and to render

them void or inoperative ab initio. Relative to the Company, the pro-
ceedingswere never properly initiated at all. Consequently (recalling the
observations made in paragraph 75 above)-in the presence of a nullity,
the question of exhausting legal remedies did not arise.

THEPHILOSOPHY OFJOINDER TO THE MERITS

84. When, in the earlier (1964) phase of the present case, the Court
joined the third andfourth preliminary objections to the merits, it made
a number of observations both on the general philosophy ofjoinder as a
judicial act, and also as regards the particular reasons for effectingit on
that occasion (Z.C. Jeports 1964, pp. 41-46). On the present occasion
the Court has not thought it necessary to supplement these observations.
But 1 believe there are certain additional points that can usefully be

made-except however as regards the fourth preliminary objection, for it
was always clear that this objection, relating to the exhaustion of local
remedies, wasintimately connected with the ultimate issues of substance
involvedby the claim, and could not even beconsidered exceptin relation
to these,-and so could not be pronounced upon without in large measure
prejudging the merits-a situation that has generally been viewed as
eminently calling for ajoinder.

85. As regards the third preliminary objection, on which the Court's
present Judgment is mainly founded, the situation-though fullyex-
plained on pages 44-46 of the Report of the Court's earlier Judgment-
was perhaps not so obviously clear although, as was pointed out in that
Judgment, matters relating to the merits had been discussedin the written

and oral proceedings in that phase of the case, in connection with this
objection. It may therefore be desirable to point out that, apart from the
doubt (see loc. cit., pp. 44-45) whether the objection had an exclusivelypreliminary character, and did not at least in part appertain to the merits,
the Court could not, without hearing the merits, regard itselfas adequate-
ly informed on what was evidently one of the key questions in the case,-
namely whether, in addition to the allegedinfringements of the Barcelona
Traction Company's rights, there had not also been infringements of the
specific rights, stricto sensu, of the shareholders, caused either by the
same acts ashad affectedthe Company, or by separate acts affectingonly
shareholdingrights as such. It was indeed this very point which, inter alia,
the Court had in mind in the two following passages from its earlier
Judgment, more than once cited or referred to in the course of the oral
pleadings in the present phase of the case, but which appear to have been
misunderstood to a certain extent, namely (I.C.J. Reports 1964,p. 44) :

"It can be asked whether international law recognizes for the
shareholders in a company a separate and independent right or
interest in respect of damage done to the company by a foreign
government; and if so to what extent and in what circumstances
and, in particular, whether those circumstances (if they exist)
would include those of the present case"

a3d (ibid., p. 45):

"In short, the question of thejus standi of a government to protect
the interests of shareholders as such, is itself merely a reflection, or
consequence, of the antecedent question of what is the juridical
situation in respect of shareholding interests, as recognized by inter-
national law."
86. These observations no doubt indicated that there could be share-
holding interests recognized and protected by law, which therefore

amounted to rights, and that there might be circumstances in which an
infringement of the company's rights would also infringe the separate
rights of the shareholders. But what the Court said in no sense war-
ranted the view that prejudice caused to the shareholders through illicit
damage done to the company, necessarily and of itself gave the former a
basis of claim which their government could legitimately put forward on
the international plane-this being, broadly speaking, the proposition
advanced on behalf of Belgium.
87. This matter was not the only one in respect of which a hearing of
the merits was necessary in order to enable the Court to deal with the
third preliminary objection,-for in addition to the question of the legal
status of shareholders and the nature of their rights and interests, this
objection also involved that of the nationality of those concerned. It was
contended by Spain, not only that in principle no claim at al1could be
made on behalf of shareholdinginterests in respect of damage caused, not 112 BARCELONATRACTION(SEP. OP. FITZMAURICE)

to those interests as such, but to the company,-but also that, even if
such a claim could be made, these particular shareholding interests were
not really Belgian, or were not in Belgian hands at the material times.
The Court felt it necessaryto hear the merits in order to ensure that it was
sufficiently informed as to the character and relative weight of the in-
terests involved in the Barcelona Traction Company and its affiliates:
indeed it was not until the merits were reached (even if then) that al1the
facts were fully brought out regarding this matter; and it was in this
context, rather than that of the status of shareholders, that, according to
one current of opinion in the Court, the Belgianclaim should be regarded

as inadmissible.

88. There are other ways in which the implications of a joinder are
liable to be misunderstood-particularly if, as in the present case, the
objection is eventually upheld and the merits, though heard, are not
pronounced upon. There may be a tendency to assume that an inter-
national tribunal which effectsajoinder is already half-way to dismissing
the objection and will eventually do so and give a decision on the merits.
Even if the present case, and others before it, did not demonstrate the

unwarranted nature of such an assumption, this would result as a matter
of principle from the fact that if the assumption were correct, the whole
process ofjoining preliminary objections to the merits would be rendered
meaningless-a mere futile (and unjustified) postponement, not a genuine
suspension, ofjudgment on the objection.
89. Equally unjustified, as other cases show, is the opposite assump-
tion,-that a joinder indicates a favourable attitude to the objection on
the part of the tribunal concerned-a theory that only needs to be stated
for its implausibility to be manifest. There may indeed be cases in which,
on various grounds that seemgood to it, a tribunal will hesitate to take,
at the preliminary stage of a case, adecision the effectof which would be
permanently to shut out, then and there, al1possibility of a hearing and
decision on the merits. But, although the task of evaluating the factors

involved must be left to the tribunal concerned, adequate grounds for the
joinder must always exist,-for the process is one that can never be other
than a simple suspension ofjudgment on the objection, effected because
the tribunal, for one reason or anbther, considers that it cannot pro-
nounce upon it at that stage, consistently with giving their due weight to
al1the various aspects of the case,and to holding the scalesofjustice even
between the parties. Ajoinder can never be interpreted as foreshadowing
a conclusion already half arrived at. 90. No less unwarranted would be any attempt to draw from the
upholding of a preliminary objection inferences as to what the attitude

of the tribunal was, or would have been, in regard to the substantive
merits of the claim. No such inferences-in whateversense-could
possibly be justified by reason of the fact that, on the basis simply of a
preliminary objection as such, the tribunal holds the claim to be inad-
missible.

1entirely approve of the initiative taken by the Court in paragraph 27
of the Judgment (and for the first time in a judgment *) of drawing at-

tention to the length of the proceedings in the present case,-so as to
indicate where the responsibility for this lies. If the parties in a litigation
before the Court think it necessary to take several years to prepare and
delivertheir written and oral arguments, that is their affair,-and, having
myself formerly, on a number of occasions, been in the same position,
1 can understand the reasons for it.
Strong objection exists however when the blame for such delays is
publicly ascribed to the supposed dilatoriness or procrastination of the

Court itself,-in evident ignorance, or else heedlessness, of the true
facts **.

Nor is this by any means the only way in which the Court has been
misrepresented in a manner detrimental to the dignity and good order of
its functioning as an independent judicial institution.

(Signed) G. G. FITZMAURICE.

* A previous Order of the Couras to time-limits in the present proceedings drew
at**nSome indication of the real facts will be found, for instance, in 14oonote
p. 447 of a review article contributby me to the Kansas Law Review, Vol. 13,
No. 3, March, 1965. Since this was written, periods requested by the parties have
grown to 4-5 years for the written proceedings, and 3-6 months for the oral hearing.
See also for a much more complete statement, Professor Leo Gross, "The Time
Element in Contentious Proceedings in theInternationalCouof Justice", American
Journalof InternationalLaw, 1969, Vol. 63, p. 74.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SIR GERALD FITZMAURICE

1. Although (if with some reluctance) 1agree and have voted with the
majority of the Court in finding the Belgian claim in this case to be in-
admissible, and broadly for the principal reason on which the Judgment
is based-namely that in respect of an injury done to a company, prima
facie the company's goverriment alone can sustain an international
claim-1 have a somewhat different attitude on various aspects of the
matter, which 1wish to indicate. In particular (a) 1would go consider-
ably further than does the Judgment in accepting limitations on the
principle of the "hegemony" of the company and its government;-
furthermore (b), though 1havefelt bound to vote as 1have, 1nevertheless

hold it to be an unsatisfactory state of the law that obliges the Court to
refrain from pronouncing on the substantive merits of the Belgian claim,
on the basis of what is really-at least in the actud circumstances of this
case-somewhat of a technicality.

2. In addition, there are a number of particular matters, not dealt
with or only touched upon in the Judgment of the Court, which 1should
like to comment on. Although these comments can only be in the nature
of obiter dicta, and cannot have the authority of a judgment, yet since
specific legislative action with direct binding effect is not at present
possible in the international legal field, judicial pronouncements of one
kind or another constitute the principal method by which the law can

find some concrete measure of clarification and development. 1 agree
with the late Judge Sir Hersch Lauterpacht that it is incumbent on
international tribunals to bear in mind this consideration, which places
them in a different position from domestic tribunals as regards dealing
with-or at least commenting on-points that lieoutside the strict ratio
decidendi of the case.

l The necessary references and citations are given in the opening paragraphs of
theseparate Opinion of my colleague Judge Jessup in the present case (q.v.),-and
1 associate myself with the views he expresses in this connection.

65 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE SIR GERALD FITZMAURICE

[Traduction ]
1

1. Bien que j'aie voté, avecun certain regret d'ailleurs, dans le même
sens que la majoritédes membres de la Cour, convenant avec eux qu'en

l'espècela demande belge est irrecevable et cela essentiellement pour le
motif principal sur lequel se fonde l'arrêt - à savoir que lorsqu'un pré-
judice est causé à une société, seulle gouvernement dont relèvela société
peutprimafacie présenter uneréclamation internationale - mon attitude
diffèrequelque peu de la leur sur divers aspects de l'affaire, ainsi que je
voudrais l'indiquer. En particulier: a) je vais beaucoup plus loin que
l'arrêtquant aux limites que j'assignerais pour ma part au principe de
1'«hégémonie » de la sociétéet du gouvernement dont ellerelève; deplus,
b) sije me suis senti tenu de voter comme je l'ai fait, je n'en considère

pas moins comme peu satisfaisant un droit qui, dans son état actuel,
oblige la Cour à s'abstenir de se prononcer sur le fond de la demande
de la Belgique pour un motif relevant à vrai dire - du moins dans les
circonstances de l'affaire- d'un certain formalisme juridique.
2. Il y a en outre plusieurs questions particulières, qui ne sont pas
traitéesdans l'arrêtde la Cour ou qui n'ysont qu'effleuréess ,ur lesquelles
je voudrais présenter certainesobservations. Bien que ces observations
ne puissent avoir que le caractère d'obiter dictasans posséderl'autorité

d'un jugement, les opinions qui émanent d'une manièreou d'une autre
d'une instance judiciaire constituent, tant qu'il ne sera pas possible
d'édicter,dans le domaine juridique international, des textes législatifs
exprès ayant un effet obligatoire direct, le principal moyen de préciser
et de développer ledroit de façon quelque peu concrète. Je suis d'accord
avec l'ancien jugesir Hersch Lauterpacht lpour estimer quelestribunaux
internationaux doivent avoir cette considération présente à l'esprit, ce
qui les met dans une situation différentede celle destribunaux nationaux
pour ce qui est d'examiner, ou du moins de commenter, des aspects

dépassantla stricte ratio decidendid'une affaire.

l On trouverales référenceest citations utiles dans les premiersparagraphesde
I'opinion individuelle émisepar mon collèguM. Jessup dans la présente affaire;
je m'associe aux vues qu'il exprimeà ce propos. 3. In the next part (II) of this opinion (paragraphs 4-34) 1 propose
to indicate thecriteria on the basis of which 1have felt obliged to concur
in the main conclusion reached by the Court, but 1 shall do so in the
light of my view that certain of the considerations of law which compel
that conclusion prove, in the international field, to be unserviceable as
soon as they are applied to any situation which is out of the ordinary.
In the succeedingpart (III-paragraphs 35and 36),I statethe conclusions
which 1believeought to be drawn from part II as to the place of equitable

considerations in the international legalfield,and the growing need there
for a system of Equity. In the next two parts (IV and V) 1 propose, as
indicated supra in paragraph 2, to comment on a certain number of
matters (also of a more or less preliminary character) which, though not
relevant to the particular point on which the Court's decision turns,
formed part of the long series of questions debated by the Parties in the
course oftheir arguments, and which accounted, or could have accounted,
for individual rejections of the Belgian claim by certain Members of the
Court. Part IV (paragraphs 37-65) will deal with matters affecting the
nationality of the Barcelona Traction Company's shareholders, and Part
V (paragraphs 66-83) with certain other matters having a preliminary
character,-viz. the question of jurisdiction in bankruptcy, and a parti-
cular aspect of the local remedies rule. Finally, in the concluding part
(VI-paragraphs 84-90)-since the subject has evidently given rise to

some misunderstanding-1 discuss the philosophy of the joinder of
preliminary objections to the merits. There is finally a Postscript on the
question of the length of the proceedings in this and other cases, and
certain related matters.

4. Although, as 1have said, 1reach the same final conclusion as in the
Judgment of the Court, my approach is different. In particular 1 do not

base myself as does the Judgment to some extent (vide its paragraphs
33-36),and as figured fairly prominently in the arguments of the Parties,
on any consideration turning on the question of to whom, or to what
entity, was the obligation owed in this case, not to act in a manner

Although 1now agree with my colleague Judge Morelli's view that the question
of Belgium's right to claim on behalf of the Barcelona Traction Company's share-
holders, in so far as Belgian, is really a question of substancenot of capacity (because
the underlying issue is what rights do the shareholders themselves have), it is
standing.t for immediate purposes to treatthe matter as one of Belgian Government 3. Je me propose d'indiquer, dans la partie suivante (II) de la présente
opinion (par. 4-34), lescritèresen vertu desquels je me suis cru obligéde
souscrire àla conclusion principale de la Cour, maisje le ferai en partant

de la thèseque certaines des considérations juridiques quiimposent cette
conclusion se révèlent,dans le domaine international, perdre toute valeur
pratique dès qu'on les applique à une situation qui sort de l'ordinaire.
Dans la partiequi vient ensuite (III, par. 35 et6),j'énoncerailes conclu-
sions qu'il conviendrait, selon moi, de tirer de la deuxièmepartie quant
à la place àfaire aux considérations d'équité dans le domaine juridique
international età la nécessitécroissante d'un système fondé sur l'équité
dans cedomaine. Dans lesdeuxparties suivantes(IV et V),je mepropose,
comme je l'ai dit au paragraphe 2, de formuler des observations sur un

certain nombre de questions (ayant égalementun caractèreplus ou moins
préliminaire)qui, sans se rattacher au point particulier sur-lequel repose
la décision de la Cour, figuraient dans la longue série des questions
débattues par les Parties et qui expliquent, ou pourraient expliquer,
le rejet individuel de la demande belge par certains membres de la Cour.
La quatrième partie (par. 37-65)traitera de certains points se rapportant
à la nationalité des actionnaires de la société BarcelonaTraction, et la
cinquièmepartie (par. 66-83)d'autres questions de caractère préliminaire,
à savoir la question de la compétenceen matière de faillite et un aspect

particulier de la règlede l'épuisement desrecours internes. Enfin, dans
la sixième et dernière partie (par. 84-90),je parlerai-ce sujet ayant
manifestement donné lieu à certains malentendus - de la conception
généralede la jonction des exceptions préliminairesau fond. J'ajouterai
pour finir une postface concernant la longueur de la procédure dans la
présente instanceet dans d'autres affaires, ainsi que certaines questions
connexes.

4. Si, comme je l'ai dit, je suis parvenu finalementà la même conclu-
sion que la Cour dans son arrêt,c'estpar une voie différente. Enparticu-
lier, je ne me fonde pas, comme l'arrêtle fait dans une certaine mesure
(voir ses par. 33-36), sur des considérations qui figurent égalementen
assez bonne place dans l'argumentation des Parties et qui sont axéessur
la question de savoir envers qui, ou envers quelle entité, il existait en

Je suis à présent d'accord avec mon collèM.e Morelli pour estimer que la
question de savoir si la Belgique a le droit de présenter une réclamation pour le
compte des actionnaires de la sociétéBarcelonaTraction, dans la mesure où ceux-ci
jacent étant de déterminer quels sont les droits des actionnaires eux-mêmes), maiss-
il est commode, pour mon propos immédiat, de considérer que c'est la qualité pour
agir du Gouvernement belge qui est en question.contrary to international law. This does not seemto me to bethe right
question to ask where the issue involved is not one of treaty or other

particular obligations, but of general international law obligations in the
sphere of the treatment of foreigners. If in the latter area a State, either
directly or through its agencies or authorities, acts illicitly, it stands in
breach of international law irrespective of whether any other State is
qualified to take the matter up. For instance if an individual were
concerned, he might be stateless. If in the present case there havebeen
contraventions of international law, they are in no way legitimized, nor

do they become any the less illicit, because Canada has not (or even
possibly could not 3, pursue the matter, and because Belgium is held to
possess no locus standi injudicio for doing so. Nor is the question of the
entity to which the obligation is due helpful even for the purpose of
identifying the party entitled to claim, for such entity would itself
previously need to be identified, and the discussion would turn in a circle.

5.The material and onlypertinent question iswho or what entity, if, any
isentitled to claim inrespect of damage accruing to shareholdersin conse-
quence of illicit treatment of the company;-and in order to answer this
since the matter concerns a company and its shareholders-it is above al1
necessary to have regard to the concept and structure of companies
according to the systems of their origin, which are systems of private

or domestic law,-and furthermore to insist on the principle that when
private law concepts are utilized, or private law institutions are dealt
with in the international legal field, they should not there be distorted
or handled in a manner not in conformity with their true character, as it
exists under the system or systems of their creation. But, although this
is so, it is scarcely less important to bear in mind that conditions in the
international field are sometimes very different from what they are in
the domestic, and that rules which these latter conditions fully justify

may be less capable of vindication if strictly applied when transposed
ont0 the international level 4.Neglect of this precaution may result in an
opposite distortion,-namely that qualifications or mitigations of the

i.e., if it were held that no "genuine link" existed between Canada and the
Barcelona Traction Company on the basis of the principle of the Nottebohm case
(vide infra, paragraphs 26-32).
In this respect 1 fully associate myself with the viewsexpressed by Lord McNair
in his South West Africa case (1950) Opinion when, speaking of the United Nations
Trusteeship System, he said (Z.C.J. Reports 1950, at p. 148) that private law in-
stitutions could not be imported intothe international field "lock, stock andl",
just as they were, and that private law rules could only serve as indications of
principle and not as rigid injunctions in the internationalin. However, in the
present case thereis no question of international law setting up a new international
The latter remains a purelyrivate law creation, which international law must take asl'espèce une obligation de ne pas agir de manière contraire au droit
international. Il ne me semble pas que ce soit là vraiment la question
qui se pose, dès lors qu'il s'agitnon pas d'obligations conventionnelles
ni d'autres obligations particulières mais d'obligations découlant du
droit international général enmatièrede traitement des étrangers.Si dans
ce dernier domaine un Etat commet, soit directement soit par l'inter-
médiaire de ses services ou de ses autorités, un acte illicite, il viole le

droit international, qu'un autre Etat ait qualité ou non pour soulever
la question. Par exemple, s'il s'agit d'un individu, il se peut qu'il soit
apatride. Si, en la présenteaffaire, certains actes ont contrevenu au droit
international, ils ne sont en aucune manière légitimésni ne perdent rien
de leur caractère illicite par le fait que le Canada n'a pas poursuivi
l'affaire(ou peut-êtremême nepouvait pas la poursuivre 3,ni parce que

l'on estime que la Belgique n'a pas qualitépour agir elle-même.De plus,
se demander à l'égardde quelle entitél'obligation existe n'est guère utile,
mêmepour déterminer qui a qualité pour agir, car il faudrait identifier
d'abord cette entitéelle-mêmeet la discussion risquerait de tourner en
rond.
5. La question importante et la seule pertinente est de savoir qui,

ou quelle entité,aurait éventuellementle droit de présenter une réclama-
tion à raison d'un préjudice causéaux actionnairesdu fait du traitement
illicite de la sociétéP. our répondre à cette question, il est avant tout
nécessaire, puisqu'il s'agitd'une sociétéet de ses actionnaires, de prendre
en considération la conception et la structure des sociétésdans leurs
systèmes d'origine,qui sont des systèmesde droit privéou interne; il faut
en outre s'en tenir strictement au principe selon lequel quand, dans le

domaine juridique international, on est amené à utiliser des concepts de
droit privé ou à s'occuper d'institutions de droit privé, on ne doit pas
les déformerou les traiter d'une manière qui ne soit pas conforme à leur
véritablenature, telle qu'elle ressort du systèmeou des systèmesqui les
ont créés. Celadit, il est presque aussi important de ne pas oublier que
les conditions qui règnent dans le domaine international peuvent être

très différentesde celles de l'ordre interne et que l'application stricte de
règles pleinement justifiéespour celui-ci devient parfois moins défendable
lorsqu'on les transpose sur le plan international 4.En négligeant cette

Si l'on pense qu'il n'existait pas de lien effectif entre le Canada et la société
Barcelona Traction en vertu du principe posé dans l'affaire Nottebohm (voir ci-après
par. 26à 32).
Je partage pleinement à cet égard les vues exprimées par lord McNair dans son
opinion en l'affaire du Statut international du Sud-Ouest africain (1950); parlant du
système de tutelle des Nations Unies, il a dit à cette occ(C.Z. Jecueil 1950,
p. 148) que les institutions de privéne pouvaient êtreimportees telles quelles et
«en bloc1)dans le domaine international que les règles de droit privéne pouvaient
êtreconsidérées,dans ce domaine, que comme des indications de principe et non
comme des injonctions rigides. Cependantil n'est pas question, en l'espèce, que le
droit international créeune nouvelle institution internationale aàl'institution
de droit privé qui est la sociétéanonyme. Cette dernière demeure une créatidurule, provided for on the interna1 plane, may fail to be adequately
reflectedon the international,-leading to a resulting situation of paradox,

anomaly and injustice.

6. This is what seems to have occurred in the field of the corporate
entity at the international level. Since the limited liability company with
share capital is exclusively a creation of private law, international law
is obviously bound in principle to deal with companies as they are,-that
is to say by recognizing and giving effect to their basic structure as it

exists according to the applicable private law concepts 5. Fundamental
to the structure of the company is the ascription to it, qua corporate
entity, of a separate personality over and above that of its component
parts, viz. the shareholders, with resulting carefully drawn distinctions
between the sphere, functions and rights of the company as such, acting
through its management or board, and those of the shareholder. These
distinctions must obviously be maintained at the international level:

indeed to do otherwise would be completely to travesty the notion of a
company as a corporate entity. Thus it is that, just as in domestic courts
no shareholder could take proceedings in respect of a tort or breach
of contract committed in respect of the company, but only the latter
could do so, through the action of its management with whom the
decision would lie-a decision which, broadly speaking, the shareholder
must accept,-so also if an illicit act injurious to the company or in-
fringing its rights takes place on the international plane, it is not the

government of the shareholder but, in principle, that of the company
alone, which can make an international claim or bring international
proceedings;-the decision whether to do so or not lying with the latter
government-a decision which again the foreign shareholder must accept,
in the sense that neither he nor his government can require (still less
compel) the company's government to take action.

7. In neither case does it make any difference that the wrong done to
the company recoils or "repercusses" ont0 the shareholder 6, e.g., by

it finds it. The complaint 1am making in this Opinion is that international law has
indeed taken it as it has found it over part of the ground, but not over the rest,
thereby introducing an unjustified distortion.
Itis inevitable that these conceptsshould be referred to herein in very broad and
general terms. Thedetails Varyfrom country to country, and somethings may not be
true or may need considerable qualification for certain countries.

Suppose that by the tortious negligence of a third party the company'sare-
houses are burned down,-the shareholder may indirectly be seriously affected, but
he can have no right of action: the property was not his but the company's. It is the
same if his interest is affected by the failure of a third party to carry out a contract
with the company, for he himself is not a party to the contract.is quite another
matter if the act complained of is directed against, or directly infringes, his specific précaution, on risque d'aboutir à la déformation contraire, en ce sens
que les restrictions ou atténuations à la règle prévuessur le plan interne
ne se retrouveront peut-êtrepas suffisamment sur le plan international,
d'où un certain nombre de paradoxes, anomalies et injustices.
6. C'est ce qui semble s'êtreproduit, au niveau international, dans le
cas de la société.La sociétépar actions, dans laquelle la responsabilité

des actionnaires est limitée, étant exclusivement une création du droit
privé, il estévident que le droit international est tenu en principe de
prendre la société telle qu'elleest, c'est-à-dire dereconnaître sa structure
de base telle qu'elle résulte desconcepts de droit privéapplicables et de
lui donner effet. Une des caractéristiques fondamentales de la société est
qu'elle est dotée,en raison mêmede son caractère social, d'une person-

nalité distincte primant celle de ses élémentsconstitutifs - les action-
naires-, d'où desdistinctions soigneusement marquéesentre le champ
d'action, les fonctions et les droits de la société entant que telle, agissant
par l'intermédiaire de sa direction ou de son conseil d'administration,
et ceux de l'actionnaire. De toute évidence, ilfaut maintenir ces distinc-
tions sur le plan international, sil'on ne veut pas dénaturercomplètement
lanotion de société en tant quepersonne morale. Ainsi, de mêmequ'aucun

actionnaire n'a de recours devant les tribunaux nationaux lorsqu'un
acte dommageable ou une rupture de contrat sont commis au préjudice
de la société,et que seule cette dernière peut intenter une action par
l'intermédiaire desa direction, à laquelle la décisionappartient - décision
que d'une manière généralel'actionnaire doit accepter - ,de même,siun
acte illicite préjudiciableà la société ouportant atteinte à ses droits se
produit sur le plan international, il n'appartient pas au gouvernement

de l'actionnaire mais en principe à celui de la seule sociétéde présenter
une réclamation internationale ou d'engager une procédure judiciaire
internationale;la décisionappartient à ce dernier gouvernement, décision
que là encore l'actionnaire étrangerdoit accepter, en ce sens que ni lui ni
son gouvernement ne peuvent exiger du gouvernement de la société qu'il
agisse (et encore moins l'y contraindre).

7. Dans un cas comme dans l'autre, peu importe que le tort fait à
la société rejaillisseou «se répercute ))sur l'actionnaire 6,par exemple en

droit purement privé, que le droit internationaldoit prendre dans l'état ou il la
international l'ait effectivementprise comme il trouvéeà certainségardsmais none droit
à d'autres, introduisant ainsi une distorsion injustifiée.
Il est inévitable que ces concepts ne puissent êtreévoquésdans la présente
opinion qu'en des termes très généraux.Les détails varient d'un paysl'autre et il
est possible que certaines indications ne soient pas valables ou soient sujettes à de
très fortes restrictions dans le cas de certains pays.
Supposons que, par la négligencecoupable d'un tiers, les entrepôts dela société
brûlent; l'actionnaire risque de subir indirectemeun grave préjudice mais il n'a
aucun recours: il ne s'agissait pas de son bien mais de celui de la société.11en est de
même s'il estporté atteinteà son intérêtdu fait de i'inexécution par un tiers d'un
contrat passé avec la société,car lui-même n'estpas partie au contrat.n va tout
autrement si l'acte incriminé est dirigécontre ses droits propres d'actionnaouecausing the market value of his shares to fa11orthe profits of the company
to be diminished-whence lower dividends; or by causing difficulty as to
disposing of the shares-(for want of ready buyers),-for while the
shareholder has a legal right not to have his shares cancelled or confisca-
ted without compensation, he has no legal right that they shall have,
or be maintained at, any particular market value,-and while the share-

holder has a right to receive a dividend if a dividend is declared, he has
no right that it shall be declared, or (if declared) be for any particular
amount 7,-and again, while he has a right freely to dispose of his
shares the law does not guarantee him either a buyer or a price.
8. But at this point it becomes clear that something has gone wrong,-
that the analogy has broken down,-because certain qualifications or
modifications, it might be said mitigations, which, in the domestic field,
affect and as it were alleviate the situation just described, are not, in
the present state of the law, reflected, or not adequately so, in the inter-
national domain;-for whereas at that level this situation is one which,
as the law now seems to stand, may leave the shareholder powerless to

protect his interests, this is not the case on the domestic plane, where
the principle of the "hegemony" of the company is accompanied by
certain balancing elements, acting as a counterweight, which are only
up to a point reflected in the present condition of international law-
(vide infra, paragraph 11 and the footnotes thereto).

9. In order to understand this matter, it is necessary to have regard to
the underlying rationale of the "hegemony principle". This resides in
something more than the purely juridical situation resulting from the

separate legal personality of the company, and the fact that, in the type
of case now in question, the rights infringed are those of the company,
not of the shareholder-though his pocket may be affected, actually or
potentially-(vide supra, paragraph 7 and footnote 6). Nor does it reside
in the practical considerations which, on the domestic plane, at least,
must in al1normal circumstances rule out the possibility of separate and
independent action by shareholders in respect of the treatment of the
company, as such, by third parties.
10. The true rationale (outside but underlying the law) of denying to

rights as a shareholder,-for instance his right freely to dispose of his shares were
illicitly interfered with, or if resolutions duly passed at the general meeting of
shareholders were declareduIl and void, etc.
' ASca general rule, that is. Under wartime or other emergency conditions,ds.
owners of certain kinds of securities., those expressed in foreign currency) might
be required to dispose of them to, or only to, the government or central bank.faisant baisser le cours de ses actions ou en réduisant les bénéficesde

la société - et par conséquent les dividendes - ou encore en rendant
(faute d'acheteurs) la cession des actions plus difficile;en effet,siI'action-
naire peut prétendre en droit à ce que ses actions ne soient pas annulées
ou confisquéessans indemnité, il n'a aucun titre à exiger qu'elles attei-
gnent un certain cours ou s'y maintiennent; et si l'actionnaire a le droit
de percevoir le dividende déclaré,il n'a nullement celui d'exiger qu'un
dividende soit déclaréni (s'il l'est) qu'il soit de tel ou tel montant ';

de même,s'il est en droit de disposer librement de ses actions la loi ne
lui garantit ni un acheteur ni un prix.
8. Mais à ce stade il apparaît clairement que quelque chose ne va plus,
que l'analogie s'effondre parce que certaines restrictions ou modifica-
tions -certaines atténuations,pourrait-on dire - , qui sur leplan interne
s'appliquent à la situation décriteci-dessus et viennent en quelque sorte
la tempérer, ne se retrouvent pas ou ne se retrouvent pas suffisamment

en l'étatactuel du droit dans le domaine international; à ce niveau en
effet, l'actionnaire risque en pareil cas, et si l'on s'en tient à ce qui
semble êtreactuellement le droit, de n'avoir aucun moyen de protéger
ses intérêts, alorsqu'il enva autrement sur le plan interne où le principe
de l'((hégémonie ))est équilibrépar certains autres élémentsqui font
contrepoids etdont on ne retrouve qu'en partie l'équivalentdans le droit
international existant (voir ci-après par. 11 et notes de bas de pages y
relatives).

9. Pour bien comprendre cette question, il est nécessairede considérer
lajustification rationnelle du « principe de l'hégémonie ». Celle-ci ne tient
pas seulement à la situation purement juridique qui résultede la person-
nalité morale distincte de la société,ni au fait qu'en l'occurrence les

droits auxquels il est porté atteinte sont ceux de la sociétéet non de
l'actionnaire, même sison porte-monnaie en souffre ou risque d'en
souffrir (voir ci-dessus par. 7 et note 6). Elle ne découle pasnon plus
des considérations pratiques qui, du moins sur le plan interne, doivent
normalement exclure la possibilitéd'une action distincte et indépendante
des actionnaires motivéepar le traitement infligépar des tiers à la société
en tant que telle.

10. La véritableraison (extérieureau droit mais sous-jacente à celui-ci)

lèsedirectement ces droit- si, par exemple, on porte atteinte defaçon illicite àsori
droit de disposer librement de ses actions ou si des décisions régulièrement prisesà
l'assemblée générale deactionnaires sont déclarées nulles etnon avenues, etc.
Sauf bien entendu pour les diverses catégories de valeurstérêtfixe.
En règle générale.En temps de guerre ou dans d'autres situations exception-
nelles, les propriétaires de certaines catégories de titres (par exemple ceux qui sont
libellésen une monnaie étrangère) peuvent en effet êtretenus de les céderau gouver-
nement ou à la banque centrale, ou de ne les céderqu'à l'un ou à l'autre.69 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. FITZMAURICE)

the shareholder the possibility of action in respect of infringernents of
company rights is that, normally, he does not need this. The company

will act and, by so doing, will automatically protect not only its own
interests but those of the shareholders also. That is the assumption;-
namely that the company is both capable of acting and will do so unless
there are cogent reasons why, in the interests of the company and, hence,
indirectly of the shareholders, it should refrain 9,-the decision involved
being one ofpolicy, prima facie forthe determination of the management.
(It is precisely here, however, that the beginnings of a profound difference
between the domestic and the international situations can be discerned,
for if and when a government declines or fails to intervene on behalf of

a company of its nationality detrimentally affected by illicit foreign
action, the reasons will be the government's not the company's 1°,and will
normally have nothing to do with the company's interests, which indeed
are likely to be adversely affected still further by the government's
refusa1 or failure, so that no contingent or long-term advantage, or
avoidance of disadvantage, will result, as might be expected if the
decision were the company's. The motivations involved are quite distinct.
But al1this is to anticipate.)

11. The assurnption that the company will act, or will have good
reasons for not doing so-(reasons which will be in the eventual interests
of the shareholders a1so)-underlies equally the variously expressed
axiom, on the presumed truth of which so much of the applicable law
is based-namely that the fate of the shareholder is bound up with that
of the company; that his fortunes follow the latter's; that having elected
to throw in his lot with the company, he must abide by the consequences,
be they good or bad, so long as he maintains his connection with it,

etc., etc. The idea has been well expressed in a recent work l1as follows
(my translation) :-
"If, in principle, the shareholders must suffer the fate of the

cornpany, this is because the corporate entity is a legal person
capable by its corporate action of protecting the interests which the
shareholders have entrusted to it .. .transferring to the corporate

Because, e.g., too expensive, or likely to have undesirable repercussions, to
offend some powerful interest, interfere with some other objective, involve sorne
awkward revelation, etc.

the claim. For instance a government may well not wish to press a private claim ,of
against another government with which it is conducting difficult negotiations on a
matter of overriding national importance. Many otherinstances could be given.

" Paul De Visscher, "La Protection Diplomatique des Personnes Moralesm-
(Diplomatic Protection of Corporate Entities)-Recueil[i.e., Collecred Courses] of
the Hague Academy of International Law, 1961, Vol. 1, at p. 465. qui justifie que I'on dénie à l'actionnaire la possibilité d'agir lorsqu'il
y a atteinte aux droits de lasociété est que normalement il n'a pas besoin
de le faire. La société agira et, ce faisant, protégera automatiquement

non seulement ses propres intérêtsmais aussi ceux des actionnaires. On
part donc de la double hypothèse que la sociétéest capable d'agir et
qu'elle le fera, moins d'avoir des raisons impérieuses de s'abstenir
dans son propre intérêe tt donc indirectement dans celui des actionnaires;
la décision à prendre est une décisiondepolitique généraleq , ui appartient
prima facie à la direction. (Or c'est précisément à ce point que I'on
commence à discerner une profonde différence entre la situation sur le

plan interneet la situation sur le plan international; en effet,si un gouver-
nement réfused'intervenir au nom d'une sociétéde sa nationalité qui
a étélésée par un acte étranger illjcite, ou s'il s'en abstient, ce sera pour
des raisons propres au gouvernement, non à la société 1°; et n'ayant
généralementrien à faire avec les intérêts deladite société: ceux-ci
risquent en fait de se trouver encore plus gravement compromis par le
refus ou l'abstention du gouvernement, qui ne procurera à la société

aucun avantage éventuelou à long terme et ne lui éviteraaucun incon-
vénient, contrairement à ce qu'on pourrait attendre si la décisionémanait
d'elle. Les mobiles sont entièrement distincts. Mais n'anticipons pas.)
11. L'idéeque la sociétéagira ou qu'elle aura de bonnes raisons de
n'en rien faire (raisons qui, finalement, seront aussi dans l'intérêtdes
actionnaires) est également implicitedans l'axiome - qui peut s'exprimer
sous diverses formes et sur la vérité présuméd euquel repose une si

grande part du droit applicable - que le sort del'actionnaire est liàcelui
de la société;que sa fortune suit celle de la société,qu'ayant choisi de
partager le destin de la sociétil doit en accepter lesconséquences,bonnes
ou mauvaises, tant qu'iln'aura pas rompu sesrapports avec la sociétée ,tc.
Cette idéea étéfort bien exposéedans un ouvrage récent ", où il est dit
que :

((Si,en principe, les actionnaires doivent subir le sort de la société,
c'est parce que la personne morale est un sujet de droit capable de
défendrepar l'action sociale les intérêts queles actionnaires y ont
engagés ...ils prêtent à la personne morale une part de leur per-

Parce que cela serait trop onéreux, ou par exemple parce que cela risquerait
gêner la réalisation de quelque autre objectif, d'entraîner certaines révélationse
embarrassantes, etc.
'O Ces raisons peuvent avoir un rapport avec le fond de la demande mais peuvent
tout aussi bien ne pas en avoir. Par exemple il est fort possible qu'un gouvernement
ne souhaite pas appuyer une réclamation privéecontre un autre gouvernement avec
lequel il est en train de mener des négociations difficiles sur une question dont
l'importance nationale est primordiale. Onpourrait citer beaucoup d'autres exemples
analogues.
" Paul De Visscher, ((La protection diplomatique des personnes morales)),
Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit international de La Haye, 1961, tome 102,
p. 465. entity a part of their personality and rights, with the object ofthereby
obtaining a better return and a more effective safeguard. But on
that account, if such is the justification for the indivisibility of the
corporate entity, such is also its limit."

The nature and extent of this limit on the international plane will be
considered later. In the domestic sphere it takes two main forms, the

external and the internal-the latter being action within the company
itself by means of its own processes and procedures (vid iefra,paragraph
12).As to the former, most developed systems of law contain provisions
which have been described in very general terms as being

"intended to protect the interests of shareholders if the company's

officers are considering their own interests rather than the interests
of the company, and also to protect the interests of minorities of
shareholders" 12.

Such provisions of course differ from country to country but, without
attempting to particularize, their broad effect is either to enable share-
holders to bring an action in their own names against a third Party, in a

variety of circumstances involving fraud, malfeasance, negligence or

l2Beckett, "Diplomatic Claims in Respect of Injuries to Companies", Trans-
actions of the Grotius Society,ol. 17 (1932), at p. 193, footnote (7), citing (and see
also at p. 192)Dutch, English, French and German law. Beckett also cites a passage
from Halsbury's Laws of England. The same passage as it figures in the later (1954)
edition, after stating thatrmally only the company not shareholders can sue third
parties, continues as follows:

"Where, however, the persons against whom relief is sought hold and control
the majority of the shares, and will not permit an action to be brought in the
company's name, shareholders complaining may bring an action in their own
names and on behalf of the others and they may do so also where the effect of
preventing them so suing would be to enable a company by an ordinary re-
solution to ratify an improperly passed special resolution."

See also Mervyn Jones, "Claims on behalf of Nationals who are Shareholders in
Foreign Companies" in British Year Book of International Law, Vol. XXVI (1949),
at pp. 232-234, citing American, Austrian, Belgian, English, French, Italian,
Norwegian, Swedish and Swiss law.
See further as to German law in "La Personnalité Morale et ses Limitesw-
(The Corporate Entity and its Limits), published by Pichon & Durand-Auzias for
the Institute of Comparative Law of the University of Paris inLibrairie Généralee
Droit et de Jurisprudence,1960, at pp. 43-44 (per Dr. Ulrich Drobnig); and, in ibid.,
at p. 150, the following statement of Swiss law (per Prof. J. M. Grossen-my
toacompel the corporate entity-orely more exactly its management-to [thchange itsers]
attitude."
For analogous provisions of French law see paragraph 11 of my colleague Judge
Gros' separate Opinion. sonnalitéet de leurs droits dans le but d'en obtenir un rendement
accru et une protection plus efficace.Dèslors si telle est la justifica-
tion de l'unitéde la personne morale, telle en est aussi la limite. »

La nature et la portée de cette limite sur le plan international seront
examinées plusloin. Dans les droits nationaux, elle revêtdeux formes
principales, l'une externe et l'autre interne, cette dernière consistant
en la possibilitéd'agir au sein de la société elle-mêmpear la voie des

mécanismeset des procédures quilui sont propres (voir ci-après,par. 12).
Pour ce qui est de la première limite, les systèmes de droit les plus
développéscomportent des dispositions dont il a étédit, en termes très

généraux, qu'elles ont

ccpour objet de protéger les intérêtsdes actionnaires lorsque les
dirigeants de la sociétéfont passer leurs propres intérêtsavant ceux
de la société,et aussi de protéger les intérêtsdes actionnaires

minoritaires l2».
Ces dispositions varient évidemmentsuivant les pays mais, sans entrer

dans le détail,on peut dire qu'elles ont pour effet généralde permettre
aux actionnaires ou bien d'intenter une action en leur propre nom contre
un tiers dans diverses circonstances (par exemple lorsqu'il y a eu fraude,

l2Beckett, (Diplomatic Claims in respect of Injuries to Companies », Trans-
actions of the Grotius Society, vol. 17, 1932, p. 193, note 7, citant (voir aussi p. 192)
les droits néerlandais, anglais, français et allemand. Beckett cite également un
passage de l'ouvrage Halsbury's Laws of England. Dans le même passage tel qu'il
figure dans l'éditionultérieure de ce dernier ouvrage (1954), l'auteur, après avoir dit
que, normalement, seule la société - et non les actionnaires - peut intenter une
action contre un tiers, ajoute ceci:

((Toutefois, lorsque les personnes de qui on veut obtenir réparation détiennent
et contrôlent la majorité des actions, et ne permettent pas d'intenter une action
au nom de la société, desactionnaires réclamants peuvent intenter une action
en leur nom propre et pour le compte des autres, ce qu'ils peuvent faire égale-
ment au cas ou l'interdiction d'agir ainsi en justice aurait pour effet de per-
mettre à une sociétéde ratifier par une résolution ordinaire une résolution
spéciale irrégulièrementadoptée. »

Voir aussi Mervyn Jones, iClaims on behalf of Nationals who are Shareholdersin
Foreign Companies »,dans British Year Book of International Law, vol. XXVI, 1949,
p. 232-234, citant les droits américain, autrichien, belge, anglais, français, italien,
norvégien, suédois et suisse.
Voir en outre, pour ce qui est du droit allemand, (La personnalité morale et ses
limites., publiée par Pichon & Durand-Auzias pour l'Institut de droit comparé de
l'université de Paris a la Librairie généralede droit et de jurisprudence, 1960,
p. 43-44 (auteur: M. Ulrich Drobnig); et ibid., p. 150, le commentaire suivant du
professeur J. M. Grossen concernant le droit suisse: .Il en existe heureusement
d'autres [des sanctions] qui ...permettent [aux actionnaires] de contraindre la
personne morale, plus exactement ses organes, à changer d'attitude. »
Pour les dispositions du mêmeordre qui existent en droit français, voir lepar. 11de
l'opinion individuelle de mon collègue M. Gros. other improper refusa1 or failure on the part of the management to act

for the protection of the company's interests, or else to enable share-
holders to bring proceedings against the management itself to compel it
so to act. In short, generally speaking, domestic law makes at least
some provision for the case where the basic assumption of action by
the company, rendering action by the shareholders unnecessary, ceases
to hold good 13.

12. The other type of possibility which private law affords to share-
holders (or at least to a majority of them; and often even to a minority)
if dissatisfied with the policies of the company-including therefore such
a thing as a failure to proceed against a third party in the protection of
the company's interests-is to take action on the interna1 plane within

the confines of the company itself, and through its normal procedures
(shareholders' meetings, voting of resolutions. etc.), directed to influen-
cing and if necessary changing, those policies or even, in the last resort,
modifying or changing the management itself. In certain circumstances,
reconstructions constitute another possibility.

13. The question that now has to be asked is how far these domestic
law limitations on the exclusive power of the management, allowing of
independent action by the shareholders, are reflected at the international
level, so as correspondingly to qualify the principle of the exclusive right

of the government of the company to intervene, and admitting the
possibility of intervention by that of .the shareholders, even though the
injury is to the company as such, rather than to any independent stricto
sensu shareholding right. This question has to be asked because, if it is

l3 In addition to the passage from Halsbury's Laws of England cited in the first
paragraph of footnote 12 supra, the following sections from the same work also
indicate the positionunder English law (loc. cit., pp. 222-223, omitting references to
footnotes):
"458. Statutory right of members collectively. The members of a company
collectively have statutory rights, some of which are exercisable by a bare
majority, as, for instance, a resolution at the statutory meeting; others by a
particularmajority, as in the case of a reconstruction; aothers by a minority,
as in the case of a requisition for a meeting of shareholders, or of an application
to the Board of Trade to appoint an inspector to investigate the company's
affairs, or of an application by an oppressed minority to the court for relief.

Statutcry rights cannot betaken away or modified by any provisions of the
rne"461. Rights under thegeneral law. The rights of a member under the general
law include his right.. to restrain directors from acting ultra vires the company
or in excess of their own powers or acting unfairly to the members."malversation ou négligencede la part de la direction ou lorsque celle-ci
refuse ou s'abstient à tort d'agir pour protégerles intérêts de la société),
ou bien d'engager une procédure contre la direction de la sociétépour
la contraindre à prendre les mesures voulues. Bref le droit interne

contient généralement certaines dispositionspour le cas où le postulat
fondamental d'après lequella sociétéagira - ce qui rendra superflue
l'action des actionnaires - cesse de se vérifier 13.
12. L'autre possibilité que le droit privé accorde aux actionnaires
(ou du moins à une majorité d'actionnaires et mêmesouvent à une

minorité),s'ilssont mécontents dela façon dont la société estgérée -par
exemple lorsque la direction s'abstient d'agir contre un tiers pour
protégerles intérêts de la société - consiste à agir de l'intérieurdans le
cadre de la sociétéelle-même, enutilisant ses rouages normaux (assem-
bléesgénérales, votesde résolutions, etc.) en vue d'influencer et, s'il le

faut, de changer la politique de la sociétéou même,en dernier ressort,
de modifier ou de remplacer la direction elle-même.Dans certains cas,
la reconstitution de la société offre une autre possibilité.

13. La question qui se pose maintenant est de savoir dans quelle
mesure ces limites que le droit met au pouvoir exclusif de la direction
en reconnaissant aux actionnaires un droit d'action indépendant se
retrouvent sur le plan international et viennent, de manière correspon-
dante, ytempérerleprincipe du droit d'intervention exclusifdu gouverne-

ment de la sociétéen admettant une possibilité d'intervention dela part
de celui des actionnaires, mêmequand c'est la sociétéelle-mêmequi a
étélésée et non, à strictement parler, les droits propres des actionnaires.

l3 Outre le passage de l'ouvrage Halsbury's Laws of England cité au premier
alinéa de la note 12 ci-dessus, les extraits suivants du même ouvrage indiquent
également quelle est la situation en droit anglais. cit., p. 222-223). J'ai supprimé
les renvois aux notes:
«458. Droits des membresconsidérécsollectivementetprévus par la Iégislation.
Lesmembresd'une sociétéont collectivement des droits prévuspar la législation
dont certains peuvent êtreexercés à la majorité simple, tel le droit d'adopter
des résolutions aux assemblées prévuespar les statuts; d'autres droits peuvent
êtreexercés à la majorité qualifiée,par exemple, en cas de reconstitution de la
société;d'autres, enfin, peuvent êtreexercéspar une minorité, par exemple le
droit de demander la convocation d'une assemblée d'actionnaires ou de de-
mander au Boardof Tradede désigner un inspecteur aux fins d'une enquêtesur
ies affaires de la sociétéou encore, lorsqu'elle s'estime opprimée, de demander
réparation aux tribunaux.
Les droits prévuspar la législation ne peuvent êtreni supprimés ni modifiés
par aucune disposition, quellequ'elle soit, des statuts [de la société].
«461. Droits en vertududroitgénéralP.armi les droits reconnus aux membres
d'une sociétépar le droit général figure celui.d'empêcher lesmembres du
conseil d'administration d'abuser des pouvoirs de la société,d'abuser de leurs
propres pouvoirs ou d'agir inéquitablement vis-à-visdesmembres dela société. not right that international law should distort the structure of the
company (an essentially private law concept) by failing to give al1 due
effect to the logic of its separate personality, distinct from that of the

shareholders,-it is no less wrong, and an equaldistortion, if international
law fails to give due effect to the limitations on this principle recognized
by the very system which, mutatis mutandis, it is sought to apply on the
international plane. In short, such application should be integral, not
partial. But is it?-or is it not rather the case that international law,
whilepurporting to base itself on, and to be guided by the relevant fea-
tures of municipal law, really does so only toa certain extent, departing

from it at precisely that point where, under municipal law the manage-
nent of the company can in certain circumstances be compelled by
the shareholders to act?

14. It seems that, actually, in only one category of situation is it more
or less definitely admitted that intervention by the government of foreign
shareholders is allowable, namely where the company concerned has the
nationality l4of the very State responsible for the acts or damage com-

plained of, and these, or the resulting circumstances, are such as to
render the company incapable de facto of protecting its interests and
hence those of the shareholders 15. Clearly in this type of case no inter-
vention or claim on behalf of the company as such can, in the nature of
things, be possible at the international level, since the company has local
not foreign nationality, and since also the very authority to which the
company should be able to look for support or protection is itself the

author of the damage. Consequently, the normal rule of intervention
only on behalf of the company by the company's government becomes
not so much inapplicable as irrelevant or meaningless in the context.
The efficacity of the corporate entity and its capability of useful action
has broken down, and the shareholders become as it were substituted
for the management to protect the company's interests by any method
legally open to them. If some of them have foreign nationality, one

such way is to invoke the intervention of their government, and in
the circumstances this must be regarded as admissible. Thus the same

l4 For present purposes 1am taking the nationality of a company to be that of the
country of incorporation, the laws of which govern the company's constitution and
functioning. However, vide infra paras. 33 and 34.
l5 If the wrong done to the company, or breach of contract with it, cornes not
from another private party but from the authorities of the country, it is again in
principle only the company whichcan take legal action, to the extent that the local
law allows the government to be sued. If however, as happened for instance in the
El Triunfo case (United Nations Reports of International Arbitral Awards, Vol. XV,
p. 464), the action taken against the conlpany by the authorities has the effect of
completely paralyzing it,hen the shareholders can act and, if they are unable to
discussed as being now more or lessenerally recognized, invoke the aid and inter-ere
vention of their government.Cette question doit êtreposéecar, s'il est inadmissible que le droit inter-

national fausse la structure de la société(notion qui relève essentielle-
ment du droit privé)en ne tirant pas toutes lesconséquencesqui découlent
logiquement de la personnalitépropre de cette dernière, distincte de celle
des actionnaires, il serait tout aussi injuste - et ce serait la fausser tout
autant - de ne pas donner effet en droit international aux limitations
dont ce principe s'accompagne dans le système mêmeque l'on cherche

àappliquer mutatis mutandis sur le plan international. 3ref, cette applica-
tion doit êtreintégraleet non partielle. Mais est-elle vraiment intégrale?
ou bien n'est-on pas dans un cas où le droit international, tout en préten-
dant se fonder sur les aspects pertinents du droit interne et s'en inspirer,
ne le fait que dans une certaine mesure seulement, s'écartantde ce droit

au point précis où il permet aux actionnaires, dans certaines circons-
tances, d'obliger la direction de la société à agir?
14. En réalitéil semble qu'il n'y ait qu'un seul type de situation où
l'intervention du gouvernement d'actionnaires étrangers soit plus ou
moins nettement admise: quand la sociétéintéresséea la nationalité l4
de 1'Etat responsable des actes ou du dommage dont il est fait grief et

quand ceux-ci, ou les conséquencesqui en découlent, sont de nature à
mettre la sociétédans l'incapacité de facto de protéger ses intérêtset,
partant, ceux des actionnaires 15.11est évident que, dans les cas de ce
genre, aucune intervention ni réclamation pour le compte de la société
elle-mêmene saurait par hypothèse êtrepossible sur le plan international
puisque, d'une part, il s'agit d'une société nationaleet non étrangère

et que, d'autre part, l'autorité à laquelle la société devrait pouvoir
s'adresser pour obtenir appui ou protection est précisémentl'auteur du
préjudice. Par conséquent, ce qui arrive en l'occurrence ce n'est pas
tellement que la règle normale d'intervention par le gouvernement de
la société,pour le compte de la seule société,devient inapplicable, mais
qu'elle perd toute pertinence et toute signification. La personne morale

étantdevenue impuissante et incapable d'agir utilement, les actionnaires
viennent en quelque sorte se substituer à la direction pour assurer la
protection des intérêts dela sociétépar tous les moyens légauxqui leur
sont ouverts. Si certains actionnaires sont de nationalité étrangère, l'un

l4 Pour mon propos, je pars du principe qu'une sociétéa la nationalité du pays
où elle s'est constituée, et que c'est le droit de ce pays qui régit son statut et ses
activités. Mais voir ci-après, par. et 34.
l5 Si le préjudice causé à la sociétéou l'inexécution d'uncontrat passé avec elle
est le fait, non d'une autre personne privée mais de l'administration, le même
principe s'applique: seule la sociétépeut intenter une acten justice, pour autant
que la loi nationale admette la responsabilité judiciaire de I'Etat. Si toutefois,
comme dans l'affaire El Triunfo (Nations Unies, Recueil des sentences arbitrales,
de la paralyser complètement, les actionnaires peuvent agir et, s'ils ne parviennentet
pas â obtenir réparation des tribunaux nationaux et sont de nationalité étrangère,
ils peuvent- selon la thèse considéréeici comme étant désormais plus ou moins
généralement admise - faire appel à l'aide et à l'intervention de leur gouvernement.authority as was cited in paragraph 11 above continues (translation) 16:

". ..From this it necessarily results that if the rational justification
for the mechanism of the corporate entity is brought to a collapse
by the act of the very State whose law governs the status and
allegiance of the corporate entity, its personality is no longer
anything but a fiction void of al1meaning, in which there can now
be seen nothing but a bundle of individual rights."
15. Notwithstanding these cogent considerations of principle, the

validity of this exception to or limitation on the rule of non-intervention
by the government of the shareholders in respect of wrongs done to the
company, is contested on a variety of grounds. Ttis said for instance that
this type of intervention on behalf of foreign shareholders ought only
to be permissible wherethe company itself is also essentially foreign as
to its management and control, and the nature of the interests it covers,
and where its local nationality did notresult from voluntary incorporation
locally, but was imposed on it by the government of the country or by a
provision of its locallawas a condition of operating there, or of receiving
a concession. Tn such cases, it is said, the company's nationality is an
artificial one that does not correspond with the underlying realities,
and for this reason (butfor this reason only) the local government should
not be able to avail itself of the obstacle of its nationality which it has

designedly insisted on interposing between itself and those realities-
pcssibly for the express purpose of preventing foreign intervention.
Where however the local nationality was deliberately assumed by the
company as a matter of choice, then, so it is said, there is no reason for
making any such departure fromthe basic rule of the company screen.

16. It is doubtless true that it is in the case of such "enforced" local
nationality that situations leading to foreign shareholders in the company
invoking the intervention of their government are most liable to arise.
Nevertheless, there does not seem to be any sufficientreason of principle
for drawing the distinction involved. The fact of local incorporation,
but with foreign shareholding, remains the same in both types of case,
whatever the motivations or processes that brought it about. Nor are the
motivations which lead foreign interests to seek or not seek local nation-
ality always easy to assess: they may be very mixed. Nor again is it

always the case that companies with a large foreign shareholding, and
mainly controlled from abroad, do not voluntarily obtain local in-
corporation: they often do, and there may be sound business reasons
for it. Yet they are just as liable in practice to be regarded locally as

l6 Loc. citin footnote 11 supra.

74 BARGELONPLTRACTION (OP.IND. FITZMAURICE) 73

de ces moyens consiste à solliciter l'intervention de leur gouvernement,
cequi doit êtreconsidérécomme admissible dans ces conditions. A ce

l'auteur citél6au paragraphe 11poursuit en ces termes:
(11en découlenécessairement que si la justification rationnelle de
la technique de la personnaIité morale vient à s'écroulerpar Ie fait

mêmede I'Etat dont le droit régit le statut et l'allégeance deIa
personne morale, la personnalité morale n'est plus qu'une fiction
vide de tout sens, dans laquelle il ne faut plus voirqu'un faisceau
de droits individuels.)

15. Si pertinentes que soient ces considérations de principe, divers
motifs ont étéalléguéspour contester la validitéde cette exception, ou
restriction,à la règlequi refuse au gouvernement de I'Etat national des
actionnaires le droit d'intervenir raison d'atteintes portéeà la société.
On nous dit par exemple que cetyped'intervention au nom d'actionnaires
étrangers ne devrait être autorisé que lorsque la société estelfe aussi
essentiellement étrangère par sa gestion et son contrôle, ainsi que parar
nature des intérêtsqu'elle recouvre, et lorsque sa nationalité locale ne
résulte pas du fait qu'elle s'est volontairement constituée dans le pays

mais lui aété imposéepar le gouvernement de celui-ci ou par une disposi-
tion de sa législationlocaleomme conditionpréalable àl'exercice deson
activitédans le pays ou à l'octroi d'une concession. En pareil cas, nous
dit-on, la nationalité de la société estune nationalité artificiellei ne
correspond pas aux réalitéssous-jacentes et c'est pour cette raison (mais
pourcette raison sedement) que legouvernementlocal ne devraitpaspou-
voir opposerl'obstacle de sanationalitéqu'il asciemment VOUL iUterposer
entre lui-mêmeet ces réalités,peut-êtredansle dessein exprèsd'empêcher

une interventionétrangère. Mais,ajoute-t-on, quand la nationalité locale
a été délibérémecnhtoisie par la société,il n'y a aucuneraison de prévoir
une semblable dérogation à la régiefondamentale de l'anonymat.
Id Il est vrai que c'est dans ces cas de nationdité locale« imposée a
que des situationspropres à inciter les actionnairesétrangers de lasociété
à faire appelà l'interventionde leur gouvernement ont le plus de chances
de se produire. Néanmoins aucune raison de principe sufisante ne paraît
rendre cette distinction nécessaire.Lefaitde la constitution locale de Ea
société,le capital étant aux mains d'étrangers, reste le mêmedans les

deux cas, quels que soient les motifs ou les procédésemployés.D'ailleurs
les raisons qui incitent les intérêts étrangersà chercher ou non à se
revêtirde la nationalité locale ne sont pas toujours facilesdémêlerc :es
raisons peuvent êtretrèscomplexes. 11ne serait pas exact non plus de dire
que des sociétésà forte participation étrangère,contrôlées principalement
del'étranger, ne demandentjamais volonrairement à se constituer d'après
la loi du pays: en fait ellesle font souventet cette attitude peut êtredictée

l6Loc. citdansL note 11 ci-dessus.basically foreign, and to suffer from action which may prevent them,
as companies,from acting for thernselves.

17. Another objection to be urged was that in so far as the doctrine
of a right of intervention on behalf of foreign shareholders in a locally
incorporated company unable to act for itself, or rendered incapable

of so doing, may depend on a number of precedents deriving from cases
decided by international tribunals, itwiHbe found on a careful examina-
tion of those cases that the "company" that was concerned was usually
more in the nature of a firm, partnership, or other similar association
of persons, than of atrue separate corporateentity distinct fromthose per-
sons. Hence, it isobjected, in so far as the latter were admitted, to claim
and their governments to support their claims, they were acting in respect
of damage to specificstricto sensurights of their own in the association
concerned, and not of the rights of the association as such. Where on
the other hand, so it is said, a corporate entity really was involved, the
capacity to claim on behalf of shareholders resulted from the express
terms of the treaty, convention or "compromis" submitting the case to

the tribunal,-consequently these cases cannot be cited as implying
recognition of any general principle of law allowing of such claims.

18. It may be true that the exactrationale of a number of the decisions
concerned is not very easy to determine precisely, and lends itself to
much controversy, as the course of the written and oral proceedings
in both phases of the present case have amply demonstrated. Any
thorough determination would however take up a disproportionate
amount of space here: nor is it necessary,-for the considerations of

principle invoked in previous paragraphs of this Opinion, based on do-
mestic law analogies, are quite sufficient in themselves to justify the
doctrine of a right of intervention on behalf of shareholders "substituted"
for a moribund or incapable company of local nationality, in order to
protect its interests and their own.

19. It is my view therefore, that the legal position is correctly stated
in the following two paragraphs from the same source as was previously
cited 17:

"In sum, in order to weigh the admissibility of the protection of
shareholders, it is necessary to adhere essentially to the idea of the
effectiveness of the corporate entity. It matters little whether,
according to interna1 law criteria, the corporal personality subsists
or not. Even where it does, an international tribunal can admit the
-.
l7LOC.cit. in footnote 11 supra, at p. 477.par des motifs commerciaux valables. Pourtant en pratique elles sont

tout aussi sujettes à êtreconsidéréesdans le pays comme foncièrement
étrangères et à y êtreen butte à des mesures qui peuvent les empêcher
d'agir par elles-mêmesen tant que sociétés.
17. Une autre objection qui a étéavancée estque, pour autant que
la doctrine reconnaissant un droit d'intervention pour le compte des
actionnaires étrangers d'une sociétéconstituéelocalement, qui n'est pas
en mesure d'agir par elle-mêmeou qui a étémise dans l'impossibilité
de le faire, puisse s'appuyer sur un certain nombre de précédentstirés

de la jurisprudence internationale, un examen attentif des affaires
invoquéesrévèleque la (société »en cause avait généralement lecaractère
d'une firme, d'unpartnership ou d'un type d'association analogue, plutôt
que d'une véritable société ayant une personnalité distincte de celle de
ses membres. Partant, objecte-t-on, dans la mesure où les associésont
étéautorisés à introduire une réclamation et où leur gouvernement a
été admis à appuyer celle-ci, leur action concernait un préjudice causé
à des droits stricto sensu, d'un caractère bien défini, leur appartenant
en propre au sein de l'association, et non pas aux droits de l'association

en tant que telle. Dans les cas où en revanche, nous dit-on, il s'agissait
vraiment d'une sociétéayant la personnalité morale, la capacité de
réclamerau nom des actionnaires résultait desdispositions expresses d'un
traité, d'une convention ou du compromis saisissant le tribunal, et par
conséquent ces cas ne sauraient êtrecitéscomme impliquant la recon-
naissance d'un principe généralde droitautorisant de tellesréclamations.
18. Il est peut-êtrevrai que le fondement exact d'un certain nombre
des décisionsen question n'est pas trèsfaciie à détermineravec précision

et qu'il prête à d'abondantes controverses, comme l'ont amplement
démontréles procédures écriteet orale des deux phases de la présente
affaire. La place me fait défautici pour une analyse approfondie - qui
n'est d'ailleurspas nécessaire,car lesconsidérations deprincipe invoquées
dans certains des paragraphes précédentsde la présente opinion, qui
sont fondéessur des analogies avec le droit interne, sont en elles-même
tout à fait suffisantes pour justifier la doctrine reconnaissant un droit
d'intervention en faveur d'actionnaires qui « se substituent))àune société
de nationalité locale, moribonde ou incapable, en vue de protéger ses

intérêts etles leurs.
19. Je suis donc d'avis que les deux paragraphes suivants, extraits
de la source citée plushaut 17rendent exactement compte de la situation
sur le plan juridique:

((En définitive,pour apprécier la recevabilitéde la protection des
actionnaires, il faut s'attacher essentiellement l'idéede l'effectivité
de la personne morale. Il importe peu que, selon les critèresdu droit
interne, la personne morale subsiste ou non. Même lorsqu'elle
subsiste, lejuge international peut admettre la protection diplomati-

l7 Loc. cit. dans la note 11 ci-desslap. 477.75 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. FITZMAURICE)

diplomatic protection of shareholders from the moment when it
finds as a fact that the damage caused to the corporate entity has
had the effect of paralysing or sterilising the usefulness that the
mechanism of corporate personality ought normally to bring about
for the benefit of the shareholders.

In that case, an international tribunal, not being bound by interna1
law criteria, 'pierces the corporate veil', as it is said, [but] it would
be more accurate to Saythat it registers the absence of al1effective
personality, of any effectua1intermediary between the shareholders
and the rights infringed."

These two paragraphs moreover, even if only in general terms, almost
exactly describe the situation of the Barcelona Company which, though
still subsisting and formally in existence Ishas, as to its functioning in

Spain, been entirely paralyzed and rendered incapable of further useful
action-a situation not only admitted but, for their own purposes,
considerably insisted upon by the Spanish side. The Company was indeed
crippled to the point where, deprived of al1its Spanish assets and sources
of income, it could no longer find the funds for its legal defence, these
having to be supplied by the very same shareholders whose right to

invoke the diplomaticprotection of their Government, Spain denies.

20. In consequence, had the Company been Spanish by incorporation,
instead of Canadian, 1 should have had no hesitation in holding that a
claim by Belgium on behalf of the Belgian shareholders in the Company

was admissible;-and it is indeed one of the ironies of this case (but not
the only one 14)that the BelgianGovernment would have been ina much
stronger position as regards the admissibility of its claim had the Com-
pany been Spanish rather than Canadian.

l8 1 share the view expressed in the passage just cited that the formal keeping
alive of the Company does not affect the realities of the matter. However, the Belgian
position would (ironically) have been stronger if the Spanish events had resulted not
merely in the "hispanicization" of the undertaking in Spain,but in forcing the
liquidation orwjnding up of Barcelona Traction itself,-fit would then have been
much more diffcult to maintain, through the fiction of the Company's continued
existence, that only theanadian Governrnent could claim.

l9 See previous footnote. It rnay also be thought (see the separate Opinion of my
colleague Judge Gros, paragraph 12) that the Company would have fared better
through an open and avowed nationalisation or expropriation of its Spanishder-
taking, accompanied by the payment of adequate compensation, than it did through
amount of the compensation.cy. But this would have depended on the nature and que des actionnaires, dèsl'instant où il constate en fait que le dom-
mage causé à la personne morale a eu pour effet de paralyser ou de
stériliser l'effet utile que latechnique de la personnalité morale
devait normalement produire au profit des actionnaires.

Dans ce cas, dit-on, lejuge international, qui n'est pas liépar les
critères du droit interne, ((perce le voile corporatif)). II serait plus
exact de dire qu'il constate l'absence de toute personnalitéeffective,
l'absence de tout intermédiaire valable entre les actionnaires et les
droits lésés.»

Ces deux paragraphes décrivent pratiquement trait pour trait - même
si ce n'estquedans lesgrandes Iignes-1a situation de la société Barcelona

Traction, qui, tout en continuant officiellement d'exister 18,a été,en ce
qui concerne ses opérations enEspagnee ,ntièrement paralyséeet mise
dans l'impossibilitédepoursuivre Iamoindre activitéutile - situation que,
du côté espagnol,on n'a pas seuIement reconnue, mais sur IaquelIe, àdes
fins particulières, on a beaucoup insisté. Eneffet la société a été réduite
à une telle impuissance que, privéede tous ses avoirs et de toutes ses

sources de revenus en Espagne, eIIe ne pouvait plus se procurer les
moyens financiers d'assurer sa défense; et ce sont les actionnaires qui
ont dû lesluifournir, cesactionnaires à quil'Espagne contesteaujourd'hui
le droit d'invoquer la protection diplomatique de leur gouverneinent.
20. C'est pourquoi, si la société avait été constitué neon pas selon le
droit canadien mais selon le droit espagnol, je n'aurais eu aucune hésita-

tion à soutenir qu'une réclamation présentéepar la Belgique au nom
des actionnaires belges de la sociétéétaitrecevable; en vérité,une des
ironies du sort en la présenteaffaire, et non la seule 19,tient au fait que
le Gouvernement belge eût étéen bien meilleure posture, quant à la
recevabilitéde sa demande, si la société avait été espagnoleau lieu d'être
canadienne.

l8 Je partage l'opinion exprimée dans le passage qui vient d'êtrecite, selon la-
quelle la survie toute théorique de la sociéténe modifie en rien les réalités de la
situation. Toutefois (et paradoxalement) la position belge aurait étéplus forte si les
événementsqui se sont déroulés enEspagne avaient non seulement entraînél'his-
panisation1)de l'entreprise en Espagne, mais aussi imposé la liquidation de la Bar-
celona Traction elle-même,car dans ce cas il aurait étébien plus difficile de pré-
tendre, comme on l'a fait en invoquant la fiction du maintien en vie de la société,que
seul le Gouvernement canadien était en droit d'introduire une réclamation.
l9 Voir la note précédente.On peut également penser (voir l'opinion individuelle
de mon collègue M. Gros, par. 12) que la sociétése serait mieux trouvée d'une
expropriation ou d'une nationalisation avouée et sans fard de son entreprise en
Espagne, accompagnée d'une indemnisation adéquate, que de la procédure de la
faillite. Toutefois cela aurait dépendu de la nature et du montant de l'indemnité. 21. Must the Canadian nationality of the Company then rule out
the Belgian claim? In the present state of the law it would seem that it
must. In connection with this conclusion, however, a number of points
have to be considered in order to show why, although it is correct on the
basis of extant law, this law itself, as it now stands, is in this respect
unsatisfactory.
22. The first of these points is that, as required by the logic of the
considerations indicated in paragraphs 5 to 13supra, if on the domestic
plane there are circumstances in which some action is open to the share-
holders notwithstanding that it is prima facie the company's position,
rather than (directly) their own, that is in question,-thenin correspond-
ing circumstances the government of the shareholders should, on the

international plane, be entitled to intervene and claim. One such case
has already been discussed supra in paragraphs 14-20: the company
is defunct or paralyzed and there can be no question of intervention
or claim by its government, for the latter is itself the tortfeasor govern-
ment, if wrong there has been. Similarly, if international law is to remain
faithful to the concept of the company and, in dealing with the latter
on the international plane, is to give due effect to its essential elements,
then it must provide for the case where the company's government-
not being the tortfeasor government (but also not being the government
of the majority of the shareho1ders)-for reasons of its own that have
nothing to do with the interests of theCompany(see supra paragraph 10)
refuses or fails to intervene, even though there may be a good, or ap-
parently good case in law for doing so, and the interests of the company
require it. Just as on the domestic plane an analogous failure or refusal
on the part of the management of the company would normally enable
the shareholders to act, either (if the element of dolus or cuba were
present) by legal action against the management, or against the tortfeasor
or contract-breaking third party,-or else through the interna1 processes

of the company;-so also, on the international plane, ought the inaction
of the company's government enable that of the shareholders to act-
(and obviously there would be ways of resolving the practical difficulties
of the company's government subsequently changing its mind-if the
servants of the law cared to work them out;-1 think that in this respect
paragraphs 94-98 of the Court's Judgment make too much of this
matter).

23. In fact, international law does not at present allow of this-
except possibly in the one case of the company's government being
actually disqualified ataw from acting (as to which see infra, paragraphs
26-32).The reasons for this insufficiency-for such it is-may be perfectly
understandable, but this does not alter the fact that international law
is in this respect an under-developed system as compared withprivate
law, and that it fails to provide the recourses necessary for protecting 21. La nationalité canadienne de la société doit-elledonc faire écarter
la demande belge? Dans l'état actueldu droit, il semblerait que oui.
Il convientcependant à cepropos d'examiner un certain nombredepoints
afin de montrer pourquoi, si cette conclusion est valable sur la base du
droit existant, ce droit lui-même,dans son état actuel, n'est pas satis-

faisant à cet égard.
22. Le premier point est celui-ci: il résultelogiquement des considéra-
tions formuléesdans les paragraphes 5 à 13 ci-dessus que si sur le plan
interne les actionnaires ont une possibilité de recours dans certaines
circonstances bien que primafacie ce soitla situation de la sociétet non
(directement) la leur qui soit en jeu, le droit d'intervenir et de présenter
une réclamation devrait être reconnudans des circonstances correspon-
dantes sur le plan international auouvernementdes actionnaires. Un cas
de cegenre a déjà étéexaminéci-dessus dans les paragraphes 14 à 20:
la sociétén'existeplus, ou bien elleest paralysée,et ilne peut êtrequestion
que son gouvernement intervienne ou présente une réclamationcar c'est
.lui-mêmequi est fautif, si faute il y a eu. De même, sil'on veut que le
droit international reste fidèleà la conception de la sociétéet, dans le
traitement qu'il lui réservesur le plan international, donne pleinement
effetà ses éléments essentielsi,l faut qu'il prenne en considération le cas

où le gouvernement de la société - qui n'est pas l'auteur du préjudice
(mais n'est pas non plus le gouvernement de la majorité des actionnai-
res)- refuse ou s'abstient d'agirpour desraisons qui le concernent et qui
sont entièrement étrangèraeusxintérêtsdle asociété(voir ci-dessuspar. IO),
alors même qu'ilest ou semble êtrefondéen droit à le faire et que les
intérêts de lsociété l'exigent. e mêmeque sur le plan interne semblable
refus ou abstention de la part de la direction de la sociétédonnerait
normalement aux actionnaires le droit d'agir - soit(à supposer que
l'élémend t edo1ou de faute existe) en assignant devant les tribunaux la
direction ou le tiers auteur de l'acte dommageable ou de la rupture de
contrat, soit en mettant en mouvement les mécanismesinternes de la
société - de même,sur le plan international, la non-intervention du
gouvernementde la sociétédevrait donner au gouvernement des action-
naires le droit d'agir (et il est clair qu'on pourrait trouver les moyens

de résoudreles difficultéspratiques qui se poseraient au cas où le gouver-
nement de la sociétéchangerait ultérieurement d'attitude, si seulement
les juristes voulaient bien s'en donner la peine; j'estime, à ce propos,
que les paragraphes 94 à 98 de l'arrêtde la Cour accordent trop d'impor-
tance à ce problème).
23. En fait le droit international n'ouvre pas cette possibilitél'heure
actuelle, saufà la rigueur dans un cas, celui où le gouvernement de la
société n'a paesn fait la capacitéjuridique nécessairepour agir (voià ce
sujet par. 26 à 32 ci-après). Les raisons de cette insuffisance, car c'en
est une, sont peut-être parfaitement compréhensibles;il n'en reste pas
moins que le droit international est cet égard un sytsèmesous-développé
par rapport au droit privéet qu'il n'offrepas les recours nécessairespouron the international plane the interests not rnerely of the shareholders
but ofthe company itsetfWhat are these reasons? They are of course
that a government is not in the same position as a company and cannot
Semade subject to the same constraints. The management of a company

owes a duty, not only to the company but to the shareholders, and is
bound to act in the best interests of the company, and henm of the
shareholders, basing itself on an informed and well-weighed estimate
of what these are. A government is under no such duty. It is perfectly
free on policy grounds to ignore the interests of the company or even
to act in a manner it knows to be contrary to these; and if it does this,

there are no international means of recourse against it, such as there
would be against the management of a company soacting on the internal
plane. There is no means, internatianally, of proceeding against a gov-
ernment which refuses to intervene on behalf of, or support, the claim
of one of its nationals or national c~rnpanies~~,-nor couid such a
refusal conceivably entai1 the breach of any general international law

obligation. Still Iessof course is there anymeans of changing or repIacing
a government which refuses or fails to act as, internally, the shareholders
may be able to do as regards the company's management.

24. Al1this at present provides an excuse for saying, as the law now
does, that if the company's government does not act no other one can.
Instead, it should constitute a reason for coming to preciselythe opposite
conclusion. An enlightened rule, while recognizing that the national
government of the company can never be requiredto intervene, and that
its reasons for not doing so cannot be questioned even though they may

have nothing to do with the merits of the claim, wouId simply provide
that in such event the government of the shareholders may do so 21-
particularly if, as isfrequentlythe case, it isjust because the shareholding
is rnain1y foreign that the government of the Company feels that no
sufficient national interest exists to warrant intervention on its own

20 Theoretically, the internal law of the country concerned rnight provide a means
of recourse against the government in such circumstances: and political action rnight
be possible. But in neither case would the essential point be affected.

21 1am not greatly impressed by the point which cornes up in several connections
that the Belgian position, with ag block of majority sharehofding, is peculiar, and
that in other cases there might be foreign shareholders ofral nationalities and a
consequent muftipticity of clairns. This would only go to the quantum of reparation
recoverable by thevarious g0vernrnent.s-and once the prineiple of clairns on behalf
of shareholders had been admitted forsuch circurnstances, it woutd not be diRcult
to work out ways of avoiding a multiplicity of proceedings, which is what would
reallymatter. protégersur le plan international les intérêts nonseulement des action-
nairesmais aussi de la sociét elle-mêmeQ . uelles sont ces raisons? C'est
évidemment qu'ungouvernement ne se trouve pas dans la mêmesituation
qu'unesociétéen tepeut pas êtresoumis aux mêmes contraintes. La direc-
tion d'une sociétéa des devoirs, non seulement envers la société mais
aussi enversles actionnaires, et elle est tenue d'agir au mieux des intérêts

de la première etpar conséquent aussides seconds, après avoirmûrement
évaluéces intérêts compte tenude tous les élémentsd'information.
Un gouvernement n'a pas les mêmesdevoirs. Il est parfaitement libre,
pour des raisons de politique générale, dene tenir aucun compte des
intérêts de la société, voired'agir d'une manière qu'il sait leur êtrecon-
traire; et, s'iliefait, on ne possèdecontre lui aucun recours international

analogue à ceux qu'on pourrait exercer contre la direction d'une société
qui se comporterait de la même façon sur le plan interne. A l'échelon
international, il n'existe aucun moyen d'intenter une action contre un
gouvernement qui refuse d'intervenir au nom de l'un de ses nationaux
ou de l'une de ses sociétés nationales ou d'appuyer leur réclamation 20et
l'on ne saurait voir dans cerefus la violation d'une quelconque obligation
du droit international général.Bien entendu, il est encore moins possible

de changer ou de remplacer un gouvernement qui refuse ou s'abstient
d'agir, alors que sur le plan interne les actionnaires ont la possibilitéde
le faire pour ce qui est de la direction de la société.
24. De tout cela, on tire à présent prétextepour dire, commeledroit le
fait actuellement, que, sile gouvernement de la sociétén'agit pas, aucun
autre nepeut lefaire. On devrait plutôt yvoir uneraison d'aboutir précisé-
ment à la conclusion inverse. Tout en reconnaissant quelegouvernement

national de la sociéténe peut jamais être mis en demeure d'intervenir
et que lesmotifs qu'ila de ne pas lefaire ne sauraient êtremis enquestion,
mêmes'ils ne concernent en rien le fond de la demande, une règle qui
répondrait à des préoccupations plus éclairées disposerait simplement
qu'en pareil caslegouvernement des actionnaires a ledroit d'agir 21- en
particulier si, comme il arrive souvent, c'est seulement parce que les
actionnaires sont principalement étrangers que le gouvernement de la

20 Théoriquement, le droit interndu pays intéressépourrait alors prévoirune
voie de recours contre le gouvernement, et une action politique serait éventuellement
possible. Mais cela ne changerait rien, ni dans un cas ni dans l'autre, au problème
essentiel.
21Je ne suisguère ébranlépar la remarque faite à divers propos. selon laquelle
l'existence d'une participation majoritamassive place la Belgique dans une
situation particulière alors que, dans d'autres cas,on psetrouver en présence
d'actionnaires étrangersde plusieurs nationalitéset, par suite, dedemandes multiples,
Cette remarque ne s'applique qu'auquantum de la réparation qui serait due aux
divers gouvernements et, une foisque l'on auradmis le principe de réclamations
au nom des actionnaires en de semblables circonstances, il ne serait pas difficilede
importe.ensuite les moyens d'éviterla multiplicité desprocédures, car c'est cela quipart 22.The law's present attitude is based on predicating for the com-

pany's government not merely a prima facie right (which would be
understandable) but an exclusive one (which is not). There is no reason
of principle why, if the law so wills, failure to utilize a right of action
by the party prima facie entitled to do so should not sanction its exercise
by another party whose material interest in the matter may actually be
greater. Practical difficulties there might be; but this is not a serious
objection where no inherent necessity of the law stands in the way.

That such a situation of primary and secondary (or latent) entitlement
to act can work, if properly regulated, seems to be indicated by the
shareholders' possibilities of action on the domestic plane, as earlier
described.

25. International law must in consequence be regarded as deficient
and underdeveloped in this field because, while retaining the rule of

the "hegemony" of the Company and its government, it fails to provide
those safeguards and alternatives which private law has instituted for
preventing the hegemony of the company's management leading to
abuse. More exactly, what the law enjoins, and the Judgment of the
Court therefore inevitably endorses (see its paragraphs 66-68, 77-83 and
93), is the by-passing of the difficulty by a sort of' "ostrich-act"-a
hiding of the face in the sands of the fiction that so long as it remains

theoretically possible for the company's government to act (and how-
ever little reality there may be about this possibility), no other govern-
ment can do so. Thus the law allows the company's government eternally
to dangle before the foreign shareholder the carrot of a hypothetical
protection that will never be exercised, and tells the hungry fellow that
he must be satisfied with this because, although he will never be allowed

to eat that carrot, it will always remain there to be looked at 23! Inter-
national law has of course to accept the fact that governments cannot

22This is or has been the settled policy of a number of governments. 1 am not
impressed by the argument that those who acquire shares in companies not of their
own nationality must be deemed to know that this risk exists. Thatoes not seem
to me to affect the principle of thetter.
23Or, like the nymph pursued by the ephebus, as depicted in the timeless stasis of
the attic vase that inspired thei Keats' celebrated Ode ondGrecian Urn(verse 2,
lines 7-10):

"Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss,
Though winning near the goal-yet, do not grieve;
Forever wilt thou love, and she be fair!"bliss,société estime qu'il n'existp eas un intérên tational suffisant pour justifier
une intervention de sa part 22.Dans son étatactuel, le droit repose sur
l'idéeque le gouvernement de la société possèdenon pas simplement
un droit prima facie (ce qui serait compréhensible), maisun droit exclusif

(ce qui ne l'est pas). Il n'y a aucune raison de principe pour que, si le
titulaire présuméd'un droit d'action s'abstient de l'exercer, une autre
partie qui a peut-être enfait un intérêt matériep llus important dans
l'affairene puisse se substituer àlui si le droit en dispose ainsi. Il pourrait
certes y avoir des difficultéspratiques; mais cela ne constitue pas une
objection sérieuseenl'absence d'obstacletenant à une nécessitéintrinsèque

du droit. Qu'un systèmeprévoyantde la sorte un double titre à agir, l'un
primaire, l'autre secondaire (ou latent), puisse fonctionner à condition
d'être convenablementréglementé, les possibilitéd s'action reconnues à
cet égard aux actionnaires sur le plan interne et qui ont étédécrites plus
haut semblent bien le démontrer.

25. Il faut par conséquentconsidérerque le droit international est im-
parfait et sous-développédans ce domaine car, alors qu'il retient la règle
de 1'«hégémonie )de la sociétéet de son gouvernement, il n'offre pas les

garanties et les solutions de rechange que le droit privéa instituéespour
empêcherque l'hégémonie de la direction de la société neconduise à des
abus. Plus exactement, ce que prescrit le droit et que la Cour ratifie donc
nécessairement dans son arrêt(voir les par. 66-68, 77-83 et 93 de ce
dernier), c'est une sorte de ((politique de l'autruche ))consistant à éluder

la difficultéen se cachant la têtedans les sables de la fiction: tant que le
gouvernement de la sociétéa théoriquement la possibilité d'agir (aussi
peu réelle soit-elle),aucun autre gouvernement n'est habilité à le faire.
Ainsi le droit autorise ce gouvernement à agiter éternellement devant
l'actionnaire étranger la carotte d'une protection hypothétique qui ne
sera jamais exercéeet invite le malheureux affamé à s'en contenter car,

s'ilest vrai qu'il ne lui sera jamais permis de la manger, du moins restera-
t-elle toujours offerteà sa contemplation 23!Certes le droit international
doit accepter le fait qu'on ne peut ni obliger un gouvernement à agir ni

22 Telle est ou telle a été lapolitique bien arrêtéed'un certain nombre de gouver-
nements. Je ne suis pas convaincu par l'argument selon lequel les personnes qui
achètent des actions de sociétésdont la nationalité est autre que la leur doivent
êtreréputées savoirque ce risque existe.n avis, cela ne change rien àla question
de principe.
23 OU comme la nymphe poursuivie par l'éphèbefigéaux flancs d'un vase grec
qui inspira Keats sa célèbreOde àune urnegrecque (deuxième strophe, vers 7 à 10
- traduction Laffay):
«Amant hardi, jamais, jamais tu n'auras son baiser,
Si près du but pourtant; mais ne t'afflige pas;
Elle ne pourra se flétrir,encore que tu ne goûtes pas ton bonheur.
A jamais tu l'aimeras et toujours elle sera b11le! be compelled to act or be changed. But it does not have to accept (and
even positively decree) that nevertheless no other government can ever
act-that the carrot must be eternally dangled but never eaten-the
maiden ever pursued but never attained!-(see footnote 23 above).

TheNottebohm case

26. There remains however a quite different order of point, which is
in my view by far the most important to arise on the question of Belgian
locus standi, namely what the situation would be if Canada, instead of
having merely failed to pursue the case, were actually to be unable to
do so because of a legal disability created by international law itself,
disqualifying Canada from acting. It is one thing for the law to predicate,
.on the basis of an exclusive right of action for one government, that
even in the event of its not being exercised, no other government may
exercise it. Such a position may be regrettable, for the reasons 1 have

indicated, but is at least tenable. What would be totally inadmissible
would be for the law simultaneously to confer a right, yet disqualify the
indicated government from exercising it in certain circumstances, and
then, when these arise and the disqualification operates, continue to
maintain the rule of exclusivity and the consequent incapacity of the
governments of other parties whose interest in the matter is undeniable.
Implicitly the Judgment takes the same view because an important part
of it (see preceding paragraph) rests on the basis that so long as it is
possible forthe company's governmentto claim (whether it chooses to do
so or not) the shareholders are not, at least inlaw,deprived of al1chance
of protection.

27. These aspects are particularly important if consideration is given
to what the ground of Canada's possible disqualification would be,
namely (on the basis of certain previous decisions and other elements 23
that there was an absence of a sufficientlycloselink betweenthe Canadian
Government and the Barcelona Company to give the former an action-
able interest at law. Moreover, a major factor would precisely be the
absence of any Canadian shareholding or share capital in the Company
and the fact that most of it was Belgian. In my view,a disqualification-

Reports 1955, p. 4 et seq.; and the Report of the Commission of Arbitration in the
"l'in Alone" case (U.N. Reports of Znterna!ionalArbitral Awards, Vol. III, p. 1614).
The same sort of questions also arise over the use of flags of convenience; supposed
head-offices that are no morean an address anda letter-box; etc.le changer. Mais il n'a pas à accepter comme un fait (et encore moins à
édicter positivement) que malgré celaaucun autre gouvernement n'est
jamais fondé à agir- que la carotte doit être agitéepour l'éternitéet

jamais mangéeou que la belle, toujours poursuivie, restera perpétuelle-
ment hors d'atteinte (voir la note 23).

L'affaireNottebohm
26. Il reste cependant un point d'un ordre tout àfait différent,qui est
à mon avis le plus important de ceux que soulèvela question de la qualité

pour agir de la Belgique: quelle serait la situation si, au lieu d'avoir
simplement abandonné l'affaire, le Canada se trouvait en fait dans l'im-
possibilitéde poursuivre son action, en raison d'une incapacitéjuridique
créée par le droit international lui-mêmequi le priverait du droit d'agir?
C'est en effet une chose de voir le droit proclamer, pour le motif qu'un
gouvernement aurait un droit d'action exclusif, que, mêmesi le gouver-
nement en question n'exerce pas ce droit, aucun autre tl'est habilità le
faire. Une telle position est peut-être regrettable, pour les raisons que
j'ai indiquées; elle est du moins défendable. Mais ce serait une autre
chose, et totalement inadmissible, que le droit confère undroit particulier

tout en frappant le gouvernement qui en a la jouissance d'une incapacité
de l'exercer dans certaines circonstances, et qu'ensuite, lorsque ces cir-
constances apparaissent et que l'incapacité joue,I'on maintienne la règle
de l'exclusivitéet l'incapacité qui en découlepour les gouvernements
d'autres parties dont l'intérêt eitdéniable.L'arrêtadopte implicitement
cette attitude car une partie importante de son texte (voir le paragraphe
précédent) reposesur l'idéeque, tant qu'il demeure possible au gouverne-
ment dont relève la sociétéde présenterune réclamation (et cela qu'il le
fasse ou non), les actionnaires ne sont pas privés, en droit du moins, de

toute perspective de protection.
27. Ces considérations revêtentune importance toute particulière si
I'on songe à ce que serait en l'espèce le motif d'une éventuelliencapacité
du Canada, àsavoir - si I'onse fonde sur certaines décisionsantérieures
et sur divers autres facteurs24 - qu'il n'existait pasentre le Gouverne-
ment canadien et la Barcelona Traction de lien suffisamment étroit pour
donner à ce gouvernement un intérêtpouvant motiver une action judi-
ciaire. En outre un élément essentielà faireentrer enlignedecompteserait
précisément l'absence d'actionnaires canadiens ou de participation cana-

24 En particulier, la décision de la Cour dans l'affaire Nottebohm (fond) (C.Z.J.
decI'l'm AIone (Nations Unies, Recueil des sentences arbitrales, vol. III, p. 1614).re
Le même genrede considérations s'applique à l'utilisation de pavillons de com-
plaisance ou de prétendus sièges sociaux qui ne sont rien d'autre qu'une adresse et
une boite aux lettres. etc.at least if it takes place on those grounds-must in logic and in law
ipsofacto imply legal capacity for the government of the shareholders
whose non-Canadian status has brought the disqualification about.

28. Having regard to the importance of this issue and, consequentiy,
of the possible applicability to the situation of Canada of the Court's

decision in the Nottebohm case 25,which obviously could affect the whole
outcome of this part of the case, I consider that it should not have been
side-tracked on the basis that neither of the Parties contested the exis-
tence of a Canadian right of intervention and claim. In my view they
should have been asked, in the exercise of the Court's power to act
proprio motu, to present full argument on the matter; and the interven-
tion of the Canadian Government under Article 62 of the Court's
Statute should have been sought, in order that its views might be made
known. If for various reasons, it would not have been practicable to do
this during the normal course of the oral hearing, 1 consider that the
Parties should have been recalled later for the purpose, after such interval
as might have been thought appropriate for any necessary written

exchanges on the subject. This was not done: yet the Court's Judgment
(see paragraph 70 and, generally, paragraphs 70-76) not only touches on
the matter, but givesthe reasons whythe Court did not believe that it need
consider the Nottebohm case, viz. that there was no true analogybetween
the situation in that case and this one. At the sametime, theCourt does in
fact findaffirmativelythat thereisa sufficientlink between Canadaand the
Barcelona Company to qualify Canada to sustain aclaimif it chooses to do
so,-and the Court does sowithout going into thecounterarguments to be
derived from the Nottrbohm case.In these circumstances, and without my-
self attempting to pronounce onthe substance of the matter,1 feelobliged
to indicate why the Nottebohm decision unquestionably does have a

bearing on this-one of the main issues dealt with in the Judgment of
the Court; and why indeed there is a strikingly close analogy between
the two cases, so that the principle of theNottebohm decision could well
be regarded as very neatly applying to the situation obtaining in the
present case.

29. In the Nottebohm case, in which Liechtenstein was claiming
against Guatemala, the three main grounds on which the Court found
against Liechtenstein's capacity to put forward the claim of Mr. Notte-
bohm were :

(i) that this Liechtenstein nationality-acquired by naturalization
just before the outbreak of war in 1939,he being then a German

25 See reference in footnote 24 above.

81dienne au capital-actions de la sociétéet le fait que la majeure partie des
actions était aux mains de Belges. A mon avis, l'incapacitédu Gouverne-
ment canadien, du moins si elle est fondéesur ces motifs, doit en logique

et en droit impliquer ipsofacto la capacité juridique du gouvernement
des actionnaires dont le statut non canadien a entraîné cette incapacité.
28. Vu l'importance de cette question et par conséquentla possibilité
d'appliquer éventuellement à la situation du Canada la décisionrendue
par la Cour en l'affaire Nottebohm 25, ce qui aurait manifestement pu
avoir une influencesur l'issuedetoute cettepartie de l'affaire, jeconsidère
qu'il n'aurait pas fallu écarter ladite question pour le motif qu'aucune
des Parties n'a contestél'existenced'un droit d'intervention et de récla-
mation pour le Canada. A mon avis, dans l'exercicede la faculté qu'ala

Cour d'agir d'office, les Parties auraient dû êtreinvitées à développer
leurs thèsessur ce point et il aurait fallu essayerd'obtenir que le Gouver-
nement canadien intervienne, au titre de l'article2 du Statut de la Cour,
pour que ses vues soient connues. Si pour diverses raisons pratiques il
n'avait pas étépossible de le faire durant le cours normal de la procédure
orale, lesParties auraient dû,àmon avis,êtreinvitées à revenir ultérieure-
ment plaider cet aspect, éventuellementaprès un certain délai destiné à
permettre un échange devues écrit. Celan'a pas étéfait; or l'arrêt(voir
par. 70 et, d'une manière généralep ,ar. 70-76) non seulement évoquela

question mais encore indique la raison pour laquelle la Cour n'a pas cru
devoir prendre en considération l'affaire Nottebohm: l'absence d'une
véritable analogieentre les deux situations, celle de l'affaire Nottebohm
et celle de la présenteespèce.En mêmetemps la Cour conclut en fait, de
façon positive, qu'il existeentre le Canada et la Barcelona Traction un
lien suffisant pour que le Canada puisse présenter une réclamations'il
le désireet elle parvient à cette conclusion sans examiner les contre-
arguments que l'affaireNottebohm pourrait fournir. Dans ces conditions,
et sans essayer moi-mêmede trancher la question au fond, je me sens
obligéde dire pourquoi la décisionrendue en l'affaire Nottebohm a in-

contestablement un rapport avec cette question, qui est l'une desgrandes
questions sur lesquelles porte l'arrêt dela Cour, et pourquoi il existe en
réalitéune analogie frappante entre les deux affaires, de sorte qu'on
pourrait très bien considérer que le principe de la décisionNottebohm
s'applique fort bien à la situation présente.
29. Dans l'affaire Nottebohm, dans laquelle le Liechtenstein étaitde-
mandeur contre le Guatemala, les trois motifs principaux sur lesquels la
Cour s'est fondée pour conclure que le Liechtenstein n'avait pas la
capacité vouluepour présenter uneréclamationau nom de M.Nottebohm

ont étéles suivants:
i) la nationalité liechtensteinoise queM. Nottebohm - jusque-là
ressortissant allemand - avait acquise par naturalisation im-

25Voir la référencedans la no24 ci-dessus. national-was purely artificial, in the sense that he had no$
acted from any real desire to identify himself with Liechtenstein
and its fortunes, but with the ulterior object of endeavouring
to divest himself of enemy character by acquiring neutral
status ;
(ii) that his true connection by residence, domicile and business
interests was Guatemalan; and

(iii) that it was precisely against Guatemala that the claim was
being brought.
In these circumstances the Court held that although Mr. Nottebohm

was undoubtedly of Liechtenstein nationality under the law of that
State, such nationality could not be regarded as entitling Liechtenstein
to make a claim on his behalf against Guatemala Z6;-or in other words
his claim was not "opposable" to Guatemala at the instance of Liech-
tenstein, which meant that Liechtenstein was in those particular circum-
stances disqualified.

30. If these tests were now to be applied to the case of the Barcelona
Company, it could very cogently be contended that a similar, if not
almost identical pattern emerged: that the Company obtained Canadian
incorporation not in order to do business in Canada (on the contrary),
but on account of certain particular advantages, fiscal and other, that
this might bring;-that the Company's entire undertaking was in Spain
where, through its subsidiaries, it carried on its sole business, none being
transacted anywhere else;-and finally that it would be precisely against

Spain that the Canadian Government would be claiming if it decided
to intervene. The analogy is clearly striking,-and if to this is added
the shareholding situation in the Barcelona Company's case-namely
that it was not Canadian, thus rendering the link with Canada still
weaker-it becomesmanifest that there was here something that required
to be gone into,-al1 the more so if it is correct to Say that a finding
of Canadian disqualijîcation (if such had been the outcome 27)should

automatically have entailed a recognition of Belgian capacity to claim

26 The Court was extremely careful to limit its finding to the case of a claim
against Guatemala. It did not postulate a general incapacity for Liechtenstein to
claim on behalf of Nottebohm-Le., against some other country. To have done so
would have been virtually to relegate Nottebohm to the category of a stateless person
so far as international claims were concerned.
27 There are of course arguments contra,-butthis only underlines the need for a
full consideration of thematter. It could be asked for instance whether the Nottebohm
case itself was rightly decided, exchanging as it does the certainties of nationality for
the uncertainties of less well-defined criteria?-see Brownlie on the Flegenheimercase
in ThePrinciplesofPubIic InternationalLaw (Oxford, 1966)at p. 328(caseheard before
the Italo-United States Clairns Commission, International Law Reports, 25(1958-I),
p. 91;-and see Brownlie's whole discussion of the Nottebohm decision in loc. cit.,
pp. 334-347. It can also be queried whether that decision is in any event properly médiatement après le déclenchementde la guerre en 1939 était
purement artificielle, en ce sens que M. Nottebohm n'était pas
animépar un désirréelde s'identifier avec le Liechtenstein et
son destin, mais qu'il avait le dessein d'essayer de se dépouiller
de son caractère ennemi en acquérant un statut neutre;

ii) par sa résidence, son domicileet ses affaires, il étaiten fait rat-
tachéau Guatemala;
iii) c'étaitprécisémentcontre le Guatemala que la demande était
présentée.

Vu ces circonstances, la Cour a conclu que, bien que M. Nottebohm eût
incontestablement la nationalité liechtensteinoise au regard de la loi du
Liechtenstein, cette nationalité ne pouvait êtreconsidérée commecon-
férant à cet Etat le droit de présenterune réclamationpour son compte

contre le Guatemala 26.En d'autres termes, que la réclamation deM. Not-
tebohm n'était pas((opposable » au Guatemala à la requêtedu Liechten-
stein, ce qui signifiait que ce dernier Etat, dans les circonstances particu-
lièresde l'espèce, n'avait pasqualitépour agir.
30. Si l'on appliquait ces critères à l'affaire de la Barcelona Traction,
des arguments très solides permettraient de soutenir que I'on est en pré-

sence d'un contexte similaire et même presqueidentique: la sociétés'est
constituée au Canada non pas pour y faire des affaires (au contraire)
mais en raison de certains avantages, fiscaux notamment, que cette
situation pouvait lui procurer; la totalité de l'entreprise de la société se
trouvait en Espagne où, par l'intermédiairede ses filiales, se déroulaient
toutes ses activités,aucune n'étantexercéeailleurs; enfin, c'est précisé-

ment contre l'Espagne que le Gouvernement canadien présenterait sa
réclamation s'il décidaitd'intervenir. L'analogie est véritablement frap-
pante; si I'onajoute à cela, dans le cas de la Barcelona Traction, la situa-
tion des actionnaires - à savoir qu'ils n'étaientpas canadiens, ce qui
rend le lien avec le Canada encore plus ténu-, il devient évident qu'il

y avait là un point à approfondir, surtout si l'on a raison de penser que
le fait de conclure à l'incapacitédu Canada (à supposer que I'on eût
abouti à une telle conclusion 27)aurait dû entraîner automatiquement la

26 La Cour a pris grand soin de limiter sa conclusion au cas d'une demande
présentéeà l'encontre du Guatemala. Elle n'a pas poséen principe une incapacité
généraledu Liechtenstein de présenter une réclamation au nom de Nottebohm,
contre tout autre Etat quel qu'il soit. L'eût-elle fait que cela serait pratiquement
revenu à reléguer Nottebohm dans la catégorie des apatrides en matière de ré-
clamations internationales.
27 11y a bien entendu des arguments contrair-s mais qui ne font que souligner
la nécessité d'un examenapprofondi. On pourrait se demander par exemple si la
décision prise dans l'affaireebohm, qui renonce au critère certain dela nationa-
litéen faveurd'autres critères moins bien définis,étaitelle-mêmejustifiée. Voirce que
dit Brownlie de I'affairegenheimerdans ThePrinciples ofPublic International Law,
(Oxford, 1966, p. 328) (affaire portée devant la Commission de conciliation Italie-
Etats-Unis, International Law Reports, 25 1958-1,p. 91) et voir tout le commentaire
de la décisionrendue dans I'affairetebohm que donne Brownlie, loc. cit., p. 334- on behalf of any person or entity who, at the material times, was both
of Belgian nationality and a shareholder in the Barcelona Company.

31. 1have already indicated (paragraph 28 above) that the Court was
not in my opinion absolved from going into these very fundamental
issues merely because the Parties did not raise them, and did not for the
purposes of these particular proceedingschallenge the ius standi of the
Canadian Government. It is true that in the Nottebohm case the Court

relied to some extent on the fact that Guatemala had never admitted
Liechtenstein's right of intervention,-whereas it can be argued that
Spain has admitted that of Canada, and would now be precluded from
denying it. This may be correct, but the notion does not appear to be
self-evidently well-founded. In the first place it rests on mere Spanish
non-objection to diplomatic representations made by Canada on behalf
of Barcelona Traction some 20 years ago,-whereas it must be at least
doubtfui how far this could operate as a positive admissionof a Canadian
right now to present a diplomatic claim on behalf of the Company
(if that occurred), in such a way as formally to preclude any Spanish
right of objection under this head. In this context, diplomatic representa-
tions-which need not necessarilybe based on or imply a claim of right,
but are often admitted or received in the absence of any such claim or
pretension to it-belong to a different order of international act from
the presentation of a formal claim before an international tribunal.

32. More important is the fact that, if any preclusion operated as a
result of past Spanish non-objection to Canadian intervention (as it
quite possibly might), it could only operate as against Spain in proceed-
ings brought by Canadaagainst the former. It could not possibly operate
against Belgium in proceedings brought by the latter against Spain.
In contrast to the case of Belgium, Spanish non-objection was at least
significant,for Spain at al1times had an interest in objecting to Canada's
intervention, if there were possible legal grounds for so doing. Belgium
did not have any such interest; on the contrary, the true interest of the
Belgian shareholders at al1times lay in Canadian intervention on behalf
of the Company: it is precisely the lack of such intervention since about
1952that has placed the Belgian shareholders in the position in which

applicable to corporate entities as wellas to individuals. These questions, and others,
needed to be gone into. reconnaissance de la capacitédela Belgique à présenter une réclamation
pour le compte de toute personne ou entité qui, aux dates pertinentes,
était enmêmetemps de nationalité belge et actionnaire de la Barcelona

Traction.

31. J'ai déjà indiqué(par. 28 ci-dessus) qu'à mon avis la Cour n'était
pas dispenséed'examiner ces questions capitales du simple fait que les
Parties ne les ont pas soulevéeset qu'ellesn'ont pasuxfins de laprésente
instancecontestéla qualitépour agir du Gouvernement canadien. Il est
vrai que dans l'affaireottebohm la Cour s'estappuyéedans une certaine
mesure sur le fait que le Guatemala n'avaitjamais admis le droit d'inter-
vention du Liechtenstein, alors qu'il estpossible de soutenir que l'Espagne

a admis celuidu Canada etn'aurait plus ledroitde s'yopposer désormais.
Cette manière devoir est peut-êtrejuste, mais cela ne me paraît pas aller
de soi. En premier lieu, elle repose sur une simple absenced'objectionde
la part de l'Espagne auxreprésentationsdiplomatiquefsaites par le Canada
pour le compte de la Barcelona Traction il y a une vingtaine d'années;
il est pour !e moins douteux que cette attitude puisse constituer une
reconnaissancepositive d'un droit canadienà présenteraujourd'hui (lecas
échéant)une réclamationdiplomatique pour le compte de la société,
reconnaissance qui serait de nature à interdire formellement à l'Espagne
de soulever une exception à ce titre. Dans ce contexte, les représentations
diplomatiques - qui n'ont pas forcément à sefonder sur la revendication

d'un droit ni à impliquer cette revendication, mais qui sont souvent
admises ou reçues en l'absence de toute revendication ou prétention de
ce genre - appartiennent à une catégorie d'actesinternationaux qui se
distinguent de la présentation d'une réclamation formelle devant une
juridiction internationale.
32. Ce qui importe davantage c'est que, si une forclusion quelconque
devait jouer (ce qui pourrait fort bien se produire) parce que dans le
passél'Espagne n'a pas objecté à l'intervention du Canada, cette for-
clusion ne pourrait s'appliquer qu'àl'Espagnedans une procédure que le
Canada entamerait contre cet Etat. Elle ne pourrait en aucun cas jouer

contre laBelgiquedansune procédureopposant cette dernière à l'Espagne.
Une absence d'objection de la part de l'Espagne présenteau moins une
certaine importance, àla différenced'une attiti!de similaire de la Belgique,
car l'Espagne avait constamment intérê àt s'opposerà l'intervention du
Canada s'il existait quelque motif juridique pour ce faire. La Belgique
n'avait aucun intérêtsemblable; au contraire l'intérêtvéritable des
actionnaires belges a toujours été quele Canada intervienne pour le

347. On peut aussi se demander si, en tout étatde cause, cette décisions'appliquerait
dû être étudiées.si bienqu'à des individus. Ces questions, et d'autres encoreauraient they now find themselves.Consequently no inference adverse to Belgium
can be drawn from the Belgian non-objection to Canada's ius standi,
for this could not be expected in the circumstances, and was not called
for in proceedings in which the Belgian position essentially was (see
paragraph 46 infra) that irrespective ofany Canadian right, Belgiumhad

a right of claim. It was for the Court, acting proprio motu, as it has the
power to do, to go into this cardinal issue, the silence of the Parties
notwithstanding.

33. While on this part of the case, another question which in my
opinion needed to be considered was whether, in ail the circumstances,
the very "nationality" of the Barcelona Company itself should not be
held to be Belgian rather than Canadian. There has, doctrinally, been

much discussion and controversy as to what is the correct test to apply
in order to determine the national status of corporate entities; and
although the better view is that (at least for public as opposed to private
international law and some other purposes) the correct test is that of
the State of incorporation, there is equally no doubt that different
tests have been applied for different purposes, and that an element of
fluidity is still present in this field.This being so, it is surely a highly

tenable proposition that the very circumstances which might lead to the
State of incorporation being held to be disqualified from claiming,-
because of the absence of a "genuine link7'due to the company's owner-
ship and control and main business interests being elsewhere,-might
equally tend to suggest that in such a case a different test of nationality
should be applied 29.There are also certain other aspects of the matter
considered in the opening paragraphs of my colleague Judge Gros'

separate Opinion which are highly pertinent to the question of the
national status of companies.

34. 1 am of course aware that there are difficulties about this view

28See the discussions in Beckett, "Diplomatic Claims in respect of Injuries to
Companies", Transactions of the Grotius Society, Vol. 17 (1932), at pp. 180-188;
Paul De Visscher in Hague Recueil, 1961, Vol. 1, pp. 446-462; van Hecke, "The
Nationality of CompaniesAnalysed"in Netherlands International Law Review, 1961,
Issue 3, pp. 223-239; and Ginther, "Nationality of Corporations" in the Austrian
Public Interndtionai Law Review, 1966, Vol. XVI 1-2, pp. 27-83.
29 Orelsethatthe propertest of the right to claim internationally should be that
of where the real weight of interest lies. On this matter 1 associate myself (de lege
ferenda however) with much that is contained in paragraphs57-70 of my colleague
Judge Jessup'sOpinion. compte de la société:c'est précisémenlte défaut d'unetelle intervention
depuis 1952environ qui a placé lesactionnaires belges dans la situation
où ils se trouvent à présent.Par suite on ne peut déduireaucune consé-
quence défavorablepour la Belgique du fait que celle-ci n'a pas opposé
d'objection à la qualité pour agir du Canada; en l'occurrence on ne

pouvait guère s'attendre à ce qu'elle le fasse et elle n'avait pas sujet de
le faire dans une procédureoù la position de la Belgique étaitessentielle-
ment (voir par. 46 ci-après) qu'elleavait un droit à faire valoir indépen-
damment d'un droit canadien quelconque. C'était à la Cour, agissant
d'office, comme elle en a le pouvoir, qu'il appartenait d'examiner cette
question primordiale nonobstant le silence des Parties.

33. Toujours à propos de cette partie de l'affaire, il est une autre
question qui à mon avis aurait dû êtreexaminée, à savoir si, compte tenu
de toutes les circonstances de l'espèce, la ((nationalité))mêmede la

BarceIona Traction en tant que telle ne devrait pas êtreconsidérée comme
belge et non canadienne. Sur le plan de la doctrine, la question du critère
à appliquer pour déterminerle statut national des personnes morales a
étéabondamment débattue et prête abeaucoup de controverses; s'il
parait préférable (du moinsaux fins du droit international public par
opposition au droit international privé, ainsiqu'à diverses autres fins)

d'appliquer le critère de 1'Etat où la sociétéest constituée,il ne fait pas
de doute non plus que différentscritères sont utiliséspour des objets
différentset qu'une certaine fluidité existeencore dans ce domaine 28.
Cela étant,ilest certes parfaitement possible de soutenir que les circons-
tances mêmesqui pourraient conduire à considérer que 1'Etat où la
sociétéa été constitué nea pas qualitépour agir - un lien effectiffaisant

défautparce que le centre de la propriété,du contrôle et des principaux
intérêts commerciaux dela sociétése trouve ailleurs - pourraient en
mêmetemps inciter à penser qu'en pareil cas un critère de nationalité
différentdevrait êtreappliqué 29.La question dela nationalitédes sociétés
présente encore certainsautres aspects sur lesquels mon collègue M. Gros
formule des observations extrêmement pertinentes au début de son

opinion individuelle.
34. Je suis, bien entendu, parfaitement conscient des difficultésque

28 Voir Beckett, «Diplomatic Claims in respect of Injuries to Companies »,
Transactions of the Grotius Society, vol. 17 (1932), p. 180-188; Paul De Visscher,
Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit international de La Haye, 1961, tome 102,
p. 446-462; van Hecke,The Nationality of Companies Analysed»dans Netherlands
International Law Review (1961), p. 223-239; et Ginther, ~Nationality of Corpo-
rations»,dans Austrian Public International Law Review, vol. XVI (1966), p. 27-83.
29 OU alors que le critère du droit de présenter une réclamation internationale
(maisde legeferenda) à une'grande partie de ce que déclaremon collèM.eJessupouscris
dans les par. 57-70 de son opinion.which would doubtless have been brought out had the matter been
properly argued. My purpose here is to indicate that this is what 1
think should have occurred. The Parties should have been requested
to present a full argument on the subject. It was not enough, in my
opinion, to proceed on the basis that since neither Party had contested
the Canadian nationality of the Barcelona Company, and both had
proceeded on the assumption that the Company was Canadian, the
Court was not called upon to speculate otherwise. Such an attitude may
be quite in order in domestic'courts where, normally, appeals or alter-
native procedures exist. It is not appropriateto international proceedings
in which, almost always, there are no possibilities of appeals or other
recourses. In this field the principle of caveat actor can be carried too
far, when the point involved is not at al1merely incidental but could be
of major importance for the outcome of the case.

III

35. The general conclusion to be drawn from the considerations set
out in part II supra, is that in cases of this kind, the results to which
a strict view ofthe law leads-as it stands de lege lata-are not satis-
factory. By means of a partial application of domestic law principles
connected with the inherent structure of the corporate entity, necessary
and correct so far as it goes, but one-sided, international law may give
rise to situations that cannot, or at any rate do not occur in correspond-
ing circumstances on the domestic plane; or which, if they did, would
certainly result in remedial legislative action. By failing to take account
of various other domestic law principles directed to enabling the share-
holders to act in certain kinds of cases where the action of the Company
is unavailable or not forthcoming, or to influenceor change the manage-
ment or its policy, or bytaking account of this situation only to a some-
what limited extent, the present state of international law leads to the
inadmissible ~onse~uencethat important interests may go whollyunpro-
tected, and that what may possibly be grave wrongs will, as a result
not be susceptible even of investigation. As my colleague Judge Jessup
reminded me, it was stated in the award in the Cayuga Indianscase (U.N.
Reports of International Arbitral Awards,Vol. VI, at p. 179)that:

"The same considerations of equity that have repeatedly been
invoked by the courts where strict regard to the personality of a
corporation would lead to inequitable results .. .may be invoked
here. In such cases courts have not hesitated to look behind the
legalperson and consider . ..who were the real beneficiaries."présente cette manièrede voir et qui n'auraient sans doute pas manqué
d'apparaître siles Parties avaientvraiment traitéla question. Mon propos
est ici d'indiquer la façon dont, à mon avis, les choses auraient dû se
dérouler. Les Parties auraient dû êtreinvitées à développer pleinement
leurs thèsessur ce sujet. A mon sens, il ne suffisaitpas de considérer que,
puisque aucune d'elles n'avait contesté la nationalité canadiennede la
Barcelona et qu'elles s'étaienttoutes deux fondéessur l'idéeque la société
était canadienne, la Cour n'était pasappelée à envisager autre chose.
Une telle attitude peut êtreparfaitement justifiable de la part de juridic-

tions internescar il existe alors normalement des voiesd'appel ou d'autres
recours. Elle ne sied pas à la justice internationale, où la possibilitéde
faire appel ou d'exercer d'autres recours n'existe pratiquement jamais.
Dans ce domaine, le principe caveat actor risque d'êtrepoussétrop avant
lorsqu'il s'agit d'unpoint qui, loin d'êtresimplement accessoire, pourrait
avoir une importance majeure pour le règlementde l'affaire.

III

35. La conclusion générale à tirer des considérationsexposéesdans la
partie II ci-dessus est que, dans les cas de ce genre, les résultatsauxquels
aboutit une conception stricte du droit, tel qu'il existe actuellement
de lege lata, ne sont pas satisfaisants. En n'appliquant que partiellement
- application nécessaireet,dans seslimites,justifiée,maisàsensunique -

les principes de droit interne touchant à la structure intrinsèque de la
personne morale, le droit international risque de créer dessituations qui
nepeuvent seproduire ou du moins ne se produisent pas dans des circons-
tances analogues sur le plan national ou qui, si elles se produisaient,
aboutiraient certainement à un redressement par voie législative.Parce
qu'il omet de tenir compte de divers autres principes de droit interne
destinés à permettre aux actionnaires soit d'agir dans certains cas où
l'action socialene peut êtreou n'est pas exercée,soit d'influencer ou de
modifier les organes directeurs de la sociétéou leur politique, ou parce
qu'il n'en tient compte que dans une mesure assez limitée,le droit inter-
national actuel a pour conséquence inadmissible que des intérêtsim-
portants peuvent ne bénéficierd'aucune protection et que des actes
dommageables aux conséquences éventuellement gravespeuvent ne pas

mêmefaire l'objet d'uneenquête.Comme mon collègue M. Jessup me le
rappelle, on lit dans la sentence rendue dans l'affaire desndiensCayuga
(Nations Unies, Recueil des sentencesarbitrales, vol. VI, p. 179) :
((Onpeut invoquer ici les considérationsd'équitéque les tribunaux
n'ont cesséd'invoquer lorsque le strict respect de la personnalité
morale d'une sociétéaboutirait à des résultatsinjustes ..En pareil
cas, les tribunaux n'ont pas hésitéà chercher, au-delà de la person-
nalitémorale ...quels étaientles bénéficiaires réel).This is consequently surely a situation that calls for the application of
the well-known dictum of President Huber in the much cited Ziat, Ben
Kiran case 30,where what was involved was an entity of the nationality
of the defendant State-a type of case in which the idea of admitting
foreign intervention is really much more startling, conceptually, than it
is in the present type of case. Yet there is a resemblance, and Huber's

dictum is equally apt (my translation):

"International law which, in this field, draws its inspiration essen-
tially from the principles of equity, has not laid down any forma1

criterion for granting or rèfusingdiplomatic protection to national
interests linked to interests belonging to persons of different na-
tionality."
In the present context the equitable considerations to which the Court

refers in paragraphs 92-101 of the Judgment, stress the need for a less
inelastic treatment of certain of the issues of admissibility involved.

36. The matter can however be put on a broader basis than that
merely of the requirements that may exist in this particular field. As
an old authority (Ménignhac) said in terms evenmore applicable today-
"international law is to be applied with equity". There have been a
number of recent indications of the need in the domain of international
law, of a body of rules or principles which can play the same sort of
part internationally as the English system of Equity does, or at least

originally did, in the Comrnon Law countries that have adopted it.
Deciding a case on the basis of rulesof equity, that are part of the general
system of law applicable, is something quite different from giving a
decision ex aequo et bono,as wasindicated by the Court in paragraph 88
of its Judgment in the North Sea ContinentalSheIfcase (I.C.J. Reports
1969, at p. 48), when introducing the considerations which led it to
found its decision in part on equitable considerations, as it might well
have done in the present case also. Be that as it may, 1 should like to
take this opportunity of placing on record in a volume of the Court's
Reports a classic short statement of the way in which, historically, the

need for a system of Equity makes itself felt,-taken from a standard
work 31 current in the country in which Equity as a juridical system
originated,-and in language moreover that might almost have been
devised for the case of international law:

"Equity is that body of rules or principles which form[s] an
appendage or gloss to the general rules of law. It represents the

30 U.N. Reports of International Arbitrai Awards, II,p. 729.
31 Snell's Principles of Equity, 26th edition by R. L. Megarry and F. W. Baker,
1966, pp. 5-6.Nous sommes donc là dans une situation où s'applique une observation
célèbredu président Huber dans l'affaire Ziat, Ben Kiran 30, souvent
citée, laquelle mettait en cause une entitéayant la nationalité de 1'Etat
défendeur.Il s'agissait par conséquentd'un type d'affaire où l'idéequ'une

intervention étrangère puisse êtreadmise est à vrai dire beaucoup plus
étonnante, théoriquement, qu'elle ne l'est dans une affaire comme celle
qui nous occupe. Il y a pourtant une ressemblance et l'observation du
président Huber est également à propos ici:

(Le droit international qui, dans cedomaine, s'inspire essentiellement
des principes de l'équité, n'aétabli aucun critère formel pour ac-
corder ou refuser la protection diplomatique à des intérêts nationaux
liés à des intérêtsappartenant à des personnes de nationalités
différentes.))

Dans le présent contexte, les considérations d'équitédont la Cour fait
mention aux paragraphes 92-101 de l'arrêt soulignent la nécessitéde
traiter de façon moins rigide certains des problèmes de recevabilité en
jeu.

36. Cependant la question peut être élargie au-delà des nécessités
propres à ce domaine particulier. Comme le disait autrefois Ménignhac
en des termes qui sont plus que jamais actuels, ((le droit international
doit s'appliquer avec équité ». Un certain nombre d'indices montrent
depuis peu que, dans la sphèredu droitinternational, on ressent le besoin
d'un ensemblede règlesou de principes qui puissejouer àl'écheloninter-
national un rôle analogue à celui quejoue, ou du moinsjouait à l'origine,

le systèmeanglaisdel'equitydans lespays de commonlawqui l'ont adopté.
Statuer sur une affaire selon des règlesd'equity relevant du systèmegéné-
ral de droit applicable et rendre une décisionex aequo et bono sont deux
choses entièrement différentes, ainsi que la Cour l'a indiqué au para-
graphe 88 de son arrêtdans l'affaire du Plateau continental de la mer du
Nord (C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 48) par manière d'introduction aux raisons
qui l'ont conduite à fonder en partie sa décision sur desconsidérations
d'équité, commeelle aurait fort bien pu le faire aussi dans la présente

affaire. Quoi qu'il en soit, je voudrais profiter de l'occasion qui m'est
offerte pour reproduire dans un Recueil de la Cour un bref exposé,
désormaisclassique, de la manière dont historiquement la nécessitéd'un
systèmefondésur l'équités'est fait sentir; il s'agit d'un passage extrait
d'un ouvrage 31couramment utilisédans le pays où l'equity en tant que
systèmejuridique est néeet dont les termes pourraient presque avoir
étéchoisis en vue de s'appliquer au droit international:

(L'equity est ce corps de règlesou de principes qui constitue une
annexe ou une glose par rapport aux règles généralesde droit.

31 Snell's Principles of Equity, 26e éd.,par R. L. MegarF. W. Baker, 1966,
p. 5-6. attempt ...of the ...legal systemto meet a problem which confronts
al1legal systems reaching a certain stage of development. To ensure
the smooth running of Societyit is necessary to formulate general,
rules which work well enough in the majority of cases. Sooner or
later, however, cases arise in which, in some unforeseen setof facts
the general rules produce substantial unfairness. When this occurs,
justice requires either an amendment of the rule or, if...the rule
is not freely changeable, a further rule or body of rules to mitigate
the severity of the rules of law."

It would be difficultto findwords more apt to describe the sort of impasse
that arises in circumstances such as those of the present case, which a
system of Equity should be employed to resolve: and, as the author of
the passage cited points out subsequently, equity is not distinguishable
from law "because it seeks a different end, for both aim at justice ...".
But, it might be added, they can achieve it only if they are allowed to
complement one another.

37. Since in this and the next part (V) of this Opinion, 1 shall be
discussing certain matters (described in the second half of paragraph 3
supra)which, having regard to the particular basis of the Judgment of
the Court, did not arise for decision by it, 1 should like to state what
effect1am intending to giveto my observations concerning these matters.
Evidently it would be impossible to comment on them in total abstrac-
tion from the facts and surrounding circumstances of the case itself.
But although 1 shall be expressing a judicial view on the points of law
involved, and possibly also on some points of fact, 1 do not wish to be

understood (even though 1 may use the language of it) as making any
judicialpronouncements or findings on them. These were matters which,
although the Court considered them, it did not need for the particular
purposes of the Judgment to go into fully. Had a more ample collegiate
discussion taken place 1might have been led to form a different opinion
on some points, and therefore it is by way of analysis that 1 now give
my views. Elle représente une tentative faite ...par le système ... juridique
pour résoudreun problème se posant à tous les systèmesjuridiques
qui arrivent à un certain stade d'évolution.Pour assurer la marche
harmonieuse de la société, il est nécessaire de formuler des règles
généralesqui s'appliquent assez bien dans la majorité des cas. Tôt
ou tard cependant des situations seprésententoù, face à un ensemble
de faits imprévus, les règles généralesaboutissent à une inéquité
manifeste. Lorsque cela se produit, la justice exige soit une modifica-
tion de la règle, soit, si...la règle nepeut être librementchangée,
une autre règle ou un autre corps de règles destinées à atténuer la
sévérité des règle dse droit.)

Il serait difficile de mieux décrirele genre d'impasse où l'on se trouve
dans des circonstances comme celles de l'espèceet dontun systèmefondé
sur l'equity devrait permettre de sortir: comme l'auteur du passage cité
le dit ensuite, l'equity ne se distingue pas du droitn ce qu'elle vise une
fin différentecar l'une et l'autre ont pour but la justice. Mais, peut-on

ajouter, le droit et l'équité ne peuventréaliser la justice que si on les
laisse se compléter mutuellement.

37. Me proposant, dans cette quatrième partie de mon opinion, ainsi
que dans la cinquième, d'examiner certaines questions (définiesdans la
seconde moitiédu par. 3 ci-dessus) que la Cour n'a pas euàtrancher vu la
base sur laquelle elle a fondé son arrêt,je voudrais indiquer quelle
portéej'entends donner aux observations qui suivent. Il seraitévidemment

impossible d'examiner ces questions en faisant totalement abstraction
des faits et des circonstances de l'espèce. Mais, bien qu'exprimant
l'opinion d'un juge sur les points de droit en cause et peut-êtreaussi sur
certains points de fait, je n'entends pas donner à mes déclarations et
conclusions valeur de jugement (mêmesi les termes que j'emploie en
donnent parfois l'impression). Il s'agit de questions que la Cour a prises
en considération mais qu'elle n'a pas eu besoin d'examiner à fond aux
finsprécisesdeson arrêt.Si un plus ample débatavait eu lieu au cours du
délibéré de la Cour, j'aurais peut-êtreétéamené àchanger d'opinion sur
certains points et c'est donc sous la forme d'une analyse que je présente
ici mes vues. (A) Nationality of Shareholding Claims

38. The third preliminary objection, really had two aspects. The
first, namely whether, in the particular circumstances of this case, a
claim is sustainable at al1 on behalf of shareholders, whatever their
nationality may be, has been answered in the negative by the Judgment,
and this accordingly disposes of the whole claim. Had the answer been
in the affirmative, however, it would still have been necessary, before

the third preliminary objection could be dismissed and the claim be
held to be admissible (so far as this ground of objection was concerned),
that its national character should be established as being that of the
claimant State. The two classic dicta of the Permanent Court may be
recalled :

"... it is the bond of nationality which alone confers upon the State
the right of diplomatic protection . . .32"

and
"By taking up the case of one of its subjects and by resorting to
diplomatic action or international proceedings on his behalf, a

State is in reality asserting its own right, the right to ensure in the
person d its subjects respect for the rules of international law 33."

A true question of capacity as such is here involved 34. for without the
"bond of nationality" and what it entails, the claimant State would lack
the necessary qualification for intervention and claim, since it could not
then be "taking up the case of one of its subjects", in whose person alone
it could be "asserting its own right . ..to ensure ... respect for the rules
of international law".
39. In terms of the present case, this means establishing in respect of
the private parties concerned that, at al1the material dates, and with the

necessary degreeof continuity, they were both (a) Belgian and (b) share-
holders in the Barcelona Traction Company. Implied in this, there
figured in the present case such questions as (i) whether it sufficed for
a shareholder to be a company having Belgian nationality by incorpora-

32 Panevezys-Saldutiskis Railway case (P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 76 (1939), at
p. 16).
33 Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions case (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 (1924), at
p. 12).The passage quoted was repeated in almost identical language in the Panevezys
decision,q.v., loc. cit.
34 As was observed in footnote 2 supra (part 1),the aspect of the third preliminary
objection dealt with in theudgment of the Court is not really one of the capacity of
the claimant State, but of substance: have shareholders any substantive rights at al1
admissibility are involved where the nationality, and the status as shareholders, of
the private parties concerned are in issue. A) Nationalitédes réclamations présentées pad res actionnaires

38. La troisième exception préliminairecomportait enfaitdeux aspects.
En premier lieu, il s'agissait de dire si, dans les circonstances de l'espèce,
une demande peut êtreprésentéeau nom d'actionnaires, quelle que soit
leur nationalité. L'arrêtayant répondu par la négative,le demandeur
se trouve de ce fait déboutéen totalité. Mais si la réponse avait été
affirmative, avant de pouvoir rejeter la troisième exception préliminaire

et déclarerla demande recevable (du moins quant à cette exception), il
aurait encore fallu établir que son caractère national étaitcelui de 1'Etat
demandeur. Rappelons ici les deux observations formuléespar la Cour
permanente et devenues classiques:

((c'est le lien de nationalité ..qui seul donne à 1'Etat le droit de
protection diplomatique ...32»

((Enprenant fait et cause pour l'un des siens, en mettant en mouve-
ment, en sa faveur, l'action diplomatique ou l'action judiciaire
internationale, cet Etat fait, à vrai dire, valoir son droit propre, le
droit qu'il a de faire respecter en la personne de ses ressortissants,

le droit international 33.»
Il s'agit vraiment ici d'une question de capacité 34; en effet, sans le ((lien

de nationalité » et les effets qu'il entraîne, 1'Etatdemandeur n'aurait pas
la qualitévoulue pour intervenir et pour introduire une réclamation, car
il ne saurait alors prendre ((faitet cause pour l'un [desesressortissants] )),
en la personne desquels seulement il peut (fai[re]valoir son droit propre
...de faire respecter ...le droit international ».
39. En l'espèce,cela supposait la nécessité d'établirque les personnes

privées intéresséeé s taient,à toutes les dates déterminantes et avec le
degréde continuiténécessaire, à la fois a) belges et b) actionnaires de la
Barcelona Traction. Il fallait notamment examiner: i) s'il suffisait que
l'actionnaire fût une sociétéayant la nationalité belge en raison du lieu
où elle s'étaitconstituée, ou s'ilétaiten outre nécessaire d'établirque les

32 Affaire du Chemin de fer Panevezys-Saldutiskis, arrêt,1939, C.P.J.Z. série
A/B no 76, p. 16.
33 Affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrét no 2, 1924, C.P.J.Z.
sérieA no 2, p. 12. Le passage cité a été repris en termes presque identiques dans
la décisionrendue en l'affaireanevezys, loc. cit.
de la troisième exception préliminaire qui est traité dans l'arrêt de la Cournt
ne vise pas vraiment la question de la capacité de 1'Etat requérant, ni celle de la
recevadilité de la demande, mais soulève un point de fond: les actionnaires ont-ils
des droits quelconques quant au fond lorsque c'est la société entant que telle qui est
lésée?En revanche, lorsqu'il s'agit d'établirla nationalité et la qualité d'actionnaire
des parties privées intéressée,e sont véritablement la capacité de1'Etat requérant
et la recevabilité de la demande qui sont en cause. tion, or must it also be shown that the individual shareholdingin that
Company was equally Belgian, or at least predominantly so?-also (ii)
whether a beneficial owner of shares actually vested in nominees or
trustees of non-Belgian nationality, with whom pro tem lies the legal
ownership, still ranks as a "shareholder" while that situation continues;
and, if not, whether thisdoes not entai1such a break in the "ownership of
the claim" as to disqualify the private party concerned, and hence his
government;-and finally (iii) what are the material times at which the
necessary shareholding status and nationality must exist, and did the
latter in fact do so atese times?Clearly,however, the present discussion
must be confined only to those points that were of especial prominence
in the case.

(1) Onus of proof, question of quantum, etc.

40. Ttwas naturally maintained on the Spanish side that presumptions
of share-ownership, even if in themselves strong, do not suffice,and that
affirmative proof is required. This is doubtless true in principle, but
requires some qualification in the light of the particular circumstances.
There was never any real doubt about the existence over the years, and
probably since at least 1920,of a substantial Belgian shareholding, or at
least interest of some kind, in the Barcelona Company. What was con-
troversial was, rather, such matters as (a) was the interest concerned
strictly one of shareholding as such, or was it more a mere beneficial
interest in shares the legal ownership of wbich was vested in non-Belgian
bands?-(b) how big an interest was it,-did it amount to the 88percent.

claimed on the Belgian side?-(c) did it exist at the two crucial dates of
the original Spanish declaration in bankruptcy of the Barcelona Com-
pany, and thedate when proceedings were started before the Court,-and
not merely before or after each or-either of these dates?

41. Much of the argument was rendered irrelevant by a failure to
distinguish clearly between whether, on the one hand, a basis of claim
existedin principle, and, on the other hand, what would be the quantumof
damage or reparation recoverable by the claimant State if such a basis did
exist and the claim was shown to be good. In theory, if it appeared that
there was even one singleprivate party or entity which, at the material
times, both was a shareholder in the Company and had the nationality of
the claimant State, then that State would, in principle, be entitled to
claim, since the validity of the claim-its legal merits in itself-could not
depend on the size of it in terms of the numbers of shareholders, or of the

financialvaluesinvolved. The latter could, in law, only affectthe quantumactionnairesindividuels de cette sociétéétaientégalementbelges, ou du
moins qu'ils l'étaienten majorité; ii) si le benejîcial ownerd'actions
détenuesen fait par des nominees ou des trustees de nationalité autre

que belge, qui jouissaient provisoirement du legal ownership, pouvait
encoreêtreconsidéré comme Kactionnaire wtant que durait cettesituation,
et si, dans la négative,cette situation n'a pas entraînéune interruption
du ((titreà présenter une réclamation )de nature à faire perdre à son
détenteur privé, et par conséquent à son gouvernement, toute qualité
pour agir; enfin iii) quelles étaient les dates déterminantes auxquelles
la qualité d'actionnaire et la nationaliténécessaires devaient existeret si
elles existaient en faituxdites dates. 11est clair cependant que je dois
me borner ici à n'examiner que les points qui présentaient en l'espèce

une importance particulière.

1) Charge de lapreuve,question duquantum, etc.

40. 11a naturellement été soutenudu côté espagnolque des présomp-
tions quant à la propriétéd'actions, si fortes soient-elles, ne suffisentpas,
et que l'existencede cette propriétédoit êtreprouvéede manière positive.

Cette affirmation est sans conteste exacte en principe, mais elle appelle
certaines réserveseu égard auxcirconstances de l'èspèce.Il n'y a jamais
eu aucun doute réelsur l'existence,au cours des années,et probablement
depuis 1920 au moins, d'une participation belge substantielle au capital
social de la Barcelona Traction ou du moins d'importants intérêts belges
dans cette société.Les points prêtant à contestation étaient autres:
a) s'agissait-il d'intérêtsd'actionnaires au sens strict ou plutôt d'un
simple benejîcialinterest concernant des actions dont le legal ownership
était aux mains de non-Belges? b) quelle était l'importance des intérêts
en cause? atteignaient-ils les 88 pour cent revendiqués du côtébelge?

c) existaient-ilsaux deux dates cruciale- celle de la déclarationinitiale
de faillite prononcée contre la Barcelona Traction en Espagne et celle
de l'introduction de l'instance devant la Cour - et non pas seulement
avant ou après chacune de ces deux dates ou l'une des deux?
41. L'argumentation présentéea perdu une grande partie de sa
pertinence du fait qu'elle n'a pas distingué nettement deux questions:
d'une part, existait-il en principe un motif de réclamation; d'autre part,
à supposer que ce motif existât et que le bien-fondéde la réclamationfût
prouvé, quel devait êtrele quantum des dommages-intérêtsou de la

réparation à allouer à 1'Etatdemandeur? En théorie,il suffisait d'établir
qu'uneseulepersonne physique ou morale avait, aux dates qui importent,
à la fois la qualité d'actionnaire de la sociétéet la nationalité de 1'Etat
demandeur pour que cet Etat eût, en principe, le droit de présenter une
réclamation, puisque la validitéde cette réclamation - son fondement
juridique intrinsèque-ne sauraitdépendredesonimportancequantitativeof reparation or damages recoverable if the claim should be made go~d~~.

This situation, while it does not exactly shift the burden of proof entirely,
does place it in a different light by suggestingthat in some circumstances,
in claims of this kind, the defendant State could only validly contest the
standing of the claimant party if it could show that there was no evidence
of the existenceof evenoneindubitable shareholder of the latter's nation-
ality, and no reasonable presumption of there being any. This isjust the
sort of situation which arises where, as in the present case, the claimant

Party has, over a long period of years, possessed what might be called
a "historic interest" in a case, the existence of which is and always has
been a matter of common knowledge, constantly acted upon by both
parties, implicitly recognized, and scarcely contested, at least formally,
until international legal proceedings are started. In such circumstances
there is an almost irresistible inference that a substantial body of private
interests exists belonging to the State concerned. But as will be seen in a
moment (infra,paragraph 43) the matter does not in any way depend on

inferences or presumptions.

42. In the present case the attempt to maintain that the Belgian
nationality of the shares had not been established, took a particular form,

which involvednot so much denyingthe existence-or proved existence-
of any Belgianshareholding at al1,-as maintaining that the apparent, or
ostensible, Belgian shareholding did not have the requisite character.
Here it is material to note that the shares in the Barcelona Company fa11
into three main categories,-the bearer shares; the registered (i.e., non-
bearer) shares standing in the names ofvarious private persons and entities
other than a Belgian incorporated Companyknown as Sidro 36for short;

and finally the shares registered in the name of this same Sidro, a com-
pany the principal interest in which isowned byanother Belgianregistered
and incorporated company-Sofina 37.Since this last category, which it
will be convenient to designate as the Sidro-(Sofina) interest, comprised
not far short of two-thirds of the entire issued share capital of the Barce-
lona Company, and about five-eighths ofthe shares allegedlyin Belgian
hands,-then, on the basis of the principle of the sufficiencyof "even a
single shareholder", the only practical issue becomes that of deciding on

the character and status of the Sidro-(Sofina) holding;-whereas, the
status of the other shares-the bearer shares and the non-Sidro registered

35 Clearly the fact that in practice a government wouid not normally put forward
a claim in this class of case unless the interests involved were substantial, has no
relevance to the merits of the argument here stated.
36 Standing for "SociétéInternationale d'Energie Hydro-Electrique, S.A.".
37 Standing for "SociétéFinancière de Transports et d'Entreprises Industrielles,
S.A.".déterminéepar le nombre d'actionnaires ou le montant des intérêts
financiers en jeu. Ce montant ne saurait, en droit, influer que sur le
quantumde la réparation ou des dommages-intérêts dus au cas où la
demande serait reconnue fondée 35. Sans véritablement renverser la
charge de la preuve, cette situation amène à l'envisagerdans une optique
différente,car on peut alors penser qu'il est certaines circonstances où,
dans des réclamationsde ce genre, le seul moyen pour 1'Etatdéfendeur

de contester valablement la qualitépour agir du demandeur serait de
faire ressortir que I'existence nefût-ce que d'un seul actionnaire certain
ayant la nationalité de ce dernier n'a pas étéprouvée,et que rien ne
permet raisonnablement de la présumer. C'estprécisémentle genre de
situation qui se présente si,comme en l'espèce,la partie demanderesse
possède depuisde longues annéesce que l'onpourrait appeler un ((intérêt
historique » dans l'affaire, dont I'existenceest et a toujours éténotoire,
les deux parties ayant agi constamment en conséquence,intérêt qui est

implicitement reconnu et n'a guèredonnélieu à contestation, du moins
formellement, jusqu'à l'ouverture d'uneprocédure judiciaire interna-
tionale.Ilestquasiment impossible de ne pas déduire depareilles circons-
tances qu'il existe desintérêts privéssubstantiels appartenant à 1'Etat
en question. Mais, comme on va le voir (au par. 43ci-après),la question
ne dépend nullementde simples déductions ouprésomptions.
42. En l'espèce,l'effort auquel on s'est livrépour démontrer que la

nationalité belge des actions n'avait pas étéétablie a pris une forme
~articulière.consistant moins à nier I'existenceou la meuve de l'existence
d'une quelconque participation belge qu'à soutenir que la participation
apparemment ou prétendument belge n'avait pas le caractère requis.
Il importe ici de rdever que les actions de la société BarcelonaTraction
sont diviséesen trois grandes catégories: lesactions au porteur, les
actions nominatives (c'est-à-direautres qu'au porteur) inscrites au nom
de diverses personnes physiques et morales en dehors d'une sociétéde

statut belge désignéepar le sigle Sidro 36,et enfin les actions inscrites
au nom de cette même Sidro, sociétd éont le principal actionnaire est
une autre société constituée etayant son siègeen Belgique, la Sofina 37.
Comme cette dernière catégorie - que, par commodité,l'on appellera
la participation Sidro-(Sofina) - comprenait près des deux tiers de la
totalitédes actions émisespar la Barcelona Traction et environ les cinq
huitièmes desactions qui auraient étédétenuespar des Belges, le seul

problème pratique qui se pose, d'aprèsle principe selon lequel ((unseul
actionnaire » suffit, consisteà se prononcer sur le caractère et le statut
de la participation Sidro-(Sofina).Par contre le statut des autres actions

35 Dire que, dans la pratique, un gouvernement ne présenteraitgénéralementpas
de réclamation dansun cas dece genresi les intétnjeu n'étaientpas substantiels
est évidemment sansrapport avec le fond de l'argumentationexposée ici.
36 Sociétinternationale d'énergiehydro-électrique,S.A.
37 Sociétéfinancièrede transports et d'entreprisesindustrielles,S.A.shares-would be a secondary matter which, except as to quantum of
damage, would becomeimportant onlyifthe Sidro-(Sofina)holding could

be shown to lack the necessary status and character adequate in itself to
sustain a Belgian claim. It is therefore to this question that 1 shall now
address myself.It has tmo aspects, first what was and is the true national
character of Sidro-(Sofina)?-and secondly, wasthis entity at the material
dates the actual shareholder?

(2) Status of Sidro-(Sofina)

43. Even if it could not otherwise be established, Sidro-(Sofina's)
original ownership of over 1 million of the Barcelona registered shares
(this block was registered in thename of Sidro),constituting a more than
majority holding of the entire Barcelona share issue, is conclusively
proved by the fact that in 1939,in expectation of the outbreak of war,
Sidro transferred the entire block first to an American firm of brokers as
nominees, then to an American Trustee Company known as "Securitas

Ltd." and, after the end of the war, to another American nominee firm,
by whom they were eventually re-transferred to Sidro 38.Since "nemo
darepotest quodnonhabet", and the validity of these transfers has never
been questioned-(indeed the assumption of such validity was basic to
the Spanish argument on this part of the case)-it follows that Sidro-
(Sofina) must, at least originally, have been Barcelona shareholders. The
allegation is, however, that by these transfers Sidro-(Sofina), though
retaining as a matter of law the beneficialinterest in the shares, divested
themselves of the legal ownership-in fact ceased to be the actual share-

holders, so that thenceforth, and until the eventual re-transfer to Sidro
(whichhowever isallegedto have come only after the main critical date in
the case 39)the shareholding in the Barcelona Company was non-Belgian
so far as this block of shares was concerned; and so no Belgian claim
could now be based on them. This matter 1consider infrain paragraphs
48-59, and in the meantime turn to the first question indicated at the end
of paragraph 42 supra-that of the true national character of Sidro-
(Sofina).

38 Thus it seems that during the "Securitas" period (as to which see paragraphs 55-
59 infrathe nominees held for that Company, not Sidro-(Sofina).
39 This was 12 February 1948, the date of the original declaration by a Spanish
difficulty as to the date at which theage to the Company occurred as it tookn
several years to complete. However 1 agree with what Judge Jessup says in para-
graph 75 of his separate Opinion. - actions au porteur et actions nominatives autres que celles détenues
par la Sidro - serait une question secondaire qui, sauf pour ce qui est
du quantum des dommages-intérêts,ne prendrait de l'importance que
si l'on parvenaità établirque la participation Sidro-(Sofina) nepossédait
pas le statut et le caractère voulus pour pouvoir, en soi, servir de fonde-
ment à une demande belge. C'est donc sur cette question que je vais me
pencher à présent. Son aspect est double: premièrement, quel était et

quel est le véritable caractèrenational de la Sidro-(Sofina)? deuxième-
ment, cette entité était-elle, aux dates pertinentes, le véritable action-
naire?
* *

2) Statut de la Sidro-(Sofina)
43. Mêmes'il n'y avait pas d'autre moyen de l'établir,le fait que la
Sidro-(Sofina) était initialement propriétaire de plus d'un million d'ac-
tions nominatives de la Barcelona Traction (inscrites au nom de la Sidro),
soit plus de la majoritédu capital-actions de la Barcelona Traction, est
prouvéde façon concluante si l'on constate qu'en 1939,en prévisionde

la guerre, la Sidro a transféréla totalité de ces actions, en bloc,à une
firme américainede courtiers, en tant que nominees,puis à une société
américaine de trustees connue sous le nom de Securitas Ltd. et, après
la fin de la guerre,à une autre firme américaine denominees,qui les a
finalement retransférées à la Sidro38.Puisque nemodurepotest quodnon
habet et que la validitéde ces transferts n'a jamais été contestée (c'est
mêmesur le postulat de cette validitéque repose l'argumentation espa-
gnole concernant cette partie de l'affaire), il s'ensuit que, du moins à

l'origine, la Sidro-(Sofina) devait bel et bien avoir étéactionnaire de la
Barcelona Traction. On al1,èguetoutefois que, par ces transferts, la
Sidro-(Sofina), tout encoiQervanten droit lebeneficialinterestdesactions,
en a perdu le legal ownership,qu'elle a en fait cesséd'êtreeffectivement
actionnaire, de sorte qu'à partir de ce moment et jusqu'à ce que les
actions soient finalement retransférées à la Sidro (mais ce transfert,
prétend-on, ne serait intervenu qu'après la date critique essentielle 39,
les actionnaires de la Barcelona Traction n'étaient pasbelges pour ce

qui est de ce groupe d'actions, lequel ne saurait donc servir aujourd'hui
de base à une réclamationbelge. Ce point fera l'objet desparagraphes 48
à 59 ci-après. Pour l'instant, j'examinerai la première question indiquée
à la fin du paragraphe 42 ci-dessus, celle du véritable caractèrenational
de la Sidro-(Sofina).

38Il semble donc que, pendant la période de la Securitas (voir à ce sujet les
par. 55-59 ci-après) les nominees aient détenu les actions pour le compte de cette
sociétéet non pour celui de la Sidro-(Sofina).
39 Soit le 12 février 1948, date à laquelle la société Barcelona Traction a été
préjudice subi par la société soulèvecertaines difficultésétant donné que ce pré- du
judice a mis plusieurs annéese matérialiser complètement. Toutefois, je partage
l'avis expriméparM. Jessup au par. 75 de son opinion individuelle.
9 1 44. It was never at any time contended that Sidro and Sofinawere other
than Belgian entities in the sense that they were companies incorporated
under Belgian law, having their registered head officesin Belgium, and
therefore that, according to the most generally received canons 40,not
disputed by either Party, they were companies invested with Belgian

nationality. The objection advanced-a curious one to receive Spanish
sponsorship-was that although Sidro-(Sofina) were Belgian by in-
corporation, yet if the corporate veil was lifted, it would be fouild that
the shareholdinginterest in Sidro-(Sofina) itself was largely non-Belgian.
The relevance of this contention was maintained as existing on two levels,
one of these being that it revealed as being quite unfounded the Belgian
contention that the savings of numerous humble Belgian individuals,
channelled into the Barcelona Company via Sidro-(Sofina), had been
detrimentally affected by the Spanish treatment of the Company,-for,
so it was alleged on the Spanish side, the ultimate interests in Sidro-

(Sofina)were not Belgian, or at least it had not been established that they
were.
45. 1 do not find it necessary to consider this particular aspect of the
metter since the Belgian contention that the savings of hundreds of
small Belgian shareholders were injuriously affected through their
interest in Sidro-(Sofina) goes largely to the moralities rather than the
legalities of the issue. The essential legal question is different-namely
whether (the Belgian status by incorporation of Sidro-(Sofina) itself,
being established and not contested)-there are nevertheless grounds
upon which it can be maintained that the corporate veil must be lifted in
order to see what is the character of the ultimate interests lying behind

this veil. It would certainly seem that whoever else can adopt such an
attitude it cannot be Spain,-that Spain is indeed precluded from doing
so,-because it is precisely Spain which, in relation to the Barcelona
Traction Company maintains that the Canadian nationality of the Com-
pany, by incorporation,is conclusive, and that its corporate veil cannot be
lifted inorder to take account of the non-Canadian shareholding lying
behind it. Yet, paradoxically 41,-that is just what Spain has sought to
maintain in relation to Sidro-(Sofina),-but not Barcelona. On what
basis does this attempt proceed?
46. The argument was that it was Belgiumwhich was precluded from
contesting the lifting of the Sidro-(Sofina) veil, since it was precisely

Belgium which maintained, in relation to the Barcelona Company, that
the veil must be lifted inorder to reveal the true Belgian interests under-
lying the Company. But at this point it becomes clear that the rival
positions, like two mathematical negatives that make a positive, cancel
each other out and leave the objective question of the legitimacy, and

40 See footnote 14 in part 1, supra.
this most paradoxicalof cases. of the many instances of "havingit both ways" in 44. Personne n'ajamais soutenu que la Sidro et la Sofina fussent autre
chose que des sociétés belges en ce sens qu'il s'agissaitde sociétés cons-
tituées conformément à la loi belge, ayant leur siègesocial en Belgique
et donc, selon les critères les plus généralement reçus 40 et qui ne sont
contestés par aucune des Parties, de sociétéspossédant la nationalité
belge. L'objection avancée - objection curieuse de la part de l'Espagne-
est que, bien que la Sidro-(Sofina) fût de statut belge, on aurait pu
constater, en levant le voilesocial, que lesactionnairesdela Sidro-(Sofina)

elle-mêmeétaient engrande partie non belges. On a soutenu que cette
affirmation était pertinente à deux égards; en particulier elle révélait
l'inconsistance, en dernière analyse, de l'argument belge selon lequel
les économiesd'une multitude d'humbles épargnants belges, canalisées
au profit de la Barcelona Traction par l'intermédiairede la Sidro-(Sofina),
auraient souffert du traitement infligé à la Barcelona Traction par
l'Espagne; en effet, a-t-on alléguédu côté espagnol, la Sidro-(Sofina)
recouvrait des intérêts qui n'étaienp t as belges ou du moins dont le

caractère belge n'avait pas étéétabli.
45. Je n'estime pas nécessaire d'examiner l'affairesous cet angle
particulier car l'argument belge selon lequel il aurait étéportépréjudice
aux économiesde centaines depetits actionnaires belges,vuleur participa-
tion à la Sidro-(Sofina), concerne dans une large mesure l'aspect moral
plutôt que l'aspect juridique du problème.Sur leplan du droit, la question
essentielleest autre: il s'agitde savoir si,lestatut belgeque saconstitution
conférait à la Sidro-(Sofina) étantétabliet incontesté,il existe cependant
des raisons valables de soutenir qu'il faut lever le voile social pour

déterminerle caractère des intérêts quie ,n fin de compte, se dissimulent
derrière ce voile. Il semble bien que, si quelqu'un pouvait adopter une
telle attitude, ce ne serait certainement pas l'Espagne et qu'il lui est
mêmeinterdit de le faire. En effet, c'est précisément l'Espagnequi, à
propos de la Barcelona Traction, affirme que la nationalité canadienne
que possèdecette société en vertude sa constitutionest décisiveet qu'on
ne saurait lever le voile social pour tenir compte de la participation non
canadienne qu'il recouvre - ce qui paradoxalement 41 n'a pas empêché

l'Espagne de vouloir lever ce voile dans le cas de la Sidro-(Sofina), mais
non dans celui de la Barcelona Traction. Pourquoi cette tentative?
46. Le raisonnement étaitle suivant: c'est la Belgiquequi n'a pas le
droit de s'opposer à ce qu'on lèvele voile de la Sidro-(Sofina), parce
que c'est elle, précisément,qui a soutenu, à l'égardde la Barcelona
Traction, qu'ilfallait leverlevoile social pour mettre aujour lesvéritables
intérêtsbelges dans cette société. Mais, à ce point du raisonnement, il
devient clair que les thèses en présences'annulent, tout comme en

mathématiques moins par moins égale plus,et qu'elles netranchent pas

*O Voir note 14 dans la première partie.
*'Mais ce n'est qu'un des nombreux cas où on aajoué sur les deux tableaux
dans cette affaire fertile en paradoxes.

92 occasions, of lifting the veil still to be determined. Let it be assumed,
notwithstanding, that a purely "tu quoque" argument might have some
validity on a sort of preclusive basis. Accordingly,it is said, the Belgian
case must concede what it claims: just as it claims that the Canadian
nationality of the Barcelona Company is not conclusive, so must it also
concede that the ostensibly Belgian nationality of Sidro-(Sofina) is not
conclusive as to that entity's true character, which must in consequence
be established by reference to the underlying shareholding interests in it.
This seems to me to involve a misunderstanding of the Belgian position,
which does not imply any denial of the Canadian nationality of the
Barcelona Company or the right of the Company and its Government to
claim, but merely asserts (failing such a claim) a "parallel" right of

Belgium also to claim on behalf of any shareholders who are Belgian. If
amongst these shareholders there are companies of Belgian nationality by
incorporation, then Belgium asserts a right to claim on their behalf as
Barcelona shareholders. According to this "parallel right" position, what
would have to be conceded by Belgium is something quite different from
what the Spanishargument maintains. Belgium does not have to concede
that, if it appears that most of the shareholding in Sidro-(Sofina) itself is
non-Belgian, then Belgium is disqualified from claiming on behalf of
Sidro-(Sofina) as an entity,-for she makes no such assertion as regards
Canada's right to claim on behalf of the Barcelona Company, despite its
non-Canadian shareholding. What Belgium wouldhave to concede, and
presumably would have difficulty in conceding, is that if Belgium refused
to claim on behalf of Sidro-(Sofina)-it might be because of non-Belgian
interests in that entity,ust as it may be that Canada does not claim on
behalf of Barcelona because of the non-Canadian interest-then it would
become legitimate, on the "parallel right" basis, for yet other govern-

ments-those of the non-Belgianshareholders in Sidro-(Sofina)-to make
a claim on behalf of those shareholders, in the absence of any Belgian
claim on behalf of Sidro-(Sofina) as such. This is the true analogy, and
only in this sense, and in such circumstances, would Belgium's position
over Barcelona obligeher to concede a lifting of the veil of Sidro-(Sofina).

47. It is of course an entirely different question whether Belgium's
"parallel right" positionis good in law. According to the Judgment of the
Court (which, de ZegeZata1agree),it is not. But within thefour corners of

its premisses, the argument is entirely logical, and it operates to absolve
Belgium from the charge of inconsistency in asserting a right to claim on la question objective de la légitimitéde la levéedu voile, et des circons-

tances où elle peut s'opérer. Supposons néanmoins qu'un argument
procédant purement et simplement du tu quoque puisse avoir quelque
valeur dansla mesure où iljustifierait une sorte de forclusion. La Belgique
doit donc, nous dit-on, concéderce qu'elle-mêmeprétendfaire admettre:
puisqu'elle soutient que la nationalité canadienne dela Barcelona Traction
n'est pas déterminante, elle doit de mêmeadmettre que la nationalité
belge apparente de la Sidro-(Sofina) n'est pas une preuve déterminante
du véritable caractère de cette entité, caractèrequ'il est donc nécessaire
d'établirpar référenceaux détenteurseffectifsde son capital social. Il me

semblequ'en raisonnant ainsi on interprète mal la position du Gouverne-
ment belge,laquelle nerevient aucunement ànier la nationalité canadienne
de la sociétéBarcelona Traction ni le droit qu'ont la sociétéet son
gouvernement de présenter une réclamation, mais consiste simplement
à affirmer (en l'absence d'une telle réclamation) l'existence au profit de
la Belgique d'un droit ((parallèle))d'intervenir au nom de tous ceux des
actionnaires qui sont belges. S'il y a parmi ces actionnaires des sociétés
possédant la nationalité belge en vertu de leur constitution, la Belgique
prétend avoir le droit de présenter une réclamationen leur nom en tant

qu'elles sont actionnaires de la Barcelona Traction. D'après cette thèse
du droit parallèle »,ce que la Belgique se verrait obligéede concéder
est quelque chose de trèsdifférentde ce qui ressort de la thèse espagnole.
S'il apparaît que la majeure partie de la participation au capital social
de la Sidro-(Sofina) elle-même n'estpas belge, la Belgique ne se trouvera
pas pour autant privéedu droit de formuler une réclamation pour le
compte de cette société en tant qu'entité,car elle n'oppose aucune préten-
tion de ce genre au droit du Canada d'intervenir au nom de la Barcelona
Traction, malgréle caractère non canadisn des participations au capital
de cette société.Ce que la Belgique devrait concéder, et elle n'aurait

vraisemblablement pas de difficulté à le faire, c'est que si elle refusait
d'intervenir au nom de la Sidro-(Sofina) (par exemple à cause de l'exis-
tence d'intérêts non belges dans cette société,tout comme il se peut que
le Canada n'intervienne pas en faveur de la Barcelona Traction en raison
de l'existenced'intérêtnson canadiens), il deviendrait alors légitime, selon
la thèse du (droit parallèle», qued'autres gouvernementsencore - ceux
des actionnaires non belges de la Sidro-(Sofina) - présentent une récla-
mation au nom de cesactionnaires, au cas où la Belgique n'interviendrait
pas au nom de cette sociétéen tant que telle. C'est là que se trouve la

véritable analogie, et c'est seulement en ce sens et dans de telles circons-
tances que la position de la Belgique au sujet de la Barcelona Traction
l'obligeraità admettre la levéedu voile de la Sidro-(Sofina).
47. Quant à savoir si la thèse belgedu ((droit parallèle))est fondéeen
droit, c'estlà bien entendu une question entièrement différente.Suivant
l'arrêtde la Cour (auquel je m'associe de lege lata), elle ne l'est pas.
Mais dans les limites de ses prémisses,le raisonnement est parfaitement
logique et absoutla Belgiquede toute accusation d'incohérence lorsqu'elle 93 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP.OP. FITZMAURICE)

behalf of Sidro-(Sofina) as an entity of Belgian nationality by incorpora-
tion, irrespective of its detailed composition. In consequence, the result is
the same whichever way the matter is looked at: namely if a claim on
behalf of shareholders is permissible at all, a Belgian claim on behalf of
Sidro-(Sofina) ispermissib1e;-for according to the basic Spanish position

the veil of a Company can never be lifted save in exceptional circum-
stances not here admitted to exist,-while according to Belgium the veil
can be lifted ifthe company's government refuses to claim on its behalf,-
but Belgium, as the Government of Sidro-(Sofina), is not refusing to
claim on that entity's behalf, so here also there is no occasion to go
behind the corporate façade.

(3) Question of nominees, trustees, etc.
48.The secondmain challenge to thestanding ofSidro-(Sofina)asowners
of the greater part of the Barcelona Traction shares, was based on ob-
jections, not as to the Belgian national character of these entities but as
to their character qua Barcelona shareholders. Over certain periods, it was

pointed out, coveringdates material to the validity ofthe Belgianclaim, the
Sidro-(Sofina)shares werevested in nomidees and/or trhstees ofAmerican
nationality. The fact is admitted. The effect, according to the Spanish
argument, was that Sidro-(Sofina) while retaining the beneficial owner-
ship, or the beneficial interest, ceased to be the legal owners of the shares,
or rather, ceased to be the actual shareholders. Consequently, at the
time when the Belgian claim arose-that is to say at the date when the
alleged injury to the Barcelona Company was inflicted-the shareholders
were not Belgian, but American, and therefore the "bond of nationality"
postulated by the Permanent Court (supra, paragraph 38) as being neces-
sary to found a right to claim, did not exist so far as Belgium was con-

cerned, at least on the basis of this block of shares 42.

49. This Spanish contention is in part related to the "continuity"
question: the transfer of the shares to non-Belgian nominees or trustees
caused a break, covering a material date, in the Belgian ownership or
status. In the next section (B) below certain cornments are made on the
continuity requirement for international claims, namely the requirement
that the claim must be "owned" by a national of the claimant State

(Sofina) registered shares,the Spanish position was that their alleged Belgian
ownership restedon presumptions andhad not been proved.

94revendique le droit d'intervenir au nom de la Sidro-(Sofina) en tant
qu'entitéayant la nationalitébelge en vertu du lieu où elle s'est consti-
tuée, quels que soientles éléments qui la composent. Le résultat estdonc
le mêmesous quelque angle que l'on envisage la question: à partir du
moment où une demande présentéeau nom d'actionnaires est recevable,
une demande belge en faveur de la Sidro-(Sofina) l'est aussi.En effet,
la position fondamentale de l'Espagne est qu'on ne peut jamais lever
le voile d'une société ednehors de certaines circonstances exceptionnelles
dont l'existence n'est pas admise en l'espèce,tandis que la Belgique

soutient que le voile peut êtrelevélorsque le gouvernement de la société
refuse d'intervenir en son nom. Or le Gouvernement belge, dont relève
la Sidro-(Sofina), ne refusepas d'intervenir au nom de cette entité,sibien
que, là non plus, il n'y a pas lieu de percer la façade sociale.

3) La questiondes nominees, trustees, etc.

48. La seconde offensive importante contre la situation des sociétés
Sidro-(Sofina) en tant que propriétairesde la majeure partie des actions
de la Barcelona Traction ne tendait pas à contester la nationalitébeige
de ces entitésmais à leur refuser la qualité d'actionnairesde la Barcelona
Traction. Il a étésoulignéque pendant certaines périodes,et notamment
aux dates qui importent pour établir la validitéde la réclamationbelge,
les actions de la Sidro-(Sofina) étaient en possession de nominees ou

trustees de nationalité américaine.Le fait n'est pas contesté.Pour l'Es-
pagne, ila eu pour résultat que,tout en conservait lebenejîcialownership,
ou le benejîcial interest, des actions la Sidro-(Sofina) a cesséd'en être
le legal ownerou plutôt a cesséd'être le véritabla ectionnaire.Par consé-
quent, au moment où le droit à réclamation de la Belgique serait né
- c'est-à-direàla date où lepréjudice alléguéa étéinfligé à la Barcelona
Traction - les actionnaires n'étaient pas belges, mais américainset,
partant, lelien de nationalité postulépar la Cour permanente (voirpar. 38
ci-dessus) comme indispensable pour fonder un droit de réclamation
n'existait pas en ce qui concerne la Belgique, ou du moins n'existait pas

pour ce qui est de ce paquet d'actions 42.
49. Cette assertion de l'Espagne est liéeen partie à la question de la
continuité:le transfert des actionsàdes nomineesou trustees non belges
aurait interrompu, à un moment crucial, la continuité de la propriété
ou du statut belge. La section B ci-aprèscontient certaines observations
sur la condition de continuitérequise pour les réclamations internationa-
les: j'y indique notamment que les droits qui fondent la réclamation

actions nominatives autres queelles qui étaient inscritesau nom de la Sidro-et les
(Sofina), l'Espagnaaffirméque leur prétenduenationalitébelge reposait sur des
présomptions etn'avaitpas été prouvée.94 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP.OP.FITZMAURICE)

both at the time when the act complained of occurred, and continuously
upto thedate when an international claim isput forward and proceedings
are commenced-(and indeed, strictly, according to one view, up to
the date of judgment or award). At this moment 1 shall only discuss
what, in relation to a claim of the present kind, is the correct effect to
be attributed to the transfer of shares to foreign nominees, or to foreign
trustees, as the case may be. In either case,es it deprive the transferor
of his status as shareholder in relation to the claim, and hence deprive
his government of the right (if right otherwise exists) to make the claim
on bis behalf?

50. It should be noted in the first place that from the Belgian stand-
point in the case-which was throughout that the realities must be
looked to rather than the form-the whole question of the nature of
the interest acquired by the American nominees or trustees was irrelevant,
since in any event (and this was common ground between the Parties)
the beneficial ownership of or interest in the shares remained with
Sidro-(Sofina) and, according to the Belgian contention, this was suf-
ficientper se to found a Belgian claim. However, it was also maintained
on the Belgian side that in any event the effect of the transfers was not
to divest Sidro-(Sofina) of the status of shareholder, and it isthis aspect
of the matter that 1wish to consider here.

51. 1 need not set out the facts concerning the vesting of the Sidro
registered shares in American nominees and in the trustee conlpany
"Securitas Ltd.", except .to say that the object was of course (in view
of war and probable enemy occupation) to avoid their falling into
enemy hands. The details of the various transactions are fully set out
in paragraphs 90 et seq. of Judge Jessup's separate Opinion,-and
although 1 do not draw the same conclusion as he does on the question
of the effect of the "Securitas" transaction, 1 can associate myself with
his statement of the facts.1 will however start with the question of the
effect ofthe nominee transactions.

(a) Nominees
52. The Spanish contention was that the effect of putting the shares

intothe names of nominees was to vest in the latter the legal ownership,
and moreover that this result was not affected by the special juridical
position of a nominee, whereby his ownership is, in law, conditioned in
various ways-so that he cannot deal with the shares except by direction BARCELONA TRACTION (OP.IND.FITZMAURICE) 94

doivent avoir ((appartenu »à un ressortissant de 1'Etat réclamant non
seulement au moment où s'est produit l'acte dénoncémais aussi, et sans
interruption, jusqu'à la date où la réclamation internationale a étéin-

troduite et l'instance engagée (et même à strictement parler, selon cer-
tains, jusqu'à la date du jugement ou de la sentence). Pour le moment, je
me bornerai à examiner quel effetl'onest fondéà attribuerà proposd'une
réclamation commecelle-ci, au transfert d'actions à des nominees étran-
gers, ou à des trustees étrangers, selon le cas. Dans l'une ou l'autre
éventualité,celui qui a transféréles actions est-il dépouillépar là de sa
qualité d'actionnaire aux fins de la réclamation, et son gouvernement
est-il en conséquenceprivédu droit d'introduire une réclamationen son
nom (à supposer qu'il le possèdeà d'autres égards)?
50. Il convient de noter tout d'abord que, d'après la position cons-
tamment prise par la Belgique en l'espèce- à savoir qu'il faut aller au-

delà des apparences formelles -, la question de la nature de l'intérêt
acquis par lesnomineesou trusteesaméricains estsans pertinence puisque
en tout état de cause c'est la Sidro-(Sofina) qui a conservéle benejîcial
ownershipou benejîcial interest des actions (ce qu'aucune des Parties ne
conteste) et que, selon la thèse belge, ce seulfait suffitonder une de-
mande belge. De plus, la Partie belge soutient que de toute manière le
transfert n'a nullement eu pour effet de dépouillerla Sidro-(Sofina) de
sa qualité d'actionnaire,et c'estcet aspect du problèmequeje me propose
d'aborder maintenant.

51. Je n'ai pas besoin d'exposer ici les faits relatifs au transfert des
actions nominatives de la Sidro au nom de nominees américainset au
nom de la sociétéde trustees Securitas Ltd., si ce n'est pour dire que le
but de cette opération étaitmanifestement (en prévision deshostilités
et de l'occupation probable) d'éviterqu'elles netombent aux mains de
l'ennemi. Les diverses opérations effectuéessont expliquées endétail
dans lesparagraphes 90 et suivants de l'opinion individuelle de M. Jessup
- et quoique je n'arrive pas aux mêmesconclusions que lui quant à
l'effetdu transfert au nom de la Securitas je peux souscrirà son exposé
des faits. J'examinerai en premier lieu la question de l'effet du transfert

des actions au nom de nominees.

a) Les nominees

52. Selonla thèse espagnole,letransfert desactions au nom denominees
aurait eu pour résultatd'investir ceux-cidu legal ownership;en outre ce
résultat n'aurait pas étémodifiépar la situation juridique propre au
nominee, dont le titre de propriété est,en droit, soumiàdiverses condi-
tions: il ne peut rien faire, au sujet des actions, si ce n'est sur instructionsof the "real" owner; but equ?lly, must do so upon such direction, etc.
This, it was said, did not alter 'thefact that it is the nominee who appears
on the books of the Company as the registered owner of the shares, and
therefore, if he is thus the registered shareholder, how can someone else
also be the shareholder? Insistence that the real question at issue was
not who "owned" or was the "owner" of the shares, but who was, or was
registered as, the "shareholder", became increasingly prominent during
the course of the oral hearing; but 1 share Judge Jessup's view (para-

graphs 99 etseq. of his Opinion) that the distinction isunreal. If anominee
shareholder were in truth "the shareholder", he would be entitled to
exercise the normal rights of a shareholder,-but in fact he is not so
entitled: he is even, by law, expressly forbidden from doing so. His is in
fact merely a sort of "twilight" status, according to which he is no more
than a pipe-line through which the supposedly merely beneficial owner
continues to exercise al1the rights of legal ownership. In this context the
following propositions of Anglo-American-Canadian law (which is the
system constitutive of the nominee position), and whid have not been
disputed-have indeed been admitted on the Spanish side-are pertinent :

(i) a shareholder can freely dispose of his shares: a nominee
can do so only with the consent of the beneficial owner (in
effecthis "principal") 43 and at his direction;
(ii) a shareholder can exercisehisvoting rights at General Meetings
according to his own views: a nomiriee is obliged to vote
as directed by his principal;

(iii) a shareholder has the right to receive any dividends that are
declared: a nominee must pass these on to the principal, who
also pays the tax on them;
(iv) shares held by a nominee, as nominee, do not figure in any
statement of his assets;
(v) the prin cipal can direct the nominee totake any steps necessary
for the protection of the shares and, under some systems of
law, can himself initiate proceedings for that purpose;

(vi) the principal can at any time replace or eliminate the nominee,
by directing the latter to have the necessary changes made in

the company's register of shareholders (add to this that,
in the case of the transfers made by Sidro, no transfer fee
was payable under the relevant law, because no change of
ownership was deemed to occur).

43 Thereis not of course in theformalsensea relationshipof principal andagent,
but the use here of the term "principal"is convenient and seems justifiedby the
realitiesof the situation.

96du propriétaire «réel ));mais il est tenu de se conformer àcesinstructions,
etc. Cela, nous dit-on, ne change rien au fait que c'est le nomineequi est

inscrit sur les,livres de la sociétécomme étant, en nom, le propriétaire
des actions, de sorte que, s'il est l'actionnaire nominatif, on peut se
demander comment quelqu'un d'autre pourrait l'êtreaussi. Un argu-
ment sur lequel on a insistéde plus en plus au cours de la procédure
orale est que la véritable question n'étaitpas de savoir à qui «apparte-
naient » les actions ou qui en était ((propriétaire »,mais plutôt qui était
l'«actionnaire » ou qui était inscrit comme tel; je pense toutefois avec
M. Jessup (voir par. 99 et suiv. de son opinion) que cette distinction est

artificielle. Si le nomineeétaitvraiment 1'~actionnaire ))il serait habilità
exercer les droits normaux d'un actionnaire, ce qui n'est pas le cas: le
droit lui interdit même expressémend te les exercer.Il a en fait une sorte
de statut intermédiaire, en ce sens qu'il n'est que l'instrument par lequel
la personne qui est censée ne plusdétenirque le benejîcial ownershipcon-
tinue en réalité à exercer tous les droits du legal ownership. Témoinles
principes ci-après, consacrés par le droit anglo-américano-canadien
(auquel on doit l'institution du nominee), qui n'ont pas été contestés et

qui ont mêmeété reconnusdu côté espagnol:
i) l'actionnaire peut librement céder ses actions: le nominee ne
peut le faire qu'avec le consentement du beneficial owner (qui
est en fait son ((commettant ))43 et sur ses instructions;
ii) aux assemblées généralesl,'actionnaire peut exercer son droit
de vote comme il l'entend; le nominee est obligéde voter selon

les instructions de son commettant;
iii) l'actionnaire a le droit de percevoir tout dividende déclaré; le
nominee doit remettre le dividende au commettant, lequel
acquitte égalementl'impôt dont il est passible;
iv) les actions détenuespar le nominee, en qualité de nominee, ne
figurent sur aucun inventaire de ses avoirs;
v) le commettant peut ordonner au nominee de prendre toutes
mesures nécessairespour la protection des actions et, dans cer-

tains systèmesde droit, il peut lui-mêmeester en justice à cette
fin;
vi) le commettant peut à tout moment remplacer le nominee ou
mettre fin à ses fonctions, en lui ordonnant de faire procéder
aux modifications voulues sur le registre des actionnaires de la
société - (on peut ajouter à cela que, s'agissant des transferts
effectuéspar la Sidro, aucun droit de mutation n'étaitexigible
en vertu de la loi applicable parce qu'aucun changement de

propriétén'était censé intervenir).

*3Bien entendu, il n'y a pas à proprement parler de relations de mandat, mais le
terme commettant est utile ici et semble sejustifier si l'on envisage la situation d'un
point de vue concret. 53. The only possible conclusion must bethat even if, as wascontended,
the matter is to be considered not on the basis of who "owns" the shares
but of who is the shareholder, the true shareholder throughout is the
principal, the nominee being shareholder in name only, i.e., as the very
term "nominee" implies, his shareholding is nominal only. He has no
real control over the shares, this remaining with the principal at whose
direction the nominee is bound to act. It follows that apart from dis-
guising the identity of the real owner (which is one of the main purposes
of the nominee device), a nominee is the shareholder only for the purpose
of carrying out his principal's directions,-so that what alters upon
transfer to a nominee is not the control over the shares, but the manner
of its exercise.t is little more than a question of mechanics. It equally
follows that, if for anyurpose the nominee had to establish the existence
of a "genuine link" between himself and the shares-i.e., of something
going beyond the bare fact that the shares are registered in his name,
he would, according to al1the cannons accepted in other fieldsas to what
constitutes a genuine link, beunable to do so.

54. Furthermore, the comparison sometimes made between the posi-
tion of a nominee and that of a trustee is quite illusory, but is for that
reason illuminating,-for a trustee has real rights over the trust property,
which he can assert even against the beneficiary of the trust. Subject to
aily specific term of the trust, and of the general law of trusts, not only
is the trusteeunder no obligation to carry out the instructions or conform
to the directions of the cestui que trust (beneficiary): it is often his legal
duty not to, and to act in a manner quite different from what the latter
wants. The cestztique trust can take legal steps to compel the trustee to
conform to the terms of the trust but, within the scope of those terms,
and of the relevant provisions of trust law, the trustee is completely
independent, and free to act at his own discretion.

(b) "Securitas" Ltd.

55. This brings me to the question of the vesting of the Sidro-(Sofina)
shares in "Securitas" under the various trust deeds described in Judge
Jessup's Opinion. According to the logic of the view just expressed
supra in paragraph 54, 1 ought to hold (as he does) that the vesting in
"Securitas" did indeed transfer the legal ownership, Sidro-(Sofina)
retaining merely the beneficial interest; especially as the object of the
whole transaction was to put "Securitas" in a position of being legally 53. Par conséquent, même si, commeon l'a soutenu, il faut, pour
examiner cette question se demander non pas qui est le ((propriétaire n
des actions, mais qui en est le titulaire (holder), la seule conclusion
possible est que le véritabletitulaireshareholder) reste à tout moment
le commettant, le nominee n'étant actionnaire qu'en nom seulement,

c'est-à-dire que, comme le terme mêmede nomineel'indique, son rôle
est purement nominal. Il n'exerce pas de contrôle réelsur les actions, ce
contrôle demeurant l'apanage du commettant dont le nomineeest tenu
de suivre les instructions. 11s'ensuit que,à part le fait qu'il dissimule
l'identitédu propriétaire véritable (etc'està une des principales raisons
d'êtredu système des nominees),le nomineen'est actionnaire que pour
donner effetaux instructions de soncommettant - de sorte que, lorsqu'il
y a transfert d'actionsàun nominee,le contrôle exercé surles actions ne
change pas de mains; ce qui change, c'est la façon dont ce contrôle
s'exerce.Il n'y a là guère plusqu'un mécanisme.Il s'ensuit égalementque

si,à quelque fin que ce soit, le nomineedevait établirl'existenced'un lien
((e'flec»f entre lui-mêmeet les actions, c'est-à-dire d'un lien qui ne con-
siste pas simplement dans le fait que les actions sont inscriteson nom,
il lui serait impossible de parvenià ce résultat en satisfaisant toutes les
règlesacceptéesdans d'autres domaines quant à ce qui constitue un tel
lien.
54. D'autre part, la comparaison que l'on fait parfois entre la situation
d'un nominee et celle d'un trustee est très trompeuse mais, pour cette
raison même,très révélatrice:en effet, un trustee a de véritablesdroits
sur le bien qui lui est confiéen dépôt, droits qu'il peut faire valoir
à l'encontre dubénéjîciaidrutrust. Sous réserve des dispositions expresses
de l'acte de trust et du droit général destrusts, non seulement le trustee

n'a nullement l'obligation d'agir selon les instructions du bénéficiaire
(cestui que trust) ou de se conformer à ses directives, mais encore il est
souventjuridiquement tenu de nepas lefaire et d'agir fort différemment
de ce que veut le bénéficiaire. Celui-ieut agir en justice pour contrain-
dre le trusteeà respecter les conditions du trust mais, dans ces limites
et dans celles des dispositions pertinentes du droit destrusts, le trustee
est totalement indépendant et libre d'agir à sa guise.

b) SecuritasLtd.

55. Cela m'amène à la question du transfert des actions de la Sidro-
(Sofina) opéréen faveur de la Securitas, en vertu des divers Trust Deeds
dont M. Jessup fait état dansson opinion. Logiquement, suivant le point
de vue que je viens d'exprimer au paragraphe 54, je devrais considérer
(comme il le fait) que le transfert des titresa Securitas a effectivement
conféré à celle-ci le legal ownership,la Sidro-(Sofina) ne gardant que le
beneficial interest, d'autant que l'objet mêmede l'opération était deentitled to refuse to comply with Sidro-(Sofina's) own instructions if
they judged that these were given under enemy pressure. Furthermore,
as Judge Jessup points out, no positive evidence(despite several requests
for it) was produced to show that the trust relationship was determined
before the crucial date of 12 February 1948(when the first step that led
to the eviction of the Barcelona Company from its Spanish interests
was taken),-although it appears that the relationship was duly deter-
mined only two or three months later when (acting on a request from
Sidro) "Securitas" sent the share certificates that had been deposited
with them to the New Jersey firm of nominees henceforth holding for
Sidro-(Sofina). On this basis therefore the shares would, in the absence
of the necessary evidence to the contrary, have to be presumed still
to have been American, not Belgian owned, at the crucial date of 12

February 1948.
56. It seems to me however that, even if one accepts the view (which,
for reasons to be stated later, 1do not) that the effect of the "Securitas"
transaction was to deprive Sidro-(Sofina)pro tem of the status of being
a Barcelona shareholder, a radical change came overthe situation about,
or shortly after the middle of 1946,when the war in Europe had been
over for somewhat more than a year. Although the trust deeds entered
into with "Securitas" were, as Judge Jessup describes, never produced
during the case, they were preceded in time, or at least in operative
effect,by something that was produced, namely a "custodian" agreement
between Sidro and "Securitas" dated 6 September 1939(the war having
then broken out, but Belgium not yet being involved), which figures as
Appendix 2 to Annex 3 of the Belgian Memorial in the case. It is abso-
lutely clear from the terms of this agreement that its object was merely
to get the securities it covered physically out of harm's way, and that
it had no effect whatever on Sidro's status as shareholder. This came
later with the two Trust Deeds,-one also dated 6 September 1939,but
evidently with suspensive effect pending Belgium's actual involvement

in the war; and the other dated February 1940. Because of its inherent
probability,1 see no reason to doubt the Belgian affirmation that these
Trust Deeds were not to become operative unless and until the Brussels
area should pass into enemy occupation, for only then would the danger
of enemy pressure to surrender or procure the surrender of the shares
arise. Itis also 1think unimportant that the modifications effectedin the
first Trust Deed by the second have never been revealed. 1see no reason
to doubt the Belgian assurance that they were technical in character,
intended to take account of certaincontemporary Belgianwar legislation,
which again seems to me inherently probable. But it does not really
matter, because for present purposes one is in any case "assuming the
worst", viz. that between them these two Deeds did transfer the legal
ownership of the shares to "Securitas", for the duration of the war so
to speak. mettre la Securitas en mesure de pouvoir légalementrefuserde se con-
former aux instructions de la Sidro-(Sofina) elle-mêmesi les trustees
jugeaient que ces instructions avaient étédonnéessous la pression de
l'ennemi. En outre, comme M. Jessup le fait observer, il n'a été produit,
en dépitde demandes répétées a,ucune preuve positive de ce que la rela-
tion de trust ait pris fin avant la date cruciale du 12février1948(date de

la première des mesuresqui devaient aboutir à dépouillerla Barcelona
Traction de sesintérêtesspagnols), bien qu'elleait apparemment pris fin
àpeine deux ou trois mois plus tard, au moment où, à la demande de la
Sidro, la Securitas envoya les certificatsd'actions qu'elle avait reçus en
dépôt àla firme de nomineesdu New Jersey qui les détint ensuitepour la
Sidro-(Sofina). Dès lors, en l'absence de preuve contraire, on devra
présumerque les actions étaient encorela propriété d'Américainest non
de Belges àla date cruciale du 12février1948.
56. Cependant, mêmesi l'on estde ceux qui pensent que l'opération
Securitas a eu pour effet de priver provisoirement la Sidro-(Sofina) de
sa qualité d'actionnaire dela Barcelona Traction (ce qui n'est pas mon
avis, pour des raisons que j'indiquerai), il me semble que la situation a

radicalement changé vers le milieude 1946- ou peu après - soit un peu
plus d'un an aprèsla findela guerre en Europe. SilesTrustDeedsconclus
avec la Securitas n'ont, comme le ditM. Jessup, jamais été produitsau
cours de l'instance, ilsont étéprécédédsans le temps, du moins quant à
l'entréeen vigueur, par quelque chose qui a été produità savoir un con-
trat de custodianentre la Sidro et la Securitas, datédu 6 september 1939
(la guerre ayant alors éclaté maine s'étendant pas encore àla Belgique),
contrat qui figureà l'appendice 2 àl'annexe 3 du mémoire belgeen cette
affaire. Il ressort toàtfait clairement des termes de ce contrat que son
seul objet étaitde mettre matériellement à l'abri les titres sur lesquels il
portait et qu'il n'affectaiten rien la qualité d'actionnairede la Siàrla
différencedu résultat produit plus tard par les deux Trust Deeds, dont
l'un étaitégalementdatédu 6 septembre 1939mais, de toute évidence,ne

devait prendre effet qu'au moment où la Belgique serait véritablement
touchéepar la guerre, l'autre étant datéde février1940. A causede sa
probabilité intrinsèque, ne vois pas de raison de mettre en doute l'affir-
mation belge selon laquelle cesTrust Deedsne devaient entrer en vigueur
qu'au cas et àpartir du moment où la régionde Bruxellesserait occupée
par l'ennemi; alors seulement, en effet, il existerait un danger de voir
l'ennemi faire pression pour obtenir que les actions lui soient remises.
Peu importe également, à mon avis, que les modifications apportéesau
premier TrustDeed par le second n'aientjamais étérévélées J.e ne vois
aucune raison de mettre en doute l'assurance donnéepar la Belgique àce
sujet,à savoir qu'il s'agissaitde modifications de caractère technique,
destinées àtenir compte de certaines lois belgesdu temps de guerre, qui
venaient d'êtreadoptées,ce qui là encore me parait en soi probable. Mais

le point n'a pas vraiment d'importance car, pour le moment, nous som-
mes de toute façon en train de ((supposerle pire »,c'est-à-dire qu'àeux98 BARCELONATRACTION (SEP.OP. FITZMAURICE)

57. This brings me to the third of the inherentprobabilities affecting
this matter, namely that the Trust Deeds would (as Belgium asserts
they did) have contained a clause providing for the termination of the
situation they created, so soon as an agreed period after the end of the
war had elapsed,-for it is hardly credible that Sidro-(Sofina) would,

even to avoid enemy seizure, have signed away al1future control over
their shares without some such guarantee of eventual retrocession. That
there was such a clause, and that it duly operated in the second half of
1946, seemsto me indeed, even apart from inherent probabilities, to be
an inference thatcan reasonably be drawn from the facts given in Judge
Jessup's paragraph 92. The result was the change in the situation to
which 1 refer~edat the beginning of paragraph 56 supra,-namely that
"Securitas"-who in a letter of 14 April 1947to Sidro described them-
selves as having from 31 December 1946 held the shares "in custody
for your account" (not the language of a Trustee)-now reverted to
their original status of being merely custodians, and Sidro-(Sofina)
reverted to being the legal owners and actual shareholders-(that the
shares were still in the name of nominees is immaterial for the reasons
given in paragraphs 52-54 supra). Accordingly, if this view is correct,

the shares were again Belgian owned on the crucial date of 12February
1948. There would have been a break in the continuity of their status
as such, from 1939-1946,but as this occurred before the earliest possible
crucial date, it would not signify.

58. Tt has to be admitted that in the absence of the relevant instru-
ments, the foregoing conclusion can only be conjectural. But it is 1
believea reasonable conjecture, warranted by those facts that are known,
and by the probabilities involved. Of course the Trust Deeds would, if
produced, constitute what is known in Common Law parlance as the
"best" evidence, and unless they could be shown to have been lost or
destroyed, it is unlikely that a municipal court would admit secondary
evidence of their contents. International tribunals are not tied bysuch

firm rules, however, many of which are not appropriate to litigation
between governments. It is by no means in the nature of an inescapable
inference that the reason why the Deeds were not produced was because
they contained material that would have been prejudicial to the Belgian
case. Documents drawn up in contemplation of war, and in the situation
which confronted countries such as Belgium at that time, may well
have contained provisons, or phraseology, which after the lapse of
nearly 30 years-or for other reasons-a government would be reluctant
to make public. In my opinion, weighingthe whole matter up, and having
regard to what seems to be a very reasonable presumption as to what deux cesTrust Deedsont bien transféréen quelque sorte le legalownership
des actionsà la Securitas pour la durée dela guerre.
57. Cela m'amèneau troisième élément intéressanlta question qui soit
intrinsèquement probable,à savoir que les Trust Deeds auraient (comme
la Belgique l'affirme) contenu une disposition stipulant que la situation

qu'ils créaient prendrait fin dès qu'un certain délai convenu se serait
écouléaprès la fin de la guerre; effectivement, on a du malà croire que,
mêmepour éviterune saisie par l'ennemi, la Sidro-(Sofina) aurait signé
un acte lui ôtant tout contrôle futur sur ses actions sans quelque garantie
de rétrocession ultérieure. Qu'unetelle disposition ait existéet qu'elle
ait dûment produit ses effets pendant le deuxième semestre de 1946 me
semble en vérité, même si l'ofnait abstraction de sa probabilité intrin-
sèque,pouvoir être raisonnablement déduitdes faits citéspar M. Jessup
au paragraphe 92 de son opinion. D'où le changement de situation que
j'ai mentionné au début du paragraphe 56 ci-dessus, à savoir que la
sociétéSecuritas- qui, dans une lettrà la Sidro du 14avril 1947,parlait

d'elle-mêmecommeayant, depuis le 31décembre1946,détenules actions
((en. garde...pour votre compte » (langage qui n'est pas celui d'un
trustee)- a retrouvé à ce moment son statut initial de simple custodian,
la Sidro-(Sofina) redevenant le legal owner et le véritableactionnaire-
(le fait que les actions étaient encore inscrites au nom de nominees est
sans pertinence pour les raisons indiquées aux paragraphes 52 à 54 ci-
dessus). Si cette façon de voir estjuste, les actions appartenaient donc, là
encore, à des Belges à la date cruciale du 12février1948.Il y aurait bien
eu une solution de continuité de 1939 à 1946 dans le statut mêmede
ces actions mais, étant antérieure à toute date susceptible d'êtreconsi-
déréecomme cruciale, cette solution de continuité serait sans consé-

quence.
58. Force est d'admettre qu'en l'absence desinstruments pertinents
la conclusion qui précèdene peut êtrequ'une conjecture. Mais c'est, je
crois, une conjecture raisonnable, qui est justifiéepar les faits dont on a
connaissance et dont le bien-fondé paraît probable. Bien sûr, les Trust
Deeds constitueraient, si on les produisait, ce que le cornmonlaw appelle
la ((meilleure»preuve et, sauf si l'on pouvait établirqu'ils ont été perdus
ou détruits, unejuridiction internen'admettrait sans doute pas une preuve
moins formelle de leur contenu. Mais les tribunaux internationaux ne
sont pas liéspar des règles aussi strictes, dont beaucoup ne conviennent
pas à des litiges entre gouvernements. Dire que si les Trust Deeds n'ont

pas étéproduits c'est qu'ils contenaient des élémentspréjudiciables à la
cause belge,est une conclusion qui ne s'imposenullement. Des documents
établisen prévisionde la guerre et dans la situation où se trouvaient à
l'époquedes pays comme la Belgique pouvaient fort bien contenir des
dispositions ou employer une phraséologie qu'un gouvernement hésiterait
à divulguer maintenant, parce que près de trente ans se sont écoulésou
pour toute autre raison. Tout bien peséet eu égard à ce qui semble être
une présomption trèsraisonnable quant à la manière dont les choses ontoccurred, Belgium should be given the benefit of the doubt.

59. And this brings me to a point which 1 consider more important
than any yet mentioned on this particular matter. It is not in my opinion
possible to regard instruments drawn up in emergency circumstances,
for theprotection ofproperty in contemplation of war, and of a singularly
predatory enemy (1am of course speaking of the nazified Reich, not of
Germany or Germans under any normal circumstances) in the same
light asinstrumentsentered into at other times and in the ordinary way
of business. Certainly an international tribunal should not do so. In
my opinion such transactions in shares as those now in question, what-
everthe effectthat would begivento them in municipalcourtsfor interna1
or private law purposes, must, on the international plane, be regarded

as creating between the parties a relationship of a special character,
neither divesting the shares of their pre-existing national character,
nor debarring the transferor's government from sustaining a claim in
respect of them in subsequent international proceedings. Outside of a
mediaeval disputation, if ever there was a case for having regard to the
reality rather than the form, this is surely it.

(B) The "Continuity" of CZaimRequirement

60. 1do not propose to consider herewhetherit was in fact established
that there were Barcelona shares which were continuously in Belgian
hands 44up to at least the date when the present proceedings were com-
menced. As Judge Jessup, who goes into the matter in some detail, says,
the case rests largely on aseries of presumptions, even though it may be
difficult to believe that no shares atal1were continuously Belgian held;

and according to the view propounded earlier (supra paragraph 41) even
one such share would, as far as the theory of the matter goes, sufficeto
constitute a basis of claim. 1want rather to comment on the continuity
doctrine itself.
61. Clearly the "bond of nationality" between the claimant State and
the private party for whom the claim is brought (seesupra,paragraph 38)
must be in existenceat the time when the acts complained of occurred, or
it would not be possible for the claimant State to maintain that it had suf-

44 It is generally accepted that this requirementdoes not involve continuity in the
same individual person or entity, but only in successive personsor entities of the
same nationality. dû se passer, la Belgique devraià mon avis se voir accorder le bénéfice
du doute.

59. Cela m'amène àun point plus important à mes yeux qu'aucun de
ceux qui ont étévoquésjusqu'ici àcepropos. Selon moi, des instruments
élaborésdans des circonstances exceptionnelles, en vue de protéger des
biens devant la menace d'uneguerre et d'un ennemisingulièrementrapace
(je veux parler bien entendu du Reich nazifiéet non de l'Allemagneou des
Allemands dans des circonstances normales), ne peuvent êtreconsidérés
du mêmeŒilque des actes conclus à d'autres époqueset dans le cours
habituel des choses. Un tribunal international devrait assurément se

garder de tomber dans cette erreur. Amon avis, lorsque des valeurs font
l'objet de mesures comme celles dont il est question ici, et quel que soit
l'effet que les tribunaux nationaux donneraient à ces mesures aux fins
du droit interne ou privé, ellesdoivent êtreconsidéréessur le plan inter-
national comme créant entreles parties une relation d'une nature parti-
culière n'ayant pasun effet tel que les actions se trouvent dépouilléesde
leur caractère national et que le gouvernement de l'auteur du transfert
soit empêché d'appuyeu rltérieurementune réclamation àleur sujet dans
une instance internationale. Miseà part toute dispute byzantine, s'ily a

jamais eu un cas où l'on fût fondé à considérerla réalitéplutôt que la
forme, c'est bien celui-ci.

B) Le critère dela continuité de la demande

60. Je ne me propose pas d'examiner ici s'il a été établifait que des
actions de la Barcelona ont étécontinuellement entredes mains belges 44,
au moins jusqu'à la date de l'ouverture de la présente instance. Comme
le ditM. Jessup, qui selivreàun examen assezapprofondi dela question,
l'affaire repose en grande partie sur une sériede présomptions, même
s'il est difficile de croire qu'aucune action n'atécontinuellement aux
mains de Belges;une seuleaction l'aurait-elle été, cela suffiraitthéorique-
ment à fonder une réclamation, suivant l'argumentation développée

plus haut (voir par.41 ci-dessus). J'examinerai plutôt la doctrine même
de la continuité.
61. 11est clair que le ((lien de nationalité))entre 1'Etat demandeur et
la personne privéedont il endosse la réclamation (voir par. 38 ci-dessus)
doit avoir existéà la date où les actes incriminésse sont produits, faute
de quoi ledit Etat ne pourrait soutenir qu'il a étévictime d'une violation

44Il est également admis que, pour que la condition de continuité soit satisfaite,
il doit s'agir non pas nécessairement de la mêmepersonne physique ou morale,
mais seulement de personnes successivesême nationalité.

1O0 fered a violation of international law "in the person of its national7',-
and although this doctrine has been called the "Vatellian fiction", it
neverthelessseems to constitute an indispensable foundation forthe right
of international claim on behalf of private parties (unless there is some
alternative, e.g., functional, foundation-as when an international orga-

nization claimsin respect of a member of its staff). It is however lessclear
why, as a matter of principle, if the private claimant is duly a national of
the claimant State at the date of the injury, he must remain so, or the
property concerned must do so, or the claim must not pass into the hands
of a national of another State, even after that date,-for the wrong done
to the State in the person of its national arises, and the consequent right
"to ensure ... respect for the rules of international law" accrues, ut the

moment of injury, so that, as was pleaded in the Stevenson case 45 (though
unsuccessfully 46),the claim then becomes indelibly impressed ab initio
with the national character concerned: in short,the injury to the claimant
State is not, so to speak, "de-inflicted" by the fact that the individual
claimant or Company ceases to have its nationality, or that the property
involved passes into the hands of a national of another State 47;-and the

position becomes even slightly absurd when the continuity rule is inter-
preted as even excluding such claims though they subsequently return to
their nationality of origin after a comparatively short interval, as might
well be the case with, precisely, shares.

62. In his dissenting opinion in the Panevezys case 48, Judge van
Eysinga clearly thought that the continuity rule, though a reasonable
stipulation to be inserted by agreement in treaties about claims-(or to be
read into them in consequence of provisions limiting their application to
persons having the nationality of the claimant State at the treaty date)-
was not a rule of customary international law, in which sphere it could

lead to unreasonable results. Thus a rigid application of it, though justified
where necessary to prevent abuses 49,should be eschewed where it would
work injustice, and this view has received support in recent writings con-
tending for a more eclectic application of the rule, so as not to "leave a

45 U.N. Reports of International Arbitral Awards, Vol. IX, p. 494.
46 But in this case the beneficiaries resulting from the change in the nationality of
the claim, not only hadex hypothesi a di'erent nationality from that of the original
claimant, but had the nationality of the defendant State-which created a special
situation. In other ways also the Umpire's finding did not constitute an outright
rejection of the "ab initio" thesis.

arise whether the "damage" had not been made good-but concethis is another matter.t
48 P.C.Z.J., Series AIB, No. 76 (1939) at pp. 33-35.
49 For instance, if, as suggested by Judge van Eysinga, the object were to found
compulsory jurisdiction, where none would otherwise have existed, by seeking out a
State able to invoke a treaty clause to that effect. BARCELONA TRACTION (OP. IND. FITZMAURICE) 100

du droit international (en la personne de son ressortissant ». Quoiqu'on

l'ait appelé lafiction de Vatel, il semble bien que ce principe constitue
un fondement indispensable du droit de présenterune réclamation inter-
nationale pour le compte de particuliers (à moins qu'il n'en existe un
autre, de caractère fonctionnel par exemple: ainsi, lorsqu'une organisa-
tion internationale présenteune réclamation pour le compte d'un de ses
fonctionnaires). Mais on voit moins bien pourquoi on devrait poser

en principe que si la personne à l'origine de la réclamation étaitbien
un ressortissant de 1'Etat demandeur à la date du dommage, il faudrait
qu'elle le reste ou que les biens en cause conservent le caractère national
ou que le droit de réclamationne passe pas aux mains d'un ressortissant
d'un autre Etat aprèscette date; en effet c'est à la date du dommage que

naît le préjudicecausé à 1'Etat dans la personne de son ressortissant et
que naît aussi, par conséquent, le droit (de faire respecter ... le droit
international », de sorte que, comme on l'a soutenu dans l'affaire Steven-
son 45 (quoique sans succès46),la réclamation s'imprègne dès l'origine
et d'une manière indélébild eu caractère national: en somme le préjudice

infligé à 1'Etat demandeur n'est pas effacépar le fait que le particulier
ou la société cessede possédersa nationalité ou que les biens passent aux
mains d'un ressortissant d'un autre Etat 47;la situation devient même
tant soit peu absurde quand on interprète la règlede la continuitécomme
excluant de pareilles réclamations, même sielles reprennent ensuite leur
nationalité d'origine après unlaps de temps relativement court, comme

cela peut fort bien arriver dans le cas de titres précisément.
62. 11est clair que dans son opinion dissidente en l'affaire du Chemin
de fer Panevezys-Saldutiskis 48M. van Eysinga a estiméque la règle de
la continuité, raisonnable en tant que disposition à insérerd'un commun
accord dans des traitésrelatifs aux réclamations - (ou contenue impli-

citement dans ces traités dufait de dispositions limitant leur application
aux personnes qui ont la nationalité de 1'Etat demandeur à la date du
traité) - n'est pas une règle de droit international coutumier,domaine
où elle pourrait conduire à des résultats déraisonnables.Si donc une
application stricte de cette règle se justifie lorsque cela est nécessaire

pour empêcher desabus 49,il faut l'éviterdans les cas où elle serait

" Nations Unies, Recueil des sentences arbitrales, vol. IX, p. 494.
46 Toutefois, dans cette affaire, les personnes devenues bénéficiairesà la suite du
changement de nationalité de la réclamation non seulement avaient par hypothèse
une nationalitédflérenre de celle du demandeur originaire mais encore avaient la
nationalité de1'Etat défendeur- ce qui créait une situation spéciale.A d'autres
égards encore, la décisionde l'arbitre ne constituait pas un rejet pur et simple de la
thèse du caractère nationalb initio.
'' Si la valeur correspondante a été reçue à l'occasion du transfert, on peut se
demander si le« dommage »n'a pas étéréparé;mais c'est là une autre question.
** C.P.J.Z. sérieA/B no 76, 1939, p. 33 à 35.
49 Quand par exemple (hypothèse envisagéepar M. van Eysinga) on essaie de
trouver un fondement, qui n'existerait pas par ailleurs,ridiction obligatoire,en
cherchant un Etat capable d'invoquer une clause conventionnelle cet effet.substantial body of. .. rights without a practical remedy . ..50". A clear
case ofthis would bewhere the change in nationality was involuntary,e.g.,

because of a re-alignment of State boundaries, or because the successorin
title to the affected property, e.g., under a will, happened to have a dif-
ferent nationality from that of the original claimant or owner. Or again,
why should the fact that a former dependent territory attains independ-
ence and becomes a separate State deprive whole categories of claimants
in that State of al1 possibility of redress? Such would however be the

effect of the continuity rule, for there would technically have been a
change in the claimant's nationality, and the former sovereign or pro-
tecting state could no longer sustain the claim, while the new one also
could not or, according to the doctrines involved, should not be able to
do so, because the private claimant was not, at the time of the injury, its
national,-or alternatively because, since the latter State did not then
exist as a separate State, it could not itself, quawhat it now is, have suf-

fered any wrong in the person of its national (This was in fact more or
less the situation that arose in the Panevezys case. The matter ought of
course to be provided for by a rule of the law of State Succession,but it is
somewhat doubtful whether this is yet the case-see the detailed dis-
cussionin O'Connell,State SuccessioninMunicipalLawandInternational
Law (Cambridge, 1967),Vol. 1,pp. 537-541).

63. In short, too rigid and sweeping an application of the continuity

rule can lead to situations in which important interests go unprotected,
claimants unsupported and injuries unredressed, not on account of

ProfessornR. Y.Jenningsin Hague Recueil(Genera1Course of 1967),Vol.p. II,pp. 476-
477, citing Sinclair, British Year Book for 1950, at p. 127 says, that Judge van
Eysinga's view "is in accord with what Mr. Sinclair has shown to be the history of
the development of the rule of nationality of claims: that it was evolved in the
19th century in the context of the interpretation of treaties setting up claims com-
missions and was a product of the ordinaryule that such treaties must be interpreted
strictlyW-Le., it was not really a rule of customary international law.

5L This last point is essentially the same as the one which arose in the Cameroons
case (Z.C.J. Reports 1963) under the head of the "objection ratione temporis" which
1 felt obliged to uphold de lege lata in my separate Opinion, for the reasons given
present context(is dealt with in the first paragraph on p. 129 of the Volume. But 1he
failed then to take account of the possibility that the matter might be regarded as
covered by the law of State Succession, though this is still uncertain-seend of
paragraph 62 supra. source d'injustice; le mêmepoint de vue a étérécemmentsoutenu par

des auteurs qui préconisaient une application plus souple de la règle
afin de ne pas ((laisser un nombre important de droits sans moyen
pratique de défense.. .50». Tel est évidemmentle cas lorsque le change-
ment de nationalité a étéinvolontaire,s'ilest dû par exemple à une recti-
fication des frontières de 1'Etatou au fait que la personne qui succèdeau

propriétaire des biens en cause, en vertu d'un testament par exemple, se
trouve posséderune nationalité différentede celle du demandeur ou du
propriétaire originaire. Ou, pour prendre un autre exemple, en quoi le
fait qu'un territoire précédemmentdépendant accède à l'indépendance
et devient un Etat distinct dewait-il priver des catégories entièresd'ayants

droit, dans cet Etat, de toute possibilité de réparation du préjudice
causé?Or, ce serait bien là l'effetde la règlede la continuité car, techni-
quement, leur nationalité aurait changé,et l'ancien Etat souverain ou
protecteur ne pourrait plus endosser leur réclamation, tandis que le
nouvel Etat ne pourrait pas non plus ou, selon la doctrine en question,
ne devrait pas pouvoir le faire, soit que la personne à l'origine de la

réclamation n'ait paseu sa nationalité au moment du dommage, soit
que,comme iln'existaitpas alorsen tant qu'Etat, lui-mêmene puisse, par
le seul fait qu'il a acquis ce statut, prktendre avoir subi un préjudice
quelconque dans la personne de son ressortissant 51. (Telle étaiten fait
plus ou moins la situation dans l'affaire du Cheminde fer Panevezys-

Saldutiskis. La matière devrait bien entendu être régléepar le droit
de la succession d'Etats mais il est assez douteux que cela soit encore
le cas - voir les développements détaillé fisgurantà ce sujet dans O'Con-
nell, State Succession in Municipal Law and International Law, Cam-
bridge, 1967,vol. 1, p. 537-541.)
63. Bref, une application trop rigide et trop généraliséd ee la règle

de la continuitépeut conduire à des situations où d'importants intérêts
ne sont pas protégés,où des personnes lésées nepeuvent faire valoir

50 O'Connell, International Law, Stevens-Oceana, 1965, vol. II, p. 1120; et
M. R. Y. Jennings déclare dans le Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit inter-
national de La Haye, tome 121, cours généralde 1967, vol.II,p. 476-477, en citant
Sinclair,British Year Book 1950, p. 127, que le point de vue de M. van Eysinga
((estconforme à l'évolutionhistorique de la règlesur la nationalité des réclamations
le cadre de l'interprétation des traités créant des commissions de réclamations ets
qu'elle est issue de la règle normale selon laquelle ces traités doivent s'interpréter
strictement»-autrement dit cen'étaitpas réellementune règlededroit international
coutumier.
Cette dernière situation est essentiellement celle qui se présentait dans l'affaire
du Cameroun septentrional (C.Z.J. Recueil 1963) sous le chef (l'exception ratione
temporis)], que j'ai cru devoir retenir de lege lata dans mon opinion individuelle
pour les raisons données dans la cinquième partie de celle-cibid., p. 127-130). Le
point particulier qui présente un intérêtdans le contexte actuel est traitépage
129, premier alinéa. Mais j'ai omis alors de tenir compte de la possibilité que la
question fût considéréecomme couverte par le droit de la succession'Etats, point
qui demeure toutefois incertain(voir la fin du par. ci-dessus). 102 BARCELONATRACTION (SEP. OP. FITZMAURICE)

anything relating to their merits, but because purely technical considera-
tions bring it about that no State is entitled to act 52.This situation is the
less defensible at the present date in that what was alwaysregarded as the
other main justification for the continuity rule (and even sometimes

thought to be its realfons et origo),namely the need to prevent the abuses
that would result if claims could be assigned for value to nationals of
powerful States whose governments would compel acceptance of them by
the defendant State, has largely lost its validity. Even powerful States are
not now in a position to act in this way: indeed, for reasons that need not
be gone into here, they are in these days at a positive disadvantage in such
matters.

64. Nor can it plausibly be contended that, if the continuity rule were
not strictly applied, legal objections would arise because, if the claim were
successful,the damages or compensation would be payable to the claimant
State,although the private party concerned was no longer its national, or
the affected property no longer belonged to one of its nationah;-for on

the basis that the State is asserting its own right in making the claim, it is
always the position, and it is well recognized internationally, that any
compensation due is paid to the claimant State,and belongs to it, for use
at its discretion. This was implicit in the viewexpressed by the Permanent
Court in the Chorzbw Factory case, when it said that the damage suf-
fered by the individual could "only afford a convenient scale for the
calculation of the reparation due to the State"-(my italics)53.If there
are any fetters on the State's discretion as to what it does with the com-

pensation awarded, they are imposed by the domestic law concerned. So
faras international law goes, the claimant State can use this compensation
as itpleases: it can keep it for itself (though this naturally is not normally
done) or it can pay it to the private party who was injured, whether (as it
will usually be the case) he is still its national, or has since become the
national of another State, or to the national owner of the affected pro-
perty, or to a foreign owner who may have bought it, or the claim, offthe

former, etc. There is, internationally, neither legal nor practical difficulty
here.

65. If these considerations are applied here, the conclusion would be
that, provided Belgian shareholding existed on 12 February 1948, the

Barcelona Company, for that Company has a government which onedid formerly act,
could have continued to act, andstill could in theory act: whereas according to the
continuityrule, it rnay result that no government can act.

53 P.C.I.J., SerieA,No. 17(1928), p. 28.

103 leurs droits, où des dommages ne sont pas réparés,et cela non pas pour
un motif quelconque relatif au fond de la réclamation, mais parce que
des considérations purement formelles ont pour résultat qu'aucun

Etat n'a qualitépour agir 52.Cette situation est d'autant moins défen-
dable aujourd'hui que ce que l'on a toujours considéré comme l'autre
grande justification de la règlede la continuité (voire parfois comme la
source et l'origine mêmesde cette règle) a perdu une grande partie de
sa valeur: je veux parler de la nécessité d'empêchelres abus qui se
produiraient si les réclamations pouvaient êtrecédées à titre onéreux
aux ressortissants d'Etats puissants, de telle sorte que les gouvernements
de ces derniers Etats puissent en imposer l'acceptationà 1'Etatdéfendeur.

Mêmeles Etats puissants ne peuvent agir ainsi désormais: en fait, pour
des raisons qu'il n'y a pas lieu d'approfondir ici, ils setrouvent aujour-
d'hui,à cet égard, nettement désavantagés.
64. On ne peut pas non plus soutenir de façon plausible qu'en n'appli-
quant pas strictement la règlede la continuité on créeraitdes difficultés
juridiques du fait qu'en cas de succès de la réclamation c'est 1'Etat
demandeur qui recevrait les dommages-intérêtsou l'indemnité, même
si la personne privée intéresséen'était plus son ressortissant ou si les
biens endommagés n'appartenaient plus à l'un de ses ressortissants;

en effet, étant donné que 1'Etatfait valoir son droit propre en présentant
la réclamation, il est toujours admis, et internationalement bien établi,
que toute réparation allouéedoit êtreversée à 1'Etat demandeur, qu'elle
lui appartient et qu'il peut en user à sa guise. Cela ressort implicitement
de l'opinion expriméepar la Cour permanente dans l'affaire de l'Usine
de Chorzow, selon laquelle le dommage subi par l'individu ne peut «que
fournir une mesure convenable de la réparation due à Z'Etat11(les itali-
ques sont de nous) 53.S'il existe des entravesà la liberté qu'a 1'Etat de

disposer de la réparation accordée, elles sont imposées par son droit
interne. Au regard du droit international, 1'Etatdemandeur peut faire de
la réparation l'usage qu'il lui plaît: il peut la garder pour lui-même
(bien que ce ne soit naturellement pas le cas normal), il peut la verser
à la personne privée lésée, qu'elle ait encore sa nationalité (comme ce
sera généralementle cas) ou qu'elle ait depuis lors acquis la nationalité
d'un autre Etat, ou encore il peut la verser à son ressortissant, proprié-
taire du bien en cause, ou à l'étranger qui lui a racheté ce bien ou la

réclamation, etc. Du point de vue international, cela ne soulève aucune
difficulté,ni juridique ni pratique.
65. Si l'on s'inspire de ces considérations en l'espèce,la conclusion
doit être que, pour autant qu'il y avait une participation belge au

52 Cette situation serait même pireque celle où se trouve, en la présente espèce,
la Barcelona Traction; ila en effet un gouvernement qui est autrefois intervenu,
aurait pu continuerà intervenir et pourrait encore théoriquement intervenir en
faveur de cette société,alors que, en application de la règle de la continuité, il peut
arriver qu'aucun gouvernement ne puisse intervenir.
53 C.P.J.Z. série A no 17, 1928, p. 28. claim then became once and for al1 indelibly impressed with Belgian
national character, and that any subsequent dealings in the shares were
immaterial, affecting only theantumof the damages eventually payable
if Belgium were successful, or affecting only the identity of the actual
persons or entities whom the Belgian Government would eventually
select to become the recipients of a due share of any damages recovered.

ISSUEC SONNECTE WDITH THE FOURTH PRELIMINAR OBJECTION

66. The Judgment of the Court does not deal with the fourth pre-
liminary objection that had been advanced on the Spanish sideand which,
together with the third, wasoined to the merits by the Judgment which

the Court gave in the preliminary (1964)phase of the case-namely the
question of the exhaustion of local remedies. On the other hand, this
question has had its importance for certain Members of the Court, and
it wasalwayspossiblethat individual rejections of the Belgianclaim might
be based not on Belgium'slack of ius standi but on the view that the
Barcelona Company did not adequately avail itself of the means of
recourse open to it in the Spanishcourts. Inhese circumstances, without
attempting to discuss the fourth preliminary objection generally, 1 con-
siderit legitimate to makecertain limited comments on one or two aspects

of the matter to which 1attach specialimportance (and which are also of
importance for the clarification of the law-see paragraph 2 supra,-
recalling however, as being equally, if not even more applicable here,
what 1said in paragraph 37 above.

(1) The issue ofjurisdiction

67. While the question of Spanish jurisdiction to conduct bankruptcy
proceedings in respect of Barcelona Traction, a Canadian Company,is not
technically part of theourth preliminary objection, which concerns the
exhaustion of local remedies, it is related to it in an important way, as
will be seen; and since it too has a certain prelirninary character, it may
properly receive some consideration here.

68. It appears to me probable that, considered at the international
level54,the declaration of bankruptcy made in respect of the Barcelona

54The question whether there was jurisdiction under law, in the circurn-
stances appertainito the Barcelona Company, is irrelevant or inconclusive for12février1948,lademande s'estimprégnée unefois pour toutes et de façon
indélébiledu caractère national belge et que les transactions dont les
actions peuvent avoir fait ultérieurement l'objet n'ont pas à entrer en

ligne decompte, car ellesn'ont d'incidencequesur le montant (quantum)
de la réparation qui devrait éventuellement êtreverséesi la Belgique
obtenait gain de cause, ou encore sur l'identité des personnes physiques
ou morales que le Gouvernement belge désignerait finalement pour
recevoir une juste part de cette réparation.

66. La Cour ne traite pas dans son arrêt dela quatrième exception
préliminaire soulevéepar l'Espagne, qui fut jointe au fond en même
temps que la troisième par l'arrêtrendu dans la phase préliminaire
(1964) de l'affaire; en d'autres termes, elle n'aborde pas la question de
l'épuisement desrecours internes. Or cette question a retenu l'attention
de certains des membres de la Cour et il n'ajamais étéexclu que certains
d'entre eux pussent rejeter la demande belge en se fondant non pas sur
l'absence de qualité:pour agir de la Belgique mais sur l'idéeque la Bar-
celona Traction ne s'était pasadéquatementprévalue desvoies de recours
qui lui étaient ouvertes devant les tribunaux espagnols. Dans ces con-

ditions, sans chercher à procéder à un examen généralde la quatrième
exception préliminaire,je m'estime autorisé à formuler certaines obser-
vations de portée limitéesur un ou deux aspects de la question auxquels
j'attache une importance particulière (et qui sont importants aussi pour
préciser ledroit - voir par. 2 ci-dessus), en rappelant toutefois ce que
j'ai dit plus haut au paragraphe 37 et qui s'applique autant, sinon plus,
aux présentes observations.

1) La questionde la compétence
67. Bien que la question de la compétence destribunaux espagnols
dans la procédure de faillite engagée contre la Barcelona Traction,
sociétécanadienne, ne fasse pas techniquement partie de la quatrième
exception préliminaire relative à l'épuisement desrecours internes, on

verra qu'elles'yrattache par un lien important; comme elleprésente aussi
un certain caractère préliminaire, il n'est pas déplacéde lui consacrer
ici quelques développements.
68. 11 me semble probable qu'envisagéesur le plan international 54
la déclaration de faillite prononcée contre la Barcelona Traction outre-

5+ La question de savoir si cette compétence existait en vertu du droit espagnol
dans la situation où se trouvait la Barcelona Traction n'est ni pertinente ni décisive 104 BARCELONA TRACTION (SEP. OP. FITZMAURICE)

Company did involve an excessof legitimate, or at least normal, Spanish
jurisdiction-internationally. This view is not of course based on the
non-Spanish nationality of the Company,-still less because of doubts

(though these certainly subsist) as to whether the Company did, in the
proper sense of these notions, carry on business in Spain, or own pro-
perty or have a domicile or seat there 55.It is based on the nature of the
alleged default on which the petition in bankruptcy was based, and
acceded to by the court. The point may be illustrated by reference to
Barcelona's subsidiary, Ebro 56, which, although equally a Canadian
company, did undoubtedly carry on business in Spain, owning property,
occupying offices, etc., there. Consequently, had it been Ebro that was

bankrupted, and for non-payment of commercial debts arising out of its
local activities, no question of any excessofjurisdiction could have arisen
despite Ebro's Canadian nationality-for such matters would have been
legitimately of Spanish concern. (It was indeed noticeable that it was
expresslyadmitted on the Belgian side that the bankrupting of Ebro (had
that occurred) would have been quite proper, jurisdictionally.) But
Barcelona was not bankrupted for anything of that kind, as is clear from
the bankruptcy judgment itself. It was bankrupted exclusively for the

non-payment of the interest on its sterling bonds, issued outside Spain,
and also held outside Spain except in so far as certain private Spanish
parties had recently acquired a few of them, apparently for the express
purpose of bringing the bankruptcy proceedings. Yet in respect of these
same bonds, issued under Canadian law, al1the necessary machinery for
theguaranteeing and enforcement ofthe obligation, through a well-known
Canadian institution, the National Trust, had been set up, and existed
for utilization in Canada, where also, in the last resort, the Company

could have been made the subject of proceedings for the appointment of
a receiver.

69. Clearly, if the real cbject had been to obtain payment of the ar-
rears of interest on the bonds, action would have been taken in Canada,-
and not merely would but should, for the step taken by the Spanish

bankruptcy petitioners was in clear breach of the important "no action"
provisions of both the trust deeds-(clauses 44 of the Prior Lien deed
and 35 of the First Mortgage deed-Annex 28 to the Memorial, Vol. 1).
These provisions were of course conditions of the bond obligation, by

international purposes, since the very question at issue in international proceedings
is whether the jurisdiction which a State confers upon its own courts, or otherwise
assumes, is internationally valid.
55 Barcelona was a holding Company, and a holding company is by definirion not an
operuring company. This has been brought out in several decided cases, but is too
often lost sight of.
56 Standing for "EbroIrrigation and PowerCo. Ltd." passait bel et bien la compétencelégitime, ou du moins normale, de
l'Espagne. Si je suisde cet avis, ce n'est évidemmentpas parce que la

sociétén'était pas de nationalité espagnoleet encore moins parce que
j'aurais des doutes (quoiqu'il en reste toujours) sur le point de savoir si
à proprement parler la sociétéexerçait une activité commerciale en
Espagne, y possédait des bienset y avait un domicile ou un siège 55.C'est
à cause de la nature du prétendu manquement qui motivait la demande
en faillite laquelle letribunal a accédéP.our me faire mieux comprendre,
je prendrai l'exemple de la filiale de la Barcelona Traction, 1'Ebro 56,

société égalemenctanadienne mais qui, elle, exerçait incontestablement
une activitécommerciale en Espagne, où elle possédaitdes biens, avait
des bureaux, etc. Si donc c'était1'Ebroqui avait étémise en faillite, et ce
pour défaut de paiement de dettes commerciales contractées du fait de
son activitédans le pays, il n'aurait pu être questiondans ce cas d'un
excèsde compétence,malgréla nationalité canadienne de l'Ebro, car de
telles questions auraient légitimementétédu ressort de l'Espagne. (On
remarquera en effet que, du côté belge, il a étéexpressémentadmis que

la-mise en faillite de I'Ebro, si la chose s'était produite,eût été parfaite-
ment justifiable du point de vuejuridictionnel.) Mais, ainsi qu'il ressort
clairement du jugement de faillite lui-même,ce n'est nullement pour un
motif de ce genre que la faillite de la Barcelona Traction a été prononcée.
C'est exclusivement à raison du non-paiement des intérêts de ses obliga-
tions en livres sterling émiseshors d'Espagne et détenues demêmehors
d'Espagne, sauf les quelques obligations qu'avaient acquises peu avant
certains particuliers espagnols, dans le dessein exprès, semble-t-il, de

déclencherla procédure de faillite. Pourtant, s'agissant de ces mêmes
obligations émisesconformément au droit canadien, tout le mécanisme
nécessaire à la garantie et à l'exécutionde la dette par l'intermédiaire
d'une institution canadienne bien connue, la National Trust, avait été
créé,existait et pouvait êtremis en Œuvre au Canada où, en dernier
ressort, il aurait étépossible aussi d'assigner la société en vuede la
nomination d'un receiver.
69. De toute évidence, sile but réelque l'on visait avait étéd'obtenir

le paiement des arriérés d'intérêt sluers obligations, c'est au Canada
qu'on aurait agi, et mêmequ'on devait agir, car la mesure prise par les
requérants espagnols à la faillite contrevenait de façon manifeste aux
importantes dispositions interdisant les actions individuelles en justice
qui figuraient dans les Trust Deeds (clause 44 du Trust Deed relatif aux
obligations Prior Lien et clause 35 du Trust Deed relatif aux obligations

aux fins d'une instance internationale,il s'agit précisémentd'établir si la com-
pétencequ'un Etat s'arroge ou confère ses propres tribunaux est fondéeen droit
in55rLa Barcelona Traction était une sociétéholding; or par définition une société
holding n'est pas une sociétéd'exploitation. Ce point est trop souvent perdu de vue,
bien que plusieurs décisions en aient souligné l'importance.
56 Forme abrégéede Ebro Irrigation and Power Co. Ltd.which the petitioners automatikally became bound on acquiring the
bonds. They provided that no proceedings to obtain payment should be
taken by any bondholder until after the (Canadian) Trustee had, upon a
request to act, refused or neglected to do so.

70. In thesecircumstances theprimary jurisdiction wasclearlyCanadian,
and the Spanishcourts should have declined jurisdiction,-at least in the
first instance and until the remedies available through the Canadian
NationalTrusthad been invoked. It istrue that, under present conditions,
international law does not impose hard and fast rules on States delimiting
spheres of national jurisdiction in such matters (and there are of course
others-for instance in the fields of shipping, "anti-trust" legislation,
etc.), but leaves to Statesa wide discretion in the matter. It does however
(a) postulate the existence of limits-though in any given case it may be
for the tribunal to indicate what these are for the purposes of that case;
and (b) involve for every Statean obligation to exercise moderation and

restraint as to theextent of the jurisdiction assumed by its courts in cases
having a foreign element, and to avoid undue encroachment on a juris-
diction more properly appertaining to, or more appropriately exercisable
by, another State.

71. These considerations apply equally, not only to the initial Spanish
assumption of jurisdiction in bankruptcy, but to various later stages of

the bankruptcy proceedings themselves, and in particular (as part of the
process of finally disposing of the Barcelona Company's Spanish under-
taking) to the purported cancellation of its shares in Ebro (a Canadian
company)-these being at the time under the control of the Canadian
National Trust or of a receiver appointed by the Canadian courts-and
the "replacement" of these by scrip issued in Spain, and subsequently
sold to the new and specially formed Spanish Company, Fecsa 57,without
any reference to the competent Canadian authorities or any action to
procure the enforcement of these measures in Canada, so that there (and
everywhere outside Spain) the original scrip remained and remains
perfectly valid. The same observations apply to the purported transfer of
Ebro's Canadian share register, its Canadian registered offices, and its

very seat itself (also Canadian), to the city of Barcelona,-in disregard of
the fact that these things, which could notphysically be transferred with-
out Ebro's consent or enforcement action in Canada, remained where
they were, and are still there today, not only in actuality but in law,

j7 Standing for "Fuerzas Eléctricasde Cataluïia, S.A."

106 BARCELONATRACTION (OP. IND.FITZMAURICE) 105

First Mortgage - mémoire, annexes, vol. 1, ann. 28). Ces dispositions
faisaient naturellement partie des conditions obligatoires attachées aux

titres et liaient automatiquement les requérants dèslors qu'ils enétaient
devenus acquéreurs. Elles stipulaient qu'aucun obligataire n'avait le
droit d'intenter une action en recouvrement tant que le trustee (canadien)
n'avait pas refuséou négligé d'agir après en avoir été requis.
70. Dans ces conditions, la compétence originaireappartenait mani-
festement au Canada et les tribunaux espagnols auraient dû se déclarer
incompétents, du moins en première instance et tant que les recours
disponibles par l'intermédiairede l'organisme canadien National Trust
n'avaient pas étéutilisés. Il est vrai qu'à l'heure actuelle ledroit inter-

national n'impose aux Etats aucune règlerigide délimitant le domaine
de leur compétencenationale en pareilles matières (etil en est évidemment
d'autres: par exemple les questions de transports maritimes, la législa-
tion antitrust, etc.), mais il leur laissecet égard unegrande latitude.
Néanmoins a) il postule l'existence de limites, mêmesi dans tout cas
d'espèce c'est au tribunal qu'il incombe éventuellement de les définir
aux fins de l'affaire dont il s'agit, etil impose àtout Etat l'obligation
de faire preuve de modération et de mesure quant à l'étenduede la

compétenceque s'attribuent sesjuridictions dans les affaires qui compor-
tent un élémené t trangeret d'éviter d'empiéteirndûment sur la compétence
d'un autre Etat quand celle-ci est mieux fondéeou peut êtreexercéede
façon plus appropriée.

71. Ces considérations s'appliquent non seulement à la question

initiale de la compétencede l'Espagne pour connaître de la faillite, mais
aussi à divers stades ultérieurs de la procédure de faillite elle-même,et
en particulier, comme partie du processus de liquidation définitivede
l'entreprise de la Barcelona Traction en Espagne, à la prétendueannula-
tion des actions de 1'Ebro(société canadienne) qu'elle détenait- et qui
à l'époque étaiect placées sous le contrôle de l'organisme canadien
National Trust ou d'un receiver nommépar lestribunaux canadiens -et
au ((remplacement 1)de ces actions par des titres émis en Espagne et
vendus ultérieurement à la nouvelle société espagnole spécialement cons-

tituée,la Fecsa 57,sans qu'ilen soit référà aucun moment aux autorités
canadiennes compétentes ni qu'aucuneaction soit intentéepour obtenir
l'exécutionde ces mesures au Canada, si bien que dans ce pays (comme
partout ailleurs, hors d'Espagne) lestitres originaires n'ont jamais perdu
leur validité. Les mêmesobservations s'appliquent aussi au prétendu
transfert dans la ville de Barcelone du registre canadien des actions de
I'Ebro, de ses bureaux canadiens et de son siègesocial lui-même(égale-
ment canadien), bien que ces éléments,qui ne pouvaient Etre mathrielle-

57Sigle de FuerzasEléctricde CataluiiaS.A.seeingthat Ebro is a Canadian Companywhose status, seat and location
of share register and registered officesareal1governed by Canadian law.
In short what really took place appears to have had the character of a
disguised expropriation of the undertaking.

72. If therefore it were necessary to reach a conclusion on this matter,
it could in my view only be in the sense that the whole bankruptcy pro-
ceedings were, for excessofjurisdiction, internationally nul1and void ab
initio,and without effect on the international plane.

(2) Exhaustion of local remedies:the question of notijication

73. The conclusion just indicated would also be of importance as
regards the question of exhausting local remedies, in so far asit might
tend to suggestthat, strictly, this question did not arise atl1,-for there
should be no necessityto exhaust such remediesin respect of proceedings
which, for excess ofjurisdiction were, internationally, a nullity and void
ab initio. At least, in respect of the substance of the proceedings, there
could be no such obligation if-internationally-the proceedings were
vitiated from the start.

74. Be that as it may, there are other considerations which suggest
that the whole issue of the exhaustion of local remediesmay be irrelevant
in such circumstances as those of the present case;-for ifit is the fact
(asto which, videinfra)that the Barcelona Company wasnever,according
to the applicable international standards, properly notijied of the original
bankruptcy declaration, so that, on the international plane, the bank-
ruptcy procedure never began to run against it, the correct conclusion
might wellbe that no obligation to exhaust local remediescould everhave

been generated;-in much the same way that (even if the case is not
entirely on the same plane) a person entitled to diplomatic immunity
doesnot losethat immunity through ignoring proceedingsbrought against
him in the local courts,-nor is it a condition of his government's right
to complain that he should have exhausted local means of recourse in the
assertion or defence of his immunity. Again, the possibility, and even
probability, that the management of the Company did defacto become
aware of the proceedings, in sufficienttime to put in an opposition within
the prescribed period, is clearly irre1evant;-for if a certain kind of
notification is requiredby law, and this is not given, then any time-limits
dependent on it simplydo not,as a matter oflaw, beginto run,-and once
again the whole procedure is vitiated and rendered void.ment transféréssans le consentement de 1'Ebro ou sans une mesure
d'exécutionau Canada, soient restés là où ils étaient et s'y trouvent
encore aujourd'hui, non seulement en fait mais en droit, puisque 1'Ebro
est une sociétécanadienne régiepar le droit canadien quant à son statut,
quant à son siègeet quant au lieu où est tenu le registre de ses actions

et où se trouvent ses bureaux. Bref, ce qui s'est réellement passé semble
avoir eu le caractère d'une expropriation déguiséede l'entreprise.
72. Si donc il étaitnécessaired'aboutirà une conclusion sur ce point,
on ne pourrait qu'affirmer, à mon avis, que sur le plan international
toute la procédurede faillite est, pour cause d'excèsde compétence, nulle
ab initioet sans effet.

2) L'épuisemend t es recours internes: la question de la notification

-73. La conclusion que nous venons d'indiquer a aussi de l'importance
pour la question de l'épuisement desrecours internes, dans la mesure

où elle peut amener à considérerqu'à strictement parler cette question
ne se posait en aucune façon. En effet il n'y a pas lieu d'épuiserces
recours lorsqu'on est en présenced'une procédure quiest nulle ab initio
sur le plan international pour cause d'excèsde compétence.Du moins
en ce qui concerne lefond de la procédure,il ne saurait y avoir d'obliga-
tion internationale en ce sens dès lors que, sur le plan international,
la procédure était entachée de vice dèsle début.
74. Quoi qu'il en soit, d'autres considérations incitent également à
penser que toute la question de l'épuisement desrecours internes est sans
pertinence dans les circonstances de l'espèce.En effet, s'il s'avèreque,
suivant les normes internationales applicables, la Barcelona Traction
n'a jamais été dûment aviséede la déclarationinitiale de faillite (sur ce
point, voir ci-après), de telle sorte que, sur le plan international, les

délaisque comporte la procédure de faillite n'ont jamais commencé à
courir à son égard,on est sans doute fondé à conclure qu'aucune obliga-
tion d'épuiserles recours internes n'a jamais pu naître. De même (bien
que le cas ne soit pas tout à fait analogue) une personne jouissant de
l'immunité diplomatiquene la perd pas pour le seul motif qu'elle ne
tient pas compte des poursuites dont elle fait l'objet devant les tribunaux
internes et le droit de réclamationdu gouvernement dont cette personne
est ressortissante n'est pas subordonné à la condition qu'elle ait au
préalableépuisé lesrecours internes dont elle dispose pour faire valoir
ou pour défendre son immunité. Encore une fois, lefait qu'ilsoit possible,
voire probable, que la direction de la sociétait euenfait connaissance
de la procédureen temps utile pour faire opposition dans le délaiprescrit
est manifestement sans pertinence. Si un certain mode de notification
est requispar la loi et si cette notification n'est pas faite,les délaisdont

elle est le point de départne commencent tout simplement pas à courir 75. In this connection a clear distinction must be drawn between
proceedings which, if invalid, are so ab initio, and proceedings the com-
plaint as to which concerns their outcome, e.g., that they resulted in a
denial of justice. As regards the latter kind of proceedings, it is evident
that, in principle at least, local remedies must be exhausted. The case is
different, at any rate as regards the substance of the issues involved,
where the allegedvicerelates not to the outcome but to the veryinception
of the proceedings.
76. In considering what kind and, so to speak, degree of notification is
legally requisite, its clearly not sufficient, in cases involving a foreign

element, merely to apply domestic law standards, or to rely on, or rest
content with, the fact that the requirements of the local law concerned
were duly complied with,-if such was indeed the case. Internationally,
it is necessaryto consider whether-objectively-in the case of a foreign
Company having its seat and management abroad-a "notice" which
takes the form of nothing more than a simple press publication of the
adjudication in bankruptcy, suffices,-particularly if this publication is
local only, and not effectedin the country of the company's management
and seat. There is here a direct connection with the question of excessof
jurisdiction already discussed above; and it is important to remember
(seeparagraph 68)that it was not anything to do with the conduct of the
Barcelona Company's Spanish undertaking that was in question in the
bankruptcy proceedings, or which formed the basis of the bankruptcy
adjudication, but a primarily extra-Spanish matter, the servicing of the
sterling bonds-which was directly the concern of the Company in
Canada, and of the bondholders' trustee, the Canadian National Trust.

The very fact that, as was expressly recognized in relation to the Com-
pany's domicile,by the bankruptcy petition itself, namely that "it [the
Company] does not have [a domicile]in Spain, any more than it has any
specific commercial establishment there", must logically lead to the
conclusion that, on the international plane, a notification effected in
Canada, or by Canadian means of some kind, was called for. It is dif-
ficult to see how the apparently admitted non-Spanish domicile of the
Company could possibly lead to the conclusion suggested in the bank-
ruptcy petition, and accepted by the judge, that in these circumstances it
would be "necessary to limit publication to the Officia1Bulletin of Tar-
ragonaM-which thejudge extended to the Officia1Bulletin ofthe province
of Barcelona, but no further.
77. 1fully appreciate that Spanish law, like certain'other historic and
highly developed legal systems, approaches the subject of bankruptcy
mainly fromthe standpoint of thecreditors, and with the object above al1
or at any rate in the first instance, of safeguarding their rights, and hence
ofavoiding sofar aspossibleanypremature disposal, dispersa1or conceal-

ment of the debtor's assets, insuch a way as to prejudice those rights. 1en droit et, là encore, toute la procédure est entachée device et frappée
de nullité.
75. A ce sujet, il convient de faire nettement le partage entre les procé-

dures qui, lorsqu'elles sont nulles, le sont ab initioet cellesdont lerésultat
est mis en cause, par exemple parce qu'elles auraient abouti à un déni
de justice. Pour ces dernières, il est évident qu'en principedu moins
l'épuisementdes recours internes est indispensable. Il en va autrement,
en tout cas pour ce qui est du fond, quand le vice présuméporte non
point sur l'issue de l'affaire, maissur la façon mêmedont la procédure a
étéengagée.
76. Pour déterminerla sorte et, pour ainsi dire, le degréde notifica-
tion qui était juridiquement requis, il ne suffit manifestement pas,
lorsqu'un élémené t trangerest en jeu, d'appliquer simplement les normes
du droit interne ni de se contenter de constater que les prescriptions de

la loinationale ont étédûmentrespectées - si tant est qu'elles l'aientété.
Sur le plan international, il faut rechercher si objectivement- etquand
il s'agit d'une sociététrangèredont le siègeet la direction sontà l'étran-
ger - une ((notification» sous forme de simple publication du jugement
de faillite par voie de presse suffit, en particulier lorsque la publication
n'a lieu que localement et non dans le pays où se trouvent la direction
et le siègede la société.Cette question se rattache directement à celle
de l'excèsde compétenceque nous avons déjàétudiée plushaut; à cet
égard,il importe de ne pas oublier (voir par. 68) que ce n'est nullement
le comportement de l'entreprise espagnole de la Barcelona Traction qui
étaiten question au cours de la procédure defaillite ou qui a motivé le
jugement de faillite, mais un fait essentiellement étranger à l'Espagne,

à savoir le service des obligations en sterling, qui concernait directement
la sociétéau Canada et le trustee canadien des obligataires, la National
Trust. Le fait mêmeque, comme les requérants à la faillite l'ont admis
expressémentau sujet du domicile de la société, ((celle-cni' ...a pas en
Espagne [de domicile]pas plus qu'elle n'y a un quelconque établissement
commercial direct »porte logiquement àconclure que, sur le plan inter-
national, il fallait procéder une notification au Canada ou faire appel
aux moyens qui pouvaient exister au Canada pour ce faire. On ne voit
vraiment pas comment le fait - apparemment admis - que la société
n'était pas domiciliée en Espagne a pu conduire à la conclusion, suggérée
dans la requêtede faillite et acceptéepar lejuge, que dans ces conditions

«ilfaudra s'entenir à[la]publication au Bulletinoficielde Tarragone »-à
quoi le juge a ajoutéla publication au Bulletin oficiel de la province de
Barcelone, mais rien de plus.
77. Je me rends parfaitement compte que le droit espagnol, comme
du reste certains autres systèmesjuridiques anciens et hautement dévelop-
pés, envisagela faillite essentiellement du point de vue des créancierset
a pour objet de sauvegarder par-dessus tout, ou du moins d'abord, leurs
droits, c'est-à-dire d'éviterdans la mesure du possible que les avoirs
du débiteur soient prématurémentcédés, disperséo su dissimulésde telletherefore discount the natural reactions of a jurist trained in the com-

mon-law school when confronted with a situation in which a debtor can
be declared bankrupt, or a company liquidated or wound-up, on the
basis ofproceedings, ofwhich no previous notice has been orwillbegiven,
and at which the debtor is not represented or afforded an opportunity to
appear-and this although the declaration takes immediate effect, and
that effect involves for the bankrupt a complete loss of commercial
status and of legalcapacity to act. 1also accept the fact that according to

the philosophy of this point of view, only a very short interval is allowed
in which the bankruptcy can be challenged with a viewto its cancellation
and the reversa1ofits effects.
78. But for these very reasons, it appears to me to be an essential
counterpart of the considerable stringency of such a system that, at the
very least, the debtor, having been declared bankrupt, should receive
actual notice-judicial notice-of the declaration of bankruptcy, and
should do so in a form which must ensure that it is brought directly to the

attention of the person or entity concerned 58.Unless this is done, the
process, viewed as a whole, comes very near to constituting, if not a
species of concealment, at least a serious obstacle to the possibility of a
timely challenge to the bankruptcy ;-so that a procedure already highly
favourable to the creditor interest, becomes loaded against that of the
debtor to an extent difficult to reconcile with the standards of the ad-
ministration of justice required by international law. More especially is

this the case when the only period within which the bankruptcy can be
challenged is a period of eight days running not from the date of notice
but from that of the press publication of the bankruptcy declaration itself,
and failure to observe it apparently has, thenceforth, a permanently
preclusive effect.
79. The pertinence and force of these considerations is of course
greatly increased where, as in the present case, a foreign element is

involved,-where the bankrupt is a foreign entity, with its seat and
management abroad, and where the occasion of the bankruptcy is not the
local commercial activities of that entity, but one affecting its (chiefly
non-local) bondholders. In such circumstances, mere publication in the
local press, and then not in the ordinary newspapers but in journals of a
highly specialized kind, normally little read except by persons having a

the winding-up of a company on the basis of a petition, not only must the existence
of thepetition be advertised (and not merely in the officia1London Gazette but in one
of the ordinarydaily newspapers also) at least seven clear days before the petition is
dueto be heard,-but, in addition, notice of it must be served on the company at its
registered head office, equally before the hearing of the petition, at which of course
the company is entitled to be represented (Halsbury's Laws ofgland, loc. cit.n,
notes 12 and 13supra, pp. 544-549).In the case of foreign companies, notice must
no less be served, and, if this cannot be effected at an address for service or place of
business inEngland leave will be given to effect service abroad (ibid., pp. 842-843).sorte qu'il soit portépréjudice à ces droits. Je ne tiens donc pas compte
des réactions spontanéesdu juriste formé à l'écolede la common law,
qui s'étonnera qu'un débiteur puisse êtredéclaré en faillite,ou une
société liquidée s,ur la base d'une procédurequi n'a fait l'objet d'aucune
notification préalable-et àlaquelle le débiteurn'étaitpas représentéet
n'a pas eu la possibilitéde comparaître, et ce bien que la déclaration de
faillite prenne effetimmédiatementet signifiepour le failli la perte totale

de sa situation commerciale et de sa capacité juridique. J'admets aussi
que, toujours dans la mêmeconception, on ne prévoie qu'undélai très
bref pour faireopposition àla failliteen vue dela faire annuler et d'effacer
seseffets.
78. Mais, pour ces raisons mêmes,il me semble indispensable, en
contrepartie de la rigueur extrêmed'un tel système,que la déclaration
de faillite fasse à tout le moins l'objet d'une notification de justice
effectiveau débiteur qui a été déclaré en faillite,t cela sous une forme

telle que l'on soit sûr d'avoirportédirectement le fait la connaissance de
la personne ou de l'entitéintéressée 58.A défaut de cette garantie, la
procédurevue dans son ensemble n'est pas loin de constituer sinon une
sorte de dissimulation, entout cas un obstacle qui compromet sérieuse-
ment la possibilitéde faire opposition à la faillite en temps uti-e de
sorte qu'une procédure déjà extrêmement favorable au créancier en
arrive à faire bon marché des intérêtsdu débiteur,et cela à un point
difficilement compatible avec les normes d'administration de la justice

prescrites par le droit international. Tel est en particulier le casrsqu'il
ne peut être faitopposition à la faillite que dans un délai dehuit jours,
à compter de la date non pas de la notificationmais de la publication
par voie de presse du jugement de faillite lui-mêmee ,t que, s'iln'observe
pas ce délai,l'intéressé sterouve à jamais forclos.
79. Ces considérations s'appliquent à fortiori quand, comme c'est
le cas en l'espèce,un élément étrangee rst en jeu, le failli étantune per-
sonnemorale étrangèredont lesiègeetla direction sont situés àl'étranger,

et quand lemotif de la faillite n'est pasliél'activité commercialede cette
sociétédans le pays mais intéresse ses obligataires (principalement à
I'étranger).Dans ces conditions, on ne saurait tenir pour suffisante la
simple publication dans la presse locale, et qui plus est non pas dans la
presse courante mais dans des périodiquesextrêmementspécialisés qui

Selon le droit angla-s pour citer le système qui m'est le plus fam-,ier
en cas de liquidation d'une société sur requ,ette requêtedoit non seulement
faire l'objet d'une annonce (inséréenon pas simplement dans le journal officiel
London Gazette mais aussi dans un quotidien ordinaire) septjours francs au moins
avant l'audition de la requête, maiselle doit encore êtrenotifiéeà la sociétéà son
siège social, également avant l'audition de la requête, lors de laquelle la société
a naturellement le droit d'être représentée (Halsbury's of England, loc. cit.
la notification n'en doit pas moins êtreeffectuée,etsi la sociétén'a pas en Angleterre
de domicile élu ou d'établissement commercialoù il soit possible de le faire, la
notification à l'étrangersera autorisée (ibid., p. 842-843).particular reason to do so, can not be regarded as sufficient.It is in fact
doubtful whether press publication sufficesat all, if it is the only measure
taken. But it should at least be effectednot onlyin the local press but also
in that ofthe country or citywhere thebankrupt resides or (ifa company)
has its seat;-and, although the point was never finally resolved, there
is some reason to think that this was in fact what Spanish law itself

really required.

80. However, in my opinion, in the circumstances of cases such as the
present one, even publication of the latter kind is hardly adequate.
Something in the nature ofjudicial notice is necessary and, as mentioned
in the statement of facts given in the early part of the Court's Judgment
(paragraph 15),no such notice was given at the time: indeed it was not
until 15 years later, in June 1963,that the Barcelona Company's long-
standing request for an official copy of the bankruptcy judgment was
acceded to. The reason given in that judgment for publication in the
officialbulletinsofTarragona and Barcelonaonly,namelythatthe domicile
ofthe Company was "unknown", is difficultto reconcile with the fact that
the seat of the company was shown as "Head Office,25 King Street West,
Toronto, Canada" on one of the most important documents which,
togetherwith a translation into Spanish, was furnished to the bankruptcy
judge by the petitioners, as Nos. 3 and 3bis in the dossier of the case,
namelythe report of the council of administration (Board of Directors) of

the Company, covering its balance sheet for 1946,the figures of which
were cited in support of the bankruptcy petition (Annexes to the Me-
morial, Vol. II, p. 258).
81. Even if Spanish law did not require action to be taken in Toronto
in such a case (see end of paragraph 79 above), it certainly in no way
prohibited this. Indeed, such action would have been entirely consistent
with the relevant provisions of that law, and it had been taken by the
Spanish courts in other cases, particularly the Moncayo and Niel-on-
Rupel cases, and was to be taken again in an anaiogous context in the
Namel case a year later by the actual judge who was then in charge of the
Barcelona bankruptcy. There existed at least three or four ways of doing
this: by publication in the Toronto newspapers; through the registered
letter post, with postal certificate of delive;by persona1servicethrough
a Spanishconsulate in Canada, if Canadian law so allowed; or in the last
resort by serviceeffectedthrough the Canadian authorities themseives.

82. It wascontended that serviceor publication in Canada would have
constituted an internationally impermissible act of imperiumcarried out
in foreign territory. But in fact such acts take place every day, and
constitute indeed the usual ways inwhich persons resident or domiciledin
one country are formally apprised of proceedings affecting them, in-
stituted in another country. Local publication, or serviceby post, at least,sont généralement peu lus si ce n'est par des personnes ayant une raison
particulière de le faire.l est d'ailleurs douteux qu'une publication dans
la presse puisse suffireen l'absence de toute autre mesure. Il devrait au
moins y avoir publication non seulement dans la presse locale, mais aussi

dans celle du pays ou de la ville où le failli résideou (s'il s'agit d'une
société)a son siège;il y a d'ailleurs lieude penser - encore que cepoint
n'aitjamais étédéfinitivement éclairci - que c'était bienlà en fait ceque
la loi espagnole elle-même prescrivait.
80. Quoi qu'il en soit, j'estime que, dans des circonstances comme
cellesdela présente espèce,même un peublication faite dans lesconditions
queje viensd'indiquer ne saurait suffire.Il faut qu'ily ait, sous une forme
ou sous une autre, notification judiciaire; or, ainsi qu'il est dit dans
l'exposé desfaits qui figure au début de l'arrêt dela Cour (par. 15),
iln'ya eu à l'époqueaucune notification de cettenature: il a fallu attendre
quinze ans, c'est-à-dire juin 1963, pour que la Barcelona Traction

obtienne, comme elle le demandait, une expédition du jugement de
faillite. Le motif donné danscejugement pour justifier que la publication
se fasse uniquement dans les Bulletinsofficielsde Tarragone et de Barce-
lone, savoir que le domicilede la sociétéétait ((inconnu»,est difficilement
conciliable avec lefait que l'adresse du siègedela société- «Head Office,
25 KingStreetWest,Toronto, Canada »-figurait dans un des principaux
documents que les requérants avaient fournis au juge de la faillite, avec
sa traduction en espagnol: il s'agitdes pièces3 et 3bisdu dossier, c'est-à-
dire du rapport du conseil d'administration de la sociétép , résentantson
bilan pour 1946,dont les chiffresont été citésàl'appui dela demande en
faillite (mémoire, annexes, vol.II, p. 258).

81. Mêmesila loi espagnole n'exigeait pasque des mesuresde publicité
fussent prises en pareil cas à Toronto (voir la fin du par. 79 ci-dessus),
elle ne l'interdisait certainement pas. En fait de telles mesuresde publicité
auraientététout à fait en accord avecles dispositions pertinentes de cette
loi et avaient déjàétéprises par les tribunaux espagnols dans d'autres
affaires, notamment dans les affaires Moncayo et Niel-on-Rupell, et
allaient l'êtrede nouveau dans une situation comparable un an plus
tard, dans l'affaire Namel, par le même jugequi s'occupait alors de la
faillite de la Barcelona Traction. On aurait pu à cet effet procéderd'au
moins trois ou quatre façons différentes:publication dans des journaux
de Toronto; lettre recommandée avec avis de réception; notification

personnelle par les soins d'un consulat d'Espagne au Canada, si la loi
canadienne lepermettait; ou en dernierressort notification par l'entremise
des autoritéscanadiennes elles-mêmes.
82. On a soutenu que la notification ou la publication au Canada
aurait étéun acte internationalement inadmissible d'imperiumaccompli
en territoire étranger. Mais de tels actes se produisent tous les jours
et constituent mêmela façon normale de porter formellement à la con-
naissance de personnes résidant ou domiciliéesdans un pays donnéles
actes de procédure quiles concernent dans un autre pays. La publication can involveno act of imperium;and the other forms of servicementioned
above have the actual concurrence, general or specific, of the local
authorities. The Spanish casescited in the preceding paragraph showthat
the Spanishcourts themselves,in other cases, made use of the method of
publication in foreign papers. The truth is that in the present case no
attempt to notify the Barcelona Company in Canada was made.

83. In my opinion this omission-and evenif it could have been the
result only of inadvertence or oversight-wasof such a character as to
vitiate the whole proceedings on the international plane, and to render

them void or inoperative ab initio. Relative to the Company, the pro-
ceedingswere never properly initiated at all. Consequently (recalling the
observations made in paragraph 75 above)-in the presence of a nullity,
the question of exhausting legal remedies did not arise.

THEPHILOSOPHY OFJOINDER TO THE MERITS

84. When, in the earlier (1964) phase of the present case, the Court
joined the third andfourth preliminary objections to the merits, it made
a number of observations both on the general philosophy ofjoinder as a
judicial act, and also as regards the particular reasons for effectingit on
that occasion (Z.C. Jeports 1964, pp. 41-46). On the present occasion
the Court has not thought it necessary to supplement these observations.
But 1 believe there are certain additional points that can usefully be

made-except however as regards the fourth preliminary objection, for it
was always clear that this objection, relating to the exhaustion of local
remedies, wasintimately connected with the ultimate issues of substance
involvedby the claim, and could not even beconsidered exceptin relation
to these,-and so could not be pronounced upon without in large measure
prejudging the merits-a situation that has generally been viewed as
eminently calling for ajoinder.

85. As regards the third preliminary objection, on which the Court's
present Judgment is mainly founded, the situation-though fullyex-
plained on pages 44-46 of the Report of the Court's earlier Judgment-
was perhaps not so obviously clear although, as was pointed out in that
Judgment, matters relating to the merits had been discussedin the written

and oral proceedings in that phase of the case, in connection with this
objection. It may therefore be desirable to point out that, apart from the
doubt (see loc. cit., pp. 44-45) whether the objection had an exclusivelylocale, et en tout cas la notification par voie postale, n'impliquent aucun
acte d'imperium; quant aux autres modes de notification mentionnés
plushaut, ilsont l'assentiment généraolu particulier des autoritéslocales.
Les décisions destribunaux espagnols citéesau paragraphe précédent
attestent que ces tribunaux eux-mêmesont eu recours dans d'autres
affaires à la publication dans des journaux étrangers. La vérité,c'est
que rien n'a été faitpour essayer d'aviser la Barcelona Traction au

Canada.
83. A mon avis, cette omission- même si elle n'estimputable qu'àune
inadvertance ou à un oubli - est de nature à vicier l'ensemble de la
procédure sur le plan international et à la rendre nulle ou inopérante
abinitia A l'égarddela sociétél,a procéduren'ajamais été , proprement
parler, engagée dans les formes. Par conséquent (et je renvoie aux
observations formuléesau par. 75 ci-dessus), étant donnécette nullité,
la question de l'épuisement desrecours internes ne se posait pas.

84. Lorsqu'elIe a joint au fond les troisième et quatrième exceptions

préliminairesdans la phase précédente(1964) de la présente affaire, la
Cour a formuléplusieurs observations portant aussi bien sur la concep-
tion généralede la jonction au fond en tant qu'acte judiciaire que sur
les raisons particulières'yprocéderen l'occurrence (C.I.J. Recueil 1964,
p. 41-46). La Cour n'a pas estimé nécessaire cette fois-ci d'ajouter quoi
que ce soit à ces observations. II me semble cependant qu'il y a lieu
d'énoncer certainesremarques complémentaires, saufen ce qui concerne
la quatrième exception préliminaire:il a toujours étéclair en effet que
cette exception, relative l'épuisementdes recours.internes, étaitintime-
ment liée auxproblèmes de fond essentiels soulevéspar la demande et
ne pouvait êtreprise en considération qu'en liaison avec ceux-ci,de
sorte qu'il n'était paspossible de la trancher sans préjuger dans une
large mesure le fond - situation qui estgénéralement considérée comme

étantéminemmentde celles qui appellent la jonction.

85. En ce qui concerne la troisième exception préliminaire,sur laquelle
le présent arrêtest principalement fondé - et malgréles explications
détaillées donnéea sux pages 44 à 46 du Recueil où figure l'arrêt anté-
rieur -, la situation n'était peut-être pas d'une clartéaussi évidente,
encore que, comme il est dit dans cet arrêt,des questions relatives au
fond eussent été abordéed sans les écritures etplaidoiries de la première
phase de l'affaire relatives cette exception. 11convient donc peut-être
de souligner que, indépendamment du doute existant (voir loc. cit.,preliminary character, and did not at least in part appertain to the merits,
the Court could not, without hearing the merits, regard itselfas adequate-
ly informed on what was evidently one of the key questions in the case,-
namely whether, in addition to the allegedinfringements of the Barcelona
Traction Company's rights, there had not also been infringements of the
specific rights, stricto sensu, of the shareholders, caused either by the
same acts ashad affectedthe Company, or by separate acts affectingonly
shareholdingrights as such. It was indeed this very point which, inter alia,
the Court had in mind in the two following passages from its earlier
Judgment, more than once cited or referred to in the course of the oral
pleadings in the present phase of the case, but which appear to have been
misunderstood to a certain extent, namely (I.C.J. Reports 1964,p. 44) :

"It can be asked whether international law recognizes for the
shareholders in a company a separate and independent right or
interest in respect of damage done to the company by a foreign
government; and if so to what extent and in what circumstances
and, in particular, whether those circumstances (if they exist)
would include those of the present case"

a3d (ibid., p. 45):

"In short, the question of thejus standi of a government to protect
the interests of shareholders as such, is itself merely a reflection, or
consequence, of the antecedent question of what is the juridical
situation in respect of shareholding interests, as recognized by inter-
national law."
86. These observations no doubt indicated that there could be share-
holding interests recognized and protected by law, which therefore

amounted to rights, and that there might be circumstances in which an
infringement of the company's rights would also infringe the separate
rights of the shareholders. But what the Court said in no sense war-
ranted the view that prejudice caused to the shareholders through illicit
damage done to the company, necessarily and of itself gave the former a
basis of claim which their government could legitimately put forward on
the international plane-this being, broadly speaking, the proposition
advanced on behalf of Belgium.
87. This matter was not the only one in respect of which a hearing of
the merits was necessary in order to enable the Court to deal with the
third preliminary objection,-for in addition to the question of the legal
status of shareholders and the nature of their rights and interests, this
objection also involved that of the nationality of those concerned. It was
contended by Spain, not only that in principle no claim at al1could be
made on behalf of shareholdinginterests in respect of damage caused, not p. 44-45) sur le point de savoir si l'exception avait un caractère exclusi-
vement préliminaireet ne relevait pas au moins en partie du fond, la
Cour ne pouvait sans entendre le fond se considérer commesuffisam-
ment éclairéesur ce qui était évidemment l'une des questions clésde
l'affaire: cellede savoir si, outre les atteintes alléguéesaux droits de la

Barcelona Traction, il n'y avait pas eu aussi des atteintes tel ou tel des
droits - au sens strict - appartenant aux actionnaires, par suite soit
des actes mêmesqui avaient léséla sociétésoit d'actes distincts lésant
uniquement des droits d'actionnaires entant que tels. C'estprécisémenc te
point que la Cour avait entre autres à l'esprit dans les deux passages ci-
après de son arrêtantérieur quiont étécitésou mentionnés à plusieurs
reprises au cours des plaidoiries dans la présentephase de l'affaire mais
ne paraissent pas avoir étéparfaitement compris, à savoir (C.I.J.
Recueil1964, p. 44):

KOn peut demander si le droit international reconnaît aux action-
naires d'une sociétée ,n cas de préjudice causé à cette sociétépar
un gouvernement étranger, un droit ou un intérêt distincts et indé-
pendants et, s'il en est ainsi, dans quelle mesure et dans quelles

circonstances; on peut notamment demander si de telles circons-
tances, à supposer qu'elles puissent exister,sont réuniesdans l'afi
faire actuelle.))
et (ibid.,p.45):

((Bref,la question de la qualitéd'un gouvernement pour protéger
les intérêts d'actionnaires entant que tels n'est elle-mêmequ'un
aspect ou une conséquencede la question préalable dela situation
juridique des actionnaires telle que le droit international la re-

connaît. ))
86. Ces observations montraient clairement qu'il pouvait exister des
intérêts d'actionnaires reconnus et protégésen droit et équivalantdonc
à des droits, ainsi que des circonstances dans lesquelles une atteinte

aux droits de la société léserait aussi ledsroits propres des actionnaires.
Mais elles n'autorisaient nullement à penser que le préjudicesubi par
les actionnaires du fait d'un dommage causé à la sociétépar un acte
illicite leur donnait nécessairementen soi un motif de réclamation que
leur gouvernement pût légitimement fairevaloir sur le plan international
- ce qui est plus ou moins la thèsedéveloppée par la Belgique.

87. Ce n'étaitpas là le seul point sur lequel un examen du fond s'im-
posait pour que la Cour pût se prononcer sur la troisième exception

préliminaire; en effet, outre la question du statut juridique des action-
naires et de la nature deleurs droits et intérêts, cetteexception soulevait
celle de la nationalité des intéressés.L'Espagne ne s'est pas bornée à
affirmer qu'en principe aucune réclamation ne pouvait être introduite
en faveur d'intérêtsd'actionnaires à raison d'un préjudice causé à la 112 BARCELONATRACTION(SEP. OP. FITZMAURICE)

to those interests as such, but to the company,-but also that, even if
such a claim could be made, these particular shareholding interests were
not really Belgian, or were not in Belgian hands at the material times.
The Court felt it necessaryto hear the merits in order to ensure that it was
sufficiently informed as to the character and relative weight of the in-
terests involved in the Barcelona Traction Company and its affiliates:
indeed it was not until the merits were reached (even if then) that al1the
facts were fully brought out regarding this matter; and it was in this
context, rather than that of the status of shareholders, that, according to
one current of opinion in the Court, the Belgianclaim should be regarded

as inadmissible.

88. There are other ways in which the implications of a joinder are
liable to be misunderstood-particularly if, as in the present case, the
objection is eventually upheld and the merits, though heard, are not
pronounced upon. There may be a tendency to assume that an inter-
national tribunal which effectsajoinder is already half-way to dismissing
the objection and will eventually do so and give a decision on the merits.
Even if the present case, and others before it, did not demonstrate the

unwarranted nature of such an assumption, this would result as a matter
of principle from the fact that if the assumption were correct, the whole
process ofjoining preliminary objections to the merits would be rendered
meaningless-a mere futile (and unjustified) postponement, not a genuine
suspension, ofjudgment on the objection.
89. Equally unjustified, as other cases show, is the opposite assump-
tion,-that a joinder indicates a favourable attitude to the objection on
the part of the tribunal concerned-a theory that only needs to be stated
for its implausibility to be manifest. There may indeed be cases in which,
on various grounds that seemgood to it, a tribunal will hesitate to take,
at the preliminary stage of a case, adecision the effectof which would be
permanently to shut out, then and there, al1possibility of a hearing and
decision on the merits. But, although the task of evaluating the factors

involved must be left to the tribunal concerned, adequate grounds for the
joinder must always exist,-for the process is one that can never be other
than a simple suspension ofjudgment on the objection, effected because
the tribunal, for one reason or anbther, considers that it cannot pro-
nounce upon it at that stage, consistently with giving their due weight to
al1the various aspects of the case,and to holding the scalesofjustice even
between the parties. Ajoinder can never be interpreted as foreshadowing
a conclusion already half arrived at.société et non à ces intérêten tant que tels; elle a aussi fait valoir qu'à
supposer une telleréclamationpossible lesintérêts d'actionnaires n'étaient
pas en l'espècevéritablementbelges ou encore que les actions n'étaient
pas entre des mains belges aux périodes critiques.La Cour a estiméné-
cessaire d'entendre plaider le fond pour avoir la certitude d'êtresuf-
fisamment renseignéesur le caractère et l'importance relative des inté-
rêts enjeu dans la Barcelona Traction et ses filiales; vrai dire, ce n'est

qu'au stade du fond que sur ce point tous les faits furent pleinement
mis au jour (si tant est qu'ils lefurent); et, selon l'une des tendances qui
se sont dégagées au sein de la Cour, c'est dans ce contexte plutôt qu'en
raison du statut des actionnaires que la demande belge doit êtretenue
pour irrecevable.

88. La portée d'une jonction au fond peut encore prêter a d'autres
malentendus - en particulier si le tribunal retient finalement l'excep-
tion et ne seprononce pas sur lefond bien qu'ill'aitlaisséplaider, comme
ce fut le cas en l'espèce.l existe peut-être une certaine tendancà sup-

poser qu'un tribunal international prononçant la jonction est déjà à
demi disposé à rejeter l'exception, qu'il le fera en fin de compte et qu'il
statuera sur le fond. Cependant, mêmesi la présenteaffaire et d'autres
avant elle ne démontraient pas la témérité d'une telle supposition, il
est clair que, si elle était enprincipe fondée,le mécanismede la jonction
au fond d'exceptions préliminairesperdrait tout son sens: ce serait
simplement un ajournement inutile (et injustifié)et non une suspension
véritablede la décisionsur l'exception.
89. Tout aussi peu justifiée, comme le montrent d'autres affaires,
est l'hypothèse inverse, à savoir que la jonction révèlede la part du
tribunal une attitude favorable à l'égard del'exception - théoriequ'il
suffit d'énoncerpour faire apparaître combien elle est peu plausible.

Il peut effectivementy avoir des cas où, pour divers motifs lui semblant
valables, un tribunal hésiterà prendre dans la phase préliminaired'une
affaire une décision dont l'effet serait d'exclure immédiatement et à
jamais toute possibilitéd'entendre le fond et de seprononcer sur celui-ci.
Mais, bien qu'il faille laisserau tribunal compétentle soin d'apprécier
les élémentsen jeu, la jonction au fond doit toujours reposer sur des
motifs valables, car elle ne peut en aucun cas êtreautre chose qu'un
sursis à statuer sur l'exception, décidéparce que, pour une raison ou
pour une autre, le tribunal ne croit pas être à mêmede se prononcer
sur l'exceptionà ce stade en accordant par ailleurs le poids voulu aux
divers aspects de l'affaireet en tenant la balance de la justice égaleentre
les parties. Une jonction ne peut jamais êtreinterprétée comme laissant

présagerune conclusion qui serait déjà à demi formée. 90. No less unwarranted would be any attempt to draw from the
upholding of a preliminary objection inferences as to what the attitude

of the tribunal was, or would have been, in regard to the substantive
merits of the claim. No such inferences-in whateversense-could
possibly be justified by reason of the fact that, on the basis simply of a
preliminary objection as such, the tribunal holds the claim to be inad-
missible.

1entirely approve of the initiative taken by the Court in paragraph 27
of the Judgment (and for the first time in a judgment *) of drawing at-

tention to the length of the proceedings in the present case,-so as to
indicate where the responsibility for this lies. If the parties in a litigation
before the Court think it necessary to take several years to prepare and
delivertheir written and oral arguments, that is their affair,-and, having
myself formerly, on a number of occasions, been in the same position,
1 can understand the reasons for it.
Strong objection exists however when the blame for such delays is
publicly ascribed to the supposed dilatoriness or procrastination of the

Court itself,-in evident ignorance, or else heedlessness, of the true
facts **.

Nor is this by any means the only way in which the Court has been
misrepresented in a manner detrimental to the dignity and good order of
its functioning as an independent judicial institution.

(Signed) G. G. FITZMAURICE.

* A previous Order of the Couras to time-limits in the present proceedings drew
at**nSome indication of the real facts will be found, for instance, in 14oonote
p. 447 of a review article contributby me to the Kansas Law Review, Vol. 13,
No. 3, March, 1965. Since this was written, periods requested by the parties have
grown to 4-5 years for the written proceedings, and 3-6 months for the oral hearing.
See also for a much more complete statement, Professor Leo Gross, "The Time
Element in Contentious Proceedings in theInternationalCouof Justice", American
Journalof InternationalLaw, 1969, Vol. 63, p. 74. 90. Il serait tout aussi excessifde vouloir tirer de l'acceptation d'une

exception préliminaire des conclusionsquant à l'attitude que le tribunal
a ou aurait adoptée surle fond de la demande. En soi, le fait que, sur la
seule base d'une exception préliminaireen tant que telle, le tribunal tient
la demande pour irrecevable ne saurait justifier aucune conclusion de
ce genre quelle qu'ensoit la teneur.

J'approuve tout à fait l'initiative qu'a prise la Cour au paragraphe 27
de l'arrêt(et pour la première foisdans un arrê* t) d'attirer l'attention
sur la longueur de la procéduredans la présente affaire, afin d'indiquer à
qui incombe la responsabilité.Si lespartie à une instancedevant la Cour
estiment nécessairede disposer de plusieurs annéespour rédigeret pré-
senter leur argumentation écriteet orale, cela est leur affaireet, m'étant
trouvémoi-même jadisdans la mêmesituation en nombre d'occasions,
je puis en comprendre les raisons.

Il y a toutefois lieu de protester énergiquementlorsque le blâme affé-
rent à de tels délaisest publiquement attribué à l'attitude prétendument
dilatoire et temporisatrice de la Cour elle-même - soit que l'on ignore
manifestement la réalité desfaits **,soit qu'on n'y prêtepas une atten-
tion suffisante.
Nous ne nous trouvons d'ailleurs pas ici dans la seule circonstance
oùla Cour a été présentéesous un jour faux, d'une manière préjudiciable
à sa dignitéet à son bon fonctionnement en tant qu'institution judiciaire

indépendante.
(Signé) G. G. FITZMAURICE.

* Une ordonndncede la Cour relative aux délaisen la présente instanaedéjà
mentionné la question.
** On trouvera certaines indications sur la réalité des faits, par exemple dans la
note 14, p. 447, de mon article publié dans le Kansas Law Review, vol. 13, no 3,
mars 1965. Depuis la parution de cet article, les délais sollicitéspar les Parties ont
les plaidoiries. Voir également,pour un exposébeaucoup plus complet, LéoGross:r
((The Time Element in Contentious Proceedings in the International Courtof
Justic)]American Journalof InternationalLaw, 1969, vol. 63, p. 74.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice

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