Separate Opinion of Judge de Castro (translation)

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055-19740725-JUD-01-06-EN
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055-19740725-JUD-01-00-EN
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SEPARA'TE OPINION OF JUDGE DE CASTRO

[Translation]

1have voted witlhthe majority, but do not consider that I can wholly

subscribe to the reasoning in the Judgment. 1 therefore venture, in
exercise of the right conferred on me by the Statute, to set out in detail
the reasons for my vote.

1. The 1961Agreement

The Exchange OFNotes of II March 1961 underlies the whole case;
the compromissory clausecontained therein constitutes the source of the
Court's jurisdictiori (Judgment of 2 February 1973). It is necessary to
interpret its content in order to ascertain the intentions of the parties,
which is the first factor to be taken into account by the Court.
The Exchange of Notes took place at a time when the law of the sea
was undergoing a crisis in its development, and it is in this context that
itshould be considered and then interpreted 1.

On 5 April 1948the Althing adopted the "Law Concerning the Scien-
tific Conservation of the Continental Shelf Fisheries", and by a decree
of 30 June 1958,Iceland's fisheries limits were extended to a distance of
12miles. The United Kingdom challenged the validity of this action and
there ensued serious incidents and lengthy negotiations. It was during
this period that the Resolution of the Althing of 5 May 1959was passed
and the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea was held in
1960. Finally, following talks in London and Reykjavik, the dispute was
settled by the Exchalngeof Notes of 11March 1961.The United Kingdom

Government accepted Iceland's unilateral declaration of 1958 stating
that it "will no longer object to a 12-milefisheryzone around Iceland".

This acceptance by the United Kingdom was explained in a letter from
Her Britannic Majeçty'sAmbassador to the Foreign Minister of lceland as
being "in viewof the exceptional dependence of the Icelandic nation upon
coastal fishery for tlheirlivelihood and economic development". Iceland's

- -- -
1 On the relationship between the Icelandic claims and the developmoftthe law
of the sea, see section III. FISHERIES JURISDICTION (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 73

special interest in the fisheries of its coastal waters was thus recognized1

The United Kingdom accepted a 12-mile zone, but only because of
Iceland's specisl interest in the adjacent seas. Iceland for its part regarded
the 12-mile limit as provisional and did not accept it as the maximum

and permanent limit.
The United Kingdom conceded that the following reservation should
be inserted in the Agreement:

"The Icelandic Government will continue to work for the im-
plementation of the Althing resolution of 5 May 1959, regarding the
extension of fisheries jurisdiction around Iceland."

The Icelandic Government thus reserved the power to extend its
fisheries jurisdictiori at will, subject to certain conditions or more pre-
cisely to certain restrictions, namely those set out in the agreement; that

six months' notice be given of any decision to that effect and that any
dispute which might arise over any such extension be referred to the
Court at the request of either Party. Additionally there was an implied
restriction that the purpose of any extension would be to implement the
Althing resolution of 5 May 1959.

In its resolutionof 5 May 1959,the Althing had declared that
". . .recognition should be obtained of Iceland's right to the entire

continental shelf area in conforniity with the policy adopted by the
Law of 1948concerning the Scientific Conservation of the Continen-
tal Shelf Fisheries".

Thus the Law of 1948 enables the true scope of Iceland's reservation
in its 1961 Notes to be ascertained. Its purpose was identical to its title:
irs direct object was the establishment of "conservation zones" within
the limits of the I(:elandic continental shelf; but, in accordance with
progressive thinking which was already widespread at the time, the Law

went on to lay down that in the said zones "al1 fisheries shall be subject
to Icelandic rules arid control" (Art. 1).
The statement OF reasons for the Law mentioned Iceland's special
interests and declarizd that:

"It is well-known that the economy of Iceland depends almost
entirely on fishing in the vicinity of its coasts. For this reason, the
population of lceland has followed the progressive impoverishment
of fishing grounds with anxiety."

It also referred to the new trends in the law of the sea, especially the

1 This special intere5,t of Iceland was recognized by the Court in the Order of 17
August 1972 (I.C.J. Report1972,pp. 16 and 17) and in its Judgment of 2 February
1973 (I.C.J. Report1973,p. 20).growing recognition by countries which engage in fishing mainly in the
vicinity of their own coasts, of the right of coastal States to ensure the
protection of fishing grounds in accordance with the findings of scientific
research. The "connmentary on Article 1" explained that it provided
for:

". . . the delimitation of the waters within which the measures of
protection and prohibition of fishing should be applied, i.e., the
waters which are deemed not to extend beyond the continental
shelf; and, on the other hand, the measures of protection and

prohibition of :Fishingwhich should be applied in these waters".
On the question of the sovereignty of States over fishing grounds in the
vicinity of their coasts, the statement of reasons was not categorical,

merely stating that:
"It would appear, however, to be more natural to follow the

example of those States which have determined the limit of their
fisheries jurisdiiction in accordance with the contour of the con-
tinental shelf along their coasts. The continental shelf of Iceland is
very clearly distinguishable, and it is therefore natural to take it as a
basis. This is the reason why this resolution has been adopted in the
present draft law."

Under Article 2of the Law:

"The regulations promulgated under Article 1 of the present law
shall be enforced only to the extent compatible with agreements with
other countries to which Iceland is or may become a party."

These texts may be seen as reflecting, to a moderate extent, the so-called
progressive movement, initiated by President Truman's Proclamations,
and expressed in the trends towards a renewal of the law of the sea

relating to fisheries which have resulted from the legislation and the
doctrines of Latin Pimerican countries.
It seems to me that according to the text of the Law of 1948and of the
explanations given in the statement of reasons for the Law, the Icelandic
reservation of 1961 should be interpreted as a solemn declaration of its
intention to extend its fisheries zone in the future and to do so unilaterally,
by reason of the special interests and especially the preferential rights of

Iceland within the limits of its continental shelf, such a reserved right of
extension to be enforced in so far as was compatible with such agree-
ments as Iceland might conclude with other countries.

It should be noted that in 1948 the Icelandic Government proceeded
with caution; it did indeed claim to subject the zone superjacent to the

continental shelf tolitsrules and controls, but it did so because it saw such
areas as "conservation zones". Therefore, the reservation made in the
Exchange of Notes of 1961 in respect of the intentions expressed in the Althing Resolution of 1959-which in turn referred to the Law of 1948-
is to be interpreted not as a reservation of a right to claim exclusive
fishing rights within the limits of the Icelandic continental shelf, but as
a reservation of the right to claim preferential rights by reason of Iceland's
special interests.

2. The 1972 Althing Resolution

The Althing Resolution of 1972asserted that the continental shelf of

Iceland and the superjacent waters were within the jurisdiction of Iceland
and provided that thiefishery limits would be extended to 50 miles from
baselines around the country (para. 1). The extension effected by this
Resolution is the cause of the dispute now before the Court. The Resolu-
tion, however, merits detailed consideration.
Paragraph 2 states:

"That the Governments of the United Kingdom and the Federal
Republic of Ge:rmany be again informed that because of the vital
interests of the nation and owing to changed circumstances the
Notes concerning fishery limits exchanged in 1961 are no longer
applicable and that their provisions do not constitute an obligation
for Iceland."

The Court has adjudged and declared that the Notes of 1961are still
in force so far as concerns the compromissory clause (Judgment of 2
February 1973).In tihat respect, the Althing Resolution was considered
to beof no effect. For reasons similar to those set out in the said Judgment
(paras. 36 et seq.)arid in the light of the principles enshrined in Article
42 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, it is quite clear that
Iceland does not havt: the right to declare unilaterally that the agreement

made in 1961no longer constitutes an obligation for it.
The Court could confii-ieitself to saying that the Althing Resolution,
proclaiming the lapse of the 1961 Notes, was void and ineffective. But
the other paragraphs of that Resolution should be considered indepen-
dently (duae .surit..stipulationes, uriautilis, alia inutilis, neque ritiatur utilis
per hanc inutilem, D.45.1.1, para. 5), and in relation to the 1961Notes
in auestion.
Paragraph 1 is no more than the implementation of what had been
announced in 1961, i.e., the extension of Iceland's jurisdiction over the
whole continental shr:lf area. It now describes the Law of 1948 as the
"fundamental policy of the Icelandic people" 1.The aim of the Resolution

and that of the 1948 Law were in fact the same, i.e., "to strengthen the
measures of protection essential to safeguard the vital interests of the
Icelandic people in the sea surrounding its coasts" and to prevent al1that

1 It should be noted tha.t Article 7 of the Icelandic Regulations of 14 July 1972states
that: "these regulations are promulgated in accordance with Law No. 44 of 5 April
1948, concerning the scieritific conservation of the continental shelf fisheries."

76 FISHERIES JURISDICTION (SEP.OP.DE CASTRO) 76

was "harmful to the maintenance of the resources of the sea on which
the livelihood of the Icelandic people depends" (Government of Iceland's
aide-mémoire of31 August 1971).
If the decree of 30June 1958is borne in mind, the 1972Resolution can
be considered as the adoption of a position in viewof future negotiations,
the aim being to adiapt Iceland's jurisdiction to the new trends in the
law of the sea and to take advantage of a freshcrisis in the development
of that law. The dernand for a zone of exclusivejurisdiction (cf. above
aide-mémoire) was formulated in most moderate terms. The 1972
Resolution pointed out that:

". ..efforts to reach a solution of the problems connected with the
extension [will] be continued through discussions with the Govern-
ments of the United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Ger-
many '" (para. .3).

In those discussions, the Icelandic representatives emphasized the
importance of a positive reaction from the Britishide to a point regarded
as fundamental: "recognition of preferential rights for Icelandic vessels
as to fishing outside the 12-mile limit." (Government of Iceland's Note
of 11August 1972.)

3. The 1973Agreement between the United Kingdom and Iceland

The Court has been informed of the Exchange of Notes constituting
an interim agreement on fisheries between the Government of the
United Kingdom and the Government of the Republic of Iceland, dated
13November 1973.
This agreement deprives of effect as between the Parties the Orders of
the Court made on 17August 1972and 12July 1973,indicating interim

measures. It establislies a temporary régime valid for a period of two
years. The agreement is temporary "pending a settlement of the sub-
stantive dispute". It is also stated that "its termination will not affect the
legal position of either Government with respect to the substantive
dispute" (para. 7).
The Court may wonder whether the effect of the 1973 agreement is
only to replace the interim measures laid down in the Orders of the Court
by the Exchange of Notes. It seems to me that this agreement has a wider
and more general scope which should be examined.
On that same date, 13 November 1973, the United Kingdom Prime
Minister said in the H[ouseof Commons, in reply to Mr. Harold Wilson:

"Our position at the World Court remains exactly as it is, and the
agreement is without prejudice to the case of either country in this
matter. This is an interim agreement covering two years from the

1 This statement, which appears in the middle of the Resolution, seems to me to be
highly significant; problems which the 1961 Exchange of Notes made it possible to
bring before the Court are referred to negotiation. moment of signature this afternoon, in the expectation that the
Conference on the Law of the Sea will be able to reach firm con-

clusions. We al1know the difficulties facing a conference on the law
of the sea, but both Governments hope that it will have been possible
by the expiration of this agreement to reach agreement on the law
of the sea and that that will then govern the situation."

TheCourt cannot ignore the terms of this agreement and the interpreta-
tion, given in the House of Commons, of its aims and intentions. It is
thus placed in an en~barrassing position.
As a result of this agreement, the Court's judgment on the merits of

the case will have no immediate effect. It has been subjected by the Parties
to a waiting period of two years and to two conditions,the first concerning
a settlement of the dispute by a new agreement and the second relating
to an agreement at the Conference on the Law of the Sea. All this is
irregular and hardly in keeping with what seems to be the function of the

Court.
This agreement also shows that the Parties do not believe that the
Court will be able to settle their dispute. They have found a solution to
certain issues referred to the Court, albeit for a period of two years only.
This agreement is ;in interim one, but it was concluded "pending a
settlement of the substantive dispute". Now the settlement which the

Parties say they are: waiting for is not that which may result from a
judgment of the Court. This is obvious, in view of the attitude of Iceland,
which continues to cieny that the Court has jurisdiction. The hope of the
Parties that they will be able to reach a definite settlement is based on
negotiations now in progress, whether or not they are carried on with
the Conference on the Law of the Sea in view.

Does the announcement of these negotiations justify suspending the
proceedings? It is tirue that peaceful settlement of disputes should be
brought about abovlr al1 by means of negotiation. The Court is open to
States to settle issuesof a legal nature which they may refer to it, but a
dispute is ripe for reference to the Court, when negotiations between
the parties reach deadlock and when the success of the negotiations has

definitively been ruled out as a result of anon i'olumusor a non possumus
of the parties.1do not know of any precedent which might help to answer
this question; in my opinion, once proceedings have been initiated, there
is no way of suspending them, and they should continue unless the case
is settled out of court or discontinued.
The agreement constitutes avaluable argument in favour of cautious

solutions. It shows tlhat the readiness expressed by lceland in the 1972
Resolution to seek ;i solution of the problems connected with the ex-
tension through discussions was not an empty formula. It also shows
that a judgment of the Court, delivered before the Parties reach a
settlement through negotiations on the substance of the dispute, and
drawn up without taking into consideration the indicative value ofthe agreement, could be an insurmountable obstacle to a negotiated

settlement of the dispute-and that would be contrary to the essential
purpose of the Couirt which is to contribute to the peaceful settlement
of disputes.

II. THEBURDEN OF PROOF

A preliminary question which arises is that of the burden of proof.
The United Kingdom Memorial on the merits asserted that "the burden
of proving that inteirnational law now recognizes the right of a coastal
State to make such ainexclusiveclaim as Iceland isnow making rests upon

Iceland". In support of this assertion, it stated that the Exchange of
Notes of 1961represented the law as it then existed, and that the conclu-
sion to be drawn therefrom was that "an assertion of exclusive juris-
diction over fisheries beyond 12 miles is not permissible by unilateral
act". It added that Iceland must furnish convincing proof before such
long-established rights could be set aside (para. 229) 1.
The Memorial on the merits of the Federal Republic of Germany
argued that :

"It is Iceland, not the Federal Republic of Germany, which is
challenging the established iaw, and it is for this reason that the
Government of the Federal Republic maintains that the burden of
proof that international law now recognizes the right of a coastal
State to extend litsjurisdiction beyond the 12-milelimit, rests upon
Iceland." (Part IV, para. 60; see also para. 66.)

In my opinion, thi:~line of argument rests on incorrect premises.
It is begging the question to Saythat the law as it existed, the "estab-
lished law", prohibited States from extending their fisheriesjurisdiction
beyond 12 miles. Al1that one can say is that around 1961 there was a
trend in favour of the:12-milerule. But the question still remains for con-

sideration whether oirnot this rule fulfilled the conditions necessary for
it to be regarded as arule of customary law.

Itis not permissibileto refer to rights as being definitively and firmly
vested rights in 1961;the Exchange of Notes of 1961contained an express
reservation whereby the Government of Iceland proclaimed its intention
to work for the extension of its fisheries jurisdiction beyond 12 miles,
such reservation being accepted by the other Party. The said rights were
therefore conditional vested rights.
The question raised by the Applicant regarding the burden of proof
seems to me to be an unreal question, calling for a different reply de-

pending on who puts it. The Applicant believes that Iceland has claimed

1 In this sense, cf. Katz, "Issues Arising in the Icelandic Fisheries Case", Inter-
national and Comparative Law Quarterly, XXII-1 (January19p.95. FISHERIESJURISDICTION(SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 79

the right to extend its fisheriesjurisdiction beyond 12 miles and should
provide evidence of the law under which it is entitled to extend its
jurisdiction beyond 12miles and up to 50 miles. From Iceland's point of
view, it is the United Kingdom which has claimed the right to over-rule
Iceland's resolution, as being contrary to international law; it is therefore
for the United Kingdom to provide evidence of the law limiting Iceland's

sovereignty.
The question is t:he same, but is put from different standpoints. The
proof to be sought is that of the substantive law to be applied in this
case, a law which is the same for both parties although considered from
two different points of view 1.
The question should also be asked whether customary international

law has to be prove:d.This question has arisen in the municipal law of
States where customs are considered as giving rise to a quaestiofacti, but
the customs referre~dto are those peculiar to regions, places or groups
of persons (businessmen, farmers, etc.). The question arises in inter-
national law in a wholly different way.
A distinction shoiuldbe observed between two categories of customs.
Traditionally jurists and canonists have distinguished in ordinary law

between notorious customs wellknown to al1and particular customs; the
latter, being exceptions, had to be proved. This is also the case in English
law, under which there are two kinds of customs: "general customs"
which apply throughout the Kingdom and "particular customs" appli-
cable to the inhabitants of certain regions. The particular customs had to
be proved, while the:general customs did not,-they were the "common

law" 2.
International customary law does not need to be proved; it is of a
general nature and is based on a general conviction of its validity (opinio
iuris). The Court rriust apply it ex officio; it is its duty to know it as
quaestio iuris: iura riovit curia 3.Only regional customs or practices, as
wellas special custorns, have to be proved 4.

1 1think that this is confirmedby the inconclusive discussions in the United King-
dom v. Norway Fisheries case and by the considered views on the matter of Lauter-
pacht, The Development of International Law by the International Court (London,
1958, pp. 363, 365).
2 Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, Introduction, para. 3, 4th
ed3,ln the Lotus case the Court raised thequestion whether Turkey had acted in a
rnannercontrary to the:principles of international law (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 10
(1928), p. 32); in the Eisheries case between the United Kingdorn and Norway, the
Courtconsideredthe qut:stionwhetherNorway's actionswerecontraryto international
law (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 132). The question of the law to be applied was therefore
not considered in theterrnsof the view of the Applicant in these cases, and thereis no
reasonto adopt a differentcoursein the case now beforethe Court.
4 I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 276.

80 III. THEDEVELOPMEN OT THE LAW OF THE SEA

1. The Court has said that the delimitation of sea areas depends upon

international law (,I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 132). What are the rules of
international law to be applied to the delimitation made by Iceland?
The existence of such rules has been denied by the Icelandic Prime
Minister in a speech, in which he said:
"1 cannot see:that our proposed extension of fisheriesjurisdiction

is contrary to any accepted international law. It is a fact that there
are no generally accepted rules in international law on the territorial
limit." (Iceland and the Law of the Sea, 1972, p. 31, quoted in the
Memorial on the merits of the Federal Republic of Germany, Part
IV, p. 96, para.58.)

The terms used are of a polemical nature; they corne from one of the
Parties to the disputla.But it has also been possible to make the following
objective comment:
". .. in plain words, the really grave issue is not what breadth is

presently accepted, but whether the issue isgoverned by international
law at al11".
In my opinion, the changes, the increasingly rapid development of
technical conditions for the exploitation of the resources of the sea have
resulted in a visible lagging behind of the oldrules; there is a crisis in the

law of the sea, but t.hat should not stand in the way of the search for a
just legal solution of this case.think it would be useful to examine this
development before considering the law to be applied. 1do not propose
to repeat here the well-known history of the law of the sea, but only to
restate what may be useful to arrive at what 1 consider the necessary
clarification of some points in order to justify my opinion on the law
to be applied.
2. The opposition between the theses of mare liberum and mare
clausumis of a purel:ypolitical nature; it reflectsthe need to counter, with
arguments of every kind, the claims to hegemony of the maritime powers;

itis the struggle for the domain or empire of the sea.
"The question.. . has been a subject for debate in our day by the
most distinguished minds. In connexion with this question it has
been easy to observe that many of the disputants hold their zeal for

their own country before their eyes rather than the truth 2."
On the other hantl, the delimitation of sea areas is considered from a
legal point of view when it concerns the question of mare adjacens.The

1 Brownlie,Principles of InfernationalLaw, 2nd ed., Oxford, 1973, p. 196.

2Pufendorf, De jure!naturae et genfium, translatedfrom the Latinby C. H. and
W. A. Oldfather,CarneirieInstitute, 1934,IV, 5, 5.

81glossator, and then the commentary of Baldo on D, 1, 8, 2, had already
generalized among jurists the distinction between proprietas, usus,juris-

dictio autprotectio.
The high seas, reircommunisomnium, is not something that lends itself
to ownership; its use is common to everybody, and this applies also to
fishing. The sea uriquamfuit a communiorie hominum separatum, and
unlike land and rivers, there is no reason to divide it up; fish stocks in the

sea are inexhaustible and it would be iniquitous to divide up ownership
in them or the right to fishfor them (iniquanul10temporepraescribuntur) 1.
The mare adjacens is subject to the jurisdictio et protectio of the ruler
of the territory. Over that area the potestas of the master of the coast is
recognized without difficulty 2. Its foundation is the fact that the adjacent

sea is necessary to the defence of the territory itself; the coastal zone has
the same value as a moat 3 or a rampart 4.
Once jurisdictio over the adjacent sea has been recognized, there is no
difficulty in extending it to fisheries, with the possibility of excluding
foreign vessels from that area, or of demanding tribute for permission

to fishthere 5. The \ilidth of the area ofjurisdiction or imperium isjustified
by the defence needs of the territory. It was fixed according to the range
of cannon 6, of the riaked eye,of binoculars, or else in miles. The number
of miles varied according to countries and writers, from the 60 miles
attributed to Baldo ,downto three or four miles. The thinking of the 18th

century has been suimmedup as follows:
"It is not easy to determine just what extent of its marginal waters

a nation may bi-ingwithin itsjurisdiction. Bodin (De la République,
Liv. 1, chap. X) claims that, following the common rule of al1
maritime nations 7, the sovereignty of the Prince extends as far as
30 leagues from the shore. But this precise determination could only
be based upon a general consent of nations, which it would be

1 Grotius, Mare liberum sive de iure, quod Batavis competit ad Indicana commercia,
dissertatio,d. de H. Ciscceius,Lausannae, 1752, IV,p. 469.
2Grotius recognizedthat the imperium in maris portionem could exist by reason of
the territory,quatenus e.wterra cogi possunt, qui in proxima maris parte versantur, nec
minus quam si in ipsa terra reperirentur. De iure Belli ac Pacis, II, 3. 13, 2, ed. Am-
stelaedami, 1735, 1, p. 238.
3 Unde dominium maris proximi non ultra concedimus, quam e terra illi imperari
potest, et tamen eo usque; nulla si quidem sit ratio, cur mare, quod in alicujus inlperio est
et potestare, minus ejusd'emesse dicamus, quamfossam in ejus territorio, Bynkershoek,
De dominio maris dissertatio, chap. II, Opera omnia, Ed. Coloniae Allobrogum, 1761,
II, p. 103.
4 Every country ". . is deemed to be the master of the sea which washes its coast
as far asitservesit as a rampart".Pufendorf,loc. cit., IV, 5, para.8. II, p. 276.
5 Onthisquestion,seeCocceiusinhiscommentaryto Grotius'De iure Belli ac Pacis,
ed. Lausannae, 1751,II,p. 143. On the"SardineWar",see Johnston, The Infernational
Law of Fisheries, 1965p. 169.
6 Potestatem terrae fitriri, ubifinitur armorum vis, Bynkershoek,loc. p.101.
7 Barbeyraccomments that Bodin (1,ch. 80, ult.) agreedwith Baldo that in the Law
of Nations thejurisdictionof a princeextends to a distanceof 60 miles from the shores
of his territory,Notes to Pufendorf,loc. cit., p. 276, Note 7.
82 difficult to prove. Each State may regulate as it thinks best the use
of those waters as far as the affairs of its citizens, either with one
another or with the Sovereign, are concerned; but between nation
and nation the most reasonable rule that can be laid down is that
in general the sovereignty of a State over its marginal waters extends
as far as is nece:ssaryfor its safety and as far as it can be effectively
maintained; because on the one hand a nation may appropriate only
so much of conlmon property, like the sea, as it has need for some
lawful end .. .lu

3. This concept, vdhichcould be called the classical concept, and which
predominated until the middle of this century, is no more than the
development of ancient principles. Sovereignty over land is considered
toextend to the sea tlominated by that land; this marine belt is equivalent
to a territorial sea. The imperium over the adjacent sea gives rights to
and imposes obligat.ions on a State; these are of great variety (neutrality,

prize, contraband, customs, lighthouses, etc.) and they include in parti-
cular exclusive fishirigrights.
In practice the difliculty to be overcome has been to reach an agreement
fixing the maximum distance in miles beyond which States are no longer
allowed to extend unilaterally their fisheries jurisdiction. Has any such
rule, ranking as an international custom, crystallized?

From the 18th century up to the Second World War the question of
the limits of fishing zones did not give rise to serious problems. it was
possible to say that. the law of the sea was a mode1 of stability in the

international community. The draft regulations concerning the territorial
sea in time of peace, prepared by the lnstitute of International Law at
its Stockholm session in 1928, well reflected the general opinion: "The
territorial sea exten,dsfor three sea miles. An international custom may
justify recognition of a greater or lesser breadth than three miles 2."

4. The Declaration of Panama of 3 October 1939has been regarded as
the first symptom of a withdrawal from the so-called classic conception
of the law of the sea. Twenty-nine nations, under the aegis of the United
States, established a.neutral zone beyond the 'territorial sea, extending in

some places as far as 300miles.
The origin of the crisis in the law of the sea with regard to fisheries is
to be found in the proclamations by President Truman (28 September
1945). The old priinciple of the division of the sea into two zones, the
territorial sea and the high seas or free seas, which had up till then been
regarded as dogma., was called in question or abandoned. A new zone,
that of the continental shelf, was now recognized. In that zone, the coastal

1 Vattel, TheLaw of Nations, 1, ch. 23, para. 289, transG.CFenwick, Carnegie
Institute, Classics of International La108..
2 Annuairede l'Institut de Droit international,1928, p. 755.State has rights of exploitation of the natural resources of the sea-bed
and subsoil (the proclamations of President Truman only contemplated
the mineral resourcles of the shelf). There was also to be another zone
beyond the territorial sea, that of the superjacent epi-continental waters,
considered as sources of biological wealth; this was a zone over which
the right to estab1is.hreserved areas for the protection and conservation
of fisheries was asserted 1.

The ideas enunciiited by President Truman in his proclamations had
consequences unforeseen by their author. Their success is not to be
explained solely by the political weight of the United States; it was
justified by the changes which had occurred in the techniques of exploita-
tion of the sea-bed and fisheries. The theoretical basis of freedom of
fishing in the high iseas(the zone outside the territorial sea), argued by
Grotius and followed by general opinion, had become unsound. The
inexhaustibility of fsheries proved to be an illusion. The new methods

of fishing made it necessary to take steps for the conservation of the living
resources of the higlhseas.
Thus new concepts entered international practice, marking "a reversa1
of the traditional ideas on the liberty of the high seas" and principles
were stated of "a new theory which was soon to throw international law
into confusion, by provoking ever bolder initiatives 2". The Truman
Proclamations were subject to carefully drafted limits and reservations,
taking account of the interests of the States engaged in fishing in the

high seas, but they opened new prospects to learned speculation, and
afforded States pla.usible grounds for enlarging their zones of fishery
jurisdiction.

The special nature of the continental shelf once accepted, it should be
observed that it is neither easy nor natural to separate the legal status
of thevariouselements composingit, sincethey are closelylinked together.

It would seem artificial to make a distinction between mineral resources
and living resourceis. De Buen proposed as early as 1916(at the Madrid
Conference) theincorporation of the continental platform in the territorial
sea, as being the area most propitious to the development of edible
species of fish, and the most favourable fishingground.
Thus the difficu1i;yof defining the boundaries and the structure of the
continental platform-and the difficulty resulting from the existence of
coasts practically without a continental shelf-was to lead to the sub-
stitution, for geological, bathymetrical and geographical criteria, of the

simplified concept of an epi-continental zone established by each State
beyond its territorial sea, and varying in the extent.
5. Another trenclfavouring the enlargement of the fishery zone flowed

1 Spanish and South American precedentsare quoted in Rojahn,Die Ansprüche der
lateinamerikanischen 2itaaten auf Fischereivorrechte jenseits der Zwolfmeilengrenze,
Hamburg, 1972, pp. 1'7-19;but they do not seem to have had any influence.
2 Ferron, Le droit ir;~ternutloela mer,Paris 1960, Vol. II, p. 141.from the fact that the idea of protection and conservation of fisheries
grew into the idea ofjurisdiction in that connection over an area extending
beyond the territorial sea. Once the jurisdiction of the coastal State to
safeguard the conservation of fish stocks was recognized, the special
interests of the inhabitants of that country constituted a basis for the
establishment of pre:ferential or exclusive rights over that zone in favour
of that State.

For one or other of these reasons, the fact is that following the Truman
Proclamations, there was a sort of chain reaction consisting of a series
of declarations in :Faveurof extension of the fisheries jurisdiction of
States.
On 29 October 1!345,Mexico declared that it claimed the whole area
of the continental platform adjacent to its coasts and al1 the natural

resources, kxiownor unknown, to be found therein. On 11October 1946,
Argentina declared that the epi-continental sea and the Argentinian
continental shelf were subject to national sovereignty. On 1 May 1947,
Nicaragua asserted sovereignty over the contiguous area of the high seas
or the waters of the:continental shelf, up to 200 miles from the Coast 1.
It should be observed that it is in this historical perspective, and against
the background of the trend flowing from the Truman Proclamations

that the Icelandic Law of 1948concerning the scientific conservation of
the continental shelf fislieriesshould be placed and also interpreted.
The current legal revolution is in the course of being established thanks
to the Santiago Declaration of 18August 1952,and the principles adopted
at the 3rd Meeting of the Inter-American Conference of Legal Advisers
held in Mexico in 1956,as well as at other conferences and meetings of
Latin American laa~yers.

The claiming of exclusivejurisdiction over fisheries or of preferential
rights over wider and wider zones-6 sea miles, 12 sea miles, and even
200 sea miles-and the claim by coastal States to settle unilaterally their
fishery jurisdiction, have naturally led to alarm among the countries
interested in high sea fishing.
6. In order to put an end to such dangerous uncertainties, the Inter-
national Law ~omrnission in 1949included the law of the sea among the

subjects to be studlied with a view to codification. In the third draft
prepared by the Commission for the United Nations Conference on the
Law of the Sea, the 12-mile rule was laid down as a compromise formula.
The Commission recognized that international practice was not uniform
-- .- -.
1 On the legislative acts and declarations made at the time by Panama, Peru, Costa
Rica, Nicaragua, Honcluras, El Salvador, Brazil, Ecuador and Venezuela, see Alvarez,
Los nuevos principios del derecho del mar, Montevideo 1961, pp. 21 ff. and Ferron, op.
cir., pp. 157R. On the doctrine of Latin American authors prior to 1961(Bustamante y
Rivero, Ulloa, Garcia Montufar, Garcia Sayan) see Rojahn, Die Ansprüche, p. 144.

these nations felt to bi: a failure of international mechanisms to respond to fisheries
crises": Jacobson, "Bridging the Gap to International Fisheries Agreement: a guide
for unilateral action"The San Diego Law Review, Vol. 9, No. 3,May 1972, p. 465.with regard to the delimitation, and added: "The Commission considers
that international law does not permit an extension of the territorial sea
beyond 12miles 1.''
The 1958Conference showed the difficulty of reaching any consensus.
The International Law Commission draft, which would have set a maxi-
mum limit to the extension of the territorial sea, was blocked. The 12-
mile rule was acceptable neither to the countries who wished to keep the

3-mile rule nor to thiosewho wished the possibility of a greater extension
to be recognized.
Each of the opposing tendencies at the Conference could boast of
certain resolutions in its favour. The conservative trend succeeded in
having freedom of fishing included in the Convention on the High Seas
as one of the four freedoms of the high seas; the high seas were there
defined as meaning al1 parts of the sea that are not included in the
territorialsea. The Convention on the Continental Shelf lays down that
the rights of the coa,stalState over the continental shelf do not affect the
legal atatus of the superjacent waters as high seas; in the definition of
natural resources, mer which the coastal State has sovereign rights,
wereincluded, in addition to mineral resources, livingorganismsbelonging
to sedentary species, and only those organisms.
The innovating trend could also boast of a certain measure of success.

The Convention on Fishing and the Conservation of the Living Resources
of the High Seas recognized that the coastal State has a special interest
in the maintenance of the productivity of the living resources in any
area of the high seas adjacent to its territorial sea, which in certain
circumstances entitles it to adopt unilateral measures of conservation.
The Conference Resolution on Special Situations relating to Coastal
Fisheries recommended taking account of the "preferential requirements
of the coastal State resulting from its [economic] dependence upon the
fishery" where it belromes necessary "to limit the total catch of the stock
or stocks of fish in an area of the high seas adjacent to the territorial
sea".
The Conference left unsolved the two most important questions,
namely that of the inaximum extension of the territorial sea, and that of
the extension of the:adjacent zone subject to the fisheriesjurisdiction of

the coastal State.
It was in the cliniate of uncertainty and conflict of trends experienced
during the 1958 Conference that Iceland issued the decree of 30 June
1958extending its fishing zone to 12miles.
The Second Conference on the Law of the Sea (Geneva 1960) was
called to settle theluestionof the breadth of the territorial sea and of the
limits of fisheries zones; it was however a failure. But the 12-mile rule
made marked progress.
It is true that the proposal to limit the breadth of the territorial sea to
a maximum of 12 miles was rejected in committee (by 39 votes to 36,

1 Yearbook of the InternationalLaw Commission, 1956, Vol. II, p. 265.

86with 13 abstentions), but the compromise proposal made by the United
States and Canada, contemplating a zone of territorial sea of 6 miles
and a zone of excliisive fisheries jurisdiction of 6 miles, voted on at a
plenary session, failed to be adopted by one vote, one additional vote
being necessary for the text to receive a two-thirds majority (54 votes in
favour, 28 against, and 5 abstentions) 1.

7. It should be observed that there are different understandings of the
12-milerule both arnong States and among writers. By some it has been
regarded as a brake on the pressure of new States anxious to extend still
further their fisheriesjurisdiction; for them it is the maximum permitted
extension. By other States it has been understood as a first stage towards
achieving recognition of the wider extension which they have in view;
for them it is the minimum extension acceptable.

It was in this atrnosphere of conflicting trends, which came into the
open at the Confere:nceof 1960,that the 1961agreement must be exam-
ined. The trend of ideas opposed to the 3-mile rule had to be accepted;
but the United Kingd~m did not recognize the rule permitting the
extension of fisheriesjurisdiction up to the 12-milelimit as a general rule;
it accepted it, but only as a negotiated rule, and in consideration of the
special interests of lieland. Iceland for its part did not recognize the 12-
mile rule as the maximum limit of its fisheriesjurisdiction zone; it sought

an extension to 12 miles because that was what it was possible for it to
obtain at the time, but it regarded it as a provisional extension and
reserved the power of making a further extension, and applied itself to
implementing the Althing Resolution of 5 May 1959.
8. The failure of the 1958and 1960Conferences prevented any rule as
to the maximum limit for the fisheries zone from crystallizing. The
development of the law of the sea in this field took place in conditions of
anarchy, the dominilnt note being a progressive and accelerated extension

of the claims of coastal States 1.
In the confusion which reigns in the matter, several tendencies can be
distinguished whichi,in my opinion, can be summarized as follows.
in the first place, it should be observed that the possibility of extending
the exclusive fisheries zone beyond the territorial sea is practically gener-
ally admitted. The resistance set up by some States to the 12-milerule is
continually decreasing 2.Writers in Europe and the United States also

recognize it as the maximum limit to the extension of the jurisdiction of

1 The compromise natureof the vote which occurredshould be observed; ishould
of preferentialrights.with the proposal by Brazil, Cubaand Uruguayon recognition
2 This "creeping juirisdiction"was observable between 1967 and 1971: Kahden,
Die Inanspruchnahmevon Meereszonen und Meeresbodenzonen durch Küsrenstaafen,
2nd ed. 1971, preface.
3 Note howeverthe protest by the United States against the declaration by Canada
extendingits coastal zone to 12miles(May 1970).Japanstated that it did not recognize
the 12-milefishingzone, but in its agreementof 22 June 1965with Koreais to be found
reciprocal recognition of the 12-milezone. FISHERIES JURISDICTION (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 87

coastal States. This tendency in favour of the 12-mile rule has made it
possible to say that the 12-mile limit appears to be "the magic number"

for the great majority of States 1.
In the other direction, it is apparent that the trend originating in Latin
America towards extending the zone of fisheries jurisdiction up to the

200-mile limit appears to be becoming more firmly established; in this
connection one might quote the Declaration of Montevideo of 8 May
1970. and the declaration of Santo Domingo of 7 uune 1972. This trend
is spreading to other continents. In the report of the Asian-African Legal

Consultative Committee on its 12th Session in Colombo (18-27 January
1971),it is said that most of the delegations were ready toaccepta 12-mile
limit for the territorial sea, but coupled with an affirmation of the rights

of the coastal State to claim exclusive jurisdiction over an adjacent zone
for economic put-poses. See also the recommendations drafted at Yaoundé
(20-30 June 1972) 2.
The seed sown by the Truman Proclamations is still bearing fruit, and it

is from them that innovating ideas continue to spring concerning the law
of the sea 3.
The recognition of a third maritime zone. inserted between the territo-
"
rial sea and the high seas, is the basis of a new concept, that of the patri-
monial sea or econlomic zone. According to the Duclaration of Santo
Domingo, the coast;al State has sovereign rights over the renewable and

non-renewable natural resources which are found in the waters, in the
sea-bed and in the silbsoil of an area adjacent to the territorial sea called

1 Bouchez, "Some Basic Problems of Coastal State Jurisdiction and the Future
Conference on the Law of the Sea", Annals of International Studies, Vol. IV, 1973,
p. 155.
2 It has been annouriced in the press that the 77 developing countries meeting in
Nairobi (Kenya) decideld to defend the right to a 200 sea-mile limit for coastal States
at the United Nations Conference in Caracas.
3 The tendency to ex.tend fisheries zones in the interest of coastal populations may
also be observed in couritries of the Westernroup.
The Senate and Hourie of Representatives of Massachusetts, assembled in General
Court, authorized the Director of the Division of Marine Fisheries, with the approval
of the Governor, toextend jurisdiction up to 200 miles for the purposes of conservation
and protection of maritime resources (Massachusetts, An Act Relative to the Territorial
Waters of the Commonwealth). In 1972, Congress of the State of Maine requested the
Secretary of State and the delegation to the United States Congress to extend juris-
diction over fisheries to the whole extent of the continental shelf (J. H. Samet and
R. L. Fuerst, TheLatin-American Approach fo the Law of the Sea, University of North
Carolina, Sea Grant Publication, March 1973, App. A and B, pp. 150-151). In the
United States, there are conflicts between the states and the Federal Government. New
England is in favour of an extension of jurisdiction to protect coastal fisheries. Cali-
fornia favours limiting jurisdiction, taking account of cod fishing in the high seas.

Military interests operate in favour of the 12-mile limit (Hjertonsson, The New Law
of the Sea, "Influence of the Latin American States on Recent Developments of the
Law of the Sea", Leideri-Stockholm, 1973, p. 96).
In Canada, the Governor is authorized to prescribe byrder in Council fishing zones
in areas of the sea adjac,ent to the coast of Canada (Law of 16June 1970amending the
Law on the Territorial Lieaand Fishery Zones, new paras. 4 and 5A). FISHERIES JURiSDICTION (SEP.OP. DE CASTRO) 88

the patrimonial sea; the area of the territorial sea andthe patrimonial sea,
taking into account geographic circumstances, should not exceed a

maximum of 200 sea-miles.
In the Truman Proclamation, and at the 1958 Conference, reference
was made to the na1:uralresources of the continental shelf over which it
was recognized that the coastal State had an exclusive right, in order to
define the scope thereof, with a view to respecting the freedom of fishing
in the high seas. At the present time, the reference to rights over natural
resources is taking iinew turn. A point has been reached at which the
right of Statesis reaffirmed to permanent sovereignty over al1the natural

resources of the sea-bed and subsoil within their national jurisdiction, and
in the superjacent waters. This is also what was said in General Assembly
resolution 3016 (XXVII), in a recommendation adopted by the Commit-
tee on Natural Resources of the Economic and Social Council (Session of
February 1973)and in a resolution of the Ecanomic and Social Council
(April-May 1973) 1.
Itaeems to me that with its Resolution of 1972,Iceland followed the
same tactics as those which had previously brought it success. It faced the

defendant State with afait accompli, and did so in the conviction that the
development of the llawof the sea is moving towards a justification of its
decision. Iceland may cherish the hope that the trends in favour of exten-
sion of fisheries zones will obtain the support of the greater number of
States at the Caracas conference 2.

1. The complaint brought before the Court by the Applicant against
Iceland is that of having committed a breach of international law by
unilaterally extending its fisheries zone in 1972.The Exchange of Notes of

1961 contains the provision by which Iceland reserved the possibility of
extending its fisherie:~zone in implementation of the Althing Resolution
of 1959.But the Applicant contends that the Resolution of 1972conflicts
with the law established in 1961,and that Iceland cannot act in this way
without proving that the 12-mile rule is no longer in force (United King-
dom Memorial, para. 229; Federal Republic Memorial, Part IV, para.
60). Reference is also made to the disregard by Iceland of "such long-
established legal rights" of the Applicant (United Kingdom Memorial,

para. 229).

1 The travauxpréparatoires of the CaracasConferenceshould betakeninto account,
though cumgrano salis, as of assistancein ascertainingthe presenttendencies amongst
States; in addition they revealthe taking up of positions with a viewto the discussions
du2iThe Government of'the United Kingdom has explained, in its reply to a question
by a Member of the Court, that in para. 297 of its Memorialit intended to make the
point "that the forthcorningThird UnitedNations Conferenceon the Law of the Sea
may revealwhether a consensuscan be reachedwhich will bringabout a development
in the law so as to permitthe kindof claim which Icelandis now making". In order to express my view in such a way as to avoid the difficulties
resulting from the lack of clarity of the Applicant's argument, it seems to
me to be as wellto deal with the various issues one by one.
The established rights relied on are said to be based on "the existing
law and established legal rights" (ibid). The Respondent's rights have a

contractual basis, namely the exchange of Notes. The Respondent has
acquired rights, but rights which are subject to a pre-condition unspecified
in point of time (dies incertus anet incertus quando). The right of the
Applicant is an established right subject to a limitation, i.e., up to the date
when Iceland exercises the power it has reserved of extending its fisheries
jurisdiction. By exercising that power, lceland does not infringe any
established right of the Applicant to respect by Iceland of the 12-mile
limit. The Applicanit is entitled to appeal to the Court, but only on the
grounds that Iceland has not honoured its commitment to submit to the
Court the dispute concerning the extension.
Nor is itjustified to refer to an established rightnder international law
in force in 1961.The situation existing in 1961is not .what is before the
Court. The act cornplained of by the Applicant is the 1972 Althing

Resolution, that is to say a different situation, that of an extension which,
although foreseen in 1961,was not effected until 1972.This is a new fact,
the legality of which must be considered solely at the time when it occurs
(tempus regitfactum). It is precisely that new fact with regard to which it
was provided that in case of dispute between the parties the matter would
be brought before the Court. The Applicant has no established right to
the extension being perpetually limited to 12miles, on the basis of inter-
national law in forci: in 1961 1.
2. The key argument of the Applicant is that the 12-mile rule is the
international law in force on the subject, because it has become a rule of
customary law, and ;îlso because it has not been abrogated by a contrary
custom. We must therefore consider whether the 12-milerule amounts to
a rule of customary international law.
According to the communis opinio, a customary international right

comes into existence when a practice crystallizes which has the following
distinguishing mark!; :
(a) General or universal acceptance. There should be no doubt as to
the attitude of States. The rule in question must be generally known
and accepted expressly or tacitly. What has 1ed to the view that
international custom is binding is that it expresses a consensustacitus

generalis,if not as a sort of tacit agreement, at least as the expression
of a general coinviction. For an international custom to come into
existence, the fact that a rule may be adopted by several States in
their municipal legislation, in treaties and conventions, or may be
applied in arbitral decisions is not sufficient, if other States adopt a

1 This appearsto have beenconceded by the Applicant when in its oral statement it
expressed the view that the12-milerulewas hot yet in force in 1961.
90 FISHEKIESJURISDICTION (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 90

different rule, and it will not be opposable to a State which still
opposes its appilication (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 131).The existence of
a majority trend, and even its acceptance in an international conven-
tion, does not imean that the convention has caused the rule to be
crystallized or canonized as a rule of customary law (I.C.J. Reports

1969, p. 41).
(6) Uniform practice. For a new rule of international law to be formed,
the practice of States, including those whose interests are specially
affected, must have been substantially or practically uniform (I.C.J.
Reports 1951, p. 25; I.C.J. Reports 19.51, pp. 116 and 131; I.C.J.
Reports 1969, p. 42).

(c) A considerable period of time. It is time which ripens a practice and
transforms it irito a custom. In the texts, such terms are used as
praescripta cofi~suetudo, vetustas, per plurimos annos observata,
diuturnis moribus introductum, etc. The Court has recognized the
possibility of some relaxation of the requirement ofa considerable
length of time, but only on condition that:

"State practiice, including that of States whose interests are
specially affected, should have been both extensive and virtually
uniform in the sense of the provision invoked;-and should more-
over have occurred in such a way as to show a general recognition

that a rule of law or legal obligation is involved." (I.C.J. Reports
1969, p. 43; see also p. 45.)
(d) Opinio Juris

"Not only must the acts concerned amount to a settled practice,
but they must also be such, or carried out in such a way, as to be
evidence of a belief that this practice is rendered obligatory by the

existence of a rule of law requiring it . .. States ... must therefore
feel that they areconforming to what amounts to a legal obligation."
(I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 44.)

Taking account of these conditions, we must consider whether the
12-mile rule is in the nature of an international custom. In order to give
an unambiguous reply to this question it is necessary when putting it to
make a distinction bletweenthe two meanings which may be given to the
expression "12-mile rule".

(i) The 12-mile rule means that States can no longer object to another
State extending its fisheries jurisdiction zone to 12miles.

(ii) The 12-mile rule means that States cannot extend their fishing zone

beyond 12miles.
Her Majesty's Government seems to me to have given a proper reply to
a question put by Jutige Sir Humphrey Waldock, when it was stated on its

behalf that: "It could not safely be said that the new rule had emerged until
Japan, a State whose interests were certainly specially affected in the
meaning of that principle, decided that it could not effectively
challengein lawthe legislation of New Zealand and the United States.
As from that moment, in our submission, it was reasonable to
maintain that, notwithstanding continuing disagreement on the
breadth of the territorial sea, there was then by that stagea new rule
of law to the effect that a coastal State was entitled to an exclusive

fisherylimit of 112miles." (CR 7413,p. 40.)
This is quite correct, and it was possible to take the view that the
resistance of the ccsuntries which continued to oppose extension of
exclusivefisheries jurisdiction to 12miles was overcome at that moment.
For that reason, it is possible to Say that the 12-mile rule, with that

meaning, has beco11,iea customary rule.
But to concede the possibility that States might claim an exclusive
fisheries zone of 12 miles does not lead as a logical or necessary con-
sequence to the coniclusion that "the figure of 12 miles was the correct
limit in accordance with international law for the purpose of defining the
zone in which the icoastal State is entitled to exclusive fishery rights"
(ibid., p. 40). This statement is an answer to a different question, which
should be examined separately.

The question is aisfollows: is there an ,existing rule of customary law
which forbids States to extend their fisheries jurisdiction beyond 12
miles? Before replyii~gin the affirmative to this, it would be necessary to
be satisfied thatsuch a rule meets the conditions required for the birth of
an international cust:om.
In Part III of the present opinion, which was devoted to the develop-
ment of the law of the sea with regard to fisheries, it was made clear that
a continually increa:singnumber of countries do not agree to limit their
fisheriesjurisdiction zone to 12miles 1.Before 1961,from the time of the

Truman Proclamations onwards, there were manifestations contrary to
that rule, in legislaticsn,at Inter-American conferences, and in the discus-
sions of the International Law Commission 2.Since 1961,and in particu-
lar in 1972,it isdifficultto regard the trend in favour of the 12-milerule as
supported by a majority. The 12-milerule has at no time been accepted in
a general or universa.1way as fixinga maximum limit 3.
It should also be noted that before and after 1961, during the period
which may be regarded as that of the coming into existence of the rule,

Iceland, which is cei-tainlya State whose interests are specially affected,
made known its opposition to the rule expressly and persistently 4.

l The 12-milerule malyon the other hand be regardedas applicableto the limit of
the territorialsea.
2 Quotations in Rojalin, Die Ansprüche, p. 164.
U.S.OPolicy in the 1973 Lawof the Sea Conference", The InternationalLawyer, VI,
No. 3, July 1972.
Quotations in Rojalhn,"Die FischereigrenzeIslands vom 1 September 1972 imAccording to the most authoritative writers, and following the doctrine

of the Court itself (I.C.J. Reports 1950,p. 65; I.C.J. Reports 1951,p. 131 ;
I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 42, para. 73) the express will of a State during such
a period prevents the coming into existence of a custom. The majority
principle does not apply, even if a majority exists. To apply it would be
contrary to the principles of sovereignty and equality of States.
In the 1961 Exchange of Notes, Iceland denies by implication that the
12-mile rule is a rule of customary international law limiting the extent of
the fishery zone. This is the meaning which should be attributed to the
direct reference to tlhe 1959 Resolution and the indirect reference to the
1948 Law. A reservation was made in favour of a zone extending to the
boundary of the conitinental shelf. 1 do not consider that this reservation

should be interpreted as being subject to there being a change in interna-
tional law. There is only one limitation on the reservation made, namely
that in case of dispute as to the extension, the question was to be brought
before the Court. It may be supposed that the Icelandic Government
might have intended, as a matter of political prudence, to await the most
favourable moment from the point of view of international opinion in
order to carry out the announced extension, but that isanother matter.
3. Nor do 1consilderthat the authority of the 1958conventions can be
invoked in favour of'the 12-mile rule. Article 24 ofthe Convention on the
Territorial Sea and the Contieuous Zone mentions a limit of 12miles for
the contiguous zone, but in four specificfields(customs, and fiscal, immi-

gration or sanitary ri:gulations) and does not envisagefisheries. Nor isthis
an oversight: the question of fisheries was in everyone's mind. This is a
case in which it may be well to apply the old adage inclusiouniusexclusio
alterius.
Article 2 of the Convention on the High Seas has also been cited as
evidence that Iceland has violated, by its 1972 Resolution, the principle
of freedom of fishing in the high seas enshrined in Article 2 of the Con-
vention on the High Seas 1.It istrue that in zones forming part of the high
seas "fishing ... could only be shared and not exclusive" (separate
opinion of Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 69, para. 5).
But 1am afraid that. to do no more than apply this criterion would be to

beg the question, because it would be to admit by implication that the
extent of the high seas was mathematically fixed by international law.
But this is far from being the case. The extent of the territorial sea hasnot
been established. The practice of States shows that the territorial sea has
been extended, for e:xample,from 3 to 4 miles, or from 4 to 12miles, on
each occasion at the expense of the high seas. Can it not be extended

Lichte rnaritimerAbgri:nzungsprinzipiendes Internationalen Gerichtshofes", Archiv
des Volkerrechts,ol. XVI, No. 1 (1973), pp. 39, 41, 43, 47; see also Nelson, "The
PatrimonialSea", Znteri7ationaland ComparativeLaw Quarterly, October 1973, p. 673,
Note 29.
1 If the Icelandic Resolution of 1972 is open to criticism it is on the ground that it
is contrary to theExchangeof Notes, and hasnot beendulyjustified.beyond 12 miles when circumstances or special reasons justify it? It
should also be observed that since the 1960Conference on the Law of the
Seathere has been a.trend, which cannot be overlooked, toward recogni-

tion of a third zone:,between the territorial sea and the high seas, over
which States can clalima form of jurisdiction, without any pretension to
sovereignty 1.Can this not be extended beyond 12miles?While it does not
seem necessary to reply to these questions, it is difficult to see how the
implementation of the 1959Althing Resolution, which was envisaged in
the 1961 Exchange of Notes, can in 1972be contrary to international law
vis-à-vis the United Kingdom, if it is not conceded that between 1961
and 1972the 12-mille rule entered customary law. Has the 12-mile rule,
having found the door closed, crept in by the window?
It seems to me also that it is not possible to base any useful argument
whatever on the Convention on the Continental Shelf, or on the com-

ments on it by the Court to the effect that the coastal State has "no
jurisdiction over the: superjacent waters" of the continental shelf (I.C.J.
Reports 1969, p. 37, para. 59). The significanceof these is that a State has
no jurisdiction over the superjacent waters by virtue of its rights over the
continental shelf, but this reservation concerns the régime ofthe super-
jacent waters in so far as they appertain to the high seas, and not the
superjacent waters vvhenthey are regarded as territorial waters, contigu-
ous zone, or fishing iconesubject to thejurisdiction of a State.
There areno well-founctedarguments in favour of the binding character
of the 12-mile rule; those built upon ad hoc interpretations of articles in
the 1958conventions do not convince. The 1958Conference failed in its

attempt to fix a limit to fisheriesjurisdiction. How can one deduce from
the conventions whartthe parties to the Conference refused to Say?

4. Another question should be examined, although it has not been
raised by the Applicant. The extension effected by Iceland in 1972 was
disputed by the United Kingdom and, in violation of the compromissory
clause of the 1961 Exchange of Notes, Iceland has refused to appear
before the Court. 1.tshould be considered whether the consequence of
Iceland having acteclin this way isthat the extension which it has decreed
is not opposable to the United Kingdom, and whether the Court should
confine itself to stating as much in its Judgment.

1do not consider i.hatthisargument has a sound legal basis either in the
Parties' agreement, or in the Statute of the Court, or in the law of
treaties.
The 1961 Exchange of Notes recognized that Iceland had the power to
extend its fisheriesjiirisdiction on the sole condition that this was done in
implementation of the 1959Althing Resolution. It was after the extension,
and if there should be a dispute between the Parties, that the question
could be brought before the Court. This was not a right conferred on the
-.

of exclusive fishing rightsto a further6 miles.ritorial watersto 6 miles andthe zone

94United Kingdom; the question could be brought before the Court at the
request of either Party. Iceland could have done so, for example, if the
extension it had decided to make was disregarded by the Applicant, if,

instead of bringing the dispute before the Court, the Applicant had sent
its fleetto protectits fishing vessels.The Notes contain no penal clause or
clause providing any sanction if one of the Parties failed to appear.
The Statute of the (Court(Art. 53.),in harmony with modern procedural
law, does not treat a party in default as guilty, and is far from regarding
failure to appear as aficta confessio. The Court, using its own means,
and taking account of the facts of which it is aware and of the applicable
law, must ascertain whether the extension is valid or not and to what
extent it may be valid.
Finally, the Appliicant does not raise the non-fulfilment of Iceland's

duty to submit the diisputeto the Court as a ground for abrogation of the
treaty, and for its being absolved from its obligations toward Iceland; on
the contrary, the Applicant contends that the agreement is still in force.
5. 1 cannot see that there is any other customary rule fixingthe extent
of the fishery zone. 'The200-mile rule cannot be regarded as an accepted
one, and as thus conFerringon States the right to extend their jurisdiction
to that extent. Despite the progress which it has made in recent years, it is
not marked either by the uniformity or the general acceptance which it
would require in order to be regarded as a customary rule, even of

regional extent 1.
Against the contentions of the Applicant, Judge Padilla Nervo has
argued that :
"The progressive development of international law entails the
recognition of the concept of the patrimonial sea, which extends from

the territorial waters to a distance fixed by the coastal State con-
cerned, in exercise of its sovereign rights, for the purpose of protec-
ting the resources on which its economic development and the liveli-
hood of its people depends." (Dissenting opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1973, p. 41.)

The view of Judge:Padilla Nervo must be rejected for several reasons.
The patrimonial sea is a compromise concept, which is worthy of con-
sideration but whicti does not meet the conditions required of a rule of
law. The countries represented at Santo Domingo did not claim that
their proposal concerning a zone of patrimonial sea should be applicable
to ail Latin American States, or that it was generally favoured by them,
but they regardeci it as a contribution to the working out of an eventual
joint Latin American formula 2.

1 GarciaAmador observesthat the differencesrelateto the verynatureof the claims,
Latin-America and the Law of theSea, University of Rhode Island, OccasionalPaper
tigen Rechtsordnung des Festlandsockels undder Fischerei auf dem Hohen Meer",ukünf-
Jahrbuchfür internationales Recht, Vol. XV, 1971,p. 407.
2 Castafieda,"The Concept of Patrimonial Sea in International Law",IndianJour-
nal oflnternationalLaw, Vol. 12, No. 4, October 1972,p. 538. FISHERIESJURISDICTION (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 95

Nor should it be overlooked that the task of encouraging the progres-

sive development of international law, for which the initiative belongs to
the General Assembly (United Nations Charter, Art. 13), was entrusted
to the International Law Commission (Statute of the Commission, Art.
15).The Court is not a legislative body (I.C.J. Reports 1966, p. 48); its

function is to decidt: in accordance with international law such disputes
as are submitted to it (Statute, Art. 38).
Finally it should be observed that the question of the sovereign rights
of States as to the fixing of zonesofjurisdiction has been badly expressed.

TheCourt has made clear what is truly within the national competence of
each State:

"The delimitation of sea areas has always an international aspect;
it cannot be dependent merely upon the will of the coastal State as
expressed in it:; municipal law. Although it is true that the act of
delimitation is necessarily a unilateral act, because only the coastal

State is compei:ent to undertake it, the validity of the delimitation
with regard to other States depends upon international law." (I.C.J.
Reports 1951, p. 132.)

6. Our examination of these questions up to this point leads to the
pessimistic conclusion that there is in international law no binding and
uniform rule fixing the maximum extent of the jurisdiction of States with

regard to fisheries. From this conclusion it has been deduced that there is
a legal vacuum, bui: in my opinion this deduction is not based on con-
clusive reasons.
The Prinie Minist'erof Iceland, adopting the same line as is to be found

in declarations by ILatin American States, and the writings of authors
from those countries, has stated in a speech before the lcelandic Parlia-
ment:

"Since there are no generally agreed rules on the width of the
territorial limit in terms of international law, it must be in the power
of every State to decide its territorial limit within a reasonable

distance." (Cited from a pamphlet entitled lceland and tlie Law of the
Sea, issued by the Government of lceland in 1972, pp. 31-32;
quotation in Part IV, para. 58, of the Memorial of the Federal
Republic of Gcrmany.) 1

From an opposite point of view, and by way of reductio ad ab~urdum,
it hus been said that:

"...so soon as it is admitted that international law governs the
question of the breadth of the territorial sea, it follows automatically

that international law must also prescribe a standard maximum
- .-.~~-
1 For q~ioiaiions of Latin American uriting in the same sense, see Rojahn, Die
Atrspr.iicl~e.168. See also the statement by the lcelandic delegate ithe General
Assernbly on 17 December 1973 (quoteci in CR 7411.pp.61-62). breadth, univerijally valid and obligatory in principle ... If this is
not so, then international law would not govern the question of the

extent of the territorial sea ..." (Fitzmaurice in XXXI BYIL, 1954,
p. 386.)

It would of coursir be better for legal security if a mathematical rule
existed. But law also has "safety valve" rules, which provide flexibility in
the legal rules, and permit of more just solutions for individual cases to be

found at the expense of legal security (e.g., the concepts of good faith,
bonos mores, cornitos gentium, misuse of right, droits de voisinage). In
another case which ;îlso concerned the delimitation of zones of jurisdic-
tion with regard to -fisheries,the Court showed how it was necessary to
takeinto account coiisiderations which: ". .. bring to light certain criteria

which, though not entirely precise, can provide courts with an adequate
basis for their decisions, which can be adapted to the diverse facts in
question" and for this purpose, there was:

". .. one consideration not to be overlooked, the scope of which
extends beyond purely geographical factors: that of certaineconomic
interests peculiar to a region, the reality and importance of which
are clearly evidenced by a long usage" (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 133) 1.

The flexibility of a rule is not a reason for denying its existence. Failing
a rule forthe mathernatical delimitation of the zones, "there are still rules

and principles of law to be applied" (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 46, para. 83).
The defeatist idea that the determination of fisheries jurisdiction zones
is a question of municipal law, within the national competence of each
State, must be rejeci.ed. It is contrary to the principle of the freedom of
the high seas, the p:rinciple which underlies the statement by the Court

quoted above, to the etfect that the validity erga omnesof the delimitation
of sea areas is a matter ofinternational law (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 132).

To leave to the urifettered will of each State the uncontrolled power to
lay down the limits of exclusive fishing zones is contrary to the spirit of
international law. The principle of equal rights of peoples (United
NationsCharter, Art. 1,para. 2) does not permit of the unilateral creation
of monopolies over zones of the high seas, at the expense of other States.

1 It has been said with regard to this judgment that it contains implicit recognition
"of the futility of the qiiest for iiniform rules to determine the extent of excliisive
fishery rights for wholly different situations". The advice of the author of this comment
is that to resolvehe questions arising in this field, efforts should be made to ensure
"that the settlernent be aisrational, equitablexpert as humanly possible". Douglas
Johnston, The.Itrte,-trutioLrrwof'Fisl~erie~,Yale University Press, 196p.248. The
concliision of regional agreements is also to be recommended: see Vigne, Le rôle des
it~térê~~;scot~ottiesuns 1'~volirtiondlrdroit de lu mer, Geneva, 197119.. It is generally conceded, even by the Latin American States, that the
high seas are free, and that freedom of fishing is one of the four freedoms

of the seas 1.
The high seas are not res nulliusto be appropriated by the first-comer,
nor by the most powerful 2.They belong to the community of peoples, or

to mankind 3.The high seas are regarded as res omnium cornmunis, and
the use of them. belo~ngsequally to al1peoples. The appropriation of an
exclusive fisheries zone in an area hitherto considered as part of the free
seas is equivalent to deprivation of other peoples of their rights. The

extension of its jurisdiction over the adjacent sea by a coastal State
presupposes a reduction of the freedom of fishing of other States, and
such respective increase and loss of power calls for legal justification. At

al1 times, States have endeavoured to justify their claims in one way or
another. According to Vattel (op. ci!.a, bove), there must be "some
lawful end" for the appropriation of something which is common
property. Judge Alvarez contended that States might alter the extent of

the-territorial sea "provided that they furnish-adequate grounds to
justify the change" (individual opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951,p. 150) 4.
7. 1think that the principle of the freedom of the high seas is as valid

as ever it was, but it.does not operate in isolation, it must be applied in
accordance with existing circiimstances and the views currently held. In
the time of Grotius., and up to the end of the Second World War, the
principle could be expressed in absolute terms; today, reality is otherwise,

and compels us to express it more moderately, and to harmonize it with
other secondary pririciples.
The case before the Court requires a just solution to be found to the

conflict which is emerging between the principle of the freedom of the
high seas with regard to fisheries, and the trends in favour of extension of
the zone of jurisdiction of coastal States. But for this purpose it should be
borne in mind that the Court does not have to decide a general and

- --
1This is the principle enshrinein Articles 1 and 2 of the 1958 Geneva Convention
on the High Seas. This Convention lays down on this point general principles of
international law established long before their formulation in the Convention (I.C.J.
Reports 1969, p. 39, para. 65).
2This is, 1think, the igeneralopinion. On the quest,ion of the nature of the high seas,
see Jenisch,Dus Recl~tzur Vornul~memilitürischer Ubungen und VerslrcAeauf Hoher
See in Friedetiszeiten, Hiimburg, 1970, pp. 43-52.
3 General Assembly r,esol~ition2749 (XXV)of 17December 1970refers in paragraph
1 to the coinmon heritage of mankind. On the idea of fishing zones as "property
devoted to a purpose" (Zweckverniogrtij and relevant references, see Rojahn, Die
Ansprüclie, p. 171;on the concept of coastal nationsas trustees for the international
community, see President Nixon's statement of 23 May 1970, quoted by Rojahn in
"Zur zukünftigen", p. 425.
4 Quotations on thecriterion of what is reasonable will be found in Brownlie, pp. 196
and 215. The Prime Minister of lceland has referred to what is "reasonable" (Memorial
of the Federal Republic of Germany, Part IV, para. 58). See also I.C.J. Report1951,
p. 131 "moderate and reasonable"; I.C.J. Reports 1969, pp. 52 and 54, paras. 98 and
101 (D) (3):"reasonable degree of proportionality". But the criterion of what is
reasonable should be detern~ined objectively.

98 FISHEIXIESJURISDICTION (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 98

abstract question, birt a dispute between two countries, for the settlement
of which the positions and relationships of the Parties should primarily be
considered.

The considerationi of "the close dependence of the territorial sea upon
the land domain" (ir.C.J.Reports 19.51,p. 133) also underlies the recog-
nized extent of the ni:wzone of fisheriesjurisdiction. But the establishment
of jurisdiction over the fishing zones must be justified by the special
interest of the coastal State, and by the existence of reasons permitting of
the recognition that that Statehas preferential or priority rights.

The 1958 Conference recognized the concepts of "special interest",
"preferential requirements" and "just treatment" (Convention on Fishing
and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas, Art. 6;
Resolution on Special Situations $elating to Coastal Fisheries). The
scope of these concepts is limitedto fishery conservation, and the situation

of countries whose coastal population depends on fishing. At the 1960
Conference, Brazil, Cuba and Uruguay proposed a text in which it was
said that "the coastiil State has the faculty of claiming preferential fishing
rights in any area of the high seas adjacent to its exclusive fishing
zone ..."; this draft furthermore almost obtained unanimity, but as

has already been stated, it failed to be adopted, along with the proposal
by Canada and the United States.
Although these concepts have not been enshrined in a convention, and
despite the restrictions subject to which they were advanced, in fact what
is happening to them is what happened to the Truman Proclamations,
they are the "startirig point of the positive law on the subject" (I.C.J. Re-

ports 1969,pp. 32-33).Theyare accepted as something natural. Asexamples
of this development, onemight mentionthe recommendation ofthe Ameri-
can Bar Association of August 1964 (para. 1 (b), quoted by Johnston,
op. cit.,p. 252, note 346), the draft of the Inter-American Committee of
1956, the Statemeni. by President Nixon of 23 May 1970 (quotations in
Rojahn, "Zur zuküriftigen", p. 412), and the proposal of the United States

according to Stevenson ((oc. cit., pp. 469-470). In United Nations
General Assembly resolution 2750 C (XXV) of 17 December 1970, in
which the subjects to be dealt with by the Conference on the Law of the
Sea are laid down, is included the question of the preferential rights of
coastal States. The Government of the United Kingdom "accepts that
the concept of preferential fishing rights of coastal States and the spirit

of the proposais embodied in the three-Power amendment are applicable,
are relevant, to the solutionof the present dispute" (CR 7413,pp. 16-17) 1.

Along with the special interest and the preferential rights of the coastal
State, account shoirld be taken of the historic rights of the countries
concerned with higti sea fishing. The acquisition of rights over the sea by

prescription is not admitted, but long usage should be respected, and
--
1 See also CR 7411,~>p.82-83.that for the same reasons as for the interests of the coastal State. It is
contrary to the concept of justice to disregard situations which have been
established for years, the capital invested, the establishment of industries,
the protein needs of populations, and above al1the confidence inspired by
a respect for the status quo concerning the use of the high seas as CO&-

mon property.
8. The difficutties in the way of harmonizing these interests are not
insurmountable. This practical possibility of effecting a delimitation of
the respective rights is well demonstrated,for example, in the negotiations
with a view to fixing the different countries' fishing quotas in the North-
West Atlantic, and the agreements concerning fisheries in the region of
the Faroe lsles (CR 7413,pp. 48-55).

The conduct of the parties results from recognition of their respective
interests. Study of i.he Exchanges of Notes of 1961, and the documents
supplementary thereto (the Resolutions of 1948and 1959),shows that the
right unilaterally tcl declare an extension of jurisdiction, as reserved by
Iceland, is not an ,absolute right. It requires justification. Extension is
contemplated if it becomes necessary for reasons relating both to the
conservation of fiskieriesand the needs of the lcelandic ~eo~le. That re-
. ,
servation was accepted by the Applicant. lceland for its part tacitly
recognized the historical rights of the Applicant in 1961 and in 1972.
There is thus mutual recognition of preferential rights and historic rights,
coincidingwith the present trends in practice, and with what writers have
argued to be desirable.
Lnthe h'ortlzSea Continental S/7eifcases, the Court was in a situation
which was to some extent analagous to the present situation, inasmuch

as there was no mathematical rule to be applied to the delimitation of
adjacent zones of the continental shelf. lt did not follow from a denial
that the equidistance rule was a legal rule that another "single equivalent
rule" had to be found. Failing a single rule enabling the areas to be
delimited, the Court stated that nonetheless "there are still rules and
principles of law to be applied" (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 46, para. 83).

When the General Assembly decided to convene the Conference on the
Law of the Sea, it said that its purpose would be "the establishment of an
equitable international régime" (resolution 2750 C (XXV) of 17 Decem-
ber 1970). The Court applies "equitable principles", which, "on a
foundatiori of very general precepts of justice and good faith" lead to
actual rules of law.

"lt is not a question of applying equity simply as a matter of
abstract justice, but of applying a rule of law which itself requires
the applicatiori of equitable principles, in accordance with the ideas
which have always underlain the development of the legal régime

of the contineintal shelf in this field..." (I.C.J. Reports 1969, pp.
46-47, para. 85.)
There is no need to demonstrate and prove what is a matter of general knowledge and genieral recognition, namely the changes which have
occurred in fishing techniques, the risk of exhaustion of fish stocks

resulting therefrom, andthe increasing protein requirements of ever more
numerous populations.
9. It cannot be ccincealed that it is difficult to see how the concepts of
special rights, preferential rights and historic rights can be brought under
the heading of one lofthe sources of international law. It is not easy to
prove the existence of a general practice accepted as law, nor would
these concepts appear to form part of the general principles of law recog-
nized by civilized nations. But it does appear possible to overcome the
difficulty resultingfiom the unfortunate drafting of Article 38 of the
Statute with the assistance of the teachings of the most highly qualified
writers. One cannot make a sharp division between customary law and
the principles of law. At the origin of the modern doctrine, in the his-

torical school to which legal science owes the foundations of the theory
of custom, they can be seen to be closely united. Savigny teaches us that
practice (usages) is riot the foundation of customary law, but that it is the
sign by which the existence of a custom may be known. The custom is
produced by the cornmunity of conviction, not by the will of men, whose
acts only manifest this community of ideas 1. This observation is still of
assistance. In order to be binding as a legal rule, the general conviction
(opinio communis) does not have to fulfil al1the conditions necessary for
the emergence of a custom. This is what explains the value of opinio
juris, and why it ma:yconfer on one single actthe possibility of becoming
"the startingpoint of the positive law" (I.C.J. Reports 1969,pp. 32-33).

The Court is alsa'faced with difficult questions of procedure. Should
the Court confine itself to upholding or rejecting the submissions of the
Applicant, or shoultl it endeavour to do justice by deciding the question
of the extension?
The first difficultylies in ascertaining the meaning of the compromissory

clause. The Court examined its history and its significance in the Judg-
ment of 2 February 1973 on jurisdiction. According to the documents
known to the Court, Iceland did not wish to be bound definitively and
permanently by the 12-mile limit; it wished to preserve full freedom to
extend its fisheriesjiurisdiction and to implement the Althing Resolution
of 1959unilaterally. The United Kingdom showed itself ready to accept

1 Savigny, System des heutigen romischenRechts (1840), 1, paras. 12and 18.Puchta,
Pandekten, para. 12,Fifth Edition (1850), p. 19; Cursus der Institu1,para. 13,
expressing principlesof law: P.C.I.J., Series AION(1927), p. 18.ges acceptedas

101the reservation by Iceland of this power to implement the Althing Resolu-
tion, on condition that the extension was in accordance with an interna-
tional agreement emibodying a generally accepted rule of law in relation to
fishery limits, or in conformity with a rule ofinternational law, established

by general consent, which would permit such an extension (United
Kingdom Memorial on jurisdiction, para. 29).

The two Parties held tenaciously to their positions. Theform proposed
by the United Kingdom might appear to reserve a right of veto in respect
of any future attempt to extend jurisdiction; the opposition of the

United Kingdom would be sufficient to prevent the emergence of a new
general customary law which would permit a further extension. On the
other hand, it was very much in Iceland's interests to preserve its freedom
to extend its fishery zone, and thus to be able to take advantage of the
time which could be:foreseen when the trend in favour of the extension of
the fisheries jurisdiction of coastal States would have acquired sufficient

momentum in gen~eralopinion-and it preferred arbitration to the
jurisdiction of the Court.
The impossibility of reconciling such inconsistent points of view result-
ed in the adoption of the neutral formula of the compromissory clause to
which the Parties agreed: "in case of a dispute in relation to such exten-
sion, the matter shall, at the request of either Party, be referred to the
International Court of Justice."

The form of wortis adopted results from a compromise; neither of the
Parties succeeded in carrying its point, but both the terms and the object
of the clause appear to be clear: the Court has the mission of finding a

solution to the dispute which, it was to be feared, would arise as to the
extension of the fisheries zone.
Nevertheless, the interpretation of the clause may give rise to some
doubts. Does it limit the task of theCourt to sayingwhether the extension
effected by Iceland is or is not in accordance with law? 1sthe role of the
Court to resolve the dispute by saying how far and subject to what con-

ditions the extensicon is in accordance with the law? On the second
hypothesis, the Court would have to examine the nature of the extension
which was contemplated by the Exchange of Notes of 1961in relation to
the Althing Resolution of 1959 and Law of 1958-that is to say to take
account of the special situation of Iceland and its priority rights over the
continental shelf.

In a separate opinion, Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice has said that: "The
question of conservation has therefore no relevance to the jurisdictional
issue now before the Court, which involves its competence to adjudicate
upon the dispute ~occasionedby Tceland's claim unilaterally to assert
exclusive jurisdiction for fishery purposes up to a distance of 50 nautical
miles from and around her coasts." (I.C.J. Reports 1973, pp. 26-27.) Thisobservation, in my opinion, must be interpreted in relation to the Judg-
ment on the Court's jurisdiction, and not in relation to the phase of the
procedure concerning the merits. In that Judgment, the Court said that it

would "avoid not only al1expressions of opinion on matters of substance,
but also any pronouncement which might prejudge or appear to prejudge
any eventual decisi011on the merits" (ibid.,p. 7, para. 11).

It will be as well to observe, al1the same, that in that Judgment, the
Court recalled that in its Order of 17 August 1972 it had recognized the
exceptional dependence of Iceland on its fisheries, and stated that "from

this point of view aocount must be taken of the need for the conservation
of fish stocks in the Iceland area" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 20, para. 41,
quoting I.C.J. Reports 1972, pp. 16and 17).
"The meaning of 1.heexpression extension of fisheries 'jurisdiction' in
the compromissory iclause must be sought in the context of this Althing
Resolution [that of 19591and in the complete text of the 1961 Exchange

of Notes" (I.C.J.Rcports 1973, p. 8, para. 14). It does not appear that
the jurisdiction of the Court should be confined to answering yes orno to
the claim made before it that the extension is contrary to existing interna-
tional law. The "miatter" having been brought before the Court, the
Court must take co;=nizance of it as a whole and not in part. Once the
Court had declared in its Judgment that it had jurisdiction, it should not

leave the dispute open. Lt should seek a solution to the matter of the
extension, in accordance with such guidelines as may be deduced from
the Exchange of Notes of 1961 and the principles of law. That solution
may well consist of saying how far the extension is in accordance with
law, and how it should be corrected or rectified in order to be just and
equitable.

The skilful way in which the Applicant has drafted its submissions has
faced the Court with another problem of procedural law. Should it
confine itself to replying to the claims expressed in the Application? A
municipal tribunal would be in a difficulty in view of the rule which
forbids it to givejutlgment ultra petita. But the function of the Court is
wider, and is not limited on grounds of pure form. The Court is no t

bound by the narrow rules of the litis contesratio, especially when the
Respondent fails to appear.
The jurisdiction of the Court results from the 1961Exchange of Notes,
and not only from the will of the Applicant. The compromissory clause
enables the matter of the extension to be brought before the Court, so
that it can accomplish its function as principal judicial organ of the
United Nations. The function of the Court is to seek the solution of the

dispute before it (Charter, Arts. 33 and 95), and thus to contribute to the
pacific settlement of disputes between States. When one Party fails to
appear, the other dcles not have the power of narrowing down the role of
the Court. FISHEIUESJURISDICTION (SEP.OP. DE CASTRO) 103

VI. EQUITABLS EOLUTION

1s it open to the Court to find for itself an equitable solution? 1s it
preferable for it to lay down guidelines so that the Parties can reach an
equitable agreement?
It isopen to the Court, it seems to me, to take the initiative and examine
proprio motu the factual elements in the case. By making orders for the
conduct of the case., itcan entrust qualified individuals or commissions

with the task of car,rying out enquiries or giving expert opinions, before
or after the oral stage of the proceedings (Statute, Arts. 48 and50). With
this information to hand, the Court would be able to balance the interests
involved and decide according to principles of equity 1.This procedure
was not followed by the Court in 1969, and would not seem to be a wise

course today. rcelanid, by failing to appear, persists in refusing to assist
the Court, and the Parties are either engaged in negotiation or have
expressed the intention of negotiating.
The example of the 1969 Judgment should be followed; there
are several reasons for doing so. The Icelandic Law of 1948

makes an express reservation for agreements with other countries
to which lceland waç or might become a Party. In the Resolution adopted
by the Althing on 15 February 1972 it was stated that efforts to reach a
solution of the prolblems connected with the extension should be con-
tinued through discussions with the United Kingdom and Federal

Republic. The agreement of 13 November 1973 between the United
Kingdom and Iceland expresses the hope that the dispute will be termi-
nated by an agreement before the expiration of two years (13 November
1975). The Covernrnent of the Federal Republic for its part has stated
that the Court cannot assume the role of a legislator for the better
goes on:
management of the fishery resources of the oceans, and
"But the Court may be disposed, and this would certainly be
within its judicial functions in deciding the dispute between the

Parties, to give the Parties some guidance as to the principles which
the Parties should take into account in their negotiations for the
most equitable management of the fishery resources in the waters of
the high seas around Iceland . . ." (Memorial of the Federal Republic
of Cermany, Part IV, para. 149.)

In 1969 the Court stated that "in the matter of delimitation" there
were certain "basic legal notions", and continued:

"Those principles being that delimitation must be the object of
agreement between the States concerned, and that such agreement

must be arriveld at in accordance with equitable principles. On a
foundation of very general precepts of Justice and good faith, actual

1 TheCourt thought it appropriate to submit for expert opinion figures and
estimates of a technical natu(CorfiChannel, I.C.J. Reports 1949, 237),when
Albania did not appear. However, the circumstances in that case were quite different. FTSHERIESJURISDICTION (SEP.OP. DE CASTRO) 104

rules of law are here involved which govern the delimitation of adja-
cent continenta.1shelves." (I.C.J. Reports 1969, pp. 46-47, para. 85.)

For the purposes of the case now before the Court, no mathematical
rule can be found which would enable the zone of exclusive fisheries
jurisdiction to be delimited, but it should be observed that guidelines do
exist for reaching an equitabledelimitation. The specialinterest of Iceland
in the adoption of measures for conservation of fish in the zone of the
continental shelf, and in consideration being given in priority to the
needs of its population and itsindustry, is recognized. On the other hand,
so faras possible these rights must be reconciled with the historic interests
or rights of the Applicant. The actual catch potential of each Party,

without risk of exhaustion of the stock, must be considered. Provision
should therefore be made for reserved zones, catch quotas, limitation on
number of vessels,types of permitted vessels, sizeof mesh of nets, times of
fishing, transition period, periodicevision of agreements, etc.

The Court could, following the method of the 1969Judgment, decide
that the Parties are under an obligation to continue negotiations in such
a way that "in the particular case, and taking al1the circumstances into
account, equitable principles are applied" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 47,
para. 85). This obligation to negotiate is "not only to enter into negotia-
tions, but also to pursue them asfaras possible, with a viewto concluding
agreements" (P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 42, 1931, p. 116-a form of
wordsadopted in I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 48, para. 87).

"As the Permanent Court of International Justice said in its
Order of 19August 1929in the case of the FreeZones of UpperSavoy
and the District of Gex, the judicial settlement of international
disputes 'issimlplyan alternative to the direct and friendly settlement
of such disputes between the Parties' (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 22, at
p. 13)." (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 47, para. 87.)

VIT. THESUBMISSIONS
1 would add that the following points could well have been brought

out in the Judgmeni:. The extension decided on by Iceland in 1972,to the
extent that it was intended to implement the 1959 Althing Resolution,
was not in itself invalid as against the United Kingdom. On the other
hand, Iceland's statement that it regarded the 1961 agreement as no
longer in force was invalid, for it was the validity of that agreement which
entitled Iceland to implement the 1959Resolution. Once the dispute had
been brought before the Court, it was for the Court to decide on the
validity of the extenision; andit was bound to do so taking into account
the 1961agreement, which bound the Parties, and the law of the sea. It is
for this end that the:Court should lay down guidelines to define the con-
ditions on which the:extension may be regarded as legallyjustified.

(Signed) F. DE CASTRO.
105

Bilingual Content

OPlNION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. DE CASTRO

J'ai votéavec la majorité, mais je ne crois pas pouvoir souscrire entout
aux motifs de l'arrêt.C'est pour cela que, faisant usage du droit que me
confère le Statut, je me permets d'exprimer en détailles raisons de mon
vote.

1.L'accord de 1961

L'échangede notes du 11 mars 1961est à la base de l'affaire. La clause

compromissoire qui s'y trouve est la source de la compétence de la Cour
(arrêtdu 2 février 1973). Il faut interpréter son contenu pour connaître
l'intention des parties à l'accord, première donnée dont la Cour doive
tenir compte.
L'échangede notes est intervenu à un moment ou l'évolutiondu droit

de la mer connaissait une crise. C'est dans ce climat, qu'après l'avoir
examiné, on doit l'interpréter1.
Le 5avril 1948,l1AIthingadopte la ccloi relative à la conservation scien-
tifique des pêcheriesau-dessus du plateau continental ))et par décretdu
30 juin 1958la zone de pêche islandaiseest étenduejusqu'à une distance
de 12 milles. Le Royaume-Uni conteste la validité de cette mesure. II

s'ensuit des incidents graves et de longues négociations. Pendant ce
temps interviennent la résolution de I'Althing du5mai 1959et la tenue de
la ConférencedesNations Unies sur le droit de la mer en 1960.Enfin, à la
suite de conversations à Londres et à Reykjavik, le différendest réglépar
l'échangede notes du II mars 1961.
Le Gouvernement britannique accepte la déclaration unilatérale de

l'Islande de 1958, en disant qu'il ccn'élèveraplus d'objections contre
la zone de pêches'étendant autour de l'Islande sur une largeur de
12miles D.
L'agrément du Royaume-Uni est expliqué dans la lettre de I'ambas-
sadeur de Sa Majesté britannique au ministre des Affaires étrangères
d'Islande par le fait ((que la nation islandaise est exceptionnellement

tributaire de ses pêcheriescôtières pour sa subsistance et son développe-

Sur la relation entre les exigences islandaises et l'évolutiondu droit de la mer, voir
la section III.

73 SEPARA'TE OPINION OF JUDGE DE CASTRO

[Translation]

1have voted witlhthe majority, but do not consider that I can wholly

subscribe to the reasoning in the Judgment. 1 therefore venture, in
exercise of the right conferred on me by the Statute, to set out in detail
the reasons for my vote.

1. The 1961Agreement

The Exchange OFNotes of II March 1961 underlies the whole case;
the compromissory clausecontained therein constitutes the source of the
Court's jurisdictiori (Judgment of 2 February 1973). It is necessary to
interpret its content in order to ascertain the intentions of the parties,
which is the first factor to be taken into account by the Court.
The Exchange of Notes took place at a time when the law of the sea
was undergoing a crisis in its development, and it is in this context that
itshould be considered and then interpreted 1.

On 5 April 1948the Althing adopted the "Law Concerning the Scien-
tific Conservation of the Continental Shelf Fisheries", and by a decree
of 30 June 1958,Iceland's fisheries limits were extended to a distance of
12miles. The United Kingdom challenged the validity of this action and
there ensued serious incidents and lengthy negotiations. It was during
this period that the Resolution of the Althing of 5 May 1959was passed
and the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea was held in
1960. Finally, following talks in London and Reykjavik, the dispute was
settled by the Exchalngeof Notes of 11March 1961.The United Kingdom

Government accepted Iceland's unilateral declaration of 1958 stating
that it "will no longer object to a 12-milefisheryzone around Iceland".

This acceptance by the United Kingdom was explained in a letter from
Her Britannic Majeçty'sAmbassador to the Foreign Minister of lceland as
being "in viewof the exceptional dependence of the Icelandic nation upon
coastal fishery for tlheirlivelihood and economic development". Iceland's

- -- -
1 On the relationship between the Icelandic claims and the developmoftthe law
of the sea, see section III.ment économique)). Ainsi est reconnu l'intérêt spéciadle l'Islande à

l'égarddes pêcheriesde sa z6ne côtière 1.
Le Royaume-Uni accepte l'étenduede 12milles, mais en raison de l'in-
térêtspécial de l'lslande dans la mer adjacente. L'lslande de son côté
tient pour provisoire cette zone de 12 milles, et ne l'accepte pas comme

maximale et définitive.
Le Gouvernement britannique se résout à ce que soit inséréedans le
texte de I'accord la réservesuivante:

a Le Gouvernement islandais continuera de s'employer à mettre
en Œuvre la résolution de I'Althing en date du 5 mai 1959 rela-
tive à l'élargissement de la juridiction sur les pêcheriesautour de

l'Islande.1)
Le Gouvernement islandais s'est réservé ainsi la faculté d'élargirà son

grésa juridiction sur les pêcheries,à certaines conditions ou, pour mieux
dire, aveccertaines limitations. 11s'agit de celles qui sont énoncéesdans le
texte de l'accord, et qui consistent à notifier six mois à l'avance toute
mesure en ce sens, et, au cas possible où surgirait un différenden la ma-

tière, à porter la question devant la Cour, à la demande de l'une ou de
l'autre partie; il s'agit aussi de la limitation implicite que l'élargissement
doit avoir pour objet de mettre en Œuvre la résolution de I'Althing du
5 mai 1959.

Dans cette résolution de 1'Althing il est dit:
((qu'ilconvient 2 de s'efforcer d'obtenir la reconnaissance [des]droits

[de l'lslande] sur l'ensemble du plateau continental, conformément
à la loi de 1948 relative à la conservation scientifique des pêcheries
au-dessus du plateau continental D.

La loi de 1948 permet ainsi de déterminer la vraie portéede la réserve
islandaise dans les notes de 1961. Son titre et son but coïncident. Elle
vise directement à l'établissement de ((zones de conservation ))dans les

limites du plateau continental islandais; mais suivant une orientation
progressiste déjà fortement marquée à l'époque, elle dispose que, dans
lesdites zones, ((les pêcheriesseront intégralement réglementéeset con-
trôléespar l'Islande ;)(art. premier).

L'exposédes motifs de la loi fait mention de l'intérêtspécial de 1'1s-
lande.

((On sait que l'économiede l'lslande repose presque uniquement
sur la pêcheau voisinage de ses côtes. C'est la raison pour laquelle le
peuple islandais se préoccupe aussi vivement de l'appauvrissement
progressif des lieux de pêche. ))

LI fait état aussi des nouvelles tendances du droit de la mer, du fait en

1 Intérêtspécial de l'Islande qui est reconnu par la Cour dans l'ordonnance du
17août 1972(C.I.J. Recueil 1972p. 16et 17)et dans l'arrêtdu 2 février 1973(C.I.J.
Recueil 1973, p. 20).
2 Dans la traduction du texte islandais en anglais on eshould be obtained». FISHERIES JURISDICTION (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 73

special interest in the fisheries of its coastal waters was thus recognized1

The United Kingdom accepted a 12-mile zone, but only because of
Iceland's specisl interest in the adjacent seas. Iceland for its part regarded
the 12-mile limit as provisional and did not accept it as the maximum

and permanent limit.
The United Kingdom conceded that the following reservation should
be inserted in the Agreement:

"The Icelandic Government will continue to work for the im-
plementation of the Althing resolution of 5 May 1959, regarding the
extension of fisheries jurisdiction around Iceland."

The Icelandic Government thus reserved the power to extend its
fisheries jurisdictiori at will, subject to certain conditions or more pre-
cisely to certain restrictions, namely those set out in the agreement; that

six months' notice be given of any decision to that effect and that any
dispute which might arise over any such extension be referred to the
Court at the request of either Party. Additionally there was an implied
restriction that the purpose of any extension would be to implement the
Althing resolution of 5 May 1959.

In its resolutionof 5 May 1959,the Althing had declared that
". . .recognition should be obtained of Iceland's right to the entire

continental shelf area in conforniity with the policy adopted by the
Law of 1948concerning the Scientific Conservation of the Continen-
tal Shelf Fisheries".

Thus the Law of 1948 enables the true scope of Iceland's reservation
in its 1961 Notes to be ascertained. Its purpose was identical to its title:
irs direct object was the establishment of "conservation zones" within
the limits of the I(:elandic continental shelf; but, in accordance with
progressive thinking which was already widespread at the time, the Law

went on to lay down that in the said zones "al1 fisheries shall be subject
to Icelandic rules arid control" (Art. 1).
The statement OF reasons for the Law mentioned Iceland's special
interests and declarizd that:

"It is well-known that the economy of Iceland depends almost
entirely on fishing in the vicinity of its coasts. For this reason, the
population of lceland has followed the progressive impoverishment
of fishing grounds with anxiety."

It also referred to the new trends in the law of the sea, especially the

1 This special intere5,t of Iceland was recognized by the Court in the Order of 17
August 1972 (I.C.J. Report1972,pp. 16 and 17) and in its Judgment of 2 February
1973 (I.C.J. Report1973,p. 20).74 COMPÉTENCEPÊCHERIES (OP. IND. DE CASTRO)

particulier que les Etats.qui pratiquent principalement la pêcheau voi-
sinage des côtes nationales reconnaissent de plus en plus à 1'Etat riverain
le droit d'assurer la protection des lieux de pêche,compte tenu des résul-

tats de la recherche scientifique. Les ((observations relatives à l'article
premier 1)donnent une explication de cet article en disant qu'il prévoit

«la délimitation des eaux à I'intérieur desquelles les mesures de
protection et d'interdiction de pêchedoivent être appliquées, c'est-
à-dire des eaux dont on estime qu'elles ne s'étendent pas au-delà du
plateau continental; d'autre part, l'adoption de mesures de protec-

tion et d'interdiction de la pêcheà l'intérieur deces eaux )).
En ce qui concerne la question de la souveraineté des Etats sur les lieux

de pêcheau voisinage de leurs côtes, l'exposé desmotifs n'est pas catégo-
rique. Il fait l'observation suivante:

((Toutefois il semblerait plus naturel de suivre l'exemple des Etats
qui ont déterminéles limites de leurs zones de pêched'après les
courbes de niveau du plateau continental bordant leurs côtes. Le
plateau continental de l'lslande a des contours nettement marqués,

si bien qu'il est naturel de les prendre pour base pour l'établissement
de la limite des zones de protection. Telle est la raison pour laquelle
cette solution a étéadoptée dans le présentprojet de loi. 1)

Selon l'article 2 de la loi:

((Les règlements pris en vertu de l'article premier de la présente
loi ne seront mis en application que dans la mesure compatible avec
les accords avec d'autres pays auxquels l'lslande est ou pourrait
devenir partie. ))

On peut observer dans ces textes le reflet modérédu mouvement dit
progressiste, déclenchépar les déclarations du président Truman et qui

s'est manifesté dans les tendances au renouveau du droit de la mer en
matière de pêcheries,qui résultent des législations et de la doctrine des
pays latino-américains.
II me semble que, selon la teneur de la loi de 1948 et des explications
données dans son exposé des motifs, la réserve islandaise de 1961 doit

être interprétéecomme une déclaration solennelle de l'intention de 1'1s-
lande d'élargir à l'avenir sa zone de pêcheet cela d'une manière unila-
térale - réserved'élargissement futur baséesur l'intérêtspécial et sur-
tout sur les droits préférentielsde l'Islande dans les limites du plateau
continental islandais; droits réservésqui seront mis en application dans

la mesure compatible avec les accords que I'lslande pourrait conclure
avec d'autres pays.
II està noter que le Gouvernement islandais a procédéen 1948 d'une
manière circonspecte. Il revendique certes la réglementation et le contrôle

de la zone située au-dessus du plateau continental, mais parce qu'il y voit
des ((zones de conservation ))Donc la réservevisant, dans l'échange de
notes de 1961, les intentions exprimées dans la résolution de 1'Althing

75growing recognition by countries which engage in fishing mainly in the
vicinity of their own coasts, of the right of coastal States to ensure the
protection of fishing grounds in accordance with the findings of scientific
research. The "connmentary on Article 1" explained that it provided
for:

". . . the delimitation of the waters within which the measures of
protection and prohibition of fishing should be applied, i.e., the
waters which are deemed not to extend beyond the continental
shelf; and, on the other hand, the measures of protection and

prohibition of :Fishingwhich should be applied in these waters".
On the question of the sovereignty of States over fishing grounds in the
vicinity of their coasts, the statement of reasons was not categorical,

merely stating that:
"It would appear, however, to be more natural to follow the

example of those States which have determined the limit of their
fisheries jurisdiiction in accordance with the contour of the con-
tinental shelf along their coasts. The continental shelf of Iceland is
very clearly distinguishable, and it is therefore natural to take it as a
basis. This is the reason why this resolution has been adopted in the
present draft law."

Under Article 2of the Law:

"The regulations promulgated under Article 1 of the present law
shall be enforced only to the extent compatible with agreements with
other countries to which Iceland is or may become a party."

These texts may be seen as reflecting, to a moderate extent, the so-called
progressive movement, initiated by President Truman's Proclamations,
and expressed in the trends towards a renewal of the law of the sea

relating to fisheries which have resulted from the legislation and the
doctrines of Latin Pimerican countries.
It seems to me that according to the text of the Law of 1948and of the
explanations given in the statement of reasons for the Law, the Icelandic
reservation of 1961 should be interpreted as a solemn declaration of its
intention to extend its fisheries zone in the future and to do so unilaterally,
by reason of the special interests and especially the preferential rights of

Iceland within the limits of its continental shelf, such a reserved right of
extension to be enforced in so far as was compatible with such agree-
ments as Iceland might conclude with other countries.

It should be noted that in 1948 the Icelandic Government proceeded
with caution; it did indeed claim to subject the zone superjacent to the

continental shelf tolitsrules and controls, but it did so because it saw such
areas as "conservation zones". Therefore, the reservation made in the
Exchange of Notes of 1961 in respect of the intentions expressed in the75 COMPÉTENCE PÊCHERIES (OP. IND. DE CASTRO)

de 1959, laquelle renvoie à la loi de 1948, peut être interprétée non pas
comme une réserve tendant à demander des droits exclusifs sur les
pêcheriesdans les limites du plateau continental islandais, mais comme
une réservetendant a revendiquer des droits préférentielsen raison de

l'intérêtspécialde L'lslande.

2. La résolutionde 1'Althingde 1972

La résolution de I'Althing du 15 février 1972 affirme que le plateau

continental de l'Islande et les eaux surjacentes sont sous la juridiction de
I'lslande et stipule que les limites des pêcheriesseront reportées à 50 milles
des lignes de base autour du pays (par. 1).L'élargissementétablipar cette
résolution est la cause du différendqui a étéporté devant la Cour. Mais la
résolution mérite d'être examinée endétail.

Au paragraphe 2 il est dit:
((Les Gouvernements du Royaume-Uni et de la République fédé-

rale d'Allemagne seront de nouveau informés que, en raison des
intérêtsvitaux de la nation et du changement des circonstances, les
notes échangéesen 1961 sur les limites des pêcheriesne sont plus
applicables et que leurs dispositions ne sont pas obligatoires pour
I'lslande. ))

La Cour a dit et jugéque les notes de 19.61sont toujours en vigueur en
ce qui concerne la clause compromissoire (arrêt du 2février1973).La ré-

solution de 1'Althingest considérée comme sansvaleur à cet égard.Pour
des raisons analogues à celles qu'expose l'arrêtcité(par. 36 et suiv.), et
vu les principes consacrés à l'article 42 de la Convention de Vienne sur le
droit des traités, il est bien clair que l'lslande n'a pas le droit de déclarer

unilatéralement que l'accord conclu en 1961 n'est plus obligatoire pour
elle.
La Cour pourrait se limiter à dire que la résolution de I'Althing, en
déclarant la caducité des notes de 1961, est nulle et sans effet. Mais les
autres paragraphes de la résolution doivent êtreconsidérés de manièrein-

dépendante (duae sunt ...stipulationes, una utilis, alia inutilis, neque
vitiatur utilisper hancinutilem, D.45.1.1, par. 5), et par rapport aux notes
de 1961dont il s'agit.
Le paragraphe 1 n'est plus que la mise en Œuvre de ce qui avait été
annoncéen 1961, à savoir l'élargissementde lajuridiction de l'lslande sur

toute la zone du plateau continentz' A présent,la loi de 1948est qualifiée
de ((politique fondamentale du peL )le islandais )1. Le but de la résolu-
tion et de la loi de 1948sont en vérité les mêmes.11s'agit de ((renforcer
les mesures de protectim essentielles pour la préservation des intérêts
vitaux du peuple isla* ,ais dans les mers qui entourent sescôtes D, d'éviter

-- - -.. --
1 Il faut noter quel'article 7 du règlement islandais d14 juillet1972 dit.«Le
présent règlementest promulgué conformément à la loi 44 du 5 avri1948 concernant
la conservation scientifique des pêcheriesdu plateau continental. Althing Resolution of 1959-which in turn referred to the Law of 1948-
is to be interpreted not as a reservation of a right to claim exclusive
fishing rights within the limits of the Icelandic continental shelf, but as
a reservation of the right to claim preferential rights by reason of Iceland's
special interests.

2. The 1972 Althing Resolution

The Althing Resolution of 1972asserted that the continental shelf of

Iceland and the superjacent waters were within the jurisdiction of Iceland
and provided that thiefishery limits would be extended to 50 miles from
baselines around the country (para. 1). The extension effected by this
Resolution is the cause of the dispute now before the Court. The Resolu-
tion, however, merits detailed consideration.
Paragraph 2 states:

"That the Governments of the United Kingdom and the Federal
Republic of Ge:rmany be again informed that because of the vital
interests of the nation and owing to changed circumstances the
Notes concerning fishery limits exchanged in 1961 are no longer
applicable and that their provisions do not constitute an obligation
for Iceland."

The Court has adjudged and declared that the Notes of 1961are still
in force so far as concerns the compromissory clause (Judgment of 2
February 1973).In tihat respect, the Althing Resolution was considered
to beof no effect. For reasons similar to those set out in the said Judgment
(paras. 36 et seq.)arid in the light of the principles enshrined in Article
42 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, it is quite clear that
Iceland does not havt: the right to declare unilaterally that the agreement

made in 1961no longer constitutes an obligation for it.
The Court could confii-ieitself to saying that the Althing Resolution,
proclaiming the lapse of the 1961 Notes, was void and ineffective. But
the other paragraphs of that Resolution should be considered indepen-
dently (duae .surit..stipulationes, uriautilis, alia inutilis, neque ritiatur utilis
per hanc inutilem, D.45.1.1, para. 5), and in relation to the 1961Notes
in auestion.
Paragraph 1 is no more than the implementation of what had been
announced in 1961, i.e., the extension of Iceland's jurisdiction over the
whole continental shr:lf area. It now describes the Law of 1948 as the
"fundamental policy of the Icelandic people" 1.The aim of the Resolution

and that of the 1948 Law were in fact the same, i.e., "to strengthen the
measures of protection essential to safeguard the vital interests of the
Icelandic people in the sea surrounding its coasts" and to prevent al1that

1 It should be noted tha.t Article 7 of the Icelandic Regulations of 14 July 1972states
that: "these regulations are promulgated in accordance with Law No. 44 of 5 April
1948, concerning the scieritific conservation of the continental shelf fisheries."

76ce qui ((porte préjudice à la conservation des ressources de la mer dont
dépend la subsistance de la population islandaise» (aide-mémoire du
Gouvernement islandais, 31 août 1971).

Si l'on se rappelle le décretdu30juin 1958,on peut envisager la résolu-
tion de 1972comme une prise de position pour de futures négociations,le
but étantd'adapter la juridiction de l'Islande aux nouvelles tendances du
droit de la mer et de profiter d'une nouvelle crise de ce droit. L'exigence
d'une zone de compétence exclusive (aide-mémoirecité) est biennuan-
cée.Dans la résolutionde 1972,il est signaléque:

((Les efforts tendantà résoudre les problèmes soulevéspar l'élar-
gissement seront poursuivis, lors d'entretiens avec les Gouverne-
ments du Royaume-Uniet de la Républiquefédérale d'Allemagne 1.))
(Par. 3.)

Et dans ces entretiens les représentants de l'Islande soulignent l'impor-
tance qu'il y a àrecevoir du côtébritannique une réponsepositive sur un
point considéré commefondamental: ((Reconnaissance de droits pré-
férentiels aux navires islandais pour la pêcheau-delà de la limite de

12milles 1)(note du Gouvernement islandais, 11août 1972).

3. L'accord de 1973 entre le Royaume-Uni et l'Islande

La Cour a eu connaissance de l'échangede notes constituant un accord
provisoire sur les pêcheriesentre le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni et
le Gouvernement de la République d'Islande, en date du 13 novembre
1973.

L'accord prive d'effetsentre les parties les ordonnances de la Cour ren-
dues le 17août 1972et le 12juillet 1973,et indiquant des mesures provi-
soires. 11établit un régimeprovisoire valable pour une période dedeux
ans. L'accord est provisoire ((en attendant un règlement du différendau
fond ».Il est dit aussi que ((sonexpiration ne modifie pas la position juri-
dique de l'un ou l'autre gouvernement en ce qui concerne le fond du dif-
férend 1)(par. 7).
La Cour peut se demander si l'accord de 1973 a seulement comme

effet de remplacer les mesures provisoires édictéesdans les ordonnances
de la Cour par cellesde I'échangede notes. II me semble que cet accord a
une portéeplus large et plus généralequ'ilconvient deconsidérer.
Le Premier ministre du Royaume-Uni, à la mêmedate du 13novembre
1973,a dit à la Chambre des Communes, en réponse à M. Harold Wilson:

((Notre position devant la Cour internationale de Justice demeure
exactement la mêmequ'avant, et l'accord est sans préjudice de la
cause de l'un ou l'autre pays. L'accord est provisoire et a été conclu

1 Cette déclaration quifigureau milieu de la résolution meparaitbien significative;
elle renvoàedesnégociationsles problèmesque les notes échangs 1961permettent
de porter devantla Cour. FISHERIES JURISDICTION (SEP.OP.DE CASTRO) 76

was "harmful to the maintenance of the resources of the sea on which
the livelihood of the Icelandic people depends" (Government of Iceland's
aide-mémoire of31 August 1971).
If the decree of 30June 1958is borne in mind, the 1972Resolution can
be considered as the adoption of a position in viewof future negotiations,
the aim being to adiapt Iceland's jurisdiction to the new trends in the
law of the sea and to take advantage of a freshcrisis in the development
of that law. The dernand for a zone of exclusivejurisdiction (cf. above
aide-mémoire) was formulated in most moderate terms. The 1972
Resolution pointed out that:

". ..efforts to reach a solution of the problems connected with the
extension [will] be continued through discussions with the Govern-
ments of the United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Ger-
many '" (para. .3).

In those discussions, the Icelandic representatives emphasized the
importance of a positive reaction from the Britishide to a point regarded
as fundamental: "recognition of preferential rights for Icelandic vessels
as to fishing outside the 12-mile limit." (Government of Iceland's Note
of 11August 1972.)

3. The 1973Agreement between the United Kingdom and Iceland

The Court has been informed of the Exchange of Notes constituting
an interim agreement on fisheries between the Government of the
United Kingdom and the Government of the Republic of Iceland, dated
13November 1973.
This agreement deprives of effect as between the Parties the Orders of
the Court made on 17August 1972and 12July 1973,indicating interim

measures. It establislies a temporary régime valid for a period of two
years. The agreement is temporary "pending a settlement of the sub-
stantive dispute". It is also stated that "its termination will not affect the
legal position of either Government with respect to the substantive
dispute" (para. 7).
The Court may wonder whether the effect of the 1973 agreement is
only to replace the interim measures laid down in the Orders of the Court
by the Exchange of Notes. It seems to me that this agreement has a wider
and more general scope which should be examined.
On that same date, 13 November 1973, the United Kingdom Prime
Minister said in the H[ouseof Commons, in reply to Mr. Harold Wilson:

"Our position at the World Court remains exactly as it is, and the
agreement is without prejudice to the case of either country in this
matter. This is an interim agreement covering two years from the

1 This statement, which appears in the middle of the Resolution, seems to me to be
highly significant; problems which the 1961 Exchange of Notes made it possible to
bring before the Court are referred to negotiation. pour deux ans à compter du moment de la signaturecet après-midi,
dans l'espoir que la Conférence sur le droit de la mer sera en mesure
de prendre fermement position. Nous connaissons tous les difficultés
qui se poseront à cette conférence; mais les deux gouvernements
espèrentqu'avant l'expiration de l'accord il aura étépossible d'abou-

tir à une entente sur le droit de la mer et que la situation pourra
alors êtrerégléeen conséquence. ))

La Cour ne peut ignorer les termes de l'accord et l'interprétation de son
but et de ses intentionsqui en a étédonnée à la Chambre desCommunes.
Elle se trouve ainsi dans une situation embarrassante.
Comme conséquence de cet accord, l'arrêtde la Cour sur le fond de
l'affaire n'aura pas d'effet immédiat. II est soumis par les Parties à un

délai(un laps de temps de deux ans) et à deux conditions, celle du règle-
ment du différendpar un nouvel accord et celle d'une entente à la Confé-
rence sur le droit de la mer -ce qui est anormal et peu en harmonie avec
ce qui semble êtrala fonction de la Cour.

L'accord montre aussi que les Parties ne croient pas que la Cour soit en

mesure de résoudre leur différend. Elles ont trouvé une solution à des
questions portées devant la Cour, quoique pour une périodede deux ans
seulement. L'accord est provisoire, mais il est fait ((en attendant un règle-
ment du différend au fond )).Or le règlement que les Parties disent at-
tendre n'est pas celui qui pourra résulter d'un arrêtde la Cour. Cela est

évident,étant donnél'attitude de I'lslande, qui continue à nier la compé-
tence de la Cour. L'espoir des Parties de parvenir à un accord définitifest
fondésur des négociations en cours, qu'elles soient ou non menéesen vue
de la Conférence sur le droit de la mer.

La nouvelle de ces négociationsjustifie-t-elle la suspension de la procé-

dure? II est vrai que le règlement pacifique des différendsdoit intervenir
avant tout par la voie des négociations. La Cour est ouverte aux Etats
pour réglerles questions d'ordre juridique qu'ils lui soumettent; mais un
différend devient mûr pour être porté devantla Cour lorsque les négo-
ciations entre les parties aboutissent a un point mort, à un moment ou

l'issue des négociations est fermée d'une manière définitive par un non
volumus ou un non possumus des parties. Je ne connais pas de précédents
qui aident à résoudre la question; à mon avis, une fois la procédure
ouverte, il n'y a pas de moyens de la suspendre, et en l'absence d'un
arrangement amiable ou d'un désistement elle doit se poursuivre.
L'accord constitue un argument de valeur en faveur des solutions de

prudence. Il montre que l'intention manifestée par I'lslande dans la
résolution de 1972 de se tenir prêteà résoudre grâce à des négociations
les problèmes soulevés par l'élargissement n'étaitpas vaine. II montre
aussi qu'un arrêtde la Cour, rendu avant que les parties n'arrivent par
des négociations au règlement sur le fond de l'affaire, et rédigésans que

l'importance indicative de l'accord soit prise en considération, pourrait moment of signature this afternoon, in the expectation that the
Conference on the Law of the Sea will be able to reach firm con-

clusions. We al1know the difficulties facing a conference on the law
of the sea, but both Governments hope that it will have been possible
by the expiration of this agreement to reach agreement on the law
of the sea and that that will then govern the situation."

TheCourt cannot ignore the terms of this agreement and the interpreta-
tion, given in the House of Commons, of its aims and intentions. It is
thus placed in an en~barrassing position.
As a result of this agreement, the Court's judgment on the merits of

the case will have no immediate effect. It has been subjected by the Parties
to a waiting period of two years and to two conditions,the first concerning
a settlement of the dispute by a new agreement and the second relating
to an agreement at the Conference on the Law of the Sea. All this is
irregular and hardly in keeping with what seems to be the function of the

Court.
This agreement also shows that the Parties do not believe that the
Court will be able to settle their dispute. They have found a solution to
certain issues referred to the Court, albeit for a period of two years only.
This agreement is ;in interim one, but it was concluded "pending a
settlement of the substantive dispute". Now the settlement which the

Parties say they are: waiting for is not that which may result from a
judgment of the Court. This is obvious, in view of the attitude of Iceland,
which continues to cieny that the Court has jurisdiction. The hope of the
Parties that they will be able to reach a definite settlement is based on
negotiations now in progress, whether or not they are carried on with
the Conference on the Law of the Sea in view.

Does the announcement of these negotiations justify suspending the
proceedings? It is tirue that peaceful settlement of disputes should be
brought about abovlr al1 by means of negotiation. The Court is open to
States to settle issuesof a legal nature which they may refer to it, but a
dispute is ripe for reference to the Court, when negotiations between
the parties reach deadlock and when the success of the negotiations has

definitively been ruled out as a result of anon i'olumusor a non possumus
of the parties.1do not know of any precedent which might help to answer
this question; in my opinion, once proceedings have been initiated, there
is no way of suspending them, and they should continue unless the case
is settled out of court or discontinued.
The agreement constitutes avaluable argument in favour of cautious

solutions. It shows tlhat the readiness expressed by lceland in the 1972
Resolution to seek ;i solution of the problems connected with the ex-
tension through discussions was not an empty formula. It also shows
that a judgment of the Court, delivered before the Parties reach a
settlement through negotiations on the substance of the dispute, and
drawn up without taking into consideration the indicative value ofêtreun obstacle insurmontable à la solution négociéeà l'amiable du
différend - cela serait contraire au but propre de la Cour qui est de

contribuer au règlement pacifique des différends.

II. LE FARDEAU DE LA PREUVE

Une question préalable se pose, celle du fardeau de la preuve.
Le mémoiredu Royaume-Uni sur le fond affirme que ((c'està l'Islande

qu'il appartient de prouver que le droit international reconnaît au-
jourd'hui à I'Etat riverain le droit de cette exclusivité que revendique
l'lslande n. A l'appui, il est dit que l'échangede notes de 1961représentele
droit tel qu'il existe, et que la conclusion qui en découle est qu'il ((n'est

pas permis à un Etat de s'arroger unilatéralemerit une compétence ex-
clusive sur les pêcheriesau-delà de 12 milles ))On ajoute qu'il faut des
preuves convaincantes fournies par l'Islande pour écarter des droits
acquis depuis si longtemps (par. 229) 1.

Le mémoirede la République fédéralesur le fond déclare:

((C'est l'Islande, et non la République fédéraled'Allemagne, qui
conteste le droit établi; aussi le Gouvernement de la République
fédérale d'Allemagneprétend-il que c'est à l'lslande qu'il incombe

de prouver que le droit international reconnaît aujourd'hui à I'Etat
riverain le droit d'étendre sa juridiction au-delà des 12 milles. ))
(Quatrième partie, par. 60; voir aussi par. 66.)

A mon avis, ces raisonnements portent à faux.
C'est une pétition de principe de dire que le droit tel qu'il existe, que

((le droit établi ))interdit aux Etats d'élargir leur juridiction en matière
de pêcheriesau-delà de 12milles. Tout ce qu'on peut dire, c'est que vers
l'année 1961 il y avait une tendance en faveur de la règle des 12 milles.
Mais ilreste toujours à examiner si cette règle remplissait ou non les

conditions nécessaires pour pouvoir êtreconsidéréecomme une règlede
droit coutumier.
Il n'est pas permis de parler des droits acquis en 1961 d'une manière
définitiveet ferme; dans l'échangede notes de 1961,on trouve la réserve

expresse où le Gouvernement de l'Islande dit son intention de s'employer
à élargir sa zone de juridiction sur les pêcheriesau-delà de 12 milles,
réserve acceptée par l'autre partie. II s'agit donc de droits acquis sous
condition.

La question soulevéepar le demandeur sur le fardeau de la preuve me
semble être unefausse question. Elle appellerait une réponse différente
selon celui qui la pose. Le demandeur pense que l'Islande revendique un

1Dans le mêmesens, voir Katz, «Issues Arising in the Icelandic Fisheries C)1,
International und Comparative Law QuarterlXXII-1 (janvier1973), p95.the agreement, could be an insurmountable obstacle to a negotiated

settlement of the dispute-and that would be contrary to the essential
purpose of the Couirt which is to contribute to the peaceful settlement
of disputes.

II. THEBURDEN OF PROOF

A preliminary question which arises is that of the burden of proof.
The United Kingdom Memorial on the merits asserted that "the burden
of proving that inteirnational law now recognizes the right of a coastal
State to make such ainexclusiveclaim as Iceland isnow making rests upon

Iceland". In support of this assertion, it stated that the Exchange of
Notes of 1961represented the law as it then existed, and that the conclu-
sion to be drawn therefrom was that "an assertion of exclusive juris-
diction over fisheries beyond 12 miles is not permissible by unilateral
act". It added that Iceland must furnish convincing proof before such
long-established rights could be set aside (para. 229) 1.
The Memorial on the merits of the Federal Republic of Germany
argued that :

"It is Iceland, not the Federal Republic of Germany, which is
challenging the established iaw, and it is for this reason that the
Government of the Federal Republic maintains that the burden of
proof that international law now recognizes the right of a coastal
State to extend litsjurisdiction beyond the 12-milelimit, rests upon
Iceland." (Part IV, para. 60; see also para. 66.)

In my opinion, thi:~line of argument rests on incorrect premises.
It is begging the question to Saythat the law as it existed, the "estab-
lished law", prohibited States from extending their fisheriesjurisdiction
beyond 12 miles. Al1that one can say is that around 1961 there was a
trend in favour of the:12-milerule. But the question still remains for con-

sideration whether oirnot this rule fulfilled the conditions necessary for
it to be regarded as arule of customary law.

Itis not permissibileto refer to rights as being definitively and firmly
vested rights in 1961;the Exchange of Notes of 1961contained an express
reservation whereby the Government of Iceland proclaimed its intention
to work for the extension of its fisheries jurisdiction beyond 12 miles,
such reservation being accepted by the other Party. The said rights were
therefore conditional vested rights.
The question raised by the Applicant regarding the burden of proof
seems to me to be an unreal question, calling for a different reply de-

pending on who puts it. The Applicant believes that Iceland has claimed

1 In this sense, cf. Katz, "Issues Arising in the Icelandic Fisheries Case", Inter-
national and Comparative Law Quarterly, XXII-1 (January19p.95.droit à élargirau-delà de 12milles sa zone de pêche;elle doit prouver le
droit en vertu duquel elle peut étendresacompétence au-delà de 12milles
et jusqu'à 50 milles. Du point de vue de l'Islande, c'est le Royaume-
Uni qui prétend avoirle droit de méconnaître la résolution del'Islande,
parce quecontraire au droit international; donc c'estau Royaume-Uni de
prouver ledroit qui limite la souverainetédel'Islande.

La question est toujours la même,tout en se présentant sous un autre
angle. La preuve à chercher serait celle de la loi substantive à appliquer à
l'affaire, loi qui est la mêmepour l'une et l'autre partie, quoique envisa-
géede deux points de vue 1.

Il faut aussi se demander si le droit international coutumier est sujet à
preuve. La question a pu se poser dans le droit des Etats où les coutumes
sont considéréescomme donnant lieu à une quaestiofacti mais les cou-
tumes viséessont les usages particuliers des régions, lieux ou groupes de
personnes (commerçants, agriculteurs, etc.). La question au contraire se
pose dans le droit international d'une tout autre manière.

Il convient de distinguer entre deux catégories de coutumes. Déjà les
légisteset les canonistes du droit commun distinguaient les coutumes
notoires et évidentespour tous et lescoutumes particulières, qui, étantdes
exceptions, doivent être prouvées. 11en est de mêmedans le droit anglais.
Il y a deux sortes de coutumes: les ((general customs ))loi universelle du

~o~aume, et les ((particular customs )),applicables aux habitants de cer-
tains districts; les coutumes particulières doivent être prouvées;les cou-
tumes généralesn'ont pas besoin de preuve, ellesconstituent le ((cornmon
law )2.
Le droit international coutumier n'a pas à êtreprouvé;il a un carac-
tère de généralité et il est fondé sur la conviction généralede sa validité

(oyinio iuris). La Cour doit l'appliquer d'office;elle a le devoir de le con-
naître comme quaestio iuris: iura novit curia 3. Seules les coutumes ou
pratiques régionales,de mêmeque les coutumes spéciales,sont soumises
à la nécessitéde la preuve 4.

1 Je crois que cela est confirmé par les débats sans issue qui se sont déroulésdans
l'affaire des Pêcheriesentre le Royaume-Uni et la Norvège, et par les considérations
sur la question que Lauterpacht a présentéesdans The Development of International
La2 Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, Introduction, par. 3, 4e éd.,
Oxford, 1770, p. 67, 75.
3 Dans l'affaire du Lotus, la Cour s'est posée la question de savoir si la Turquie
avait agi en contradiction des principes du droit international (C.P.J.I. sérieA no 10
(1928), p. 32); dans l'affaire des Pêcheriesentre le Royaume-Uni et la Norvège, elle
s'est demandée si l'action de la Norvège était contraire au droit internat(C.I.J.
Recueil 1951, p. 132). La question du dràiappliquer n'est donc pas viséedu point de
vue du demandeur dans ces affaires, et il n'y a pas de raison de faire autrement dans
l'affaire dont la Cour est actuellement saisie.
C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 276.

80 FISHERIESJURISDICTION(SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 79

the right to extend its fisheriesjurisdiction beyond 12 miles and should
provide evidence of the law under which it is entitled to extend its
jurisdiction beyond 12miles and up to 50 miles. From Iceland's point of
view, it is the United Kingdom which has claimed the right to over-rule
Iceland's resolution, as being contrary to international law; it is therefore
for the United Kingdom to provide evidence of the law limiting Iceland's

sovereignty.
The question is t:he same, but is put from different standpoints. The
proof to be sought is that of the substantive law to be applied in this
case, a law which is the same for both parties although considered from
two different points of view 1.
The question should also be asked whether customary international

law has to be prove:d.This question has arisen in the municipal law of
States where customs are considered as giving rise to a quaestiofacti, but
the customs referre~dto are those peculiar to regions, places or groups
of persons (businessmen, farmers, etc.). The question arises in inter-
national law in a wholly different way.
A distinction shoiuldbe observed between two categories of customs.
Traditionally jurists and canonists have distinguished in ordinary law

between notorious customs wellknown to al1and particular customs; the
latter, being exceptions, had to be proved. This is also the case in English
law, under which there are two kinds of customs: "general customs"
which apply throughout the Kingdom and "particular customs" appli-
cable to the inhabitants of certain regions. The particular customs had to
be proved, while the:general customs did not,-they were the "common

law" 2.
International customary law does not need to be proved; it is of a
general nature and is based on a general conviction of its validity (opinio
iuris). The Court rriust apply it ex officio; it is its duty to know it as
quaestio iuris: iura riovit curia 3.Only regional customs or practices, as
wellas special custorns, have to be proved 4.

1 1think that this is confirmedby the inconclusive discussions in the United King-
dom v. Norway Fisheries case and by the considered views on the matter of Lauter-
pacht, The Development of International Law by the International Court (London,
1958, pp. 363, 365).
2 Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, Introduction, para. 3, 4th
ed3,ln the Lotus case the Court raised thequestion whether Turkey had acted in a
rnannercontrary to the:principles of international law (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 10
(1928), p. 32); in the Eisheries case between the United Kingdorn and Norway, the
Courtconsideredthe qut:stionwhetherNorway's actionswerecontraryto international
law (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 132). The question of the law to be applied was therefore
not considered in theterrnsof the view of the Applicant in these cases, and thereis no
reasonto adopt a differentcoursein the case now beforethe Court.
4 I.C.J. Reports 1950, p. 276.

80 111.L'ÉVOLUTIO DU DROIT DE LA MER

1. La Cour a dit que la délimitation des espaces maritimes relève du
droit international (C.I.J. Recueil1951,p. 132).Quelles sont les règlesde
droit international à appliquer à la délimitation faitepar l'Islande?
Dans un discours du Premier ministre de l'Islande, l'existencede ces
règlesest niée.

«Je ne vois pas en quoi notre intention d'élargir notre juridiction
en matière de pêcheserait contraire au droit international établi.
C'est un fait qu'il n'existe pas, en droit international, de règles géné-
ralement admises sur la limite territoriale. ))(Icelandand the Law of
theSea, 1972,p. 31 ; citation dans le mémoirede la Républiquefédé-

rale sur le fond, quatrième partie, p. 96, par. 58.)
Les termes employés ont un caractère polémique; ils émanent d'une
des parties au différend.Mais on a pu aussi faire très objectivement l'ob-

servation suivante :
«En termes simples, le problème vraiment grave n'est pas de
savoir quelle est la largeur actuellement acceptée, c'estde savoir sila

question même est soumiseau droit international l.»
A mon avis, les changements, l'évolutionrapide et accéléréd ees condi-
tions techniques de l'exploitation des richesses de la mer ont eu pour

résultatun visible déphasagepar rapport aux anciennes règles; ily a une
crise du droit de la mer, mais elle ne devrait pas empêcherla recherche
d'une juste solution à l'affaire sur le plan du droit. Il me semble utile
d'examiner cette évolution avant d'étudier le droit à appliquer. Il ne
s'agit pas de répéterici tout ce qu'on connaît de l'histoire du droit de la
mer, mais de rappeler seulement ce qui est utile aux quelques mises au
point qui me paraissent nécessairespour justifier mon opinion sur le
droit à appliquer.

2. L'opposition de la thèse du mare liberum à celle du mare clausum
est de nature purement politique; elle reflètele besoin de faire face, avec
des arguments de tout genre, aux prétentions àl'hégémonie des puissances
maritimes; c'est la luttepour le domaine ou l'empirede la mer.

((Dans cette fameusedispute, qui a étépoussée avectant dechaleur
par de grands esprits de notre siècle,on a pu remarquer que plu-
sieurs se sont proposésde soutenir les intérêts de leur patrie,plutôt
que de trouver et de défendrela vérité 2.))

Tout au contraire, la délimitationdes espaces maritimes est considérée
d'un point de vue juridique lorsqu'elle touche la question du mare

1 «In plain words, the really grave issue is not what breadth is presently accepted,
but whetherthe issue is governedby internationallaw atr,Brownlie,Principles of
InternationalLaw,e éd.,Oxford, 1973,p. 196.
2 Pufendorf,Le droit de la nature et desgens, traduit dulatin par Barbeyrac,6e éd.,
Amsterdam, 1754, IV,5, par. 5; II, p. 271. III. THEDEVELOPMEN OT THE LAW OF THE SEA

1. The Court has said that the delimitation of sea areas depends upon

international law (,I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 132). What are the rules of
international law to be applied to the delimitation made by Iceland?
The existence of such rules has been denied by the Icelandic Prime
Minister in a speech, in which he said:
"1 cannot see:that our proposed extension of fisheriesjurisdiction

is contrary to any accepted international law. It is a fact that there
are no generally accepted rules in international law on the territorial
limit." (Iceland and the Law of the Sea, 1972, p. 31, quoted in the
Memorial on the merits of the Federal Republic of Germany, Part
IV, p. 96, para.58.)

The terms used are of a polemical nature; they corne from one of the
Parties to the disputla.But it has also been possible to make the following
objective comment:
". .. in plain words, the really grave issue is not what breadth is

presently accepted, but whether the issue isgoverned by international
law at al11".
In my opinion, the changes, the increasingly rapid development of
technical conditions for the exploitation of the resources of the sea have
resulted in a visible lagging behind of the oldrules; there is a crisis in the

law of the sea, but t.hat should not stand in the way of the search for a
just legal solution of this case.think it would be useful to examine this
development before considering the law to be applied. 1do not propose
to repeat here the well-known history of the law of the sea, but only to
restate what may be useful to arrive at what 1 consider the necessary
clarification of some points in order to justify my opinion on the law
to be applied.
2. The opposition between the theses of mare liberum and mare
clausumis of a purel:ypolitical nature; it reflectsthe need to counter, with
arguments of every kind, the claims to hegemony of the maritime powers;

itis the struggle for the domain or empire of the sea.
"The question.. . has been a subject for debate in our day by the
most distinguished minds. In connexion with this question it has
been easy to observe that many of the disputants hold their zeal for

their own country before their eyes rather than the truth 2."
On the other hantl, the delimitation of sea areas is considered from a
legal point of view when it concerns the question of mare adjacens.The

1 Brownlie,Principles of InfernationalLaw, 2nd ed., Oxford, 1973, p. 196.

2Pufendorf, De jure!naturae et genfium, translatedfrom the Latinby C. H. and
W. A. Oldfather,CarneirieInstitute, 1934,IV, 5, 5.

81 81 COMPÉTENCEPÊCHERIES (OP. IND. DE CASTRO)

adjacens. Déjàla glose puis les commentaires de Balde (à D, 1, 8, 2)
avaient généralisé entre les juristes la distinction entre proprietas, usus,
jurisdictio aut protectio.

La haute mer, res communis omnium, n'est pas un objet apte à la
propriété. Sonusage est commun à tous et il en va de mêmede la pêche.
La mer unquamfuit a comm~inionehominumseparatum, et au contraire du
territoire et des fleuvesil n'y a pas de raison de la scinder; les poissons de
la mer sont inépuisables; il serait inique de diviser la propriétéou le

droità lespêcher (iniqua nul10temporepraescribuntur) 1.
Le mare adjacens est soumis à lajurisdictio et protectio du prince du
territoire. Sur cette zone la potestas du maître de la côte est admise sans
difficulté2. Elle a comme fondement le fait que la mer adjacente est né-
cessaire à la défensedu territoire même;la zone côtière a la valeur d'un

fossé 3 ou d'un rempart 4.
Dès lorsque la jurisdictiosur la mer adjacente est reconnue, il n'y a pas
de difficultéà l'étendreaux pêcheries, avec la possibilité d'exclurd ee cette
zone les bateaux étrangers ou d'exiger destributs pour leur permettre d'y
pêcher 5. La largeur de la zone dejuridiction ou inzperium estjustifiéepar

les besoins de la défensedu territoire. Elle est fixéeselon la portée du
canon 6,de l'Œil,des jumelles ou bien en milles. Le nombre de milles est
variable selon les pays et lesauteurs, depuis les 60milles attribués à Balde
jusqu'à 3ou 4 milles. La manièrede penser du xviiiCsiècleest condensée
dans lesphrases suivantes:

((Iln'est pas aisé de déterminer jusqu'àquelle distance une nation

ne peut étendre ses droits sur les mers qui l'environnent. Bodin (De
la République, 1, ch. 10) prétend que, suivant le droit commun de
tous les peuples maritimes 7,la domination du prince s'étend jusqu'à
30 lieues des côtes. Mais cette détermination précise nepourrait être
fondée que sur le consentement général desnations, qu'il serait

1 Grotius, Mare liberum sive de iure, quodBatavis competit ad Zndicanacommercia,
dissertatio.d. deH. Cocceius, Lausannae, 1752, IV,p. 469.
2 Grotius admet qu'on peut avoirihtperiuhtin marisportionem, en raison du terri-
toire, quatenus ex terra cogi possunt, qui in proxima maris parte versantur, nec minus
quamsi in ipsa terra reperirentur. De iure BelliacPacis, II, 3, 13, 2, éd.Amstelaedami,
1735, 1, p. 238.
3 Unde dominium maris proximi non ultra concedimus, quam e terra illi imperari
potest, et tamen eo usque;nullasi quidernsit ratio, cur mare, quod in alicujusimperio est
et potestate, minus ejusdemesse dicamus, quamfossam in ejus territorio, Bynkershoek,
De dominio maris dissertatio, chap. II, Opera omnia, éd.Coloniae Allobrogum, 1761,
II, p. 103.
4 Tout peuple «est censé maître dela merqui baigne sescôtes, aussi loin qu'ellelui
sertde rempart11.Pufendorf, loc. cit., IV, 5, par. 8; II, p. 276.
5Sur la question, Cocceius dans son commentaire sur De iure Belli ac Pacis de
Grotius, éd.Lausannae, 1751, II, p. 143. Sur la guerre des sardines, Johnston, The
In6ePotestafem terraefiniri, ubifinitur armorum vis, Bynkershoek,loc. cit., p. 104.
7 Barbeyracobserve que Bodin (1, dernierchapitre) soutient avecBalde que, par le
droit des gens, la juridiction d'un prince s'étàn60 milles de ses bords; notes a
Pufendorf, /or. rit., p. 276, note 7.

82glossator, and then the commentary of Baldo on D, 1, 8, 2, had already
generalized among jurists the distinction between proprietas, usus,juris-

dictio autprotectio.
The high seas, reircommunisomnium, is not something that lends itself
to ownership; its use is common to everybody, and this applies also to
fishing. The sea uriquamfuit a communiorie hominum separatum, and
unlike land and rivers, there is no reason to divide it up; fish stocks in the

sea are inexhaustible and it would be iniquitous to divide up ownership
in them or the right to fishfor them (iniquanul10temporepraescribuntur) 1.
The mare adjacens is subject to the jurisdictio et protectio of the ruler
of the territory. Over that area the potestas of the master of the coast is
recognized without difficulty 2. Its foundation is the fact that the adjacent

sea is necessary to the defence of the territory itself; the coastal zone has
the same value as a moat 3 or a rampart 4.
Once jurisdictio over the adjacent sea has been recognized, there is no
difficulty in extending it to fisheries, with the possibility of excluding
foreign vessels from that area, or of demanding tribute for permission

to fishthere 5. The \ilidth of the area ofjurisdiction or imperium isjustified
by the defence needs of the territory. It was fixed according to the range
of cannon 6, of the riaked eye,of binoculars, or else in miles. The number
of miles varied according to countries and writers, from the 60 miles
attributed to Baldo ,downto three or four miles. The thinking of the 18th

century has been suimmedup as follows:
"It is not easy to determine just what extent of its marginal waters

a nation may bi-ingwithin itsjurisdiction. Bodin (De la République,
Liv. 1, chap. X) claims that, following the common rule of al1
maritime nations 7, the sovereignty of the Prince extends as far as
30 leagues from the shore. But this precise determination could only
be based upon a general consent of nations, which it would be

1 Grotius, Mare liberum sive de iure, quod Batavis competit ad Indicana commercia,
dissertatio,d. de H. Ciscceius,Lausannae, 1752, IV,p. 469.
2Grotius recognizedthat the imperium in maris portionem could exist by reason of
the territory,quatenus e.wterra cogi possunt, qui in proxima maris parte versantur, nec
minus quam si in ipsa terra reperirentur. De iure Belli ac Pacis, II, 3. 13, 2, ed. Am-
stelaedami, 1735, 1, p. 238.
3 Unde dominium maris proximi non ultra concedimus, quam e terra illi imperari
potest, et tamen eo usque; nulla si quidem sit ratio, cur mare, quod in alicujus inlperio est
et potestare, minus ejusd'emesse dicamus, quamfossam in ejus territorio, Bynkershoek,
De dominio maris dissertatio, chap. II, Opera omnia, Ed. Coloniae Allobrogum, 1761,
II, p. 103.
4 Every country ". . is deemed to be the master of the sea which washes its coast
as far asitservesit as a rampart".Pufendorf,loc. cit., IV, 5, para.8. II, p. 276.
5 Onthisquestion,seeCocceiusinhiscommentaryto Grotius'De iure Belli ac Pacis,
ed. Lausannae, 1751,II,p. 143. On the"SardineWar",see Johnston, The Infernational
Law of Fisheries, 1965p. 169.
6 Potestatem terrae fitriri, ubifinitur armorum vis, Bynkershoek,loc. p.101.
7 Barbeyraccomments that Bodin (1,ch. 80, ult.) agreedwith Baldo that in the Law
of Nations thejurisdictionof a princeextends to a distanceof 60 miles from the shores
of his territory,Notes to Pufendorf,loc. cit., p. 276, Note 7.
82 difficile de prouver. Chaque Etat peut ordonner à cet égardce qu'il
trouvera bon, pour ce qui concerne les citoyens entre eux, ou leurs
affaires avec le souverain. Mais de nation à nation, tout ce qu'on

peut dire de raisonnable, c'est qu'en général ld aomination de 1'Etat
sur la mer voisine va aussi loin qu'il est nécessairepour sa sûreté, et
qu'ilpeut la fairerespecter; puisque, d'un côté,il ne peut s'approprier
une chose commune telle que la mer, qu'autant qu'il a besoin pour
quelque fin légitime ...»

3. La conception qu'on a pu appeler classique, dominante jusqu'à la
moitié dece siècle,n'est que le simple développement des anciens prin-
cipes. La souveraineté sur le territoire est considéréecomme s'étendant

sur la mer dominée parle territoire; la ceinture maritime a la valeur d'une
mer territoriale. L'imperiumsur la mer adjacente donne des droits et im-
pose des devoirs à 1'Etat; ils sont très variés (neutralité,prises, contre-
bande, douane, phares, etc.) et parmi eux figurent en particulier lesdroits
exclusifs de pêche.
Dans la pratique, la difficulté à surmonter est d'arriver à un accord
fixant la distance maximum en milles où il n'est déjàplus permis aux

Etats d'étendre unilatéralementleur juridiction en matière de pêcheries.
Une règleen la matière, ayant la valeur d'une coutume internationale,
s'est-elle cristallisée?
Depuis le xvrue siècleet jusqu'a laseconde guerre mondiale, les limites
de la zone de pêchen'ont pas soulevéde problèmes graves.On a pu dire
que le droit de la mer étaitun modèle de stabilitédans la communauté

internationale. Le projet de règlement relatif à la mer territoriale en
temps de paix, préparépar l'Institut de Droit international à sa session
de Stockholm en 1928, reflète bien l'opinion générale:((L'étenduede
la mer territoriale est de 3 milles marins. Un usage international peut
justifier la reconnaissance d'une étendueplus grande ou moins grande que
3 milles 2.))
4. La déclaration dePanama du 3octobre 1939a étéconsidéré comme

le premier symptôme du recul de la conception dite classique du droit de
la mer. Vingt-neuf nations, sous l'égide desEtats-Unis, établissent une
zone de neutralité hors la mer territoriale, allant en quelques endroits
jusqu'à 300 milles.
A l'origine de la crise du droit de la mer en matière de pêcheries,on
trouve les proclamations du président Truman (28 septembre 1945).

L'ancien principe de la division de la mer en deux zones, la mer terri-
toriale et la haute mer ou mer libre, considéré jusqu'alors commeun
dogme, est mis en doute ou abandonné. On admet à présent unenouvelle
zone, celle du plateau continental. Dans cette zone I'Etat riverain a des

~-- --..
' Vattel,Le droit desgens, 1,chap. 23, par. 289,éd.Pradier-Fodéré, 11,,p. 579-
580.
2 Annuairede I'lnstitut de Droit international, 1928,p. 755. difficult to prove. Each State may regulate as it thinks best the use
of those waters as far as the affairs of its citizens, either with one
another or with the Sovereign, are concerned; but between nation
and nation the most reasonable rule that can be laid down is that
in general the sovereignty of a State over its marginal waters extends
as far as is nece:ssaryfor its safety and as far as it can be effectively
maintained; because on the one hand a nation may appropriate only
so much of conlmon property, like the sea, as it has need for some
lawful end .. .lu

3. This concept, vdhichcould be called the classical concept, and which
predominated until the middle of this century, is no more than the
development of ancient principles. Sovereignty over land is considered
toextend to the sea tlominated by that land; this marine belt is equivalent
to a territorial sea. The imperium over the adjacent sea gives rights to
and imposes obligat.ions on a State; these are of great variety (neutrality,

prize, contraband, customs, lighthouses, etc.) and they include in parti-
cular exclusive fishirigrights.
In practice the difliculty to be overcome has been to reach an agreement
fixing the maximum distance in miles beyond which States are no longer
allowed to extend unilaterally their fisheries jurisdiction. Has any such
rule, ranking as an international custom, crystallized?

From the 18th century up to the Second World War the question of
the limits of fishing zones did not give rise to serious problems. it was
possible to say that. the law of the sea was a mode1 of stability in the

international community. The draft regulations concerning the territorial
sea in time of peace, prepared by the lnstitute of International Law at
its Stockholm session in 1928, well reflected the general opinion: "The
territorial sea exten,dsfor three sea miles. An international custom may
justify recognition of a greater or lesser breadth than three miles 2."

4. The Declaration of Panama of 3 October 1939has been regarded as
the first symptom of a withdrawal from the so-called classic conception
of the law of the sea. Twenty-nine nations, under the aegis of the United
States, established a.neutral zone beyond the 'territorial sea, extending in

some places as far as 300miles.
The origin of the crisis in the law of the sea with regard to fisheries is
to be found in the proclamations by President Truman (28 September
1945). The old priinciple of the division of the sea into two zones, the
territorial sea and the high seas or free seas, which had up till then been
regarded as dogma., was called in question or abandoned. A new zone,
that of the continental shelf, was now recognized. In that zone, the coastal

1 Vattel, TheLaw of Nations, 1, ch. 23, para. 289, transG.CFenwick, Carnegie
Institute, Classics of International La108..
2 Annuairede l'Institut de Droit international,1928, p. 755.droits à l'exploitation des ressources naturelles du lit et du sous-sol mari-
times (les proclamations du présidentTruman ne visent que les richesses
minéralesdu plateau). II y aura aussi une autre zone en dehors de la mer
territoriale, celledes eaux épicontinentales surjacentes, envisagéescomme
sources de richesses biologiques; c'est une zone sur laquelle le droit
d'établir des espaces réservéspour la protection et la conservation de la
pêche est réclamé 1.
Les idées énoncéep sar le présidentTruman dans ses proclamations ont

eu des conséquencesque son auteur n'avait pas prévues. Leur succès ne
s'explique pas par le poids politique des Etats-Unis; il se justifie par les
changements intervenus dans lestechniques de I'exploitation du sol marin
et de la pêche.La base théorique de la liberté de la pêcheen haute mer
(zone extérieure à la mer territoriale), exposéepar Grotius et suivie par
l'opinion générale, estdevenue fausse. La nature inépuisable des pois-
sons s'est révélée inexacteL . es nouvelles méthodes de pêcheont rendu
nécessaires des mesures tendant à la conservation des ressources biolo-

giques de la haute mer.
Ainsi sont entréesdans la pratique internationale des notions nouvelles
qui marquent ((un renversement des idéestraditionnelles sur la libertéde
la haute mer ))et sont énoncés((des principes d'une nouvelle théorie qui
devait bientôt bouleverser le droit international, en suscitant des initia-
tives de plus en plus audacieuses2)). Les proclamations du président
Truman avaient été formuléesavec de ~rudentes limites et réserves.
compte tenu des intérêtsde pays se consacrant à la pêche enhaute mer,

mais elles ouvrent de nouveaux horizons à la spéculation scientifique et
offrent aux Etats des motifs plausibles d'élargir leurszones dejuridiction
sur les pêcheries.
La nature spécialedu plateau continental étant acceptée,on doit ob-
server qu'il n'est ni facile ni naturel de dissocier lesstatuts juridiques des
divers éléments quile constituent parce qu'ils sont étroitement liés. II
semble artificiel de distinguer les ressources minéralesdes ressources bio-
logiques. DéjàDe Buen avait proposé en 1916 (conférence de Madrid)
d'incorporer à la mer territoriale la plate-forme continentale comme

étant la plus propice au développement des espècescomestibles de pois-
sons et le lieu de pêchele plus favorable.
Aussi la difficultéde fixer les limites et la structure de la plate-forme
continentale - et la difficultédueàl'existencede côtes pratiquement sans
plateau - amènera à substituer aux critères géologiques,bathymétriques
et géographiques, la conception simplifiée d'une zone épicontinentale
établiepar chaque Etat, en dehors de la mer territoriale et d'une étendue
plus ou moins grande.
5. Une autre tendance à l'élargissementde la zone de pêcheprocèdede

1 Des antécédents hispano-luso-américains sont cités dans RojDie Ansprüche
der lateinarnerikanischen Staaten auf Fischereivorrechte jeseits der Zwolfmeilengrerzze,
Hambourg, 1972, p. 17-19. Mais ils ne semblent pas avoir eu d'influence.
2 Ferron, Le droit international de /a mer, Paris, 1960,p. 141.I,State has rights of exploitation of the natural resources of the sea-bed
and subsoil (the proclamations of President Truman only contemplated
the mineral resourcles of the shelf). There was also to be another zone
beyond the territorial sea, that of the superjacent epi-continental waters,
considered as sources of biological wealth; this was a zone over which
the right to estab1is.hreserved areas for the protection and conservation
of fisheries was asserted 1.

The ideas enunciiited by President Truman in his proclamations had
consequences unforeseen by their author. Their success is not to be
explained solely by the political weight of the United States; it was
justified by the changes which had occurred in the techniques of exploita-
tion of the sea-bed and fisheries. The theoretical basis of freedom of
fishing in the high iseas(the zone outside the territorial sea), argued by
Grotius and followed by general opinion, had become unsound. The
inexhaustibility of fsheries proved to be an illusion. The new methods

of fishing made it necessary to take steps for the conservation of the living
resources of the higlhseas.
Thus new concepts entered international practice, marking "a reversa1
of the traditional ideas on the liberty of the high seas" and principles
were stated of "a new theory which was soon to throw international law
into confusion, by provoking ever bolder initiatives 2". The Truman
Proclamations were subject to carefully drafted limits and reservations,
taking account of the interests of the States engaged in fishing in the

high seas, but they opened new prospects to learned speculation, and
afforded States pla.usible grounds for enlarging their zones of fishery
jurisdiction.

The special nature of the continental shelf once accepted, it should be
observed that it is neither easy nor natural to separate the legal status
of thevariouselements composingit, sincethey are closelylinked together.

It would seem artificial to make a distinction between mineral resources
and living resourceis. De Buen proposed as early as 1916(at the Madrid
Conference) theincorporation of the continental platform in the territorial
sea, as being the area most propitious to the development of edible
species of fish, and the most favourable fishingground.
Thus the difficu1i;yof defining the boundaries and the structure of the
continental platform-and the difficulty resulting from the existence of
coasts practically without a continental shelf-was to lead to the sub-
stitution, for geological, bathymetrical and geographical criteria, of the

simplified concept of an epi-continental zone established by each State
beyond its territorial sea, and varying in the extent.
5. Another trenclfavouring the enlargement of the fishery zone flowed

1 Spanish and South American precedentsare quoted in Rojahn,Die Ansprüche der
lateinamerikanischen 2itaaten auf Fischereivorrechte jenseits der Zwolfmeilengrenze,
Hamburg, 1972, pp. 1'7-19;but they do not seem to have had any influence.
2 Ferron, Le droit ir;~ternutloela mer,Paris 1960, Vol. II, p. 141.84 COMPÉTENCEPÊCHERIES(OP. IND. DE CASTRO)

ce que l'idéede protection et de conservation de la pêche s'estétendue à
celle d'une juridiction dans cesdomaines sur une zone allant au-delà de la
mer territoriale. La juridiction de1'Etatcôtier pour garantir la conserva-
tion de la pêcheétantadmise, l'intérêstpécial deshabitants du pays cons-
titue une base pour établir sur la zone des droits préférentielsou des
droits exclusifs en faveur de cet Etat.

Pour l'uneou pour l'autre raison, lefait est que, aprèslesproclamations
du président Truman, il y a eu, à la manière d'une réaction en chaîne,
une sériede déclarations en faveur de l'élargissementde la compétence
des Etats en matière de pêcheries.
Le 29octobre 1945,leMexique déclarequ'ilrevendique toute l'étendue
de la plate-forme continentale adjacente à ses côtes et toutes les richesses
naturelles, connues ou inconnues, qu'on peut y trouver. Le 11 octobre

1946, l'Argentine déclaresous la souveraineté nationale la mer épicon-
tinentale et le plateau continental argentin. Lelermai 1947,le Nicaragua
affirme sa souveraineté sur la haute mer contiguë ou sur les eaux du
plateau continental, jusqu'à 200 milles 1.On doit relever que c'est dans
cette perspective historique et dans le courant des idéesnéesdes procla-
mations du présidentTruman qu'il faut placer et aussi interpréter la loi
islandaise de 1948relative à la conservation scientifique des pêcheriesdu
plateau continental.

La révolution juridique en cours tâche de s'affirmer grâce à la déclara-
tion de Santiago du 18août 1952et aux principes adoptés à la troisième
réunion du Conseil interaméricain de jurisconsultes tenue à Mexico en
1956,ainsi qu'à d'autres conférenceset réunions dejurisconsultes latino-
américains.
La revendication dejuridiction exclusive sur les pêcheriesou de droits
préférentielssur des zones de plus en plus larges - 6 milles, 12milles et
même200 milles marins - et la prétention des Etats riverains à régle-

menter unilatéralement leur compétenceen matière de pêcheont pour
effet naturel d'alarmer lespays intéressésà la pêcheen haute mer.
6. Pour en finir avec des incertitudes si périlleuses, la Commission
du droit international inscrit en 1949le droit de la mer parmi les sujetsà
étudieren vue de leur codification. Dans le troisième projet de la Com-
mission pour la Conférencedes Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, la
règledes 12milles est consacréecomme formule de transaction. La Com-

mission reconnaît que la pratique internationale n'est pas uniforme en ce

Pérou,le Costa Rica, le Nicaragua, le Honduras, El Salvador, le Brésil,1'Equateur
et le Venezuela, voir Alvarez, Los nuevos principios del derecho del mar, Montevideo,
1961, p.21et suiv.,et Ferron,/oc. rit., p. 157 et suiv. Sur la doctrinedes auteurslatino-
américains antérieursl'année1961 (Bustamantey Rivero, Ulloa, Garcia Montufar,
Garcia Sayan), voir Rojahn,Die Ansprüche, p. 144.
L'attitude des pays latino-américains est qualifiée de((réactiondevant l'échec des
mécanismes internationaux facà la crise des pécheries~:Jacobson, ~[Bridgingthe
gap to International Fisheries Agreement: a guide for unilateral actionr, The San
Diego Law Review, vol. 9, no 3, mai 1972,p. 465.from the fact that the idea of protection and conservation of fisheries
grew into the idea ofjurisdiction in that connection over an area extending
beyond the territorial sea. Once the jurisdiction of the coastal State to
safeguard the conservation of fish stocks was recognized, the special
interests of the inhabitants of that country constituted a basis for the
establishment of pre:ferential or exclusive rights over that zone in favour
of that State.

For one or other of these reasons, the fact is that following the Truman
Proclamations, there was a sort of chain reaction consisting of a series
of declarations in :Faveurof extension of the fisheries jurisdiction of
States.
On 29 October 1!345,Mexico declared that it claimed the whole area
of the continental platform adjacent to its coasts and al1 the natural

resources, kxiownor unknown, to be found therein. On 11October 1946,
Argentina declared that the epi-continental sea and the Argentinian
continental shelf were subject to national sovereignty. On 1 May 1947,
Nicaragua asserted sovereignty over the contiguous area of the high seas
or the waters of the:continental shelf, up to 200 miles from the Coast 1.
It should be observed that it is in this historical perspective, and against
the background of the trend flowing from the Truman Proclamations

that the Icelandic Law of 1948concerning the scientific conservation of
the continental shelf fislieriesshould be placed and also interpreted.
The current legal revolution is in the course of being established thanks
to the Santiago Declaration of 18August 1952,and the principles adopted
at the 3rd Meeting of the Inter-American Conference of Legal Advisers
held in Mexico in 1956,as well as at other conferences and meetings of
Latin American laa~yers.

The claiming of exclusivejurisdiction over fisheries or of preferential
rights over wider and wider zones-6 sea miles, 12 sea miles, and even
200 sea miles-and the claim by coastal States to settle unilaterally their
fishery jurisdiction, have naturally led to alarm among the countries
interested in high sea fishing.
6. In order to put an end to such dangerous uncertainties, the Inter-
national Law ~omrnission in 1949included the law of the sea among the

subjects to be studlied with a view to codification. In the third draft
prepared by the Commission for the United Nations Conference on the
Law of the Sea, the 12-mile rule was laid down as a compromise formula.
The Commission recognized that international practice was not uniform
-- .- -.
1 On the legislative acts and declarations made at the time by Panama, Peru, Costa
Rica, Nicaragua, Honcluras, El Salvador, Brazil, Ecuador and Venezuela, see Alvarez,
Los nuevos principios del derecho del mar, Montevideo 1961, pp. 21 ff. and Ferron, op.
cir., pp. 157R. On the doctrine of Latin American authors prior to 1961(Bustamante y
Rivero, Ulloa, Garcia Montufar, Garcia Sayan) see Rojahn, Die Ansprüche, p. 144.

these nations felt to bi: a failure of international mechanisms to respond to fisheries
crises": Jacobson, "Bridging the Gap to International Fisheries Agreement: a guide
for unilateral action"The San Diego Law Review, Vol. 9, No. 3,May 1972, p. 465.qui concerne la délimitationet elleajoute: ((La Commission estime que le
droit international ne permet pas l'extension de la mer territoriale au-

delà de 12milles 1.))
La conférence de 1958montre la difficultéd'arriver à un consensus. Le
projet de la Commission du droit international tendant à fixer un maxi-
mum à l'élargissementde la mer territoriale se heurte à un échec. La
règledes 12milles n'est acceptable ni pour les pays qui désirent conserver
la règle des 3 milles ni pour ceux qui veulent faire admettre la possibilité
d'une plus grande extension.
Chacune des tendances qui s'opposent à la conférence peut se targuer

de certaines résolutions en sa faveur. La tendance conservatrice réussit
à faire inclure dans la Convention sur la haute mer la libertéde pêche
parmi les quatre libertésde la haute mer, et celle-ci est définiecomme la
partie de la mer n'appartenant pas à la mer territoriale. La Convention
sur le plateau continental stipule que les droits de 1'Etat riverain sur le
plateau ne portent pas atteinte au régime deseaux surjacentes en tant que
haute mer; dans la définition des ressources naturelles (sur lesquelles
1'Etat riverain a des droits souverains) on englobe, outre les ressources

minérales, les organismes vivants qui appartiennent aux espèces séden-
taires et eux seuls.
Les tendances innovatrices peuvent se targuer aussi de certains succès.
La Convention sur la pêcheet la conservation des ressources biologiques
de la haute mer admet aue 1'Etatriverain a un intérês t~écialau maintien
de la productivité des ressources biologiques dans la partie de la haute
mer adjacente à sa mer territoriale, intérêt quil'autorise, dans certaines
circonstances, à adopter unilatéralement des mesures de conservation. La

résolution dela Conférencesur lessituations spécialestouchant les pêche-
ries côtières recommande de tenir compte des ((besoins prioritaires de
1'Etat riverain résultant de sa dépendance ))économique à l'égardde la
pêche,quand ildevient nécessairede ((limiterla prise totale d'un ou de
plusieurs stocks de poisson dans une régionde la haute mer adjacente à
la mer territoriale1).
La conférence laisse sans solution les deux questions les plus impor-
tantes, celle de I'extension maximalede la mer territoriale et celle deI'ex-

tension de la zone adjacente sous la juridiction de 1'Etatriverain en ma-
tière de pêcherie.
C'estdans le climat d'incertitude et de luttes de tendances vécupendant
la conférence de 1958que l'Islande promulgua le décretdu 30juin 1958
étendant sa zone de pêchejusqu'à 12milles.
La deuxième Conférence sur le droit de la mer (Genève, 1960) est
convoquée pour trancher la question de la largeur de la mer territoriale
et celle des limites de zones de pêche. Ellea abouti à un échec.Mais la
règle des 12milles a fait des progrès notables.

11est vrai que la proposition tendant à limiter la largeur de la mer terri-
toriale àla distance maximale de 12milles est rejetée en commission(par
-. --
' Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 195IIp.o265.with regard to the delimitation, and added: "The Commission considers
that international law does not permit an extension of the territorial sea
beyond 12miles 1.''
The 1958Conference showed the difficulty of reaching any consensus.
The International Law Commission draft, which would have set a maxi-
mum limit to the extension of the territorial sea, was blocked. The 12-
mile rule was acceptable neither to the countries who wished to keep the

3-mile rule nor to thiosewho wished the possibility of a greater extension
to be recognized.
Each of the opposing tendencies at the Conference could boast of
certain resolutions in its favour. The conservative trend succeeded in
having freedom of fishing included in the Convention on the High Seas
as one of the four freedoms of the high seas; the high seas were there
defined as meaning al1 parts of the sea that are not included in the
territorialsea. The Convention on the Continental Shelf lays down that
the rights of the coa,stalState over the continental shelf do not affect the
legal atatus of the superjacent waters as high seas; in the definition of
natural resources, mer which the coastal State has sovereign rights,
wereincluded, in addition to mineral resources, livingorganismsbelonging
to sedentary species, and only those organisms.
The innovating trend could also boast of a certain measure of success.

The Convention on Fishing and the Conservation of the Living Resources
of the High Seas recognized that the coastal State has a special interest
in the maintenance of the productivity of the living resources in any
area of the high seas adjacent to its territorial sea, which in certain
circumstances entitles it to adopt unilateral measures of conservation.
The Conference Resolution on Special Situations relating to Coastal
Fisheries recommended taking account of the "preferential requirements
of the coastal State resulting from its [economic] dependence upon the
fishery" where it belromes necessary "to limit the total catch of the stock
or stocks of fish in an area of the high seas adjacent to the territorial
sea".
The Conference left unsolved the two most important questions,
namely that of the inaximum extension of the territorial sea, and that of
the extension of the:adjacent zone subject to the fisheriesjurisdiction of

the coastal State.
It was in the cliniate of uncertainty and conflict of trends experienced
during the 1958 Conference that Iceland issued the decree of 30 June
1958extending its fishing zone to 12miles.
The Second Conference on the Law of the Sea (Geneva 1960) was
called to settle theluestionof the breadth of the territorial sea and of the
limits of fisheries zones; it was however a failure. But the 12-mile rule
made marked progress.
It is true that the proposal to limit the breadth of the territorial sea to
a maximum of 12 miles was rejected in committee (by 39 votes to 36,

1 Yearbook of the InternationalLaw Commission, 1956, Vol. II, p. 265.

8639 voix contre 36 et 13 abstentions), mais la proposition de compromis
présentéepar les Etats-Unis et le Canada, envisageant une zone de mer
territoriale de6 milleseten plus une zone decompétenceexclusiveen ma-
tièrede pêchede 6 milles, elle aussi, qui est votéeen séance plénière, n'est
pas adoptée à une voix près, voix qui aurait été nécessaire pour que le
texte recueille la majoritédes deux tiers (54voix pour, 28contre et 5 abs-
tentions) 1.
7. Il convientde noter que la règle des12millesest entendue de manière

différentepar les Etats et par les auteurs. Elle a été considérépear les uns
comme un frein à la poussée desEtats nouveaux désireuxd'étendreplus
encore leur juridiction en matièrede pêcheries;c'est pour eux l'extension
maximale permise. Elle a été comprisepar d'autres Etats comme une pre-
mièreétape pour arriver à faire reconnaître I'extension plusgrande qu'ils
visaient; c'est pour eux l'extension minimale admissible.
C'est dans cette ambiance de lutte entre lestendances qui s'est manifes-
tée à la conférencede 1960qu'il faut replacer I'accord de 1961. Le cou-

rant d'idéescontraire à la règledes 3 milles s'impose. Mais le Royaume-
Uni n'a pas admis comme générale la règla eutorisant àétendrelajuridic-
tion en matière de pêcheriesjusqu'à la limite de 12 milles; il l'accepte
mais comme règle négociée et en considération de l'intérêstpécialde l'ls-
lande. L'Islande n'admet pas non plus la règle des12millescomme limite
maximale de sa zone de compétence sur la pêche;elle demande l'exten-
sion de 12millescar c'est celle qu'il lui est possible d'obtenir pour le mo-
ment, mais elle y voit une extension provisoire et se réserve lafaculté de

l'étendre,en s'employant à mettre en Œuvre larésolution de1'Althingdu
du 5 mai 1959.
8. L'échec desconférencesde 1958et de 1960empêche la cristallisation
d'une limite maximale pour la zone de pêche. L'évolution du droit de la
mer en cette matière s'est poursuivie dans l'anarchie, la note dominante
étant celle d'une extension progressive et accélérée dep srétentions des
Etats côtiers 2.

Dans la confusion régnant en la matière, on peut distinguer plusieurs
tendances qui, à mon avis, peuvent êtrerésuméescomme suit.
En premier lieu, il faut noter que la possibilitéd'étendre la zone de
pêche exclusive endehors de la mer territoriale est admise d'une manière
pratiquement générale.La résistanceque quelques Etats opposaient à la
règle des 12milles ne cesse de s'atténuer 3.Les auteurs en Europe et aux
Etats-Unis l'admettent aussi comme limite maximale à I'extension de

1 Il faut noter le caractèrede compromis du vote qui est intervenu; Dndoit I'exa-
miner en relation avec la proposition du Brésil,de Cuba et de l'Uruguaysur larecon-
naissance des droits préférentiels.
2 Visible entre les années 1967 et 1971 (acreeping jurisdiction),), Kahden, Die
Inanspruchnahme vonMeereszonen undMeeresbodenzonendurch Küstenstaaten, Zeéd.,
1971, prologue.
3 Noter encore la protestation des Etats-Unis contre la déclarationdu Canada
élargissantla zone côtièrejusqu'à 12 milles (mai 1970). Le Japon déclarene pas
reconnaîtrela zone de pêchede 12 milles, mais dans l'accorddu 22 juin 1965avec la
Coréeon constate la reconnaissanceréciproquede la zone de 12 milles.with 13 abstentions), but the compromise proposal made by the United
States and Canada, contemplating a zone of territorial sea of 6 miles
and a zone of excliisive fisheries jurisdiction of 6 miles, voted on at a
plenary session, failed to be adopted by one vote, one additional vote
being necessary for the text to receive a two-thirds majority (54 votes in
favour, 28 against, and 5 abstentions) 1.

7. It should be observed that there are different understandings of the
12-milerule both arnong States and among writers. By some it has been
regarded as a brake on the pressure of new States anxious to extend still
further their fisheriesjurisdiction; for them it is the maximum permitted
extension. By other States it has been understood as a first stage towards
achieving recognition of the wider extension which they have in view;
for them it is the minimum extension acceptable.

It was in this atrnosphere of conflicting trends, which came into the
open at the Confere:nceof 1960,that the 1961agreement must be exam-
ined. The trend of ideas opposed to the 3-mile rule had to be accepted;
but the United Kingd~m did not recognize the rule permitting the
extension of fisheriesjurisdiction up to the 12-milelimit as a general rule;
it accepted it, but only as a negotiated rule, and in consideration of the
special interests of lieland. Iceland for its part did not recognize the 12-
mile rule as the maximum limit of its fisheriesjurisdiction zone; it sought

an extension to 12 miles because that was what it was possible for it to
obtain at the time, but it regarded it as a provisional extension and
reserved the power of making a further extension, and applied itself to
implementing the Althing Resolution of 5 May 1959.
8. The failure of the 1958and 1960Conferences prevented any rule as
to the maximum limit for the fisheries zone from crystallizing. The
development of the law of the sea in this field took place in conditions of
anarchy, the dominilnt note being a progressive and accelerated extension

of the claims of coastal States 1.
In the confusion which reigns in the matter, several tendencies can be
distinguished whichi,in my opinion, can be summarized as follows.
in the first place, it should be observed that the possibility of extending
the exclusive fisheries zone beyond the territorial sea is practically gener-
ally admitted. The resistance set up by some States to the 12-milerule is
continually decreasing 2.Writers in Europe and the United States also

recognize it as the maximum limit to the extension of the jurisdiction of

1 The compromise natureof the vote which occurredshould be observed; ishould
of preferentialrights.with the proposal by Brazil, Cubaand Uruguayon recognition
2 This "creeping juirisdiction"was observable between 1967 and 1971: Kahden,
Die Inanspruchnahmevon Meereszonen und Meeresbodenzonen durch Küsrenstaafen,
2nd ed. 1971, preface.
3 Note howeverthe protest by the United States against the declaration by Canada
extendingits coastal zone to 12miles(May 1970).Japanstated that it did not recognize
the 12-milefishingzone, but in its agreementof 22 June 1965with Koreais to be found
reciprocal recognition of the 12-milezone.la juridiction des Etats côtie~s. Cette tendance favorable à la règle des
12 milles a fait dire que la limite des 12 milles semblait êtrele nombre
magique (the magic number) pour la grande majoritédes Etats 1.
En sens contraire, on voit que la tendance d'origine latino-américaine à
élargir la zone de juridiction sur les pêcheries jusqu'à la limitede 200

milles semble se consolider; on peut citer à cet égard la déclaration de
Montevideo du 8 mai 1970 et la déclaration de Saint-Domingue du
7juin 1972.Cette tendance s'étend à d'autres continents. Dans le rapport
du Comitéjuridique consultatif africano-asiatique sur sa douzième ses-

sion à Colombo (18-27janvier 1971),il est établi quela plupart des délé-
gations sont prêtes à accepter une limite de 12milles pour la mer territo-
riale, mais en affirmant ledroit de 1'Etatcôtier à revendiquer la juridiction
exclusive sur une zone adjacente à des fins économiques. Voir aussi les
recommandations formulées àYaoundé(20-30juin 1972) 2.

La semencejetéepar les proclamations du présidentTruman continue
toujours à donner des fruits, et c'est d'elles que procèdent des courants
d'idéesinnovatrices concernant le droit de la mer 3.
L'admission d'une troisième zone maritime, inséréeentre la mer terri-

toriale et la haute mer, est à la base d'une notion nouvelle, celle de la mer
patrimoniale ou zone économique. Selon la déclaration de Saint-Do-
mingue, 1'Etatriverain jouit des droits souverains sur les ressources natu-
relles renouvelables et non renouvelables, qui se trouvent dans les eaux,

sur le lit et dans le sous-sol d'une zone adjacente à la mer territoriale,
-
1 Bouchez, ((Some Basic Problems of Coastal State Jurisdiction and the Future
Conference on the Law of the Sear, Annales d'érudesinternationales, vol. 4, 1973,
p. 155.
2 11a étéannoncé dansla presse que les soixante-dix-sept pays en voie de développe-
ment avaient décidéà Nairobi (Kenya) de défendre devant la Conférence desNations
Unies à Caracas le droit aux 200milles pour lespays côtiers.
3 On peut observer aussi dans les pays du groupe occidental la tendance à élargir
les zones de pêchedans l'intérêt des populations côtières.
Le Sénat et la Chambre des représentants du Massachusetts, réunis en General
Court, autorisent le directeur de la division des pêchesmaritimes, avec l'approbation
du gouverneur, à étendre la compétence jusqu'à 200 milles, aux fins de conservation
et de protection des ressources maritimes (Massachusetts,An Act Relative to the
Territorial Waters of the Commonwealth). En 1972, le Congrès de 1'Etat du Maine
demande au secrétaire d'Etat etàla délégationau Congrès des Etats-Unis d'étendre
la juridiction sur les pêcheriesà toute l'étendue du plateau continental (Samet, J. H.,
et Fuerst, R. L.,The Latin-American Approach fo the Law of the Sea, University of
North Carolina, Sea Grant Publication, mars 1973,app. A et B, p. 150et 151).Aux
Etats-Unis,il y a des conflits entre les Etats de l'Union. La Nouvelle-Angleterreest en
faveur d'un élargissementde lajuridiction pour protéger la pêchecôtière.La Californie
préconisede la limiter, compte tenu de la pêchedu thon en haute mer. Les intérêts
militairesjouent en faveur de la limite deilles (Hjertonsson, The New Law ofrhe
Sea, (Influence of the Latin American States on Recent Developments of the Law of
the Sea »,Leiden-Stockholm, 1973,p. 96).
Au Canada, le gouverneur est autorisé à établir par voie de décretsdes zones de
pêchedans des régionsde la mer adjacentes à la côte canadienne (loi du 16juin 1970
et 5 A).t la loi sur la mer territoriale et les zones de pêche,nouveaux paragraphes 4

88 FISHERIES JURISDICTION (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 87

coastal States. This tendency in favour of the 12-mile rule has made it
possible to say that the 12-mile limit appears to be "the magic number"

for the great majority of States 1.
In the other direction, it is apparent that the trend originating in Latin
America towards extending the zone of fisheries jurisdiction up to the

200-mile limit appears to be becoming more firmly established; in this
connection one might quote the Declaration of Montevideo of 8 May
1970. and the declaration of Santo Domingo of 7 uune 1972. This trend
is spreading to other continents. In the report of the Asian-African Legal

Consultative Committee on its 12th Session in Colombo (18-27 January
1971),it is said that most of the delegations were ready toaccepta 12-mile
limit for the territorial sea, but coupled with an affirmation of the rights

of the coastal State to claim exclusive jurisdiction over an adjacent zone
for economic put-poses. See also the recommendations drafted at Yaoundé
(20-30 June 1972) 2.
The seed sown by the Truman Proclamations is still bearing fruit, and it

is from them that innovating ideas continue to spring concerning the law
of the sea 3.
The recognition of a third maritime zone. inserted between the territo-
"
rial sea and the high seas, is the basis of a new concept, that of the patri-
monial sea or econlomic zone. According to the Duclaration of Santo
Domingo, the coast;al State has sovereign rights over the renewable and

non-renewable natural resources which are found in the waters, in the
sea-bed and in the silbsoil of an area adjacent to the territorial sea called

1 Bouchez, "Some Basic Problems of Coastal State Jurisdiction and the Future
Conference on the Law of the Sea", Annals of International Studies, Vol. IV, 1973,
p. 155.
2 It has been annouriced in the press that the 77 developing countries meeting in
Nairobi (Kenya) decideld to defend the right to a 200 sea-mile limit for coastal States
at the United Nations Conference in Caracas.
3 The tendency to ex.tend fisheries zones in the interest of coastal populations may
also be observed in couritries of the Westernroup.
The Senate and Hourie of Representatives of Massachusetts, assembled in General
Court, authorized the Director of the Division of Marine Fisheries, with the approval
of the Governor, toextend jurisdiction up to 200 miles for the purposes of conservation
and protection of maritime resources (Massachusetts, An Act Relative to the Territorial
Waters of the Commonwealth). In 1972, Congress of the State of Maine requested the
Secretary of State and the delegation to the United States Congress to extend juris-
diction over fisheries to the whole extent of the continental shelf (J. H. Samet and
R. L. Fuerst, TheLatin-American Approach fo the Law of the Sea, University of North
Carolina, Sea Grant Publication, March 1973, App. A and B, pp. 150-151). In the
United States, there are conflicts between the states and the Federal Government. New
England is in favour of an extension of jurisdiction to protect coastal fisheries. Cali-
fornia favours limiting jurisdiction, taking account of cod fishing in the high seas.

Military interests operate in favour of the 12-mile limit (Hjertonsson, The New Law
of the Sea, "Influence of the Latin American States on Recent Developments of the
Law of the Sea", Leideri-Stockholm, 1973, p. 96).
In Canada, the Governor is authorized to prescribe byrder in Council fishing zones
in areas of the sea adjac,ent to the coast of Canada (Law of 16June 1970amending the
Law on the Territorial Lieaand Fishery Zones, new paras. 4 and 5A).dénomméemer ~atrimoniale: la zone de la mer territoriale et de la mer
patrimoniale, c6mpte tenu des conditions géographiques, ne doit pas
dépasser 200 milles marins au maximum.
Dans la proclamation du président Truman et à la conférencede 1958,

on se référaitaux ressources naturelles du ~lateau continental. sur les-
quelles un droit exclusif étaitreconnu à I'Etat riverain, pour délimiter la
portée de ce droit, afin de respecter la libertéde la pêcheen haute mer.
A présent, la référenceaux droits sur les ressources naturelles prend une

nouvelle tournure. On en vient à réaffirmerle droit des Etats à la souve-
raineté permanente sur toutes les ressources naturelles du fond des mers
et de leur sous-sol à l'intérieurdes limites de leur juridiction nationale et

dans les eaux surjacentes. C'est ce qui est dit aussi dans la résolution 3016
(XXVII) de l'Assemblée générale,dans une recommandation adoptée
par le Comité des ressources naturelles du Conseil économique et social
(session février 1973) et dans une résolution du Conseil économique et

socizl (avril-mai 1973) 1.
II me semble que l'Islande a suivi avec la résolution de 1972 la même
tactique que celle qui lui a réussiauparavant. Elle a mis 1'Etatdéfendeur
devant un fait accompli, et elle l'a fait avec la conviction que l'évolution

du droit de la mer est en train de iustifier sa décision. L'IslandeDeutavoir
l'espoir que les tendances favorables à un élargissement de la zone de
pêcheobtiendront l'appui du plus grand nombre des Etats à la conférence
de Caracas 2.

IV. LE DROIT À APPLIQUER

1. La Cour se trouve devant le grief formulé par le demandeur contre

l'Islande d'avoir violéle droit international en élargissant unilatéralement
sa zone de pêche en1972. Lesnotes de 1961contiennent la disposition par
laquelle l'Islande se réserve d'élargir sa zonede pêchepour mettre en
Œuvre larésolutionde1'Althingde 1959.Mais ledemandeursoutient que la

résolution de 1972conteste le droit établien 1961et que l'Islande ne peut
pas le faire sans prouver que la règle des 12 milles n'est plus en vigueur
(mémoire du Royaume-Uni, par. 229; mémoire de la République fédé-
rale, quatrième partie, par. 60). 11est fait aussi référence a la mécon-

naissance par l'Islande des ((droits acquis [par le demandeur] depuis si
longtemps ))(mémoire du Royaume-Uni, par. 229).

1 II convient de tenir compte, mais cgrano salisdes travaux préparatoires de la
conférencede Caracas. Ils servent connaître les tendances actuelles des Etats mais
ce sont aussi des prises de position pour les débatsdevant se dérouleronférence.
2 Le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni explique dans sa réponse à une question
poséepar un juge qu'au paragraphe297 de son mémoireil entendait indiquee quela
troisième Conférence des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, qui doit avoir lieu
prochainement, ferait éventuellement apparaître la possibilité d'un consensus qui
ferait évoluer le droit de manière autoriser des revendications comme celles que
l'Islande formule aujourd'h1). FISHERIES JURiSDICTION (SEP.OP. DE CASTRO) 88

the patrimonial sea; the area of the territorial sea andthe patrimonial sea,
taking into account geographic circumstances, should not exceed a

maximum of 200 sea-miles.
In the Truman Proclamation, and at the 1958 Conference, reference
was made to the na1:uralresources of the continental shelf over which it
was recognized that the coastal State had an exclusive right, in order to
define the scope thereof, with a view to respecting the freedom of fishing
in the high seas. At the present time, the reference to rights over natural
resources is taking iinew turn. A point has been reached at which the
right of Statesis reaffirmed to permanent sovereignty over al1the natural

resources of the sea-bed and subsoil within their national jurisdiction, and
in the superjacent waters. This is also what was said in General Assembly
resolution 3016 (XXVII), in a recommendation adopted by the Commit-
tee on Natural Resources of the Economic and Social Council (Session of
February 1973)and in a resolution of the Ecanomic and Social Council
(April-May 1973) 1.
Itaeems to me that with its Resolution of 1972,Iceland followed the
same tactics as those which had previously brought it success. It faced the

defendant State with afait accompli, and did so in the conviction that the
development of the llawof the sea is moving towards a justification of its
decision. Iceland may cherish the hope that the trends in favour of exten-
sion of fisheries zones will obtain the support of the greater number of
States at the Caracas conference 2.

1. The complaint brought before the Court by the Applicant against
Iceland is that of having committed a breach of international law by
unilaterally extending its fisheries zone in 1972.The Exchange of Notes of

1961 contains the provision by which Iceland reserved the possibility of
extending its fisherie:~zone in implementation of the Althing Resolution
of 1959.But the Applicant contends that the Resolution of 1972conflicts
with the law established in 1961,and that Iceland cannot act in this way
without proving that the 12-mile rule is no longer in force (United King-
dom Memorial, para. 229; Federal Republic Memorial, Part IV, para.
60). Reference is also made to the disregard by Iceland of "such long-
established legal rights" of the Applicant (United Kingdom Memorial,

para. 229).

1 The travauxpréparatoires of the CaracasConferenceshould betakeninto account,
though cumgrano salis, as of assistancein ascertainingthe presenttendencies amongst
States; in addition they revealthe taking up of positions with a viewto the discussions
du2iThe Government of'the United Kingdom has explained, in its reply to a question
by a Member of the Court, that in para. 297 of its Memorialit intended to make the
point "that the forthcorningThird UnitedNations Conferenceon the Law of the Sea
may revealwhether a consensuscan be reachedwhich will bringabout a development
in the law so as to permitthe kindof claim which Icelandis now making". Pour exprimer mon opinion de manière à éviterles difficultésdues au
manque de clarté de l'exposédu demandeur, il me semble utile de sérier

les questions.
Les droits acquis invoqués s'appuient sur ((ledroit existant et les titres
juridiques établis ))(id.). Les droits du défendeur ont un fondement
contractuel, l'échangede notes. Le défendeur a acquis des droits mais qui
sont soumis à un terme indéterminéet conditionnel (dies incertus an et

incertus quando). Le droit est acquis par le demandeur d'une manière
limitée,jusqu'au jour où l'Islande exerce la faculté qu'elle s'est réservée
d'élargir sa juridiction en matière de pêcheries.En le mettant en Œuvre,
l'Islande ne lèse pas un droit acquis du demandeur à ce que l'Islande
respecte la limite de 12milles. Le demandeur est en droit de se plaindre ici,

mais seulement de ce que l'Islande n'a pas honoré son engagement de
soumettre à la juridiction de la Cour le différend relatif à l'élargissement.

On n'est pas justifié non plus à parler d'un droit acquis selon le droit
international en vigueur en 1961. La Cour n'a pas devant soi la situation
existante en 1961. Le fait incriminé par le demandeur, c'est la résolution

de 1'Althingde 1972, c'est-à-dire une autre situation, celle d'un élargisse-
ment qui, quoique prévu en 1961, n'est mis en Œuvre qu'en 1972. Fait
nouveau dont la léga-itén'est à considérer au'au moment où il vient à se
produire (tempus regitfactum). Fait nouveau qui est justement celui au
sujet duquel il est prévu qu'encas de différendentre les parties la question

serait portée devant la Cour. Le demandeur n'a pas un droit acquis à ce
que l'élargissementsoit pour toujours limitéà 12 milles, qui serait fondé
sur le droit international en vigueur en 1961 1.
2. L'argument clédu demandeur est que la règledes 12milles constitue
le droit international en vigueur, parce qu'elle est devenue une règle de

droit coutumier, et aussi parce qu'elle n'a pas étéabrogée par une cou-
tume contraire. II faut donc examiner si la règle des 12 milles a la valeur
d'une règlede droit international coutumier.
Selon la communis opinio, un droit international coutumier vient à
naître lorsqu'une pratique s'est cristallisée avec lescaractères suivants:

a) Une acceptation généraleou universelle. L'attitude des Etats ne doit
pas êtredouteuse.Larègleen question devra être généralementconnue

et acceptée d'une manière expresse ou tacite. Ce qui a fait penser
que la coutume internationale est obligatoire, c'est qu'elle exprime un
consensus tacitus generalis sinon à la manière d'un pacte tacite, au
moins comme l'expression d'une conviction générale.Pour que naisse
une coutume internationale, ce n'est pas assez qu'une règlesoit adop-

téepar plusieurs Etats dans leurs lois nationales, dans des traités et
conventions ou qu'elle soit appliquée dans des décisions arbitrales,

l Ce qui semble admis parle demandeurlorsqu'ilconsidère dans ses exposés oraux
que la règledes 12milles n'était pasencoreen vigueuren 1961. In order to express my view in such a way as to avoid the difficulties
resulting from the lack of clarity of the Applicant's argument, it seems to
me to be as wellto deal with the various issues one by one.
The established rights relied on are said to be based on "the existing
law and established legal rights" (ibid). The Respondent's rights have a

contractual basis, namely the exchange of Notes. The Respondent has
acquired rights, but rights which are subject to a pre-condition unspecified
in point of time (dies incertus anet incertus quando). The right of the
Applicant is an established right subject to a limitation, i.e., up to the date
when Iceland exercises the power it has reserved of extending its fisheries
jurisdiction. By exercising that power, lceland does not infringe any
established right of the Applicant to respect by Iceland of the 12-mile
limit. The Applicanit is entitled to appeal to the Court, but only on the
grounds that Iceland has not honoured its commitment to submit to the
Court the dispute concerning the extension.
Nor is itjustified to refer to an established rightnder international law
in force in 1961.The situation existing in 1961is not .what is before the
Court. The act cornplained of by the Applicant is the 1972 Althing

Resolution, that is to say a different situation, that of an extension which,
although foreseen in 1961,was not effected until 1972.This is a new fact,
the legality of which must be considered solely at the time when it occurs
(tempus regitfactum). It is precisely that new fact with regard to which it
was provided that in case of dispute between the parties the matter would
be brought before the Court. The Applicant has no established right to
the extension being perpetually limited to 12miles, on the basis of inter-
national law in forci: in 1961 1.
2. The key argument of the Applicant is that the 12-mile rule is the
international law in force on the subject, because it has become a rule of
customary law, and ;îlso because it has not been abrogated by a contrary
custom. We must therefore consider whether the 12-milerule amounts to
a rule of customary international law.
According to the communis opinio, a customary international right

comes into existence when a practice crystallizes which has the following
distinguishing mark!; :
(a) General or universal acceptance. There should be no doubt as to
the attitude of States. The rule in question must be generally known
and accepted expressly or tacitly. What has 1ed to the view that
international custom is binding is that it expresses a consensustacitus

generalis,if not as a sort of tacit agreement, at least as the expression
of a general coinviction. For an international custom to come into
existence, the fact that a rule may be adopted by several States in
their municipal legislation, in treaties and conventions, or may be
applied in arbitral decisions is not sufficient, if other States adopt a

1 This appearsto have beenconceded by the Applicant when in its oral statement it
expressed the view that the12-milerulewas hot yet in force in 1961.
90 dans lecas où d'autres Etats adoptent une autre règle,et elle sera in-
opposable àun Etat toujours opposé àson application (C.I.J. .Recueil
1951, p. 131).L'existence d'une tendance majoritaire, mêmeI'accep-
tation dans une convention internationale, ne signifie pas que la
convention a consacré ou cristalliséladite règleen règlede droit cou-

tumier (C.I.J.Recueil 1969,p. 41).
b) Une pratique uniforme. Pour la formation d'une règle nouvelle de
droit international, il faut que la pratique des Etats, y compris ceux
qui sont particulièrement intéressés,ait étéen substance ou pratique-
ment uniforme (C.I.J. Recueil 1951,p. 25 ;C.I.J.Recueil 1951,p. 116,
131 ;C.I.J.Recueil 1969,p. 42).
c) Une duréeconsidérable. C'estle temps qui fait mûrir une pratique et
la transforme en coutume. Les textes emploient les termes de prae-
scripta consuetudo, vetustas, per plurimos annos observata, diuturnis
moribus introductum, etc. La Cour a admis un affaiblissement de

l'exigenceconcernant la duréemais seulement à condition que

«la pratique des Etats, y compris ceux qui sont particulièrement in-
téressésa,it étéfréquenteet pratiquement uniforme dans le sens de la
disposition invoquée et se soit manifestéede manière à établir une
reconnaissance généraledu fait qu'une règle de droit ou une obli-

gation juridique est en jeu » (C.I.J.Recueil 1969, p. 43, voir aussi
p. 45).
d) L'opinio iuris.

«Non seulement les actes considérésdoivent représenter unepra-
tique constante, mais en outre ils doivent témoigner, par leur nature
ou la manière dont ils sont acceptés,de la conviction que cette pra-
tique est rendue obligatoire par l'existence d'une règle de droit ...
Les Etats ...doivent donc avoir le sentiment de se conformer à ce
qui équivaut à une obligationjuridique. ))(C.I.J.Recueil 1969,p. 44.)

Compte tenu de ces conditions, on doit se demander si la règle des
12 milles a la nature d'une coutume internationale. Pour répondre sans
équivoque à la question, il est nécessairede la poser en distinguant les
deux sens que l'on donne à l'expression ((règledes 12milles >).

i) La règledes 12millessignifieque lesEtats ne peuvent plus s'opposer à
ce qu'un autre Etat élargissesa zone de compétencesur les pêcheries
jusqu'à 12milles.
ii) La règledes 12milles signifieque les Etats ne peuvent pas élargirleur
zone de pêche au-delàde 12milles.

Le Gouvernement de Sa Majestébritannique me semble avoir bien
répondu à une question de sir Humphrey Waldock, lorsqu'il a dit que FISHEKIESJURISDICTION (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 90

different rule, and it will not be opposable to a State which still
opposes its appilication (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 131).The existence of
a majority trend, and even its acceptance in an international conven-
tion, does not imean that the convention has caused the rule to be
crystallized or canonized as a rule of customary law (I.C.J. Reports

1969, p. 41).
(6) Uniform practice. For a new rule of international law to be formed,
the practice of States, including those whose interests are specially
affected, must have been substantially or practically uniform (I.C.J.
Reports 1951, p. 25; I.C.J. Reports 19.51, pp. 116 and 131; I.C.J.
Reports 1969, p. 42).

(c) A considerable period of time. It is time which ripens a practice and
transforms it irito a custom. In the texts, such terms are used as
praescripta cofi~suetudo, vetustas, per plurimos annos observata,
diuturnis moribus introductum, etc. The Court has recognized the
possibility of some relaxation of the requirement ofa considerable
length of time, but only on condition that:

"State practiice, including that of States whose interests are
specially affected, should have been both extensive and virtually
uniform in the sense of the provision invoked;-and should more-
over have occurred in such a way as to show a general recognition

that a rule of law or legal obligation is involved." (I.C.J. Reports
1969, p. 43; see also p. 45.)
(d) Opinio Juris

"Not only must the acts concerned amount to a settled practice,
but they must also be such, or carried out in such a way, as to be
evidence of a belief that this practice is rendered obligatory by the

existence of a rule of law requiring it . .. States ... must therefore
feel that they areconforming to what amounts to a legal obligation."
(I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 44.)

Taking account of these conditions, we must consider whether the
12-mile rule is in the nature of an international custom. In order to give
an unambiguous reply to this question it is necessary when putting it to
make a distinction bletweenthe two meanings which may be given to the
expression "12-mile rule".

(i) The 12-mile rule means that States can no longer object to another
State extending its fisheries jurisdiction zone to 12miles.

(ii) The 12-mile rule means that States cannot extend their fishing zone

beyond 12miles.
Her Majesty's Government seems to me to have given a proper reply to
a question put by Jutige Sir Humphrey Waldock, when it was stated on its

behalf that: «l'on ne saurait affirmer de façon certaine que la nouvelle règleait
pris naissance avant lemoment où leJapon, Etat sans doute (particu-
lièrement intéressé »,au sens de ce principe, a estimé nepas pouvoir
utilement contester la législation de la Nouvelle-Zélande et des
Etats-Unis. A partir de ce moment, d'après nous, il étaitraisonnable

de soutenir que, malgréla persistance du désaccordsur la largeur de
la mer territoriale, il existait désormais une règlede droit nouvelle
habilitant 1'Etatriverain à revendiquer une zone de pêche exclusive
de 12milles. ))(Compte rendu du 29mars 1974,p. 40.)

C'est vrai et il a étépossible de considérer que la résistance despays
qui continuaient à s'opposer à l'élargissementde la juridiction exclusive
sur la zone de pêche jusqu'à 12milles avait étévaincue à ce moment-là.
Pour cette raison, et avec cette signification, il est possible de dire que la
règle des 12millesest devenue coutumière.
Mais admettre la possibilité que les Etats revendiquent une zone de
pêche exclusivede 12 milles n'a pas comme conséquence logique ou né-

cessaire que ale chiffre de 12 milles représente, selon le droit interna-
tional, la limite correcte aux fins de la détermination de la zone où I'Etat
riverain Peut revendiquer des droits de pêcheexclusifs)) (ibid p..40).
Cette affirmation répond à une autre question qu'il convient d'étudier
indépendamment.
La question posée est celle-ci: existe-t-ilune règlede droit coutumier
interdisant aux Etats d'élargir leur compétence en matière de pêche

au-delà de 12 milles? Avant de répondre affirmativement, il faudrait
s'assurer que ladite règleremplit les conditions exigéespour la naissance
d'une coutume internationale.
Dans la troisième partie de cette opinion, consacrée à l'évolutiondu
droit de la mer en matière de pêcheries,on peut voir qu'un nombre tou-
jours croissant de pays n'acceptent pas de limiter à 12milles leur zone de
compétence sur les pêcheries 1.Avant 1961,et dèsles proclamations du

président Truman, il y a eu des manifestations contraires à ladite règle,
dans des lois, lors de conférencesinteraméricaineset dans lesdébatsde la
CDI2. Après 1961,et spécialementen 1972,il est mêmedificile de con-
sidérercomme majoritaire la tendanceen faveur de la règle des 12milles.
La règle des 12milles n'a à aucun moment été acceptéede façongénérale
ou universelle comme fixantune limite maximale 3.

11convient de noter aussi qu'avant et après 1961,au cours de la période
qu'on peut considérer comme celle de la naissance de la règle,l'Islande,
qui est 1'Etat sans doute «particulièrement intéressé D, a exprimé son
opposition à la règle d'une manière expresse et persistante 4. Selon les

1 La règle des12 milles peut êtreconsidérkeau contraire comme applicabàela
limite dea merterritoriale.
2 Citations dans Rojahn,Die Ansprüche,p. 164.
3 Sur la tendance majoritaireactuelle, Steven«Who isto Control the Oceans:
US Policy in the 1973 Law of the Sea Conference »,The International Lawyer,
vol. VI, no 3 (juillet 1972).
4 Citations dans Rojahn« Die FischereigrenzeIslands vom 1 September 1972 im
92 "It could not safely be said that the new rule had emerged until
Japan, a State whose interests were certainly specially affected in the
meaning of that principle, decided that it could not effectively
challengein lawthe legislation of New Zealand and the United States.
As from that moment, in our submission, it was reasonable to
maintain that, notwithstanding continuing disagreement on the
breadth of the territorial sea, there was then by that stagea new rule
of law to the effect that a coastal State was entitled to an exclusive

fisherylimit of 112miles." (CR 7413,p. 40.)
This is quite correct, and it was possible to take the view that the
resistance of the ccsuntries which continued to oppose extension of
exclusivefisheries jurisdiction to 12miles was overcome at that moment.
For that reason, it is possible to Say that the 12-mile rule, with that

meaning, has beco11,iea customary rule.
But to concede the possibility that States might claim an exclusive
fisheries zone of 12 miles does not lead as a logical or necessary con-
sequence to the coniclusion that "the figure of 12 miles was the correct
limit in accordance with international law for the purpose of defining the
zone in which the icoastal State is entitled to exclusive fishery rights"
(ibid., p. 40). This statement is an answer to a different question, which
should be examined separately.

The question is aisfollows: is there an ,existing rule of customary law
which forbids States to extend their fisheries jurisdiction beyond 12
miles? Before replyii~gin the affirmative to this, it would be necessary to
be satisfied thatsuch a rule meets the conditions required for the birth of
an international cust:om.
In Part III of the present opinion, which was devoted to the develop-
ment of the law of the sea with regard to fisheries, it was made clear that
a continually increa:singnumber of countries do not agree to limit their
fisheriesjurisdiction zone to 12miles 1.Before 1961,from the time of the

Truman Proclamations onwards, there were manifestations contrary to
that rule, in legislaticsn,at Inter-American conferences, and in the discus-
sions of the International Law Commission 2.Since 1961,and in particu-
lar in 1972,it isdifficultto regard the trend in favour of the 12-milerule as
supported by a majority. The 12-milerule has at no time been accepted in
a general or universa.1way as fixinga maximum limit 3.
It should also be noted that before and after 1961, during the period
which may be regarded as that of the coming into existence of the rule,

Iceland, which is cei-tainlya State whose interests are specially affected,
made known its opposition to the rule expressly and persistently 4.

l The 12-milerule malyon the other hand be regardedas applicableto the limit of
the territorialsea.
2 Quotations in Rojalin, Die Ansprüche, p. 164.
U.S.OPolicy in the 1973 Lawof the Sea Conference", The InternationalLawyer, VI,
No. 3, July 1972.
Quotations in Rojalhn,"Die FischereigrenzeIslands vom 1 September 1972 imauteurs les plus autorisés, et suivant l'enseignement de la Cour (C.I.J.
Recueil1950,p. 65; C.I.J. Recueil1951,p. 131 ; C.I.J. Recueil1969,p. 42,
par. 73), la volonté expresse d'un Etat dans ladite période empêchela
naissance de la coutume. Le principe de la majorité ne s'applique pas,
mêmesi la majoritéexiste. L'appliquer serait contraireaux principes de la
souverainetéet de l'égalité des Etats.
Dans les notes de 1961, l'Islande nie implicitement que la règle des
12milles soit une règlede droit international coutumier, limitant la zone

des pêcheries.C'est la signification qu'il faut donner à la référencedirecte
à la résolution de 1959et àla référenceindirecte à la loi de 1948.11y a là
une réserve enfaveur d'une zone allant iu-.u'aux limitesdu dateau conti-
nental. Je ne crois pas que cette réservedoive être interprétée comme
subordonnée à un changement du droit international. La réservefaite n'a
qu'une seule limitation, à savoir qu'en cas de différendsur l'élargissement
la question doit être portée devant la Cour. C'est autre chose de supposer
que le Gouvernement islandais aurait eu, par prudence politique, l'inten-

tion d'attendre, pour effectuer l'élargissementannoncé,le moment le plus
favorabledu point de vue de l'opinion internationale.

3. Je ne crois pas non plus que l'autoritédesconventions de 1958puisse
êtreinvoquéeenfaveurde la règle des12milles. L'article 24 de la Conven-
tion sur la mer territoriale et la zone contiguë mentionne la limite de
12 milles pour la zone contiguë, mais dans quatre domaines (douane,
immigration, réglementationsanitaireet fiscale)et ilne visepas les pêche-

ries. Ce n'est pasun oubli. La question des pêcheriesétaitdans l'esprit de
tous. C'est un cas où il peut êtrebon d'appliquer le vieil adage inclusio
uniusexclusio alterius.
On a citéaussi l'article 2 de la Convention sur la haute mer comme
preuve que l'lslande a violé,par la résolution de 1972,le principe de la
liberté depêche enhaute mer consacrépar l'article 2 de la Convention sur
la haute mer 1.11est vrai que dans leszones faisant partie de la haute mer
ccles droits de pêche nepouvaient êtreque des droits partagéset non pas

exclusifs )(opinion individuelle de sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, C.I.J. Recueil
1973,p. 69, par. 5). Maisje crains qu'en appliquant ce critèresans plus on
commette une pétition de principe car l'on admet implicitement que la
largeur de la haute mer a étéfixéed'une manière mathématique par le
droit international. II s'en faut de beaucoup. L'étendue dela mer territo-
riale n'a pas étéétablie. Lapratiaue des Etats montre que la mer territo-
riale est élargie,par exemple, de 3 à 4 milles, de 4 à 12 milles, toujours

aux dépens de la haute mer. Ne peut-elle pas être étendue au-delà de

Lichte maritimer Abgrenzungsprinzipien des Internationalen Gerichtshof)lArchiv
des Volkerrechts,ol. XVI, no 1 (1973), p. 39, 41, 43, 47; voir aussi NelseThe
Patrimonial Sea))International andComparativeLaw Quarterly, octobre 1973,p. 673,
note 29.
1 Si larésolution islandaisede1972est critiquablec'est parcequ'elle est contrairea
l'échange de notes etn'a pasédûmentjustifiée.According to the most authoritative writers, and following the doctrine

of the Court itself (I.C.J. Reports 1950,p. 65; I.C.J. Reports 1951,p. 131 ;
I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 42, para. 73) the express will of a State during such
a period prevents the coming into existence of a custom. The majority
principle does not apply, even if a majority exists. To apply it would be
contrary to the principles of sovereignty and equality of States.
In the 1961 Exchange of Notes, Iceland denies by implication that the
12-mile rule is a rule of customary international law limiting the extent of
the fishery zone. This is the meaning which should be attributed to the
direct reference to tlhe 1959 Resolution and the indirect reference to the
1948 Law. A reservation was made in favour of a zone extending to the
boundary of the conitinental shelf. 1 do not consider that this reservation

should be interpreted as being subject to there being a change in interna-
tional law. There is only one limitation on the reservation made, namely
that in case of dispute as to the extension, the question was to be brought
before the Court. It may be supposed that the Icelandic Government
might have intended, as a matter of political prudence, to await the most
favourable moment from the point of view of international opinion in
order to carry out the announced extension, but that isanother matter.
3. Nor do 1consilderthat the authority of the 1958conventions can be
invoked in favour of'the 12-mile rule. Article 24 ofthe Convention on the
Territorial Sea and the Contieuous Zone mentions a limit of 12miles for
the contiguous zone, but in four specificfields(customs, and fiscal, immi-

gration or sanitary ri:gulations) and does not envisagefisheries. Nor isthis
an oversight: the question of fisheries was in everyone's mind. This is a
case in which it may be well to apply the old adage inclusiouniusexclusio
alterius.
Article 2 of the Convention on the High Seas has also been cited as
evidence that Iceland has violated, by its 1972 Resolution, the principle
of freedom of fishing in the high seas enshrined in Article 2 of the Con-
vention on the High Seas 1.It istrue that in zones forming part of the high
seas "fishing ... could only be shared and not exclusive" (separate
opinion of Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 69, para. 5).
But 1am afraid that. to do no more than apply this criterion would be to

beg the question, because it would be to admit by implication that the
extent of the high seas was mathematically fixed by international law.
But this is far from being the case. The extent of the territorial sea hasnot
been established. The practice of States shows that the territorial sea has
been extended, for e:xample,from 3 to 4 miles, or from 4 to 12miles, on
each occasion at the expense of the high seas. Can it not be extended

Lichte rnaritimerAbgri:nzungsprinzipiendes Internationalen Gerichtshofes", Archiv
des Volkerrechts,ol. XVI, No. 1 (1973), pp. 39, 41, 43, 47; see also Nelson, "The
PatrimonialSea", Znteri7ationaland ComparativeLaw Quarterly, October 1973, p. 673,
Note 29.
1 If the Icelandic Resolution of 1972 is open to criticism it is on the ground that it
is contrary to theExchangeof Notes, and hasnot beendulyjustified. 12milles lorsque des circonstances ou raisons spéciales le justifient? Il
faut noter aussi que, depuisla Conférencede 1960sur le droit de la mer, il
y a unetendance qu'on ne peut pas ignorer àadmettre une troisième zone,
entre la mer territoriale et la haute mer, sur laquelle les Etats peuvent
revendiquer une juridiction, sans prétendre à la souveraineté 1. Est-ce
qu'elle nepeut pas êtreélargieau-delà de 12milles? Sans qu'ilsoit besoin
de répondre à ces questions, il est difficile de voir comment la mise en

Œuvre de la résolution de 1'Althing de 1959, prévue dans les notes de
1961, peut être contraire en 1972 au droit international envers le
Royaume-Uni, si l'on n'admet pas qu'entre 1961 et 1972 la règle des
12 milles est entréedans le droit coutumier. La règledes 12 milles qui a
trouvéporte close rentre-t-elle par la fenêtre?
Il me semble aussi qu'il n'est pas possible de tirer quelque argument
utile que ce soit de la Convention sur le plateau continental et du com-
mentaire fait à son sujet par la Cour d'après lequel «l'Etat n'a aucune
juridiction sur les eaux surjacentes >)au plateau (C.I.J. Recueil 1969,

p. 37, par. 59). L'un et l'autre signifientque 1'Etatn'a pas dejuridiction
sur les eaux surjacentes en vertu de son droit sur le plateau continental,
mais cette réserveconcerne le régimedes eaux surjacentes en tant qu'elles
appartiennent à la haute mer et non les eaux surjacentes lorsqu'elles sont
considéréescomme mer territoriale, zone contiguë ou zone de pêche
soumise à la juridiction d'un Etat.
Il n'y a pas d'arguments bien fondés enfaveur du caractère obligatoire
de la règle des 12 milles. Ceux qui s'appuient sur des interprétations
ad hoc des articles des conventions de 1958ne portent pas. La conférence

de 1958a échouédans son propos de fixer une limite à la juridiction sur
les pêcheries.Comment déduire des conventions ce que les parties à la
conférenceont refuséde dire?
4. Bien qu'elle n'ait pas étésoulevéepar le demandeur, une autre ques-
tion est à considérer. L'élargissementopéré parl'Islande en 1972 a été
contestépar le Royaume-Uni et, en violation de la clause compromissoire
de l'échangede notes de 1961,l'Islande a refuséde comparaître devant la
Cour. Il faut se demander si ce comportement de l'Islande a pour consé-

quence que l'élargissement décrété parelle n'est pas opposable au
Royaume-Uni et si la Cour doit seborner à dire cela dans son arrêt.

Je ne crois pas que cet argument ait un fondementjuridique solide soit
dans l'accord des parties, soit dans le Statut de la Cour, soit dans le droit
des traités.
Les notes de 1961 reconnaissent à l'Islande la facultéd'élargir sajuri-
diction sur les pêcheriesà cette seule condition qu'il s'agissede mettre en
Œuvre la résolutionde 1'Althingde 1959. C'est après l'élargissement,et

s'ily a un différend entre les parties, que la question peut êtreportée
devant la Cour. Ce n'est pas un droit accordé au Royaume-Uni et la

1 Elle est admise dans la proposition tendantààl6 milles les eaux territoriales
età 6 autresmilles la zone des droits deexclusifs.

94beyond 12 miles when circumstances or special reasons justify it? It
should also be observed that since the 1960Conference on the Law of the
Seathere has been a.trend, which cannot be overlooked, toward recogni-

tion of a third zone:,between the territorial sea and the high seas, over
which States can clalima form of jurisdiction, without any pretension to
sovereignty 1.Can this not be extended beyond 12miles?While it does not
seem necessary to reply to these questions, it is difficult to see how the
implementation of the 1959Althing Resolution, which was envisaged in
the 1961 Exchange of Notes, can in 1972be contrary to international law
vis-à-vis the United Kingdom, if it is not conceded that between 1961
and 1972the 12-mille rule entered customary law. Has the 12-mile rule,
having found the door closed, crept in by the window?
It seems to me also that it is not possible to base any useful argument
whatever on the Convention on the Continental Shelf, or on the com-

ments on it by the Court to the effect that the coastal State has "no
jurisdiction over the: superjacent waters" of the continental shelf (I.C.J.
Reports 1969, p. 37, para. 59). The significanceof these is that a State has
no jurisdiction over the superjacent waters by virtue of its rights over the
continental shelf, but this reservation concerns the régime ofthe super-
jacent waters in so far as they appertain to the high seas, and not the
superjacent waters vvhenthey are regarded as territorial waters, contigu-
ous zone, or fishing iconesubject to thejurisdiction of a State.
There areno well-founctedarguments in favour of the binding character
of the 12-mile rule; those built upon ad hoc interpretations of articles in
the 1958conventions do not convince. The 1958Conference failed in its

attempt to fix a limit to fisheriesjurisdiction. How can one deduce from
the conventions whartthe parties to the Conference refused to Say?

4. Another question should be examined, although it has not been
raised by the Applicant. The extension effected by Iceland in 1972 was
disputed by the United Kingdom and, in violation of the compromissory
clause of the 1961 Exchange of Notes, Iceland has refused to appear
before the Court. 1.tshould be considered whether the consequence of
Iceland having acteclin this way isthat the extension which it has decreed
is not opposable to the United Kingdom, and whether the Court should
confine itself to stating as much in its Judgment.

1do not consider i.hatthisargument has a sound legal basis either in the
Parties' agreement, or in the Statute of the Court, or in the law of
treaties.
The 1961 Exchange of Notes recognized that Iceland had the power to
extend its fisheriesjiirisdiction on the sole condition that this was done in
implementation of the 1959Althing Resolution. It was after the extension,
and if there should be a dispute between the Parties, that the question
could be brought before the Court. This was not a right conferred on the
-.

of exclusive fishing rightsto a further6 miles.ritorial watersto 6 miles andthe zone

94question peut êtreportée devant la Cour à la demande de l'une ou de
l'autre partie. L'Islande aurait pu le faire par exemple si l'élargissement
décidépar elle avait été méconnu par le demandeur, si au lieu de porter le

différenddevantla Cour il avait envoyésa flotte pour protégersesbateaux
de pêche. Lesnotes ne contiennent pas de clause pénaleou de sanction
pour le cas où l'une desparties fait défaut.
Le Statut de la Cour (art. 53), en harmonie avec le droit procédural
moderne, ne traite pas la partie défaillante comme coupable et est bien

loin de considérerle défaut comme une,ficta confessio. La Cour, par ses
propres moyens et en tenant compte des faits qu'elle connaît et du droit
applicable, doit s'assurer si l'élargissement est valableou non et dans
quelle mesure il peut l'être.
Enfin, le demandeur n'invoque pas l'inaccomplissement du devoir qu'a
l'Islande de soumettre ledifférend àla Cour comme motif pour abroger le

traité etse libérerde ses obligations envers l'Islande; le demandeur sou-
tient au contraire que l'accord esttoujours en vigueur.
5. Je ne vois pas d'autre règlecoutumière qui fixe la largeur de la zone
des pêcheries.La règledes 200 milles ne peut pas être tenuepour accep-
téeet comme conférant aux Etats le droit d'élargirleur juridiction dans
cette mesure. Malgré les progrès qu'elle a fait dans les dernières années,

elle ne présente pas l'uniformiténi l'acceptation généralequ'il faudrait
pour pouvoir êtreconsidéréecomme une règle coutumière, mêmede
portéerégionale 1.
A l'opposé dela thèsedu demandeur, M. Padilla Nervo soutient que

((le développement progressif du droit international suppose la
reconnaissance de la notion de mer patrimoniale qui s'étenddepuis
les eaux territoriales jusqu'à une certaine distance, fixéepar 1'Etat
riverain intéressédans l'exercicede ses droits souverains, en vue de

protéger les ressources dont dépendent son développement écono-
mique et la subsistance de sa population >)(C.I.J. Recueil 1973,
opinion dissidente, p. 41).

L'opinion de M. Padilla Nervo est à rejeter pour plusieurs raisons. La
mer patrimoniale est une notion de compromis, digne de considération,
mais qui ne remplit pas lesconditionsd'une règlede droit. Lespays repré-
sentés à Saint-Domingue n'ont pasprétendu queleur proposition relative
à une zone de mer patrimoniale soit applicable à tous les Etats latino-

américainsou qu'elle ait leur faveur générale maisils y ont vu une con-
tribution a une éventuelleformule conjointe latino-américaine 2.

revendications, Latin-America and the Law of the Sea, University of Rhode Island,
Occasional Paper, no 14, 1972,p. 1. Sur les protestations des Etats et des auteurs,
Rojahn, 41Zur zukünftigen Rechtsordnung des Festlandsockels und der Fischerei auf
dem Hohen Meer a,Jahrbuchfrir internationalesRecht, vol. XV (1971), p. 407.
2 Castafieda,a The Concept of Patrimonial Sea in International Law l)Indian
Journalof InternafionalLaw, vol. 12, no 4 (octobre 1972),p. 538.United Kingdom; the question could be brought before the Court at the
request of either Party. Iceland could have done so, for example, if the
extension it had decided to make was disregarded by the Applicant, if,

instead of bringing the dispute before the Court, the Applicant had sent
its fleetto protectits fishing vessels.The Notes contain no penal clause or
clause providing any sanction if one of the Parties failed to appear.
The Statute of the (Court(Art. 53.),in harmony with modern procedural
law, does not treat a party in default as guilty, and is far from regarding
failure to appear as aficta confessio. The Court, using its own means,
and taking account of the facts of which it is aware and of the applicable
law, must ascertain whether the extension is valid or not and to what
extent it may be valid.
Finally, the Appliicant does not raise the non-fulfilment of Iceland's

duty to submit the diisputeto the Court as a ground for abrogation of the
treaty, and for its being absolved from its obligations toward Iceland; on
the contrary, the Applicant contends that the agreement is still in force.
5. 1 cannot see that there is any other customary rule fixingthe extent
of the fishery zone. 'The200-mile rule cannot be regarded as an accepted
one, and as thus conFerringon States the right to extend their jurisdiction
to that extent. Despite the progress which it has made in recent years, it is
not marked either by the uniformity or the general acceptance which it
would require in order to be regarded as a customary rule, even of

regional extent 1.
Against the contentions of the Applicant, Judge Padilla Nervo has
argued that :
"The progressive development of international law entails the
recognition of the concept of the patrimonial sea, which extends from

the territorial waters to a distance fixed by the coastal State con-
cerned, in exercise of its sovereign rights, for the purpose of protec-
ting the resources on which its economic development and the liveli-
hood of its people depends." (Dissenting opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1973, p. 41.)

The view of Judge:Padilla Nervo must be rejected for several reasons.
The patrimonial sea is a compromise concept, which is worthy of con-
sideration but whicti does not meet the conditions required of a rule of
law. The countries represented at Santo Domingo did not claim that
their proposal concerning a zone of patrimonial sea should be applicable
to ail Latin American States, or that it was generally favoured by them,
but they regardeci it as a contribution to the working out of an eventual
joint Latin American formula 2.

1 GarciaAmador observesthat the differencesrelateto the verynatureof the claims,
Latin-America and the Law of theSea, University of Rhode Island, OccasionalPaper
tigen Rechtsordnung des Festlandsockels undder Fischerei auf dem Hohen Meer",ukünf-
Jahrbuchfür internationales Recht, Vol. XV, 1971,p. 407.
2 Castafieda,"The Concept of Patrimonial Sea in International Law",IndianJour-
nal oflnternationalLaw, Vol. 12, No. 4, October 1972,p. 538. On ne doit pas oublier non plus que la tâche consistant à encourager le
développementprogressif du droit international, dont l'initiative revient à
l'Assemblée(Charte, art. 13), a étéconfiée à la Commission du droit
international (statut de la commission, art. 15). La Cour n'est pas un
organe législatif(C.I.J. Recueil 1966,p. 48); ellea pour fonction de régler

conformémentau droit international en vigueur lesdifférendsqui lui sont
soumis (Statut, art. 38).
Enfin, il faut remarquer que la question des droits souverains des Etats
quant à la fixation des zones de compétenceest mal posée.La Cour a fait
ressortir ce qui est vraiment de la compétence nationale de chaque Etat.

((La délimitationdes espaces maritimes a toujours un aspect inter-
national; ellene saurait dépendre dela seulevolonté de 1'Etatriverain
telle qu'elle s'exprimedans son droit interne. S'ilest vrai que l'actede
délimitation est nécessairementun acte unilatéral, parce que 1'Etat
riverain a seul qualitépour y procéder,en revanche la validitéde la
délimitation à l'égard desEtats tiers relèvedu droit international.
(C.I.J. Recueil 1951,p. 132.)

6. L'examen des questions fait jusqu'ici mène à la conclusion pessi-
miste qu'il n'y a pas en droit international une règleobligatoire et uni-
forme fixant l'étenduemaximale de la juridiction des Etats en matière de
pêcheries.De cette conclusion on a pu tirer des déductionsen faveur de
l'existenced'un vacuumjuris, mais àmon avis sansraisons concluantes.

En harmonie avec ce qu'on lit dans des déclarations d'Etats latino-
américainset des auteurs de cespays, le Premier ministre de l'Islande a dit
dans un discours devant le Parlement islandais:

((Puisqu'il n'existe pas, en droit international, de réglesgénérale-
ment admises sur la largeur de la mer territoriale, il doit êtredu pou-
voir de chaque Etat de fixer sa limite territoriale à une distance
raisonnable ))(extrait d'une brochure intituléeIceland and the Law
of theSea (1972), p. 31-32,citation dans le mémoirede la République
fédérale d'Allemagne,quatrième partie, par. 58) 1.

D'un point de vue contraireet en poussant l'argument ad absurdum,on
a fait observer que:

((du moment où il est admis que la question de la largeur de la mer
territoriale est régiepar ledroit international, il s'ensuitautomatique-
ment que le droit international aura besoin aussi d'établir une

Citation de la doctrine latino-américaine dans le même sens,Rojahn, Ans-
prüche, p. 168. Voir aussi l'intervention du de l'Islande a l'Assembléegénérale
des Nations Unies le 17 décembre 1973 (citation dans le compte rendu dumars
1974, p. 61-62). FISHERIESJURISDICTION (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 95

Nor should it be overlooked that the task of encouraging the progres-

sive development of international law, for which the initiative belongs to
the General Assembly (United Nations Charter, Art. 13), was entrusted
to the International Law Commission (Statute of the Commission, Art.
15).The Court is not a legislative body (I.C.J. Reports 1966, p. 48); its

function is to decidt: in accordance with international law such disputes
as are submitted to it (Statute, Art. 38).
Finally it should be observed that the question of the sovereign rights
of States as to the fixing of zonesofjurisdiction has been badly expressed.

TheCourt has made clear what is truly within the national competence of
each State:

"The delimitation of sea areas has always an international aspect;
it cannot be dependent merely upon the will of the coastal State as
expressed in it:; municipal law. Although it is true that the act of
delimitation is necessarily a unilateral act, because only the coastal

State is compei:ent to undertake it, the validity of the delimitation
with regard to other States depends upon international law." (I.C.J.
Reports 1951, p. 132.)

6. Our examination of these questions up to this point leads to the
pessimistic conclusion that there is in international law no binding and
uniform rule fixing the maximum extent of the jurisdiction of States with

regard to fisheries. From this conclusion it has been deduced that there is
a legal vacuum, bui: in my opinion this deduction is not based on con-
clusive reasons.
The Prinie Minist'erof Iceland, adopting the same line as is to be found

in declarations by ILatin American States, and the writings of authors
from those countries, has stated in a speech before the lcelandic Parlia-
ment:

"Since there are no generally agreed rules on the width of the
territorial limit in terms of international law, it must be in the power
of every State to decide its territorial limit within a reasonable

distance." (Cited from a pamphlet entitled lceland and tlie Law of the
Sea, issued by the Government of lceland in 1972, pp. 31-32;
quotation in Part IV, para. 58, of the Memorial of the Federal
Republic of Gcrmany.) 1

From an opposite point of view, and by way of reductio ad ab~urdum,
it hus been said that:

"...so soon as it is admitted that international law governs the
question of the breadth of the territorial sea, it follows automatically

that international law must also prescribe a standard maximum
- .-.~~-
1 For q~ioiaiions of Latin American uriting in the same sense, see Rojahn, Die
Atrspr.iicl~e.168. See also the statement by the lcelandic delegate ithe General
Assernbly on 17 December 1973 (quoteci in CR 7411.pp.61-62). largeur maximale standard, avec une validitéuniverselle et en prin-
cipe obligatoire ));

et que ((s'iln'en est pas ainsi, le droit international ne régitpasla question
de la largeur de la mer territoriale ))(Fitzmaurice, XXXL BYIL, 1954,

p. 386).
La sécuritéjuridique serait bien sûr mieux servie s'il existait une règle
mathématique. Mais le droit a aussi des ((règlessoupapes ))qui donnent

de la flexibilitéaux règlesjuridiques, et permettent de trouver aux dépens
de la securitéjuridique des solutions plus justes aux cas en question (par
exemple la bonne foi, les bonnes mŒurs, la comitas gentiut?~,l'abus des
droits, les droits de voisinage). Dans une affaire concernant aussi la

délimitation de zones de compétence en matière de pêcheries,la Cour
montre la nécessitéde tenir compte des considérations qui ((conduisent à
dégager quelques critères qui, à défaut de précision rigoureuse, fournis-

sent au juge des bases suffisantes de décision adaptées à la diversité des
situations de fait )),et à cet effet il faut:

((faire place à une considération dont la portée dépasseles données
purement géographiques: celle de certains intérêtséconomiques
propres à une régionlorsque leur réalitéet leur importance se trou-

vent attestéespar un long usage ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1951,p. 133) '.

La souplesse d'une règle n'estpas une raison pour nier son existence. A
défaut d'une règlepour délimiterd'une manière mathématique les zones,
(cildemeure des règles et principes de droit à appliquer ))(C.I.J. Recueil
1969,p. 46, par. 83).

L'idéedéfaitiste que la détermination des zones de juridiction sur les
pêcheries estune question de droit interne, qu'elle relèvede la compétence
nationale de chaque Etat, est à rejeter. Elle est contraire au principe de la

libertéde la haute mer, principe qui est à la base de la déclaration préci-
tée de la Cour, selon laquelle la validité de la délimitation erga omties
des espaces maritimes relève du droit international (C.I.J. Recueil 1951,
p. 132).

Laisser à l'arbitraire dechaaue Etat la faculté d'établirsanscontrôle les
limites des zones de pêche exclusiveest contraire à l'esprit du droit inter-
national. Le principe de l'égalitédes droits des peuples (Charte, art.
premier, par. 2) ne permet pas la création unilatérale de monopoles sur

des zones de la haute mer, aux dépens desautresEtats.

1 On a dit au sujet de cet arrêtqu'il '(reconnaît implicitement la futilité qii'àl y a
chercher des règles uniformes pour fixer I'étendue desdroits exclusifs de pêchedans
des situationsàtous égardsdifférentes1).L'auteur de ce commentaire conseille, pour la
solution des questions qui se posent en cette matière, d'essayer d'aboutàrun accord
1aussi raisonnable, équitable et pratique(rxpert) qu'il est humainement possible11.
Johnston (Doilglas), The International Law of Fislieries. Yale Univ. Press., 1965,p. 248.
La conclusion d'accords régionaux est également récommandée,voir Vigne, Le rriledes
intérêtséconomiqiresdans I'évol~rtiotdirrdroit de la mer, Genève, 1971, p. 119. breadth, univerijally valid and obligatory in principle ... If this is
not so, then international law would not govern the question of the

extent of the territorial sea ..." (Fitzmaurice in XXXI BYIL, 1954,
p. 386.)

It would of coursir be better for legal security if a mathematical rule
existed. But law also has "safety valve" rules, which provide flexibility in
the legal rules, and permit of more just solutions for individual cases to be

found at the expense of legal security (e.g., the concepts of good faith,
bonos mores, cornitos gentium, misuse of right, droits de voisinage). In
another case which ;îlso concerned the delimitation of zones of jurisdic-
tion with regard to -fisheries,the Court showed how it was necessary to
takeinto account coiisiderations which: ". .. bring to light certain criteria

which, though not entirely precise, can provide courts with an adequate
basis for their decisions, which can be adapted to the diverse facts in
question" and for this purpose, there was:

". .. one consideration not to be overlooked, the scope of which
extends beyond purely geographical factors: that of certaineconomic
interests peculiar to a region, the reality and importance of which
are clearly evidenced by a long usage" (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 133) 1.

The flexibility of a rule is not a reason for denying its existence. Failing
a rule forthe mathernatical delimitation of the zones, "there are still rules

and principles of law to be applied" (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 46, para. 83).
The defeatist idea that the determination of fisheries jurisdiction zones
is a question of municipal law, within the national competence of each
State, must be rejeci.ed. It is contrary to the principle of the freedom of
the high seas, the p:rinciple which underlies the statement by the Court

quoted above, to the etfect that the validity erga omnesof the delimitation
of sea areas is a matter ofinternational law (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 132).

To leave to the urifettered will of each State the uncontrolled power to
lay down the limits of exclusive fishing zones is contrary to the spirit of
international law. The principle of equal rights of peoples (United
NationsCharter, Art. 1,para. 2) does not permit of the unilateral creation
of monopolies over zones of the high seas, at the expense of other States.

1 It has been said with regard to this judgment that it contains implicit recognition
"of the futility of the qiiest for iiniform rules to determine the extent of excliisive
fishery rights for wholly different situations". The advice of the author of this comment
is that to resolvehe questions arising in this field, efforts should be made to ensure
"that the settlernent be aisrational, equitablexpert as humanly possible". Douglas
Johnston, The.Itrte,-trutioLrrwof'Fisl~erie~,Yale University Press, 196p.248. The
concliision of regional agreements is also to be recommended: see Vigne, Le rôle des
it~térê~~;scot~ottiesuns 1'~volirtiondlrdroit de lu mer, Geneva, 197119.. 11 est généralementadmis, mêmepar les pays latino-américains, que la

haute mer est mer libre et que les libertés de pêchesont une des quatre
libertésde la mer 1.
La haute mer n'est pas res nullius que le premier occupant ou le plus

fort puisse s'approprier 2.Elle appartient à la communauté des peuples ou
à I'humanité3. La haute mer est considérée res onznium cornmunis, son
usage appartient également à tous les peuples. L'appropriation d'une

zone exclusive de pêchedans l'espace considéréjusqu'ici comme mer
libre revient à dépouiller d'autres peuples de leurs droits. L'élargissement
de sa juridiction sur la mer adjacente par 1'Etat riverain suppose un

rétrécissementde la libertéde pêchedes autres Etats - augmentation et
perte respective de pouvoirs qui appellent une justification juridique. De
tous temps, les Etats ont tâchéde justifier d'une manière ou d'une autre

leurs prétentions. 11faut ((quelque fin légitime )) pour s'approprier une
chose commune, disait Vattel (loc. cit. supra). M. Alvarez soutient la
thèse que les Etats peuvent modifier l'étenduede la mer territoriale ((s'ils

indiquent des motifs suffisants pour justifier cette modification 1) (C.I.J.
Recueil 1951, opinion individuelle, p. 150) 4.
7. Je crois que le principe de la libertéde la haute mer conserve toute sa

valeur; mais il n'est pas en vigueur d'une manière isolée,il doit s'appliquer
conformément aux circonstances et aux convictions actuelles. Au temps
de Grotius etjusqu'à la fin de la seconde guerre mondiale, on pouvait le

formuler d'une manière absolue. Aujourd'hui la réalitéest tout autre et
oblige à le nuancer et à le mettre en harmonie avec d'autres principes
secondaires.

L'affaire devant la Cour exige que soit trouvée une solution juste à la
tension qui se manifeste entre le principe de la libertéde la haute mer en
matière de pêcherieset les tendances favorables à l'élargissement de la

zone de compétencedes pays riverains. Mais àcette fin il faut tenir compte
de ce que la Cour n'a pas à décider une question généraleet abstraite,

1 Principe consacré aux articles 1 et 2 de la Convention sur la haute mer (Genève,

1958). Cette convention énonce sur ce point des principes généraux de droit interna-
tional trèsantérieursà sa formulation (C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 39, par. 65).

2 C'est, me semble-t-il, l'opinion corninune. Sur la question de la nature de la haute
mer, voir Jenisch, Dus Recht z~rr Vorrralltnemilitarischer Uhrrngeriutrd Versirclieauf
Hoher See irrFrie(ler~szeiter, ambourg, 1970, p. 43-52.
3 La résolution 2749 (XXV) de l'Assembléegénéraleen date du 17 décembre 1970
fait référenceen son paragraphe I à l'héritage commun de l'humanité. Siir l'idéedes
zones de pêchecomme %catrimoine de but ,,(Zweckvermiigen), et citations yrelatives,
voir Rojahn, Die A~~spriirl~ep.. 171; sur les nations cotières comnie 11trustees1)pour
la communauté internationale, voir la déclaration de Nixon du 23 mai 1970,citéepar
Rojahn, cZur zukünftigen 11p. 425.
4 On trouvera des citations sur le critère du c~raisonnable1dans Brownlie, p. 196,
215. Le Premier ministre d'Islande s'y réfère (mémoire de la République fédérale

d'Allemagne, q~iatrième partie, par. 58). Voir C.I.J. Recireil 1951, p. 131 (modéréet
raisonnable); C.I.J. Rerrieil1969, p. 52 et 54. par. 98 et 101D) 3)(rapport raisonnable).
Mais le critère du raisonnable doit être déterminé d'une manière objective. It is generally conceded, even by the Latin American States, that the
high seas are free, and that freedom of fishing is one of the four freedoms

of the seas 1.
The high seas are not res nulliusto be appropriated by the first-comer,
nor by the most powerful 2.They belong to the community of peoples, or

to mankind 3.The high seas are regarded as res omnium cornmunis, and
the use of them. belo~ngsequally to al1peoples. The appropriation of an
exclusive fisheries zone in an area hitherto considered as part of the free
seas is equivalent to deprivation of other peoples of their rights. The

extension of its jurisdiction over the adjacent sea by a coastal State
presupposes a reduction of the freedom of fishing of other States, and
such respective increase and loss of power calls for legal justification. At

al1 times, States have endeavoured to justify their claims in one way or
another. According to Vattel (op. ci!.a, bove), there must be "some
lawful end" for the appropriation of something which is common
property. Judge Alvarez contended that States might alter the extent of

the-territorial sea "provided that they furnish-adequate grounds to
justify the change" (individual opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951,p. 150) 4.
7. 1think that the principle of the freedom of the high seas is as valid

as ever it was, but it.does not operate in isolation, it must be applied in
accordance with existing circiimstances and the views currently held. In
the time of Grotius., and up to the end of the Second World War, the
principle could be expressed in absolute terms; today, reality is otherwise,

and compels us to express it more moderately, and to harmonize it with
other secondary pririciples.
The case before the Court requires a just solution to be found to the

conflict which is emerging between the principle of the freedom of the
high seas with regard to fisheries, and the trends in favour of extension of
the zone of jurisdiction of coastal States. But for this purpose it should be
borne in mind that the Court does not have to decide a general and

- --
1This is the principle enshrinein Articles 1 and 2 of the 1958 Geneva Convention
on the High Seas. This Convention lays down on this point general principles of
international law established long before their formulation in the Convention (I.C.J.
Reports 1969, p. 39, para. 65).
2This is, 1think, the igeneralopinion. On the quest,ion of the nature of the high seas,
see Jenisch,Dus Recl~tzur Vornul~memilitürischer Ubungen und VerslrcAeauf Hoher
See in Friedetiszeiten, Hiimburg, 1970, pp. 43-52.
3 General Assembly r,esol~ition2749 (XXV)of 17December 1970refers in paragraph
1 to the coinmon heritage of mankind. On the idea of fishing zones as "property
devoted to a purpose" (Zweckverniogrtij and relevant references, see Rojahn, Die
Ansprüclie, p. 171;on the concept of coastal nationsas trustees for the international
community, see President Nixon's statement of 23 May 1970, quoted by Rojahn in
"Zur zukünftigen", p. 425.
4 Quotations on thecriterion of what is reasonable will be found in Brownlie, pp. 196
and 215. The Prime Minister of lceland has referred to what is "reasonable" (Memorial
of the Federal Republic of Germany, Part IV, para. 58). See also I.C.J. Report1951,
p. 131 "moderate and reasonable"; I.C.J. Reports 1969, pp. 52 and 54, paras. 98 and
101 (D) (3):"reasonable degree of proportionality". But the criterion of what is
reasonable should be detern~ined objectively.

98mais un différendentre deux pays, pour la solution duquel on doit con-

sidéreren tout premier lieu la situationet les relations des Parties.

La considération de ((l'étroite dépendance de la mer territoriale à
l'égarddu domaine terrestre ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 133)est aussi à la
base de l'étenduereconnue à la nouvelle zone de compétence en matière

de pêcheries. Mais l'établissement de la compétence sur les zones de
pêchedoit sejustifier par l'intérês tpécialde 1'Etatcôtier et par l'existence
de motifs permettant de lui reconnaître des droits préférentiels ou
prioritaires.

La conférence de 1958 a admis les notions d'((intérêtspécial )),de
((besoins prioritaires »et de ((solution équitable ))(Convention sur la pêche
et la conservation des ressources biologiques de la haute mer, art. 6;
Résolution sur les situations spécialestouchant les pêcheries côtières).
Elles ont une portéelimitéeà la conservation de la pêcheet à la situation

des pays dont la population côtière dépend dela pêche. A la conférencede
1960, le Brésil,Cuba et l'Uruguay proposent un texte, dans lequel il est
dit que (1'Etat riverain a la faculté d'invoquer des droits de pêchepriori-
taires dans toute zone de la haute mer adjacente à la zone de pêche

exclusive ..)); ce projet obtient aussi pratiquement l'unanimité mais,
comme on l'a déjà dit, tombe avec la proposition du Canada et des
Etats-Unis.
Bien que ces notions ne soient pas consacrées dans une convention, et
malgréles restrictions avec lesquelles elles sont proposées, le fait est qu'il

leur arrive ce qui est arrivéaux proclamations du présidentTruman, elles
sont ((le point de départ dans l'élaboration du droit positif)) (C.I.J.
Recueil 1969, p. 32-33). Elles sont acceptées comme quelque chose de
naturel. On peut citer comme exemples de cette évolution la recomman-

dation de 1'American Bar Association d'août 1964 (Rés. 1, b)) (citépar
Johnston, loc. cit., p. 252, note 346), le projet du Comité interaméricain de
1956, la déclaration de Nixon du 23 mai 1970 (citations dans Rojahn,
((Zur zukünftigen)), p. 412), et la proposition des Etats-Unis selon
Stevenson (loc. cit. p. 469-470). Dans la résolution 2750 C (XXV) de

l'Assemblée générale desNations Unies (17 décembre 1970), où sont
fixés lesthèmes dont la Conférence sur le droit de la mer devra traiter,
figure la question des droits préférentiels desEtats côtiers. Le Gouverne-
ment du Royaume-Uni ((admet que la notion de droits de pêche pré-
férentiels de 1'Etat riverain et l'esprit des propositions contenues

dans l'amendement des trois pays sont applicables, sont pertinents pour
le règlement du présent différend )) (compte rendu du 29 mars 1974,
p. 16-17) 1.
A côté de l'intérês tpécialet des droits préférentielsde 1'Etat côtier, il

faut tenir compte des droits historiques des pays intéressésà la pêche en
haute mer. L'acquisition de droits sur la mer par prescription n'est pas
admise, mais un long usage doit être respecté et pour les mêmesraisons

1 Voir aussi lecompte rendudu 25 mars 1974,p. 82-83. FISHEIXIESJURISDICTION (SEP. OP. DE CASTRO) 98

abstract question, birt a dispute between two countries, for the settlement
of which the positions and relationships of the Parties should primarily be
considered.

The considerationi of "the close dependence of the territorial sea upon
the land domain" (ir.C.J.Reports 19.51,p. 133) also underlies the recog-
nized extent of the ni:wzone of fisheriesjurisdiction. But the establishment
of jurisdiction over the fishing zones must be justified by the special
interest of the coastal State, and by the existence of reasons permitting of
the recognition that that Statehas preferential or priority rights.

The 1958 Conference recognized the concepts of "special interest",
"preferential requirements" and "just treatment" (Convention on Fishing
and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas, Art. 6;
Resolution on Special Situations $elating to Coastal Fisheries). The
scope of these concepts is limitedto fishery conservation, and the situation

of countries whose coastal population depends on fishing. At the 1960
Conference, Brazil, Cuba and Uruguay proposed a text in which it was
said that "the coastiil State has the faculty of claiming preferential fishing
rights in any area of the high seas adjacent to its exclusive fishing
zone ..."; this draft furthermore almost obtained unanimity, but as

has already been stated, it failed to be adopted, along with the proposal
by Canada and the United States.
Although these concepts have not been enshrined in a convention, and
despite the restrictions subject to which they were advanced, in fact what
is happening to them is what happened to the Truman Proclamations,
they are the "startirig point of the positive law on the subject" (I.C.J. Re-

ports 1969,pp. 32-33).Theyare accepted as something natural. Asexamples
of this development, onemight mentionthe recommendation ofthe Ameri-
can Bar Association of August 1964 (para. 1 (b), quoted by Johnston,
op. cit.,p. 252, note 346), the draft of the Inter-American Committee of
1956, the Statemeni. by President Nixon of 23 May 1970 (quotations in
Rojahn, "Zur zuküriftigen", p. 412), and the proposal of the United States

according to Stevenson ((oc. cit., pp. 469-470). In United Nations
General Assembly resolution 2750 C (XXV) of 17 December 1970, in
which the subjects to be dealt with by the Conference on the Law of the
Sea are laid down, is included the question of the preferential rights of
coastal States. The Government of the United Kingdom "accepts that
the concept of preferential fishing rights of coastal States and the spirit

of the proposais embodied in the three-Power amendment are applicable,
are relevant, to the solutionof the present dispute" (CR 7413,pp. 16-17) 1.

Along with the special interest and the preferential rights of the coastal
State, account shoirld be taken of the historic rights of the countries
concerned with higti sea fishing. The acquisition of rights over the sea by

prescription is not admitted, but long usage should be respected, and
--
1 See also CR 7411,~>p.82-83.que les intérêtsde I'Etat riverain. 11 est contraire au sentiment de la

justice de méconnaître des situations établies depuis des années, les
investissements de capitaux, l'établissement d'industries, le besoin de
protéines des populations et surtout la confiance néedu respect du statu
quo concernant l'usage de la haute mer comme chosecommune.

8. La difficultéà vaincre pour harmoniser les intérêtsn'est pas insur-
montable. Cette possibilité pratique de délimiter les droits est bien dé-
montrée par exemple dans les négociations ayant pour but de fixer les
contingents de pêchedes différentspays dans l'Atlantique du nord-ouest et

les accords en ce qui concerne les pêcheriesde la région des îles Féroé
(compte rendu du 29 mars 1974,p. 48-55).
La conduite des parties découle d'une reconnaissance de leurs intérêts
respectifs. L'examen des notes de 1961 et des documents qui les com-
plètent (résolutions de 1948 et de 1959) montre que le droit de déclarer

unilatéralement un élargissement de compétence - droit que l'Islande
s'est réservé - n'est Das un droit absolu. 11a besoin de iustification.
L'élargissementest prévupour le cas où ildeviendrait nécessairepour des
raisons tenant aussi bien à la conservation des pêcheriesqu'aux besoins

du peuple islandais. Cette réserve a été acceptéepar le demandeur.
L'Islande pour sa part a reconnu tacitement les droits historiques du
demandeur en 1961 et en 1972. Il y a donc, reconnaissance mutuelle des
droits préférentielset des droits historiques qui coïncide avec lestendances

actuelles dela pratique et les desiderata de la doctrine.
La Cour, dans les affaires du Plateau continental de la mer du Nord, était
dans une situation en partie analogue à la situation actuelle, faute de
trouver une règle mathématique à appliquer à la délimitation des zones
limitrophes du plateau. De ce que l'on nie que la règlede l'équidistance

soit une règlede droit, il ne s'ensuit pas qu'il s'agit de trouver une ((autre
règle unique équivalente)). A défaut d'une règle unique permettant
de délimiter des zones, la Cour a dit qu'(cil demeure )) tout de même
((des règleset principes de droit à appliquer ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 46,
par. 83).

L'Assembléegénérale,en décidant de convoquer la Conférence sur le
droit de la mer, a dit que son but serait ((l'établissement d'un régime in-
ternational équitable ))(résolution 2750 C (XXV) du 17 décembre 1970).
La Cour applique ((desprincipes équitables ))qui sur la base de préceptes

très générauxde justice et de bonne foi ))mènent à de véritablesrèglesde
droit.

((11ne s'agit pas d'appliquer l'équité simplementcomme une repré-
sentation de la justice abstraite, mais d'appliquer une règle de droit
prescrivant le recours à des principes équitables conformément aux
idéesqui ont toujours inspiréle développement du régimejuridique
du plateau continental en la matière ...))(ibid., p. 46-47, par. 85).

11n'est pas nécessairede démontrer, preuves à l'appui, ce qui relèvedethat for the same reasons as for the interests of the coastal State. It is
contrary to the concept of justice to disregard situations which have been
established for years, the capital invested, the establishment of industries,
the protein needs of populations, and above al1the confidence inspired by
a respect for the status quo concerning the use of the high seas as CO&-

mon property.
8. The difficutties in the way of harmonizing these interests are not
insurmountable. This practical possibility of effecting a delimitation of
the respective rights is well demonstrated,for example, in the negotiations
with a view to fixing the different countries' fishing quotas in the North-
West Atlantic, and the agreements concerning fisheries in the region of
the Faroe lsles (CR 7413,pp. 48-55).

The conduct of the parties results from recognition of their respective
interests. Study of i.he Exchanges of Notes of 1961, and the documents
supplementary thereto (the Resolutions of 1948and 1959),shows that the
right unilaterally tcl declare an extension of jurisdiction, as reserved by
Iceland, is not an ,absolute right. It requires justification. Extension is
contemplated if it becomes necessary for reasons relating both to the
conservation of fiskieriesand the needs of the lcelandic ~eo~le. That re-
. ,
servation was accepted by the Applicant. lceland for its part tacitly
recognized the historical rights of the Applicant in 1961 and in 1972.
There is thus mutual recognition of preferential rights and historic rights,
coincidingwith the present trends in practice, and with what writers have
argued to be desirable.
Lnthe h'ortlzSea Continental S/7eifcases, the Court was in a situation
which was to some extent analagous to the present situation, inasmuch

as there was no mathematical rule to be applied to the delimitation of
adjacent zones of the continental shelf. lt did not follow from a denial
that the equidistance rule was a legal rule that another "single equivalent
rule" had to be found. Failing a single rule enabling the areas to be
delimited, the Court stated that nonetheless "there are still rules and
principles of law to be applied" (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 46, para. 83).

When the General Assembly decided to convene the Conference on the
Law of the Sea, it said that its purpose would be "the establishment of an
equitable international régime" (resolution 2750 C (XXV) of 17 Decem-
ber 1970). The Court applies "equitable principles", which, "on a
foundatiori of very general precepts of justice and good faith" lead to
actual rules of law.

"lt is not a question of applying equity simply as a matter of
abstract justice, but of applying a rule of law which itself requires
the applicatiori of equitable principles, in accordance with the ideas
which have always underlain the development of the legal régime

of the contineintal shelf in this field..." (I.C.J. Reports 1969, pp.
46-47, para. 85.)
There is no need to demonstrate and prove what is a matter of general100 COMPÉTENCEPÊCHERIES (OP. IND. DE CASTRO)

la connaissance généraleet est admis par tous, à savoir les changements
intervenus dans les techniques de pêche,le risque de raréfaction des
poissons qui s'ensuit et les besoins grandissants de protéinesdes popula-
tions toujours plus nombreuses.
9. On ne peut cacher qu'il est difficilede savoir comment les notions de
droits spéciaux,de droits préférentielset de droits historiques peuvent
être englobéesdans une des sources du droit international. II n'est pas
facile de prouver l'existence d'une pratique générale acceptée comme

étant le droit, et ces notions ne semblent pas non plus faire partie des
principes générauxde droit reconnus par les nations civilisées.Mais il
paraît possible de surmonter la difficultéqui résulte dela rédaction mal-
heureuse de l'article 38 du Statut à l'aide de la doctrine des auteurs les
plus qualifiés.On ne saurait dissocier d'une manièretranchante le droit
coutumier et les principes de droit. On peut voir comment, à l'origine de
la doctrine moderne, dans l'écolehistorique à laquelle la science juri-
dique actuelle doit les fondements de la théorie sur la coutume, ils sont

étroitement unis. Savigny nous apprend que la pratique (les usages) n'est
pas le fondement du droit coutumier, mais qu'elle estle signe au moyen
duquel connaître l'existenced'une coutume. La coutume est produite par
la communauté des convictions, non par la volonté des hommes, dont
les actes ne font que manifester cette communauté d'idées 1.Observation
toujours utile. Pour s'imposer comme règle juridique, la conviction
générale(opinio cornmunis) n'a pas à remplir toutes les conditions néces-

saires à la naissance d'une coutume. C'est ce qui explique la valeur de
I'opiniojuris, et qu'elle donne à un acte unique la possibilitéde devenir
((le point de départ dans l'élaboration du droit positif )(C.I.J. Recueil
1969, p. 32-33).

La Cour se trouve aussi devant des questions difficiles de procédure.
La Cour doit-elle se borner à adjuger ou non les conclusions du deman-
deur ou bien doit-elle essayer d'y faire droit, en décidantla question de
l'élargissement ?
La première difficultéconsisteà vérifier lesens de la clause compromis-
soire. La Cour a examiné ses antécédentset sa signification dans son
arrêtsur la compétencedu 2 février1973.Selon les documentsconnus de
la Cour, l'Islande ne voulait pas êtreliéedéfinitivementet pour toujours

par la limite des 12 milles; elle tenaià garder toute liberté d'étendresa
juridiction sur les pêcherieset de mettre en Œuvre la résolution de
1'Althingde 1959d'une manière unilatérale.Le Royaume-Uni semontrait

1 Savigny, System des heutigen romischen Rechts (181,par. 12 et 18. Puchta,
Pandekten, p. 19, par. SCéd.,1850; Cursus der Znsritutio1,p. 18 et 19, par. 13,
droit, C.P.J.Z.sérieA no 10 (1927), p. 18.téscomme exprimant des principes de knowledge and genieral recognition, namely the changes which have
occurred in fishing techniques, the risk of exhaustion of fish stocks

resulting therefrom, andthe increasing protein requirements of ever more
numerous populations.
9. It cannot be ccincealed that it is difficult to see how the concepts of
special rights, preferential rights and historic rights can be brought under
the heading of one lofthe sources of international law. It is not easy to
prove the existence of a general practice accepted as law, nor would
these concepts appear to form part of the general principles of law recog-
nized by civilized nations. But it does appear possible to overcome the
difficulty resultingfiom the unfortunate drafting of Article 38 of the
Statute with the assistance of the teachings of the most highly qualified
writers. One cannot make a sharp division between customary law and
the principles of law. At the origin of the modern doctrine, in the his-

torical school to which legal science owes the foundations of the theory
of custom, they can be seen to be closely united. Savigny teaches us that
practice (usages) is riot the foundation of customary law, but that it is the
sign by which the existence of a custom may be known. The custom is
produced by the cornmunity of conviction, not by the will of men, whose
acts only manifest this community of ideas 1. This observation is still of
assistance. In order to be binding as a legal rule, the general conviction
(opinio communis) does not have to fulfil al1the conditions necessary for
the emergence of a custom. This is what explains the value of opinio
juris, and why it ma:yconfer on one single actthe possibility of becoming
"the startingpoint of the positive law" (I.C.J. Reports 1969,pp. 32-33).

The Court is alsa'faced with difficult questions of procedure. Should
the Court confine itself to upholding or rejecting the submissions of the
Applicant, or shoultl it endeavour to do justice by deciding the question
of the extension?
The first difficultylies in ascertaining the meaning of the compromissory

clause. The Court examined its history and its significance in the Judg-
ment of 2 February 1973 on jurisdiction. According to the documents
known to the Court, Iceland did not wish to be bound definitively and
permanently by the 12-mile limit; it wished to preserve full freedom to
extend its fisheriesjiurisdiction and to implement the Althing Resolution
of 1959unilaterally. The United Kingdom showed itself ready to accept

1 Savigny, System des heutigen romischenRechts (1840), 1, paras. 12and 18.Puchta,
Pandekten, para. 12,Fifth Edition (1850), p. 19; Cursus der Institu1,para. 13,
expressing principlesof law: P.C.I.J., Series AION(1927), p. 18.ges acceptedas

101prêt à accepter la réserve par l'Islande de cette faculté de mettre en
Œuvre la résolution de 1'Althing mais à la condition que I'élargissement
soit conforme à un accord international consacrant une règle de droit

international généralementacceptée en ce qui concerne les limites de
pêcheou bien soit conforme à une règle de droit international résultant
du consentement généralqui autoriserait cet élargissement (mémoire du
Royaume-Uni sur la compétence, par. 29).
Les deux Parties ont soutenu leurs positions avec ténacité.La formule

proposée par le Royaume-Uni pouvait apparaître comme réservant un
droit de veto face àtoute tentative future d'élargissement; l'opposition du
Royaume-Uni suffirait à empêcher la naissance d'un nouveau droit
coutumier généralpermettant une nouvelle extension. L'Islande de son
côté avait tout intérêtà garder sa liberté d'élargirsa zone de pêcheet ainsi
de pouvoir profiter du moment prévisible où la tendance favorable à

I'élargissementde la juridiction des Etats riverains en matière de pêche
aurait acquis assez de force dans l'opinion générale - et elle préférait
l'arbitrage à la juridiction de la Cour.

L'impossibilité d'accorder des points de vue si contraires a abouti à la

formule neutre de la clause compromissoire sur laquelle les Parties se
sont entendues: ((au cas où surgirait un différenden la matière [celle de
l'élargissement] la question sera portée à la demande de l'une ou de
l'autre partie devant la Cour internationale de Justice ))(dans le texte
anglais: ((in case of a dispute in relation to such extension, the matter

shall, at the request of either Party, be referred to the International Court
of Justice ))).
La formule adoptée est le résultat d'un compromis; aucune des deux
parties n'est parvenue à faire imposer sa thèse mais la lettre et le but de la
clause semblent clairs: la Cour se voit confier la mission de trouver une

solution au différendque l'on peut craindre quant à I'élargissementde la
zone de pêche.
On peut tout de mêmeavoir des doutes sur l'interprétation de la clause.
Limite-t-elle la tâche de la Cour à dire si I'élargissementopérépar l'ls-
lande est ou non en accord avec le droit? La mission de la Cour est-elle de

résoudre le différend en disant jusqu'où et à quelles conditions l'élargis-
sement est conforme au droit? Dans la seconde hypothèse, la Cour serait
amenée à examiner la nature de I'élargissementprévu dans les notes de
1961 par rapport à la résolution de I'Althing de 1959 et à la loi de 1948
- c'est-à-dire à tenir compte de la situation spécialede I'lslande etde ses
droits prioritaires sur le plateau continental.

Dans une opinion individuelle, sir Gerald Fitzmaurice a dit: ((La
question de la conservation est donc sans rapport avec le problème
juridictionnel dont la Cour est saisie et qui concerne sa compétence pour
trancher un différend résultant de la prétention émise par l'lslande de

proclamer unilatéralement sa juridiction exclusive, en matière de pêche,
sur une zone s'étendant autour de ses côtes jusqu'à une distance dethe reservation by Iceland of this power to implement the Althing Resolu-
tion, on condition that the extension was in accordance with an interna-
tional agreement emibodying a generally accepted rule of law in relation to
fishery limits, or in conformity with a rule ofinternational law, established

by general consent, which would permit such an extension (United
Kingdom Memorial on jurisdiction, para. 29).

The two Parties held tenaciously to their positions. Theform proposed
by the United Kingdom might appear to reserve a right of veto in respect
of any future attempt to extend jurisdiction; the opposition of the

United Kingdom would be sufficient to prevent the emergence of a new
general customary law which would permit a further extension. On the
other hand, it was very much in Iceland's interests to preserve its freedom
to extend its fishery zone, and thus to be able to take advantage of the
time which could be:foreseen when the trend in favour of the extension of
the fisheries jurisdiction of coastal States would have acquired sufficient

momentum in gen~eralopinion-and it preferred arbitration to the
jurisdiction of the Court.
The impossibility of reconciling such inconsistent points of view result-
ed in the adoption of the neutral formula of the compromissory clause to
which the Parties agreed: "in case of a dispute in relation to such exten-
sion, the matter shall, at the request of either Party, be referred to the
International Court of Justice."

The form of wortis adopted results from a compromise; neither of the
Parties succeeded in carrying its point, but both the terms and the object
of the clause appear to be clear: the Court has the mission of finding a

solution to the dispute which, it was to be feared, would arise as to the
extension of the fisheries zone.
Nevertheless, the interpretation of the clause may give rise to some
doubts. Does it limit the task of theCourt to sayingwhether the extension
effected by Iceland is or is not in accordance with law? 1sthe role of the
Court to resolve the dispute by saying how far and subject to what con-

ditions the extensicon is in accordance with the law? On the second
hypothesis, the Court would have to examine the nature of the extension
which was contemplated by the Exchange of Notes of 1961in relation to
the Althing Resolution of 1959 and Law of 1958-that is to say to take
account of the special situation of Iceland and its priority rights over the
continental shelf.

In a separate opinion, Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice has said that: "The
question of conservation has therefore no relevance to the jurisdictional
issue now before the Court, which involves its competence to adjudicate
upon the dispute ~occasionedby Tceland's claim unilaterally to assert
exclusive jurisdiction for fishery purposes up to a distance of 50 nautical
miles from and around her coasts." (I.C.J. Reports 1973, pp. 26-27.) This50millesmarins, »(C.I.J. Recueil 1973,p. 26-27.)Cesmots, me semble-t-il,
doivent être interprétéspar rapport à l'arrêt surla compétence de la
Cour et non par rapport à la phase de la procédure sur le fond. La Cour,

dans le mêmearrêt,a dit qu'elle cs'abstiendra non seulement d'exprimer
une opinion sur des points de fond, mais aussi de se prononcer d'une
manière qui pourrait préjugerou paraître préjugertoute décision qu'elle
pourrait rendre sur le fond ))(ibid.p. 7, par. Il).
11convient tout de mêmede noter que, dans le mêmearrêt, laCour
rappelle que, dans son ordonnance du 17 août 1972, elle a reconnu
l'exceptionnelle dépendance de l'Islande, à l'égard de ses pêcherieset
relevéque «de ce point de vue, il faut tenir compte de la nécessitéde la
conservation des stocks de poisson dans la région de l'Islande ))(C.I.J.

Recueil 1973,p. 20, par. 41, citant C.I.JRecueil 1972,p. 16et 17).
((Le sens des termes ((élargissementde la juridiction sur les pêcheries ))
qui figurent dans la clause compromissoire doit êtrerecherché dans le
contexte de cette résolution de 1'Althing [de 19591et du libellécomplet
de l'échangede notes de 1961 1)(C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 8, par. 14). Il ne
semble pas qu'il faille restreindre la compétence de la Cour à répondre
par oui ou par non à la demande qui lui est adresséede dire que I'élargis-
sement est contraire au droit international en vigueur. La question étant

portée devant la Cour, celle-ci doit connaître de la question (the matter)
dans son ensemble et non pas en partie. Dès lors que la Cour s'est
déclaréecompétente dans son arrêt,elle ne doit pas laisser ouvert le
différend. Elledoit chercher une solution àla question de l'élargissement,
et cela en accord avec les directives que l'on peut déduire des notes de
1961et des principes de droit. Cette solution pourra bien consister à dire
jusqu'à quel point I'élargissement estconforme au droit et comment il
doit être corrigéou rectifié,pour êtrejuste et équitable.

La manière habile dont le demandeur a rédigéses conclusions a mis la
Cour devant un autre problème de droit procédural. Doit-elle se borner à
répondre aux demandes expriméesdans la requête?Un tribunal de droit
interne serait en difficultévu la règlelui interdisant de juger ultra petita.
Mais la fonction de la Cour est de nature plus ampleet n'est pasrestreinte
par des motifs de pure forme. La Cour n'est pas liéepar les règlesétroites
de la litis contestatiospécialementquand le défendeur faitdéfaut.

La compétence de la Cour résultede l'échangede notes de 1961et non

pas seulement de la volonté du demandeur. La clause compromissoire
permet de porter la question de l'élargissement devant la Cour pour
qu'elle accomplisse sa fonction d'organe judiciaire principal des Nations
Unies. La Cour a pour fonction de chercher la solutionau différenddont
elle est saisie (Charte, art.33 et 99, et de contribuer ainsi au règlement
pacifique des différends entre Etats. Une partie, l'autre faisant défaut,
n'a pas le pouvoir de rétrécirle rôle de la Cour.observation, in my opinion, must be interpreted in relation to the Judg-
ment on the Court's jurisdiction, and not in relation to the phase of the
procedure concerning the merits. In that Judgment, the Court said that it

would "avoid not only al1expressions of opinion on matters of substance,
but also any pronouncement which might prejudge or appear to prejudge
any eventual decisi011on the merits" (ibid.,p. 7, para. 11).

It will be as well to observe, al1the same, that in that Judgment, the
Court recalled that in its Order of 17 August 1972 it had recognized the
exceptional dependence of Iceland on its fisheries, and stated that "from

this point of view aocount must be taken of the need for the conservation
of fish stocks in the Iceland area" (I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 20, para. 41,
quoting I.C.J. Reports 1972, pp. 16and 17).
"The meaning of 1.heexpression extension of fisheries 'jurisdiction' in
the compromissory iclause must be sought in the context of this Althing
Resolution [that of 19591and in the complete text of the 1961 Exchange

of Notes" (I.C.J.Rcports 1973, p. 8, para. 14). It does not appear that
the jurisdiction of the Court should be confined to answering yes orno to
the claim made before it that the extension is contrary to existing interna-
tional law. The "miatter" having been brought before the Court, the
Court must take co;=nizance of it as a whole and not in part. Once the
Court had declared in its Judgment that it had jurisdiction, it should not

leave the dispute open. Lt should seek a solution to the matter of the
extension, in accordance with such guidelines as may be deduced from
the Exchange of Notes of 1961 and the principles of law. That solution
may well consist of saying how far the extension is in accordance with
law, and how it should be corrected or rectified in order to be just and
equitable.

The skilful way in which the Applicant has drafted its submissions has
faced the Court with another problem of procedural law. Should it
confine itself to replying to the claims expressed in the Application? A
municipal tribunal would be in a difficulty in view of the rule which
forbids it to givejutlgment ultra petita. But the function of the Court is
wider, and is not limited on grounds of pure form. The Court is no t

bound by the narrow rules of the litis contesratio, especially when the
Respondent fails to appear.
The jurisdiction of the Court results from the 1961Exchange of Notes,
and not only from the will of the Applicant. The compromissory clause
enables the matter of the extension to be brought before the Court, so
that it can accomplish its function as principal judicial organ of the
United Nations. The function of the Court is to seek the solution of the

dispute before it (Charter, Arts. 33 and 95), and thus to contribute to the
pacific settlement of disputes between States. When one Party fails to
appear, the other dcles not have the power of narrowing down the role of
the Court.103 COMPÉTENCE PÊCHERIES (OP. IND. DE CASTRO)

VI. LA SOLUTION ÉQUITABLE

La Cour a-t-elle la possibilité de trouver par elle-mêmeune solution
équitable? Est-il préférablequ'elle indique des directives pour que les
Parties arrivent à un accord équitable?

La Cour a la possibilité, il me semble, de prendre l'initiative et d'exa-
miner d'office lesdonnées de fait de l'espèce.En rendant des ordonnances
pour la direction du procès, elle peut confier des investigations, une en-
quêteou des expertises à des personnes ou commissions qualifiées,avant
ou après la phase orale (Statut, art. 48 et 50). Munie de ces renseigne-

ments, la Cour pourrait mettre en balance les intérêtsen jeu et décider
selon des principes d'équité 1.Cette procédure n'a pas étésuivie par la
Cour en 1969et ne semble pas prudente aujourd'hui. L'Islande persiste à
refuser d'aider la Cour en faisant défaut et les Parties ou bien sont en

train de négocierou bien ont exprimé l'intention de négocier.

II faut suivre l'exemple de l'arrêtde 1969. Plusieurs raisons poussent à
le faire. La loi islandaise de 1948 réserveexpressément les accords avec

d'autres pays auxquels l'Islande est ou pourrait devenir partie. Dans la
résolution adoptée par 1'Althing le 15 février 1972 il est dit que les
efforts tendant à résoudre les problèmes soulevés par l'élargissement
seront poursuivis au moyen de négociations avec le Royaume-Uni
et la République fédérale. L'accord du 13 novembre 1973 entre le

Royaume-Uni et l'Islande exprime l'espoir qu'il sera mis fin au différend
par une entente avant l'expiration des deux ans (le 13 novembre 1975).
Le Gouvernement de la République fédérale,de son côté, a dit que la
Cour ne peut pas se muer en législateuret définirles meilleures méthodes

de gestion des ressources de la pêchedans les océans,et il ajoute:

((La Cour peut cependant se montrer disposée, et cela entrerait
certainement dans le cadre des fonctions judiciaires qui lui incom-
beront lorsqu'elle statuera sur le différendentre les Parties, à donner
à celles-ci certaines directives au sujet des principes dont elles

devraient s'inspirer pour négocier la méthode la plus équitable de
gestion des ressources de la pêche enhaute mer autourde l'Islande. 1)
(Mémoire de la République fédérale,quatrième partie, par. 149.)

En 1969 la Cour a dit qu'((en matière de délimitation )) il y a des
((notions juridiques de base )etque

((ces principes sont que la délimitation doit êtrel'objet d'un accord
entre les Etats intéresséset que cet accord doit se réaliser selon des

principeséquitables. Il s'agit là, sur la base de préceptes très généraux
de justice et de bonne foi, de véritables règlesde droit en matière de

1 La Cour a estiméopportun de soumettre à une expertise certaines estimations et
chiffres d'uneature technique (Détroit de Corfou, C.I.J. Recueil 1p.237), l'Al-
banie faisant défaut. Mais les circonstances étaient tout autres.

104 FISHEIUESJURISDICTION (SEP.OP. DE CASTRO) 103

VI. EQUITABLS EOLUTION

1s it open to the Court to find for itself an equitable solution? 1s it
preferable for it to lay down guidelines so that the Parties can reach an
equitable agreement?
It isopen to the Court, it seems to me, to take the initiative and examine
proprio motu the factual elements in the case. By making orders for the
conduct of the case., itcan entrust qualified individuals or commissions

with the task of car,rying out enquiries or giving expert opinions, before
or after the oral stage of the proceedings (Statute, Arts. 48 and50). With
this information to hand, the Court would be able to balance the interests
involved and decide according to principles of equity 1.This procedure
was not followed by the Court in 1969, and would not seem to be a wise

course today. rcelanid, by failing to appear, persists in refusing to assist
the Court, and the Parties are either engaged in negotiation or have
expressed the intention of negotiating.
The example of the 1969 Judgment should be followed; there
are several reasons for doing so. The Icelandic Law of 1948

makes an express reservation for agreements with other countries
to which lceland waç or might become a Party. In the Resolution adopted
by the Althing on 15 February 1972 it was stated that efforts to reach a
solution of the prolblems connected with the extension should be con-
tinued through discussions with the United Kingdom and Federal

Republic. The agreement of 13 November 1973 between the United
Kingdom and Iceland expresses the hope that the dispute will be termi-
nated by an agreement before the expiration of two years (13 November
1975). The Covernrnent of the Federal Republic for its part has stated
that the Court cannot assume the role of a legislator for the better
goes on:
management of the fishery resources of the oceans, and
"But the Court may be disposed, and this would certainly be
within its judicial functions in deciding the dispute between the

Parties, to give the Parties some guidance as to the principles which
the Parties should take into account in their negotiations for the
most equitable management of the fishery resources in the waters of
the high seas around Iceland . . ." (Memorial of the Federal Republic
of Cermany, Part IV, para. 149.)

In 1969 the Court stated that "in the matter of delimitation" there
were certain "basic legal notions", and continued:

"Those principles being that delimitation must be the object of
agreement between the States concerned, and that such agreement

must be arriveld at in accordance with equitable principles. On a
foundation of very general precepts of Justice and good faith, actual

1 TheCourt thought it appropriate to submit for expert opinion figures and
estimates of a technical natu(CorfiChannel, I.C.J. Reports 1949, 237),when
Albania did not appear. However, the circumstances in that case were quite different. délimitation des plateaux continentaux limitrophes ))(C.I.J. Recueil
1969, p. 46-47, par. 85).

Pour l'affaire portée devant la Cour, on ne trouve aucune règlemathé-
matique permettant de délimiter la zone de compétence exclusive en

matière de pêcheries,mais il faut relever l'existence de directives pour
arriver à une délimitation équitable. On reconnaît l'intérêt spéciadle
l'Islande à ce que soient adoptées des mesures pour la conservation du
poisson dans la zone de son plateau continental et à ce qu'il soit tenu
compte par priorité des besoins de sa population et de son industrie.

D'un autre côté,il faut harmoniser autantque possible ces droits avec les
intérêtsou droits historiques du demandeur. Il faudra considérer les
possibilités réellesde capture de chaque partie sans qu'il en résulte un
péril d'épuisement pour la pêche. On devra donc prévoir des zones

réservées,des pourcentages de prises, une limitation du nombre des
bateaux, lescatégoriesde bateaux permis, la taille des filets, lesépoquesde
pêche,la périodede transition, la révisionpériodiquedesaccords, etc.
La Cour peut, suivant la méthode de l'arrêtde 1969, décider que les
Parties sont tenues de poursuivre des négociations de telle sorte ((que,

dans le cas d'espèceet compte tenu de toutes les circonstances, des prin-
cipes équitables soient appliqués ))(C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 47, par. 85).
Obligation de négocierqui ((n'est pas seulement d'entamer des négocia-
tions, mais encore de les poursuivre autant que possible en vue d'arriver à
des accords )(C.P.J.I. sérieA/B no 42, 1931,p. 116 - formule que la Cour

a fait sienne dans C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 48, par. 87).
((Comme l'a dit la Cour permanente de Justice internationale dans

son ordonnance du 19août 1929en l'affaire des Zones franches de la
Haute-Savoie et du Pays de Gex, le règlement judiciaire des conflits
internationaux ((n'estqu'un succédanéau règlementdirect et amiable
de ces conflits entre les parties(C.P.J.I. sérieA n022,p. 13)~(C.I.J.
Recueil 1969, p. 47, par. 87.)

V[r. LES CONCLUSIONS

Je me permets d'ajouter que, dans l'arrêt,il aurait étébon de relever les
points suivants. L'élargissement décidépar l'Islande en 1972, dans la
mesure où il visait à mettre en Œuvre la résolution de I'Althing de 1959,

n'était pas en soi invalide envers le Royaume-Uni. Etait par contre
invalide la déclaration de l'Islande de considérer comme caduc l'accord
de 1961car c'est lavaliditéde cet accordqui donnait à l'Islande le pouvoir
de mettre en Œuvre la résolution de 1959. Une fois le différend porté
devant la Cour, c'est à la Courde statuer sur la validitéde l'élargissement.

Elle est tenue de le faire en prenant en considération l'accord de 1961
liant les parties et les principes du droit de la mer. C'est cet effet que la
Cour devra donner des directives pour fixer les conditions dans lesquelles
l'élargissementdoit êtreconsidérécomme justifiéen droit.

(Signé) F. DE CASTRO. FTSHERIESJURISDICTION (SEP.OP. DE CASTRO) 104

rules of law are here involved which govern the delimitation of adja-
cent continenta.1shelves." (I.C.J. Reports 1969, pp. 46-47, para. 85.)

For the purposes of the case now before the Court, no mathematical
rule can be found which would enable the zone of exclusive fisheries
jurisdiction to be delimited, but it should be observed that guidelines do
exist for reaching an equitabledelimitation. The specialinterest of Iceland
in the adoption of measures for conservation of fish in the zone of the
continental shelf, and in consideration being given in priority to the
needs of its population and itsindustry, is recognized. On the other hand,
so faras possible these rights must be reconciled with the historic interests
or rights of the Applicant. The actual catch potential of each Party,

without risk of exhaustion of the stock, must be considered. Provision
should therefore be made for reserved zones, catch quotas, limitation on
number of vessels,types of permitted vessels, sizeof mesh of nets, times of
fishing, transition period, periodicevision of agreements, etc.

The Court could, following the method of the 1969Judgment, decide
that the Parties are under an obligation to continue negotiations in such
a way that "in the particular case, and taking al1the circumstances into
account, equitable principles are applied" (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 47,
para. 85). This obligation to negotiate is "not only to enter into negotia-
tions, but also to pursue them asfaras possible, with a viewto concluding
agreements" (P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 42, 1931, p. 116-a form of
wordsadopted in I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 48, para. 87).

"As the Permanent Court of International Justice said in its
Order of 19August 1929in the case of the FreeZones of UpperSavoy
and the District of Gex, the judicial settlement of international
disputes 'issimlplyan alternative to the direct and friendly settlement
of such disputes between the Parties' (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 22, at
p. 13)." (I.C.J. Reports 1969,p. 47, para. 87.)

VIT. THESUBMISSIONS
1 would add that the following points could well have been brought

out in the Judgmeni:. The extension decided on by Iceland in 1972,to the
extent that it was intended to implement the 1959 Althing Resolution,
was not in itself invalid as against the United Kingdom. On the other
hand, Iceland's statement that it regarded the 1961 agreement as no
longer in force was invalid, for it was the validity of that agreement which
entitled Iceland to implement the 1959Resolution. Once the dispute had
been brought before the Court, it was for the Court to decide on the
validity of the extenision; andit was bound to do so taking into account
the 1961agreement, which bound the Parties, and the law of the sea. It is
for this end that the:Court should lay down guidelines to define the con-
ditions on which the:extension may be regarded as legallyjustified.

(Signed) F. DE CASTRO.
105

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Document Long Title

Separate Opinion of Judge de Castro (translation)

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